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EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING 

MAMMALS 

of  the 

OLD  WORLD 


'4NCIS  HARPER 


From  the  collection  of  the 


n 
m 


Prelinger 
v    Jjibrary 
t         P 


San  Francisco,  California 
2006 


6205    FRANKTOWN 
CARSON  CITY,   NEVADA  WTOl 


QE881   Harper 

H33     Extinct  and  vanishing 

mammals  of  the  old  world 


DATE  DUE 


FORESTA  INSTITUTE 

FOR 

OCEAN 


MOUNTAIN 
STUDIES 

6205    FRANKTOWN   ROAD 
CARSON   CITY,   NEVADA   89701 


,."***?  ;::; 


KORDOFAN  GIRAFFE  (Giraffa  camelopardalis  antiquorum) 

'Whenever  I  have  watched  them  feeding  on  the  tall  feathery-leaved  acacias,  to  which 
they  are  very  partial,  or  stalking  slowly  and  majestically  through  the  park-like 
country  they  very  commonly  frequent,  giraffes  have  always  appeared  to  be  amongst 
the  most  graceful  and  beautiful  of  all  wild  creature*." — FREDERICK  C.  SELOUS,  1914. 


G  p  C  f-i  I-  F  D    K  G  f  J  £  (E 


EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING 
MAMMALS 

of  the 

OLD  WORLD 


by 
FRANCIS  HARPER 


FORESTA  INSTITUTE 

FOR 

OCEAN 

MOUNTAIN 
STUDIES 

-j  FKANKTCWN  ROAD 

CARSON   CITY,    NEVADA   W70I 


illustrations  by 
EARL  L.  POOLE 


1945 


SPECIAL  PUBLICATION  No.  12 

AMERICAN  COMMITTEE  FOR  INTERNATIONAL  WILD  LIFE  PROTECTION 
NEW  YORK  ZOOLOGICAL  PARK,  NEW  YORK  60,  N.  Y. 


35UOK  -vIS 


FTlhere  are  no  words  that  can  tell  the  hidden 
J.  spirit  of  the  wilderness,  that  can  reveal  its 
mystery,  its  melancholy,  and  its  charm.  There  is 
delight  %i  the  hardy  life  of  the  open,  in  long  rides 
,  rifle  in  hand,  in  the  thrill  of  the  fight  with  danger- 
ous game.  Apart  from  this,  yet  mingled  with  it, 
is  the  strong  attraction  of  the  silent  places,  of  the 
large  tropic  moons,  and  the  splendour  of  the  new 
stars;  where  the  wanderer  sees  the  awful  glory  of 
sunrise  and  sunset  in  the  wide  waste  spaces  of  the 
earth,  unworn  of  man,  and  changed  only  by  the 
slow  changes  of  the  ages  from  time  everlasting. 

THEODORE  ROOSEVELT 
African  Game  Trails 


THE  LORD  BALTIMORE  PRESS 
BALTIMORE,  MD.,  U.S.A. 


FOREWORD 


E1933  Dr.  John  C.  Phillips,  a  founder  and  the  first  chairman 
>f  the  American  Committee  for  International  Wild  Life  Protec- 
tion, now  in  its  twelfth  year,  was  an  official  observer  for  our 
Government  at  the  meetings  of  the  London  Convention  for  the 
Protection  of  the  Fauna  and  Flora  of  Africa.  He  returned  from 
that  conference,  which  concerned  itself  primarily  with  the  larger 
mammals  of  Africa,  with  the  conviction  that  there  was  a  basic  need 
for  the  compilation  of  our  present  knowledge  concerning  the  recently 
extinct  and  vanishing  mammals,  if  we  are  to  plan  intelligently  for 
the  future  preservation  of  wild  life  in  this  fast-changing  world. 
This  would  be  a  pioneer  job  requiring  the  use  of  widely  scattered 
sources.  Such  a  compilation  could  serve  as  a  sound  foundation  for 
future  plans  that  would  have  to  be  developed  to  meet  the  ever- 
increasing  threats  of  extermination.  This  research  could  also  spot- 
light the  species  that  are  most  threatened  and  reveal  probable 
causes  of  extinction  that  might  suggest  new  lines  of  effective  action 
to  improve  their  chances  of  survival. 

For  this  task  the  American  Committee  engaged  the  services  of 
Dr.  Francis  Harper,  an  experienced  mammalogist  and  a  meticulous 
research  worker.  Dr.  Harper  started  the  project  in  May,  1936, 
and  devoted  more  than  three  years  to  the  work.  The  magnitude 
of  the  undertaking  proved  to  be  much  greater  than  originally  ex- 
pected, and  the  reasons  for  this  are  clearly  set  forth  by  the  author 
in  the  introduction  to  the  present  volume.  He  has  spoken  for  the 
Committee  in  the  acknowledgments  of  assistance. 

The  American  Committee  takes  this  opportunity  to  repeat  its 
expression  of  gratitude  to  Dr.  Harper  for  the  hard  work  and  care 
that  he  has  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  this  volume.  We  are 
likewise  grateful  to  Mr.  Paul  H.  Oehser,  editor  of  the  United 
States  National  Museum,  for  the  supervision  of  this  volume  through 
the  press  and  for  the  preparation  of  the  index. 

This  whole  undertaking  would  not  have  been  possible  without 
generous  financial  assistance.  This  has  come  from  about  40  different 
sources,  including  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  the  Boone  and  Crockett  Club, 
the  Conservation  Committee  of  the  New  York  Zoological  Society, 
the  American  Wild  Life  Institute,  and  several  members  and  mem- 


VI  FOREWORD 

her  organizations  of  the  American  Committee,  as  well  as  special 
friends. 

On  account  of  its  length  the  publication  committee  decided  to 
publish  Extinct  and  Vanishing  Mammals  in  two  volumes.  The 
late  Dr.  Glover  M.  Allen,  in  a  large  measure,  prepared  the  volume 
on  Extinct  and  Vanishing  Mammals  of  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
including  also  certain  marine  mammals  of  all  the  oceans.  The 
New  World  volume  of  more  than  600  pages  was  published  in  1942 
as  Special  Publication  No.  11  of  the  American  Committee  for 
International  Wild  Life  Protection.  It  was  dedicated  to  the  late 
Dr.  John  C.  Phillips. 

The  Committee  appreciates  the  fact  that  ever-changing  condi- 
tions require  additions  and  supplements  to  the  data  in  these  volumes 
in  order  to  bring  them  up  to  any  given  date.  Nevertheless,  keep- 
ing the  information  current  will  be  a  small  task  compared  with 
the  historical  study,  the  verification  of  references,  the  biblio- 
graphical research,  and  the  evaluation  and  compilation  of  informa- 
tion carried  out  by  Harper  and  Allen  in  their  pioneer  work  on  the 
(recently)  extinct  and  vanishing  mammals  of  the  Old  World  and 
the  Western  Hemisphere. 

It  is  our  sincere  hope  that  these  volumes  may  serve  as  a  founda- 
tion of  information  on  which  will  be  built  future  plans  for  the  preser- 
vation of  vanishing  species  of  mammals  in  their  native  habitats. 
In  many  cases  this  may  be  most  effectively  brought  about  within  a 
framework  of  international  cooperation  such  as  the  London  Con- 
vention or  the  Inter-American  Convention.  In  other  instances 
a  threatened  species  may  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  international 
trust  by  the  country  under  whose  jurisdiction  it  may  fall.  For 
example,  if  the  Great  Asiatic  One-horned  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros 
unicornis)  should  vanish  from  the  earth  (very  few  hundred  survive 
today)  it  would  be  a  world  calamity  and  not  of  concern  merely  to 
the  ruler  of  Assam  who  controls  their  last  principal  hide-out. 

International  wild-life  conservation  should  be  a  concern  of  all 
people!  We  must  keep  faith  with  our  wild-life  heritage  and  pre- 
serve it  for  the  wise  use  of  generations  to  come! 

HAROLD  J.  COOLIDGE,  Jr. 
(for  the  Committee) 
Washington,  D.  C. 
April  20,  1945 
Publication  Committee: 

CHARLES  M.  B.  CADWALADER 
ALEXANDER  WETMORE 
HAROLD  J.  COOLIDGE,  Jr. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

FOREWORD v 

INTRODUCTION 

Origin,  plan,  methods 1 

Acknowledgments    7 

Factors  in  the  progressive  depletion  of  the  Old  World's  mammalian 

faunas    8 

Australia  9 

Malay  Archipelago  10 

Asia 11 

Europe 13 

Africa 15 

Madagascar 16 

The  chronology  of  extinction 17 

The  record  of  extinction  by  families 21 

Summary  and  conclusions 22 

ACCOUNTS  OF  EXTINCT,  VANISHING,  OR  THREATENED 

MAMMALS 

Order  MARSUPIALIA  :    Marsupials 25 

Family  Dasyuridae :  Dasyures,  etc 25 

Genus  Antechinus :  Broad-footed  Marsupial  Mice 25 

Genus  Phascogale:  Brush-tailed  Marsupial  Rats 26 

Genus  Sminthopsis :  Sminthopses 29 

Genus  Dasyurus :  Native  Cats 32 

Genus  Sarcophilus :  Tasmanian  Devil 38 

Genus  Thylacinus :  Tasmanian  Wolf 40 

Family  Myrmecobiidae :  Marsupial  Anteaters 43 

Genus  Myrmecobius :  Numbats  43 

Family  Peramelidae :  Bandicoots 47 

Genus  Perameles.  Bandicoots  47 

Genus  Macrotis:  Rabbit-bandicoots  or  Bilbies 51 

Genus  Chaeropus :  Pig-footed  Bandicoots 58 

Family  Phalangeridae :  Phalangers,  etc 60 

Genus  Tarsipes :  Honey  Possum 60 

Genus  Gymnobelideus :  Leadbeater's  Opossum 61 

Genus  Pseudocheirus :  Ringtails  63 

Family  Phascolarctidae :  Koalas 64 

Genus  Phascolarctos :  Koalas 64 

vii 


Vlll  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Order  MARSUPIALIA — Continued.  PAGE 

Family  Vombatidae :  Wombats 72 

Genus  Vombatus :  Common  Wombats 72 

Genus  Lasiorhinus :  Hairy-nosed  Wombats 74 

Family  Macropodidae :  Kangaroos,  Wallabies,  etc 77 

Genus  Bettongia :  Rat-kangaroos  77 

Genus  Aepyprymnus :  Rufous  Rat-kangaroo 84 

Genus  Potorous :  Rat-kangaroos 86 

Genus  Caloprymnus :  Desert  Rat-kangaroo 91 

Genus  Lagorchestes :  Hare- wallabies  93 

Genus  Lagostrophus :  Banded  Wallaby 96 

Genus  Onychogalea :  Nail-tailed  Wallabies 98 

Genus  Petrogale :  Rock-wallabies  102 

Genus  Thylogale:  Pademelons  106 

Genus  Wallabia :  Wallabies  114 

Genus  Macropus :  Kangaroos 120 

Order  INSECTIVORA  :  Insectivores 122 

Family  Soricidae :  Shrews 122 

Genus  Crocidura :  Musk-shrews  122 

Order  PRIMATES  :  Primates 123 

Family  Lemuridae :  Lemurs 123 

Genus  Microcebus :  Dwarf  Lemurs 123 

Genus  Cheirogaleus :  Mouse  Lemurs 126 

Genus  Phaner :  Fork-marked  Lemur 129 

Genus  Hapalemur:  Gentle  Lemurs 130 

Genus  Lemur:  True  Lemurs 132 

Genus  Lepilemur :  Sportive  Lemurs 144 

Family  Indriidae:  Sifakas,  Indri,  and  Avahis 146 

Genus  Propithecus :  Sifakas  146 

Genus  Indri :  Indri  155 

Genus  Avahi :  Avahis  156 

Family  Daubentoniidae :  Aye-aye 158 

Genus  Daubentonia :  Aye-aye  158 

Family  Colobidae:  Leaf-eating  Monkeys 160 

Genus  Colobus :  Colobus  Monkeys 161 

Family  Pongidae :  Anthropoid  Apes 164 

Genus  Pongo :  Orang-utan 164 

Genus  Gorilla :  Gorillas  168 

Genus  Pan :  Chimpanzees  176 

Order  EDENTATA  :  Edentates 181 

Family  Manidae :  Pangolins 181 

Genus  Smutsia:  Giant  and  South  African  Pangolin 181 

Genus  Phataginus:  Three-cusped  Pangolin 186 

Genus  Uromanis :  Long-tailed  Pangolin 189 


CONTENTS  IX 

PAGE 

Order  RODENTIA  :    Rodents 190 

Family  Leporidae :  Hares  and  Rabbits 190 

Genus  Pentalagus :  Amami  Hare 190 

Family  Castoridae:  Beavers 191 

Genus  Castor:  Beavers  191 

Family  Cricetidae :  Hamsterlike  Rodents 200 

Genus  Lophiomys:  African  Maned  Rats 200 

Family  Muridae:  Old  World  Rats 205 

Genus  Rattus:  Typical  Rats 205 

Genus  Mastacomys :  Broad-toothed  Rats 210 

Genus  Zyzomys:  White-tailed  Rats 211 

Order  CARNIVORA  :  Carnivores 211 

Family  Canidae :  Wolves  and  Foxes 211 

Genus  Simenia :  Simenian  Foxes 212 

Genus  Canis:  Wolves  213 

Genus  Nyctereutes :  Raccoon-dogs  215 

Family  Ursidae :  Bears 217 

Genus  Ursus :  Bears  217 

Family  Mustelidae :  Weasels,  etc 232 

Genus  Mustek:  Weasels,  Minks,  and  Stoats 233 

Genus  Martes :  Sables  and  Martens 235 

Genus  Gulo :  Wolverines  241 

Family  Viverridae:  Civets,  Mongooses,  etc 244 

Genus  Arctictis :  Binturongs  » 244 

Genus  Fossa :  Fossane  249 

Family  Protelidae :  Aard- wolves 250 

Genus  Proteles :  Aard- wolves  250 

Family  Felidae:  Cats 254 

Genus  Cryptoprocta :  Fossa  254 

Genus  Felis:  Cats  256 

Genus  Lynx :  Lynxes  265 

Genus  Caracal :  Caracals  272 

Genus  Acinonyx :  Cheetahs  274 

Genus  Leo :  Lions  288 

Genus  Panthera :  Leopards  and  Tigers 299 

Order  PROBOSCIDEA  :  Proboscideans 310 

Family  Elephantidae :  Elephants 310 

Genus  Elephas:  Asiatic  Elephants 311 

Genus  Loxodonta:  African  Elephants 316 

Order  PERISSODACTYLA  :  Odd-toed  Ungulates 322 

Family  Equidae:  Horses,  Zebras,  and  Asses 322 

Genus  Equus:  Horses,  Zebras,  and  Quagga. . . : 322 

Genus  Asinus:  Asses  .  .  345 


X  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Order  PERISSODACTYLA — Continued.  PAGE 

Family  Tapiridae :    Tapirs 371 

Genus  Acrocodia:    Malay  Tapir 372 

Family  Rhinocerotidae :    Rhinoceroses 375 

Genus  Rhinoceros:    Asiatic  One-horned  Rhinoceroses 375 

Genus  Dicerorhinus :  Asiatic  Two-homed  Rhinoceroses 390 

Genus  Diceros :  Black  Rhinoceroses 396 

Genus  Ceratotherium :   White  Rhinoceroses 402 

Order  ARTIODACTYLA  :   Even-toed  Ungulates 414 

Family  Hippopotamidae :    Hippopotamuses 414 

Genus  Hippopotamus:    Common  Hippopotamuses 414 

Genus  Choeropsis:    Pygmy  Hippopotamus 419 

Family  Camelidae :    Camels  and  Llamas 421 

Genus  Camelus :   Camels 421 

Family  Tragulidae :    Chevrotains 425 

Genus  Hyemoschus :  Water  Chevrotains 425 

Family  Moschidae :    Musk  Deer 427 

Genus  Moschus:    Musk  Deer 427 

Family  Cervidae :  Deer 435 

Genus  Muntiacus:  Muntjaks 435 

Genus  Rucervus :    Swamp  Deer 436 

Genus  Cervus :  Red  Deer  and  Sikas 443 

Genus  Elaphurus :   Pere  David's  Deer 467 

Genus  Rangifer :     Reindeer    469 

Family  Giraffidae :    Giraffes  and  Okapi 484 

Genus  Giraffa :  Giraffes 484 

Genus  Okapia :    Okapi    506 

Family  Bovidae:   Cattle,  Sheep,  Goats,  and  Antelopes 510 

Genus  Novibos:    Cambodian  Wild  Ox 510 

Genus  Bos:    Cattle   511 

Genus  Bibos:    Gaurs  and  Bantengs 514 

Genus  Poephagus :    Yaks    528 

Genus  Bison :   Bisons 531 

Genus  Bubalus :    Asiatic  Buffaloes 538 

Genus  Anoa :    Dwarf  Buffaloes 548 

Genus  Syncerus :    African  Buffaloes 554 

Genus  Ovis :    Sheep  557 

Genus  Ammotragus :    Audads 600 

Genus  Capra :    Goats  and  Ibexes 606 

Genus  Capricornis :    Serows  635 

Genus  Alcelaphus :   Hartebeests 642 

Genus  Damaliscus :   Bontebok  and  allies 653 

Genus  Connochaetes :    Gnus 659 

Genus  Cephalophus :    Duikers  663 


CONTENTS  XI 

Order  ARTIODACTYLA — Continued. 

Family  Bovidae — Continued.  PAGE 

Genus  Oreotragus :    Klipspringers  668 

Genus  Nesotragus :   Sunis 672 

Genus  Dorcatragus :    Beira 674 

Genus  Ammodorcas :    Dibatag 675 

Genus  Saiga :    Saiga  Antelope 677 

Genus  Gazella:     Gazelles    683 

Genus  Aegoryx:    White  Oryx 690 

Genus  Oryx:    Oryxes  693 

Genus  Hippotragus :   Roan  and  Sable  Antelopes  and  Blaauw- 

bok 698 

Genus  Addax :    Addax  711 

Genus  Tragelaphus :    Bushbucks  716 

Genus  Taurotragus :    Elands   722 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 733 

INDEX                                                                                                      .  811 


XIV  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

26.   Binturong:     Arctictis    binturong    subsp.     (After   photograph    in 

Brehm  and  specimen  in  Philadelphia  Zoo) 246 

•         27.   Aard-wolf:    Proteles  cristatus  subsp 253 

28.  Fossa:   Cryptoprocta  ferox  Bennett  (After  photograph  in  Brehm)  .255 

29.  European  Lynx :  Lynx  lynx  lynx  (Linnaeus)  (After  Standard  Nat. 

Hist.,  etc.) 266 

30.  Barbary  Lynx:   Caracal  caracal  algirus  (Wagner)  (From  specimen 

in  Philadelphia  Zoo) 273 

31.  Indian  Cheetah:    Acinonyx  jubatus  venaticus  (Hamilton  Smith).  284 

32.  King  Cheetah:   Acinonyx  rex  Pocock  (After  Pocock,  1927) 287 

33.  Mongolian  Wild  Horse:  Equus  przewalskii  Poliakov  (After  photo- 

graph in  Brehm) 326 

34.  Quagga:    Equus  quagga  Gmelin  (After  Standard  Nat.  Hist.) 335 

35.  Burchell's  Zebra:   Equus  burchellii  burchellii  (J.  E.  Gray)  (After 

Brehm)    340 

36.  Mountain   Zebra:     Equus   zebra  zebra  Linnaeus    (After  photo- 

graphs in  Brehm  and  Newnes) 343 

37.  Nubian  Wild  Ass:   Asinus  asinus  africanus  Fitzinger 346 

38.  Indian  Wild  Ass:   Asinus  hemionus  khur  (Lesson) 365 

39.  Malay  Tapir:    Acrocodia  indica  (Desmarest) 373 

40.  Great  Indian  Rhinoceros :   Rhinoceros  unicornis  Linnaeus 376 

41.  Javan  Rhinoceros:   Rhinoceros  sondaicus  Desmarest 382 

42.  Northern    White    Rhinoceros:      Ceratotherium    simum    cottoni 

(Lydekker)    (After  Lang) 408 

43.  Pygmy  Hippopotamus:    Choeropsis  liberiensis  (Morton) 420 

44.  Water  Chevrotain:  Hyemoschus  aquaticus  subsp.  (After  Brehm) .  426 

45.  Schomburgk's  Deer:  Rucervus  schomburgki  Blyth 437 

46.  Barbary  Stag :    Cervus  elaphus  barbarus  Bennett 458 

47.  Pere  David's  Deer:    Elaphurus  davidianus  Milne  Edwards 468 

48.  Spitsbergen  Reindeer:    Rangifer  platyrhynchus    (Vrolik)    (After 

Wollebaek,   1926)    480 

49.  Southern  Giraffe:   Giraffa  camelopardalis  capensis  (Lesson)  (After 

Brehm,  Lydekker,  etc.) 504 

50.  Okapi:   Okapia  johnstoni  (P.  L.  Sclater) 507 

51.  Caucasian  Bison:  Bison  bonasus  caucasicus  Hilzheimer 538 

52.  Common  Anoa:  Anoa  depressicornis  (Hamilton  Smith) 551 

53.  European  Mouflon:   Ovis  musimon  (Pallas) 575 

54.  Barbary  Sheep :  Ammotragus  lervia  subsp 600 

55.  Mediterranean  Ibex:    Capra  pyrenaica  hispanica  Schimper  (After 

Lydekker  and  Ward) '. 613 

56.  Abyssinian  Ibex:    Capra  walie  Riippell  (From  photograph,  Field 

Museum)    * 624 

57.  Markhor:   Capra  falconeri  subsp.  (After  Cassell) 628 


ILLUSTRATIONS  XV 
FIGURE                                                                                                                                                        PAGE 

58.  Sumatran  Serow:    Capricomis  sumatraensis  sumatraensis  (Bech- 

stein)   (After  Mohr,  1934) 636 

59.  Bubal   Hartebeest:    Alcelaphus   buselaphus   buselaphus    (Pallas) 

(After  photograph  in  Brehm) 644 

60.  Bontebok:     Damaliscus    dorcas     (Pallas)     (After    Brehm    and 

Lydekker)     655 

61.  White- tailed  Gnu:    Connochaetes  gnou  (Zimmermann) 662 

62.  Saiga:   Saiga  tatarica  (Linnaeus)  (After  Brehm) 681 

63.  White  Oryx:    Aegoryx  algazel  (Oken)   (From  specimen  in  Phila- 

delphia Zoo)  692 

64.  Blaauwbok:   Hippotragus  leucophaeus  (Pallas)  (After  Daniell,  in 

Jardine's  Naturalist's  Library) 699 

65.  Giant  Sable  Antelope:   Hippotragus  variani  Thomas 709 

66.  Addax:    Addax  nasomacidatus  (Blainville)   (After  Brehm,  etc.) ..  713 

67.  Nyala:    Tragelaphus  angasii  Angas  (After  Sclater  and  Thomas, 

1900)    718 


THIS   INVESTIGATION    HAS  BEEN   AIDED  BY  A   GRANT  FROM   THE 
PENROSE    FUND    OF    THE    AMERICAN     PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY 


INTRODUCTION 


ORIGIN,  PLAN,  METHODS 

THE  present  work  had  its  origin  in  a  strongly  felt  need  for  defi- 
nite information  on  the  mammals  that  have  become  extinct 
during  the  Christian  Era,  on  those  that  are  now  threatened  with  the 
same  fate,  on  the  factors  contributing  to  the  progressive  depletion  of 
the  world's  mammalian  faunas,  and  on  the  measures  that  have  been 
hitherto  or  may  be  hereafter  undertaken  for  their  preservation. 
It  consists  to  a  large  extent  of  an  inventory  of  vanishing  resources, 
as  an  essential  step  in  their  conservation. 

The  plan  and  the  inception  of  this  investigation  are  due  to  the 
keen  interest  and  foresight  of  the  late  Dr.  John  C.  Phillips,  founder 
and  first  chairman  of  the  American  Committee  for  International 
Wild  Life  Protection.  The  work  has  been  carried  out  under  the 
auspices  of  that  organization  and  has  been  supported  in  part  by 
a  grant  from  the  Penrose  Fund  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society.  The  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia  was 
chosen  as  the  headquarters  of  the  investigation,  largely  on  account 
of  the  very  exceptional  resources  of  its  library  in  the  literature  of 
natural  history. 

As  originally  projected,  the  investigation  was  to  have  covered  the 
entire  world  and  the  results  were  to  be  published  in  a  single  volume. 
Owing  to  limitations  of  time,  space,  and  available  funds,  as  well 
as  the  unforeseen  magnitude  of  the  task,  the  present  volume  is 
restricted  to  the  mammals  of  the  Old  World.  The  major  part  of 
my  work  was  concluded  early  in  1939;  in  only  a  few  instances, 
therefore,  has  it  been  possible  to  take  into  account  the  subsequently 
published  literature.  Another  volume,  prepared  in  large  part  by 
Dr.  Glover  M.  Allen,  late  curator  of  mammals  at  the  Museum  of 
Comparative  Zoology,  and  published  in  December,  1942,  deals  with 
the  mammals  of  the  New  World  and  with  the  marine  forms. 

It  was  also  hoped  to  include  in  the  Introduction  a  general  sur- 
vey of  conservation  conditions — so  far  as  they  affect  mammals — 
in  the  various  countries  of  the  world.  Although  it  has  not  been 
possible  to  carry  out  this  feature,  fortunately  the  need  for  it  has 

1 


2  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

been  obviated  in  part  by  Brouwer's  The  Organisation  of  Nature 
Protection  in  the  Various  Countries  (1938) -1 

In  the  preparation  of  the  accounts  of  the  various  mammals 
treated,  the  aim  has  been  to  assemble  and  to  present  in  concise  form 
such  information  as  could  be  obtained  on  the  following  points: 

Former  range  and  numbers; 

Present  range  and  numbers  (of  vanishing  species) ; 

Date  and  rate  of  disappearance  in  each  country    (of  species  that  have 

become  extinct,  either  locally  or  completely) ; 
Causes  of  depletion  or  extinction,  either  direct  or  indirect; 
Economic  uses  or  importance; 
Esthetic  considerations; 
The  meiBures  that  have  been  or  might  be  undertaken  for  the  preservation 

of  each  vanishing  species. 

The  primary  source  of  this  information  has  been  the  published 
literature.  For  this  purpose,  the  library  of  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  of  Philadelphia  has  been  the  mainstay.  In  addition,  I  have 
drawn  to  some  extent  upon  the  library  resources  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum,  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  the  Ameri- 
can Museum  of  Natural  History,  the  Charles  Sheldon  Collection 
at  Yale  University,  and  the  American  Philosophical  Society. 

An  especially  valuable  source  of  information  has  been  corres- 
pondence with  zoologists  and  conservation  officials  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  the  Old  World.  By  means  of  questionnaires,  distributed 
for  the  most  part  through  the  collaboration  of  the  International 
Office  for  the  Protection  of  Nature  in  Brussels,  a  great  mass  of 
fresh  and  largely  unpublished  data  on  the  distribution,  numbers, 
economic  status,  and  conservation  of  mammals  has  been  assembled. 

The  unselfish  cooperation  of  these  contributors,  on  a  scale  per- 
haps unprecedented  in  this  field,  has  been  an  extremely  helpful 
and  highly  appreciated  feature  of  the  investigation. 

Additional  material  and  documents  bearing  upon  the  present 
subject  had  been  accumulating  for  some  years  in  the  office  of  the 
American  Committee  for  International  Wild  Life  Protection,  and 
these  have  been  utilized  to  considerable  advantage.2 

Perhaps  few  zoologists  have  had  better  occasion  than  myself  to 
become  impressed  with  the  inexhaustible  nature  (and  at  the  same 
time  the  inadequacy)  of  the  literature  on  systematics,  distribution, 

1  Special  publication  of  the  American  Committee  for  International  Wild  Life 
Protection,  No.  9. 

2  Dr.  Glover  M.  Allen,  in  making  use  of  office  data  of  this  sort  in  his  com- 
panion volume  on  mammals  of  the  Western  Hemisphere   (1942),  seems  to  have 
been  under  the  erroneous  impression  that  I  was  responsible  for  gathering  prac- 
tically all  of  them,  and  consequently  he  has  mentioned  my  name  with  the  best 
of    intentions   but   with   considerably    greater    frequency    than    the    facts   would 
warrant.   Credit  for  many  of  the  data  is  due  to  sources  indicated  above. 


INTRODUCTION  O 

economics,  life  histories,  and  related  phases  in  the  study  of  mammals. 
Likewise  few  can  become  more  conscious  than  myself  of  the  incom- 
pleteness of  the  present  report  on  the  points  it  endeavors  to  cover. 
The  chief  handicap  has  been  the  sheer  limitations  of  time,  despite 
unremitting  labor  during  a  period  of  practically  three  years.  Sec- 
ondary handicaps  have  been  the  nonavailability  of  certain  litera- 
ture, and  the  virtually  unusable  nature  (to  an  Anglo-Saxon)  of 
much  of  the  literature  in  the  Slavic  and  Oriental  languages. 

In  nearly  every  case  a  separate  account  has  been  provided  for 
each  species  or  subspecies  coming  within  the  scope  of  the  present 
report.  In  matters  of  taxonomy  and  nomenclature  I  have  endeav- 
ored to  follow  the  best  authorities  available,  as  exemplified  in  recent 
monographs,  catalogues,  or  check-lists.  However,  unanimity  of 
opinion  on  every  detail  is  not  to  be  expected  of  the  specialists  in  this 
field. 

A  really  surprising  amount  of  confusion  in  the  nomenclature  of 
even  some  of  the  largest  and  best-known  of  the  Old  World  mammals 
has  come  to  light  as  an  incidental  feature  of  the  present  investi- 
gation. This  seems  to  be  due  largely  to  lack  of  proper  attention  to 
type  descriptions  and  type  localities,  and  to  some  extent  to  dis- 
regard of  the  International  Rules  of  Zoological  Nomenclature.  I 
have  attempted  to  straighten  out  some  of  the  major  nomenclatural 
difficulties  in  two  preliminary  papers  (Harper,  1939,  1940) ,  while  a 
few  minor  points,  relating  especially  to  type  localities,  are  touched 
upon  in  the  present  work. 

Each  account  furnishes,  in  addition  to  the  technical  name  of  the 
mammal  under  discussion,  its  common  names  in  English  and  (if 
known)  in  French,  German,  Italian,  and  occasionally  other  lan- 
guages of  western  Europe.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  compile 
names  from  unfamiliar  or  unwritten  languages,  and  in  only  a  few 
exceptional  cases  have  any  been  included.  This  statement,  however, 
does  not  apply  to  such  native  names  as  may  have  been  taken  over 
bodily  into  the  English  or  other  European  languages. 

After  the  common  names  comes  the  original  reference,  or  citation 
of  the  type  description.  I  have  been  able  to  verify  probably  95 
percent  of  these  original  references  in  the  library  of  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  and  a  few  others  elsewhere. 
A  statement  of  the  type  locality  is  then  added  in  parentheses ;  as  far 
as  feasible,  it  is  given  in  the  form  of  an  exact  quotation  from  the 
original  description.  In  many  cases  brief  supplementary  or  explana- 
tory remarks  are  called  for. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  supply  a  complete  list  of  synonyms, 
and  usually  none  whatever  are  cited.  In  certain  cases,  however, 
where  circumstances  seem  to  render  it  advisable,  one  or  more 
synonyms  are  cited.  For  example,  if  the  name  considered  valid  and 


4  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

adopted  here  happens  to  be  less  familiar  than  one  or  more  that  are 
replaced,  the  latter  may  be  cited.  Or,  if  certain  recently  proposed 
names  are  not  considered  valid,  these  may  likewise  be  cited  in 
synonymy. 

Persons  interested  in  the  study  of  mammals  have  frequent  need 
of  consulting  good  illustrations  of  the  various  species  and  subspecies. 
For  this  reason  a  special  point  has  been  made  of  supplying  refer- 
ences to  such  illustrations.  While  such  a  list  of  references  can  rarely 
be  exhaustive,  it  is  believed  that  the  hundreds  of  references  given 
here  include  at  least  a  majority  of  the  good  published  figures  or 
plates  of  the  mammals  under  discussion.  In  the  case  of  slightly 
differentiated  subspecies,  an  outstanding  difficulty  very  frequently 
encountered  has  been  the  determination  of  the  particular  one 
figured.  Even  if  the  author  or  artist  has  provided  a  trinomial 
designation — and  this  is  far  from  being  a  universal  practice — there 
is  always  a  possibility  of  misidentification,  or  of  eventual  refinement 
of  classification  that  will  throw  the  identification  into  doubt, 
unless  the  geographical  provenance  of  the  specimen  figured  is 
accurately  stated.  The  frequent  disregard  of  this  rule  is  the  cause 
of  endless  vexation,  and  it  detracts  seriously  from  the  value  of  the 
figures  as  zoological  illustrations.  Thus,  in  many  cases  the  sub- 
specific  identity  of  a  figure  mentioned  in  the  references  is  in  doubt, 
and  some  of  these  cases  are  indicated  by  a  parenthetical  query: 
"subsp.?"  This  uncertainty  of  identification  extends  inevitably 
even  to  some  of  Mr.  Poole's  excellent  drawings  that  illustrate  the 
present  text.  For  some  are  based  upon  "zoo"  specimens,  many  of 
which  are  notoriously  of  uncertain  provenance  or  even  represent  the 
hybrid  offspring  of  different  subspecies  in  captivity ;  while  others  are 
based  upon  previously  published  figures,  themselves  of  somewhat 
uncertain  subspecific  identity. 

A  brief  description  of  each  species  or  subspecies  is  included.  In 
its  preparation  I  have  aimed  to  utilize  the  type  description  so  far 
as  it  is  at  all  adequate;  but  in  many  cases  later  and  more  complete 
or  more  accurate  descriptions  have  necessarily  been  drawn  upon 
for  at  least  some  of  the  characters.  Constant  caution  is  required, 
however,  in  making  use  of  reviews,  catalogues,  or  monographs  in 
which  the  descriptions  may  be  based  upon  specimens  of  unspecified 
provenance.  In  all  possible  cases  I  have  indicated  the  source  of  the 
information  by  a  direct  quotation  or,  in  the  case  of  translation  or 
paraphrasing,  by  at  least  a  bibliographical  reference. 

It  may  be  remarked  here  that  the  entire  report  is  documented 
with  such  references  to  the  fullest  possible  extent,  not  only  as  a 
matter  of  simple  justice  to  the  authors  of  the  works  drawn  upon, 
but  as  an  essential  aid  to  the  reader  in  verifying  statements,  and  in 
ascertaining  what  source  material  has  been  utilized  on  the  one  hand, 


INTRODUCTION  5 

or  overlooked  or  disregarded  on  the  other  hand.  The  common 
literary  sins  of  failing  to  acknowledge  sources  of  information,  of 
giving  incomplete  references,  and  of  taking  liberties  with  quotations, 
have  been  scrupulously  avoided  as  far  as  has  lain  within  my  power. 
These  matters  have  called  for  the  closest  possible  attention  in  a 
work  that  is  so  largely  a  compilation  as  the  present  one. 

Perhaps  no  two  mammalogists  would  agree  completely  on  just 
what  species  or  subspecies  come  properly  within  the  scope  of  this 
report.  In  the  first  place,  that  scope  is  not  completely  explained  in 
the  rather  brief  title  chosen.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  partially 
aquatic  species,  such  as  the  hippopotamuses,  only  land  mammals  are 
included.  The  various  marine  and  fresh-water  species  are  dealt  with 
in  Dr.  Allen's  volume  (1942).  A  somewhat  more  exact  but  unduly 
awkward  title  might  have  been  Land  Mammals  of  the  Old  World 
that  are  Extinct,  or  Vanishing,  or  in  Need  of  Special  Protection. 
Some  of  the  forms  included  are  no  doubt  actually  increasing  under 
protection  at  the  present  moment  but  nevertheless  deserve  and 
require  the  fullest  possible  care  in  order  that  they  may  continue  to 
survive. 

It  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  include  all  African  mammals 
accorded  protection  in  Schedules  A  and  B  of  the  London  Convention 
of  1933,  even  if  subsequent  investigation  has  shown  that  certain 
forms  are  in  less  urgent  need  of  close  protection  than  was  at  first 
supposed.  On  the  o^her  hand,  the  simple  limitations  of  time  and 
funds  have  excluded  a  certain  number  of  rare  and  more  or  less  en- 
dangered species  whose  status  is  probably  more  unsatisfactory  than 
that  of  a  good  many  included  species. 

Finally,  there  are  doubtless  a  considerable  number  of  other  mam- 
mals (especially  small,  inconspicuous,  or  secretive  species)  that  have 
progressed  far  toward  the  vanishing  point,  or  that  have  actually 
become  extinct,  without  their  status  having  become  known  to  zoolo- 
gists. There  is  no  royal  road  to  the  discovery  of  such  a  state  of 
affairs.  Time  and  again  extinction  has  taken  place  years  in  advance 
of  the  fact  coming  to  scientific  attention.  Thus,  at  the  very  best, 
the  present  report  could  embody  no  more  than  a  certain  portion  of 
the  current  (and  decidedly  incomplete)  knowledge  on  the  subject. 

A  few  words  may  be  said  here  on  the  difficult  subject  of  the 
arrangement  or  sequence  of  the  systematic  groups — families,  genera, 
species,  and  subspecies.  The  present  arrangement  of  families  is  ac- 
cording to  Simpson  (1931).  Beyond  this  point  there  is  apparently 
no  single,  comprehensive,  up-to-date  guide  to  be  followed.  Many 
recent  authors  of  faunal  lists  or  catalogues  do  not  even  undertake 
an  explanation  of  the  sequence  they  adopt.  For  the  large  group  of 
ungulate  mammals  Lydekker's  well-known  catalogue  (1913-1916) 
furnishes  a  convenient  guide  in  the  arrangement  of  genera,  species. 


6  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

and  subspecies.  In  the  same  way  Iredale  and  Troughton's  Australian 
check-list  (1934)  serves  for  the  marsupial  groups.  In  other  groups 
(such  as  the  Carnivora  and  the  Primates)  I  have  merely  attempted 
to  follow  general  usage  in  so  far  as  any  such  usage  has  been 
discoverable.  In  the  category  of  subspecies,  the  original,  "nominate," 
or  "typical"  subspecies  is  introduced  first,  and  is  followed  by  the 
others,  usually  in  a  more  or  less  geographical  sequence  from  north  to 
south  or  east  to  west. 

Under  each  family  heading  a  brief  paragraph  has  been  introduced, 
stating  the  general  distribution  of  the  family,  the  number  of  genera 
and  species  or  subspecies  it  contains  (exclusive  of  fossil  forms) ,  and 
the  number  of  forms  that  have  called  for  discussion  in  Dr.  Allen's 
preceding  volume  and  in  the  present  volume.  The  number  so 
treated  varies  from  one  in  each  of  several  families  to  more  than  a 
hundred  in  the  cattle  family  (Bovidae).  Since  no  indigenous  land 
mammals  occur  in  Antarctica,  there  is  no  need  of  further  mention 
of  this  region  in  the  distributional  statements. 

The  1933  London  Convention  for  the  Protection  of  the  Fauna  and 
Flora  of  Africa  is  mentioned  with  considerable  frequency  in  this 
volume.  Since  some  readers  may  not  be  familiar  with  this  Con- 
vention and  its  far-reaching  importance  in  the  cause  of  international 
wildlife  preservation,  a  few  words  of  explanation  are  inserted  here. 
The  conference  was  called  by  invitation  of  Great  Britain  and  was 
attended  by  accredited  representatives  of  the  nine  countries  having 
territories  in  Africa.  The  Convention  became  effective  in  January, 
1936,  when  it  had  been  ratified  by  five  of  the  nine  participating 
governments.  By  January,  1940,  ratification  by  three  more  countries 
had  taken  place.  Among  the  measures  agreed  upon  by  the  Con- 
vention are  the  establishment  of  national  parks  and  nature  reserves, 
the  regulation  of  traffic  in  animals,  and  the  prohibition  of  encircling 
fires  and  (wherever  possible)  of  the  use  of  poison,  dazzling  lights, 
nets,  and  traps  for  hunting  animals.  The  Annex  to  this  Convention 
lists,  as  Class  A  species,  17  mammals,  3  birds,  and  1  plant,  for 
which  rigid  protection  is  agreed  upon.  It  also  lists,  as  Class  B 
species,  13  mammals  and  9  birds  which,  although  not  requiring 
such  rigid  protection,  may  be  taken  only  under  a  special  form  of 
license.  The  number  of  mammals  so  protected  is  actually  much 
larger  than  indicated  in  the  above  statements;  for  example,  the 
40  forms  of  Madagascar  lemurs  count  as  only  a  single  item  in  the 
list,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  dozen  subspecies  of  Giraffes.  Further 
details  are  set  forth  in  Special  Publications  6  and  10  of  the  American 
Committee  for  International  Wild  Life  Protection  (1935  and  1940). 


INTRODUCTION  7 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  chief  burden  of  promoting  the  present  investigation,  in  both 
a  spiritual  and  a  financial  sense,  was  magnanimously  assumed  in 
the  fir.st  place  by  the  late  Dr.  John  C.  Phillips,  not  merely  in  his 
capacity  as  chairman  of  the  American  Committee  for  International 
Wild  Life  Protection,  but  as  a  more  or  less  personal  responsibility. 
The  main  lines  of  the  investigation  have  been  carried  out  as  origi- 
nally planned  by  him.  Other  members  of  the  Committee  have  also 
made  generous  contributions  of  funds,  information,  and  advice. 
When  the  magnitude  of  the  task  began  to  exceed  all  original  esti- 
mates, a  grant  from  the  Penrose  Fund  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society  provided  timely  aid.  After  Dr.  Phillips's  death  in  November, 
1938,  a  subcommittee,  consisting  of  Dr.  Alexander  Wetmore,  Mr. 
Charles  M.  B.  Cadwalader,  and  Mr.  Harold  J.  Coolidge,  Jr.,  by 
vigorous  action  found  the  means  for  completing  the  investigation. 

I  am  further  and  particularly  indebted  to  Mr.  Cadwalader,  as 
director  and  president  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Phila- 
delphia, for  the  provision  of  desk  space  and  library  facilities  in 
this  institution.  The  already  great  resources  of  the  Academy's 
library  have  been  considerably  augmented,  during  and  in  behalf  of 
this  investigation,  by  the  acquisition  of  numerous  important  works 
on  mammals,  through  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Cadwalader,  Mr.  Brooke 
Dolan,  II,  and  Mr.  George  L.  Harrison. 

The  whole-hearted  cooperation  of  the  International  Office  for  the 
Protection  of  Nature  in  Brussels,  and  particularly  of  its  Secretary, 
Mrs.  Tordis  Graim,  is  most  gladly  and  gratefully  acknowledged. 
Mrs.  Graim  has  generously  undertaken  and  admirably  fulfilled  the 
task  not  only  of  distributing  questionnaires  to  numerous  zoologists 
and  conservation  officials  in  the  Old  World,  but  also  of  translating 
and  compiling  the  very  valuable  data  thus  obtained. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Dr.  H.  E.  Anthony  and  Mr.  George  G. 
Goodwin,  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  lengthy 
portions  of  indispensable  works  in  Russian  by  Ognev  and  Nasonov 
have  been  translated  at  that  institution  and  placed  in  my  hands. 
Thereby  a  great  deal  of  important  information,  not  generally 
available  to  non-Russian  zoologists,  has  been  incorporated  in  the 
pages  of  the  present  work. 

I  must  not  omit  to  mention  the  patience  and  accommodation  of 
Dr.  Remington  Kellogg,  of  the  United  States  National  Museum, 
during  the  hours  I  have  spent  in  his  office,  consulting  various  works 
not  available  in  Philadelphia. 

No  words  of  mine  can  add  to  the  value  of  the  drawings  produced 
by  the  masterful  strokes  of  Earl  Poole's  pen.  They  will  be  appre- 
ciated by  the  reader  not  only  as  unusually  faithful  delineations  of 


8  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

the  mammals  they  represent,  but  as  a  welcome  embellishment  of 
the  long  pages  of  text. 

The  host  of  correspondents  and  collaborators,  who  have  contrib- 
uted first-hand  and  hitherto  unpublished  information  of  very  ex- 
ceptional value,  and  whose  names  will  be  found  in  proper  place 
on  scores  of  the  following  pages,  deserve  the  highest  gratitude  of 
the  sponsors  and  the  compiler  of  this  report.  Without  their  contri- 
butions the  work  would  have  been  deprived  of  one  of  its  most 
essential  features. 

Finally,  the  most  cordial  thanks  are  due  to  the  various  authors 
and  publishers  whose  books  and  papers  have  been  utilized  in  the 
preparation  of  this  work.  It  is  hoped  that  they  will  be  rewarded  in 
part,  at  least,  by  the  complete  acknowledgment  of  all  items  of 
information  so  derived. 


Of  the  following  accounts  of  Old  World  species,  17,  which 
Dr.  Francis  Harper  did  not  have  opportunity  to  prepare  on  account 
of  taking  up  other  investigations,  were  written  by  Glover  Morrill 
Allen  and  are  subscribed  with  his  initials.  These  accounts  are  in 
large  part  based  on  the  data  already  brought  together  by  Dr.  Harper, 
to  whom  every  credit  is  due  for  the  extensive  research  and  corres- 
pondence which  he  undertook  in  order  to  assemble  the  essential 
facts.  The  17  accounts  are:  Crocidura  juliginosa  trichura,  Christ- 
mas Island  Shrew;  Rattus  macleari,  Captain  Maclear's  Rat;  Rattus 
nativitatis,  Christmas  Island  Burrowing  Rat;  Colobus  polykomos 
and  Colobus  badius  races,  Colobus  Monkeys;  Pan  troglodytes  and 
races,  the  Chimpanzee;  Pongo  pygmaeus,  the  Orang-utan;  Hippo- 
potamus amphibius  and  races,  the  Hippopotamuses;  Choeropsis 
liberiensis,  Pygmy  Hippopotamus ;  Hyemoschus  aquations  and  races, 
Water  Chevrotains;  Cervus  elaphus  barbarus,  North  African  Red 
Deer;  Loxodonta  africana  africana,  South  African  Bush  Elephant; 
Diceros  bicornis  and  races,  Black  Rhino ;  Equus  burchellii  burchellii, 
Burchell's  Zebra;  Equus  zebra  and  race,  Mountain  Zebra;  Equus 
quagga,  the  Quagga;  Oryx  gazella  and  race,  Gemsbok;  Aegoryx 
algazel,  Scimitar  Oryx;  and  Syncerus  caffer  caffer,  Cape  Buffalo. 

G.  M.  A. 

FACTORS  IN  THE  PROGRESSIVE  DEPLETION  OF  THE 
OLD  WORLD'S  MAMMALIAN  FAUNAS 

IN  the  course  of  the  present  studies  on  the  mammals  that  have 
become  extinct  during  the  Christian  Era,  and  on  others  that  are 
now  threatened  with  the  same  fate,  it  has  become  convincingly 
evident  that  the  process  of  extinction  is  taking  place  at  a  steadily 
accelerated  rate.  During  this  period  of  approximately  2,000  years, 


INTRODUCTION  9 

the  world  has  lost,  through  extinction,  about  106  known  forms  of 
mammals.  About  28  percent  of  these  are  subspecies  of  still  existing 
species,  but  the  full  species  completely  and  irretrievably  lost  number 
approximately  77. 

Between  A.  D.  1  and  1800,  about  33  mammals  are  more  or  less 
definitely  known  to  have  become  extinct  (see  list,  pp.  17-18) .  Each 
half -century  period  since  1800  shows  a  steadily  increasing  rate  of 
extinction.  The  last  100  years  have  witnessed  the  passing  of  about 
67  percent  of  the  106  extinct  forms.  In  the  past  50  years  approxi- 
mately 38  percent  as  many  forms  have  been  exterminated  as  in  all 
previous  recorded  history.  At  the  present  time  more  than  600  others 
require  consideration  as  vanishing  or  threatened  forms.  It  is  well 
within  the  bounds  of  possibility  that  during  the  next  hundred  years 
we  may  be  extinguishing  this  group  at  the  approximate  rate  of  one 
form  per  year. 

In  seeking  the  causes  of  this  world-wide  tragedy,  it  becomes  ap- 
parent that  conditions  vary  widely  over  the  different  regions  of 
the  globe,  although  there  is  a  single  major  underlying  factor  nearly 
throughout. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  present  inquiry,  we  may  here  pass  briefly 
in  review  the  major  regions  that  are  covered  in  this  volume: 
Australia,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  Asia,  Europe,  Africa,  and  Mada- 
gascar. 

AUSTRALIA 

Conditions  in  Australia  are  peculiar  and  exceptional,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  its  unique  native  mammalian  fauna  is  predominantly 
marsupial,  and  so  lowly  organized  as  to  be  quite  unfitted  for  coping 
with  certain  exotic  and  aggressive  species  introduced  by  civilized 
man.  The  chief  of  these  are  the  European  Red  Fox,  the  Domestic 
Cat,  the  European  Rabbit,  the  House  Rats,  and  the  House  Mouse. 
Further  competition  results  from  the  encroachment  of  hosts  of 
sheep  and  cattle  upon  the  ancestral  grazing  grounds  of  the  her- 
bivorous marsupials.  An  apparently  minor  predatory  role  is  played 
by  the  Dingo  (Cams  dingo),  which  was  presumably  introduced  by 
aboriginal  man. 

The  Fox  and  the  Cat  (which  has  become  feral  in  large  numbers) 
have  long  been  active  in  the  direct  extermination  of  the  smaller  and 
comparatively  helpless  marsupials.  The  Rabbit,  in  millions,  operates 
indirectly  but  no  less  effectively  by  overrunning  the  land,  occu- 
pying all  available  burrows,  and  depriving  the  herbivorous  mar- 
supials (even  such  large  species  as  the  kangaroos)  of  the  food 
necessary  to  their  existence.  The  introduced  rats  and  mice  usurp 
the  habitats  of  the  native  species.  Even  sanctuaries  are  not  proof 
against  such  enemies  as  the  foregoing. 


10  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  serious  depletion  of  the  native  fauna  by  these  agencies  is 
supplemented  by  widespread  bush  fires,  by  conversion  of  a  vast 
acreage  of  wild  land  into  crop  or  grazing  lands,  by  the  huge  fur 
trade,  by  epizootic  disease,  and  by  the  large-scale  use  of  poisoned 
bait,  which  takes  toll  of  many  animals  besides  the  pests  against 
which  it  is  directed. 

Altogether,  the  situation  in  Australia  has  gotten  largely  beyond 
human  control.  The  rapidly  growing  list  of  extinct  forms  already 
contains  at  least  the  following  11 : 

Freckled  Marsupial  Mouse    (Antechinus  apicalis) 

New  South  Wales  Barred  Bandicoot  (Pemmeles  jasciata) 

Western  Barred  Bandicoot  (Perameles  myosura  myosura) 

Nalpa  Bilby  (Macrotis  lagotis  grandis) 

Leadbeater's    Opossum    (Gymnobelideus    leadbeateri) 

Gaimard's  Rat-kangaroo  (Bettongia  gaimardi) 

Gilbert's  Rat-kangaroo   (Potorous  gilbertii) 

Broad-faced  Rat-kangaroo  (Potorous  platyops) 

Parma  Wallaby  (Thylogale  parma) 

Toolach  Wallaby  (Wallabia  greyi)  * 

White-tailed  Rat  (Zyzomys  argurus  argurus) 

Dr.  W.  K.  Gregory,  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
says  (1924,  p.  11) :  "Late  in  the  eighteenth  century,  there  arrived 
in  Australia  by  far  the  most  destructive  placental  mammal  the 
world  has  ever  seen,  Homo  sapiens,  variety  europaeus,  who  has 
devastated  the  continent  and  is  now  completing  the  work  of 
destruction." 

MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO 

Insular  faunas  are  of  extraordinary  interest  because  of  their 
tendency  toward  endemism  and  because  of  the  light  they  throw 
upon  geological  history  and  evolutionary  processes.  At  the  same 
time,  by  reason  of  the  more  or  less  strictly  circumscribed  nature  of 
their  habitats,  and  by  reason  of  a  certain  lack  of  adaptability  or 
self-defense,  they  are  peculiarly  vulnerable  to  attack  and  extermi- 
nation by  enemies  of  foreign  origin.  Thus  the  Malay  Archipelago 
commands  the  attention  of  the  conservationist  as  well  as  of  the 
evolutionist.  Incidentally,  it  was  in  this  environment,  in  the  fertile 
mind  of  Alfred  Russel  Wallace,  that  one  of  the  germs  of  the  evolu- 
tionary idea  developed. 

So  far  this  region,  containing  the  richest  insular  faunas  of  the 
entire  world,  has  fared  moderately — or  at  least  comparatively — well, 
having  lost  only  three  mammals,  all  from  tiny  Christmas  Island, 
lying  some  200  miles  off  the  south  coast  of  Java.  These  are  a  shrew 
(Crocidura  fuliginosa  trichura)  and  two  species  of  indigenous  rats 
(Rattus  macleari  and  R,  nativitatis) ,  all  of  which  have  succumbed 

i  A  single  captive  remained  alive  in  1938  (Troughton,  1938,  p.  407). 


INTRODUCTION  11 

to  an  invasion  of  House  Rats  and  Domestic  Cats,  either  through 
direct  attack  or  through  some  epizootic  introduced  by  one  or  both 
of  these  animals. 

On  the  other  hand,  through  the  archipelago  generally,  cultivated 
areas  and  the  native  population  show  a  strong  tendency  to  increase ; 
this  is  especially  true  of  the  Sunda  Islands  and  the  Philippines. 
Thus  the  native  mammals  are  engaged  in  a  steady  retreat  into  the 
dwindling  forests. 

In  the  Netherlands  Indies  many  good  protective  measures  have 
been  adopted.  No  less  than  76  nature  reserves  have  been  created, 
and  these  may  be  regarded  as  the  final  refuge  of  the  native  fauna. 
Hunting  and  export  of  wild  animals  are  prohibited  except  under 
special  license. 

In  Borneo  and  New  Guinea  the  native  population  is  less  dense 
than  in  the  Sunda  Islands,  and  there  is  apparently  little  use  by  the 
natives  of  firearms — that  primary  factor  in  the  extermination  of 
wild  life. 

The  vanishing  mammals  of  the  archipelago,  for  which  special 
concern  is  felt,  include  the  following: 

Orang-utan  (Pongo  pygmaeus) 

Sumatran  Elephant  (Elephas  maximus  sumatranus) 

Javan  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  sondaicus} 

Sumatran  Rhinoceros   (Dicerorhinus  sumatrensis  sumatrensis) 

Babirussa  (Babirussa  babyrussa) 

Javan  Banteng   (Bibos  sondaicus  sondaicus) 

Bornean  Banteng  (Bibos  sondaicus  lowi) 

Tamarao  or  Dwarf  Buffalo  of  Mindoro  (Anoa  mindorensis) 

Common  Anoa  of  Celebes  (Anoa  depressicornis) 

Mountain  Anoa  of  Celebes  (Anoa  jergusoni) 

Sumatran  Serow  (Capricornis  sumatraensis  sumatraensis) 

Of  these,  the  Javan  Rhin'oceros  is  in  the  most  serious  condition, 
being  reduced  to  perhaps  two  dozen  individuals. 

ASIA 

The  fauna  of  this  greatest  of  the  continents  has  been  safeguarded 
in  part  by  natural  conditions.  Chief  among  these  is  the  sparsity  of 
the  human  population  over  such  vast  areas  as  the  taiga  and  the 
tundra  of  Siberia  and  the  deserts  of  Mongolia,  Chinese  Turkestan, 
Persia,  and  Arabia.  The  great  mountain  masses  of  the  Himalaya, 
Tian  Shan,  and  Altai  systems,  as  well  as  numerous  lesser  ranges, 
have  also  afforded  a  measure  of  protection  to  the  mammals  adapted 
to  these  high  altitudes. 

A  factor  in  the  preservation  of  the  large  mammals  of  Afghan- 
istan and  Tibet  has  been  the  exclusion  of  all  but  a  handful  of 
foreigners.  India,  despite  its  teeming  population,  has  not  exter- 


12  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

minated  a  single  mammal,  thanks  to  the  protective  attitude  toward 
game  assumed  both  by  the  native  rulers  and  by  the  British  adminis- 
tration. In  China,  unfortunately,  there  seems  to  be  little  or  no 
thought  of  the  conservation  of  wild  life  on  the  part  of  the  great  mass 
of  the  population. 

One  of  the  most  decisive  factors  in  the  accelerated  depletion  of 
the  game  resources  of  Asia  (and  of  other  continents  likewise) 
during  recent  years  has  been  the  increasing  use  of  modern  rifles  of 
high  power  and  precision.  This  has  been  especially  noticeable  in 
Tibet,  according  to  reports  of  recent  explorers,  and  also  in  Arabia. 
In  the  deserts  of  Iraq  and  Arabia  pursuit  of  gazelles  and  other 
animals  by  motor  car  has  recently  become  a  very  serious  menace  to 
their  survival. 

The  Asiatic  rhinoceroses,  the  Saiga  Antelope,  such  large  horned 
ruminants  as  the  Wapiti  and  other  members  of  the  deer  family,  and 
even  the  lowly  pangolins,  have  been  victimized  in  a  peculiarly 
distressing  way,  merely  because  of  the  apparently  wholly  mythical 
value  of  the  horns,  scales,  and  other  parts  of  the  body  in  the  Chinese 
pharmaceutical  trade.  This  belief  is  so  deeply  rooted  that  probably 
no  educational  campaign  would  be  effective  in  staving  off  the 
extermination  of  any  species  at  the  mercy  of  the  peoples  who  regard 
powdered  rhino  horn,  for  example,  as  a  panacea.  Even  in  countries 
far  beyond  China's  borders,  protection  of  rhinoceroses  and  other 
species  in  similar  demand  is  made  extraordinarily  difficult  by  the 
fabulous  prices  set  upon  them  and  by  the  incentive  for  poaching 
under  these  circumstances.  When  the  last  Asiatic  rhino  is  gone, 
and  the  fancied  benefits  from  its  powdered  horn  are  no  longer 
available,  possibly  then  the  tragic  fallacy  of  the  whole  business 
will  dawn  upon  those  responsible  for  the  extermination  of  this 
section  of  the  world's  fauna. 

Of  fur-bearing  animals,  probably  the  highly  prized  Siberian 
Sables  have  been  subjected  to  severest  pressure,  but  the  Soviet 
Government  has  created  several  great  reserves  for  their  protection, 
and  has  maintained  a  closed  season  on  Sables  over  the  whole  terri- 
tory of  the  USSR. 

Despite  the  many-sided  attack  upon  Asiatic  mammals — for  the 
sake  of  their  meat,  hides,  fur,  horns,  scales,  and  even  raw  body 
fluids — that  continent  has  exterminated  to  date,  as  far  as  known, 
only  three  forms:  the  Japanese  Wolf  (Canis  hodophilax),  the 
Syrian  Wild  Ass  (Asinus  hemionus  hemippus) ,  and  Schomburgk's 
Deer  (Rucervus  schomburgki) . 

There  are  a  number  of  others,  however,  for  which  the  same  fate 
is  more  or  less  imminent.  Notable  among  these  are  the  following: 

Indian  Cheetah   (Acinonyx  jubatus  venaticus) 
Asiatic  Lion  (Leo  leo  persicus) 


INTRODUCTION  13 

Przewalski's  Horse  (Equus  przewalskii) 

Transcaspian  Wild  Ass   (Asinus  hemionus  finschi) 

Indian  Wild  Ass  (Asinus  hemionus  khur) 

Javan  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  sondaicus) 

Asiatic  Two-horned  Rhinoceroses  (Dicerorhinus  sumatrensis  lasiotis  and 

D.  s.  niger) 

Yarkand  Stag  (Cervus  yarkandensis) 
McNeill's  Deer  (Cervus  macneilli) 
White-lipped  Deer  (Cervus  albirostris) 
Malayan  Gaur  (Bibos  gaurus  hubbacki) 
Gobi  Argali  (Ovis  ammon  darwini) 
Semipalatinsk  Argali  (Ovis  ammon  collium) 
Anadyr  Bighorn  (Ovis  nivicola  subsp.) 

There  are  doubtless  additional  forms  of  Asiatic  Wild  Sheep  whose 
existence  is  seriously  threatened,  but  information  on  the  present 
status  of  certain  ones  is  scarcely  sufficient  to  warrant  a  definite 
statement. 

EUROPE 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  European  type  of  culture  has 
generally  had  such  a  devastating  effect  upon  native  faunas  wherever 
it  has  spread  in  colonies  and  settlements  throughout  the  rest  of  the 
world,  it  is  gratifying  to  find  that  the  mammalian  fauna  of  Europe 
itself  has  retrograded  no  further  than  it  has.  The  chief  impover- 
ishment has  naturally  occurred  in  the  British  Isles  and  other  densely 
populated  countries  of  Western  Europe.  And  yet  fewer  Recent 
mammals  have  been  exterminated  in  Europe  than  in  North  America 
or  Australia  or  Africa.  They  seem  to  number  only  six,  as  follows: 

European  Lion  (Leo  leo  subsp.) 

European  Wild  Horse  (Equus  caballus  subsp.) 

Aurochs   (Bos  primigenius) 

Caucasian  Bison  (Bison  bonasus  caucasicus) 

Pyrenean  Ibex  (Capra  pyrenaica  pyrenaica) 

Portuguese  Ibex  (Capra  pyrenaica  lusitanica) 

The  retrogression  of  the  European  fauna  has  no  doubt  been  due 
in  the  first  place  to  the  widespread  clearing  of  forests  and  their 
replacement  by  lands  devoted  to  habitations,  transportation  systems, 
crops,  or  grazing.  Hunting,  however,  has  constituted  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  direct  human  pressure  upon  the  wild  animals. 
While  this  sort  of  pressure  began  to  be  felt  ages  ago,  it  was  primarily 
the  invention  and  improvement  of  firearms  that  enabled  man  to 
proceed  with  ever-increasing  rapidity  on  his  course  of  extermination. 
Species  of  comparatively  large  size,  furnishing  valuable  meat  and 
hides,  have  been  the  prinicipal  sufferers.  Thus  four  of  the  six 
extinct  European  mammals  are  members  of  the  cattle  family 
(Bovidae). 


14  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

In  Europe,  as  contrasted  with  the  United  States,  there  is  a  far 
greater  proportion  of  closely  guarded  private  estates,  and  hunting 
of  large  game  is  chiefly  restricted  to  the  wealthy  few.  This  con- 
dition of  affairs  has*resulted  in  a  much  slower  rate  of  extermination 
than  in  the  United  States,  despite  the  large  number  of  national 
parks  and  wild-life  refuges  in  this  country.  Furthermore,  the 
European  attitude  appears  much  more  tolerant  toward  such  preda- 
tory animals  as  Wolves  and  Brown  Bears,  which  have  been  able 
to  survive  so  far  in  such  countries  as  Spain,  France,  Italy,  Yugo- 
slavia, Greece,  Bulgaria,  Rumania,  Czechoslovakia,  Poland,  the 
Baltic  States,  Russia,  and  Scandinavia.  Americans  have  been  more 
ruthless  in  exterminating,  or  attempting  to  exterminate,  any  preda- 
tory animal  conflicting,  or  presumed  to  conflict,  with  human  interests. 
Unfortunately,  the  American  method  of  dealing  with  predators  by 
means  of  poison  has  attained  a  certain  vogue  in  Bulgaria. 

A  few  of  the  more  important  vanishing  mammals  of  Europe  may 
be  mentioned  here.  The  Brown  Bear  (Ursus  arctos)  and  the  Wolf 
(Cam's  lupus)  are  probably  doomed  to  disappear  almost  entirely 
from  Western  Europe,  although  they  will  long  survive  in  Russia 
and  Siberia.  The  European  Wildcat  (Felis  silvestris  silvestris)  has 
become  extremely  scarce  in  general;  perhaps  its  greatest  danger 
lies  in  extinction  by  dilution  through  interbreeding  with  feral 
Domestic  Cats.  The  insular  Wildcats  (Cretan,  Sardinian,  Corsican, 
and  British — Felis  agrius,  F.  sarda,  F.  reyi,  and  F.  silvestris 
grampia)  are  probably  endangered  in  like  manner.  The  European 
Beaver  (Castor  fiber),  persecuted  for  its  fur,  remains  in  only  a  few 
isolated  colonies.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  whether  any  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Finland  Reindeer  (Rangifer  tarandus  fennicus) 
and  the  Novaya  Zemlya  Reindeer  (R.  t.  pearsoni)  still  survive; 
the  animal  of  Novaya  Zemlya  has  fallen  victim  to  visiting 
ships'  crews  and  to  Samoyed  immigrants.  While  the  stock  of  the 
Lithuanian  Bison  (Bison  bonasus  bonasus)  is  greatly  reduced,  and 
while  there  has  been  considerable  mixture  in  captivity  with  the 
Caucasian  Bison  (B.  b.  caucasicus)  and  with  the  American  Bison 
(Bison  bison  bison),  energetic  protection  in  sanctuaries  assured 
its  survival  up  to  1939,  at  least.  Two  of  the  four  races  of  the 
Spanish  Ibex  (Capra  pyrenaica)  have  been  exterminated  by  exces- 
sive hunting,  and  the  fate  of  those  remaining  has  become  uncertain 
during  recent  events  in  Spain.  The  Cyprian  Mouflon  (Ovis  ophion 
ophion)  has  become  reduced  to  a  precariously  small  stock. 

The  British  Isles  have  long  since  lost  the  Brown  Bear,  the  Wolf, 
the  Beaver,  the  Wild  Boar  (Sus  scrofa) ,  and  the  Reindeer  (Rangifer 
tarandus) .  No  doubt  insularity  has  here  played  a  part  in  the  early 
disappearance  of  these  mammals. 


INTRODUCTION  15 

AFRICA 

As  long  as  the  African  Continent  was  occupied  by  primitive 
savages,  without  modern  weapons,  animal  life  was,  in  a  large 
sense,  in  a  virtual  state  of  equilibrium.  When  European  settle- 
ment began,  and  firearms  were  introduced,  the  death  knell  of  a 
very  considerable  proportion  of  the  population  of  large  mammals 
was  sounded.  Thus  the  Atlas  Bear  (Ursus  crowtheri) ,  the  Barbary 
and  the  Cape  Lions  (Leo  leo  leo  and  L.  I.  melanochaitus) ,  the 
Quagga  (Hippotigris  quagga) ,  Burchell's  Zebra  (Hippotigris  bur- 
chellii  burchellii),  the  Bubal  Hartebeest  (Alcelaphus  busclaphus 
buselaphus) ,  the  Rufous  Gazelle  (Gazella  rufina) ,  and  the  Blaauw- 
bok  (Hippotragus  leucophaeics)  have  departed  finally  and  completely 
from  the  African  scene.  The  typical  subspecies  of  the  Cape  Harte- 
beest (Alcelaphus  caama)  may  also  be  extinct,  but  imperfect  knowl- 
edge of  its  distribution  precludes  a  definite  statement.  A  long 
time  previously  the  Algerian  Wild  Ass  (Asinus  atlanticus)  became 
extinct,  from  unknown  causes.  These  losses  by  extinction  are 
divided  almost  equally  between  South  Africa — the  region  most 
thoroughly  settled  by  Europeans — and  the  Barbary  States,  where 
the  well-armed  Moors  long  held  sway. 

A  century  ago  the  Boer  hide-hunters  decimated  the  remarkable 
antelope  and  zebra  fauna  of  South  Africa.  In  the  last  half-century, 
firearms  in  the  hands  of  improvident  and  short-sighted  natives  have 
wrought  extremely  serious  havoc  among  the  dwindling  herds  of 
African  game  in  general.  As  intertribal  warfare  has  practically 
ceased,  and  as  the  benefits  of  modern  medicine  and  sanitation  have 
penetrated  far  into  the  jungles  and  deserts,  the  native  populations 
have  increased,  and  their  demands  for  a  meat  diet  have  decimated 
the  game.  Encircling  fires,  a  method  of  hunting  practiced  on  a 
fairly  large  scale  in  the  savanna  regions,  have  been  extremely 
destructive,  even  in  the  absence  of  firearms.  Professional  hunters 
in  the  employ  of  great  industrial  enterprises,  as  in  various  parts  of 
the  Belgian  Congo,  have  simply  wiped  out  the  antelopes  over  large 
areas.  Hasty  and  probably  ill-considered  campaigns  for  the  control 
of  the  tsetse  fly  have  too  often  resulted  in  hecatombs  of  the  large 
game  mammals.  In  recent  years  the  animals  of  the  desert,  such  as 
Oryx  and  Gazelles,  have  become  subject  to  attack  from  motor  cars. 

In  South  Africa  the  Bontebok  (Damaliscus  dorcas) ,  the  Blesbok 
(Damaliscus  phillipsi) ,  and  the  White-tailed  Gnu  (Connochaetes 
gnou)  no  longer  roam  the  free  veldt,  but  have  become  restricted  to 
enclosed  farms  and  preserves.  A  remnant  of  the  Cape  Mountain 
Zebra  (Hippotigris  zebra  zebra)  was  preserved  at  the  eleventh  hour. 


16  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Among  other  vanishing  or  threatened  African  mammals,  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  mentioned  in  particular: 

Barbary  Lynx  (Caracal  caracal  algirus) 

South  African  Bush  Elephant  (Loxodonta  africana  ajricand) 

African  Manatee   (Trichechus  senegalensis) 

Nubian  Wild  Ass  (Asinus  asinus  africanus) 

Somali  Wild  Ass  (Asinus  asinus  somaliensis) 

Southern  White  Rhinoceros  (Ceratotherium  simum  simum) 

Northern  White  Rhinoceros   (Ceratotherium  simum  cottoni) 

Pygmy  Hippopotamus  (Choeropsis  liberiensis) 

Barbary  Stag  (Cervus  elaphus  barbarus) 

Congo  Giraffe  (Giraffa  camelopardalis  congoensis) 

Nigerian  Giraffe  (Giraffa  camelopardalis  peralta) 

Angola  Giraffe   (Giraffa  camelopardalis  angolensis) 

Southern  Giraffe  (Giraffa  camelopardalis  capensis) 

Okapi  (Okapia  johnstoni) 

Cape  Buffalo  (Syncerus  caffer  cafjer,  here  restricted  to  the  South  African 

animal) 

Egyptian  Arui  (Ammotragus  lervia  ornata) 
Libyan  Arui  (Ammotragus  lervia  fassini) 
Nubian  Ibex  (Capra  nubiana  nubiana) 
Abyssinian  Ibex  (Capra  walie) 
Cuvier's  Gazelle  (Gazella  cuvien) 
Slender-horned  Gazelle  (Gazella  leptoceros) 
Mhorr  Gazelle  (Gazella  dama  mhorr) 
White  Oryx  (Aegoryx  algazel) 
Giant  Sable  Antelope  (Hippotragus  variant) 
Addax  (Addax  nasomaculatus) 
Nyala   (Tragelaphus  angasii) 
Mountain  Nyala  (Tragelaphus  buxtoni) 

Senegambian  Giant  Eland  (Taurotragus  derbianus  derbianus) 
Congo  Giant  Eland  (Taurotragus  derbianus  congolanus) 

A  very  considerable  number  of  game  reserves  have  been  estab- 
lished in  various  parts  of  Africa,  and  there  should  be  a  great  many 
more  of  them,  effectively  supervised.  Herein  lies  the  chief  hope  for 
the  survival  of  many  of  the  larger  African  mammals. 

MADAGASCAR 

The  mammalian  fauna  of  this  great  island  is  particularly  note- 
worthy for  its  very  high  degree  of  endemism  and  for  the  prepon- 
derance of  lemurs.  Madagascar  and  its  outliers  boast  no  less  than 
three  families  and  forty  species  and  subspecies  of  lemurs,  not  one 
of  which  extends  to  the  African  mainland.  Fortunately  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  these  remain  more  or  less  common,  being  protected 
from  persecution  by  native  superstition.  However,  one  species,  the 
Hairy-eared  Mouse  Lemur  (Cheirogaleus  trichotis) ,  is  apparently 
extinct.  The  following  seem  to  exist  in  very  small  numbers,  and 


INTRODUCTION  17 

should  be  safeguarded  by  every  possible  means  from  further  de- 
crease: 

Coquerel's  Dwarf  Lemur  (Microcebus  coquereli) 
Crossley's  Mouse  Lemur  (C  heirogaleus  major  crossleyi) 
Gray  Lemur  (Hapalemur  griseus  griseus) 
Broad-nosed  Gentle  Lemur  (Hapalemur  simus) 
Diademed  Sifaka  (Propithecus  diadema  diadema) 
Major's  Sifaka  (Propithecus  verreauxi  majori) 
Aye-aye   (Daubentonia  madagascariensm) 

Two  peculiar  carnivores,  the  Fossane  (Fossa  fossa)  and  the  Fossa 
(Cryptoprocta  ferox) ,  are  also  endemic  in  Madagascar.  The  former 
is  accorded  protection  under  Schedule  A  of  the  London  Convention 
of  1933,  and  probably  the  latter  is  almost  equally  deserving  of  con- 
sideration. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  danger  to  mammalian  life  in  Madagascar  is 
the  steady  reduction  of  the  forest  areas  through  burning  and  clear- 
ing by  the  natives.  It  is  highly  important  from  the  point  of  view 
of  conservation  that  this  process  should  be  halted. 

THE  CHRONOLOGY  OF  EXTINCTION 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  the  historian  of  mammalogy  to  list  the 
extinct  forms  here  in  some  sort  of  chronological  order.  They  will  be 
arranged  chiefly  by  half-century  periods  and  by  regions  within  those 
periods;  but  those  forms  that  passed  out  of  existence  prior  to  1800 
will  be  placed  in  a  single  group.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
in  most  cases  the  date  of  extinction  can  be  only  roughly  indicated. 
For  this  reason  the  sequence  within  the  regional  half-century  groups 
will  be  systematic  rather  than  chronological.  In  some  cases,  how- 
ever, it  is  possible  to  add  a  more  approximate  date  of  extinction 
after  the  name  of  the  species  or  subspecies.  Certain  cases  of  probable 
but  unproved  extinction  are  indicated  by  a  question  mark. 

Years  1-1800  (33  forms)  : 

EUROPE 

European  Lion  (Leo  leo  subsp.),  80-100 
European  Wild  Horse  (Equus  caballvs  subsp.) 
Aurochs  (Bos  primigenius) ,  1627 


AFRICA 

Algerian  Wild  Ass  (Asinus  atlanticus) 
Blaauwbok   (Hippotragus  leucophaeus] ,  1800 
2 


18  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

WEST  INDIES  1 

Four  Antillean  insectivores    (Nesophontes   edithae;   N.  micrus;   N. 

longirostris ;  N.  zamicrus) 
Lesser  Falcate-winged  Bat  (Phyllops  veins] 
Cuban  Yellow  Bat  (Natalus  primus) 

Smaller  Puerto  Rican  Ground  Sloth  (Acratocnus  odontrigonus) 
Larger  Puerto  Rican  Ground  Sloth  (Acratocnus  major) 
Smaller  Hispaniolan  Ground^loth  ( Acratocnus  (?)  comes) 
Larger  Hispaniolan  Ground  cloth  (Parocnus  serus) 
Barbuda  Musk-rat  (Megalomys  audreyae) 

Hispaniolan  Spiny  Rat — two  species  (Brotomys  voratus;  B.  contractus) 
Cuban  Short-tailed  Hutia  (Geocapromys  columbianus) 
Crooked  Island  Hutia  (Geocapromys  ingrahami  irrectus) 
Great  Abaco  Hutia  (Geocapromys  ingrahami  abaconis) 
Haitian  Hexolobodon  (Hexolobodon  phenax) 
Least  Hispaniolan  Hutia  (Plagiodontia  spelaeum) 
Puerto  Rican  Isolobodon  (Isolobodon  portoricensis) 
Haitian  Isolobodon  (Isolobodon  levir) 
Narrow-toothed  Hutia  (Aphaetreus  montanus) 
Two  agoutilike  rodents  (Heteropsomys  insularis;  Homopsomys  antil- 

lensis) 

A  Puerto  Rican  hystricomorph  (Heptaxodon  bidens) 
"Quemi"  of  Oviedo  (Quemisia  gravis),  about  1550? 
A  Puerto  Rican  giant  rodent  (Elasmodontomys  obliquus) 

SOUTH  AMERICA 
Patagonian  Giant  Ground  Sloth  (Grypotherium  listai) 

OCEANS 
Steller's  Sea-cow  (Hydrodamalis  gigas),  1768 

Years  1801-1850  (2  forms)  : 

NORTH  AMERICA 
Eastern  Bison  (Bison  bison  pennsylvanicus) ,  1825 

WEST  INDIES 

Hispaniolan  Hutia  (Plagiodontia  aedium) 
Years  1851-1900  (31  forms) : 

AUSTRALIA 
Gilbert's  Rat-kangaroo  (Potorous  gilbertii) 

i  Possibly  the  extinction  of  some  of  the  forms  listed  under  this  heading,  known 
from  bones  found  in  cavern  deposits,  may  have  occurred  more  than  2,000  years 
ago.  They  are  recognized,  however,  as  pertaining  to  the  Recent  fauna. — A.  W. 


INTRODUCTION  19 

EUROPE 
Portuguese  Ibex  (Capra  pyrenaica  lusitanica) ,  about  1892 

AFRICA 

Atlas  Bear  ( Ursus  crowtheri) 

Cape  Lion  (Leo  leo  melanochaitus) ,  about  1865 

Quagga  (Hippotigris  quagga),  about  1878 

MADAGASCAR 
Hairy-eared  Mouse  Lemur  (Cheirogaleus  trichotis) 

NORTH  AMERICA 

Gull  Island  Meadow  Mouse    (Microtus  pennsylvanicus  nesophilus), 

1890's 

Plains  Grizzly  (Ursus  horribUis  horribUis) 
California  Coast  Grizzly  (Ursus  calif  ornicu*) ,  about  1886 
Sacramento  Grizzly  (Ursus  colusus),  about  1862 
Navajo  Grizzly  ( Ursus  texensis  navaho) 
Sonora  Grizzly  (Ursus  kennerleyi) 
Mendocino  Grizzly  (Ursus  mendocinensis) ,  about  1875 
New  Mexico  Grizzly  (Ursus  horriaeus) 
Sea  Mink  (Mustela  macrodon),  about  1880 
Eastern  Wapiti  (Cervus  canadensis  canadensis),  about  1885 
Oregon  Bison  (Bison  bison  oregonus),  about  1850's 

WEST  INDIES 

?Two  Antillean  insectivores  (Nesophontes  paramicrus;  N.  hypomicrus) 

?Puerto  Rican  Long-nosed  Bat  (Monophyllus  frater) 

? Jamaican  Long-tongued  Bat  (Reithronycteris  aphylla) 

A  Puerto  Rican  bat  (Stenoderma  rufum) 

?Puerto  Rican  Long-tongued  Bat  (PhyUonycteris  major) 

?Haitian  Long-tongued  Bat  (PhyUonycteris  obtusa) 

Jamaican  Rice  Rat  (Oryzomys  antUlarum),  about  1880's 

St.  Vincent  Rice  Rat  (Oryzomys  victus),  about  1897? 

Santa  Lucia  Musk-rat  (Megalomys  luciae) 

Larger  Cuban  Spiny  Rat  (Boromys  offella) 

Lesser  Cuban  Spiny  Rat  (Boromys  torrei) 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS 
Antarctic  Wolf  (Dusicyon  australis),  1876 

GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS 
Chatham  Island  Rice  Rat  (Oryzomys  galapagoensis) 


20  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Years  1901-1944  (40  forms)  : 

AUSTRALIA 

Freckled  Marsupial  Mouse  (Antechinus  apicalis) 

New  South  Wales  Barred  Bandicoot  (Perameles  jasciatd) 

Western  Barred  Bandicoot  (Perameles  myosura  myosura) 

Nalpa  Bilby  (Macrotis  lagotis  grandis) 

Leadbeater's  Opossum  (Gymnobelideus  leadbeateri) 

Gaimard's  Rat-kangaroo  (Bettongia  gaimardi) 

Broad-faced  Rat-kangaroo  (Potorous  platyops) 

Parma  Wallaby  (Thylogale  parma) 

Toolach  Wallaby  (WaUabia  greyi) 

White-tailed  Rat  (Zyzomys  argurus  ar gurus) 

MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO 

Christmas  Island  Shrew  (Crocidura  juliginosa  trichura),  about  1904 
Maclear's  Rat  (Rattus  macleari),  about  1904 
Bulldog  Rat  (Rattus  nativitatis) ,  about  1904 

ASIA 

Japanese  Wolf  (Canis  hodophttax) 

Syrian  Wild  Ass  (Asinus  hemionus  hemippus),  about  1927 

Schomburgk's  Deer  (Rucervus  schomburgki) ,  1930's 

EUROPE 

Caucasian  Bison  (Bison  bonasus  caucasicus),  1930's 
Pyrenean  Ibex  (Capra  pyrenaica  pyrenaica),  1910's 

AFRICA 

Barbary  Lion  (Leo  leo  leo),  1922 

Burchell's  Zebra  (Hippotigris  burchellii  burchellii) 

Bubal  Hartebeest  (Alcelaphus  buselaphus  buselaphus),  1920's? 

Rufous  Gazelle  (Gazella  rufina),  1920's? 

NORTH  AMERICA 

Long-eared  Kit  Fox  (Vulpes  macrotis  macrotis),  1900's 

Newfoundland  Wolf  (Canis  lupus  beothucus),  1910's 

Florida  Wolf  (Canis  niger  niger),  1920's 

Tejon  Grizzly  (Ursus  tularensis),  1916 

Texas  Grizzly  (Ursus  texensis  texensis),  1910's? 

?Mount  Taylor  Grizzly  (Ursus  perturbans) 

Black  Hills  Grizzly  (Ursus  rogersi  bisonophagus) 

?Lillooet  Grizzly  (Ursus  pervagor) 

?Klamath  Grizzly  (Ursus  klamathensis) 

Southern  California  Grizzly  (Ursus  magister),  1908 


INTRODUCTION  21 

?Apache  Grizzly  (Ursus  apache) 

Henshaw's  Grizzly  (Ursus  henshawi),  1920's 

Eastern  Cougar  (Felis  concolor  couguar] 

Arizona  Wapiti  (Cervus  canadensis  merriami),  1906 

Badlands  Bighorn  (Ovis  canadensis  auduboni),  1900's? 

WEST  INDIES 

Cuban  Solenodon  (Solenodon  cubanus),  about  1910 
Martinique  Musk-rat  (Megalomys  desmarestii),  1902 

GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS 
James  Island  Rice  Rat  (Nesoryzomys  swarthi) 

This  record  shows  a  steadily  accelerated  rate  of  extinction  in 
each  of  the  last  three  half-century  periods.  About  38  percent  of 
the  losses  have  been  sustained  since  1900.  This  indicates  how  diffi- 
cult is  the  task  of  preserving  native  faunas  in  the  present  era  of 
intensive  modern  invention  and  industrial  expansion. 

THE  RECORD  OF  EXTINCTION  BY  FAMILIES 

The  following  record  indicates  how  these  losses  by  extinction  are 
divided  among  the  various  mammalian  families: 

Bears  (Ursidae),  17 

Spiny  rats  and  their  relatives  (Echimyidae),  15 

Cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  antelopes  (Bovidae),  10 

Hamsterlike  rodents  (Cricetidae),  8 

Antillean  insectivores  (Nesophontidae),  6 

Leaf -nosed  bats  (Phyllostomidae),  6 

Kangaroos  and  their  relatives  (Macropodidae),  5 

Wolves  and  foxes  (Canidae),  5 

Horses,  zebras,  and  asses  (Equidae),  5 

Ground  sloths  (Megalonychidae),  4 

Cats  (Felidae),  4 

Bandicoots  (Peramelidae),  3 

Old  World  rats  (Muridae),  3 

Deer  (Cervidae),  3 

Giant  rats  (Dinomyidae),  2 

Dasyures  and  their  relatives  (Dasyuridae),  1 

Phalangers  and  their  relatives  (Phalangeridae),  1 

Solenodons  (Solenodontidae),  1 

Shrews  (Soricidae),  1 

Long-legged  bats  (Natalidae),  1 

Lemurs  (Lemuridae),  1 

Giant   ground  sloths    (Megatheriidae),   1 

Heptaxodon   (Heptaxodontidae),  1 

Weasels  and  their  relatives  (Mustelidae),  1 

Steller's  Sea-cow   (Hydrodamalidae),  1 

There  is  the  clearest  sort  of  significance  in  the  losses  sustained 
by  the  larger  predatory  mammals  as  a  group  (Ursidae,  Canidae, 


22  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

and  Felidae) ,  because  of  their  competition  with  man  for  food  in  the 
shape  of  the  ungulate  mammals,  both  wild  and  domesticated,  such 
as  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  antelopes,  horses,  asses,  swine,  and  deer. 
In  the  case  of  such  formidable  carnivores  as  wolves,  bears,  lions, 
tigers,  and  leopards,  the  matter  of  outright  self-defense  on  man's 
part  may  also  be  involved.  Moreover,  it  is  natural  that  the  large 
game  species  of  the  cattle  and  deer  families,  which  require  extensive 
feeding  grounds  and  are  eagerly  sought  by  mankind  for  food, 
should  have  suffered  some  of  the  principal  losses. 

SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

During  the  past  2,000  years  the  world  has  lost,  through  extinc- 
tion, about  106  forms  (species  or  subspecies)  of  mammals.  They 
are  distributed  by  regions  as  follows:  Australia,  11;  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, 3;  Asia,  3;  Europe,  6;  Africa,  9;  Madagascar,  1;  North 
America,  27;  West  Indies,  41;  South  America,  1;  Falkland  Is- 
lands, 1;  Galapagos  Islands,  2;  oceans,  1.  Approximately  67  per- 
cent of  these  losses  have  occurred  during  the  past  century,  and  38 
percent  during  the  past  half-century.  Thus  the  rate  of  extinction 
is  being  steadily  accelerated. 

In  addition  to  the  mammals  already  extinct,  more  than  600  others 
require  consideration  as  vanishing  or  threatened  forms. 

Insular  faunas,  partly  by  reason  of  their  circumscribed  nature 
and  partly  by  reason  of  a  certain  lack  of  adaptability  or  self- 
defense,  are  particularly  vulnerable  to  attack  or  competition  by  man 
and  by  certain  mammalian  pests  introduced  by  him.  There  may  be 
a  further  reason  for  the  decadence  of  insular  faunas  in  some  cases, 
such  as  that  of  the  West  Indies,  in  the  virtually  total  lack  of  native 
mammalian  predators;  these  would  doubtless  have  played  a  bene- 
ficial role  by  eliminating  the  less  fit  individuals,  and  thereby  con- 
tributing to  the  survival  of  the  fittest  individuals,  among  the  species 
preyed  upon. 

In  general,  it  is  fairly  obvious  that  species  of  restricted  distribu- 
tion and  specialized  habits  have  less  chance  of  survival  than  those 
of  wide  distribution  and  generalized  habits. 

The  primary  factor  in  the  depletion  of  the  world's  mammalian 
faunas  is  civilized  man,  operating  either  directly  through  excessive 
hunting  and  poisoning,  or  indirectly  through  invading  or  destroying 
natural  habitats,  placing  firearms  in  the  hands  of  primitive  peoples, 
or  subjecting  the  primitive  faunas  of  Australia  and  of  various 
islands  to  the  introduction  of  aggressive  foreign  mammals,  including 
fox,  mongoose,  cat,  rat,  mouse,  and  rabbit.  Except  in  the  West 
Indies,  comparatively  few  species  seem  to  have  died  out  within  the 
past  2,000  years  from  natural  causes,  such  as  evolutionary  senility, 
disease,  or  climatic  change. 


INTRODUCTION  23 

The  chief  hope  for  the  survival  of  the  larger  mammals  of  the 
world  lies  in  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  sanctuaries.  This  will  avail  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  but 
the  matter  is  not  so  simple  in  Australia.  Unless  sanctuaries  in  that 
country  can  be  surrounded  with  fences  that  are  proof  against  foxes, 
rabbits,  cats,  and  house  rats,  even  they  will  not  avail  for  many  of 
the  smaller  Australian  mammals.  So  perhaps  the  darkest  picture 
today,  as  far  as  the  future  of  mammals  is  concerned,  is  to  be  found  in 
Australia,  where  many  of  the  primitive  native  species  cannot  stand 
up  against  the  highly  organized  introduced  pests,  and  where  condi- 
tions have  gotten  largely  beyond  human  control. 


ACCOUNTS  OF  EXTINCT,  VANISHING,  OR 
THREATENED  MAMMALS 


Order  MARSUPIALIA:    Marsupials 

Family  DASYURIDAE:    Dasyures,  etc. 

This  family,  consisting  of  about  13  genera,  is  limited  to  Australia, 
Tasmania,  New  Guinea,  and  certain  smaller  neighboring  islands. 
Of  approximately  75  known  forms,  14  call  for  discussion  in  the 
present  work. 

Freckled  Marsupial  Mouse 

ANTECHINUS  APICALIS  (J.  E.  Gray) 

Phascogale  apicalis  J.  E.  Gray,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  1,  vol.  9,  p.  518,  1842. 

("Doubtless  from  Australasia"  =.  South-Western  Australia,  fide  Iredale  and 

Troughton,  1934,  p.  6.) 
FIGS.:    Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  pi.  39;  Cabrera,  1919,  pi.  5,  fig.  2. 

This  marsupial  of  Western  Australia,  little  larger  than  a  mouse, 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  collected  for  more  than  30  years  and  is 
probably  extinct. 

The  general  color  is  freckled  reddish  gray ;  eye  ring  whitish ;  under 
parts  dull  white  or  yellowish;  pouch  hairs  dark  rufous;  front  and 
outside  of  forearm  rufous;  rest  of  outer  surface  of  limbs  dull  gray; 
ears  short;  tail  tapering,  variegated  like  back,  and  tipped  with  black. 
Head  and  body,  111-120  mm.;  tail,  85-89  mm.  (Thomas,  1888, 
pp.  277-278.) 

Very  little  information  concerning  this  species  is  on  record,  and 
some  of  that  is  conflicting.  Gould  evidently  gave  it  much  too  wide 
a  range  in  stating  (1863,  p.  46)  that  it  "is  very  generally  distributed 
over  every  part  of  the  colony  of  Western  Australia."  His  actual 
records  are  from  the  vicinity  of  Moore's  River,  Perth,  and  King 
George's  Sound. 

Thomas  (1888,  p.  278)  records  specimens  from  Albany  and  Vic- 
toria Plains,  Western  Australia,  and  even  from  Queensland. 

Shortridge  states  (1910,  p.  840;  map,  p.  842)  that  it  is  "confined 
to  the  forest  districts  of  the  South-WTest,  where  it  is  apparently  a 
rare  species."  He  records  three  specimens  from  Albany  in  the  Perth 
Museum. 

25 


26  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

On  the  other  hand,  Glauert  states  (1933,  p.  19)  that  the  species 
is  not  represented  in  the  West  Australian  Museum  at  Perth  and  is 
now  probably  extinct. 

Furthermore,  despite  the  various  specimens  recorded  by  Gould, 
Krefft,  Thomas,  and  Shortridge,  E.  Le  G.  Troughton  writes  (in  litt., 
April  16,  1937)  that  "this  species  is  not  represented  in  the  Perth 
Museum,  and  is  probably  known  only  from  the  type  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  one  in  the  Australian  Museum.  Apparently  extinct  or 
represented  by  small  colonies  only."  Iredale  and  Troughton 
(1934,  p.  6)  limit  the  range  to  "South -Western  Australia,"  omitting 
Queensland. 

The  species  was  probably  either  neutral  or  beneficial  in  its  habits, 
for  Gilbert  (in  Gould,  1863,  p.  46)  found  the  remains  of  insects  in 
the  stomachs  he  examined. 

No  particular  reason  for  its  extinction  seems  to  have  been  sug- 
gested, but  the  generally  adverse  conditions  now  facing  the  smaller 
marsupials  of  Australia  are  doubtless  sufficient  to  account  for  it. 

Large  Brush-tailed  Phascogale;   Brush-tailed  Pouched  Mouse 

PHASCOGALE  TAPOATAFA  TAPOATAFA  (Meyer) 

Viverra   tapoataja   Meyer,  Zool.  Entdeck.,  p.  28,   1793.    (Based   upon  "The 

Tapoa  Tafa"  of  White,  Jour.  Voy.  New  South  Wales,  p.  281,  pi.  58,  1790; 

type  locality,  Sydney,  New  South  Wales.) 
SYNONYM:    Didelphis  penicillata  Shaw  (1800). 
FIGS.:    Waterhouse,  1841,  pi.  8;  Gould,  1845,  vol.  1,  pi.  31;  Lydekker,  1894, 

pi.  28;  Jones,  1923,  p.  99,  fig.  60;   Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  93; 

Fleay,  1934,  pis.  19,  20. 

Though  very  considerably  reduced  in  numbers,  this  animal  still 
maintains  itself  in  various  localities  through  its  wide  range  over 
the  southern  parts  of  Australia. 

Form  stout  and  strong;  general  color  finely  grizzled  pale  gray; 
muzzle  with  indistinct  darker  stripe;  ears  very  large,  thin,  nearly 
naked;  under  parts  white  or  pale  gray;  pouch  hairs  dull  rufous, 
tipped  with  white;  terminal  three-fifths  of  tail  with  a  thick  black 
brush.  Head  and  body,  240  mm.;  tail,  225  mm.  (Thomas,  1888, 
pp.  295-296.) 

The  general  range  is  "southern  Australia,  from  south  Queensland 
to  Western  Australia"  (Iredale  and  Troughton,  1934,  p.  7) . 

Though  once  a  familiar  animal  to  settlers  whose  homes  were  in  the  more 
wooded  districts,  P.  penicillata  is  unknown  to  the  rising  generation  of  country 
people.  ...  It  seems  astonishing  that  so  small  an  animal  could  ever  have 
been  a  real  menace  to  the  poultry  run  of  the  settler,  and  yet  it  is  credited 
with  being  a  determined  slayer  of  chickens,  and  one  which  killed  not  merely 
to  appease  its  appetite.  Many  of  the  older  residents  in  South  Australia  have 
caught  the  animal  red-handed,  and  as  with  the  Native  Cat,  it  seems  a  re- 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  27 

markable  thing  that  so  well  equipped  a  carnivore  should  have  been  reduced 
to  a  condition  bordering  on  extinction  in  so  comparatively  short  a  time. 
What  its  range  within  the  State  may  have  been  is  difficult  to  determine. 
It  was  not  met  with  by  the  Horn  Expedition,  but  an  animal  which  answers 
very  much  to  its  description,  but  of  which  no  specimen  is  available,  apparently 
exists  over  a  wide  area  in  the  Centre.  By  the  South  Australian  Murray  River 
natives  it  was  well  known  under  the  name  of  "Pundi"  but  it  has  not  been 
seen  in  their  district  for  very  many  years.  (Jones,  1923,  p.  101.) 

Shortridge  comments  (1910,  p.  839;  map,  p.  841)  on  its  status 
in  Western  Australia  as  follows: 

"Although  not  plentiful  this  species  seems  to  have  a  more  general 
range  in  South-Western  Australia  than  the  smaller  Phascogales. 

"Doubtfully  recorded  from  as  far  inland  as  Kalgoorlie,  where  it 
would  probably  be  only  a  straggler.  .  .  . 

"Occasionally  frequenting  the  neighbourhood  of  farms,  where 
according  to  natives  they  come  after  mice." 

According  to  Glauert  (1933,  p.  19),  it  occurs  in  the  southwest  of 
Western  Australia,  from  Fremantle  to  the  south  coast  and  inland 
to  Merredin.  Twenty  specimens  had  been  received  at  the  Perth 
Museum  in  the  preceding  five  years. 

For  many  years  since  the  ravages  of  disease  during  the  years  1898-1900, 
that  agile  and  courageous  little  killer,  "the  brush-tailed  rat"  of  the  bushman, 
has  been  very  scarce  in  the  majority  of  its  old  haunts  in  Victoria  and  New 
South  Wales.  .  .  . 

The  black  "bottle-brush"  tail  and  coat  of  'possum-grey  fur,  combined  with 
the  amazingly  agile  movements  of  this  lithe  rat-sized  marsupial,  at  once  excite 
admiration.  However,  few  people  have  enjoyed  the  spectacle  of  the  nocturnal 
and  arboreal  creature  making  its  lightning  movements  up  and  down  the 
Eucalypt  trunks— "corkscrewing"  round  the  boles  to  elude  observation,  or 
else  bounding  lightly,  like  a  squirrel,  from  tree  to  tree.  (Fleay,  1934,  p.  89.) 

In  Victoria,  according  to  C.  W.  Brazenor  (in  litt.,  March  3,  1937) , 
the  animal  is  "holding  its  own  and  common  in  timbered  country." 

Le  Souef  and  Burrell  (1926,  pp.  333-336)  give  the  following 
account:  "Some  species,  notably  the  brush -tailed  and  the  lesser 
brush-tailed  phascogales,  are  now  rather  scarce  over  the  greater 
part  of  their  range,  having  been  greatly  reduced  by  disease,  which 
swept  off  large  numbers  of  native  animals  in  1898-9-1900.  Cats 
have  also  been  very  destructive.  .  .  . 

"This  species  is  more  carnivorous  than  most  members  of  the 
family.  Moreover,  it  is  very  useful,  in  that  it  seems  especially  to 
catch  rats  and  mice.  There  are  instances  of  it  following  up  plagues 
of  these  rodents  and  doing  a  good  deal  toward  thinning  them  out." 

E.  Le  G.  Trough  ton  (in  litt.,  April  16,  1937)  regards  it  as  an 
active  and  resourceful  species,  whose  survival  is  apparently  assured, 
at  least  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  its  range. 

[A  northern  subspecies  (P.  t.  pirata  Thomas,  1904;  type  locality, 
"South  Alligator  River,"  Northern  Australia)  ranges  across  the 


28  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

northern  part  of  the  continent,  from  the  Dawson  Valley,  Queens- 
land, to  the  Kimberley  Division  of  Western  Australia.  It  "appears 
to  be  very  rare  on  the  Dawson  but  still  has  a  good  hold  on  the 
wetter  coastal  country  of  the  Fitzroy"  (Finlayson,  1934,  p.  226). 
It  is  reported  as  numerous  in  Arnhem  Land,  Northern  Australia 
(Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  p.  336) .  Its  range  lies  largely  outside 
that  of  the  introduced  fox,  and  its  chances  of  survival  are  probably 
better  than  those  of  the  southern  subspecies.] 

Red-tailed  Phascogale;  Lesser  Brush-tailed  Pouched  Mouse 

PHASCOGALE  CALURA  Gould 

Phascogale  calurus  Gould,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1844,  p.  104,  1844.  ("In 
the  interior  of  Western  Australia"  =  the  Military  Station  on  Williams 
River,  fide  Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  p.  39.) 

FIGS.:    Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  pi.  32;  Waterhouse,  1846,  pi.  14,  fig.  2. 

The  Red-tailed  Phascogale,  of  South,  Central,  and  Western  Aus- 
tralia, is  so  rare  that  few  more  than  a  dozen  specimens  seem  to  have 
been  placed  on  record.  It  is  evidently  a  vanishing  species. 

General  color  ashy  gray;  under  parts  creamy  white;  ears  large, 
nearly  naked  except  at  base,  where  there  are  some  yellow  hairs; 
basal  half  of  tail  rusty  red  above,  black  below;  terminal  half  bushy, 
black  (Gould,  1844,  p.  105) .  Head  and  body,  125  mm.;  tail,  147  mm. 
(Thomas,  1888,  p.  297.) 

Shortridge  writes  (1910,  p.  839;  map,  p.  840) :  "Very  rare,  seem- 
ing hitherto  to  have  been  recorded  only  four  times  from  Western 
Australia;  once  from  the  Williams  River,  where  it  was  originally 
obtained  by  Gilbert,  and  three  times  since  from  around  Kojonup." 
Glauert  (1933,  p.  19)  gives  its  range  in  Western  Australia  as  "Lower 
South-West  from  Narrogin  to  Kojonup";  he  adds  that  it  "seems  to 
be  rather  rare,  six  specimens  only  having  reached  the  [Perth] 
Museum  within  the  last  five  years." 

For  Central  Australia  Spencer  (1896,  p.  30)  records  only  a  single 
specimen,  taken  at  Alice  Springs,  and  remarks  that  it  "is  evidently 
not  a  common  form  in  the'  central  district." 

"The  measurements  given  in  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  of 
1888  are  taken  from  an  Adelaide  specimen,  but  I  have  failed  to 
trace  any  recent  records  of  the  animal  in  South  Australia.  .  .  . 
To-day  it  is  impossible  to  define  its  former  range  in  the  State,  or, 
unfortunately,  even  to  attest  to  its  present  existence."  (Jones, 
1923,  p.  102.) 

Gould's  statement  of  the  range  (1863,  vol.  1,  p.  xxvii)  as  the 
"interior  of  New  South  Wales  and  the  colony  of  Victoria"  is  ob- 
viously incomplete  and  supported  by  rather  meager  evidence.  How- 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  29 

ever,  Krefft  states  (1871  [p.  40])  that  the  animal  occurs  in  New 
South  Wales,  near  the  Darling  River,  and  Iredale  and  Troughton 
(1934,  p.  8)  include  Victoria  in  the  range. 

On  Williams  River,  Gilbert  (in  Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  p.  39)  records 
the  species  as  invading  a  storeroom.  The  type  specimen  was  cap- 
tured in  that  locality  by  a  Domestic  Cat. 

"Some  species,  notably  the  brush-tailed  and  the  lesser  brush- 
tailed  phascogales,  are  now  rather  scarce  over  the  greater  part  of 
their  range,  having  been  greatly  reduced  by  disease,  which  swept 
off  large  numbers  of  native  animals  in  1898-9-1900.  Cats  have  also 
been  very  destructive."  (Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  p.  333.) 

Here  we  seem  to  have  yet  one  more  melancholy  case  of  the  virtual 
disappearance  of  a  species  before  any  adequate  knowledge  of  its  life 
history  or  even  of  its  distribution  was  obtained. 

Slender-tailed  Pouched  Mouse;  Gray  Pouched  Mouse; 

"Common"  Pouched  Mouse;  Slender 

Mouse-Sminthopsis 

SMINTHOPSIS  MURINA  (Waterhouse) 

This  animal  seems  to  have  disappeared  over  considerable  por- 
tions of  its  original  wide  range  in  Australia.  It  has  been  divided 
into  the  following  four  subspecies: 

SMINTHOPSIS  MURINA  MURINA   (Waterhouse) 

Phascogale  murina   Waterhouse,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London   1837,  p.  76,   1838. 

("North  of  Hunter's  River,  New  South  Wales.") 
FIGS.:    Waterhouse,  1841,  pi.  10;  Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  pi.  43;  Lydekker,  1894, 

pi.  29  (subsp.?) ;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  94. 

Fur  short  and  soft ;  general  color  above  gray,  with  a  faint  yellow- 
ish tint;  feet,  under  parts,  and  face  beneath  eyes  white;  tail  covered 
with  minute  silvery-white  hairs.  Head  and  body,  76  mm.;  tail, 
65  mm.  (Waterhouse,  1838,  p.  76.) 

This  form  occurs  in  New  South  Wales  and  southern  Queensland. 
Waterhouse  reported  it  from  north  of  Hunter's  River,  New  South 
Wales,  and  Gilbert  found  it  on  the  Severn  River  in  the  same  state 
(Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  p.  50).  It  was  perhaps  this  form  that  Gould 
recorded  (1863,  vol.  1,  p.  49 — as  Antechinus  albipes)  from  the 
Darling  Downs  of  New  South  Wales. 

This  little  marsupial,  if  sufficiently  abundant,  would  evidently 
act  as  a  check  on  one  of  the  introduced  rodent  pests.  "Mr.  A.  C.  V. 
Bligh,  of  Toowoomba,  Queensland,  reports  S.  murina  as  being 
numerous  at  the  same  time  as  the  common  mouse  (M.  musculus) , 
and  feeding  upon  the  latter"  (Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  p.  355) . 


30  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

SMINTHOPSIS  MURINA  ALBIPES   (Waterhouse) 

Phascogale  albipes  Waterhouse,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London   1842,  p.  48,  1842. 

("Port  Adelaide,"  South  Australia.) 
Fia.:    Gould,  1852,  vol.  1,  pi.  42. 

Upper  parts  brownish  (the  hairs  being  annulated  with  yellow 
near  the  tip  and  with  black  at  the  tip) ;  hairs  of  under  parts  deep 
gray,  tipped  with  white;  feet  white;  tail  dark,  with  very  minute 
hairs.  Head  and  body,  95  mm.;  tail,  80  mm.  (Waterhouse,  1842, 
p.  48.) 

This  subspecies  occurs  in  South  Australia  and  Victoria. 

Gould  gives  it  too  wide  a  range  in  stating  (1863,  vol.  1,  p.  49) 
that  it  "appears  to  be  almost  universally  distributed  over  the  whole 
of  the  southern  coast  of  Australia,  from  Swan  River  to  New  South 
Wales." 

"These  little  animals  .  .  .  are  caught  in  large  numbers  by  the 
aborigines  of  the  Murray"  (Krefft,  1871,  p.  [41]). 

"Although  in  books  this  little  animal  passes  uniformly  under  the 
name  of  'Common'  Pouched  Mouse,  it  is  by  no  means  a  common 
species.  In  South  Australia  it  is  not  nearly  so  frequently  met  with 
as  is  S.  crassicaudata.  ...  It  is  an  animal  which  is  very  rarely 
seen  except  when  it  has  fallen  victim  to  a  cat,  and  but  little  is 
known  of  its  life  history."  (Jones,  1923,  p.  118.) 

C.  W.  Brazenor  (in  litt.,  March  3,  1937)  knows  of  no  locality 
in  Victoria  in  which  this  animal  can  be  found  at  the  present  time. 

SMINTHOPSIS  MURINA  FULIGINOSA  (Gould) 

Antechinus  juliginosus  Gould,  Mamm.  Australia,  vol.  1,  pi.  41,  1852.  ("At 
King  George's  Sound  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Perth,"  Western  Australia. 
Thomas  (1888,  p.  305)  lists  the  type  specimen  from  "R.  Avon,  W.  A.," 
which  is  in  the  general  vicinity  of  Perth.  Thus  Iredale  and  Troughton 
(1934,  p.  10)  are  evidently  in  error  in  giving,  as  the  restricted  type  locality, 
"King  George's  Sound.") 

FIG.:    Gould,  1852,  pi.  41. 

Upper  parts  dark  grayish  brown,  interspersed  with  longer  black 
hairs;  face  lighter;  a  mark  around  the  eyes  black;  chest  sooty  gray, 
with  a  narrow  median  line  of  buffy  gray;  rest  of  under  parts  pale 
grayish  white;  feet  buffy  white;  tail  dark  reddish  brown,  grayish 
beneath.  Head  and  body,  83  mm.;  tail  83  mm.  (Gould,  1863,  vol.  1, 
p.  48.) 

The  range  is  "South-Western  Australia,  more  or  less  coastal,  but 
inland  to  Katanning,  Broomehill,  Gnowangerup,  and  Bulong,  near 
Kalgoorlie"  (Glauert,  1933,  p.  20) . 

Gould  (1863,  vol.  1,  p.  48)  considered  it  "very  abundant,  both 
at  King  George's  Sound  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Perth." 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  31 

"These  little  animals  ...  are  caught  in  large  numbers  by  the 
aborigines  ...  of  King  George's  Sound"  (Krefft,  1871,  p.  [41]). 

Shortridge  (1910,  pp.  842-844;  map,  p.  843)  speaks  of  it  as 
"occurring  throughout  the  South -West;  appears  to  be  more  plenti- 
ful in  the  coastal  districts  wherever  grass-trees  (Xanthorrhoea) 
occur  .... 

"On  account  of  their  habit  of  hiding  among  fallen  timber  or 
tree-stumps,  the  marsupial  mice  must  invariably  get  exterminated 
wherever  bush  fires  occur.  This  species,  as  well  as  Dromicia  and 
the  small  Phascogales,  has  consequently  become  very  scarce,  espe- 
cially in  the  agricultural  and  more  thickly  populated  areas.  In  addi- 
tion it  is  probably  to  a  great  extent  killed  off  by  the  cats  that  have 
run  wild  in  large  numbers." 

More  recently,  however,  Glauert  (1933,  p.  20)  considers  it  still 
"a  very  common  species  in  the  South- West." 

Gilbert  (in  Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  p.  48)  found  it  insectivorous. 

SMINTHOPSIS  MURINA  CONSTRICTA  Spencer 

Sminthopsis  murina  var.  constricta  Spencer,  Kept.  Horn  Sci.  Exped.  Central 
Australia,  pt.  2,  zool.,  p.  33,  1896.    ("Oodnadatta,"  South  Australia.) 

General  coloration  similar  to  that  of  S.  m.  murina;  foot  broader; 
a  small  tuft  of  white  hairs  on  posterior  face  of  forearm;  tail  in- 
crassated.  Head  and  body,  71  mm.;  tail,  80  mm.  (Spencer,  1896, 
p.  33.) 

In  his  original  description  of  constricta,  Spencer  mentions  only 
the  single  specimen  from  Oodnadatta,  but  on  a  previous  page 
(1896,  p.  32)  he  records  a  specimen  of  "S.  murina"  from  Alice 
Springs,  Central  Australia,  which  perhaps  belongs  to  the  same 
form.  He  adds  that  the  species  "does  not  appear  to  be  common 
in  the  central  district." 

No  additional  information  concerning  the  present  subspecies 
seems  to  have  come  to  light  since  its  discovery  was  announced  more 
than  45  years  ago. 

Long-tailed  Sminthopsis 

SMINTHOPSIS  LONGICAUDATA  Spencer 

Sminthopsis  longicaudatus  Spencer,  Proc.  Royal  Soc.  Victoria,  n.  s.,  vol.  21, 
pt.  2,  p.  449,  1909.    ("West  Australia.") 

This  little  animal  is  known  from  only  a  single  specimen,  from 
no  more  definite  locality  than  "West  Australia." 

General  body  color  gray,  tinged  with  rufous  in  parts;  a  darkish 
line  through  the  eye;  lips,  chin,  and  feet  white;  tail  scaly,  with 


32  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

short  stiff  hairs.  Head  and  body,  100  mm.;  tail,  202  mm.  (Spencer, 
1909,  pp.  449-450.) 

"This  species  does  not  seem  to  have  been  recorded  since  its 
original  discovery,  and  we  have  no  information  about  the  type 
locality  beyond  Spencer's  vague  'West  Australia' "  (Glauert,  1933, 
p.  21). 

The  apparently  total  lack  of  additional  information  concerning 
the  species,  during  30  years  past,  does  not  augur  well  for  its  present 
status,  although  there  is  always  a  possibility  that  it  may  have 
survived  in  some  out-of-the-way  corner  of  Western  Australia. 

Common  Eastern  Native  Cat;  Viverrine  Native  Cat 

DASYURUS  VIVERRINUS  (Shaw) 

Didelphis  Viverrina  Shaw,  Gen.  Zool.,  vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  491,  pi.  Ill,  1800.    (A 

composite  species,  based  in  part  upon  "The  Tapoa  Tafa"  of  White  (Jour. 

Voy.  New  South  Wales,  p.  281,  pi.  58,  1790)    and  in  part  upon  "The 

Spotted  Opossum"  of  Phillip   (Voy.  Botany  Bay,  p.  147,  pi.  15,  1789). 

The  name  has  become  restricted  to  the  latter;  type  locality,  Botany  Bay, 

New  South  Wales.  Cf.  Harper,  1940,  p.  191.) 
FIGS.:  Waterhouse,  1841,  pi.  7  (as  D.  maugei) ;  Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  pi.  50;  Krefft, 

1871,  pi.  13;  Lydekker,  1894,  pi.  26;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  figs.  87,  88; 

Fleay,  1932,  pis.  3,  4;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  616,  fig. 

This  species,  like  its  larger  relative,  Dasyurus  maculatus,  was 
distributed  through  eastern  Australia  and  Tasmania  and  has  suf- 
fered a  similar  or  perhaps  even  greater  reduction  in  numbers. 

There  are  two  color  phases,  of  which  the  black  is  the  less  com- 
mon. Fur  thick  and  soft;  general  color  either  pale  olive-gray  or 
deep  black,  profusely  spotted  with  white;  belly  and  limbs  paler 
than  back;  tail  bushy,  without  spots,  tipped  with  white  in  the  gray 
phase.  Head  and  body,  400-440  mm.;  tail,  210-290  mm.  (Thomas, 
1888,  pp.  266-267.) 

The  range  includes  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  South  Australia, 
and  Tasmania. 

The  history  and  status  of  the  species  are  reviewed  by  Jones  (1923, 
pp.  91-92) : 

It  was  abundant  round,  and  even  in  the  immediate  precincts  of,  the  larger 
Australian  towns.  Twenty  years  ago  it  was  exceedingly  common  about  Ade- 
laide. Still  more  recently  it  lived  close  to  Melbourne;  and  to-day  it  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  suburbs  of  Sydney.  .  .  .  Very  early  in  the  days  of  colonisa- 
tion it  was  regarded  with  dislike  because  of  the  damage  it  did  by  killing 
poultry;  but  there  are  many  settlers  who  would  now  welcome  its  return  in 
order  to  keep  the  mice  plagues  within  check.  .  .  . 

There  is  no  doubt  that  as  a  destroyer  of  mice,  rats,  and  young  rabbits  the 
Native  Cat  played  an  extremely  useful  part  in  Australian  rural  economy, 
and  despite  the  fact  that  it  was  an  occasional  robber  of  hen  roosts  its  presence 
was  a  real  asset  to  the  country. 


ORDER   MARSUPIALIA I     MARSUPIALS 


33 


Its  range  in  South  Australia  was  formerly  very  wide.  On  Kangaroo  Island 
it  appears  to  have  been  always  more  or  less  of  a  rarity.  Thirty  years  ago  it 
haunted  the  shores  of  the  [Murray]  river  and  lakes,  being  there  very  partial 
to  a  fish  diet.  To-day,  if  it  exists  at  all  in  this  State  [South  Australia],  it 
must  be  an  animal  of  the  utmost  rarity.  Although  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  influences  which  have  been  at  work  in  the  general  process  of  the  extermina- 
tion of  the  Australian  fauna  have  operated  to  the  full  on  the  Native  Cat; 
it  is  possible  that  another  factor  has  come  into  play  during  the  final  scene 
of  its  passing.  The  animal  has  been  trapped,  poisoned  and  persecuted  through- 
out the  country  ....  The  Native  Cat,  with  its  cunning  and  its  activity,  was 


FIG.  1. — Common  Eastern  Native  Cat    (Dasyurus  viverrinus) 


well  able  to  look  after  itself,  despite  the  fact  that  it  was  an  extremely  easy 
animal  to  trap.  Its  rapid  decrease  started  about  the  year  1900,  and  during 
that  and  the  two  following  years  the  so-called  "common"  Native  Cat  practically 
disappeared  from  South  Australia.  Much  the  same  thing  happened  in  Victoria 
and  in  New  South  Wales,  with  the  exception  of  the  district  immediately 
round  Sydney.  It  would  seem  that  some  epidemic  disease  must  have  spread 
through  the  Dasyures,  and  that  after  a  lapse  of  twenty  years  the  remnant 
has  not  succeeded  in  re-establishing  itself.  In  the  Animal  Protection  Act  of 
1919  the  Native  Cat  is  not  even  mentioned.  The  evil  or  the  good  that  it  did 
has  ceased  to  be  a  factor  of  any  economic  importance. 

At  the  present  time  it  "still  haunts  the  coastal  cliffs  and  moun- 
tains about  Sydney,  also  parts  of  Tasmania,  Victoria,  and  New 
South  Wales,  where  survival  seems  assured"  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton, 
in  Hit.,  April  16,  1937) . 

In  Victoria,  according  to  C.  W.  Brazenor  (in  litt.,  March  3,  1937), 
it  occurs  in  greatest  numbers  around  Lake  Corangamite  but  is  also 


34  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

seen  occasionally  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state.  Further  informa- 
tion is  supplied  by  Fleay  (1932,  pp.  63-66)  : 

From  accounts  supplied  by  people  of  these  localities  [about  Lake  Coranga- 
mite],  the  animals  were  not  affected  by  the  mysterious  disease  which  an- 
nihilated many  marsupials  in  other  parts  of  the  country  in  the  first  years  of 
this  century.  Though  still  well  known,  however,  they  are  becoming  scarce, 
with  the  continuous  work  of  rabbiters'  dogs  and  traps,  and  the  increase  in 
settlement.  .  .  . 

The  adult  males  supported  a  host  of  parasites,  and,  when  first  brought  to 
Melbourne,  before  being  treated,  they  possessed  numerous  large  ticks,  sores 
infested  with  fly  larvae,  and  the  peculiar  flea  (Stephanocercus  dasyuri) ; 
while  investigations  on  Dasyures  which  had  been  caught  in  rabbit  traps 
showed  numerous  nematode  worms  internally. 

On  Kangaroo  Island,  South  Australia,  the  species  seems  to  have 
disappeared  (Waite  and  Jones,  1927,  p.  322) . 

In  Tasmania  it  has  fared  better  than  in  Australia.  "The  common 
Dasyure  ...  is  to  be  met  with  in  many  localities  in  spite  of  the 
warfare  waged  against  them  in  return  for  the  toll  they  take  of  the 
settlers'  poultry.  In  this  respect,  however,  they  cannot  be  con- 
sidered so  destructive  as  the  Tiger  Cat'  [D.  maculatus]"  (Lord 
and  Scott,  1924,  p.  270.)  "The  Dasyure  is  scattered  throughout 
Tasmania,  and  still  is  very  plentiful.  This  marsupial  does  not  seem 
to  either  increase  or  decrease."  (R.  Boswell,  in  litt.,  May  13,  1937.) 

Despite  Jones's  statement  (1923,  p.  92)  that  "the  animal's  skin  is 
of  no  commercial  value,"  there  evidently  was  a  demand  for  it  in 
former  years.  Lydekker  writes  (1894,  p.  164) :  "The  fur  being  soft, 
the  skins  are  suitable  for  linings;  and  from  two  to  five  thousand 
skins  are  annually  imported  into  England.  Formerly  the  grey  skins 
fetched  from  about  fivepence  to  sixpence  each  in  the  market,  while 
the  value  of  the  black  ones  ranged  from  tenpence  to  a  shilling.  Of 
late  years,  however,  there  has  been  a  fall  in  the  price." 

The  species  is  now  under  complete  legal  protection  in  Victoria 
and  in  Tasmania. 


Geoffrey's  Native  Cat;  Black-tail  CM!  Native  Cat 

DASYURUS  GBOFFROII  GEOFFROII  Gould 

Dasyurus  Geoffroii  Gould,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1840,  p.  151,  1841.   ("Liver- 
pool Plains/'  New  South  Wales.) 
FIGS.:    Gould,  1851,  vol.  1,  pi.  51;  Cabrera,  1919,  pi.  4,  fig.  2. 

The  typical  subspecies  of  Geoffrey's  Native  Cat  seems  to  have 
become  extinct  over  the  greater  part  of  its  range,  but  it  may  sur- 
vive in  parts  of  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland. 

General  color  fuscous,  washed  with  yellow;  head,  back,  and  sides 
with  white  spots,  smaller  than  those  in  D.  viverrinus  and  D.  macu- 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  35 

latus;  tail  long,  terminal  half  black;  under  parts  whitish.  Head 
and  body,  15  inches;  tail,  11.5  inches.  (Gould,  1841a,  p.  151.) 

The  former  range  of  this  animal  extended  from  Victoria  and 
South  Australia  through  New  South  Wales  to  Queensland  but 
apparently  did  not  include  the  coast  region  of  the  southeast  or  the 
extreme  north. 

According  to  Gould  (1863,  vol.  1,  p.  58),  the  species  (including 
both  subspecies)  "inhabits  the  whole  of  the  southern  portion  of  the 
country  from  Moreton  Bay  [Queensland]  on  the  east  to  Swan 
River  on  the  west."  It  "appears  to  be  exclusively  confined  to  the 
regions  on  the  interior  side  of  the  hills,  the  specimens  I  have  seen 
having  been  procured  on  the  Liverpool  Plains  in  New  South  Wales, 
the  Murray  Scrub  in  South  Australia,  and  beyond  the  ranges  of 
Swan  River  on  the  western  coast." 

In  Victoria  it  was  always  confined  to  the  northwestern  corner. 
The  last  known  record  was  in  1857,  and  the  species  is  now  extinct 
in  that  state.  (C.  W.  Brazenor,  in  Hit.,  March  3,  1937.) 

In  South  Australia  there  is  no  record  other  than  that  of  Gould 
and  a  specimen  listed  in  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  of  1888. 
"Men  who  have  been  professionally  interested  in  the  fauna  of  the 
State  for  a  period  of  forty  years  are  unaware  of  any  examples  being 
taken  in  South  Australia  proper.  Unless  it  still  lingers  near  to  the 
northern  limits  of  the  State,  it  must  probably  be  regarded  as  extinct 
in  South  Australia."  (Jones,  1923,  pp.  93-94.) 

In  the  Dawson  Valley  of  Queensland,  in  1905,  it  "was  noticed  to 
be  suddenly  numerous,  but  it  completely  vanished  by  1906"  (Fin- 
layson,  1934,  p.  225) .  It  is  represented  in  the  Queensland  Museum 
merely  by  two  specimens  without  precise  localities  (Longman,  1930, 
p.  62). 

The  eastern  subspecies  has  very  likely  suffered  in  the  same  way 
as  the  western,  which  was  "killed  off  as  much  as  possible  in  the 
agricultural  and  more  thickly  populated  districts  on  account  of 
being  so  destructive  to  poultry"  (Shortridge,  1910,  pp.  838-839). 
Hoy  (1923,  p.  165)  contributes  information  on  an  important  enemy: 
"I  .  .  .  am  told  that  domestic  cats  frequently  kill  and  drag  home 
adult  native  cats  (Dasyurus  viverrinus,  D.  geoffroyi,  and  D.  hallu- 
catus)"  Other  possible  causes  underlying  the  sudden  fluctuations 
in  numbers  of  the  species  and  its  general  disappearance  over  most 
of  its  range,  have  not  been  definitely  explained. 

[The  larger  western  subspecies  (D.  g.  fortis  Thomas)  still  occurs 
commonly  in  the  southwest  of  Western  Australia  (Shortridge,  1910, 
pp.  837-839;  Glauert,  1933,  p.  18,  and  in  litt.,  March  17,  1937). 
Some  representative  of  the  species — perhaps  fortis — is  reported  from 
Central  Australia  but  as  nowhere  common  there  (Finlayson,  19356, 


36  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

pp.  60-61).    If  this  is  the  western  subspecies,  the  eastern  part  of 
Western  Australia  forms  a  great  blank  in  its  known  distribution.] 

Large  Spotted-tailed  Tiger-cat;  Spotted-tailed  Dasyure 

DASYURUS  MACULATUS   (Kerr) 

Viverra  maculata  Kerr,  Anim.  Kingdom  of  Linnaeus,  p.  170,  1792.  (Based 
upon  the  "Spotted  Martin"  of  Phillip,  Voy.  Botany  Bay,  p.  276,  pi.  46, 
1789;  type  locality  "the  neighborhood  of  Port  Jackson"  [Sydney],  New 
South  Wales.) 

FIGS.:  Waterhouse,  1841,  pi.  6  (as  D.  macrowrus} ;  Gould,  1851,  vol.  1,  pi.  49; 
Lydekker,  1894,  pi.  25;  Raven,  1924,  p.  25;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926, 
fig.  86;  Fleay,  1932,  p.  66,  fig.  4,  and  pi.  5. 

This  fierce  and  rather  powerful  animal,  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
carnivorous  marsupials,  is  found  in  eastern  Australia  and  in  Tas- 
mania. Its  range  and  its  numbers  have  been  reduced  by  settlement, 
though  evidently  not  yet  to  the  danger  point. 

According  to  Phillip  (1789,  p.  276),  the  general  color  is  black; 
body  and  tail  irregularly  blotched  with  white;  tail  tapering  to  a 
point;  head  and  body,  18  inches;  tail,  nearly  18  inches.  But  Water- 
house  (1846,  pp.  440-441)  and  later  authorities  do  not  agree  with 
Phillip  and  Kerr  on  the  general  color;  it  "varies  from  a  very  deep 
brown  to  a  rich  red-brown";  under  parts  "dirty  yellow";  head  and 
body,  17-24  inches;  tail,  15-20  inches. 

The  range  includes  "south-eastern  Queensland,  eastern  New  South 
Wales,  Victoria,  south-eastern  South  Australia,  Tasmania"  (Iredale 
and  Troughton,  1934,  p.  14) .  Some  of  the  earlier  works  extend  the 
range  into  central  or  northern  Queensland.  According  to  Le  Souef 
and  Burrell  (1926,  p.  322),  the  species  "is  fairly  common  in  Eastern 
Australia,  from  Cape  York  to  Victoria."  Half  a  century  ago  Thomas 
(1888,  p.  265)  considered  it  "approaching  .  .  .  complete  extermina- 
tion in  Australia";  but  Ogilby  (1892,  p.  18)  replied  that  it  "is  by 
no  means  uncommon — nor  seemingly  has  it  any  present  intention 
of  dying  out — in  the  mountainous  and  coastal  districts  of  eastern 
Australia."  On  the  Comboyne  Plateau  of  New  South  Wales  "it 
appears  to  be  rather  uncommon"  (Chisholm,  1925,  p.  72) . 

In  Victoria  it  was  "common  in  heavily  scrubbed  country  till 
about  1907,  at  which  time  an  epidemic  of  disease  almost  com- 
pletely destroyed  the  species.  Has  recovered  somewhat  in  recent 
years  and  is  found  in  some  numbers  in  the  Otway  Ranges,  and  to  a 
lesser  extent  scattered  throughout  the  Dividing  Range."  (C.  W. 
Brazenor,  in  litt.,  March  3,  1937.)  "With  the  advent  of  settlement, 
disease,  dogs,  guns,  traps,  and  .  .  .  the  fox,  which  exterminates 
the  simple  marsupial  game  of  the  Dasyure,  we  have  come  to  the 
time,  in  Victoria,  of  the  almost  complete  disappearance  of  these 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  37 

primitive  carnivorous  hunters"  (Fleay,  1932,  p.  68).  The  species 
now  has  complete  legal  protection  in  Victoria. 

"Probably  never  abundant  in  South  Australia,  the  stronghold  of 
the  species  was  in  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the  State.  It  is 
possible  that  some  few  still  exist  in  the  less  closely  settled  areas 
of  the  South-East."  (Jones,  1923,  p.  88.) 

In  Tasmania  it  "is  regarded  as  one  of  the  settlers'  greatest  pests, 
owing  to  the  toll  it  will  take  of  his  poultry"  (Lord  and  Scott,  1924, 
p.  269).  "The  enemy  of  the  settler's  chickens,  it  is  only  natural 
that  this  species  should  be  reduced  in  numbers,  especially  in  the 
settled  districts.  Even  so,  this  hardly  accounts  for  the  scarcity  of 
this  species  in  the  more  Southern  Tasmanian  localities  in  the  last 
few  years.  In  the  North-West  the  species  is  still  fairly  common." 
(Lord,  1928,  p.  22.) 

There  are  additional  records  of  nocturnal  raids  on  poultry  on 
the  mainland  of  Australia,  and  this  habit  naturally  reacts  against 
the  species.  "All  three  dasyures  are  doomed  to  extinction,  since 
they  are  killed  whenever  met  with  by  the  man  on  the  land"  (Jones 
and  Manson,  1935,  p.  34) .  "It  is  now  being  replaced  by  the  domestic 
cat  and  the  fox"  (Raven,  1924,  p.  25) .  However,  "it  is  able  to  kill 
wallabies  and  fairly  large  birds,"  and  "one  succeeded,  after  a 
severe  battle,  in  killing  a  large  tom-cat"  (Le  Souef  and  Burrell, 
1926,  pp.  322-323).  Although  Lydekker  wrote  in  1894  (p.  160)  that 
"its  skin  is  but  little  valued  by  furriers,"  it  must  be  remembered 
that  many  furs,  formerly  in  little  demand,  now  bring  good  prices. 

While  the  Dingo  is  generally  considered  responsible  for  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  terrestrial  Tasmanian  Devil  and  Tasmanian  Wolf  in 
Australia,  opinion  seems  divided  as  to  whether  it  has  seriously 
affected  the  status  of  the  arboreal  Spotted-tailed  Tiger-cat  on  the 
mainland.  E.  Le  G.  Troughton  (in  litt.,  April  16, 1937)  believes  that 
this  species,  by  reason  of  its  furtive  and  aggressive  disposition, 
should  survive  indefinitely  in  the  dividing  ranges  of  the  east  coast. 

Slender  Native  Cat;  Slender  Spotted-tailed  Tiger-cat 

DASYURUS  GRACILIS  Ramsay 

Dasyurus  gracilis  Ramsay,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  New  South  Wales,  ser.  2,  vol.  3, 
p.  1296,  1888.    ("Bellenden-Ker  Ranges,"  northern  Queensland.) 

The  Slender  Native  Cat  is  one  of  those  species  which,  as  far  as 
known,  has  always  been  very  rare.  Apparently  less  than  half  a 
dozen  specimens  are  on  record — all  from  northern  Queensland. 

General  color,  above  and  below,  deep  blackish  brown  with  white 
spots;  tail  spotted  and  closely  furred,  with  a  terminal  tuft  on  the 
upper  side.  Total  length,  about  23  inches;  tail,  9.3  inches.  (Ramsay, 
op.  tit.,  p.  1296.) 


38  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  type  specimen  was  collected  by  Robert  Grant  on  the  Bel- 
lenden-Ker  Ranges,  apparently  in  1887.  The  species  was  next 
found  years  later  by  C.  M.  Hoy  on  the  Atherton  Tableland  (Le 
Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  p.  324) .  The  late  Henry  C.  Raven,  of  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  informed  me  that  he  secured 
two  or  three  specimens  about  1922  in  the  same  general  region. 

Whatever  the  factors  may  be  that  seem  to  restrict  so  decidedly 
the  numbers  of  the  Slender  Native  Cat,  they  have  not  been  ascer- 
tained. 

According  to  E.  Le  G.  Troughton  (in  litt.,  April  16,  1937) ,  the 
species  is  rarely  captured  because  of  the  density  of  its  mountain 
rain-forest  habitat,  and  should  therefore  survive  in  parts  of  coastal 
Queensland  for  all  time. 

Tasmanian  Devil 

SARCOPHILUS  HARRISII  (Boitard) 

Didelphis  ursina   Harris,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  London,  vol.  9,  p.   176,  pi.   19, 

fig.  2,  1808.  ("Van  Diemen's  Land.")  (Not  Didelphis  ursina  Shaw  (1800).) 
Ursinus  harrisii  Boitard,  Jardin  des  Plantes,  p.  290,  "1842"  =  1841.  (Tasmania.) 
FIGS.:  Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif.,  vol.  7,  pi.  113,  1842; 

Gould,  1851,  vol.  1,  pi.  48;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  3,  p.  271,  fig.,  1894-95; 

G.  Smith,  1909,  fig.  24;   Raven,  1924,  p.  25,  fig.,  and  1929,  p.  204,  fig.; 

Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  85;   Fleay,   1935,  pi.  9;   Pocock,   1937, 

p.  615,  fig.;  Reed  and  Lucas,  1937,  p.  89,  fig.  33. 

This  fierce  little  beast  occurred  in  past  ages  on  the  Australian 
mainland,  where  it  presumably  succumbed  to  the  advancing  Dingo. 
In  1912  a  specimen,  probably  an  escaped  captive,  was  taken  in 
Victoria.  It  "is  now  confined  to  Tasmania,  where  it  maintains  a 
rather  precarious  foothold  in  the  wilder  parts  of  the  country" 
(Jones,  1923,  p.  85). 

Whole  body  and  upper  part  of  tail  covered  with  long  coarse 
black  hair;  irregular  blotches  of  white  on  shoulders,  throat,  or 
rump  (G.  P.  Harris,  1808,  p.  176) .  It  is  a  thickset,  powerful  animal, 
and,  except  for  its  tail,  resembles  a  miniature  bear  in  outline.  Head 
and  body,  670-825  mm.;  tail,  258-300  mm.  (Lord  and  Scott,  1924, 
p.  267.) 

"These  animals  were  very  common  on  our  first  settling  at  Hobart 
Town,  and  were  particularly  destructive  to  poultry,  &c.  They, 
however,  furnished  the  convicts  with  a  fresh  meal,  and  the  taste 
was  said  to  be  not  unlike  veal.  As  the  settlement  increased,  and  the 
ground  became  cleared,  they  were  driven  from  their  haunts  near 
the  town  to  the  deeper  recesses  of  the  forests  yet  unexplored."  (G.  P. 
Harris,  1808,  p.  177.) 

"The  devil  is  destructive  to  sheep  all  over  the  colony,  and  is 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS 


39 


indeed  the  most  destructive  of  our  indigenous  quadrupeds,  the 
Thylacinus  being  much  scarcer"  (Gunn,  1838,  p.  104). 

"It  has  now  become  so  scarce  in  all  the  cultivated  districts,  that 
it  is  rarely,  if  ever,  seen  there  in  a  state  of  nature;  there  are  yet, 
however,  large  districts  in  Van  Diemen's  Land  untrodden  by  man; 
and  such  localities,  particularly  the  rocky  gullies  and  vast  forests 
on  the  western  side  of  the  island,  afford  it  a  secure  retreat.  .  .  . 

"In  its  disposition  it  is  untameable  and  savage  in  the  extreme, 
and  is  not  only  destructive  to  the  smaller  kangaroos  and  other 
native  quadrupeds,  but  assails  the  sheep-folds  and  hen-roosts  when- 
ever an  opportunity  occurs."  (Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  p.  55.) 


FIG.  2.— Tasmanian  Devil   (Sarcophilus  harrisii) 

"The  Devil  is  far  commoner  than  the  Tiger  and  more  widely  dis- 
tributed through  the  island  ....  Like  the  Tiger  it  destroys  sheep, 
making  a  single  meal  off  each  capture."  (G.  Smith,  1909,  p.  97.) 

Lord  (1928,  p.  22)  says  of  it: 

The  Tasmanian  Devil  will  probably  survive  for  many  years.  Its  hardy 
nature  both  in  captivity  and  in  its  wild  state  cause  [s]  one  to  wonder  how  it 
came  about  that  this  species  became  extinct  on  the  mainland  within  com- 
paratively recent  geological  times.  It  cannot  be  considered  a  pleasant  animal 
to  have  much  to  do  with,  and  numbers  are  killed  by  trappers  in  the  course 
of  their  work.  In  the  rougher  sections  of  the  country  this  species  exists  in 
fair  numbers  and  there  is  every  prospect  of  it  remaining  an  inhabitant  of 
such  places  for  years  to  come. 

One  or  more  Tasmanian  Devils  will  often  follow  a  Thylacine  on  its  hunting 
excursions.  The  Thylacine  will  kill  a  wallaby  or  other  small  animal,  select  a 
few  choice  morsels,  and  pass  on.  The  Devils  will  carry  on  the  feast  and 
consume  the  remnants,  bones  and  all. 

According  to  R.  Boswell  (in  Hit.,  May  13,  1937),  it  still  exists 
in  large  enough  numbers  to  enable  it  to  be  out  of  immediate  danger 


40  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

of  extinction.  Civilization  has  been  the  great  cause  of  its  decreasing 
numbers.  It  has  no  legal  protection. 

"In  spite  of  his  ungainly,  ugly  appearance,  his  whining  snarls 
and  unpleasant  smell,  the  Tasmanian  Devil  is  a  creature  of  many 
amusing  antics  and  distinctly  unusual  ways.  Moreover,  his  position 
as  the  second  largest  of  living  marsupial  carnivores,  soon,  perhaps, 
to  be  the  largest  when  the  rare  Thylacine  finally  disappears,  invests 
him  with  a  peculiar  interest."  (Fleay,  1935,  p.  100.) 

Tasmanian  Wolf;  Marsupial  Wolf;  Tasmanian  Tiger; 

Thylacine 

THYLACINUS  CYNOCEPHALUS  (Harris) 

Didelphis  cynocephala  Harris,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  London,  vol.  9,  p.  174,  pi.  19, 
fig.  1,  1808.  ("Van  Diemen's  Land"  [=  Tasmania].) 

FIGS.:  Waterhouse,  1841,  pi.  5;  Gould,  18*51,  vol.  1,  pis.  53,  54;  Wolf,  1861, 
pi.  31;  Krefft,  1871,  pi.  12;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  3,  p.  270,  fig.,  1894-95; 
G.  Smith,  1909,  fig.  23;  Cabrera,  1919,  pi.  6;  Australian  Mus.  Mag.,  vol.  1, 
no.  3,  p.  62,  frontisp.,  1921;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  84;  Raven, 
1929,  p.  207,  fig.;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  614,  fig.;  Reed  and  Lucas,  1937,  p.  85, 
fig.  31;  Sharland,  1939,  p.  23,  fig. 

This  largest  and  most  formidable  of  living  carnivorous  marsupials 
is  so  seriously  reduced  in  numbers  that  its  fate  seems  to  be  hanging 
by  a  somewhat  slender  thread. 

General  build  doglike,  but  hind  end  tapering  gradually  to  the 
tail;  upper  parts  tawny  grayish  brown,  with  16-19  blackish  brown 
bands  across  the  back,  chiefly  developed  on  the  hind  quarters; 
under  parts  paler.  Head  and  body,  1230-1300  mm.;  tail,  525-650 
mm.;  height  at  shoulders,  about  560  mm.  (Chiefly  from  Lord  and 
Scott,  1924,  p.  264.) 

While  a  fossil  form  of  Thylacine  has  been  recorded  from  the 
Australian  mainland,  the  range  of  the  living  form  is  restricted  to 
Tasmania.  The  mainland  Thylacine  is  presumed  to  have  suc- 
cumbed as  a  consequence  of  the  advent  of  the  Dingo  during  the 
Pleistocene,  for  it  probably  could  not  compete  successfully  with 
that  more  highly  organized  animal. 

The  Thylacine  "is  common  in  the  more  remote  parts  of  the 
colony,  and  they  are  accordingly  often  caught  at  Woolworth  and 
the  Hampshire  hills.  .  .  .  They  are  usually  nocturnal  in  their 
attacks  on  sheep."  (Gunn,  1838,  p.  101.) 

It  was  with  prophetic  vision  that  Gould  wrote  long  ago  (1863, 
vol.  1,  pp.  60-61) : 

When  the  comparatively  small  island  of  Tasmania  becomes  more  densely 
populated,  and  its  primitive  forests  are  intersected  with  roads  from  the  eastern 
to  the  western  coast,  the  numbers  of  this  singular  animal  will  speedily  diminish, 


ORDER   MARSUPIALIA :     MARSUPIALS  41 

extermination  will  have  its  full  sway,  and  it  will  then,  like  the  Wolf  in 
England  and  Scotland,  be  recorded  as  an  animal  of  the  past:  although  this 
will  be  a  source  of  much  regret,  neither  the  shepherd  nor  the  farmer  can  be 
blamed  for  wishing  to  rid  the  island  of  so  troublesome  a  creature.  A  price 
is  already  put  upon  the  head  of  the  native  Tiger,  as  it  is  called;  but  the 
fastnesses  of  the  Tasmanian  rocky  gullies,  clothed  with  impenetrable  forests, 
will,  for  the  present,  preserve  it  from  destruction. 

.  .  .  Although  too  feeble  to  make  a  successful  attack  on  man,  it  commits 
sad  havoc  among  the  smaller  quadrupeds  of  the  country,  and  among  the 
poultry,  and  other  domestic  animals  of  the  settler;  even  sheep  are  not  secure 
from  its  attacks  .... 

"The  damage  which  it  inflicts  on  the  flocks  of  the  settlers  has 
.  .  .  given  rise  to  a  relentless  war  of  extermination,  which  has 
resulted  in  the  almost  complete  extinction  of  this,  the  largest  of 
the  Australasian  Carnivores,  in  the  more  settled  portions  of  the 
country"  (Lydekker,  1894,  p.  152). 

G.  Smith  (1909,  pp.  96-97)  wrote: 

The  destructiveness  of  these  animals  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  a 
Tiger  will  make  only  one  meal  of  a  sheep,  merely  sucking  the  blood  from 
the  jugular  vein  or  perhaps  devouring  the  fat  round  the  kidneys,  but  it 
never  returns  to  the  same  carcass.  .  .  .  The  shepherds  wage  incessant  war 
on  the  creature,  in  the  summer  laying  traps  and  hunting  it  with  dogs,  in  the 
winter  following  up  its  tracks  through  the  snow.  A  reward  of  a '  pound  is 
given  for  the  head  by  the  Government,  but  the  shepherd  generally  rides 
round  with  the  head  to  several  sheep-owners  in  the  district,  and  takes  toll 
from  them  all  before  depositing  it  at  the  police  station.  In  consequence  a 
large  reward  must  be  offered  for  the  carcass  of  a  Tiger,  and  an  offer  of  £10 
during  a  year  for  a  live  Tiger  to  be  delivered  in  Launceston  was  unsuccessful. 
It  pays  the  shepherd  very  much  better  just  to  hack  off  the  head  and  take  it 
round  on  his  rides.  Although  the  Tiger  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  Lake 
District,  it  is  more  abundant  here  than  anywhere  else,  though  a  stray  individual 
may  turn  up  on  nearly  all  the  big  sheep  stations  throughout  the  island. 


Lord  (1928,  pp.  20-21)  says  of  the  Thylacine: 


The  animal  is  confined  practically  to  the  rugged  western  portion  of  the 
island.  From  the  more  settled  districts  it  has  long  since  disappeared,  and 
even  in  the  more  distant  sheep  runs  it  has  been  trapped  out  ....  It  is 
now  also  being  killed  out  even  in  the  rugged  and  more  inaccessible  parts 
of  the  country,  which  tends  to  reduce  still  further  the  remnants  of  this 
species.  The  explanation  of  this  is  that  the  Thylacine  interferes  with  the 
trappers'  snares.  As  a  result,  a  powerful  "springer"  snare  is  set  often  in  the 
vicinity  of  their  "skinning  yards,"  which  are  situated  every  quarter  of  a 
mile  or  so  along  the  lines  of  snares.  Thylacines  or  other  animals  caught 
in  these  powerful  snares  are,  as  a  rule,  too  severely  injured  to  be  kept  alive  as 
specimens  for  zoological  gardens,  even  if  the  trappers  would  take  the  trouble 
to  bring  them  in.  The  extended  trapping  of  recent  years  will  tend,  therefore, 
to  restrict  the  Thylacine  to  the  most  rugged  and  unsettled  portions  of  the 
West  of  the  island.  Here  it  may  survive  as  a  living  species  for  years  to  come, 
but  its  eventual  doom  seems  apparent  unless  such  attempts  as  are  being  made 
at  present  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Reid  (Curator  of  the  Beaumaris  Zoo,  Hobart)  to 
breed  these  animals  in  captivity  are  successful.  .  .  . 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  shy  animal  will  breed  within  the  confines  of  a  Zoo, 
and  it  would  be  in  the  interests  of  science  if  a  reserve  could  be  set  aside  and 


42 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 


netted  in  in  order  to  prevent  total  extermination.  ...  If  funds  were  available 
an  area  in  the  National  Park  might  well  be  considered  for  such  a  reserve. 

"The  Tasmanian  Tiger  is  now  only  to  be  met  with  in  a  very  few 
numbers.  This  animal  is  causing  great  concern  in  Tasmania  at 
the  present  time.  It  is  thought  by  many  to  be  extinct,  but  this  is 
not  so.  I  have  obtained  authentic  reports  regarding  its  presence 
as  having  been  seen  as  recently  as  January  1937  on  the  West 
Coast  of  Tasmania. 


\ 


FIG.  3. — Tasmanian    Wolf    (Thylacinus    cynocephalus) 

11  The  former  range  of  the  Tasmanian  Tiger  must  have  been  very 
great  as  I  know  of  one  Tasmanian,  who  with  his  brother,  killed  as 
many  as  twenty-four  of  these  animals  during  one  day,  and  received 
a  reward  of  £1.  0.  0  per  head  for  each  animal. 

"The  Tasmanian  Tiger  is  now  wholly  Protected."  (R.  Boswell, 
in  litt.,  May  13,  1937.) 

"The  significance  of  the  mainland  elimination,  prior  to  settlement, 
of  the  largest  living  marsupial  carnivore  (Thylacinus)  has  already 
been  noted,  and  latest  reports  from  Tasmanian  authorities  indicate 
grave  doubts  for  the  insular  survival  of  this  unique  example  of 
parallelism"  (Troughton,  1938,  p.  408) . 

However,  the  latest  news  from  Tasmania  is  distinctly  encouraging. 
It  comes  in  the  form  of  a  paper  by  Sharland  (1939),  which  gives 
an  account  of  several  recent  expeditions  that  have  been  sent  to 
mountainous  areas  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  by  the  Tasmanian 
Animals  and  Birds'  Protection  Board.  From  this  account  the  fol- 
lowing information  is  derived: 

"The  Thylacine  exists  to-day  as  but  a  remnant  of  the  numbers 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  43 

which,  50  or  60  years  ago,  roamed  the  countryside,  feeding  on  small 
marsupials  and  sheep.  .  .  .  Nowadays,  certainly,  it  is  rarely  seen. 
.  .  .  When  the  game  season  is  opened  every  few  years  the  animal  is 
often  caught  in  snares.  But  it  is  in  no  part  specially  common,  and 
there  are  extensive  areas  in  this  region  where  it  does  not  occur  at 
all,  or  but  sparsely,  its  distribution  depending  almost  wholly  on  the 
presence  of  smaller  'game.'  "  (P.  20.) 

"The  Thylacine  has  been  known  to  attack  dogs  when  cornered, 
but  so  far  as  I  can  determine  there  is  no  record  of  its  ever  having 
attacked  man"  (p.  32) . 

In  a  great  amphitheatre  about  25  to  40  miles  in  diameter,  bounded 
by  the  King  William,  Prince  of  Wales,  Norway,  and  other  ranges, 
"we  came  upon  many  tracks  made  by  Thylacine,  indicating  that  the 
animal  was  fairly  common  and  well  distributed"  (p.  34) . 

"The  area  enclosed  by  the  mountains  would  make  a  splendid  game 
sanctuary  ....  The  Thylacine  is  probably  as  common  here  as  in 
any  other  part  of  the  West  Coast."  (P.  34.) 

Additional  tracks  were  found  in  the  Jane  River  region,  where 
"the  animal  had  apparently  been  trailing  Wallaby"  (p.  34). 

"No  longer  a  menace  to  sheep-owners  since  its  isolation  in  the 
remote  parts  of  the  State,  the  animal  possesses  a  unique  scientific 
value  which  is  appreciated  by  the  Board.  While,  up  to  half  a 
century  ago,  it  was  fairly  plentiful  in  the  grazing  country  of  the 
central  plateau,  and  was  known  also  to  inhabit  parts  of  the  eastern 
tiers  and  other  mountain  forest  areas  adjacent  to  settlement,  it  has 
now  practically  disappeared  from  these  districts,  to  make  its  last 
stand  in  the  western  section  of  the  State."  (P.  36.)  The  recent 
opening  of  a  road  through  this  remote  region  has  had  an  adverse 
effect  upon  the  Thylacine's  prospects  for  survival. 

A  mountainous  area  situated  about  Frenchman's  Gap,  east  of 
Macquarie  Harbor,  and  comprising  approximately  300,000  acres, 
is  suggested  as  a  suitable  sanctuary  for  the  Thylacine  and  other 
animals  (p.  38) . 

Family  MYRMECOBIIDAE :  Marsupial  Anteaters 

The  single  genus  of  this  family  consists  of  two  forms,  both  of 
which  are  treated  here.  They  occur  in  the  southern  half  of  Australia. 

Banded  Anteater;    West  Australian  Numbat 

MYRMECOBIUS  PASCIATUS  FASCIATUS  Water-house 

Myrmecobius  fasciatus  Waterhouse,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1836,  p.  69, 
1836.  ("In  the  interior  of  the  Swan  River  Settlement,  about  90  miles  to 
the  S.E.  of  the  mouth  of  that  river,"  Western  Australia.) 


44  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

FIGS.:  Waterhouse,  1838a,  pi.  27,  and  1841,  pi.  11;  Gould,  1845,  vol.  1,  pi.  4; 
Lydekker,  1894,  pi.  30;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  3,  p.  275,  lower  fig.,  1894-95; 
Cabrera,  1919,  pi.  7;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  96. 

This  beautiful  little  animal,  representing  a  special  family  related 
to  the  dasyures,  has  been  undergoing  shrinkage  of  range  and  reduc- 
tion in  numbers  in  Western  Australia  for  a  considerable  period  and 
is  perhaps  approaching  extinction. 

Color  above  reddish  ochre,  interspersed  with  white  hairs ;  posterior 
half  of  body  with  alternate  black  and  white  bands;  tail  long-haired, 
mixed  with  black,  white,  and  reddish  ochre;  legs  chiefly  pale  buff; 
under  parts  yellowish  white  (Waterhouse,  1836,  pp.  69-70).  Form 
graceful,  squirrellike ;  a  black  stripe  through  the  eye,  and  a  white 
stripe  above  it.  Head  and  body,  220-240  mm.;  tail,  160-175  mm. 
(Thomas,  1888,  pp.  311-314.) 

In  earlier  days  its  range  extended  west  to  the  Darling  Range, 
northwest  to  the  vicinity  of  Moore's  River,  northeast  to  Laverton, 
east  to  Kalgoorlie  and  possibly  to  South  Australia  near  the  coast, 
and  south  to  the  vicinity  of  Albany  (Shortridge,  1910,  p.  846,  map; 
Glauert,  1933,  p.  22).  Forty  years  ago  it  was  "fairly  numerous 
throughout  the  South-west,  especially  where  the  prevailing  timbers 
are  the  white  gum  (Eucalyptus  redunca)  and  the  jam  (Acacia 
acuminata) ,  getting  less  plentiful  outside  that  area"  (Shortridge, 
in  Thomas,  1907,  p.  772) .  "The  Western  Australian  animal  is  now 
excessively  rare,  and  it  is  probable  that  before  many  years  are 
passed  it  will  follow  its  South  Australian  neighbour  [M.  f.  rujus] 
into  extinction"  (Jones,  1923,  p.  126).  Troughton  writes  (1923, 
p.  155)  that  "this  animal  .  .  .  can  now  only  be  found  in  a  greatly 
restricted  area";  he  secured  three  specimens  about  1921.  It  seems 
to  survive  chiefly  in  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  state,  between 
Perth  and  Albany. 

"The  beautiful  little  Banded  ant-eater  is  much  sought  after  on 
account  of  its  skin"  (W.  H.  D.  Le  Souef,  1907,  p.  406) . 

Le  Souef  and  Burrell  (1926,  pp.  365-366)  write: 

Quiet,  inoffensive,  without  means  of  defence  or  offence,  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  marsupial  ant-eater  has  survived  through  the  ages.  This  could 
happen  only  in  Australia,  where  it  did  not  come  into  competition  with  the 
more  advanced  forms  of  life.  .  .  . 

It  is  abroad  both  by  day  and  by  night,  and,  being  conspicuous  and  not  at 
all  speedy,  it  makes  a  fairly  easy  mark  for  predacious  animals  and  birds, 
more  especially  the  introduced  cat  and  fox;  to  say  nothing  of  the  settlers' 
dogs.  Consequently,  it  is  one  of  the  first  animals  to  disappear  before  the 
inevitable  opening  up  of  the  country,  and  it  is  now  scarce  over  the  greater 
part  of  its  range. 

"The  typical  race  ...  is  endangered  by  clearing,  fires,  and  intro- 
duced pests,  the  advent  of  the  fox  alone  probably  spelling  the  ulti- 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  45 

/ 

mate  doom  of  the  terrestrial  and  non-burrowing  highly  specialized 
creature.  .  .  .  Myrmecobius  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  marsu- 
pials within  sight  of  extermination,  in  this  instance  not  due  to 
exploitation  by  man,  but  as  the  result  of  settlement  and  introduced 
enemies.  Hope  for  ultimate  survival  may  rest  with  the  introduction 
of  a  healthy  colony  to  an  island  providing  adequate  supplies  of 
favoured  diet,  and  absence  of  enemies."  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton, 
in  Hit.,  April  16,  1937.) 

Its  "very  existence  ...  is  threatened  by  both  fox  and  cat" 
(Troughton,  1938,  p.  404) . 

South  Australian  Numbat;  Rusty  Numbat 

MYRMECOBIUS  FASCIATUS  RUFUS  Jones 

Myrmecobius  rujus  Jones,  Mammals  S.  Australia,  pt.  1,  p.  123,  figs.  79,  83,  and 

84,  1923.    ("South  Australia.") 
FIG.  :   Jones,  1923,  fig.  79. 

This  form  of  Numbat,  apparently  extinct  in  New  South  Wales 
and  coastal  South  Australia,  still  lingers  in  northwestern  South 
Australia  and  in  southwestern  Central  Australia. 

It  differs  from  the  West  Australian  Numbat  in  having  the  darker 
part  of  the  lower  back  "a  fine  bright  brown"  instead  of  blackish;  tail 
"a  uniform  grizzle  of  rust  red  and  dark  brown."  Head  and  body, 
175  mm.;  tail,  135  mm.  (Jones,  1923,  pp.  124-126.)  Finlayson 
states  (1933c,  p.  204)  that  the  outer  surface  of  the  ear  is  bright 
rufous  instead  of  yellow  and  black,  and  he  gives  the  following 
measurements  for  specimens  from  northwestern  South  Australia: 
head  and  body,  200-270  mm.;  tail,  130-170  mm. 

"The  New  South  Wales  animal,  reported  fairly  plentiful  about 
the  plains  of  the  Murray  and  Darling  Rivers  in  1862,  ...  is 
apparently  extinct"  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt.,  April  16,  1937). 

It  is  perhaps  the  present  form  to  which  Helms  refers  (1896, 
p.  255)  in  reporting  the  observations  of  the  Elder  Expedition 
somewhere  in  South  or  Western  Australia:  "A  more  exciting  piece 
of  work  [by  the  natives]  than  digging  for  lizards  is  the  excavating 
for  the  quick,  little,  banded  anteater,  Myrmecobius  jasciatus,  which 
animal  often  makes  its  lair  over  three  feet  below  the  surface." 
This  expedition  brought  back  a  dried  skin  from  the  Everard  Range, 
South  Australia  (Stirling  and  Zietz,  1893,  p.  154) . 

Jones  (1923,  pp.  126-127)  says  of  this  Numbat: 

The  Numbat  was  probably  never  a  very  abundant  animal,  but  its  distribu- 
tion was  comparatively  wide.  Only  twenty  years  ago  it  was  met  with  along 
the  scrub  lands  of  the  Murray,  and  earlier  than  that  it  existed  quite  near  to 
Adelaide.  Enquiries  as  to  its  present  existence  have  produced  negative  replies 
from  all  those  parts  of  the  State  in  which  there  are  schools,  and  the  circulation 


46  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

of  its  picture  and  description  to  more  remote  districts  have  proved  equally 
unavailing.  The  aboriginals  who  are  attracted  to  civilisation,  as  it  is  represented 
by  the  East-West  railway,  know  the  animal,  but  so  far  have  failed  to  supply 
any  evidence  as  to  its  actual  existence  at  the  present  time.  If  the  Numbat 
still  exists  in  South  Australia  it  is  probably  towards  the  Western  Australian 
border,  and  here  it  is  probably  the  Western  Australian  form.  The  characteristic 
South  Australian  type  has  probably  gone  for  ever.  .  .  .  The  extermination 
of  the  Numbat  is  a  tragedy  in  which  man  has  probably  played  very  little 
conscious  part;  it  is  no  tale  of  ruthless  slaughter  for  gain,  such  as  is  being 
rehearsed  to-day  in  regard  to  the  Australian  fur-bearing  animals,  nor  is  it  a 
case  of  determined  persecution  as  is  the  case  with  the  Tasmanian  Devil. 
MyrmecobiiLS  is  an  animal  which  is  probably  phylogenetically  senile,  which 


FIG.   4.— South   Australian   Numbat    (Myrmecobius   jasciatus  rujus). 
After  Jones,  1923. 

has  become  highly  specialised  in  function  and  degenerate  in  some  details 
of  structure.  Added  to  this  is  the  fact  that  its  home  is  invariably  made  in 
the  hollow  of  a  fallen  tree  or  a  rotting  log.  Accidental  bush  fires  and  the 
intentional  burning  off  of  country  seem  to  have  found  the  Numbat  an  easy 
victim,  and  they  have  exterminated  it  as  they  are  exterminating  other  small 
terrestrial  Marsupials.  There  is  no  escape  from  a  bush  fire  for  the  Numbat. 
It  does  not  excavate  deep  burrows,  it  does  not  climb,  it  is  not  fleet  of  foot — 
as  its  log  home  burns,  it  perishes.  .  .  . 

It  is  surely  a  tragedy  that  this  most  interesting  animal  has  probably  passed 
out  of  existence  in  our  State,  and  is  rapidly  repeating  the  process  in  a 
neighbouring  one  without  any  representative  collection  having  been  made  of 
its  remains.  It  will  not  be  long  before  Myrmecobius  will  be  as  extinct  as  those 
Mesozoic  Marsupials  of  the  English  Jurassic  beds  of  which  it  has  been  said 
to  be  "actually  an  unmodified  survivor." 

Since  the  publication  of  Jones's  account,  investigation  by  Finlay- 
son  has  shown  that  the  species  still  survives  in  the  arid  center  of 
the  continent.  Rewrites  (1933c,  p.  203) : 

"Its  presence  in  the  centre  [in  the  Everard  Range]  was  first 
established  by  the  work  of  the  Elder  Expedition  .... 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  47 

"Recent  field  work  ...  in  the  far  north-west  of  this  State  [South 
Australia]  (in  a  typical  eremian  environment)  has  shown  .  .  . 
that  Myrmecobius  still  has  a  wide  distribution  in  the  south-west 
parts  of  the  centre  beyond  the  limits  of  pastoral  settlement,  and  in 
some  localities  is  by  no  means  uncommon.  It  is  possible  that  these 
colonies  actually  link  up  with  the  far  south-western  ones  in  Western 
Australia  in  a  continuous  band  of  distribution." 

Finlayson  here  proposes  (1933c,  p.  203)  to  separate  the  central 
animal  from  that  of  Western  Australia  under  the  name  of  Myrme- 
cobius fasciatus  var.  rufus  and  gives  (p.  204)  as  type  locality 
"mulga  sand  dunes,  south  and  south-west  of  the  Everard  Range,  far 
north-west  of  State  of  South  Australia."  This  name,  however,  is 
antedated  by  Myrmecobius  rufus  Jones  (1923),  which  was  intro- 
duced without  any  formal  designation  of  type  locality,  but  which 
was  based  upon  "South  Australian  specimens,  from  the  Murray 
and  from  near  Adelaide"  (Finlayson,  1933c,  p.  205).  The  range, 
according  to  Finlayson  (p.  204),  is  "at  present  apparently  not 
north  of  about  25°  S.  lat.,  nor  east  of  132°  30'  E.  long.  To  the  south 
and  west  as  yet  undetermined.  Formerly  as  far  south  as  Adelaide, 
and  probably  ranging  east  into  the  Victorian  and  New  South  Wales 
mallee  areas." 

Family  PERAMELIDAE :    Bandicoots 

The  range  of  the  bandicoots  extends  over  Australia,  Tasmania, 
New  Guinea,  and  certain  adjacent  islands.  There  are  about  9 
genera,  represented  by  about  44  forms.  Of  the  latter,  accounts  of 
12  appear  in  the  following  pages. 

Eastern  Barred  Bandicoot ;  New  South  Wales  Barred  Bandicoot 

PERAMELES  FASCIATA  J.  E.  Gray 

Perameles  fasciata  J.  E.  Gray,  in  Grey,  Two  Expeditions  Australia,  vol.  2, 
appendix,  pp.  401,  407,  1841.  ("Liverpool  Plains  and  South  Australia"; 
type  locality  restricted  by  Thomas  (1922,  p.  144)  to  "Liverpool  Plains," 
New  South  Wales.) 

Fia:    Gould,  1849,  vol.  1,  pi.  8. 

This  bandicoot  occurred  formerly  in  New  South  Wales  and 
Victoria.  It  has  not  been  recorded  for  many  years,  however,  and 
is  probably  extinct  (A.  S.  Le  Souef,  in  litt.,  February  15,  1937). 

This  species  has  been  more  or  less  confused  in  descriptions  with 
P.  myosura  notina.  "Grey  brown,  rump  with  three  black  bands; 
tail  white,  with  a  black  streak  along  the  upper  side.  .  .  .  Smaller 
than  P.  Gunnii."  (J.  E.  Gray,  in  Grey,  1841,  p.  407.)  Upper  parts 
penciled  with  black  and  yellow;  sides  yellow;  under  parts  and  feet 


48 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


white  (Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  p.  12).  Outer  surface  of  ears  flesh  color 
basally,  darker  terminally;  sides  of  rump  with  four  pale  vertical 
bands  running  downward  from  near  the  middle  line,  the  spaces 
between  them  brown  or  black  (Thomas,  1888,  p.  248)  . 

"This  elegant  species  .  .  .  enjoys  a  wide  range  over  the  eastern 
.  .  .  portions  of  Australia,  but  is  more  frequently  met  with  in  the 
country  within  the  ranges  .  .  .  than  in  the  districts  lying  between 
the  mountains  and  the  sea.  In  New  South  Wales,  the  stony  ridges 
which  branch  off  from  the  ranges  towards  the  rivers  Darling  and 
Namoi,  are  localities  in  which  it  may  always  be  found."  (Gould, 
1863,  vol.  1,  p.  12.) 


IE.    . 


FIG.  5. — Eastern  Barred  Bandicoot   (Perameles  jasciata).    After  Gould,  1849. 

The  animal  is  "now  believed  extinct  though  once  well  distributed 
over  western  Victoria  and  N.  S.  Wales.  The  ultimate  fate  of  these 
small  non-burrowing  forms  is  most  uncertain."  (E.  Le  G.  Trough- 
ton,  in  litt.,  April  16,  1937.) 


Tasmania ii  Barred  Bandicoot;  Gunn's  Striped  Bandicoot 

PERAMELES  GUNNII  J.  E.  Gray 

Perameles  Gunnii  J.  E.  Gray,  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  1,  vol.  1,  p.  107,  1838. 

("Van  Diemen's  Land"   [=  Tasmania].) 
FIGS.:    Waterhouse,  1841,  pi.  15;  Gould,  1859,  vol.  1,  pi.  9;  Lydekker,  1894, 

pi.  21. 

While  this  species  still  occurs  in  numbers  in  Tasmania,  it  is 
"bordering  on  extinction  in  Victoria"  (David  H.  Fleay,  in  litt., 
June  1,1937). 

Muzzle  tapering,  gray-brown;  under  parts,  feet,  tail,  and  four 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  49 

broad  bands  on  each  side  of  the  rump  white  (J.  E.  Gray,  in  Gunn, 
1838,  pp.  107-108).  General  color  grizzled  yellowish  brown;  outer 
surface  of  ears  yellowish  brown,  with  a  darker  terminal  blotch; 
sides  of  rump  with  four  more  or  less  distinct  pale  vertical  bands 
running  downward  from  near  the  middle  line,  the  spaces  between 
them  brown  or  black.  Head  and  body,  380-400  mm. ;  tail,  80-90  mm. 
(Thomas,  1888,  pp.  245-246.) 

Its  known  range  includes  Tasmania  and  Victoria.  In  the  former 
state  "the  bandicoots  are  very  numerous  everywhere;  they  .  .  . 
live  principally  on  roots.  I  knew  one  gentleman's  entire  collection 
of  Cape  bulbs,  principally  Babianae,  eaten  by  them,  and  I  suffered 
considerably  myself,  having  lost  some  entire  species  of  bulbs 
through  these  animals."  (Gunn,  1838,  pp.  102-103.)  Gray  (in  Gunn, 
1838,  p.  108)  records  insect  remains  found  in  the  stomach  of  one 
specimen. 

This  species  is  to  be  met  with  throughout  Tasmania,  but  it  ap- 
pears to  be  less  commonly  and  evenly  distributed  than  the  Short- 
nosed  Bandicoot  (Lord,  1928,  p.  20) . 

"At  one  time  distributed  through  western  and  central  Victoria, 
this  species  is  now  restricted  to  a  single  locality  near  Hamilton  and 
its  numbers  are  few"  (C.  W.  Brazenor,  in  litt.,  March  3,  1937). 

Western  Barred  Bandicoot;  Marl 

PERAMELES  MYOSURA  MYOSURA  Wagner 

Perameles  myoswos  Wagner,  Archiv  fur  Naturg.  (Wiegmann),  7th  yr.,  vol.  1, 
p.  293,  1841.  (The  type  locality,  not  stated  in  the  original  description,  is 
Swan  River,  according  to  Glauert  (1933,  p.  23),  or  King  George's  Sound, 
West  Australia,  according  to  Iredale  and  Troughton  (1934,  p.  19).) 

FIGS.:  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  suppl.  3,  pi.  155  Ad,  1842;  Gould,  1845,  vol.  1, 
pi.  10. 

"No  specimens  have  reached  the  [Perth]  Museum  since  1900.  It 
is  therefore  assumed  that  the  animal  is  extinct."  (Glauert,  1933, 
p.  23.) 

Above  mixed  with  blackish  and  yellowish  brown;  below  dirty 
yellowish  white;  ears  pale  dusky,  with  a  rusty-red  spot  at  external 
base;  a  dark  band  extending  across  sides  in  front  of  thighs;  feet 
whitish;  tail  scaly,  short-haired,  dusky  above,  dirty  white  below. 
Head  and  body,  11  inches;  tail,  3  inches.  (Wagner,  1841,  pp.  293- 
295.) 

The  former  range  was  the  southwestern  portion  of  Western 
Australia.  According  to  Gould  (1863,  vol.  1,  p.  14),  it  "inhabits 
the  whole  line  of  coast  of  the  Swan  River  colony,  but,  so  far  as  I 
can  learn,  is  not  found  to  the  westward  of  the  Darling  range  of 
hills."  He  adds  that  "its  food  consists  of  insects,  seeds,  and  grain." 
3 


50 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 


"Apparently  not  plentiful  in  the  South-west,  although  described 
by  natives  as  being  fairly  numerous  in  the  Salt  River  district.  A 
species  of  Bandicoot,  probably  this  species,  is  said  to  have  formerly 
extended  as  far  north  on  the  mainland  as  Sharks  Bay."  Specimens 
are  recorded  from  the  vicinity  of  Pin  jelly  and  Kojonup.  (Short- 
ridge,  1910,  pp.  833-834;  map,  p.  835.) 


FIG.  6. — Western   Barred   Bandicoot    (Perameles   myosura   myosura}. 
After  Gould,  1845. 

South  Australian  Barred  Bandicoot 

PERAMELES  MYOSURA  NOTINA  Thomas 

Perameles  myosura  notina  Thomas,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  9,  vol.  10, 
p.  144,  1922.  ("Plains  near  the  head  of  the  St.  Vincent  Gulf,"  South 
Australia.) 

FIGS.:   Jones,  1924,  p.  147,  fig.  102;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  83. 

This  subspecies  is  apparently  extinct  in  southeastern  South 
Australia  but  is  "probably  holding  its  own  in  the  semi-arid  Nullarbor 
Plain"  in  the  west  (A.  S.  Le  Souef,  in  Hit.,  February  15,  1937) . 

It  closely  resembles  P.  fasciata  in  coloration,  with  three  distinct 
black  bands  on  the  hind  quarters;  skull  with  more  slender  muzzle 
and  smaller  teeth  than  in  P.  fasciata.  Head  and  body,  280  mm.; 
tail,  90  mm.  (Thomas,  1922,  p.  144.) 

Formerly  it  seems  to  have  ranged  across  the  entire  east-west 
extent  of  South  Australia,  in  the  more  southern  parts.  According  to 
Jones  (1924,  pp.  149-150),  "this  beautiful  little  Bandicoot  had  at 
one  time  a  fairly  wide  distribution  in  this  State.  In  addition  to  the 
animals  from  the  head  of  St.  Vincent  Gulf,  are  others  from  the 
River  Murray  in  South  Australia,  and  from  Adelaide  itself.  As 
far  as  can  be  ascertained  it  has  now  disappeared  from  all  these 
localities,  and  remains  only  in  the  wastes  of  the  western  portion 
of  the  Centre.  . 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  51 

"Barred  Bandicoots  become  very  tame  and  familiar  in  captivity, 
but  .  .  .  they  are  desperately  pugnacious  among  themselves.  On 
one  occasion  eight  live  specimens  were  sent  from  Ooldea.  All  eight 
were  dead  .  .  .  when  they  arrived  in  Adelaide.  .  .  .  But  among  the 
corpses  were  four  pouch  young,  which  were  uninjured.  ...  In  the 
end  they  all  recovered."  A  female  from  this  lot  eventually  bred 
freely  in  captivity.  Two  young  were  generally  found  in  a  litter. 

Rabbit-eared  Bandicoot;  Rabbit-bandicoot;   Bilby;   Dalgite; 

Pinkie 

MACROTIS  LAGOTIS  LAGOTIS   (Reid) 

Perameles  Lagotis  Reid,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1836,  p.   129,  1837.    ("In 

Australia  Occidentali  et  in  Terra  Van  Diemen."    Thomas  (1888,  p.  225) 

lists  the  type  specimen  from  "Swan  R.,  W.  A.") 
FIGS.:    Waterhouse,  1841,  pi.  12,  and  1846,  vol.  1,  pi.  13,  fig.  1;  Gould,  1845, 

vol.  1,  pi.  7;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  79;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  617,  fig. 

(subsp.?). 

The  several  subspecies  of  this  Australian  animal  (lagotis,  cam- 
brica,  grandis,  interjecta,  nigripes,  and  sagitta)  seem  to  be  more  or 
less  seriously  reduced  in  numbers;  one  is  apparently  on  the  verge 
of  extinction,  and  another  quite  extinct.  They  will  be  treated  in  turn. 

Concerning  the  group  as  a  whole,  Jones  says  (1924,  pp.  164-167) : 

By  the  early  colonists  the  Bilby  was  not  only  regarded  as  an  animal  against 
which  the  methods  of  the  exterminator  need  not  be  employed;  it  was  even 
accorded  a  certain  amount  of  protection,  and  was  at  times  kept  as  a  pet 
about  the  house.  The  tolerance  with  which  it  was  regarded  by  people  whose 
hands  may  be  justly  said  to  have  been  against  all  animals  was  due  to  the 
fact  that  it  was  recognised  that,  in  the  destruction  of  mice  and  insects,  it 
played  an  extremely  useful  part.  Unfortunately  this  regard  for  the  Bilby 
seems  to  have  been  forgotten  by  a  later  generation,  and  in  more  recent  days 
but  little  mercy  has  been  shown  to  them  by  any  section  of  the  community.  .  .  . 

The  reason  for  the  rapid  decrease  in  numbers  of  the  Bilby  is  not  quite 
obvious.  Certainly  these  useful  animals  have  been  ruthlessly  slaughtered  in 
all  districts  within  reach  of  the  more  settled  areas.  Their  pelts  have  been 
marketed  in  the  skin  sales  in  Adelaide  in  very  large  numbers;  and  they  have 
been  more  wantonly  killed  for  "sport."  Large  numbers  have  been  killed  or 
maimed  in  steel  traps  set  for  rabbits,  and  possibly  many  have  fallen  victims 
to  poison  baits.  As  with  all  the  more  defenceless  marsupials,  the  introduced 
fox  has  probably  played  its  sinister  part.  But  in  the  Centre,  where  the  fox 
is  still  absent,  or  rare,  and  where  the  Bilby  is  but  little  molested  by  man,  it 
seems  that  some  other  factor  must  be  invoked;  and  this  is  probably  the 
extraordinary  abundance  of  rabbits,  and  the  consequent  struggle  for  breeding 
burrows.  There  is  certainly  no  part  of  this  State  [South  Australia]  where  the 
Bilby  is  not  a  rapidly  disappearing  animal. 

Troughton  remarks  (1932,  p.  221) :  "According  to  Wood  Jones, 
one  or  two  constitutes  the  usual  litter  [in  members  of  this  genus], 
although  there  are  eight  teats,  and  it  seems  possible  that  a  reduced 


52  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

rate  of  breeding,  in  the  less  hospitable  regions  to  which  settlement 
is  forcing  them,  where  the  cunning  introduced  enemy  [the  fox] 
probably  now  abounds,  must  ultimately  lead  to  the  extinction  of  this 
harmless,  picturesque,  and  pest-destroying  marsupial." 

In  the  typical  subspecies,  M.  I.  lagotis,  the  general  color  is  gray; 
head,  neck,  and  back  washed  with  chestnut;  sides  of  body  and  base 
of  tail  pale  chestnut;  ears  long,  broad,  ovate;  outer,  upper  surface's 
of  limbs  grayish;  under  parts  white;  middle  part  of  tail  black; 
terminal  part  white,  with  a  crest  of  stiff  hairs.  Head  and  body,  18J 
inches;  tail,  10  inches.  (Reid,  1837,  pp.  129-130.)  This  is  a  large 
race,  with  a  long,  silky  coat;  the  black  portion  of  the  tail  usually 
longer  than,  or  equaling,  the  crested  white  part  (Troughton,  1932, 
p.  227). 

Its  range  includes  south  and  central  Western  Australia  and 
extends  to  Central  Australia. 

Gould  (1863,  vol.  1,  p.  11)  considers  it  "tolerably  abundant 
over  the  whole  extent  of  the  grassy  districts  of  the  interior  of  the 
Swan  River  colony."  By  retreating  into  its  deep,  long  burrows,  "it 
frequently  eludes  the  pursuit  of  the  natives,  who  hunt  it  for  the 
sake  of  its  flesh."  He  speaks  of  its  flesh  as  "sweet  and  delicate," 
resembling  "that  of  the  rabbit." 

Its  status  in  Western  Australia  is  summed  up  by  Shortridge 
(1910,  pp.  832-833;  map,  p.  832) : 

"Although  widely  distributed  throughout  the  South- West  (except 
near  the  coast) ,  North-West,  and  Centre,  it  has  within  recent  years 
become  extremely  rare  in  the  far  interior.  Most  plentiful  in  the 
inland  districts  of  the  South-West,  rather  frequently  caught  in  traps 
set  for  rabbits  along  the  rabbit-proof  fence.  In  the  dry  North- 
Western  and  South-Eastern  divisions,  where  it  is  rare,  it  extends  to 
the  coast." 

The  same  author  states  (1907,  pp.  770-771)  that  in  the  interior 
"it  seems  to  have  almost  left  parts  of  the  country  where  it  was  onca 
well  known — perhaps  on  account  of  the  succession  of  droughts  in- 
land of  late  years." 

Troughton  (1932,  p.  227)  mentions  specimens  from  Gracefield, 
Coorigan,  and  Teuterden,  Western  Australia. 

Glauert  (1933,  p.  24)  records  it  in  Western  Australia  as  "widely 
distributed  .  .  .  south  of  the  Kimberley  Division.  The  western  limit 
seems  to  be  the  Darling  Range,  although  the  Museum  has  odd 
specimens  from  Perth  and  Upper  Swan  on  the  Coastal  Plain.  The 
animal  occurs  as  far  south  as  Cranbrook  and  Jerramungup,  near 
the  Stirling  Range,  and  as  far  east  as  Gnawlbat,  126  degrees  15 
minutes  east,  26  degrees  21  minutes  south."  He  writes  (in  litt., 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  53 

March  17, 1937)  that  it  is  "affected  by  fumigation  of  rabbit  burrows 
in  agricultural  areas." 

Finlayson  (1930,  p.  178;  1931,  p.  161)  records  specimens  from 
north  of  the  Musgrave  Ranges,  in  the  extreme  north  of  South 
Australia,  and  from  two  localities  north  of  the  Macdonnell  Ranges 
in  Central  Australia. 

E.  Le  G.  Troughton  writes  (in  Hit.,  April  16,  1937)  that  it  "may 
survive  always  in  parts  of  the  Centre,  but  should  be  given  total 
protection  in  the  south-west  as  its  destruction  of  rats  and  mice 
far  outweighs  any  slight  damage  it  may  do." 

New  South  Wales  Bilby 

MACROTIS  LAGOTIS  CAMBRICA  Troughton 

Macrotis  lagotis  cambrica  Troughton,  Australian  Zool.,  vol.  7,  pt.  3,  p.  230, 
1932.   ("Bathurst,"  New  South  Wales.) 

This  eastern  subspecies,  extinct  in  Victoria  and  last  recorded 
from  New  South  Wales  in  1912,  apparently  survives  in  uncertain 
numbers  in  southern  Queensland. 

It  is  about  equal  in  size  to  the  large  western  subspecies  (lagotis) ; 
the  fur  is  shorter  and  more  woolly ;  upper  parts  more  fuscous ;  under 
parts  yellowish.  Head  and  body,  390-500  mm.;  tail,  248-278  mm. 
(Troughton,  1932,  p.  230.) 

According  to  Troughton  (1932,  p.  230;  map,  p.  231),  it  was 
"originally  distributed  over  inland  New  South  Wales  from  the 
Darling  River  (Bourke)  in  the  west,  across  to  near  the  Great 
Dividing  Range  in  the  east  (Bathurst  and  Ghoulburn) ,  south  to  the 
Murray  River  and  north  to  the  Queensland  border  (Moree) ;  prob- 
ably extending  into  southern  Queensland." 

Since  1892,  fifteen  specimens  reached  the  Museum,  making  in  all  at  least 
twenty-two,  of  which  the  last  was  received  from  Moree  in  June,  1908;  though 
several  are  not  definitely  localised,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  entire  series 
came  from  within  New  South  Wales.  .  .  .  Probably  never  very  plentiful, 
the  rabbit-bandicoot  was  apparently  distributed  fairly  evenly  west  of  the 
dividing  range  in  the  early  days,  and,  unless  mere  coincidence,  appears  to 
have  been  more  abundant  in  some  years  as  three  specimens  reached  the 
Museum  in  August,  1897,  and  again  in  1903.  There  seems  no  doubt,  however, 
that  the  local  race  has  vanished  from  the  more  settled  areas,  and  that  .  .  . 
the  Bilby  is  rapidly  disappearing  from  New  South  Wales,  or  is  at  least  faced 
with  a  precarious  existence  in  more  desert  regions.  I  am  not  aware  of  pelts 
ever  having  been  marketed  to  any  extent  in  Sydney,  .  .  .  but  no  doubt  num- 
bers have  been  killed  in  rabbit  traps,  and  wantonly  for  so-called  sport,  while 
foxes  must  be  contributing  to  the  apparent  annihilation  within  New  South 
Wales. 

The  last  record  of  the  Bilby's  occurrence  in  New  South  Wales,  so  far  as  I 
am  aware,  is  [that  of]  a  pair  under  close  observation  in  the  rocky  hills  on 
the  Wagga  Experimental  Farm  for  about  five  years  prior  to  1912,  when 


54  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

they  were  unfortunately  slaughtered  by  shooters  from  the  town.    (Troughton, 
1932,  p.  220.) 

In  Victoria  this  Bilby  was  always  confined  to  the  northwestern 
corner  of  the  state,  and  the  last  record  was  in  1860  (C.  W.  Brazenor, 
in  Hit.,  March  3,  1937) . 

Jones  (1923a,  p.  342)  speaks  of  examining  a  living  specimen  from 
Queensland.  Finlayson  states  (1934,  p.  229)  that  it  is  apparently 
absent  from  the  Dawson  Valley,  Queensland,  but  that  it  occurs  at 
Epping  in  the  Clermont  district,  150  miles  northwestward. 

Nalpa  Bilby 

MACROTIS  LAOOTIS  GRANDIS  Troughton 

Macrotis  lagotis  grandis  Troughton,  Australian  Zool.,  vol.  7,  pt.  3,  p.  229,  1932. 

("Nalpa,   in   the    Lake    Alexandrina   District,   south    of   Adelaide,   South 

Australia.") 
Fia.:   Jones,  1923a,  p.  333,  fig.  352. 

.This  subspecies  is  apparently  extinct  (Troughton,  1932,  p.  230). 

It  is  the  largest  subspecies;  its  ear,  however,  is  proportionately 
shorter  than  in  the  other  subspecies.  Head  and  body,  550  mm.; 
tail,  260  mm.;  ear,  77  mm. 

It  is  known  only  from  the  "South-east  of  South  Australia"  (Ire- 
dale  and  Troughton,  1934,  p.  20) . 

Before  this  form  was  distinguished  from  the  typical  lagotis, 
Jones  (1924,  pp.  156-157)  wrote  of  it  as  follows: 

Thalacomys  lagotis,  though  formerly  abundant  in  South  Australia,  is  now 
either  extinct  or  on  the  verge  of  extinction.  It  was  the  familiar  species  of 
Bilby  in  the  more  fertile  portions  of  South  Australia  only  a  comparatively 
short  time  ago.  Not  more  than  thirty  years  since  it  was  usual  for  rabbit 
trappers,  even  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Adelaide,  to  take  more 
Bilbies  of  this  type  than  rabbits  in  their  traps.  This  race  .  .  .  apparently  had 
its  last  South  Australian  stronghold  at  Nalpa  and  in  the  wide  tract  of 
country  about  Lake  Alexandrina;  but  from  Nalpa  it  has  long  since  disappeared, 
and  it  seems  most  probable  that  the  animal  is  now  extinct  in  this  State. 

Rawlinna  Bilby 

MACROTIS  LAGOTIS  INTERJECTA  Troughton 

Macrotis  lagotis  interjecta  Troughton,  Australian  Zool.,  vol.  7,  pt.  3,  p.  227, 
1932.    ("Rawlinna,  Trans-Australian  Railway,  Western  Australia.") 

This  subspecies  seems  to  be  known  definitely  from  only  two 
specimens,  both  taken  at  the  type  locality. 

^Smaller  than  the  western  lagotis;  fur  shorter  and  more  woolly; 
general  color  more  drab-gray  and  less  contrasting;  under  parts 
whitish;  black  portion  of  tail  equaling,  or  shorter  than,  the  white 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  55 

terminal  portion.  Head  and  body,  303-318  mm.;  tail,  207-232  mm.; 
ear,  80-82  mm.    (Troughton,  1932,  pp.  227-228.) 

"It  is  possible  that  the  Musgrave  Ranges  specimen  recorded  by 
Finlayson  [as  lagotis]  is  an  aged  female  of  this  race"  (Troughton, 
1932,  p.  228) . 

Black-footed  Bilby 

MACROTIS  LAGOTIS  NIGRIPES   (Jones) 

Thalacomys  nigripes  Jones,  Rec.  S.  Australian  Mus.,  vol.  2,  no.  3,  p.  347, 
figs.  358-360,  1923.  ("Ooldea  Soak,"  Trans-Australian  Railway,  South 
Australia.) 

FIGS.:    Jones,  1923o,  p.  347,  fig.  358,  and  1924,  p.  152,  figs.  106,  107. 

"This  animal  is,  so  far,  only  known  from  the  district  round 
Ooldea  Soak,  on  the  railway  from  Port  Augusta  to  Perth.  In  that 
district  it  appears  to  be  by  no  means  uncommon."  (Jones,  1924, 
p.  163.) 

Smaller  than  M.  I.  lagotis  but  much  like  it  in  general  color; 
distinguished  from  all  other  members  of  the  genus  by  its  black 
feet;  under  parts  pure  white;  black  portion  of  tail  shorter  than 
terminal  white  portion.  Head  and  body,  365-390  mm.;  tail,  200- 
220  mm.;  ear,  105-110  mm.  (Jones,  1923a;  pp.  347-350.) 

The  half-dozen  known  specimens  were  all  collected  by  abo- 
riginals (Jones,  1923a,  p.  349) . 

"On  the  Nullarbor  Plain,  in  the  state  of  South  Australia,  occa- 
sional holes  would  be  met  with,  the  animals  numbering,  in  1921, 
about  21  to  the  square  mile"  (Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  p.  299). 
Although  these  authors  add  that  the  form  was  probably  sagitta, 
there  would  seem  to  be  equal  or  greater  likelihood  of  its  being 
nigripes,  since  the  type  locality  of  the  latter  borders  on  the  Null- 
arbor  Plain. 

Barcoo  Bilby 

MACROTIS  LAGOTIS  SAGITTA  (Thomas) 

Thalacomys  sagitta  Thomas,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  7,  vol.  16,  p.  426,  1905. 
("Killalpanima  [=  Killalpaninna],  east  of  Lake  Eyre,"  South  Australia.) 

Although  still  considered  "by  no  means  uncommon"  (Finlayson, 
1935c,  p.  233),  this  Bilby,  like  other  members  of  the  genus,  is 
probably  seriously  menaced  by  the  predatory  fox  and  the  com- 
peting rabbit. 

This  is  smaller  than  any  subspecies  except  interjecta,  and  a 
little  paler  than  lagotis.  Head  and  body,  316-385  mm.;  tail,  215- 
245  mm.;  ear,  79-84  mm.  (Thomas,  19056,  p.  426;  Troughton, 
1932,  p.  229;  Finlayson,  1935c,  pp.  234-236.) 


56  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  Barcoo  Bilby  has  been  recorded  in  northeastern  South 
Australia,  from  Miller's  Creek  and  Coward  Springs,  southwest  of 
Lake  Eyre,  to  the  Goyder's  Lagoon  area  toward  the  northeastern 
corner  of  the  state.  It  also  seems  to  range  northward  to  the  region 
about  Charlotte  Waters,  Central  Australia.  (Jones,  1923a,  p.  344; 
Finlayson,  1935c,  p.  233.) 

Jones  writes  (1924,  p.  160) :  "This  Bilby  is  a  northern  form 
living  in  the  region  of  the  great  drainage  system  of  Lake  Eyre.  It 
is  probable  that  it  is  still  fairly  abundant  in  those  portions  of  this 
legion  where  foxes  have  not  yet  become  plentiful,  and  where  it 
can  still  compete  with  rabbits  for  nesting  burrows." 

On  this  subject  Troughton  says  (1932,  p.  221) :  "My  own 
experience  when  collecting  in  the  very  dry  country  about  Farina 
[south  of  Lake  Eyre],  South  Australia,  in  1919,  was  that  foxes 
were  very  numerous  and  already  tending  towards  a  small  lean 
desert  type  capable  of  entering  the  larger  rabbit  burrows  without 
difficulty,  and  doubtless  those  of  the  Bilbies  as  well." 

Six  specimens  obtained  in  the  Goyder's  Lagoon  area  about  1932 
were,  according  to  Finlayson  (1935c,  p.  233),  the  first  ones  to  be 
examined  in  the  flesh  since  the  type  specimen  was  taken  in  1903. 

Certain  notes  on  "Peragale  lagotis"  from  the  Charlotte  Waters 
region  of  Central  Australia,  published  by  Spencer  (1896,  p.  17,  and 
1897,  p.  9)  before  sagitta  was  recognized,  actually  refer,  it  seems, 
to  the  latter  form  (c/.  Troughton,  1932,  p.  233).  "This  is  not 
uncommon,  judging  by  the  number  of  tails  used  by  the  natives 
as  ornaments.  They  tie  the  white  terminal  tufts  together  in  bundles 
of  from  twelve  to  twenty."  The  animal  occupies  the  inner  end 
of  its  burrow,  and  the  natives  secure  it  by  digging  it  out. 

White-tailed  Bilby;  White-tailed  Rabbit-bandicoot 

MACROTIS  LEUCURA  LEUCURA  (Thomas) 

Peragale  leucura  Thomas,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  5,  vol.  19,  p.  397,  1887. 

("Exact  locality  .  .  .  not  .  .  .  recorded.") 
SYNONYM:    Thalacomys  minor  miselius  Finlayson  (1932). 
FIGS.:    Thomas,  1888,  pi.  2;  Finlayson,  1935«,  pi.  opp.  p.  63. 

According  to  Finlayson  (1935c,  p.  232),  the  probability  of  the 
identity  of  M.  I.  leucura  and  T.  m.  miselius  is  very  great,  and  the 
latter  name  is  here  considered,  at  least  provisionally,  as  a  synonym. 

Proportions  and  fur  of  leucura  as  in  M.  lagotis;  general  color 
pale  yellowish  fawn;  under  parts  pure  white  or  yellowish  white; 
limbs  pure  white;  tail  slender,  wholly  white-haired,  with  a  terminal 
dorsal  crest.  Measurements  of  the  very  young  type:  head  and 
body,  142  mm.;  tail,  116  mm.  (Thomas,  1887,  pp.  397-398.)  In 
miselius  the  central  two-fifths  of  the  tail  has  a  median  dorsal  line 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  57 

of  pale  slate,  bordered  by  fawn;  head  and  body,  250  mm.;  tail, 
155  mm.;  ear,  72  mm.  (Finlayson,  1932,  pp.  168-169). 

The  type  of  leucura,  from  an  unknown  Australian  locality,  was 
described  in  1887.  A  second  specimen  was  taken  at  Mungerani, 
east  of  Lake  Eyre,  in  1924.  The  12  specimens  on  which  the  name 
miselius  was  founded  were  taken  in  1931  near  Cooncherie  on  the 
lower  Diamantina  River,  in  northeastern  South  Australia,  at  about 
latitude  26°  32'.  In  this  area  the  animal  was  plentiful  (Finlayson, 
1935c;  p.  227).  It  appears  to  be  known,  however,  from  a  total  of 
only  14  specimens. 

A  Wonkonguroo  boy,  who  obtained  most  of  the  specimens  near 
Cooncherie,  was  adept  at  locating  the  burrows  in  sand  hills, 
although  the  entrances  were  blocked  with  loose  sand.  The  animal 
is  evidently  used  as  food  by  the  natives.  (Finlayson,  1935c,  p.  227.) 

"It  now  appears  .  .  .  that  the  ...  composite  species  [M.  I. 
leucura  and  M.  I.  minor]  has  a  wide  central  distribution  in  which 
it  may  survive  indefinitely,  though  the  advent  of  the  fox  and 
rabbit  are  considered  by  Professor  Wood  Jones  to  have  already 
exercised  a  marked  influence  on  sub-desert  populations,  in  asso- 
ciation with  prolonged  dry  seasons"  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt., 
April  16,  1937) . 

Lesser  Bilby;  Lesser  Rabbit-bandicoot 

MACROTIS  LEUCURA  MINOR  (Spencer) 

Peragale  minor  Spencer,  Proc.  Royal  Soc.  Victoria,  n.  s.,  vol.  9,  p.  6,  pi.  2, 
figs.  1-4,  1897.  ("Sand-hills  about  forty  miles  to  the  north-east  of 
Charlotte  Waters,"  Central  Australia.) 

This  animal  seems  to  be  definitely  known  only  from  a  small 
series  taken  at  the  type  locality  in  Central  Australia  more  than 
45  years  ago. 

Fur  long  and  silky;  general  color  fawn-gray;  chin  and  inner 
side  of  forelimbs  white;  rest  of  limbs  and  under  parts  gray;  feet 
white  above;  basal  two-thirds  of  tail  dark  above;  final  third 
white,  crested;  sides  and  ventral  surface  of  tail  white.  Head  and 
body,  200-270  mm.;  tail,  118-160  mm.;  ear,  68-92  mm.  (Spencer, 
1897,  pp.  6-7.) 

"The  'Urpila'  (P.  minor)  during  the  winter  months  lies  within  a 
foot  or  so  of  the  entrance  of  his  [burrow].  .  .  .  This  peculiarity 
is  taken  advantage  of  by  the  natives  who  jump  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  behind  the  'Urpila'  breaking  it  in  and  so  cutting  off 
his  retreat  to  the  inner  chamber.  He  is  thus  compelled  to  rush 
out  through  the  entrance  where  a  native  is  waiting  to  give  him 
his  quietus."  (Byrne,  in  Spencer,  1897,  p.  9.) 


58  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  fox  and  the  rabbit  have  probably  been  decisive  factors  in 
the  depletion  or  disappearance  of  this  animal. 

Eastern  Pig-footed  Bandicoot 

CHAEROPUS  ECAUDATUS  ECAUDATUS  (Ogilby) 

Perameles  ecaudatus  Ogilby,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1838,  p.  25,  1838.  (Left 
(south)  bank  of  the  Murray  River,  near  the  junction  with  the  Murrum- 
bidgee  River,  in  Victoria.  Not  New  South  Wales,  as  stated  by  Iredale 
and  Troughton  (1934,  p.  21).  Cj.  Mitchell,  1838,  vol.  2,  p.  131.) 

FIGS.:    Gould,  1845,  vol.  1,  pi.  6  (central  fig.);  Jones,  1924,  p.  167,  fig.  124. 

This  unique  little  animal  has  apparently  vanished  from  eastern 
Australia  and  southern  South  Australia;  possibly  it  maintains  a 
slight  foothold  (as  one  subspecies  or  the  other)  in  Central  Australia. 

Ears  long,  elliptical,  and  nearly  naked;  muzzle  much  attenu- 
ated; body  about  the  size  of  a  small  rabbit,  and  the  fur  very 
much  of  the  same  quality  and  color  as  in  that  animal;  two  toes 
on  forefeet,  similar  to  those  of  a  pig;  tail  [accidentally]  wanting 
(Ogilby,  1838,  pp.  25-26).  General  color  coarsely  grizzled  gray, 
with  a  tinge  of  fawn;  under  parts  white;  limbs  long  and  slender; 
tail  black  above,  gray  below  and  on  sides.  Head  and  body,  250 
mm.;  tail,  about  100  mm.  (Thomas,  1888,  pp.  251-252.) 

The  former  range  included  the  interior  parts  of  Queensland,  New 
South  Wales,  and  Victoria;  also  South  Australia.  The  systematic 
status  of  the  Central  Australian  animal  is  apparently  not  settled, 
but  in  coloration  it  is  said  by  Spencer  (1896,  p.  17)  to  resemble 
the  western  subspecies,  C.  e.  occidentalis. 

"The  quaint  and  singularly  gentle  Pig-footed  Bandicoot  which 
had  been  discovered  by  Mitchell  in  1836  was  reported  by  Krefft 
twenty  years  later  as  exceedingly  rare  and  disappearing  as  fast  as 
the  native  population"  (Troughton,  1932,  p.  188).  This  was  due 
to  the  increase  of  cattle  and  sheep  (Lydekker,  1894,  p.  148) . 

The  species  is  recorded  from  western  Queensland  by  Longman 
(1930,  p.  64). 

There  were  a  few  records  from  extreme  northwestern  Victoria 
(the  last  one  in  1857),  and  the  animal  is  now  extinct  in  that  state 
(C.  W.  Brazenor,  in  litt.,  March  3,  1937). 

Jones  writes  (1924,  p.  171)  concerning  the  species  in  South 
Australia : 

Specimens  in  the  South  Australian  Museum  come  from  Cooper's  Creek, 
from  near  Ooldea,  and  from  the  Gawler  Ranges.  Probably  it  still  lives  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Ooldea,  but  specimens  have  not  been  met  with  in 
that  district  for  some  years.  ...  In  1920  one  was  killed  between  Miller's 
Creek  and  Coward  Springs  to  the  south  and  west  of  Lake  Eyre.  .  .  .  Although 
its  distribution  in  the  Centre  is  wide,  it  has  always  been  a  very  rare  animal, 
and  now  must  be  regarded  as  a  disappearing  one.  .  .  . 


ORDER   MARSUPIALIA I      MARSUPIALS  59 

Pig-footed  Bandicoots  are  said  .  .  .  when  chased  by  dogs,  to  seek  the 
shelter  of  hollow  logs  or  hollow  trees.  In  the  districts  to  which  they  are  now 
confined  they  would  be  hard  put  to  find  a  log,  let  alone  a  tree  ....  Once 
open  country  of  this  type  has  been  invaded  by  the  fox,  the  fate  of  Choeropus 
is  sealed.  .  .  .  The  name  by  which  it  is  known  to  the  Kukata  blacks  is 
Wilalya,  and  they  regard  it  as  an  animal  which  has  always  been  rare  and 
which  is  now  extinct  in  their  country. 

Reporting  on  the  Horn  Expedition  to  Central  Australia,  Spencer 
says  (1896,  pp.  17-18) : 

"At  the  present  time  this  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  the  smaller 
marsupials  to  secure.  .  .  .  During  the  expedition  we  were  unable 
to  secure  a  single  specimen.  On  a  subsequent  visit  to  Charlotte 
Waters  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  one  secured  by  the 
blacks.  .  .  . 

"There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  range  of  the  animal  extends 
widely  over  the  central  area.  In  the  Adelaide  Museum  is  a  speci- 
men from  Barrow  Creek,  which  lies  well  within  the  tropics,  and 
throughout  the  whole  of  our  expedition  all  the  natives  were  well 
acquainted  with  it.  ...  It  ...  is  evidently  rapidly  becoming  ex- 
tinct, except  perhaps  in  the  more  central  districts." 

"Said  to  still  have  a  wide  but  sparse  distribution  in  the  central 
region,  there  has  been  little  proof  of  late,  and  its  terrestrial,  non- 
burrowing,  specialized  habits  and  frail  constitution  render  its  ulti- 
mate extinction  certain"  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt.,  April  16, 
1937). 

Western  Pig-footed  Bandicoot 

CHAEROPUS  ECAUDATUS  OCCIDENTALS  Gould 

[Choeropus]  occidentalis  Gould,  Mamm.  Australia,  vol.  1,  p.  10,  pi.  6, 
1845.  ("The  interior"  of  "Western  Australia";  type  locality  shown  by 
Thomas  (1888,  p.  252)  to  be  "Boorda,  Kirltana,  W.  A.") 

FIGS.:  Gould,  1845,  vol.  1,  pi.  6  (right  and  left  figs.) ;  Waterhouse,  1846,  vol.  1, 
pi.  13,  fig.  2. 

This  animal  is  extinct,  at  least  in  Western  Australia  (L.  Glauert, 
in  litt.,  March  17,  1937).  The  form  that  once  occurred  in  Central 
Australia  (see  discussion  under  C.  e.  ecaudatus)  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  recorded  for  some  years  and  may  have  suffered  the 
same  fate. 

The  western  subspecies  differs  from  the  eastern  one  chiefly  in  its 
orange-brown  rather  than  gray  coloration. 

Gould  states  (1863,  vol.  1,  p.  10)  that  Gilbert  sent  two  specimens 
from  Western  Australia  and  that  the  animal  is  confined  to  the 
interior.  According  to  Waterhouse  (1846,  vol.  1,  p.  392),  one  of  the 
specimens  came  from  the  Swan  River  district. 

"I  was  not  able  to  find  out  anything  definite  about  the  dis- 


60  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

tribution  of  this  species  in  Western  Australia.  It  is  evidently  very 
rare.  The  specimen  obtained  by  Gilbert  in  1843  seems  to  have  been 
the  only  one  ever  secured  in  this  State."  (Shortridge,  1910,  p.  835; 
map,  p.  836.) 

"Mr.  A.  Le  Souef  states  in  a  letter  2/12/1927  that  he  has  seen  a 
dried  skin  at  Rawlinna.  This  is  the  only  recent  record  known  to 
me."  (Glauert,  1933,  p.  24.) 

Family  PHALANGERIDAE :   Phalangers,  etc. 

This  family  consists  of  approximately  14  Recent  genera  and  110 
forms.  Its  range  extends  from  Tasmania  and  Australia  to  New 
Guinea  and  the  Admiralty  and  Solomon  Islands  on  the  north  and 
to  Celebes  and  Timor  on  the  west.  Three  Australian  species  are 
discussed  herein. 

Honey  Mouse;  Honey  Possum;  Long-snouted  Pouched  Mouse 

TARSIPES  SPENSERAE  J.  E.  Gray 

Tarsipes  Spenserae  J.  E.  Gray,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  1,  vol.  9,  p.  40,  1842. 

("King  George's  Sound,"  Western  Australia.) 
FIGS.:    Gould,   1845,  vol.  1,  pi.  5;   Waterhouse,   1846,  vol.   1,  pi.   11,  fig.   1; 

Cabrera,   1919,  pi.  13,  fig.  5;   Troughton,  1923,  pi.  23,  and  p.  152,  fig.; 

Troughton,  1924,  pp.  128,  129,  figs. 

This  rare,  local,  and  unique  little  animal  of  Western  Australia  is 
"becoming  rarer"  (L.  Glauert,  in  Hit.,  March  17,  1937) . 

Body  mouselike;  head  elongate,  tapering;  general  color  blackish 
gray ;  back  with  a  median  black  streak,  bordered  by  a  brown  stripe 
on  each  side;  under  parts  pale  bay;  tail  elongate,  tapering,  short- 
haired,  scaly.  Head  and  body,  3^  inches;  tail,  3  inches.  (J.  E.  Gray, 
1842,  p.  40.)  Tongue  slender,  protrusile,  and  brushlike,  specialized 
for  thrusting  into  flowers  for  nectar.  Head  and  body,  71  (male)  to 
86  mm.  (female) ;  tail,  95  (male)  to  101  mm.  (female).  (Troughton, 
1923,  pp.  153-154.) 

The  range,  according  to  Glauert  (1933,  p.  25),  is  "South-Western 
Australia  from  the  Irwin  River  south  of  Geraldton  to  the  south 
coast  as  far  east  as  Esperance. 

"Usually  more  or  less  coastal,  but  has  been  found  along  the 
Great  Southern  as  far  north  as  Wagin,  and  at  Nyabing  east  of 
Katanning.  The  animal  still  occurs  close  to  Perth  in  suitable 
localities.  .  .  .  King  George's  Sound  ...  is  still  the  headquarters 
of  the  species." 

Gould  (1863,  vol.  1,  p.  9)  recorded  it  "from  Swan  River  to  King 
George's  Sound,  but  from  its  rarity  and  the  difficulty  with  which  it 
is  procured,  notwithstanding  the  high  rewards  I  offered,  the  natives 
only  brought  me  four  specimens." 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  61 

Shortridge  (1910,  p.  826;  map,  p.  827)  records  eight  specimens 
from  Albany.  "The  small  marsupial  mice  are  very  difficult  to  secure 
on  account  of  their  rarity,  and  their  nocturnal,  arboreal,  and  to  a 
great  extent  insectivorous  habits,  being  known  chiefly  from  cats 
killing  and  bringing  them  into  houses." 

Troughton,  who  has  contributed  most  of  the  recent  information 
on  the  species,  writes  (1924,  pp.  127-132) : 

Alas,  as  settlement  increases,  the  time  seems  near  when  there  may  be  no 
living  representatives  of  these  unique  creatures  to  occupy  the  queer  niche 
which  the  process  of  evolution  has  fashioned  for  them  within  its  fabric.  .  .  . 

Failure  [to  secure  specimens  on  a  collecting  trip  near  Albany  in  1922] 
was  not  surprising,  all  accounts  confirming  Mr.  Morgan's  statement  that  the 
mice  visit  areas  periodically  according  to  the  flowery  food  supply,  and  that 
they  are  but  rarely  seen  except  when  brought  in  by  cats  as  trophies  of  the 
chase.  .  .  . 

A  few  months  after  my  return  .  .  .  ,  the  Honey  Mice  visited  Mr.  Morgan's 
home  once  more  and  he  has  since  sent  over  twenty  adult  mice  to  the  Museum, 
all  of  which  were  caught  by  his  cat.  .  .  . 

As  they  are  dependent  upon  the  native  flowers,  the  advance  of  settle- 
ment with  its  periodical  burning  off,  and  the  introduction  of  cats  and  other 
enemies,  in  addition  to  native  ones,  must  seriously  threaten  the  future  of 
these  marsupials  .... 

It  is  reassuring  to  hear  from  Mr.  Glauert  that  the  mice  are  still  fairly 
plentiful  over  an  area  of  about  12,000  square  miles,  and  that  at  the  end  of 
1923  the  West  Australian  Government  was  about  to  proclaim  the  Stirling 
Ranges  a  sanctuary  for  the  native  fauna.  Let  us  hope  that  these  ranges  may 
prove  a  veritable  stronghold  for  the  Honey  Mice,  and  that  the  flowers  may 
not  miss  their  spring-cleaning  from  the  brushy  tongues  for  many  generations 
to  come. 

Troughton  also  says  (1923,  p.  155) :  "Tarsipes  is  dependent  upon 
the  flowers  and  foliage  of  its  native  districts,  and  as  paddocks  have 
to  be  burnt  off  about  every  third  year,  the  tiny  marsupials  are 
literally  hunted  from  paddock  to  post  and  prevented  from  settling 
in  any  one  area.  Before  the  rapid  advance  of  Western  Australia's 
settlement  schemes,  .  .  .  fire  and  other  enemies  will  send  the  Honey 
Mice  to  join  their  fossil  forbears  in  comparative  oblivion,  leaving 
them  represented  only  by  a  few  museum  skins  and  stray  skeletons." 

Leadbeater's  Opossum 

GYMNOBELIDEUS  LEADBEATERI  M'Coy 

Gymnobelideus  Leadbeaten  M'Coy,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  3,  vol.  20,  p.  287, 

pi.  6,  1867.    ("Banks  of  the  Bass  River,  in  Victoria.") 
FIGS.:   M'Coy,  1867,  pi.  6;   McCoy,  1883,  pi.  91;  Lucas  and  Le  Souef,  1909; 

p.  107,  fig.;  Brazenor,  1932,  pi.  6. 

This  rare  species,  the  only  known  member  of  its  genus,  was  based 
upon  two  specimens  collected  in  1867  along  the  Bass  River,  South 
Gippsland,  Victoria.  In  1900  another  specimen,  reputed  to  have 


62  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

come  from  the  same  locality,  was  secured  from  a  Melbourne  dealer. 
In  1909  the  fourth  known  specimen  was  presented  to  the  National 
Museum  of  Victoria  by  A.  G.  Wilson;  it  came  from  Mount  Wills  in 
East  Gippsland,  some  160  miles  from  the  Bass  River  habitat.  A  fifth 
specimen  was  presented  to  the  same  institution  by  F.  V.  Mason, 
who  had  taken  it  many  years  previously  at  the  edge  of  the  Koo- 


FIG.  7. — Leadbeater's  Opossum    (Gymnobelideus  leadbeateri) 

Wee-Rup  Swamp,  about  3  miles  due  south  from  Tynong  Railway 
Station  and  only  a  few  miles  from  Bass  River.  (Brazenor,  1932, 
pp.  106,  108.) 

Practically  our  entire  knowledge  of  the  species  is  based  upon  these 
five  specimens,  which  are  in  the  National  Museum  of  Victoria. 

Its  general  appearance  is  much  like  that  of  the  Sugar  Glider 
(Petaurus  breviceps) ,  but  it  has  no  flying  membrane.  Color  above 
brownish  gray  to  fawn-gray,  with  a  dark  brown  to  black  median 
stripe  from  head  to  sacrum;  dark  patches  above  and  below  ear  and 
about  eye;  ears  large,  nearly  naked  toward  tip;  chin  and  throat 
dull  buff;  rest  of  ventral  surface  light  yellowish  gray;  tail  long, 
bushy,  colored  like  body  (in  one  specimen  the  terminal  half  is 
black) .  Head  and  body,  169-200  mm.;  tail,  168-203  mm.  (Brazenor, 
1932,  pp.  106-108.) 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  63 

"There  is  much  virgin  scrubland  in  Gippsland  in  which  the  small 
creature  could  survive.  It  is  nocturnal  in  habits,  and  its  general 
resemblance  to  Petaurus  breviceps  is  close  enough  to  make  its  recog- 
nition by  evening  light  very  difficult.  When  these  facts  are  con- 
sidered, the  possibility  of  its  survival  is  greater  than  might  at  first 
be  realised,  and  it  is  probable  that  a  systematic  search  would  re- 
establish this  small  creature  among  the  living  animals  of  Victoria." 
(Brazenor,  1932,  p.  109.)  More  recently  Mr.  Brazenor  has  come 
to  the  conclusion  (in  litt.,  March  3,  1937)  that  it  is  "probably 
extinct." 

"The  risk  of  extermination  for  small  unexploitable  opossum  forms 
of  restricted  range  is  indicated  by  the  fate  of  Leadbeater's  opossum 
.  .  .  ,  an  important  phalangerid  link,  originally  restricted  to  a  small 
area  of  Victoria  where  denudation  of  its  limited  scrub  habitat 
has  apparently  led  to  the  animals'  extinction.  This  unique  mar- 
supial is  represented  by  barely  a  dozen  specimens  in  state  museums." 
(Troughton,  1938,  p.  408.) 

Presumably  Leadbeater's  Opossum  has  been  subject 'to  attack  by 
the  Domestic  Cat  and  perhaps  other  introduced  enemies.  It  is  also 
quite  possible  that  many  specimens  have  fallen  victims  to  opossum 
trappers  who  did  not  differentiate  them  or  at  any  rate  did  not 
realize  their  exceptional  value. 

Some  of  the  numerous  government  reserves  that  have  been 
established  in  Victoria  might  provide  sanctuary  for  this  unique 
animal  if  it  were  still  extant. 

Western   Ringtail;   Western   Ring-tailed  Opossum 

PSEUDOCHEIRUS    OCCIDENTALIS     (Thomas) 

Pseudochirus  occidentalis  Thomas,  Cat.  Marsupialia  and  Monotremata  Brit. 
Mus.,  p.  174,  1888.    ("King  George's  Sound,  W.  A.") 

This  animal,  confined  to  the  extreme  southwest  of  Western 
Australia,  is  feared  to  be  on  the  verge  of  extinction. 

Color  above  deep  smoky  gray;  limbs  like  back,  but  hands  and 
feet  darker;  under  parts  white;  basal  part  of  tail  dark  brown, 
terminal  two-fifths  white,  naked  part  below  tip  smooth.  Head  and 
body,  335  mm.;  tail,  310  mm.  (Thomas,  1888,  pp.  174-175.) 

Nearly  a  hundred  years  ago  Gould's  collector,  John  Gilbert, 
obtained  specimens  at  Perth,  Swan  River,  and  King  George's  Sound. 
More  recently  Shortridge  (1910,  pp.  827-829)  collected  22  specimens 
at  Margaret  River  and  Busselton,  remarking  that  it  is  "chiefly 
confined  to  the  banks  of  rivers  and  swamps  in  the  South-West; 
local,  and  apparently  disappearing  in  many  places."  Yet  he  con- 
sidered it  "fairly  plentiful  near  the  Margaret  River."  These  few 


64  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

records  suggest  that  the  animal  was  practically  confined  to  the 
South-West  Division  of  Western  Australia,  from  Perth  southward. 
(See  map,  Shortridge,  1910,  p.  829.) 

Glauert  (1933,  p.  24)  gives  its  range  as  "lower  South- Western 
Australia  in  small  isolated  colonies,  which  suggest  that  the  animal 
is  on  the  verge  of  extinction  through  natural  causes." 

No  particular  information  is  at  hand  concerning  its  enemies,  aside 
from  Gilbert's  remark  (in  Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  p.  25) :  "It  ...  is 
often  found  in  holes  in  the  ground,  .  .  .  from  which  it  is  often 
hunted  out  by  the  Kangaroo  dogs." 

Family  PHASCOLARCTID AE :    Koalas 

The  Koalas,  consisting  of  a  single  genus  and  species,  with  three 
subspecies,  are  restricted  to  eastern  Australia.  All  forms  come 
within  the  scope  of  the  present  work. 

New  South  Wales  Koala;  Native  Bear 

PHASCOLARCTOS  CINEREUS  CINERE(US  (Goldfuss) 

fypurus  cinereus  Goldfuss,  in  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  pis.   155  Aa,  Ab,   1817; 

Isis  (Oken),  1819,  Heft  2,  p.  271.    ("The  forests  of  New  Holland,  about 

50-60   English   miles    [southwest]    from    Port   Jackson    [Sydney],"   New 

South  Wales.) 
FIGS.:    Waterhouse,  1841,  pi.  31;  Gould,  1854,  vol.  1,  pis.  13,  14;  Lydekker, 

1894,  pi.  10;  Nat.  Geog.  Mag.,  vol.  70,  no.  6,  p.  715,  right-hand  fig,  1936; 

Pocock,  1937,  p.  626,  fig.  (subsp.?). 

Once  numerous  in  the  timbered  areas  of  New  South  Wales,  the 
typical  subspecies  of  this  unique  animal  has  been  reduced  almost  to 
the  verge  of  extinction,  although  many  thousands  of  the  Queensland 
subspecies  (P.  c.  adustus)  and  perhaps  a  thousand  of  the  Victorian 
subspecies  (P.  c.  victor)  still  exist. 

The  fur  is  dense  and  woolly;  general  color  gray,  either  light  or 
dark,  sometimes  mottled,  with  whitish  patches  on  hind  quarters; 
under  parts,  hands,  and  feet  more  or  less  whitish ;  ears  large,  thickly 
haired;  tail  rudimentary.  Head  and  body,  700-820  mm.  (Le  Souef 
and  Burrell,  1926,  pp.  291-292.)  Auburn  groin  patches  separated 
by  a  creamy-white  median  area  (Troughton,  1935,  p.  139). 

The  Koala  feeds  almost  entirely  on  the  foliage  of  a  few  trees 
of  the  genus  Eucalyptus:  E.  viminalis,  E.  melliodora,  E.  rostrata, 
E.  microcorys,  and  E.  maculata  (Sutton,  1934,  p.  78).  Thus  the 
ranges  of  the  three  subspecies  are  pretty  definitely  restricted  to 
those  areas  in  which  /some  or  all  of  these  eucalypts  occur.  The 
species  as  a  whole  formerly  ranged  from  extreme  southeastern 
South  Australia  through  Victoria  and  the  eastern  half  of  New 
South  Wales  into  Queensland  (see  map,  Victorian  Nat.,  vol.  51, 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  65 

no.  3,  p.  80,  1934).  While  the  exact  geographical  limits  of  the 
several  subspecies  have  not  been  fully  determined,  we  may  pro- 
visionally consider  the  range  of  cinereus  to  be  New  South  Wales; 
of  adustus,  Queensland;  and  of  victor,  Victoria  and  southeastern 
South  Australia. 

In  New  South  Wales  Gould  (1863,  vol.  1,  pp.  18-19)  considered 
the  animal  "nowhere  very  abundant"  but  most  numerous  "in  the 
brushes  which  skirt  the  sea  side  of  the  mountain-ranges  between 
the  district  of  Illawarra  and  the  River  Clarence."  He  recorded  it 
also  "among  the  cedar  brushes  of  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  interior, 
particularly  those  bordering  the  well-known  Liverpool  Plains."  He 
prophesied  that  it  "is  certain  to  become  gradually  more  scarce,  and 
to  be  ultimately  extirpated." 

"Though  at  one  time  extremely  numerous,  the  koala  is  now,  over 
the  greater  part  of  its  range,  very  scarce.  This  is  largely  due  to 
a  disease  which  swept  it  off  in  millions  in  the  years  1887-8-9,  and 
from  1900  to  1903.  This  disease  took  the  form  of  ophthalmia  and 
periostitis  of  the  skull.  Bears  are  generally  heavily  infected  with 
intestinal  parasites."  (Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  p.  292.) 

At  Marrangaroo,  County  of  Cook,  N.  S.  W.,  "the  native  bear 
was  quite  common  then  [1884-5],  but  quite  extinct  there  now" 
(Chisholm,  1923,  p.  60) .  On  the  Comboyne  Plateau,  N.  S.  W.,  it 
is  "very  rare  here  now  and  only  inhabiting  the  Eucalypt  timber  at 
the  edge  of  the  Plateau"  (Chisholm,  1925,  p.  72). 

In  the  fox-free  eastern  coastal  area  "there  are  also  a  few  Koalas, 
but  these  never  get  a  chance,  as  the  temptation  to  shoot  or  catch 
the  defenceless  little  animals  as  they  sit  exposed  on  a  bough,  is 
more  than  the  so-called  sportsmen  of  the  community  can  resist, 
and  even  in  our  National  Parks  they  are  destroyed"  (Le  Souef, 
1923,  p.  110). 

Barry  writes  (1928,  p.  163)  of  the  Koala's  status  on  Kuringai 
Chase,  near  Sydney:  "Native  Bears  were  also  common  here  years 
ago,  but  now,  as  in  most  places  in  New  South  Wales,  they  are 
rarely  seen." 

"The  typical  N.  S.  Wales  animal  has  been  reduced  to  a  state 
verging  upon  extinction,  in  which  the  setting  aside  of  adequate 
areas  with  assured  supply  of  favoured  eucalypt  diet  trees  presents 
the  only  hope  of  survival.  It  is  notable  that  any  attempt  to  breed 
them  in  captivity  is  dependent  for  ultimate  success  on  the  provision 
of  such  reserves."  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt.,  April  16,  1937.) 

Lydekker  remarks  (1894,  p.  80)  in  regard  to  the  Koala's  economic 
status: 

The  flesh  is  considered  a  great  delicacy  by  the  natives,  and  is  regarded  as 
not  unpalatable  even  by  Europeans.  Of  its  pursuit  by  the  natives  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Port  Jackson,  Colonel  Patterson  writes  as  follows:  "The  natives 


66  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

examine  .  .  .  the  branches  of  the  loftiest  gum-trees,  and  upon  discovering  a 
Koala,  they  climb  the  tree  in  which  it  is  seen  with  as  much  ease  and 
expedition  as  a  European  would  mount  a  tolerably  high  ladder.  .  .  .  They 
follow  the  animal  to  the  extremity  of  a  bough,  and  either  kill  it  with  the 
tomahawk  or  take  it  alive.  .  .  ." 

The  Koala  must  be  an  abundant  animal,  since  from  10,000  to  30,000  skins 
are  annually  imported  into  London,  while  in  1889  the  enormous  total  of 
300,000  was  reached.  The  value  of  these  skins  now  ranges,  according  to  Poland, 
from  five-pence  to  a  shilling  each;  and  they  are  mainly  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  those  articles  for  which  a  cheap  and  durable  fur  is  required. 

Concerning  the  Koala's  decline,  persecution,  and  need  of  protec- 
tion, Jones  writes  (1924,  pp.  184-186) : 

It  may  be  said  to  spend  its  whole  life  clinging  to,  and  feeding  upon,  the 
great  eucalyptus  trees.  In  just  so  much  as  it  is  a  perfected  specialisation 
to  its  environment,  so  it  is  a  slave  to  its  environment.  It  has  adapted  itself  to 
the  gum  tree,  and  has  become  dependent  upon  the  gum  tree.  It  must  be 
regarded  as  an  animal  which  has  become  phylogenetically  senile  as  the  out- 
come of  complete  specialisation  .... 

Probably  no  animal  has  been  so  ruthlessly  slaughtered  in  order  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  the  fur  trade.  ...  In  the  year  1908,  no  less  than  57,933  Koala 
pelts  passed  through  the  markets  of  Sydney  alone.  That  this  deplorable 
slaughter  still  goes  on  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  in  the  two  years  1920 
and  1921  Osborn  and  Anthony  have  ascertained  that  the  huge  total  of 
205,679  Koalas  were  killed  for  the  fur  market.  Since  in  the  fur  trade  Koala 
pelts  pass  under  the  name  of  "Wombat,"  many  people  assume  that  the 
Native  Bear  has  ceased  to  be  persecuted. 

The  complete  extermination  of  the  Native  Bear  would  be  a  disgrace  to 
Australia,  and  yet,  from  its  dependence  upon  a  particular  diet  and  a  par- 
ticular mode  of  life,  its  tenure  of  continued  existence  must  always  be  regarded 
as  precarious.  .  .  . 

Horrible  cruelties  have  been  committed  and  recounted  by  those  who  have 
slaughtered  them  wholesale  for  the  sake  of  their  pelts.  Indeed,  one  may  say, 
on  humanitarian  grounds,  that  not  only  should  the  slaughter  of  the  Koala  for 
the  fur  trade  be  prohibited  because  the  animal  is  eminently  one  to  protect 
and  not  to  exterminate,  but  it  should  be  prohibited  because,  like  the  slaying 
of  seals,  it  is  the  most  brutalising  occupation  that  a  human  being  can 
undertake. 

Le  Souef  and  Burrell  say  (1926,  pp.  291-292):  "The  quaint 
koala  .  .  .  ,  perhaps,  holds  the  affection  of  Australians  more  than 
any  other  of  their  wild  animals — a  fact  for  which  its  innocent, 
babyish  expression  and  quiet  and  inoffensive  ways  are  largely  re- 
sponsible. It  has  been  portrayed  in  caricature  and  verse,  and  its 
hold  on  the  public  is  used  effectively  by  advertisers.  .  .  . 

"The  skin  forms  a  thick,  serviceable  fur  that  will  stand  any 
amount  of  hard  usage.  Only  the  most  callous  of  shooters,  however, 
can  bring  themselves  to  shoot  such  a  childlike  animal." 

"In  each  of  the  States  of  Victoria,  Queensland  and  New  South 
Wales,  the  animal  is  protected  by  law"  (Stead,  1934,  p.  18).  Im- 
portation into  the  United  States  of  America  was  prohibited  about 
1930-31  by  the  United  States  Government.  "So  long  as  the  United 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS 


67 


States  market  remains  closed  there  will  be  but  little  local  incentive 

for  destruction — quite  apart  from  any  Australian  protective  laws" 

(Wild  Life  Preservation  Society  of  Australia,  22d  Ann.  Kept.,  1931) . 

Hobley  calls  attention   (1934,  p.  79)   to  private  sanctuaries  for 


FIG.   8. — New   South    Wales   Koala    (Phascolarctos   cinereus   oinereus) 

the  Koala  established  by  Noel  Burnet  in  the  Pennant  Hills,  near 
Sydney,  and  by  C.  A.  M.  Reid  at  Lone  Pine,  near  Brisbane.  (The 
latter  is  presumably  stocked  with  the  Queensland  subspecies.)  He 
adds: 

"Great  credit  is  due  to  the  founders  of  these  sanctuaries  who 
have  been  public-spirited  enough  to  secure  the  safety  of  a  number 
of  these  creatures  without  any  Government  support.  .  .  . 


68  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"The  Wild  Life  Preservation  Society  of  Australia  is  also  wisely 
working  away  with  the  object  of  establishing  Koala  Colonies  in 
such  places  as  the  Jenolan  Caves  Sanctuary,  Lindfield  Park,  and 
Davidson  Park  in  New  South  Wales — the  State  authorities  must, 
however,  be  persuaded  to  guarantee  some  security  for  the  animals 
established  therein." 

The  cause  of  the  Koala  is  eloquently  pleaded  by  Troughton 
(1932a,  p.  192) : 

"The  Koala  ...  is  utterly  harmless  everywhere,  and  what  a 
delight  it  would  be  for  both  young  and  old  if  they  were  plentiful 
enough  to  haunt  the  suburbs  and  homesteads  as  possums  often  do. 
They  seek  only  the  freedom  of  the  trees,  and  if  the  continued 
slaughter  of  such  innocents  leads  to  their  extermination,  it  must 
inevitably  appear  to  later  generations  as  an  indictment  of  the 
cultural  degradation  of  our  time." 

Queensland  Koala 

PHASCOLARCTOS  CINEREUS  ADUSTUS  Thomas 

Phascolarctos  cinereus  adustus  Thomas,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  9,  vol.  11, 
p.  246,  1923.  ("0  Bil  Bil,  near  Mimdubbera,"  Eidsvold,  South  Queensland.) 

FIGS.:  Faulkner,  Australian  Zool.,  vol.  3,  pt.  3,  pi.  16,  1923;  Le  Souef  and 
Burrell,  1926,  fig.  77. 

Up  to  15  or  20  years  ago,  the  Queensland  Koala  must  have 
numbered  well  over  a  million  individuals;  quite  possibly  there 
were  several  millions.  But  disease  and  more  especially  the  fur 
trade  have  reduced  it  to  a  remnant  of  its  former  numbers. 

It  is  smaller  than  P.  c.  cinereus;  fur  shorter;  anterior  back  suf- 
fused with  dull  rufous  or  tawny;  ears  far  less  thickly  hairy,  the 
inner  surface  almost  naked;  under  parts  lighter;  the  prominent 
groin  patches  rather  browner  and  less  rufous.  Head  and  body, 
600  mm.  (Thomas,  1923,  p.  246.) 

In  former  times  it  seems  to  have  ranged  over  practically  all 
the  more  southerly  and  easterly  parts  of  Queensland,  north  to 
Inkerman  (lat.  19°  30')  and  west  to  the  Diamantina  and  Cooper 
River  basins  (about  long.  143°).  (See  map,  Victorian  Nat.,  vol.  51, 
no.  3,  p.  80,  1934.) 

"The  Queensland  Minister  for  Agriculture  has  said  that  in 
1919-1930  no  fewer  than  ...  a  million  native  bears  were  slaugh- 
tered in  Queensland.  If  this  slaughter  continues  these  poor  animals 
will  be  exterminated."  (Gregory,  1921,  p.  65.) 

"Koalas  .  .  .  are  now  getting  numerous  again  in  Southern  Queens- 
land" (Le  Souef,  1923,  p.  109). 

"In  1924,  the  colossal  total  of  over  two  million  skins  of  the 
Koala  or  Native  Bear  were  exported  and  mainly  sold  under  the 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  69 

name  of  'wombat'  to  mask  the  wholesale  slaughter.  In  the  Queens- 
land open  season  of  1927,  approximately  600,000  Koala  were  mas- 
sacred by  10,000  licensed  trappers."  (Troughton,  1932,  p.  193.) 

"In  Queensland  Native  Bears  are  still  to  be  found  in  fair  numbers, 
and  no  doubt  the  Queensland  Government  was  influenced  by  this 
fact  when  it  removed  the  protection  which  the  animals  have  enjoyed 
since  1919.  But  it  is  certain  that  even  in  one  month  their  numbers 
will  be  seriously  depleted.  .  .  .  Fur  and  skin  brokers  in  Brisbane 
considered  that  before  the  season  closed  300,000  skins  would  have 
been  disposed  of.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  estimated  total  will 
have  been  reached,  but  it  has  to  be  remembered  that  many  young 
will  perish  when  deprived  of  the  parental  care  of  their  mothers, 
which  carry  the  little  ones  'pick-a-back'  from  June  until  towards 
the  close  of  the  year."  (Anonymous,  1927,  p.  112.) 

Stead  (1934,  pp.  16-17)  writes: 

Only  in  a  few  places  in  Queensland  are  large  numbers  of  the  Koala  to  be 
found,  but  only  the  most  careful  protection  by  the  Government  and  by  the 
Australian  people  will  prevent  them  from  being  exterminated  in  these  places. 
.  .  .  Telling  of  the  terrible  destruction  which  has  gone  on  in  Queensland  .  .  . 
makes  a  very  unhappy  story,  and  makes  one  rather  ashamed  to  think  that 
his  own  people  should  so  cruelly  destroy  one  of  the  most  fascinating,  harmless 
and  most  interesting  living  things  in  the  whole  of  the  world  of  Nature.  .  .  . 

Very  few  people  have  any  idea  of  the  immense  number  of  these  harmless 
animals  killed  in  the  one  State  of  Queensland  in  only  a  few  years  before  the 
present  season  of  protection  was  introduced.  In  1927,  about  600,000  were 
killed  during  one  month's  open  season  (August),  and,  for  the  whole  year, 
including  a  so-called  close  season,  not  less  than  one  million  were  slain. 
Altogether,  several  millions  of  the  poor  little  Koalas  were  killed  in  a  space 
of  a  few  years  in  Queensland,  until  a  great  wave  of  public  indignation  put  a 
stop  to  it  for  the  time  being. 

"The  tenure  of  the  koala  in  the  Dawson  Valley  [Queensland] 
seems  to  have  been  a 'waning  one  for  many  years,  and  the  last  open 
season  reduced  it  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  now  a  rare  animal  in 
many  parts  of  the  valley  where  it  was  formerly  very  plentiful.  The 
process  has  been  hastened,  too,  in  some  places,  by  an  epidemic,  and 
on  Coomooboolaroo  in  the  summer  of  1929  several  were  seen  in 
comatose  condition  at  the  base  of  feeding  trees.  The  single  example 
in  this  condition  which  was  examined  closely  was  an  aged  male, 
and  though  emaciated  was  not  heavily  infested  with  endoparasites, 
nor  obviously  diseased  organically.  .  .  . 

"It  was  observed  .and  collected  at  Thangool  on  the  Cariboe,  at 
Coomooboolaroo,  and  near  Mount  Hedlow,  on  the  Fitzroy."  (Fin- 
layson,  1934,  p.  220.) 

The  animal  now  has  complete  legal  protection  in  Queensland 
(Stead,  1934,  p.  18) . 

"Perpetual  universal  protection  is  essential  to  its  ultimate  sur- 


70  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

vival,  not  alone  in  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  where  exploita- 
tion, denudation  of  habitat,  and  disease  have  brought  this  unique 
animal  to  the  verge  of  extinction.  It  is  in  Queensland  especially, 
where  coastal  forests  of  the  south-east  provide  the  last  stronghold 
and  hope  of  survival,  that  total  protection  should  never  again  be 
withdrawn."  (Troughton,  1938,  p.  408.) 

Victorian  Koala 

PHASCOLARCTOS  CINEREUS  VICTOR  Troughton 

Phascolarctos  cinereus  victor  Troughton,  Australian  Nat.,  vol.  9,  pt.  6,  p.  139, 

1935.    ("French  Island,"  Western  Port  Bay,  Victoria.) 
FIGS.:   Victorian  Nat.,  vol.  51,  no.  3,  pis.  11-15,  1934. 

Once  very  common  over  most  of  Victoria  and  in  southeastern 
South  Australia,  this  subspecies  had  become  reduced  by  1934  to 
about  1,000  individuals  in  Victoria. 

Body  more  robust  than  in  P.  c.  cinereus;  coat  longer,  sparser, 
and  hairier,  especially  on  rump  and  ears;  coloration  richer,  de- 
cidedly brown;  ears  brownish  outside,  white  inside;  auburn  groin 
patches  extending  across  the  inguinal  region;  belly  brown  (Trough- 
ton,  1935,  p.  139) .  White  area  on  throat  and  chest  frequently  pro- 
longed to  nape,  forming  a  complete  collar.  Head  and  body:  three 
males,  800-830  mm.;  one  female,  730  mm.  (Finlayson,  19356,  pp. 
223-224.) 

The  Koala's  status  in  Victoria  is  thus  reviewed  by  Lewis  (1934, 
pp.  73-74) : 

There  is  very  good  evidence  that  forty  or  fifty  years  ago  "Native  Bears" 
were  exceedingly  common  over  almost  the  whole  of  Victoria.  Now  the  species 
is  almost  extinct  on  the  mainland,  a  very  few  Koalas  surviving  in  the 
Inverloch  district  and  in  South  Gippsland  around  Welshpool,  Toora,  Foster, 
etc.  Others  are  living — and,  I  am  glad  to  say,  thriving — on  the  islands  in 
Western  Port  Bay.  I  estimate  that  there  are  now  not  more  than  1,000  Koalas 
in  this  State. 

On  the  mainland  of  Victoria,  I  feel  certain,  the  Koala  is  doomed  to  early 
extinction,  and  will  never  be  re-established,  excepting  perhaps  in  some  reserves 
which  may  be  specially  set  apart  for  its  protection  and  conservation,  such  as 
the  Badger  Creek  Sanctuary,  near  Healesville.  .  .  . 

From  inquiries  I  have  made  among  well  informed  people,  it  appears  that 
the  favourite  "sport"  of  the  young  men  and  boys  of  thirty  or  forty  years  ago 
was  shooting  Native  Bears.  Their  ideas  of  "sport"  must  have  been  very 
primitive,  because  no  more  inoffensive  and  easily-destroyed  animal  than  the 
Koala  lives  in  any  part  of  the  world.  .  .  . 

Immense  numbers  of  Koalas  must  have  been  destroyed  by  those  young 
"sportsmen"  of  an  earlier-  generation  than  ours,  but  there  seems  never  to  have 
been  any  regular  hunting  with  a  view  to  marketing  the  skins.  Yet  the  fur 
is  very  thick  and  warm,  and,  I  am  told,  is  in  great  demand  by  men  living  in 
Northern  Canada  and  Europe  .... 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  71 

Apart  from  the  shooting  which  so  greatly  reduced  their  numbers,  I  firmly 
believe  that  the  next  most  important  factor  was  the  bush  fires  which,  during 
the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years  have  ravaged  practically  the  whole  of  this 
State.  .  .  .  The  Koala  falls  an  easy  victim.  .  .  . 

Between  twenty  and  thirty  years  ago,  some  fishermen  living  at  Corinella 
took  a  few  Native  Bears  across  to  French  Island,  where  .  .  .  they  thrived  and 
multiplied.  From  this  island  they  were  introduced  to  Phillip  Island  where 
they  are  now  one  of  the  principal  attractions  to  tourists. 

Despite  the  drawback  of  practically  annual  fires  in  the  scrub, 
the  Koalas  "were  holding  their  own  on  French  Island  until  rabbits 
were  introduced."  Cats  were  then  liberated  to  cope  with  the  latter, 
but  attacked  the  bird  life,  and  consequently  insect  pests  multiplied 
amazingly. 

"The  residents,  noticing  the  trees  dying,  blamed  the  Koalas," 
quite  without  justification. 

"It  became  necessary  then,  in  order  to  preserve  the  Koala,  to 
select  some  other  place  for  it,  and  the  Fisheries  and  Game  Depart- 
ment chose  Quail  Island,  a  Government  reserve  and  sanctuary  .  .  . 
in  ...  Western  Port  Bay.  To  this  retreat  some  two  or  three 
hundred  Koalas  have  now  been  transferred.  ...  It  is  hoped  that 
on  the  three  islands  in  Western  Port  the  Koalas  will  have  a  safe 
home."  (Lewis,  1934,  p.  75.) 

Kershaw  (1934,  pp.  76-77)  writes  as  follows  concerning  the  sanc- 
tuary on  Wilson's  Promontory  in  southern  Victoria: 

Totally  unsettled,  densely  timbered,  and,  until  recent  years,  rarely  visited 
except  by  cattle  musterers,  this  area  has  always  been  an  ideal  sanctuary. 
Thirty  years  ago  the  Koala  was  fairly  numerous  in  spite  of  the  periodical 
raids  of  skin-hunters.  .  .  . 

Following  the  permanent  reservation  of  the  Promontory  in  1908  as  a  National 
Park  and  Sanctuary  for  the  preservation  of  the  native  fauna  and  flora,  these 
interesting  animals  were  no  longer  molested  ....  As  a  result  Koalas  gradually 
increased  in  numbers  .... 

Their  immunity  from  interference  of  any  kind  .  .  .  resulted  in  their  mul- 
tiplying to  such  an  extent  as  seriously  to  threaten  the  existence  of  their 
natural  food  plant  [Manna  Gum,  Eucalyptus  viminalis].  .  .  .  Quite  a  number 
of  the  trees  had  died.  .  .  . 

Action  was  at  once  taken  to  reduce  their  numbers.  Where  it  was  possible, 
many  were  transferred  to  other  parts  of  the  Park,  but  in  remote  localities, 
such  as  Oberon  Bay,  transport  was  out  of  the  question  so  that  it  became 
necessary,  in  order  to  save  the  remaining  trees,  to  have  a  number  destroyed. 
[Yet]  in  certain  localities,  this  particular  Eucalypt  was  practically  exterminated. 

Their  food-plant  gone,  many  of  the  animals  died,  others  worked  back  into 
the  more  heavily  timbered  ranges  of  the  interior  where  they  found  suitable 
food  among  the  Blue  Gums.  With  a  view  to  their  acclimatization  in  some  of 
the  other  States  several  Koalas  were  forwarded  to  New  South  Wales,  South 
Australia,  and  Western  Australia. 

Native  Bears  are  still  fairly  numerous  in  the  timbered  country  on  the 
northern  and  eastern  coasts  of  the  Promontory  and  among  the  big  timber 
in  the  vicinity  of  Sealer's  Cove. 


72  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  slight  information  available  concerning  the  species  in  South 
Australia  is  summarized  by  Jones  (1924,  p.  187) : 

At  one  time  the  Koala  was  without  doubt  an  inhabitant  of  South  Australia, 
and  many  men  now  living  can  remember  the  time  when  it  was  by  no  means 
uncommon  in  certain  districts  of  the  South-eastern  portion  of  the  State.  No 
more  than  ten  years  ago  Koalas  have  been  killed  well  within  the  geographical 
limits  of  South  Australia.  If  it  inhabits  South  Australia  to-day  is  rather 
doubtful,  although  reliable  information  would  point  to  the  fact  that  a 
remnant  of  the  stock  may  still  linger  not  far  from  the  Victorian  border.  So 
far  as  I  know  no  example  of  the  South  Australian  race  has  been  examined 
scientifically,  and  no  specimens  seem  to  have  been  preserved.  Victorian 
animals  were  liberated  on  Flinders  Chase,  Kangaroo  Island,  in  November, 
1923,  and  it  is  hoped  that  they  will  become  established  in  that  faunal 
sanctuary. 

The  Koala  is  completely  protected  by  law  in  Victoria. 

Family  VOMB ATID AE :    Wombats 

The  two  currently  recognized  genera  of  wombats,  represented  by 
six  forms,  are  confined  to  eastern  and  southern  Australia,  Tasmania, 
and  islands  of  Bass  Strait.  Four  subspecies  are  treated  here. 

Island  Wombat;  Flinders  Island  Wombat 

VOMBATUS   URSINUS    URSINUS    (Shaw) 

Didelphis  Ursina  Shaw,  Gen.  Zool.,  vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  504,  1800.  (Presumed  by 
Spencer  and  Kershaw  (19106,  p.  39)  to  be  based  upon  the  "Wombach"  of 
Hunter,  in  Bewick,  Hist.  Quadrupeds,  ed.  4,  p.  522,  1800.  Type  locality 
"New  Holland"  =  Clarke  Island,  Bass  Strait,  according  to  Spencer  and 
Kershaw  (19106,  pp.  37-39) ;  but  Cape  Barren  Island,  Bass  Strait,  accord- 
ing to  Iredale  and  Troughton  (1934,  p.  34).) 

FIGS.:  Peron  and  Freycinet,  Voyage  Terres  Australes,  atlas,  ed.  1,  pi.  28, 
1811,  and  ed.  2,  pi.  58,  1824;  Cabrera,  1919,  pi.  17,  fig.  1. 

Formerly  an  inhabitant  of  several  of  the  larger  islands  of  Bass 
Strait,  this  Wombat  has  been  exterminated  on  all  of  them  except 
perhaps  Flinders  Island.  It  is  also  represented  by  a  small  colony 
introduced  at  Eddy  stone  Point,  Tasmania. 

This  is  the  smallest  of  the  Wombats;  hair  coarse,  varying  from 
light  sandy  brown  to  blackish;  rhinarium  naked.  Head  and  body, 
775  mm.  Weight,  25-30  pounds  (Spencer  and  Kershaw,  1910a,  p.  29) . 

This  species  was  originally  known  from  King,  Deal,  Cape  Barren, 
Clarke,  and  Flinders  Islands  in  Bass  Strait.  At  the  time  of  its 
discovery,  about  1798,  its  numbers  were  evidently  considerable. 
Flinders  (1814,  vol.  1,  p.  cxxxv)  found  it  more  numerous  on  Cape 
Barren  Island  than  on  Clarke  Island;  he  reports  it  as  "commonly 
seen  foraging  amongst  the  sea  refuse  on  the  shore." 

Home    (1808,  p.  304)    gives  an  entertaining  description  of  an 


ORDER   MARSUPIALIA I     MARSUPIALS  73 

individual  secured  on  Flinders'  voyage  and  kept  for  two  years  as  a 
pet  in  a  house  in  England.  It  appeared  intelligent  as  well  as  at- 
tached to  its  human  friends. 

In  their  account  of  King  Island,  Peron  and  Freycinet  (1816, 
vol.  2,  p.  14)  describe  the  local  Wombat  as  a  gentle  and  stupid 
animal,  valuable  for  its  delicate  flesh.  They  also  give  an  interesting 
picture  of  its  tractability.  They  say  it  had  been  reduced  to  a  domes- 
tic state  by  some  English  fishermen,  going  by  day  into  the  forests 
to  seek  its  food,  and  returning  in  the  evening  to  the  cabin  which 
served  as  its  retreat. 

Spencer  and  Kershaw  (19106,  p.  48)  write  as  follows: 

It  is  many  years  ago  since  the  King  Island  wombat  was  exterminated. 
When  the  island  was  visited  by  a  party  of  the  Victorian  Field  Naturalists 
Club  in  1887,  no  trace  of  it  was  discovered  nor,  during  the  process  of  clearing 
the  land  that  has  been  vigorously  carried  on  during  recent  years,  has  any 
record  of  a  living  wombat  been  made. 

Flinders  Island  afforded  the  only  prospect  of  securing  a  living  specimen 
of  the  Bass  Strait  species.  [In  1908]  a  considerable  part  of  the  north,  north- 
east, and  north-west  coast  line  was  examined,  and  abundant  evidence  was 
obtained  to  prove  that  the  animal,  though  very  rare  and  difficult  to  obtain, 
was  not  extinct.  In  the  deserted  hut  of  a  half-caste  native  at  Killiecrankie 
two  skins  were  found.  ...  On  the  island  there  are,  in  addition  to  a  few 
settlers,  a  number  of  half-castes  ....  The  existence  of  the  wombat  is  well- 
known  to  them,  but  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  secure.  ...  On  Cape  Barren 
Island  .  .  .  the  animal  was  found  to  be  quite  extinct,  though  well-known 
under  the  name  of  "badger"  .... 

The  animal  is  now  extinct  everywhere  except  on  Flinders  Island. 

An  animal  as  large  as  a  Wombat,  always  limited  in  numbers  by 
an  island  habitat,  could  scarcely  be  expected  to  survive  indefinitely, 
when  confronted  by  deforestation  as  well  as  by  the  presence  of 
settlers  and  half-castes  who  evidently  prized  its  flesh. 

It  is  "now  believed  to  be  represented  by  small  colonies  on  Flinders 
Island.  Observation  and  careful  provision  for  their  safety  may  be 
necessary  to  avoid  extinction."  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt.,  April 
16, 1937.) 

"The  Flinders  Island  wombat  has  been  introduced,  and  there  is  a 
small  colony  ...  at  Eddystone  Point,  North-East  Tasmania.  They 
were  liberated  there  by  the  lighthouse-keepers."  (Lord,  1928,  p.  20.) 

[The  Tasmanian  subspecies,  Vombatus  ursinus  tasmaniensis 
(Spencer  and  Kershaw),  "has  always  and  still  does  exist  in  large 
numbers  in  Tasmania"  (R.  Boswell,  in  litt.,  May  13,  1937).] 

[The  common  Wombat  (Vombatus  hirsutus  hirsutus  (Perry))  is 
still  more  or  less  numerous  in  wild  and  rugged  portions  of  south- 
eastern Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  and  Victoria.  In  southeastern 
South  Australia  another  subspecies,  Vombatus  hirsutus  niger 
(Gould),  has  been  recognized;  but  no  information  concerning  its 
numerical  status  is  at  hand.] 


74 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Hairy-nosed  Wombat 

LASIORHINUS  LATIFRONS  LATIFRONS  (Owen) 

Phascolomys  latifrons  Owen,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1845,  p.  82,  1845.  ("Con- 
tinental (South)  Australia.") 

FIGS.:  Gould,  1863,  vol.  1,  pis.  59,  60;  Wolf,  1867,  vol.  2,  pi.  27;  Royal  Nat. 
Hist.,  vol.  3,  p.  266,  fig.,  1894-95;  Jones,  1924,  p.  267,  fig.  189. 

This  Wombat  is  now  practically  restricted  to  coastal  South 
Australia,  though  once  extending  a  little  farther  east  and  west;  its 
numbers  have  evidently  been  severely  reduced. 


FIG.  9. — Hairy-nosed  Wombat  (LasiorhiniLs  latifrons  latifrons). 
After  Wolf,  1867. 


The  fur  is  soft  and  silky;  general  color  grizzled  gray,  somewhat 
dappled;  chin  dark;  cheeks,  throat,  and  chest  white;  belly  gray; 
ears  long  and  narrow;  rhinarium  hairy;  tail  rudimentary.  Head 
and  body,  900  mm.  (Jones,  1924,  pp.  266-267.) 

In  South  Australia  the  species  has  been  recorded  from  Mount 
Gambier,  Port  Augusta,  Port  Lincoln,  River  Murray,  River  Light, 
Fowler's  Bay,  Yorke  Peninsula,  Blanchetown,  Blyth,  30  miles 
north  of  Adelaide,  and  Nullarbor  Plain.  "Apparently  its  distri- 
bution does  not  extend  into  the  more  northern  parts  of  South 
Australia"  (Spencer,  1896,  p.  3).  Specimens  are  recorded  from 
Eucla,  in  the  extreme  southeast  of  Western  Australia  (Jones, 
1924,  p.  268).  E.  Le  G.  Troughton  writes  (in  litt.,  April  16, 
1937)  that  it  was  once  plentiful,  according  to  early  observers, 
in  southwestern  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria,  but  now  is  ap- 
parently restricted  to  coastal  South  Australia,  the  inference 
being  that  survival  is  not  assured.  A  number  of  specimens  were 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  75 

recorded  by  Kershaw  (1909,  p.  118)  from  Deniliquin,  N.  S.  W., 
close  to  the  Victorian  border. 

"Although  in  some  parts  of  the  colony  [South  Australia],  es- 
pecially on  Yorke's  Peninsula  and  about  Port  Lincoln,  the  holes  of 
these  Wombats  are  very  numerous,  yet  the  animals  are  but  rarely 
seen.  Many  of  the  oldest  colonists  have  informed  me  that  they 
never  saw  a  Wombat  alive.  .  .  .  The  flesh  they  [the  blacks]  de- 
scribe as  being  like  pork,  and  excellent  eating."  (Gould,  1863,  vol.  1, 
p.  68.) 

"It  could  probably  hold  its  own  under  present  day  conditions,  and 
with  existing  introduced  enemies,  if  only  it  had  adequate  protection 
from  man.  That  Wombats  are  harmless  to  small  holders  is  not  con- 
tended. So  bulky  an  animal  which  drives  tunnels  with  such  ease 
is  not,  of  course,  desirable  in  closely  settled  or  intensively  worked 
agricultural  areas.  But  South  Australia  possesses  vast  tracts  where 
Wombats  might  burrow  and  live  without  detriment  to  any  human 
enterprise.  In  these  areas  they  need  protection  from  man  alone." 
(Jones,  1924,  p.  270.) 

"Being  in  grave  danger  of  extermination,  and  having  a  distribu- 
tion restricted  to  South  Australia,  it  is  the  intention  of  the  [Fauna 
and  Flora]  Board  to  attempt  to  acclimatise  the  wombat  on  Kangaroo 
Island;  the  sending  of  a  single  specimen  to  the  Chase  on  October  1, 
1926,  may  therefore  be  recorded;  others  will  be  forwarded  as  soon 
as  obtained"  (Waite  and  Jones,  1927,  pp.  323-324). 

On  the  other  hand,  H.  H.  Finlayson  (in  Hit.,  March  20,  1937) 
considers  the  species  still  "plentiful  in  a  restricted  habitat." 

Le  Souef  and  Burrell  (1926,  pp.  293,  295)  write  as  follows: 

The  .  .  .  hairy-nosed  wombat  is  found  in  the  drier  inland  areas;  it  also 
lives  along  the  coast  of  the  Great  Australian  Bight  .... 

The  hairy-nosed  wombat  has  been  killed  out  over  a  large  part  of  its  range. 
In  the  Riverina,  where  at  one  time  it  was  fairly  plentiful,  the  settlers  had 
to  get  rid  of  it  as  part  of  the  campaign  against  the  rabbits,  which  pests  had 
a  very  secure  harbour  in  wombat  burrows. 

The  skin  is  not  put  to  any  commercial  use,  though  the  aborigines  use  the 
fur  of  Ph.  latijrons  for  making  string,  coils  of  which  are  wound  round  their 
hair. 

On  its  economic  status  E.  Le  G.  Troughton  remarks  (in  litt., 
April  16,  1937) :  "Colonies  were  exterminated  near  settlement  be- 
cause of  damage  to  fencing  and  crops,  and  risk  of  injury  to  stock 
in  the  burrows." 

Southern  Queensland  Hairy-nosed  Wombat 

LASIORHINUS  LATIFRONS  GILLESPIEI  (De  Vis) 1 

Phascolomys  gillespiei  De  Vis,  Annals  Queensland  Mus.,  no.  5,  p.  14,  pis.  9,  10, 

1900.   (Moonie  River,  southeastern  Queensland.) 
FIG.:    De  Vis,  1900,  pi.  10. 

1  For  the  use  of  this  combination,  see  Longman,  1939,  p.  286. 


76  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

This  Wombat  is  "apparently  now  extremely  rare  and  restricted 
to  remote  parts  of  large  properties."  Its  extinction  is  "apparently 
imminent."  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt.,  April  16,  1937.) 

General  color  gray,  mixed  with  black,  and  washed  with  fawn 
(especially  on  rump  and  back) ;  inner  surface  of  ears,  throat,  and 
chest  white;  a  broad  curved  blotch  before  and  a  spot  behind  the 
eye,  black;  forearm  and  feet  dark  brown;  rhinarium  hairy;  skull 
relatively  broader  than  in  other  Wombats.  Head  and  body,  1,020 
mm.  (De  Vis,  1900.) 

The  existence  of  a  Wombat  in  Queensland  was  regarded  as  more 
or  less  mythical  until  three  specimens  of  the  present  form  were 
secured  at  the  type  locality  and  vicinity  in  the  last  decade  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  subsequent  record  of  the  animal  seems 
very  meager. 

In  1923  Wilkins  (1928,  pp.  25-27)  made  a  search  for  it  in  the 
Moonie  River  district,  near  Hollymount,  finding  "ancient  tunnel- 
lings  of  many  wombats"  but  not  encountering  any  of  the  animals. 
He  concluded  that  "there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  almost,  if  not  quite, 
extinct  in  this  district." 

Its  range  would  appear  to  be  restricted  to  southeastern  Queens- 
land. 

Central  Queensland  Hairy-nosed  Wombat 

LASIORHINUS  LATIFRONS  BARNARDI  Longman 

Lasiorhinus  latifrons  barnardi  Longman,  Mem.  Queensland  Mus.,  vol.  11,  pt.  3, 
p.  283,  1939.  ("Epping  Forest  Station,  75  miles  west  of  Clermont,"  east- 
central  Queensland.) 

This  recently  described  Wombat  is  known  from  four  specimens 
(three  of  which  are  only  skulls) ,  and  it  is  considered  on  "the  verge 
of  extinction"  (Longman,  1939,  p.  287) . 

General  dorsal  color  brown,  mottled  with  gray,  and  interspersed 
with  black  hairs;  rhinarium  completely  clothed  with  short  brown 
hairs;  ears  elongate,  well  haired  outside,  with  white  tufts;  under 
parts  dirty  gray.  Total  length,  3  feet  4  inches;  tail,  2^  inches. 
(Longman,  1939,  pp.  283,  286.) 

Although  Wombats  "were  widely  distributed  in  Queensland  in  the 
Pleistocene  and  two  present-day  species  were  known  to  occur  spar- 
ingly in  southern  parts  of  the  State,  it  was  somewhat  surprising 
to  have  definite  evidence  of  living  wombats  in  a  locality  in  central 
Queensland.  This  extends  their  range  by  over  400  miles.  .  .  . 

"Mr.  Charles  Barnard  reports  that  there  were  many  burrows  in 
the  district,  but  very  few  tracks  of  the  animals  were  seen.  .  .  . 

"Only  three  animals  were  seen,  one  of  which  was  shot.   As  sug- 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  77 

gested  by  Messrs.  Barnard,  it  is  probable  that  these  wombats  were 
much  more  numerous  in  earlier  years,  but  successive  periods  of 
drought  have  brought  them  to  the  verge  of  extinction.  .  .  .  The 
specimen  shot  .  .  .  has  been  feeding  on  ...  stems  and  leaves, 
including  awns  of  the  Comet  River  Grass,  Perotis  rara"  (Longman, 
1939,  pp.  283,  286-287.) 

Longman  adds  a  report  of  Wombats  seen  distinctly  about  1917 
in  the  Tambo  district,  south-central  Queensland. 

Family  MACROPODIDAE:    Kangaroos,  Wallabies,  etc. 

This  largest  of  marsupial  families  contains  approximately  19 
genera  and  125  forms.  It  ranges  through  Australia,  Tasmania,  New 
Guinea,  and  neighboring  islands.  Accounts  of  27  forms  appear  in 
the  following  pages. 

St.  Francis  Island  Rat-kangaroo 

BETTONGIA  sp. 

This  extinct  animal,  a  former  inhabitant  of  one  of  the  islands  in 
the  Great  Australian  Bight,  does  not  seem  to  be  represented  in  the 
museums  by  so  much  as  a  skeletal  fragment  upon  which  a  technical 
name  might  be  based.  Its  brief  and  tragic  history  is  recounted  by 
Jones  (1924,  pp.  214-215) : 

Upon  St.  Francis  Island  in  Nuyts'  Archipelago  there  lived,  during  the 
time  of  the  present  occupiers,  large  numbers  of  what  was  evidently  a  species 
of  Bettongia.  Since  the  mammalian  fauna  of  the  islands  of  the  Bight  has 
proved,  in  so  many  instances,  to  exhibit  distinctions  from  the  types  inhabiting 
the  mainland,  it  is  worth  while  recording  what  can  still  be  ascertained  con- 
cerning this  interesting  and  recently  exterminated  animal. 

When  the  island  was  first  settled,  some  forty  years  ago,  "Rat-Kangaroos," 
or  "Tungoos"  were  swarming.  The  animals  do  not  seem  to  have  formed 
burrows,  but  they  lived  in  the  undergrowth,  and  used  frequently  to  hop  into 
the  homestead  to  take  bread  or  other  eatables  thrown  to  them  from  the 
table.  They  do  not  appear  to  have  been  nocturnal;  they  do  not  seem  even 
to  have  been  afraid  of  the  human  invaders  of  the  island.  Their  only  offence 
seems  to  have  been  that  they  had  a  liking  for  the  garden  produce  of  the 
family  who  settled  on  the  island. 

Cats  were  introduced  in  order  to  exterminate  the  Tungoos,  and  their  work 
has  been  done  completely.  To  what  species  the  animal  belonged  can  never 
be  known  and  the  fact  of  its  extermination  in  this  manner  is  much  to  be 
regretted. 

There  are  many  islands  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Francis  to  which  some 
members  of  the  original  colony  could  have  been  transported,  and  so  given  a 
chance  to  survive. 

The  story  is  one  of  importance  from  the  point  of  view  of  legislation  for 
the  protection  of  insular  faunas,  since  it  demonstrates  clearly  how  rapidly 
and  how  completely  an  interesting  island  fauna  may  be  destroyed  and  lost 
to  science  for  ever. 


78  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

It  is  much  to  be  hoped  that  Isoodon  nauticus,  Petrogale  pearsoni,  Thylogale 
flindersi,  Leporillus  jonesi,  and  Rattus  murrayi  are  not  permitted  to  follow 
the  Tungoos  of  St.  Francis  Island  into  the  ranks  of  recently  exterminated 
animals. 

Gaimard's  Rat-kangaroo 

BETTONGIA  GAIMARDI  (Desmarest) 

Kangurus   Gaimardi   Desmarest,   Mammalogie,  vol.   2,   suppl.,   p.   542,    1822. 

(Vicinity  of  Port  Jackson,  New  South  Wales.) 
FIG.:    Quoy  and  Gaimard,  Voy.  Uranie  et  Phys.,  Zool.,  atlas,  pi.  10,   1824 

(as  Hypsiprymnus  white}. 

This  rat-kangaroo  of  eastern  Australia  is  apparently  extinct. 

The  general  color  is  grizzled  gray,  with  a  yellowish  tinge;  tail 
colored  like  body  for  the  basal  third,  then  darkening  and  the  hair 
lengthening  until  there  is  a  distinct  black  crest  on  the  terminal  third ; 
under  side  of  tail  white.  Head  and  body,  390  mm.;  tail,  280  mm. 
(Thomas,  1888,  p.  109.) 

Le  Souef  remarks  (1923,  p.  110)  that  this  is  one  of  three  mammals 
that  "are  entirely  confined  to  the  fox  area  of  Eastern  Australia"  and 
"require  our  immediate  attention  if  the  remnants  are  to  be  saved. 
...  I  cannot  locate  any  Gaimard's  Rat-Kangaroos;  they  used  to 
live  on  the  Mountains  and  western  plains  of  New  South  Wales." 

Le  Souef  and  Burrell  say  (1926,  p.  233) :  "We  have  noted  Gaim- 
ard's rat-kangaroo  in  the  open  forest  on  the  Blue  Mountains  .  .  .  ." 
They  add,  in  regard  to  the  group  of  rat-kangaroos  in  general:  "Be- 
fore the  advent  of  the  fox  the  rat-kangaroos  were  extremely  numer- 
ous, so  much  so  that  special  measures  had  to  be  taken  by  settlers 
to  protect  crops  and  haystacks,  but  now  many  species  throughout  a 
large  part  of  their  range  are  very  rare,  and  presumably  in  a  short 
time  they  will  be  a  thing  of  the  past — wherever  the  fox  can  pene- 
trate." 

"I  think  that  this  species  is  definitely  extinct.  I  have  not  seen  or 
heard  of  it  for  upwards  of  20  years."  (A.  S.  Le  Souef,  in  Hit., 
February  15, 1937.) 

E.  Le  G.  Troughton  writes  (in  Hit.,  April  16,  1937)  that  it  once 
inhabited  coastal  New  South  Wales,  but  it  is  now  apparently  extinct, 
possibly  since  the  advent  of  the  fox. 

According  to  C.  W.  Brazenor  (in  Hit.,  March  3,  1937) ,  there  are 
few  Victorian  specimens,  and  the  last  record  was  in  1877. 

Longman  (1930,  p.  59)  includes  southern  Queensland  in  the  range 
of  the  species. 


ORDER    MARSUPIALIA I      MARSUPIALS  79 

Gray's  Rat-kangaroo 

BETTONGIA  LESUEUR  GRAII   (Gould) 

Hypsiprymnus    Graii   Gould,   Proc.    Zool.    Soc.    London    1840,    p.    178,    1841. 

("Swan  River,"  Western  Australia.) 
FIGS.:    Gould,  1855,  vol.  2,  pi.  64;  Cabrera,  1919,  pi.  14. 

This  subspecies  of  the  Western  Australian  mainland  has  suffered 
pronounced  restriction  of  range  and  reduction  in  numbers. 

Fur  long  and  soft;  general  color  above  (including  back  of  ears) 
ashy  brown;  sides  of  head  and  body  very  faintly  tinged  with  yel- 
lowish ;  under  parts  dirty  white ;  feet  very  pale  brown ;  tail  brown, 
except  the  terminal  third,  which  is  covered  with  longish  white  hairs. 
Head  and  body,  457  mm. ;  tail,  292  mm.  (Gould,  1841c,  pp.  178-179.) 

Gray's  Rat-kangaroo  is  apparently  now  confined  to  a  compara- 
tively small  area  in  the  southwest  of  Western  Australia.  Short- 
ridge  (1910,  p.  823,  map)  indicates  a  former  distribution  covering 
almost  the  entire  southern  half  of  that  state.  The  line  of  demarca- 
tion or  intergradation  between  this  subspecies  and  B.  I.  harveyi  re- 
mains undetermined. 

Gould  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  74)  "received  examples  of  this  animal  from 
various  parts  of  the  south-western  coasts  of  Australia,  and  it  appears 
to  be  ...  abundant  in  the  plains  ...  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Perth  in  Western  Australia."  He  quotes  Gilbert  to  the  effect  that 
"it  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  animals  to  the  garden  of  the  settler 
that  occurs  in  Western  Australia,  almost  every  kind  of  vegetable 
being  attacked  by  it,  but  especially  peas  and  beans." 

Thirty-five  years  ago  it  was  "very  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the 
South-West,  differing  curiously  from  the  insular  form  in  not  occur- 
ring near  the  coast."  It  did  not  then  appear  "to  exist  on  the  main- 
land to  the  north  of  the  Swan  River."  Specimens  were  recorded  from 
Arthur  River,  Woyaline  Wells,  Boyadine-Dale  River,  and  Dwala- 
dine.  (Shortridge,  1910,  pp.  822-823,  fig.  258.) 

More  recently  "this  species,  which  was  once  very  common  in  the 
interior,  is  now  confined  to  the  Great  Southern  area  between  Beverley 
in  the  north  and  Kojonup  in  the  South"  (Glauert,  1933,  p.  26). 

The  reduction  in  range  suggests  little  hope  for  survival  unless 
there  exists  a  suitable  reserve  from  which  foxes  can  be  excluded 
(E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  Hit.,  April  16,  1937) . 

[On  the  islands  of  Sharks  Bay,  Western  Australia,  occurs  the 
typical  subspecies,  Lesueur's  Rat-kangaroo  (B.  I.  lesueur  (Quoy  and 
Gaimard)),  which  has  survived  in  considerable  numbers,  probably 
owing  to  the  protection  afforded  by  an  insular  habitat.  Glauert 
(1933,  p.  26)  extends  the  range  of  this  form  far  north  along  the 
coast  of  Western  Australia:  "Years  ago  the  animal  was  common 


80  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

near  Roebuck  Bay  (Broome),  where  K.  Dahl  obtained  numerous 
specimens."] 

Harvey's  Rat-kangaroo 

BETTONGIA  LESUEUR  HARVEYI  (Waterhouse) 

Perameles  Harveyi  Waterhouse,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1842,  p.  47,   1842. 

("Port  Adelaide,  South  Australia.") 
FIG.:    Jones,  1924,  p.  207,  fig.  153. 

"In  certain  districts  it  is  still  by  no  means  rare,  but  its  decrease 
in  numbers  has  been  so  rapid  during  the  past  twenty  years  that 
probably  the  remnant  still  existing  must  not  be  regarded  as  a  very 
long  lived  one"  (Jones,  1924,  p.  207) . 

Fur  dense  and  soft;  general  color  above  brown,  penciled  with 
white;  sides  of  head  and  body  tinged  with  yellowish;  under  parts 
impure  white;  tail  rich  brown  above,  dirty  white  below,  the  hairs 
becoming  longer  and  white  toward  the  tip  (Waterhouse,  1842,  p.  47) . 
The  animal  is  shaped  like  a  little  stoutly  built  kangaroo  and  is  about 
the  size  of  a  rabbit,  with  a  short  blunt  head  and  little  round  ears. 
Head  and  body,  370  mm.;  tail,  300  mm.  (Jones,  1924,  pp.  207,  210.) 

The  exact  distribution  of  this  subspecies  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  determined.  It  originally  ranged  widely  through  South  Aus- 
tralia, having  been  recorded  from  Adelaide,  Port  Lincoln,  Gawler 
Plains,  Lake  Phillipson,  the  vicinity  of  McDoualFs  Peak,  and  the 
northwest  (Thomas,  1888,  p.  113;  Jones,  1924,  pp.  210-211).  It  may 
be  this  form  that  extends  also  into  Central  Australia,  but  the  area 
where  it  approaches  or  intergrades  with  B.  L  graii  apparently  re- 
mains to  be  ascertained. 

Gould  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  74)  recorded  it  as  "abundant  in  the  plains 
around  Adelaide." 

Spencer  records  "Bettongia  lesueuri"  from  Central  Australia,  but 
he  lists  no  specimens  and  gives  it  the  native  name  of  "Mal-la," 
whereas  Finlayson  (1935,  p.  62)  applies  the  native  name  "maala" 
to  Lagorchestes  hirsutus  of  the  same  general  region. 

Spencer's  account  (1896,  p.  16)  is  as  follows: 

"This  is  the  common  sand-hill  rat-kangaroo  of  Central  Australia, 
and  is  perhaps  .  .  .  the  most  common  form  of  marsupial  amongst 
the  sandy  plains  and  sand-hills  .... 

"We  found  it  during  the  whole  course  of  the  [Horn]  expedition, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  it  is  distributed  right  across 
South,  Central  and  West  Australia." 

As  with  so  many  other  Australian  species,  we  owe  the  chief 
account  of  this  animal's  status  and  life  history  to  Jones  (1924,  pp. 
210-211) : 

This  Rat  Kangaroo,  which  is  probably  the  only  living  representative  of 
the  Sub-family  left  in  South  Australia,  is  still  existing  in  some  numbers  in 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  81 

certain  districts  in  the  North- West.  Here  it  lives  in  company  with  the 
rabbits,  sharing  the  larger  warrens  with  them  ....  The  choice  of  a  warren 
seems  largely  to  be  determined  by  the  quantity  and  nature  of  the  herbage 
in  the  neighbourhood,  for  in  these  waterless  districts  Rat  Kangaroos  are 
dependent  on  the  succulent  sand  hill  vegetation.  Rabbits  are  so  universally 
spread  over  the  country  that  there  probably  does  not  exist  to-day  a  Bettongia 
colony  living  in  its  own  burrows.  It  has  thrown  in  its  lot  with  the  rabbit, 
and  although  it  appears  to  have  its  own  appartments  [sic]  in  the  complicated 
system  of  the  large  warrens,  it  is  merely  a  tenant,  forming  a  part  of  a 
community  in  a  manner  which  is  rather  remarkable  when  its  exceedingly 
pugnacious  character  is  considered.  Nevertheless,  though  it  lives  in  apparent 
harmony  with  the  rabbits,  and  avails  itself  of  the  shelter  of  their  burrows, 
it  is  suffering  for  the  partnership.  The  remnant  of  the  Tungoos  is  living  in  an 
environment  in  which  there  is  a  severe  competition  for  succulent  food.  In 
good  seasons  there  is  enough  juicy  herbage  for  cattle  and  rabbits  as  well  as 
Rat  Kangaroos  but  in  bad  seasons  the  rabbits  and  the  marsupials  perish 
in  large  numbers.  Such  losses  among  the  rabbits  are  soon  made  good,  but 
with  the  marsupials  this  is  not  the  case,  and  probably  the  end  of  the  Tungoo 
is  not  far  off.  When  times  are  bad,  and  when  the  cattle  and  rabbits  have 
eaten  all  the  herbage  of  the  sand  hills,  the  Tungoos  become  extremely  bold, 
and  will  enter  a  homestead  in  their  search  for  anything  to  eat.  They  will 
come  into  a  room  and  boldly  face  a  cat  in  order  to  obtain  some  potato  peelings ; 
they  will  scramble  over  a  paling  fence  four  or  five  feet  high  in  order  to  get 
at  the  vegetable  garden.  They  are  bold  and  enterprising  little  animals  which 
have  made,  and  are  making,  a  brave  struggle  against  what  seems  an  almost 
inevitable  extermination.  In  the  more  cultivated  districts  of  the  South, 
where  food  is  in  plenty,  the  wholesale  scattering  of  poisoned  pollard  has  led 
to  their  complete  extinction.  The  poison  cart  has  done  its  deadly  work  on 
the  slowly-breeding  Tungoo,  although  the  rapidly-breeding  Rabbit  has  sur- 
vived the  ordeal.  In  the  North  they  are  steadily  being  pressed  out  of  exis- 
tence by  the  competition  for  food. 

When  we  remember  that  their  numbers  in  rabbit  warrens,  even  near  to 
towns,  was  a  source  of  constant  annoyance  to  rabbiters  less  than  twenty 
years  ago,  we  can  realise  how  destructive  to  the  native  herbivorous  fauna  the 
wholesale  spreading  of  poisoned  grain  has  proved  to  be.  Nor  must  we  forget 
that  the  remnant  which  still  struggles  on  in  the  North  is  now  exposed  to  the 
ravages  of  the  fox. 

Concerning  the  introduction  of  this  rat-kangaroo  on  Kangaroo 
Island,  South  Australia,  Waite  and  Jones  say  (1927,  p.  323) : 
"Specimens  bred  and  reared  in  captivity  in  Adelaide  were  liberated 
within  the  observation  enclosure  on  the  reserve  and  seem  to  be 
doing  well.  If,  when  they  are  turned  out  into  the  larger  world,  they 
can  avoid  the  goana  (Varanus)  they  should  prosper." 

H.  H.  Finlayson  (in  litt.,  March  20,  1937)  regards  the  species  as 
a  whole  as  common  in  Western  Australia,  the  Center,  and  north- 
western South  Australia. 


82  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Brush-tailed  Rat-kangaroo 

BETTONGIA  PENICILLATA  PENICILLATA  J.  E.  Gray 

Bettongia  penicillata  J.  E.  Gray,  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  (Charlesworth),  vol.  1,  p.  584, 
1837.  (No  type  locality  was  stated  in  the  original  description,  but  Thomas 
(1888,  p.  Ill)  lists  the  type  specimen  from  "New  South  Wales.") 

FIGS.:  Gould,  1841,  pi.  14;  Waterhouse,  1846,  vol.  1,  pi.  7,  fig.  1;  Gould, 
1852,  vol.  2,  pi.  61;  Lydekker,  1894,  pi.  9  (ssp.?). 

This  eastern  Australian  subspecies  is  either  very  rare  or  extinct. 
(The  two  other  recognized  subspecies  likewise  come  within  the  scope 
of  the  present  report.) 

The  general  color  is  ashy  brown,  penciled  with  white  and  brownish 
black ;  cheeks  and  throat  faintly  tinged  with  yellowish ;  under  parts 
dirty  white;  hands  and  feet  pale  brown;  tail  brown  above,  pale 
brown  below,  the  apical  third  with  a  black  dorsal  crest.  Head  and 
body,  343  mm.;  tail,  285  mm.  (Waterhouse,  1846,  vol.  1,  p.  213.) 

The  former  range  extended  from  the  Dawson  Valley,  Queensland, 
to  Victoria,  but  apparently  only  on  the  inner  side  of  the  coastal 
ranges. 

Most  of  the  information  on  this  animal  comes  from  Gould  (1863, 
vol.  2,  p.  71),  who  had  opportunities  of  studying  it  while  it  was 
still  abundant.  "The  eastern  parts  of  Australia,  particularly  the 
districts  on  the  interior  side  of  the  ranges  of  New  South  Wales, 
constitute  the  true  habitat  of  the  species  ....  I  observed  it  to  be 
very  abundant  on  the  Liverpool  Plains,  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Namoi,  from  its  source  to  its  junction  with  the  Gwydyr;  but 
between  the  ranges  and  the  coast  I  did  not  meet  with  it."  He  adds 
that  the  natives  rarely  pass  without  detecting  its  grassy  nest  on  the 
ground,  and  almost  invariably  kill  the  sleeping  inmates  by  dashing 
their  tomahawks  or  heavy  clubs  at  it. 

It  is  "apparently  not  now  found  in  Eastern  Australia"  (A.  S.  Le 
Souef,  in  Hit.,  February  15,  1937) .  "It  is  now  very  rare  or  extinct 
in  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria"  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  Hit., 
April  16,  1937). 

C.  W.  Brazenor  (in  litt.,  March  3,  1937)  considers  the  animal 
extinct  in  Victoria,  where  the  last  record  dates  from  1857.  There 
are  few  Victorian  examples  in  the  National  Museum  of  Melbourne. 

According  to  Finlayson  (1931,  p.  89),  "Bettongia  penicillata  was 
taken  by  Lumholtz  on  Coomooboolaroo  [in  the  Dawson  Valley, 
Queensland],  but  has  now  apparently  quite  disappeared  from  there, 
and  is  not  known  elsewhere  in  the  valley." 

While  no  specific  information  concerning  the  causes  of  the  dis- 
appearance of  this  rat-kangaroo  seems  to  have  been  offered,  prob- 
ably the  fox  is  largely  responsible. 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  83 

Gould's  Rat-kangaroo 

BETTONGIA  PENICILLATA  GOULDII  Waterhouse 

Bettongia  Gouldii  J.  E.  Gray,  List  Specimens  Mammalia  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  94, 
1843  (nornen  nudum).  ("Head  of  Gulph  St.  Vincent,"  South  Australia.) 

Bettongia  Gouldii  Waterhouse,  Nat.  Hist.  Mammalia,  vol.  1,  p.  219,  1846. 
("South  Australia.") 

"As  far  as  can  be  ascertained  at  present,  this  animal  seems  to 
have  disappeared  from  South  Australia"  (Jones,  1924,  p.  212).  As 
far  as  known,  it  was  confined  to  this  state. 

The  type  specimen,  a  very  immature  animal,  is  the  only  one  of 
this  subspecies  that  seems  to  have  been  described  in  detail.  The  fur 
is  brownish,  penciled  with  black  and  yellowish  white;  under  parts 
white,  more  or  less  suffused  with  yellow;  tail  rusty  brown  at  base, 
the  terminal  half  black  both  above  and  below  (Waterhouse,  1846, 
vol.  1,  p.  219).  Head  and  body,  390  mm.;  tail,  310  mm.  (Thomas, 
1888,  p.  111). 

Jones  (1924,  pp.  212-214)  furnishes  practically  all  the  available 
information  on  the  former  and  present  status  of  this  rat-kangaroo: 

It  is  possible  that  it  may  prove  to  be  still  living  somewhere  in  this  State, 
and  if  there  is  any  hope  of  such  a  survival  it  would  seem  that  the  South-East 
or  the  extreme  North-East  holds  out  the  greatest  promise. 

Not  only  does  it  appear  to  have  died  out  completely  over  the  greater  portion 
of  the  State,  but  no  specimen  of  the  South  Australian  form  seems  to  have 
been  preserved  in  the  zoological  collections  in  Australia.  At  present,  so  far 
as  this  State  is  concerned,  the  race  is  represented  only  by  some  half-dozen 
skulls.  .  .  . 

Only  a  few  years  ago  this  animal  was  extremely  common  over  the  greater 
part  of  South  Australia.  Twenty  years  ago  the  dealers  in  Adelaide  did  a 
great  trade  in  selling  them  by  the  dozen  at  about  ninepence  a  head  for  coursing 
on  Sunday  afternoons.  It  may  surprise  people  who  remember  those  days  to 
know  that  there  is  not  a  preserved  specimen,  not  even  a  skin  of  the  animal, 
available  for  scientific  study  in  South  Australia  to-day.  In  the  same  way 
it  will  one  day  surprise  the  rising  generation  when  they  realise  that  the  few 
native  animals  they  are  now  familiar  with  are  gone  for  ever.  .  .  . 

It  is  much  to  be  hoped  that,  should  some  remnant  of  the  South  Australian 
race  be  found  still  living  in  the  more  bush-covered  portions  of  the  South 
or  of  the  North-East,  steps  will  be  at  once  taken  that  it  may  be  preserved 
and  protected  by  every  possible  means. 

Ogilby's  Rat-kangaroo 

BETTONGIA  PENICILLATA  OGILBYI  (Waterhouse) 

Hypsiprymnus  Ogilbyi  Waterhouse,  Naturalists'  Library  (Jardine),  vol.  11, 
Marsupialia,  p.  185,  1841.  ("Western  Australia  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Swan  River";  Thomas  (1888,  p.  Ill)  lists  the  type  specimen  from  "York, 
W.  A.") 

FIG.:    Gould,  1852,  vol.  2,  pi.  62. 

Although  very  plentiful  in  the  southwest  of  Western  Australia  a 
generation  ago,  this  subspecies  is  now  "reduced  in  numbers"  (L. 


84  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Glauert,  in  Hit.,  March  17,  1937) ,  and  concern  may  well  be  felt  as 
to  the  possibility  of  its  following  the  other  two  subspecies  on  the 
road  to  extinction. 

It  differs  from  B.  p.  penicillata  in  its  generally  darker  coloration; 
in  the  rusty  red  of  the  base  and  sides  of  the  tail;  in  the  rufous 
coloring  of  the  feet;  in  the  terminal  half  of  the  tail  being  black 
both  above  and  below ;  and  in  the  longer  ears  and  more  slender  tarsi 
(Water-house, '1841,  p.  186;  Gould,  1863,  vol.  2,  p.  72).  Head  and 
body,  360  mm.;  tail,  310  mm.  (Thomas,  1888,  p.  111). 

Gould  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  72)  quotes  Gilbert's  notes  from  Western 
Australia:  "This  species  appears  to  be  equally  abundant  in  all 
parts  of  the  colony,  but  to  evince  a  preference,  perhaps,  for  the 
white-gum  forests.  .  .  .  This  animal  is  one  of  the  favourite  articles 
of  food  of  the  natives,  who  are  very  quick  in  detecting  the  nest,  and 
generally  capture  the  little  inmate  by  throwing  a  spear  through  the 
nest  and  transfixing  it  to  the  ground,  or  by  placing  the  foot  upon 
and  crushing  it  to  death." 

Shortridge  (1910,  pp.  821-822,  map)  found  it  "very  plentiful  in 
the  South -West,  where,  unlike  Bettongia  lesueuri,  it  occurs  near  the 
coast,  extending  as  far  north  as  the  Moore  River,  becoming  very 
rare  at  its  northern  limit.  Formerly  recorded  from  Sharks  Bay, 
as  so  many  of  the  other  South-Western  marsupials  have  been. 

"Although  getting  scarce  in  the  more  settled  districts,  both  species 
of  Bettongia  are  sufficiently  numerous  in  many  places  to  be  rather 
destructive  to  crops,  on  which  account  they  are  often  trapped  and 
poisoned  off  in  large  numbers." 

Shortridge  records  specimens  from  King  River,  Dwaladine,  Woy- 
aline  Wells,  Yallingup,  and  Burnside.  From  Perth  southward,  ac- 
cording to  Glauert  (1933,  p.  26),  it  "is  found  in  the  coastal  area  as 
well  as  inland  to  the  Great  Southern  and  beyond."  E.  Le  G.  Trough- 
ton  remarks  (in  litt.,  April  16,  1937)  that  "survival  there  may  be 
significant  of  the  influence  of  the  fox  not  yet  being  fully  asserted." 

Rufous  Rat-kangaroo 

AEPYPRYMNUS  RUFESCENS  (J.  E.  Gray) 

Bettongia  rujescens  J.  E.  Gray,  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  (Charlesworth),  vol.  1,  p.  584, 
1837.  (Type  locality  not  stated  in  original  description,  but  Thomas  (1888, 
p.  104)  lists  the  type  specimen  from  "New  South  Wales.") 

FIGS.:  Gould,  1841,  pi.  13;  Gould,  1855,  vol.  2,  pi.  65;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell, 
1926,  fig.  51. 

Once  common  over  much  of  eastern  Australia,  this  species  has 
largely  or  entirely  disappeared  from  Victoria  and  New  South  Wales, 
but  it  remains  common  in  the  Dawson  and  Fitzroy  Valleys,  Queens- 
land. 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS 


85 


The  fur  is  long  and  coarse;  color  above  grizzled  rufescent  gray; 
an  indistinct  white  stripe  crossing  the  sides  just  in  front  of  hips; 
under  parts  grayish  white;  ears  rather  long,  black  on  outer  surface; 
tail  thickly  haired,  pale  gray  above,  white  below.  Head  and  body, 
520  mm.;  tail,  380  mm.  (Thomas,  1888,  pp.  103-104.) 

Gould  writes  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  75) :  "The  south-eastern  portion  of 
the  continent  is  its  true  habitat;  and  it  is  almost  universally  dis- 


FIG.  10. — Rufous  Rat-kangaroo    (Aepyprymnus  rufescens) 

persed  over  New  South  Wales,  both  on  the  sea  and  interior  side  of 
the  mountain  ranges.  I  found  it  very  abundant  on  the  stony  sterile 
ridges  bordering  the  grassy  flats  of  the  Upper  Hunter,  and  in  all 
similar  situations.  .  .  .  From  its  invariably  seeking  shelter  in  the 
hollow  logs"  when  startled  from  its  nest,  it  "easily  falls  a  prey  to  the 
natives,  who  hunt  it  for  food." 

Of  its  status  on  the  Comboyne  Plateau,  New  South  Wales,  Chis- 
holm  says  (1925,  p.  73) :  "Not  here  now,  but  I  am  informed  by  an 
early  settler  that  years  ago  they  were  a  great  pest  to  the  farmers, 
and  had  to  be  persistently  poisoned.  This  animal  appears  to  be  fast 
becoming  extinct,  probably  largely  due  to  the  depredations  of  the 


86  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

fox,  as  living  their  daylight  hours  in  a  nest  on  the  ground  they 
become  an  easy  prey  for  this  animal." 

In  Victoria,  according  to  C.  W.  Brazenor  (in  Hit.,  March  3, 1937) , 
the  Rufous  Rat-kangaroo  was  "once  fairly  common.  Now  rare  but 
probably  survives  in  more  inaccessible  parts  of  eastern  Victoria. 
Last  record  1905."  It  is  completely  protected  by  law  in  that  state. 

Finlayson  writes  (1931,  pp.  85-86)  of  its  status  in  Queensland: 

This  interesting  animal,  though  highly  characteristic  of  coastal  Queensland, 
has  received  very  little  mention  in  recent  years,  and  there  has  been  no  pub- 
lished data  from  which  one  might  estimate  its  position  in  the  fauna  of  that 
State. 

Strangely  enough  it  was  not  taken  by  Lumholtz,  though  it  must  have  oc- 
curred in  many  of  the  districts  in  which  he  worked  ....  It  has  been  twice 
recorded  from  North  Queensland  by  O.  Thomas  .  .  .  ,  and  by  Lonnberg  and 
Mjoberg  from  Carrington  .  .  .  ,  but  without  comment,  and  as  each  record  was 
based  on  a  single  individual,  it  might  be  inferred  to  be  comparatively  rare. 

In  the  Dawson  and  Fitzroy  Valleys,  however,  this  is  far  from  being  the 
case,  and  it  is  widely  spread  over  the  whole  area  from  sea  level  to  the  tops 
of  the  plateaus.  It  occurs  in  almost  all  types  of  country,  both  open  and 
forested  ....  The  banks  of  creeks  and  river  flats  are  favourite  resorts,  and 
there  are  few  such  places  which  by  systematic  beating  cannot  be  made  to 
yield  up  a  few.  .  .  . 

Like  most  of  the  coastal  species  it  has  little  resistance  to  drought,  and  will 
go  to  great  lengths  in  excavating  holes  in  dry  creek  beds  to  get  down  to  water 
level.  In  January,  1929,  the  Cariboe  Creek  ceased  to  run  at  Thangool,  and 
for  miles  the  sandy  bed  thus  exposed  was  criss-crossed  with  the  pads  of 
Aepyprymnus  coming  down  at  night  to  drink  at  pot  holes  of  their  own  making. 

In  the  cattle  country  it  is  stated  by  squatters  to  have  diminished  considerably 
in  recent  years,  and  by  them  it  is  regarded  with  indifference.  But  round 
many  of  the  newly-formed  cotton  settlements  in  The  Callide  Valley  it  is 
plentiful,  and  at  Thangool  and  Biloela  and  other  points  on  The  Cariboe  has 
become  an  unmitigated  nuisance  and  is  cordially  detested  by  the  struggling 
settlers.  Its  raids  on  the  crops  are  determined  and  resourceful,  and  as  no 
ordinary  fence  will  bar  them  for  long,  poisoning  is  the  only  effective  check. 
Scores  of  thousands  have  been  killed  in  this  way,  and  skeletons  (few  and 
far  between  in  Museums)  are  littered  thickly  round  the  cotton  plots. 

On  the  outlook  for  the  preservation  of  the  Rufous  Rat-kangaroo, 
E.  Le  G.  Troughton  writes  (in  litt.,  April  16,  1937) :  "There  has 
been  a  marked  shrinkage  of  the  once  abundant  species  in  coastal 
N.  S.  Wales  and  Queensland,  suggesting  that  this  small,  specialized, 
and  rather  open  country  species  is  unlikely  to  survive,  except  pos- 
sibly in  northern  coastal  Queensland  where  it  may  favour  less  open 
country,  and  the  fox  may  not  become  established." 

Gilbert's   Rat-kangaroo 

POTOROUS   GILBERTII    (Gould) 

Hypsiprymnus  Gilbertii  Gould,  Mon.  Macropodidae,  pt.  1,  text  to  pi.  15,  1841. 

("King  George's  Sound,"  Western  Australia.) 
FIGS.:    Gould,  1841,  pi.  15;  Gould,  1854,  vol.  2,  pi.  69. 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS 


87 


The  annals  of  this  species  are  brief  and  tragic.  It  was  discovered 
in  Western  Australia  in  1840  by  John  Gilbert  and  is  represented  by 
his  two  specimens  in  the  British  Museum,  but  it  has  never  since 
been  encountered  in  the  flesh  by  a  zoologist  and  is  undoubtedly 
extinct. 

General  color  above  mingled  gray,  brown,  and  black;  central  and 
lower  part  of  back  washed  with  reddish  brown;  a  blackish  median 
line  from  nose  to  forehead;  under  parts  grayish  white;  tail  black, 
thinly  clothed  with  short  hairs.  Total  length,  558  mm. ;  tail,  158  mm. 
(Gould,  1841,  pt.  1,  text  to  pi.  15.) 


FIG.  11. — Gilbert's  Rat-kangaroo   (Potorous  gilbertii) 

Gould  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  79)  quotes  Gilbert's  field  notes  as  follows: 

This  little  animal  may  be  said  to  be  the  constant  companion  of  Halmaturus 
brachyurus,  as  they  are  always  found  together  amidst  the  dense  thickets  and 
rank  vegetation  bordering  swamps  and  running  streams.  The  natives  capture 
it  by  breaking  down  a  long,  narrow  passage  in  the  thicket,  in  which  a  number 
of  them  remain  stationed,  while  others,  particularly  old  men  and  women, 
walk  through  the  thicket,  and  by  beating  the  bushes  and  making  a  yelling 
noise,  drive  the  affrighted  animals  before  them  into  the  cleared  space,  where 
they  are  immediately  speared  by  those  on  the  watch:  in  this  way  a  tribe  of 
natives  will  often  kill  an  immense  number  of  both  species  in  a  few  hours.  I 
have  not  heard  of  the  Hypsiprymnus  Gilberti  being  found  in  any  other  part 
of  the  colony  than  King  George's  Sound. 

Shortridge  (1910,  pp.  824-826,  map)  gives  the  following  account: 

"It  is  quite  possible  that  they  [P.  gilbertii  and  P.  platyops]  are 

now  entirely  extinct,  although  I  picked  up  six  old  skulls  of  Potorous 


88  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

gilberti  near  the  entrances  of  some  caves  in  the  Margaret  River 
district,  and  they  may  still  exist  sparingly  in  that  and  other  locali- 
ties, as  they  are  very  liable  to  be  overlooked  on  account  of  their 
great  external  resemblance  to  Macropus  brachyurus. 

"The  animal  known  to  natives  as  'Wurrark'  around  the  Margaret 
River  is  probably  Potorous  gilberti,  said  to  frequent  marshy  country, 
and  although  formerly  numerous,  it  is  thought  to  have  almost,  if 
not  entirely,  died  out.  A  few  may  still  occur  towards  Cape  Leeuwin." 

L.  Glauert  (in  litt.,  March  17,  1937)  considers  the  species  extinct. 

Broad-faced  Rat-kangaroo 

POTOROUS  PLATYOPS  (Gould) 

Hypsiprrymnus  platyops  Gould,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1844,  p.  103,  1844. 
("Swan  River,"  Western  Australia;  the  type,  according  to  Waterhouse 
(1846,  vol.  1,  p.  232),  is  labeled  as  coming  from  "Walyema  Swamps,  about 
forty  miles  north-east  of  Northam,  Western  Australia.") 

FIGS.:  Gould,  1851,  vol.  2,  pi.  70;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  55. 

This  Western  Australian  species,  regarded  as  rare  at  the  time  of 
its  discovery  a  century  ago,  and  represented  by  apparently  no 
more  than  three  specimens  all  told,  is  evidently  extinct. 

Face  extremely  broad  and,  with  sides  of  body,  brownish  gray; 
back  reddish  brown;  face  and  upper  surface  beset  with  numerous 
long  yellowish-white  hairs;  under  parts  and  limbs  buffy  gray;  tail 
brown  above,  paler  beneath.  Total  length,  482  mm.;  tail,  177  mm. 
(Gould,  18446,  p.  103.) 

"This  species  ...  is  so  rare  that  an  adult  male  in  my  own  col- 
lection and  another  in  that  of  the  British  Museum,  both  procured 
fin  1840]  by  Mr.  Gilbert  in  Western  Australia,  one  in  the  Walyema 
Swamps,  near  Northam  in  the  interior,  and  the  other  at  King  George's 
Sound,  are  all  the  examples  that  have  yet  been  seen"  (Gould,  1863, 
vol.  2,  p.  80) . 

"A  single  specimen  from  the  Margaret  River  was  sent  to  the 
London  Zoological  Society  in  1908.  This  suggests  that  the  species* 
still  exists  in  that  area"  (Glauert,  1933,  p.  26). 

Shortridge  wrote  in  1910  (p.  826) :  "A  small  gregarious  wallaby 
is  said  to  have  been  at  one  time  plentiful  in  the  coastal  scrub  to 
the  east  of  Albany;  from  the  description  it  was  probably  one  of 
these  species  [P.  platyops  and  P.  gikbertii].  It  was  known  to  the 
natives  as  'Moort/  and  according  to  them  has  entirely  disappeared 
there.  Described  as  being  rather  similar  to  Macropus  brachyurus  in 
habits,  but  more  sluggish  in  its  movements,  on  which  account  cats 
and  bush-fires  have  probably  caused  its  disappearance." 

A  possible  clue  to  the  identity  of  the  above-mentioned  species 
appears  in  Gould's  original  description  of  platyops  (18446,  p.  103), 
wherein  he  cites  the  native  name  of  "Mor-da,"  presumably  current 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS 


89 


in  the  Walyema  Swamps  area.  This  bears  a  plausible  similarity 
to  the  "Moort"  of  Shortridge,  whereas  the  native  name  of  gilbertii 
was  "Grul-gyte"  (Gould,  1841,  text  to  pi.  15)  or  "Ngil-gyte"  (Gould, 
1863,  vol.  2,  p.  79). 

For  some  years  past  the  Broad-faced  Rat-kangaroo  has  been 
considered  possibly  or  probably  extinct  (Shortridge,  1910,  p.  825; 
Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  p.  237;  A.  S.  Le  Souef,  in  litt.,  February 
15,  1937;  E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt.,  April  16,  1937).  Finally,  L. 
Glauert  (in  litt.,  March  17,  1937)  definitely  lists  it  as  extinct. 


FIG.  12. — Broad-faced  Rat-kangaroo  (Potorous  platyops).    After  Gould,  1851. 


"Common"    Rat-kangaroo;    Long-nosed    Rat-kangaroo;    Dark 
Rat-kangaroo;  Potoroo 

POTOROUS  TRIDACTYLUS  TRIDACTYLUS  (Kerr) 

Didelphis  tridactyla  Kerr,  Anim.  Kingdom  of  Linnaeus,  p.  198,  1792.    (Based 

upon  the  "Kanguroo  Rat"  of  Phillip,  Voy.  Botany  Bay,  p.  277,  pi.  47, 

1789;  type  locality,  "New  South  Wales.") 
FIGS.:   Waterhouse,  1841,  pi.  16,  and  Gould,  1854,  vol.  2,  pi.  67  (as  Hypsiprym- 

nus  murinus);  Lydekker,  1894,  pi.  8;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  figs.  53, 

54;  Finlayson,  1935a,  pi.  facing  p.  99. 

Formerly  ranging  from  South  Australia  through  Victoria  and 
New  South  Wales  to  southern  Queensland,  the  Potoroo  has  become 
extinct  in  South  Australia  and  possibly  in  New  South  Wales.  Its 
status  in  Queensland  does  not  seem  to  be  very  definitely  known, 
but  it  survives  in  some  numbers  in  certain  districts  of  Victoria. 

The  Potoroo  is  distinguished  from  other  species  of  its  genus  by  its 
elongated  head  and  short  tarsus;  the  fur  is  long,  loose,  and  slightly 


90  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

glossy;  general  color  dusky  brown,  penciled  above  with  black  and 
pale  brownish  yellow;  naked  part  of  rhinarium  extending  farther 
back  than  in  P.  platyops;  under  parts  dirty  yellowish  white;  tail 
clothed  with  short,  stiff,  black  hairs,  extreme  tip  white.  Head  and 
body,  393  mm.;  tail,  235  mm.  (Waterhouse,  1846,  vol.  1,  pp.  224- 
225.) 

The  brief  history  of  the  species  in  South  Australia  is  discussed 
by  Jones  (1924,  pp.  217-218) : 

The  name  "common"  Rat-Kangaroo  although  that  used  in  all  books  dealing 
with  the  marsupials,  is  a  sadly  inappropriate  one.  .  .  . 

Of  the  former  distribution  of  this  animal  in  South  Australia  no  details  can 
now  be  obtained.  Save  the  bare  record  of  its  existence  in  this  State  [on  the 
Murray  River],  which  is  given  in  the  British  Museum  catalogue  of  1888 
and  which  has  been  copied  into  all  subsequent  works,  I  know  no  other 
reference  to  the  creature  as  a  South  Australian  animal.  .  .  .  The  remaining 
Potoroos  should  be  carefully  protected  in  those  places  where  they  still  sur- 
vive, and  efforts  should  be  made  for  turning  them  down  in  properly  safe- 
guarded sanctuaries.  If  this  is  not  done  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that 
the  remnant  of  the  stock  will  share  the  fate  of  the  South  Australian  form  and 
rapidly  become  extinct. 

Finlayson  writes  (19356,  p.  221)  concerning  its  status  in  Victoria: 

Few  animals  have  been  so  obscure  as  to  their  status  on  the  mainland  as 
the  Potoroo.  Its  former  presence  in  the  south-eastern  district  of  this  State 
[South  Australia]  is  attested  ...  by  the  accounts  of  settlers,  and  by  occa- 
sional bone  fragments  in  cave  deposits,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  a 
common  form  west  of  the  Glenelg  [a  river  of  southwestern  Victoria],  at  the 
time  of  settlement. 

In  Victoria,  though  better  known  than  here,  there  have  been  few  explicit 
references  to  it  in  the  literature,  which  would  enable  one  to  judge  as  to  how  it 
was  faring  in  the  struggle  for  survival,  until  Mr.  Brazenor,  in  1933  stated  that 
"though  very  uncommon  it  still  persists  ...  in  the  north-eastern  district,  in  the 
Grampians,  and  probably  in  the  Otway  Ranges,"  and  he  has  since  confirmed 
its  presence  in  the  last  locality  by  personally  collecting  it  there. 

I  am  able  to  add  two  other  localities  to  these,  viz.,  French  Island  in  Western 
Port,  and  the  Portland  area  in  the  western  district,  and  to  state  that  in  the 
latter,  at  least,  it  is  still  plentiful.  Its  apparent  scarcity  is  due,  I  believe, 
largely  to  its  choice  of  dense  undergrowth  ....  In  1927  a  rabbit  trapper, 
near  Gorae,  stated  that  he  took  over  twenty  of  these  "bandicoots"  in  a 
short  season,  and  this  I  was  able  subsequently  to  prove,  by  overhauling  the 
skulls  at  his  dumps  ....  In  the  summer  of  the  following  year  I  took  it 
myself  near  Heywood  and  had  further  reports  of  it,  and  again  in  the  winter 
of  the  same  year  on  French  Island,  and  that  no  disaster  has  overtaken  it 
since  then  is  vouched  for  by  several  correspondents,  and  very  recently  (for 
the  western  district)  by  Professor  Wood-Jones  (in  litt.}. 

C.  W.  Brazenor  writes  (in  litt.,  March  3,  1937)  that  it  was  once 
common  in  eastern  and  southern  Victoria  but  is  now  confined  to 
small  numbers  in  southwestern  Victoria.  He  adds  that  it  is  com- 
pletely protected  by  law. 

Gould  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  77)  gives  an  account  of  it  under  the  name 
Hypsiprymnus  murinus:  "It  is  only  in  the  swampy  and  damp  parts 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  91 

of  the  brushes  of  New  South  Wales  that  the  H,  Murinus  is  to  be 
found  in  any  abundance.  The  district  of  Illawarra,  Botany  Bay, 
the  low  scrubs  bordering  the  rivers  Hunter,  Manning,  and  Clarence, 
are  the  principal  localities  in  which  it  may  be  successfully  sought 
for." 

E.  Le  G.  Troughton  (in  litt.,  April  16,  1937)  refers  to  the  main- 
land race  as  once  common  in  the  damp  coastal  regions  of  New 
South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South  Australia,  but  as  now  rare,  no 
specimens  having  been  received  at  the  Australian  Museum  since 
1913. 

Le  Souef  and  Burrell  remark  (1926,  p.  233)  that  the  Potoroo,  like 
all  the  members  of  the  subfamily  Potoroinae,  makes  for  a  hollow 
log  when  disturbed,  and  thus  is  often  easily  captured. 

Longman  (1930,  p.  59)  records  the  species  from  southern  Queens- 
land. Finlayson  (1931,  p.  89)  did  not  find  it  in  the  Dawson  Valley 
in  that  state. 

[The  Tasmanian  subspecies,  P.  t.  apicalis  (Gould) ,  remains  com- 
mon in  many  localities  (Lord,  1928,  p.  19).  Absence  of  the  fox  in 
Tasmania  may  render  that  country  the  only  hope  for  the  survival 
of  any  representative  of  the  genus  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt., 
April  16, 1937).] 

Desert  Rat-kangaroo;  Plain  Rat-kangaroo 

CALOPRYMNUS  CAMPESTEIS   (Gould) 

Bettongia  campestris  Gould,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1843,  p.  81,  1843.   ("South 

Australia.") 
FIGS.:    Gould,  1851,  vol.  2,  pi.  66;  Finlayson,  1932,  pis.  7,  8,  and  1935,  pis. 

facing  pp.  97.  98. 

"His  [Finlayson's]  rediscovery  of  the  living  Caloprymnus  was  a 
romance  of  modern  zoology.  The  great  John  Gould  had  received 
three  specimens  from  somewhere  in  South  Australia  in  1843.  These 
three  specimens  in  the  British  Museum  remained  unique.  Calo- 
prymnus seemed  to  be  as  dead  as  the  Dodo:  and  then  Finlayson, 
with  the  assistance  of  Mr  Reese  of  Appamunna,  produced  [in  1931], 
as  a  conjurer  from  his  hat,  living  specimens  of  the  long  lost  Plafti 
Rat-kangaroo."  (Jones,  in  Finlayson,  1935a,  p.  8.) 

Under  fur  dense  and  soft,  very  pale  yellowish  brown,  the  hairs 
tipped  with  sooty  brown;  interspersed  with  the  under  fur  (especially 
on  the  back)  are  many  long  brownish  white  hairs,  tipped  with 
blackish;  sides  dirty  yellowish;  under  parts  dirty  white;  feet  and 
tail  very  pale  yellowish  brown.  Head  and  body,  400  mm.;  tail, 
355  mm.  (Gould,  1843,  p.  81.) 

"Imagine  a  little  animal  about  the  bulk  of  a  rabbit,  but  built 
like  a  kangaroo,  with  long  spindly  hind  legs,  tiny  forelegs  folded 


92  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

tight  on  its  chest,  and  a  tail  half  as  long  again  as  the  body  but  not 
much  thicker  than  a  lead  pencil,  and  you  have  it  in  the  rough.  But 
its  head,  short  and  blunt  and  wide,  is  very  different  from  that  of 
any  kangaroo  or  wallaby,  and  its  coat  is  uniformly  coloured  a  clear 
pale  yellowish  ochre — exactly  like  the  great  clay-pans  and  flood 
plains."  (Finlayson,  1935a,  p.  102.)  Head  and  body,  254-282  mm. ; 
tail,  307-377  mm.  (Finlayson,  1932,  p.  165). 

The  exact  locality  from  which  Gould's  original  specimens  came 
(through  Sir  George  Grey)  is  not  now  ascertainable;  he  merely 
stated  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  76)  that  "the  stony  and  sandy  plains  of  the 
interior  of  South  Australia  partially  clothed  with  scrub  are  its 
native  habitat."  Only  the  recent  range  of  the  animal  can  be  given 
with  any  precision.  "Its  proved  distribution  may  be  extended  over 
a  large  area  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Lake  Eyre  Basin,  speci- 
mens and  reliable  records  from  observers  personally  known  to  the 
author  having  been  obtained  from  as  far  south  as  Lake  Harry  and 
as  far  north  as  Coorabulka  in  South-West  Queensland.  The  north 
and  south  limits  of  its  range,  as  at  present  ascertained,  are,  there- 
fore, approximately,  lats.  23°  40'  and  29°  21'  south.  No  records 
have  so  far  been  obtained  west  of  Lake  Eyre  and  the  Kallakoopah, 
and  the  furthest  easterly  occurrence  is  at  Innamincka,  on  the  Barcoo, 
in  long.  140°  49'  east."  (Finlayson,  1932,  p.  148;  map,  p.  149.) 

The  recent  history  of  the  species  may  be  summarized  in  Finlay- 
son's  own  words  (1932,  pp.  150-165) : 

In  ordinary  years  the  Lake  Eyre  Basin  is  a  most  unattractive  area  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  mammal  collector,  and  the  disappearance  of 
Caloprymnus  from  scientific  ken  must  be  attributed  rather  to  lack  of  systematic 
collecting  than  to  any  sudden  change  in  the  status  of  the  animal  in  the 
fauna,  following  Grey's  discovery.  All  the  evidence  obtained  by  questioning 
blacks  goes  to  show  that  in  all  probability  it  has  had  an  uninterrupted  tenure 
of  the  country,  but  it  is  equally  certain  that  in  normal  times  its  numbers 
are  small,  since  men  like  Mr.  Reese,  whose  opportunities  for  observation  are 
practically  continuous  throughout  the  year,  affirm  that  in  thirty-five  years 
they  have  seen  no  more  than  twenty  specimens.  .  .  . 

At  the  time  of  my  passage  through  the  area,  conditions  as  they  bear  upon 
animal  life  were  very  favourable  and  quite  supernormal  as  compared  with 
average  conditions  over  a  series  of  years.  A  period  of  seven  years  of  drought 
had  been  broken,  and  vegetation  had  been  restored  on  a  comparatively 
lavish  scale.  All  species  of  mammals  were  undergoing  a  quick  increase  in 
numbers,  and  rodents  especially  had  assumed  plague  proportions.  Most  of  the 
specimens  of  Caloprymnus  were  obtained,  and  the  bulk  of  the  observations 
upon  it  were  made,  on  two  flats  lying  east  and  west  of  Cooncherie  Sandhill.  .  .  . 

The  numbers  occurring  in  this  particular  locality  were  very  considerable. 
In  the  course  of  a  week's  riding  on  the  two  flats  over  an  area  of  perhaps  20 
square  miles,  17  Oolacuntas  were  sighted.  ...  All  the  evidence  obtained 
so  far  goes  to  show  that  its  distribution  at  present  is  highly  discontinuous 
but  that  it  follows  in  a  general  way  the  fringes  of  the  gibber  plains  .... 

The  accounts  of  its  feeding  habits  given  by  the  blacks,  and  several  other 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  93 

items  of  evidence,  however,  would  point  to  its  being  largely  phytophagous, 
or  at  least  less  rhizophagous  than  Bettongia,  Potorous,  and  Aepyprymnus.  .  .  . 
Where  Diprotodon  failed  [to  survive],  Caloprymnus  may  yet  succeed,  but 
all  the  evidence  of  its  physical  structure  is  not  more  eloquent  of  changed 
conditions  [from  relatively  humid  to  an  arid  climate]  than  its  pathetic 
clinging  to  its  flimsy  grass  nest,  in  a  fiery  land  where  a  fossorial  habit  has 
become  the  main  factor  in  survival. 

The  first  specimen  flushed  by  Finlay son's  party  was  run  down 
with  a  relay  of  horses  after  a  chase  of  12  miles.  Others  were  taken 
in  the  same  way,  while  a  native  captured  two  by  hand  after  stealing 
up  to  their  grass  nests. 

E.  Le  G.  Troughton  writes  (in  litt.,  April  16,  1937) :  "The  fact 
that  the  otherwise  defenceless  animal  is  peculiarly  suited  to  ex- 
tremely barren  and  remote  desert  areas  may  ensure  survival  and 
prevent  exploitation  as  a  rarity,  but  the  spread  of  the  fox,  seen 
personally  near  Marree  in  1920,  use  as  food  by  the  blacks,  and 
variable  seasons  may  continue  range  shrinkage  to  extinction." 

"Common"  Hare-wallaby;   Brown  Hare-wallaby 

LAGORCHESTES  LEPORIDES   (Gould) 

Macropus  Leporides  Gould,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1840,  p.  93,  1841.  ("In- 
terior of  Australia";  according  to  Thomas  (1888,  p.  84),  the  cotypes 
are  from  the  "interior  of  New  South  Wales.") 

FIGS.:  Gould,  1841d,  pi.  12;  Qould,  1859,  vol.  2,  pi.  57;  Royal  Nat.  Hist., 
vol.  3,  p.  246,  fig,  1894-95. 

This  species  is  "apparently  doomed  to  extinction"  in  its  last 
stronghold  in  New  South  Wales  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt.,  April 
16,  1937). 

It  resembles  the  Common  Hare  of  Europe  in  size  and  in  texture 
of  fur;  forelimbs  very  small;  above  variegated  with  black,  brown, 
and  yellow;  pale  yellow  on  sides  and  about  eyes;  belly  grayish 
white;  forelimbs  black  on  upper  part.  Head  and  body,  495  mm.; 
tail,  330  mm.  (Gould,  1841a,  pp.  93-94.) 

The  former  range  included  the  interior  of  New  South  Wales  and 
Victoria,  and  the  Murray  River  region  of  South  Australia. 

Gould  writes  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  67) :  "I  have  but  little  doubt  that 
this  animal  enjoys  a  wide  range  over  the  interior  of  New  South 
Wales;  it  certainly  inhabits  the  Liverpool  Plains  as  well  as  those 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Namoi  and  the  Gwydyr,  from  all  of 
which  localities  I  have  received  numerous  examples."  He  adds:  "I 
usually  found  it  solitary,  and  sitting  close  in  a  well-formed  seat 
under  the  shelter  of  a  tuft  of  grass  on  the  open  plains." 

" According  to  Krefft,  this  species  is  common  in  the  level  country 
between  the  Murray  and  Darling  rivers"  (Lydekker,  1894,  p.  54). 

E.  Le  G.  Troughton  (in  litt.,  April  16,  1937)   considers  it  "now 


94 


EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 


very  rare,  and  apparently  doomed  to  extinction  in  New  South 
Wales  owing  to  denudation  in  over-stocked  country,  also  populated 
by  rabbits,  and  the  fox."  In  1938  (p.  407)  he  refers  to  it  as  "either 
extinct  or  nearly  so." 

In  Victoria,  according  to  C.  W.  Brazenor  (in  Hit.,  March  3,  1937) , 
there  were  two  records,  the  last  in  1869.  He  considers  the  species 
extinct  in  that  state. 

"It  is  tolerably  abundant  in  all  the  plains  of  South  Australia, 
particularly  those  situated  between  the  Belts  of  the  Murray  and  the 
mountain  ranges"  (Gould,  1841J,  text  to  pi.  12). 


FIG.  13. — Brown  Hare-wallaby  (Lagorchestes  leporides).   After  Gould. 

Jones  writes  (1924,  pp.  222-223)  of  its  status  in  South  Australia: 
"I  know  of  no  preserved  specimens  of  this  formerly  common 
animal  from  which  a  description  may  be  written  of  the  actual  form 
which  inhabited  this  State.  .  .  . 

"In  the  British  Museum  catalogue  of  1888  five  specimens  in  the 
collection  are  recorded  as  being  from  South  Australia  ....  I  have 
been  unable  to  obtain  any  evidence  of  its  present  existence  in  the 
State,  and  in  all  probability  it  is  completely  exterminated." 

Rufous  Hare-wallaby;  Western  Hare-wallaby;  "Whistler"; 
"Spinifex  Rat" 

LAGORCHESTES  HIRSUTUS  HIRSUTUS  Gould 

Lagorchestes   hirsutus    Gould,   Proc.   Zool.    Soc.    London    1844,    p.    32,    1844. 

("York  District  of  Western  Australia.") 
FIG.:    Gould,  1849,  vol.  2,  pi.  58. 

This  animal  has  long  since  disappeared  from  a  large  part  of  its 
former  range  in  the  west  of  Western  Australia  but  survives  in 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  95 

indefinite  numbers  in  the  east  along  the  South  Australian  border 
and  likewise  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  latter  state. 

General  color  of  fur,  especially  on  hind  quarters  and  under  parts, 
rich  sandy  buff;  head  and  back  grizzled  with  grayish  white;  body 
beset,  especially  posteriorly,  with  numerous  long,  rich  rufous  hairs; 
space  about  eye  reddish  buff;  ears  large,  grayish  brown  externally; 
feet  yellowish  buff.  Total  length,  698  mm.;  tail,  266  mm.  (Gould, 
1844a,p.  32.) 

Stirling  and  Zietz  (1893,  pp.  154-155)  record  four  specimens  from 
Western  Australia ;  they  were  taken  during  the  Elder  Expedition  "in 
the  Porcupine  grass  (Triodia  irritans)  country,  south  of  the  Barrow 
Range,  before  the  exploring  party  entered  the  Victoria  Desert.  .  .  . 

"Mr.  Streich  informs  us  that  this  animal  appears  to  be  numerous 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Victoria  Desert,  where  it  often  falls  the 
prey  to  the  Wedge-tailed  Eagle." 

In  an  anthropological  report  on  the  same  expedition,  Helms  says 
(1896,  pp.  240,  255-256) : 

The  Blyth  Range,  Barrow  Range,  and  Victoria  Desert  tribes  inhabit  "spini- 
fex  country,"  where  subsistence  is  difficult  to  maintain,  and  but  for  the 
numerously  occurring  Largochestes  [sic]  hirsutus  .  .  .  and  some  other  small 
marsupials,  it  would  probably  be  impossible  for  them  to  live  in  such  desolate 
districts.  It  can  scarcely  be  wondered  at  that  the  majority  of  them  appeared 
lean  and  starvation-stricken.  .  .  . 

The  Largochestes  is  almost,  if  not  totally,  absent  here  [in  the  vicinity  of 
Victoria  Spring] ;  and  some  150  to  200  miles  to  the  north,  the  eagle-nests, 
which  we  had  previously  noticed  daily,  disappeared,  which  at  once  proved 
the  decrease  of  these  small  marsupials.  .  .  . 

Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  interior,  as  far  as  the  Expedition 
went,  their  [the  blacks']  principal  flesh-food  is  supplied  by  the  small  marsupials 
that  harbor  under  the  Zn'ocfoa-tussocks,  and  are  commonly  called  "spinifex 
wallabies"  (Largochestes  hirsutus),  occurring  abundantly  in  many  places  in 
the  triodia-regiou.  .  .  .  The  blacks  are  very  expert  at  killing  the  animals  with 
the  "turtimbo,"  or  short  throwing-stick  ....  To  enable  them  better  to  get 
at  this  game  they  constantly  burn  large  patches  of  the  "spinifex"  grass. 

Shortridge  (1910,  p.  819;  map,  p.  820)  considers  the  "mainland 
form  almost,  if  not  entirely,  extinct.  Said  possibly  to  still  occur 
very  sparingly  on  sand-plains  to  the  east  of  Beverley  and  York — 
where  within  quite  recent  times  it  was  fairly  plentiful. 

"A  single  specimen  was  recorded  from  Hastings,  near  Kojonup, 
in  1896,  by  the  Perth  Museum." 

Glauert  states  (1933,  p.  27) :  "It  has  long  disappeared  from  the 
York  district,  where  the  first  specimens  were  collected  by  Gilbert, 
but  survives  in  the  desert  country  near  the  South  Australian  border, 
and  along  the  Canning  Stock  Route." 

Finlayson  (1935,  pp.  63-67)  gained  experience  with  the  species 
in  the  northwest  of  South  Australia.  "The  maala  [L.  hirsutus], 
though  common  in  the  more  westerly  spinifex  tracts,  is  not  often 
taken  east  of  the  [Aboriginal]  Reserves."  Much  time  was  spent  in 


96  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

1932  in  an  unsuccessful  search  for  it.  "A  year  later,  ...  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Musgraves,  we  learned  from  the  blacks  that  there 
was  a  small  colony  of  maalas  in  a  spinifex  patch  ten  miles  south 
of  Koonapandi." 

Finlayson  then  gives  an  account  of  hunting  in  this  spinifex  patch, 
about  10  miles  square,  with  some  blacks.  Their  favorite  method 
of  firing  the  country  was  utilized.  As  the  fire  drove  the  maalas  out 
of  the  tussocks,  their  chance  of  dodging  the  throwing-sticks  was 
slender.  Those  that  escaped  the  fire  by  remaining  in  their  burrows 
were  hunted  out  after  the  fire  had  passed.  A  satisfactory  series  of 
specimens  was  secured. 

The  Rufous  Hare-wallaby  "requires  observation  and  close  pro- 
tection wherever  possible"  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt.,  April  16, 
1937). 

[It  is  represented  by  doubtfully  distinct  insular  subspecies  on 
Dorre  and  Bernier  Islands  in  Sharks  Bay,  Western  Australia — L.  h. 
dorreae  Thomas  and  L.  h.  bernieri  Thomas.  Evidently  both  are 
protected  by  their  insular  environment,  and  at  least  the  latter  is 
reported  as  plentiful  (Shortridge,  1910,  p.  819).] 

Banded  Hare- wallaby;  Banded  Wallaby 

LAGOSTROPHUS  FASCIATUS  (Peron  and  Lesueur) 

Kangurus  Fasciatus  Peron  and  Lesueur,  in  Peron  and  Freycinet,  Voyage  Terres 

Australes,  vol.  1,  p.  114,  atlas,  ed.  1,  pi.  27,  1807.    (Bernier  Island,  Sharks 

Bay,  Western  Australia.) 
FIGS.:    Peron  and  Freycinet,  Voyage  Terres  Australes,  atlas,  ed.   1,  pi.  27, 

1807,  ed.  2,  pi.  57,  1824;  Gould,  1842,  pi.  30;  Waterhouse,  1846,  vol.  1,  pi.  4, 

fig.  2;  Gould,  1849,  vol.  2,  pi.  56. 

Although  Shortridge  says  (in  Thomas,  1907,  p.  772)  that  he  had 
never  seen  any  animal,  not  even  rabbits,  in  such  numbers  as  this 
species  on  Bernier  Island,  it  now  seems  a  melancholy  necessity  to 
include  it  among  the  vanishing  mammals  of  Australia.  It  is  no 
longer  common  on  the  islands  in  Sharks  Bay  where  it  once  swarmed, 
and  it  occurs  in  only  a  few  isolated  localities  on  the  mainland  of 
Western  Australia.  (The  mainland  form,  sometimes  recognized  as 
L.  /.  albipilis  (Gould) ,  is  doubtfully  distinct,  and  will  not  be  treated 
separately  here.) 

The  animal  is  about  the  size  of  the  Common  Hare  of  Europe; 
fur  very  long  and  soft,  brown-gray,  variegated  with  rusty,  black, 
and  white;  space  about  eye  bright  rusty;  numerous  narrow  dark 
cross  bands  on  the  back,  most  conspicuous  posteriorly ;  on  the  upper 
parts  and  sides  are  very  long  interspersed  white  hairs;  under  parts 
dirty  white;  hind  feet  with  long,  harsh,  brownish-white  hairs  spring- 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  97 

ing  from  sides  of  two  larger  toes.  Head  and  body,  444  mm.;  tail, 
279-305  mm.  (Waterhouse,  1846,  vol.  1,  pp.  87,  90.) 

At  the  time  of  its  discovery  by  Peron  in  1801,  the  species  occurred 
in  great  numbers  on  the  islands  in  Sharks  Bay  (Bernier,  Dirk  Har- 
tog's,  and  Dorre).  A  little  more  than  a  century  later  Shortridge 
(in  Thomas,  1907,  p.  772)  found  the  animals  swarming  on  Bernier 
Island.  "It  has  been  a  particularly  dry  season,  and  they  were  very 
thin.  Food  was  evidently  insufficient  for  them  all,  and  dead  speci- 
mens were  lying  about  in  all  directions.  It  would  seem  that  they 
have  no  natural  enemies  on  the  island;  and  they  breed  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  island  will  carry  no  more,  and  in  times  of  drought 
a  number  have  to  die."  He  adds  (1910,  p.  818) :  "It  may  be  noted 
that  sheep  had  been  temporarily  introduced  there,  while  in  the 
south  of  Dirk  Hartog  there  is  a  large  sheep  station,  and  the  wallabies 
are  said  to  have  entirely  left  that  end  of  the  island." 

Glauert  (1933,  p.  27)  reports  the  species  as  "not  common"  on  the 
islands  in  Sharks  Bay. 

On  the  mainland  of  Western  Australia  Gilbert  found  it  in  densely 
thick  scrubs,  where  "thie  only  possible  means  of  obtaining  it  is  by 
having  a  number  of  natives  to  clear  the  spot,  and  two  or  three  with 
dogs  and  guns  to  watch  for  it.  ...  The  natives  are  in  the  habit 
of  burning  these  thickets  at  intervals  of  three  years,  and  by  this 
means  destroy  very  great  numbers."  (Gould,  1863,  vol.  2,  p.  65.) 

Thomas  (1888,  p.  182)  recorded  specimens  from  Wongar  Hills, 
York,  and  Perth. 

Shortridge  (1910,  p.  818;  map,  p.  817)  found  it  "existing  in  a 
few  isolated  localities  to  the  east  of  Pinjelly  and  Wagin,  and  accord- 
ing to  natives  the  Pellinup  and  Salt  River  districts  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Stirling  Ranges. 

"Plentiful  enough  in  the  restricted  areas  in  which  they  occur, 
frequenting  thick  prickly  scrub." 

He  also  remarks  (pp.  818-819)  on  the  "most  sudden  and  unac- 
countable" disappearance  of  this  and  a  number  of  other  mammals 
in  the  Western,  South-Eastern,  and  Central  districts  of  Western 
Australia;  it  "is  said  to  have  been  first  noticed  about  1880."  Short- 
ridge continues: 

The  above  areas  are  now,  with  a  few  exceptions,  entirely  devoid  of  indigenous 
mammals.  This  is  said  partly  to  account  for  the  way  in  which  the  natives  have 
been  disappearing  from  the  Western  and  Central  districts  of  late  years.  .  .  . 

The  entire  disappearance  of  so  many  species,  over  such  large  tracts  of  country, 
is  generally  considered  to  be  due  to  some  epidemic  or  disease  ....  It  may  be 
noted,  however,  that  they  have  died  out  chiefly  in  the  drier  parts  of  the  country, 
where,  except  for  the  introduction  of  sheep,  there  has  been  very  little  altera- 
tion in  the  natural  conditions.  Rabbits,  although  already  very  numerous  in 
the  Centre  and  South-East,  have  not  yet  found  their  way  to  the  North- West. 

The  mammals  of  the  South- West,  to  about  as  far  north  as  the  Moore  River, 
...  are  rapidly  retreating  before  civilisation.  .  .  .  The  burning  of  forests 


98  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

and  general  clearing  of  the  country,  together  with   constant  raids  of  dogs 
and  domestic  cats,  are  among  the  chief  causes. 

Glauert  (1933,  p.  27)  records  the  mainland  form  as  rare,  occurring 
"in  a  few  isolated  localities  to  the  east  of  the  Great  Southern 
Railway." 

E.  Le  G.  Troughton  (in  Hit.,  April  16,  1937)  regards  the  extinction 
of  the  mainland  form  as  probable  and  states  that  suitable  reserva- 
tions must  be  made  if  the  fauna  is  to  survive  on  islands  large  enough 
for  commercial  use. 

Bridled  Nail-tailed  Wallaby 

ONYCHOGALEA  FRAENATA  (Gould) 

Macropus  jraenatus  Gould,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1840,  p.  92,  1841.  ("In- 
terior of  New  South  Wales.") 

FIGS.:  Gould,  1841d,  pi.  3;  Waterhouse,  1846,  vol.  1,  pi.  4,  fig.  1;  Gould,  1849, 
vol.  2,  pi.  54;  Le  Souef,  1923,  pi.  15;  Australian  Zoologist,  vol.  3,  pt.  4, 
pi.  20,  1923;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  48. 

This  beautiful  wallaby,  perhaps  never  very  common,  is  threatened 
with  extinction  in  its  ancient  home  in  eastern  Australia. 

Form  slender ;  fur  soft  and  short ;  general  color  gray ;  a  white  cheek 
stripe ;  sides  of  neck  washed  with  cream ;  a  white  stripe  on  each  side 
extending  from  occiput  over  the  shoulder  to  join  the  white  of  the 
under  parts  behind  the  arm  insertion;  space  between  these  stripes 
blackish  brown ;  tail  black  above  and  below  toward  tip,  with  a  small 
terminal  nail;  limbs  whitish,  darker  on  hands  and  feet.  Total  length, 
825  (female)  to  1,104  mm.  (male) ;  tail,  380  (female)  to  482  (male). 
(Gould,  1841a,  p.  92,  and  1841d,  text  to  pi.  3.) 

Its  former  range  extended  from  southern  Queensland  to  Victoria. 

"0.  fraenata  inhabits  the  brigaloe-scrubs  of  the  interior  of  New 
South  Wales  and  Queensland,  and  probably  South  Australia"  (Gould, 
1863,  vol.  1,  p.  xxi).  Gould  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  62)  writes  further  of 
its  occurrence: 

It  is  a  native  of  the  south-eastern  portions  of  Australia,  and  the  locality 
nearest  to  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales  in  which  I  observed  it  was  Brezi, 
on  the  river  Mokai,  whence  it  extended  into  the  interior  as  far  as  I  had  an 
opportunity  of  proceeding;  Mr.  Gilbert  subsequently  discovered  that  it  was 
common  in  the  thick  patches  of  scrub  which  are  dispersed  over  all  parts 
of  the  Darling  Downs.  It  inhabits  all  the  low  mountain  ranges,  the  eleva- 
tion of  which  varies  from  one  to  six  hundred  feet,  and  which  are  of  a  sterile 
character — hot,  dry,  stony,  and  thickly  covered  with  shrub-like  stunted 
trees.  .  .  . 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Brezi  the  natives  hunt  this  species  with  dogs, 
and  often  kill  it  with  spears,  bommerengs  and  other  weapons;  at  Gundermein 
on  the  Lower  Namoi  I  found  myself  among  a  tribe  of  natives  who  succeed 
in  capturing  them  with  nets  .... 

Its  flesh,  like  that  of  the  other  small  Kangaroos,  is  excellent,  and  when 
procurable  was  eaten  by  me  in  preference  to  other  meat. 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS 


99 


"There  are  probably  only  three  species  of  animals  that  are  entirely 
confined  to  the  fox  area  of  Eastern  Australia.  These  require  our 
immediate  attention  if  the  remnants  are  to  be  saved.  They  are  the 
Bridle  Nail-tailed  Kangaroo  .  .  .  ,  the  Brush-tailed  Rock-Wallaby 
.  .  .  ,  and  Gaimard's  Rat-Kangaroo.  .  .  . 

"The  only  Bridle  Nail-tailed  Kangaroos  that  exist  as  far  as  1 
know,  are  a  few  on  Mr.  Charles  Baldwin's  farm,  near  Manila,  and 
some  in  Taronga  Park.  Attempts  to  get  this  species  to  live  in  a  wild 
state  in  Taronga  Park  have  failed,  as  they  apparently  cannot  live 
in  the  tick  area,  their  proper  home  being  the  foot  hills  of  the  Dividing 
Range  of  Eastern  Australia."  (Le  Souef,  1923,  p.  110.) 


FIG.  14. — Bridled  Nail-tailed  Wallaby   (Onychogalea  fraenata).    After  Gould 
and  photo  by  Berridge. 


"Occasionally  one  .  .  .  will  be  picked  up  by  the  great  wedge- 
tailed  eagle.  Remains  of  the  animal  have  been  found  in  the  bird's 
aerie.  .  .  . 

"This  species,  like  so  many  other  animals  found  in  the  more  closely 
settled  parts  of  Eastern  Australia,  is  now  becoming  very  scarce,  and 
will  probably  soon  be  extinct.  With  the  occupation  of  the  land  by 
sheep  and  cattle,  and  the  competition  of  the  rabbit,  the  food  and 
shelter  to  which  the  wallabies  were  accustomed  are  decreasing.  At 
the  same  time,  their  enemies  are  increasing  as  their  possible  living- 
grounds  are  becoming  more  and  more  restricted.  But  it  is  the 
imported  fox  that  is  making  the  wholesale  clearance,  threatening 
early  extinction."  (Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  pp.  210-211.) 

"It  is  not  uncommon  in  some  parts  of  Southern  Queensland,  and 
its  pelts  were  frequently  seen  in  the  sales  two  or  three  years  ago 


100  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

under  the  name  of  'padmelon.'  It  is  now  a  protected  species."  (Long- 
man, 1930,  p.  59.) 

Finlayson  reports  (1931,  p.  85)  on  its  status  in  the  Dawson  Valley, 
Queensland:  "Observed  twice  only,  and  no  specimens  obtained.  It 
was  obtained  by  Lumholtz  in  the  Rockhampton  district  in  1880- 
1884,  and  recently  Longman  has  stated  that  it  is  not  uncommon  in 
South  Queensland.  Over  the  greater  part  of  the  Dawson  country, 
however,  it  is  either  absent  or  rare,  as  few  reliable  accounts  of  it 
could  be  obtained." 

"This  gentle  and  beautiful  species  was  once  plentiful  in  inland 
N.  S.  W.  south  to  the  Murray  River,  and  in  coastal  parts  as  far  as 
Rockhampton  in  Queensland,  but  is  now  quite  rare,  or  absent,  over 
entire  range.  A  colony  has  been  established  on  a  small  river  island, 
and  such  sanctuaries,  free  from  foxes,  probably  represent  the  only 
means  of  preventing  extermination."  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  Hit., 
April  16,  1937.) 

In  Victoria  there  are  a  few  records  only,  the  last  in  1867.  The 
animal  is  now  extinct  in  that  state.  (C.  W.  Brazenor,  in  Hit.,  March 
3, 1937.) 

"As  an  illustration  of  the  rapid  breeding  of  marsupials,  the  ex- 
perience of  Mr.  Chas.  Baldwin,  of  Durham  Court,  Manilla,  New 
South  Wales,  is  illuminating.  In  eighteen  months  Mr.  Baldwin, 
from  five  adults,  bred  seventy  young  of  the  bridled  wallaby."  (Hoy, 
1923,  p.  166.) 

Crescent  Nail-tailed  Wallaby 

ONYCHOGALEA  LUNATA   (Gould) 

Macropus  lunatus  Gould,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1840,  p.  93,  1841.  ("West 
coast  of  Australia";  Thomas  (1888,  p.  78)  lists  the  type  specimen  from 
"Swan  R.,  W.  A.") 

FIGS.:    Gould,  1849,  vol.  2,  pi.  55;  Lucas  and  Le  Souef,  1909,  p.  78,  fig. 

This  wallaby  is  on  the  verge  of  extinction  in  the  settled  districts 
of  Western  Australia  but  survives  farther  east  toward  the  Great 
Victoria  Desert. 

In  general  appearance  it  is  very  similar  to  the  Bridled  Nail-tailed 
Wallaby  but  is  slightly  smaller;  general  color  dark  gray;  face  gray, 
a  mark  over  eye  and  cheek  stripe  slightly  paler;  a  prominent  white 
crescent-shaped  shoulder  stripe,  not  encroaching  on  the  neck;  back 
and  sides  of  neck  rich  rufous ;  a  whitish  hip  stripe  and  another  stripe 
just  above  it;  under  parts  whitish;  tail  uniform  gray,  its  terminal 
nail  as  in  0.  fraenata.  Male:  head  and  body,  500  mm. ;  tail,  332  mm. 
(Thomas,  1888,  pp.  77-78.) 

The  former  range  of  this  species  included  the  southern  parts  of 
Western  Australia  and  Central  and  South  Australia. 


ORDER   MARSUPIALIA I      MARSUPIALS 


101 


"Mr.  Gilbert's  notes  inform  me  that  'the  Waurong  ...  is  found 
in  the  gum  forests  of  the  interior  of  Western  Australia,  where  there 
are  patches  of  thick  scrub  and  dense  thickets  .  .  .  ;  the  dogs  some- 
times succeed  in  driving  it  out  to  the  open  spots,  when,  like  the 
Kangaroo  rats,  it  runs  to  the  nearest  hollow  log,  and  is  then  easily 
captured'  "  (Gould,  1863,  vol.  2,  p.  64). 


\\\f/*^^ 

FIG.  15. — Crescent   Nail-tailed   Wallaby    (Onychogalea  lunata) 

Shortridge  (in  Thomas,  1907,  p.  768)  considers  it  "very  numerous 
in  some  localities"  of  Western  Australia.  He  adds  (1910,  pp.  815- 
816,  map)  the  following  information: 

"Within  a  more  limited  area  this  species  seems  to  have  much  the 
same  range  as  Macropus  eugenii,  both  forms  frequently  occurring 
together  .  .  .  — not  extending  far,  if  at  all,  beyond  Beverley  in  the 
North,  or  near  the  coast;  its  western  boundary  apparently  being 
the  Darling  Range. 

"Also  occurring  in  the  southern  interior  of  South  Australia,  where, 
however,  it  is  little  known  and  probably  rare." 

Shortridge  records  23  specimens  from  Arthur  River  and  Woyaline 
Wells. 


102  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

"Mr.  J.  T.  Tunney,  whose  fame  as  a  collector  is  world-wide,  in- 
formed me  that  I  could  only  hope  to  get  the  Crescent  Wallaby  .  .  . 
along  one  obscure  river  [of  Western  Australia],  and  a  forlorn  hope 
at  that.  Such  a  Wallaby  should  be  energetically  sought,  trapped, 
and  placed,  not  in  Zoological  Gardens,  but  in  the  haven  of  a  properly 
supervised  national  reserve."  (Troughton,  1923,  p.  155.) 

It  occurs  in  "South-Western  Australia,  in  isolated  localities  to  the 
west  of  the  lower  Great  Southern  Railway,  probably  on  the  verge  of 
extinction  in  the  settled  districts,  but  surviving  further  east  towards 
'the  Great  Victoria  Desert"  (Glauert,  1933,  p.  29) . 

It  is  "still  found  on  the  Nullarbor  Plain"  (A.  S.  Le  Souef,  in  litt., 
February  15, 1937). 

Jones  (1924,  p.  234)  writes  of  its  status  as  follows: 

"In  1884  Mr.  E.  B.  Sanger  reported  the  Crescent-marked  Wallaby 
from  the  Centre  and  in  the  British  Museum  catalogue  of  1888  three 
South  Australian  specimens,  collected  by  Sir  George  Grey,  are 
recorded. 

"The  Elder  Expedition  in  1891  met  with  it  in  the  Everard  Ranges 
....  The  Horn  Expedition  of  1894  obtained  two  specimens  at 
Alice  Springs.  I  know  of  no  more  recent  observations,  and  proba- 
bly so  far  as  South  Australia  is  concerned  the  animal  has  ceased 
to  exist." 

C.  W.  Brazenor  writes  (in  litt.,  March  3,  1937)  of  a  single  Vic- 
torian record,  from  the  River  Murray  in  1857. 

"Regarded  as  verging  upon  extinction  in  the  settled  areas  of  its 
south  Western  Australian  habitat,  but  surviving  in  the  more  desert- 
like  conditions  between  the  Great  Victoria  Desert  and  Trans-Rail- 
way, to  the  eastward.  Extinction  may  be  regarded  as  inevitable, 
without  establishment  under  favourable  conditions."  (E.  Le  G. 
Troughton,  in  litt.,  April  16, 1937.) 

Doubtless  settlement  and  the  concomitant  imported  pests  have 
accounted  for  the  decline  of  this  lovely  wallaby. 

Brush-tailed  Rock-wallaby 

PETROGALE  PENCILLATA  PENCILLATA  (J.  E.  Gray) 

Tufted-tailed  or  Mountain  Kanguroo,  K.  pencillatiLs  [J.  E.  Gray,  in]  Griffith, 

Smith,  and   Pidgeon,  Anim.  Kingdom    (Cuvier),  vol.  3,   Mammalia,   pi. 

opposite  p.  49,  1827.    (No  type  locality  given.) 
Kangwrus  Pencillatus  *   [J.  E.  Gray,  in]   Griffith,  Anim.  Kingdom   (Cuvier), 

vol.  5,  Mammalia,  p.  204,   1827.    ("New  Holland"  =  "Sydney,  N.S.W.," 

according  to  Iredale  and  Troughton,  1934,  p.  42.) 
FIGS.:    Waterhouse,  1841,  pi.  22,  and  1846,  vol.  1,  pi.  1,  fig.  1;  Gould,  1842, 

pi.  23,  and  1853,  pis.  39,  40;  Lydekker,  1894,  pi.  6;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell, 

1926,  fig.  47. 

Formerly  abundant  in  eastern  Australia,  this  animal  has  suffered 
serious  reduction  of  range  and  numbers. 

i  Corrected  to  penicillatus  in  index  volume,  p.  23,  1835. 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  103 

The  fur  is  long  and  thick;  general  color  above  dull  brown,  more 
rufous  on  rump;  an  indistinct  black  mark  behind  the  shoulder  suc- 
ceeded by  a  pale  gray  one;  chin  and  chest  pale  gray;  belly  brown, 
tinged  with  yellow;  anal  region  yellowish  rufous;  arms  and  legs 
rufous  brown,  becoming  black  at  extremities;  tail  more  or  less 
bushy,  basal  part  rufous,  remainder  black,  tip  sometimes  yellow. 
Head  and  body,  720  mm.;  tail,  560  mm.  (Thomas,  1888,  p.  67.) 

The  Brush-tailed  Rock-wallaby  once  inhabited  the  ranges  of 
eastern  Australia  from  southeastern  Queensland  to  Victoria. 

In  New  South  Wales,  according  to  Gould  (1842,  text  to  pi.  23), 
"the  species  abounds  wherever  the  kind  of  country  suitable  to  its 
habits  occurs.  The  specimens  in  my  own  collection  were  procured 
on  the  Liverpool  range,  and  on  the  rocky  sides  of  the  mountains 
facing  Yarrundi  on  the  Dartbrook,  a  tributary  of  the  Hunter.  I  also 
ascertained  that  it  is  very  abundant  on  Turi,  and  the  other  moun- 
tains situated  to  the  eastward  of  the  Liverpool  Plains,  and  it  doubt- 
less ranges  over  a  much  greater  extent  of  country  than  we  are  yet 
acquainted  with.  It  is  ...  strictly  gregarious,  assembling  in  such 
numbers  as  to  form  well-beaten  paths  along  the  sides  of  the  moun- 
tains they  inhabit.  Their  agility  in  leaping  from  rock  to  rock  .  .  . 
tends  greatly  to  their  protection,  as  neither  the  wily  aborigine, 
nor  their  still  greater  enemy  the  Dingo,  can  follow  them  to  their 
retreats  .  .  .  .  " 

Gould  writes  later  (1863,  vol.  2,  pp.  46-47) : 

"Those  portions  of  the  mountain  ranges  stretching  along  the 
eastern  coast  from  Port  Philip  to  Moreton  Bay  .  .  .  are  among  the 
localities  in  which  it  is  found;  hills  of  a  lower  elevation  than  those 
of  the  great  ranges,  and  the  precipitous  stony  gullies  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea,  are  also  situations  it  inhabits.  .  .  . 

"Of  its  flesh  as  an  article  of  food  I  can  speak  most  highly,  having 
frequently  partaken  of  it  in  the  bush  and  always  found  it  excellent." 

Le  Souef  calls  attention  (1923,  p.  110)  to  the  special  need  of 
protective  measures,  since  this  species  is  entirely  confined  to  the 
fox  area  of  eastern  Australia.  He  adds  that  in  New  South  Wales  "a 
few  are  found  round  Jenolan  Caves,  and  at  the  head  of  the  Murray 
River."  He  also  writes  (1924,  p.  272) :  "The  Brush-tailed  Rock 
Wallaby  has  become  very  scarce  within  Reynard's  range  during  the 
past  few  years.  Skins  of  this  species  used  to  come  into  the  sale 
rooms  in  bales,  now  it  is  rare  to  see  one." 

Musgrave  writes  (1925,  p.  210)  of  the  species  along  the  Nepean 
River  in  New  South  Wales:  "In  former  times  the  Brush-tailed  Rock 
Wallaby  .  .  .  occurred  abundantly  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  but 
they  have  been  so  reduced  in  numbers  by  sportsmen  that  now  they 
are  but  rarely  seen,  and  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time  before  the  species 
entirely  disappears  from  the  district." 


104  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

"For  all  their  agility  .  .  .  the  rock-wallabies  fall  victims  to  very 
sluggish  enemies,  for  invariably  the  wallaby  rocks  are  inhabited  by 
large  carpet-snakes  (Python  varius) ,  which  generally  lie  in  wait 
for  their  victims  in  the  caves  in  which  they  take  shelter"  (Le  Souef 
and  Burrell,  1926,  p.  202). 

Barry  (1928,  p.  163)  reports  a  few  in  Kuringai  Chase,  near 
Sydney,  where,  "despite  protective  laws,  shooters,  foxes  and  hounds 
leave  little  chance  of  survival." 

"The  species  should  survive  in  the  more  rugged  or  inaccessible 
parts  of  the  Great  Dividing  Range  in  N.  S.  W.,  especially  in  some 
of  the  sanctuaries  recently  declared,  provided  such  are  controlled, 
and  the  public  informed  of  dangers  to  survival  of  rarities,  etc." 
(E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt.,  April  16, 1937) . 

In  Victoria  it  never  occurred  in  great  numbers  and  is  now  prob- 
ably extinct.  The  last  record  was  in  1905.  (C.  W.  Brazenor,  in  litt., 
March  3,  1937.) 

The  species  has  been  acclimatized  on  Kawau  Island,  New  Zealand, 
where  it  was  introduced  about  1870  and  now  exhibits  some  alteration 
of  coloration  (Le  Souef,  1930,  p.  111). 

[Petrogale  herberti  Thomas  is  treated  as  a  subspecies  of  P.  'in- 
ornata  by  Iredale  and  Troughton  (1934,  p.  43),  who  give  its  range 
as  "South  Queensland  (about  23°  to  26°  S.  lat.)."  However,  it  is 
regarded  as  a  subspecies  of  P.  pencillata  by  Finlayson  (1931,  p.  82) , 
who  writes  of  its  status  in  the  Dawson  Valley:  "Still  .  .  .  very 
numerous  and  widely  distributed.  It  is  to  be  found  in  thriving 
colonies  in  almost  every  range  of  hills  away  from  the  large  towns."] 

Yellow-footed  Rock-wallaby;  Bar-tailed  Rock- wallaby 

PETROGALE  XANTHOPUS  XANTHOPUS  J.  E.  Gray 

Petrogale  xanthopus  J.  E.  Gray,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1854,  p.  249,  pi.  39 
(Mammalia),  1855.  ("Australia  (Richmond  River?)";  this  is  an  erroneous 
type  locality,  for  Thomas  (1888,  p.  66)  lists  the  cotypes  from  "Flinder's 
Range,  S.  A.") 

FIGS.:  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1854,  pi.  39  (Mammalia);  Gould,  1855,  vol.  2, 
pis.  43,  44;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  3,  p.  245,  fig.,  1894-95;  Lucas  and  Le 
Souef,  1909,  p.  81,  fig.;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  46. 

This  largest  and  most  striking  of  the  Rock-wallabies  has  disap- 
peared from  many  parts  of  its  range  in  southern  and  eastern  Aus- 
tralia and  is  in  urgent  need  of  protection  to  prevent  its  extermination. 

"Pale  brown,  minutely  grizzled;  chin  and  beneath  white;  streak 
on  side  from  back  of  shoulder,  and  along  the  side  of  the  face  under 
the  eye,  whitish;  dorsal  streak  narrow,  brown;  legs,  feet,  and  tail 
bright  yellow;  end  of  tail  more  bushy  and  varied  with  brown"  (J.  E. 
Gray,  1855,  p.  249).  Fur  long,  soft,  and  silky;  back  of  ears  dark 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  105 

yellow;  a  brown  blotch  behind  the  elbow;  a  white  patch  on  thigh 
near  knee;  tail  more  or  less  annulated  (Thomas,  1888,  p.  65).  Head 
and  body,  650-800  mm. ;  tail,  600-650  mm.  (Jones,  1924,  p.  226) . 

This  animal's  former  range  included  southern  and  eastern  South 
Australia  and  the  interior  of  New  South  Wales.  It  has  also  been 
reported  from  Victoria  and  western  Queensland. 

Jones  (1924,  pp.  225-227)  writes: 

P.  xanthopus  inhabits  the  rocky  country  from  the  Gawler  Ranges  to  the 
Flinders  Ranges,  and  to  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  State  [South  Australia] 
at  Bimbowrie  and  Cockburn.  .  .  . 

The  Yellow-footed  Rock  Wallaby  is  still  fairly  abundant  in  certain  parts 
of  South  Australia,  but  from  many  of  its  old  haunts  it  has  completely  dis- 
appeared. It  would  seem  that  at  the  present  time  it  is  being  driven  mainly 
to  the  north  and  east  of  the  State,  and  that  its  last  stronghold  in  South 
Australia  will  be  upon  the  New  South  Wales  border.  If  it  has  not  altogether 
disappeared  from  the  Gawler  Ranges  it  must  now  be  a  very  rare  animal, 
and  in  many  parts  of  the  Flinders  Ranges  its  numbers  are  considerably 
reduced.  From  the  eastern  portion  of  the  State  it  will  almost  certainly 
disappear  before  very  many  years  are  past,  since  its  pelt  is  far  too  attractive 
to  permit  it  to  survive  as  long  as  the  fur  trade  exists.  Although  a  totally 
protected  animal  in  this  State,  this  protection  is  not  extended  to  it  by 
certain  of  the  States  upon  the  borders  of  which  it  lives.  It  is  therefore  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  pelts  of  the  animal  are  disposed  of  in  the  markets  of 
States  other  than  South  Australia,  even  though  the  animal  was  obtained 
within  the  geographical  boundaries  of  our  own  State. 

Petrogale  xanthopus  is  a  fitting  example  of  an  animal  which  needs  sanc- 
tuary for  its  preservation  and  more  stringent  legislative  efforts  to  check  its 
slaughter. 

Half  a  century  ago  Lydekker  wrote  (1894,  p.  48) :  "Some  hun- 
dreds of  skins  are  annually  imported  to  London  from  Adelaide, 
their  value  ranging  from  one-and-fourpence  each.  The  skins  of  the 
common  Rock- Wallaby  [P.  pencillata]  are  less  valuable,  averaging 
from  threepence  to  ninepence  each,  although  they  have  been  known 
to  reach  as  much  as  one-and-threepence." 

"The  [Melbourne]  museum  has  no  Victorian  record  of  this  species 
though  its  range  has  been  extended  to  the  State  in  literature"  (C.  W. 
Brazenor,  in  litt.,  March  3,  1937) . 

A.  S.  Le  Souef  writes  (in  litt.,  February  15,  1937)  that  it  is  "very 
scarce,  probably  nearing  extinction  owing  to  settlement  and  the  fox." 

"It  provides  an  example  of  the  need  for  unified  control  over  State 
protection,  as  pelts  are  sold  in  other  States  though  the  beautiful  and 
harmless  marsupial  is  totally  protected  in  South  Australia.  Such 
action  may  cause  extermination  as  the  animal  is  being  driven  north- 
east, and  the  hope  of  survival  may  rest  with  the  sub-species  de- 
scribed from  south-western  Queensland."  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton,  in 
litt.,  April  16,  1937.) 

[Petrogale  celeris  Le  Souef,  described  from  the  vicinity  of  Ada- 
vale,  Bulloo  River,  southwestern  Queensland,  is  regarded  by  Iredale 


106  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

and  Troughton  (1934,  p.  44)  as  a  subspecies  of  P.  xanthopus.  Prac- 
tically no  information  is  at  hand  concerning  its  numerical  status, 
which,  however,  is  presumably  more  satisfactory  than  that  of  P.  x. 
xanthopus.} 

Red-necked  Pademelon;   Pademelon  Wallaby 

THYLOGALE  THETIS  (Lesson) 

Hnlmaturus   Thetis   "Busseuil"   Lesson,   Manuel    Mammalogie,   p.   229,   1827. 

("Port- Jackson"  [Sidney],  New  South  Wales.) 
FIGS.:    Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,  vol.  6,  pi.  225,  1824;  Lesson, 

in  Bougainville,  Jour.  Navigation  Globe  Thetis  et  Esperance,  atlas,  pi.  37, 

1837;  Gould,  1842,  pi.  21;  Gould,  1857,  vol.  2,  pis.  31,  32;  Cabrera,  1919, 

pi.  15,  fig.  5;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  42. 

This  species,  formerly  occurring  from  southern  Queensland  to 
Victoria,  is  now  extinct  in  Victoria,  and  its  range  in  New  South 
Wales  has  become  restricted  to  the  north  coast.  Little  seems  to  be 
known  of  its  present  status  in  Queensland. 

The  upper  lip  is  little  developed,  not  hiding  the  front  teeth.  The 
general  color  above  is  grizzled  gray;  rufous  on  neck,  shoulders,  and 
rarely  on  cheeks  and  round  .base  of  ears;  a  faint  white  hip-stripe 
sometimes  present;  arms  and  legs  gray  or  rufous;  hands  and  feet 
pale  brown;  tail  gray  basally,  then  brown  above  and  white  below. 
Head  and  body,  540  (female)  to  660  mm.  (male).  (Thomas,  1888, 
p.  53.)  Tail,  368  (female)  to  476  mm.  (male)  (Waterhouse,  1846, 
vol.  1,  p.  148). 

Of  the  early  abundance  of  this  pademelon,  Gould  writes  (1863, 
vol.  2,  p.  38) : 

Of  the  smaller  species  of  Wallaby  inhabiting  New  South  Wales,  the  present 
is  perhaps  the  one  best  known  to  the  colonists,  inasmuch  as  it  is  more 
abundant  than  any  other.  .  .  .  All  the  brushes  I  have  visited  from  Illawarra 
to  the  Hunter,  as  well  as  those  of  the  great  range  which  stretches  along 
parallel  With  the  coast,  are  equally  favoured  with  its  presence;  I  have  also 
received  specimens  from  Moreton  Bay.  .  .  . 

As  an  article  of  food,  few  animals  are  so  valuable,  its  flesh  being  tender 
and  well-flavoured,  and  more  like  that  of  the  common  Hare  than  that  of 
any  other  European  animal  I  can  compare  it  with. 

Le  Souef  and  Burrell  remark  (1926,  p.  196)  that  it  "has  been 
noted  in  the  scrub  on  the  Blue  Mountains,  New  South  Wales." 

Troughton  states  (1932,  p.  188)  that  it  shows  "a  continual  shrink- 
age in  range"  and  is  "now  confined  to  the  North  Coast"  of  New 
South  Wales. 

Lewis  (1931,  p.  120)  apparently  refers  to  the  present  species  in 
the  following  remarks  on  a  Victorian  animal:  "The  Dwarf  Wallaby, 
commonly  known  as  the  Paddymelon,  was  very  plentiful  once  along 
the  coast  between  Lake  Wellington  and  Metung,  but  I  was  afraid 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  107 

that  these  had  been  exterminated.  I  have  ascertained,  however, 
that  there  are  still  some  of  them  in  this  district." 

In  discussing  the  status  of  this  and  two  other  species  in  Victoria, 
Jones  and  Manson  say  (1935,  p.  35) :  "All  the  small  Wallabies  are 
rare  and  very  infrequently  seen." 

More  recently  David  H.  Fleay  (in  Hit.,  June  1,  1937)  reports 
the  species  as  extinct  in  Victoria  but  as  still  found  in  New  South 
Wales. 

Some  of  the  older  works  (e,  g.,  Thomas,  1888,  p.  53;  Ogilby,  1892, 
p.  53)  record  it  from  southern  Queensland,  and  more  recently  Long- 
man (1930,  p.  58)  lists  it  from  southeastern  Queensland.  However, 
Iredale  and  Troughton  (1934,  p.  46)  give  its  current  range  as  merely 
"New  South  Wales." 

Parma  Wallaby  or  Pademelon;  White-throated  Wallaby  or 

Pademelon 

THYLOGALE  PARMA  (J.  E.  Gray) 

Hal  [maturusl  Parma  "Gould"  J.  E.  Gray,  in  Grey,  Two  Expeditions  Discovery 
Australia,  vol.  2,  appendix,  p.  403,  1841.  ("Sidney,  and  its  neighbourhood, 
New  South  Wales.") 

Fia:   Gould,  1856,  vol.  2,  pi.  28. 

This  species  of  New  South  Wales  is  evidently  extinct. 

The  general  color  is  deep  reddish  brown,  penciled  with  white  and 
black;  paler  on  sides;  nape,  shoulders,  and  forelegs  brownish  rust 
color;  a  narrow  black  stripe  along  back  of  neck;  throat  and  chest 
white,  rest  of  under  parts  dirty  rusty  white;  tail  scantily  haired, 
black  above,  dirty  white  below  (Waterhouse,  1846,  vol.  1,  pp.  150- 
151).  Head  and  body,  590  (female)  to  640  mm.  (male) ;  tail,  410 
(female)  to  430  mm.  (male)  (Thomas,  1888,  p.  58). 

Gould  states  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  34)  that  in  the  Illawarra  district 
of  New  South  Wales  "I  myself  saw  it  in  a  state  of  nature.  In  these 
extensive  brushes  it  doubtless  still  exists,  as  since  my  return  other 
specimens  have  been  sent  to  me  from  thence  by  the  late  Mr.  Strange. 
How  far  its  range  may  extend  westwardly  towards  Port  Philip,  or 
eastwardly  in  the  direction  of  Moreton  Bay,  I  am  unable  to  state." 
Gould  also  speaks  of  its  being  hunted  by  the  aborigines. 

"This  species  seems  to  be  very  rare  and  locally  distributed"  in 
New  South  Wales  (Lydekker,  1894,  p.  40). 

"The  White-throated  Wallaby  .  .  .  once  plentiful  in  the  Illa- 
warra district  south  of  Sydney  is  apparently  quite  extinct,  and  rep- 
resented by  only  five  specimens  of  which  three  are  in  England  and 
two  are  in  the  Australian  Museum."  The  uncertainty  of  range,  as 
expressed  by  Gould,  "will  never  be  cleared  up  now,  as  the  last  of  the 
two  Australian  Museum  specimens  was  collected  in  1889,  and  there 


108 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


have  been  no  recent  evidences  of  its  possible  survival."  (Troughton, 
1932,  p.  188.) 

The  range  and  status  of  the  species  are  given  by  Iredale  and 
Troughton  (1934,  p.  46)  as  "New  South  Wales  (south  coast,  possibly 
extinct)." 

A.  S.  Le  Souef  remarks  (in  Hit.,  February  15,  1937) :  "I  think 
that  this  species  is  definitely  extinct,  though  there  may  be  a  few 
in  the  dense  bush  near  Jervis  Bay."  He  adds  that  recent  search 
and  inquiry  failed  to  reveal  any  trace  of  it. 


FIG.  16. — Parma   Wallaby   or   Pademelon    (Thylogale   parma).    After   Gould. 

Concerning  the  smaller  wallabies  in  general,  Le  Souef  and  Burrell 
say  (1926,  p.  195) :  "The  fur  is  fine  and  soft,  and  great  numbers 
are  used  for  rugs,  coats,  and  trimmings.  We  have  practically  no 
knowledge  as  to  the  individual  life-histories  of  this  group." 


Flinders  Island  Wallaby;   Flinders  Island  Pademelon 

THYLOGALE  FLINDERSI  Jones 

Thylogale  flindersi  Jones,  Mammals  South  Australia,  pt.  2,  p.  240,  1924  (cf. 
Harper,  1940,  p.  191).  ("Flinders  Island,  .  .  .  Investigator  group,  .  .  . 
Great  Australian  Bight.") 

This  wallaby  is  confined  to  Flinders  Island.  "The  colony  was 
estimated  at  a  hundred  or  so  in  1924,  and  in  view  of  the  presence 
of  rabbits  as  food  destroyers,  and  cats,  extinction  seems  certain 
unless  special  measures  are  taken.  This  illustrates  the  need  for 
unsettled  islands  as  sanctuaries,  unless  very  large."  (E.  Le  G. 
Troughton,  in  Hit.,  April  16,  1937.) 

The  general  color  is  grizzled  light  gray;  sides  and  back  of  neck 
and  shoulders  bright  rufous  in  the  male,  tawny  in  the  female;  a 


ORDER   MARSUPIALIA :     MARSUPIALS  109 

well-marked  pale  area  along  the  upper  lip  to  beneath  the  eye;  a 
dark  middorsal  stripe  from  occiput  backwards,  very  pronounced 
in  the  male;  chin  and  throat  grayish  white;  lower  neck,  chest,  and 
belly  colored  almost  like  back,  but  somewhat  lighter;  limbs  pale 
fawn;  tail  pale  gray.  Head  and  body,  510  (female)  to  570  mm. 
(male) ;  tail,  340  (female)  to  410  mm.  (male) .  (Jones,  1924,  p.  241.) 
Jones  gives  the  following  account  (1924,  p.  242) : 

Flinders  observed  this  animal  in  1802,  and  he  records  that  on  the  island  "a 
small  species  of  Kangaroo,  not  bigger  than  a  cat,  was  rather  numerous.  I 
shot  five  of  them,  and  some  others  were  killed  by  the  botanists  and  their 
attendants  and  found  to  be  in  tolerably  good  condition."  Even  comparatively 
recently  the  animal  was  very  numerous,  and  it  has  been  reported  that  as 
many  as  thirty  thousand  were  killed  on  the  island.  In  1910  a  destructive 
bush  fire  swept  the  portion  of  the  island  occupied  by  a  wallabies,  and  when 
I  visited  the  place  in  1920  no  traces  of  it  were  to  be  found,  and  the  tenant 
of  the  island  believed  it  to  be  extinct.  In  1922  I  again  visited  the  island  and 
found  obvious  evidences  of  its  presence,  but  no  actual  specimen  was  seen. 
In  1924  the  little  colony  had  considerably  increased,  and  two  specimens  were 
secured  for  study  purposes.  The  present  small  colony  of  wallabies  occupies 
only  a  very  limited  area  upon  which  the  native  bush  has  not  been  destroyed 
by  various  attempts  at  cultivation.  Although  the  colony  probably  contains 
a  hundred  or  so  individuals  its  hold  on  life  cannot  be  considered  a  very 
secure  one.  It  is  always  at  the  mercy  of  bush  fires,  having  no  line  of  retreat, 
since  it  lives  on  a  corner  of  the  island  that  is  girt  by  high  and  inaccessible 
cliffs.  Moreover,  it  has  to  contend  against  two  introduced  animals,  the  feral 
domestic  cat,  which  has  overrun  the  island,  and  the  food-destroying  rabbit. 
It  may  at  any  time,  though  fortunately  this  does  not  seem  to  be  at  present 
the  case,  have  to  contend  against  human  enemies.  ...  On  account  of  its 
build  being  rather  more  elegant  than  that  of  the  thickset  Kangaroo  Island 
wallaby  it  was  at  one  time  a  favourite  with  people  who  cared  to  have 
wallabies  running  in  their  grounds,  but  at  present  I  believe  there  are  no 
descendants  of  these  animals  living  on  the  mainland.  It  has  also  been  an 
inhabitant  of  the  Zoological  Gardens  in  Adelaide,  but  no  specimens  have 
been  exhibited  there  for  many  years.  A  former  tenant  of  the  island  has 
assured  me  that  when  the  wallabies  were  numerous  there  were  two  distinct 
types  living  in  the  island,  the  one  obviously  that  described  as  Thylogale 
flindersi,  and  the  other  a  more  rare,  slender,  yellow  wallaby.  What  this 
second  species  was  it  is  impossible  to  guess;  there  seem  to  be  no  traces 
of  it  left. 

H.  H.  Finlayson  writes  (in  litt.,  March  20,  1937)  that  although 
the  species  is  plentiful  in  a  small  area,  its  position  is  insecure. 

Scrub  Wallaby;  Dam  a  Wallaby  or  Pademelon 

THYLOGALE  EUGENII   (Desmarest) 

Kangurus  Eugenii  Desmarest,  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Nat.,  nouv.  ed.,  vol.  17,  p.  38, 
1817.  (Based  upon  the  "kanguroo  de  File  Eugene,"  Peron  and  Freycinet, 
Voy.  Terres  Australes,  vol.  2,  p.  117,  1816;  type  locality  "lie  Eugene, 
Josephine  Archipelago,"  currently  known  as  St.  Peter's  Island,  Nuyt's 
Archipelago,  South  Australia.) 

FIGS.:  Gould,  1841,  pi.  11,  and  1859,  vol.  2,  pis.  29,  30  (as  Halmaturus  der- 
bianus);  Lydekker,  1894,  pi.  5;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  1926,  fig.  43. 


110  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  present  group  of  wallabies  has  long  been  in  a  state  of  great 
taxonomic  confusion,  and  part  of  the  material  necessary  for  elucida- 
tion is  evidently  no  longer  obtainable.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  group  will  be  treated  here  as  a  specific  unit,  although  attention 
may  be  called  to  the  three  subspecies  recognized  by  Iredale  and 
Troughton  (1934,  pp.  46-47) : 

Thylogale  eugenii  eugenii  (Desmarest).  Type  locality  as  stated 
above. 

Thylogale  eugenii  derbiana  (J.  E.  Gray) .  Type  locality  not  stated 
in  the  original  description  but  said  by  Waterhouse  (1846,  vol.  1, 
p.  155)  to  be  "Swan  River,"  Western  Australia.  Synonym:  Macropus 
gracilis  Gould. 

Thylogale  eugenii  binoe  (Gould).  Type  locality:  'Tort  Essing- 
ton,"  Northern  Australia.  This  is  considered  an  error  by  Iredale  and 
Troughton  (1934,  p.  47),  who  substitute  "Wallaby  Island,  Hout- 
man's  Abrolhos,  West  Australia"  (cf,  J.  E.  Gray,  List  of  Specimens 
Mammalia  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  91,  1843) ;  however,  Thomas  (1888,  p.  44) 
lists  the  type  from  "Port  Essington,  N.  T.  (Sir  J.  Richardson)1' 
and  places  binoe  in  the  synonymy  of  Macropus  agilis  (Gould),  as 
Gould  himself  had  already  done  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  31).  Synonyms: 
Halmaturus  houtmanni  Gould;  H.  dama  Gould;  H.  emiliae  Water- 
house. 

The  former  range  of  the  species  as  a  whole  included  South  Aus- 
tralia, the  coastal  areas  of  southern  and  southwestern  Western 
Australia,  and  various  islands  along  the  coast,  including  Kangaroo 
Island  and  Nuyt's  Archipelago,  South  Australia,  and  the  Recherche 
Archipelago,  Garden  Island,  and  Houtman's  Abrolhos,  Western  Aus- 
tralia. It  has  become  extinct  on  the  South  Australian  mainland 
and  on  St.  Peter's  Island  (the  type  locality) ;  in  1910  it  was  reported 
as  rapidly  disappearing  before  settlement  in  Western  Australia; 
but  apparently  it  remains  plentiful  in  most  of  its  insular  habitats. 

The  following  is  adapted  from  Desmarest's  description  of  what 
may  be  considered  the  paratype,  which  presumably  came  from  St. 
Peter's  Island:  Fur  soft;  general  color  grayish  brown,  mixed  with 
rufous  near  the  shoulders  and  on  the  nape,  crown,  and  forelegs; 
under  parts  whitish,  distinctly  separated  from  the  dark  color  of  the 
upper  parts;  tail  grayish  brown  above,  white  below,  with  a  slight 
reddish  tint.  Head  and  body  about  21  (French)  inches  [567  mm.] ; 
tail,  a  little  more  than  1  (French)  foot  [324  mm.]. 

Gould  states  (1841,  text  to  pi.  11)  that  he  had  never  heard  of 
"Halmaturus  derbianus"  being  found  on  the  mainland  of  South 
Australia.  But  he  writes  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  36)  of  its  abundance  on 
Kangaroo  Island.  "The  almost  impenetrable  scrub  of  dwarf  Euca- 
lypti, which  covers  nearly  the  whole  of  Kangaroo  Island,  will  always 
afford  it  a  secure  asylum,  from  which  in  all  probability  it  will  never 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  111 

be  extirpated  ....  Such  is  the  dense  nature  of  the  vegetation,  that 
nothing  larger  than  a  dog  can  follow  it;  still  it  is  taken  by  men 
residing  on  the  island  in  the  greatest  abundance,  both  for  the  sake 
of  its  skin  and  its  flesh:  they  procure  it  principally  by  snares,  a 
simple  noose  placed  on  the  outskirts  of  the  brush;  but  they  also 
shoot  it  when  it  appears  on  the  open  glades  at  night." 

Jones  (1924,  pp.  235-239)  gives  the  following  account  for  South 
Australia : 

Unfortunately  the  time  has  gone  by  when  a  good  first-hand  account  of  the 
small  scrub  wallabies  inhabiting  South  Australia  could  have  been  written. 
The  disappearance  of  the  mainland  wallabies  is  almost  as  remarkable  a 
phenomenon  as  the  disappearance  of  the  Native  Cat.  .  .  . 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  define  the  former  range  of  this  complex  species 
on  the  mainland  of  South  Australia,  or  even  to  discriminate  with  any  cer- 
tainty between  the  mainland  form  and  the  type  of  animal  now  living  on 
Kangaroo  Island.  Only  a  few  years  ago  it  swarmed  in  scrub-covered  districts 
all  over  the  State,  to-day  it  seems  impossible  to  secure  a  single  mainland 
specimen  for  scientific  study.  In  places  where  annual  battues  were  held  by 
the  present  landowners  less  than  twenty  years  ago  it  has  disappeared  altogether. 
It  is  almost  certain  that  some  still  linger  upon  the  mainland,  notably  at  the 
southern  end  of  Eyre's  Peninsula  and  in  the  South-eastern  districts,  but  so 
far  these  animals  have  not  been  properly  studied  or  preserved.  .  .  . 

In  Kangaroo  Island  it  is  abundant  and,  since  it  lives  in  thousands  upon 
Flinders  Chase  fauna  reserve,  it  is  guaranteed,  in  so  far  as  complete  protec- 
tion can  guarantee  it,  perpetual  survival.  .  .  . 

The  wallaby  of  St.  Peter  Island  has  become  extinct,  and  therefore  we 
cannot  compare  the  animal  now  known  as  Thylogale  eugenii  with  the  St. 
Peter  Island  animal,  and,  moreover,  the  original  specimen  described  by 
Desmarest  is  no  longer  in  existence  in  Paris.  It  would  seem  to  be  somewhat 
doubtful  if  the  animal  now  known  as  Thylogale  eugenii  is  the  same  as  the 
animal  originally  seen  and  captured  on  L'ile  Eugene.  The  Kangaroo  Island 
Wallaby  is  readily  kept  and  bred  in  confinement  .... 

E.  Le  G.  Troughton  remarks  (in  Hit.,  April  16,  1937)  that  its 
survival  "appears  assured  on  Kangaroo  Island,  illustrating  the  value 
of  island  sanctuaries  in  preserving  remnants  of  vanishing  stock." 

Hoy  writes  (1923,  pp.  164-165)  of  conditions  on  Eyre's  Peninsula, 
South  Australia:  "I  was  told,  by  a  professional  kangaroo  hunter, 
that  at  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  the  fox  he  was  always  sure 
of  at  least  six  dozen  wallabies  (Macropus  eugenii)  per  week,  but 
during  the  season  I  was  there,  the  fourth  after  the  introduction  of 
the  fox,  he  had  not  even  seen  one." 

According  to  Finlayson  (1927,  p.  375),  "the  Thylogale  of  the 
South  Australian  mainland  has  been  exterminated  before  its  identity 
was  properly  established." 

Shortridge  (1910,  pp.  812-813)  gives  its  status  in  Western  Aus- 
tralia as  follows: 

"Very  plentiful  in  many  parts  of  the  South- West,  but  rapidly  dis- 
appearing in  the  cultivated  districts,  especially  towards  the  northern 
end  of  its  range.  Not  occurring  in  the  coastal  country  between 


112  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Albany  and  Cape  Leeuwin,  although  extending  to  the  coast  at  the 
Margaret  River  and  Cape  Naturaliste.  Said  still  to  exist  in  isolated 
patches  in  the  North  between  the  Swan  River  and  Gin-Gin.  Also 
occurring  on  the  Abrolhos  (Wallabi  Group),  Garden,  and  some 
of  the  islands  off  Esperance.  .  .  .  Not  extending  on  the  South  Coast 
much  beyond  Phillips  River  .  .  .  .  " 

Shortridge  records  specimens  from  Arthur  River,  Boyadine-Dale 
River,  Stockpool,  Dwaladine,  Woyaline  Wells,  Ellensbrook,  and 
Twin  Peak  and  Middle  Islands,  off  Esperance.  The  accompanying 
map  (p.  812)  shows  the  former  range  extending  in  a  broad  coastwise 
strip  from  Northampton  to  South  Australia;  but  the  current  (1910) 
range  restricted  to  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  state. 

Under  the  name  of  Macropus  (Thylogale)  dama,  Glauert  (1933, 
p.  32)  gives  the  range  of  the  mainland  form  as  "South -Western 
Australia,  from  the  Moore  River  in  the  north  to  the  south  coast 
(Cape  Leeuwin  and  Cape  Arid),  inland  to  the  Great  Southern 
Railway." 

Troughton  (1932a,  p.  175)  reports  the  species  as  "plentiful  on  the 
two  largest  islands"  of  Houtman's  Abrolhos. 

Le  Souef  states  (1930,  p.  Ill)  that  it  was  introduced  about  1870 
on  Kawau  Island,  New  Zealand,  and  is  still  present  there. 

Rufous-bellied  Wallaby  or  Pademelon;  Tasmanian  Wallaby  or 

Pademelon 

THYLOGALE  BILLARDIERII  (Desmarest) 

Kangurus  Billardierii  Desmarest,  Mammalogie,  pt.  2,  suppl.,  p.  512,  1822.    ("La 

terre  de  Van-Diemen"  [Tasmania].) 
FIGS.:   Gould,  1841,  pi.  10;  Gould,  I860,  vol.  2,  pis.  35,  36;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell, 

1926,  fig.  44. 

Although  this  wallaby  remains  numerous  in  Tasmania  and  is  still 
found  on  some  of  the  islands  of  Bass  Strait,  it  seems  desirable  to 
place  it  on  record  here  as  a  vanished  species  of  the  Australian 
mainland. 

It  is  distinguished  by  its  short  ears,  stout  form,  and  long  fur; 
upper  parts  grayish  brown,  tinged  with  olive  on  head  and  rump; 
under  parts  yellowish  or  rufous;  tail  short,  grayish  brown,  the  basal 
part  orange  above,  the  terminal  part  grayish  white  below  (Thomas, 
1888,  p.  59).  Head  and  body,  640-765  mm.;  tail,  315-320  mm.  (Lord 
and  Scott,  1924,  p.  247).  Weight,  15-20  Ib.  (Gould,  1863,  vol.  2, 
p.  42). 

Gould  gives  the  following  account  (1863,  vol.  2,  p.  42) : 

I  have  but  little  doubt  that  the  habitat  of  this  Wallaby  is  limited  to  Van 
Diemen's  Land  and  the  larger  islands  in  Bass's  Straits,  in  all  which  localities 
it  is  so  numerous  that  the  thousands  annually  destroyed  make  no  apparent 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  113 

diminution  of  its  numbers.  .  .  .  Being  one  of  the  best-flavoured  of  the  small 
Kangaroos,  it  is  very  generally  eaten  in  Van  Diemen's  Land. 

The  Tasmanian  Wallaby  may  be  regarded  as  strictly  gregarious,  hundreds 
generally  inhabiting  the  same  localities  ....  It  is  very  easily  taken  with  snares, 
formed  of  a  noose  placed  in  the  run;  and  thousands  are  captured  in  this  way, 
solely  for  their  skins :  the  sportsman  also  may  readily  procure  it  by  stationing 
himself  in  some  open  glade  of  limited  extent,  accompanied  by  two  or  three 
small  yelping  dogs,  before  which  it  keeps  hopping  round  and  round,  and  thus 
affords  him  an  opportunity  of  shooting  it  as  it  passes. 

B52L 

Gunn  states  (1838,  p.  106)  that  "they  are  excellent  eating,  but 
the  smallness  of  the  skins  renders  them  less  valuable  for  tanning." 

The  recent  status  of  the  Rufous-bellied  Wallaby  in  Tasmania  is 
given  by  Lord  (1928,  p.  19) :  "It  is  evenly  distributed  and  is  plenti- 
ful in  certain  districts  remote  from  settlement;  but  close  to  the 
settled  areas  its  history  is  the  same  as  the  larger  forms."  He  adds 
(p.  23)  that  in  recent  years  it  has  increased  considerably  in  the 
Tasmanian  National  Park.  He  also  quotes  (p.  24)  the  official 
Tasmanian  returns  from  the  hunting  of  this  species  as  follows: 

1923  201,365 

1924  86,393 

1925  121,245 

1926 94,531 

Jones  (1924,  pp.  242-243)  discusses  its  former  occurrence  in  South 
Australia : 

In  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum  there  is  a  skull  of  this  animal, 
formerly  the  property  of  Sir  Richard  Owen,  which  came  from  Mount  Gambier. 
There  are  also  two  skeletons  said  to  have  been  procured  in  South-east  South 
Australia.  .  .  . 

This  is  the  common  small  wallaby  of  Tasmania,  it  is  present  also  in  some 
of  the  islands  of  Bass's  Straits  and  on  the  mainland  of  Victoria.  Evidently 
it  was  at  one  time  an  inhabitant  of  the  South-eastern  portion  of  this  State, 
where  the  Platypus  and  the  Koala  intruded  into  the  South  Australian  fauna. 
If  it  lingers  in  any  corner  of  the  South-East,  I  have  been  unable  to  ascertain. 
I  know  of  no  South  Australian  specimens. 

The  species  is  now  regarded  as  extinct  in  South  Australia  (David 
H.  Fleay,  in  litt.,  June  1,  1937). 

Le  Souef  and  Burrell,  evidently  referring  to  personal  experience, 
say  (1926,  p.  196) :  "M.  billardieri  has  been  met  with  in  Gippsland 
(Victoria)." 

C.  W.  Brazenor  writes  (in  litt.,  March  3, 1937) :  "Once  a  common 
animal  in  southern  Victoria,  the  species  has  now  entirely  disap- 
peared, though  it  is  still  found  on  the  islands  of  Bass  Strait  and  in 
Tasmania." 

In  the  absence  of  the  fox  from  Tasmania,  this  wallaby  should 
survive  indefinitely  in  that  country. 
5 


114  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS  . 

Whiptail,  Gray-face,  or  Pretty-face  Wallaby;  Parry's  Wallaby 

WALLABIA  ELEGANS   (Lambert) 

Macropus  elegans  Lambert,  Trans.  Linnean  Soc.  London,  vol.  8,  p.  318,  pi.  16, 

1807.    ("New  South  Wales.") 
SYNONYM:    Macropus  parryi  Bennett. 
FIGS.:    Lambert,  op.  cit.,  pi.  16;  Bennett,  1835,  pi.  37;   Gould,  1842,  pi.  19; 

Gould,  1852,  vol.  2,  pis.  12,  13;  Lydekker,  1894,  pi.  4;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell, 

1926,  fig.  38. 

This  wallaby,  well  named  elegans,  is  rapidly  diminishing  in  num- 
bers in  its  somewhat  limited  range  in  New  South  Wales  and  Queens- 
land, and  is  in  distinct  need  of  total  protection. 

It  is  characterized  by  a  slender  and  graceful  build  and  a  very 
long  tail.  The  general  color  is  clear  gray,  with  a  bluish  tinge;  top 
of  muzzle  brown,  sides  darker;  white  cheek-stripe  sharply  defined, 
bordered  below  by  a  gray  band;  ears  brown  at  base  and  tip,  with 
an  intervening  white  area;  digits  of  hands  and  feet  black;  under 
parts  grayish  white;  tail  pale  gray,  with  a  black  or  gray  crest  below 
the  tip.  (Thomas,  1888,  p.  39.)  Head  and  body,  732  (female)  to 
793  mm.  (male) ;  tail,  858  (female)  to  1,077  mm.  (male)  (Finlayson, 
19316,  p.  77). 

"With  this  animal  neither  the  colonists  of  New  South  Wales  nor 
the  naturalists  of  Europe  are  very  familiar;  not  so  much  in  con- 
sequence of  its  being  really  scarce,  as  from  the  extreme  shyness  of 
its  disposition,  the  fleetness  with  which  it  escapes  from  its  pursuers, 
and  the  mountainous  and  almost  inaccessible  parts  of  the  country  it 
inhabits.  I  did  not  succeed  in  procuring  it  myself  while  in  Australia, 
it  being  confined,  as  far  as  I  could  learn,  to  the  range  of  hills  which 
stretch  along  parallel  to  the  coast  from  Port  Stephens  [New  South 
Wales]  to  Moreton  Bay  [Queensland],  a  part  of  the  country  not 
visited  by  me.  Like  most  other  members  of  its  race,  it  is  easily 
tamed,  readily  becoming  familiar  and  docile."  (Gould,  1842,  text  to 
pi.  19.) 

"Mr.  Strange  informs  me  that  it  inhabits  the  rocky  ranges  of  the 
Clarence  [New  South  Wales],  occasionally  descending  into  the  more 
open  broken  country,  where  it  frequents  the  ledges  of  rocks  at  an 
elevation  of  2000  feet  ....  So  fleet  is  this  animal,  that  it  is  only 
with  the  assistance  of  the  finest  dogs  that  there  is  any  chance  of 
procuring  examples ;  it  surpasses  in  fact  every  other  animal  in  speed, 
and  when  fairly  on  the  swing  no  dog  can  catch  it."  (Gould,  1863, 
vol.  2,  p.  18.) 

Finlayson  (19316,  pp.  75-77)  gives  the  following  valuable  account 
of  the  species  in  the  Dawson  Valley,  Queensland: 

This  magnificent  species  still  occurs  in  large  numbers  in  suitable  tracts  all 
over  the  valley,  but  in  the  northern  part  of  the  area  is  rapidly  diminishing. 
In  1884  it  was  obtained  by  Lumholtz  near  Rockhampton  and  on  Coomooboo- 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  115 

laroo,  for  instance,  but  is  now  quite  unknown  in  the  vicinity  of  the  first  place 
and  on  the  second  has  become  rare.  .  .  . 

Typical  of  the  whiptail  habitats  are  the  beautiful  undulating  upland  parks 
of  the  broad-leaved  ironbark  (Eucalyptus  siderophlora)  ....  As  a  character- 
istic example  of  this  type  of  country  might  be  cited  the  Grevillea  plateau, 
where  parryi  [=eleaans]  is  still  in  very  large  numbers.  .  .  . 

It  is  distinctly  social  in  habit,  and  very  likely  truly  gregarious,  though  it 
would  take  closer  and  more  prolonged  observation  than  I  was  able  to  give 
to  determine  the  point.  It  certainly  camps  in  rather  large  parties,  12  or  15 
being  frequently  seen  lying  up  together,  but  in  the  late  afternoon,  when 
feeding  begins  in  earnest,  there  is  a  tendency,  I  believe,  for  the  larger  males 
and  females  to  go  off  in  pairs.  At  Drumburle,  where  I  watched  it  most,  they 
were  so  numerous,  however,  that  towards  evening  whole  hillsides  were  dotted 
with  the  members  of  these  disbanded  camps,  and  it  was  impossible  to  make 
out  the  existence  of  any  natural  grouping.  Old  males  are  always  solitary, 
as  in  many  other  species.  .  .  . 

Like  so  many  mammals  living  in  open  country  they  are  very  curious,  and 
their  curiosity  has  earned  them  a  reputation  for  stupidity  amongst  trappers 
and  shooters.  It  is  said  by  such,  that  in  winter  when  large  "mobs"  congre- 
gate on  the  sunny  side  of  the  ridges,  a  dozen  may  be  shot  down  one  by  one 
before  the  rest  make  up  their  minds  to  go,  provided  the  shooter  does  not 
move  from  his  position. 

Locally  it  is  regarded  as  an  extremely  fast  wallaby,  but  as  it  is  not  hunted 
with  dogs  to  any  extent,  it  is  difficult  to  get  data  for  comparison  with  other 
species.  .  .  . 

In  considering  the  future  of  this  wallaby  in  Queensland,  there  are  sound 
reasons  for  anxiety.  It  is  true  that  it  is  still  numerous  over  a  large  area,  but 
no  one  with  any  knowledge  of  the  fate  of  open  country  species  elsewhere 
would  maintain  that  it  will  long  survive  the  present  rate  of  slaughter  in  the 
cattle  country  of  the  Dawson.  Where  man  is  concerned  its  instinct  for 
self-preservation  is  almost  nil,  and  as  its  colouration  and  habits  make  it  a 
most  conspicuous  animal  at  any  time,  its  destruction  is  almost  a  mechanical 
matter.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  scores  of  thousands  of  whiptails  which 
are  killed  every  year  in  coastal  Queensland,  represent,  not  the  natural  increase, 
as  is  assumed  locally,  but  rather  the  natural  drainage  of  the  species  from 
large  areas  of  relatively  poor  feeding  grounds  into  smaller  areas  which  are 
more  attractive  to  it  and  which  will  support  a  denser  population.  When  the 
country  is  settled  these  "fur  pockets"  act  as  natural  traps,  and  destruction 
which  appears  to  be  local  actually  affects  a  much  wider  area,  indirectly. 
It  is  this  factor  of  natural  concentration  which  is  largely  responsible  for  the 
element  of  unexpected  suddenness  which  often  marks  the  extinction  of  mammal 
species  before  advancing  settlement. 

M.  parryi  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  Australian  mammals,  and  is  one 
of  the  very  few  species  which  can  be  easily  and  freely  observed  under  natural 
conditions.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  its  value  will  be  recognised  while  there 
is  still  time. 

E.  Le  G.  Troughton  writes  (in  Hit.,  April  16,  1937)  that  this 
nearest  eastern  ally  of  the  extinct  Toolach  was  once  plentiful  in  the 
more  open  coastal  country  from  north  of  Sydney  to  the  Rockhamp- 
ton  district  of  Queensland.  It  is  becoming  rare  owing  to  the  natural 
shrinkage  of  habitat  with  settlement  and  to  destruction  for  "sport" 
and  profit.  It  is  more  beautiful  and  observable  than  most  species 
and  requires  total  continued  protection  to  ensure  its  survival. 


116  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Toolach;  Toolache;  Grey's  Wallaby 

WALLABIA  GRBYI  (Waterhouse) 

Macropus  (Halmaturus)  Greyi  Waterhouse,  Nat.  Hist.  Mammalia,  vol.  1, 
p.  122,  1846.  ("South  Australia."  Iredale  and  Troughton  (1934,  p.  50) 
give,  as  a  restricted  type  locality,  the  "Coorong,  fide  G.  F.  Angas.") 

FIGS.:   Gould,  1852,  vol.  2,  pis.  18,  19;  Finlayson,  1927,  pis.  16,  17. 

This  very  beautiful  wallaby,  a  former  inhabitant  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, is  apparently  extinct  in  a  wild  state.  "One  or  two  specimens 
in  the  Zoo  at  Adelaide  are  supposed  to  be  the  last  living  specimens 
of  this  species"  (A.  S.  Le  Souef ,  in  Hit.,  February  15,  1937) . 

General  color  pale  ashy  brown,  tinted  with  yellowish;  under  parts, 
legs,  and  feet  pale  buff-yellow;  toes  black;  head  gray;  a  pale  yellow 
cheek-stripe,  bordered  above  with  blackish  and  below  with  brownish ; 
back  of  neck  and  back  of  ears  pale  rufous;  tip  of  ears  black;  tail 
very  pale  gray,  brown-white  beneath,  and  with  a  terminal  crest  of 
dirty  yellowish  hairs.  Head  and  body,  761  mm.;  tail,  660  mm. 
(Waterhouse,  1846,  vol.  1,  pp.  122-124.)  Additional  characters  given 
by  Jones  (1924,  pp.  244-245)  are:  a  white  patch  above  eye;  back 
with  10  to  12  dark  gray  bands;  an  ill-defined  pale  hip-bar.  Head 
and  body,  810-840  mm. ;  tail,  710-730  mm. 

From  the  time  of  its  discovery  this  species  seems  to  have  been 
almost  entirely  confined  to  southeastern  South  Australia,  chiefly 
between  the  Murray  River  and  Victoria.  "Both  species  [Wallabia  r. 
rufogrisea  and  W.  greyi]  appeared  to  have  crossed  the  Murray,  but 
the  extent  of  their  tenure  of  the  river  flats  is  difficult  to  estimate, 
and  from  this  north-western  part  of  their  range  they  were  early 
driven,  or  greatly  reduced,  by  the  rapid  advance  of  closer  settlement. 
Their  former  presence  in  the  lower  part  of  the  county  of  Sturt  is 
vouched  for  by  many  residents  of  that  part  of  the  country  still 
living."  (Finlayson,  1927,  p.  364.) 

"The  species  was  not  exclusively  confined  to  South  Australia,  but 
occurred  also  through  a  small  strip  of  Victorian  territory  contiguous 
to  the  border"  (Finlayson,  1927,  p.  366). 

"Mr.  Strange  informs  me  that  he  met  with  this  animal  'between 
Lake  Albert  and  the  Glenelg.  The  kind  of  country  in  which  it  is 
found  consists  of  large  open  plains  intersected  by  extensive  salt 
lagoons  and  bordered  by  pine  ridges.  ...  I  never  saw  anything 
so  swift  of  foot  as  this  species:  it  does  not  appear  to  hurry  itself 
until  the  dogs  have  got  pretty  close,  when  it  bounds  away  like 
an  antelope,  with  first  a  short  jump  and  then  a  long  one,  leaving  the 
dogs  far  behind  it.  ...  I  have  had  twenty  runs  in  a  day  with  four 
swift  dogs  and  not  succeeded  in  getting  one.'  "  (Gould,  1863,  vol.  2, 
p.  25.) 

"Many  people  can  remember  the  time  when  Toolaches  swarmed 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS 


117 


in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kingston.  Being  by  far  the  fleetest  of  all 
the  wallabies,  its  chase  was  at  one  time  a  very  popular  form  of 
sport,  and  its  beautiful  pelts  have  been  marketed  in  very  large 
numbers  in  the  salesrooms  of  Melbourne.  ...  It  is  not  correct  to 
say  that  this  very  fine  and  distinctly  South  Australian  wallaby  is 
extinct,  for  at  the  present  moment  five  or  six  individuals  still  exist. 
Any  effort  to  preserve  this  remnant  must  be  made  immediately  and 
with  vigour  if  it  is  to  be  of  any  service  whatever."  (Jones,  1924, 
p.  245.) 


FIG.  17. — Toolach  (Wallabia  greyi).   From  photo. 


Finlayson  furnishes  an  extensive  account  (1927,  pp.  367-369), 
from  which  the  following  excerpts  are  taken: 

The  Toolach  ...  in  all  parts  of  its  range  showed  a  marked  partiality  for 
grass  country  ....  In  the  typical  desert  country  of  the  counties  of  Russell 
and  Buccleuch,  where  grass  flats  are  few  and  far  between,  it  occurred  but 
sparsely,  and  here  appeared  to  be  comparatively  solitary,  but  in  the  lower 
south-east,  where  richer  soils  permit  a  far  greater  development  of  grasses, 
its  undoubted  instinct  towards  gregariousness  asserted  itself,  and  when  the 
country  was  first  settled  it  was  here  established  in  a  series  of  isolated  colonies 
....  The  groups  .  .  .  showed  marked  partiality  for  certain  quite  restricted 
areas,  from  which  they  were  only  driven  by  persistent  persecution,  and  to 
which  they  returned  again  and  again.  .  .  . 

A  considerable  weight  of  evidence  inclines  me  to  the  belief  that  in  point 
of  numbers  M.  greyi  fell  far  short  of  the  four  other  species  of  Macropus  in 
the  district.  Although  human  persecution  and  the  occupation  of  its  chosen 


118  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

country  early  reduced  its  numbers  and  broke  up  and  dispersed  its  larger 
colonies,  it  was  still  far  from  uncommon  even  as  late  as  1910,  and  scattered 
bands  were  still  to  be  found  in  suitable  localities.  The  chief  of  these  were 
along  the  edges  of  the  long  strip  of  grass  country  extending  from  a  little 
north  of  Millicent  to  the  vicinity  of  Bull  Island  and  Reedy  Creek,  and 
known  locally  as  Avenue  Valley,  on  the  Biscuit  Flat  between  Robe  and 
Kingston,  the  Mosquito  Plain  between  Naracoorte  and  Penola,  and  in  the 
country  between  Clay  Wells  and  Conmurra,  and  probably  also  in  the  sand- 
hill country  of  its  northern  district.  Its  rapid  disappearance  in  the  last 
twenty  years  may  be  attributed  with  some  confidence  to  the  invasion  and 
enormous  increase  of  the  English  fox,  which  has  been  proved  without  doubt 
to  take  a  heavy  toll  of  the  young,  even  of  the  large  kangaroos,  and  indeed  in 
the  almost  unoccupied  desert  country  where  man  has  had  little  influence  on 
its  destinies,  it  seems  that  the  fox  has  been  the  sole  factor  in  effecting  its 
extermination.  Its  chief  natural  enemies  [sic]  before  the  advent  of  the  white 
man  and  the  fox  seems  to  have  been  the  wedge-tailed  eagle  (Uroaetus  audax), 
which,  like  the  latter,  chiefly  attacked  the  young.  These  attacks  were  by  no 
means  always  successful,  and  were  sometimes  thwarted  by  the  courage  of  the 
females.  .  .  . 

I  learn  from  another  source  that  small  boys  in  a  certain  district  were  in 
the  habit  of  periodically  visiting  the  sites  of  eagles'  nests  to  recover  the 
scalps  from  the  remains  of  young  toolaches  to  be  found  lying  underneath; 
this  at  a  time  when  a  bonus  of  sixpence  was  paid  on  all  marsupial  scalps. 

By  1923  the  species  had  become  exceedingly  rare.  Isolated  pairs  were  no 
doubt  scattered  through  the  rougher  stringy-bark  country,  but  the  sole 
remnant  of  the  Toolach  population  which  continued  living  in  country  and 
under  circumstances  which  might  be  regarded  as  typical  of  that  formerly 
obtaining,  was  a  small  band  of  perhaps  fourteen  individuals,  located  on  the 
south  end  of  Konetta  sheep  run,  some  twenty-six  miles  south-east  of  Robe. 

Public  attention  was  first  called  to  the  rapidly  approaching  extinction  of 
the  Toolach  by  Professor  Wood  Jones,  who  repeatedly  stressed  the  urgent 
need  for  rigid  protection  of  this  group  at  Konetta.  In  May,  1923,  as  there 
appeared  little  prospect  for  effective  conservation  in  the  south-east,  an  organ- 
ised attempt  was  made  on  a  considerable  scale  to  capture  living  specimens 
for  transference  to  the  sanctuary  on  Kangaroo  Island.  This,  and  a  later 
attempt  in  1924,  failed  in  their  main  objective,  since  as  a  result  of  overmuch 
driving  the  four  examples  obtained  were  either  dead  or  died  shortly  after 
capture,  but  were  not  altogether  fruitless,  as  much-needed  Museum  material 
was  thus  acquired. 

The  subsequent  history  of  the  species  consists  of  a  resumption  of  the 
exterminating  process.  Owing  to  the  extensive  publicity  given  to  the  two 
expeditions  noted  above,  local  attention  was  focussed  on  the  Toolach  to  a 
degree  hitherto  unknown.  Much  of  this  attention  was  sympathetic  to  the 
idea  of  conservation,  but  the  realization  of  the  great  rarity  of  the  wallaby 
roused  the  cupidity  of  an  unscrupulous  few>  and  that  survivors  of  the  1924 
attempt  have  been  wantonly  killed  for  the  sake  of  the  pelt  as  a  trophy, 
is  an  assertion  based  on  the  admission  of  at  least  one  of  the  slayers.  The  con- 
stant hunting  of  foxes  with  dogs  over  the  Toolach  country  has  been  made  the 
excuse  for  some  of  this  killing,  the  plea  being  advanced  that  it  is  impossible 
to  prevent  the  dogs  running  anything  and  everything  that  is  put  up.  ... 
Interrogation  usually  elicits  the  fact  that  "nothing  spoils  a  dog  like  checking 
him."  This  peculiar  solicitude  for  the  dog's  training  has  borne  very  heavily 
on  the  Toolach  and  still  bears  very  heavily  on  his  cousin  the  brusher.  Occa- 
sionally, however,  a  better  spirit  prevails,  and  recently  a  Toolach  doe  was 
promptly  rescued  from  two  kangaroo  dogs  which  had  seized  her,  and,  in  the 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  119 

patient  care  of  Mr.  J.  Brown,  of  Robe,  she  has  survived  the  rough  handling 
received.  She  may  well  represent  the  last  of  her  race  in  this  State,  as  a 
careful  and  extended  examination  of  the  beat  of  the  Konetta  band  by  the 
writer  in  February  of  this  year  failed  to  reveal  any  recent  traces,  either 
in  the  shape  of  tracks  or  dejecta,  and  the  opinion  is  expressed  by  the  resi- 
dent who  knows  the  country  best  that  the  band  has  been  entirely  extirpated. 
The  species  is  very  poorly  represented  in  Museums,  and  enquiries  recently 
instituted  in  all  the  States  indicate  that  there  are  six  skins  and  seven  skulls 
in  the  public  collections  of  Australia. 

Mr.  Finlayson  writes  (in  litt.,  March  20,  1937)  that  the  species 
is  nearly  extinct. 

"This  beautiful  species  presents  the  most  tragic,  and  probably 
prophetic,  history  of  all  the  kangaroos  since  white  settlement"  (E. 
Le  G.  Troughton,  in  litt.,  April  16,  1937).  "The  sum  total  of  the 
isolated  protective  effort  apparently  is  a  doe,  rescued  from  kangaroo 
dogs,  which  by  now  may  represent  the  sole  survivor  of  the  species" 
(Troughton,  1938,  p.  407). 

Black-gloved  Wallaby;  Western  Brush  Wallaby 

WALLABIA  IRMA  (Jourdan) 

Halmaturus  irma  Jourdan,  C.  R.  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris],  vol.  5,  p.  523,  1837.  ("Les 
bords  de  la  riviere  des  Cygnes,  sur  les  cotes  de  Leuwin  (Australasie)"n: 
Swan  River,  Western  Australia.) 

SYNONYM:    Macropus  (Halmaturus)  manicatus  Gould  (1841). 

FIGS.:  Gould,  1841,  pi.  9,  and  1852,  vol.  2,  pis.  20,  21;  Le  Souef  and  Burrell, 
1926,  fig.  39. 

Though  apparently  remaining  common  for  the  present  in  its  re- 
stricted range  in  Western  Australia,  this  species  "requires  observa- 
tion and  close  protection  wherever  possible"  (E.  Le  G.  Troughton, 
in  litt.,  April  16,  1937) . 

Head  gray  above;  cheeks  and  lips  yellowish  white;  black  spot 
under  chin;  back  of  ears  brown;  inside  of  ears  yellow,  the  terminal 
third  black;  crown  brown;  chest,  neck,  sides,  and  outer  surface  of 
limbs  light  tawny-yellow ;  wrists  and  tarsi  yellow ;  digits  brown  and 
black;  tail  with  a  dorsal  and  ventral  crest,  mostly  gray,  blackish 
toward  the  end,  and  tipped  with  white  hairs.  Head  and  body,  720 
mm.;  tail,  630  mm.  (Jourdan,  1837,  p.  523.)  According  to  Thomas 
(1888,  p.  41),  the  general  color  is  dark  bluish  gray;  back  of  ears, 
crown,  and  digits  black. 

"To  what  extent  this  pretty  animal  ranges  over  Western  Australia 
has  not  been  ascertained,  but  we  know  that  it  is  very  generally  dif- 
fused over  every  part  of  the  colony  of  Swan  River,  wherever  sterile 
and  scrubby  districts  interspersed  with  belts  of  dwarf  Eucalypti 
exist  .... 

"Mr.  Gilbert  informs  us  that  it  may  be  ranked  among  the  fleetest 
of  its  race;  that  it  requires  dogs  of  the  highest  breed  to  capture  it, 


120  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

and  that  a  full-grown  male  weighs  nearly  twenty  pounds.  The  flesh 
forms  an  excellent  viand  for  the  table,  and  the  skins  manufactured 
into  rugs  are  extensively  used  by  those  whose  avocations  and  mode 
of  life  lead  them  to  spend  much  of  their  time  in  the  bush."  (Gould, 
1863,  vol.  2,  p.  27.) 

Thomas  (1888,  pp.  41-42)  lists  specimens  from  Swan  River, 
Toodyay,  and  Perth. 

Shortridge  gives  the  following  account  (1910,  pp.  809-811,  map) : 

Range  almost  identical  with  that  of  Macropus  giganteus  [=  ocydromus], 
except  that  it  does  not  seem  to  occur  in  the  southern  coastal  districts  between 
Cape  Naturaliste  and  the  Leeuwin.  .  .  .  Generally  considered  to  be  the 
best  sporting  animal  in  Western  Australia. 

Not  apparently  dying  out  or  disappearing  even  in  the  more  thickly  populated 
districts  to  the  same  extent  as  the  smaller  marsupials. 

Extending  northwards  beyond  Watheroo,  its  range  probably  ends  at  some 
point  to  the  south  of  Geraldton. 

Shortridge  also  records  specimens  from  King  River,  Mount  Barker, 
Boyadine-Dale  River,  Stockpool,  Dwaladine,  and  Woy  aline  Wells. 
His  map  shows  the  range  extending  through  the  southwestern  corner 
of  Western  Australia  between  Geraldton  and  Esperance. 

Le  Souef  and  Burrell  state  (1926,  p.  190):  "The  black-gloved 
wallaby  is  still  very  numerous  in  South-west  Australia.  .  .  .  This 
species,  strangely  enough,  is  difficult  to  keep  in  captivity ;  evidently 
it  requires  special  food  to  keep  it  in  health."  They  also  remark 
(pp.  188-189)  that  "all  wallabies  live  in  or  about  scrub  or  brushwood, 
for  they  have  three  enemies  ever  on  the  look-out  for  stray  animals 
that  venture  into  the  open,  namely,  the  dingo,  fox,  and  the  great 
wedge-tailed  eagle." 

According  to  Glauert  (1933,  p.  32) ,  the  range  of  the  present  species 
is  "South-Western  Australia,  from  the  vicinity  of  Geraldton  in  the 
north  to  the  south  coast.  The  eastern  limit  is  approximately  the 
No.  3  Rabbit-proof  Fence.  Still  common  near  Perth." 

E.  Le  G.  Troughton  calls  attention  (in  litt.,  April  16,  1937)  to  the 
fact  that  this  wallaby  is  the  nearest  relative  of  the  practically  extinct 
Toolach,  and  suggests  that  "shrinkage  of  range  should  be  watched 
for,  although  survival  seems  at  present  assured  by  reservations,  in 
the  event  of  more  intensive  cultivation." 

Tasmanian  Kangaroo;  Forester  Kangaroo;  "Boomer" 

MACROPUS  TASMANIENSIS  Le  Souef 

Macropus  giganteus  tasmaniensis  Le  Souef,  Australian  Zool.,  vol.  3,  pt.  4, 
p.  145,  1923.    (Tasmania.) 

Formerly  common  and  ranging  practically  throughout  Tasmania, 
this  fine  species  has  been  almost  exterminated. 


ORDER  MARSUPIALIA:    MARSUPIALS  121 

Similar  in  size  and  appearance  to  M.  giganteus,  but  with  some- 
what coarser  fur  and  showing  greater  variation  in  color ;  upper  parts 
sooty,  sooty  gray,  rusty  brown,  or  rusty  red — as  a  rule  rusty  brown, 
with  grayish  under  parts.  Head  and  body,  1230-1400  mm.;  tail, 
970-1000  mm.  (Le  Souef,  19236,  pp.  145,  147.)  Size  very  large, 
form  slender  and  graceful;  tail  gray,  with  terminal  portion  black; 
male  about  one-eighth  larger  than  female.  (Lord  and  Scott,  1924, 
p.  244). 

"In  Van  Diemen's  Land,  among  other  places,  it  resorts  to  the 
bleak,  wet,  and  frequently  snow-capped  summit  of  Mount  Welling- 
ton." In  this  country  it  "forms  an  object  of  chase,  and  like  the 
Deer  and  Fox  in  England,  is  hunted  with  hounds;  and  twice  a  week, 
during  the  season,  the  Nimrods  of  this  distant  land  may  be  seen, 
mounted  on  their  fleet  steeds,  crossing  the  ferry  of  the  Derwent,  at 
Hobart  Town,  on  their  way  to  the  hunting-ground,  where  they 
seldom  meet  without  'finding'."  (Gould,  1863,  vol.  2,  pp.  2-3.)  The 
same  author  gives  (p.  4)  an  account  of  a  hunt  for  an  old  male 
"Boomer"  that  led  the  hounds  a  chase  of  18  miles  on  land,  and  then 
swam  in  the  sea  for  more  than  2  miles  before  he  became  exhausted 
and  was  killed.  He  also  (p.  2)  quotes  R.  C.  Gunn  to  the  effect  that 
while  the  species  may  be  found  in  numbers  at  certain  places  where 
food  is  abundant,  yet  it  is  not  as  a  general  rule  gregarious  and  does 
not  travel  from  place  to  place  in  flocks. 

Lord  (1928,  p.  18)  gives  the  following  account: 

The  Forester  Kangaroo  formerly  roamed  over  the  greater  part  of  Tasmania 
where  conditions  were  suitable.  It  frequents,  as  a  rule,  more  open  country 
than  M.  ruficollis,  and  this  fact,  together  with  its  larger  size,  is  undoubtedly 
responsible  for  its  decline.  At  the  present  time  this  species  is  met  with  only 
in  a  few  localities  in  Tasmania.  In  some  instances,  the  owners  of  large  estates 
have  taken  an  interest  in  the  animal,  and  it  is  owing  to  the  protection  thus 
received  that  groups  of  this  species  exist  to-day  in  certain  places  in  the  island. 

In  other  parts  where  there  are  scattered  mobs,  such  as  in  the  extreme 
North-East  of  Tasmania,  the  advance  of  settlement  is  having  its  effect, 
for  although  the  species  is  totally  protected  by  law,  the  fact  must  be  recog- 
nised that  in  the  more  distant  country  districts  it  is  a  matter  of  extreme 
difficulty  to  enforce  the  game  laws. 

Although  very  much  reduced  in  numbers  the  Forester  Kangaroo  does  not 
appear  to  be  in  any  immediate  danger  of  extinction,  particularly  if  the 
landowners  who  have  protected  it  in  the  past  continue  to  recognise  the 
variety  as  one  worthy  of  being  retained.  Again,  the  species  will  probably  be 
bred  in  local  zoological  gardens,  and  there  is  still  the  further  possibility  of  this 
and  other  species  being  bred  on  a  large  scale  and  made  an  item  of  great 
economic  importance  to  the  State. 

More  recently  R.  Boswell  writes  (in  litt.,  May  13,  1937)  that 
the  species,  though  still  wholly  protected  by  law,  has  now  been  almost 
exterminated  through  excessive  hunting.  There  has  been  economic 
exploitation  of  its  hide  and  flesh. 


122  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Order  INSECTIVORA:    Insectivores 

Family  SORICIDAE:    Shrews 

This  family  is  nearly  cosmopolitan  in  distribution  but  is  absent 
in  the  Australian  region  (including  New  Guinea).  There  are  about 
25  genera  and  several  hundred  species  and  subspecies.  They  are 
animals  of  generally  small  size  and  secretive  habits.  A  single  form 
is  considered  extinct. 

Christinas  Island  Musk-shrew 

CROCIDURA  FULIGINOSA  TRICHURA  Dobson 

Crocidura  juliginosa,  var.  trichura  Dobson,  in  Thomas,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Lon- 
don 1888,  p.  532,  1889.    (Christmas  Island,  eastern  Indian  Ocean.) 

This  is  described  as  a  small  shrew,  with  skull  and  teeth  closely 
like  those  of  the  species  C.  fuliginosa  of  the  mainland  (Assam, 
Tenasserim,  and  Malay  Peninsula) .  Dobson  differentiated  it  mainly 
on  the  basis  of  a  longer  tail,  beset  with  long  fine  hairs,  but  later 
collections  showed  that  the  tail  as  recorded  by  Dobson  for  his  speci- 
men (80  mm.)  was  much  longer  than  the  average  of  10  other  speci- 
mens for  which  C.  W.  Andrews  (1900)  gives  measurements.  The 
color  is  not  described  but  is  doubtless,  like  that  of  the  related  form, 
of  a  dark  gray.  According  to  Andrews,  the  well-haired  tail  is  the 
best  character.  Measurements:  head  and  body,  65-82  mm.;  tail, 
63-75  mm.;  hind  foot,  13-17  mm. 

The  original  specimen  was  brought  back  to  the  British  Museum 
by  the  surveying-ship  Flying-fish  under  command  of  Captain 
Maclear  in  1886.  Later,  in  1897,  a  number  of  additional  specimens 
were  secured  by  Andrews  (1900),  who  lists  measurements  in  his 
Monograph  of  Christmas  Island,  and  remarks:  "This  little  animal  is 
extremely  common  all  over  the  island,  and  at  night  its  shrill  squeak, 
like  the  cry  of  a  bat,  can  be  heard  on  all  sides.  It  lives  in  holes  in 
rocks  and  roots  of  trees,  and  seems  to  feed  mainly  on  small  beetles." 
In  1908,  Dr.  Andrews  again  visited  the  island,  to  see  what  changes 
had  taken  place  with  the  establishment  of  a  settlement,  clearing, 
and  agriculture,  since  1897.  He  found  (1909,  p.  102)  that  the  shrew 
"is  probably  also  extinct,  at  least  no  specimen  was  either  seen  or 
heard  during  my  visit."  He  implies  that  this  may  have  been  due  in 
part  to  cats,  which  had  been  introduced  and  had  become  numerous. 
However,  cats  would  seem  hardly  sufficient  to  account  for  the  ex- 
termination of  a  shrew,  which  they  will  kill  but  seldom  care  to  eat. 
It  may  be  that  agricultural  use  of  the  land  has  reduced  the  numbers 
of  the  shrew  about  the  settlement  at  Flyingfish  Cove;  nevertheless  a 
careful  search  with  modern  collecting  methods  might  still  reveal  the 
animal's  presence.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  actually  gone,  one 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  123 

may  invoke  some  introduced  disease,  which  seems,  as  Andrews  de- 
scribes, to  have  been  the  reason  for  the  extinction  of  the  two  native 
rats,  Rattus  nativitatis  and  R.  macleari  (q.  v.). 

G.M.A. 

Order  PRIMATES:     Primates 

Family  LEMURIDAE:    Lemurs 

This  family  is  restricted  to  Madagascar  and  the  Comoro  Islands. 
Six  genera  and  26  species  and  subspecies  are  recognized.  While  some 
forms  remain  common,  others  have  become  greatly  reduced  in  num- 
bers, and  one  is  evidently  extinct.  Owing  to  a  steady  reduction  in 
the  forested  area  of  Madagascar  and  to  a  certain  amount  of  perse- 
cution by  the  natives,  the  lemurs  are  faced  with  a  rather  uncertain 
future.  Consequently,  accounts  of  all  the  forms  are  provided  in  the 
following  pages. 

Miller's  Dwarf  Lemur 

MICROCEBUS  MURINUS  MURiNUS  (J.  F.  Miller) 

Lemur  murinus  J.  F.  Miller,  Icones  Anim.  et  Plant.,  pi.  13,  1777.  (Madagascar.) 
SYNONYMS:  Prosimia  minima  Boddaert  (1784) ;  Lemur  prehensilis  Kerr  (1792) ; 
Lemur  pusillus  E.  Geoffrey  (1796) ;  Galago  madaffascariensis  E.  Geoffroy- 
Saint-Hilaire  (1812) ;  Cheirogaleus  minor  E.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire  (1812) ; 
Microcebus  rufus  Wagner  (1839);  Myscebus  palmarum  Lesson  (1840); 
Microcebus  myoxinus  Peters  (1852) ;  Chirogalus  gliroides  Grandidier 
(1868);  Microcebus  minor  griseorufus  Kollmann  (1911). 
FIGS.:  P.  Brown,  New  Illustrate.  Zool.,  pi.  44,  1776;  J.  F.  Miller,  Icones 
Anim.  et  Plant.,  pi.  13,  1777;  G.  Shaw,  Cimelia  Physica,  pi.  13,  1796; 
Audebert,  1800,  Makis,  pi.  8;  E.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  Ann.  Mus.  Hist. 
Nat.  [Paris],  vol.  19,  pi.  10,  fig.  3;  Peters,  Reise  Mossambique,  Zool.,  I, 
Saugethiere,  pi.  3,  1852;  Major,  1894,  pi.  1,  fig.  2;  Milne  Edwards,  Grandi- 
dier and  Filhol,  1897,  pi.  259,  fig.  6;  Kaudern,  1915,  pi.  2,  fig.  3. 

The  comparative  abundance  of  this  species  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929- 
31  secured  43  specimens  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220) — more  than  of 
any  other  Madagascar  lemur. 

Size  very  small;  head  rounded;  muzzle  short  and  pointed;  eyes 
large  and  brilliant;  ears  large  and  naked  (Forbes,  1894,  vol.  1,  p.  55) . 
"Two  phases,  rufous  brown  or  gray.  The  first  has  the  head  rusty 
brown ;  orbital  ring  and  upper  lip  black ;  stripe  between  eyes  and  on 
nose,  grayish  white;  upper  parts  of  body  rufous  brown;  dorsal  line 
indistinct ;  sides  of  body  and  outer  side  of  limbs  mouse  gray  washed 
with  rufous  brown ;  entire  under  parts  and  inner  side  of  limbs  white 
.  .  .  ;  tail  rufous  brown  .  .  .  ;  hands  and  feet  gray.  The  other  phase 
is  mouse  gray  above,  the  back  washed  with  rufous,  a  rufous  spot 
over  each  eye;  outer  side  of  limbs  mouse  gray;  entire  under  parts 


124  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

white;  tail  pale  rufous."  Total  length,  about  300  mm.;  tail,  150  mm. 
(Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  p.  104.) 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  403)  gives  the  range  as  "the  whole  of  S.E., 
E.  [=S.],  and  W.  Madagascar,  as  far  north  as  the  Betsiboka  River 
....  Exact  limits  in  central  Madagascar  not  known,  but  probably 
only  found  in  the  plains.  Not  extending  farther  north  than  Ft. 
Dauphin  on  the  east  coast."  He  mentions  (pp.  402-403)  specimens 
from:  Fort  Dauphin;  Ankazoabo,  Bara;  Ambolisatra  and  Itampolo 
Be,  north  of  Tulear;  Tulear;  and  Morondava. 

Sibree  (1915,  p.  243)  refers  to  this  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  interesting  of  Madagascar  lemurids.  It  "is  remarkable  also  for 
its  large  and  very  resplendent  eyes,  for  the  eye  admits  so  much 
light  at  dusk  that  quite  an  unusual  brilliance  is  produced." 

Three  specimens  were  captured  in  1932  in  the  Manampetsa  Re- 
serve in  the  southwest  (Petit,  1935,  p.  474) . 

"At  Tabiky  [inland  from  Cape  St.  Vincent],  the  mouse  lemur 
was  apparently  very  common  and  numbers  were  brought  in  alive 
by  natives.  ...  On  November  2,  1929,  fifteen  specimens  were 
brought  to  me."  Remains  of  a  Microcebus  were  found  in  a  pair  of 
goshawks  (Astur  henstii)  taken  near  Tabiky.  (Rand,  1935,  p.  95.) 

Smith's  Dwarf  Lemur 

MICROCEBUS  MURINUS  SMITHII   (J.  E.  Gray) 

Cheirogaleus  Smithii  J.  E.  Gray,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  1,  vol.  10,  p.  257, 
1842.  ("Madagascar";  type  locality  restricted  by  Harper  (1940,  p.  192) 
to  "a  few  miles  north  of  Fianarantsoa,  central  Betsileo.") 

FIGS.:   Forbes,  1894,  vol.  1,  pi.  6;  Beddard,  1902,  p.  544,  fig.  260. 

This  lemur  was  reported  as  tolerably  abundant  by  Shaw  in  1879 
(p.  135).  Although  scarcely  any  later  information  is  at  hand,  its 
nocturnal  habits  and  its  penchant  for  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees 
have  perhaps  safeguarded  it  from  serious  depletion. 

Gray's  type  description  (1842,  p.  257)  is  as  follows:  "Pale  brown; 
streak  up  the  nose  and  forehead,  the  chin  and  beneath  paler;  tail 
redder."  Schwarz  (1931,  p.  401)  distinguishes  this  subspecies  from 
M.  m.  murinus  as  follows:  "Tail  not  longer  or  shorter  than  head 
and  body.  Colour  above  reddish  brown;  an  indistinct  dorsal  band 
sometimes  present.  Facial  streak  accompanied  on  both  sides  by  a 
distinct  black  stripe  which  extends  as  far  as  but  hardly  beyond 
the  eyes."  Both  body  and  tail  are  about  180  mm.  in  length  in  a 
specimen  from  Majunga,  north  of  the  Bay  of  Bombetoka,  which 
Lorenz-Liburnau  records  (1898,  p.  445)  as  M.  myoxinus. 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  403)  records  specimens  from:  Vohemar,  NE. 
coast;  Mananara,  Bay  of  Antongil;  Mahambo,  north  of  Foulpointe, 
NE.  coast;  Anabama  Forest,  Lake  Alaotra;  Ivohimanitra,  Tanala; 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  125 

Vinanitelo,  SE.  Betsileo;  and  north  of  Fianarantsoa,  central  Betsileo. 
He  states  the  range  as  follows:  "The  whole  of  eastern,  northern, 
and  east-central  Madagascar,  including  the  plateau,  as  far  south  as 
Ft.  Dauphin.  Also  the  north-west,  down  to  the  Bay  of  Bombetoka." 
If,  however,  Schwarz  is  correct  (p.  402)  in  recording  murinus  from 
Fort  Dauphin,  the  range  of  smithii  can  scarcely  extend  quite  so 
far  south. 
G.  A.  Shaw  (1879,  pp.  135-136)  gives  the  following  account: 

They  inhabit  a  belt  of  forest-land  stretching  from  the  eastern  forest  into 
the  heart  of  Betsileo,  a  few  miles  north  of  Fianarantsoa,  where  they  are 
tolerably  abundant.  They  live  on  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees,  choosing 
invariably  the  smallest  branches  .... 

Their  food  consists  of  fruit  and  insects  and  most  probably  honey.  I  have 
frequently  seen  them  catching  the  flies  that  have  entered  their  cage  for 
the  honey;  and  I  have  supplied  them  with  moths  and  butterflies,  which  they 
have  devoured  with  avidity. 

They  are  extremely  shy  and  wild.  Although  I  have  had  between  thirty  and 
forty  caged  at  different  times,  I  have  never  succeeded  in  taming  one.  .  .  . 

I  have  had  none  breed  in  captivity. 

Kaudern  (1915,  p.  74)  records  several  specimens  (as  M.  minor] 
from  Ste.  Marie  de  Marovoay  on  the  Betsiboka  River  in  the  north- 
west, and  one  specimen  (as  M.  smithii)  from  Fenerive  on  the  east 
coast. 

G.  M.  Allen  (1918,  p.  516)  records  a  specimen  from  Didy,  south 
of  Lake  Alaotra. 


Coquerel's  Dwarf  Lemur 

MICROCEBUS  COQUERELI  (Grandidier) 


Cheirogalus  Coquereli  Grandidier,  Rev.  Mag.  Zool.,  ser.  2,  vol.  19,  p.  85,  1867. 

("Morondava,"  west  coast  of  Madagascar.) 
SYNONYM:    Microcebus  coquereli  Schlegel  and  Pollen  (1868). 
FIGS.:   Schlegel  and  Pollen,  1868,  pi.  6;  Milne  Edwards,  Grandidier  and  Filhol, 

1897,  pi.  259,  fig.  4;  Beddard,  1902,  p.  544,  fig.  261;  Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1, 

pi.  4,  upper  fig.  (facing  p.  145). 

To  judge  by  the  small  number  of  specimens  recorded,  this  is  one 
of  the  rarest  lemurs  of  Madagascar. 

It  is  a  little  smaller  than  Phaner  furcifer;  above  dark  gray,  washed 
with  rufous ;  tail  dark  rufous,  except  at  the  base,  where  it  is  colored 
like  the  back;  under  parts  yellowish  gray.  Head  and  body,  210  mm.; 
tail,  340  mm.  (Grandidier,  1867a,  p.  85.) 

Grandidier  (1867a,  p.  85)  had  seven  of  these  animals  in  his  pos- 
session. They  were  nocturnal  and  lived  on  leaves  and  fruit. 

Schlegel  and  Pollen  state  (1868,  p.  13)  that  the  species  inhabits 
the  most  impenetrable  forests.  They  had  only  a  single  specimen, 
secured  in  the  forests  of  Congony,  inland  from  the  Bay  of  Passan- 
dava,  in  northwestern  Madagascar. 


126  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

According  to  Elliot  (1913,  vol.  1,  p.  107),  the  range  extends  on 
the  west  coast  from  Cape  St.  Vincent  to  Helville,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Bay  of  Passandava. 

Only  five  specimens  are  reported  by  Delacour  (1932,  p.  220)  as 
collected  by  the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of 
1929-31. 

Geoffrey's  Fat-tailed  Lemur 

CHEIROQALEUS  MEDIUS  MEDIUS  E.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire 

Cheirogaleus  medius  [E.]  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  Ann.  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.  [Paris], 
vol.  19,  p.  172,  1812.  (Type  locality  not  stated;  restricted  by  Schwarz 
(1931,  p.  405)  to  "Ft.  Dauphin,  S.E.  Madagascar.") 

SYNONYM:   Opolemur  thomasi  Major  (1894). 

FIGS.:  E.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  Ann.  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.  [Paris],  vol.  19,  pi.  10, 
fig.  2,  1812;  Major,  1894,  pi.  1,  fig.  1. 

Extremely  little  information  is  available  concerning  this  lemur, 
but  it  is  evidently  one  of  the  less  common  of  the  Madagascar  forms. 

Head  broad;  snout  short;  upper  parts  gray,  with  a  wash  of  rusty 
brown,  the  tips  of  the  hairs  silvery;  a  whitish  band  extending  from 
between  the  eyes  to  the  naked  nose-pad;  a  whitish  half-collar  on 
each  side  of  the  neck;  orbital  ring  and  ears  brownish  black;  under 
parts,  inner  side  of  limbs,  and  hands  and  feet  yellowish  white.  Head 
and  body  of  female,  232  mm.;  tail,  195  mm.  (Major,  1894,  p.  20; 
type  description  of  Opolemur  thomasi.) 

Major  (1894,  p.  20)  records  three  specimens  (as  0.  thomasi)  from 
Fort  Dauphin.  "Nothing  is  known  of  the  distribution  .  .  .  north  of 
Ft.  Dauphin  in  eastern  Madagascar"  (Schwarz,  1931,  p.  405). 

The  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  col- 
lected nine  specimens  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220). 

"These  little  lemurs  are  apparently  entirely  nocturnal  ....  At 
Tabiky  [inland  from  Cape  St.  Vincent],  I  found  them  in  a  gallery 
forest  through  savannah  and  dry  brush."  (Rand,  1935,  p.  95.) 

Neither  Delacour  nor  Rand  gave  the  subspecific  determination  of 
their  specimens. 

Samat's  Fat-tailed  Lemur 

CHEIROGALEUS  MEDIUS  SAMATI  (Grandidier) 

Chiroffalus  Samati  Grandidier,  Rev.  Mag.  Zool.,  ser.  2,  vol.  20,  p.  49,  1868. 

("Flumen  Tsidsibon  in  littore  occidentali  Madagascar  insulae.") 
FIG.:    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1872,  pi.  70. 

The  few  known  specimens  of  this  lemur  come  from  a  limited 
section  of  the  west  coast  of  Madagascar  (Tsidsobon  River  to  Mo- 
rondava) . 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  127 

Fur  of  body  and  tail  rather  short;  dark  gray  above,  fulvous  below; 
tail  fat,  faded  rufous;  a  white  stripe  from  forehead  to  nose;  orbital 
ring  black.  Head  and  body,  190  mm.;  tail,  170  mm.  (Grandidier, 
1868,  p.  49.) 

Major  (1894,  p.  18)  and  Schwarz  (1931,  p.  405)  record  specimens 
from  Morondava. 

Milius's  Mouse  Lemur 

CHEIROGALEUS  MAJOR  MAJOR  E.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire 

Cheirogaleus  major  [E.]  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  Ann.  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.  [Paris], 

vol.  19,  p.  172,  1812.    (Type  locality  not  stated;   restricted  by  Schwarz 

(1931,  p.  406)  to  "Fort  Dauphin,  S.E.  Madagascar.") 
SYNONYMS:   Lemur  commersonii  Wolf  (1822);  Cheirogaleus  milii  E.  Geoffrey 

(1828);  Ch.  typicus  A.  Smith  (1833);  Mioxicebus  griseus  Lesson  (1840); 

Chirogalus  adipicaudatus  Grandidier  (1868). 
FIGS.:    E.  Geoffroy,  Ann.  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.  [Paris],  vol.  19,  pi.  10,  fig.  1,  1812; 

Geoffrey  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,  livr.  32,  pi.   188,  1821;   Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.  London  1879,  pi.  9   (ssp.?);   Milne  Edwards,  Grandidier  and 

Filhol,  1897,  pi.  259,  fig.  5;  Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  pi.  5  (ssp.?). 

The  meager  information  we  have  concerning  this  lemur  is  an 
indication  of  its  rarity. 

Upper  parts  varying  from  brownish  gray  to  ashy  brown;  under 
parts  and  inner  side  of  limbs  yellowish  or  whitish;  orbital  ring 
black;  nose  light  gray;  hands  and  feet  dark  brown;  tail  pale  rufous 
or  ashy  brown,  sometimes  with  white  tip.  Total  length,  580  mm.; 
tail,  275  mm.  (Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  pp.  93-94.)  Ears  naked  for  their 
distal  half;  color  more  grayish  than  in  Ch.  m.  crossleyi  (Schwarz, 
1931,  p.  405). 

The  respective  ranges  of  Ch.  m.  major  and  Ch.  m.  crossleyi  are 
none  too  clearly  defined  in  the  available  literature.  The  former 
seems  to  occur  in  the  south  and  west  of  Madagascar;  the  latter,  in 
the  center  and  the  northeast. 

Elliot's  statement  (1913,  vol.  1,  p.  93)  of  the  range  of  the  present 
form  is  probably  not  altogether  accurate:  "Eastern  coast  of  Mada- 
gascar; Fort  Dauphin  to  Tamatave;  also  in  the  lower  wooded 
regions  of  Betsileo  Province;  and  on  the  west  coast  from  Tullare 
[=Tullear]  to  Pasandava,  Central  Madagascar." 

G.  A.  Shaw  (1879,  pp.  134-135)  records  a  specimen  (subspecies 
not  determined)  from  the  forests  on  the  eastern  side  of  Betsileo.  "Its 
food  consists  of  fruits  and  possibly  honey  ....  It  appears  to  be  a 
very  uncommon  animal,  ...  as  this  is  the  only  specimen  I  have 
been  able  to  obtain,  although  I  kept  a  man  in  the  forest  for  two 
months  seeking  for  one  after  I  had  obtained  this  one." 

Major  (1894,  p.  22)  records  specimens  from  Morondava  in  the 
southwest  and  from  Tamatave  and  Ankay  Forest  in  the  northeast. 


128  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"Milius'  Mouse-Lemur,  though  a  rare  species,  is  widely  distributed 
in  Madagascar"  (Forbes,  1894,  p.  51). 

Kaudern  (1915,  p.  74)  records  a  specimen  from  Ste.  Marie  de 
Marovoay  on  the  Betsiboka  River,  northwestern  Madagascar  (where 
the  animal  is  said  to  be  rather  rare),  and  several  specimens  from 
Andranolava,  north  central  Madagascar.  (Here  again,  the  speci- 
mens do  not  appear  to  have  been  determined  subspecifically.) 

Delacour  (1932,  p.  219)  reports  only  six  specimens  collected  by 
the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31. 

Crossley's   Mouse  Lemur 

CHEIROGALEUS  MAJOR  CROSSLEYI  (Grandidier) 

Chirogaliis  crossleyi  Grandidier,  Rev.  Mag.  Zool.,  ser.  2,  vol.  22,  p.  49,  1870. 

("Forets  est  d'Antsianak,"  Madagascar.) 
SYNONYMS:     Chirogale    melanotis   Major    (1894);    Chirogale    sibreei   Major 

(1896). 
FIGS.:    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1872,  pi.  71,  nearer  fig.;  Forbes,  1894,  pi.  5. 

This  subspecies  is  apparently  even  rarer  than  Ch.  m.  major. 

Upper  parts  rufous,  especially  on  the  head,  under  parts  whitish; 
head  very  large,  rounded;  orbital  ring  black;  inner  surface  of  ears 
covered  with  dark  brown  hairs;  tips  of  ears  bordered  with  black; 
tail  short  and  well  furred.  Body,  200  mm.;  tail,  120  mm.  (Gran- 
didier, 1870,  p.  49.)  Ears  hairy  inside  and  out,  with  hardly  a  naked 
tip;  fore  parts  of  body  strongly  washed  with  brownish  (Schwarz, 
1931,  p.  405).  The  tail  of  the  type  specimen  of  crossleyi  was  evi- 
dently defective;  the  types  of  "melanotis"  and  "sibreei"  have  a 
total  length  of  490-500  mm.,  and  a  tail  length  of  225-250  mm. 
(Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  pp.  95-96). 

This  lemur  seems  to  be  scarcely  known  except  from  the  type 
specimens  of  crossleyi,  "melanotis"  and  "sibreei"  These  are,  re- 
spectively, from  the  forests  east  of  Antsianak;  from  Vohima  on  the 
northeast  coast;  and  from  Ankeramadinika,  one  day's  journey  to 
the  east  of  Antananarivo.  Thus  the  known  range  extends  from  east 
central  to  northeastern  Madagascar. 

Hairy-eared  Mouse  Lemur;  Tufted-eared  Mouse  Lemur 

CHEIROGALEUS  TRICHOTIS  (Gunther) 

Chirogaleus  trichotis  Gunther,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1875,  p.  78,  1875.  (On 
the  "way  from  Tamantave  to  Murundava,"  Madagascar.) 

FIGS.:  Gunther,  18756,  pi.  15,  p.  79,  figs.  1,  2;  Milne  Edwards,  Grandidier  and 
Filhol,  1897,  pi.  259,  fig.  9. 

Since  the  single  specimen  of  the  Hairy-eared  Mouse  Lemur  was 
described  in  1875,  no  subsequent  specimen  has  turned  up,  despite 
the  extensive  collecting  that  has  been  carried  on  in  Madagascar  in 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  129 

the  meantime.  It  seems  fairly  necessary,  therefore,  to  class  it 
among  the  extinct  species. 

"Brownish  grey;  lower  parts  grey,  with  the  hairs  white-tipped. 
A  triangular  spot  in  front  of  the  eye  black;  median  line  of  the 
snout  and  lips  whitish.  Hands  and  feet  grey,  with  white-tipped 
hairs.  Ears  very  short,  hidden  in  the  fur.  The  lower  part  of  the 
concha  and  the  space  before  the  ear  covered  with  a  tuft  of  very 
long  hairs.  Tail  rather  shorter  than  the  body,  covered  with  short 
hairs  .  .  ,  .  All  the  nails  pointed,  claw-like."  Head  and  body,  152 
mm.;  tail,  149  mm.  (Gunther,  18756,  pp.  78-79.)  "This  species 
differs  from  all  the  members  of  this  genus  in  the  tufts  of  hair 
standing  out  from  the  ears  and  sides  of  head,  above  the  ears"  (Elliot, 
1913,  vol.  l,p.  97). 

Elliot's  authority  for  giving  (p.  96)  the  range  of  the  species  as 
the  "forests  of  Antsianak"  is  not  apparent.  The  exact  type  locality 
is  unknown,  and  no  information  is  at  hand  concerning  the  route  fol- 
lowed by  Crossley,  the  collector  of  the  type,  on  his  way  from  Ta- 
matave  on  the  east  coast  to  Morondava  on  the  west  coast. 

Fork-marked  Lemur.   Maki  a  fourche  (Fr.) 

PHANER  FURCIFER  (Blainville) 

L[emur]  furdfer  Blainville,  Osteogr.,  Mammif.,  Primates,  Lemur,  p.  35,  1839. 

(Type  locality  not  stated  originally;  "probably  the  region  of  the  Bay  of 

Antongil,  N.E.  Madagascar"  (Schwarz,  1931,  p.  407).) 
FIGS.:    Blainville,  Osteogr.,  Mammif.,  Primates,  Atlas,  Lemur,  pi.  7,   1839; 

Schlegel  and  Pollen,  1868,  pi.  5;  Milne  Edwards,  Grandidier  and  Filhol, 

1897,  pi.  259,  fig.  3. 

The  Fork-marked  Lemur  was  formerly  abundant  in  Madagascar 
and  is  still  fairly  common. 

Upper  parts  reddish  gray ;  outer  side  of  limbs  dark  rufous ;  throat 
pale  rufous;  chin  and  rest  of  under  parts  yellowish;  a  black  stripe 
from  lower  part  of  back  to  crown,  where  it  bifurcates,  one  branch 
ending  over  each  eye;  hands  and  feet  dark  brown;  tail  bushy,  dark 
reddish  brown  with  black  tip.  Total  length  about  600  mm.;  tail, 
350  mm.  (Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  p.  109.) 

"This  species  has  been  recorded  by  Pollen  and  van  Dam  from 
various  localities  on  the  N.W.  coast,  north  of  the  Bay  of  Bombetoka 
(Bay  of  Ampasindava,  Jangoa  River,  Kongony  River),  but  also 
farther  south  at  Morondava,  on  the  W.  coast.  Found  by  M.  J. 
Audebert  at  Tassumbe/  N.E.  coast."  (Schwarz,  1931,  p.  407.)  He 
also  states  that  "there  is  no  definite  record  of  the  occurrence  of  this 
species  considerably  south  of  the  Bay  of  Antongil."  He  mentions 
having  examined  specimens  from  Vohemar,  NE.  coast,  and  An- 
doany,  NW.  coast. 


130  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

This  pretty  species  is  found  in  abundance  in  the  forests  of  western 
Madagascar,  and  it  also  appears  to  inhabit  the  eastern  part.  The 
natives  state  that  it  is  very  fond  of  honey.  It  is  nocturnal  and  its 
chase  is  extremely  difficult.  (Schlegel  and  Pollen,  1868,  pp.  9-10.) 

Twelve  specimens  were  collected  by  the  Mission  Zoologique 
Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220) . 

"Near  Tabiky  [inland  from  Cape  St.  Vincent] ,  in  November,  1929, 
I  found  the  squirrel  lemur  fairly  common  about  my  camp  in  a  gallery 
forest  through  savanna  and  low  dry  brush.  Usually  found  in  pairs, 
.  .  .  they  sometimes  moved  about  rapidly  through  the  tops  of  the 
tall  trees,  but  more  often  were  in  the  lower  trees  and  bushes  .... 

"In  the  rain  forest  on  Mt.  d'Ambre  [in  the  extreme  north]  this 
lemur  was  fairly  common,  and  noisy  throughout  the  night,  but  it 
kept  to  the  tops  of  the  forest  trees."  (Rand,  1935,  p.  95.) 

Broad-nosed  Gentle  Lemur 

HAPALEMUR  SIMUS  J.  E.  Gray 

Hapalemur  simus  J.  E.  Gray,  Cat.  Monkeys,  Lemurs,  and  Fruit-eating  Bats 

Brit.  Mus.,  p.  133,  1870.   ("Madagascar.") 
FIGS.:    Gray,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1870,  pi.  52;  Milne  Edwards,  Grandidier 

and  Filhol,  1896,  pis.  122  A,  122  D  (fig.  1),  122  E. 

Comparatively  few  specimens  of  this  species  seem  to  be  known, 
and  the  information  concerning  it  (other  than  anatomical)  is  very 
meager. 

<rNose  broad  and  truncated;  .  .  .  back  iron-grey,  with  a  rufous 
tinge;  the  hairs  black,  with  a  subapical  rufous  band,  and  the  lower 
part  lead-coloured;  throat  whitish;  patch  on  rump  at  base  of  tail 
yellowish"  (J.  E.  Gray,  1870,  p.  133).  Forbes  (1894,  pp.  82-83) 
adds  the  following  details:  ears  short,  covered  with  long  hair; 
sides  of  head,  neck,  and  region  round  the  eyes  lighter  than  the 
back;  lower  back,  sides  of  body,  and  outer  surface  of  limbs  sooty 
gray,  with  here  and  there  a  wash  of  rufous;  tail,  except  at  base, 
sooty  gray;  under  side  of  body  and  inner  side  of  arms  pale  sooty 
gray;  no  patch  of  spines  on  the  arm  above  the  wrist  as  in  H.  griseus. 
Schwarz  (1931,  p.  407)  gives  a  total  length  of  900  mm. 

"It  would  appear  .  .  .  that  the  distribution  .  .  .  includes  the 
whole  forested  region  of  eastern  Madagascar.  It  has  not  been 
recorded  up  to  now  from  the  north-west."  Single  specimens  from 
Nandihizana,  central  Betsileo,  S.E.  Madagascar,  and  from  Passum- 
bee,  N.E.  coast,  are  mentioned.  (Schwarz,  1931,  pp.  407-408.) 

G.  A.  Shaw  writes  (1879,  pp.  133-134)  of  a  live  specimen  that 
"came  from  the  higher-level  forests  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Betsileo,  among  the  bamboos,  on  which  it  appears  in  a  great  mea- 
sure to  subsist.  ...  I  have  tempted  it  with  very  many  different 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  131 

kinds  of  berries  and  fruits  growing  in  the  forest;  but  it  would  not 
touch  any  of  them."  It  fed  steadily  and  regularly  upon  grass. 

G.  M.  Allen  (1918,  p.  516)  records  two  specimens  from  near  Am- 
batondrazaka. 

An  indication  of  the  rarity  of  this  species  is  the  fact  that  no  speci- 
mens were  reported  by  the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Ameri- 
caine  of  1929-31. 

Gray  Lemur 

HAPALEMUR  GRISEUS  GRISEUS  (Link) 

L[emur]  griseus  Link,  Beytr.  Naturg.,  vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  65,  1795.    (Based  upon 

"Le  petit  Maki  gris"  of  Buffon  (Hist.  Nat.,  suppl.,  vol.  7,  p.  121,  1789); 

type  locality,  Madagascar. ) 
SYNONYMS:    Lemur  griseus  E.  Geoffroy   (1796);   Lemur  cinereus  Desmarest 

(1820);  Hapalemur  schlegeli  Pocock   (1917). 
FIGS.:    Buffon,  Hist.  Nat.,  suppl.,  vol.  7,  pi.  34,  1789;  Audebert,  1800,  pi.  7; 

Schlegel  and  Pollen,  1868,  pi.  3;  Milne  Edwards,  Grandidier  and  Filhol, 

1896,  pis.  122  B,  122  D  (fig.  2),  122  F. 

Extremely  little  new  information  concerning  this  subspecies  has 
come  to  light  during  the  past  70  years.  It  must  have  become 
quite  rare. 

Upper  parts  light  olive-brown,  brighter  on  top  of  the  head;  rest 
of  head  gray;  cheeks,  throat,  breast,  and  inner  side  of  limbs  ochra- 
ceous-white;  tail  a  little  darker  than  the  back.  Total  length,  24 
inches;  tail,  13^  inches.  (Schlegel  and  Pollen,  1868,  p.  7;  Forbes, 
1894,  vol.  1,  p.  81.)  The  general  grayish  green  of  this  subspecies 
is  contrasted  with  the  reddish  green  of  H .  g.  olivaceus.  The  presence 
of  a  wrist  gland  distinguishes  both  of  these  forms  from  H.  simus. 
(Schwarz,  1931,  p.  408.) 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  408)  gives  the  range  of  the  present  form  as 
follows:  "The  whole  south  and  west,  and  the  dry  central  plateau 
as  far  east  as  Lake  Alaotra ;  it  also  goes  north  beyond  the  Betsiboka 
River  in  the  north-west."  He  records  specimens  from  the  following 
localities:  Lake  Alaotra  and  Ambatondrazaka,  central  northeastern 
Madagascar;  District  Ambalavo,  in  the  southeast;  and  Tany  Ma- 
landi,  in  the  northwest. 

According  to  Schlegel  and  Pollen  (1868,  pp.  7-8),  this  lemur  in 
northwestern  Madagascar  inhabits  by  preference  the  forests  of 
bamboo.  It  was  found  at  a  few  days'  journey  from  the  coast,  along 
the  Ambassuana  River  in  the  Tanimalandy  district.  It  is  entirely 
nocturnal,  and  sleeps  during  the  day  on  the  highest  stems  of  the 
bamboos.  The  stomachs  of  all  specimens  were  found  filled  with 
bamboo  leaves. 

Delacour  (1932,  p.  219)  records  25  specimens  of  "Hapalemur 
griseus"  as  collected  by  the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Ameri- 


132  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

caine  of  1929-31.    However,  the  further  account  given  by  Rand 
(1935,  p.  95)  indicates  that  these  represent  the  subspecies  olivaceus. 

Olivaceous  Lemur 

HAPALEMUR  GRISEUS  OLIVACEUS  I.  Geoffrey 

Hapalemur  olivaceus  I.  Geoffroy,  Cat.  Method.  Mamm.  [Mus.  Paris],  pt.  1, 
Primates,  p.  75,  1851.  ("Madagascar."  Type  locality  restricted  by  Elliot 
(1913,  vol.  1,  p.  127)  to  "Ampazenambe,  Madagascar.") 

FIGS.:  Forbes,  1894,  vol.  1,  pi.  8  (ssp.?) ;  Milne  Edwards,  Grandidier  and 
Filhol,  1896,  pis.  122  C,  122  D  (fig.  3). 

This  subspecies  appears  to  be  considerably  commoner  than  E.g. 
griseus. 

It  is  similar  to  the  latter  but  has  a  longer  and  denser  pelage; 
color  olive,  with  a  rufous  tint;  throat  gray  rather  than  white; 
cheeks  speckled  gray  (I.  Geoffroy,  1851,  p.  75). 

According  to  Schwarz  (1931,  pp.  408-409) ,  this  lemur  "is  found  in 
the  moist  and  wooded  north-east  and  east  [of  Madagascar],  prob- 
ably as  far  south  as  Fort  Dauphin."  He  records  specimens  from 
the  following  localities:  Mananare,  Bay  of  Antongil;  Vohemar, 
NE.  coast;  Tamatave,  E.  coast;  Analamazaotra,  east  of  Tananarive; 
Ambohimitombo,  Tanala  country,  E.  Madagascar;  Vinanitelo,  S. 
Betsileo ;  and  several  localities  on  the  east  coast  north  of  Tamatave. 

Kaudern  (1915,  pp.  70-71)  reports  the  animal  as  apparently  not 
rare  in  the  forests  west  of  Fenerive  on  the  east  coast,  where  he 
obtained  three  specimens  from  the  natives. 

Rand  writes  (1935,  p.  95)  that  it  is  diurnal.  He  found  it  in 
the  tops  of  the  lower  trees  in  the  rain  forest,  and  occasionally  in 
dense  thickets  of  bamboo  on  the  edge  of  the  forest.  "Occasionally 
found  singly,  it  was  more  often  seen  in  groups  of  two  or  three.  At 
Manombe  in  the  southeast  I  saw  two  running  about  through  the 
forest  tree  tops  ....  Hapalemur  was  fairly  common  about  camp 
two  days  northeast  of  Maroantsetra." 

Ring-tailed  Lemur 

LEMUR  CATTA  Linnaeus 

[Lemur]  Catta  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  30,  1758.  (Based  upon 
the  "Maucauco"  of  Edwards  (Nat.  Hist.  Birds,  pt.  4,  p.  197,  1751); 
type  locality,  "Madagascar.") 

FIGS.:  Edwards,  1751,  pi.  197;  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  vol.  1,  pi.  41,  1774;  Aude- 
bert,  Hist.  Nat.  Makis,  pi.  4, 1800;  Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm., 
livr.  5,  pi.  27,  1819;  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1890,  pis.  171,  172; 
Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  211,  fig.,  1893-94;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London 
1906,  p.  124,  fig.  48;  Elliot,  1907,  p.  545,  fig.  76;  Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  pi.  5, 
upper  fig. 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  133 

This  is  perhaps  the  best  known  of  all  the  Madagascar  lemurs, 
and  it  still  appears  to  be  moderately  common. 

The  fur  is  soft  and  delicate;  face  and  ears  white;  nose  and  area 
about  each  eye  black;  top  and  back  of  head  dark  ashy;  back  and 
sides  of  a  redder  ash  color ;  outer  side  of  limbs  light  ashy ;  upper  sides 
of  paws  whitish ;  under  parts  and  inner  sides  of  limbs  white ;  tail  with 
broad  alternate  rings  of  black  and  white  (Edwards,  1751,  p.  197). 
"Length  of  body  and  tail  together,  40  inches"  (Forbes,  1894,  vol.  1, 
p.  76). 

"This  species,  which  inhabits  rocky  open  country,  is  found  in 
south-western,  southern,  arid  south-eastern  Madagascar"  (Schwarz, 
1931,  p.  410). 

"As  far  as  my  experience  of  seven  years  goes,  these  Lemurs  are 
found  only  in  the  south  and  south-western  borders  of  the  Betsileo 
province  of  Madagascar."  They  are  not  found  in  the  forests,  but 
among  the  rocks.  "The  prickly  pear  .  .  .  constitutes  their  chief 
article  of  winter  food  ....  Their  summer  food  consists  of  different 
kinds  of  wild  figs  and  bananas."  (G.  A.  Shaw,  1879,  pp.  132-133.) 

This  species  bears  captivity  well,  and  is  everywhere  offered  for 
sale  by  the  natives  (Kaudern,  1915,  p.  50). 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  410)  records  specimens  from  Tulear  in  the 
southwest,  and  adds:  "It  has  been  found  by  van  Dam  at  Moron- 
dava,  Matseroka,  and  the  Bay  of  St.  Augustin  in  the  south-west, 
and  is  recorded  by  him  as  far  north-east  as  the  region  of  Ft. 
Dauphin." 

This  species  ranges  over  a  vast  area,  from  Mangoky  on  the 
north  to  beyond  Menarandra  on  the  south.  Decary  records  it  in 
Androy  along  all  the  rivers  and  as  far  as  the  region  of  Beloha. 
Perrier  de  la  Bathie  has  observed  bands  on  the  western  parts  of  tho 
massif  of  Andringitra.  (Petit,  1931,  p.  560.) 

Thirty  specimens  were  collected  by  the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco- 
Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  219) . 

Rand  (1935,  p.  96)  mentions  observations  on  this  lemur  at 
Ampotaka  and  Lake  Tsimanampetsotsa  and  near  Tulear.  He  also 
writes  (pp.  95-97) :  "The  ring-tailed  lemur  was  found  in  and  about 
most  of  the  more  densely -wooded  areas  and  the  gallery  forest  in  the 
arid  parts  of  southwestern  Madagascar. 

"It  is  a  diurnal  and  crepuscular  creature  .... 

"This  animal,  like  most  of  the  lemurs,  is  gregarious.  It  was  usually 
seen  in  parties  of  from  four  or  five  up  to  ten  or  fifteen  and  more.  .  .  . 

"Wild  specimens  were  seen  to  eat  leaves  of  certain  trees  .... 

"They  are  often  kept  as  pets  by  Europeans  and  are  carried  to 
various  parts  of  the  island." 

At  the  Manampetsa  Reserve  in  the  southwest  numerous  bands 
were  seen  in  1926,  but  the  species  was  rare  in  1933  (Petit,  1935, 
p.  474). 


134  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Black  Lemur 

LEMUR  MACACO  MACACO  Linnaeus 

[Lemur]  Macaco  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  12,  vol.  1,  p.  44,  1766.  ("Mada- 
gascar.") 

SYNONYM:   Lemur  leucomystax  Bartlett  (1863). 

FIGS.:  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  vol.  1,  pi.  40  A,  1774;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London 
1862,  pi.  41;  Schlegel  and  Pollen,  1868,  pi.  1;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1880, 
p.  451,  fig.  1;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1885,  p.  672,  fig.;  Milne  Edwards  and 
Grandidier,  1890,  pis.  130-132. 

The  Black  Lemur  still  occurs  in  fairly  large  bands  in  the  north- 
west of  Madagascar. 

It  has  the  ears  tufted,  with  long  hairs  continuing  down  the  side 
of  the  neck  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  The  male  is  entirely  black. 
Female:  snout  and  back  of  head  black;  forehead  blackish  gray; 
whiskers  and  ear-tufts  white;  general  body  color  rich  ferruginous 
brown;  limbs  and  neck  reddish  yellow;  tail  whiter;  under  parts 
and  inner  side  of  limbs  creamy  white.  There  is  a  considerable  degree 
of  variation  in  the  color  of  this  species.  (Forbes,  1894,  vol.  1,  p.  70.) 
Total  length,  41  inches;  tail,  22  inches  (Schlegel,  1876,  p.  303). 

"The  range  ...  is  limited  to  the  forests  of  the  N.W.  coast,  north 
of  the  Bay  of  Bombetoka  and  the  coast  islands.  It  has  been  recorded 
by  Pollen  and  van  Dam  from  the  following  places: — Anorontsanga ; 
Syrangene;  Kongony  and  Jangoa  Rivers;  Andoany,  Narendry  Bay 
("Maroandiana")."  (Schwarz,  1931,  p.  417.) 

These  animals  inhabit  the  forests  extending  between  the  Bay  of 
Diego-Juarez  and  the  Bay  of  Bombetoka,  as  well  as  the  forest  of 
Loucoube  in  the  isle  of  Nossi-Be.  They  live  in  bands  in  the  highest 
trees  of  the  impenetrable  forests.  Bananas  are  their  ordinary  food 
in  the  wild  state.  They  are  also  fond  of  the  brains  of  birds.  (Schlegel 
and  Pollen,  1868,  p.  2.) 

The  range  includes  the  upper  Sambirano   (Petit,  1931,  p.  562). 

Eight  specimens  were  collected  by  the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco- 
Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220) . 

"The  parties  observed  were  much  larger  than  those  of  that  species 
[L.  julvus],  containing  sometimes  as  many  as  18  individuals — 
males,  females,  old,  and  young.  They  were  always  very  tame." 
(Rand,  1935,  p.  99.) 

Sanford's  Lemur 

LEMUR  MACACO  SANFORDI  Archbold 

Lemur  julvus  sanjordi  Archbold,  Am.  Mus.  Novit.,  no.  518,  p.  1,  1932.  ("Mt. 
D'Ambre,  Madagascar.") 

This  lemur  is  known  only  from  18  specimens  collected  in  the 
type  locality  by  the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine 
of  1929-31. 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  135 

It  differs  from  all  the  black-nosed  lemurs,  except  Lemur  macaco 
rujus,  in  its  lighter  color,  and  from  the  latter  in  its  cheek  and  ear 
tufts,  in  which  it  resembles  Lemur  macaco.  Nose  black;  top  of  head 
dark  olive-buff;  general  color  of  upper  parts  snuff-brown  to  drab; 
hands  russet ;  spot  at  root  of  tail  and  basal  half  of  tail  bay-colored ; 
distal  half  of  tail  bushy,  the  hairs  with  blackish  brown  tips  and  with 
a  subterminal  clay-colored  band;  a  ruff  of  long  hairs  around  the 
ears  and  down  the  cheeks,  varying  from  white  to  light  ochraceous- 
buff;  under  parts  gull-gray,  washed  with  buffy.  Female  without 
cheek-tufts.  Total  length  of  male,  895  mm.;  tail,  495  mm. 

This  form  is  restricted  to  the  rain  forest  of  Mount  D'Ambre, 
northern  Madagascar.  (Archbold,  1932,  p.  1.) 

White-fronted  Lemur;  White-faced  Lemur.    Maki  a  front 

blanc  (Fr.) 

LEMUR  MACACO  ALBIFRONS  E.  Geoffrey 

L[emur]  Albifrons  [E.]  Geoffroy,  Mag.  Encycl.  [2d  yr.],  vol.  1,  p.  48,  1796. 
(Type  locality  not  stated  in  original  description,  but  later  given  as  "Mada- 
gascar" (E.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  1812,  p.  160).) 

SYNONYM:   Prosimia  frederici  Lesson  (1840). 

FIGS.:  Audebert,  Hist.  Nat.  Makis,  pi.  3  (facing  p.  13),  1800;  Geoffroy  and 
Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,  livr.  3,  pis.  17,  18,  1819;  Milne  Edwards  and 
Grandidier,  1890,  pis.  136,  144,  154,  155. 

To  judge  by  the  36  specimens  collected  by  the  Mission  Zoologique 
Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220) ,  this 
must  be  one  of  the  commonest  of  Madagascar  lemurs. 

Pelage  brown;  top  of  head,  cheeks,  and  jaws  white  (£.  Geoffroy, 
1796,  p.  48).  "Of  this  race  there  are  two  mutations  which  occur 
together,  viz.,  (1)  a  normally  black-headed,  whitish-cheeked  type, 
with  dark  ground-colour,  in  which  the  female  is  only  slightly  paler 
than  the  male,  and  (2)  the  'albifrons'  type,  which  shows  a  reduction 
of  black  pigment,  the  ground-colour  being  more  reddish,  especially 
so  in  the  female;  the  male  has  the  whole  crown,  cheeks,  and  beard 
white  or  whitish,  but  there  are  females  which  show  a  whitening  on 
the  head,  although  the  normal  phase  of  the  'albifrons'  female  has  a 
lead-grey  head  and  a  grey  muzzle"  (Schwarz,  1931,  p.  410). 

"The  range  of  this  local  race  apparently  includes  the  north- 
eastern coast  of  Madagascar  as  far  as,  and  slightly  beyond,  the 
Bay  of  Antongil.  The  northern  and  western  limit  is  uncertain; 
only  the  dark  phase  apparently  occurs  on  the  north-west  coast." 
Specimens  are  recorded  from:  Vohemar  and  Sahambavany,  N.E. 
coast;  Mananare,  Maroansetra,  Androutse,  and  Ampazenardo,  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Bay  of  Antongil.  (Schwarz,  1931,  pp.  410-411.) 

"The  effects  of  hunting  by  natives  on  the  animal  life  of  Mada- 
gascar are  negligible.  The  main  destruction  of  the  fauna  is  caused 


136  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

by  the  cutting  of  the  forests.  But  near  Maroantsetra  we  saw  what 
might  happen.  Near  the  town  itself  these  lemurs  were  scarce  and 
very  wary,  apparently  having  been  hunted  with  guns,  but  once 
away  from  large  settlements  they  were  very  common  and  tame.  On 
July  22,  1930,  two  days  northwest  of  Maroantsetra,  I  surprised  a 
party  of  eight  in  the  low  bushes  of  the  ground  cover  in  the  forest. 
They  fled  but  a  little  way  and  I  sat  down  to  watch  them.  Very  soon 
the  whole  party  came  back  and  resumed  feeding  on  the  fruit  of  a 
low  bush  near  me. 

"Parties  of  these  lemurs  were  often  heard  grunting  and  growling 
in  the  forest  as  though  fighting."  (Rand,  1935,  p.  98.) 

Brown  Lemur;  Fulvous  Lemur.    Maki  brun  (Fr.) 

LEMUR  MACACO  FULVUS  E.  Geoffrey 

L[emur]  Fulvus  [E.]   Geoffroy,  Mag.  Encycl.   [2d  yr.],  vol.  1,  p.  47,  1796. 

("Madagascar."   This  subspecies  is  considered  typified  by  specimens  from 

the  Tamatave  region  (Schwarz,  1931,  p.  411).) 
SYNONYMS:    Prosimia  macromongoz  Lesson  (1840);  Lemur  bruneus  van  der 

Hoeven  (1844). 
FIGS.:    Buffon,  Hist.  Nat.,  suppl.,  vol.  7,  pi.  33,  1789;  Lacepede  and  Cuvier, 

1801,  unnumbered  pi. 

Although  it  is  said  that  "this  race  is  about  the  most  common 
Lemur  in  captivity"  (Schwarz,  1931,  p.  412),  very  little  information 
can  be  offered  concerning  it,  owing  partly  to  the  confusion  that  has 
long  prevailed  in  the  taxonomy  and  nomenclature  of  this  specific 
group. 

The  pelage  is  brown  above,  gray  below;  head  black;  hands  fulvous 
or  brown  (]5.  Geoffroy,  1796,  p.  47).  The  animal  is  a  third  larger 
than  Lemur  mongoz;  its  tail,  less  bushy  and  more  woolly,  tapers 
toward  the  tip;  rump  and  legs  washed  with  olive  (fi.  Geoffroy,  in 
Lacepede  and  Cuvier,  1801,  p.  3  of  "Le  Maki  Mococo  et  le  Maki 
brun").  Ground  color  olive-brown;  cheeks  yellowish  white  (Schwarz, 
1931,  p.  410). 

"The  range  of  this  race  is  not  completely  known.  It  obviously 
inhabits  the  coast  between  the  Bay  of  Antongil  and  Andovoranto, 
but  may  go  farther  south,  as  far  as  Mahanoro.  In  the  interior  it 
appears  to  go  into  the  forest-belt  east  of  Tananarive."  Specimens 
are  recorded  from:  Andragoloaka,  S.E.  of  Tananarive,  Prov.  Ime- 
rina;  Lakato  Forest,  Ankay,  N.E.  of  Tananarive,  Imerina;  Sakana 
and  Ambotorao,  opposite  the  He  Ste.  Marie;  and  Tamatave. 
(Schwarz,  1931,  p.  411.) 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  137 

Collared  Lemur.   Maki  a  f raise  (Fr.) 

LEMUR  MACACO  OOLLARIS  E.  Geoffrey-Sain t-Hilaire 

Lemur   collaris    [E.]    Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,   Ann.   Mus.  Hist.   Nat.    [Paris], 

vol.  19,  p.  161,  1812.    ("Madagascar.") 
SYNONYMS:    Prosimia  melanocephala  J.  E.  Gray    (1863);  P.  xanthomystax 

J.  E.  Gray  (1863);   ?F.  flavifrons  J.  E.  Gray  (1867);  Lemur  nigerrimus 

P.  L.  Sclater  (1880);  Lemur  mongoz  var.  cinereiceps  Milne  Edwards  and 

Grandidier  (1890). 
FIGS.:    Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,  livr.  2,  pi.  11,  1819;  Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.  London  1863,  pi.  17  (as  Prosimia  xanthomystax),  pi.  18  (as  P. 

melanocephala) ;  ?Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1867,  pi.  31  (as  P.  flavifrons) ; 

?Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1880,  p.  451,  fig.  2   (as  Lemur  nigerrimus) ; 

Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1890,  pis.  140,  147  (as  L.  mongoz  var. 

cinereiceps);  Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  pi.  6  (as  L.  julvus). 

This  lemur  appears  to  be  common  in  southeastern  Madagascar. 

Pelage  rufous-brown  above,  fulvous  below;  a  ruff  of  rufous 
hairs;  face  lead-colored  (E.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  1812,  p.  161). 
Cheeks  orange-yellow;  ground  color  light  brown;  a  faint  spinal 
line  generally  present;  female  generally  with  head  gray.  "This 
race  .  .  .  may  be  slightly  smaller  than  the  other  races  ....  There 
is  considerable  individual  variation,  especially  as  regards  the  amount 
of  black,  grey,  or  reddish  brown  on  the  crown  and  forehead.  There 
are  female  specimens  which  have  a  lot  of  black  on  the  head  like  the 
males,  but  specimens  occur  too  without  any  black  markings,  or  even 
with  a  reddish  crown,  which  resembles  the  colour  of  the  back." 
(Schwarz,  1931,  pp.  410,  412-413.) 

"The  range  of  this  form  is  only  imperfectly  known.  It  clearly 
inhabits  the  south-eastern  coast  from  Ft.  Dauphin  in  the  south  to 
at  least  Masindrano  in  the  north.  How  far  it  goes  into  the  interior 
is  not  known,  but  it  would  appear  that  it  is  restricted  to  the  coastal 
forests,  as  L.  /.  rufus  is  already  found  in  eastern  Betsileo.  It  also 
remains  to  be  ascertained  where  the  ranges  of  collaris  and  julvus 
meet."  Specimens  are  recorded  from:  Farafangana,  about  23°  S. ; 
Loholoka,  about  21°  60'  S.;  and  Fort  Dauphin.  (Schwarz,  1931, 
p.  412.) 

Ten  specimens  of  "Lemur  nigerrimus"  were  collected  by  the 
Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  (Delacour, 
1932,  p.  220). 

"At  Vondrozo,  in  June  and  July,  this  lemur  was  common  in  the 
rain  forest,  usually  traveling  in  the  trees  in  parties  of  from  four 
to  six.  .  .  . 

"The  animals  were  not  shy  and  could  be  closely  approached  .... 

"Several  stomachs  examined  contained  woody  fruits  of  forest 
trees  and  one,  green  vegetable  matter  that  was  possibly  leaves. 

"At  Manomba  in  October  many  females  were  carrying  young." 
(Rand.  1935,  p.  97.) 


138  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  same  author  describes  the  native  method  of  capturing  these 
lemurs  by  means  of  snares  arranged  on  "a  line  of  poles  set  up  on 
forked  sticks  across  a  long,  narrow  clearing,  forming  a  bridge  from 
the  trees  on  one  side  of  the  clearing  to  those  on  the  other." 

[In  view  of  the  still  existing  uncertainty  concerning  the  taxonomic 
status  of  Prosimia  flavijrons  J.  E.  Gray,  the  exact  type  locality  of 
which  is  unknown,  it  seems  hardly  worth  while  to  give  a  separate 
account  of  it  here.  Schwarz  (1931,  p.  412) ,  after  provisionally  con- 
sidering it  a  synonym  of  L.  m.  collaris,  proposes  later  (1936,  p.  24) 
to  recognize  it  as  a  distinct  subspecies  of  L.  macaco  and  assigns 
to  it  a  range  at  Maromandia,  northwestern  Madagascar.  On  the 
other  hand,  G.  M.  Allen  (1939,  p.  127)  regards  it  as  "probably  a 
synonym  of  Lemur  macaco  collaris"  whose  range  lies  at  approxi- 
mately the  opposite  end  of  Madagascar  from  Maromandia.] 

Red-fronted  Lemur 

LEMUR  MACACO  RUFUS  Audebert 

Lemur  Rujus  Audebert,  Hist.  Nat.  Singes  et  Makis;  Makis,  p.  12,  1800.   (Type 

locality  not  stated  =  Madagascar.) 
SYNONYM:   Lemur  rufifrons  Bennett  (1833). 
FIGS.:    Audebert,  1800,  Makis,  pi.  2;   Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1890, 

pis.  138,  139,  145. 

This  is  apparently  one  of  the  more  common  of  the  Madagascar 
lemurs. 

Female  (type  of  rujus) :  similar  in  size  to  L.  mongoz,  but  differs 
in  shorter  ears,  shorter  hairs  on  tail,  and  rufous  pelage;  snout,  and  a 
line  from  forehead  to  crown,  black;  crown,  temples,  cheeks,  and 
throat  dirty  white;  body  yellowish  rufous;  tail  brown  at  the  tip 
(Audebert,  1800,  Makis,  p.  12) .  Male  (type  of  "rufifrons") :  back 
grizzly;  tail  darker;  under  parts,  haunches,  and  limbs  mixed  with 
rufous;  forehead  and  cheek-tufts  rufous;  a  nearly  complete  circle 
of  white  about  the  eye;  nose,  and  line  through  middle  of  forehead, 
black  (Bennett,  1833,  p.  106) .  The  male  differs  from  males  of  other 
subspecies  of  L.  julvus  in  having  a  rusty-red  forehead  (Schwarz, 
1931,  p.  410).  This  form  is  very  variable  in  coloration. 

Schwarz  (1931,  pp.  413-414)  describes  its  occurrence  as  follows: 

The  range  of  L.  f.  rujus  includes  the  greater  part  of  Madagascar,  all  the 
central  plateau,  and  the  west  coast.  ...  It  would  appear  that,  except  the 
north  and  a  fairly  narrow  strip  on  the  east  coast,  the  whole  mainland  of 
Madagascar  is  inhabited  by  this  race. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  majority  of  the  individuals  found  north  of  the 
Betsiboka  River  are  black-headed  and  much  like  the  black-headed  phase  of 
L.  /.  albijrons;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  mixed  population  is  found 
in  a  considerable  part  of  the  north.  At  present  I  am  not  prepared  to  say 


ORDER  PRIMATES:  PRIMATES  139 

definitely  whether  this  is  due  to  mutation  or,  what  is  more  probable,  to 
secondary  invasion  of  the  northern  area  by  L.  /.  rujus  down  the  right  bank 
of  the  Betsiboka  River.  Red-fronted  skins  have  been  recorded  from  north 
of  the  River  Betsiboka  from  Betsako  .  .  .  ,  Narendry  Bay  .  .  .  ,  Anoront- 
sanga  .  .  .  ;  also  .  .  .  from  Ambatondrazaka,  south  of  Lake  Alaotra.  Black- 
headed  skins  have  been  recorded  from  the  same  general  region,  but  not  south 
of  the  River  Betsiboka.  In  various  cases  black-  and  red-fronted  skins  are 
known  from  the  same  localities. 

Additional  localities  from  which  Schwarz  records  specimens  are: 
Ankona  Forest,  E.  Betsileo;  Fianarantsoa ;  Tulear,  SW.  coast;  and 
Morondava,  W.  coast. 

Lorenz-Liburnau  (1898,  p.  448)  records  16  specimens  from  Kan- 
dam  and  3  from  nearby  Antema  in  the  Bay  of  Bombetoka  region. 

In  the  forests  in  the  vicinity  of  Betsina,  west  of  the  Mahavavy 
River,  northwestern  Madagascar,  this  lemur  is  not  rare,  and  four 
specimens  were  secured  (Kaudern,  1915,  p.  45) . 

G.  M.  Allen  (1918,  p.  515)  records  "a  fine  series  of  six  males  and 
ten  females,  all  from  localities  on  the  upper  Siribihina  River  [inland 
from  Morondava]  and  some  thirty  miles  south  of  Berevo." 

"This  lemur  was  common  about  Tabiky  [inland  from  Cape  St. 
Vincent]  in  the  low  dense  brush,  the  wooded  plains,  and  the  gallery 
forest."  On  one  occasion  a  party  of  six  was  seen.  (Rand,  1935, 
p.  98.) 

Mayotte  Lemur 

LEMUR  MACACO  MAYOTTENSIS  Schlegel 

Lemur  mayottensis   Schlegel,   Nederl.  Tijdschr.   Dierk.,  vol.  3,  p.   76,    1866. 

("L'ile  de  Mayotte,"  Comoro  Isles.) 
FIG.:   Schlegel  and  Pollen,  1868,  pi.  2. 

In  former  years  the  Mayotte  Lemur  was  apparently  common,  but 
with  the  increase  of  population  and  cultivation  on  the  island  its 
numbers  have  probably  declined. 

Coloration  of  the  head  similar  to  that  of  L.  /.  collaris  but  much 
more  pronounced;  in  old  males  the  snout  is  deep  black,  this  colora- 
tion extending  between  the  eyes  to  the  forehead  and  continuing  as 
a  median  stripe  to  the  crown;  this  color  pattern  of  the  head  less 
pronounced  in  younger  males  and  in  females;  upper  parts  grayish 
brown,  speckled  with  rufous  and  yellowish  gray;  rump  with  a 
blackish  spot;  lower  parts  pale  rufous  (Schlegel,  1866,  pp.  76-77). 
Total  length,  39  inches;  tail,  21  inches  (Schlegel,  1876,  p.  308). 

These  animals  live  in  bands  of  6  to  20  individuals  in  the  virgin 
forests  of  Mayotte,  where  they  are  hunted  with  dogs.  The  flesh  is 
excellent  and  tastes  like  that  of  young  rabbits.  A  favored  food  of 
the  lemurs  is  wild  dates.  A  series  of  10  specimens  is  recorded. 
(Schlegel  and  Pollen,  1868,  pp.  5-6.) 


140  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Mongoose  Lemur 

LEMUR  MONGOZ  MONGOZ  Linnaeus 

[Lemur]  Mongoz  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  12,  vol.  1,  p.  44,  1766.  (Based  upon 
the  "Mongooz"  of  Edwards  (1758,  p.  12);  type  locality,  "Madagascar.") 

SYNONYMS  :  Lemur  nigrijrons,  L.  albimanus,  and  L.  anjuanensis  of  fi.  Geoffroy- 
Saint-Hilaire  (1812) ;  Prosimia  micromongoz,  P.  bugi,  P.  brissonii,  and 
P.  ocularis  of  Lesson  (1840) ;  Lemur  cuvieri  Fitzinger  (1870) ;  Propithecus 
brissonianus  J.  E.  Gray  (1870). 

FIGS.:  Edwards,  1758,  pt.  1,  pi.  216;  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  vol.  1,  pis.  39  B,  42 
("Lemur  Simia-Sciurus") ,  1774;  Audebert,  1800,  Makis,  pi.  lre;  Geoffrey 
and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,  livr.  2,  pi.  11,  1819,  livr.  30,  pi.  176,  1821; 
Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1871,  pi.  16;  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier, 
1890,  pis.  156,  157,  162,  163,  164,  165  (figs.  1,  2);  Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  pi.  4, 
lower  fig.  ("Lemur  nigrijrons"). 

In  1915  this  lemur  was  reported  as  found  now  and  then  in  the 
forests  of  northwestern  Madagascar,  but  as  apparently  nowhere 
common  (Kaudern,  1915,  p.  43).  Concerning  its  present  numerical 
status  on  certain  islands  of  the  Comoro  group  we  have  no  in- 
formation. 

Size  less  than  that  of  a  small  cat;  area  about  eyes  and  tip  of 
nose  black ;  area  beneath  eyes  white ;  upper  parts  dark  brownish  ash 
color;  under  parts  white;  tail  long  (Edwards,  1758,  pt.  1,  p.  12). 
A  white-  and  a  red-cheeked  phase,  generally  sex-linked ;  anal  region 
almost  naked.  "In  the  red-cheeked  phase  there  is  not  the  black 
crown-patch  found  in  the  male  of  L.  m.  coronatus,  whereas  in  the 
white-cheeked  phase  the  colour  of  the  cheeks  is  brighter  than  in  the 
female  of  L.  m.  coronatus,  and  a  large  black  or  blackish  crown- 
patch  developed  which  is  absent  in  that  race.  The  tail  is  grey  or 
blackish  in  both  sexes  in  mongoz;  in  coronatus  it  is  reddish  in  the 
female.  As  far  as  my  experience  goes  the  males  invariably  have 
red  and  the  females  white  cheeks  in  all  specimens  from  Anjouan 
and  Moheli,  Comoro  Island [s]."  (Schwarz,  1931,  pp.  414-415.) 

"This  race  is  found  on  the  Comoro  Islands,  Anjouan  and  Moheli, 
but  not  on  Mayotte  ....  On  the  mainland  of  Madagascar  this 
form  is  found  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Betsiboka  River,  which  it 
ascends  up  to  its  head-waters."  Specimens  are  recorded  from: 
Anjouan  and  Moheli  Islands;  Antema,  Bay  of  Bombetoka,  S.  bank; 
and  Ambatondrazaka,  south  of  Lake  Alaotra.  (Schwarz,  1931, 
p.  416.) 

Lorenz-Liburnau  (1898,  pp.  450-451)  records  14  specimens  (as 
L.  albimanus}  from  Kandani,  and  5  from  Antema,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Bay  of  Bombetoka. 

G.  M.  Allen  (1918,  p.  515)  records  a  specimen  from  Didy,  soufh 
of  Lake  Alaotra. 

Petit  (1931,  p.  560)  records  a  specimen  from  Ambongo,  north- 
western Madagascar. 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  141 

Delacour  (1932,  p.  219)  records  18  specimens  of  "Lemur  nigri- 
frons"  collected  by  the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Ameri- 
caine  of  1929-31. 

Crowned  Lemur 

LEMUR  MONGOZ  COBONATUS  J.  E.  Gray 

Lemur  coronatus  J.  E.  Gray,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  1,  vol.  10,  no.  65, 
p.  257,  1842.  ("Madagascar";  type  locality  restricted  by  Schwarz  (1931, 
p.  416)  to  "Bay  of  Mahajamba,  N.W.  coast  (15°  14'  S.).") 

SYNONYM:    Lemur  chrysampyx  Schuermans  (1848). 

FIGS.:  J.  E.  Gray,  Zool.  Voy.  Sulphur,  Mammalia,  pi.  4,  1844;  Schuermans, 
Mem.  Couronnes  et  Mem,  Savants  Strangers,  Acad.  Roy.  Belgique,  vol.  2, 
pi.  facing  p.  6,  1848;  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1890,  pis.  158-161, 
165  (figs.  3,  4),  166. 

This  subspecies  of  northern  Madagascar  apparently  still  remains 
very  common. 

"Ashy  above,  limbs  and  beneath  pale  yellowish;  face  white; 
orbits  gray;  cheeks  and  forehead  bright  rufous,  with  a  large  black 
spot  on  the  crown;  tail  thick,  end  blackish"  (J.  E.  Gray,  1842, 
p.  257).  Males  with  red,  females  with  whitish  cheeks;  anal  region 
thickly  haired;  tail  reddish  in  the  female  (Schwarz,  1931,  pp.  414- 
415). 

"This  race  of  L.  mongoz  is  found  in  northern  Madagascar,  both 
in  the  east  and  west,  north  of  the  bays  of  Bombetoka  and  Antongil 
respectively."  Specimens  are  recorded  from:  Vohemar,  NE.  coast; 
Ampasimbato,  Central  N.  Madagascar;  Amber  Mountains;  and  Bay 
of  Mahajamba.  (Schwarz,  1931,  p.  416.) 

Lorenz-Liburnau  (1898,  p.  449)  records  one  specimen  from  Betsako 
and  four  from  near-by  Ambundube,  north  of  the  Bay  of  Bombetoka, 
under  the  name  of  L.  mongoz  nigrijrons.  According,  however,  to 
Schwarz  (1931,  p.  416),  the  animals  of  this  area  are  coronatus. 

Delacour  (1932,  p.  219)  reports  39  specimens  collected  by  the 
Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31.  Judged  on 
this  basis,  it  is  one  of  the  commonest  lemurs  of  Madagascar. 

"Very  common  in  the  dry  wooded  areas  of  the  northern  savanna, 
sometimes  in  rather  low  dense  brush ;  found  also  in  dry  forest  on  the 
slopes  of  Mt.  d'Ambre,  up  to  about  800  meters.  It  was  absent, 
however,  from  the  humid  forest  on  the  summit.  .  .  . 

"The  animals  were  very  tame  and  the  natives  sometimes  killed 
them  with  sticks.  .  .  . 

"Near  Vohemar,  DuMont  and  I  saw  a  party  of  seven  .... 

"At  Tarakibany  ...  I  saw  a  party  of  five."   (Rand,  1935,  p.  98.) 


142  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Red-bellied  Lemur 

LEMUR  RUBRIVENTER  I.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire 

Lemur  rubriventer  I.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  Compt.  Rend.  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris], 

vol.  31,  p.  876  (1850),  1851.    ("Madagascar.") 
SYNONYMS:    Lemur  flaviventer  I.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire  (1851);  L.  rujiventer 

J.  E.  Gray  (1870);  Prosimia  rufipes  J.  E.  Gray  (1871). 
FIGS.:    Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1890,  pis.  167-170;  J.  E.  Gray,  Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.  London  1872,  pi.  69. 

Even  30  years  ago  this  species  was  considered  rather  rare  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Madagascar  (Kaudern,  1915,  p.  47) . 

It  may  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  lemurs  by  the  rufous- 
chestnut  of  its  under  parts,  limbs,  and  ruff;  upper  parts  speckled 
rufous-brown;  tail  blackish  (I.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  1851,  p.  876). 
Elliot  (1913,  vol.  1,  p.  152)  adds  the  following  details  from  the  type 
(a  male)  in  Paris:  line  from  forehead,  top  of  nose,  and  lips  maroon; 
head  above  mixed  dark  brown  and  buff;  body  above  chocolate- 
brown;  base  of  tail  maroon,  rest  blackish;  total  length,  711  mm.; 
tail,  407  mm.  Schlegel's  measurements  (1876,  p.  311)  are  larger: 
total  length,  38  inches;  tail,  20  inches. 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  417)  records  specimens  from  the  following 
localities:  Vohemar,  NE.  coast;  Bay  of  Antongil;  Betsimisaraka 
country,  west  of  Tamatave;  Tamatave,  NE.  coast;  Forest  of  Ankay, 
NE.  of  Tananarive;  Ambohimitombo  and  Ivohimanitra,  N.  Tanala 
country;  Vinanitelo,  "SW."  [=SE.]  Betsileo;  Manakara  River,  SE. 
coast;  Mojanga,  Bay  of  Bombetoka;  and  Morondava,  W.  coast.  "If 
all  these  records  are  correct  the  range  of  L.  rubriventer  includes  the 
greater  part  of  Madagascar,  not  only  the  eastern  forest  region,  as 
has  hitherto  been  supposed." 

Delacour  (1932,  p.  219)  records  21  specimens  collected  by  the 
Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31. 

"This  diurnal  lemur  was  found  in  small  parties  similar  to  the 
groups  of  L.  julvus.  One  party  contained  at  least  four  adults  and 
five  young.  To  the  west  of  Andapa  [in  northeastern  Madagascar] 
.  .  .  eight  young  .  .  .  were  taken  with  the  adults."  (Rand,  1935, 
p.  98.) 

Ruffed  Lemur.    Vari  (Fr.) 

LEMUR  VARIEGATUS  Kerr 

L[emur]   Macaco  variegatus  Kerr,  Anim.  Kingdom  of  Linnaeus,  p.  86,  1792. 

(Based  upon  the  "Vari"  of  Smellie's  Buffon  (vol.  7,  pi.  229,  1791?);  type 

locality,  "the  islands  of  Madagascar  and  Johanna,  and  the  neighbouring 

countries  of  Africa"  =  Madagascar.) 
SYNONYMS:    Lemur  ruber  1C.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire  (1812);  Prosimia  erythro- 

mela  Lesson  (1840);  Lemur  varius  I.  Geoffroy  (1851). 


ORDER  PRIMATES:  PRIMATES  143 

FIGS.:  Buffon,  Hist.  Nat.,  vol.  13,  pi.  27,  1765;  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  vol.  1, 
pi.  40  B,  1774;  Audebert,  1800,  Makis,  pis.  5,  6;  Gervais,  Hist.  Nat.  Mam- 
mif.,  pt.  1,  pi.  10,  1854;  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1890,  pis.  123-129; 
Forbes,  1894,  vol.  1,  pi.  7;  Beddard,  1902,  p.  542,  fig.  259;  Elliot,  1913, 
vol.  1,  pi.  5,  lower  fig.  (facing  p.  158) ;  Kaudern,  1915,  pi.  3,  fig.  1. 

This  lemur  is  apparently  still  common  in  northeastern  Mada- 
gascar. 

"Mostly  white  in  the  body;  all  the  paws,  the  fore-head,  the 
tail,  the  insides  of  the  thighs,  a  large  blotch  on  each  shoulder,  and  a 
long  narrow  patch  on  the  loin  before  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh, 
are  black  ....  The  muzzle  is  long  and  thick,  the  ears  very  short, 
and  fringed  with  long  flowing  hairs,  which  join  the  collar,  or  hairy 
ruff,  on  the  neck,  cheeks,  and  throat."  (Kerr,  1792,  pp.  86-87.) 
A  color  phase,  described  as  "Lemur  ruber,"  has  a  general  rufous 
color;  head,  hands,  tail,  and  abdomen  black;  a  half-collar  of  white 
on  top  of  the  neck  (E.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  1812,  p.  159). 
Total  length  44  inches,  of  which  the  tail  makes  up  nearly  half 
(Schlegel,  1876,  p.  302). 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  418)  records  specimens  from:  Tombato  River; 
Sakana,  opposite  the  He  Ste.  Marie;  Alumanitra  Forest;  Bay  of 
Antongil;  and  Ambatondrazaka,  south  of  Lake  Alaotra.  He  adds: 

"Black  and  white  and  red  specimens  have  been  collected  in  the 
same  place  by  J.  Audebert  in  the  coast  region  north  of  the  Bay  of 
Antongil.  Red  specimens  are  recorded  from  Maroansetra,  Bay  of 
Antongil;  Malewo  and  Andranofotsy,  N.E.  coast,  north  of  the  Bay 
of  Antongil.  .  .  . 

"From  the  material  at  hand  it  would  thus  appear  that  Lemur 
variegatus  is  restricted  to  the  forests  of  N.E.  Madagascar.  Its 
northern  limit  may  be  about  13°  30'  S.,  its  southern  range  has  been 
ascertained  as  the  region  of  Tamatave  at  about  18°  S.  .  .  .  On  the 
plateau  Ambatondrazaka  remains  the  only  place  known." 

Coquerel  writes  (1859,  p.  462)  that  this  animal  is  sacred  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Tamatave;  they  say  that  it  worships  the  sun  and 
prays  to  it  every  morning. 

Pollen  stated  (1868,  p.  21)  that  up  to  that  time  it  had  been 
observed  only  in  the  forests  of  the  region  between  Tintingue,  Tama- 
tave, and  Antananarivo.  It  was  found  there  in  considerable  bands, 
living  on  fruits. 

Kaudern  (1915,  p.  43)  records  specimens  from  west  of  Fenerive 
and  south  of  Tamatave. 

G.  M.  Allen  (1918,  p.  516)  records  a  specimen  from  100  miles  west 
of  Tamatave. 

The  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  col- 
lected 8  specimens  of  variegatus  and  9  of  "ruber"  (Delacour,  1932, 
p.  219). 


144  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"Near  Maroantsetra  (two  days  northeast)  individuals  in  the  red 
phase,  the  only  phase  seen  there,  were  common.  The  variegated 
lemur  is  diurnal  and  arboreal,  usually  seen  in  pairs."  (Rand,  1935, 
p.  99.) 

Weasel  Lemur 

LEPILEMUR  MUSTELINUS  I.  Geoffrey 

L[epilemur]  mustelinus  I.  Geoffrey,  Cat.  Method.  Mamm.  [Mus.  Paris],  pt.  1, 

Primates,  p.  76,  1851.   ("Madagascar";  type  locality  restricted  by  Schwarz 

(1931,  p.  420)  to  "Tamatave.") 
SYNONYMS:    Mixocebus  caniceps  Peters  (1875);  Lepidolemur  microdon  Major 

(1894). 
Fios.:   Peters,  Monateb.  Preuss.  Akad.  Wiss.  Berlin  1874,  pi.  1  (facing  p.  694), 

1875   (as  Mixocebus  caniceps) ;   Milne  Edwards,  Grandidier  and  Filhol, 

1897,  pi.  255,  pi.  259,  fig.  1. 

Only  four  specimens  of  this  species  were  collected  by  the  Mission 
Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  (Delacour,  1932, 
p.  220) .  This  fact,  in  connection  with  the  meager  information  con- 
cerning the  animal,  indicates  that  it  is  one  of  the  less  common  of 
the  Madagascar  lemurs. 

General  color  rufous;  throat  white;  forehead  and  cheeks  gray; 
under  parts  and  inner  side  of  limbs  yellowish  gray;  last  third  of 
tail  brown;  rest  of  tail  and  lower  part  of  limbs  yellowish  gray. 
Head  and  body,  about  350  mm.;  tail,  250  mm.  (I.  Geoffrey,  1851, 
p.  76.) 

"The  range  of  L.  mustelinus  includes  the  moist  east  and  north- 
east of  Madagascar,  at  least  as  far  south  as  Betsileo  and  as  far 
north  as  Vohemar.  It  does  not  occur  in  the  north-west,  where  L. 
ruficaudatus  is  found."  Specimens  are  recorded  from:  Vohemar; 
Ankay  Forest,  NE.  of  Tananarive;  Ampitambe  and  Antsiraka, 
Betsimisaraka  country;  Ankona  Forest;  Upper  Masiatra  River,  E. 
Betsileo;  and  Vinanitelo,  "SW."  [  =  SE.]  Betsileo.  (Schwarz,  1931, 
p.  420.) 

G.  M.  Allen  (1918,  p.  516)  records  a  specimen  from  Didy,  south 
of  Lake  Alaotra. 

All  the  localities  of  this  species  are  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
island,  from  Vohemar  on  the  north  to  Vinanitelo  on  the  south ;  these 
localities  are  littoral  or  belong  to  the  region  of  the  Hauts-Plateaux. 
The  altitudes  where  it  is  found  vary  from  less  than  100  m.  to  more 
than  1,000  m.  It  is  probably  divisible  into  subspecies  not  yet  de- 
termiried.  All  alleged  records  from  the  west  coast  really  belong  to 
L.  ruficaudatus.  (Petit,  1933,  p.  34.) 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  145 

Red-tailed  Lemur.    Hattock  (Madagascar) 

LEPILEMUR  RUFICAUDATUS  Grandidier 

LepilemMr  ruficaudatus  Grandidier,  Rev.  Mag.  Zool.,  ser.  2,  vol.  19,  p.  256, 
1867 -1  ("La  cote  sud-ouest  de  Madagascar";  type  locality  restricted  by 
Elliot  (1913,  vol.  1,  pp.  122)  to  "Morondava,  Madagascar.") 

SYNONYMS:  Lepilemur  dorsalis  Gray  (1870);  L.  pallidicauda  Gray  (1873); 
Lepidolemur  leucopus  Major  (1894);  L.  edwardsi  Major  (1894);  L. 
globiceps  Major  (1894) ;  L.  grandidieri  Major  (1894) ;  L.  mustelinus 
rufescens  Lorenz-Liburnau  (1898). 

FIGS.:  Forbes,  1894,  vol.  1,  pi.  9  (as  L.  leucopus}]  Milne  Edwards,  Grandidier 
and  Filhol,  1897,  pi.  256  (as  L.  m.  var.  dorsalis),  pi.  257,  pi.  258  (as  L.  m. 
var.  leucopus),  pi.  259  (as  L.  dorsalis);  Lorenz-Liburnau,  1898,  pi.  30  (as 
L.  m.  rufescens);  Kaudern,  1915,  pi.  1,  fig.  3,  pi.  2,  fig.  2  (as  L.  m. 
rufescens) . 

This  is  apparently  a  rather  common  as  well  as  widespread  species 
in  western  and  southern  Madagascar.  No  less  than  36  specimens 
were  collected  by  the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine 
of  1929-31  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220) . 

General  color  ashy  rufous;  head  blackish;  hind  limbs  pale  ashy; 
tail  reddish;  throat  fulvous;  abdomen  whitish.  Total  length,  560 
mm.;  tail,  250  mm.  (Grandidier,  1867,  p.  256.) 

Schwarz  (1931,  pp.  420-421)  records  specimens  from  the  following 
localities:  Loko-Be,  Nosy  Be  Island,  NW.  Madagascar;  Betsako, 
north  bank,  Bay  of  Bombetoka ;  Ambundube,  near  Betsako ;  Antema 
and  Kandani,  south  bank,  Bay  of  Bombetoka;  Morondava,  W.  coast; 
Ambolisatra,  SW.  coast;  and  Fort  Dauphin,  SE.  coast.  "This  species 
has  also  been  recorded  by  Pollen  and  van  Dam  from  various  points 
on  the  N.W.  coast:  Anorontsanga,  Jangoa  River,  Ampasindava,  all 
at  or  near  the  Bay  of  Ampasi[n]dava;  also  from  the  Bay  of  Maha- 
jamba.  The  range,  therefore,  covers  the  entire  west  coast,  including 
the  north-west  and  south-east,  but  not  the  central  plateau.  The 
northern  and  eastern  limits  remain  to  be  ascertained."  (P.  421.) 

Schlegel  and  Pollen  write  (1868,  p.  12)  concerning  this  species 
(under  the  name  of  L.  mustelinus)  that  it  is  very  stupid  and  more 
slothful  than  Hapalemur  griseus.  The  natives  of  the  northwest  say 
that  they  sometimes  kill  it  in  daytime  with  sticks  and  eat  its  flesh. 
It  is  nocturnal,  and  its  food  consists  of  buds  and  leaves  of  trees  as 
well  as  certain  fruits. 

Kaudern  (1915,  p.  74)  records  several  specimens  from  Ste.  Marie 
de  Marovoay  on  the  Betsiboka  River,  northwestern  Madagascar. 

1  Petit  (1933,  pp.  36-37)  recognizes  three  subspecies,  including  L.  r.  dorsalis 
Gray  and  L.  r.  leucopus  Major.  However,  he  attempts  to  distinguish  dorsalis 
from  ruficaudatus  in  part  by  "a  more  russet  coloration"  and  by  "a  constant 
and  more  distinct  dorsal  band,"  in  contradiction  to  Gray's  type  description  of 
dorsalis  (1870,  p.  135):  "Back  grey,  yellow-washed;  dorsal  stripe  none."  As  for 
leucopus,  Schwarz  states  (1931,  p.  420)  that  "the  type-specimen  is  in  every 
respect  typical  ruficaudatus" 

6 


146  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

In  recognizing  dorsalis  as  a  subspecies,  Petit  states  (1933,  p.  37) 
that  it  inhabits  the  Mahafaly  and  Antandroy  districts,  and  dis- 
appears abruptly  with  the  very  distinct  limit  of  the  xerophytic 
vegetation  near  Bevilana,  west  of  Fort  Dauphin.  The  same  author 
(1935,  p.  474)  remarks  on  its  former  presence  in  the  Manampetsa 
Reserve  in  the  southwest,  but  it  was  not  found  there  in  1932  or  1933. 

Rand  (1935,  p.  99)  records  the  "Hattock"  from  Tabiky  and 
Tsarakibany. 

Family  INDRIIDAE:    Sifakas,  Indri,  Avahis 

The  Sifakas  and  their  relatives  constitute  a  family  of  3  genera 
and  13  forms.  All  are  endemic  to  Madagascar.  Some  of  the  natives 
have  a  certain  degree  of  superstitious  veneration  for  the  elegantly 
attired  Sifakas  and  the  Indri,  and  yet  the  animals  are  not  altogether 
free  from  persecution.  In  numerical  status  they  vary  from  common 
to  rare.  Their  limited  distribution  and  their  uncertain  future  render 
all  of  them  suitable  subjects  for  inclusion  in  the  present  report. 

Diademed  Sifaka.    Propitheque  a  diademe  (Fr.) 

PROPITHBCUS  BIADEMA  DIADBMA  Bennett 

Propithecus  Diadema  Bennett,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London   1832,  p.  20,   1832. 

("Madagascar";  type  locality  restricted  by  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier 

(1875,  p.  300)  to  "la  cote  Est  de  Madagascar."1) 

SYNONYMS:   Macromerus  typicus  A.  Smith  (1833);  Indris  olbus  Vinson  (1862). 
FIGS.:    Gervais,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif.,  pt.  1,  pi.  8,  1854;  Milne  Edwards  and 

Grandidier,  1875,  pi.  1. 

Over  a  hundred  years  ago  this  Sifaka  was  said  to  be  rare,  and 
it  is  apparently  still  more  so  today.  The  Mission  Zoologique  Franco- 
Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  collected  only  three  specimens — the 
smallest  number  reported  for  any  of  the  Madagascar  lemuroids 
(Delacour,  1932,  p.  220) . 

Face  nearly  naked;  hairs  generally  long,  silky,  waved,  erect,  and 
glossy;  ears  rounded,  concealed  within  the  fur;  a  yellowish-white 
band  extending  across  the  forehead  and  below  the  ears  to  the  throat; 
crown,  nape,  and  hands  black;  shoulders,  sides,  and  lower  back 
mixed  black  and  white;  limbs,  rump,  and  tail  pale  fulvous;  throat 
like  sides,  rest  of  under  parts  white.  Head  and  body,  21  inches; 
tail,  17  inches.  (Bennett,  1832,  pp.  20-21.) 

This  subspecies  is  found  only  between  the  Bay  of  Antongil  on  the 
north  and  the  Masora  River  on  the  south  [at  about  lat.  20°  S.], 

i  Elliot  (1913,  vol.  1,  pp.  169,  171)  attempts  the  impossible  in  stating  that 
Sambava,  northeastern  Madagascar,  is  the  type  locality  of  this  subspecies  as 
well  as  of  P.  d.  sericeus.  For  the  latter  he  also  attempts  to  switch  Sambava 
to  the  northwest  coast. 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  147 

in  the  narrow  bands  of  forests  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  moun- 
tains (Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1875,  p.  300) . 

"It  is  stated  to  be  rare"  (Bennett,  1832,  p.  22). 

G.  M.  Allen  (1918,  p.  515)  records  a  specimen  from  Didy,  south 
of  Lake  Alaotra. 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  422)  mentions  specimens  from:  Tamatave, 
NE.  coast ;  Andragoloaka,  SE.  of  Tananarive ;  and  Mananare,  Bay  of 
Antongil. 

Silky  Sifaka.    Propitheque  soyeux   (Fr.) 

PROPITHECUS  DIADEMA  CANDIDUS  Grandidier 

Propithecus  candidus  Grandidier,  Compt.  Rend.  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris],  vol.  72, 
p.  232,  1871.  ("Les  forets  au  nord  de  la  baie  d'Antongil,  sur  la  cote  est 
de  Madagascar";  type  locality  restricted  by  Schwarz  (1931,  p.  421)  to 
"Sahambavany,  N.E.  coast"  of  Madagascar.) 

SYNONYM:    Pr&pithecus  sericeus  Milne-Edwards  and  Grandidier   (1872). 

FIG.  :   Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  18756,  pi.  2. 

This  Sifaka  has  a  limited  range  in  the  northeast  of  Madagascar, 
and  its  numbers  are  apparently  few. 

It  is  distinguished  from  P.  verreauxi  by  its  entirely  white  color, 
without  black  crown  or  ashy  spot  on  the  back  (Grandidier,  1871, 
p.  232).  Muzzle  bare,  black,  with  spots  of  flesh  color;  pelage  gener- 
ally entirely  white,  with  silky  reflections  and  washed  lightly  with 
yellow;  hairs  at  base  of  tail  and  beneath  claws  rufous;  various 
intergradations  between  this  subspecies  and  P.  d.  diadema  observed 
(Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1875a,  p.  301).  Head  and  body, 
620  mm.;  tail,  400  mm.  (Milne-Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1872, 
p.  274). 

Schwarz  (1931,  pp.  421-422)  records  specimens  from  Sahamba- 
vany, NE.  coast,  and  from  Antsompirina  and  Ansandrizina,  NE. 
coast  (probably  on  the  peninsula  which  forms  the  eastern  border 
of  the  Bay  of  Antongil).  "The  range  of  this  race  includes  the 
north-eastern  coast  ranges  of  the  island  from  the  region  of  Bemarivo 
(14°  16'  30"  S.),  which  is  the  northernmost  locality  recorded,  to  the 
Bay  of  Antongil ;  I  suppose  the  Tsingambala  River,  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  bay,  will  be  found  to  separate  the  range  of  candidus  from 
that  of  diadema." 

The  Silky  Sifakas  inhabit  the  narrow  bands  of  forests  covering 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  mountains  in  the  northeast,  between  the 
Lokoy  River  (13  miles  south  of  Sambava)  and  the  Bemarivo  River 
(10  miles  north  of  Sambava).  They  go  ordinarily  in  smaller  bands 
than  their  congeners;  scarcely  more  than  three  or  four  are  found 
together.  (Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1875a,  p.  302.) 

Elliot  (1913,  vol.  1,  p.  171)  is  in  error  in  placing  the  range  in 
northwestern,  instead  of  northeastern,  Madagascar. 


148  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  col- 
lected six  specimens  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220) . 

Milne-Edwards's  Sifaka.    Propitheque  d'Edwards   (Fr.) 

PROPITHECUS  DIADEMA  EDWARDSI  Grandidier 

Propithecus  Edwardsi  Grandidier,  Compt.  Rend.  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris],  vol.  72, 
p.  232,  1871.  ("Les  forets  situees  dans  Pouest  de  Mananzary,  a  Mada- 
gascar" ;  type  locality  further  delimited  by  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier 
(1875a,  p.  303)  as  "la  foret  de  Manampahy,"  in  southeastern  Madagascar.) 

SYNONYM:    Propithecus  bicolor  Gray  (1872). 

FIG.:    Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  18756,  pi.  3. 

No  information  is  at  hand  concerning  the  numerical  status  of 
this  subspecies. 

It  is  entirely  black,  save  for  an  area  of  rufous-white  on  each 
side  of  the  loins;  face  naked  and  black;  ears  well  developed  and 
covered  with  long  hairs.  Head  and  body,  640  mm.;  tail,  460  mm. 
(Grandidier,  1871,  p.  232.)  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier  (1875a, 
p.  303)  give  additional  details:  black  areas  lightly  washed  with 
rufous;  a  narrow  band  of  reddish  black  separating  the  light  lumbar 
areas;  a  light  reddish  spot  at  the  base  of  the  tail;  considerable 
variation  in  coloration  evident,  some  individuals  exhibiting  an  ap- 
proach to  P.  d.  diadema,  and  others  to  P.  d.  holomelas. 

This  Sifaka  inhabits  the  narrow  bands  of  forests  that  partly 
cover  the  *  eastern  slope  of  the  mountains  between  the  Rivers 
Masora  (about  20°  S.)  and  Matitanana  (about  22°  S.)  (Milne 
Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1875a,  pp.  304-305) . 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  422)  is  in  error  in  placing  the  type  locality  east 
of  Masindrano,  which  would  be  somewhere  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 
He  records  specimens  from:  Ampitambe,  Betsimisaraka  country; 
Ivohimanitra,  Tanala;  Ambohimotombo,  N.  Tanala;  and  Vinani- 
telo,  "S.W."  [=S.E.]  Betsileo.  "The  specimens  from  Vinanitelo 
would  indicate  a  considerable  extension  of  the  range  on  the  central 
plateau." 

Black  Sifaka 

PROPITHECUS  DIADEMA  HOLOMELAS  Giinther 

Propithecus  holomelas  Giinther,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  4,  vol.  16,  p.  125, 
1875.  ("Fienerentova"  —  Fianarantsoa,  central  Betsileo,  Madagascar.) 

Very  little  information  about  the  Black  Sifaka  has  ever  been 
assembled. 

Nearly  as  large  as  P.  d.  edwardsi.  "Throat  and  all  the  lower 
parts  covered  with  dense  fine  woolly  hair.  Male  with  a  small  patch 
of  ferruginous  hairs  ...  in  the  middle  of  the  chest  .  .  .  ;  in  the 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  149 

female  this  patch  is  replaced  by  two  smaller  ones  ...  of  a  whitish 
colour.  All  the  upper  parts  deep  black,  except  the  back  of  the  root 
of  the  tail,  which  is  brownish.  Abdomen  greyish  brown.  A  few 
whitish  hairs  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail."  Head  and  body,  23  inches; 
tail,  15-16  inches.  (Glinther,  1875a,  p.  125.) 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  423)  records  specimens  from:  Fianarantsoa ; 
S.  Betsileo;  Nandihizana,  N.  Betsileo;  and  "Ambavombe,"  south 
[  =  west?]  of  Fort  Dauphin,  S.  coast.  "The  range  of  this  race 
appears  to  be  the  inland  mountain  range  in  the  south-east  of 
Madagascar,  whereas  P.  d.  edwardsi  inhabits  the  coast  range.  I  have 
little  doubt  as  regards  the  distinctness  of  the  two  races." 

Verreaux's  Sifaka.    Propitheque  de  Verreaux  (Fr.) 

PROPITHECUS  VERREAUXI  VERREAUXI  Grandidier 

Propithecus  Verreauxi  Grandidier,  Rev.  Mag.  Zool.,  ser.  2,  vol.  19,  p.  84,  1867. 
("Les  contrees  arides  et  sablonneuses  ou  habitent  les  Antandroui's,  les 
Mahfales,  et  les  Antitenes";  type  locality  restricted  by  Schwarz  (1931, 
p.  424)  to  "Tsifanihy,  Prov.  Antandroy,  north  of  Cape  Ste.  Marie,  S. 
Madagascar."  "Mananzari,"  erroneously  stated  by  Elliot  (1913,  vol.  1, 
p.  172)  to  be  the  type  locality,  is  outside  the  entire  range  of  the  species.) 

FIGS.:  Grandidier,  Album  de  Tile  de  la  Reunion,  vol.  4,  pis.  1,  2,  1867; 
Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  18756,  pis.  4,  8. 

This  Sifaka  has  been  reported  as  common  in  Madagascar  from 
Flacourt's  time  (1661)  to  the  present. 

It  is  similar  to  P.  d.  diadema  but  with  a  smaller  body,  longer 
tail,  and  more  whitish  pelage;  crown  and  nape  rufous-brown; 
shoulders  and  sides  yellowish  white;  a  gray  dorsal  patch  often 
present;  limbs  and  hands  white;  face  black,  almost  naked,  with 
some  white  hairs;  under  parts  and  inner  side  of  limbs  white;  tail 
white  except  at  base;  throat  with  a  small  longitudinal  rufous  spot. 
Head  and  body,  490-500  mm.;  tail,  450-600  mm.  (Grandidier, 
1867a,  p.  84.) 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  424)  records  specimens  from:  Tulear,  SW. 
coast;  Morondava,  W.  coast;  Bemamanga  near  Morondava;  Anta- 
nosy  country;  and  Ankazoabo,  central  SW.  Madagascar.  "Accord- 
ing to  A.  Milne-Edwards  and  Grandidier  the  range  of  P.  v.  ver- 
reauxi  includes  the  whole  south-western  part  of  Madagascar  from 
the  Tsidsobon  River  on  the  west  coast  to  the  region  of  Ft.  Dauphin 
in  the  south-east.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  exact  limits  of  the  range, 
neither  in  the  east,  where  it  should  meet  P.  d.  holomelas,  nor  in 
the  west,  where  no  record  exists  for  the  region  between  the  Manan- 
bolo  and  Tsidsobon  Rivers,  where  either  this  race  or  P.  v.  deckeni 
should  occur." 

Flacourt  (1661,  p.  153)  reported  many  of  these  Sifakas  in  the 


150  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

region  west  of  Fort  Dauphin.  More  than  two  centuries  then  elapsed 
before  they  were  rediscovered  and  named  by  Grandidier. 

They  inhabit  the  arid  coasts  in  the  south  and  the  southwest,  from 
Andrahoumbe  to  the  Tsidsibon  River.  They  are  always  found  in 
bands  of  10  to  12  individuals.  They  are  diurnal  and  feed  upon  young 
shoots  of  trees  and  upon  fruits.  (Grandidier,  1867a,  p.  84,  and 
1867c,  p.  313.) 

In  1866  Grandidier  encountered  this  Sifaka  some  leagues  north 
of  the  village  of  the  Antandroy  king,  Tsifanihy,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Cape  Ste.  Marie.  Here  he  found  it  regarded  with  a  certain  venera- 
tion by  the  natives;  they  objected  to  his  skinning  and  dissecting  a 
specimen  in  their  village,  and  they  buried  the  remains  ceremoniously 
at  some  distance  from  the  village.  Later  he  secured  a  large  number 
at  various  points  on  the  southwestern  coast,  especially  along  the 
Morondava  River,  and  at  one  time  he  had  15  living  individuals.  The 
natives  capture  them  by  means  of  snares  in  the  clearings.  The  ani- 
mals never  lived  long  in  captivity.  (Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier, 
1875a,  pp.  308-311.) 

"This  species  was  common  on  the  Upper  Siribihina  River  [inland 
from  Morondava],  and  at  a  locality  twenty-five  kilometers  east  of 
Tulear"  (G.  M.  Allen,  1918,  p.  515). 

Petit  (1931,  p.  559)  records  a  specimen  from  the  vicinity  of  An- 
droka,  in  the  Mahafaly  country. 

The  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31 
collected  18  specimens  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220) . 

"The  brown-capped  Propithecus  was  very  common  in  the  wooded 
areas  of  the  southwest.  A  diurnal,  arboreal  creature,  it  was  usually 
seen  in  parties  of  five  to  eight.  .  .  . 

"They  were  usually  not  at  all  wild  and  could  be  watched  at  close 
range.  .  .  .  Near  Tulear  ...  a  group  in  the  trees  by  the  roadside" 
was  noticed. 

"Green  leaves  of  trees  are  probably  their  staple  food.  .  .  .  The 
animals  were  often  seen  to  feed  on  leaves  and  the  young  one  I  kept 
for  a  time  ate  them  eagerly."  (Rand,  1935,  pp.  100-101.) 

This  Sifaka  has  become  rare  in  the  Manampetsa  Reserve  in  the 
southwest  (Petit,  1935,  p.  474) . 

CoquerePs  Sifaka.     Propitheque  de  Coquerel    (Fr.) 

PROPITHECUS  VERREAUXI  COQUERELI  A.  Milne-Edwards 

Propithecus  Coquereli  A.  Milne-Edwards,  in  Grandidier,  Rev.  Mag.  Zool., 
ser.  2,  vol.  19,  p.  314,  1867.  ("Nord-est"  =  probably  northwestern  Mada- 
gascar.) 

SYNONYM:  Propithecus  damonis  J.  E.  Gray  (1870). 

FIGS.:  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  18756,  pi.  6;  Forbes,  1894,  vol.  1, 
pi.  11;  Kaudern,  1915,  pi.  1,  fig.  1. 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  151 

Up  to  about  30  years  ago,  Coquerel's  Sifaka  was  very  common 
in  parts  of  northwestern  Madagascar  (Kaudern,  1915,  p.  4).  On 
the  other  hand,  not  a  single  specimen  seems  to  have  been  taken  by 
the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  (Dela- 
cour,  1932,  p.  220). 

General  color  white;  a  band  of  reddish  brown  extending  across 
the  chest  and  onto  the  arms ;  a  spot  of  the  same  color  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  legs;  crown,  hands,  and  inner  side  of  the  limbs  pure 
white;  face  covered  with  very  short  white  hairs;  tail  slender;  fur 
woolly.  Head  and  body  of  the  type  (a  young  individual) ,  250  mm. ; 
tail,  220  mm.  (A.  Milne-Edwards,  in  Grandidier,  1867c,  p.  314.) 
Adults  have  the  head,  cheeks,  nape,  and  back  yellowish  white ;  loins 
dark  reddish  gray;  sides  and  pelvic  region  dirty  white;  outer 
side  of  arms  and  anterior  side  of  thigh  dark  chestnut-rufous;  tail 
reddish  gray  (Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1875a,  p.  315) .  Total 
length  of  adults,  3  feet  4  inches  (Schlegel,  1876,  p.  293) . 

This  Sifaka  is  found  only  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Madagascar, 
from  the  south  side  of  Narinda  Bay  to  the  north  side  of  the  Bay  of 
Bombetoka,  between  the  Rivers  Loza  and  Betsiboka.  Numerous 
specimens  from  this  region  have  been  examined.  (Milne  Edwards 
and  Grandidier,  1876,  pp.  315-316.) 

Lorenz-Liburnau  (1898,  p.  454)  records  five  specimens  from  Bet- 
sako  and  two  from  near-by  Ambundube,  north  of  the  Bay  of  Bom- 
betoka. 

The  animal  is  very  common  in  the  forests  on  the  Ankarafantsika 
Plateau,  where  it  wanders  about  in  bands  of  3  to  10  or  12  individuals. 
It  was  observed  in  several  places  between  the  Betsiboka  and  Maha- 
jamba  Rivers.  At  Ste.  Marie  de  Marovoay,  on  the  Betsiboka,  several 
hundred  were  seen  in  the  wild,  and  about  60  specimens  were  shot. 
(Kaudern,  1915,  p.  4,  map,  p.  5.) 

Additional  specimens  from  Island  Nosy  Komba  and  from  Am- 
batondrazaka,  south  of  Lake  Alaotra,  are  recorded  by  Schwarz 
(1931,  p.  423).  "The  specimen  from  Ambatondrazaka  .  .  .  shows 
an  eastern  extension  of  the  range  as  far  as  Lake  Alaotra." 

Crowned  Sifaka.    Propitheque  couronne  (Fr.) 

PROPITHECUS  VERREAUXI  CORONATUS  A.  Milne  Edwards 

P[ropithecus]  coronatus  "Pollen"  A.  Milne  Edwards,  Rev.  Scientifique,  ser.  2, 
year  1,  no.  10,  p.  224,  1871.  (Type  locality  not  stated;  restricted  by  Elliot 
(1913,  vol.  1,  p.  174)  to  "Province  of  Boeny  on  the  Bay  of  Bombetok, 
Madagascar.") 

SYNONYM:   Propithecus  damanus  Schlegel  (1876). 

FIG.:    Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  18756,  pi.  7. 

About  30  years  ago  the  Crowned  Sifaka  was  reported  as  common 
(Kaudern,  1915,  p.  6),  but  apparently  none  were  taken  by  the 


152  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  (Dela- 
cour,  1932,  p.  220) . 

General  color  white;  chest  washed  with  brown;  crown  black  (A. 
Milne  Edwards,  1871,  p.  224).  Similar  in  size  to  P.  v.  verreauxi; 
forehead,  head,  and  cheeks  varying  from  dark  blackish  brown  to 
reddish  gray;  nape  and  remaining  upper  parts  white,  more  or  less 
washed  with  rufous  on  the  limbs  and  at  the  base  of  the  tail;  a  gray 
or  brown  spot  on  the  nape ;  tail  and  hands  white ;  under  parts  vary- 
ing from  light  rufous  to  very  dark  rufous-brown  (Milne  Edwards 
and  Grandidier,  1876,  pp.  318-319).  Total  length,  3  feet  5  inches; 
tail,  21  inches  (Schlegel,  1876,  p.  294) . 

This  Sifaka  inhabits  the  Boeny  country,  which  is  comprised  be- 
tween the  sea  on  the  north,  the  Betsiboka  River  on  the  east,  and 
the  Manzaray  [Mahavavy]  River  on  the  west.  In  the  south  some 
were  killed  by  Crossley  not  far  from  the  great  forest  of  Manerinerina, 
where  he  secured  a  large  number  of  Decken's  Sifaka.  (Milne  Ed- 
wards and  Grandidier,  1876,  p.  319.) 

Lorenz-Liburnau  (1898,  p.  453)  records  4  specimens  from  Antema 
and  21  from  Kandani. 

A  small  band  was  seen  in  1906  on  the  west  side  of  the  Betsiboka 
River  opposite  Marovoay,  and  two  specimens  were  collected  in  1912 
near  the  coast  between  the  Bay  of  Bombetoka  and  the  Mahavavy 
River.  It  is  not  rare  along  this  part  of  the  coast,  and  it  is  very 
common  in  the  great  forests  on  the  Boeny  Mountains.  It  does  not 
seem  to  occur  east  of  the  Betsiboka  or  west  of  the  Mahavavy  River. 
(Kaudern,  1915,  p.  6,  map,  p.  5.) 

Decken's  Sifaka.    Propitheque  de  Decken  (Fr.) 

PROPITHECUS  VERREAUXI  DECKENII  Peters 

Propithecus  Deckenii  Peters,  Monatsb.  Preuss.  Akad.  Wiss.  Berlin  1870,  p.  421, 
1871.  ("Kanatzi  [=Kanatsy],  im  18°  s.  Br.  an  der  Westkiiste  von 
Madagaskar"  (Peters,  1869,  p.  4).) 

FIGS.:  Peters,  1869,  pi.  1  (as  P.  diadema) ;  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier, 
18756,  pi.  5. 

This  is  still  a  common  animal  in  western  Madagascar. 

The  (immature?)  type  female  is  described  by  Peters  (1871,  p. 
421)  as  having  the  hands  and  head  yellowish  white  like  the  rest  of 
the  body;  lumbar  region  and  sides  washed  with  gray;  face  black, 
with  a  whitish  spot  on  the  ridge  of  the  snout;  tail  as  long  as,  or 
longer  than,  the  head  and  body.  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier 
add  (1876,  pp.  313-314)  that  adults  have  a  little  black  diadem  in 
front  of  the  white  crown;  upper  chest  bright  rufous;  rest  of  under 
parts  reddish  white ;  a  tawny  spot  at  the  base  of  the  white  tail.  Total 
length  42  inches,  of  which  the  tail  occupies  half  (Schlegel,  1876, 
p.  295). 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  153 

Crossley  secured  a  number  of  specimens  in  the  Forest  of  Manerine- 
rina  and  in  the  plains  north  of  Ankavandra  [lat.  19°  15'  S.].  These 
Sifakas  inhabit  the  forests  scattered  here  and  there  in  the  midst  of 
the  great  Jurassic  plains  lying  between  the  Mananbolo  and  Manza- 
ray  [  =  Mahavavy]  Rivers.  The  Antimailaka  natives  consider  them 
sacred  animals  and  never  kill  them.  (Milne  Edwards  and  Grandi- 
dier,  1876,  pp.  313-314.) 

Decken's  Sifaka  is  very  common  in  the  forests  south  of  Lake 
Kinkony  (near  the  lower  Mahavavy) ,  and  five  specimens  were  ob- 
tained there.  It  is  said  not  to  occur  in  the  forests  between  this  lake 
and  Cape  Tanjona.  The  Mahavavy  River  appears  to  form  its  north- 
eastern limit.  (Kaudern,  1915,  pp.  6-7,  map,  p.  5.) 

Beravina,  17°  10'  S.,  NW.  coast,  is  one  of  the  localities  from 
which  Schwarz  (1931,  p.  424)  records  specimens. 

No  less  than  30  specimens  were  collected  by  the  Mission  Zoologi- 
que  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220) . 

"This  Propithecus  was  common  in  the  country  from  Namo- 
roka  to  the  Mahavavy  Rivers,  and  a  number  apparently  of  the 
same  subspecies  were  seen  between  the  Mahavavy  and  Betsiboka 
Rivers.  .  .  . 

"This  is  a  common,  diurnal  animal,  found  in  parties  of  some- 
times as  many  as  nine  individuals.  It  frequented  the  heavy  gallery 
forest,  the  lower,  dryer  forest,  and  at  Soala  I  found  a  party  in  the 
coast  mangroves.  .  .  .  We  found  them  rather  tame  here  and  easily 
approached."  (Rand,  1935,  p.  99.) 

Major's  Sifaka 

PROPITHECUS  VERREAUXI  MAJORI  Rothschild 

Propithecus  majori  Rothschild,  Novit.  Zool.,  vol.  1,  p.  666,  1894.  ("The 
Antinosy  country  in  south-west  Madagascar" ;  according  to  Schwarz  (1931, 
p.  424),  this  is  the  "country  of  the  emigrated  Antanosy,  S.  Central 
Madagascar.") 

FIG.:   Rothschild,  1894,  pi.  14. 

Apparently  no  additional  information  has  been  secured  concern- 
ing this  Sifaka  since  the  original  series  was  collected  in  1889  and 
described  in  1894. 

"Adult. — Head  and  neck  black.  Face,  snout,  and  ears  naked, 
and  of  a  blackish  colour,  encircled  by  a  broad  band  of  long  white 
hairs,  joining  under  the  throat,  slightly  intermixed  with  darker 
hairs.  Rest  of  fur,  including  the  tail,  white  on  the  upper  surface, 
back  and  upper  rump  dark  brown.  The  large  white  patch  on  and 
between  the  shoulders  much  grizzled  with  brown  hairs.  Upper  sur- 
face of  hind  limbs  to  just  below  the  knees  blackish  brown.  Inside 


154  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

of  hind  limbs  down  to  the  heel  also  brown,  joining  the  colour  of  the 
upper  surface,  thus  forming  a  continuous  dark  stripe  along  the 
legs.  Inner  and  upper  surface  of  arms,  thumb,  and  two  following 
fingers  deep  blackish  brown;  throat,  chest,  and  greater  part  of 
abdomen  deep  brown.  Size  perceptibly  larger  than  that  of  Propi- 
thecus  verreauxi,  with  the  tail  longer. 

"A  number  of  specimens,  all  perfectly  alike  in  colour,  were  sent 
to  me  by  Mr.  Last  from  the  Antinosy  country  in  south-west  Mada- 
gascar. The  collector  also  found  Propithecus  verreauxi  Grandid. 
in  the  same  country,  some  with  the  back  much  darker  than  others, 
but  no  specimens  in  any  way  intermediate  between  it  and  P.  majori." 
(Rothschild,  1894,  p.  666.) 

"There  are  four  more  skins  exactly  like  the  type  in  the  Tring 
Museum. 

"The  original  label  only  says  'Antinosy'  (=Antanosy)  country. 
It  would  appear  that  this  means  the  mountain  range  round  and  east 
of  Manansoa  (23°  3'  S.,  44°  50'  E.),  where  J.  T.  Last  was  collecting 
in  1889.  The  specimens  of  true  verreauxi  collected  by  Last  and 
also  labelled  'Antinosy  country'  are  probably  from  the  plains  farther 
west,  and  collected  on  the  way  to  or  from  Tulear,  on  the  S.W.  coast. 
Only  the  original  series  of  this  race  is  known."  (Schwarz,  1931, 
p.  424.) 

Perrier's  Sif aka 

PROPITHECUS  PERRIERI  Lavauden 

Propithecus  Perrieri  Lavauden,  Comptes  Rendus  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris],  vol.  193, 
no.  1,  p.  77,  1931.  ("Foret  d'Analamera,  situee  au  sud-est  de  Diego- 
Suarez,  dans  le  nord  de  Madagascar.") 

This  Sifaka  is  known  only  from  a  few  specimens  collected  in  the 
Forest  of  Analamera,  which  covers  an  area  of  5,000  or  6,000  hectares. 

It  bears  some  resemblance  to  Propithecus  verreauxi  coquereli  of 
western  Madagascar  but  differs  especially  in  its  color.  The  entire 
pelage  is  velvety  black;  ears  small  and  glabrous;  eyes  brown.  Head 
and  body,  500  mm.;  tail,  450  mm. 

It  may  seem  surprising  that  this  species  has  remained  unknown 
until  so  recently.  The  explanation  lies  in  the  fact  that  both  the 
animal  itself  and  the  forest  in  which  it  lives  are  strictly  taboo  to  the 
local  Antakara  natives.  They  give  it  the  name  of  "Radjako";  this 
was  the  name  of  a  legendary  hero  among  their  ancestors.  Few 
Europeans  have  penetrated  the  Forest  of  Analamera.  (Lavauden, 
1931,  pp.  78-79.) 

G.  M.  Allen  (1939t>,  p.  133)  regards  the  type  specimen  as  "prob- 
ably a  melanistic  individual  of  P.  v.  coquereli." 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  155 

Inclri;  Indris;  Endrina.    Indri   (Fr.) 

INDRI  INDRI  (J.  F.  Gmelin) 

[Lemur}  Indri  J.  F.  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat.,  vol.  1,  pt.  1,  p.  42,  1788.   (Based  upon 

the  "Indri"  of  Sonnerat  (Voy.  Indes  or.  et  Chine,  vol.  2,  p.  142,  1782) ; 

type  locality,  "Madagascar.") 
SYNONYMS:    Indris  brevicaudatus  E.  Geoffroy   (1796);  Indri  niger  Lacepede 

(1800) ;  Indris  ater  I.  Geoffroy  (1825) ;  Lichanotus  mitratus  Peters  (1871) ; 

Indris  variegatus  Gray  (1872). 
FIGS.:    Sonnerat,  1782,  vol.  2,  pi.  88;  Audebert,  Hist.  Nat.  Makis,  pi.  1,  1800; 

Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1875b,  pis.  11,  12;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  1, 

p.  204,  fig.,  1893-94;  Forbes,  1894,  pi.  12. 

The  distribution  of  the  Indri  appears  to  be  subject  to  considerable 
local  variation,  but  here  and  there  in  eastern  Madagascar  it  is  still 
common. 

This  is  the  largest  of  the  lemurs;  it  is  almost  entirely  black;  fur 
silky  and  dense;  snout,  posterior  under  parts,  back  of  thighs,  and 
lower  arms  grayish;  rump  white,  with  woolly  hair;  tail  perceptible 
only  to  the  touch  (Sonnerat,  1782,  vol.  2,  p.  142;  J.  F.  Gmelin,  1788, 
vol.  1,  p.  42).  It  exhibits  "a  great  variety  of  color  pattern  as  well  as 
diversity  of  hues"  (Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  p.  177).  Head  and  body, 
650  mm.;  tail,  60-70  mm.  (Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1875a; 
p.  337). 

Elliot  (1913,  vol.  1,  p.  176)  gives  the  range  as  "eastern  coast  of 
Madagascar,  in  forests  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  high  mountains 
between  the  Bay  of  Antongil  on  the  north  and  the  River  Masara 
on  the  south." 

According  to  Sonnerat  (1782,  vol.  2,  p.  142),  the  natives  of  the 
south  capture  the  animals  when  young,  rear  them,  and  train  them 
like  dogs  for  hunting. 

Pollen  writes  (1868,  pp.  20-21)  that  up  to  that  time  the  Indri 
was  known  only  from  the  interior  of  eastern  Madagascar.  His 
friend  Dr.  Vinson  reported  that  while  passing  through  the  great 
forest  of  Alanamasoatrao  he  was  deafened,  during  two  days,'  by  the 
incessant  clamor  of  apparently  numerous  but  invisible  bands  of 
these  animals.  The  natives  have  a  superstitious  veneration  for  the 
Indri,  and  it  plays  quite  a  part  in  their  folklore.  It  feeds  upon  fruits 
and  also  preys  upon  small  birds. 

Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier  state  (1875a,  pp.  340-341)  that 
the  species  lives  only  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  great  massif  be- 
tween the  Bay  of  Antongil  and  the  River  Masora.  It  is  essentially 
diurnal  and  lives  in  bands,  usually  of  no  more  than  4  or  5  indi- 
viduals. They  refute  Sonnerat 's  tale  of  its  being  trained  by  the 
natives  for  hunting. 

"This  Lemuroid  is  probably  the  best  known  to  travellers  in 
Madagascar,  at  least  by  ear,  as  no  one  can  travel  along  the  most 


156  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

frequented  route  in  the  island,  that  from  Tamatave  to  Antanana- 
rivo, without  often  hearing  the  cries  of  these  animals  as  he  passes 
through  the  great  forest.  They  are  not  often  seen."  (Forbes,  1894, 
vol.  1,  p.  109.) 

Schwarz  (1931,  p.  425)  records  specimens  from  the  following 
localities:  Vohemar,  NE.  coast;  Lalo  River  and  Antsompirina,  east 
of  the  Bay  of  Antongil ;  Sakana,  opposite  the  He  Ste.  Marie ;  Tama- 
tave; Antsihanaka  Forest,  Lake  Alaotra. 

Specimens  to  the  number  of  16  were  collected  by  the  Mission 
Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31  (Delacour,  1932, 
p.  219). 

Rand  writes  as  follows  (1935,  pp.  101-102) : 

We  encountered  the  indri  only  in  the  heavy  forest  of  the  northeast,  from 
sea  level  to  1800  meters,  and  found  some  surprising  discrepancies  in  their  range. 
About  the  Bay  of  Antongil  they  were  common  forty  kilometers  northwest 
of  Maroantsetra,  but  at  Maroantsetra,  two  days  northeast,  altitude  1000 
meters,  where  the  forest  was  equally  heavy  and  continuous  with  that  near 
Maroantsetra,  none  were  found.  Again,  east  and  north  of  Andapa  there  is 
magnificent  humid  forest  but  none  were  heard  in  it,  although  west  of  Andapa, 
perhaps  eight  kilometers  away  in  similar  forest  continuous  with  the  former, 
they  were  common.  .  .  . 

The  flesh  of  these  creatures  was  well  flavored  but  usually  so  tough  and 
hard  even  when  the  animals  were  fat  that  it  was  rather  unsatisfactory  food. 

Many  writers  have  said  that  this  species  is  sacred  to  the  Malagash.  This 
certainly  is  not  true  for  the  Malagash  as  a  whole,  for  the  people  of  the 
south  who  had  migrated  to  this  part  of  the  island  had  no  objection  to 
skinning  or  eating  these  creatures,  and  even  the  native  Betsimisaraka  and 
Tsimihity  were  quite  ready  to  assist  us  in  locating  and  shooting  them,  though 
the  Tsimihity  at  Andapa,  one  day  west,  would  not  eat  the  flesh. 

Eastern  Woolly  Avahi.    Avahis  laineux  oriental  (Fr.) 

AVAHI   LANIGER  LANIGER    (J.   F.   Gmelhl) 

[Lemur}  laniger  J.  F.  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat.,  vol.  1,  pt.  1,  p.  44,  1788.  ("Mada- 
gascar." Lorenz-Liburnau  (1898,  p.  452)  restricts  this  subspecies  to  the 
east  coast,  and  refers  to  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier  (1875a,  6),  whose 
pi.  9  represents  a  specimen  from  the  Bay  of  Antongil.  The  vicinity  of 
this  bay  may  be  considered  the  restricted  type  locality.) 

SYNONYMS:  Lemur  brunneus  Link  (1795);  Lemur  lanatus  Schreber  (1800?); 
Indris  longicaudatus  fi.  Geoffrey  (1812) ;  Semnocebus  avahi  Lesson 
(1840);  Avahis  laniger  orientalis  Lorenz-Liburnau  (1898). 

FIGS.:  Sonnerat,  Voy.  Indes  or.  et  Chine,  vol.  2,  pi.  89,  1782;  Schreber,  Saug- 
thiere,  vol.  5,  pi.  42  A,  1800(?);  Gervais,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif.,  pt.  1,  pi.  7, 
1854;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1866,  pi.  15;  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier, 
18756,  pi.  9;  Forbes,  1894,  pi.  10;  Elliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  col.  pi.  7. 

At  the  present  time  this  appears  to  be  one  of  the  less  common 
of  the  Madagascar  lemurs. 

The  hair  is  long  and  woolly,  mouse  gray  at  the  base,  reddish 
brown  in  the  middle,  black  at  the  tips;  face  broad,  covered  with 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  157 

grayish-brown  hairs;  nose-pad  alone  nude;  ears  concealed,  rufous; 
a  whitish  band  across  the  forehead,  bordered  anteriorly  by  a  black 
band ;  back  grayish  brown ;  a  patch  over  the  rump  and  region  about 
the  base  of  the  tail  white,  washed  with  rufous;  under  parts  and 
inner  surface  of  limbs  gray,  washed  with  rufous;  tail  bright  dark 
red,  deepest  at  its  extremity  (Forbes,  1894,  p.  95).  Body,  300  mm.; 
tail,  390  mm.  (Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  1875a,  p.  327). 

"A.  I.  laniger  inhabits  the  whole  forest  region  of  north-eastern, 
eastern,  and  south-central  Madagascar."  Specimens  are  recorded 
from  the  following  localities:  Vohemar,  NE.  coast;  Lakato  Forest, 
Ankay,  NE.  of  Tananarive;  Ambohitra,  Kolaby  Forest,  N.  Betsileo; 
Vinanitelo,  "S.W."  [-S.E.],  Betsileo;  Fianarantsoa,  central  Bet- 
sileo. (Schwarz,  1931,  p.  426.) 

According  to  Pollen  (1868,  p.  21),  this  species  appears  to  be  more 
common  than  the  Indri.  It  is  recorded  from  the  lie  Sainte-Marie  as 
well  as  from  the  mainland  of  Madagascar. 

The  Avahi  does  not  live  in  bands,  but  is  always  found  singly  or 
in  pairs.  Its  diet  is  exclusively  vegetable.  (Milne  Edwards  and 
Grandidier,  1875a,  p.  329;  1875b,  map,  pi.  122.) 

"The  first  specimen  .  .  .  was  brought  to  Europe  by  Sonnerat 
.  .  .  in  1781,  and  nearly  half  a  century  elapsed  before  a  second  one 
was  obtained"  (Forbes,  1894,  p.  96). 

G.  M.  Allen  (1918,  p.  515)  records  a  specimen  from  the  Eastern 
Forest. 

The  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31 
obtained  only  9  specimens  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  219) . 

Rand  (1935,  p.  102)  records  several  individuals,  including  a  party 
of  three,  from  the  vicinity  of  Vondrozo  in  the  southeast. 

Western  Woolly  Avahi.    Avahis  laineux  occidental   (Fr.) 

AVAHI  LANIGER  OCCIDENTALIS  (Lorenz-Liburnau) 

Avahis  laniger  occidentalis  Lorenz-Liburnau,  Abh.  Senckenb.  Naturf.  Ges., 
vol.  21,  p.  452,  1898.  ("Ambundube,"  near  Betsako,  near  Majunga,  north- 
western Madagascar.) 

FIG.:    Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier,  18756,  pi.  10. 

According  to  native  report,  this  animal  is  not  uncommon  on  the 
Ankarafantsika  Plateau  and  on  the  Bongolava  of  northwestern 
Madagascar  (Kaudern,  1915,  p.  2). 

Upper  parts  gray,  with  a  yellowish-brown  shade;  woolly  hair  at 
the  base  of  the  tail  thin;  tail  reddish  brown,  toward  the  end  more 
blackish  brown ;  hands  and  feet  yellowish  brown ;  face  whitish ;  un- 
der parts  cream-colored.  Body,  330  mm.;  tail,  195  mm.  (Lorenz- 
Liburnau,  1898,  p.  452) . 

Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier  wrote  (1875a,  p.  329)  that  this 


158  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

western  form  occurs  between  Mount  d'Ambre  and  Anorontsangana, 
near  the  Bay  of  Passandava.  Since  then  the  range  has  been  extended 
considerably  to  the  southward. 

"Collected  by  van  Dam  at  Kakamba  and  Ampasidava,  N.W. 
coast,  by  Voeltzkow  and  [  =  at]  Ambundube  near  Betsako,  and  by 
Kaudern  from  the  Mahajamba  River  near  Ste.  Marie  de  Marovoay. 
The  range  of  this  race  includes  the  north-west  coast  as  far  south  as 
the  Bay  of  Bombetoka;  the  northern  and  eastern  limits  are  not 
certain."  (Schwarz,  1931,  p.  427.) 

Family  DAUBENTONIIDAE:    Aye-aye 

The  single  representative  of  this  family,  the  remarkable  Aye-aye, 
occurs  in  Madagascar,  where  it  is  decidedly  rare. 

Aye-aye 

DAUBENTONIA  MADAGASCARIENSIS  (J.  F.  Gmelin) 

[Sciurus]  madagascariensis  J.  F.  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat.,  vol.  1,  pt.  1,  p.  152, 
1788.  (Based  •  upon  the  "Aye-aye"  of  Sonnerat  (Voy.  Indes  or.  et 
Chine,  vol.  2,  p.  137,  1782) ;  type  locality,  "in  occidental!  parte  insulae 
Madagascar.") 

SYNONYM:  Lemur  psilodactilus  Schreber  (Saugthiere,  vol.  4,  pi.  38  D,  1800?); 
Cheiromys  madagascariensis  var.  laniger  G.  Grandidier  (1929). 

FIGS:  Sonnerat,  Voy.  Indes  or.  et  Chine,  vol.  2,  pi.  86,  1782;  Schreber, 
Saugthiere,  vol.  4,  pi.  38  D,  1800?;  Owen,  1863,  pis.  14-19;  Wolf,  1867, 
pi.  3;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  241,  fig,  1893-94;  Forbes,  1894,  pi.  1; 
Beddard,  1902,  p.  548,  fig.  263;  Lydekker,  1903,  frontisp.;  Elliot,  1907, 
p.  552,  fig.  80;  EJliot,  1913,  vol.  1,  pi.  1;  G.  Grandidier,  Bull.  Acad. 
Malgache,  n.  s.,  vol.  11,  pi.  facing  p.  101,  (1928)  1929. 

The  Aye-aye  is  perhaps  the  rarest  as  well  as  the  most  interesting 
of  all  the  surviving  lemurs  of  Madagascar. 

The  head  is  short  and  round;  patches  of  bristles  above  eyes  and 
nose  and  on  cheeks  and  chin;  eyes  round,  prominent;  ears  large, 
rounded,  naked,  black;  tail  bushy,  with  hairs  3-4  inches  long; 
middle  digit  attenuated  and  wirelike.  Fur  on  back,  flanks,  tail, 
and  limbs  dark  brown,  nearly  black;  long  hairs  on  top  of  head  and 
back  of  neck  tipped  with  white;  face,  throat,  under  parts  of  body, 
and  inner  side  of  limbs  yellowish  white;  feet  and  digits  black;  tail 
often  with  long  white  hairs  throughout.  Head  and  body,  18  inches; 
tail,  18  inches.  (J.  F.  Gmelin,  1788,  p.  152,  and  Forbes,  1894, 
pp.  14-16.) 

"I  have  not  seen  any  specimen  with  definite  locality.  The  range 
of  this  animal  appears  to  include  the  whole  forested  portion  of 
Madagascar  in  the  east,  and  apparently  also  in  the  north-west." 
(Schwarz,  1931,  p.  427.) 

"I  am  told  that  the  Aye-aye  is  an  object  of  veneration  at  Mada- 


ORDER  PRIMATES:  PRIMATES 


159 


gascar,  and  that  if  any  native  touches  one,  he  is  sure  to  die  within 
the  year;  hence  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  specimen.  I  overcame 
this  scruple  by  a  reward  of  £10."  (H.  Sandwith,  in  Owen,  1863, 
p.  38.) 

This  animal  inhabits  by  preference  the  bamboo  forests  of  the 
interior.  According  to  the  natives,  it  is  very  rare;  it  lives  solitarily 


JE,  . 


FIG.  18. — Aye-aye    (Daubentonia  madagascariensis) .    From   photo  in  Brehm. 

or  in  pairs;  and  it  is  essentially  nocturnal.  It  feeds  on  the  pith  of 
bamboos  and  sugarcane  and  also  on  beetles  and  their  larvae. 
(Pollen,  1868,  p.  22.) 

"The  Aye-aye  lives  in  the  dense  parts  of  the  great  forest  that 
runs  along  the  eastern  border  of  the  central  plateau  of  the  island, 
but  only  in  that  part  of  it  which  separates  the  Sihanaka  Province 
from  that  of  the  Betsimisaraka,  and  which  is  about  twenty-five 
miles  from  the  east  coast,  in  latitude  17°  22'  S.  or  thereabouts.  .  .  . 
From  what  I  have  gathered  from  the  natives,  it  seems  to  be  pretty 
common,  its  nocturnal  habits  and  the  superstitious  awe  with  which 
it  is  regarded  .  .  .  accounting  for  its  apparent  rarity  .... 

"Occasionally  it  is  brought  to  Tamatave  for  sale,  where  it  realizes 
a  good  sum.  Now  and  then  it  is  accidentally  caught  in  the  traps 
which  the  natives  set  for  Lemurs."  (Baron,  1883,  pp.  639-640.) 


160  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"Many  of  the  Betsimisaraka  still  believe  that  the  Haihay  is  the 
embodiment  of  their  forefathers,  and  hence  will  not  touch  it,  much 
less  do  it  an  injury.  It  is  said  that  when  one  is  discovered  dead  in 
the  forest,  these  people  make  a  tomb  for  it  and  bury  it  with  all  the 
formality  of  a  funeral."  (G.  A.  Shaw,  1883,  p.  45.) 

"It  was  first  discovered  by  Sonnerat  during  his  travels  in  Mada- 
gascar in  1780,  and  by  him  sent  to  Paris.  The  skin  remained  unique 
in  Europe  for  the  best  part  of  a  century.  ...  It  was  for  a  long 
period,  and  is  still,  very  difficult  to  procure,  or  to  induce  the  natives 
to  capture,  specimens."  (Forbes,  1894,  pp.  16-17.) 

Elliot  (1913,  vol.  1,  p.  2)  gives  the  range  as  "east  coast  from 
Bay  of  Antongil  to  Mahanoro." 

Kaudern  (1915,  p.  1)  records  four  specimens  from  the  forests  west 
of  Fenerive  and  Tamatave  on  the  east  coast.  He  also  mentions 
(p.  2)  some  questionable  reports  of  the  species  on  the  Ankara- 
fantsika  Plateau  in  the  northwest. 

G.  M.  Allen  (1918,  p.  516)  records  a  specimen  from  Fenerive  on 
the  Maningory  River. 

"The  only  aye-aye  seen  [by  the  Mission  Zoologique  Franco- 
Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-31]  was  in  the  northwest.  Throughout 
the  rain  forest  of  the  east  we  found  few  who  knew  this  creature, 
but  in  the  Sambirano  it  was  well  known  to  the  natives  by  name, 
though  few  had  seen  it.  All  of  them  said  it  fed  on  bamboo  and  was 
very  ferocious.  .  .  .  Our  -single  specimen  was  collected  at  Ampasa- 
mena,  a  fishing  village  on  the  coast  ....  This  individual  ventured 
into  the  village  during  the  early  part  of  the  night  and  was  walking 
about  amongst  the  houses  when  found  by  a  native,  who  impaled  it 
on  a  fish  spear.  It  was  evidently  not  common  or  else  not  often  seen 
as  the  chief  of  the  village,  a  gray-haired  old  man  .  .  .  ,  knew  the 
beast  by  name  but  had  never  seen  one  before."  (Rand,  1935,  p.  103.) 

In  view  of  the  general  tolerance  and  even  awe  exhibited  by  the 
natives  toward  the  Aye-aye,  its  rarity  and  possibly  approaching 
extinction  must  be  attributable  to  more  or  less  natural  causes,  as 
yet  undetermined. 

Family  COLOBIDAE:    Leaf-eating  Monkeys 

The  handsome  Colobus  Monkeys  are  externally  distinguished 
among  African  species  by  the  reduction  of  the  thumb,  which  is 
either  very  small  or  altogether  absent.  A  further  point  of  structure 
is  in  the  sacculation  of  the  stomach,  a  means  probably  for  giving 
greater  capacity  and  a  larger  absorbing  surface  to  the  digestive 
system,  for  the  species  are  typically  leaf-eaters  and  must  in  conse- 
quence live  upon  a  type  of  food  requiring  bulk  and  much  digestion. 
Two  chief  types  occur,  the  black-and-white  and  the  red  groups. 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  161 

These  show  much  local  variation,  and  many  names  have  been  ap- 
plied. According  to  the  latest  reviser,  Schwarz,  however,  these  may 
be  regarded  as  representing  but  two  distinct  species,  each  with  19 
or  20  races,  or  some  39  in  all.  They  are  typically  monkeys  of  the 
great  rain  forest,  from  French  Guinea  south  to  Angola,  and  across 
the  Congo  Basin  to  the  more  isolated  rain-forest  and  gallery  forest 
of  Abyssinia  (Ethiopia),  Kenya,  Tanganyika,  and  Zanzibar.  Over 
a  large  part  of  this  range  both  species  in  one  race  or  another  occur 
together,  but  in  some  regions  only  one  of  them  is  found,  as  in  Zanzi- 
bar, Kirk's  Red  Colobus,  or  in  Abyssinia  where  the  black-and- 
white  Guereza  is  alone  represented.  Both  were  first  made  known 
from  the  West  Coast,  Sierra  Leone. 

G.  M.  A. 

Black-and-white  Colobus;  Guereza 

COLOBUS  POLYKOMOS  (Zimmermann)  and  races 

Cebus    polykomos    Zimmermann,    Geogr.    Geschichte,    vol.    2,    p.    202,    1780. 

(Sierra  Leone.) 

SYNONYMS  and  list  of  valid  races:    Schwarz  (1929). 
FIGS.:   Elliot,  1913,  vol.  3,  pis.  3,  18,  19. 

In  these  handsome  black-and-white  monkeys,  the  hair  of  the 
flanks  and  hips  tends  to  become  elongate,  the  tail  distinctly  tufted, 
with  progressive  increase  in  amount  of  white  from  all-black  forms 
(satanas)  as  in  the  Cameroons,  to  those  with  little  and  much  white. 
The  most  handsome  of  the  races  is  perhaps  kikuyuensis  of  Mount 
Kenya  or  the  race  caudatus  of  Mount  Kilimanjaro.  For  the  char- 
acters and  synonymy  of  the  various  races,  see  Schwarz  (1929). 

On  account  of  the  long  fine  hair  which  forms  the  prominent 
fringes  along  the  sides,  these  monkeys  are  sometimes  referred  to  as 
"shawl  monkeys."  This  quality  seems  also  to  have  made  them 
desirable  as  fur  so  that  a  great  many  are  killed.  There  is  little  in- 
formation at  hand  as  to  the  extent  of  this  trade.  Leplae  (1925), 
however,  states  that  in  the  Belgian  Congo  the  fur  has  a  rather  high 
commercial  value,  and  the  species  would  be  threatened  with  extinc- 
tion if  it  were  not  protected  by  law.  Such  protection  is  given  in  the 
British  colonies  but  apparently  not  in  the  Congo  to  the  extent  that 
it  should  be,  although  since  1929  it  is  given  partial  protection.  In 
Kenya  Colony  the  race  kikuyuensis  occurs  and  on  account  of  the 
length  of  its  white  "shawl"  is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  the  races. 
Its  fur  is,  or  not  long  ago  was,  much  used  by  the  natives  in  personal 
decoration.  Portions  of  the  black-and-white  fur  are  used  as  anklets 
(particularly  by  the  young  men)  or  as  caps.  In  the  Gabun  A.  R. 
Maclatchy  (in  litt.,  February  5,  1937)  found  them  numerous  in 
bands  in  the  mountainous  region  of  Mimongo.  They  are  of  sedentary 
habits  and  affect  the  high,  abrupt  mountains.  "The  vogue  which 


162  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

their  magnificent  skin  enjoyed  lately  and  even  today  has  been  the 
cause  of  intensive  hunting.  A  furrier  of  my  acquaintance  spoke  of 
having  30,000  skins  in  stock,  collected  from  various  parts  of  Africa 
over  several  years.  In  view  of  the  animal's  restricted  habitat,  one 
must  admit  that  the  protective  decree  was  not  unnecessary."  These 
monkeys  are  placed  in  Schedule  B  of  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 

In  general  habits  the  Colobus  Monkeys  are  in  the  main  animals 
of  the  dense  saturate  forests;  they  are  not  easy  to  find  or  shoot 
and  will  often  show  considerable  adroitness  in  hiding.  Their  food 
consists  largely  of  leaves,  perhaps  also  lichens,  among  the  hanging 
festoons  of  which  some  of  the  races  live,  and  probably  small  forest 
fruits  are  also  taken.  Heller  has  recorded  that  in  the  Lado  his  party 
came  upon  a  troop  of  Colobus  among  thorn  scrub,  to  which  they  had 
come  seeking  the  ripening  bean  pods,  but  on  being  approached  they 
made  off  over  the  ground  to  the  nearest  high  forest.  Such  foraging 
excursions  must  rather  seldom  be  made  in  the  case  of  the  forms 
which  are  more  strictly  high-forest  dwellers.  Apart  from  man,  their 
enemies  are  probably  limited  to  leopards  and  the  big  crested  eagles, 
the  food  of  which  consists  in  part  of  monkeys. 

While  there  seems  to  be  little  evidence  that  any  of  the  races  is 
at  present  threatened  with  extinction,  and  since  the  demand  for 
their  furs  seems  to  have  become  less,  they  will  no  doubt  be  favored 
by  a  limited  permission  to  shoot  specimens. 

G.  M.  A. 

Red  Colobus 

COLOBUS  RADIUS   (Kerr)   and  races 

Simia  (Cercopithecus)  badius  Kerr,  Anim.  Kingdom  of  Linnaeus,  p.  74,  1792. 

(Sierra  Leone,  based  on  the  Bay  Monkey  of  Pennant.) 
SYNONYMS  and  list  of  valid  races:   See  Schwarz,  E.,  Zeitschr.  f.  Saugetierkunde, 

vol.  3,  pp.  92-97,  June,  1928. 
FIGS.:   Elliot,  1913,  vol.  3,  pis.  5,  6,  14-16  (animal  and  skulls). 

The  Red  Colobus  Monkeys  include  no  less  than  20  recognized 
races  and  differ  in  color  from  the  black-and-white  group,  in  having 
the  fur  more  or  less  black  and  red  in  varying  pattern.  Since  the 
fur  is  not  as  modified  in  long  fringing  patches  along  the  sides,  it  is 
not  in  special  demand.  Nevertheless  one  or  two  of  the  races  are 
rare  or  localized  and  may  require  special  protection  for  their  con- 
tinued safety. 

G.  M.  A. 

Gordons9  Red  Colobus 

COLOBUS  BADIUS  GORDONORUM  (Matschie) 

Piliocolobus  gordonorum,  Matschie,  Sitzb.  Ges.  Naturf.  Freunde  Berlin,  1900, 
p.  186.    (Uzungwe  Mountains,  Uhehe,  Tanganyika  Territory.) 


ORDEE  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  163 

This  rather  strikingly  colored  subspecies  is  known  only  from  a 
circumscribed  area  in  the  Uzungwe  Mountains  to  the  northeast  of 
Lake  Tanganyika.  The  name  was  based  on  a  single  imperfect  skin 
found  in  a  native  hut  and  two  other  skins  secured  by  the  brothers 
von  Gordon,  for  whom  it  is  named.  In  1923  Kershaw  recorded  an- 
other specimen  secured  in  the  same  region  by  Arthur  Loveridge, 
who  on  a  second  visit  obtained  four  others  for  the  Museum  of  Com- 
parative Zoology. 

The  top  of  the  head  is  deep  ferruginous,  the  back  shining  black; 
forelimbs  black,  hind  limbs  mixed  black  and  silvery,  the  tail  mixed 
black  and  ochraceous;  lower  surfaces  white. 

On  the  somewhat  isolated  Uzungwe  Mountain  range  Mr.  Loveridge 
found  this  monkey  but  once,  when  at  an  altitude  of  some  5,000  feet 
he  came  upon  a  troop  just  at  dusk.  They  live  in  high  forest  and  are 
with  difficulty  obtained.  Their  nearest  relative  is  perhaps  Kirk's 
Red  Colobus  of  Zanzibar.  Their  chief  danger  is  perhaps  from  native 
hunters,  but  also  possibly  in  future  encroachments  upon  the  small 
area  of  forest  to  which  they  are  confined. 

G.  M.  A. 

Kirk's  Red  Colobus 

COLOBUS  BADIUS  KIRKII  Gray 

Colobus  kirkii  Gray,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1868,  p.  180,  May,  1868.    ("Zan- 
zibar.") 
FIGS.:   Gray,  op.  cit.,  pi.  15;  Elliot,  1913,  vol.  3,  pi.  16  (skull). 

Restricted  to  the  Island  of  Zanzibar,  this  form  is  in  danger  only 
to  the  extent  that  future  settlement  and  cultivation  may  reduce  its 
area  of  habitat. 

Forehead  and  sides  of  head  yellowish  white,  the  long  hairs  extend- 
ing beyond  the  sides  of  the  head;  crown,  lower  part  of  neck,  back 
from  shoulders,  reddish  brown;  shoulders,  outer  side  of  arms,  hands 
and  feet  black;  throat  and  under  parts  grayish  white;  tail  dull 
reddish  brown. 

The  chief  interest  of  this  monkey,  apart  from  its  island  habitat 
to  which  no  member  of  the  black-and-white  group  extends,  is  that 
in  the  skull  the  median  frontal  suture  remains  open  into  adult  life, 
a  rare  condition  sometimes  found  also  in  man. 

This  monkey  was  first  secured  and  sent  to  Europe  by  Sir  John 
Kirk  in  1868.  He  regarded  it  as  rare  at  that  time  but  in  1884  wrote 
that  it  was  still  to  be  found  in  many  of  the  wooded  districts  of  the 
island,  although  "so  rare  as  not  to  be  procurable,  even  when  I  sent 
the  hunters  over  the  island.  I  have  a  report  that  it  exists  still  in 
one  spot,  which  they  could  not  reach.  ...  It  looks  as  if  the  animal 
will  be  lost  to  science.  This  is  due  to  the  destruction  of  forest  and 
jungle  over  the  island."  Two  years  later  Sir  Harry  Johnston  wrote 


164  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

that  it  had  "disappeared  from  nearly  every  part  of  the  island  of 
Zanzibar,  but  a  rumor  prevailed  that  -it  still  lingered  on  a  clump  of 
forest  as  yet  unvisited  by  hunters."  On  sending  his  hunters  thither, 
they  returned  after  a  week's  absence,  bringing  12  dead  monkeys, 
with  the  report  that  they  had  killed  every  one,  so  that,  as  Sir  Harry 
supposed,  this  animal  too  had  gone  to  "the  limbo  of  species  ex- 
tinguished by  the  act  of  man."  Nevertheless  these  evidently  were 
not  the  last,  and  even  to  this  day  a  few  still  remain  on  the  island, 
but  of  their  number  and  present  status  no  information  is  at  hand, 
beyond  the  fact  that  Arthur  Loveridge  procured  a  pair  there  in  1923. 

G.  M.  A. 

Family  PONGIDAE:   Anthropoid  Apes 

The  two  forms  of  Gorillas  (genus  Gorilla)  and  the  four  forms  of 
Chimpanzees  (genus  Pan)  are  found  in  central  Africa.  The  third 
genus  of  the  family,  the  Orang-utan  (Pongo) ,  is  represented  by  one 
species,  occurring  in  Borneo  and  in  Sumatra.  As  man's  nearest 
living  relatives,  these  apes  have  an  exceptional  interest  for  us,  and 
their  generally  waning  numbers  call  for  a  discussion  of  each  form 
in  this  volume. 

Orang-utan.    "Mias"   (Borneo) ;  "Mawas"   (Sumatra) 
PONGO  PYGMAEUS  (Hoppius) 

Simia  pygmaeus  Hoppius,  Amoenit.  Acad.,  1763,  p.  68.    (Locality  unknown.) 

SYNONYMS:   Simla  satyrus  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  12,  vol.  1,  p.  34,  1766  (not 

of  the  10th  ed.) ;  Pongo  wurmbi  Tiedemann,  Zool.,  p.  329,  1808  (Borneo)  ; 

Simia  morio  Owen,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1836,  p.  92,  1837  (Borneo) ; 

Simla  abelii  Clarke,  Asiatick  Researches,  vol.  16,  p.  489,  pis.  1,  3,  4.  5, 

1825    (Sumatra).    For   extensive   synonymy,   including   names  given   by 

Selenka  and  others,  see  Elliot  (1913,  vol.  3,  pp.  192-195). 

FIGS.:    Elliot,  1913,  vol.  3,  pis.  5  (photos  of  animal),  23-28  (skulls);  Carpenter 

and  Coolidge,  1938,  fig.  opp.  p.  18;  Yerkes  and  Yerkes,  1929,  figs.  43-66. 

It  is  at  present  believed  that  the  Bornean  and  Sumatran  Orangs 
are  not  separable  even  subspecifically ;  at  least  they  represent  the 
same  species  and  are  not  found  living  elsewhere.  No  doubt  they  in- 
habited the  Asiatic  mainland  at  no  very  distant  time,  but  with  the 
separation  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra  from  the  Malay  Peninsula  the 
populations  of  these  islands  were  cut  off  and  have  survived  to  the 
present.  On  the  mainland,  remains  of  anthropoids  resembling  the 
Orang  are  known  from  the  Siwalik  Hills  of  India,  but  there  seems 
to  be  no  evidence  of  their  survival  to  the  historic  period. 

The  adult  Orang-utan  is  a  large  shaggy  animal,  of  dark  rufous 
color.  The  profile  of  the  skull  is  much  more  sloping  than  in  the 
African  anthropoids,  the  skull  showing  very  little  of  the  brow  ridges 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  165 

so  prominent  in  the  latter.  The  arms  are  very  long,  reaching  to 
the  ankles  when  the  animal  is  erect;  foot  long  and  narrow,  the 
great  toe  very  short.  Tail  absent.  Prominent  cheek  callosities  some- 
times present  in  adult  males.  Wallace,  who  measured  17  freshly 
killed  Orangs,  states  that  adult  males  "only  varied  from  4  feet  1 
inch  to  4  feet  2  inches  in  height,  measured  fairly  to  the  heel,  so  as 
to  give  the  height  of  the  animal  if  it  stood  perfectly  erect;  the  extent 
of  the  outstretched  arms  from  7  feet  2  inches  to  7  feet  8  inches."  The 
total  length  of  a  Bornean  skull  is  said  to  be  246  mm.  (Elliot) ,  for 
the  largest  of  many.  Selenka  gives  series  of  measurements.  For  an 
excellent  account  of  the  history,  characters,  psychology,  see  Yerkes 
and  Yerkes  (1929). 

The  Orang  is  a  much  more  lethargic  animal  than  the  African 
anthropoids,  moving  leisurely  through  the  forest,  seeking  various 
fruits,  especially  those  of  the  durian,  of  which  it  is  extremely 
fond.  Leaves  and  bark  of  certain  trees  are  also  eaten.  It  is  some- 
what social  and  may  be  found  singly  or  in  pairs  or  in  small  groups. 
Banks  (1931)  writes: 

In  a  wild  state  and  unmolested,  Mias  exhibit  little  more  than  a  benevolent 
curiosity  towards  men  and  the  extremely  child-like  and  almost  pathetic 
expressions  that  can  be  assumed  in  captivity  point  to  the  Mias  as  an  extremely 
peaceful  and  gentle  animal  when  left  to  himself,  always  remembering  of 
course  that  both  temper  and  strength  are  there  in  reserve  for  use  when 
aroused.  .  .  .  [They]  make  a  kind  of  platform  of  sticks  on  which  they  sleep 
at  night  and  even  during  the  day  but  I  have  never  seen  captive  ones  make 
any  sort  of  roof  or  make  use  of  leaves  to  keep  the  rain  off,  as  is  sometimes 
alleged.  Nests  are  of  two  kinds,  either  a  flat  platform  or  more  usually  a 
deep  triangular  shaped  affair  in  the  upright  fork  of  a  tree.  ...  I  counted 
eleven  such  nests  still  with  green  leaves  all  close  together  near  a  "Kayu 
Ara"  fruit  tree  where  a  pair  were  feeding.  .  .  . 

The  distribution  of  the  Mias  in  Sarawak  is  peculiar  in  its  relations  to  the 
rest  of  Borneo;  it  occurs  in  parts  of  N.  Borneo  .  .  .  and  it  is  common  in 
W.  Borneo,  the  Landak  River  and  right  up  the  Kapuas  River.  Now  the 
Mias  is  very  sensibly  fond  of  neither  cold  nor  rain,  in  fact  the  damp  is  his 
worst  enemy  and  for  this  among  other  reasons  the  occurrence  of  Mias  at  3000 
ft.  is  very  exceptional  nor  is  he  as  common  in  the  immediate  lower  vicinity 
of  mountains  as  he  is  at  the  foot.  For  some  70  miles  the  Kalinkang  Moun- 
tains run  N.E.  and  S.W.  forming  a  watershed  between  that  part  of  the  Kapuas 
River  running  S.W.  and  numerous  short  Sarawak  rivers  running  West  into 
the  sea  and  it  is  obvious  that  these  mountains  form  an  obstacle  to  the 
movements  of  Mias  which  are  common  on  the  Kapuas  and  curiously  on 
the  Sarawak  side.  The  explanation  lies  I  think  in  a  gap  in  the  Kalinkang 
Mountains  which  towards  Lobok  Antu  slope  away  almost  to  sea  level, 
eventually  to  rise  on  the  other  side  of  the  Batang  Lupar  Mts.  and  stretch 
away  unbroken  northwards  into  central  Borneo.  It  is  therefore  more  or  less 
true  that  the  Mias  is  confined  to  a  range  bounded  on  the  N.E.  by  the  Rejang 
River,  on  the  west  by  the  Sadong  River:  the  Orang  Utan  has  flowed  through 
from  Dutch  Borneo  and  filled  up  suitable  and  available  places. 

In  upper  Sarawak  the  Orang  was  formerly  reported,  but  these 
reports  are  doubtful,  although  Everett  records  two  imperfect  skulls 


166 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 


found  in  a  crevice  of  the  limestone  hills  at  Paku,  but  at  present 
it  is  absent  from  all  that  region  adjacent  to  the  watershed  of  the 
Landak  River.  According  to  Wallace,  it  has  a  wide  distribution 


FIG.  19. — Orang-utan    (Pongo   pygmaeus).    From    photo    of   specimen   in 
Philadelphia  Zoo. 

in  the  low  country,  inhabiting  many  districts  not  only  on  the  south- 
west and  southeast,  but  also  on  the  northeast  and  northwest  coasts, 
but  of  its  more  exact  local  distribution  at  the  present  time  little 
information  is  at  hand. 

In  Sumatra,  the  only  place  outside  of  Borneo  where  the  Orang 
is  native,  it  is  now  confined  to  the  former  state  of  Atjeh,  which 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  167 

comprises  practically  the  northwestern  quarter  of  the  island.  In 
their  recent  report  on  the  animal  here,  Carpenter  and  Coolidge 
(1938)  indicate  that  the  regions  of  Lami,  Tapa  Toean,  and  Ba- 
kongan  are  the  places  on  the  west  coast  of  Atjeh  where  Orang-utans 
live  in  the  largest  numbers.  They  occur  over  the  greater  part  of 
Atjeh  except  the  high  central  districts  above  1,500  meters,  the  cul- 
tivated and  thickly  populated  districts  on  the  east  coast,  the  grass- 
lands of  the  north,  the  rough  mountains  north  of  Lamno,  and  culti- 
vated sections  of  the  west  coast,  especially  around  Meulaboh. 
Although  an  estimate  of  the  numbers  and  normal  density  of  popu- 
lation is  largely  guesswork,  it  seems  likely  that  the  centers  of  abun- 
dance are  "around  the  Simpang  Kanan  and  Peureulak  Rivers  on 
the  East  Coast,  and  along  the  West  Coast  in  suitable  forests  from 
Lami  to  Singkel."  They  show  a  marked  preference  for  lowlands 
but  may  range  up  to  1,500  meters,  though  with  a  sharp  decrease 
above  700  or  800  meters.  There  is  some  evidence  of  local  move- 
ments following  the  seasonal  ripening  of  certain  fruits  on  which  they 
feed.  In  summary,  these  authors  state  that  the  Orang  is  found  in 
"an  estimated  fifty  per  cent  of  the  primary  forests"  in  Atjeh;  "as 
large  clearings  are  made  in*  the  rather  level  lowlands,  these  apes 
are  being  destroyed  or  forced  into  the  hills  and  mountains  where 
it  is  questionable  whether  or  not  conditions,  including  food  supply, 
are  sufficiently  suitable  for  the  maintenance  of  the  present  popula- 
tion level.  However,  large  areas  of  Atjeh,  because  of  its  rugged 
topography  and  inaccessibility,  will  remain  naturally  protected  for 
a  long  time  as  an  orang-utan  habitat.  Europeans  and  not  natives 
threaten  the  orang-utan  population,  the  most  serious  inroads  being 
made  by  commercial  developments  in  the  areas  suitable  for  orang- 
utan habitats.  Numbers  of  these  apes  are  being  shot  annually  under 
the  supposition  that  they  attack  human  beings,  and  it  is  feared 
that  government  records  do  not  accurately  record  all  animals  cap- 
tured or  killed." 

For  the  better  preservation  of  these  interesting  apes,  the  authors 
recommend  an  extension  of  the  present  Alas  National  Park  or  Loser 
Reservation  and  the  development  of  a  smaller  reserve  especially  for 
Orangs  south  of  Meulaboh,  together  with  the  planting  of  food  trees, 
especially  the  durian.  Further,  the  desirability  of  additional  reserves 
and  special  measures  is  advocated,  particularly  that  "the  killing 
and  capture  of  this  animal  for  trading  or  exhibition  purposes  be 
completely  stopped  and  that  its  use  for  accredited  but  limited  scien- 
tific purposes  alone  be  permitted." 

G.  M.  A. 


168  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Coast  Gorilla.    Gorille   (Fr.).    Gorilla   (Ger.) 

GORILLA  GORILLA  GORILLA  (Savage  and  Wyman) 

Troglodytes']  gorilla  Savage  and  Wyman,  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2, 
p.  245,  1847.  ("Empongwe,  near  the  river  Gaboon,  Africa";  about  lat. 
0°  20'  N.,  long.  9°  30'  E.) 

FIGS.:  Gervais,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammiferes,  pt.  1,  pis.  facing  pp.  26,  28,  1854; 
Du  Chaillu,  1861,  frontisp.;  Forbes,  1894,  vol.  2,  pi.  28;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 
London  1896,  p.  505,  fig.;  Elliot,  1913,  vol.  3,  frontisp.;  Cunningham, 
1921,  pp.  119-124,  figs.;  Barns,  1923,  figs.  45,  46,  50,  51;  Yerkes  and  Yerkes, 
1929,  numerous  figs.;  Coolidge,  1936,  pi.  12;  Raven,  1936a,  p.  316,  fig.; 
Fauna  [Philadelphia],  vol.  1,  no.  1,  pp.  8-9,  figs.,  1939. 

The  Coast  Gorilla  is  generally  considered  to  be  diminishing  in 
numbers  but  not  to  be  in  danger  of  extermination.  All  gorillas  are 
given  full  protection  under  Schedule  A  of  the  London  Convention 
of  1933. 

"This  animal  ...  is  much  larger  and  more  ferocious  than  the 
Chimpanzee.  Its  height  is  above  five  feet;  but  it  is  remarkable  for 
the  disproportionate  breadth  of  the  shoulders,  which  is  double  that 
of  the  Chimpanzee.  The  hair  is  coarse,  and  black,  except  in  old 
individuals,  when  it  becomes  gray.  The  head  is  longer  than  that  of 
an  ordinary  man  by  two  inches,  and  is  remarkable  for  having  a  crest 
of  coarse  hair  over  the  sagittal  suture,  which  meets  at  right  angles 
a  second,  extending  over  the  upper  part  of  the  occiput,  from  one 
ear  to  the  other.  The  fore-arm  is  much  shorter  than  the  arm,  the 
hand  is  remarkable  for  its  great  size,  and  the  thumbs  larger  than 
the  fingers."  (Savage  and  Wyman,  1847,  pp.  245-246.) 

"Face  and  chest  bare,  black;  .  .  .  arms  and  belly  black;  back 
and  outside  of  thighs  gray  grading  into  black  towards  ankles  and 
on  feet;  hands  black;  no  beard;  top  of  head  black,  nape  mixed 
black  and  red."  Height,  5  feet  10  inches.  (Elliot,  1913,  vol.  3, 
pp.  213-214.) 

The  numerous  described  forms  of  Gorillas  are  reduced  by  Cool- 
idge (1929,  p.  348)  to  two  subspecies — the  present  one  and  the 
Mountain  Gorilla  (G.  g.  beringei). 

"For  the  Coast  Gorilla,  the  westernmost  boundary  approximates 
the  Cross  River  in  the  southern  provinces  of  Nigeria.  The  most 
westerly  point  actually  recorded  is  Ikom,  8°  40'  east  and  6°  north. 
The  northernmost  point  is  close  to  Basho,  9°  25'  east,  6°  7'  north. 
On  the  east  we  have  reports  from  several  places  such  as  Wesso  and 
Nola  on  the  Sanaga  [error  for  Sanga]  River.  The  Sanaga  River, 
about  16°  15',  seems  to  mark  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  range 
of  the  Coast  Gorilla.  On  the  southeast  the  line  follows  the  border 
of  the  forest  which  reaches  its  southernmost  limit  at  Mayombe  on 
the  edge  of  the  Belgian  Congo,  5°  south,  13'  [  =  13°]  east.  Along 
the  Atlantic  coast  in  most  places  the  forest  begins  a  little  way  inland. 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  169 

Gorillas  have  been  reported  actually  on  the  coast,  but  generally  they 
are  found  not  closer  than  thirty  miles  from  the  sea.  They  seem 
especially  plentiful  along  the  Gaboon,  Ogowe,  Camp,  and  Sanaga 
Rivers."  (Coolidge,  1929,  p.  363.)  More  recently  the  range  has  been 
found  to  extend  somewhat  eastward  of  the  Sanga  River  in  French 
Equatorial  Africa  (Coolidge,  1936,  p.  493,  maps  1-2).  The  total 
range  of  the  Coast  Gorilla  seems  to  be  strictly  confined  to  the  west- 
ern portion  of  the  Lower  Guinea  Forest  District  of  Chapin  (1932, 
p.  90)  and  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258). 

Gabun. — "They  live  in  herds,  the  females  exceeding  the  males  in 
number.  .  .  .  They  are  exceedingly  ferocious,  and  objects  of  terror 
to  the  natives,  who  seldom  encounter  them  except  on  the  defensive. 
The  killing  of  an  Engeena  is  considered  an  act  of  great  skill  and 
courage,  and  brings  to  the  victor  signal  honor.  .  .  . 

"Their  flesh,  when  obtained,  is  eaten  by  the  natives,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  Chimpanzee."  (Savage  and  Wyman,  1847,  p.  246.) 

Du  Chaillu's  classical  account  of  the  Gorilla  (1861,  pp.  388- 
404)  is  based  upon  his  experiences  in  Gabun.  Among  other  things, 
he  says  (pp.  399-400) :  "The  negroes  never  attack  them  with  other 
weapons  than  guns;  and  in  those  parts  of  the  far  interior  where  no 
European  guns  had  yet  reached,  as  among  the  Apingi,  this  great 
beast  roamed  unmolested,  the  monarch  of  the  forest." 

"The  Fernan  Vaz  District  ...  is  considered  the  best  region 
for  both  the  gorilla  and  the  chimpanzee."  One  "family  party  of 
five  or  more  gorillas"  was  encountered,  and  on  another  occasion 
"a  large  family"  was  reported.  The  animal  will  occasionally  ad- 
vance to  attack  when  not  wounded.  (Aschemeier,  1921,  pp.  90-92.) 

"The  majority  of  the  Gaboon  skulls  have  come  out  from  the 
region  of  the  Ogowe  River"  (Coolidge,  1929,  p.  303). 

A.  R.  Maclatchy  (in  litt.,  February  5,  1937)  gives  the  following 
report  for  Gabun:  "The  decree  of  1929  classed  the  gorilla  among 
the  protected  species.  Its  great  vulnerability  makes  it  an  adversary 
much  less  dangerous  than  the  buffalo  and  the  elephant.  It  rarely 
pushes  its  attack  to  the  limit.  Sometimes  it  visits  the  native  plan- 
tations by  night.  Its  food  consists  of  various  plants.  I  do  not  see 
the  reasons  for  a  protection  as  strict  as  that  which  the  gorilla 
enjoys.  It  is  little  hunted,  except  in  legitimate  defense,  by  the 
natives,  who  have  a  superstitious  terror  of  it,  and  by  a  few  hardy 
European  sportsmen.  It  scarcely  seems  to  be  threatened  with  de- 
struction. It  really  abounds,  and  is  protected  by  its  habitat  and 
by  its  natural  shyness.  More  specimens  could  be  allowed  on  hunting 
permits  without  the  risk  of  diminishing  its  numbers." 

Cameroons. — In  the  southeastern  corner  of  Cameroons,  and  per- 
haps also  across  the  boundary  in  French  Equatorial  Africa,  the 
Gorilla  appears  quite  common,  and  almost  entirely  inoffensive  as 


170  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

to  attacks  on  man.  The  forest  is  so  dense,  and  the  animal  so  shy, 
that  it  is  extremely  difficult  for  the  hunter  to  get  sight  of  it.  Thus 
the  Gorilla  seems  fairly  well  protected.  Bands  numbering  up  to  more 
than  20  individuals  are  reported.  (Ramecourt,  1936,  pp.  217-247.) 
Raven  (1936a,  19366)  gives  a  most  interesting  and  detailed 
account  of  hunting  Gorillas  during  more  than  a  year  spent  at  va- 
rious places  in  southern  Cameroons.  The  natives  here  are  very  keen 
to  eat  Gorilla  meat,  being  generally  faced  with  a  deficiency  of 
meat  in  their  diet.  A  missionary  reported  many  of  the  animals  at 
Djaposten,  in  southeastern  Cameroons,  where  "in  one  morning's 
walk  of  perhaps  two  hours  he  had  counted  more  than  100  gorilla 
beds."  Although  Raven  himself  found  the  animals  quite  common  in 
this  region,  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  a  good  view  of  them 
in  the  dense  forest,  and  only  three  adults  were  collected  during  his 
entire  sojourn,  despite  assiduous  hunting.  Raven  writes  further 
(19366,  pp.  529-530) : 

For  centuries  past  the  gorillas  and  natives  have  been  competitors.  As  the 
native  populuation  increased,  new  villages  would  be  formed  and  more 
clearings  made.  Then  epidemics  would  occur,  killing  off  great  numbers  of 
natives,  and  their  gardens  would  be  neglected  to  run  into  second  growth. 
The  gorillas,  with  a  constitution  so  nearly  like  that  of  man  that  they  can 
find  more  food  in  human  plantations  than  in  the  virgin  forest,  would  move 
into  these  deserted  clearings.  There  with  an  abundance  of  food  they  throve 
and  congregated,  to  such  an  extent  eventually  that  if  only  a  few  natives 
remained  they  were  actually  driven  out  because  of  their  inability  to  protect 
their  crops  against  the  gorillas.  But  with  the  advent  of  the  white  men's 
government,  with  the  distribution  of  firearms  among  the  natives,  preventive 
medicine  and  the  treatment  for  epidemic  and  infective  diseases,  man  has  the 
upper  hand  at  present  in  this  age-long  struggle. 

"Mr.  Raven  had  opportunity  to  witness  the  unfortunate  effect, 
so  far  as  the  protection  of  the  gorilla  was  concerned,  of  the  demand 
for  gorilla  skulls  on  the  part  of  scientists,  to  such  a  degree  that 
white  men  as  well  as  natives  had  in  the  past  often  done  a  profitable 
business  in  killing  the  animals  and  selling  their  skulls.  The  result 
had  been  a  rapid  decrease  in  the  gorilla  population,  so  that  Mr. 
Raven,  although  by  his  record  known  to  be  a  hunter  and  collector 
of  the  first  rank,  was  compelled  to  hunt  week  after  week  in  a  des- 
perate effort  to  come  up  with  the  nervous  survivors  of  the  race  in 
this  district.  .  .  . 

"Mr.  Raven's  experience  leads  him  to  believe  that  ...  the  gorilla 
is  being  rapidly  exterminated  in  many  localities."  (Gregory,  in 
Raven,  19366,  p.  540.) 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  protective  laws  have  stopped  the  killing  of 
Gorillas  by  natives  to  any  extent.  Most  of  the  museum  specimens  of 
skulls,  etc.,  are  from  native-killed  animals  and  have  been  turned 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  171 

in  to  traders.  Natives  capture  them  by  spearing  and  by  snaring. 
(H.  C.  Raven,  oral  communication,  March  17, 1937.) 

The  Gorilla  is  utilized  for  experimental  purposes  in  the  study  of 
human  diseases  (Ministry  of  Colonies,  Paris,  in  litt.,  November  7, 
1936). 

Gorillas  are  decreasing  but  not  disappearing.  The  cause  of 
depletion  is  native  hunting  for  food.  (Inspection  of  Waters  and 
Forests,  Yaounde,  in  litt.,  January  12,  1937.) 

The  number  in  French  Cameroons  is  estimated  at  some  thousands. 
They  are  partially  protected  by  law,  one  head  being  allowed  on  a 
full  license.  (Paris  Agency,  in  litt.,  November,  1936.) 

Nigeria. — Coolidge  (1929,  p.  303)  refers  to  the  range  as  including 
"the  Western  Cameroons  [part  of  Nigeria],  which  is  a  comparatively 
limited  section  centering  around  Mamfe  or  Dakbe  and  extending 
west  as  far  as  the  Cross  River.  A  great  many  skulls  come  from  this 
region." 

Hay  wood  (1932,  p.  32)  reports  the  species  from  the  borders  of 
Ogoja  and  Cameroons  Provinces. 

In  British  Cameroons,  Sanderson  (1935,  p.  26)  reports  Gorillas 
from  the  mountains  of  Assumbo,  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Cross 
River.  They  "are  numerous  in  the  Mountain  Moss  Forest  belt, 
where  the  natives  record  their  movements  minutely." 

"In  Nigeria  where  a  few  exist  the  natives  take  an  annual  toll  and 
I  do  not  think  there  are  many"  (C.  W.  Hobley,  in  litt.,  August  18, 
1936). 

French  Equatorial  Africa. — The  Gorilla  does  some  damage  in  the 
banana  plantations,  but  it  is  not  important.  It  seldom  attacks  man 
without  provocation.  There  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  abso- 
lutely protected.  Its  northern  and  western  limits  are  unknown;  its 
southern  seems  to  be  the  Congo.  (Lavauden,  1933,  p.  30.) 

"Four  complete  specimens  of  the  Coast  Gorilla  were  procured 
by  the  Vanderbilt  Expedition  of  the  Academy  of  Naturaf  Sciences 
of  Philadelphia  in  the  winter  of  1934."  Three  "were  killed  by  natives 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Aboghi,  forty  miles  southwest  of  Nola  near 
the  west  bank  of  the  Sanga  River."  The  fourth  was  secured  "near 
Barundu,  about  15  miles  east  of  the  Sanga  River  and  22  miles  north- 
east of  Nola."  (Coolidge,  1936,  p.  479.) 

Green  (in  Coolidge,  1936,  pp.  491-492)  reports  Gorillas  as  abun- 
dant in  the  region  of  Aboghi.  "The  old  males  appear  to  be  somewhat 
solitary,  but  small  bands  of  four  to  ten  were  noted  from  tracking." 

"The  expedition  reported  that  gorillas  were  frequently  killed  on 
the  left  bank  [of  the  Sanga].  .  .  . 

"The  field  notes  of  Mr.  Rehn  and  Mr.  Green  give  us  the  impression 
that  gorillas  were  plentiful  in  the  region  from  which  these  specimens 


172  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

came,  and  that  they  are  frequently  hunted  by  the  natives."  (Cool- 
idge,  1936,  pp.  493,  499.) 

According  to  all  accounts,  Gorillas  still  occur  in  fair  numbers  in 
the  Sanga  River  region,  though  not  so  commonly  as  25  years  ago.~A 
local  French  doctor,  in  the  course  of  two  years,  had  treated  nine 
natives  for  Gorilla  attack,  one  of  the  cases  being  fatal.  (J.  A.  G. 
Rehn,  oral  communication,  March  22,  1939.) 

Belgian  Congo.— Schouteden  (19306,  pp.  298-299)  presents  evi- 
dence of  the  rare  occurrence  of  Gorillas  in  the  Mayumbe  forest, 
north  of  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Congo  River.  Later  (19366, 
pp.  15-16)  he  records  a  skull  from  the  Haut  Mayumbe.  Here  the 
animal  had  seemed  to  have  disappeared,  or  to  occur  only  occasion- 
ally, coming  perhaps  from  Gabun.  But  it  appears  to  occur  still  in 
certain  parts  of  Mayumbe,  thanks,  perhaps,  to  the  protection  it  has 
enjoyed  for  some  years. 

Use  in  research. — Yerkes  and  Yerkes  point  out  (1929,  p.  590) 
that  the  Gorilla  and  other  anthropoid  apes  "must  inevitably  become 
the  preferred  substitutes  for  human  subjects  in  investigations  which 
may  not  be  carried  on  with  the  latter  and  which  have  as  objectives 
the  extension  of  knowledge  and  control  of  human  life."  They  also 
stress  (p.  589)  the  greater  availability  and  controllability  of  these 
animals  for  use  in  the  investigation  of  various  problems  in  genetics, 
physiology,  neuro-  and  psychopathology,  psychology,  sociology, 
pedagogy,  and  experimental  education. 

Survival— Yerkes  and  Yerkes  (1929,  p.  396)  quote  Keith  (1896) 
as  follows:  "From  accounts  furnished  by  travellers  and  hunters,  one 
infers  that  the  total  population  [of  the  species  as  a  whole] — males, 
females,  and  young — is  well  under  10,000."  Eventually  (1914) 
Keith  raised  this  estimate  to  20,000  to  30,000  individuals,  but 
Yerkes  and  Yerkes  remark  (p.  397)  that  it  is  difficult  to  decide  how 
seriously  this  estimate  should  be  taken.  They  also  say  (p.  397) : 

"Concerning  abundance  or  frequency  little  is  known.  Both  early 
and  late  in  the  last  century  the  relative  rarity  of  the  gorilla  sug- 
gested to  investigators  its  disappearance  and  probable  extinction. 
From  limited  distribution,  difficulty  of  negro  hunters  in  procuring 
skins  of  adults,  and  the  small  number  of  captive  specimens  sent  to 
Europe,  Deniker  (1891,  pp.  369-370)  infers  that  the  process  of 
extinction  is  under  way.  .  .  . 

"For  nearly  a  century  it  has  been  known  that  the  gorilla  is  the 
rarest  of  the  manlike  apes." 

H.  C.  Raven  (oral  communication,  March  17,  1937)  estimates 
the  total  number  of  all  Gorillas  now  living  at  more  than  1,000  and 
at  less  than  10,000. 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  173 

Mountain  Gorilla.    Gorille  ties  montagnes  (Fr.) 

GORILLA  GORILLA  BERINGEI  Matschie 

Gorilla  beringeri  [misprint  for  beringei]  Matschie,  Sitz.-Ber.  Ges.  Naturf. 
Freunde  Berlin  1903,  no.  6,  p.  257,  1903.  ("Auf  der  Spitze  des  Vulkans 
Kirunga  ya  Sabinyo  in  einer  Hohe  von  3000  m,"  German  East  Africa; 
i.  e.,  Mount  Sabinio  or  Sebyinyo,  at  the  boundary  point  of  Ruanda, 
Uganda,  and  the  Belgian  Congo.  Not  at  the  summit,  but  on  the  south 
or  southeast  flank,  at  about  2800  m.  (Derscheid,  1928,  p.  150).) 

FIGS.:  Lonnberg,  1917,  pi.  1;  Barns,  1922,  frontisp.  and  pis.  facing  pp.  xvi, 
83,  86;  Barns,  1923,  figs.  43,  44,  52;  Akeley,  1923a,  pp.  428,  438,  440, 
444,  figs.;  Akeley,  19236,  frontisp.  and  pis.  facing  pp.  190,  206,  222,  230; 
Yerkes  and  Yerkes,  1929,  numerous  figs.;  Coolidge,  1929,  pi.  1,  and  1930, 
pp.  626-627,  figs.  454,  454b;  Raven,  1931,  cover  and  p.  241,  fig.;  Bingham, 
1932,  pis.  18,  19,  22;  Jour.  Soc.  Preservation  Fauna  Empire,  n.  s.,  pt.  18, 
frontisp.,  1933. 

The  Mountain  Gorilla  is  now  well  protected  in  its  range  centering 
in  the  Pare  National  Albert  in  the  eastern  Belgian  Congo,  and  its 
chances  for  survival  appear  to  be  excellent. 

Face,  ears,  breast,  back,  hands,  and  feet  naked;  breast  brownish, 
like  worn  leather;  back  somewhat  lighter;  face,  ears,  and  naked 
parts  of  the  limbs  black;  hair  black,  long,  and  thick,  and  forming  a 
pronounced  beard  on  cheeks  and  chin.  Height  1.5  m.;  weight  100  kg. 
(Matschie,  1903a,  p.  254.)  "The  external  characters  that  distinguish 
the  Mountain  from  the  Coast  Gorilla  are,  besides  a  longer  palate 
and  a  generally  narrower  skull,  the  thicker  pelage,  shorter  arms 
and  longer  legs,  large  amount  of  black  hair,  and  fleshy  callosity  on 
the  crest"  (Coolidge,  1929,  p.  375).  "The  large  patch  of  silver-gray 
fur  covering  the  back  of  the  adult  male  gorilla  is  the  most  remark- 
able part  of  his  coloration;  the  female  is  entirely  black,  and  very 
much  smaller  than  her  mate"  (Barns,  1923,  p.  130) . 

Coolidge  (1929,  p.  363)  says  of  its  range: 

The  Mountain  Gorilla  is  found  in  a  comparatively  narrow  strip  of  the 
eastern  Congo.  Its  principal  habitat  is  the  mountain  forest  as  distinguished 
from  the  lowland  forest  of  the  Belgian  Congo.  Its  northern  limit  is  Mulu, 
0°  10'  south,  29°  10'  east  (Absil  and  Chapin).  We  find  it  as  far  west  as 
Walikale,  1°  20'  south,  28°  1'  east,  where  it  strays  a  little  into  the  lowland 
forest.  The  eastern  limit  seems  to  be  close  to  Kigezi  in  Uganda,  1°  15'  south, 
29°  45'  east.  The  southern  limit  is  Baraka  on  Lake  Tanganyika,  4°  19'  south, 
29°  2'  east.  In  this  entire  region  the  gorillas  that  are  most  known  and  accessible 
are  the  troops  that  inhabit  the  volcano  regions  where  Akeley  died  while 
studying  them.  Whether  they  are  entirely  isolated  from  contact  with  outside 
gorillas  at  the  present  time  is  doubtful  and  has  not  yet  been  established. 
In  the  mountains  back  of  Baraka,  Boko,  Uvira,  and  Katana  large  troops 
have  been  recently  found  in  the  upland  forests. 

"I  have  examined  .  .  .  the  sources  of  evidence  for  the  existence 
of  gorillas  in  the  intervening  area  between  (longitude  17°  east)  the 
eastern  limit  of  the  known  range  of  the  Coast  Gorillas  and  (longi- 


174  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

tude  28°  east)  the  western  limit  of  the  known  range  of  the  Mountain 
Gorillas.  With  a  single  exception,  I  attach  no  great  importance  to 
this  evidence.  The  exception  refers  to  the  four  skulls  from  Bondo 
on  the  Uelle  River  collected  by  Lemarinel  in  1908.  These  furnish 
us  with  definite  proof  for  the  existence  of  gorillas  in  the  Djabbir 
region  as  late  as  1908.  Except  for  these  skulls  no  other  tangible 
evidence  of  gorillas  in  a  forest  belt  of  650  [  =  about  750]  miles  has 
turned  up."  (Coolidge,  1936,  p.  500.)  Coolidge  considers  (p.  497) 
that  the  affinities  of  the  Bondo  skulls  are  with  the  Coastal  Gorilla, 
but  G.  M.  Allen  (1939,  p.  177)  refers  G.  uellensis  Schouteden,  which 
was  based  upon  these  skulls,  to  the  synonymy  of  beringei. 

The  Mountain  Gorilla  was  first  made  known  to  science  through  a 
specimen  shot  by  Capt.  Oscar  von  Beringe  on  Mount  Sabinio  about 
1902  or  1903  (Matschie,  1903a,  p.  253). 

In  1913  and  1914  seven  specimens  were  obtained  by  E.  Arrhenius 
on  the  volcano  Mikeno,  Virunga  Mountains.  "According  to  Captain 
E.  Arrhenius  the  Gorillas  are  rather  numerous  ....  They  live  in 
bands  consisting  of  20-30  individuals  .... 

"The  natives  hunt  the  Gorillas  to  obtain  their  skin  which  they 
use  for  wrapping  up  their  copper  thread  etc.,  or  for  revenging  some 
relative.  Thus  when  a  man  from  Sangana  had  been  killed  by  a 
Gorilla  his  family  killed  five  Gorillas  in  revenge.  The  natives  hunt 
Gorillas  with  the  aid  of  dogs.  The  dog  bites  the  Gorilla  and  returns 
to  his  master  who  waits  for  the  Gorilla  with  the  spear  ready.  He 
throws  the  spear  at  the  Gorilla  and  runs  away.  The  dog  repeats  the 
maneuvre,  until  the  animal  is  killed.  The  natives  do  not  eat  the 
meat  of  Gorillas,  nor  that  of  Chimpanzees."  (Lonnberg,  1917,  pp.  7, 
17-18.) 

Barns  (1922,  pp.  81-88)  encountered  a  band  of  Gorillas  between 
the  volcanoes  Mikeno  and  Karisimbi,  and  secured  a  specimen,  which 
his  hungry  native  porters  refused  to  eat.  "This  monster  ape  would 
seem  to  have  no  enemies,  failing  man;  and  even  man,  the  most 
dreaded  of  all  the  animal  world,  holds  little  fear  for  the  gorilla  in 
his  inaccessible  home"  (p.  87) . 

"Its  food  consists,  apart  from  bamboo  shoots,  entirely  of  herbage — 
docks,  sorrels,  hemlocks,  etc. — although  honey  may  be  part  of  the 
menu.  He  does  not  grub  for  roots,  neither  does  he  eat  fruit  as  a 
general  rule  .... 

"Savage  man,  through  superstition  as  much  as  anything  else, 
but  also  on  account  of  the  inaccessibility  of  the  gorilla's  mountain 
home,  has  left  this  ape  unmolested;  we  therefore  find  him  and  his 
family  habitually  and  fearlessly  sleeping  on  the  ground."  (Barns, 
1923,  pp.  129-130.) 

"As  regards  longevity,  gorillas,  on  account  of  their  life  free  from 
molestation,  famine,  or  disease,  and  also  judging  by  the  worn  teeth 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  175 

of  one  animal  I  secured,  live,  in  my  opinion,  to  be  a  much  greater 
age  than  man"  (Barns,  1923,  p.  132). 

"The  natives  of  this  region  have  no  fear  of  the  gorilla.  .  .  .  Some 
of  my  guides  and  my  gun  bearer  were  trappers  and  hunters  in  the 
gorilla  forests  and  were  thoroughly  familiar  with  them.  At  no  time 
did  the  guides  or  gun  boys  show  any  indication  of  anything  more 
than  casual  interest  even  when  we  approached  very  close  to 
gorillas."  (Akeley,  1923a,  pp.  438-439.)  Akeley  continues  (p.  447) : 

After  my  first  expedition  into  the  gorilla  country,  I  am  more  convinced 
than  ever  not  only  that  the  gorilla  is  one  of  the  most  fascinating  and  impor- 
tant objects  of  study  in  the  realm  of  natural  history,  but  also  that  his  dis- 
position is  such  as  to  permit  the  most  intimate  observation  of  his  habits. 
...  A  few  weeks  of  casual  acquaintance  and  one  is  fired  with  a  desire  to 
ferret  out  the  answers  to  a  hundred  questions  about  this  little-known  relative 
of  man — questions  of  increasing  importance  to  scientists  and  physicians  in 
their  efforts  to  understand  and  aid  man  himself.  Probably  no  other  project 
of  so  moderate  a  size  is  likely  to  lead  to  such  immediate  and  valuable  scien- 
tific results  as  that  which  will  make  of  the  Kivu  region  a  sanctuary,  where 
the  gorillas  under  the  protection  of  man  may  grow  more  and  more  accustomed 
to  human  beings  and  where  through  a  series  of  years  they  may  be  observed 
and  studied. 

On  the  three  mountains,  Mikeno,  Karisimbi,  and  Visoke,  "I  judge 
that  there  are  between  fifty  and  one  hundred  animals  altogether" 
(Akeley,  1923b;  p.  248). 

Akeley's  efforts  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Pare  National 
Albert,  comprising  the  Kivu  volcanoes  and  providing  for  the  special 
protection  of  the  Mountain  Gorillas.  Meanwhile  Burbridge  had 
estimated  their  numbers  at  1,000  to  2,000  individuals.  Their  range 
extends  beyond  the  volcano  region  to  the  bamboo  forests  dominating 
the  highlands  of  the  Great  Lakes.  (Leplae,  1925,  pp.  15, 19.) 

According  to  Derscheid  (1928,  pp.  154-159),  the  animals  are 
especially  numerous  at  elevations  between  2,700  and  3,500  m.,  with 
extreme  occurrences  at  1,900  and  3,900  m.  He  has  met  with  a  few 
solitary  old  males,  but  more  usually  with  bands  of  7  to  43  indi- 
viduals. He  estimates  the  number  on  the  central  massif  (Mikeno- 
Karisimbi-Bishoke)  at  350  to  500;  on  the  eastern  massif  (southern 
slopes  of  Muhabura,  Sebyinyo,  and  Mugahinga)  at  150  to  200;  and 
in  the  Uganda  portion  of  the  region  (northern  slopes  of  the  three 
volcanoes  just  mentioned)  at  100  to  150.  He  also  remarks  on  the 
surprisingly  small  proportion  of  young  animals  among  the  Gorillas 
observed. 

"During  our  two  months  stay  among  the  different  peaks  of  the 
Birunga  Range  we  observed  several  herds  of  Gorillas.  The  largest 
of  these  herds  consisted  of  about  20-30  individuals  ....  In  all 
about  70  examples  were  seen  by  the  members  of  the  Expedition. 
.  .  .  Their  stronghold  seems  ...  to  be  the  mountain  triangle  com- 
posed of  Mikeno,  Karissimbi  and  Vissoke.  They  are  mostly  found 


176  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

in  the  Bamboo  Region,  but  they  also  live  higher  up  the  steep  moun- 
tain slopes  with  their  beautiful  vegetation  of  Hagenia-trees."  (Gyl- 
denstolpe,  1928,  p.  23.) 

"There  is  a  spotted  menace,  a  potent  factor  too,  in  the  leopard, 
who  destroys  numbers  of  young  animals"  (Burbridge,  1928,  as 
quoted  in  Yerkes  and  Yerkes,  1929,  p.  398) . 

Pitman  (1935,  pp.  477-494)  gives  an  excellent  account  of  Gorillas 
in  Uganda,  and  the  following  excerpts  are  taken  from  his  paper: 

The  occurrence  of  Gorillas  in  the  Kayonsa  region  of  Uganda  [about  midway 
between  the  Birunga  volcanoes  and  Lake  Edward]  has  been  known  for  many 
years  (p.  477). 

There  is  in  the  Kayonsa  a  complete  absence  of  bamboo,  wild  celery,  dock, 
and  similar  juicy-stemmed  plants  such  as  abound  in  the  humid,  high  alti- 
tudes, forcing  the  Gorilla  to  confine  its  diet  to  a  mixture  of  leaves,  berries, 
ferns,  the  tender  fronds  of  tree-ferns,  parts  of  the  wild  banana  stems,  and 
leaves,  and  fibrous  bark  peeled  off  a  variety  of  shrubs  in  the  undergrowth.  .  .  . 

Owing  to  a  lack  of  what  apparently  are  normal  food  constituents  the 
Gorilla  has  become  more  enterprising  in  search  of  food,  and  in  consequence 
climbs  trees  freely  to  a  known  height  of  at  least  50  feet.  (P.  478.) 

The  "beds"  of  the  Kayonsa  Gorilla  are  large  platforms  built  in  the  trees, 
and  often  at  a  considerable  height  above  the  ground. 

[The  altitude  of  the  habitat  varies  between  6000  and  7900  feet.]    (P.  479.) 

The  forest  region  to  the  east  of  the  Kishasha  river  [where  some  Gorillas 
are  known  to  occur]  is  a  gazetted  forest  reserve  and,  in  consequence,  not 
open  for  human  settlement.  There  is  little  likelihood  in  the  immediate 
future  of  serious  conflict  between  Man  and  Gorilla  in  the  dense  uninhabitable 
valleys  to  the  west  of  this  river  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Belgian  Congo 
border  .... 

It  was  calculated  that  this  western  area  harboured  forty  to  fifty  Gorillas. 
[In  the  entire  region  there  were  possibly  at  least  eighty.] 

Normally  the  troops  vary  in  size  from  five  to  eight  or  nine,  [but  one  troop 
was  said  to  include  nearly  two  dozen].  (P.  480.) 

The  [Kayonsa]  Gorilla  normally  is  peaceably  disposed  and  not  aggressive 
(p.  483). 

The  Wambutte  [Pygmies]  are  extremely  tolerant  of  the  Gorillas,  but  not 
so  the  other  local  natives,  who  would  readily  endeavour  to  exterminate  the 
lot,  were  it  not  for  the  fact,  of  which  they  are  well  aware,  that  these  splendid 
animals  are  absolutely  protected  (p.  484). 

The  animals  are  said  to  sometimes  raid  the  native  gardens  but 
not  to  attack  the  natives. 

The  Chimpanzees 

In  spite  of  the  multiplicity  of  names  that  have  been  applied  to 
the  Chimpanzees,  it  seems  probable  that  only  four  valid  forms  are 
recognizable,  representing  probably  two  distinct  species,  as  follows: 

Common  Chimpanzee 

PAN  TROGLODYTES  TROGLODYTES   (Blumenbach) 

Simla  troglodytes  Blumenbach,  Handb.  der  Naturgesch.,  p.  65,  1799.    ("An- 
gola.") 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  177 

Long-haired  Chimpanzee;  Eastern  Chimpanzee 

PAN   TROGLODYTES   SCHWBINFURTHII    (Giglioli) 

Troglodytes  schweinjurthii  Giglioli,  Ann.  Mus.  Civ.  Stor.  Nat.  Geneva,  vol.  3, 
p.  114,  footnote,  1872.  (Upper  Uele  drainage,  Niam-niam  country,  eastern 
Congo  Beige.) 

Western  Chimpanzee 

PAN  TROGLODYTES  VERUS  Schwarz 

Pan  satyrus  vents  Schwarz,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  10,  vol.  13,  p.  578, 
June,  1934.  ("Sanda  Magbolonto  chiefdom,  Karima  district,  Sierra  Leone.") 

SYNONYMS:  For  list  of  synonyms  of  these  three  races,  see  G.  M.  Allen  (1939b, 
pp.  172-175). 

FIGS.:  Elliot,  1913,  vol.  3,  pis.  7,  8,  8  bis  (animal);  pis.  36-39  (skulls);  Yerkes 
and  Yerkes,  1929,  figs.  69-118. 

Yerkes  and  Yerkes  (1929)  write  that  the  "description  of  the  con- 
figuration of  the  type  chimpanzee  is  as  difficult  as  description  of 
man,  so  numerous  and  pronounced  are  individual,  sex,  and  species 
differences  and  developmental  changes."  In  general,  of  anthropoid 
form,  the  forelimbs  proportionately  long,  reaching  below  the  knee 
when  the  animal  stands  erect.  Form  stocky,  shape  of  ear  much  as  in 
Homo,  forehead  heavily  ridged,  nose  flattened.  Face  usually  bare 
or  nearly  so,  and  in  the  adult  black  like  the  skin  of  the  body,  except 
in  the  race  verus,  in  which  it  is  paler.  Hair  of  the  head  directed 
backward  in  the  typical  race,  but  usually  with  a  parting  in  verus. 
In  the  eastern  race,  schweinjurthii,  the  hair  is  longer  than  in  the 
others.  The  maximum  (standing)  height  of  the  male  is  about  5 
feet,  of  the  female  4  feet.  Weight  of  male  125  to  175  pounds;  of 
female  100  to  150  pounds.  The  skull  is  distinguished  readily  from 
that  of  a  Gorilla  by  the  smaller  teeth  and  by  the  fact  that  when 
viewed  from  in  front  the  summit  of  the  brain  case  is  visible  above 
the  brow  ridges  instead  of  being  hidden  by  them.  Color  usually 
black,  with  often  a  whitish  pygal  patch. 

Throughout  the  vast  extent  of  the  tropical  rain  forest  from  the 
Gambia  and  adjacent  French  Equatorial  Africa,  south  to  the 
Congo,  and  eastward  to  the  borders  of  Uganda  and  Tanganyika, 
Chimpanzees  are  found,  but  they  vary  greatly  in  local  abundance. 
They  seem  much  given  to  wandering  about  over  circumscribed 
areas,  and  so  it  is  difficult  to  make  censuses  or  to  estimate  popula- 
tions. Moreover,  the  nature  of  their  habitat  in  rain  forest  of  dense 
growth  makes  their  observation  uncertain.  Thus  in  our  journey 
across  Liberia  in  1926,  a  country  in  which  they  are  believed  to  be 
rather  common,  I  saw  none,  and  H.  J.  Coolidge,  Jr.,  came  upon  them 
but  once  in  the  eastern  border  of  the  country.  Yet  they  are  com- 
mon in  the  region  about  Kindia,  in  French  Guinea,  and  occur  in 
7 


178  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

numbers  in  Sierra  Leone  and  in  the  forests  of  the  Belgian  Congo  and 
in  the  Cameroons.  The  original  specimen  was  said  to  have  come 
from  "Angola"  but  probably  was  not  native  there,  for  the  larger 
species  is  not  now  known  from  south  of  the  Congo.  If  it  was  actually 
brought  from  there,  it  was  no  doubt  purchased  of  natives  who  had 
captured  it  as  a  young  animal  farther  north. 

The  Chimpanzee  offers  no  trophy  for  the  sportsman  and  should 
not  be  killed  or  captured  except  for  scientific  purposes.  It  is  thus 
included  in  Schedule  B  of  the  London  Convention  of  1933.  Its  natural 
enemies  must  be  few  and,  except  for  man,  probably  include  only  the 
Leopard.  Native  peoples  seldom  molest  them,  except  where  there  is 
inducement  from  whites  to  capture  them  for  "pets"  or  to  secure 
specimens.  Many  tribes  believe  that  "every  chimpanzee  is  linked 
with  the  soul  of  a  man,  so  that  if  one  is  killed  the  man  too  will  die," 
or  some  other  calamity  will  ensue.  At  Kindia  in  French  Guinea,  the 
Pasteur  Institute  maintains  a  laboratory  for  the  observation  and 
medical  study  of  these  animals,  where  individuals  may  be  accus- 
tomed to  captivity  before  being  sent  to  institutions  in  Europe  or 
elsewhere.  "From  the  medical  point  of  view,  we  have  no  need  of 
emphasizing  the  advantage  to  be  derived  to-day  from  anthropoids, 
and  especially  the  Chimpanzee,  in  the  study  of  human  diseases ;  the 
experimental  inoculations  of  serums,  vaccines,  and  medications  of 
all  sorts,  find  in  the  Chimpanzee  a  very  valuable  subject"  (Lavau- 
den,  1933,  pp.  30-31).  Psychological  studies  of  this  animal  have 
already  thrown  much  light  on  the  evolution  of  intelligent  behavior; 
for  a  review  of  such  work  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  volume  by 
Yerkes  and  Yerkes  (1929). 

While  the  reports  of  comparative  abundance,  as  noted  by  travelers 
or  persons  stationed  in  parts  of  its  range,  are  of  only  relative  value 
as  often  recording  mere  casual  impressions,  nevertheless  the  following 
notes  are  here  added  as  providing  a  brief  survey  of  its  occurrence 
in  selected  stations.  In  the  Gambia  it  is  said  no  longer  to  exist  near 
the  coastal  towns,  but  according  to  E.  Johnson  (1937,  p.  62)  every 
year  "about  fifty  animals  are  brought  in  for  sale  from  Futa  Jalon, 
some  70  miles  southeast  of  Fatoto,  280  miles  from  Bathurst."  They 
are  found  in  the  Gola  Forest  Reserve  of  Sierra  Leone,  and  small 
troops  may  be  met  with  by  good  fortune  in  the  great  forests  of 
Liberia.  On  the  Gold  Coast,  according  to  Haywood  (1933),  "they 
are  only  reported  from  the  Western  Forest  belt,  but  it  seems  quite 
possible  they  are  spread  over  a  large  area,  although  by  no  means 
in  large  numbers."  The  Director  of  Agriculture  of  the  Gold  Coast 
writes  (in  litt.,  1937)  that  the  "chimpanzee  is  now  rare  and  confined 
to  the  extreme  western  border  of  the  forest  country,  but  whether 
it  was  ever  plentiful  is  not  known."  In  Nigeria  it  is  reported  from 
forest  regions  of  Oyo,  Onitaha,  Owerri,  Ijebu  Ode,  and  Abeokuta 


ORDER  PRIMATES:    PRIMATES  179 

Provinces,  so  probably  is  present  in  Benin,  Ondo,  Calabar,  and  Warri 
Provinces  (Haywood,  1932) .  It  is  apparently  common  in  the  Gabun, 
and  in  the  southern  Cameroons.  It  is  "numerous"  in  the  equatorial 
forests  of  the  Belgian  Congo  but  in  the  Ubangi-Shari  district  is  found 
only  in  the  Ubangi  Basin,  in  small  numbers  (at  most  a  few  hun- 
dreds), localized  in  Haute-Sangha,  Lobaye,  Ouaka,  and  Haut- 
Mbomou.  It  does  not  seem  to  have  diminished  except  in  the  Ouaka. 
In  this  region  it  was  completely  protected  since  1916,  then  partly  in 
1931,  and  once  more  completely  in  1936.  It  occurs  also  in  the  Pare 
National  d'Odzala  in  the  Middle  Congo  and  in  general  appears  to  be 
threatened  not  with  extermination  but  with  diminution  (L.  Blancou, 
in  letter  of  1937) .  A.  J.  Jobaert,  in  response  to  queries,  writes  that  in 
the  Belgian  Congo  very  few  are  now  killed  by  Europeans,  "but  cer- 
tainly the  natives,  and  especially  the  pygmies,  destroy  a  considerable 
number,  although  it  is  totally  protected  by  law ;  they  were  certainly 
quite  numerous  a  few  years  ago." 

In  the  eastern  part  of  its  range,  the  race  schweinfurthii  is  locally 
common  as  far  as  the  border  of  the  rain-forest  area  in  Uganda  and 
extreme  western  Tanganyika.  In  the  upper  Congo  region,  Lang  and 
Chapin  found  it  common,  as  about  Aba  and  Faradje  on  the  north- 
eastern border  of  the  rain  forest,  and  at  Avakubi,  Niapu,  and  Medje 
within  the  forest.  On  the  other  hand,  reports  from  the  Uganda 
Game  Department  (1928)  indicate  that  in  Kigezi  "it  would  appear 
that  the  numbers  of  this  species  are  diminishing.  It  is,  however, 
likely  that  a  permanent  change  of  quarters  has  resulted  in  its  dis- 
appearance from  localities  where  it  was  previously  known.  It  has 
been  ascertained  from  Ankole  that  the  parties  or  families  of  Chim- 
panzees are  great  wanderers  and  not  confined  to  specified  localities. 
However,  information  both  from  Toro  and  Bunyoro  districts  also 
records  a  recession  from  areas  in  which  till  recently  these  animals 
were  seen  and  heard."  In  Tanganyika,  Chimpanzees  have  been 
recorded  as  far  south  as  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Tanganyika, 
south  of  Kigoma,  in  the  Mahare  Mountains.  Footprints  and  about 
a  dozen  sleeping  platforms  were  noted  by  B.  W.  Savory.  They  have 
also  been  found  on  the  west  side  of  the  lake  as  far  south  as  the 
Marungu  district.  Mr.  Savory  found  collecting  of  Chimpanzees  very 
difficult  here,  not  only  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  country  but 
also  on  account  of  the  superstitious  fear  of  the  natives,  who  believe 
these  apes  are  reincarnations  of  human  beings  and  that  a  gun  fired 
at  one  of  them  will  surely  burst  (Dollman,  19356,  pp.  15-16) .  On 
Mount  Kivu  Chimpanzees  are  said  to  be  found  but  are  extremely 
localized.  Derscheid  records  them  from  Mount  Henu  and  in  the 
bamboo  forest  south  of  the  Karissimbi  Volcanoes. 

While  such  areas  of  rain  forest  as  are  found  on  some  of  the  more 
eastern  isolated  mountains,  as  Kilimanjaro,  Kenya,  and  Elgon, 


180  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

might  apparently  be  suitable  for  Chimpanzees,  and  in  some  future 
time  might  serve  as  sanctuaries  for  transplanted  stock,  they  are  at 
present  uninhabited  by  these  apes.  In  the  distant  past,  however, 
they  may  have  sheltered  them.  There  is  much  evidence  that  in 
eastern  Africa  the  lowlands  and  slopes  of  mountains  were  anciently 
clad  with  heavy  forest  but  that  native  races  of  man  have  in  the 
course  of  centuries  gradually,  by  burning  and  cutting,  beaten  back 
this  forest,  and  that  it  has  given  place  to  scrubby  growth  or  finally 
to  scattered  thorn  scrub.  A  similar  process  is  slowly  going  on  both 
within  the  rain  forest  and  at  its  edges,  with  slow  but  gradual  clearing 
of  trees  for  agriculture,  and  subsequent  abandonment.  Continued 
long  enough,  this  results  in  final  destruction  of  the  high  forest,  first 
in  spots,  then  in  local  areas,  and  finally  over  larger  tracts,  all  of 
which  will  eventually  much  curtail  the  available  living  areas  for 
Chimpanzees. 

G.  M.  A. 

Lesser  Chimpanzee;  Pygmy  Chimpanzee 

PAN  PANISCUS  Schwarz 

Pan  satyrus  paniscus  Schwarz,  Revue  Zool.  Africaine,  vol.  16,  p.  425,  April  1, 
1929.  (South  of  the  upper  Maringa  River,  30  km.  south  of  Befale,  south 
bank  of  the  Congo,  Congo  Beige.) 

FIGS.:    Coolidge,  1933,  pi.  1,  figs.  A,  B;  pi.  2,  fig.  A. 

Present  evidence  seems  to  indicate  that  this  is  a  smaller  species 
than  the  Common  Chimpanzee  and  distinct  from  it.  Its  known 
range  is  in  the  Middle  Congo  forests,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river, 
here  supposed  to  form  a  physical  barrier  to  northward  extension. 

Coolidge  (1933)  has  summed  up  our  knowledge  of  this  animal  and 
has  made  a  comparative  study  of  its  skeleton.  An  adult  female 
(containing  a  fetus)  had  a  head  and  body  length  of  630  mm.; 
height  from  crown  to  sole,  1,010;  spread  of  arms,  1,510.  It  is  thus 
much  smaller  than  the  other  species.  The  hair  is  fine  in  texture  and 
glossy  black  throughout  except  for  a  small  white  pygal  tuft,  and  is 
long  and  dense,  without  a  parting  on  the  head.  The  skull  has  a 
rather  juvenile  appearance  in  its  inflated  forehead  and  small  brow 
ridges. 

Although  the  existence  of  a  Chimpanzee  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Congo  had  been  several  times  reported,  it  was  not  until  1928  that  a 
M.  Ghesquiere  obtained  specimens  for  the  Congo  Museum  in  Ter- 
vueren  and  the  animal  was  described.  Previously  a  specimen  had 
been  in  the  British  Museum,  collected  in  1895.  Other  specimens 
have  since  been  secured,  and  more  information  is  likely  soon  to  be 
placed  on  record.  Dr.  James  P.  Chapin,  who  secured  a  specimen  in 
1930  near  Lukolela,  describes  the  voice  as  neither  so  loud  nor  so  shrill 


ORDER  EDENTATA:    EDENTATES  181 

as  that  of  the  larger  Chimpanzee.  Dr.  R.  M.  Yerkes  had  a  specimen 
in  captivity  for  over  a  year  in  1923-24  and  has  written  of  its 
behavior.  Very  little  is  known  of  its  abundance,  but  one  may  sup- 
pose its  distribution  includes  the  rain-forest  area  between  the 
Congo  and  the  Kasai. 

G.  M.  A. 

Order  EDENTATA:    Edentates 

Family  MANIDAE:    Pangolins 

Three  genera  of  this  family,  represented  by  four  species,  occur 
in  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  and  all  of  them  are  treated  in  the 
following  pages.  Two  other  genera  (Manis  and  Phatages),  repre- 
sented by  five  forms,  occur  in  the  Oriental  region  (India,  China, 
Siam,  Indo-China,  Malaysia) ;  while  subjected  to  some  perse- 
cution by  reason  of  their  supposed  medicinal  value,  these  Oriental 
pangolins  are  not  included  in  the  present  report. 

Giant  Pangolin  or  Scaly  Anteater.   Pangolin  geant  (Fr.). 
Riesenschuppentier  (Ger.) 

SMUTSIA  GIGANTEA  Illiger 

Manis  gigantea  Illiger,  Abhandl.  K.  Akad.  Wissen.  Berlin,  physik.  Kl.,  1804- 

1811,  p.  84,  1815.    (Guinea  =  West  Africa.) 
FIGS.:    Buttikofer,  1890,  vol.  2,  p.  394,  fig.;  Beddard,  1902,  p.  190,  fig.  109; 

Schubotz,  1912,  p.  357,  fig.;  Bequaert,  1922,  pi.  24,  fig.  2,  pi.  25,  fig.  2; 

Schouteden,   1930,  p.   [14],  fig.  3a;   Halt,   19346,  pis.  32-34,  and   1934c, 

p.  727,  upper  fig.,  p.  729,  fig.;  Rosevear,  1937,  p.  12,  fig.  2. 

The  various  species  of  African  pangolins  do  not  appear  to  be 
numerous  anywhere.  They  are  in  considerable  demand  among  the 
natives,  and  active  hunting  keeps  down  their  numbers.  All  forms 
are  placed  in  Schedule  B  under  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 

In  all  African  pangolins  "no  hairs  project  between  the  scales,  the 
median  dorsal  row  of  scales  does  not  extend  to  the  tail  tip,  and 
there  is  no  external  pinna  of  the  ear."  In  S.  gigantea  and  S.  tem- 
minckii  "the  belly  is  naked,  the  preaxial  surface  of  the  fore  limb 
bears  scales  to  the  base  of  the  claws,  the  tail  is  massive  and  bears 
no  naked  subterminal  pad."  In  the  former  "there  are  12  to  15 
scales  in  the  median  dorsal  row  of  the  tail.  .  .  .  The  scales  of  the 
head,  neck,  shoulders,  arm,  and  hind  legs  are  dominantly  dark  olive- 
brown.  This  color  shades  gradually  into  avellaneous  over  the  dorsal 
region.  .  .  .  Over  the  tail  a  deep  Roman  green  assumes  increasing 
prominence  in  the  apical  part  of  the  scale.  .  .  .  The  species  is  hair- 
less, except  for  a  dense  ring  of  short,  circumorbital  bristles  and  a 
patch  of  similar  hairs  in  front  of  the  auditory  meatus."  The  tail 


182  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

length  averages  a  little  less  than  half  of  the  total  length.  (Hatt, 
19346,  pp.  646-649.)  The  species  attains  a  total  length  of  1,710  mm. 
and  a  tail  length  of  830  mm.  (Allen  and  Coolidge,  1930,  p.  606) . 

The  range  appears  to  extend  from  Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia  east 
to  the  Ubangi-Shari  Territory  of  French  Equatorial  Africa  and 
northeastern  Belgian  Congo.  It  corresponds  rather  closely  to  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Guinea  Forest  District  of  Chapin  (1932,  p.  90) 
and  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258).  "M.  gigantea  is  known  from  the 
West  African  Rain  Forest  and  the  adjoining  wooded  galleries"  (Lang, 
in  Bequaert,  1922,  p.  325).  Matschie  (1894a,  p.  5)  seems  to  extend 
the  range  as  far  as  Senegambia. 


FIG.  20. — Giant  Pangolin  or  Scaly  Anteater  (Smutsia  gigantea).    After 
photo  by  Lang. 

Sierra  Leone. — A  species  of  pangolin,  said  to  be  Smutsia  gigantea, 
is  of  fairly  general  distribution  but  is  not  commonly  seen.  It  pro- 
vides food  for  the  natives.  There  is  no  evidence  of  depletion,  and 
no  protective  measures  are  taken.  (Colonial  Secretary's  Office,  in 
litt.,  July,  1937.) 

Liberia. — This  is  a  very  rare  animal  in  Liberia.  A  specimen 
secured  by  Jackson  at  Cape  Mount  had  consumed  a  large  quantity 
of  termites  and  driver  ants.  The  flesh  is  very  tough  and  has  a  flavor 
of  formic  acid.  (Buttikofer,  1890,  vol.  2,  pp.  395-396.) 

Another  specimen  is  recorded  by  Jentink  (1888,  p.  56)  from  Little 
Bassa. 

A  male  of  record  size  was  obtained  from  natives  at  Paiata  (Allen 
and  Coolidge,  1930,  p.  606) . 

Gold  Coast. — This  species  "is  found  in  the  savannah  areas  of 
N.  Ashanti  and  the  Northern  Territories. 

"There  is  little  doubt  that  all  [the  species  of  pangolins]  are  now 
much  less  common  than  formerly,  though  it  is  probable  that  their 
range  has  not  decreased. 


ORDER  EDENTATA:    EDENTATES  183 

"Night  hunting  and  the  use  of  wire  snares  are  the  main  causes  of 
depletion.  Their  meat  is  considered  one  of  the  greatest  delicacies." 
(Assistant  Conservator  of  Forests,  Gold  Coast,  in  litt.,  July  22, 
1937.) 

Nigeria. — The  species  is  reported  from  Nigeria,  but  without  a 
definite  locality  record  (Rosevear,  1937,  p.  13) . 

French  Cameroons. — It  occurs  in  the  forest  region  and  is  absolutely 
protected  except  under  scientific  permit  (Paris  Agency,  in  litt., 
November,  1936). 

Gabun. — The  Giant  Pangolin  is  confined  to  the  great  forest.  Only 
a  skin  has  come  under  personal  observation.  It  was,  however, 
abundant  at  Mimongo  in  the  region  of  Akelai.  (A.  R.  Maclatchy, 
in  litt.,  February  5,  1937.) 

Ubangi-Shari  district,  French  Equatorial  Africa. — It  appears  to 
be  localized  in  the  forested  region.  It  is  not  threatened,  and  has 
been  totally  protected  since  1929.  (L.  Blancou,  in  litt.,  December, 
1936.) 

Belgian  Congo. — Schubotz  (1912,  p.  356)  records  a  specimen  from 
Angu,  on  the  Uele  River. 

Lang  (in  Bequaert,  1922,  p.  320)  says  of  the  several  local  species 
of  pangolins: 

"The  signs  of  their  fossorial  practice  are  as  often  a  cause  of  their 
discovery  as  is  the  strong  odor  they  emit,  and  dogs  of  native  hunters 
never  fail  to  challenge  their  presence.  Various  highly  valued  talis- 
mans, which  their  captors  obtain  from  the  claws,  scales,  hairs,  and 
other  parts  of  some  of  the  scaly  ant-eaters,  suffice  to  make  them  an 
always  welcome  prize  and  their  meat  is  an  additional  incentive  for 
their  destruction." 

Lang  also  describes  (p.  325)  a  Pygmy  method  of  capturing  the 
present  species:  "Pygmy  boys,  with  one  end  of  a  strand  of  rattan 
fastened  to  the  waist  and  the  other  held  by  friends  waiting  outside, 
entered  the  burrows  without  hesitation  ....  These  boys,  armed 
only  with  a  knife,  merely  fastened  the  rattan  around  the  live  pan- 
golin, which  they  prodded  from  behind  while  their  companions 
pulled  it  out  of  the  hole.  These  otherwise  harmless  beasts,  when 
touched  while  rolled  up,  suddenly  switch  their  tail  sidewise  with  such 
force  that,  if  one's  hand  is  caught  between  the  rough  body  scales 
and  the  tail,  it  is  seriously  mutilated  by  the  shearing  action." 

Lang  records  (p.  325)  specimens  from  Bafuka,  Niangara,  Poko, 
and  Niapu  in  northeastern  Belgian  Congo. 

"The  only  specimen  I  was  ever  able  to  obtain  was  dug  out  for 
me  by  natives,  with  the  expenditure  of  much  labor  and  time,  on  the 
Semliki  side  of  the  forest"  (Christy,  1924,  p.  228). 

Schouteden  states  (1930,  p.   [95])  that  the  species  ranges  from 


184  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

the  Lower  to  the  Upper  Congo.   He  also  records  (1935,  p.  [62])  a 
specimen  from  the  Kivu  region. 

The  several  species  of  pangolins  do  not  appear  numerous  any- 
where in  the  Belgian  Congo.  The  natives  do  not  hunt  them  espe- 
cially, and  the  Europeans  not  at  all.  Brush  fires  alone  destroy  a 
great  many.  (A.  J.  Jobaert,  in  litt.,  November  10,  1936.) 

South  African  Pangolin ;  Scaly  Anteater.   I jzer  Magauw ; 
letermago   (Boer) 

SMUTSIA  TEMMINCKII  (Smuts) 

Mani's  temminckii  Smuts,  Enumeratio  Mammalium  Capensium,  p.  54,  pi.  3, 

figs.  6-7,  1832.    ("E  regionibus,  ultra  Latakou  sitis"  =  probably  the  region 

north  of  Litakun,  British  Bechuanaland.) 
FIGS.:  A.  Smith,  1849,  pi.  7;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  3,  p.  229,  fig.,  1894-95; 

Matschie,  1895,  p.  143,  fig.;  W.  L.  Sclater,  1901,  vol.  2,  p.  217,  fig.  148; 

Fitzsimons,  1920,  vol.  4,  pi.  facing  p.  233. 

Though  widely  distributed  in  South  and  East  Africa,  this  seems 
to  be  a  decidedly  scarce  animal. 

"General  form  somewhat  elongated  and  lizard-like,  covered  every- 
where, except  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  head  and  body  and  inside 
the  limbs,  with  a  series  of  over-lapping  broad  scales  of  a  dark  horn- 
brown  colour  with  paler  edges  and  tips;  head  very  small  and 
pointed,"  covered  above  with  small  scales;  "no  external  ear  .  .  .  . 
Across  the  middle  of  the  back  eleven  rows  of  scales  .  .  .  ;  limbs 
short  each  with  five  toes  and  claws  ....  Tail  very  broad,"  cov- 
ered above  and  below  with  4-5  rows  of  scales.  Head  and  body,  24 
inches;  tail,  18.  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1901,  vol.  2,  pp.  217-218.) 

"The  scaly  ant-eater  is  chiefly  found  to  the  north  of  the  Orange 
River,  though  said  to  occur  rarely  in  Prieska  and  the  other  districts 
just  south  of  the  river;  from  here  it  extends  through  the  Orange 
Free  State,  the  Transvaal,  Bechuanaland,  the  Kalahari  and  German 
South-west  Africa  to  Rhodesia;  north  of  the  Zambesi  it  occurs  in 
South  Angola,  Nyasaland  and  East  Africa  as  far  as  Somaliland." 
(W.  L.  Sclater,  1901,  vol.  2,  p.  218.)  Matschie  (1894,  p.  5)  extends 
the  range  north  to  southern  Kordofan  (about  lat.  17°  N.). 

"Well  known  in  the  Orange  Free  State  (Ventersburg — Albany 
Museum) ,  the  Transvaal,  Bechuanaland,  Ngamiland,  and  Southern 
Rhodesia."  Also  "recorded  from  Northern  Rhodesia,  Nyasaland, 
and — according  to  Sclater — Uganda,  East  Africa  and  Somaliland." 
(Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  p.  665.) 

Cape  Province  and  British  Bechuanaland. — At  Litakun,  British 
Bechuanaland,  Burchell  (1824,  vol.  2,  pp.  423-424)  observed  a  skin 
lying  on  the  hedge  of  a  native  cattle  enclosure,  "placed  there  .  .  . 
to  preserve  the  cattle  from  the  evil  effects  of  sorcery.  .  .  .  When- 


ORDER  EDENTATA:    EDENTATES  185 

ever  a  recent  track  is  met  with,  the  animal  is  traced  to  its  hole  and 
dug  out  if  possible,  as  the  flesh,  which  is  extremely  fat,  is  esteemed 
so  great  a  delicacy  that  the  law  requires  that  every  khaaka  which 
is  killed  shall  be  brought  to  the  Chief." 

Referring  to  this  same  general  region,  A.  Smith  says  (1849,  text  to 
pi.  7) :  "Only  one  solitary  specimen  of  this  species  was  obtained  by 
the  expedition  before  reaching  26°  south  latitude,  and  but  two  more 
between  that  parallel  and  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  ....  Its  extreme 
scarcity  probably  arises  from  its  having  long  been  zealously  sought 
after  by  the  natives  ....  Whenever  a  specimen  ...  is  secured, 
it  is  immediately  burned  in  some  cattle  pen,  which,  according  to 
the  opinion  of  the  sacrificer,  tends  to  increase  the  health  and  fertility 
of  all  cattle  who  may  afterwards  enter  the  fold.  Not  many  years 
ago  a  specimen  was  captured  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Cape 
colony." 

"I  have  seen  a  dry  skin  from  Upington  "  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2, 
p.  665) .  In  Griqualand  West  the  animal  is  now  very  scarce,  and  the 
scales  are  used  by  the  natives  as  medicine  (McGregor  Museum, 
Kimberley,  in  litt.,  June,  1937) . 

South-West  Africa. — In  the  Omaheke  and  the  Kaukauveld  it  is 
widespread  but  rather  rare;  skins  are  seen  occasionally  among  the 
natives.  It  is  also  reported  by  Bushmen  in  the  Hukweveld.  (Zu- 
kowsky,  1924,  p.  68.) 

"The  Pangolin  occurs  throughout  South-West  Africa,"  but  is 
"never  plentiful.  .  .  . 

"It  is  apparently  most  numerous  north  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn 
and  in  the  sand-plains  adjoining  Bechuanaland. 

"Rare  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Orange  River  and  in  the  southern 
parts  of  Great  Namaqualand.  .  .  . 

"Pangolin  scales  (used  as  charms)  were  not  infrequently  seen  in 
the  possession  of  Bushmen  and  other  natives."  (Shortridge,  1934, 
vol.  2,  p.  665.) 

Angola. — Monard  (1935,  p.  183)  records  two  specimens  from  the 
region  between  the  upper  Kului  and  the  Kubango,  where  the  natives 
report  the  animal  as  rather  common.  Monard  also  mentions  (p.  185) 
specimens  recorded  by  Bocage  from  Caconda  and  Mossamedes. 

Transvaal. — "A  number  of  examples  have  been  sent  to  the  National 
Zoological  Gardens,  chiefly  from  the  Rustenburg  and  Marico  districts 
of  the  Transvaal"  (Haagner,  1920,  p.  237). 

"ISIever  very  common  and  probably  scarcer  now  as  a  result  of 
closer  settlement.  There  is  a  demand  for  its  scales  by  native  witch 
doctors  for  'medicine/  as  much  as  six  pence  per  scale  being  paid, 
so  that  this  leads  to  a  considerable  amount  of  destruction  of  the 
animal.  Being  entirely  useful  and  harmless  it  should  receive  more 
protection  than  is  actually  accorded  it  ....  (Not  included  in  the 


186  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

game  laws,  i.  e.,  without  any  special  protection.) "  (A.  Roberts,  in 
Hit.,  November,  1936.) 

Portuguese  East  Africa. — Peters  (1852,  p.  174)  records  specimens 
from  Quitangonha,  from  near  Cape  Delgado,  and  from  the  vicinity 
of  Quelimane.  He  adds  that  the  scales  are  made  into  finger  rings 
and  worn  as  a  protection  against  the  "evil  eye." 

Kirk  states  (1865,  p.  654)  that  it  occurs  near  Sena. 

Southern  Rhodesia. — Chubb  (1909,  p.  125)  records  a  specimen 
from  AVankie,  Matabelelend. 

The  species  is  by  no  means  common.  Most  Rhodesian  natives  use 
the  skin  as  a  charm,  and  for  this  reason  the  animals  are  in  great 
demand.  Were  it  not  for  their  retiring  nature  and  strictly  nocturnal 
habits,  they  would  be  in  danger  of  extermination.  They  will  be 
protected  in  the  near  future.  (Game  Warden,  Wankie  Game  Re- 
serve, in  litt.,  March,  1937.) 

Northern  Rhodesia. — Pitman  notes  (1934,  p.  173)  that  this  pango- 
lin is  "recorded  from  Batoka  Province  and  Barotse."  The  natives 
do  not  "seem  to  know  of  it  in  the  areas  I  have  toured  (with  the 
exception  of  the  Kafue  Hook) ."  He  quotes  Neave  (1906)  to  the  effect 
that  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  the  scales  worn  as  charms  by  natives 
of  the  mid-Zambesi  Valley. 

Tanganyika  Territory. — Holmwood  (1878,  p.  632)  records  a  speci- 
men "from  the  coast  opposite  Zanzibar,  lat.  6°  S. ;  but  I  have  seen 
what  I  took  to  be  the  same  animal,  both  in  Somali-land  under  the 
equator  and  as  far  south  as  the  Makna  country  opposite  Mozam- 
bique." 

Matschie  (1895,  p.  143)  records  the  animal  from  Wahumba, 
Bagamoyo,  Massai  Nyika,  and  Mandera. 

The  Game  Preservation  Department  (in  litt.,  December,  1936) 
reports  no  danger  of  extinction. 

Kenya. — The  Game  Warden  (in  litt.,  November,  1936)  reports 
no  decrease,  though  the  animal  is  not  protected. 

Three-cusped   Pangolin;   White-bellied   Pangolin;   Pale-bellied 

Pangolin;  Pointed-scaled  Pangolin.    Pangolin  tricuspide 

(Fr.).    Dreizackige  Schuppentier  (Ger.) 

PHATAGINUS  TRICUSPIS  (Rafinesque) 

Manis  tricuspis  Rafinesque,  Annales  Gen.  Sci.  Physiques  [Bruxelles],  vol.  7, 
p.  215,  1821.  (Type  locality  not  stated;  restricted  by  Allen  and  Coolidge 
(1930,  vol.  2,  p.  606)  to  "West  Africa.") 

FIGS.:  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  3,  p.  230,  fig.,  1894-95;  Johnston,  1906,  vol.  2, 
p.  749,  fig.  292;  Schouteden,  1930,  p.  [88],  fig.  1;  Hatt,  19346,  pis.  36-37, 
and  1934c,  p.  727,  lower  fig.,  p.  730,  upper  fig.,  p.  731,  right-hand  fig.; 
Rosevear,  1937,  p.  12,  fig.  1. 


ORDER  EDENTATA:    EDENTATES  187 

This  species  occurs  in  apparently  larger  numbers  than  the  other 
African  pangolins. 

It  is  "an  arboreal  species  with  a  tail  constituting  over  half  the 
total  length.  The  characters  of  the  tail  tip  and  the  fore  limbs  are 
like  those  of  Manis  longicaudatus.  The  scales,  however,  are  small 
and  numerous,  brown,  and  during  mid-life,  tricuspid.  The  post- 
scapulars  are  not  enlarged."  Under  parts  grayish  white.  In  young 
animals  "the  margins  of  the  scales  are  even,  but  with  ensuing  wear 
.  .  .  the  scales  become  sharply  dentate,  or,  usually  later,  tridentate." 
In  old  age  the  animals  have  "cuspless,  worn,  elongate  scales."  In 
half-grown  and  mature  animals  the  unsealed  parts  of  the  skin  are 
covered  with  hair,  attaining  a  length  of  20  mm.  Longitudinal  rows 
of  scales,  21-25;  marginal  caudal  scales,  35-40.  Total  length,  up  to 
1,027  mm.;  tail,  607  mm.  (Hatt,  19346,  pp.  655-658.) 

This  pangolin  is  not  confined  to  the  Upper  and  Lower  Guinea 
Forest  Districts  but  ranges  southward  into  the  Southern  Congo 
Savanna  District  and  eastward  into  the  Uganda-Unyoro  Savanna 
District  of  Chapin  (1932,  p.  90)  and  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258). 
Hatt  (1934b,  p.  656)  records  specimens  from  Liberia,  the  Ivory 
Coast,  Cameroons,  Fernando  Po,  Gabun,  the  lower  Congo,  Kasai 
district,  and  central  Angola.  According  to  Matschie  (1894a,  p.  6), 
the  range  extends  west  to  Gambia,  and  Jentink  (1882,  p.  208)  has 
a  record  from  Sierra  Leone. 

Liberia. — The  species  appears  to  be  distributed  over  the  entire 
region.  Specimens  are  recorded  from  Buluma,  Schieffelinsville, 
Junk  River,  Hill-town,  and  Farmington  River.  The  animal  can  be 
tamed  and  kept  a  long  time  in  houses,  where  it  runs  free  and  preys 
upon  ants,  cockroaches,  and  other  troublesome  insects.  (Buttikofer, 
in  Jentink,  1888,  p.  57.) 

Allen  and  Coolidge  (1930,  vol.  2,  p.  606)  record  "a  native-made 
skin  bought  at  Since." 

Gold  Coast. — Hayman  (1936,  p.  937)  records  specimens  from 
Goaso  and  Mampong. 

The  species  is  found  through  much  of  the  forest  country,  but  is 
doubtless  much  less  common  now  than  formerly  (Assistant  Con- 
servator of  Forests,  Gold  Coast,  in  litt.,  July  22,  1937) . 

Fernando  Po. — Fraser  (1848,  text  to  pi.  28)  records  the  species 
from  this  island,  where  "the  flesh  is  said  to  be  exceeding  good  eating, 
and  is  in  great  request  among  the  natives." 

Gabun. — This  pangolin  is  confined  to  the  great  forest.  Although 
legally  protected,  it  is  actively  hunted  by  the  forest  natives,  who 
capture  great  quantities.  To  prevent  this  is  difficult,  for  the  animal 
is  taken  in  trigger  traps  set  for  small  game.  The  real  safeguard 
would  be  the  prohibition  of  this  type  of  trap;  but  those  who  know 


188  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

the  brush  know  how  much  such  prohibition  would  be  worth.  (A.  R. 
Maclatchy,  in  litt.,  February  5,  1937.) 

French  Equatorial  Africa. — Matschie  (1894a,  p.  6)  records  the 
species  from  Loango. 

It  is  common  almost  everywhere  in  the  Ubangi-Shari  district. 
It  has  been  totally  protected  since  1929,  and  is  not  threatened.  (L. 
Blancou,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

Angola. — Monard  (1935,  p.  185)  quotes  Bocage  to  the  effect  that 
this  pangolin  is  rather  common  at  Bembe  and  Malange;  he  also 
gives  records  for  Bimbi  and  Cazengo. 

Belgian  Congo. — Schwarz  (19206,  p.  1061)  records  specimens 
from  Libenge  on  the  Ubangi,  Panga  on  the  Aruwimi,  Angu  on 
the  Uele,  and  Avakubi  on  the  Ituri;  also  from  Kudurma  and  Ka- 
bayendi  in  the  Niam-Niam  country  (not  far  from  the  Congo-Sudan 
boundary) . 

Lang  (in  Bequaert,  1922,  pp.  320-323)  remarks  that  tricuspis 
is  the  commonest  of  the  African  pangolins.  "Being  timid,  they 
readily  make  use  of  their  natural  safeguard  and,  when  even  slightly 
annoyed,  roll  up  in  a  ball  ....  When  forcibly  unrolled,  they 
may  succeed  in  driving  off  their  tormentors  by  well  directed  jets  of 
an  ill-smelling,  acrid  liquid  from  the  anal  region;  native  dogs  suffer 
for  a  considerable  time  from  the  effect  of  this  substance,  which 
greatly  irritates  their  mucous  membranes.  .  .  . 

"If  unmolested  and  placed  near  their  favored  prey,  they  uncoil 
readily  ....  One  soon  realizes  how  thoroughly  they  are  special- 
ized as  ant-eaters,  for  their  methods  of  attack  and  disposal  of  ants 
are  as  effective  as  their  ways  of  guarding  themselves  against  the 
defensive  means  of  their  prey.  In  the  regions  we  visited,  the  pan- 
golins preferred  true  ants,  as  stomach  contents  clearly  showed, 
though  many  of  our  captives  would  plunder  termitaria  with  great 
eagerness.  .  .  . 

"One  taken  near  a  column  of  army  ants  (Dorylus)  merely  made 
good  its  escape,  another  quickly  broke  up  the  well-ordered  line. 
.  .  .  Lashing  its  sticky  tongue  through  the  confused  crowds,  the 
ant-eater  lost  no  time  in  moving  back  and  forth  along  the  ant 
column  as  quickly  as  the  dense  clusters  vanished  into  its  mouth. 
Its  hunger  satisfied,  it  at  once  retreated,  freeing  itself  of  the  few 
army  ants  that  had  managed  to  dig  their  mandibles  into  the  soft 
parts  of  its  hide.  M.  tricuspis  fed  freely  on  many  other  kinds  of 
ants.  Those  we  had  alive  at  Avakubi,  Medje,  and  Niapu  were 
particularly  fond  of  ants  of  the  genus  Myrmicaria.  .  .  . 

"African  pangolins  have  helped  to  enrich  the  stores  of  witchcraft." 

Hatt  (19346,  p.  645)  records  66  specimens  from  Akenge,  Avakubi, 
Faradje,  Gamangui,  Medje,  Ngayu,  Niangara,  Niapu,  Poko,  and 
Stanleyville. 


ORDER  EDENTATA:    EDENTATES  189 

"  Uganda. — An  arboreal  pangolin  (presumably  tricuspis)  is  reported 
by  Johnston  (1902,  vol.  1,  pp.  395-396). 

"Two  or  three  species  occur  in  Uganda,  the  common  representa- 
tive being  Phataginus  tricuspis,  a  forest  species.  There  is  no  reason 
to  believe  that  Pangolins  are  any  less  plentiful  than  formerly.  In  the 
Mabira  Forest  P.  tricuspis  is  abundant.  All  species  of  Pangolins 
are  completely  protected  in  Uganda."  (Game  Warden,  Uganda, 
in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

Long-tailed  Pangolin;  Black-bellied  Pangolin.    Pangolin  a 

longue  queue  (Fr.).    Langschwanzige 

Schuppentier  (Ger.) 

UROMANIS  LONGICAUDATA  (Brisson) 

Pholidotus  longicaudatus  Brisson,  Regne  animal,  vol.  3,  Quadr.,  p.  19,  1762. 

("Probably  West  Africa"  (Allen  and  Coolidge,  1930,  p.  606).) 
SYNONYMS:    Manis  teiradactyla  Linnaeus  (1766);  Manis  macroura  Erxleben 

(1777);  Manis  hessi  Noack  (1889). 
FIGS.:    Noack,  1889a,  pi.  1;  Johnston,  1906,  vol.  2,  p.  753,  fig.  295;  Bequaert, 

1922,  pi.  25,  fig.  1;  Allen  and  Coolidge,  1930,  pp.  603-605,  figs.  447-449; 

Schouteden,  1930,  p.  [94],  fig.  3a;  Halt,  19346,  pi.  35,  figs.  1-2,  and  1934c, 

pp.  726  (both  figs.)  and  731  (lower  fig.) ;  Rosevear,  1937,  p.  12,  fig.  3. 

The  very  limited  amount  of  information  available  concerning 
this  species  suggests  that  it  is  one  of  the  rarest  of  the  African 
pangolins. 

This  is  "an  arboreal  species  with  a  long  prehensile  tail,  equaling 
about  two-thirds  of  the  total  length.  .  .  .  The  forearms  bear  no 
scales,  but  are  covered  with  hair.  The  scales  are  large,  yellow,  and 
on  the  flanks  are  keeled.  The  two  inferior  postscapular  scales  are 
markedly  larger  than  those  adjacent  to  them.  .  .  .  The  belly  hair 
is  black  in  most  individuals  ....  The  whole  face  .  .  .  dark  brown, 
nearly  black."  Total  length  up  to  937  mm.;  tail,  645.  (Hatt,  19346, 
pp.  651-652.)  Thirteen  rows  of  scales  on  the  body;  44  marginal 
scales  on  the  tail;  two  rows  of  9-10  scales  before  the  tail  tip  (Mat- 
schie,  1894a,  p.  7). 

The  range  appears  to  be  more  or  less  coextensive  with  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Guinea  Forest  Districts  of  Chapin  (1932,  p.  90)  and  of 
Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258).  Jentink  (1882,  p.  207)  records  speci- 
mens from  as  far  west  as  Senegal  and  Sierra  Leone.  Otherwise  the 
species  is  known  from  Liberia  to  Gabun  and  the  northeastern  Bel- 
gian Congo. 

Liberia. — The  animal  is  pretty  rare,  though  a  number  of  living 
specimens  were  received,  including  one  at  Soforeh  Place.  (Butti- 
kofer,  1890,  vol.  2,  pp.  393-394.) 

Jentink  (1888,  p.  56)  records  additional  specimens  from  Hill-town 
and  Farmington  River. 


190  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Live  specimens  were  brought  to  Allen  and  Coolidge  (1930,  vol.  2, 
p.  606)  at  Lenga  Town  on  the  Farmington  River  and  at  Paiata. 

Gold  Coast. — Specimens  are  recorded  from  Dabocrom  and  Elmina 
(Jentink,  1882,  p.  207) ;  also  from  Goaso  (Hayman,  1936,  p.  937). 

The  species  is  found  through  much  of  the  forest  country,  but  there 
is  little  doubt  that  it  is  now  much  less  common  than  formerly 
(Assistant  Conservator  of  Forests,  Gold  Coast,  in  litt.,  July  22, 
1937). 

Cameroons. — Hatt  (19346,  p.  653)  records  the  species  from  this 
country,  without  stating  the  exact  locality. 

Gabun. — Hatt  (19346,  p.  652)  records  a  specimen  from  Fernand 
Vaz. 

Belgian  Congo. — Noack  (1889a,  p.  100)  based  his  name  Manis 
hessi  upon  a  specimen  from  the  vicinity  of  Banana,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Congo. 

Hatt  (1934b,  pp.  651,  653)  records  specimens  from  Bolobo  and 
Lukolela  on  the  Lower  Congo,  and  from  Akenge,  Gamangui,  Medje, 
and  Niapu  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  country. 

Order  RODENTIA:     Rodents 

Family  LEPORIDAE:    Hares  and  Rabbits 

This  family  is  of  nearly  cosmopolitan  distribution;  but  it  is 
absent  from  Madagascar  and  part  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  it 
was  lacking  in  Australia  until  introduced.  There  are  about  11  genera 
and  over  200  species  and  subspecies.  There  is  generally  an  abun- 
dance of  individuals,  and  only  a  single  species,  the  insular  Amami 
Hare,  comes  within  the  scope  of  this  report. 

Amami  Hare;  Liu  Kiu  Hare 

PENTALAGUS  FURNESSI  (Stone) 

Caprolagus  furnessi  Stone,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia  1900,  p.  460, 
1900.   ("Liu  Kiu  Islands.") 

This  remarkable  insular  hare,  unique  representative  of  its  genus, 
has  been  suitably  recognized  and  protected  by  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment as  a  "Natural  Monument." 

Size  approximately  that  of  Lepus  americanus;  hind  foot,  tail, 
and  ears  remarkably  short ;  claws  very  large  and  strong ;  soft  under- 
fur  plumbeous ;  long  hairs  coarse  and  hispid,  brownish  black,  many 
with  buff  annulations;  a  median  black  stripe  from  neck  to  rump; 
under  parts  mostly  pale  buff.  Total  length  of  flat  skin,  550  mm.; 
tail,  about  8  mm.,  (Stone,  1900,  pp.  460-461.)  "Pentalagus  is  the 
most  marked  of  any  of  the  genera  of  the  Leporidae,  the  tooth 


ORDER  RODENTIA:    RODENTS  191 

formula,  the  structure  of  the  teeth,  the  relative  size  of  the  radius  and 
ulna,  and  the  very  short  tarsus  and  metatarsus  being  peculiar  to 
the  genus  and  unlike  anything  in  the  rest  of  the  family"  (Lyon,  1904, 
p.  430). 

In  the  original  description  Stone  (1900,  p.  460)  records  two  speci- 
mens. 

Thomas  (1906a,  p.  357)  records  a  specimen  from  "Oshima,  Oki- 
nawa, Liu-Kiu  Is.,"  and  adds:  "Another  specimen  is  now  living  in 
the  Duke  of  Bedford's  menagerie  at  Woburn." 

"The  distribution  of  this  species  ...  is  restricted  to  the  Islands 
of  Amami-Oshima  and  Tokuno-shima  in  the  Loochoo  archipelago 
where  it  is  endemic"  (Kaburaki,  1934,  p.  4183) . 

"Number  is  unknown,  but  as  it  is  carefully  protected  as  one  of  the 
'Natural  Monuments/  by  the  Law  for  Preserving  Scenery,  Historic 
and  Natural  Monuments,  and  it  is  also  strictly  prohibited  to  capture 
the  species  without  special  permission,  and  besides  it  is  forbidden 
by  the  game  law,  it  will  never  become  extinct"  (Nagamichi  Kuroda, 
in  litt.,  July  5,  1938) . 

Family  CASTORIDAE:    Beavers 

The  single  genus  of  this  family  is  repres'ented  by  one  species 
(Castor  canadensis) ,  with  20  subspecies,  in  North  America,  and  by 
another  species  (fiber) ,  with  perhaps  four  subspecies,  in  Europe  and 
northern  Asia.  All  the  American  forms  have  been  treated  by  Dr. 
Allen  in  the  preceding  volume  (1942),  and  an  account  of  Castor 
fiber  and  its  subspecies  follows  here.  It  is  primarily  the  demands 
of  the  fur  trade  that  have  brought  about  trie  deterioration  in  the 
status  of  the  Beavers. 

European  Beaver.    Castor;  Bievre  (Fr.)    Biber  (Ger.) 

CASTOR  FIBER  Linnaeus 

[Castor]  fiber  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  58,  1758.    (Sweden.) 
FIGS.:    Geoffrey  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,  vol.  6,  pi. '275,  1824;  Brandt 
and  Ratzeburg,  1829,  pi.  3;  Blasius,  1857,  p.  403,  fig.  224;  Royal  Nat.  Hist., 
vol.  3,  p.  97,  pi.,  1894-95;    Collett,   1898,  pi.   12;    Martin,   1910,  pi.   10; 
Didier  and  Rode,  1935,  p.  188,  fig.  98. 

While  treated  here  as  a  specific  unit,  Castor  fiber  has  been  divided 
into  a  number  of  forms,  including  the  following  which  are  con- 
sidered by  Kuntze  (1935,  p.  64)  to  be  more  or  less  tenable: 

C.  /.  fiber  Linnaeus   (Sweden) ; 

C.  f.  vistulanus   Matschie    (western   Poland) ; 

C.  /.  albicus  Matschie   (Dessau,  Anhalt,  Germany) ;   and 

C.  /.  galliae  Geoffrey  (the  Rhone,  France). 


192  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  former  range  of  the  Old  World  Beaver  included  the  forested 
regions  of  Europe  and  northern  Asia.  The  original  colonies  are  now 
extinct  in  all  save  a  few  localities  in  France,  Germany,  Norway, 
Poland,  Russia,  and  Siberia.  In  recent  times  the  animal  has  been 
reintroduced  into  England,  Sweden,  and  Latvia. 

The  general  form  is  heavy  and  thickset;  eyes  and  ears  small; 
hind  feet  large,  broad,  and  webbed,  the  claw  of  the  fourth  digit 
with  a  horny,  compressed  supplement;  tail  scaly,  mostly  naked, 
broad,  depressed ;  general  color  a  peculiar  and  very  uniform  clayey 
buff,  the  under  parts  a  little  more  yellowish.  Head  and  body  (fe- 
male),  820  mm. ;  tail,  380  mm.  (Miller,  1912,  pp.  948-952.)  Weight, 
15  to  25  or  even  36  kilograms  (Didier  and  Rode,  1935,  p.  188). 

Great  Britain. — In  Wales,  in  A.  D.  940,  Beaver  hides  were  req- 
uisitioned for  making  the  borders  of  the  king's  garments;  it  was 
evidently  then  a  rare  animal.  In  1188  it  was  still  found  on  at  least 
one  river  in  Wales  and  on  a  single  river  in  Scotland,  though  it  had 
apparently  died  out  quite  generally  in  other  parts  of  Great  Britain. 
"The  written  records  we  have  of  its  occurrence  are  very  frag- 
mentary, and  not  wholly  satisfactory."  Remains  have  been  exhumed 
in  both  England  and  Scotland.  Various  place  names  in  England 
indicate  the  former  occurrence  of  Beavers  there.  (Harting,  1880, 
pp.  33-46.) 

Their  skins  were  exported  from  England  and  Scotland  until  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  Beavers  x  were  reintroduced  on  the 
island  of  Bute,  Scotland,  in  1874,  but  died  out  about  1890.  There 
were  similar  introductions  in  Suffolk,  England,  in  1870,  and  in  Sussex 
at  some  time  prior  to  1905.  (Millais,  1905,  pp.  162-163.) 

In  1663  a  good  Beaver  hat  in  England  cost  85  RM.  in  German 
currency  (Kriiger,  1931,  p.  54). 

Spain. — Strabo,  writing  of  this  country  in  the  first  century  B.  C., 
is  said  to  mention  the  Beaver  as  a  well-known  animal  (Blasius,  1857, 
p.  407;  Kriiger,  1931,  p.  52). 

France. — The  Beaver  was  once  widely  distributed  in  France, 
being  found  on  many  watercourses  in  various  basins.  It  gradually 
became  rare,  but  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  still  found  on  many 
rivers,  principally  the  Oise,  the  Somme,  and  the  Marne.  Today  it 
is  found  only  on  the  Rhone  and  its  tributaries,  below  Valence.  The 
principal  habitats  are:  (1)  the  mouth  of  the  Ardeche;  (2)  the 
mouths  of  certain  small  watercourses — the  Ceze,  the  Tave,  and  the 
Aigues;  (3)  the  vicinity  of  Roquemaure  and  the  lie  de  Miemas; 
(4)  the  vicinity  of  Avignon  and  the  lie  de  Barthelane;  (5)  along  the 
course  of  the  Garden;  (6)  between  Tarascon  and  Beaucaire;  (7)  on 

i  According  to  Kriiger  (1931,  p.  53),  Scottish  importations  at  this  period  were 
of  Canadian  Beavers. 


ORDER  RODENTIA:    RODENTS  193 

most  of  the  course  of  the  Petit-Rhone,  in  rather  numerous  colonies ; 
(8)  on  the  Grand  Rhone,  beginning  at  Aries,  in  less  numerous 
colonies. 

The  60  or  70  known  stations  are  certainly  not  the  only  ones.  A 
rough  estimate  of  the  total  population  is  300  individuals. 

The  reasons  for  depletion  are  numerous  and  diverse.  Although 
the  Beaver  was  always  hunted  for  its  valuable  fur,  it  was  long 
considered,  up  to  recent  years,  as  harmful  and  thus  was  under  official 
ban.  Trapping  in  submerged  nets  has  been  particularly  fatal. 
The  frequent  floods  on  the  Rhone  have  been  a  serious  factor  in 
destruction. 


FIG.  21. — European  Beaver   (Castor  fiber).    After  Brehm. 

Perhaps  pollution  of  the  watercourses  in  certain  areas  is  to  be 
blamed,  for  autopsies  have  revealed  tubercular  lesions.  It  does  not 
appear  from  the  autopsies,  however,  that  the  fecundity  of  the  species 
has  been  diminished. 

When  its  existence  was  threatened  a  dozen  years  ago,  the  warning 
issued  by  certain  naturalists  rapidly  bore  fruit.  Restrictions  on  hunt- 
ing, establishment  of  reserves,  warden  service,  propaganda  in  favor 
of  the  Beaver,  and  appreciation  of  this  rare  animal  by  the  local 
population,  have  been  effective  in  its  conservation.  Its.  future  seems 
brighter,  and  in  general  the  colonies  seem  more  prosperous  than  a 
little  while  ago.  It  would  be  easy  to  improve  the  situation  by  the 
creation  of  more  reserves,  by  the  establishment  of  zones  of  refuge 
at  the  time  of  floods,  and  by  the  repopulation,  if  possible,  of  old 
abandoned  colonies.  (E.  Bourdelle,  in  litt.,  March  6,  1937.) 

Since  1909  the  hunting  and  capture  of  Beavers  have  been  pro- 
hibited for  all  time.  Twenty  kilometers  of  the  Rhone  have  been 


194  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

declared  a  protected  reserve.  As  a  result  of  persecution  the  species 
has  lost  the  habit  of  constructing  dams  and  lives  in  burrows  in  the 
banks  of  the  streams.  (Didier  and  Rode,  1935,  pp.  192-193.) 

Trouessart  wrote  in  1884  (pp.  119-121)  that  its  northern  limit 
in  the  Rhone  Basin  was  approximately  Valence  (as  it  is  now).  He 
added  that  it  was  becoming  rarer  each  year,  owing  to  relentless  per- 
secution. Also  that  its  flesh  is  excellent,  and  since  it  is  hunted  for 
its  hide  and  for  its  castor,  as  well  as  because  of  its  depredations  in 
young  plantations,  its  early  exterminaton  in  France  could  be  pre- 
dicted. But  such  a  fate  has  been  happily  warded  off. 

A  few  years  ago  its  castor  was  worth  more  than  250  francs  a 
pound.  For  a  long  time  the  Syndicat  des  digues  du  Rhone  paid  a 
bounty  of  15  francs  on  Beavers,  on  account  of  the  alleged  damage 
to  dikes.  But  with  better  information  the  bounty  was  abandoned. 
(Martin,  1910,  p.  lOb.) 

Italy. — Gesner  (1551,  vol.  1,  p.  337)  mentions  the  Beaver  as 
occurring  at  the  mouth  of  the  Po. 

Yugoslavia. — The  species  is  entirely  exterminated,  the  last  speci- 
mens having  been  observed  in  1859  at  Syrmia  on  the  Danube  and 
at  about  the  same  time  in  Bosnia  on  the  River  Ukrina.  A  good 
many  fossil  remains  have  been  found  in  Croatia  and  Slovenia.  (M. 
Hirtz,  in  Hit.,  December,  1936.) 

Rumania. — The  species  existed  in  Transylvania  up  to  about  1500, 
and  in  Moldavia  to  1823  (Calinescu,  1931,  p.  82). 

Hungary. — Extermination  took  place  in  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  (J.  Schenk,  in  litt.,  November,  1936). 

Austria. — In  1867  Beavers  still  lived  northwest  of  Salzburg,  where 
the  Sur  discharges  into  the  Salzach,  but  by  1870  only  disused 
burrows  could  be  found.  There  was  formerly  a  protected  colony 
in  the  plains  of  the  Danube  near  Wien.  But  now  the  Beaver  is  no 
more  to  be  found  in  the  Danube  region.  In  1861  the  castor  fetched 
600  Gulden  in  Salzburg.  (Kruger,  1931,  pp.  52-54.) 

Czechoslovakia. — Under  the  protection  of  the  Princes  of  Schwarz- 
enberg,  Beavers  survived  long  in  the  tributaries  of  the  Moldau,  but 
the  last  of  them  died  in  1883  (Kruger,  1931,  p.  53). 

Switzerland. — Gesner  (1551,  vol.  1,  p.  337)  reports  the  Beaver 
as  a  very  common  animal  in  the  large  rivers.  But  it  could  not  sur- 
vive strong  persecution  (Kruger,  1931,  p.  52).  Millais  (1905,  p.  160) 
quotes  Harting  to  the  effect  that  "Beavers  were  to  be  found  in  the 
Aar,  the  Linnet,  and  the  Reuss,  and  up  to  the  last  century  [eight- 
eenth] a  few  still  lingered  on  the  banks  of  the  last-named  stream, 
on  the  Thiele,  and  the  Byrse." 

Germany. — On  the  Rhine  the  animals  died  out  more  than  300 
years  ago.  In  Westphalia  they  occurred  up  to  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  the  very  last  was  killed  apparently  in  1877. 


ORDER  RODENTIA:    RODENTS  195 

In  the  Province  of  Hannover  they  disappeared  more  than  a  hundred 
years  ago. 

Beavers  now  find  refuge  only  on  the  middle  course  of  the  Elbe 
between  Wittenberg  and  Magdeburg,  together  with  its  tributaries 
the  Mulde,  Saale,  and  Nuthe,  and  the  adjacent  Altwasser.  The 
population  was  estimated  in  1890  at  200;  in  1913,  at  188;  in  1919,  at 
42;  in  1922,  at  200;  in  1926,  at  164;  in  1929,  at  263. 

The  almost  total  destruction  of  the  Beaver  in  Europe  is  to  be 
explained  only  by  avaricious  persecution.  It  was  pursued  because  of 
its  tasty  flesh,  its  valuable  pelt,  and  especially  its  castor,  which 
commanded  a  very  high  price  as  a  panacea. 

The  presence  of  the  Beaver  today  on  the  middle  Elbe  is  due  to 
certain  protective  measures.  Formerly  it  enjoyed  no  protection. 
The  Prussian  Game  Law  of  1907  gave  it  a  10-month  closed  season. 
In  1921  and  again  in  1929  it  was  given  complete  protection.  Along 
the  Elbe  mounds  are  constructed  to  furnish  a  refuge  during  floods, 
and  some  willow  plantations  are  provided  as  food.  There  are  re- 
strictions on  fishing  and  trapping  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
Beaver  burrows.  The  Provincial  Assembly  has  made  an  appro- 
priation of  1,000  RM.  for  settlement  of  claims  for  damage  by 
Beavers.  Despite  these  protective  measures,  the  Beaver  stand  in- 
creases only  slightly  or  not  at  all. 

Owing  to  the  penalties  involved  and  the  difficulty  of  disposing 
of  the  skin,  deliberate  killing  for  profit  has  practically  ceased. 
But  some  animals  still  fall  victims  each  year  to  the  human  lust  for 
killing.  More  serious  is  the  killing  for  protection  against  damage. 
In  the  eyes  of  the  country  people  and  the  fishermen  the  Beaver  is 
injurious.  It  steals  their  potatoes  and  turnips  and  destroys  their 
fruit  and  forest  trees.  Some  are  caught  and  drowned  in  fish  nets 
and  traps.  They  are  also  endangered  by  steel  traps  set  for  Otters. 

Floods  and  drifting  ice  constitute  the  greatest  menace  to  the 
Beaver.  Tuberculosis  was  found  in  a  dead  animal. 

Introduction  of  Beavers  into  other  parts  of  Germany,  where  they 
may  find  suitable  living  conditions  and  safety,  is  being  considered. 
(Kriiger,  1931,  pp.  53-56.) 

The  present  range  in  Germany  is  on  the  Elbe  between  Torgau 
and  Magdeburg,  and  on  the  adjacent  tributaries.  Tuberculosis  has 
been  found  the  cause  of  death  of  a  number  of  animals.  Some  Beavers 
have  been  introduced  in  the  Schorfheide,  near  Berlin.  (Reichsstelle 
fur  Naturschutz,  in  litt.,  October,  1936.) 

In  Wiirttemberg  the  last  specimen  was  killed  in  1869  on  the 
Danube  at  the  mouth  of  the  Iller  River  (Wiirttembergische  Natur- 
aliensammlung,  in  litt.,  October,  1936) . 

Blasius  refers  (1857,  p.  407)  to  the  former  occurrence  of  Beavers 
in  northwestern  Germany  on  the  Moselle,  the  Maas  [now  in  the 


196  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Netherlands],  and  the  Weser;  in  the  Luneburg  area;  and  on  the 
Schunter  near  Braunschweig.  He  also  speaks  of  their  more  recent 
occurrence  on  the  Havel  and  the  Oder,  in  the  Altmark,  on  the 
Vistula  [now  in  Poland],  in  East  Prussia,  and  at  Schwenckfeld  in 
Silesia. 

"Harting  says  that  'at  the  close  of  the  last  century  [eighteenth] 
many  localities  are  reported  to  have  been  frequented  by  Beavers,' 
notably  in  Altmark,  Preignitz,  Middlemark,  on  the  rivers  Spree  and 
Haxel  and  in  the  vicinities  of  Berlin,  Potsdam,  Oranienburg,  Lieben- 
walde,  Trebbin,  Nauen,  and  Konigshorst.  .  .  .  Wagner  in  1846 
mentions  Beavers  as  living  on  the  Danube,  Amper,  Isar,  Iller, 
Salzach,  and  the  Oder."  (Millais,  1905,  p.  161.) 

Denmark. — The  species  was  formerly  distributed  all  over  Den- 
mark, including  Bornholm  (Winge,  1908,  p.  96) . 

Norway. — Trade  in  Beaver  skins  was  carried  on  early  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Probably  most  of  the  Norwegian  furs  were  exported 
to  England.  The  species  had  begun  to  decrease  by  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  was 
probably  still  distributed  throughout  most  of  the  woodland  valleys, 
from  the  southernmost  parts  of  the  country  to  the  farthest  confines 
of  Finmarken. 

In  1896  its  range  was  chiefly  in  the  Stifts  of  Christiania  and 
Christiansand.  The  largest  colony  was  located  on  the  Nisser  River 
in  Nedenaes  Amt. 

The  trees  felled  are  used  both  for  food  and  for  building  material. 
The  Beaver  prefers  the  aspen  (Populus  tremula)  and  after  that  the 
birch,  oak,  and  alder. 

According  to  an  old  superstition,  the  castor  has  the  power  to 
frighten  away  whales  approaching  a  boat.  In  some  parts  the  castor 
is  worn  from  the  garter  as  a  specific  for  worms.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  the  tail  was  regarded  as  a  table  delicacy.  The  teeth  are 
worn  as  amulets  in  Finmarken,  partly  for  ornament,  partly  as  a 
protection  against  sickness,  and  were  offered  to  the  gods  at  the 
place  of  sacrifice  and  buried  in  the  graves  of  heathen  Lapps. 

By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Beaver  was  fast 
becoming  extinct,  but  the  Game  Laws  of  1845  checked  the  decrease. 
By  the  end  of  the  century  it  was  on  the  increase  and  had  extended 
its  range  by  migration.  The  number  was  estimated  at  about  60  in 
1880,  about  100  in  1883,  and  perhaps  a  few  more  in  1896.  By  this 
time  Norwegian  Beaver  skins  were  very  rarely  in  the  market,  and  the 
castor  was  of  little  value. 

For  a  period  of  about  40  years  after  1855  Beavers  were  allowed  to 
be  killed  under  certain  restrictions.  Then  a  closed  season  of  10  years 
was  declared  for  the  entire  Amt  of  S0ndre  Bergenhus  and  for  the 
whole  of  Aamli.  (Collett,  1898,  pp.  105-126.) 


ORDER  RODENTIA:    RODENTS  197 

By  1931,  as  a  result  of  state  protection,  the  numbers  on  the  Nidelf 
River  had  increased  to  12,000  (Kriiger,  1931,  p.  53). 

A  limited  amount  of  hunting  is  now  allowed.  During  late  years 
Beavers  have  been  transplanted  to  the  northern  parts  of  the  country, 
where  they  seem  to  thrive  well.  In  some  districts  the  farmers  com- 
plain of  damage  to  the  forests  by  the  Beavers.  (Hj.  Broch,  in  litt., 
December,  1936.) 

Sweden. — The  Beaver  was  formerly  distributed  all  over  the 
country,  but  gradually  it  became  extinct.  The  last  specimen  in 
Smolandia  was  probably  killed  about  1800;  that  in  Jemtland  prob- 
ably about  1870.  It  was  the  value  of  the  fur  and  the  castor  that 
caused  its  extermination.  Beavers  of  the  same  race  from  Norway 
were  first  introduced  in  Jemtland  in  1922,  in  Westerbotten  in  1924, 
and  in  Wermland  in  1925.  These  have  all  increased,  and  the  number 
in  Jemtland  is  now  estimated  at  several  hundred.  There  have  also 
been  introductions  in  other  provinces,  and  further  trials  of  this  kind 
are  planned.  The  animal  is  now  very  popular  in  Sweden,  and  its 
future  appears  to  be  rather  promising,  especially  since  it  is  protected 
throughout  the  year.  (Einar  Lonnberg,  in  litt.,  1937.) 

Latvia. — In  former  times  the  Beaver  was  found  on  many  of  the 
smaller  rivers,  but  owing  to  excessive  hunting  it  was  exterminated 
about  1870.  In  1927  the  Government  introduced  four  Norwegian 
Beavers  in  the  State  Forest  of  Kurland,  and  in  1936  two  others  in 
Smiltene  in  Livland.  They  have  now  increased  in  number  to  about 
40.  Hunting  is  forbidden.  (Forest  Department  of  Latvia,  in  litt., 
March,  1937.) 

Lithuania. — The  species  is  probably  exterminated.  Since  the 
World  War  two  specimens  have  been  illegally  captured:  one  in  1921 
on  the  Dubisa,  and  one  in  1935  on  the  Nemunas.  Hunting  is  for- 
bidden. Reintroduction  from  neighboring  countries  is  desirable.  (T. 
Ivanauskas,  in  litt.,  November,  1936.) 

Poland. — Game  protective  measures  were  instituted  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  Boleslaus  I  the  Great 
proclaimed  an  act  for  the  protection  of  the  Beaver  (Benedyct  Ful- 
inski,  MS.,  1933) . 

In  ancient  times  and  perhaps  even  in  the  seventeenth  century 
the  Beaver  was  quite  common  in  all  Poland.  Owing  to  the  reduction 
of  forest  areas  and  especially  to  the  regulation  of  rivers,  it  retired 
to  the  eastern  and  northeastern  parts  of  Poland,  where  it  is  still 
found.  (M.  Siedlecki,  in  litt.,  October,  1936.) 

Three  preserves  in  the  state  forests,  aggregating  684  hectares,  are 
sanctuaries  for  Beavers.  Another,  the  Bucharzewo  Preserve,  of  about 
5  hectares,  contains  Canadian  Beavers.  (Benedyct  Fulinski,  MS., 
1933.) 


198  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

The  present  colonies  of  Castor  fiber  vistulanus  all  lie  in  the  river 
basins  of  the  Niemen,  the  Pripet,  and  the  Dnieper,  and  perhaps  also 
the  western  Duna.  A  map  shows  the  present  distribution  at  14 
stations  in  the  Niemen  Basin  and  at  16  stations  in  the  Pripet  Basin. 
The  last  records  on  the  middle  course  of  the  Vistula  were  in  1850; 
on  the  headwaters  of  the  Vistula  system,  in  1861 ;  on  the  headwaters 
of  the  Bug,  in  1861 ;  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Dniester,  in  1851.  The 
largest  colony  in  Volhynia  in  1928  was  estimated  to  contain  100 
individuals.  In  1928-29  the  total  number  in  Poland  was  estimated 
at  235.  The  animals  are  now  very  strictly  protected.  (Kuntze,  1935, 
pp.  65-68.) 

Russia. — Various  early  records  are  summarized  by  Nehring  (1890, 
p.  105)  as  follows:  Pallas  (ca.  1770)  reported  that  Cossack  hunters 
sought  Beavers  on  the  steppe  rivers  of  the  Samara  region,  where  the 
animals  occurred  very  sparingly.  According  to  Rytshkov,  Beavers 
still  existed  in  1760-70  in  the  Bashkiri  region;  according  to  Evers- 
mann,  about  1850  in  the  Perm  Government;  according  to  Kessler, 
at  the  same  period  in  many  rivers  of  the  Kiev  and  Poltava  Govern- 
ments; according  to  Krynitzki,  about  1835  near  Kherson  on  the 
lower  Dnieper. 

Trouessart  (1910,  p.  130)  includes  northern  Russia  and  southern 
Russia  (Caucasus  and  rivers  of  the  Caspian)  in  the  range  of  the 
species.  Millais  states  (1905,  p.  161)  that  "Beavers  were  found  on 
the  Petchora  and  the  Dwina  in  Russia  until  1842,  and  possibly  a  few 
may  still  exist  in  their  unfrequented  tributary  stream-." 

Of  Russian  Beavers  we  know  comparatively  little.  In  1884,  566 
individuals  were  counted  in  the  Rokitno  Swamps.  But  by  the  time 
of  World  War  I  this  number  had  greatly  decreased,  despite  protec- 
tive measures  instituted  in  1911.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  colony  set 
out  on  the  Voronesh  in  1886  still  exists.  (Kruger,  1931,  p.  53.) 

The  species  was  formerly  widely  distributed  in  the  forested  areas 
but  is  now  almost  exterminated  and  exists  only  in  some  reserves. 
These  are  in  the  Ukraine  (on  the  Rivers  Teterev,  Soge,  and  Desna, 
on  the  tributaries  of  the  Pripet,  and  in  the  former  Government  of 
Chernigov) ;  in  the  Western  Area  and  in  White  Russia ;  and  on  the 
Usman  in  the  former  Government  of  Voronesh.  In  1935  the  total 
number  of  Beavers  in  the  U.  S.  S.  R.  (including  Siberia)  was  esti- 
mated at  2,500-3,000.  (W.  G.  Heptner,  in  Hit.,  December,  1936.) 

Siberia. — According  to  Eversmann  (as  reported  by  Nehring,  1890, 
p.  105),  Beavers  still  existed  about  1850  in  the  Baraba  Steppe 
(between  the  Irtish  and  the  Ob  Rivers).  "Gone  from  the  Yenisei 
and  Irtish,  where  formerly  they  were  common,  they  were  reported 
from  the  Pelyn,  a  tributary  of  the  Obi,  in  Western  Siberia,  until 
1876,  and  they  may  still  exist  there"  (Millais,  1905,  p.  161).  Troues- 
sart (1910,  p.  130)  includes  Turkestan  as  well  as  Siberia  in  the 


ORDER  RODENTIA:    RODENTS  199 

range  of  the  species.  According  to  Millais  (1905,  p.  161),  it  was 
found  even  "as  far  east  as  Behring  Straits."  Kriiger  states  (1931, 
pp.  52-53)  that  it  once  ranged  from  the  Urals  to  the  Pacific  Coast, 
but  that  the  white  examples  with  yellowish  backs  on  the  farther 
side  of  the  Urals  probably  have  not  survived,  and  that  there  are 
reports  of  the  complete  extirpation  of  the  species  in  Siberia.  Ac- 
cording, however,  to  W.  G.  Heptner  (in  litt.,  December,  1936),  it 
exists  on  the  Rivers  Konda  and  Sosva  and  their  tributaries  in  the 
Ob  Basin. 

""Schrenck  (1859)  reported  the  Beaver  from  Sakhalin,  and  he  is 
quoted  as  authority  by  Aoki  (1913,  p.  298)  and  by  Hatta  (1928, 
p.  1036).  The  record  is  questioned,  however,  by  Kuroda  (1928, 
p.  224) ,  who  calls  attention  to  the  lack  of  specimens. 

The  paucity  of  beaver  records  from  the  Siberian  wilderness  sug- 
gests that  the  animal  may  never  have  been  very  abundant  or  thor- 
oughly distributed  over  that  country.  Perhaps  the  Siberian  taiga, 
with  its  predominant  coniferous  growth,  does  not  provide  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  Beaver's  favorite  food  trees,  such  as  the  aspen  and 
other  deciduous  species,  to  support  the  animal  in  large  numbers. 

Turkey,  Syria,  and  Iraq. — Danford  and  Alston  (1880,  p.  60)  give 
an  unsubstantiated  report  of  a  beaverlike  animal  in  the  marshes 
between  Kaisariyeh  and  Indjesu,  Turkey.  They  also  cite  reports  by 
Heifer  and  Heifer  (1879)  of  Beavers  on  the  Euphrates  near  Aleppo, 
and  by  Schmarda  (1853)  in  Mesopotamia. 

Persia. — "The  beaver,  according  to  Eichwald,  is  common  in  the 
Araxes  ....  I  insert  it  in  the  Persian  fauna  with  some  doubts." 
(Blanford,  1876,  p.  51.)  The  above-mentioned  report  from  the 
Araxes  is  categorically  denied  by  later  authors  (Satunin,  1906, 
p.  374). 

Mongolia. — In  the  upper  Yenisei  Basin,  Tannu-Tuva,  "a  few 
beavers  still  exist  in  the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Bei-Kem;  but 
they  are  very  rare,  and  their  skins  are  seldom  brought  down  to 
the  markets.  In  old  days  they  were  mentioned  as  being  included 
in  a  tribute  sent  by  the  Khan  of  the  Ubsa  region,  then  paramount 
chief  of  the  Uriankhai  tribes,  to  the  Czar  of  Russia."  (Carruthers, 
1913,  p.  228.) 

The  species  "still  exists  .  .  .  ,  it  is  said,  in  the  highest  tribu- 
taries of  the  Black  Irtish  in  the  Mongolian  Altai"  (Carruthers,  1913, 
pp.  630-631). 

Manchuria. — "An  animal  recorded  by  Schrenck,  but  which  does 
not  appear  to  belong  to  the  Manchurian  fauna,  is  the  beaver  (Castor 
fiber) .  It  is  true  that  skins  of  this  animal  have  been  secured  from 
the  natives  in  the  Amur  region,  and  that  they  find  their  way  to  the 
fur  market  in  such  places  as  Harbin  and  Mukden  in  Manchuria,  but 
recent  investigation  tends  to  show  that  these  skins  have  been  brought 


200  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

from  Alaska,  having  been  bartered  from  one  tribe  of  natives  to 
another  till  they  came  into  the  hands  of  Russian  or  Chinese  fur 
traders."  (Sowerby,  1923,  p.  170.) 

India. — The  Beaver  may  have  occurred  even  in  India,  since,  ac- 
cording to  Buffon,  the  religion  of  the  Magi  forbade  them  to  kill 
this  animal  (Blasius,  1857,  p.  407) . 

Egypt. — Since  the  species  is  supposed  to  be  represented  in  the 
Egyptian  hieroglyphs,  it  may  have  occurred  in  Africa  (Blasius, 
1857,  p.  407). 

Economics. — "Had  not  the  use  of  its  hair  in  the  manufacture  of 
hats  been  superseded  by  that  of  silk,  there  is  little  doubt  that  the 
beaver,  both  in  the  Old  World  ^nd  in  America,  would  by  this  time 
have  been  numbered  among  extinct  animals.  As  it  is,  the  creature 
has  but  a  hard  time  of  it  at  best,  for  although  there  is  no  longer  a 
demand  for  its  hair  by  the  hat-manufacturer,  yet  beaver-fur  is  an 
article  highly  valued  by  the  furrier,  and  equally  highly  esteemed 
by  the  fair  sex."  (Lydekker,  1903,  p.  244.) 

Family  CRICETIDAE:   Hamsterlike  Rodents 

While  various  authors  are  not  in  accord  on  the  limits  of  this  family, 
it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  it  consists  of  more  than  a  hundred 
genera  and  more  than  a  thousand  forms.  Representatives  occur  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  world,  and  in  general  their  numbers  are  legion. 
However,  14  New  World  forms  are  included  in  the  preceding  volume 
by  Dr.  Allen  (1942) ,  and  the  6  forms  of  the  African  genus  Lophiomys 
are  discussed  here.  A  recent  authority  (Ellerman,  1941)  makes  a 
separate  family  (Lophiomyidae)  of  this  genus. 

Genus  Lophiomys  Milne-Edwards:    African  Maned  Rats 

The  following  remarks  of  the  Committee  of  Experts  (Hemming 
et  al,  1938,  p.  13),  while  naming  only  a  single  species,  may  be 
taken  to  apply  to  all  known  forms  of  this  rare  and  peculiar  genus: 

No  species  of  rodent  was  included  in  either  class  of  the  Annex  in  the 
Convention  of  1933,  presumably  owing  to  the  small  size  and  insignificant 
appearance  of  the  majority  of  the  species  involved,  and  to  the  fact  that  they 
do  not  fall  into  the  category  of  game  animals.  We  see  no  reason  however 
why  a  species  of  this  Order  should  not  be  placed  in  the  Annex  if  owing  to 
their  rarity  they  are  in  danger  of  extinction. 

A  species  of  this  Order  which  we  should  like  to  see  protected  is  the  Crested 
Bush  Rat,  Lophiomys  imhausi  Milne-Edwards,  a  very  remarkable  species 
living  at  altitudes  of  between  seven  and  nine  thousand  feet  in  the  mountains 
of  Abyssinia  and  Kenya.  This  species  which  lives  in  pairs  in  dead  trees  and 
similar  cover  is  peculiarly  liable  to  attack  and  its  numbers  are  known  to  have 
diminished  considerably  in  recent  years. 

We  accordingly  recommend  that  this  species  should  be  included  in  Class  A 
of  the  Annex  which,  owing  to  the  fact  that  rodents  are  not  game  animals, 


ORDER  RODENTIA:  RODENTS  201 

appears  to  us  the  most  appropriate  method  of  securing  their  protection.  In 
the  case  of  this  particular  species  we  shall  hope  to  have  received  before  the 
next  meeting  of  the  Conference  the  data  to  be  collected  by  the  Italian  Scien- 
tific Mission. 

Hollister  remarks  (1919,  p.  37) :  "Although  a  few  specimens  of 
the  maned  rat  find  their  way  into  collections  from  time  to  time, 
the  animal  is  still  so  rare  that  no  suitable  series  are  available  for 
study.  If  all  the  collections  in  various  museums  were  combined  it 
t  would  still  be  impossible  to  form  any  correct  idea  of  the  relation  - 
'ships  of  the  named  forms,  and  it  will  doubtless  be  many  years  before 
sufficient  material  has  accumulated." 

Under  these  circumstances  the  classification  and  nomenclature 
in  the  following  accounts  of  the  known  forms  of  Lophiomys  must  be 
considered  as  no  more  than  provisional.  Possibly  all  the  forms  so 
far  described  will  eventually  prove  to  be  no  more  than  subspecifically 
distinct.  All  exhibit  the  same  general  color  pattern. 

Sudan  Maned  Rat 

LOPHIOMYS  AETHIOPICUS   (Peters) 

Phractomys  aethiopicus  Peters,  Zeitschrift  Gesammten  Naturwissens.  Halle, 
vol.  29,  p.  195,  1867.  (Based  upon  a  skull  from  Maman,  north  of  Kassala, 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.) 

FIG.:    Anderson  and  de  Winton,  1902,  pi.  51. 

This  species  seems  to  be  known  chiefly  from  single  specimens 
collected  at  no  more  than  about  half  a  dozen  localities  in  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan  and  Eritrea. 

Under  the  name  of  L.  imhausi,  Anderson  .(in  Anderson  and  de 
Winton,  1902,  p.  289)  describes  an  adult  female  from  Erkoweet(?), 
on  the  mountains  between  Suakin  and  Sinkat,  Sudan,  somewhat  as 
follows:  Denser  fur  generally  gray  at  the  base,  with  a  broad  white 
band  and  wide  brown  tip;  the  long  hairs  broadly  tipped  with  white; 
a  triangular  white  area  on  top  of  the  head,  prolonged  backward 
below  the  ears  to  the  side  of  the  neck,  where  the  adpressed  lateral 
band  of  yellowish  hairs  commences;  a  white  spot  below  the  eye; 
front  and  sides  of  head,  throat,  and  sides  of  neck  blackish  brown; 
under  surface  generally  pale  brown,  with  an  admixture  of  white; 
tip  of  tail  white.  Total  length  about  40  cm.  (The  brownish  rather 
than  blackish  tone  possibly  represents  a  discoloration  that  had 
developed  since  the  specimen  was  collected  in  1880.  A  similar  dis- 
coloration is  now  observable  in  the  type  of  L.  smithi  Rhoads.) 

In  writing  of  this  specimen,  Giglioli  says  (1881,  p.  45) :  "The 
Natives  told  Count  Marazzani  that  the  Lophiomys  is  rare,  that  it 
lives  in  deep  holes  in  the  strangely  fissured  rocks  of  that  country." 
He  also  records  a  specimen  killed  at  Keren  in  the  Bogos  country, 
Eritrea,  in  1870. 


202  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Oustalet  (1902,  p.  399)  records  a  specimen  from  Massaua, 
Eritrea. 

"This  animal  is  said  to  occur  in  the  Khor  Baraka  and  also  at 
Tamai  [respectively  south  and  west  of  Suakin],  and  it  is  stated 
that  it  burrows  under  the  roots  of  trees  like  a  rat"  (Anderson,  in 
Anderson  and  de  Winton,  1902,  p.  290) . 

All,  or  nearly  all,  of  the  above-mentioned  specimens,  except  the 
type  of  aethiopicus,  were  recorded  as  "L.  imhausi"  before  the  plas- 
ticity of  the  genus  was  recognized,  but  all  of  the  localities  are  much 
nearer  to  the  type  locality  of  aethiopicus  than  to  that  of  any  other 
described  form. 

Imhaus's  Maned  Rat;  Imhaus's  Crested  Bush  Rat 

LOPHIOMYS  IMHAUSII  A.  Milne-Edwards 

Lophiomys  Imhausii  A.  Milne-Edwards,  L'Institut,  vol.  35,  p.  46,  1867.  (Based 
upon  a  specimen  secured  alive  at  Aden,  Arabia,  but  of  unknown  prove- 
nance (A.  Milne-Edwards,  18676,  p.  115) ;  Thomas  remarks  (1910,  p.  222) 
that  Aden  is  "a  place  to  which  Somali  animals  are  very  commonly  brought 
for  sale.") 

SYNONYM:  Lophiomys  smithi  Rhoads  (1896)  ("Sheikh  Husein,  West  Somali- 
land"  =  Ethiopia) . 

FIGS.:  A.  Milne-Edwards,  18676,  pis.  6-10;  Kull,  1894,  p.  136,  fig.;  Rhoads, 
1896,  pi.  25;  A.  D.  Smith,  1897,  p.  64,  fig.;  Drake-Brockman,  1910,  pi. 
facing  p.  133. 

This  species  is  " found  probably  throughout  the  Somali  country, 
but  [is]  undoubtedly  a  very  rare  animal"  (Drake-Brockman,  1910, 
p.  134). 

It  is  covered  with  very  long  silky  hairs,  of  mixed  white  and  black ; 
those  of  the  back  rising  in  a  crest  from  the  crown  to  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  and  separated  from  those  of  the  sides  by  an  area  of  much  shorter 
hairs,  brittle  and  grayish  tawny;  tail  long,  not  prehensile,  covered 
with  hairs  like  those  of  the  body  (A.  Milne-Edwards,  1867a,  pp.  46- 
47) .  The  general  appearance  is  not  ratlike.  The  dorsal  crest  is 
erectile.  An  adult  male  from  British  Somaliland  measured:  head 
and  body,  11  inches;  tail,  8  inches.  (Drake-Brockman,  1910,  p.  133.) 

The  known  distribution  includes  British  Somaliland  and  south- 
eastern Ethiopia. 

Kull  (1894)  describes  and  figures  two  specimens  from  Somaliland. 

A  specimen  (the  type  of  L.  smithi)  secured  by  A.  D.  Smith  (1897, 
p.  64)  at  Sheikh  Husein,  Ethiopia,  in  1894  was  the  only  one  seen  in 
a  journey  of  4,000  miles  through  British  Somaliland,  Ethiopia,  and 
Kenya. 

In  British  Somaliland  "I  have  seen  it  at  Sheikh  and  near  Burao, 
but  never  lower  than  4,000  ft.  One  specimen  was  killed  by  Somalis 
at  Upper  Sheikh  and  one  caught  alive,  while  an  adult  female  and 
young  male  were  caught  near  Burao  .... 


ORDER  RODENTIA:    RODENTS  203 

"Its  custom  of  proceeding  with  crest  erect  is  in  all  probability  a 
protective  measure  to  frighten  its  enemies,  which  might  mistake 
it  very  easily  for  a  young  porcupine."  (Drake-Brockman,  1910, 
p.  134.) 

Goba  Maned  Rat 

LOPHIOMYS  BOZASI  Oustalet 

Lophiomys   Bozasi   Oustalet,   Bull.    Mus.   Hist.   Nat.    [Paris],   vol.  8,   no.  6, 
p.  400,  1902.    (Goba,  southern  Ethiopia;  alt.  3,000  m.) 

This  species  appears  to  be  known  only  from  some  three  or  four 
specimens. 

The  female  type  is  described  as  larger  than  L.  imhausii;  fur 
thicker;  an  elongate  white  spot  over  each  eye,  with  a  black  band 
between;  a  white  spot  below  the  eye;  muzzle  and  area  about  each 
eye  black.  Total  length,  535  mm.  (Oustalet,  1902,  p.  401.) 

De  Winton  (in  Anderson  and  de  Winton,  1902,  p.  291)  records 
(under  the  name  of  L.  imhausi)  a  specimen  from  near  "Het  Marafia" 
(  =  Let  Marefia)  and  another  from  the  forest  of  Tikem;  both  locali- 
ties are  in  Shoa,  Ethiopia. 

Hollister  (1919,  p.  37)  refers  to  the  present  species  a  specimen 
from  Let  Marefia,  Shoa. 


Uaragess  Maned  Rat 

LOPHIOMYS  THOMASI  Heller 

Lophiomys  thomasi  Heller,  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  vol.  59,  no.  16,  p.  4,  1912. 
("Mt.  Gargues    (Uaragess),  6000  feet  altitude,   Mathews  Range,  British 

East  Africa.") 

This  species  appears  to  be  known  from  only  three  specimens  from 
the  type  locality. 

"Allied  most  closely  to  ibeanus,  differing  chiefly  in  darker  and 
more  contrasting  coloration  ....  General  dorsal  coloration  deep 
black,  the  hairs  everywhere  broadly  white  tipped  .  .  .  ;  the  sides 
somewhat  more  extensively  white  than  the  median  maned  area; 
.  .  .  lateral  bands  .  .  .  olive-drab  ....  Head  chiefly  black  with 
two  prominent  wide  white  bands  over  eyes,  which  meet  on  forehead, 
another  large  white  spot  below  eye  ....  Underparts  grayish,  the 
hairs  extensively  white  tipped  .  .  .  ;  tail  silvered  like  dorsal  region, 
the  extreme  tip  white.  .  .  .  Head  and  body,  270  mm.,  tail,  165." 
(Heller,  1912,  p.  4.) 

"These  three  specimens  were  caught  in  rock  crevices  ....  Heller 
believes  these  Lophiomys  to  be  strictly  rock-dwellers,  notwithstand- 
ing reports  of  their  living  in  holes  of  trees."  (Hollister,  1919,  p.  37.) 


204  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Jackson's  Maned  Rat 

LOPHIOMYS  TESTUDO  Thomas 

Lophiomys  testudo  Thomas,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  7,  vol.  15,  p.  80,  1905. 
("Ravine  Station,  [Mau  Plateau,]  British  East  Africa.") 

"The  type-specimen  .  .  .  remains  to  this  date  unique"  (Hollister, 
1919,  p.  37). 

This  species  differs  from  the  others  in  skull  characters;  "line  of 
glandular  bristles  on  sides  narrower  and  less  conspicuous  than  in 
other  species"  (Thomas,  1910,  p.  223).  "Basal  third  of  underfur 
dark  brown,  middle  third  white,  tip  black,  the  contrast  between  the 
colours  more  marked  than  in  L.  Imhausi.  Suborbital  white  spot  well 
marked.  Dark  band  dividing  the  frontal  from  the  auricular  white 
patch  scarcely  perceptible.  .  .  .  Hairs  of  lateral  line  olive.  Under 
surface  hoary  grey  ....  Tail  with  its  underfur  mixed  whitish  and 
black,  the  tip  for  a  length  of  about  half  an  inch  sharply  contrasted 
white.  .  .  .  Head  and  body  296  mm.;  tail  176."  (Thomas,  1905, 
p.  81.) 

Mau  Maned  Rat 

LOPHIOMYS  IBEANUS  Thomas 

Llophiomys]  ibeanus  Thomas,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  8,  vol.  6,  p.  223, 
1910.  ("Mile  513  of  the  Uganda  Railway  (between  Londiani  and  Lumbwa 
Stations)  in  Mau  region,"  Kenya.) 

SYNONYM?:    Lophiomys  ibeanus  hindei  Thomas  (1910). 

FIGS.:   A.  B.  Baker,  1912,  pi.  1;  Hollister,  1919,  pi.  2. 

This  is  perhaps  the  least  rare  species  of  Lophiomys.  It  occurs  in 
the  Mau  region  of  Kenya,  while  the  doubtfully  distinct  L.  i.  hindei 
has  been  recorded  from  the  neighboring  Aberdare  Range  and  from 
Mount  Kenya  (Hollister,  1919,  pp.  38-39) . 

This  species  "is  coloured  like  the  Abyssinian  form  referred  to 
L.  bozasi,  and  has  equally  prominent  lateral  stripes."  It  differs 
from  other  species  in  skull  characters.  (Thomas,  1910,  pp.  223-224.) 

In  addition  to  the  type,  specimens  of  L.  i.  ibeanus  are  recorded 
from  El-Burgon  and  from  the  Mau  Forest  near  Njoro,  Kenya,  while 
three  specimens  of  L.  i.  hindei  are  recorded  from  the  Aberdare 
Mountains  (Thomas,  1910,  p.  224). 

A.  B.  Baker  (1912,  p.  2)  writes: 

This  species  of  Lophiomys  occurs  in  the  higher  part  of  British  East  Africa 
and  is  known  only  to  the  Wanderobo,  a  tribe  of  expert  hunters,  who  explore 
every  corner  of  the  forests.  Mr.  Goldfinch  was  well  acquainted  both  with  the 
game  of  that  region  and  with  its  animals  generally,  but  this  one  he  knew 
only  from  descriptions  given  by  the  natives.  At  his  urgent  request  they  secured 
two  specimens  in  the  forest  near  Nakuru,  at  about  8000  feet  altitude.  .  .  . 

Mr.  Goldfinch  states  that  Lophiomys  is  arboreal  and  lives  in  the  thick 
forest  of  the  high  country,  .  .  .  also  that  the  natives  are  averse  to  handling 


ORDER  RODENTIA:  RODENTS  205 

the  animal,  believing  its  bite  to  be  poisonous.  It  is  he  says,  "very  rare  or  only 
got  by  accident  here."  ...    It  is  strictly  nocturnal. 

Lonnberg  (1912,  p.  100)  records  a  specimen  from  Mau  Escarp- 
ment. 

Hollister  (1919,  p.  38)  records  specimens  of  ibeanus  from  the 
Naivashi  Escarpment  and  from  Nakuru,  and  one  of  hindei  from 
Mount  Kenya. 

"The  first  one  of  these  animals  I  got  was  when  I  was  stationed 
at  Nakuru;  it  came  from  the  Aberdare  side.  It  was  taken  out  of  a 
hole  in  a  tree  by  a  Wanderobo  ....  I  had  no  difficulty  in  getting 
all  I  wanted,  and  at  one  time  I  had  something  like  a  dozen  of  them." 
(Goldfinch,  1923,  p.  1091.) 

Family  MURIDAE:    Old  World  Rats 

The  limits  of  this  family,  as  of  the  Cricetidae,  are  not  definitely 
settled.  The  two  families  are  similar  in  the  multiplicity  of  their 
genera,  species,  and  subspecies.  While  the  Muridae  were  originally 
confined  to  the  Old  World,  several  forms  of  Rattus  and  Mus  have 
attained  world-wide  distribution  through  transoceanic  shipping  and 
are  thoroughgoing  pests.  In  the  genus  Rattus,  two  species  endemic 
on  Christmas  Island  in  the  Indian  Ocean  have  become  extinct,  and 
an  Australian  subspecies  has  apparently  met  the  same  fate.  Single 
representatives  of  two  other  Australasian  genera  (Mastacomys  and 
Zyzomys)  are  treated  in  the  following  pages. 

South  Australian  Spiny-haired  Rat 

RATTUS  CULMORUM  AUSTRINUS  Thomas 

Rattus  culmorum  austrinus  Thomas,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  9,  vol.  8, 
p.  427,  1921.  ("South  Australia;  type  probably  from  Kangaroo  Island." 
However,  Iredale  and  Troughton  (1934,  p.  74)  suggest  "Port  Lincoln"  as 
the  type  locality.) 

More  than  a  century  has  elapsed  since  the  type  specimen  of  this 
rat  was  sent  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  in  1841,  and 
there  seem  to  be  no  records  of  appreciably  later  specimens. 

The  fur  is  sparse,  coarse,  and  more  or  less  admixed  with  flattened 
spines;  it  is  longer  in  this  than  in  the  other  subspecies,  the  hairs  of 
the  back  being  commonly  20  mm.  in  length ;  general  color  above  gray 
rather  than  fawn  color;  under  parts  equally  gray.  Head  and  body, 
155  mm.;  tail,  120  mm.  (Thomas,  1921,  p.  427;  Jones,  1925,  pp. 
298-299.) 

Thomas  (1921,  p.  427)  mentions  six  specimens  besides  the  type, 
and  remarks:  "Evidently  a  common  rat  in  South  Australia  in  the 
forties,  but  whether  it  still  exists  in  any  out-of-the-way  part  of 
the  colony  we  have  no  evidence  to  show." 


206  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

To  this  Jones  adds  (1925,  p.  299) :  "I  know  of  no  recent  records 
or  specimens  of  the  species.  So  far,  the  out-of-the-way  place  has 
not  been  found  by  collectors,  and  this  fact  should  prove  a  stimulus 
to  our  field  naturalists." 

A.  S.  Le  Souef  writes  (in  Hit.,  February  15,  1937)  that  this  par- 
ticular race  is  probably  extinct,  but  that  one  or  more  of  the  other 
subspecies  are  still  numerous  at  times. 

[The  other  subspecies  are:  Rattus  culmorum  culmorum  Thomas 
and  Dollman,  of  Queensland;  R.  c.  youngi  Thomas,  of  Moreton 
Island,  Queensland;  R.  c.  vallesius  Thomas,  of  the  interior  of  New 
South  Wales.] 

Captain  Maclear's  Rat 

RATTUS  MACLBARI  (Thomas) 

Mus  macleari  Thomas,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1887,  p.  513,  1887.    (Christmas 

Island,  eastern  Indian  Ocean.) 
FIGS.:    Thomas,  op.  cit.,  pi.  42   (colored);   Andrews,  C.  W.,  1900,  pi.  2  bis, 

figs.  1,  3,  6,  7,  8  (skull  and  teeth). 

This  rat,  isolated  on  Christmas  Island,  some  200  miles  south  of 
Java,  the  nearest  land,  is  believed  to  have  become  extinct  in  the 
early  years  of  this  century.  It  is  apparently  nearest  related  to 
Rattus  xanthourus  of  Celebes  and  R.  everetti  of  the  Philippines, 
which  it  somewhat  resembles  in  appearance. 

About  the  size  of  a  Roof  Rat,  it  is  described  as  grizzled  rufous 
brown  above,  the  belly  but  little  lighter,  pale  rufous;  longer  hairs 
black,  feet  dark  like  the  body.  A  striking  feature  is  said  to  be  the 
prominent  long  black  hairs  of  the  lower  back,  which,  as  in  the  other 
related  rats,  project  far  beyond  the  shorter  portions  of  the  pelage. 
The  tail,  which  equals  or  slightly  exceeds  the  length  of  head  and 
body,  is  dark  in  its  proximal  half,  white  in  its  distal  portion,  and 
scaly.  The  skull  is  large  and  strongly  built,  with  beaded  supra- 
orbital  edges,  and  the  anterior  edge  of  the  zygomatic  plate  projects 
forward  conspicuously.  Measurements:  head  and  body,  235-240 
mm.;  tail,  246-267;  hind  foot,  48.5-50;  ear,  17-17.5;  basal  length 
of  skull,  47.5 ;  zygomatic  width,  26.2.  Mammae  four. 

This  island  rat  was  first  made  known  by  Thomas  (1887)  from  a 
specimen  brought  from  Christmas  Island  by  Captain  Maclear  of 
the  British  surveying-ship  Flying-fish,  who  procured  it  on  his  visit 
there  in  1886.  In  the  following  year  additional  specimens  were 
secured  by  J.  J.  Lister,  who,  as  naturalist,  accompanied  a  second 
expedition  to  the  island  on  H.  M.  S.  Egeria.  At  that  time  the  island 
was  uninhabited  and  covered  with  jungle  and  forest.  Of  about  40 
square  miles  in  area,  its  highest  point  is  about  1,200  feet  above  sea 
level;  geologically,  it  is  largely  of  coral  limestone  resting  on  a  basis 


ORDER  RODENTIA:    RODENTS  207 

of  volcanic  rock.  The  specimens  brought  back  by  this  expedition 
indicated  a  deposit  of  phosphate  rock,  to  exploit  which  a  settlement 
was  founded  at  Flying-fish  Cove,  the  only  anchorage.  Shortly  after 
this,  Dr.  Andrews  made  a  three-months'  visit  (in  1897)  in  order 
to  survey  the  natural  conditions  there.  His  account  contains  prac- 
tically all  that  is  known  of  the  species,  which  was  then  by  far  the 
commonest  of  the  mammals  found  in  the  island.  He  wrote: 

In  every  part  I  visited  it  occurred  in  swarms.  During  the  day  nothing 
is  to  be  seen  of  it,  but  soon  after  sunset  numbers  may  be  seen  running 
about  in  all  directions,  and  the  whole  forest  is  filled  with  its  peculiar 
querulous  squeaking  and  the  noise  of  frequent  fights.  These  animals,  like 
most  of  those  found  in  the  island,  are  almost  completely  devoid  of  fear,  and 
in  the  bush  if  a  lantern  be  held  out  they  will  approach  to  examine  the  new 
phenomenon.  As  may  be  imagined,  they  are  a  great  nuisance,  entering  the 
tents  or  shelters,  running  over  the  sleepers,  and  upsetting  everything  in  their 
search  for  food.  They  seem  to  eat  anything,  and  destroy  any  boots  or  skins 
incautiously  left  within  their  reach.  Their  natural  food  appears  to  be  mainly 
fruits  and  young  shoots,  and  to  obtain  the  former  they  ascend  trees  to  a 
great  height.  ...  In  the  settlement  they  utterly  destroy  all  the  fruit  they 
can  get  at,  and  frequently  come  into  conflict  with  the  fruit-bats  on  the 
tops  of  the  papaia-trees.  A  number  of  dogs  is  kept  to  keep  them  in  check, 
and  near  the  settlement  they  are  certainly  already  less  numerous  than  else- 
where. In  the  daytime  these  rats  live  in  holes  among1  the  roots  of  trees,  in 
decaying  logs,  and  shallow  burrows.  They  seem  to  breed  all  the  year  round. 

After  10  years'  absence,  Andrews  (1909)  again  visited  Christmas 
Island  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  what  changes  had  taken 
place  in  the  interim  as  a  result  of  white  occupation.  Such  changes 
were  "chiefly  noticeable  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the 
settlement  and  quarries,  while  the  rest  of  the  island,  although  tra- 
versed by  roads  in  several  directions,  is  practically  unchanged."  The 
rats,  however,  had  gone.  For  whereas  10  years  earlier  they  were 
found  everywhere  all  over  the  island  in  abundance,  in  1908,  in  spite 
of  continual  search,  not  a  single  specimen  of  this  tree-climbing 
species  or  of  the  other  burrowing  rat,  R.  nativitatis,  could  be  found 
in  any  part  of  the  island.  He  says  further: 

This  complete  disappearance  of  two  such  common  animals  seems  to  have 
taken  place  within  the  last  five  or  six  years,  and  to  have  been  the  result  of  some 
epidemic  disease,  possibly  caused  by  a  trypanosome,  introduced  by  thfe 
ship-rats.  These  are  a  variety  of  Mus  rattus,  and  have  been  introduced  in 
considerable  numbers,  though  they  do  not  seem  to  have  spread  to  the 
remoter  parts  of  the  island  at  present,  at  least  to  any  great  extent.  The 
disappearance  therefore  of  the  native  forms  cannot  be  due  to  direct  com- 
petition with  the  intruders,  but  must  be  the  result  of  disease,  a  conclusion 
supported  by  an  observation  made  by  the  medical  officer,  Dr.  McDougal, 
who  told  me  that  some  five  or  six  years  ago  he  frequently  saw  individuals 
of  the  native  species  of  rats  crawling  about  the  paths  in  the  daytime, 
apparently  in  a  dying  condition. 

Since  Andrews's  second  visit  in  1908,  one  or  two  other  zoologists 
have  visited  Christmas  Island  for  the  study  of  its  fauna,  notably 


208  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

M.  W.  F.  Tweedie  in  1932,  but  apparently  no  one  has  since  found 
a  trace  of  the  two  indigenous  rats  or  of  the  shrew  (Crocidura 
fuliginosa  trichura)  that  were  abundant  before  the  settlement.  No 
doubt  the  supposition  that  they  were  exterminated  through  the 
spread  of  some  disease  brought  in  by  introduced  House  Rats  is  the 
most  likely  explanation  of  their  disappearance.  Chasen  (1933) ,  who 
has  written  of  the  birds  of  the  island,  adds  that  in  addition  to  Rattus 
rattus  (subsp.  ?) ,  the  House  Mouse  (Mus  musculus)  and  the  small 
Rattus  concolor,  a  member  of  a  group  adaptable  to  colonization  as  a 
human  acolyte,  have  also  been  introduced  in  this  island. 

G.  M.  A. 

Christmas  Island  Burrowing  Rat;  "Bulldog  Rat" 

RATTUS  NATIVITATIS  (Thomas) 

Mus  nativitatis  Thomas,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1888,  p.  533,  1889.  (Christ- 
mas Island,  eastern  Indian  Ocean.) 

FIGS.:  C.  W.  Andrews,  1900,  pi.  2  (col.  fig.) ;  pi.  2  bis,  figs.  2,  4,  5,  9,  10  (skull 
and  teeth). 

This  rat  and  Rattus  macleari  (q.  v.)  are  the  only  indigenous  ter- 
restrial rodents  known  from  Christmas  Island,  Indian  Ocean,  and 
are  both  now  believed  to  be  extinct. 

Rattus  nativitatis  was  first  collected  by  J.  J.  Lister  in  1887,  when 
as  naturalist  aboard  H.  M.  S.  Egeria,  in  the  year  following  the 
visit  of  Captain  Maclear,  he  explored  part  of  the  island.  On  this 
occasion,  a  landing  party  under  Captain  Aldrich  cut  a  way  through 
the  jungle  to  the  highest  part  of  the  island. 

In  contrast  to  the  other  species,  R.  macleari,  this  rat  was  a  more 
stoutly  built  animal  of  burrowing  habits.  It  is  described  as  a  large 
species  about  17  inches  in  total  length  with  a  tail  much  shorter  than 
head  and  body,  of  a  thickset  clumsy  form,  but  having  a  peculiarly 
small  and  delicate  head.  In  color  it  was  a  dark  umber  brown  all 
over,  the  belly  not  or  scarcely  paler.  The  fur  of  the  back,  though 
long,  thick,  and  coarse,  was  without  the  elongated  piles  characteristic 
of  R.  macleari.  The  claws  were  broad  and  strong,  adapted  for 
digging.  Mammae  abdominal,  three  pairs.  There  is  a  slight  degree 
of  variation  in  color,  some  individuals  being  a  warmer  brown  than 
others,  and  occasional  ones  having  a  small  irregular  patch  of  white 
fur  on  the  belly.  Teeth  relatively  small  and  weak.  Measurements: 
head  and  body,  275  mm.;  tail,  182;  hind  foot,  50;  ear,  24  (these 
for  the  largest  of  nine  specimens).  Skull:  basal  length,  46.8  mm.; 
zygomatic  width,  24.8;  nasals,  20.5;  diastema,  15.5;  upper  cheek 
teeth,  7.6.  A  comparison  of  the  forearm  and  hand  bones  in  the  two 
species  is  given  by  Forsyth  Major  (with  figures)  in  Andrews's 
(1900)  Monograph  of  Christmas  Island. 


ORDER  RODENTIA:    RODENTS  209 

This  rat  apparently  was  less  generally  distributed  over  the  island 
than  R.  macleari,  inhabiting  hilly  areas  in  the  interior.  Andrews 's 
account  supplies  practically  all  that  is  known  of  it.  He  wrote: 

Though  very  numerous  in  places,  especially  on  the  hills,  e.  g.  Phosphate 
Hill,  [it]  is  very  much  less  common  than  M.  macleari.  I  never  saw  one  in 
Flying  Fish  Cove  [the  settlement],  though  they  certainly  have  been  killed 
there.  They  seem  to  live  in  small  colonies  in  burrows,  often  among  the 
roots  of  a  tree,  and  occasionally  several  may  be  found  living  in  the  long, 
hollow  trunk  of  a  fallen  and  half-decayed  sago-palm  (Arenga  listeri).  The 
food  consists  of  wild  fruits,  young  shoots,  and,  I  believe,  the  bark  of  some 
trees.  [It  is  a]  much  more  sluggish  animal  than  M.  macleari,  and  unlike  it, 
never  climbs  trees;  and  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  the  belief  that  the  former 
species  is  being  supplanted  by  the  latter  in  spite  of  the  abundance  of  food. 
Both  animals  are  strictly  nocturnal,  and  M.  nativitatis,  when  exposed  to 
bright  daylight,  seems  to  be  in  a  half-dazed  condition.  The  Ross  family  in 
Christmas  Island  have  given  this  species  the  name  "Bull-dog  Rat,"  and  this 
has  been  adopted  by  the  Malays. 

This  was  in  1897.  When,  in  1908,  Andrews  revisited  the  island 
to  see  what  changes  had  followed  the  planting  of  a  settlement  there, 
he  found  both  species  apparently  quite  gone.  "In  spite  of  continual 
search,  not  a  single  specimen  of  either  species  could  be  found  in  any 
part  of  the  island."  This  disappearance,  as  detailed  under  Rattus 
macleari,  was  conjectured  to  have  taken  place  about  five  or  six  years 
earlier,  when  the  medical  officer  stationed  there  had  frequently  seen 
individuals  of  the  native  rats  "crawling  about  the  paths  in  the  day- 
time, apparently  in  a  dying  condition."  Andrews  suggests  that  the 
introduced  Roof  Rat,  by  then  already  present  in  considerable  num- 
bers, had  brought  in  some  epizootic  disease  to  which  the  native 
species  had  been  susceptible,  and  in  consequence  they  had  been 
entirely  wiped  out  in  the  brief  space  of  a  few  years.  (Andrews,  1909, 
pp.  101-102.) 

At  the  time  of  Andrews's  first  visit  he  wrote  (1900) :  "The  con- 
ditions of  life  are  apparently  extremely  favourable,  food  being 
always  abundant,  and  the  hawk  and  owl,  which  are  the  only  possible 
enemies  [of  these  rats],  feeding  mainly  on  birds  and  insects.  The 
consequence  of  this  is  that  all  the  species  of  mammals  are  extremely 
common,  and  the  individuals  are  always  exceedingly  fat.  Perhaps 
Mus  [=  Rattus]  nativitatis,  the  bull-dog  rat  as  the  Cocos  Islanders 
have  named  it,  is  the  least  numerous,  probably  because  of  some 
competition  with  the  much  more  active  and  versatile  M.  macleari, 
but  most  specimens  of  M.  nativitatis  have  a  layer  of  fat  from  half 
to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick  over  most  of  the  dorsal  surface 
of  the  body."  Possibly  this  very  abundance  of  individuals  and  their 
fat  condition  made  them  the  more  susceptible  to  any  disease  brought 
in  from  outside. 

While  conjecture  as  to  the  origin  of  the  endemic  fauna  is  more  or 
less  futile,  Andrews  nevertheless  points  out  that  on  the  whole  its 
8 


210  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

relations  are  with  "Austro-Malayan"  rather  than  with  Javan  types. 
He  noticed  on  several  occasions  the  transport  of  insects  to  the  island 
by  storms  "which,  during  the  rainy  season,  blow  occasionally  from 
the  northern  quarter,"  but  inclines  to  the  supposition  that  the  "rats, 
the  fruit-bat,  and  possibly  some  of  the  land  birds,  very  probably 
owe  their  introduction  to  the  island"  to  the  transport  by  rafts  of 
trees  brought  by  the  equatorial  drift  from  the  Timor  Sea.  This 
island  is  at  least  of  unusual  interest  as  affording  a  case  in  which 
the  native  fauna  has  within  a  few  years  been  altered  as  a  result  of 
settlement  by  man,  and  two  of  its  few  native  mammals  have  be- 
come extirpated. 

G.  M.  A. 

Broad-toothed  Rat 

MASTACOMYS  FUSCUS  Thomas 

Mastacomys  juscus  Thomas,  Ann.   Mag.   Nat.   Hist.,  ser.  5,   vol.  9,  p.  413, 
1882.   ("Tasmania.") 

This  rare  rat  survives  in  the  Otway  Forest  of  Victoria  and  in 
Cradle  Valley,  Tasmania,  but  little  or  nothing  is  known  of  its  present 
occurrence  elsewhere. 

Fur  long  and  soft;  general  color  dark  grayish  brown  above  and 
below,  the  dorsal  hairs  tipped  with  light  brown  and  the  ventral 
hairs  with  white;  tail  and  feet  dark  brown.  Head  and  body,  142 
mm.;  tail,  95  mm.  (Thomas,  1882,  pp.  413-415.)  It  is  a  large  rat, 
with  a  stout  build,  strong  limbs,  and  a  short  tail.  Head  and  body 
(Tasmanian  specimens),  170-182  mm.;  tail,  110-113  mm.  (Finlay- 
son,  1933a,  pp.  126,  128.)  Victorian  specimens  have  longer  tails 
(119-124  mm.)  (Brazenor,  1934,  p.  161). 

The  type  specimen,  from  an  unspecified  locality  in  Tasmania,  was 
acquired  by  the  British  Museum  in  1852,  and  for  80  years  no  further 
information  seemed  to  be  forthcoming  as  to  its  occurrence  in  that 
state.  In  1931,  however,  five  specimens  were  collected  in  Cradle 
Valley,  northwestern  Tasmania,  at  an  altitude  of  about  3,000  feet. 
The  Broad-toothed  Rats  were  living  in  colonies  in  grassy  areas  on 
open  heaths,  in  association  with  Eastern  Swamp  Rats  (Rattus 
lutreolus).  "Both  rats  are  probably  quite  numerous,  but  the  laby- 
rinths are  the  chosen  hunting  grounds  of  Dasyurus  vivverinus  [sic], 
and  it  was  not  until  several  days  trapping  had  got  rid  of  the  latter 
that  rats  began  to  be  caught."  (Finlayson,  1933a,  pp.  125-126.) 
Doubtless  this  Native  Cat  acts  as  a  check  upon  the  increase  of 
the  rats. 

Lydekker  (1885,  p.  227)  records  some  bone  fragments  of  Masta- 
comys juscus  from  the  caves  of  the  Wellington  Valley,  New  South 
Wales. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  211 

Brazenor  (1934,  pp.  159-160)  records  specimens  from  the  follow- 
ing localities  in  Victoria:  Swan  Island;  Gippsland;  Layer's  Hill 
in  the  Otway  Forest;  Olangolah,  near  Beech  Forest,  at  the  head 
of  the  Gellibrand  River.  He  also  mentions  a  specimen,  apparently 
previously  overlooked,  from  the  "West  Coast  of  Tasmania,  1872." 
He  writes  (in  litt.,  March  3,  1937)  that  the  species  "still  survives 
in  the  Otway  Forest  but  not  in  any  numbers." 

While-tailed  Rat 

ZYZOMYS  ARGURUS  ARGURUS  (Thomas) 

Mus  argwrus  Thomas,  Ann.  Mag.   Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  6,  vol.  3,  p.  433,   1889. 
("South  Australia.") 

This  South  Australian  rat  is  apparently  known  only  from  the 
type  specimen. 

The  fur  is  crisp;  general  color  above  pale  sandy  rufous;  ears 
rounded,  thinly  covered  with  fine  white  hairs;  muzzle  and  under 
parts  white,  the  line  of  demarcation  on  the  sides  not  sharply  defined ; 
hands  and  feet  pure  white ;  tail  uniform  white  above  and  below,  the 
tip  slightly  penciled.  Head  and  body,  83  mm.;  tail,  101.  (Thomas, 
1889,  pp.  433-435.) 

"Of  this  very  distinct  species  there  is  no  material  available  in 
South  Australia,  which  was  the  home  of  the  type  specimen.  .  .  . 

"There  seem  to  be  no  recent  records  of  this  remarkable  little 
rat,  and  no  observations  on  its  habits.  Probably  it  is  one  of  the 
many  lost  species  of  which  no  specimens  are  preserved  in  our  State 
collections."  (Jones,  1925,  pp.  336-337.) 

A.  S.  Le  Souef  remarks  (in  litt.,  February  15,  1937)  that  these 
native  rats  do  not  stand  up  to  settlement  or  invasion  of  their  habitat 
by  Rattus  rattus. 

E.  Le  G.  Troughton  writes  (in  litt.,  April  16,  1937)  that  the  lack 
of  records  since  the  original  description  in  1889  supports  Wood 
Jones's  conclusion  that  the  species  may  be  lost  from  the  state. 

[According  to  L.  Glauert  (in  litt.,  March  17,  1937) ,  the  Western 
Australian  subspecies,  Z.  a.  indutus  (Thomas),  is  "not  reduced  in 
numbers."] 

Order  CARNIVORA:    Carnivores 

Family  CANIDAE:   Wolves  and  Foxes 

The  Canidae  are  nearly  cosmopolitan,  indigenous  species  being 
found  in  all  important  land  masses  except  Madagascar,  the  central 
and  eastern  parts  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  New  Zealand,  and 


212  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Tasmania.  There  are  about  19  'genera  and  more  than  200  species  and 
subspecies.  The  predatory  habits  of  some  of  the  larger  species 
(especially  the  wolves)  bring  them  into  conflict  with  the  economic 
interests  of  man,  and  the  animals  have  suffered  accordingly — par- 
ticularly in  North  America.  Accounts  of  no  less  than  24  New  World 
forms  appear  in  Dr.  Allen's  volume  (1942),  while  only  4  Old  World 
forms  are  treated  herein.  One  of  the  these,  the  Japanese  Wolf,  is 
extinct. 

Abyssinian  Wolf;  Abyssinian  Red  Wolf.    Cuberow  (Ethiopian) 

SlMENIA  SIMENSIS  SIMENSIS  (Ruppell) 

Canis  simensis  Ruppell,  Neue  Wirbelthiere  zu  der  Fauna  von  Abyssinien 
gehorig,  Saugethiere,  p.  39,  1835.  (Mountains  of  Simien,  Abyssinia.) 

FIGS.:  Ruppell,  1835,  pi.  14;  Mivart,  1890,  pi.  6;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  15,  fig.  8; 
Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  15,  fig.  8;  Fuertes,  Abyssinian  Birds  and  Mammals, 
pi.  29,  1930. 

This  interesting  animal  has  a  restricted  range  and  occurs  in 
limited  numbers.  The  Committee  of  Experts  of  the  Second  Inter- 
national Conference,  held  at  London  in  1938,  states  (1938,  p.  8)  that 
this  species  is  "almost  completely  confined  to  Abyssinia,"  and  sug- 
gests its  inclusion  in  Class  A  of  the  Annex  at  the  next  Conference 
for  the  Protection  of  African  Fauna  and  Flora. 

Snout  long  and  slender;  general  color  light  yellowish  reddish 
brown,  mixed  with  black  on  the  sides;  white  about  the  mouth,  eyes, 
inner  margins  of  ears,  chest,  belly,  lower  parts  of  limbs,  and  lower 
side  of  tail  toward  base ;  distal  half  of  tail  blackish,  and  upper  side 
toward  base  mixed  with  black.  Head  and  body,  99  cm. ;  tail,  25  cm. 
(Mivart,  1890,  pp.  18-19.) 

"We  observed  this  wolflike  dog  in  the  mountains  of  Simien, 
where  it  lives  in  packs,  and  hunts  tame  sheep  and  small  game,  but 
never  becomes  dangerous  to  man.  It  occurs  also  in  most  of  the 
other  Abyssinian  provinces.  Its  vernacular  name  in  Simien  was 
given  to  me  as  'Kaberu.' '  (Ruppell,  1835,  p.  39,  transl.) 

"Since  Riippell's  time  little  has  been  heard  of  this  wolf  and  scarcely 
any  fresh  or  recent  information  is  to  be  obtained  concerning  it.  From 
its  predatory  habits  it  is  probable  that  the  Abyssinians,  so  soon  as 
they  began  to  acquire  fire-arms,  turned  their  attention  to  its  destruc- 
tion, and  that  in  consequence  it  has  become  much  scarcer  than  it 
used  to  be.  ... 

"It  would  be  extremely  interesting  to  know  if  this  handsome  wolf 
still  survives -in  Abyssinia  in  any  numbers.  Modern  travellers  and 
sportsmen  apparently  make  no  mention  of  it."  (Bryden,  1899, 
pp.  601-602.) 

Lydekker  (1908,  p.  462)  refers  to  "its  rarity  and  zoological  in- 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  213 

terest."  The  Cuberow  "was  scarcely  known  in  England,  except  by 
its  skull,  till  a  few  years  ago,  when  skins  were  brought  home  by 
Major  Powell-Cotton."  The  latter  saw  several  of  the  animals  alive 
in  the  mountains  of  Simien. 

Maydon  (1932,  pp.  220-221)  writes  that  "the  Red  Wolf  is  com- 
mon" at  Simien,  and  refers  to  it  as  being  seen  occasionally  on  the 
Gojam  plateau,  between  Lake  Tsana  and  Addis  Ababa. 

W.  H.  Osgood  (oral  communication,  1936)  speaks  of  this  species 
as  not  uncommon  locally.  The  Field  Museum  expedition  of  1926-27 
obtained  about  five  specimens.  Alfred  M.  Bailey  (oral  communi- 
cation, 1937)  does  not  consider  that  it  is  in  any  danger  from  the 
Ethiopians. 

This  animal  appears  to  occupy  a  peculiar  zoological  position. 
Lydekker  considers  it  neither  a  wolf  nor  a  jackal,  while  Pocock 
denies  to  it  affinity  with  the  foxes. 

[A  subspecies  from  south-central  Ethiopia  has  been  proposed  by 
De  Beaux  under  the  name  of  Cam's  (Simenia)  simensis  citernii  (Atti 
Soc.  Ital.  Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  61,  p.  25,  1922;  type  locality,  "Arussi: 
Barofa").  No  information  is  at  hand  concerning  its  numerical 
status.] 

Japanese  Wolf 

CANIS  HODOPHILAX  Temminck 

Canis  hodophilax  Temminck,  Tijdschr.  Natuurl.  Geschied.  Physiol.,  pt.  5,  p.  284, 
1839.  (Japan;  i.  e.,  Hondo.)  (Cj.  Harper,  1940,  p.  192.) 

FIGS.:  Temminck,  1842-45,  pi.  9;  Mivart,  1890,  p.  14,  fig.  17;  Beddard,  1902, 
p.  418,  fig.  209. 

This  wolf  is  now  considered  extinct. 

It  is  distinguished  from  the  European  Wolf  by  its  smaller  size 
and  shorter  legs,  though  it  differs  but  little  in  the  nature  and  color 
of  its  pelage;  fur  short  and  smooth,  but  tail  bushy;  ground  color 
gray  or  ashy;  basal  two-thirds  of  the  hairs  of  back  and  rump  thus 
colored,  the  tips  black ;  sides,  neck,  belly,  and  tail  gray,  the  extreme 
tips  of  the  hairs  blackish;  head  and  muzzle  dark  gray;  lips  more 
or  less  whitish ;  outer  surface  of  ears  brownish  rufous ;  four  extremi- 
ties gray,  washed  with  rufous  and  brown;  tail  tip  without  colored 
tuft.  Height  at  shoulder,  16  inches;  total  length,  3  feet  9  inches,  of 
which  the  tail  comprises  about  1  foot;  ears,  3  inches.  (Temminck, 
1844,  pp.  38-39.)  "Prof.  Brauns  .  .  .  says  that  in  the  Museum  at 
Tokio  there  are  very  differently  coloured  skins,  namely  'yellowish/ 
'brownish,'  and  'whitish  grey'  "  (Mivart,  1890,  pp.  14-15). 

The  Japanese  Wolf  lives  in  wooded  and  mountainous  regions,  and 
hunts  in  small  family  parties.  It  is  as  much  dreaded  by  the  Japanese 


214  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

as  the  European  Wolf  is  in  its  range.  It  shows  itself  often  in  winter, 
notwithstanding  the  assiduous  pursuit  of  which  it  is  the  object.  The 
Japanese  state  that  its  flesh  is  unwholesome.  (Temminck,  1844, 
p.  39.) 

A  female  wolf  from  Japan  was  presented  to  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London  in  1878  (Flower,  1929,  p.  114) .  Mivart  (1890, 
p.  15)  records  a  skull  in  the  British  Museum  from  the  province  of 
Kotsuke. 

Thomas  (1906,  p.  342)  records  a  specimen  collected  in  1904  or 
1905  in  the  vicinity  of  Washikaguchi,  Nara  Ken,  Hondo.  The  col- 
lector, M.  P.  Anderson,  adds:  "The  Wolf  was  purchased  in  the  flesh, 
and  I  can  learn  but  little  about  it.  It  is  rare,  some  say  almost 
extinct." 

Aoki  (1913,  p.  317)  gives  the  range  of  this  animal  as  "Hondo 
(Thomas),  China."  Hatta  remarks  (1928,  p.  1033):  "Cam's  hodo- 
phylax  T.  confined  in  Japan  to  the  heart  of  Hondo,  Yamato  and 
Wakayama,  occurs  also  in  China."  These  reports  from  China  are 
considered  erroneous.  Pocock  (1935,  p.  658)  records  a  skull  from 
Chichibu. 

Nagamichi  Kuroda  writes  (in  litt.,  July  5,  1938)  that  many  of 
these  wolves  were  formerly  said  to  be  seen  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts of  Hondo,  but  that  the  animal  is  now  considered  completely 
extinct.  It  was  destroyed  because  of  its  injuriousness  to  men  and 
cattle.  It  is  said  that  the  only  specimens  in  Japan  are  a  mounted 
male  from  Fukushima  Prefecture,  Hondo,  which  is  now  preserved 
in  the  Tokyo  Science  Museum,  and  one  or  two  skulls. 

Kuroda  (1938,  p.  36)  records  the  animal  from  the  following  addi- 
tional localities  in  Hondo:  Rikuchu,  Shimotsuke,  and  Aomori. 

Yezo  Wolf 

CANIS  LUPUS  HATTAI  Kishida 

Cam's  lupus  hattai  Kishida,  Lansania,  vol.  3,  no.  25,  p.  73,  1931.    (Sapporo, 

Hokkaido,  Japan.) 
SYNONYM:   Cants  lupus  rex  Pocock  (1935). 

Although  extinct  in  Hokkaido  (or  Yezo),  this  wolf  survives  in 
Sakhalin  and  perhaps  in  the  Kuriles. 

It  is  much  larger  than  Cam's  hodophilax  of  Japan  and  is  dis- 
tinguished from  C.  I.  lupus  of  Europe  by  its  larger  premolar  teeth 
and  by  its  longer  palate  and  mandible  (Pocock,  19356,  p.  659). 

In  the  Amur  region,  according  to  Schrenck  (1859,  pp.  45-48), 
the  wolf  is  most  numerous  in  northern  Sakhalin.  Its  principal  object 
of  chase  is  the  wild  Reindeer.  Occasionally  packs  approach  the 
villages  or  solitary  houses  of  the  natives  and  destroy  their  dogs.  The 
animal  ranges  to  the  south  end  of  Sakhalin  and  occurs  also  on  the 
Kuriles. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  215 

Pocock  (1935b,  pp.  659-660)  refers  to  "the  discovery  of  this  big 
wolf  in  Yeso  in  the  early  'eighties/'  and  to  the  opinion  of  Brauns 
(1881)  "that  it  possibly  inhabited  the  Japanese  islands  .  .  .  between 
Yeso  and  Kamschatka." 

"Canis  lupus  L.  is  found  ...  in  Sakhalin;  in  Hokkaido  it  was 
abundant  some  thirty  years  ago,  but  it  has  decreased  so  that  it  seems 
to  be  totally  exterminated  at  present"  (Hatta,  1928,  p.  1037) . 

"Aoki  and  Kishida  both  reported  it  from  this  island  [Sakhalin] 
and  Hokkaido  (rare) "  (Kuroda,  1928,  p.  226) . 

"In  authentic  historic  times  the  wolves  occurred  in  the  main 
island  of  Hokkaido,  in  Sakhalin,  and  in  Kunashiri,  Etoruf  and 
Paramushir  of  the  Kurile  Islands.  It  seems  true  that  the  wolves 
were  not  so  frequent  in  Hokkaido  as  compared  with  the  other 
mammals.  They  were  still  fewer  in  Sakhalin  and  in  the  Kurile 
group.  Though  old  records  say  that  the  wolves  fed  mostly  upon  the 
deer  which  abounded  in  Hokkaido,  at  the  beginning  of  settlement 
they  wrought  serious  havoc  amongst  herds.  So  the  government  at 
that  time  paid  a  high  bounty  for  the  slaughter  of  the  animal.  For 
instance,  the  local  government  in  Sapporo  paid  7  yen  for  one  wolf 
from  1878  to  1882  and  10  yen  for  each  from  1883  to  1885.  More 
than  1500  wolves  were  brought  in  for  the  bounty  during  the  11  years 
from  1878  until  1888.  Since  then  we  have  heard  scarcely  any  account 
of  the  animal  in  Hokkaido."  (Inukai,  19326,  p.  525.) 

Kuroda  (1938,  p.  36)  gives  the  range  of  this  subspecies  as  Sak- 
halin, the  Kuriles,  and  Hokkaido ;  on  this  last  island  it  is  extinct. 

Japanese  Raccoon-dog 

NYCTEREUTES  PROCYONOIDES  VIVERRINUS  (Temminck) 

Canis    viverrinus    Temminck,   Tijdschr.    Natuurl.    Geschied.    Physiol.,    pt.    5, 

p.  285,  1839.    (Japan.) 
FIGS.:   Temminck,  1842-45,  pi.  8;  Martens,  1876,  pi.  1. 

Formerly  abundant  in  Japan,  this  animal  has  become  extremely 
scarce. 

The  form  is  small  and  foxlike;  the  tail  is  short  and  bushy.  The 
general  color  is  yellowish  brown;  hairs  of  the  back,  shoulder,  and 
tail  tipped  with  black;  arms  and  legs  blackish  brown;  a  large  dark 
brown  spot  on  each  side  of  the  face,  beneath  and  behind  the  eye 
(Martens,  1876,  p.  78).  The  measurements  of  some  representative 
of  the  species  on  the  Asiatic  mainland  are  given  by  Mivart  (1890, 
p.  135)  as  follows:  head  and  body,  530  mm.;  tail,  140  mm. 

A  century  ago  the  Raccoon-dog  was  considered  very  common  in 
Japan  (Temminck,  1844,  p.  40) .  At  this  period  "Siebold  found  it  to 
be  very  common  throughout  the  Japanese  islands,  where  its  flesh 
was  considered  as  good  food  with  an  agreeable  flavour,  and  its 


216  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

powdered,  calcined  bones  a  valuable  medicine.  ...  It  is  not  deemed 
destructive  to  poultry.  The  natives  employ  its  skin  to  make  bellows, 
and  also  to  decorate  their  drums  and  for  winter  head-gear."  (Mi- 
vart,  1890,  p.  135.) 

Possibly  Ognev  refers  to  its  former  rather  than  to  its  present 
status  when  he  writes  (1931,  p.  369)  that  it  is  widely  distributed  in 
Japan  and  particularly  common  on  Hondo  (Honshiu)  Island. 

In  the  open  season  extending  from  October  15,  1929,  to  April  15, 
1930,  15,218  of  these  animals  were  taken  in  Japan  (Uchida,  1935, 
p.  8.) 


FIG.  22. — Japanese    Raccoon-dog    (Nyctereutes    procyonoides    viverrinus} 

"Muko-jima,  a  small  island  in  the  Inland  Sea  on  the  coast  of 
Yamaguchi  Prefecture,  is  famous  as  a  sanctuary  for  the  raccoon  dog 
....  In  feudal  times  it  was  abundant  throughout  this  country. 
Owing  to  indiscriminate  hunting  it  became  extremely  scarce."  (Ka- 
buraki,  1934,  pp.  4183-4184.) 

Uchida  writes  (1935,  p.  25)  that  the  animal  is  gradually  becoming 
scarce  in  Japan,  since  its  fur  is  highly  valued  and  a  large  number 
of  skins  are  exported  annually.  Mukojima  is  inhabited  by  innumer- 
able individuals.  It  is  supposed  that  persecution  on  the  Japanese 
mainland  gradually  forced  them  to  migrate  to  the  island,  where 
they  found  a  safe  breeding  place  and  an  abundance  of  fish  for  food. 

[Concerning  the  several  mainland  representatives  of  this  species, 
Arthur  de  C.  Sowerby  writes  (in  litt.,  April  24,  1937) : 

"There  are  now  several  subspecies  of  the  raccoon-dog  recognized  in 
China  and  neighbouring  regions,  namely,  Nyctereutes  procyonoides 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  217 

procyonoides  (Gray)  of  Central  and  South  China,  Nyctereutes  pro- 
cyonoides  orestes  Thomas  of  South-west  China,  and  Nyctereutes 
procyonoides  ussuriensis  Matschie  of  North-east  China,  Manchuria, 
and  neighbouring  eastern  Siberia  and  Korea.  Except  in  a  few  places 
these  animals  are  probably  as  plentiful  to-day  as  they  ever  were, 
except  that  they  seem  to  have  been  badly  decimated  in  the  Amur 
region,  where  once  they  were  particularly  plentiful,  for  the  sake  of 
their  pelts.  In  years  past  large  quantities  of  the  latter  have  been 
exported  from  China,  but  at  present  there  is  no  demand  on  either  the 
American  or  European  markets  for  the  'raccoon'  or  'raccoon-dog' 
skins,  as  they  are  known  to  the  trade,  and  consequently  none  are 
coming  from  the  interior  to  the  ports,  except  such  as  are  required 
for  the  home  market,  which  is  fairly  considerable." 

A  few  years  ago  approximately  one-half  million  skins  were  ex- 
ported annually  from  Shanghai  (Sowerby,  1934a,  p.  287).] 

Family  URSIDAE:  Bears 

The  bears  occur  on  all  continents  except  Australia  and  perhaps 
Africa  (where  a  single  problematical,  extinct  species  has  been  re- 
ported from  Morocco  and  Algeria).  The  only  South  American 
species  is  restricted  to  the  Andean  region.  Thus  the  distribution  of 
the  Ursidae  is  not  quite  so  extensive  as  that  of  the  Canidae.  The 
bears  have  suffered  perhaps  even  more  than  the  wolves  at  the  hands 
of  man.  Seven  genera  and  about  135  forms  are  provisionally  recog- 
nized. The  majority  of  the  latter,  however,  are  North  American 
Grizzly  Bears,  whose  exact  taxonomic  status  remains  somewhat 
uncertain.  Dr.  Glover  M.  Allen,  in  his  volume  on  New  World  mam- 
mals (1942),  treats  all  the  Grizzly  Bears  and  some  of  the  Black 
Bears,  as  well  as  the  South  American  Spectacled  Bear.  The  present 
volume  deals  with  the  various  forms  of  the  Brown  Bear  in  Europe 
and  Asia  and  with  the  Atlas  Bear  of  North  Africa. 

Old  World  Brown  Bear.  Ours  brun  (Fr.) .  Brauner  Bar  (Ger.) . 
Oso   (Sp.).    Orso  bruno    (It.) 

URSUS  ARCTOS  Linnaeus 

[Ursus]  arctos  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10*  vol.  1,  p.  47,  1758.  (Sweden.) 
FIGS.:  Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,  vol.  5,  pi.  211  (U.  a.  pyrenai- 
cus),  pi.  212  (U.  a.  collaris),  1824;  Gervais,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif.,  pt.  2, 
pi.  13,  1855  (U.  a.  pyrenaicus) ;  Fitzinger,  Bild.- Atlas,  Saugth.,  fig.  72, 
1860;  Millais,  1904,  pi.  facing  p.  236;  Martin,  1910,  pi.  38;  Cabrera,  1914, 
pi.  5  (U.  a.  pyrenaicus} ;  Ognev,  1931,  pi.  1  (U.  a.  caucasicus) ;  Pocock, 
1932,  pi.  2,  upper  fig.;  Castelli,  1935,  pis.  1,  2. 

Numerous  forms  of  the  Brown  Bear  have  been  described,  but 
there  is  no  general  agreement  on  the  validity  of  most  of  them,  and 


218  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

the  systematics  of  the  group  remains  in  a  state  of  very  considerable 
confusion  (cf.  Miller,  1912,  pp.  285,  296;  Ognev,  1931,  pp.  14-118; 
Pocock,  1932).  In  the  account  that  follows,  only  two  of  the  forms 
will  call  for  separate  treatment.  Among  those  that  have  been  de- 
scribed, the  following  may  be  mentioned  as  being  better  known  or 
as  having  gained  more  or  less  recognition  in  the  literature: 

Ursus  arctos  arctos  Linnaeus,  of  northern  Europe. 

U.  a.  pyrenaicus  Fischer,  of  the  Pyrenees  and  northern  Spain. 

U.  a.  meridionalis  Middendorff,  of  the  Caucasus. 

U.  a.  syriacus  Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg,  of  Asia  Minor. 

U.  a.  collaris  Cuvier,  of  Siberia. 

U.  a.  beringianus  Middendorff,  ranging  from  Manchuria  to  Kam- 
chatka. 

U.  a.  lasiotus  Gray,  of  Mongolia,  Manchuria,  Hokkaido,  and  the 
Kuriles. 

U.  a.  isabellinus  Horsfield,  of  the  western  Himalayas  and  the 
Thian  Shan. 

U.  a.  pruinosus  Blyth,  of  Tibet  (not  generally  regarded  as  con- 
specific  with  U.  arctos,  but  so  treated  by  Pocock,  1932). 

The  Brown  Bear  has  become  extinct  over  the  greater  part  of  its 
former  range  in  western  Europe  but  survives  in  small  numbers  in 
remote  and  chiefly  mountainous  areas  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Spain, 
France,  Austria,  Czechoslovakia,  Italy,  Yugoslavia,  Greece,  Bul- 
garia, Rumania,  Poland,  and  Estonia.  It  has  remained  much  com- 
moner in  parts  of  Russia  and  northern  Asia. 

The  general  form  of  the  species  is  short  and  heavy;  fur  long  and 
rather  loose;  head  moderately  pointed,  broad  posteriorly;  ear  short 
and  rounded;  front  claws  strongly  curved,  blunt,  at  least  twice  as 
long  as  hind  claws ;  tail  very  short,  concealed  in  the  fur.  The  general 
color  is  usually  a  light  brown  or  dull  buff,  the  head  not  essentially 
different,  but  feet  and  outer  surface  of  legs  darker.  There  are  many 
individual  and  racial  variations  in  color.  Measurements  of  an  adult 
male  from  Sweden:  head  and  body,  1,900  mm.;  tail,  80  mm.;  hind 
foot,  195  mm.;  ear,  90  mm.  (Miller,  1912,  pp.  287-296.) 

The  range  of  the  species  is  the  "entire  continent  of  Europe  wher- 
ever sufficiently  extensive  forests  remain;  east  into  Asia"  (Miller, 
1912,  p.  287). 

Great  Britain. — Numerous  postglacial  remains  have  been  found 
in  various  parts  of  England.  These  include  bones  from  refuse  heaps 
that  are  probably  of  Roman  origin.  The  remains  found  in  Ireland 
appear  to  belong  to  an  older  species  than  Ursiis  arctos.  In  ancient 
times  in  Britain  the  animal  was  trailed  with  boar-hounds  and  at- 
tacked with  arrows,  pikes,  clubs,  javelins,  and  long  knives.  The 
great  Caledonian  forest  in  Scotland  seems  to  have  been  the  chief 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  219 

stronghold  of  the  British  bears.  Bears  were  transported  from  Britain 
to  Rome,  probably  in  the  fourth  century.  After  the  extinction  of 
the  species  in  Britain,  foreign  animals  were  imported  for  the  pur- 
pose of  "bear-baiting."  This  was  done  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  II, 
Henry  VIII,  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  Queen  Anne.  Queen  Elizabeth 
entertained  the  French  Ambassador  and  the  Danish  Ambassador 
at  different  times  with  such  a  spectacle.  (Harting,  1880,  pp.  11-29.) 

Many  place  names  in  Wales  afford  evidence  of  the  former  occur- 
rence of  bears.  Boyd  Dawkins  thinks  that  they  became  extinct  in 
Britain  before  the  tenth  century.  Bell,  in  his  British  Quadrupeds, 
says  that  they  may  have  existed  in  Scotland  as  late  as  1073,  but 
tradition  gives  the  latest  date  as  1057.  (Millais,  1904,  pp.  236-237.) 

Norway. — According  to  Collett,  the  bear  was  numerous  about 
1750  and  did  great  damage  to  the  cattle  all  over  the  country,  but 
during  the  following  150  years  the  numbers  were  reduced  owing  to 
improved  firearms  and  to  high  rewards  paid  for  animals  shot  (Hj. 
Broch,  in  litt.,  December,  1936). 

Bowden  states  (1869,  p.  4)  that  "the  Brown  Bear  ...  is  pretty 
common  in  all  parts  of  this  country,  especially  in  Nordland  and  the 
central  districts." 

"The  average  number  that  is  killed  yearly  amounts  to  ...  250" 
(Barnard,  1871,  p.  262). 

"The  number  of  bears  in  Norway  is  now  beyond  doubt  very  small. 
...  A  conservative  estimate  would  be  that  there  are  not  more 
than  20-25  bears  in  Norway  south  of  the  Trondhjem  Fjord.  In  the 
northern  parts  the  number  is  beyond  doubt  also  very  small,  chiefly 
consisting  of  stray  bears  from  Sweden  and  Finland.  .  .  . 

"We  have  done  everything  in  our  power  to  attempt  a  protection 
sufficient  to  stop  the  extinction  which  obviously  threatens  the  species 
in  this  country.  But  all  attempts  have  been  without  avail,  as  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  bears  occasionally  do  some  damage  to 
sheep  .... 

"We  have  attempted  the  establishment  of  a  reservation  in  certain 
forest  tracts  owned  partly  by  private  owners  and  partly  by  the 
government.  But  the  project  has  until  now  failed."  (Harald  Platou, 
in  Hit.,  November  22,  1932.) 

By  a  law  of  1932  the  bear  may  be  killed  only  from  May  15 
to  November  1.  Previously  "the  bear,  being  considered  a  pest,  re- 
ceived no  protection  at  all.  In  fact  there  was  a  premium  for  killing 
him  .... 

"This  recent  protection  ...  is  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  Norwegian 
Association  for  Hunting  and  Fishing,  which  endeavored  to  induce 
the  Storting  to  protect  the  bear  all  the  year  round.  The  Association 
had  even  collected  money  which  it  offered  to  place  at  the  disposal 
of  the  Norwegian  Department  of  Agriculture  to  compensate  for 


220  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

losses  to  farmers  and  goat  and  sheep  owners  for  damage  done  by 
the  bear.  .  .  .  This  offer  was  not  accepted.  .  .  . 

"It  is  not  known  exactly  how  many  bears  there  are  in  Norway. 
.  .  .  The  greatest  number  are  to  be  found  in  the  tract  Eastern 
Hallingdal — the  Hemsedal  mountains — to  Laerdal,  where  it  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  from  15  to  25  bears.  It  is  possible  that  there 
are  a  few  bears  between  Valdres  and  Gudbrandsal  and  in  the  central 
part  of  Telemarken,  but  their  number  is  uncertain.  There  are  also 
a  few  bears  in  the  northern  part  of  Norway  which  come  from  Swe- 
den." (Julius  Wadsworth,  in  litt.,  July  28, 1932.) 

"An  area  of  about  125,000  acres  north  of  the  city  of  Lillehammer 
has  been  privately  set  aside  for  the  protection  of  the  bear."  Mr. 
Platou  "thinks  the  bears  will  now  be  preserved  from  extinction." 
(Julius  Wadsworth,  in  litt.,  May  9,  1933,  and  July  20,  1933) . 

Sweden. — The  bear  was  formerly  found  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, but  in  most  of  the  provinces  constituting  Gotaland  it  had  prac- 
tically disappeared  during  the  eighteenth  century.  ^  It  has  been 
calculated  that  in  the  whole  country  1,351  bears  were  killed  during 
the  period  1827-1836,  and  1,055  during  the  period  1847-1856.  In 
the  50-year  period  from  1856  to  1905,  2,762  bears  were  killed  in 
Sweden,  including  86  in  Wermland,  499  in  Dalecarlia,  171  in  Gavle- 
borg,  144  in  Westernorrland,  796  in  Jemtland,  292  in  Westerbotten, 
and  770  in  Norrbotten.  The  rapid  decrease  is  illustrated  by  the 
following  statistics  on  the  numbers  killed  in  six  of  the  above- 
mentioned  districts:  908  in  1856-1865;  434  in  1876-1885;  109  in 
1896-1905.  In  olden  times  a  small  bounty  was  paid  on  each  bear 
killed,  and  in  1864  the  amount  was  raised  to  50  riksd.  Sportsmen 
and  others  objected  to  the  bounty,  and  it  was  finally  abolished  in 
1893.  By  that  time  the  bears  were  greatly  decimated  and  in  most 
provinces  entirely  exterminated.  The  building  of  railroads  had  con- 
tributed decidedly  to  this  decrease.  After  considerable  agitation 
for  protection  of  the  species,  a  new  law  of  1912  declared  that  no 
bear  could  be  shot  on  crown  land  without  special  permission  from 
the  King,  unless  it  had  attacked  man  or  domestic  animals,  nor  on 
private  land  without  the  permission  of  the  owner.  According  to  a 
law  of  1927,  a  bear  killed  anywhere  belongs  to  the  Crown.  Com- 
pensation for  damage  by  bears  is  now  provided  by  the  state.  The 
whole  sum  thus  paid  for  domestic  animals  (sheep,  goats,  reindeer, 
and  one  horse) ,  during  1933  and  1934  did  not  amount  to  more  than 
2,404  kr.  in  all.  Since  the  bears  have  been  protected  their  numbers 
have  increased  only  a  little. 

In  considering  the  bear's  economic  status,  it  may  be  noted  that 
it  never  attacks  man  unless  directly  provoked  or  wounded.  It  preys 
on  domestic  animals  only  exceptionally,  and  not  regularly.  Many 
reindeer  succumb  to  starvation  and  disease,  and  when  the  bear  feeds 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  221 

on  their  carcasses,  it  is  often  accused  of  having  killed  the  animals. 
Its  diet  consists  largely  of  insects  and  their  larvae  and  various  kinds 
of  plant  food,  especially  berries.  It  also  catches  voles  and  lemmings. 
(Einar  Lb'nnberg,  in  litt.,  October,  1936.) 

Under  present  conditions  the  bears  are  not  threatened  with  ex- 
tinction (Einar  Lonnberg,  in  litt.,  November  15,  1932) . 

Spain  (U.  a.  pyrenaicus) . — Cabrera  (1914,  p.  153)  gives  the  range 
of  this  race  as  the  Pyrenean  and  Cantabrian  districts:  Pyrenees 
of  Aragon  and  Catalonia;  mountains  of  Santander  and  Asturias; 
extreme  north  of  the  Provinces  of  Palencia  and  Leon  and  the 
eastern  part  of  Lugo.  In  historic  and  even  comparatively  recent 
times  it  ranged  more  to  the  south,  reaching  at  least  the  center  of 
the  peninsula.  In  1582  Argote  de  Molina  reported  it  not  far  from 
Madrid. 

"Bears  still  occur  not  unfrequently  all  along  the  Cantabrian 
range  of  mountains.  On  the  central  chain  of  Spanish  mountains 
they  seem  to  be  rarer.  There  are  none  now  in  Portugal.  Formerly, 
as  lately  as  the  sixteenth  century,  before  the  devastation  of  the 
forests,  the  bear  seems  to  have  had  a  much  "wider  distribution  in 
the  Peninsula."  (Gadow,  1897,  p.  362.) 

In  Asturias  it  nightly  raids  the  maize-fields  in  the  valleys  in 
September.  It  is  also  in  the  habit  of  attacking  and  destroying  many 
cattle.  It  is  tracked  to  its  covert,  and  a  drive  with  beaters  is  organ- 
ized. From  20  to  30  bears  are  killed  in  Asturias  every  year. 
(Marquis  de  Villaviciosa  de  Asturias,  in  Chapman  and  Buck,  1910, 
pp.  296-297.) 

France  (U.  a.  pyrenaicus  in  the  Pyrenees;  U.  a.  arctos  in  the 
Alps). — Trouessart  states  (1884,  pp.  195-196)  that  the  species  is 
restricted  to  the  forested  and  the  wildest  regions  of  the  Alps  and 
the  Pyrenees.  It  occasionally  ravages  the  wheatfields  and  the  vine- 
yards. It  becomes  more  carnivorous  with  age  and  then  forms  the 
habit  of  making  raids  upon  sheep  and  calves,  and  finally  it  even 
attacks  grown  cattle  and  horses. 

E.  Bourdelle  (1937,  pp.  178-181,  and  in  litt.,  March  6,  1937)  gives 
the  following  account: 

Formerly  rather  widely  spread  in  the  mountainous  regions  of 
France — Vosges,  Jura,  Cevennes,  Alps,  and  Pyrenees — it  disappeared 
from  the  first  three  areas  during  the  past  century,  and  it  now  exists 
only  in  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees.  It  is  generally  believed  to  have 
disappeared  from  the  French  Alps  and  that  the  last  two  animals 
were  killed  in  1898  in  the  Forest  of  Vercors  in  these  mountains. 
However,  fresh  tracks  were  observed  in  the  same  region  in  1913,  in 
1928,  and  again  during  the  past  few  weeks.  The  extent  and  wildness 
of  the  Forest  of  Vercors  militate  in  favor  of  the  possibility  of  a 
few  bears  surviving  there. 


222  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

In  the  Pyrenees  the  Brown  Bear,  though  much  less  abundant 
than  formerly,  is  still  met  with  in  the  wild  areas  of  upper  Ariege 
adjacent  to  Andorra,  in  the  Hautes  Pyrenees  (massif  of  Maladetta 
and  Cirque  de  Gavarnie),  and  as  far  as  the  neighboring  parts  of 
the  Basses  Pyrenees  (Forest  of  Irruti,  for  example).  It  is  even 
probable  that  there  are  some  bears  in  other  parts.  While  it  was 
still  rather  common  20  or  30  years  ago,  it  has  been  gradually  pushed 
back  into  refuges  more  and  more  restricted,  where  it  is  easily  hunted, 
so  that  it  has  become  rarer  and  rarer  during  recent  years. 

Its  only  economic  importance  in  the  Pyrenees  consists  in  its  being 
a  true  game  animal,  its  flesh  being  much  prized  in  the  whole  region. 
Its  hide  provides  a  good  fur,  but  not  a  very  valuable  one. 

The  bear  of  the  Pyrenees,  like  that  of  the  Alps,  is  the  victim 
of  man's  increasing  penetration  into  the  mountains,  of  the  extension 
of  agriculture,  forestry,  and  mining,  of  highways,  railroads,  tourist 
traffic,  and  especially  the  sport  associated  with  the  hunting  of  this 
animal. 

Protection  should  be  provided  for  the  Pyrenean  bears  as  well  as 
for  those  of  the  Alps  (if  the  latter  still  exist  in  the  Forest  of  Vercors) . 
Prohibition  of  hunting  and  of  the  sale  of  flesh  and  hides  would 
suffice  to  halt  the  steady  depletion  and  perhaps  to  assure  the  preser- 
vation of  the  species. 

According  to  Didier  and  Rode  (1935,  p.  268) ,  the  last  bears  in  the 
Hautes-Alpes  were  killed  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Two  were  killed  in  1896  in  the  massif  between  La  Chambre  and 
Saint-Remy  (Savoie)  and  Allevard  (Isere). 

Belgium  and  The  Netherlands. — The  species  no  longer  exists  in 
these  countries  (Martin,  1910,  p.  38a;  Ognev,  1931,  p.  40). 

Germany. — Blasius  (1857,  p.  199)  reports  the  bear  as  still  occur- 
ring in  the  Bavarian  highlands. 

The  last  specimens  were  killed  in  1759  in  Thuringia,  in  1770  in 
Upper  Silesia,  in  1810  in  the  Bavarian-Bohemian  forests,  and  in 
1835  in  Frauenstein,  Bavaria.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  species 
was  still  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Germany.  When  improved  fire- 
arms were  introduced,  the  population  started  a  real  war  against  the 
animal.  The  hide  was  readily  sold,  and  bear-hunting,  which  in- 
volved some  danger,  was  considered  by  the  upper  classes  as  enter- 
tainment and  sport.  Bounties  were  often  paid,  as  the  animals  were 
looked  upon  in  many  places  as  seriously  injurious  to  cattle.  (Inter- 
nationale Gesellschaft  zur  Erhaltung  des  Wisents,  in  litt.,  October, 
1936.) 

The  last  bear  in  Pomerania  was  killed  in  1750;  in  the  Riesenge- 
birge  about  1800.  The  species  was  still  being  taken  in  East  Prussia 
up  to  1806.  (Krumbiegel,  1930,  p.  6.) 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  223 

Castelli  (1935,  p.  33)  quotes  the  Alpines  Handbuch  (1931)  to  the 
effect  that  the  last  one  was  killed  in  Wetterstein,  Bavaria,  in  1864. 

Denmark. — The  bear  was  once  generally  distributed  over  Den- 
mark. Remains  have  been  found  in  the  ancient  kitchen  middens, 
but  there  is  no  information  on  the  occurrence  of  the  species  within 
historic  times.  (Winge,  1908,  p.  127.) 

Switzerland.— In  1869  Fatio  (pp.  301-302)  gave  the  following 
account  of  the  bear's  status:  It  was  formerly  abundant  in  the 
north  and  center  of  Switzerland  but  has  gradually  retired  to  the 
high  Alps.  It  is  now  scarcely  found  except  in  Orisons,  in  Tessin 
(where  9  specimens  were  killed  from  1852  to  1862),  and  here  and 
there  in  the  Jura.  It  has  almost  entirely  disappeared  in  Valais 
and  Uri.  Basle,  Lucerne,  Schwyz,  and  Berne  have  no  more  bears. 

Castelli  (1935,  pp.  25-27)  supplies  the  following  records:  The  last 
bears  near  Zurich  were  killed  or  recorded  in  1565,  in  Unterwald  in 
1664,  in  Fribourg  in  1698,  while  in  Solothurn  38  were  killed  from 
1507  to  1737.  Other  last  records  are:  Berne,  1815;  Glarus,  1816; 
Vaud,  1843;  Valais,  1860;  Uri,  1898.  In  the  Engadine  5  were  killed 
in  1852,  8  in  1861,  6  in  1872,  and  4  in  1873.  In  Orisons  25  were 
killed  from  1878  to  1887,  9  from  1888  to  1897,  and  3  within  the 
following  decade;  the  last  one  was  killed  in  1904  in  Val  Minger,  but 
a  female  with  two  cubs  was  reported  seen  as  late  as  1919  in  Val 
Lavirum. 

The  species  is  now  of  exceptional  occurrence  in  Switzerland,  being 
represented  only  by  an  occasional  straggler  across  the  border  from 
western  Trentino,  Italy  (Tratz,  in  Castelli,  1935,  p.  9). 

Italy. — The  bear  is  now  restricted  to  two  general  areas  in  Italy — 
the  extreme  north  and  the  mountains  of  Abruzzi. 

From  1837  to  1852  146  specimens  were  killed  in  Trentino.  The 
species  is  now  protected  there  by  the  Italian  Government.  (G. 
Schlesinger,  in  Hit.,  March,  1937.) 

According  to  Castelli  (1935,  pp.  50-135),  77  bears  were  killed  in 
Trentino  from  1886  to  1912.  In  the  district  of  Cles,  at  the  north 
end  of  the  Group  of  Brenta,  the  following  numbers  were  killed:  26 
from  1886  to  1891;  5  in  1895;  2  in  1900;  1  in  1901;  2  in  1902;  4  in 
1903;  1  in  1906;  2  in  1908;  2  in  1909;  3  in  1910;  8  in  1911;  2  in 
1912;  3  in  1913.  In  Trentino  15  bears  have  been  killed  from  1922 
to  1933,  and  a  small  number  have  been  seen  yearly  up  to  1935.  The 
Brenta  Group  and  vicinity  form  the  last  refuge  of  the  species  in 
Trentino.  It  is  sedentary  there,  and  is  in  urgent  need  of  protection, 
such  as  would  be  afforded  by  the  establishment  of  a  National  Park. 

Castelli  (1935,  p.  28)  quotes  Cermenati  to  the  effect  that  40  bears 
were  killed  between  1876  and  1886  in  Valtellina,  Lombardy,  Italy. 
He  adds  (p.  31)  that  the  last  individuals  were  killed  in  Valtellina  in 
1896  and  1902.  He  also  mentions  (p.  32)  a  report  of  Depoli  in  1928 


224  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

that  there  were  about  10  bears,  protected  by  law,  in  the  Province  of 
Carnaro,  northeastern  Italy. 

In  the  National  Park  of  the  Abruzzi  about  200  Brown  Bears  are 
well  protected  (Tratz,  in  Castelli,  1935,  p.  9).  They  are  found  in 
the  mountains  about  the  valley  of  the  Sangro,  and  must  be  regarded 
as  indigenous,  notwithstanding  the  local  tradition  that  the  Czar  of 
Russia  had  sent  King  Ferdinand  of  Naples  a  couple  of  such  animals, 
which  he  set  free  in  the  mountains  of  the  Abruzzi  (Colosi,  1933, 
pp.  48-49).  The  park  administration  estimates  the  present  number 
at  about  100  (Laboratorio  di  Zoologia  Applicata  a  Caccia,  in  Hit., 
September,  1936) . 

The  bear  is  completely  gone  from  the  Sila  Montains,  Calabria, 
though  present  there  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  (Hecht,  1932, 
p.  23). 

Austria. — This  was  probably  an  indigenous  species  all  over  Aus- 
tria in  former  days.  In  Carinthia  it  was  generally  distributed  up  to 
1850;  one  bear  was  killed  during  each  of  the  years  1895,  1920,  1927, 
and  1936.  They  are  supposed  to  have  come  from  the  reserves  in 
Gottschee,  Carniola,  and  on  Schneeberg  (Monte  Nevoso),  north  of 
Fiume,  Italy ;  perhaps  also  from  Croatia.  In  Lower  Austria  the  bear 
was  observed  rather  frequently  up  to  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century ;  here,  in  Semmering,  Schneeberg,  Rax,  and  the  mountainous 
areas  to  the  westward,  fine  stocks  of  bears  were  to  be  found.  The 
last  one  was  observed  in  1919  near  Rohr  in  the  mountains  of  Lillien- 
feld.  In  Upper  Austria  and  Salzburg  the  species  was  probably  quite 
common  up  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  Tyrol  the 
decrease  started  in  1570.  At  that  time  Duke  Albrecht  prohibited 
the  capture  and  killing  of  bears.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  the 
numbers  increased  again.  Up  to  about  1840  the  annual  kill  was 
from  20  to  30  specimens.  The  last  one  was  shot  in  Stellental,  Tyrol, 
in  1898;  in  Vorarlberg,  in  1870.  The  bear  is  not  compatible  with 
cattle-raising  or  with  the  increase  in  human  population.  (G.  Schles- 
inger,  in  Hit.,  March,  1937.) 

According  to  the  Alpines  Handbuch  (1931),  34  bears  were  killed 
in  Tyrol  in  1835,  and  in  the  same  year  the  last  one  was  killed  in  the 
Schneeberg  district  near  Vienna.  The  last  one  was  seen  at  Kar- 
wendel,  on  the  Tyrolean-Bavarian  border  north  of  Innsbruck,  in 
1896.  (Castelli,  1935,  p.  33.) 

Czechoslovakia. — The  species  is  still  comparatively  common  in 
two  well-defined  districts.  One  embraces  the  mountainous  territory 
of  the  Low  and  the  High  Tatra,  bordered  on  the  west  by  the  Arva 
and  the  Waag  Rivers,  on  the  east  by  the  Dunajec  and  Poprad 
Rivers.  The  other  comprises  the  wooded  Carpathians  west  of  the 
railway  from  Munkac  to  Volovec.  According  to  Dr.  Komarec  of 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:  CARNIVORES          225 

4 

Prague,  210  Brown  Bears  live  in  this  territory,  under  government 
protection.  (Tratz,  in  Castelli,  1935,  pp.  8-9.) 

Hungary. — Blasius  (1857,  p.  199)  reports  the  bear  as  still  occur- 
ring in  the  Hungary  of  his  time,  especially  in  the  Carpathians  and 
in  the  Hungarian  Erzgebirge.  The  species  is  not  found  in  the 
reduced  Hungary  (since  World  War  I)  (J.  Schenk,  in  litt.,  Novem- 
ber, 1936). 

Yugoslavia. — In  this  country  the  bear  lives  especially  in  the 
Gottschee  district,  Carniola,  where  it  is  carefully  protected,  and  in 
the  immense  woods  of  the  Auersperg  district,  Carniola  (Tratz,  in 
Castelli,  1935,  p.  9). 

In  Croatia  about  20  bears  are  estimated  to  inhabit  the  forested 
area  about  Jasenak  in  the  Grosse  Kapela.  They  are  also  reported 
as  not  rare  near  Otocac  and  in  the  northern  Velebit  Mountains.  The 
bears  do  far  less  damage  than  the  wolves  to  livestock,  and  are 
reported  as  harmless  to  man.  (Wettstein,  1928,  p.  33.) 

The  species  occurs  in  considerable  numbers  only  in  Bosnia.  It  is 
found  also  in  Slovenia  (forests  of  Kocevje),  in  Croatia  (forests  of 
Velebit  and  Vemika  Kapela  mountains) ,  and  in  some  parts  of  Serbia. 
In  these  regions  a  total  of  272  specimens  were  killed  from  1891  to 
1921,  including  21  in  1892,  22  in  1893,  and  26  in  1910.  From  1921 
to  1931,  51  specimens  were  killed.  (M.  Hirtz,  in  litt.,  December, 
1936.) 

Albania. — According  to  Baldacci  (1932-33),  the  Bear  still  occurs 
commonly  in  the  mountains  in  the  center  and  north  of  Albania 
(Castelli,  1935,  p.  37). 

Greece. — The  bear  occurs  in  Macedonia  and  Epirus  and  does  not 
show  a  decrease  (Game  Department,  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Greece, 
in  litt.,  October,  1936) .  It  is  not  a  rarity  in  the  extensive  forests  of 
the  Greek  and  Turkish  Balkans  (Tratz,  in  Castelli,  1935,  p.  9) . 

Bulgaria. — "The  bears  are  being  killed  at  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
in  every  manner."  A  220-kilo  specimen  was  recently  killed  in  a 
predatory  animal  "drive"  in  the  Rhodope  Mountains.  Reserves 
for  the  preservation  of  the  bear  are  advocated  in  the  Eastern 
Balkans  (Stara  Planina)  and  in  the  Rhodope  and  the  Pirene  Moun- 
tains. (H.  W.  Shoemaker,  in  litt.,  June  30,  1932,  and  December 
27,  1932.) 

The  species  is  found  in  all  the  mountains  of  Bulgaria.  The  present 
number  is  estimated  at  about  500.  Since  1935  the  bear  may  be 
hunted  only  on  a  special  license,  which  is  issued  only  for  individuals 
that  have  become  harmful  to  cattle  pasturing  in  summer  on  the 
mountains.  Protection  is  assured,  and  there  are  some  reserves  where 
hunting  is  entirely  forbidden.  (Bulgarian  Game  Association  "Sokol," 
in  litt.,  February,  1937.) 


226  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Rumania. — The  bear  occurs  in  the  coniferous  forest  zone  of  the 
Banat  and  the  southern  Carpathians  and  in  a  limited  area  of  the 
eastern  Carpathians.  Toward  autumn  it  comes  in  search  of  food  to 
lower  heights,  as  far  as  the  lower  border  of  the  coniferous  forests 
(Tismana,  in  the  Horjin  District,  and  Brasov).  (Calinescu,  1930, 
p.  365.) 

In  the  Transylvanian  Alps  it  is  still  common  in  some  districts 
(Tratz,  in  Castelli,  1935,  p.  9) . 

Poland. — The  species  was  not  rare  in  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
it  was  still  found  all  over  Poland.  The  number  is  now  reduced  to 
about  250-270  individuals,  found  chiefly  in  the  eastern  Carpathians ; 
there  are  still  about  20  in  eastern  Poland.  There  are  also  some  in 
the  Tatra  Mountains.  The  number  has  perhaps  increased  of  late. 
Females  and  young  are  absolutely  protected,  and  the  hunting  of 
males  is  forbidden  from  January  15  to  December  15.  (M.  Siedlecki, 
in  Hit.,  October,  1936.) 

About  256  are  left  in  the  Carpathians,  and  15  in  eastern  Poland 
in  the  swampy  forest  of  Agarkow  (National  Council  for  Nature 
Protection,  in  litt.,  October,  1936) . 

In  the  future  special  permits  for  the  shooting  of  bears  will  be 
granted  by  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  (Quarterly  Information 
Bulletin  concerning  the  Protection  of  Nature  in  Poland,  Kwartal  3, 
1935). 

The  proposed  National  Parks  of  the  Tatra  and  of  Czarnohora 
will  be  of  importance  in  the  protection  of  bears.  The  chief  aim  of 
the  proposed  International  Park  of  Poland,  Czechoslovakia,  and 
Rumania  is  the  creation  of  a  breeding  ground  for  the  Bear,  Lynx, 
Wildcat,  Wolf,  Stag,  etc.  (Benedyct  Fulinski,  MS,  1933.) 

Lithuania. — The  species  has  been  exterminated  in  this  country 
since  about  1877  (T.  Ivanauskas,  in  litt.,  November,  1936) . 

Latvia. — The  species  is  now  extinct  in  Latvia,  the  last  specimens 
having  been  killed  in  1880-90  (N.  von  Transehe,  in  litt.,  February, 
1937).  An  occasional  straggler  comes  from  Russia  or  Estonia  to 
our  northeastern  forests  (Forest  Department,  Latvia,  in  litt.,  March, 
1937). 

Estonia. — About  20  individuals  are  found  in  the  northeastern 
part,  in  the  district  of  Wirumaa  (Wiesland).  Hunting  is  allowed 
only  on  a  special  permit  from  the  State  Forest  Department.  In 
recent  years  permits  have  been  given  for  only  one  specimen  each 
year.  (Zoological  Institute,  University  of  Tartu,  in  litt.,  October, 
1936.) 

Russia. — In  Russia  and  Siberia  the  Brown  Bear  is  more  or  less 
generally  distributed,  and  in  many  areas  it  has  maintained  itself 
in  fairly  satisfactory  numbers.  Under  these  circumstances  it  seems 
unnecessary  here  to  devote  a  great  deal  of  space  to  the  local  dis- 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  227 

tribution.  Very  detailed  information  on  this  point  is  supplied  by 
Ognev  (1931,  pp.  34-108).  Various  forms  have  been  described  from 
this  vast  region;  all  that  are  considered  valid  at  all  are  rated  as 
subspecies  of  Ursus  arctos  by  Pocock  (1932). 

W.  G.  Heptner  writes  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  that  the  species 
is  found  in  all  forested  regions  of  the  U.  S.  S.  R.,  including  Caucasia 
and  the  mountains  of  Turkestan.  In  certain  regions  there  are  great 
numbers.  Hunting  is  allowed  in  most  regions  during  the  whole  year, 
but  in  White  Russia  only  on  special  permit.  In  one  part  of  Caucasia 
and  in  the  mountains  of  Turkestan  hunting  is  limited  to  certain 
open  seasons. 

In  European  Russia,  at  the  present  time,  the  species  seems  to  be 
found  chiefly  in  the  northern  parts,  in  the  Ural  region,  and  in 
Caucasia.  Many  of  the  records  from  central  Russia  seem  to  date 
from  the  last  century,  and  yet  the  species  still  survives  near  Lenin- 
grad and  Moscow.  In  the  Caucasus  region  generally  it  is  quite 
common,  though  rare  in  Daghestan.  (Ognev,  1931,  pp.  34-38.)  As 
many  as  half  a  dozen  different  races  have  been  recognized  in  Cau- 
casia by  various  authors  (Satunin,  Smirnov,  Lonnberg,  Ognev) . 

"In  the  Caucasus,  according  to  Prince  Demidoff,  it  is  so  common 
that  the  keepers  of  the  Grand  Ducal  territories  have  instructions 
to  treat  these  animals  as  vermin,  and  to  kill  them  whenever  occasion 
occurs"  (Lydekker,  1901,  pp.  92-93). 

Asia. — The  Brown  Bear  is  still  numerous  in  many  of  the  thickly 
forested  areas  of  Siberia,  where  the  people  do  not  hunt  so  much  now 
as  formerly.  It  is  distributed  from  the  Urals  east  through  the  basins 
of  the  Ob,  Yenisei,  Lena,  and  Kolyma  to  the  Anadyr  region  and 
Kamchatka  (where  it  is  very  common).  It  ascends  to  11,400  feet 
in  the  Sayan  Mountains,  and  to  8,259  feet  in  the  Yablonoi  Moun- 
tains. (Ognev,  1931,  pp.  38-40.)  Southward  its  range  extends  to 
Turkey,  Syria,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  the  Pamirs,  Tian  Shan,  Hima- 
layas, western  China,  Manchuria,  Hokkaido,  and  the  Kuriles.  There 
is  almost  a  plague  of  bears  in  Hokkaido  (Inukai,  19326,  p.  526). 
Many  different  names  (generic,  specific,  and  subspecific)  have  been 
applied  to  the  Brown  Bears  of  various  parts  of  Asia,  but  Pocock 
(1932)  regards  them  as  nothing  more  than  races  of  Ursus  arctos. 
Separate  accounts  of  two  of  these  forms  follow. 

The  Old  World  Brown  Bear  is  closely  related  to  the  Grizzly  Bears 
of  North  America  and  shows  a  decided  resemblance  to  them  in 
food  habits  and  economic  status.  The  considerable  human  tolerance 
exhibited  toward  it,  together  with  its  survival  to  the  present  day 
in  most  of  the  thickly  populated  countries  of  Europe,  leads  one  to 
question  the  actual  necessity  for  the  ruthless  war  of  extermination 
that  has  been  waged  upon  the  Grizzlies  in  the  relatively  sparsely 
settled  areas  of  the  Western  United  States. 


228  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

i 

Manchurian  Black  Bear;  Manchurian  Grizzly 

URSUS  ARCTOS  LASIOTUS  J.  E.  Gray 

Ursus  lasiotus  J.  E.  Gray,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  3,  vol.  20,  p.  301,  1867. 

("North  China.") 

SYNONYM:    Melanarctos  cavijrons  Heude. 
FIG.:    Sowerby,  1923,  pi.  3. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  present  report,  this  subspecies  is  restricted 
to  Manchuria  and  adjacent  regions  of  the  Asiatic  mainland,  although 
Pocock  (1932,  p.  799)  provisionally  includes  with  it  the  bear  of  Yeso 
(Hokkaido)  and  the  Kuriles  (U.  a.  yesoensis  Lydekker). 

Only  five  museum  skins  of  this  little-known  bear  seem  to  be  on 
record  from  Manchuria  and  Mongolia  (Pocock,  1932,  p.  799).  It  is 
becoming  increasingly  rare,  and  calls  for  government  protection  in 
some  way  or  other  if  it  is  to  be  saved  from  ultimate  extinction 
(Arthur  de  C.  Sowerby,  in  litt.,  April  24, 1937) . 

It  is  as  large  as  the  Kamchatkan  Brown  Bear  (U.  a.  beringianus 
Middendorff)  but  differs  from  it  on  the  average,  at  least,  in  the 
prevalent  blackness  of  its  hue.  The  general  color  is  glossy  black; 
muzzle  brown ;  underwool  brown.  Adult  male  from  Manchuria :  head 
and  body,  6  feet  7  inches;  tail,  5.5  inches  (Pocock,  1932,  pp.  799- 
800.) 

The  range  seems  to  include  the  forested  regions  of  northern 
Manchuria,  northern  Mongolia,  southeastern  Siberia,  and  perhaps 
northern  Korea. 

Sowerby  (1920,  pp.  230-231)  shot  a  specimen  in  North  Kirin, 
Manchuria,  and  heard  reports  of  a  similar  animal  in  South  Kirin, 
on  the  lower  Sungari  River,  and  in  northern  Korea.  "The  specimen 
I  shot  was  very  savage  ....  The  native  Russians  and  Chinese 
greatly  fear  this  animal,  as  it  has  been  known  to  kill  and  devour 
hunters." 

Sowerby  also  writes  (1923,  p.  58) :  "The  distribution  of  this 
species  is  doubtful,  or,  perhaps  it  would  be  more  correct  to  say,  is 
not  known.  So  far  it  has  been  recorded  only  from  the  forest  near 
Tsi-tsi-har  in  South-western  Heilung-kiang,  and  from  the  forest 
in  the  I-mien-p'o  district  of  North  Kirin.  From  all  accounts,  how- 
ever, it  occurs  throughout  the  Manchurian  forest,  and  on  into 
Primorsk  [Siberia]."  He  adds  that  a  hunter  reports  this  form  as 
"much  rarer  than  the  black  bear  [Selenarctos] ,  occurring  in  the 
proportion  of  one  in  twenty  of  the  bears  shot  in  the  district." 

Syrian  Bear 

URSUS  ARCTOS  SYRIACUS  Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg 

Ursus  syriacus  Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg,  Symbolae  Physicae  Mammalium, 
decas  prima,  text  to  pi.  1,  1828.  (Near  the  village  of  Bischerre,  Mount 
Makmel,  Lebanon.) 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:  CARNIVORES          229 

SYNONYM:    Ursus  schmitzi  Matschie  (1917). 

FIGS.:    Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg,  1828,  pi.  1;  Wolf,  1861,  pi.  17   (specimen 
from  the  Persian  Gulf) ;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  807,  fig. 

The  Syrian  Bear  is  now  extinct,  or  nearly  so,  in  Palestine  and 
Lebanon  but  survives  in  rather  indefinite  numbers  to  the  northward 
and  eastward,  where  the  exact  limits  of  its  range  have  not  been 
determined. 

The  type  specimen  (which  was  not  full-grown)  was  described  as 
uniform  fulvous-white;  it  was  smaller  than  Ursus  arctos  and  had 
long  ears.  Its  head  and  body  measured  3  feet  8  inches;  tail,  6 
inches ;  height  at  shoulder,  2  feet  4  inches.  Other  skins  were  said  to 
be  fulvous  or  sometimes  almost  wholly  brown.  (Hemprich  and 
Ehrenberg,  1828.) 

The  range,  according  to  Flower  (1929,  p.  149),  is  "western  Asia: 
in  certain  mountainous  localities  from  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  to 
Persia." 

Bodenheimer  (1935,  p.  114)  writes: 

The  Syrian  Bear  .  .  .  was  not  uncommon  in  N.  Palestine  in  Biblical  times. 
David  boasts  of  having  strangled  a  bear,  which  had  attacked  his  herd  (I  Regum 
17,  34)  and  two  bears  killed  the  42  boys  who  had  scoffed  at  the  prophet 
Elisha  (II  Regum  2,  24).  Tristram  encountered  one  in  a  ravine  near  Tiberias, 
near  Beisan  and  in  the  Jolan.  Schmitz  seems  to  have  seen  the  last  specimens  on 
the  southern  Hermon  (1911,  1913).  ...  It  has  not  been  a  menace  to  flocks  of 
sheep  and  goats  for  a  long  time,  but  occasional  visits  to  vine-yards  and 
fruit-groves  are  still  reported  from  Syria.  The  Bear  is  extinct  on  the  Hermon 
and  Anti-lebanon,  mainly  because  it  was  so  drastically  hunted  by  German 
officers  during  the  war.  It  is  reported  to  have  survived  on  the  Lebanon. 

J.  C.  Phillips  writes  (in  litt.,  July  20,  1936)  that  there  were 
supposed  to  be  a  few  bears  left  on  Mount  Hermon  when  he  was 
there  in  1912. 

The  following  information,  supplied  by  Dr.  William  Van  Dyck 
and  Professor  West,  both  of  the  American  University  in  Beirut,  is 
transmitted  by  Theodore  Marriner  (in  litt.,  1936) : 

"Shortly  after  the  World  War,  when  there  were  a  large  number  of 
army  rifles  in  mountain  villages,  the  number  of  Syrian  bears  .  .  . 
was  greatly  reduced.  They  were,  in  fact,  exterminated  in  some  parts 
of  the  Anti-Lebanon  range,  but  a  few  are  still  reported  in  the  less 
accessible  parts  of  both  the  Anti-Lebanon  and  Lebanon  ranges. 
Farther  north,  in  the  Gebel  Ansariyah  and  in  the  Amanus  range  of 
northern  Syria  and  southern  Turkey,  they  are  still  quite  common 
in  the  more  wooded  sections.  At  the  present  time  no  definite  attempt 
is  being  made  to  preserve  the  Syrian  Bear,  although  the  government 
policy  of  forbidding  civilians  to  carry  rifles  indirectly  helps  towards 
this  end." 

Aharoni  (1930,  pp.  336-337)  gives  the  following  account  (some- 
what freely  translated) :  "During  the  war,  while  stationed  in  Leba- 


230  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

non,  I  found  that  the  light  Isabella-colored  bear  [Ursus  syriacus 
H.  and  E.] ,  with  the  dimensions  of  the  original  description,  inhabited 
only  the  green  shrubbery  of  the  Anti-Lebanon,  while  the  smaller 
brown  bear  [U.  syriacus  schmitzi  Matschie]  inhabited  only  the  bare 
snow-fields  of  the  Lebanon.  I  saw  examples  of  both  subspecies  in 
nature  and  still  have  specimens  from  Lebanon.  To-day  the  bear 
has  disappeared  not  only  from  Palestine,  but  perhaps  also  from 
Syria. 

"Last  year  I  became  convinced  that  the  Mesopotamian  bear  in- 
habiting the  Jebel  Abdul-Aziz  [in  the  present  Syria;  lat.  36°  30' 
N.,  long.  40°  30'  E.]  represents  a  distinct  subspecies." 

F.  S.  Bodenheimer  writes  (in  Hit.,  March,  1937)  that  the  animal 
is  now  extinct  in  Palestine  and  Lebanon  but  probably  still  survives 
in  Anti-Lebanon  in  small  numbers.  He  adds  that  protection  is  most 
highly  desirable. 

Pocock  states  (1932,  p.  793)  that  "the  bears  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Syria  merely  differ  from  the  typical  Brown  Bear  of  Europe  in  being 
on  the  average  paler  in  colour,  intermediate  specimens  occurring 
in  the  Caucasus  and  perhaps  in  northern  Persia."  He  records  speci- 
mens from  Smyrna  and  from  Sumela,  30  miles  south  of  Trebizond, 
Turkey. 

Blanford  (1876,  pp.  46-47)  gives  the  following  account  of  bears 
in  Persia: 

"Major  St.  John,  .  .  .  who  has  seen  several  Elburz  bears,  assures 
me  that,  although  they  are  darker  than  the  true  Ursus  Syriacus 
which  is  found  in  Southern  Persia,  they  are  much  paler  in  colour 
than  the  common  bear  of  Europe.  .  .  .  ' 

Ursus  syriacus  "is,  as  Major  St.  John  assures  me,  the  bear  of 
South-western  Persia.  It  is  not  the  bear  of  Baluchistan,  but  is  said 
to  be  found  between  Bampur  and  Bam.  It  is  found*  pretty  commonly 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Shiraz  and  in  the  hills  bordering  on  Meso- 
potamia." 

To  this  St.  John  adds  (in  Blanford,  1876,  p.  47) :  "This  bear  is 
found  throughout  the  mountains  of  Western  and  Northern  Persia, 
possibly  extending  to  Khorassan.  In  many  places  watchers  are  set 
at  night  to  keep  the  bears  from  the  ripening  grapes." 

Atlas  Bear;  Crowther's  Bear 

URSUS  CROWTHERI  Schinz 

Urs[us~\  Crowtheri  Schinz,  Synopsis  Mammalium,  vol.  1,  p.  302,  1844.  (Based 
upon  "the  Bear  of  Mount  Atlas,"  Blyth,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1841, 
p.  65;  type  locality,  "the  foot  of  the  Tetuan  mountains,  about  twenty-five 
miles  from  that  of  the  Atlas.") 

The  bear  of  North  Africa  is  almost  a  mythical  species,  for  no 
specimen  has  ever  reached  a  museum.  No  very  definite  news  of  the 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  231 

species  has  been  obtained  for  nearly  a  century,  and  it  is  very  prob- 
ably extinct. 

An  adult  female  was  smaller  than  the  American  Black  Bear  but 
more  robustly  formed  and  with  a  shorter  and  broader  face,  though 
the  muzzle  was  pointed;  toes  and  claws  remarkably  short;  hair 
black  or  brownish  black,  shaggy,  4  or  5  inches  long;  muzzle  black; 
under  parts  orange-rufous  (Blyth,  1841,  p.  65) . 

Pliny,  though  skeptical  himself,  quoted  Roman  annals  to  the 
effect  that  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  an  aedile  of  61  B.  C.,  had  shown 
in  the  Roman  arena  a  hundred  Numidian  bears,  conducted  by  as 
many  Ethiopian  hunters.  The  bear  of  Libya  was  mentioned  by 
Pliny's  contemporaries,  Juvenal  and  Martial,  and  a  long  time  pre- 
viously by  Virgil.  (G.  Cuvier,  1825,  vol.  4,  pp.  325-326.) 

Strabo  says  expressly  that  the  Moors  dressed  themselves  in  bear 
and  lion  skins  (Wagner,  1841,  p.  70). 

Blyth  (1841,  p.  65)  gives  a  brief  description  of  the  animal,  based 
upon  information  supplied  by  Mr.  Crowther,  who  had  spent  some 
time  in  Morocco.  "Upon  questioning  Mr.  Crowther  respecting  the 
Bear  of  Mount  Atlas,  which  has  been  suspected  to  be  the  Syriacus, 
he  knew  it  well,  and  it  proves  to  be  a  very  different  animal.  .  .  . 
This  individual  was  killed  at  the  foot  of  the  Tetuan  mountains, 
about  twenty-five  miles  from  that  of  the  Atlas.  It  is  considered  a 
rare  species  in  that  part,  and  feeds  on  roots,  acorns,  and  fruits.  Does 
not  climb  with  facility;  and  is  stated  to  be  very  different-looking 
from  any  other  Bear."  An  unsuccessful  effort  was  made  to  preserve 
the  skin  of  the  specimen  mentioned. 

According  to  Loche  (1867,  p.  52),  Shaw  (1743)  mentions  a  bear 
in  the  Atlas  Mountains.  Loche  also  states  that  the  Emperor  of 
Morocco  had  recently  sent  to  the  zoological  garden  of  Marseilles  a 
live  bear  coming  from  his  territory. 

Bourguignat  (1867,  pp.  41-46)  contributes  the  following  informa- 
tion. Herodotus  records  a  bear  from  western  Libya.  Poiret,  a  French 
botanist  and  zoologist,  reports  (1789)  bears  from  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, and  mentions  a  fresh  skin  brought  by  an  Arab  into  Mazoule. 
A  friend  of  Bourguignat's,  M.  Letourneux,  had  reports  of  many 
bears  in  the  region  of  fidough,  and  learned  of  others  occurring  not 
long  previously  on  Djebel-Bou-Abed,  Djebel  Gherar,  Djebel  Debhar, 
and  Djebel  Thaya,  Algeria.  The  animal  was  said  to  be  small,  thick- 
set, and  brown,  with  a  white  spot  on  the  throat,  and  to  be  very  fond 
of  honey  and  fruits.  Bourguignat  himself  records  skeletal  remains 
of  a  bear  from  a  cavern  on  Djebel  Thaya  in  the  Province  of  Con- 
stantine,  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  Ursus  jaidherbianus.  Human 
artifacts  associated  with  these  remains  were  believed  to  date  from 
the  early  Christian  Era. 


232  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Lataste  (1885,  pp.  235-237),  in  reviewing  the  evidence  for  the 
presence  of  bears  in  Barbary,  considers  that  the  case  has  by  no 
means  been  proved. 

"Since  Mr.  Crowther's  time  no  more  definite  news  has  been  re- 
ceived of  this  bear,  though  other  travellers  have  reported  statements 
of  Arabs  and  Moors  that  such  a  creature  exists  in  the  mountains 
of  Eastern  Morocco  and  Western  Algeria"  (Johnston,  in  Bryden, 
1899,  p.  608). 

"In  view  of  the  apparent  rarity  of  the  animal,  it  is  important 
to  mention  that  fossilised  remains  of  bears  have  been  discovered  in 
caverns  in  north-western  Africa,  as  well  as  in  the  rock-fissures  of 
Gibraltar"  (Lydekker,  1908,  p.  463). 

During  the  years  1892-96,  "fchere  were  still  rumours  of  Bears 
(Ursus  crowtheri)  in  the  Western  Atlas,  but  although  they  certainly 
existed  there  in  the  first  half  of  the  last  century  I  have  never  heard 
of  one  being  killed  or  seen  since  this  region  became  better  known 
with  the  penetration  of  the  French  into  Morocco,  though  there  may 
be  a  possibility  that  a  few  exist"  (Pease,  1937,  p.  81). 

The  foregoing  accounts  seem  to  constitute  fairly  strong  evidence 
of  the  former  existence  of  a  bear  in  North  Africa.  It  must  be 
acknowledged,  however,  that  no  less  an  authority  than  Cabrera 
(1932,  pp.  10,  102-103)  throws  the  whole  case  for  the  Atlas  Bear 
out  of  court.  But  he  is  hardly  correct  in  maintaining  that  its  sole 
basis  is  the  "fantastic"  account  of  Blyth. 

On  first  thought,  the  Atlas  Bear  might  appear  to  be  a  note- 
worthy exception  to  the  general  rule  that  recently  extinct  mammals 
have  succumbed  to  the  advance  of  the  European  type  of  civilization. 
Yet  one  of  the  tools  of  that  civilization,  the  rifle,  in  the  hands  of 
the  Moors,  must  have  at  least  contributed  to  the  animal's  downfall. 
Nevertheless,  the  disappearance  of  the  Barbary  Lion  from  Morocco 
in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century  is  singular  enough  (Cabrera, 
1932,  p.  186) ,  and  the  still  earlier  disappearance  of  the  Atlas  Bear 
is  even  more  puzzling. 

Family  MUSTELIDAE:    Weasels,  etc. 

This  family  is  distinguished  by  the  large  number  of  valuable  fur- 
bearers  represented  in  it;  and  many  of  the  species  have  been  seri- 
ously reduced  by  the  demands  of  the  fur  trade.  Its  distribution  is 
practically  as  cosmopolitan  as  that  of  the  Canidae;  it  extends  to 
Borneo  and  the  Philippines,  but  not  to  Australia.  There  are  about 
35  genera  and  400  species  and  subspecies.  Nineteen  forms  (including 
one  extinct  species)  are  discussed  in  Dr.  Allen's  volume  on  the  New 
World  (1942),  and  nine  forms  of  the  Old  World  in  this  volume. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  233 

European  Mink.    Vison  (Fr.).    Norz;  Sumpf otter  (Ger.) 

MUSTELA  LUTREOLA  Linnaeus 

[Mustela]  Lutreola  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  12,  vol.  1,  p.  66,  1766.  (Finland.) 
FIGS.:    Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  68,  1894;  Martin,  1910,  pi.  33;  Didier  and 
Rode,  1935,  p.  303,  fig.  176. 

The  European  Mink  is  a  rare  and  vanishing  species  in  central 
Europe  and  France  but  is  more  generally  and  more  commonly  dis- 
tributed in  Russia. 

The  general  color  is  a  rich  dark  brown;  region  about  the  mouth 
whitish;  tip  of  the  tail  blackish.  Head  and  body,  350  (female)  to 
400  mm.  (male);  tail,  130  (female)  to  140  mm.  (male).  (Miller, 
1912,  pp.  415,  418.) 

The  range  extends  from  western  France  eastward  to  the  Tobol 
and  Irtish  Rivers  in  western  Siberia;  south  to  Austria,  Hungary, 
Rumania,  and  Transcaucasia ;  north  to  Finland  and  northern  Russia. 

France. — Though  recorded  by  Lesson  in  1840  in  Poitou  and  Sain- 
tonge,  the  Mink  was  long  overlooked  in  France.  It  seems  to  have 
been  formerly  rather  common  in  the  center,  the  west,  the  southwest, 
Normandy,  and  the  Vosges.  The  present  range  consists  of  a  narrow 
zone  extending  from  the  Jura  to  the  vicinity  of  Nantes  and  in  a 
general  way  following  the  valley  of  the  Loire.  Here  the  species 
seems  to  become  rarer  and  rarer.  The  decrease  is  due  to  the  active 
hunting  of  the  animal,  for  its  fur  is  very  valuable  and  it  is  also 
considered  a  harmful  species.  Prohibition  of  hunting  and  surveil- 
lance of  the  fur  trade  would  be  the  only  means  of  conservation; 
but  these  measures  would  be  very  difficult  to  apply.  (E.  Bourdelle, 
in  litt.,  March  6,  1937.) 

Martin  (1910,  p.  35a)  extended  the  range  to  the  Gironde  and  to 
Brittany. 

The  Mink's  food  includes  fish,  frogs,  crawfish,  ducks,  and  small 
mammals  (Didier  and  Rode,  1935,  p.  304) . 

Germany. — The  species  has  been  exterminated  in  western  Ger- 
many and  is  very  rare  in  northern  and  eastern  Germany.  Latest 
dates  of  capture  are:  Mecklenburg,  1894-96;  Hannover,  1902;  East 
Prussia,  1909;  Liineburger  Heide,  1910.  At  present  there  is  no  open 
season.  (Internationale  Gesellschaft  zur  Erhaltung  des  Wisents,  in 
litt.,  October,  1936.) 

It  had  disappeared  from  Schleswig-Holstein  by  about  1890  (Mohr, 
1931,  p.  32). 

During  recent  years  solitary  individuals  are  still  regularly  shot  or 
seen  in  the  east  (Krumbiegel,  1930,  p.  6) . 

Switzerland. — Fatio  (1869,  p.  336)  has  only  a  few  doubtful  records 
from  this  country. 

Austria. — The  Mink  was  formerly  found  in  Burgenland  and  prob- 


234 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


ably  also  in  Lower  Austria.  It  is  now  absolutely  protected  in  Bur- 
genland,  where  it  is  said  to  still  exist,  though  reliable  reports  are 
not  obtainable.  (G.  Schlesinger,  in  litt.,  March,  1937.) 

Czechoslovakia. — The  known  specimens  are  mostly  from  the 
Carpathians,  in  the  former  Hungary  (J.  Schenk,  in  litt.,  November, 
1936). 

Hungary. — From  the  present  limits  of  Hungary  (since  the  World 
War)  only  one  specimen  is  known.  The  animal  has  no  legal  pro- 
tection. (J.  Schenk,  in  litt.,  November,  1936.) 


FIG.  23. — European    Mink    (Mustela   lutreola).    After   Lydekker. 

Rumania. — The  Mink  is  common,  like  the  Otter,  but  has  a  greater 
distributional  area,  since  it  is  more  adaptable  to  civilization  (Cali- 
nescu,  1930,  p.  366) . 

Poland. — It  was  formerly  quite  common  all  over  Poland  but  is 
now  very  rare,  being  found  especially  in  the  southeast,  in  Polish 
Podolia  and  in  the  Eastern  Carpathians.  Hunting  is  forbidden 
from  February  1  to  December  31.  Lately  there  has  been  a  demand 
for  complete  protection.  (M.  Siedlecki,  in  litt.,  October,  1936.) 

Kuntze  (1935,  p.  63)  records  it  from  northeastern  and  south- 
eastern Poland. 

Lithuania. — The  species  is  exterminated  except  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  country,  where  it  is  still  found  in  the  districts  of  Zarasai 
and  Utona.  The  annual  production  amounts  to  as  many  as  150 
skins.  The  value  of  one  is  about  40  Litas  (£5-6/) .  So  far  no  protec- 
tive measures  have  been  adopted.  (T.  Ivanauskas,  in  litt.,  Novem- 
ber, 1936.) 

Latvia. — In  1908-09  it  was  reported  as  numerous  in  Courland 
and  widely  distributed  in  Livonia  (Ognev,  1931,  p.  759). 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  235 

The  present  stock  is  about  2,000  individuals.  The  increase  through 
natural  propagation  is  not  important,  and  the  annual  kill  is  about 
300-400  specimens.  The  species  is  protected  from  March  1  to  Novem- 
ber 14.  Forest  guards  are  not  allowed  to  kill  it.  (Forest  Department, 
Latvia,  in  litt.,  March,  1937.) 

Estonia. — The  species  is  found  throughout  the  country  in  suitable 
areas.  There  is  a  steady  decrease,  owing  to  the  drying  up  of  the 
country.  The  animal  is  not  threatened  by  man,  but  it  is  without 
any  legal  protection.  (Zoological  Institute,  University  of  Tartu, 
in  litt.,  October,  1936.) 

Finland. — The  species  is  apparently  distributed  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  country  (Ognev,  1931,  p.  758). 

Russia.— From  Ognev's  data  (1931,  pp.  758-761),  the  Mink  ap- 
pears to  be  widely  and  more  or  less  commonly  distributed  over  most 
of  Russia,  from  Kandalaksha  Bay,  the  lower  Dvina,  and  the  Pet- 
chora  and  Usa  Rivers  in  the  north  to  the  Ukraine,  the  Caucasus, 
and  Astrakhan  in  the  south.  Westward  it  is  found  about  Lake  Onega, 
in  Volhynia  and  Podolia,  and  on  the  lower  Dniester.  At  the  bazaar 
of  White  Russia  473  Mink  skins  were  sold  in  1926-27,  and  649  in 
1927-28.  Eastward  the  species  is  found  in  the  Ural  region,  from 
the  tributaries  of  the  Petchora  in  the  north  to  Orenburg  and  the 
Ilek  River  in  the  south.  Beyond  the  Urals  it  extends  only  to  the 
Tobol  and  Irtish  Rivers.  In  Transcaucasia  it  occurs  on  the  Bzyb 
River. 

The  animal  is  strongly  persecuted  as  a  fur  animal  and  is  rare 
in  certain  regions.  Hunting  is  not  allowed  in  the  Volga  region  and 
in  the  eastern  part  of  European  Russia.  There  is  no  danger  of  ex- 
tinction, except  in  certain  industrial  regions.  (W.  G.  Heptner,  in 
litt.,  December,  1936.) 

Russian  Sable.    Marte  zibelline   (Fr.).    Zobel   (Ger.) 

MARTES  ZIBELLINA  (Linnaeus) 

Mustela  zibellina  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  46,  1758.    (Northern 

Asia;  type  locality  restricted  by  Ognev  (1925,  p.  276)  to  "the  northern 

part  of  the  government  of  Tobolsk.") 
FIGS.:    Royal  Nat.  Hist.,   vol.  2,  p.  55,   1894;    Ognev,   1931,   pi.  5    (M.   z. 

sahalinensis) ;   Zeitschr.  f.  Saugetierk.,  vol.  9,  pi.  18,  fig.  7,  1934   (Amur 

form) . 

This  is  one  of  the  animals  that  has  suffered  particularly  from 
the  "curse  of  beauty."  It  has  been  decimated  by  the  demands  of 
the  fur  trade  and  has  disappeared  from  considerable  areas  within 
its  former  range.  Its  principal  home  is  in  Siberia. 

The  Sable  bears  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Pine  Marten 
(Martes  martes).  It  has  a  cone-shaped  head,  large  ears,  a  bushy 


f 
236  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

tail,  and  comparatively  stout  limbs.  The  fur  is  thick  and  soft;  the 
color  varies  from  blackish,  mixed  with  gray  and  brown,  to  yellowish 
brown;  throat  sometimes  orange.  Head  and  body,  about  20  inches; 
tail,  about  7  inches. 

The  former  range  of  the  species  included  the  forested  regions 
from  northern  Russia  east  to  the  Anadyr  district,  Siberia;  it  ex- 
tended south  to  the  southern  Urals,  the  Altai  and  Sayan  Mountains, 
Manchuria,  the  Ussuri  district,  Hokkaido,  Sakhalin,  and  Kamchatka. 

The  following  subspecies  have  been  recognized  (cj.  Ognev,  1925, 
and  1931,  pp.  560-598) ,  but  the  ranges  so  far  assigned  to  them  do 
not  cover  the  entire  range  of  the  species: 

Martes  zibellina  zibellina  (Linnaeus).  (Original  reference  and 
type  locality  given  above.)  Tobolsk  Sable. 

Color  dull  and  pale,  varying  from  cinnamon-drab  to  pale  brownish 
yellow  and  even  to  dark  brown;  underfur  light  and  dull. 

Range:  the  Ob  Basin  and  the  Ural  region. 

M.  z.  yeniseensis  Ognev,  Jour.  Mammalogy,  vol.  6,  p.  277,  pi.  26, 
fig.  3,  1925.  ("Krasnoyarsk  district,  the  forest  on  the  plain  along 
the  Yenisei  River,"  Siberia.)  Yenisei  Sable. 

Color  more  dusky  warm  brown  in  comparison  with  the  Tobolsk 
Sable. 

Range:  the  great  forests  of  the  districts  of  Krasnojarsk,  Ashinsk, 
and  Kansk,  in  the  Yenisei  Basin. 

M.  z.  sajanensis  Ognev,  Jour.  Mammalogy,  vol.  6,  p.  278,  1925. 
("Orsyba  River,  northern  part  of  the  Sajansky  Mountains,"  Siberia.) 
Sayan  Sable. 

General  color  dark  brown;  underfur  pale  yellowish. 

Range:  "the  mountain  country  of  the  rivers  Uda,  Kasyr  and 
especially  of  the  Kasyr-Suk  and  partly  of  the  Usa." 

M .  z.  princeps  (Birula) .  (Mustela  zibellina  princeps  Birula,  Ann. 
Mus.  Zool.  Acad.  Imper.  Sci.  Petrograd,  vol.  22,  p.  08,  1922;  the 
mountain  country  of  Bargusin,  Transbaikalia,  Siberia.)  Bargusin 
Sable. 

Fur  soft  and  silky;  color  a  brilliant  blackish  brown;  underfur 
bluish  gray,  brownish  at  bases  and  tips;  throat  patch  much  reduced, 
commonly  not  visible. 

Range:  mountain  forests,  Bargusin  Hills  and  spurs  of  the  Stano- 
voi  Mountains,  Transbaikalia. 

M.  z.  kamtschadalica  (Birula).  (Mustela  zibellina  subsp.  kamt- 
schadalica  Birula,  C.  R.  Mus.  Zool.  Acad.  Sci.  Petrograd  1918, 
p.  82  (fide  Ognev) ;  Kamchatka.)  Kamchatka  Sable. 

General  color  between  warm  sepia  and  mars  brown;  underfur 
pale  yellowish  gray ;  skull  large. 

Range:   Kamchatka. 

M.  z.  sahalinensis  Ognev,  Jour.  Mammalogy,  vol.  6,  p.  279,  pi.  26, 
fig.  4,  1925.  ("Saghalien,  Wedernikovo.")  Sakhalin  Sable. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  237 

Winter  pelage  like  that  of  the  Kamchatka  Sable  but  of  a  more 
decided  cinnamon  tint  and  lighter;  throat  patch  of  the  same  cinna- 
mon color;  head  avellaneous,  back  darker;  flanks  sayal  brown  or 
tawny-olive;  underfur  pale  yellowish,  more  cinnamon  at  the  tips; 
summer  pelage  duller  and  darker,  more  brownish. 

Range:   the  whole  of  Sakhalin  Island. 

M.  z.  brachyura  (Temminck).  (Mustela  brachyura  Temminck, 
in  Siebold,  Fauna  Japonica,  Mammiferes,  p.  33,  1844;  Matimaja, 
Hokkaido,  Japan.)  Japanese  Sable. 


FIG.  24. — Russian  Sable  (Maries  zibellina  subsp.) 

Inferior  to  the  Siberian  Sable  in  fineness  and  length  of  fur;  back 
and  tail  dark  brown;  sides  and  limbs  lighter;  long  hair  of  feet  con- 
cealing the  claws.  Tail,  3.5  inches.  (Temminck,  1844,  pp.  33-34.) 

Range :  Hokkaido  and  the  Kuriles. 

Russia. — In  past  centuries  the  Sable's  range  extended  westward 
perhaps  as  far  as  the  Kola  Peninsula  or  even  Lapland.  In  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries  it  was  found  on  the  Petchora 
River  and  probably  at  the  same  time  in  the  Dvina  region.  In  Pallas's 
time  it  occurred  in  the  vicinity  of  Ufa,  west  of  the  southern  Urals; 
the  last  one  in  this  general  region  was  killed  in  1850  near  Ufimsk. 
Its  southern  limit  on  both  slopes  of  the  Urals  was  about  latitude 
52°  N.,  or  possibly  51°  N.  About  1700  it  inhabited  the  entire  Gov- 
ernment of  Perm  and  the  eastern  half  of  the  Governments  of  Vo- 
logda, Archangel,  and  possibly  Viatka.  By  1875  about  300  Sables 
were  trapped  annually  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Perm.  More 


238  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

recently  the  Russian  population  of  the  species  seems  to  have  become 
largely  restricted  to  the  Urals,  where  it  is  less  numerous  on  the 
western  slopes  than  on  the  eastern.  However,  in  1925  it  was  still 
common  on  the  Ilych  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Fetch ora.  (Ognev, 
1931,  pp.  569-570.) 

The  Ural  form  is  considered  distinct  from  M.  z.  zibellina  but  is 
not  named.  It  occurs  sporadically  and  rarely  along  the  western 
foothills  (headwaters  of  the  Shugora,  Laga,  Ilych,  and  Petchora) ; 
it  is  also  rare  on  the  eastern  slopes,  at  the  sources  of  the  Losva, 
Aspia,  Purma,  Ushma,  Toshemok,  and  Wishaj  Rivers.  The  fur  is 
considered  the  finest  in  western  Siberia.  (Ognev,  1925,  p.  277.) 

Siberia,  Ob  Basin  (M.  z.  zibellina). — In  the  Government  of  To- 
bolsk the  Sable  is  not  rare  in  the  taiga  forests  of  the  Pelym  River; 
it  is  rare  along  the  Tavda  River  and  in  the  Tarsk  and  Surgut  dis- 
tricts. At  the  end  of  the  last  century  more  than  300  Sables  were 
obtained  annually  along  the  Jugan  River.  The  species  is  absent 
between  Beresof  and  Obdorsk.  Along  the  Rivers  Omi,  Tara,  and 
Irtish,  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Government  of  Tobolsk  it 
was  very  scarce  in  1886.  In  the  Narym  district  it  was  numerous  on 
the  upper  Wasugan  River  in  1875.  It  occurs  on  the  Ket  and  Chulym 
Rivers,  and  was  particularly  numerous  on  the  Tchirk-Ul  River  about 
1923.  It  avoids  the  steppes  in  the  central  part  of  the  Government  of 
Tomsk.  (Ognev,  1925,  p.  277,  and  1931,  pp.  571-572.) 

Prejevalsky  (1879,  p.  233)  reported  the  Upper  Katuna,  the  Bukh- 
tarma,  and  their  tributaries,  in  the  Russian  Altai,  as  particularly 
good  districts  for  Sables.  The  hunters  used  specially  trained  dogs, 
and  endeavored  to  surround  the  animals  with  nets,  which  were  as 
much  as  1,000  feet  long  and  4  feet  high.  The  average  price  of  a 
sable  skin  was  then  15  rubles. 

Siberia,  Yenisei  Basin  (M.  z.  yeniseensis,  M.  z.  sajanensis,  M.  z. 
princeps) . — The  Sable  is  found  in  suitable  areas  from  the  Mongolian 
boundary  northward  to  latitude  69°  N.  The  form  living  along  the 
Tunguska  River  and  near  Turukhansk  probably  represents  an  un- 
described  subspecies ;  the  same  form  is  found  in  small  numbers  in  the 
adjacent  Khatanga  Basin.  The  species  is  less  common  in  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Irkutsk  than  in  the  Government  of  Yenisei.  It  is  absent 
from  the  steppes  in  the  vicinity  of  Minusinsk,  Achinsk,  and  Kras- 
noyarsk. It  is  common  in  the  Sayan  region  on  the  Kasyr-Suk  and 
Uda  Rivers,  and  occurs  on  practically  all  sides  of  Lake  Baikal. 
According  to  Turov  (1923) ,  700  skins  were  exported  annually  across 
Bargusin  from  the  Verkhne  Angarsk  and  Podlemorsk  districts  near 
Lake  Baikal.  (Ognev,  1931,  pp.  572-573.) 

Siberia,  Lena  Basin. — In  the  Olekma-Vitim  mountainous  country 
the  Sable  is  very  rare.  Far  to  the  north,  in  the  enormous  region 
between  the  Anabar,  the  Olenek,  the  Lower  Tunguska,  and  the  Vilui, 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  239 

it  disappeared  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  About  1873 
it  was  found  occasionally  on  the  Patom  River.  Its  disappearance 
from  the  entire  southern  Muisk  district  was  unusually  rapid.  It 
has  been  recorded  from  the  Aldan  and  Mae  Rivers.  (Ognev,  1931, 
p.  573.) 

The  dark  animals  furnish  the  most  valuable  skins;  in  peace  times 
they  fetched  as  much  as  2000  marks.  They  come  mostly  from  the 
Vitim  Plateau  and  from  the  Bargusin  district,  where  the  Sable  is 
now  almost  exterminated.  (Klemm,  1930,  p.  367.) 

Eastern  Siberia. — At  present  the  Sable  is  not  found  in  the  Verk- 
hoyansk and  Kolyma  districts.  In  former  times  it  was  widely 
distributed  along  the  Kolyma  and  Omolon  Rivers,  but  it  finally 
disappeared  from  the  Kolyma  district  in  1852.  The  species  has 
long  since  vanished  from  the  Anadyr  River  region ;  the  last  one  was 
found  near  the  village  of  Eropol  about  1847. 

By  1900  the  species  was  rare  in  the  Gizhiginsk  district,  though 
in  former  years  from  30  to  50  Sables  were  collected  annually,  par- 
ticularly from  the  Penzhina  Valley  and  from  northern  Kamchatka. 
Possibly  this  form  belongs  to  M.  z.  kamtschadalica,  which  is  widely 
distributed  in  Kamchatka,  especially  in  the  Petropavlovsk  district. 
(Ognev,  1931,  pp.  574-575,  595.) 

In  Kamchatka  the  Sable  was  decimated  in  Dybowski's  time  (1879- 
85).  At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  hunter  could 
get  40  animals  a  day,  and  the  annual  production  of  Kamchatka 
amounted  to  10,000  skins.  The  natives  did  not  endanger  the  stand 
of  Sables,  but  by  1881  Cossack  and  Tungus  immigrants  reduced  the 
yield  to  2,883.  The  abundance  of  the  animals  in  some  years  was 
dependent  on  the  wholesale  occurrence  of  a  vole,  Microtus  oecono- 
micus.  (Kuntze,  1932,  p.  47.) 

In  the  western  Amur  region  the  species  occurs  on  the  Argun  and 
Shilka  Rivers.  In  the  middle  and  lower  Amur  Basin,  the  Sables 
from  the  Albazin  area,  the  Zeya  River,  and  the  Bureya  Mountains, 
which  are  very  dark  in  color,  and  costly,  may  belong  to  the  sub- 
species M.  z.  princeps.  In  1861  the  species  was  reported  as  particu- 
larly numerous  on  the  Amgun  River.  In  the  Ussuri  district  it  varies 
from  common  to  rare,  and  has  even  disappeared  entirely  in  some 
parts.  The  Ussuri  Sable  is  probably  very  near  to  M .  z.  sahalinensis. 
(Ognev,  1925,  pp.  279-280,  and  1931,  pp.  573-574.) 

Sowerby  (1923,  pp.  63-65)  says  that  among  the  Tartars  of  the 
Primorsk  coast  in  southeastern  Siberia,  "sable  hunting  is  their  chief 
end  and  aim  in  existence."  He  continues: 

It  is  certain  that  it  was  largely  the  presence  of  the  sable  throughout  Siberia 
and  in  the  Amur  and  Primorsk  that  led  the  Russian  pioneers  and  conquerors 
across  that  wide  stretch  of  country.  .  .  .  Thus  we  must  look  upon  this  little 
animal  as  having  a  very  important  bearing  upon  the  history  of  these  regions. 


240  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

.  .  .  The  only  trouble  is  that  with  the  unrestricted  hunting  that  takes  place,  and 
the  steady  increase  in  the  settlement  of  the  country,  this  valuable  supply  of 
fur-bearing  animals  is  rapidly  diminishing.  .  .  . 

It  is  evident  that  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  conquest  of  Siberia  was 
to  secure  a  supply  of  sable  skins  for  the  Imperial  Government,  and  it  is 
significant  that  the  conquering  Cossacks  .  .  .  always  imposed  a  heavy  tribute 
of  sable  skins  upon  the  Tartar  tribes  they  defeated,  and  brought  under 
subjection  .... 

In  Siberia  this  animal  is  protected  by  the  Government,  and  comparatively 
recently  it  was  given  a  five  years  closed  season. 

The  Cedar  Valley  Reservation  (Kedrovaya  Pad)  on  Amur  Bay, 
comprising  7,500  hectares,  and  the  Kronotsk  Bay  Reservation  in 
Kamchatka,  comprising  15,000  hectares,  provide  for  the  protection 
of  the  Sable  (Makaroff,  in  Skottsberg,  1934,  pp.  433-434) . 

In  Sakhalin  the  Sable  is  distributed  over  the  entire  island,  and  in 
1889  it  was  considered  more  numerous  there  than  in  any  other  part 
of  Siberia  (Ognev,  1931,  p.  574). 

Mongolia. — P.  P.  Sushkin  reported  in  1925  that  the  Sable  was  a 
regular  inhabitant  of  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Altai  Mountains, 
about  the  headwaters  of  the  Black  Irtish  and  the  Urungu.  It  is  also 
abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  Kossogol,  at  the  southern  base  of  the 
Sayan  Mountains.  (Ognev,  1931,  p.  572.) 

Manchuria. — The  most  valuable  fur-bearing  animal  of  Manchuria 
is  the  Sable  (Sowerby,  1934,  p.  286) . 

"The  Manchurian  sable  does  not  come  up  to  those  from  the  Amur, 
Primorskaya  and  Siberia  in  the  value  of  its  pelt.  ...  It  is  said 
that  the  Chinese  nearly  always  hunt  the  sable  by  running  it  down 
with  dogs.  .  .  . 

"Unfortunately  the  Chinese  Government  is  not  alive  to  the  value 
of  its  game  and  fur-bearing  animals  and  birds,  and  so  affords  no 
manner  of  protection.  There  can  be  only  one  result  of  this;  com- 
plete extinction  of  the  sable  in  the  provinces  of  Heilungkiang  and 
Kirin."  (Sowerby,  1923,  pp.  64-65.) 

Japan. — Temminck  (1844,  pp.  33-34)  described  the  Japanese 
Sable  from  Yezo  (Hokkaido)  and  added  that  it  was  common  in  all 
the  Kuriles.  It  was  being  utilized  in  the  fur  trade  in  his  day. 

In  Hokkaido  "the  sables  .  .  .  have  .  .  .  met  a  sad  fate  and  in 
spite  of  particular  protection,  their  coming  back  to  their  existence 
as  before  is  anything  but  promising.  .  .  . 

"It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  increase  of  the  Japanese  minks 
[Mustela  itatsi]  in  Hokkaido  associates  closely  with  the  decrease 
of  the  sables  which  occupied  the  land  before  the  minks  and  de- 
creased inland  gradually  from  the  southern  part.  The  number  of 
sables  caught  in  Hokkaido  was  2,395  in  1906,  765  in  1910,  1,706  in 
1915  and  214  in  1919  respectively."  (Inukai,  19326,  pp.  524,  527.) 

Uchida  reports  (1935,  p.  8)  a  total  of  5,948  Japanese  Sables  taken 
during  the  six-months  open  season  of  1929-30. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  241 

In  the  Kuriles  the  Sable  is  threatened  with  destruction  (Miyoshi. 
in  Skottsberg,  1934,  p.  412) . 

Economics  and  conservation. — The  Sable  has  been  very  actively 
hunted  for  several  centuries.  Its  numbers  are  now  much  reduced, 
and  in  only  a  few  regions  can  it  be  said  to  be  "not  rare."  Its  range 
also  has  been  considerably  reduced  and  has  become  discontinuous. 
There  has  been  shrinkage  of  the  range  at  its  western  limits  in  Russia 
and  at  its  southern  limits  in  western  and  southern  Siberia.  From 
time  to  time  hunting  has  been  forbidden  in  the  whole  or  in  certain 
parts  of  its  range.  These  measures  have  given  good  results,  and  the 
decrease  in  numbers  has  been  halted  for  several  years.  In  order  to 
obtain  an  increase,  a  closed  season  has  been  maintained  on  the 
whole  territory  of  the  U.  S.  S.  R.  Several  great  reserves  have  been 
created  to  afford  protection  to  the  Sable  (Barguzinsk,  Kronotski, 
Sikhote-Alin,  Kondo-Sosva) .  Successful  propagation  has  been  car- 
ried out,  and  several  "sovkhoz"  have  been  specially  created  for 
sable-farming.  (W.  G.  Heptner,  in  litt.,  1937.) 

In  1928  the  entire  Sable  production  of  Asia  was  15,000.  In  1929-30 
the  yield  in  that  part  of  eastern  Siberia  bordering  Manchuria  was 
1,925  skins  (Kuntze,  1932,  p.  47). 

Wolverine;  Glutton.   Glouton  arctique  (Fr.)»   Vielfrass  (Ger.) 

GULO  GULO  (Linnaeus) 

[Mustela]  gulo  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  45,  1758.    (Lapland.) 
FIGS.:    Fitzinger,  Bild.-Atlas,  Saugth.,  fig.  70,  1860;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2, 

p.  71,  fig.,  1894;   Zeitschr.  fur  Saugetierk.,  vol.  8,  pi.  31,  1933;   Oguev, 

1935,  pi.  2. 

The  range  as  well  as  the  numbers  of  the  Wolverine  have  become 
reduced  in  northern  Europe,  but  its  status  in  northern  Asia  has 
remained  more  satisfactory. 

The  general  form  is  heavy  and  badgerlike;  fur  long  and  dense; 
tail  bushy;  general  color  a  rich  dark  brown,  becoming  blackish  on 
legs,  feet,  and  tail ;  a  broad  light  brownish  or  yellowish  band  across 
rump  and  upper  side  of  basal  part  of  tail,  extending  forward  to 
shoulders,  where  it  gradually  disappears;  a  cream-buff  area  across 
the  head  between  ears  and  eyes.  Head  and  body,  825  mm.;  tail, 
125  mm.  (pencil,  75).  (Chiefly  from  Miller,  1912,  pp.  434-440.) 

"In  prehistoric  times,  the  wolverine  was  found  in  England,  and 
indeed  ranged  as  far  south  as  the  Pyrenees"  (Lydekker,  1901, 
p.  112). 

Its  recent  range  is  given  by  Miller  (1912,  p.  434)  as  the  "northern 

forests  of  the  Old  World;  in  Europe,  confined  to  Scandinavia  and 

northern  Russia."   It  is  stated  by  Trouessart  (1910,  p.  71)  a  little 

more  fully:   "Circumpolar  Europe  (but  not  the  islands  north  of  the 

9 


242  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

continent),  south  to  lat.  55°  N.  (Lithuania,  Volhynia,  and  northern 
Germany  where  it  is  now  exterminated) ;  in  Asia  south  to  the  Altai. 
Still  lives  in  northern  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Lapland." 

Norway. — In  former  times  it  was  common  throughout  the  country, 
but  only  in  the  mountains  in  the  southern  part.  At  present  it  is 
rare  in  the  high  mountains  and  probably  will  soon  become  com- 
pletely extinct.  Large  bounties  are  paid  for  every  specimen  because 
of  the  damage  the  Wolverine  does  to  cattle  and  reindeer.  (Hj .  Broch, 
in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

It  is  supposed  that  a  small  stock  is  left  in  the  south  of  Norway 
on  Hardangervidda  and  in  Jotunheimen.  While  still  found  in  the 
northern  parts,  it  shows  a  considerable  decrease  there.  It  is  ques- 
tionable whether  it  is  possible  to  preserve  the  Wolverine  in  Norway. 
(Director  of  Forestry,  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Norway,  in  litt., 
January,  1937.) 

Sweden. — The  Wolverine  inhabits  chiefly  the  mountain  forests 
and  the  areas  above  the  tree  limit.  It  has  therefore  been  mostly 
restricted  to  the  country  northward  from  northern  Dalecarlia  (lat. 
61°  30'  N.).  In  Wermland  it  was  formerly  found  in  small  numbers, 
but  disappeared  before  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Single  speci- 
mens have  even  been  found  as  far  south  as  Scania.  At  present,  it 
occurs  only  from  Jemtland  northward. 

The  skin  of  the  Wolverine  has  been  valued  for  centuries,  and  the 
animal  has  also  been  pursued  because  of  its  damage  to  livestock, 
mostly  reindeer  but  also  sheep  to  some  extent.  Consequently  boun- 
ties are  paid,  and  have  recently  been  increased;  the  State  pays 
10  Cr.,  while  the  Lappfund  pays  100  Cr.  for  old  animals  and  50  Cr. 
for  cubs.  The  total  number  of  Wolverines  killed  in  the  whole 
country  is,  by  decades,  as  follows: 

1856-1865  1,159  1896-1905  1,084 

1866-1875  1,201  1906-1915  717 

1876-1885  1,240  1916-1925  639 

1886-1895  992  1926-1934  517 

There  is  a  pretty  steady  decrease  in  numbers  from  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  indicating  that  there  is  danger  of  extermina- 
tion. (Einar  Lonnberg,  in  litt.,  October,  1936.) 

Finland. — Ognev  (1935,  p.  95)  mentions  the  occurrence  of  the 
Wolverine  about  Lake  Enara. 

Latvia. — In  the  Baltic  states  the  species  was  once  found  in  large 
numbers,  but  now  seems  to  have  disappeared.  In  1875  a  specimen 
was  killed  near  Gerki  in  Courland,  and  in  1876  another  near  Jacob- 
stadt.  (Ognev,  1935,  p.  94.) 

Lithuania. — Its  former  existence  is  uncertain  (T.  Ivanauskas, 
in  litt.,  November,  1936) . 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:  CARNIVORES 


243 


Poland. — It  was  quite  frequent  in  the  eighteenth  century  and  even 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  but  is  now  most  probably  exterminated 
(M.  Siedlecki,  in  litt.,  October,  1936).  It  lived  till  the  end  of  the 
last  century  in  Volhynia,  Podolia,  and  Polesia  (Lubicz  v.  Nieza- 
bitowski,  1934,  p.  190) . 

Germany. — Two  reports  of  Wolverines  in  central  or  northern 
Germany  in  the  eighteenth  century  are  evidently  based  upon  escaped 
captives  (Blasius,  1857,  p.  211;  Hilzheimer,  1933,  pp.  219-221). 

Russia. — The  species  formerly  ranged  southward  to  the  northern 
Ukraine.  At  present  it  is  found  rarely  in  the  Western  Area,  and  pos- 


FIG.  25.— Wolverine   (Gulo  gulo) 

sibly  in  Volhynia.  Once  thought  to  have  been  exterminated  in  White 
Russia  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  it  may  have  survived 
till  later.  It  formerly  occurred  in  the  Governments  of  Novgorod 
and  Olonets.  It  ranges  northward  to  the  Kola  Peninsula.  Prior 
to  1901,  200-300  Wolverines  were  collected  annually  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Archangel,  but  at  present  there  is  a  decrease.  Prior  to  1925, 
75  animals  were  captured  annually  in  the  Petchora  district.  The 
species  now  seems  to  be  very  rare  in  central  Russia  (Ivanovo  Indus- 
trial Area  and  adjacent  areas) .  It  is  widely  distributed  in  the  Urals, 
south  to  about  lat.  53°  N.  (Ognev,  1935,  pp.  94-96.) 

Siberia. — The  range  of  the  Wolverine  extends  from  the  Urals 
east  to  the  Anadyr  district  and  Kamchatka ;  on  the  north  it  reaches 
the  Arctic  coast  in  places;  on  the  south  it  extends  to  the  Altai  Moun- 
tains, the  Tannu-Ola  Mountains  (Mongolia) ,  the  Bargusin  district, 
the  Amur  region,  the  Ussuri  district  (lat.  44°  N.),  and  Sakhalin. 
Over  this  vast  area  its  status  varies  considerably;  it  is  reported  as 
numerous  in  some  places  and  as  rare  or  absent  in  others:  (Ognev, 
1935,  pp.  97-100;  map,  p.  101.) 


244  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  Wolverine  is  widely  distributed  in  the  forested  regions  of 
the  U.  S.  S.  R.  as  a  whole  (Russia  and  Siberia) .  It  is  less  common  in 
northern  Russia  than  in  Siberia.  Its  decrease  in  central  Russia 
results  from  the  decrease  of  the  forest  cover.  It  is  very  common  in 
parts  of  Siberia.  It  causes  great  damage  to  hunting  interests,  taking 
animals  caught  in  traps,  destroying  hunters'  provisions,  attacking 
young  ungulates  and  even  adults  in  deep  snow.  It  is  not  legally 
protected  and  may  be  killed  at  any  time.  (W.  G.  Heptner,  in  litt., 
December,  1936.) 

Sakhalin. — "Schrenck  and  Kishida  reported  it  from  the  island.  It 
is  ...  a  rare 'animal  on  Sakhalin."  (Kuroda,  1928,  p.  227.)  A  speci- 
men was  taken  in  1934  (Kuroda,  1938,  p.  26) . 

Manchuria. — "I  heard  sufficient  from  authentic  sources  to  con- 
vince me  that  the  animal  is  fairly  common,  at  least  in  the  northern 
forested  area"  (Sowerby,  1923,  p.  71). 

Mongolia. — The  species  is  reported  in  the  Tannu-Ola  Mountains 
(Ognev,  1935,  pp.  98, 100) .  "I  once  saw  a  skin  from  the  Urga  district 
in  Northern  Mongolia"  (Sowerby,  1923,  p.  71). 

Economics. — "Wolverine  fur  has  been  much  in  vogue  of  late 
years,  and  has  consequently  appreciated  in  value.  For  a  good  skin, 
thirty  shillings  is  often  asked."  (Lydekker,  1901,  p.  112.) 

The  world's  fur  production  for  1928  included  6,000  Wolverine 
skins  [some  probably  from  North  America]  (Jour.  Soc.  Preservation 
Fauna  Empire,  pt.  12,  p.  64,  1930) . 

Folklore. — Many  curious  bits  of  folklore  concerning  the  Wolverine 
have  been  handed  down.  Some  of  them  are  quoted  by  Lloyd  (1854, 
pp.  16-18)  from  Pontoppidan  and  Olaus  Magnus. 

Family  VIVERRIDAE:    Civets,  Mongooses,  etc. 

This  Old  World  family  ranges  over  southern  Europe,  Africa, 
Madagascar,  southern  Asia,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago  as  far  as 
Timor,  Ceram,  and  the  Philippines.  There  are  about  40  genera  and 
350-400  forms.  Accounts  of  six  forms  are  given  here. 

Malay  Binturong;  Bear-cat;  Black  Marten.    Bintoeroeng 

(Dutch) 

ARCTICTIS  BINTURONG  BINTURONG  (Raffles) 

Viverra?  Binturong  Raffles,  Trans.  Linnean  Soc.  London,  vol.  13,  pt.  1,  p.  253, 

1821.    ("Malacca,") 
FIGS.:    Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammiferes,  vol.  5,  pis.  201,  202 

(subsp.?),  1824;  Sclater  and  Sclater,  1899,  p.  128,  fig.  26;  Lydekker,  1900, 

pi.  9,  fig.  1  (subsp.?). 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  rarity  of  the  Binturong,  the  six  subspecies 
of  which  range  from  northeastern  India  and  Tonkin  through  the 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  245 

Malay  Peninsula  to  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  and  Palawan.  Never- 
theless, it  is  evidently  in  need  of  total  protection,  more  especially 
because  of  the  demands  upon  it  by  the  Chinese  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses. 

There  has  long  been  uncertainty  as  to  the  exact  taxonomic  status 
of  the  various  described  forms,  owing  chiefly  to  the  inadequacy  of 
the  series  of  museum  specimens.  The  species  as  a  whole  is  dis- 
tinguished from  all  other  Viverridae  by  its  long  ear  tufts  and  by 
the  prehensile  nature  of  its  long,  bushy  tail.  The  fur  is  long,  coarse, 
and  black,  more  or  less  washed  with  gray,  fulvous,  or  buff.  (Lydek- 
ker,  1893-1894,  p.  463.)  The  present  subspecies  is  larger  and  darker 
than  A.  b.  penicillatus;  its  winter  coat  is  much  shorter  and  less 
luxuriant  with  underwool  than  that  of  albijrons,  and  the  long  hairs 
are  less  extensively  annulated  with  lighter  color  (Pocock,  1933, 
p.  1030).  Body,  30  inches;  tail,  nearly  the  same  (Raffles,  1821, 
p.  253). 

The  Malay  Binturong  inhabits  the  Malay  Peninsula  north  to 
Tenasserim  and  Siam,  and  also  Sumatra. 

Siam. — In  this  country  the  Binturong  seems  to  be  rare  (Gylden- 
stolpe,  1919,  p.  148) .  Specimens  have  been  recorded  from  Sikawtur, 
northwest  of  Raheng,  western  Siam;  from  Prachin,  central  Siam; 
from  Sai  Yoke,  southwestern  Siam;  and  from  Bang  Nara,  Patani, 
Peninsular  Siam  (Kloss,  1917,  p.  293,  and  1919,  p.  53;  Gyldenstolpe, 
1919,  p.  148).  In  Ratburi  Province,  southwestern  Siam,  "the 
Karangs  are  well  acquainted  with  the  animal  and  state  it  is 
generally  distributed  in  evergreen  forest"  (Gairdner,  1915,  p.  252). 
Since  its  habits  are  "largely  nocturnal  and  arboreal,  the  Bear-cat 
is  not  easily  obtained"  (Kloss,  1917,  p.  294) . 

Malay  Peninsula. — "The  Bear-cat  ...  is  generally  obtained  in 
Malacca,  and  is  sometimes  kept  as  a  pet.  It  is  easily  domesticated, 
and  becomes  very  affectionate,  and  will  follow  its  master  like  a 
dog.  It  feeds  on  fruit,  also  taking  small  birds."  (Ridley,  1895,  p.  93.) 

"This  delightful  animal  is  apparently  not  uncommon  on  the  main- 
land, but  I  have  not  heard  of  it  occurring  wild  in  Penang  or  Singa- 
pore. In  the  Museum  at  Taiping  are  specimens  from  Larut  and 
Kuala  Kangsar,  Perak.  It  is  represented  in  the  Museum  at  Kuala 
Lumpor,  and  is  said  to  be  common  in  Selangor."  (Flower,  1900, 
pp.  330-331.) 

In  the  Malay  Peninsula  "Arctictis,  Hemigalus,  Neofelis,  .  .  . 
are  not  in  my  opinion  vanishing  forms.  .  .  .  The  three  carnivores 
are  all  rare  but  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  estimate  their  status  in  a 
country  covered  with  jungle.  I  see  no  reason  why  they  should  be 
classed  under  Vanishing  forms'  as  there  is  plenty  of  country  suited 
to  their  requirements  and  they  are  not  systematically  hunted.  I 
prefer  to  regard  them  as  uncommon  animals,  rarely  collected.  Never- 


246 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


theless,  they  are  rare  enough  to  be  given  total  protection."  (F.  N. 
Chasen,  in  litt.,  March  31,  1937.) 

In  Malaya  "many  with  whom  I  talked  .  .  .  were  insistent  that 
such  animals  as  the  .  .  .  binturong  .  .  .  are  to-day  practically 
non-existent.  .  .  . 

"It  is  true  that  the  loris  and  binturong  fetch  a  high  price  in  the 
Chinese  market,  but  they  are  numerous."  (Comyn-Platt,  1937t>, 
P-  48.) 


FIG.  26. — Binturong  (Arctictis  binturong  subsp.) 

Sumatra. — In  the  Korinchi  region  two  specimens  are  recorded 
from  Sandaran  Agong,  2,450  feet  (Robinson  and  Kloss,  1918,  p.  11). 

F.  N.  Chasen  (in  litt.,  May  5,  1937)  considers  the  Binturong 
much  more  numerous  in  Sumatra  than  in  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
"Most  specimens  seen  in  captivity  originate  on  the  east  coast  of 
Sumatra."  It  "needs  protection  as  the  Chinese  use  it  for  medicine." 

"In  Sumatra,  the  binturong  is  found  occasionally  near  Selat 
Pandjang.  It  is  not  often  seen  in  Rokan  and  Bengkalis."  (Heyn- 
sius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn,  1936,  p.  63.) 

According  to  Dr.  Hagen,  the  species  is  rare  in  Sumatra.  This 
agrees  with  information  obtained  from  natives  inland  from  Palem- 
bang.  During  two  years'  residence  in  the  Ogan  Oeloe  Subdivision 
only  one  animal  was  seen  in  captivity.  (Coomans  de  Ruiter,  1932, 
p.  53.) 

Lyon  (1908,  p.  652)  records  specimens  from  Aru  Bay,  Sungei 
Mundau,  Siak  River,  Pulo  Payong,  and  Pulo  Tebing  Tinggi,  eastern 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  247 

Sumatra.  Pocock  (1933,  pp.  1018-1019)  records  additional  speci- 
mens from  Ulu  If  ok,  Perak;  Wellesley  Province,  Straits  Settlements; 
Tenasserim  Village;  and  Sanderan  Agong,  Sumatra. 

Nias   Binturong 

ARCTICTIS  BINTURONG  NIASENSIS  Lyon 

Arctictis  miasensis  Lyon,  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  vol.  52,  p.  443,  1916.    (Near 
Fadoro,  Nias  Island,  off  west  coast  of  Sumatra.) 

Forty  years  ago  this  Binturong  was  "said  not  to  be  common" 
(W.  L.  Abbott,  in  Lyon,  1916,  p.  443) . 

"Upper  parts  of  back  of  head,  neck,  body,  and  all  of  tail,  brownish 
black,  coarsely  and  rather  sparsely  grizzled  with  ochraceous  tawny 
on  the  lower  back,  sides,  outerside  of  legs,  and  proximal  two-thirds 
of  tail;  under  parts  tawny  ochraceous."  Tail,  540  mm.  The  ochra- 
ceous-tawny  in  the  present  form  is  replaced  by  buff  or  ochraceous- 
buff  in  A.  b.  binturong.  (Lyon,  1916,  p.  443.)  Cranial  and  dental 
differences  are  discussed  by  Miller  (1942,  pp.  123-124). 

This  Binturong  is  apparently  restricted  to  Nias  Island.  Since  the 
type  specimen  was  described,  a  second  individual  has  been  recorded 
by  Miller  (1942,  pp.  123-124) ,  who  quotes  the  collector,  Frederick  A. 
Ulmer,  Jr.,  as  follows:  "The  young  binturong  was  purchased  alive 
from  the  natives  of  Soliga  in  Central  Nias  and  was  the  only  one  I 
saw,  although  I  heard  of  one  other  specimen  in  captivity  near 
Gunong  Sitoli."  Ulmer  also  refers  to  it  as  a  "rare  animal." 

Banka   Binturong 

ARCTICTIS  BINTURONG  KERKHOVENI  Sody 

Arctictis  binturong  kerkhoveni  Sody,  Natuurk.  Tijdschr.  Nederl.  Indie,  vol.  96, 
no.  1,  p.  43,  1936.  ("Banka  Island,"  Malay  Archipelago.) 

This  form  is  based  upon  a  tingle  specimen  from  Banka  Island. 

It  is  the  smallest  subspecies.  The  fur  is  black,  with  short  buffy 
tips  to  the  hairs  in  some  places,  especially  the  head  and  forelegs; 
tail  plain  black,  with  light  buffy  bases  to  hairs  on  basal  two-thirds 
of  the  ventral  surface.  Head  and  body,  600  mm.;  tail,  520  mm. 
(Sody,  1936,  p.  43.) 

No  information  is  at  hand  concerning  the  frequency  of  the  Bin- 
turong on  Banka. 

Himalayan  Binturong 

ARCTICTIS  BINTURONG  ALBIFRONS  (F.  Cuvier) 

Paradoxurus  albifrons  F.  Cuvier,  Mem.  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.  [Parisl,  vol.  9,  p.  48, 
pi.  4,  upper  fig.,  1822.  (Based  upon  a  menagerie  specimen  in  Bengal, 
said  to  have  come  from  Bhutan.) 


248  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

FIGS.:  Wolf,  1867,  pi.  10;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  463,  1893-94;  Jour. 
Bombay  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  38,  no.  2,  suppl.,  pi.  60,  1935. 

This  form  ranges  through  Nepal,  Sikkim,  Bhutan,  Assam,  Upper 
Burma,  and  Tonkin. 

It  is  distinguished  from  other  forms  by  the  length  of  its  winter 
coat  and  the  abundance  of  long  underwool;  the  color  of  the  body 
varies  from  jet  black  to  tawny'or  gray  (Pocock,  1933,  p.  1030). 

"The  Binturong  appears  to  be  rare  in  Northern  India."  Speci- 
mens are  recorded  from  Assam;  from  Endwagyi  Lake,  in  Myitkyina, 
Upper  Burma;  from  Fouine,  Tonkin;  and  from  Lower  Laos.  Only 
one  skull  appears  to  be  known.  (Pocock,  1933,  pp.  1016-1017, 1030.) 

"Mr.  W.  L.  Sclater  says  that  it  is  found  even  as  far  west  as  Simla" 
(Lydekker,  1900,  p.  334). 

Javanese  Binturong 

ARCTICTIS  BINTURONG  PENICILLATUS  Temminck 

(Original  reference  not  found;  not  in  Sherborn;  cf.  Temminck,  Monographies 
Mammalogie,  vol.  2,  p.  310,  1841.  Possibly  the  name  was  first  published  by 
Temminck  sometime  prior  to  1825  in  the  prospectus  of  his  "Monographies" 
(cf.  Valenciennes,  1825,  p.  57,  footnote).  Pocock's  citation  (1933,  p.  1031), 
"Temminck,  Mon.  Mamm.  ii.  p.  18,  1835,"  is  evidently  erroneous;  he 
gives  "Java"  as  the  type  locality.) 

FIGS.:  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  4,  pi.  1, 1825;  Coomans  de  Ruiter,  1932,  p.  54,  fig.  12. 

The  range  of  this  form  is  Java  and  Borneo. 

It  is  distinguished  from  A.  b.  binturong  by  its  smaller  skull  and 
generally  lighter  color;  pale  annulation  of  the  hairs  extensive  and 
profuse  (Pocock,  1933,  p.  1031).  Head  and  body,  960  mm.;  tail, 
890  mm.  (Schwarz,  1911,  p.  636) . 

Java. — Temminck  (1841,  vol.  2,  p.  311)  was  inclined  to  consider 
the  Binturong  the  rarest  of  the  mammals  of  Java  and  Sumatra.  The 
species  is  "apparently  rare  in  Java"  (Shortridge,  in  Thomas  and 
Wroughton,  1909,  p.  386). 

Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn  write  (1936,  p.  63) : 

Few  data  were  received  concerning  this  animal.  It  was  observed  in  Java 
in  the  vicinity  of  Madjalengka  and  near  the  border  of  Tomo  .... 

The  binturong  is  often  seen  in  the  Midangan  mountains,  but  it  is  much 
scarcer  on  the  Andjasmoro.  None  were  seen  there  for  the  past  two  years.  .  .  . 

Owing  to  his  size,  his  striking  color,  his  pretty  fur  and  his  rather  sluggish 
motions,  the  binturong  is  doomed  to  be  soon  exterminated,  unless  very  stern 
measures  are  taken.  It  occurs  on  all  the  Greater  Sunda  Islands,  but  is  nowhere 
common.  .  .  .  Young  animals  become  very  tame  and  affectionate  in  captivity. 

This  pretty  animal  .  .  .  should  be  intensively  protected. 

Borneo. — "These  animals  are  common  in  parts  of  Borneo,  usually 
living  in  the  dense  forest,  but  when  in  search  of  fruit  they  will  often 
visit  gardens"  (Hose,  1893,  p.  24) . 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  249 

Schwarz  (1911,  p.  636)  mentions  specimens  from  Sandakan  and 
La  Datu,  North  Borneo,  and  from  Sarawak.  Pocock  (1933,  p.  1031) 
records  others  from  Mount  Mulu,  Mount  Dulit,  and  Saribas  in 
northern  Borneo.  In  the  Western  Division  of  Borneo  the  Binturong 
is  not  rare,  and  specimens  are  frequently  kept  in  captivity  (Coomans 
de  Ruiter,  1932,  p.  54). 

Palawan  Binturong 

ARCTICTIS  BINTURONG  WHITEI  J.  A.  Allen 

Arctitis  [sic]  whitei  J.  A.  Allen,  Bull.  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  28,  p.  15, 
1910.    ("Iwahig,  Palawan,  Philippine  Islands") 

This  form  is  apparently  restricted  to  Palawan. 

It  is  closely  related  to  A.  b.  penicillatus,  but  has  a  smaller  skull; 
general  color  black,  strongly  washed  with  fulvous;  hairs  of  nose 
and  facial  region  tipped  with  whitish;  neck  all  round  and  terminal 
fifth  of  tail  black;  ears  narrowly  bordered  with  white  or  yellowish. 
Head  and  body,  700  mm.;  tail,  610  mm.  (J.  A.  Allen,  1910,  p.  15.) 

Only  about  four  specimens  of  this  form  seem  to  be  on  record 
(Taylor,  1934,  p.  357). 

Fossane;  Lesser  Fossa 

FOSSA  FOSSA  (Schreber) 

Viverra  Fossa  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  vol.  3,  pi.  114,  1776,  and  p.  424,  1777. 

(Based  upon  "la  Fossane"  of  Buffon  (Hist.  Nat.,  vol.  13,  p.  163,  pi.  20, 

1765);  type  locality,  "Madagascar.") 
SYNONYM:    Fossa  daubentonii  Gray  (1865). 
FIGS.:  Buffon,  op.  tit.,  pi.  20;  Schreber,  op.  cit.,  pi.  114;  J.  E.  Gray,  1873,  pi.  74. 

This  endemic  viverrid  of  Madagascar  is  accorded  special  pro- 
tection as  a  Class  A  species  under  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 

The  ground  color  is  light  ashy  gray,  slightly  washed  with  red- 
dish; stripes  and  spots  blackish  brown;  breast,  belly,  and  legs  gray; 
tail  gray,  incompletely  ringed  with  brown  (Schreber,  1777,  p.  424). 
Gray  (1873,  p.  872)  gives  the  following  description:  "Brown  or  red- 
dish, closely  grizzled  with  an  abundance  of  white  hairs,  with  four 
rows  of  more  or  less  confluent  black  spots  on  each  side  of  the 
back,  a  few  black  spots  on  the  hinder  thighs.  The  chin,  neck,  and 
belly  whitish,  more  or  less  obscurely  spotted."  Daubenton  (in 
Buffon,  1765,  p.  166)  gives  the  following  measurements:  head  and 
body,  17  inches;  tail,  8J  inches. 

Our  information  concerning  this  animal  is  very  meager.  Accord- 
ing to  Buffon  (1765,  p.  164),  in  captivity  it  eats  flesh  and  fruit  and 
is  especially  fond  of  bananas. 

The  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-1931 
obtained  13  specimens  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220). 


250  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"The  striped  civet  of  the  humid  forest  is  apparently  entirely 
nocturnal  ....  Though  fairly  common"  20  kilometers  west  of 
Vondrozo,  "as  we  found  by  trapping,  none  was  seen  in  the  daytime. 

"Three  stomachs  from  near  Vondrozo  and  one  from  near  Maro- 
antsetra  all  contained  insect  matter  and  one  contained  also  a  lizard 
....  The  striped  civet  was  known  as  'fanaloka'  amongst  the  Ata- 
moor  in  the  southeast."  (Rand,  1935,  p.  93.) 

Family  PROTELIDAE:    Aard-wolves 

The  single  genus  of  this  family  contains  one  species,  which  has 
been  divided  into  half  a  dozen  subspecies.  They  range  over  southern 
and  eastern  Africa.  All  come  within  the  scope  of  this  work. 

Aard-wolf.     Maanhaar   Jackal    (Boer).     Faux-loup;    Loup    de 
terre    (Fr.).    Zibethyane    (Ger.) 

PROTELES  CRISTATUS  (Sparrman) 

Viverra  cristata  Sparrman,  Resa  till  Goda  Hopps-Udden,  vol.  1,  p.  581,  1783. 

(Near  Little  Fish  River,  Somerset  East,  Cape  Province.) 
FIGS.:     Cuvier,   Regne   animal,  disciples'   ed.,   Mamm.,   atlas,   pi.   40,   fig.   3, 

1836-1849;   Proc.  Zool.  Soc.   London   1869,  pi.  36;    W.  L.  Sclater,  1900, 

vol.  1,  p.  81,  fig.  21;  Anderson  and  de  Winton,  1902,  pi.  28;  Derscheid, 

1925,  pi.  A;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  758,  fig. 

The  Aard-wolf  is  of  particular  scientific  interest  as  the  sole  repre- 
sentative of  the  family  Protelidae;  and  it  has  been  accorded  rigid 
protection  as  a  Class  A  mammal  under  the  London  Convention  of 
1933. 

Six  subspecies  have  been  proposed,  as  listed  below,  but  since  their 
distributional  limits  have  not  been  worked  out,  all  will  be  included 
in  this  account  of  the  species  as  a  whole. 

Proteles  cristatus  cristatus  (Sparrman) .  Cape  Aard-wolf.  (Type 
locality  as  given  above.) 

Form  hyenalike;  general  color  dirty  yellowish  gray,  with  project- 
ing coarse  hairs,  black  and  white;  an  erectile  black  mane  from 
nape  to  tail;  seven  to  nine  transverse  black  stripes  on  sides;  upper 
parts  of  limbs  with  indistinct  black  bands;  feet  black;  face,  lower 
jaws,  and  chin  brown;  tail  yellowish  at  base,  rest  black.  Head  and 
body,  32  inches;  tail  without  hairs,  6  inches.  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900, 
vol.  1,  pp.  80-81.) 

Proteles  cristatus  pallidior  Cabrera,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  8, 
vol.  6,  p.  464, 1910.  Nubian  Aard-wolf.  ("Suakim,"  Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan.) 

General  color  pale  yellowish  cream ;  body  hairs  unicolored ;  cheeks 
and  sides  of  neck  not  rufous  as  in  true  cristatus;  mane  with  very 
little  black;  feet  brownish,  not  black;  tail  black  only  at  tip  (Cabrera, 
1910,  p.  464). 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  251 

Proteles  cristatus  septentrionalis  Rothschild,  Novit.  Zool.,  vol.  9, 
p.  443,  1902.  Somali  Aard-wolf.  ("Somaliland.") 

Creamy  white,  washed  with  buff  on  neck  and  sides  of  rump; 
stripes  less  defined  than  in  cristatus;  mane  black,  variegated  with 
creamy  white  (W.  Rothschild,  1902,  p.  443). 

Proteles  cristatus  termes  Heller,  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  vol.  61, 
no.  13,  p.  9,  1913.  Masailand  Aard-wolf.  ("Headwaters  of  the 
Amala  River  west  of  the  Loita  Plains,  British  East  Africa.") 

Interorbital  region  black,  crown  grizzled,  feet  black,  and  ears 
blackish  as  in  cristatus;  body  stripes  narrow;  ground  color  grayish 
fulvous;  tail  black  on  terminal  third;  muzzle  and  chin  black;  throat 
grayish  buffy.  Head  and  body,  680  mm.;  tail,  310  mm.  (E.  Heller, 
19136,  p.  9). 

Proteles  cristatus  transvaalensis  Roberts,  Ann.  Transvaal  Mus., 
vol.  15,  pt.  1,  p.  6,  1932.  Transvaal  Aard-wolf.  ("Roodekuil,  Pre- 
toria," Transvaal.) 

Pale  buffy;  face,  bands  on  limbs  and  body,  and  distal  third  of 
tail  dark  brown;  mane  rufous-white,  the  hairs  with  three  brown 
bands  and  blackish  tips.  Head  and  body,  650  mm.;  tail,,  270  mm. 
(Roberts,  1932,  p.  6.) 

Proteles  cristatus  harrisoni  Rothschild,  Novit.  Zool.,  vol.  9,  p.  443, 
1902.  Angola  Aard-wolf.  ("Umpata,  Mossamedes  district,  S.  An- 
gola.") 

Head  white,  grizzled  with  black;  body  pale  orange  rufous;  stripes 
less  developed  than  in  other  races;  mane  and  tail  black,  variegated 
with  rufous  (Rothschild,  1902,  p.  443) . 

The  species  as  a  whole  has  a  wide  range  over  southern  and  eastern 
Africa,  from  Cape  Province  and  Natal  north  to  Angola,  Northern 
Rhodesia,  and  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.  It  is  apparently  absent 
along  the  low-lying  east  coast  from  the  Transkei  district  of  Cape 
Province  to  Portuguese  East  Africa.  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  1, 
p.  150.) 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. — Specimens  have  been  recorded  from  the 
vicinity  of  Suakin  (Anderson  and  de  Winton,  1902,  p.  198;  Cabrera, 
1910,  p.  465)  and  from  the  Blue  Nile  (Butler,  in  Maydon,  1932, 
p.  151). 

Eritrea. — This  animal  is  rather  widespread,  if  not  common,  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  country,  especially  in  the  southwest  (Zammarano, 
1930,  p.  77). 

Ethiopia. — It  is  "common  on  the  lowlands  and  foot  hills  wherever 
white  ants  abound"  (Wylde,  1901,  p.  485). 

British  Somaliland. — "The  aardwolf  is  found  sparsely  scattered 
throughout  Somaliland.  They  are  almost  invariably  seen  alone." 
(Drake-Brockman,  1910,  p.  38.) 


252  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Italian  Somaliland. — Recorded  by  De  Beaux  (1935,  p.  12). 

Kenya. — Hollister  (1918,  pt.  1,  p.  138)  lists  specimens  from  the 
following  localities:  Kabalolot  Hill,  Sotik;  Northern  Guaso  Nyiro 
River;  Telek  River,  Sotik;  and  Ulukenia  Hills. 

Tanganyika  Territory. — Recorded  from  Tabora  (Matschie,  1895, 
p.  62). 

Northern  Rhodesia. — "I  am  reliably  informed  that  specimens 
have  been  obtained  at  Tara  and  Kalomo  in  the  Batoka  Province. 
Elsewhere  the  natives  do  not  seem  to  have  heard  of  it."  (Pitman, 
1934,  p.  162.) 

Southern  Rhodesia. — It  ranges  rather  sparsely  over  this  country 
(western  Matabeleland,  etc.)  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  1,  p.  150). 

Transvaal. — "In  the  Eastern  Transvaal  the  Aard  Wolf  is  not 
found  in  the  low-veld  proper;  it  occurs  in  the  more  open  country 
among  the  foothills  of  the  Drakensberg  at  a  height  of  over  1,500 
feet"  (Hamilton,  in  Shortrklge,  1934,  vol.  1,  p.  150).  A  specimen  is 
recorded  from  Potchefstrom  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  82). 

Natal. — "It  is  fairly  common  in  Natal"  (Warren,  in  Shortridge, 

1934,  vol.  1,  p.  150). 

Cape  Province. — The  Aard-wolf  is  reported  as  not  uncommon 
throughout  the  colony  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  81). 

Bechuanaland. — "The  Kalahari  Sand-Plains"  are  "perhaps  the 
regions  in  which  it  is  most  plentiful.  .  .  .  The  karross-making 
tribes  in  Bechuanaland  .  .  .  are  said  to  procure  most  of  their  aard 
wolf  skins  with  the  aid  of  dogs."  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  1,  p.  150.) 

As  many  as  14  have  been  seen  together  in  the  Kalahari  (Langdon, 
in  Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  1,  p.  151). 

South-West  Africa. — "Proteles  is  widely  distributed  throughout 
South -West  Africa;  nowhere  very  abundantly.  It  is  apparently 
rather  scarce  along  the  valley  of  the  Orange  River,  and  northwards 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Okavango  and  in  the  Caprivi.  .  .  . 

"The  Aard  Wolf  is  fairly  plentiful  around  Gobabis  and  in  the 
sand-plains  generally;  and  is  also  familiar  in  Namaqualand,  Da- 
maraland,  the  Kaokoveld,  Ovamboland,  and  the  Namutoni  Game 
Reserve."  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  1,  pp.  149-150.) 

Angola. — It  is  rather  common  in  the  south  of  Angola  but  much 
rarer  in  the  north.  A  skin  was  brought  in  to  Vila  da  Ponte,  where 
the  animal  was  unknown  to  the  natives.  (Monard,  1931,  p.  66,  and 

1935,  p.  228.)    The  type  locality  of  the  subspecies  harrisoni  is  Um- 
pata  in  the  Mossamedes  district. 

Economic  status. — "The  coat  is  very  handsome,  and  ...  its  skin 
is  more  sought  after  [than  that  of  the  hyenas]  by  some  of  the  native 
tribes — notably  the  Bechuanas,  who  hunt  and  trap  it  systematically" 
(Bryden,  1899,  p.  599). 

"Sparrman  and  other  authors  who  have  examined  the  stomachs 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:  CARNIVORES 


253 


of  these  animals,  found  that  they  contain  nothing  but  termites  or 
white  ants;  this  is  further  confirmed  by  Mr.  Cloete,  who  writes  that 
he  has  examined  the  stomachs  of  more  than  fifty,  and  never  found 
any  trace  of  anything  else  than  a  purely  insectivorous  diet,  ants 
being  the  chief  constituent."  However,  farmers  report  that  this 
species  kills  kids  and  lambs  merely  for  the  sake  of  the  milk  con- 
tained in  their  stomachs.  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  82.) 

The  food  consists  of  insects — particularly  termites,  locusts,  beetles, 
and  grubs.  The  animal  has  been  accused  of  killing  lambs  and  kids, 


Fie.  27. — Aard-wolf   (Proteles  cristatus  subsp.) 

but  evidently  without  justification  and  through  confusion  with  the 
Jackal.  Its  weak  dentition  is  sufficient  evidence  of  its  harmlessness 
in  respect  to  livestock.  Yet,  despite  its  inoffensive  nature  and  the 
distinct  service  it  performs  in  destroying  such  agricultural  pests  as 
termites,  it  was,  in  former  years,  officially  listed  by  several  govern- 
ments as  "harmful,"  and  a  bounty  of  half  a  pound  sterling  was  paid 
in  the  Cape  Province  for  each  Aard-wolf  killed.  (Derscheid,  1925, 
P.  [78].) 

It  feeds  to  some  extent  on  "small  rodents,  reptiles,  and  the  nest- 
lings and  eggs  of  ground-nesting  birds"  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  1, 
p.  151). 

In  South  Africa  generally  it  is  subjected  to  a  great  deal  of  irre- 
sponsible persecution,  and  is  becoming  scarce  in  farming  and  other 
settled  districts.  However,  it  is  in  no  immediate  danger  of  actual 
extermination.  (G.  C.  Shortridge,  in  litt.,  October  14,  1937.) 


254  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Although  normally  the  animal  has  no  unpleasant  odor,  it  is  able 
to  eject  an  evil-smelling  fluid  from  its  anal  glands  as  a  defense 
against  such  enemies  as  dogs. 

Family  FELIDAE:   Cats 

This  family  is  nearly  cosmopolitan,  but  it  does  not  occur  natur- 
ally in  Greenland,  the  eastern  Malay  Archipelago,  or  Australasia. 
Twenty  or  more  genera  are  recognized  by  some  authorities,  and 
there  are  probably  more  than  250  forms.  Dr.  Allen  discusses  12 
North  American  forms  in  the  preceding  volume  (1942),  while  27 
Old  World  forms  are  dealt  with  in  the  following  pages.  Man's 
prejudice  against  some  of  the  larger  members  of  the  cat  family 
(such  as  Lions,  Tigers,  Leopards,  and  Cougars)  is  linked  with  his 
necessary  efforts  to  defend  himself  or  his  livestock  from  their  attacks. 

Fossa 

CRYPTOPROCTA  FEROX  Bennett 

Cryptoprocta  jerox  Bennett,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1833,  p.  46,  1833.  ("Mada- 
gascar.") 

FIGS.:  Bennett,  1834,  pi.  21;  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  suppl.  vol.  2,  pi.  125CC, 
1841;  Schlegel  and  Pollen,  1868,  pi.  8;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1895,  pi. 
26;  Beddard,  1902,  p.  405,  fig.  199;  Elliot,  1907,  p.  397,  fig.  43;  Kaudern, 
1915,  pi.  3,  fig.  2;  Sibree,  1915,  pi.  facing  p.  302;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  760,  fig. 

This  largest  carnivore  of  Madagascar  occurs  in  limited  numbers 
and  will  probably  require  protection  if  it  is  to  survive  in  the 
dwindling  forests  of  that  great  island.  It  is  an  endemic  species. 

Since  Bennett's  type  specimen  was  distinctly  immature,  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  an  adult  male  is  derived  from  Schlegel  and 
Pollen  (1868,  pp.  13-14).  Hairs  of  upper  parts  ringed  with  brown 
and  pale  reddish  yellow;  lower  parts  of  head  and  body  uniform 
reddish  yellow,  taking  on  a  strong  rusty  tint  toward  the  middle  of 
the  venter.  Total  length,  56  inches;  tail,  26  inches. 

Bennett  (1834,  p.  140)  quotes  Charles  Telfair  as  follows:  "It  is 
the  most  savage  creature  of  its  size  I  ever  met  with:  its  motions 
and  power  and  activity  were  those  of  a  tiger:  and  it  had  the 
same  appetites  for  blood  and  destruction  of  animal  life." 

Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier  write  (1867,  p.  317)  that  it  occurs 
rather  commonly  on  the  west  coast,  from  the  River  Mangouke 
[Mangoky]  northward.  Three  specimens  were  secured  between 
Morondava  and  Manharrive  [Maharivo?].  The  animal  often  carries 
off  goats  and  especially  kids. 

This  animal  is  very  carnivorous  and  is  endowed  with  great 
strength.  It  is  dangerous  to  man  only  when  wounded  or  in  rut. 
At  other  times  "it  steadily  flees  from  man.  At  the  mating  season 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  255 

it  is  often  seen  in  bands  of  four  to  eight  individuals.  It  is  said  to  be 
fond  of  lemurs  and  to  pursue  them  in  trees.  It  is  also  destructive 
to  poultry,  young  pigs,  and  other  domestic  animals.  The  natives 
really  fear  this  species,  but  they  enjoy  its  flesh.  (Schlegel  and 
Pollen,  1868,  pp.  15-16.) 

According  to  Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier  (1875a,  p.  341,  foot- 
note) ,  this  is  the  only  native  animal  of  Madagascar  that  the  Saka- 
lava  (a  western  tribe)  have  been  able  sometimes,  but  very  rarely, 
to  train  for  hunting  the  Wild  Hog  (Potamochoerus  larvatus) . 

Kaudern  states  (1915,  pp.  79-80)  that  Cryptoprocta  appears  to 
be  distributed  over  the  entire  island  and  that  it  is  probably  nowhere 


FIG.  28. — Fossa    (Cryptoprocta  jerox).    After  photo   in  Brehm. 

rare.  In  northwestern  Madagascar  it  was  very  common.  He  saw 
the  animal  three  times  in  the  wild  at  Ste.  Marie  de  Marovoay  on 
the  Betsiboka  River,  and  its  tracks  were  observed  everywhere  in 
the  sand.  One  was  killed  there  in  a  poultry  yard.  Another  was 
secured  at  Katsepe  on  the  Bay  of  Bombetoke,  and  two  live  young 
ones  were  brought  in  by  natives  at  Andranolava,  in  north  central 
Madagascar.  Black  individuals  are  reported  from  the  interior  and 
from  the  great  rain  forests  on  the  east  coast. 

According  to  Sibree  (1915,  pp.  302-303),  the  northwest  coast  is 
the  animal's  "special  habitat.  This  creature  is  called  by  the  people, 
Fosa  .  .  .  ,  and  although  small  is  very  ferocious  ....  Examples 
of  the  fosa  have  been  seen  in  the  outskirts  of  the  upper  belt  of  forest 
on  the  east  side  of  the  island  ....  A  specimen  I  once  saw  was  of  a 
beautiful  black  colour,  but  I  believe  this  was  only  a  variety,  and 
not  a  distinct  species  from  the  brown  animal.  The  fosa  is  much 
dreaded  by  the  Malagasy,  and,  from  its  mode  of  attack,  appears  to 
be  like  an  immense  weasel,  attacking  large  animals,  such  as  the 
wild  boar  and  even  oxen." 

G.  M.  Allen  (1918,  p.  514)  records  a  specimen  from  the  vicinity 
of  Tulear. 


256  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING  MAMMALS 

Petit  (1931,  p.  588)  records  a  female  and  its  three  young  ones 
captured  in  1922  in  the  region  of  Tamatave,  and  two  young  ones 
taken  in  the  region  of  Fenerive  on  the  east  coast. 

The  Mission  Zoologique  Franco-Anglo-Americaine  of  1929-1931 
secured  6  specimens  of  this  species,  as  compared  with  13  specimens 
of  Fossa  jossa  (Delacour,  1932,  p.  220). 

Rand  (1935,  pp.  93-94)  says: 

The  fossa  inhabits  the  rain  forest  of  the  east  and  the  dryer  forest  of  the 
west  at  least  as  far  south  as  Tabiky  [inland  from  Cape  St.  Vincent],  and  was 
well  known  to  the  natives.  [Two  were  seen  near  Tsarakibany  and  Maromandia 
during  the  daytime,  though  the  natives  said  it  was  nocturnal.]  This  viverrid 
was  much  disliked  by  the  natives  because  of  its  raids  on  their  fowls.  Twice 
I  saw  fossa  skins  in  the  possession  of  natives,  but  this  was  probably  due  to 
European  influence  as  the  natives  rarely  use  mammal  skins  for  any  purpose. 
One  large  fossa  was  brought  to  me  that  had  been  run  down  with  dogs  and 
speared.  From  the  natives  we  heard  no  accounts  of  its  attacking  sheep  or 
young  cattle  and  its  reputation  in  literature  for  ferocity  and  the  fear  with 
which  it  is  regarded  by  the  natives  is  exaggeration.  My  gun  boy  had  a 
particular  antipathy  for  it  because,  he  said,  in  his  country  near  Vondrozo, 
where  the  dead  are  walled  up  in  caves,  the  fossa  sometimes  dug  out  the 
corpses  and  fed  on  them.  The  natives  universally  called  it  "fossa." 

European  Wildcat.  Chat  sauvage  (Fr.).  Wildkatze  (Ger.). 
Gato  monies;  Gato  salvage  (Sp.)»  Gatto  selvatico  (It.) 

FELIS  SILVESTRIS  SILVESTRIS  Schreber 

Felis  (Catus)  silvestris  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  vol.  3,  p.  397,  pis.  107A,  107  Aa, 
1777.  (Germany.) 

FIGS.:  Gervais,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif.,  pt.  2,  pi.  17,  1855;  Blasius,  1857,  p.  162, 
fig.  101;  Elliot,  1883,  pi.  30;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  pi.  facing  p.  422, 
1893-94;  Hamilton,  1896,  frontisp.;  Martin,  1910,  pi.  27;  Cabrera,  1914, 
pi.  9,  fig.  1;  Zeitschr.  f.  Saugetierk.,  vol.  7,  pi.  7,  fig.  7,  1932;  Colosi,  1933, 
p.  55,  fig.;  Didier  and  Rode,  1935,  p.  283,  fig.  163;  Schmidt,  1938,  pi.  5. 

The  typical  European  Wildcat  shows  a  very  general  and  marked 
recession  in  France  and  central  Europe,  amounting  to  extirpation 
in  many  parts  of  its  former  range.  Apparently  its  chief  remaining 
stronghold  is  in  the  Balkan  countries. 

More  definite  light  is  needed  on  the  question  as  to  whether  inter- 
breeding with  feral  Domestic  Cats  takes  place  at  all  or  on  a 
sufficient  scale  to  menace  the  Wildcat's  survival  as  a  pure-bred 
species.  Fatio  states  (1869,  p.  276)  that  hybrids  are  sometimes 
met  with  in  Switzerland,  and  that  he  has  examined  a  number  of 
specimens;  the  pelage,  he  adds,  is  often  spotted  with  white.  Ferrant 
(1931,  p.  62),  in  discussing  the  Wildcat  in  Luxembourg,  says  that  it 
mates  frequently  with  feral  Domestic  Cats.  Prof.  M.  Hirtz  refers 
(in  litt.,  December,  1936)  to  hybrids  in  Yugoslavia,  and  the  National 
Council  for  Nature  Protection  does  likewise  (in  litt.,  October,  1936) 
in  Poland.  On  the  other  hand,  Pocock  (1907,  pp.  165-166)  is  rather 
skeptical  in  regard  to  the  alleged  interbreeding. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  257 

Hamilton  speaks  rather  emphatically  in  his  monograph  (1896, 
p.  iv) :  "On  a  careful  examination  of  a  number  of  examples  of  the 
Wild  Cat  of  the  present  time  I  found  many  indications  of  a  mixture 
of  the  two  races. 

"It  would  seem  as  if  the  original  Wild  Cat,  as  it  existed  in  the 
olden  days,  has  been  almost  exterminated  throughout  Europe,  and 
that  its  place  has  been  taken  by  a  mongrel  race,  the  result  of  con- 
tinual interbreeding  during  many  centuries  (2000  years)  of  the 
Wild  and  the  imported  Domestic  Cat." 

The  Wildcat  is  slightly  larger  than  the  Domestic  Cat;  fur  longer, 
this  being  especially  noticeable  in  the  tail ;  general  color  approaching 
the  smoke  gray  of  Ridgway;  dark  markings  on  sides  and  legs  tend- 
ing to  be  faint,  brownish,  and  ill-defined;  tail,  abruptly  rounded 
at  the  black  tip,  with  two  to  four  more  or  less  complete  black  rings ; 
tip  of  ear  slightly  blackish.  Head  and  body,  481-545  mm.;  tail, 
309-310  mm.  (Miller,  1912,  pp.  457-463.)  Head  and  body,  450- 
700  mm.;  tail,  200-300  mm.  (Didier  and  Rode,  1935,  p.  284). 

The  typical  subspecies  ranges  from  northern  Spain,  France,  and 
northern  Germany  eastward  to  Poland  and  Russia,  and  southward 
to  Italy  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula. 

In  Spain  it  inhabits  the  Pyrenean,  Cantabrian,  and  north  central 
districts,  and  it  may  extend  to  northern  Portugal.  Probably  the 
Douro  and  the  Ebro  constitute  its  southern  limits.  (Cabrera,  1914, 
p.  204.)  "Curiously  enough  there  is  no  specimen  in  the  Museums 
of  Ponferrada,  Lugo,  and  Santiago.  I  was  left  in  doubt  as  to  whether 
the  wild  cat  occurs  in  the  Sierra  de  Picos,  in  Galicia,  or  in  the  Picos 
de  Europa."  (Gadow,  1897,  p.  367.) 

In  France,  where  it  was  formerly  very  common,  the  Wildcat  is 
at  present  in  the  process  of  disappearing,  but  may  still  be  met  with 
in  certain  regions,  such  as  the  Ardennes,  the  Forest  of  Orleans,  the 
Pyrenees-Orientales,  and  the  Forest  of  Carnelle.  It  preys  upon 
rabbits,  hares,  squirrels,  rats,  young  Roebucks  and  Wild  Boars, 
grouse,  partridges,  and  pheasants,  and  even  eats  fishes.  It  is  a  very 
injurious  animal,  which  one  need  not  hesitate  to  destroy.  (Didier 
and  Rode,  1935,  p.  287.) 

Hunting  has  contributed  in  part  to  its  depletion  in  France,  but 
does  not  explain  this  altogether.  The  species  is  very  much  in  danger, 
and  we  do  not  think  that  protective  measures  can  be  effective.  (E. 
Bourdelle,  in  litt.,  March  6,  1937.) 

In  Belgium  the  species  has  become  very  rare,  but  still  exists  in 
some  forests  in  the  Province  of  Luxembourg.  It  is  systematically 
destroyed  as  an  injurious  animal,  while  another  cause  of  depletion 
is  deforestation.  Total  protection  ought  to  be  adopted.  (Musee 
Royale  d'Histoire  Naturelle  de  Belgique,  in  litt.,  September,  1936.) 


258  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

In  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxembourg  the  Wildcat  is  rather  com- 
mon in  the  extensive  forests  of  the  Ardennes,  in  the  environs  of 
Echternach,  Grevenmacher,  Manternach,  and  Fischbach,  in  the 
Grunewald,  etc.  (Ferrant,  1931,  p.  61). 

In  The  Netherlands  the  species  was  long  since  exterminated  (Van 
den  Brink,  1931,  p.  174). 

In  Germany  the  Wildcat  has  survived  better  than  the  larger 
carnivores;  it  occurs  in  very  small  numbers  in  the  Bavarian  moun- 
tains, the  Black  Forest,  the  Odenwald,  and  the  Riesengebirge.  From 
1850  to  1860  ten  animals  were  killed  in  Gotha;  in  1885-86,  two  in 
Silesia;  in  1928  an  unquestionably  pure-blooded  male  was  taken  in 
the  Harz  Mountains,  and  in  the  same  year  a  male  in  the  Kurische 
Nehrung.  (Krumbiegel,  1930,  pp.  5-6.)  The  Wildcat  is  still  regu- 
larly observed  in  the  Eifel,  in  the  Moselle  Mountains,  and  in  the 
Hunsriick,  and  there  is  one  from  the  Pfalz  in  the  Koln  Zoological 
Garden  (Hauchecorne,  Zeitschr.  f.  Saugetierk.,  vol.  9,  p.  4,  1934). 
The  animal  is  almost  exterminated  in  Germany,  and  is  protected 
as  a  natural  monument  (Internationale  Gesellschaft  zur  Erhaltung 
des  Wisents,  in  litt.,  October,  1936) . 

In  Denmark  bones  of  the  Wildcat  have  been  found  in  kitchen 
middens,  but  there  is  no  record  within  historical  times  (Winge, 
1908,  p.  116). 

In  Switzerland  it  appears  to  have  been  abundant  in  the  sixteenth 
century  and  was  then  the  object  of  much  hunting;  but  it  had 
become  rare  by  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  the 
1860's  some  were  killed  each  year  in  the  Alps  and  the  Jura,  and  a 
few  were  still  found  in  the  cantons  of  Bern,  Lucerne,  Unterwalden, 
Uri,  Schwyz,  Glarus,  Thiirgau,  and  Valais.  The  most  were  found  in 
the  Jura  region,  from  Geneva  to  Basle.  The  species  seemed  to  have 
disappeared  from  Ticino.  (Fatio,  1869,  p.  275.)  During  the  last 
decades  it  has  become  very  rare  and  is  probably  extinct,  although 
it  is  possible  that  a  few  survive  in  the  forests  of  the  Alps  and  the 
western  Jura  (Federal  Forest,  Game,  and  Fish  Inspection,  Bern, 
in-  litt.,  March,  1937) . 

Wildcats  have  almost  disappeared  from  northern  Italy,  and  are 
rare  everywhere  except  in  the  Maremma,  in  the  southern  provinces 
of  Gargano,  and  in  Calabria  (Colosi,  1933,  p.  56).  [The  animal  of 
the  Tuscan  Maremma  is  regarded  by  Martorelli  (1896,  p.  266)  as 
identical  with  the  Sardinian  Wildcat  (Felis  sarda).]  The  Wildcat 
still  occurs  in  the  Sila  Mountains  of  Calabria  (Hecht,  1932,  p.  23). 
According  to  the  Laboratorio  di  Zoologia  Applicata  a  Caccia  (in 
litt.,  September,  1936) ,  the  animal  is  scattered  through  Sicily  as  well 
as  the  Italian  Peninsula ;  in  legislation  it  is  rated  as  a  harmful  species. 

In  former  times  it  was  probably  found  everywhere  in  Austria. 
It  is  now  exterminated  in  Burgenland  but  is  said  to  survive  in 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  259 

Rosenbachtal  in  Carinthia.  In  1926  two  specimens  were  killed  in 
the  district  of  Volkermarkt,  Carinthia.  In  Lower  Austria  the  last 
one  was  killed  in  1912.  The  species  is  no  longer  found  in  Salzburg. 
In  the  Tyrol  26  specimens  are  said  to  have  been  shot  in  1876.  By 
1888  it  was  almost  exterminated  in  northern  Tyrol,  but  was  con- 
sidered more  frequent  in  southern  Tyrol.  In  Vorarlberg  it  was 
reported  as  late  as  1918,  but  has  now  disappeared.  (G.  Schlesinger, 
in  Hit.,  March,  1937.) 

Within  the  boundaries  of  the  present  Hungary  it  was  common 
before  World  War  I,  but  is  now  decreasing.  It  has  no  legal  pro- 
tection. It  is  also  found  in  the  northern  part  of  the  former  Hungary 
(now  Czechoslovakia) ,  but  not  together  with  the  Lynx.  ( J.  Schenk, 
in  Hit.,  November,  1936.) 

In  comparison  with  its  status  in  most  other  parts  of  Europe, 
the  Wildcat  is  comparatively  common  in  Yugoslavia.  Considerable 
numbers  are  found  only  in  certain  regions,  and  especially  in  the 
enormous  oak  forests  of  Slavonia.  The  statistics  are  uncertain, 
since  they  probably  include  hybrids  and  feral  Domestic  Cats.  The 
reported  annual  kill  from  1891  to  1921  was  about  500  to  1,000 
specimens,  reaching  a  maximum  of  1,207  in  1904.  The  minimum 
kills  were  420  in  1918  and  331  in  1931.  These  figures  pertain  chiefly 
to  Croatia  and  Slavonia.  (M.  Hirtz,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.)  In 
northwestern  Croatia  the  animal  is  rare  near  Jasenak  and  near 
Otocac  (Wettstein,  1928,  p.  35). 

Lord  Lilford  wrote  of  frequently  meeting  with  Wildcats  in  the 
Province  of  Epirus,  near  the  boundary  between  Albania  and  Greece 
(Hamilton,  1896,  p.  35). 

The  Wildcat  is  found  throughout  Greece  except  on  the  islands. 
A  decrease  has  been  observed,  but  there  is  no  danger  of  extermina- 
tion. (Game  Department,  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Greece,  in  litt., 
October,  1936.)  (The  Wildcat  of  the  Peloponnesus  is  discussed  on 
a  subsequent  page,  under  the  name  of  Felis  silvestris  morea.) 

Turkey  is  included  in  the  range  by  Blasius  (1857,  p.  166). 

In  Bulgaria  the  Wildcat  occurs  in  considerable  numbers  and  is 
in  no  danger  of  extermination.  The  skins  are  marketed  locally. 
(Bulgarian  Game  Association  "Sokol,"  in  litt.,  February,  1937.) 
H.  W.  Shoemaker  (in  litt.,  June  30,  1932)  is  of  the  opinion  that 
the  Wildcats  in  this  country  are  being  rapidly  destroyed. 

The  species  is  common  in  Rumania,  occurring  in  nearly  all  forests 
of  greater  or  lesser  altitude;  it  is  also  frequently  found  in  the 
lowland  forests  (District  of  Ilfoo)  and  in  the  flood  lands  of  the 
Danube  (Calinescu,  1930,  p.  366). 

In  Poland  it  occurred  formerly  from  the  Carpathians  to  the 
Baltic  but  is  now  met  with  chiefly  in  the  eastern  Carpathians;  it 
is  also  found  in  the  forests  along  the  Dniester  (Zurawno,  Stanis- 


260  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

lawow)  and  in  Podolia.  It  is  nowhere  common  (Niezabitowski, 
1934,  pp.  190-191).  By  1936  the  species  was  considered  restricted 
to  the  Carpathians,  where  its  numbers  are  roughly  estimated  at  300. 
It  is  protected  from  February  1  to  September  30.  (M.  Siedlecki 
and  National  Council  for  Nature  Protection,  Poland,  in  litt.,  October, 
1936.)  The  proposed  International  Tatra  Park  and  the  proposed 
International  Park  of  Poland,  Czechoslovakia,  and  Rumania  will,  it 
is  hoped,  provide  absolute  protection  for  the  Wildcat  and  other 
species  (Benedyct  Fulinski,  MS.,  1933). 

The  following  summary  of  the  Wildcat's  status  in  Russia  is  de- 
rived from  Ognev  (Ogneff,  1930,  pp.  55-58) .  The  information  is  frag- 
mentary and  suffers  from  lack  of  material.  Pallas  (1811-1831)  de- 
nied the  animal's  existence  throughout  Russia  except  in  the  Caucasus. 
Georgi  (1800)  reported  it  in  the  southwestern  governments,  on  the 
Dniester,  and  in  the  central  Urals  (Bashkiri).  Brandt  (1853)  be- 
lieved in  an  early,  much  wider  distribution,  as  far  as  the  central  gov- 
ernments and  perhaps  to  the  Urals.  Kessler  (1856, 1858)  records  the 
Wildcat  in  Volhynia  and  Podolia.  In  1854  it  was  reported  in  the 
Governments  of  Grodno,  Vitebsk,  and  Kovno.  Sabaneeff  (1878) 
considered  the  Government  of  Minsk  the  center  of  its  distribution 
in  western  Russia.  According  to  Charlemagne  (1920),  it  is  now 
very  rare  in  Volhynia  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Odessa  and  Tiraspol 
(Government  of  Kherson).  Old  reports  from  central  and  northern 
Russia  in  the  latter  part  of  the  past  century  may  have  been  based 
upon  feral  Domestic  Cats.  The  question  as  to  whether  the  Wildcat 
ever  occurred  in  the  Urals  is  unsolved. 

On  the  subject  of  general  depletion  Elliot  comments  (1883,  text 
to  pi.  30) :  "Various  are  the  causes  that  have  effected  this ;  probably 
the  chief  one  is  the  constant  persecution  to  which  the  animal  has 
been  subjected,  as  this  species  has  but  few  friends,  and  no  quarter 
is  shown  when  it  is  met  with  in  the  forest." 

Hamilton  (1896,  pp.  31, 95)  remarks  on  the  spread  of  the  Domestic 
Cat  with  the  increase  of  the  human  population,  and  the  resulting 
interbreeding  with  the  Wildcat,  as  possibly  a  chief  factor  in  the 
disappearance  of  the  pure-bred  wild  animal  in  Europe  generally. 

British  Wildcat 

FELIS  SILVESTRIS  GRAMPIA  Miller 

Felis  grampia  Miller,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  7,  vol.  20,  p.  396,   1907. 

("Invermoriston  District,  Inverness,  Scotland.") 
Fios.:    Millais,  1904,  pis.  facing  pp.  166,  170,  172,  174,  178;   Pocock,  1937, 

p.  777,  fig. 

The  British  Wildcat  formerly  occurred  throughout  Great  Britain 
but  is  now  restricted  to  the  wilder  portions  of  Scotland  (Miller, 
1912,  p.  464). 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  261 

It  is  like  Felis  silvestris  silvestris  of  continental  Europe,  but  the 
general  color  is  darker,  approaching  broccoli-brown;  dark  markings 
on  sides  and  legs  tending  to  be  extensive,  blackish,  and  well  defined ; 
upper  side  of  feet  and  inner  surface  of  hind  legs  ochraceous-buff, 
under  side  of  body  duller;  intercrural  and  pectoral  white  areas  well 
defined;  middle  of  chest  mottled  with  black;  dark  markings  on  tail, 
legs,  and  upper  parts  similar  to,  but  more  definite  than,  those  of 
F.  s.  silvestris  (Miller,  1912,  p.  464).  Males:  head  and  body,  558- 
660  mm. ;  tail,  280-355  mm.  Females  slightly  smaller.  (Millais,  1904, 
p.  170.) 

The  following  account  is  condensed  from  Millais  (1904,  pp.  170- 
180) .  It  is  not  known  when  the  Wildcat  became  extinct  in  southern 
and  central  England,  but  it  probably  lingered  until  the  forests  were 
cleared.  In  Wales  it  may  have  survived  till  about  the  end  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Approximate  dates  of  last  records  in  England 
are:  Yorkshire,  1840;  Lake  District,  1843.  In  churchwardens'  ac- 
counts and  other  records  there  is  mention  of  bounties  paid  for  Wild- 
cats in  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  eighteenth,  and  even  nineteenth 
centuries. 

Last  dates  in  certain  counties  of  Scotland  are:  Berwickshire, 
1849;  Dumfriesshire,  Wigtown,  and  Kirkcudbright,  about  1832; 
Dumbarton,  1857;  Perthshire,  1870-71;  Aberdeenshire,  1891;  Forfar, 
Kincardine,  Banff,  Elgin,  and  Nairn,  practically  extinct  since  1850. 
"Northern  and  western  Inverness  is,  with  western  Ross-shire,  the 
main  stronghold  of  the  Wild  Cat  to-day."  Up  to  1904  William 
Macleay,  of  Inverness,  annually  received  eight  or  ten  specimens, 
chiefly  from  Glenmoriston  and  Balmacaan,  west  of  Loch  Ness.  "In 
Sutherland  the  Duke  of  Sutherland  does  not  allow  the  slaughter  of 
Wild  Cats  to  take  place,"  and  the  animals  are  on  the  increase  in 
certain  parts.  In  Caithness  the  species  was  never  common  but  was 
reported  as  occasional  until  1845,  and  it  evidently  survived  to  a 
somewhat  later  date. 

The  Wildcat's  prey  includes  poultry,  lambs,  and  roe  fawns.  But 
since  it  keeps  down  certain  animals — such  as  grouse,  hares,  and 
rabbits — that  are  considered  undesirable  in  deer  forests,  it  receives 
protection  from  the  sportsmen  who  control  these  forests. 

According  to  the  minutes  of  a  meeting  of  the  Society  for  the 
Preservation  of  the  Fauna  of  the  Empire  in  October,  1922,  "a  cir- 
cular to  owners  and  tenants  of  deer  forests  in  Scotland,  asking  them 
to  protect  wild  cats  and  martens,  had  been  well  received."  Several 
years  later  it  is  reported  that  "we  get  very  gratifying  reports  in 
regard  to  the  preservation  by  land  owners  of  wild  cats  and  pole  cats" 
(Onslow,  1929,  p.  7). 

"Mr.  N.  B.  Kinnear  remarked  that  the  wild  cat  was  now  not  rare 
in  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  a  good  account  of  its  increase  and 


262  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

spread  was  given  by  the  late  Mr.  J.  G.  Millais  in  'The  Times'  of  26 
October  1926.  According  to  that  article  the  wild  cat  reappeared  in 
Inverness-shire,  from  north  of  the  Caledonian  Canal,  about  1912 
and,  after  becoming  established  round  Lochs  Ericht  and  Laggan, 
spread  farther  south  into  Perthshire,  where  one  was  killed  at 
Murthly,  twelve  miles  from  Perth,  in  1925. 

"Mr.  Kinnear  further  stated  that  owing  to  the  increase  of  tree 
planting  the  safety  of  the  wild  cat  appeared  to  be  assured,  as  it  had 
taken  to  the  young  plantations  on  account  of  the  rabbits  and,  where 
the  plantations  were  under  the  charge  of  the  Forestry  Commission, 
the  cats  were  encouraged,  as  they  helped  to  keep  down  the  rabbits." 
(Kinnear,  1934,  p.  68.) 

"The  War  granted  a  respite  to  the  Carnivora,  and  the  Wild  Cat, 
which  but  for  that  event  would  probably  have  been  exterminated  by 
now,  increased  in  numbers.  But  now  the  persecution  of  this  animal 
and  other  carnivores  is  in  full  swing  again;  and  apart  from  a  slight 
possibility  of  help  coming  from  the  third  cause  of  change,  dealt 
with  below  [planting  of  thousands  of  acres  in  the  Highlands  with 
conifers],  it  is  probable  that  the  Wild  Cat  will  be  brought  to  the 
verge  of  extinction  again  before  long."  (Hinton,  1935,  pp.  33-34.) 

Peloponnesian  Wildcat 

FELLS  SILVESTRIS  MOREA  Trouessart 

[Felis  catus]  morea  Trouessart,  Cat.  Mamm.,  quinq.  suppl.,  fasc.  1,  p.  273, 
1904.  (Based  upon  the  "Felis  catus  ferus  L.  var.  e  Morea"  of  Reichenbach, 
Vollstandigste  Naturgeschichte,  Raubsaugethiere,  p.  362,  1852,  ex  Bory 
de  Saint-Vincent,  Exped.  Sci.  Moree,  atlas,  ser.  3,  zool.,  pi.  1,  A,  1833; 
type  locality,  as  restricted  by  Harper  (1940,  p.  194),  "above  Dragomanou, 
near  Mt.  Diaphorti,  west  central  Morea  (Peloponnesus),  Greece.") 

FIGS.:  Bory  de  Saint-Vincent,  Exped.  Sci.  Moree,  atlas,  ser.  3,  zool.,  pi.  1,  A, 
1833;  Reichenbach,  Praktisch-gemeinniitzige  Naturgeschichte,  Kupfer- 
sammlung,  pt.  1,  Raubsaugthiere,  pi.  80,  fig.  639,  1837(?). 

This  form  of  southern  Greece,  while  evidently  less  common  than 
formerly,  does  not  seem  to  be  threatened  with  extinction  and  is 
included  here  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  rounding  out  the  picture 
of  the  European  Wildcats. 

It  differs  from  F.  s.  silvestris  in  its  generally  isabelline  coloration, 
in  the  absence  of  distinct  stripes  on  the  sides,  and  in  having  the 
black  rings  on  the  tail  straight  and  clearly  defined;  lateral  stripes 
replaced  by  irregular  brownish-rufous  marblings;  feet  unspotted 
(Trouessart,  1910,  p.  100). 

Bory  de  Saint-Vincent  states  (1836,  vol.  1,  p.  396)  that  among 
the  oak-dotted  pastures  of  the  type  locality  near  Mount  Diaphorti 
the  Wildcats  occur  in  larger  numbers  than  elsewhere.  Here  he 
collected  the  type  specimen  from  the  high  branches  of  an  oak. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  263 

According  to  Geoffrey  (in  Bory  de  Saint-Vincent,  1833,  vol.  3, 
pt.  1,  zool.,  p.  13),  the  animal  is  very  common  in  certain  mountain- 
ous parts  of  Arcadia,  especially  in  the  Canton  of  Karytaena  and  on 
the  slopes  of  Mount  Diaphorti.  It  is  destructive  to  poultry,  small 
birds  and  mammals,  and  partridges. 

The  Game  Department,  Greek  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  reports 
(in  litt.,  October,  1936)  a  general  decrease  in  the  numbers  of  Wild- 
cats in  Greece. 

[The  Spanish  Wildcat  (Felis  silvestris  tartessia *)  inhabits  the 
Iberian  Peninsula  south  of  the  Douro  and  the  Ebro,  and  still 
abounds  in  the  wilder  parts.  While  interbreeding  with  feral  Domestic 
Cats  probably  takes  place,  no  evidence  of  it  has  been  found.  (Ca- 
brera, 1914,  pp.  205-206.) 

The  Caucasian  Wildcat  (Felis  silvestris  Caucasians  2)  occurs  in 
all  the  mountain  forests  and  in  the  greater  part  of  the  forested 
lowlands  of  the  Caucasus  region.  It  is  generally  reported  as  very 
common.  (Ognev,  1930,  p.  58.)  ] 

Cretan  Wildcat.  Chat  sauvage  de  Crete   (Fr.) 

FELIS  AGRIUS  Bate 

Felis  ocreata  agrius  Bate,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1905,  pt.  2,  p.  317,  1906. 
(Type  skin  bought  in  the  bazaar  at  Khania,  Crete.) 

This  species,  which  is  confined  to  the  island  of  Crete,  may  be  in 
danger  of  extinction  by  "dilution,"  consisting  in  this  case  of  inter- 
breeding with  feral  Domestic  Cats. 

The  general  color  is  yellowish  gray;  no  black  markings  on  body 
or  legs,  but  indications  of  brownish  shoulder  stripes  and  dorsal 
stripe ;  tail  with  black  tip  and  two  or  three  black  subterminal  rings ; 
ear  blackish  at  tip  (Miller,  1912,  p.  470) . 

Raulin  (1869,  p.  1033)  records  the  species  from  the  woods  of  the 
lower  zones. 

"Hybrids  between  F.  o.  agrius  and  the  domestic  cat  of  the  island 
appear  to  be  not  uncommon,  and  this  can  easily  be  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  that  formerly  small  villages  were  often  totally  deserted 
for  a  considerable  time,  or  possibly  entirely,  during  the  insurrections 
which  occur  so  frequently  in  Crete,  when  the  cats,  as  well  as  the 
villagers,  are  forced  to  take  to  a  life  in  the  hills.  Skins  of  these 
hybrids,  which  are  generally  of  large  size  like  the  true  wild  race, 
may  often  be  seen  hanging  up  in  the  bazaars  at  Khania  and  Candia." 
(Bate,  1906,  p.  318.) 

^  Felis  tartessia  Miller,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  7,  vol.  20,  p.  397,  1907. 
("Coto  Donana,  near  Jerez  de  la  Frontera,  [Huelva,]  Spain.") 

2  Felis  catus  caucasicus  Satunin,  Mitteil.  Kaukas.  Mus.,  vol.  2,  pts.  2-4,  pp. 
154  (Russian)  and  316  (German),  1906.  (Caucasus  region.) 


264  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING  MAMMALS 

The  same  author  (in  Trevor-Batty e,  1913,  p.  255)  refers  to  the 
Cretan  Wildcat  as  "not  uncommon  in  the  island." 

The  Game  Division,  Forestry  Department,  Greek  Ministry  of 
Agriculture,  seems  to  consider  (in  Hit.,  March,  1937)  that  this  animal 
is  derived  from  Domestic  Cats  which  the  inhabitants  left  when  they 
had  to  flee  during  the  war  of  independence,  and  also  from  those 
left  by  the  departing  Turks  when  the  exchange  of  populations  took 
place  after  1922. 

It  may  be  added  that  Pocock  (1907,  pp.  151,  160)  evidently 
believes  that  the  type  specimen  was  a  Domestic  Cat  or  a  feral  repre- 
sentative of  one. 

Cor  si  can  Wildcat.    Chat  sauvage  de  Corse  (Fr.) 

FELIS  BEYI  Lavauden 

Felis  reyi  Lavauden,  C.  R.  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris],  vol.  189,  p.  1023,  1929.   ("Foret 
d'Aunes  des  bords  de  la  lagune  de  Biguglia  (Sud  de  Bastia),"  Corsica.) 

This  Wildcat  is  included  because  of  its  interest  as  an  insular  form 
and  because  of  the  generally  uncertain  future  of  the  Wildcats  of 
Europe,  rather  than  on  account  of  any  definitely  recorded  decrease. 

It  is  smaller  than  Felis  silvestris  silvestris;  pelage  very  dark,  with 
a  darker,  rather  indistinct  dorsal  stripe;  hind  feet  with  black  marks 
like  those  of  African  Wildcats;  back  of  the  ear  dark  brown.  Head 
and  body,  580  mm. ;  tail,  270  mm.  Weight,  2  kg.  (small  females)  to 
5  kg.  (large  males).  (Lavauden,  1929,  pp.  1023-1024.) 

No  Wildcat  had  been  recorded  from  Corsica  before  1929,  and 
only  three  specimens  have  been  studied  so  far,  but  the  species  is 
not  extremely  rare.  It  is  found  throughout  Corsica — in  the  high 
mountains,  the  forests,  the  thickets  of  the  hills,  and  the  shrubbery 
of  the  plains.  The  Corsican  hunters  do  not  bother  to  seek  the  animal 
because  of  the  low  value  of  its  fur.  (Lavauden,  1929,  p.  1024.) 

Sardinian  Wildcat.    Chat  sauvage  de  Sardaigne   (Fr.).    Gatto 
selvatico  di  Sardegna  (It.) 

FELIS  SARDA  Lataste 

[Felis  libyca]  var.  sarda  Lataste,  Act.  Soc.  Linn.  Bordeaux,  vol.  39,  p.  231, 

1885.    ("Sarrabus  (Sardaigne).") 
FIGS.:    Martorelli,  1896,  pis.  1,  2. 

While  little  information  is  at  hand  concerning  the  numerical 
status  of  this  species,  it  is  possibly  being  subjected,  like  other 
Wildcats  of  Europe,  to  the  process  of  extinction  by  "dilution"  in 
addition  to  direct  persecution. 

It  differs  from  Felis  silvestris  in  its  shorter  fur  and  more  slender 
tail  (hairs  at  middle  averaging  about  30  mm.  instead  of  40  mm.) ; 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  265 

hairs  of  median  dorsal  line  slightly  elongated  and  stiffened;  dark 
markings  obsolete,  the  back  and  sides  grayish  or  brownish,  without 
definite  stripes;  back  of  ear  yellowish  clay-color,  the  tip  black;  tail 
with  well-defined  black  tip.  Head  and  body,  600  mm. ;  tail,  300  mm. 
(Miller,  1912,  pp.  468,  470.) 

While  this  species  was  originally  described  from  Sardinia,  the 
same  animal  is  recorded  by  Martorelli  (1896,  p.  266)  from  the 
Maremma  of  Tuscany  in  western  Italy. 

It  is  found  throughout  Sardinia  but  is  not  numerous  there,  and 
in  legislation  is  rated  as  harmful  (Laboratorio  di  Zoologia  Applicata 
a  Caccia,  in  litt.,  September,  1936). 

The  animal  of  Tuscany  is  said  to  be  not  rare  (Colosi,  1933,  p.  56) . 
It  is  considered  a  fierce  destroyer  of  hares,  pheasants,  and  other 
game  and  consequently  is  much  persecuted  (Martorelli,  1896,  p.  279) . 

European  Lynx.    Lynx  (Fr.).    Luchs  (Ger.).    Lince  (Sp.,  It.) 

LYNX  LYNX  LYNX  (Linnaeus) 

[Felis]  Lynx  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  43,  1758.    (Near  Upsala, 

Sweden.) 

SYNONYM:   Felis  borealis  Thunberg  (1798). 
FIGS.:  Wolf,  1867,  ser.  2,  pi.  6;  Elliot,  1883,  pi.  39;  Martin,  1910,  p.  117,  fig.  34; 

Colosi,  1933,  p.  41. 

The  Lynx  has  suffered  rather  serious  depletion  of  numbers  in 
its  European  range,  and  even  total  extermination  in  some  of  the 
countries  (Britain,  France,  Denmark,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Austria, 
Hungary).  In  northern  Asia,  however,  its  status  remains  much 
more  satisfactory,  especially  in  those  areas  where  the  human  popu- 
lation is  still  sparse. 

The  form  is  heavier  than  in  Felis  silvestris;  the  legs  are  relatively 
longer,  the  feet  more  robust,  and  the  tail  shorter;  upper  parts  and 
sides  varying  from  yellowish  brown  to  brownish  gray;  back  and 
sides  never  thickly  spotted;  cheeks  not  conspicuously  whiskered; 
ears  conspicuously  tufted  at  tip  (Miller,  1912,  p.  472).  Head  and 
body,  800-1,200  mm.;  tail,  190-220  mm.  (Didier  and  Rode,  1935, 
p.  289). 

The  range  of  this  Lynx  includes  the  forested  portions  of  Europe 
and  Asia:  north  to  the  tree  limit;  south  to  France,  northern  Italy, 
Yugoslavia,  Greece,  Bulgaria,  the  Ukraine,  central  Russia,  the  Altai 
Mountains,  northern  Mongolia,  northern  Manchuria,  and  northern 
Korea ;  east  to  Sakhalin  and  eastern  Siberia. 

"The  European  Lynx,  Felis  lynx,  was  ...  an  inhabitant  of 
Britain  in  the  Pleistocene  age,  and  survived  until  recent  times,  and 
may  even  have  lingered  into  the  historic  period"  (Millais,  1904, 
p.  168). 


266 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 


Although  the  French  authors  record  the  Lynx  from  the  Pyrenees 
(where  it  is  now  probably  exterminated),  Cabrera  suggests  (1914, 
p.  210)  that  the  animal  formerly  occurring  there  was  the  Spanish 
Lynx  (Lynx  pardellus) .  Trouessart  in  1884  (p.  229)  considered  the 
European  Lynx  still  present  in  the  Alps,  the  Jura,  and  the  Pyrenees. 
There  is  a  record  (the  last?)  for  the  Jura  in  1834  (Martin,  1910, 


FIG.  29. — European  Lynx  (Lynx  lynx  lynx) 

p.  118).  Didier  and  Rode  (1935,  pp.  290-291)  cite  records  from  the 
French  Alps  as  late  as  1907,  1913,  and  1922,  but  conclude  that  the 
species  has  probably  disappeared  from  the  entire  country. 

In  Germany,  for  several  centuries  past,  the  Lynx  has  occurred 
only  as  an  occasional  straggler.  From  1773  to  1796  five  were  shot 
in  the  Thuringian  Forest.  A  few  were  taken  in  Upper  Silesia  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Two  were  shot  in  the  Harz 
Mountains  in  1817  and  1818.  (Blasius,  1857,  p.  176.)  The  species 
was  exterminated  in  Pomerania  in  1738;  in  Westphalia  in  1745;  in 
Gotha  in  1819;  in  Bavaria  in  1850.  In  East  Prussia  several  were 
taken  about  1870,  and  the  animal  still  occurs  frequently  on  the 
eastern  boundary.  (Krumbiegel,  1930,  p.  6.)  One  was  taken  in  Thur- 
ingia  in  1843,  and  one  in  Wiirttemberg  in  1846  (Internationale  Ge- 
sellschaft  zur  Erhaltung  des  Wisents,  in  Hit.,  October,  1936).  At 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  267 

present  the  law  gives  it  absolute  protection  (Reichsstelle  fiir  Natur- 
schutz,  in  Hit.,  October,  1936) . 

In  Denmark  the  species  is  known  only  from  Stone  Age  and  Bronze 
Age  remains  (Winge,  1908,  p.  117) . 

In  Switzerland  it  abounded  during  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
numerous  captures  were  made  up  to  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Thereafter  it  suffered  a  pronounced  decrease.  In  the 
1860's  it  was  still  found,  but  only  occasionally,  in  Grisons,  Ticino, 
and  Valais  (one  record  in  1867).  (Fatio,  1869,  p.  280.)  One  was 
killed  in  the  Engadine  in  1872.  The  species  is  now  extinct  in  Switzer- 
land. (Federal  Forest,  Game,  and  Fish  Inspection,  Berne,  in  litt., 
March,  1937.) 

The  species  may  be  considered  extinct  in  Italy,  the  last  specimens 
having  been  killed  in  Piedmont  in  the  second  half  of  the  last  century 
(Laboratorio  di  Zoologia  Applicata  a  Caccia,  in  litt.,  September, 
1936).  De  Beaux  (1932,  p.  9)  speaks  of  the  forest  of  Langhe  in  the 
Maritime  Alps,  in  the  province  of  Cuneo,  as  its  last  refuge. 

In  Austria  the  Lynx  is  entirely  exterminated.  In  Carinthia  one 
was  killed  in  1848,  and  another  was  seen  in  1878.  In  Lower  Austria 
it  was  fairly  distributed  up  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  In  the 
Tyrol  it  was  very  common  in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  during 
the  next  century  it  decreased  decidedly,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  it  was  said  to  be  not  very  rare ;  the  last  one  was 
killed  at  Graun  in  1873.  In  Vorarlberg  the  last  one  was  killed  in 
1918.  (G.  Schlesinger,  in  litt.,  March,  1937.) 

Before  World  War  I  the  Lynx  was  found  everywhere  in  the  Car- 
pathian forests  of  Hungary  (now  Czechoslovakia)  (J.  Schenk,  in 
litt.,  November,  1936) .  In  the  higher  elevations  of  the  Tatra  Range 
(Czechoslovakia  and  Poland)  there  are  a  few  Lynxes  (Maurice, 
1927,  p.  21).  (See  also  under  Poland.) 

In  the  present  Hungary  the  species  is  not  found  (J.  Schenk,  in  litt., 
November,  1936) . 

During  the  past  century  the  Lynx  was  exterminated  throughout 
Yugoslavia  except  in  the  high  mountain  region  of  Shar  Planina,  in 
southern  Serbia,  where  four  or  five  specimens  are  killed  every  year 
(M.  Hirtz,  in  litt.,  December,  1936). 

In  Greece  it  occurs  in  Epirus,  Thessaly,  Macedonia,  and  Thrace. 
No  decrease  has  been  observed.  (Game  Department,  Greek  Ministry 
of  Agriculture,  in  litt.,  October,  1936.) 

In  Bulgaria  "the  lynx  is  about  gone,  though  I  saw  two  fine  skins 
last  week  at  a  fur  shop  in  Varna,  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  one  in  the 
peasant  market  in  Sofia  last  year."  A  reserve  for  the  Lynx  in  the 
Pirene  Mountains  is  advocated.  (H.  W.  Shoemaker,  in  litt.,  June 
30,  1932.)  According  to  the  Bulgarian  Game  Association  "Sokol" 
(in  litt.,  February,  1937) ,  the  last  specimen  was  killed  in  1907.  The 


268  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING  MAMMALS 

cause  of  its  disappearance  was  the  diminution  of  the  forests  (espe- 
cially the  virgin  forests) . 

In  Rumania  the  Lynx  is  an  increasingly  rarer  species.  Its  dis- 
tributional area  is  the  coniferous-forest  zone — narrower  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  eastern  Carpathians  (Nasaud  district),  and 
broader  on  the  eastern  slope  (Bukowina) .  It  is  more  common  in  the 
southern  Carpathians  (Bunzenlander  Mountains,  Fagaras  Moun- 
tains, etc.).  (Calinescu,  1930,  p.  366.) 

In  ancient  times,  when  Poland  was  covered  with  large  forests,  the 
Lynx  was  found  everywhere.  It  still  exists  in  the  Carpathians,  espe- 
cially in  the  eastern  Polish  part,  and  also  in  the  great  forests  of 
northeastern  and  eastern  Poland.  The  estimated  number  is  about 
400.  During  the  hunting  season  about  25  specimens  are  killed 
annually.  Hunting  is  forbidden  from  March  1  to  December  31.  (M. 
Siedlecki,1  in'litt.,  October,  1936.)  In  the  proposed  International 
Tatra  Park  (Poland  and  Czechoslovakia)  the  Lynx  will  be  kept 
under  absolute  protection.  The  chief  aim  of  another  proposed  Inter- 
national Park  (Poland,  Czechoslovakia,  and  Rumania)  is  the  crea- 
tion of  a  breeding  ground  for  the  Bear,  Lynx,  Wildcat,  Wolf,  Stag, 
etc.  (Benedyct  Fulinski,  MS.,  1933.) 

In  Lithuania  the  Lynx  is  almost  exterminated.  Since  the  Great 
War  about  ten  specimens  have  been  killed.  Hunting  is  forbidden. 
(T.  Ivanauskas,  in  litt,  November,  1936.) 

In  Latvia  the  species  has  decreased  considerably  but  is  still  found 
in  the  large  forests.  The  following  numbers  have  been  reported 
by  the  Forest  Department:  74  in  1925;  49  in  1932;  59  in  1935;  78 
in  1936.  (N.  von  Transehe,  in  litt.,  February,  1937.)  The  animals 
are  found  especially  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  country,  where 
hunting  is  restricted;  in  other  parts  no  protective  measures  have 
been  adopted.  Twenty  to  thirty  years  ago  the  stock  was  about 
300-400,  but  for  economic  reasons,  and  in  order  to  protect  useful 
game,  the  numbers  have  been  reduced  intentionally,  and  they  are 
now  confined  to  a  certain  part  of  the  forests,  where  they  are  pro- 
tected. (Forest  Department,  Latvia,  in  litt.,  March,  1937.) 

In  Estonia  the  Lynx  is  only  a  visitor,  coming  in  from  Russia,  and 
is  given  no  protection  (Zoological  Institute,  University  of  Tartu, 
in  litt.,  October,  1936) . 

i  "Michel  Siedlecki,  Professor  of  Zoology  in  the  University  of  Cracow,  was 
...  an  enlightened  apostle  of  Fauna  Preservation.  .  .  . 

"Michel  Siedlecki  was  done  to  death  in  one  of  Germany's  most  notorious 
concentration  camps.  .  .  . 

"In  .  .  .  international  relations  Siedlecki  inspired  among  his  colleagues  both 
respect  and  affection.  One  wonders  with  what  feelings  the  German  colleagues 
with  whom  he  collaborated  in  the  International  Council  for  the  Exploration 
of  the  Sea,  as  well  as  in  the  International  Committee  for  Bird  Preservation, 
reflect  upon  the  death,  brought  about  through  the  calculated  brutality  of  their 
Government,  of  a  loyal  colleague  who  was  so  recently  their  guest."  (Jour.  Soc. 
Preservation  Fauna  Empire,  n.  s.,  pt.  39,  pp.  15-16,  1940.) 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  269 

The  species  was  formerly  common  in  the  Norwegian  forests 
north  to  about  latitude  65°  30'.  A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  Collett 
remarked  on  a  great  decrease.  Since  it  preys  upon  the  more  im- 
portant smaller  game  and  on  small  cattle,  it  is  hunted  throughout 
the  country  and  is  not  protected  by  law.  (Hj.  Broch,  in  Hit.,  Decem- 
ber, 1936.)  Up  to  about  1875  it  was  generally  distributed  in  the 
woodlands  of  Norway.  A  small  stock  remains  in  some  places  in 
Fosen,  Namdalen,  and  South  Helgeland.  In  southern  Norway  it  is 
doubtful  if  there  is  any  resident  stock,  but  now  and  then  some 
stragglers  may  appear.  Up  to  the  present,  bounties  have  been  paid 
on  the  Lynx,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  its  total  extermination  in  Norway 
can  be  prevented.  (Director  of  Forestry,  Norwegian  Ministry  of 
Agriculture,  in  litt.,  January,  1937.) 

About  a  century  ago  the  Lynx  was  rather  common  throughout 
Sweden  except  in  the  northernmost  provinces  and  in  some  of  the 
southernmost.  From  1827  to  1839,  3,224  Lynxes  were  killed — an 
annual  average  of  248;  in  1844,  250;  and  in  1845,  273.  The  annual 
average  was  about  175  in  1856-60;  121  in  1865-69;  105  in  1871-75; 
67  in  1876-80;  24  in  1881-85;  35  in  1891-1900;  10  in  1901-05;  17 
(all  in  the  four  northernmost  provinces)  in  1906-10;  11  in  1921-25. 
In  the  southern  provinces  the  species  was  practically  exterminated 
before  1870;  in  the  middle  provinces  it  was  found  in  diminished 
numbers  in  the  1890's.  The  increase  in  numbers  killed  in  the  1890's 
and  in  1906-10  was  due  to  livelier  persecution  in  the  more  northern 
provinces.1  In  1926  and  1927,  7  Lynxes  were  killed.  Since  then  the 
species  has  been  protected  by  law  to  the  extent  that  it  may  not  be 
killed  on  public  domains,  and,  if  killed  on  private  lands,  it  is  never- 
theless crown  property,  so  that  the  profit  motive  is  eliminated.  The 
crown  domains  are  very  extensive,  especially  in  the  northern  prov- 
inces, and  there  are  some  state  forests,  especially  in  Westerbotten, 
where  the  animals  seem  to  thrive  and  to  increase  somewhat.  There 
are  a  few  in  Angermanland  and  perhaps  also  in  Jemtland,  while 
stragglers  have  been  traced  in  some  other  provinces.  (Einar  Lonn- 
berg,  in  litt.,  October,  1936.) 

The  following  information  on  the  Lynx's  range  and  status  in 
Russia  and  Siberia  is  derived  from  Ognev  (1935,  pp.  206-214) : 
The  range  extends  entirely  across  Russia  from  east  to  west;  in  the 
north  it  reaches  the  tree  limit  on  the  Kola  Peninsula  and  at  other 
points  near  the  Arctic  coast;  in  the  south  it  reaches  Podolia,  the 
southern  part  of  the  Western  and  the  Moscow  Areas,  the  district 
of  Penza,  and  the  former  Governments  of  Kazan  and  Orenburg. 
Within  this  range  its  numbers  vary  considerably  but  are  evidently 

1  Possibly  these  increases  represented  peaks  in  a  periodic  fluctuation,  such 
as  is  evident  in  the  case  of  the  Canada  Lynx;  1895-97  and  1905-06  were  peak 
periods  for  the  latter  species  (cf.  Seton,  1929,  vol.  4,  p.  711).— Ed. 


270  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

much  less  than  formerly.  In  White  Russia  76  animals  were  taken 
in  1924-25,  but  only  16  in  1925-26.  In  the  Western  Area  156  were 
killed  in  1928-29,  43  in  1929-30,  and  47  in  1930-31.  According  to 
Milovanowicz  (1925),  50  are  taken  annually  in  the  Petchora  region. 
In  the  Vichegda  Basin  3  were  taken  in  1929,  2  in  1930,  and  27 
in  1931. 

In  Siberia  the  Lynx  ranges  north  approximately  to  the  tree  limit 
and  south  to  northern  Russian  Turkestan  (Irtish  River  and  Zaisan 
Nor)  and  to  the  Mongolian  and  Manchurian  boundaries,  apparently 
avoiding  the  Arctic  tundra  on  the  one  hand  and  the  steppes  of  Rus- 
sian Turkestan  on  the  other.  (In  far  eastern  Siberia,  beyond  the 
Verkhoyansk  Mountains,  the  typical  subspecies  seems  to  be  replaced 
by  Lynx  lynx  wrangeli  Ognev.) 

According  to  W.  G.  Heptner  (in  litt.,  December,  1936) ,  the  Lynx 
is  quite  common  in  Siberia  but  rarer  in  Russia.  Hunting  is  allowed 
the  whole  year,  but  in  certain  parts  of  Russia  and  in  western  Siberia, 
where  the  numbers  of  the  animal  are  small,  hunting  is  limited  to 
certain  open  seasons. 

The  species  occurs  in  the  mountains  of  northern  Mongolia,  from 
the  Altai  Range  eastward  (Ognev,  1935,  p.  214) .  A  specimen  from 
15  miles  northeast  of  Urga,  Mongolia,  is  recorded  by  G.  M.  Allen 
(1929,  p.  14)  under  the  name  of  L.  I.  isabellina.  The  species  also 
occurs  in  the  forests  of  Manchuria;  it  is  rare  in  northern  Kirin 
(Sowerby,  1923,  p.  37)  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Little  Khin- 
gan  Mountains  (Ognev,  1935,  p.  213).  It  is  generally  considered 
rare  in  Sakhalin  (Kuroda,  1928,  p.  226;  Miyoshi,  in  Skottsberg, 
1934,  p.  411). 

Economics. — The  Lynx  attacks  game  as  large  as  the  Red  Deer 
and  the  Roe  Deer,  and  it  has  been  known  to  slaughter  30  sheep  in  a 
single  night.  Generally  it  feeds  on  the  smaller  game — hares,  mar- 
mots, small  rodents,  and  birds  of  all  kinds.  On  occasion  it  does  not 
fear  to  attack  man  himself.  (Trouessart,  1884,  p.  230.) 

In  Sweden,  "when  the  lynxes  were  numerous,  they  sometimes  killed 
sheep  and  perhaps  also  reindeer.  They  are  therefore  like  all  other 
carnivorous  animals  especially  hated  by  the  Lapps.  The  lynxes 
were  also  destructive  to  the  hares,  when  they  were  common.  The 
reason  why  they  were  so  much  hunted  was,  however,  chiefly  because 
it  was  regarded  as  a  good  sport,  and  the  value  of  the  skin  was  also 
attractive."  The  species  is  now  protected  in  Sweden,  and  the  govern- 
ment pays  for  the  damages  committed,  "if  they  are  not  due  to 
carelessness  of  the  owners  of  the  domestic  animals  killed."  (Einar 
Lonnberg,  in  litt.,  October,  1936,  and  January  18,  1933.) 

"The  Norwegian  peasants  believe  that  if  a  person  wears  a  neck- 
lace made  of  the  fore-claws  of  a  lynx  it  will  preserve  him  from 
spasms  and  the  cramp.  It  would  appear  that  the  Russians  entertain 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  271 

a  somewhat  similar  superstition,  for  when  they  sell  lynx  skins  to  the 
Chinese,  they  charge  a  much  higher  price  for  them  if  the  fore-claws 
are  included."  (Bowden,  1869,  p.  14.) 

In  the  Polish  forests  "the  lynx  and  the  wolf  alone  are  capable 
of  killing  the  elk"  (Korsak,  1934,  pp.  78-79). 

"The  Russian  naturalists  Von  Schrenk  and  Radde  inform  us  that 
the  natives  of  Amoorland  esteem  the  flesh  of  this  animal  as  a  great 
delicacy,  and  that  the  furs  which  are  obtained  by  the  hunters  in 
this  part  of  Asia  mostly  pass  into  Chinese  hands,  being  much  trea- 
sured by  the  high  officials  of  the  Celestial  Empire"  (Sclater,  in  Wolf, 
1867,  text  to  pi.  6). 

Tibetan  Lynx 

LYNX  LYNX  ISABELLINUS  (Blyth) 

Felis  isabellina  Blyth,  Jour.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal,  vol.  16,  p.  1178, 1847.  ("Tibet.") 
FIGS.:    China  Jour.,  vol.  23,  no.  3,  pi.  facing  p.  172,  1935,  and  vol.  25,  no.  5, 
pi.  facing  p.  288,  1936;  Schafer,  1937,  pi.  facing  p.  177. 

The  Tibetan  Lynx  seems  to  be  a  moderately  rare  animal,  and 
while  it  is  protected  to  some  extent  by  the  remoteness  of  its  haunts, 
its  fur  is  in  considerable  demand. 

It  differs  from  the  European  Lynx  in  its  pale  sandy  gray  or 
isabelline  coloring,  and  in  the  relative  shortness  of  the  hair  on  the 
toes.  Head  and  body,  837  mm. ;  tail,  196  mm. ;  weight,  about  60  Ib. 
(Blanford,  1888-91,  p.  90.) 

"This  race  inhabits  the  plateau  of  Eastern  and  Western  Tibet, 
and  certainly  extends  into  Baltistan;  but  its  exact  geographical 
limits  are  impossible  to  define  .... 

"Throughout  its  habitat,  so  far  as  accounts  go,  the  Tibetan  lynx 
is  a  rare  animal,  seldom  seen,  and  still  more  rarely  shot.  .  .  .  The 
Tibetan  hares  and  blue  pigeons  form  the  chief  prey  of  the  lynx  in 
Ladak,  although  it  also  levies  toll  on  the  smaller  domesticated  ani- 
mals of  the  Tatars."  (Lydekker,  1900,  pp.  326-327.) 

"This  animal  is  rarely  encountered  and  consequently  the  exact 
limits  of  its  habitat  are  somewhat  conjectural,  but  I  fancy  that  it  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  Ammon.  .  .  .  They  are  savage  ani- 
mals and  do  not  hesitate  to  attack  sheep  and  goats,  sometimes 
working  considerable  havoc."  (Burrard,  1925?,  p.  241.) 

"Lynx  skins  .  .  .  are  brought  in  from  the  Thibetan  regions  to 
the  north  and  west,  to  Sungpan  [Szechwan] ,  where  they  find  a  ready 
market  among  the  wealthy  Chinese.  .  .  .  They  sell  in  Sungpan 
for  5  to  7  taels  each."  (Wilson,  1913,  vol.  2,  p.  181.) 

"The  Isabelline  Lynx  ...  is  fairly  common  in  the  mountainous 
regions  along  the  Chinese-Tibetan  border.  .  .  .  The  lynx  supplies 
the  fur  market  of  this  country  [China]  with  one  of  its  best  furs,  the 


272  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING  MAMMALS 

coat  of  this  animal  being  long,  thick  and  soft."    (Sowerby,  1936, 
pi.  facing  p.  288.) 

Ognev  (1935,  pp.  215,  231-232)  reports  it  from  Kansu,  Koko  Nor, 
the  Zaidam  region,  the  Nan-Shan,  Altyn-Tagh,  Kwen-Lun,  Tian- 
Shan,  Borokhoro,  and  Bogdo-Ola  ranges,  Kashgar,  the  Tarim  Basin, 
and  Lob  Nor. 

The  systematic  status  of  the  Lynxes  inhabiting  various  mountain- 
ous areas  from  northwestern  India  and  southern  Russian  Turkestan 
to  northern  Persia  seems  to  be  in  doubt;  I  am  unable  to  determine 
what  subspecific  name  or  names  should  be  applied  to  them.  This 
vast  region  lies  directly  between  the  ranges  of  the  Tibetan  Lynx 
and  the  Caucasian  Lynx. 

The  animal  of  Gilgit,  in  the  valley  of  the  Indus,  has  a  more 
rufous  coloring  than  that  of  Tibet  (Lydekker,  1900,  p.  326) . 

According  to  Ognev  (1935,  pp.  214-215),  the  Lynx  is  found  in 
various  localities  of  Russian  Turkestan,  including  the  Pamirs,  the 
western  Tian-Shan,  Semiretchie,  the  Chu  River,  the  Kara  Tau,  the 
Talassk  Alatau,  the  Samarkand  region,  and  the  Kopet-Dagh  (where 
it  is  rare).  It  occurs  in  northern  Afghanistan  and  doubtless  in  the 
Persian  provinces  of  Gilian,  Mazanderan,  and  Astrabad;  possibly 
also  in  the  mountains  of  Khorassan  (lat.  37°  N.). 

W.  G.  Heptner  states  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  that  the  Lynx 
occurs  in  small  numbers  in  the  mountains  of  Turkestan.  Hunting 
is  limited  to  certain  seasons  in  the  mountains  of  Uzbekistan,  and  is 
forbidden  on  the  Kopet-Dagh. 

Barbary  Lynx.   Lynx  caracal  (Fr.) 

CARACAL  CARACAL  ALGIRUS  (Wagner) 

Felis  Caracal  .  .  .  Var.  algira  Wagner,  Reisen  Regentschaft  Algier,  vol.  3, 
p.  76,  atlas,  pi.  4,  1841.  (Vicinity  of  Algiers  (op.  tit.,  p.  62).) 

FIGS.:  Buffon,  Hist.  Nat.,  vol.  9,  pi.  24,  1761;  M.  Wagner,  1841,  atlas,  pi.  4; 
Loche,  1867,  pi.  2. 

This  Caracal  is  evidently  becoming  increasingly  scarce  as  the 
years  roll  by. 

General  color  nearly  uniform,  between  cinnamon-orange  and 
reddish  cinnamon;  paler  about  the  eyes,  on  the  lips,  and  on  the 
lower  parts;  a  blackish  spot  on  each  side  of  the  mouth;  ears  ex- 
ternally black,  sometimes  mixed  with  white  hairs,  terminal  tuft 
black.  Head  and  body,  717  mm.;  tail,  284  mm.  (Cabrera,  1932, 
pp.  171-172.) 

The  species  as  a  whole  is  "widely  distributed  in  suitable  localities 
from  South  Africa  to  Egypt  and  Morocco,  and  from  Palestine  to 
India"  (Flower,  1929,  p.  83).  Only  the  North  African  subspecies 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  273 

(algirus)  calls  for  attention  here.  It  ranges  from  the  Gulf  of  Gabes 
to  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  south  to  Senegal.  In  Algeria  and  Tunisia 
it  reaches  the  Mediterranean  coast.  Apparently  it  is  not  represented 
in  Tripolitania.  (Cabrera,  1932,  pp.  172-173.) 

Tunisia. — It  is  rare  in  the  north  but  a  little  more  common  in  the 
center  and  south  (region  of  Feriana,  Djebel-Selloum,  Djebel-Bou- 
Hedma).  It  can  be  shot  rather  easily  in  its  usual  habitat  among 
alfa  grass,  and  it  could  be  successfully  chased  with  hounds,  for  its 
gait  is  not  very  rapid.  (Lavauden,  1932,  p.  7.) 


FIG.  30. — Barbary  Lynx   (Caracal  caracal  algirus).    From  specimen  in 
Philadelphia  Zoo. 

Algeria. — The  Barbary  Lynx  does  not  occur  commonly  in  the 
vicinity  of  Algiers,  whence  occasionally  specimens  are  brought  to 
market  (M.  Wagner,  1841,  vol.  3,  p.  62). 

Loche  (1867,  p.  41)  reports  for  the  period  1840-42  that  it  ranges 
throughout  Algeria,  where  it  is  rather  numerous.  Specimens  are 
recorded  from  Birkadem,  Arba,  and  Djelfa.  It  is  also  met  with  near 
Coleah,  Lac  Halloula,  and  elsewhere. 

Known  in  Barbary  from  the  first  explorations,  it  has  been  recorded 
by  Shaw,  Poiret,  and  others.  Two  specimens  were  taken  in  the 
vicinity  of  Laghouat,  and  one  of  the  animals  was  seen  between 
Haidra  and  Tebessa,  Algeria.  Without  being  very  abundant,  the 
species  seems  rather  widespread,  and  skins  are  frequently  seen  in 
the  saddlers'  shops  of  Algiers  and  Constantine.  (Lataste,  1885, 
p.  225.) 
10 


274  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Heim  de  Balsac  (1936,  p.  179)  records  it  from  the  valley  of  the 
Saura,  near  Beni-Abbes. 

Morocco. — "The  Lynx  ...  is  found  in  wooded  districts,  and  is 
sometimes  brought  alive  to  Mogador"  (Leared,  1876,  p.  304).  It 
seems  to  be  lacking  in  Yebala,  but  it  undoubtedly  exists  more  to 
the  south,  and  it  is  reported  as  still  living  in  the  interior  of  the 
Rif  (Cabrera,  1932,  pp.  172-173) .  In  the  Zaian  district  it  is  found 
from  time  to  time,  and  its  skin  is  frequently  seen  in  the  market.  One 
was  living  in  captivity  as  late  as  1931.  (Carpentier,  1932,  p.  17.) 
Specimens  are  recorded  from  Gara  de  Debdou,  Matarka,  Oued 
Charef ,  region  of  Berguent  (Laurent,  1935,  p.  349) . 

Gambia. — "This  splendid  animal  is  to  be  seen  some  150  miles  up 
the  [Gambia]  river;  being  swift  and  cunning,  very  few  are  trapped 
or  shot"  (E.  Johnson,  1937,  p.  63).  The  local  form  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  subspecifically  determined. 

The  Cheetahs  (genus  Acinonyx) 

These  animals  are  also  known  as  Hunting  Leopards.  Additional 
names  in  various  Continental  languages  are:  Guepard  (Fr.),  Gep- 
pard  (Ger.),  Ghepardo  (It.),  and  Onza  (Span.). 

The  common  species  of  Cheetah  (Acinonyx  jubatus) ,  which  has 
been  divided  by  various  authors  into  approximately  a  dozen  differ- 
ent forms,  has  become  rather  rare  over  a  large  part  of  its  enormous 
range  in  Africa  and  Asia,  while  remaining  moderately  common  in 
some  areas.  Another  species,  the  King  Cheetah  (A.  rex),  has  been 
described  from  a  restricted  area  in  Southern  Rhodesia.  For  the 
sake  of  completeness,  all  forms  that  are  more  or  less  recognizable 
will  be  treated  in  the  following  accounts.  In  scarcely  any  case  can 
the  distributional  limits  of  the  subspecies  be  stated  precisely,  owing 
to  the  incompleteness  of  our  present  knowledge. 

The  Cheetahs  are  distinguished  from  all  other  members  of  the 
cat  family  (Felidae)  by  the  absence  of  claw-sheaths  (Pocock,  1916, 
p.  426).  In  size  and  form  they  suggest  a  long-legged  and  slender- 
bodied  Leopard;  but  their  markings  are  solid  spots  instead  of  ro- 
settes, as  in  the  Leopard.  The  hair  of  the  neck  is  elongated  to  form 
a  slight  mane.  (Lydekker,  1900,  p.  328.) 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  Cheetahs  as  a  genus  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  Lion.  In  Africa  it  includes  chiefly  the  arid 
or  semiarid  areas  of  the  South,  East,  and  North — in  fact,  most  of 
the  continent  outside  of  the  rain  forests  of  the  West  African  sub- 
region  and  the  humid,  forested  areas  of  southeastern  Africa.  In 
Asia,  likewise,  it  includes  more  or  less  arid  areas  from  India  and 
Russian  Turkestan  to  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Arabia. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  275 

Economics  and  conservation. — "The  Cheetah  has  been  for  cen- 
turies the  playing  thing  of  princes,  Asiatic,  African  and  European. 
When  taken  young  it  is  easily  tamed  and  trained  to  show  its  won- 
derful speed.  A  couple  of  cheetahs  were  sent  as  a  present  to  Ana- 
stasius,  Emperor  of  the  East,  at  Constantinople  in  A.  D.  439  from 
whence  the  sport  reached  Italy  and  obtained  an  enormous  vogue 
among  the  wealthy,  extravagant  grandees  of  the  great  City  States. 
The  Turks,  Moors  and  Persians  alike  used  cheetahs  in  hunting.  In 
India  the  Cheetah  is  usually  taken  blind-folded  in  a  cart  to  the 
scene  of  the  hunt.  In  the  proximity  of  a  herd  of  antelope  it  is  un- 
hooded  and  slipped  from  its  leash:  a  short  crouching  stalk  and  a 
few  bounds  of  great  length  and  rapidity  and  the  hunt  is  over — 
the  quarry  has  escaped  or  the  Cheetah  holds  it  in  a  strangle-hold 
by  the  throat,  till  the  keeper  comes  up  and  having  cut  the  captive's 
throat  rewards  the  captor  with  a  drink  of  warm  blood  collected  in 
its  accustomed  feeding  bowl."  (Anonymous,  1935,  pp.  148-149.) 

(For  an  interesting  account  of  hunting  with  Cheetahs  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  see  Yule's  Marco  Polo,  ed.  3,  vol.  1,  pp.  397-398, 
1903.) 

"So  far  as  I  have  heard,  .  .  .  this  animal  has  not  been  known  to 
breed  in  captivity"  (Blanford,  1888,  p.  93) . 

Probably  the  disappearance  of  the  Cheetah  in  the  Cape  Province 
and  its  decrease  in  North  Africa  and  in  Asia  are  closely  linked  with 
the  general  decline  in  those  regions  of  the  various  antelopes  which 
constitute  its  principal  prey.  It  also  attacks  calves,  sheep,  and  goats 
to  some  extent,  and  thereby  comes  into  conflict  with  man.  However, 
"there  are  very  few  recorded  cases  of  cheetah  attacking  human  be- 
ings or  taking  the  offensive,  even  when  wounded  or  in  defence  of 
their  cubs"  (Shortridge,  1934,  p.  107) .  Like  all  of  the  larger  carni- 
vores, it  is  evidently  shot  "on  general  principles."  According  to 
Shortridge  (1934,  p.  107),  it  retreats  more  rapidly  than  the  Leopard 
before  European  settlement. 

In  Northern  Rhodesia  "Cheetah  and  other  animals  take  their  toll 
of  the  vast  numbers  of  Black  Lechwe,  but  these  natural  enemies  do 
more  good  than  harm"  (David  Ross,  in  litt.,  May  3,  1933) . 

Fortunately  the  Cheetah  is  reported  present  in  a  considerable 
number  of  the  African  game  reserves:  White  Nile  Reserve  and  one 
near  the  Ethiopian  border  in  the  Sudan;  reserve  between  the  Gash 
and  Setit  Rivers  in  Eritrea;  Northern  and  Southern  Reserves  in 
Kenya;  Katavi,  Mtandu,  Lake  Natron,  Ngorongoro,  Northern  Rail- 
way, Saba,  Selous,  and  Serengeti  Reserves  in  Tanganyika;  Matupo 
Reserve  in  Mozambique;  Kruger  National  Park  in  Transvaal; 
Bechuanaland  Reserve  in  Bechuanaland  Protectorate;  and  Namu- 
toni  Reserve  in  South- West  Africa.  Such  reserves  doubtless  afford 


276  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

the  species  its  best  chance  of  survival  in  countries  that  continue  to 
be  opened  up  to  settlement  and  cultivation. 
Cheetahs  make  charming  pets,  and  may  be  led  about  on  a  leash. 

South  African  Cheetah 

ACINONYX  JUBATUS  JUBATus  (Schreber) 

Felis  jubata  Schreber,  Saugethiere,  vol.  3,  pi.  105,  1776;  p.  392,  1777.    (Cape 

of  Good  Hope,  South  Africa.) 
SYNONYMS:     Felis  lanea   P.   L.   Sclater    (1877);    lAcinonyx   guttatus   obergi 

Hilzheimer  (1913). 
FIGS.:   Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1877,  pi.  35  (incipient  albinism);  Hilzheimer, 

1913,  p.  289,  fig.  2  (A.  j.  obergi)  1 

The  South  African  Cheetah  has  virtually  disappeared  from  the 
Cape  Province.  Elsewhere  in  its  huge  range  it  has  managed  to  sur- 
vive in  varying  numbers,  but  in  general  it  is  obliged  to  retreat  before 
settlement. 

The  general  color  is  ochraceous-yellow,  covered  with  round  black 
spots;  below  almost  white,  with  longer  hair  and  indistinct  spots;  a 
black  line  from  the  anterior  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  edge  of  the  lip ; 
ear  with  a  black  patch  posteriorly  and  a  tawny  tip;  chin  white, 
unspotted;  chest  whitish,  spotted;  spots  on  the  tail  tending  to  form 
6-8  imperfect  rings  toward  the  tip.  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  p.  47.) 
Total  length,  about  6  feet  8  inches;  tail,  about  2  feet  6  inches; 
shoulder  height,  about  2  feet  8  inches. 

All  Cheetahs  (except  A.  rex  Pocock)  occurring  from  the  Cape 
Province  north  to  Angola,  Belgian  Congo,  Northern  Rhodesia,  and 
Nyasaland  will  be  included  provisionally  under  the  present  sub- 
species. This  range  corresponds  roughly  to  the  Southwest  Arid 
District,  the  Southeast  Veld  District,  and  the  Rhodesian  Highland 
District  of  Chapin  (1932,  p.  90),  or  to  the  Southeast  Veldt  District, 
the  Kalahari  and  the  Damara  Arid  Districts,  and  the  Rhodesian  Sa- 
vanna District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  259-260) . 

"In  the  [Cape]  Colony  it  is  found  sparingly  in  the  western  and 
midland  districts :  north  of  the  Orange  River  it  is  common  in  German 
territory  [South-West  Africa],  the  Kalahari  and  Bechuanaland,  and 
exists  in  Rhodesia,  the  Transvaal,  Zululand  and  Natal,  though  now 
very  rare  in  the  latter  Colony,  and  found  only  in  the  Drakensberg 
range"  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  p.  48) . 

In  South-West  Africa  the  Cheetah  is  widely  distributed.  It  is 
considered  quite  plentiful  in  the  eastern  sand-veld  region,  scarce 
in  the  Kaokoveld,  sparsely  distributed  in  the  Caprivi,  and  not  un- 
common in  the  Namutoni  Game  Reserve.  It  is  recorded  from  various 

i  The  following  additional  figures  of  Cheetahs  are  of  undetermined  subspecific 
identity:  Wolf,  1861,  pi.  13;  Lavauden,  1924,  p.  10,  fig.;  Leplae,  1925,  p.  46, 
fig.;  Malbrant,  1936,  pi.  1,  upper  fig. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  277 

parts  of  Omaheke.  It  is  apparently  scarce  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Orange  River,  the  western  and  southwestern  parts  of  Great  Nama- 
qualand,  and  the  highlands  of  western  Damaraland.  Its  numbers 
increase  in  the  sand-plain  country  adjoining  Bechuanaland.  Con- 
siderable numbers  of  skins  are  brought  into  Windhoek  and  Keet- 
manshoep  annually  by  natives  from  this  region  and  from  Bechuana- 
land. The  species  also  occurs  in  small  numbers  in  southern  and 
southeastern  Angola.  (Shortridge,  1934,  p.  105.)  This  author  adds 
(pp.  105-107) : 

The  Cheetah  has  almost  if  not  completely  disappeared  from  the  Cape 
Province,  the  Orange  Free  State,  Natal,  and  the  Southern  Transvaal,  but 
may  still  be  met  with  in  some  of  the  more  sparsely  populated  districts  of  the 
Northern  Transvaal,  Zululand,  Swaziland,  and  probably  the  inland  portions 
of  Portuguese  East  Africa.  It  is  widely  distributed  in  Bechuanaland  and 
still  comparatively  plentiful  in  the  central  and  northern  portions  of  that 
territory.  .  .  . 

The  Cheetah  is  retreating  rapidly  before  settlement  in  Southern  Africa,  and 
it  is  doubtful  if  there  are  any  to  be  found  to-day  south  of  the  Vaal  River.  .  .  . 

Cheetah  prey  mostly  upon  medium-sized  antelope,  from  steinbok  and  duiker 
up  to  the  size  of  impala,  springbok,  reedbuck,  and  even  cow  kudu.  .  .  . 

When  opportunity  offers  they  kill  sheep,  goats,  and  ostriches,  which  last 
are  driven  into  wire  fences  and  cornered. 

In  the  Transvaal  the  species  is  considered  inimical  to  man,  and 
not  a  game  animal.  Thus  it  is  not  given  any  protection.  (Austin 
Roberts,  in  Hit.,  November,  1936.) 

In  the  Kruger  National  Park,  Transvaal,  "the  status  of  the  species 
remains  fairly  constant;  they  were  never  very  numerous,  and  no 
noticeable  increase  or  decrease  is  reported"  (Game  Warden's  Annual 
Report,  1925?). 

In  Southern  Rhodesia  Cheetahs  are  sparingly  distributed  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  country,  but  soon  retire  from  inhabited 
areas.  They  seldom  raid  domestic  stock  and  consequently  do  not 
often  fall  a  victim  to  traps  and  poison.  There  is  no  legal  protection, 
but  in  the  recognized  game  reserves  and  also  in  the  forest  reserves  all 
animals  are  rigidly  protected.  (Game  Warden,  Wankie  Game  Re- 
serve, in  Hit.,  March,  1937.) 

In  Northern  Rhodesia  this  "widely  distributed  species  ...  is 
absent  from  the  regions  of  interminable  woodland.  Usually  occurs 
sparingly,  though  inclined  to  be  locally  plentiful."  It  "is  most  nu- 
merous in  the  neighbourhood  of  open  expanses  such  as  the  Kafue 
flats,  the  Batonga  and  Batoka  plateaux,  the  neighbourhood  of  Bang- 
weulu,  the  Chambeshi  flats  and  other  similar  localities.  It  appears 
to  be  absent  from  a  great  part  of  the  Luangwa  Valley.  Family 
parties  up  to  five  are  frequently  reported,  and  as  many  as  seven  have 
been  seen  together.  The  cheetah  is  a  very  disturbing  factor  in  locali- 
ties where  it  occurs  side-by-side  with  domestic  stock,  and  is  apt  to  be 


278  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

particularly  destructive  where  sheep  and  calves  are  concerned." 
(Pitman,  1934,  p.  12.)  Skins  have  been  obtained  in  the  Mumbwa, 
Namwala,  Broken  Hill,  Mpika,  Chinsali,  and  Petauke  Districts 
(op.  cit.,  p.  159). 

In  Nyasaland  "the  Cheetah  has  so  far  only  been  found  in  the 
Central  Province  of  Angoniland.  Even  there  it  is  seldom  seen,  but 
may  be  more  numerous  than  is  believed  at  present,  as  it  is  nearly 
always  confused  with  the  Leopard  by  the  natives."  (Wood,  in  May- 
don,  1932,  p.  316.) 

In  Portuguese  East  Africa  "Cheetahs  ...  are  not  very  numerous 
in  the  Zambezi  valley,  occurring  perhaps  most  plentifully  between 
Muterara  and  the  Lupata  Gorge,  where  reed  buck  and  other  small 
antelopes  are  common.  I  have  also  seen  them  in  the  Mlanje  district 
.  .  .  ,  in  the  Barue  to  the  south  of  Tete,  and  in  the  open  country 
south  of  the  Shupanga  Forest."  (Maugham,  1914,  p.  195.) 

In  the  Belgian  Congo,  20  years  ago,  the  species  was  comparatively 
abundant  over  the  southern  part  of  the  colony,  from  Kwango  to 
Tanganyika.  It  probably  ranged  to  the  northern  extremity  of  Lake 
Tanganyika,  wherever  grassy  stretches,  inhabited  by  small  rumi- 
nants, assured  it  of  favorable  conditions  for  existence.  The  range 
seems  to  have  remained  practically  the  same,  except  in  southern 
Katanga  and  Lomami,  where  stock-raising  has  led  to  the  extermina- 
tion of  Cheetahs.  It  is  well  to  note  that  these  stock  farms  have 
been  established  where  Cheetahs  were  particularly  numerous.  Fur- 
thermore, these  animals  suffer  greatly  from  hunting  with  encircling 
fires,  and  the  natives  persecute  them  everywhere  to  satisfy  the 
demand  for  skins  on  the  part  of  the  European  population.  The 
Cheetah  should  be  put  on  the  protected  list.  That  would  suffice,  if 
the  customary  destructive  hunting  by  the  natives  could  be  effectively 
stopped,  to  assure  the  recuperation  of  the  species  outside  the  zones 
of  stock-raising.  (A.  J.  Jobaert,  in  litt.,  November  10,  1936.) 

East  African  Cheetah 

ACINONYX  JUBATUS  NGORONGORENSis  Hilzheimer 

A[cinonyx\  g[uttatus]  ngorongorensis  Hilzheimer,  Sitz.-ber.  Ges.  naturf. 
Freunde  Berlin  1913,  no.  5,  p.  290,  figs.  3-4,  1913.  (Based  upon  a  living 
specimen  in  the  Leipzig  Zoological  Garden,  said  to  have  come  from 
"Ngorongoro,"  south  of  Lake  Natron,  Tanganyika  Territory.) 

FIGS.:  Hilzheimer,  1913,  pp.  290-291,  figs.  3-4;  Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914, 
pi.  facing  p.  244  (raineyi) ;  Hollister,  1918,  pi.  5,  lower  fig.  (raineyi) ; 
Zammarano,  1930,  p.  152,  fig.  (ngorongorensis?). 

Two  other  forms  were  subsequently  described  from  East  Africa: 
A.  j.  velox  Heller,  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  vol.  61,  no.  19,  p.  7,  1913 
("Loita  Plains,  British  East  Africa"),  and  A.  j.  raineyi  Heller, 
Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  vol.  61,  no.  19,  p.  9,  1913  ("Ulu,  Kapiti 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  279 

Plains,  British  East  Africa").  Hollister  (1918,  p.  151)  seems  to  be 
somewhat  doubtful  as  to  the  distinctness  of  these  three  East  African 
forms  from  each  other,  and  De  Beaux  (1927,  pp.  3-4)  does  not 
recognize  velox  or  raineyi.  The  Cheetahs  of  East  Africa,  from 
Tanganyika  north  to  Ethiopia  and  Eritrea,  will  be  treated  here 
as  a  unit.  This  range  corresponds  roughly  to  the  Somali  Arid  District 
and  the  East  African  Highland  District  of  Chapin  (1932,  p.  90),  or 
to  the  Somali  Arid  District,  the  North  Kenya  Savanna  District, 
and  the  East  African  Highland  District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256, 
258,260). 

The  ground  color  of  the  living  type  specimen  of  ngorongorensis 
was  isabella  yellow-brown;  under  parts  very  light  isabella,  entirely 
without  white;  spotting  of  the  lower  neck  very  pronounced;  cheeks 
grayish,  heavily  spotted;  back  of  the  ear  yellow,  with  a  slender 
black  basal  stripe;  chin  and  lips  white;  chest  and  belly  unspotted; 
outer  side  of  the  limbs  heavily  spotted  as  far  as  the  toes;  tail  with 
three  complete  rings,  tip  yellowish  white  (Hilzheimer,  1913,  p.  289) . 
The  coloration  of  this  captive  specimen  may  not  have  been  typical. 

The  following  might  serve  as  a  composite  characterization  of  velox 
and  raineyi:  ground  color  ochraceous  to  light  pinkish  buff;  spots 
large,  blackish;  snout  ochraceous  to  ochraceous-buff ;  a  black  tear 
stripe  from  eye  to  mouth;  back  of  ears  black  basally,  tip  and  inner 
surface  buff  or  pinkish  buff;  chin  and  upper  throat  white  to  cream- 
buff  ;  belly  cream  to  cream-buff,  with  elongate  spots ;  hind  feet  more 
or  less  distinctly  spotted;  terminal  part  of  tail  ringed  with  black, 
tip  whitish  (Heller,  1913,  pp.  8-10).  Head  and  body,  1,120-1,300 
mm.;  tail,  720-800  mm.  '(Hollister,  1918,  p.  154). 

In  East  Africa  and  in  South-West  Africa  the  Cheetah  seems  to 
have  survived  in  more  satisfactory  numbers  than  elsewhere  in  its 
wide  range. 

It  occurs  throughout  Tanganyika  Territory  in  varying  numbers. 
There  is  no  danger  of  extinction  at  present.  In  five  provinces  out  of 
eight,  only  two  Cheetahs  may  be  killed  on  a  Full  Licence,  and  only 
one  on  a  Minor  Licence.  (Game  Preservation  Department,  Tangan- 
yika Territory,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.)  It  is  "quite  numerous  in 
Masailand"  (Browne,  in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  312). 

In  Kenya  the  Cheetah  is  fairly  common  and  generally  distributed, 
specimens  being  recorded  from  the  Loita,  Kapiti,  and  Athi  Plains, 
Laikipia  and  Uasin  Gishu  Plateaus,  the  flanks  of  Kilimanjaro,  and 
Upper  Tana  River  (Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  pp.  244-249) .  There 
are  fair  numbers  in  the  Southern  and  Northern  Game  Reserves  (Per- 
cival,  1923,  pp.  69-71).  There  is  a  decrease  in  the  Native  Reserves 
and  in  the  European  settled  areas;  otherwise  it  is  fairly  common, 
and  it  is  protected  (Game  Warden,  Kenya,  in  litt,  November,  1936) . 


280  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  Cheetah  is  sparingly  distributed  throughout  northern  and 
eastern  Uganda.  Not  long  ago  it  had  a  much  more  extensive  distri- 
bution, occurring  throughout  the  savanna  regions.  Its  disappearance 
from  many  localities  is  due  to  the  extension  of  settlement  and  culti- 
vation. The  Cheetah  is  of  sentimental  importance  and  also  of 
considerable  economic  value,  being  sought  after  for  hunting  ante- 
lopes in  India.  Specimens  trained  by  their  parents  in  the  field  have 
a  local  value  of  £20  to  £30.  Only  one  specimen  is  allowed  on  a 
Full  Game  Licence.  (Game  Warden,  Uganda,  in  litt.,  December, 
1936.) 

De  Beaux  (1927,  p.  4)  records  the  species  from  Italian  Somaliland, 
Ethiopia,  and  Eritrea.  In  the  southern  plain  of  Eritrea,  especially 
between  Barca  and  Gash,  the  animal  is  rather  frequent  (Zamma- 
rano,  1930,  p.  61). 

In  British  Somaliland  "the  cheetah  is  commonest  in  the  thick 
bush  country  on  the  edge  of  the  Haud,  although  it  is  to  be  found 
both  on  Guban  and  Ogo-Guban"  (Drake-Brockman,  1910,  p.  22). 

Sudan  Cheetah 

ACINONYX  JUBATUS    SOEMMERINGII    (Fltzinger) 

Cynailurus  Soemmeringii  "Riippell"  Fitzinger,  Sitz.-ber.  math.-nat.  Cl.  Akad. 
Wiss.  [Wien],  vol.  17,  Heft  2,  p.  245,  1855.  (Based  upon  a  living  specimen 
from  the  Kababish  Steppes  in  the  south  of  the  Bayuda  Desert,  Kordofan.) 

Roosevelt  and  Heller  (1914,  p.  249)  give  the  range  as  "lowlands 
of  the  Nile  Valley,  from  the  Albert  Nyanza  northward  to  Kordofan 
and  westward  to  Lake  Chad  and  northern  Nigeria."  No  information 
is  at  hand  as  to  the  exact  northern  or  western  limits  of  this  sub- 
species, where  it  should  presumably  intergrade  with  A.  j.  hecki. 
Its  range  lies  in  the  eastern  portions  of  the  Sudanese  Arid  District 
and  the  Sudanese  Savanna  District  of  Chapin  (1932,  p.  90)  and  of 
Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258). 

The  ground  color  above  is  ochraceous  or  pinkish  buff;  spots  not 
exceeding  half  an  inch  in  diameter  and  widely  separated ;  hind  feet 
unspotted.  However,  according  to  Malbrant  (1936,  p.  137  and  pi.  1, 
upper  fig.),  the  hind  legs  are  nearly  always  spotted  in  Cheetahs  of 
the  Chad  region. 

Roosevelt  and  Heller  (1914,  p.  250)  record  specimens  from  El 
Dueim  on  the  White  Nile  and  from  Lake  Chad.  "It  is  a  rare  animal 
in  the  Nile  district  and  is  seldom  secured  by  sportsmen.  .  .  .  Heller 
saw  a  pair  near  Gondokoro." 

"Cheetah,  although  by  no  means  common  in  the  Sudan,  are  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  country.  They  are  even  reported  to 
exist  as  far  north  as  Jebel  Tegaru  in  the  north-west  corner  of  the 
Province  of  Kordofan."  (Brocklehurst,  1931,  p.  32.) 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  281 

Butler  (in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  139)  refers  to  this  Cheetah  in  the 
Blue  Nile  district  as  "everywhere  a  much  scarcer  beast  than  the 
Leopard,  and  rarer  in  the  Eastern  Sudan  than  it  is  in  Kordofan. 
Indeed,  on  this  side  of  the  country  I  only  met  it  twice,  both  times 
on  the  Setit." 

"Heuglin  gives  the  following  locality  for  the  Chitah:  Southern 
Takah  and  Eastern  Sudan  not  north  of  19°  N.  ...  Ruppell  .  .  . 
mentions  Felis  guttata  as  one  of  the  animals  hunted  ...  in  the 
western  deserts  of  the  Dongola  district."  (Anderson  and  de  Winton, 
1902,  p.  185.) 

In  the  Ubangi-Shari  district  of  French  Equatorial  Africa  a  few 
Cheetahs  may  occur  in  the  extreme  north  (Birao),  but  it  is  not 
certain.  They  are  not  threatened  for  the  moment."  (L.  Blancou, 
in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

In  the  French  Cameroons  the  species  is  found  in  the  thorn-bush 
country,  but  is  very  rare.  It  does  not  have  any  special  legal  pro- 
tection. (Ministry  of  Colonies,  Paris,  in  litt.,  November  7, 1936.) 

In  writing  of  the  Chad  region,  Malbrant  says  (1936,  pp.  137-138) 
that  the  Cheetah  is  found  in  the  whole  of  the  Sahelian  region  of 
central  Africa  and  in  the  somewhat  forested  steppes,  its  southern 
limit  being  at  about  lat.  10°  N.  It  lives  sometimes  solitarily,  but 
more  often  in  bands  of  two  to  four  individuals.  The  natives  of  Chad 
do  not  utilize  it  for  the  chase. 

It  is  found  in  French  Sudan,  the  Niger  Territory,  Borku  and 
Ennedi,  and  the  desert  part  of  the  Chad  Territory  (General  Gov- 
ernment of  French  West  Africa,  in  litt.,  November,  1936) . 

In  Nigeria  "it  is  pleasant  to  be  able  to  report  that  cheetah  are 
not  nearly  as  rare  as  was  thought.  There  are  fair  numbers  in  several 
Provinces  and  they  extend  nearly  as  far  south  as  the  Benue  River." 
("Observer,"  1934,  p.  54.) 

Senegal  Cheetah ;  North  African  Cheetah 

ACINONYX  JUBATUS  HECKi  Hilzheimer 

Acinonyx  hecki  Hilzheimer,  Sitz.-ber.  Ges.  naturf.  Freunde  Berlin  1913,  p.  288, 
fig.  1, 1913.  (Based  upon  a  living  specimen  in  the  Berlin  Zoological  Garden, 
said  to  have  come  from  Senegal.) 

Fios.:  Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,  vol.  3,  pi.  145,  1824;  Hilz- 
heimer, 1913,  p.  287,  fig.  1. 

The  name  A.  j.  hecki,  although  based  upon  a  Senegal  specimen, 
may  be  provisionally  applied  to  the  Cheetah  occurring  over  the 
greater  part  of  Palaearctic  Africa  (Mauretania,  Morocco,  Algeria, 
Tunisia,  Cirenaica,  and  northwestern  Egypt).  It  is  a  rare  form. 

It  is  described  as  a  small,  dainty  animal,  with  a  ground  color  of 
pale  reddish  ochraceous  on  the  back  and  sides;  spots  mostly  black, 


282  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

but  brownish  on  the  cheeks,  hind  feet,  and  part  of  the  forefeet; 
under  parts  white,  unspotted  except  on  the  lower  neck;  tail  with 
four  complete  rings  and  a  white  tip  (Hilzheimer,  1913,  pp.  287- 
288).  Head  and  body,  1,150  mm.;  tail,  650  mm.  (Cabrera,  1932, 
p.  192). 

In  Senegal  the  Cheetah  is  met  with  as  far  south  as  Podor  and 
even  near  St.  Louis  (Cligny,  1900,  p.  289). 

In  Morocco  it  exists  only  in  the  Saharan  district,  south  of  the 
Grand  Atlas  and  the  Anti-Atlas.  Strohl  (1923)  refers  to  the  capture 
of  a  dozen  specimens  in  the  vicinity  of  Zenaga  [region  of  Figuig?]. 
According  to  native  report,  it  is  well  known,  though  not  very  com- 
mon, in  the  Wadi  Draa.  Thence  it  extends  across  Mauretania  to 
Senegal.  (Cabrera,  1932,  p.  192.)  Laurent  (1935,  p.  350)  records 
skins  from  Tamlelt,  Morocco. 

In  North  Africa  the  Cheetah  is  extremely  rare,  but  is  still  found 
regularly  on  the  Oran-Moroccan  High  Plateaus.  It  is  also  said  to 
be  distributed  here  and  there  in  the  entire  Sahara.  (Heim  de  Balsac, 
1936,  pp.  99,  179.) 

In  Tunisia  this  very  rare  animal  exists  only  in  the  extreme  south, 
in  the  Grand  Erg.  Sometimes  solitary  individuals  range  toward 
the  north;  thus  some  Cheetahs  were  killed  at  Fedjej  and  at  El- 
Hamma  in  1908  and  1913.  The  species  is  hunted  by  its  tracks, 
which  are  easy  to  follow  on  the  sand  of  the  dunes.  The  natives  of 
southern  Tunisia  do  not  utilize  it  for  hunting,  as  the  Afghans,  Arabs, 
and  Indians  do  with  the  Asiatic  Cheetah.  (Lavauden,  1932,  pp.  7-8.) 

The  cause  of  depletion  in  Tunisia  is  the  progress  of  civilization; 
there  are  no  special  protective  measures.  The  animal  is  found  ac- 
companying herds  of  Addax  and  Loder's  Gazelles.  (Conservator  of 
Forests,  Tunis,  in  Hit.,  September,  1936.) 

We  lack  precise  information  on  the  range  of  the  Cheetah  in  the 
Libyan  hinterland.  Some  are  found  in  the  southern  steppe  region  of 
Cirenaica.  A  specimen  was  killed  recently  at  Bir  Scegga,  between 
Tobruk  and  Jarabub.  At  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs  the  animal  was 
employed  in  the  hunting  of  antelopes.  Its  skin  has  slight  commercial 
value.  (Zammarano,  1930,  pp.  13-15.) 

In  Egypt  the  species  "is  very  rare,  and  found  only  in  the  country 
to  the  west  of  Alexandria.  In  1909  Col.  H.  C.  B.  Hopkinson  .  .  . 
saw  the  tracks  of  two  Chitas  that  had  been  stalking  gazelle  in  the 
Mariut  district  about  40  miles  west  of  Alexandria."  In  1910  "a 
Bedawin  shot  a  Chita  about  5  miles  north-east  of  Moghara,  Mariut 
district  ....  A  few  other  specimens  were  shot  later."  In  1927 
"three  live  Chita  cubs  from  south-west  of  Sollum  had  been  received 
recently  at  the  Giza  Zoological  Gardens."  (Flower,  1932,  p.  392.) 

The  present  range  of  this  vanishing  species  in  Egypt  is  restricted 
to  the  Western  Desert.  The  cause  of  depletion  is  injudicious  hunting. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES    .  283 

The  skins  are  sold  and  the  meat  is  used  for  food.    (Ministry  of 
Agriculture  and  Zoological  Garden,  Cairo,  in  litt.,  January,  1937.) 

Indian  Cheetah;  Indian  Hunting  Leopard 

ACINONYX  JUBATUS  vENATicus   (Hamilton  Smith) 

F[elis]    Venatica   Hamilton   Smith,   in    Griffith's   Cuvier's   Anim.    Kingdom, 

vol.  5,  p.  166,  1827.    ("India.") 
FIGS.:  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  37,  no.  4,  suppl.,  pi.  46,  1935  (venati- 

cust);  Bodenheimer,  1935,  pi.  9  (venations?). 

The  Cheetah  is  nearly  extinct  in  India  and  has  become  very  rare 
in  southwestern  Asia  generally. 

The  general  color  is  pale  brownish  yellow  to  bright  rufous-fawn 
above  and  on  the  sides;  almost  everywhere  with  small  round  black 
spots ;  chin  and  throat  buffy  white,  unspotted ;  a  black  line  from  the 
anterior  corner  of  the  eye  to  the  upper  lip,  and  another  less  marked 
(or  a  row  of  spots  in  some  specimens)  from  the  posterior  corner  of 
the  eye  to  below  the  ear;  ear  black  outside,  base  and  margins  tawny; 
spots  on  tail  passing  toward  the  end  into  imperfect  rings.  Head  and 
body,  about  4.5  feet;  tail,  2.5  feet.  (Blanford,  1888,  p.  91.) 

The  Cheetahs  ranging  from  Baluchistan,  Persia,  and  Iraq  to  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Arabia  are  here  included  provisionally  with  the 
Indian  form  (A.  j.  venaticus). 

In  India  the  Cheetah  is  all  but  extinct  in  the  wild  state.  It  once  ranged 
from  the  confines  of  Bengal  through  the  plains  of  the  United  Provinces, 
the  Punjab  and  Rajputana,  through  Central  India  and  the  Deccan.  ...  A 
Cheetah  was  killed  in  1918  and  another  in  1919  in  the  Mirzapur  District  of 
the  United  Provinces.  Five  Cheetahs  are  recorded  as  having  been  obtained 
in  this  Province  during  the  previous  twenty-five  years.  In  the  Central 
Provinces,  the  Cheetah  appears  to  have  been  not  uncommon  at  one  time  in 
the  Berars.  Three  were  shot  in  the  Melghat  Forest  area  in  1890  and  one 
in  1894  and  one  at  Wano  in  1895.  Rumours  of  their  existence  in  parts  of 
Berar,  the  Seoni  Plateau  and  Saugor  still  persist.  They  were  apparently  once 
common  around  Hyderabad,  Deccan.  The  only  part  of  the  Bombay  Presi- 
dency where  Cheetahs  were  known  to  occur  recently  is  the  tract  of  rugged 
country  known  as  the  Tanga  in  the  centre  of  the  province  of  Kathiawar.  In 
1884  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  not  more  than  twenty  of  these  animals 
in  this  area.  A  female  and  four  cubs  were  shot  at  Rajkot  in  1894.  (Anonymous, 
1935,  p.  147.) 

"In  the  case  of  India,  the  cheetah  appears  to  be  verging  on  ex- 
tinction, if  not  already  extinct,  as  a  wild  animal.  At  all  events  the 
Mammal  Survey  of  India  .  .  .  does  not  seem  to  have  secured  a 
single  specimen;  and  ...  it  seems  that  Indian  cheetahs  are  now 
practically  unobtainable,  and  that  those  used  for  the  chase  are 
imported  from  Africa."  (Pocock,  1927,  pp.  18-19.) 

"I  have  heard  that  Princes  and  others  who  want  cheetahs  for 
hunting  purposes  now  get  them  from  Hyderabad.  But  the  officer 


284 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


in  charge  of  the  Gwalior  shikar  department  .  .  .  said  that  50  or 
60  survived  in  the  state.  They  are  found  in  Indore  also."  (Edward 
Thompson,  London  Times,  August  19,  1932?)  In  Hyderabad  State 
"there  still  remain  a  few  cheetahs"  (Salim  AH,  in  Anonymous,  1935, 
p.  231).  In  Mysore  there  are  several  old  records  (Morris,  1935,  p. 
386),  but  the  animal  is  "probably  now  extinct"  there  (Phythian- 
Adams,  in  Anonymous,  1935,  p.  241).  Fears  are  entertained  as  to 


FIG.  31. — Indian  Cheetah   (Acinonyx  jubatus  venaticus) 

its  survival  in  the  Madras  Presidency  (M.  F.  Budge,  in  litt.,  Novem- 
ber 12,  1936) .  Shooting  is  completely  prohibited  (Bombay  Natural 
History  Society,  in  litt.,  December,  1936) . 

"The  hunting  leopard  is  certainly  found  in  Persia,  but  I  am  unable 
to  give  any  particulars  as  to  its  distribution.  According  to  Eichwald 
it  does  not  extend  into  the  countries  west  of  the  Caspian,  though 
found  to  the  eastward.  De  Filippi  says  that  it  is  found  in  Mazan- 
daran."  (Blanford,  1876,  p.  35.)  To  this  statement  0.  St.  John  adds 
that  the  species  "is  not  used  at  present  for  sporting  purposes  in 
Persia."  [The  form  of  northern  Persia  may  be  A.  j.  raddei.] 

"As  regards  its  survival  in  Persia,  Arabia  and  Palestine,  I  have 
no  information  beyond  the  inference  to  be  drawn  from  the  infre- 
quency  with  which  it  is  mentioned"  (Pocock,  1927,  p.  18) . 

"In  South-Western  Asia  its  range  is  believed  to  reach  from  the 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  285 

frontiers  of  Sind  through  parts  of  Afghanistan,  Baluchistan  and 
Persia  and  Mesopotamia  to  Syria  and  Palestine  ....  To  what 
extent  it  survives  in  these  Asiatic  countries  is  not  known."  (Anony- 
mous, 1935,  p.  147.) 

In  1925  a  cub  was  secured  at  Jumaimah,  Muntafq,  Iraq,  and  in 
1928  two  cubs  were  taken  near  Busiya  on  the  Shamiyah  Desert. 
None  of  the  local  Arabs  had  seen  a  Cheetah  before.  (Corkill,  1929, 
pp.  700-702.) 

Danford  and  Alston  (1880,  pp.  52-53)  report  on  the  Cheetah  in 
Syria  as  follows:  "A  skin  of  the  Cheetah  was  presented  to  Danford 
at  Biledjik,  on  the  Euphrates,  by  his  host  Sheik  Mustapha,  who 
stated  that  the  animal  had  been  killed  among  the  rocks  near  Sevi, 
a  small  village  about  five  hours  down  the  river  on  the  Mesopotamian 
side ;  it  was  the  only  specimen  which  he  had  ever  seen.  This  Society 
[the  Zoological  Society  of  London]  has  received  more  than  one 
specimen  from  Syria,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  species  may 
be  found  in  some  parts  of  Asia  Minor  proper." 

Tristram  wrote  in  1884  (p.  19)  of  this  species  in  Palestine:  "This 
graceful  Leopard  is  scarce,  but  still  haunts  the  wooded  hills  of  Galilee 
and  the  neighbourhood  of  Tabor.  East  of  Jordan  it  is  far  more  com- 
mon, and  is  much  valued  by  the  Arabs." 

The  Cheetah  has  now  become  very  rare  in  Palestine.  Yet  it  is 
still  pretty  common  in  the  southern  steppe.  Its  use  for  the  chase  is 
now  quite  outmoded.  (Aharoni,  1930,  p.  332.)  It  "still  lives  in  the 
Negeb,  in  Transjordania  and  rare  specimens  also  persist  in  the  Pales- 
tinian mountains.  The  author  saw  many  skins,  sold  by  Beduins 
from  Beersheba."  (Bodenheimer,  1935,  p.  105.)  More  recently  Pro- 
fessor Bodenheimer  writes  (in  litt.,  March,  1937)  that  the  animal 
is  now  on  the  verge  of  extinction  or  extinct  and  that  nothing  can  be 
done  to  preserve  it  in  Palestine,  but  that  perhaps  there  is  still  a 
chance  to  do  so  in  Transjordania. 

In  1909  Carruthers  (1935,  pp.  60,  70)  found  Cheetah  tracks  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Jabal  Tubaiq,  Arabia,  approximately  150  miles 
east  of  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akaba. 


Turkestan  Cheetah 

ACINONYX  JUBATUS  RADDEi  Hilzheimer 

Acinonyx  raddei  Hilzheimer,  Sitz.-ber.  Ges.  naturf.  Freunde  Berlin  1913,  no.  5, 
p.  291,  1913.  (Based  upon  a  specimen  purchased  in  Merv,  Russian 
Turkestan  (Turcoman  S.  S.  R.).) 

This  Cheetah  seems  to  occur  in  very  small  numbers  in  the  southern 
parts  of  Russian  Turkestan.  The  animals  of  northern  Persia  and 
northern  Afghanistan  may  belong  to  the  same  form. 


286  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

It  is  distinguished  by  its  extremely  thick,  long  fur;  ground  color 
light  brownish  gray ;  very  large  spots  reaching  to  the  toes ;  tail  long- 
haired and  very  bushy,  with  five  half -rings  (one  perhaps  a  complete 
ring)  at  the  end  (Hilzheimer,  1913,  p.  291).  (Cf.  Satunin,  1909, 
pp.  254-256.) 

"Only  in  the  western  portion  of  Turkestan  have  I  met  with  this 
species,  and  even  there  only  on  the  low  plains"  (Severtzoff,  1876, 
p.  49). 

This  is  doubtless  the  commonest  of  the  large  cats  in  Transcaspia. 
It  is  distributed  through  the  whole  region — on  the  lowlands,  along 
the  river  courses,  and  on  the  mountains.  Each  year  the  Turkomans 
bring  young  Cheetahs  for  sale  into  the  cities  and  military  posts. 
Training  the  animals  for  the  chase  is  unknown  to  them.  (Radde  and 
Walter,  1889,  p.  1012.) 

The  following  data  are  from  Ognev  (1935,  pp.  313-314) :  The 
Cheetah  is  found  from  time  to  time  as  far  north  as  the  Mangyshlak 
Peninsula  (Karelin,  1883).  It  inhabits  the  Kara  Tau,  the  western 
spurs  of  the  Tian  Shan,  the  lower  Syr  Darya,  the  Zarafshan  Valley, 
and  the  steppes  between  Zarafshan,  Syr  Darya,  and  Kizil  Kum, 
reaching  an  elevation  of  600-1,000  feet  (Severtzov,  1873).  It  also 
occurs  on  the  Amu  Darya  (Zarudny,  1915)  and  in  Tajikistan.  It  is 
particularly  numerous  along  the  Murgab,  Tejend,  and  Sumbar 
Rivers  (Bilkewicz,  1918).  The  Caucasian  Museum  has  specimens 
from  Merv,  Kizil  Arvat,  and  the  Kopet  Dagh.  The  Cheetah  is  also 
recorded  from  Mazanderan,  northern  Persia  (De  Filippi) . 

About  1884  two  cubs  were  obtained  in  northeastern  Persia  near 
the  Turbat-shaikh-jami  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Hari  Rud  (Ait- 
chison,  1889,  pp.  56-57) . 

The  Cheetah  is  observed  irregularly  and  in  very  small  numbers 
in  Turkestan  on  the  frontiers  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan.  Some  are 
killed,  but  not  every  year.  (W.  G.  Heptner,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

King  Cheetah;  Cooper's  Cheetah 

AdNONYX    REX    PoCOck 

Acinonyx  rex  Pocock,  Abstr.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  no.  283,  p.  18,  Mar.  1, 
1927  ("Umoukwe  [=Umvukwe]  Range,  N.W.  of  Salisbury,  [Southern] 
Rhodesia");  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1927,  pt.  1,  p.  250,  pi.  1,  April  6, 
1927. 

FIGS.:  Pocock,  1927a,  pi.  1,  and  19276,  frontisp.;  Dollman,  1929a,  p.  3,  fig.; 
Maydon,  1932,  pi.  103. 

The  range  as  well  as  the  numbers  of  the  King  Cheetah  are  dis- 
tinctly limited,  and  special  protective  measures  seem  to  be  neces- 
sary in  order  to  insure  its  survival. 

It  is  similar  in  size  and  proportions  to  the  Common  Cheetah  (A. 
jubatus)  but  distinguished  from  it  by  a  bold  pattern  of  black 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  287 

stripes  and  blotches,  which  are  longitudinal  on  the  dorsal  area  and 
oblique  or  longitudinal  on  the  flanks;  legs  blotched  and  spotted  to 
the  feet;  basal  half  of  tail  with  two  longitudinal  stripes,  distal  half 
with  irregular  transverse  stripes;  ground  color  mostly  cream-buff; 
belly  white.  Skin  measurements:  head  and  body,  4  feet  2  inches 
to  4  feet  5  inches;  tail,  2  feet  6  inches.  (Pocock,  1927a,  pp.  250- 
252.)  The  King  Cheetah  is  by  some  considered  as  a  color  mutation 
of  the  Common  Cheetah  (G.  M.  Allen,  MS.). 


FIG.  32.— King  Cheetah  (Acinonyx  rex).    After  Pocock,  1927. 

The  species  is  known  only  from  Southern  Rhodesia.  Its  range 
may  lie  wholly  within  the  northern  division  of  the  Southeastern 
Veldt  District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  260) . 

This  superb  new  Cheetah  was  brought  to  scientific  attention  in 
1926,  by  Major  A.  L.  Cooper,  who  sent  to  the  British  Museum  the 
skin  of  an  animal  trapped  by  natives  in  the  Umvukwe  Range 
(Pocock,  1927a,  p.  245). 

Cooper  (in  Maydon,  1932,  pp.  335-336)  gives  the  following  ac- 
count: 

"That  this  animal  was  known  for  some  time  past  is  borne  out 
by  the  fact  that,  twenty  years  ago,  mention  used  to  be  made  round 
camp  fires  by  natives  of  a  beast  that  was  neither  Lion,  Leopard, 
nor  Cheetah,  and  ...  I  believe  was  referred  to  as  the  'Mazoe 
Leopard.'  It  was  apparently  commoner  in  those  days  than  it  is  now." 

The  skin  now  in  the  Salisbury  Museum  was  purchased  from 
natives,  who  stated  that  they  had  killed  the  animal  in  the  Macheke 
district.  There  were  four  or  five  in  the  troop. 

H.  M.  G.  Jackson  reported  a  similar  skin  at  the  American  Mission 


288  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING  MAMMALS 

at  Utambara.  "It  was  also  an  old  native  police  sergeant  of  his, 
who,  when  shown  the  skin,  said  he  knew  the  animal,  told  us  its 
native  name,  and  informed  us  of  its  habits,  namely,  that  it  is  ex- 
tremely shy,  never  attacked  domestic  animals  except  possibly  a 
young  kid,  and,  when  chased  by  dogs,  never  took  to  a  tree  as  a 
Cheetah  occasionally  does.  .  .  . 

"It  was  found  that  Mr.  Watters,  Native  Commissioner  at  Bitika, 
possessed  two  such  skins.  .  .  .  These  were  presumably  obtained  in 
his  district.  Apart  from  these  two,  I  found  Mr.  Lacey  of  Salisbury 
also  had  a  specimen,  .  .  .  killed  some  twenty  miles  south  of  Salis- 
bury. .  .  . 

"This  is  the  history  of  the  discovery,  if  it  can  be  described  as 
such." 

Pocock  reports  (1927a,  p.  246)  that  the  animal  whose  skin  was  kept 
at  the  Utambara  Mission  "was  shot  in  the  Melsetter  District  close 
to  the  Portuguese  Border.  .  .  .  The  natives  were  not  at  all  afraid 
of  it  as  they  were  of  leopards,  and  would  attack  it  armed  only  with 
assegais."  He  says  also  (19276,  p.  19) : 

In  the  interests  of  the  preservation  of  the  new  species  of  cheetah  the 
following  probabilities  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  upon.  All  the  avail- 
able evidence  suggests  that  the  animal  has  a  restricted  range  and  is  nowhere 
plentiful.  Its  distributional  area  is  within  reach  of  Salisbury,  an  easily 
accessible  centre;  and  the  publicity  now  given  to  the  existence  of  so  hand- 
some an  animal  will  surely  be  taken  advantage  of  by  sportsmen  and  traders. 
All  the  big  museums  in  the  world  will  be  eager  for  its  skin,  and  every 
zoological  garden  will  want  live  specimens  for  exhibition.  It  will,  therefore, 
command  a  high  price,  whether  alive  or  dead,  and  the  result  will  be  per- 
secution by  hunters  and  trappers  on  such  a  scale  as  to  threaten  its  extinction 
unless  the  authorities  in  Rhodesia  at  once  take  such  steps  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  protect  it. 

There  seem  to  be  no  nature  reserves  within  the  known  range  of 
the  King  Cheetah. 

Barbary  Lion.    Le  Lion  de  Barberie   (Fr.).    El  Leon 
berberisco  (Span.) 

LEO  LEO  LEO  (Linnaeus) 

Felis  leo  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  41,  1758.  ("Africa";  type  locality 
subsequently  restricted  to  Constantine,  Algeria,  by  J.  A.  Allen,  Bull.  Am. 
Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  47,  p.  222,  1924.) 

FIGS.:  Reichenbach,  1836,  figs.  1-2;  Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif., 
vol.  1,  pis.  114-115,  1824. 

The  Barbary  Lion  survived  well  into  the  twentieth  century  but 
is  now  extinct. 

"Very  large,  dusky  ochery,  with  the  mane  very  thick  and  long, 
extending  to  the  middle  of  the  back;  and  a  thick  and  heavy  mane 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  289 

on  the  under-parts.  In  the  female  the  inside  of  the  fore-legs  is 
white."  (Lydekker,  1908,  p.  416.)  The  female  is  paler  and  smaller 
than  the  male  (Cabrera,  1932,  p.  181). 

This  extinct  race  ranged  from  Tripoli  through  Tunisia,  Algeria, 
and  Morocco.  Apparently  there  are  no  definite  records  of  Lions 
within  the  present  confines  of  Egypt  during  historic  times.  The 
Lion  of  Senegal  is  described  as  a  distinct  race  (Leo  leo  senegalensis 
(J.  N.  von  Meyer)),  although  a  single  race  of  Cheetah  (Adnonyx 
jubatus  hecki  Hilzheimer)  is  accredited  to  both  Senegal  and  the 
Barbary  States. 

Tripoli. — "About  two  hundred  years  ago  the  lion  was  found  quite 
commonly  in  Tunisia.  About  the  same  time*,  so  far  as  records  go,  the 
last  lion  was  killed  in  the  adjoining  Pashalik  of  Tripoli,  where  the 
animal  now  seems  to  be  entirely  extinct."  (Johnston,  in  Bryden, 
1899,  p.  564.) 

Tunisia. — "Down  to  the  time  of  the  French  invasion  of  Tunis, 
in  1881,  lions  were  still  found  in  the  extreme  north-western  part  of 
the  Regency,  close  to  the  Algerian  frontier.  .  .  . 

"What  has  brought  about  the  extinction  of  this  animal  is  less 
the  persistent  attacks  of  French  or  Arab  sportsmen  than  the  opening 
up  of  the  forests  and  the  settling  down  of  the  people  since  the  French 
occupation.  The  herds  are  now  so  carefully  tended  that  the  lion  has 
little  or  no  chance  of  feeding  on  them,  while  the  Barbary  stag  and 
the  gazelles  have  in  that  region  become  very  scarce."  (Johnston,  in 
Bryden,  1899,  pp.  562-564.) 

The  last  Lion  of  Tunisia  was  killed  in  1891  at  Babouch,  between 
Tabarka  and  Am-Draham.  The  species  was  common  up  to  the  time 
of  the  French  occupation.  Doubtless  owing  to  troop  movements,  it 
then  retired  to  the  most  remote  massifs.  It  could  not  survive  in 
contact  with  civilization.  (Lavauden,  1932,  pp.  5-6.) 

Two  specimens  in  the  Ley  den  Museum  (one  killed  in  Tunisia  in 
1823,  the  other  in  "North  Africa"  about  the  same  period)  are  prob- 
ably the  only  wild-killed  Barbary  Lions  that  are  preserved  in  any 
museum  and  can  be  studied  at  present  (Cabrera,  1932,  pp.  182-183). 

Algeria.— Pease  (in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  564-566)  gives  the  following 
account: 

The  North  African  lion  was  in  bygone  ages  undoubtedly  very  numerous.  .  .  . 

The  Algerian  lion  has  become  so  rare  that  it  may  be  said  to  be  nearing 
extinction.  ...  It  lingers  only  in  the  country  that  might  almost  be 
described  as  the  Mediterranean  littoral  zone,  though  an  occasional  lion  is 
still  shot  or  tracked  in  the  interior,  as  far  inland  as  the  district  of  Soukarras, 
and  certain  places  in  the  Aures.  [During  1892-95]  I  do  not  remember  hearing 
of  more  than  three  or  four  being  obtained  in  the  whole  province  of  Con- 
stantine.  In  the  provinces  of  Algiers  and  Oran  they  may  be  said  to  be  ex- 
tinct. So  long  ago  as  1862  General  Marguerite  wrote  that  ...  in  the  province 
of  Algiers  .  .  .  the  average  number  killed  did  not  exceed  three  or  four  a 


290  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

year.  .  .  .  General  Marguerite  relates,  that  during  his  eleven  years  the 
Beni-Mahrez,  a  tribe  not  numbering  more  than  100  tents,  lost  on  average 
annually,  3  horses,  25  cattle,  and  75  sheep  from  the  depredations  of  lions 
and  panthers  ....  Before  the  French  came,  the  Turks  had  encouraged  the 
Arabs  to  destroy  them  by  freeing  the  two  great  lion-hunting  tribes,  the 
Ouled  Meloul  and  Ouled  Cessi,  from  all  taxes  and  paying  liberally  for  their 
skins.  The  French  gave  only  50  francs  for  a  skin. 

Between  1873  and  1883  the  process  of  extinction  is  measured  in  Govern- 
ment returns.  The  numbers  killed  for  the  whole  of  Algeria  were,  in  the  last 
six  years  of  this  period,  1878,  28;  1879,  22;  1880,  16;  1881,  6;  1882,  4;  1883,  3; 
(1884,  1) ;  and  for  the  decade- 
Province  of  Algeria 29 

"         "    Constantine    173 

"          "    Oran 0 

202 

There  are  a  few  lions  still  left  in  the  Province  de  Constantine,  in  the  thick 
forests  between  Soukarras  and  La  Calle. 

According  to  Johnston  (in  Bryden,  1899,  p.  564),  "Lions  still 
linger  here  and  there  in  South-East  and  South-West  Algeria." 

On  the  other  hand,  Lavauden,  an  eminent  authority  on  the  North 
African  fauna,  fixes  (1932,  p.  6)  the  date  of  the  Lion's  disappearance 
in  Algeria  at  about  1891,  when  the  last  one  was  killed  in  the  region 
of  Souk-Ahras. 

Morocco. — To  judge  by  the  literature  of  several  centuries  ago, 
Morocco  was  then  a  veritable  country  of  Lions.  At  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  they  still  abounded  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast.  Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  range  extended 
to  Cape  Nun,  Ifni.  By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Lion 
had  retreated  from  the  entire  Mediterranean  littoral.  According  to 
old  native  hunters,  about  1880  not  a  Lion  remained  north  of  the 
low  Bu  Regreg  and  Taza  Pass.  Some  years  later  many  forests  of  the 
Middle  Atlas  served  as  a  refuge  for  bandits,  and  this  fact,  together 
with  the  civil  wars  of  those  times,  contributed  to  the  disappearance 
of  the  Lions.  Even  in  1901  Lions  were  said  to  be  frequent  visitors 
to  the  forest  of  Budaa,  near  Azru.  According  to  the  ex-Sultan  Muley 
Hafid,  there  remained  in  Morocco  about  1911  only  a  few  Lions, 
which  lived  in  the  forests  of  the  Zaian  and  the  Beni  Mguild.  Ap- 
parently they  survived  at  least  to  1922  in  the  Middle  Atlas,  and 
it  is  probable  that  they  inhabited  the  Grand  Atlas  likewise  till  a 
comparatively  recent  date.  They  inhabited  especially  the  wooded 
mountains. 

The  Lion  figures  largely  in  the  folklore  of  Morocco. 

Its  rapid  disappearance  from  this  country  constitutes  a  very 
curious  problem.  Unlike  the  Cape  Province  and  Algiers,  Morocco 
remained  wild  and  uncivilized  up  to  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago. 
Its  inhabitants  are  far  from  being  a  hunting  people,  and  few  Euro- 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  291 

peans  have  ventured  there  owing  to  the  lack  of  security.  (Cabrera, 
1932,  pp.  186-190.) 

Heim  de  Balsac  (1936,  p.  98)  places  the  disappearance  of  the 
species  in  Morocco  in  the  decade  1900-1910 — a  considerably  earlier 
date  than  Cabrera's. 

Utilization  by  the  Romans. — "There  is  ...  little  doubt  that  the 
Romans  drew  their  chief  supply  of  lions  for  the  arena  and  gladia- 
torial combats  from  Mauretania  and  Numidia."  Pliny  speaks  of 
hundreds  at  a  time  being  shown  by  Pompey  and  Caesar  in  the 
Roman  arena.  (Pease,  in  Bryden,  1899,  p.  564.)  This  bespeaks  a 
great  abundance  of  Lions  in  North  Africa  at  that  period. 

European  Lion 

LEO  LEO  subsp. 

Of  the  Lion  that  still  existed  in  Greece  in  classical  times,  no 
remains  seem  to  have  been  found.  If  suitable  material  were  avail- 
able, the  modern  systematist  would  probably  find  means  of  dis- 
tinguishing it  from  any  living  Lion  as  well  as  from  its  Pleistocene 
ancestor  (Leo  spelaeus)  that  once  roamed  over  a  large  part  of 
Europe.  Up  to  the  present  time,  however,  it  apparently  has  not 
received  even  a  subspecific  designation. 

Meyer  (1903,  pp.  65-73)  has  provided  a  useful  summary  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  European  Lion.  Herodotus  (ca.  484-430  B.  C.) 
reports  many  Lions  between  the  Achelous  River  in  Acarnania  and 
the  Nestus  River  in  Abdera  (Thrace)  and  states  that  during 
Xerxes's  march  through  Macedonia  (480  B.  C.)  Lions  killed  some 
of  his  baggage  camels.  Aristotle  (384-322  B.  C.)  assigns  the  same 
range  to  the  Lion,  but  speaks  of  it  as  rare.  By  A.  D.  80-100  it  was 
considered  entirely  exterminated  in  Europe,  as  a  result  of  a  gradual 
retreat  before  man  and  his  culture. 

"The  Greek  name  for  the  lion  is  very  ancient,  and  this  suggests 
that  it  refers  to  an  animal  indigenous  to  the  country.  Although  the 
evidence  is  not  decisive,  it  seems  probable  that  lions  did  exist  in 
Greece  at  the  time  of  Herodotus;  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  the 
representation  of  a  lion-chase  incised  on  a  Mycenean  dagger  may 
have  been  taken  from  life."  (Flower  and  Lydekker,  1911,  vol.  16, 
p.  737.) 

Evidently  Elliot  regarded  this  Lion  as  identical  with  the  pre- 
historic Cave  Lion  (Leo  spelaeus).  He  writes  (1883,  text  to  pi.  1) : 
"The  Cave-Lion  disappeared  from  Britain  towards  the  close  of  the 
Postglacial  period,  and  is  considered  to  have  retreated  gradually 
from  Europe  and  become  extinct  between  340  B.  C.  and  A.  D.  100. 
The  cause  of  this  disappearance,  according  to  Dawkins,  was  the 
warfare  carried  on  against  it  by  the  people  of  those  periods,  as 


292  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

exhibited  by  the  leonine  remains  found  in  the  ancient  dwelling 
places  of  the  Postglacial  men  in  Aurignac  and  La  Madeleine.  This 
is  probably  a  correct  supposition;  for  neither  was  the  temperature 
unsuited  for  its  continued  existence  nor  had  the  supply  of  food 
failed." 

Asiatic  Lion;  Indian  Lion 

LEO  LEO  PERSICUS  (Meyer) 

Felis  leo  persicus  Meyer,  Dissertatio  inauguralis  anatomico-medica  de  genere 

Felium  [Vienna],  p.  6,  1826.   (Persia.) 

SYNONYMS:  Felis  leo  goojratensis  Smee  (1833);  Leo  asiaticus  Jardine  (1834). 
FIGS.:  Trans.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  vol.  1,  pi.  24,  1834;  Jardine's  Nat.  Libr., 

vol.  15,  Mammalia,  pi.  11,  1842;  Elliot,  1883,  pi.  1,  upper  right-hand  fig.; 

Pocock,  1930,  pis.  1-3. 

This  Lion,  once  widely  distributed  from  Asia  Minor,  Palestine, 
and  Arabia  to  Persia  and  India,  is  now  almost  or  entirely  reduced 
to  a  small  remnant  in  the  Province  of  Kathiawar,  in  western  India. 
There  may  be  also  a  few  solitary  survivors  in  Persia  and  Iraq,  but 
this  is  doubtful. 

"On  the  average,  the  Indian  lion  has  a  scantier  mane  than  the 
African  and,  curiously  enough,  ...  a  fuller  coat,  a  longer  tassel 
of  hair  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  a  more  pronounced  tuft  of  hair  on 
the  elbow  joints  and  a  fuller  fringe  of  hairs  on  the  belly.  In  size, 
there  is  little  to  choose  between  the  two.  .  .  .  The  largest  recorded 
measurement  of  an  Indian  lion  is  9  ft.  7  in.,  of  an  African  lion 
10  ft.  7  in."  (Anonymous,  1935,  p.  123.) 

Asia  Minor. — In  1878  or  1879  Sheik  Mustapha  informed  Danford 
"that  five  years  ago  a  Lion  appeared  near  Biledjik  [on  the  Euphrates 
toward  the  Syrian  border],  and  after  destroying  many  horses  was 
done  to  death"  (Danford  and  Alston,  1880,  p.  53).  This  is  the  only 
definite  locality  record  I  have  found  for  Asia  Minor. 

Syria,  Palestine,  and  Arabia. — "The  Lion  has  long  been  extinct 
in  Palestine,  and  among  the  inhabitants  there  is  no  tradition  of  its 
existence.  Yet  of  its  former  abundance  there  can  be  no  question. 
It  is  mentioned  about  130  times  in  Scripture  ....  Within  the 
historic  period  it  was  common  in  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece. 
...  It  seems  to  have  disappeared  altogether  from  Palestine  about 
the  time  of  the  Crusades,  the  last  mention  of  it  being  by  writers  of 
the  twelfth  century,  when  it  still  existed  near  Samaria.  ...  It  can 
scarcely  be  said  now  to  exist  in  Asia  west  of  the  Euphrates,  unless 
in  Arabia,  the  latest  trace  being  that  a  few  years  ago  the  carcase  of 
one  was  brought  into  Damascus.  .  .  .  The  Arabs  state  it  is  found 
in  Arabia."  (Tristram,  1884,  p.  17.) 

According  to  the  Old  Testament,  the  Lion  was  found  in  Lebanon 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  293 

and  on  the  Jordan.  The  ancient  writers  (Xenophon,  Aristotle, 
Strabo,  Pliny,  etc.)  speak  of  lion  hunts  in  Syria  and  also  in  Arabia. 
(Meyer,  1903,  p.  71.) 

"To-day,  the  nearest  [to  Palestine]  wild  habitats  of  the  lion  are 
the  jungles  of  the  Upper  Euphrates  and  several  Arabian  oases.  But 
even  in  those  places  it  must  be  on  the  verge  of  extinction."  (Boden- 
heimer,  1935,  p.  114.) 

Iraq  (Mesopotamia)  and  Persia. — In  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century  Lions  were  noted  fairly  commonly  along  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Tigris.  The  explorer  Layard  hunted  them  with  the  Bakhtiyari 
chiefs  in  Arabistan,  whose  sheep  and  oxen  suffered  from  the  Lions' 
depredations.  By  the  middle  of  the  century  Layard  reported  the 
species  as  then  found  rarely  on  the  Tigris  as  far  north  as  Mosul, 
but  frequently  below  Bagdad.  He  adds:  "On  the  Euphrates  it  has 
been  seen,  I  believe,  almost  as  high  as  Bir  ....  On  the  [Jebel?] 
Sinjar  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Khabour  [in  the  northeast  of  the 
present  Syria],  they  are  frequently  caught  by  Arabs.  They  abound 
in  Khuzistan  [western  Persia]."  (Kinnear,  1920,  pp.  33-35.) 

By  1891,  according  to  Sir  Alfred  Pease  (Book  of  the  Lion),  the 
"lion  is  no  longer  found  in  Asia  Minor,  but  exists  in  Mesopotamia 
and  Arabistan,  between  Poelis,  west  of  Aleppo,  and  Deyr  [in  the 
present  Syria] ,  and  in  the  Euphrates  valley  ...  ;  it  is  also  found  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  Karun  river  but  is  nowhere  plentiful."  (Kin- 
near,  1920,  p.  36.) 

Blanford  writes  (1876,  p.  29) :  "The  lion  at  the  present  day  is 
found  in  Mesopotamia,  on  the  west  flanks  of  the  Zagros  mountains 
east  of  the  Tigris  valley,  and  in  the  wooded  ranges  south  and  south- 
east of  Shiraz.  It  nowhere  exists  on  the  table  land  of  Persia."  To 
this  0.  St.  John  adds  (in  Blanford,  1876,  pp.  30-31) :  "Lions,  which 
are  very  numerous  in  the  reedy  swamps  bordering  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  are  found  also  in  the  plains  of  Susiana,  the  modern 
Khuzistan,  and  extend  into  the  mountain  country  south  of  Shiraz 
as  far  east  as  longitude  53°."  Acorns  of  an  oak  (Quercus  aegilopi- 
folia)  "feed  the  wild  pigs  whose-  presence  tempts  the  lion  into  the 
mountains  of  Pars.  .  .  .  The  little  valley  of  Dashtiarjan,  thirty- 
five  miles  west  of  Shiraz,  is  notorious  for  the  number  of  lions  found 
in  its  vicinity.  .  .  .  Dashtiarjan  is  ...  a  perfect  paradise  for 
swine,  ...  so  that  the  lions  have  plenty  to  eat  ....  Every  year 
some  four  or  five  adult  lions  are  killed  in  Dashtiarjan  or  the  neigh- 
bourhood, and  a  few  cubs  are  brought  in  to  Shiraz  for  sale." 

Edward  Thompson  (London  Times,  August  19,  1932?)  gives  the 
following  reports  for  Mesopotamia:  a  Lioness  and  cubs  seen  by  an 
Indian  trooper  near  Ahwaz  in  1917;  a  Lion  cub  brought  through  an 
Arab  village  near  Sanniyat  in  1916;  and  one  shot  in  the  Wadi 


294  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

marshes  a  year  later.  He  also  mentions  a  report  received  by  the 
Bombay  Natural  History  Society  of  the  continued  existence  of  Lions 
in  the  Pusht-i-Kuh  range  of  western  Persia. 

"There  are  Persian  Lions,  and  the  last  time  a  pair  of  them  was 
seen  in  the  South  of  Persia  by  French  and  English  Engineers  (in 
1928)  ....  The  animals  were  carefully  watched  for  several  hours 
and  were  seen  by  hundreds  of  people.  ...  I  understand  that  the 
Persian  ruler  takes  keen  interest  in  their  preservation  and  they 
are  not  allowed  to  be  shot."  (Hasan  Abid  Jafry,  in  Hit.,  August 
17,  1933.) 

The  Persian  Lion  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  Firearms,  whose  use 
increased  during  the  World  War,  were  more  dangerous  to  the  Lion 
in  Persia  than  in  Africa.  In  1923  the  last  of  its  kind  was  killed 
south  of  Shiraz.  Yet  the  people  still  express  belief  in  the  existence 
of  Lions.  In  the  swamp  and  reed  areas  of  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris  I  have  been  able  to  find  no  more  trace  of  the  Lion.  The  opera- 
tions here  during  the  World  War  paved  the  way  for  its  extinction. 
Skins  of  Persian  Lions  are  still  found  in  some  mosques.  (Becker, 
1934,  pp.  439-440.) 

The  Lion  may  survive  in  the  wilder  mountains  of  Luristan  and 
Khuzistan  in  southwestern  Persia  (Bombay  Natural  History  Society, 
in  litt.,  December,  1936) . 

"The  Syrians  frequently  used  the  lion  motif  as  a  frieze  decora- 
tion, and  at  Persepolis,  thirty  miles  northeast  of  Shiraz,  where  the 
magnificent  ruins  of  the  palace  of  Darius  the  Great  may  still  be 
seen,  the  lion  as  a  decorative  architectural  motif  was  constantly  used. 
In  the  embrasures  of  some  of  the  great  doors  of  Persepolis  the  winged 
lions  were  magnificently  carved."  (Vernay,  1930,  p.  82.) 

Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan. — "There  is  no  evidence  to  show 
that  the  lion  inhabited  Afghanistan  or  Baluchistan  within  historic 
times"  (Kinnear,  1920,  p.  37) . 

"I  was  told,  while  in  Duzbad,  the  frontier  town  on  the  Baluch- 
Persian  border,  that  the  lion  existed  in  Afghanistan  seventy-five 
years  ago.  This  is  mere  heresay,  but  it  sounds  quite  reasonable." 
(Vernay,  1930,  pp.  82-83.) 

In  1935  Admiral  Philip  Dumas  reported  seeing  a  Lion  at  close 
range  near  the  Bolan  Pass,  south  of  Quetta  in  Baluchistan  (Jour. 
Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  38,  no.  2,  pp.  381-382,  1935). 

India. — "Within  the  present  [19th]  century,  distributed  over 
much  of  Central,  West,  and  North-west  India;  but  now  confined 
in  that  country  to  the  peninsula  of  Guzrat,  unless  a  last  remnant 
still  maintains  a  lingering  existence  in  the  jungles  bordering  the 
Sind  River  in  Bundelkund,  which  I  now  consider  doubtful"  (Blyth, 
1863,  p.  182). 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  295 

Kinnear  (1920,  pp.  37-39)  writes: 

[The  Lion]  was  formerly  found  in  Sind,  Bahawalpur  and  the  Punjab, 
becoming  extinct  round  Hariana,  in  the  latter  province,  in  1842.  It  was 
however  extinct  in  Sind  before  that  date  and  the  last  on  record  was  shot 
near  Kot  Deji  in  1810.  Exactly  how  far  eastwards  the  lion  was  a  regular 
inhabitant  we  do  not  know,  though  there  is  a  statement  of  one  being  killed 
in  the  Palamaw  district,  Behar  and  Orissa,  in  1814,  but  whether  this  was 
merely  a  straggler  or  not,  there  is  no  evidence  to  show.  The  southernmost 
limit  appears  to  have  been  the  Narbada.  In  1832  one  was  killed  at  Baroda, 
while  further  north  it  was  comparatively  common  round  Ahmedabad  in 
1836.  Central  India  in  these  early  days  was  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the 
lion  and  to  give  an  idea  of  its  numbers  we  may  mention  that  Lydekker  was 
informed  that  during  the  Mutiny,  Colonel  George  Acland  Smith  killed  up- 
wards of  300  Indian  lions  and  out  of  this  number  50  were  accounted  for  in  the 
Delhi  district ! 

The  occurrence  of  the  lion  in  Cutch  is  doubtfully  recorded.  The  lion 
probably  was  found  in  Cutch  at  one  time  but  the  records  are  not  satisfactory. 

Dates  of  extermination  in  other  parts  of  India,  according  to  Kin- 
near,  are:  Damoh  district  (Saugor  and  Narbada  territories),  1847- 
48;  Rewah  (between  Allahabad  and  Jubbulpore),  1866;  Goona, 
1873;  Abu  and  Jodhpur  (Rajputana),  1872;  Deesa  (Guzerat),  1878; 
Palanpur  (Guzerat),  1880. 

A  map,  showing  dates  of  extermination  of  the  Lion  in  various 
localities  in  India,  is  given  by  Pocock  (1930,  facing  p.  661). 

"A  small  number  [of  African  Lions]  were  imported  into  Gwalior" 
about  1890-1900,  "but  after  a  few  years  they  became  a  pest,  killing 
not  only  the  cattle  of  the  natives,  but  also  the  natives  themselves, 
so  that  the  African  lions  were  all  eventually  shot  out.  Also,  the 
tigers  of  Gwalior  are  famous,  and  as  tigers  will  not  permit  lions  to 
remain  in  their  territory,  they  must  have  helped  to  kill  off  the  lions." 
(Vernay,  1930,  pp.  81-82.) 

"In  India  the  lion  is  verging  on  extinction.  There  are  probably  a 
very  few  still  living  in  the  wild  tract  known  as  the  Gir  in  Kattywar, 
and  a  few  more  in  the  wildest  parts  of  Rajputana,  especially  South- 
ern Jodhpur,  in  Oodeypur,  and  around  Mount  Abu."  (Blanford, 
1888,  p.  57.) 

"In  1893  ...  a  rough  census  was  taken  [in  the  Gir  Forest], 
and  the  number  remaining  was  estimated  at  twenty-six,  which  sub- 
sequent estimate  raised  to  thirty-one.  .  .  .  There  are  now  esti- 
mated to  be  only  twenty  lions  remaining  in  the  Gir,  of  which  eight 
are  cubs.  (Lydekker,  1900,  pp.  270-271,  quoting  from  The  Asian 
newspaper  of  June  19,  1900.) 

"It  is  only  in  the  Province  of  Kathiawar,  a  small  peninsula  north- 
west of  Bombay,  that  the  true  Asiatic  lion  can  still  be  found.  Even 
there  it  exists  only  in  the  Gir  Forest,  an  area  of  four  hundred  square 
miles  in  the  State  of  Janagadh.  .  .  . 


296  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"It  is  only  a  question  of  time  before  the  lion  will  disappear  even 
from  this  district,  although  at  present  it  is  closely  protected.  The 
number,  which  is  roughly  estimated  at  200,  is  not  increasing.  The 
inevitable  diminution  of  the  forest,  in  spite  of  the  restrictions  against 
cutting,  and  the  possibility  of  disease  owing  to  the  confined  area, 
mean  ultimate  extermination."  (Vernay,  1930,  p.  81.) 

Economics  and  conservation. — The  Lions  "commit  considerable 
havoc  amongst  the  cattle,  which  are  brought  into  the  Gir  for  grazing 
purposes  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  besides  helping  them- 
selves liberally  to  the  sambar,  nilgai,  spotted  deer,  and  pig  with 
which  the  forest  abounds.  ...  A  large  number  of  lions  are  kept 
in  captivity  in  the  State  gardens  at  Junagarh,  where  they  breed 
very  freely."  (L.  L.  Fenton,  in  Lydekker,  1900,  pp.  410-412.) 

"It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  factors  which  exterminated 
it  in  Europe,  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  and  have  brought  it  to  the  verge 
of  extinction  in  Mesopotamia  and  Persia,  even  if  they  have  not 
already  achieved  that  end,  were  the  same  as  the  factors  which 
exterminated  it  over  almost  the  whole  of  the  area  it  occupied  in 
India.  In  my  opinion  there  is  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  main,  if 
not  the  sole,  factor  in  the  case  of  Europe  and  southwestern  Asia 
was  man.  At  all  events  it  was  most  emphatically  not  the  tiger.  .  .  . 

"It  is  not  unlikely,  in  my  opinion,  that  the  Kathiawar  stock  is 
deteriorating  in  size  from  inbreeding."  (Pocock,  1930,  pp.  641,  665.) 

"I  ...  hear  that  the  status  of  the  Indian  lion,  as  far  as  preser- 
vation and  numbers  are  concerned,  is  most  satisfactory.  They  have 
of  late  been  overflowing  from  their  original  reservations  in  the 
Gir  Forests  of  Kathiawar  and  Junagadh  State,  and  have  made 
themselves  unpopular  by  cattle  killing.  Their  numbers  are  esti- 
mated to  be  not  less  than  150. 

"It  must  be  remembered  that  there  is  no  wild  life  in  their  present 
habitat  on  which  they  can  prey,  and  they  live  almost  entirely  on 
village  cattle.  There  are,  of  course,  far  more  cattle  there,  as  in  other 
parts  of  India,  than  are  economically  desirable ;  but  ...  if  the  local 
native  rulers  were  to  withdraw  their  protection,  the  lion  would 
speedily  disappear.  There  is,  however,  little  danger  of  this  happen- 
ing, and  the  villagers  at  present  cooperate  loyally  in  the  protection 
of  these  animals;  even  to  the  extent,  in  a  recent  case,  of  pulling  a 
lion  out  of  a  well  into  which  he  had  fallen,  with  no  little  risk  to 
themselves."  (C.  H.  Stockley,  in  Hit.,  May  29,  1933.) 

"Even  in  the  Province  of  Kathiawar,  where  tigers  do  not  exist 
and  where  no  struggle  for  supremacy  between  these  two  giants  of  the 
tribe  could  have  taken  place,  the  lion  was  slowly  driven  from  the 
Barda  and  Aleche  hills,  from  parts  of  Dhrangadra  and  Jasdan  as  a 
result  of  human  settlement  and  the  progress  of  cultivation. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  297 

"The  number  of  lions  in  the  Gir  is  computed  to  be  well  below  a 
hundred."  (Anonymous,  1935,  p.  125.) 

Cadell  (1935,  pp.  165-166)  writes  as  follows: 

The  animals  are  easily  enticed  across  the  boundary  [of  Junagadh  State] 
by  a  succession  of  tie-ups.  ...  To  our  certain  knowledge  .  .  .  twenty- two 
animals  have  been  so  slain  within  the  three  seasons  ending  in  1934.  .  .  . 

If  every  year  the  State  has  the  very  real  honour  and  pleasure  of  enter- 
taining distinguished  guests  for  a  lion  shoot,  it  is  a  distinction  which  costs 
a  good  many  thousands  of  rupees.  There  is  also  the  steady  annual  cost  of 
the  sums  paid  in  compensation  to  villagers  and  herdsmen  whose  cattle  have 
been  killed  by  lions.  .  .  . 

There  were  supposed  to  be  less  than  a  dozen  [lions]  in  1880  ....  As  a 
result  of  the  strict  preservation  during  the  [British]  Administration  [from 
1911  to  1920]  the  number  was  believed  to  have  increased  to  fifty  ....  It 
has  since  been  stated  .  .  .  that  there  are  now  two  hundred  lions.  .  .  .  My 
own  opinion  ...  is  that  there  are  not  much  more  than  75  to  80.  ... 

The  pressure  on  Junagadh  of  suggestions  for  invitations  to  shoot  lions 
is  ...  increasing  year  by  year  ....  Unless  an  agreement  is  reached  [to 
limit  the  number  shot  in  one  year  to  some  such  figure  as  five  or  six],  and  is 
faithfully  observed,  the  danger  of  the  disappearance  of  the  lion  from  the 
fauna  of  India,  and  consequently  from  its  last  home  in  Asia,  is  obvious. 

Cape  Lion.    Leeuw  (Boer) 

LEO  LEO  MEJLANOCHAITUS   Hamilton   Smith 

Leo  melanochaitus  Hamilton  Smith,  Jardine's  Naturalist's  Library,  vol.  15, 
Introd.  to  Mammalia,  p.  177,  1846.  ("Cape  of  Good  Hope.") 

FIGS.:  Griffith's  Anim.  Kingdom,  vol.  2,  pi.  facing  p.  428,  1827;  C.  H.  Smith, 
1846,  pi.  10;  Harris,  1840,  pi.  29;  Pocock,  1931,  p.  208,  lower  fig. 

The  Cape  Lion  was  the  first  of  the  African  subspecies  of  Leo  leo 
to  become  extinct.  The  last  record  for  the  Cape  Province  is  ap- 
parently 1858;  for  Natal,  1865. 

"The  species  is  of  the  largest  size,  with  a  bull  dog  head ;  .  .  .  large 
pointed  ears  edged  with  black;  a  great  mane  of  the  same  colour 
extending  beyond  the  shoulders;  a  fringe  of  black  hair  under  the 
belly;  a  very  stout  tail,  and  the  structure  in  general  proportions 
lower  than  in  other  Lions"  (C.  H.  Smith,  1846,  p.  177). 

Pocock  (1931,  p.  208)  writes  as  follows  concerning  a  mounted 
specimen  in  the  Junior  United  Service  Club,  London,  which  is  "said 
to  have  been  killed  near  the  Orange  River  about  1830,  probably 
.  .  .  near  Colesberg": 

The  mane  is  not  only  remarkable  for  its  luxuriance,  length  and  extension 
over  the  shoulder,  but  also  for  its  blackness.  It  is  indeed  wholly  black  except 
for  the  tawny  fringe  round  the  face  and  a  certain  amount  of  the  same  pale 
hue  low  down  on  the  shoulder. 

The  elbow-tuft  and  tail-tuft  are  likewise  big  and  black ;  but  the  belly  fringe, 
long  and  thick  behind,  becomes  gradually  shorter  and  thinner  and  gradually 
disappears  in  front  of  the  chest. 

The  interest  of  this  lion  lies  in  its  being,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  only 


298  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

representative,  in  this   country  at  all   events,  of  the  now  extinct   race   of 
splendid  liong  which  formerly  inhabited  Cape  Colony.  .  .  . 

The  former  range  and  the  date  of  the  extermination  of  the  handsome  South 
African  race  are  alike  unknown. 

Pocock  adds  that  Smith's  type  specimen  appears  to  have  been  a 
rickety  captive. 

Roberts  (1929,  p.  92)  quotes  from  Paterson  (1789)  the  following 
measurements  of  a  lioness  from  the  southern  part  of  Cape  Province : 
total  length,  8  feet  9^  inches;  tail,  3  feet;  "height  before,"  3  feet 
8  inches. 

Owing  to  lack  of  material,  the  exact  limits  of  the  range  of  the 
Cape  Lion  will  never  be  known.  For  present  purposes  the  Cape 
Province  and  Natal  will  be  considered  to  comprise  the  former  range. 

"Civilization's  steady  march  in  South  Africa  during  the  past 
twenty  years  has  considerably  limited  the  range  of  the  lion.  The 
vast  herds  of  game  upon  which  he  depended  for  food  being  swept 
away,  he  has  been  forced  to  retire  into  remoter  regions.  From  much 
of  the  South  Africa  of  Gordon  Gumming  he  has  vanished  com- 
pletely and  forever."  (Kirby,  in  Bryden,  1899,  p.  549.) 

"With  regard  to  past  times — Kolben  (1731),  states  that  lions 
were  not  uncommon  near  Cape  Town  as  late  as  1707,  Sparrman 
(1785),  Paterson  (1790),  Thunberg  (1795),  and  Barrow  (1801),  all 
met  with  these  animals  as  soon  as  they  got  away  from  the  imme- 
diate neighbourhood  of  Cape  Town  especially  on  the  karoo  and  in 
Uitenhage.  The  last  record  I  have  met  with  of  the  occurrence  of  a 
lion  south  of  the  Orange  River  is  of  one  killed  with  assegais  near 
Commetjes  Post  on  the  eastern  frontier  in  1842,  as  noted  by  Hall. 
General  Bisset  shot  a  lion  in  Natal  in  1865,  which  is  probably  the 
last  record  for  that  Colony."  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  31.) 

"Their  food  .  .  .  consists  of  the  larger  game,  mainly  antelopes 
of  all  kinds,  but  also  includes  zebras,  giraffes,  and  buffaloes.  They 
will  kill  the  donkeys  and  cattle  belonging  to  prospecting  and  hunt- 
ing parties,  and  will  raid  Kaffir  kraals  when  driven  to  it  by  hunger. 
Man-eating  lions  are  generally  old  animals  with  bad  teeth."  (Haag- 
ner,  1920,  pp.  69-70.) 

"It  is  stated  that  a  lion  was  shot  on  the  Ingonyama  Tributary 
of  the  Tsomo  River,  Transkei,  in  1858.  One  was  reported  from  Port 
Alfred  in  1846,  and  one  was  killed  by  shot  from  a  spring  gun  on  the 
farm  Lombards  Post  near  Southwell,  near  Bathurst,  about  1850." 
(Hewitt,  as  quoted  by  Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  1,  p.  80.) 

The  nearest  areas  to  the  former  range  of  the  Cape  Lion,  that  are 
still  inhabited  by  some  form  of  the  species,  are  South-West  Africa, 
the  Kalahari,  and  eastern  Transvaal.  The  last-mentioned  area 
(especially  the  Kruger  National  Park)  is  the  home  of  the  Sabi 
Lion  (Leo  leo  krugeri  Roberts) . 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  299 

Manchurian  Tiger;  Siberian  Tiger;  Amur  Tiger; 
Mongolian  Tiger 

PANTHERA  TIGRIS  LONGIPILIS  (Fitzinger) 

Tigris  longipilis  Fitzinger,  Sitz.-ber.  Akad.  Wiss.  [Wien],  math.-nat.  Cl., 
vol.  58,  pt.  1,  p.  455,  1868.  ("Korea  and  Japan  through  northern  China, 
Manchuria,  Mongolia,  and  Dzungaria  north  to  southern  Siberia,  and  west 
through  northern  Tatary,  Bokhara,  and  northern  Persia  to  Mount  Ararat 
in  western  Armenia";  type  locality  restricted  by  Lydekker  (1901,  p.  288) 
to  "Amurland."  Cf.  Harper  (1940,  p.  194).) 

SYNONYM:    Felis  tigris  var.  amurensis  Dode  (1871). 

FIGS.:  Pocock,  1929,  pi.  4,  pi.  F  (upper  fig.);  Morden,  1930,  p.  548,  fig.; 
Pocock,  1937,  p.  770,  fig. 

This  Tiger,  whose  principal  range  is  in  northern  Manchuria  and 
southeastern  Siberia,  seems  to  be  declining  rather  rapidly  in  numbers. 

It  is  somewhat  larger  and  has  a  longer  and  thicker  coat  than 
the  Bengal  Tiger;  ground  color  paler;  stripes  less  pronounced  and 
tending  to  become  brown  on  the  flanks.  It  is  said  to  reach  a  length 
of  13-14  feet. 

Siberia. — The  following  information  is  from  Ognev  (1935,  pp. 
292-293).  Radde  (1862)  found  the  species  along  the  Argun  River 
near  Ust  Strielka  and  near  Nerchinskiy  Zavod.  Baikov  (1925) 
places  its  northern  limits  at  the  Shilka  and  the  lower  Zeya  and 
Bureya  Rivers.  It  is  numerous  in  certain  parts  of  the  southern 
Ussuri  district.  A  specimen  in  the  Zoological  Museum  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Moscow  was  said  to  have  been  taken  in  1828  near  Ba- 
lagansk,  west  of  Lake  Baikal  (Severtzov,  1855).  (This  record  can 
not  be  definitely  allocated  as  to  subspecies.) 

Ford  Barclay  (1915,  pp.  225-228)  gives  the  following  account: 

Careful  inquiries  made  in  the  summer  of  1899  along  the  present  route  of 
the  Siberian  Railway,  as  far  as  Chita  and  Niertschinsk  on  the  Amur  and 
thence  east  along  that  river  as  far  as  Khabarovsk,  elicited  practically  no 
information  .... 

At  Khabarovsk  .  .  .  plenty  of  information  was  forthcoming,  and  many  tales 
were  floating  about  of  the  depredations  of  these  animals  during  the  winter 
in  close  proximity  to,  and  even  in  one  case  within,  the  town  itself.  .  .  .  The 
best  ground  was  reported  to  be  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Irma,  ...  a  little 
more  than  half-way  to  Vladivostok,  [where  large  numbers  of  Wild  Pigs 
attracted  the  Tigers.] 

At  Irma  I  learnt  that  a  number  of  skins  were  undoubtedly  brought  in  every 
winter,  but  it  was  believed  that  in  most  cases  their  wearers  had  been  accounted 
for  by  poison.  .  .  . 

In  1899  it  was  still  not  uncommon  to  find  fresh  footprints  of  tiger  on  a 
winter's  morning  in  any  of  the  outlying  streets  of  Vladivostok  .... 

In  the  mountainous  district  between  Harbin  and  Vladivostok  a  certain 
number  are  poisoned  by  the  natives  every  winter. 

According  to  Sowerby  (1923,  p.  31) ,  this  Tiger  occurs  throughout 
the  forested  areas  of  the  Amur  and  the  Ussuri,  into  Primorsk  in  the 


300  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

extreme  east.  It  is  said  to  be  most  plentiful  in  the  Amur  Province, 
round  the  mouth  of  that  river;  it  is  also  numerous  in  the  Ussuri 
Valley.  Westward  it  probably  extends  almost  to  the  Yablonoi 
Mountains. 

"North  of  Khabarovsk  they  are  extremely  rare  in  the  East,  though 
I  understand  there  are  a  few  in  the  Bureya  Mountains.  We  saw 
the  tracks  of  only  one  in  the  region  of  Troitskov.  In  the  Ussuri 
River  region  they  seemed  to  be  relatively  plentiful.  East  of  Bikin 
the  forest  seemed  to  be  well  tracked  with  tiger  trails,  but  one  tiger 
throughout  the  winter  can  make  a  lot  of  tracks.  We  secured  three 
tigers  fifty  miles  east  of  Bikin,  during  the  winter  1929-30.  As  far 
as  I  could  learn,  these  were  all  the  tigers  taken  in  this  region  during 
that  winter.  That  the  tigers  have  been  able  to  hold  their  own  up 
to  now  seems  somewhat  encouraging,  though  the  present  extended 
lumber  activities  of  the  Soviet  Government  take  many  Russian 
hunters  into  the  forest.  Previously  about  the  only  people  who 
hunted  the  tiger  were  the  Tungus  tribes,  with  their  primitive  traps 
and  snares.  I,  personally,  am  under  the  impression  that  it  is  only 
a  matter  of  time  until  the  tigers  are  reduced  to  the  point  of  ex- 
termination. 

"Tigers  bring  a  big  price  in  China,  as  medicine,  but  the  hunter 
has  to  cover  a  lot  of  territory  and  work  hard  to  get  even  one  animal." 
(G.  G.  Goodwin,  in  litt.,  May  18, 1937.) 

Referring  to  the  Maritime  Province,  Sowerby  says  (1934c,  p.  40) : 
"Tigers  of  the  long-haired  species,  whose  skins  are  so  valuable,  were 
being  secured  in  greater  numbers  than  before,  for,  whereas  formerly 
about  ten  of  these  great  cats  were  killed  in  the  province  each  year, 
over  twenty  had  been  killed  during  the  first  three  months  of  the 
present  year." 

W.  G.  Heptner  writes  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  that  more  than 
ten  are  killed  each  year  in  eastern  Siberia.  Hunting  is  allowed 
throughout  the  year.  Protection  is  given,  however,  in  the  reserve  of 
Sikhota  Alin. 

"Schrenck  (1859,  pp.  95-96)  reported  Fells  tigris  from  Sakhalin 
as  a  rare  winter  visitor  from  continent,  but  his  statement  seems  very 
doubtful"  (Kuroda,1928,p.226).  Ford  Barclay  (1915,  p.  225)  could 
find  no  evidence  of  its  occurrence  there. 

Manchuria. — In  this  country,  says  Sowerby,  the  Tiger  is  "the  most 
dreaded  of  the  carnivores."  He  continues  (1923,  pp.  30-32) : 

His  thick  winter  coat  fetches  a  high  price  in  the  fur-markets  of  the  world, 
being  worth  far  more  than  those  of  the  Bengal,  Persian  or  Sumatran  tigers. 
Not  only  is  his  skin  of  value,  but  his  whole  carcass;  for  the  Chinese  believe 
that  the  bones,  blood,  heart,  and  even  the  flesh  of  the  tiger  have  medicinal 
properties  of  rare  power,  and  will  pay  a  goodly  price  for  decoctions  brewed 
by  the  apothecary  that  contain  such  ingredients  as  powdered  tiger's  knee-cap, 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:  CARNIVORES          301 

or  clotted  tiger's  blood.  The  heart  of  the  tiger  is  supposed  to  impart  to  the 
consumer  the  courage  and  strength  of  the  tiger  itself. 

On  this  account  the  tiger  has  been  hunted  till  he  is  almost  extinct  in 
most  districts  of  North  China,  where  once  he  was  common,  and  now 
survives,  even  in  Manchuria  where  he  was  once  plentiful,  only  in  the  more 
remote  and  inaccessible  forest  areas,  such  as  the  Ch'ang-pai  Shan,  the  Khingan 
Mountains,  or  the  more  or  less  unexplored  and  thinly  settled  areas  of  the  Amur 
and  Ussuri.  .  .  . 

Formerly  the  tiger  was  extremely  plentiful  in  all  the  forested  areas  of 
Manchuria.  Indeed,  it  is  said,  they  were  so  plentiful  along  the  route  of  the 
western  portion  of  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  when  under  construction, 
that  they  became  a  positive  pest,  killing  and  carrying  off  workmen,  till  a 
regiment  of  Cossacks  had  to  be  sent  to  cope  with  the  situation.  .  .  . 

In  the  forests  of  North  Kirin  and  in  Central  and  Western  Heilungkiang 
tigers  are  killed  by  the  local  hunters  every  winter. 

The  same  author  adds  (p.  33)  that  the  Russian  hunters  in  Man- 
churia track  the  Tiger  down  in  the  snow,  camping  on  its  trail  and 
following  it  for  as  much  as  ten  days  or  a  fortnight.  The  Chinese 
usually  employ  traps,  pitfalls,  and  poison. 

Mongolia. — In  view  of  the  fact  that  one  of  the  names  applied  to 
the  present  subspecies  is  "Mongolian  Tiger,"  it  is  surprising  to  find 
such  a  dearth  of  definite  records  from  that  wide  country.  According 
to  Ognev  (1935,  p.  292),  Radde  (1862)  reported  the  Tiger  from  the 
district  of  Uriankhai  (the  present  Tannu-Tuva) ,  but  later  explorers 
have  not  found  it  there.  (The  subspecies  of  this  region  has  not  been 
determined.)  Various  other  references  in  the  literature  to  Tigers 
in  Outer  Mongolia  give  no  information  as  to  specific  localities. 
Apparently  the  only  likely  areas  for  their  occurrence  are  in  north- 
eastern and  eastern  Mongolia,  along  the  Siberian  and  Manchurian 
boundaries. 

Korean  Tiger;  North  China  Tiger 

PANTHERA  TIGRIS  COREENSIS  (Brass) 

Felis  tigris  coreensis  Brass,  Nutzbare  Tiere  Ostasiens,  pp.  4-5,  1904.    (Korea.) 

(Fide  Kuroda,  1938,  p.  40.) 
FIGS.:    Ford  Barclay,  1915,  pis.  84,  85;    Sowerby,   1923,  pi.  2    (coreensis^); 

Sowerby,  1933,  pi.  facing  p.  166;  Ognev,  1935,  pp.  285-286,  figs.  129-131. 

This  Tiger  apparently  occurs  in  small  numbers  from  Korea  and 
southern  Manchuria  westward  through  the  eastern  border  of  Inner 
Mongolia  and  through  North  China.  Its  southern  limits,  where  it 
presumably  intergrades  with  the  South  China  form,  are  not  definitely 
known  but  perhaps  may  be  roughly  fixed  at  the  divide  between  the 
Hwang  Ho  and  the  Yangtze  Kiang  Basins. 

The  North  China  form  differs  from  the  Manchurian  Tiger  "in 
being  smaller,- much  darker  and  more  fully  striped  and  in  having  a 
shorter  less  woolly  winter  coat"  (Pocock,  1929,  p.  531). 


302  EXTINCT  AND  'VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Korea. — "In  the  Korea  great  value  is  apparently  placed  upon  the 
skins,  which  are  reserved  for  the  chiefs"  (Elliot,  1883,  text  to  pi.  3). 
Ford  Barclay  (1915,  pp.  228-231)  gives  the  following  account: 

Tiger  are  probably  more  numerous  in  the  north  than  in  the  southern  part 
of  Korea  .... 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  foreign  mining  concessions,  near  the  Yalu, 
dynamite  is  or  was  used  with  some  success  by  native  hunters,  a  small,  specially 
constructed  bomb  being  somehow  concealed  in  the  bait.  Lately,  however. 
.  .  .  the  Japanese  police  have  forbidden  the  supply  of  dynamite  for  this 
purpose.  Drop  traps,  weighted  with  stones  and  huge  logs,  are  very  common, 
and  many  tigers  are  accounted  for  in  this  way  every  year. 

[In  Manchuria]  the  natives  lay  down  poison  wholesale.  This  is  forbidden 
now  in  Korea  .... 

My  own  most  successful  hunts  have  been  in  the  island  of  Chindo,  .  .  . 
situated  at  the  south-west  corner  of  Korea.  .  .  .  Early  this  year  (1914)  the 
body  of  a  tiger  was  washed  up  on  the  west  coast  of  Japan  south  of  Matsue, 
at  least  120  miles  from  the  nearest  mainland,  from  whence  alone  it  could  have 
come;  yet,  as  reported  in  the  press,  its  condition  was  such  that  the  skin  was 
removed  for  dressing  and  parts  of  the  flesh  sold  for  consumption  1  .  .  . 

This  demand  for  tiger  flesh  on  the  part  of  the  Japanese  is  a  curious  survival 
of  barbaric  superstition  in  such  a  highly  civilized  race.  One  of  their  chief 
officials  sent  me  an  urgent  request  for  a  shoulder  on  hearing  of  a  successful 
hunt.  This  joint  for  some  reason  is  supposed  to  possess  greater  medicinal 
virtue  than  any  other,  and  the  shoulder  blade  ground  to  powder  is  a  certain 
cure  in  the  most  advanced  stages  of  insanity! 

When  a  tiger  is  killed  [in  Korea]  notice  is  at  once  sent  to  the  elders  of  all 
villages  within  a  radius  of  five  miles,  [and  on  their  arrival  a]  wrangle  ensues 
as  to  who  are  to  be  the  privileged  half-dozen  to  partake  of  a  cupful  of  the 
ambrosial  liquid  left  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  after  the  removal  of  the 
intestines.  .  .  . 

Among  both  Chinese  and  Koreans,  tiger's  blood  is  believed  to  have  an 
extraordinarily  rejuvenating  effect,  greater  even  than  the  highly  prized  wapiti 
or  sika  horn  .... 

Of  the  twenty  odd  skins  I  have  seen  in  South  Korea  all  have  been  much 
darker  in  colour  than  the  half-dozen  brought  for  my  inspection  in  East 
Siberia  .... 

In  the  happy  days  before  the  Japanese  occupation  and  the  consequent 
confiscation  of  fire-arms,  when  the  depredations  of  a  tiger  became  too  pro- 
nounced, the  active  male  inhabitants  of  the  villages  in  the  neighbourhood, 
perhaps  half  a  dozen,  armed  with  matchlocks,  and  as  many  more  with  heavy 
spears,  would  arrange  for  a  day  or  two's  driving  in  the  adjacent  hills.  Occa- 
sionally these  hunts  were  successful. 

"In  North  Corea  tigers  are  said  to  be  still  fairly  numerous,  and 
every  year  some  are  killed  there  by  sportsmen"  (Sowerby,  1923, 
p.  31). 

In  1922  Kermit  Roosevelt  (in  Roosevelt,  Roosevelt,  Derby,  and 
Roosevelt,  1927,  pp.  41-84)  undertook  an  extensive  but  unsuccessful 
Tiger  hunt  with  beaters  in  various  localities  of  northern  Korea.  Some 
old  tracks  were  found,  but  apparently  the  species  is  by  no  means 
common  there. 

Manchuria. — Sowerby 's  records    (1923,  p.   30,  pi.  2)    from  the 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  303 

Ch'ang-pai  Shan,  close  to  the  Korean  border,  may  refer  to  the 
present  subspecies  rather  than  to  longipilis. 

Inner  Mongolia. — "A  stuffed  tiger's  skin  used  to  repose  in  a  temple 
in  Lama  Miao  (Dolonor)  ....  It  was  said  that  the  animal  .  .  . 
was  killed  in  the  streets  of  Lama  Miao  itself,  having  wandered  from 
the  Wei-ch'ang,  or  Hunting  Grounds,  to  the  east  of  that  town." 
(Sowerby,  1923,  p.  32.) 

China.— Sowerby  (1923,  pp.  31-32)  writes  of  this  Tiger  in  China: 

How  far  west  it  extends  is  difficult  to  say,  but  it  certainly  reaches  the 
western  border  of  the  province  of  Shansi,  in  North  China,  and  southward 
reaches  at  least  to  the  middle  of  the  southern  half  of  that  province.  From 
there  it  extends  northward  into  Mongolia  and  in  a  north-easterly  direction 
through  Chihli,  where  it  still  occurs  in  the  wilder  parts  of  the  Tung  Ling 
and  Wei  Ch'ang  (the  Eastern  Tombs,  and  Imperial  Hunting  Grounds)  to 
the  North-east  and  North  of  Peking  .... 

In  North  China  the  tiger  is  becoming  increasingly  rare.  In  1909  I  saw  the 
tracks  in  the  snow  of  what  must  have  been  a  very  large  animal  in  the 
mountains  of  West  Shansi,  in  the  Ning-wu  district.  I  also  heard  of  tigers 
in  the  Ko-lan  Chou  area  and  the  Chao-ch'eng  Shan,  both  heavily  forested 
districts  further  south  in  the  same  province.  Further  south  still  near  P'ing-yang 
Fu  a  tiger  was  killed  by  the  natives  about  the  year  1912.  I  have  seen  skins 
of  tigers  that  were  said  to  have  come  from  the  Kuei-hua  Ch'eng  area  in  North 
Shansi,  and  they  were  undoubtedly  of  the  true  long-haired  type.  The  natives 
in  this  area  also  insisted  that  tigers  occurred  there.  .  .  . 

According  to  Chinese  accounts  tigers  also  exist  in  Kansu,  and  on  the 
Thibetan  border,  but  I  have  been  unable  to  get  any  satisfactory  verification 
of  this.  It  is  more  than  likely  that  these  animals  occur  for  a  considerable 
distance  west  of  Kuei-hua  Ch'eng  into  that  little  known  mountainous  country 
leading  to  the  Ali  Shan. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  present  century  an  old  native  hunter 
reported  the  occurrence  of  three  Tigers  in  the  Eastern  Tombs  forest, 
in  Hopei,  during  his  lifetime.  In  1932  a  Tiger  was  killed  after  it 
had  invaded  a  shop  in  the  Yu  Hsiang  district  of  South  Shansi. 
(Sowerby,  1933,  pp.  167-168.) 

Owing  to  lack  of  specimens,  it  has  not  been  determined  whether 
the  occasional  Tigers  reported  in  Szechwan  (cf.  Wilson,  1913, 
pp.  178-179,  and  Weigold,  1924,  p.  74)  belong  to  the  North  China 
or  to  the  South  China  form.  ^ 

"Tiger-bones  ...  are  a  highly  prized  Chinese  medicine,  and  are 
supposed  to  transmit  vitality,  strength,  and  valour  to  those  who 
partake  of  them.  In  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs  Trade  Returns 
of  Hankow  for  1910  is  the  following  item:  'Tiger-bones,  77  piculs; 
value,  Tls.  6522.'  "  (Wilson,  1913,  p.  179.) 

"It  is  problematical  whether  or  not  predatory  animals  should 
be  protected  in  a  thickly  populated  country  like  China,  but  it  seems 
a  pity  that  such  fine  carnivores  as  the  Chinese  tiger  (Panthera  tigris 
styani  Pocock),  the  Amoy  tiger  (Panthera  tigris  amoyensis  Hilz- 


304  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

heimer)  [,]  the  Manchurian  tiger  (Panther a  tigris  amurensis,  Dode) 
.  .  .  should  not  be  preserved  as  part  of  this  country's  wonderfully 
rich  mammalian  fauna"  (Sowerby,  1937,  p.  257). 

[In  South  China,  from  Chekiang  and  Hupeh  southward,  and  also 
westward  to  Yunnan,  the  Tiger  occurs  somewhat  more  commonly 
than  in  the  more  northerly  regions.  To  this  form  Hilzheimer  has 
given  the  name  of  Felis  tigris  var.  amoyensis  (Zool.  Anz.,  vol.  28, 
p.  598,  1905;  type  locality,  presumably  the  vicinity  of  Hankow, 
Hupeh) .  It  is  recognized  by  G.  M.  Allen  (1938,  p.  480) ,  who  regards 
Panthera  tigris  styani  Pocock  (1929)  as  a  synonym.  W.  L.  Smith 
(1920,  pp.  355-363)  gives  an  extremely  interesting  account  of  the 
methods  of  the  native  hunters  in  the  vicinity  of  Amoy,  who,  armed 
only  with  torches  and  trident  spears,  track  the  Tigers  into  caves. 
There  is  also  an  account  of  the  Tiger  of  Fukien  by  Andrews  (in 
Andrews  and  Andrews,  1919,  pp.  44-66) . 

In  French  Indo-China,  Siam,  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  the  Tiger 
seems  to  be  moderately  common.  For  example,  the  number  in  Cochin 
China  is  estimated  at  200-300;  here  it  is  of  interest  from  the  point 
of  view  of  big-game  hunting,  but  not  commercially  (Roche,  Chef 
du  Service  Veterinaire  du  Cochinchine,  in  litt.,  1937) .  Rodolphe  M. 
de  Schauensee  informs  me  that  the  Tiger  is  common  in  Siam  (Thai- 
land) but  preys  chiefly  on  the  wild  game  and  does  not  seem  to  be 
regarded  as  a  serious  pest.  The  Tiger  of  these  regions  is  not  dis- 
tinguished by  Pocock  (1929,  pp.  532-533)  from  the  Indian  Tiger. 

The  Indian  or  Bengal  Tiger  (Panthera  tigris  tigris  (Linnaeus)) 
ranges  westward  through  Burma  to  India,  where  it  inhabits  the 
greater  part  of  the  Peninsula  from  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Himalayas  southward,  but  avoids  the  treeless  and  desert  areas.  It 
is  not  yet  rare  enough  to  call  for  any  special  discussion  in  this 
report.] 

Tiger  of  Chinese  Turkestan 

PANTHERA  TIGRIS  LECOQI  (Schwarz) 

Felis  tigris  lecoqi  Schwarz,  Zool.  Anz.,  vol.  47,  no.  12,  p.  351,  1916.  ("Gebiet 
von  Kurla,  Lop-nor-Gebiet"  (probably  near  Bagrash  Kul),  Chinese 
Turkestan.) 

All  the  Tigers  of  Chinese  Turkestan  will  be  treated  for  convenience 
under  this  name,  although  the  exact  limits  of  the  subspecies  are 
unknown.  Evidently  the  animal  is  not  at  all  numerous,  and  its 
numbers  may  have  declined  to  the  point  of  extinction.  In  his  review 
of  the  Tigers,  Pocock  (1929)  seems  to  have  overlooked  the  name 
of  this  subspecies  as  well  as  the  occurrence  of  any  Tiger  in  Chinese 
Turkestan. 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  305 

This  is  a  very  brightly  colored  Tiger,  with  regular  pattern,  fore- 
legs unstriped  in  front,  conspicuous  shoulder  tufts,  short  neck  mane, 
thick  cheek  whiskers,  slightly  lengthened  abdominal  hair,  and  a  thick 
winter  pelage.  It  differs  from  the  form  of  Russian  Turkestan  in 
having  smaller  stripes  and  dull  brown  instead  of  black  thigh  mark- 
ings. (Schwarz,  1916,  p.  352.) 

J.  H.  Miller  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  pp.  582,  609-610)  writes  of  this 
Tiger: 

The  dense  jungles  which  cover  so  large  a  portion  of  the  [Dzungarian] 
lowlands  .  .  .  are  the  haunts  of  the  tiger  .... 

The  tiger  inhabits  the  same  country  as  the  wapiti,  though,  perhaps,  keeping 
rather  more  to  the  dense  reed-jungle.  It  is,  however,  not  entirely  restricted 
to  the  plains,  for  in  the  Kash,  Kunguz,  and  Jingalong  valleys,  on  the  Upper 
Hi  River,  it  is  found  at  an  altitude  of  from  4,000  to  5,000  ft.  among  the 
thick  scrub  on  the  edge  of  the  spruce  forest.  Every  year  a  few  tiger-skins 
find  their  way  into  the  Urumchi,  Manas,  or  Shi-Kho  bazaars.  They  are,  in 
nearly  every  case,  secured  in  winter,  by  the  farmers  and  herdsmen  living 
on  the  edge  of  the  jungle,  by  means  of  poisoned  carcasses  of  sheep  or  goats. 
Very  few  of  the  natives  would  dare  to  fire  at  a  tiger  ....  Wild-pig  .  .  .  are 
undoubtedly  the  tigers'  staple  food,  but  during  the  winter  they  occasionally 
raid  a  farmer's  flocks,  and  it  is  then  that  poisoned  carcasses  are  laid  out  for 
them.  .  .  . 

I  doubt  if  they  are  anywhere  numerous.  .  .  . 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  tiger  which  inhabits  Dzungaria  and  the 
Tarim  basin,  also  the  Ala  Kul,  Balkash,  Syr  Darya,  and  other  portions  of 
Russian  Turkestan,  is  a  very  different  animal  to  the  Manchurian  variety. 
It  is  not  so  long-haired,  and  it  is  considerably  smaller  and  less  finely  marked. 

Theodore  Roosevelt  (in  Roosevelt  and  Roosevelt,  1926,  p.  166) 
writes  of  Tigers  in  the  Tian  Shan:  "We  were  told  that  they  existed 
no  longer  in  the  Tekkes.  .  .  .  They  [the  natives]  said  that  during 
the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  the  native  hunters  had  killed  them  off 
with  poisoned  meat." 

"The  tiger  .  .  .  formerly  ranged  in  the  forests  on  the  edges  of  the 
Tarim  Basin  and  the  swampy  areas  along  the  northern  slopes  of  the 
Thian  Shan.  .  .  .  The  tiger  seems  to  have  been  exterminated.'' 
(Morden,  1927,  p.  123.) 

Alpheraky  (1891)  reported  the  species  from  the  Tekes  and  the 
lower  Kunges,  tributaries  of  the  Hi  River  in  Dzungaria  (Ognev, 
1935,  p.  291). 

"The  .  .  .  tiger,  which  formerly  inhabited  the  woods  of  the  middle 
Tarim,  seems  to  be  dying  out"  (Hedin,  1940,  p.  149) . 

Caspian  Tiger;  Persian  Tiger 

PANTHBRA  TIGRIS  VIRGATA   (Illiger) 

Felis   virgata  Illiger,  Abhandl.  K.  Akad.  Wissen.  Berlin,   1804-11,   physikal. 
KL,  pp.  90  and  98,  1815.    ("In  Persien  und  am  Kaspischen  Meere";  type 
locality  restricted  by  Harper  (1940,  p.  194)  to  the  "Province  of  Mazanderan, 
northern  Persia.") 
11 


306  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

SYNONYMS:    Felis   (Tigris}   tigris  septentrionalis  Satunin   (1904);   Felix  tigris 

trabata  Schwarz,  1916. 
FIGS.:    Heck,  Lebende  Bilder,  p.  157,  1899;  Kennion,  1911,  pi.  facing  p.  251; 

Pocock,  1929,  pi.  D,  lower  fig.,  pi.  3;  Ognev,  1935,  figs.  121-124. 

While  the  Indian  or  Bengal  Tiger  (Panthera  tigris  tigris  x)  prob- 
ably exacts  a  greater  annual  toll  in  human  lives  than  any  other 
carnivorous  mammal,  some  of  its  races  in  western,  central,  and 
eastern  Asia  and  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  conflict  to  a  far  less 
degree  with  the  interests  of  mankind.  In  any  event,  their  numbers 
have  been  reduced  to  a  point  where  they  are  entitled  to  a  place 
in  the  present  work. 

The  Caspian  race  is  "generally  a  medium  sized  or  smallish  tiger 
with  a  thick  longish  winter  coat,  dark  in  colour,  with  numerous, 
close-set  stripes  showing  a  marked  tendency  to  brownness  on  the 
whole  or  parts  of  the  body."  Length  of  male,  about  10  feet  8  inches; 
of  female,  about  8  feet  6  inches.  (Pocock,  1929,  pp.  522,  540.) 

The  range  of  this  Tiger  extends  from  Transcaucasia  (formerly) 
through  northern  Persia  to  northern  Afghanistan;  presumably  the 
same  form  occurs  northward  to  the  Aral  Sea  and  Lake  Balkash  in 
Russian  Turkestan  (formerly  to  the  upper  Ob  Basin  and  the  Altai 
region) . 

Transcaucasia. — "A  few  are  annually  killed  in  Turkish  Georgia" 
(Blyth,  1863,  p.  182). 

Satunin  reports  (1906,  pp.  308-309)  as  follows  on  the  Tigers  of 
Talish: 

At  the  time  of  Radde's  first  expedition  to  Lenkoran  in  1866  Tigers 
were  still  very  numerous  there.  In  seven  weeks  six  fresh  skins  were 
offered  him.  But  in  1879-80,  in  the  course  of  eight  months,  he 
could  not  secure  a  single  fresh  skin.  Tigers  still  occurred,  but  were 
very  rare.  According  to  the  hunters'  reports,  the  animals  were  quite 
extirpated  somewhat  later,  but  in  the  90's  they  began  to  increase, 
and  at  the  time  of  my  expedition  (1897-99)  two  to  four  specimens 
were  taken  annually.  At  present  they  occur  chiefly  in  the  Prisib 
district  of  Lenkoran,  both  in  the  lowland  forests  and  in  the  foot- 
hills. In  1899  Tiger  tracks  were  found  on  the  Mugan  Steppe,  where 
the  animal  had  gone  apparently  in  pursuit  of  Wild  Boars. 

Satunin  also  expresses  here  the  conviction  that  the  numerous 
reports  of  Tigers  in  other  localities  of  Transcaucasia  are  due  to 
a  confusion  of  this  species  with  the  Leopard.  In  a  previous  paper 
(1896,  pp.  289-290)  he  had  stated  that  they  occurred  formerly  as 
far  as  the  ridge  of  the  Great  Caucasus,  and  he  had  quoted  Nord- 
mann's  report  of  Tigers  killed  near  Tiflis  in  1835.  The  species  is 
now  exterminated  in  Transcaucasia  (W.  G.  Heptner,  in  litt.,  Decem- 
ber, 1936). 

i  Fells  tigris  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  41,  1758.   (Bengal.) 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  307 

Persia. — Gmelin  (1774,  vol.  3,  pp.  485-486)  reports  the  animal 
as  pretty  common  in  the  forested  mountains  of  Mazanderan.  It 
seldom  makes  unprovoked  attacks  on  man.  The  skin  is  highly 
prized,  and  is  used  for  a  horse-covering. 

Blanford  writes  (1876,  p.  34):  "The  tiger  is  only  found  in 
Persia  in  the  Caspian  provinces,  Mazandaran,  and  Ghilan,  lying  to 
the  north  of  the  Elburz  mountains  ....  These  provinces,  unlike 
the  plateau  of  Persia,  are  covered  with  dense  forest,  and  in  them 
the  tiger  ranges  up  to  an  elevation  of  at  least  5000  or  6000  feet." 

To  this  St.  John  adds  (in  Blanford,  1876,  p.  34) :  "Tigers  are 
very  numerous  in  the  Caspian  provinces  of  Persia,  and  in  the 
Caucasus  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Araxes.  .  .  .  Cubs  are  often 
captured  in  Mazandaran  and  brought  to  Tehran.  I  have  seen  speci- 
mens in  the  Bagh-i-Washi  quite  equal  in  size  to  Bengal  tigers." 

In  Mazanderan,  sometime  prior  to  1911,  "Col.  Kennion  only  came 
across  two  examples  of  this  tiger;  and  there  is  reason  to  fear  that 
the  race  is  on  the  wane"  (Pocock,  1929,  p.  522).  "Considering  the 
abundance  of  game  and  the  fewness  of  the  tigers'  foes,  it  is  quite  a 
problem  why  the  latter  are  not  more  numerous  in  these  parts" 
(Kennion,  1911,  p.  246). 

The  British  Museum  has  a  specimen  obtained  at  Astrabad  in  1882 
or  earlier.  In  Astrabad  and  the  adjacent  portion  of  Turkestan  the 
Tiger  occurs  in  various  localities,  including  the  Gurgan,  Atrek,  Sum- 
bar,  and  Chandir  Rivers  (Ognev,  1935,  pp.  289-290). 

Afghanistan. — In  this  country,  as  in  Persia,  the  species  appears 
to  be  restricted  to  the  northern  part.  "The  tigers  of  the  Perso- 
Turkestan  district  .  .  .  were  doubtless  excluded  from  India  by  the 
Hindu  Koosh  and  the  desert  areas  of  Persia  and  Baluchistan" 
(Pocock,  1929,  p.  509). 

"Ferrier  in  his  'Caravan  journeys'  speaks  of  tigers  in  the  jungles 
of  the  Hari  Rud  north-west  of  Herat"  (St.  John,  in  Blanford,  1876, 
p.  34). 

The  Afghan  Delimitation  Commission  (1884-85)  obtained  a  speci- 
men from  Karaol-khana  on  the  Murgab  close  to  the  Turkestan 
boundary.  Tracks  were  reported  in  the  valley  of  the  Hari  Rud, 
and  were  also  found  at  the  Chashma-sabz  Pass,  at  an  elevation 
of  5,000  feet,  in  the  Paropamisus  Range.  "During  summer  .  .  . 
they  wander  over  the  great  rolling  plains  of  the  Badghis  [on  the 
north  side  of  the  Paropamisus  Range],  ascending  to  higher  altitudes 
with  the  increase  of  heat,  depending  for  their  food  on  Pig,  Oorial, 
and  even  Ibex.  In  winter  they  resort  to  the  .  .  .  thickets  of  the 
larger  streams  and  main  rivers,  to  which  their  usual  food,  the  Pig, 
also  retires.  The  Turkomans  say  that  an  old  and  toothless  Tiger  is 
especially  destructive  to  sheep."  (Aitchison,  1889,  p.  56.) 


308  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Russian  Turkestan  and  Western  Siberia. — Ehrenberg  reports 
(1831,  p.  389)  that  Tigers  are  frequently  observed  on  the  Tarbagatai 
Mountains  southwest  of  Zaisan  Nor;  also  that  the  Cossacks  of  the 
Irtish  have  several  times  killed  Tigers  on  the  Kirghiz  Steppe,  spear- 
ing them  from  horseback. 

"North  of  the  Hindu  Kosh,  Tigers  occur  in  Bokhara,  and  proved 
troublesome  to  the  Russian  Surveying  Expedition  on  the  shores  of 
the  Aral  in  midwinter.  They  are  also  found  on  the  banks  of  the 
Irtisch,  and  in  the  Altai  region."  (Blyth,  1863,  p.  182.) 

Atkinson  (1858,  p.  282)  mentions  four  specimens  in  the  museum 
at  Barnaul,  western  Siberia.  "The  tigers  were  killed  in  Siberia  at 
different  places,  some  at  a  distance  of  about  five  hundred  versts 
from  Barnaoul ;  they  had  come  from  the  Kirghis  Steppe,  and  crossed 
the  Irtisch  into  the  Altai  in  the  region  around  Bouchtarminsk.  .  .  . 
They  are  rarely  found  in  Siberia;  it  is  only  when  they  are  driven 
from  the  steppe  by  hunger  that  they  cross  the  Irtisch — most  prob- 
ably when  following  the  track  of  their  prey :  many  peasants  do  not 
even  know  them  by  name."  Atkinson  also  reports  (p.  486)  many 
Tigers  about  the  western  end  of  the  Ala  Tau,  southeast  of  Lake 
Balkash. 

According  to  Severtzoff  (1876,  p.  49),  the  Tiger  "is  common  in 
Turkestan,  especially  up  to  about  4000  feet  altitude;  but  beyond 
that  it  is  rare  in  winter,  and  only  in  the  summer  does  it  visit  localities 
which  are  higher  than  7000  feet." 

Carruthers  writes  (1915,  pp.  149-150) :  "In  the  same  locality 
[Oxus  or  Amu  Darya  Valley]  inhabited  by  the  Bokharan  stags, 
tigers  are  fairly  numerous.  These  we  know  range  the  whole  course 
of  the  Oxus  from  the  Sea  of  Aral  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains  near 
Kulab.  They  are  seldom  hunted  or  seen.  I  have  good  reason  to 
believe  they  wander  across  the  desert  from  the  Oxus  to  the  lower 
Zarafschan.  The  natives  speak  of  them,  and  I  am  certain  I  heard 
one  one  night  in  the  saxaul  forests  which  surround  the  swamps 
where  the  river  loses  itself  in  the  sands,  and  where  large  numbers  of 
wild  pig  roam." 

The  British  Museum  has  a  skull  from  the  vicinity  of  Find j  eh, 
on  the  Murghab  (Pocock,  1929,  p.  522). 

In  Turkestan  the  Tiger  reaches  its  northwestern  limit  at  the 
Gulf  of  Karabugas  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  avoiding  the  Ust  Urt  Plateau. 
It  was  formerly  numerous  on  the  Murghab  and  Tejend  Rivers,  the 
last  having  been  killed  in  that  region  in  1904.  During  a  period  of 
some  years  prior  to  1915  nine  Tigers  were  killed  in  the  Syr  Darya 
region.  The  species  also  occurs  in  the  valley  of  the  Chu  and  on  the 
Amu  Darya  delta.  In  1887  it  was  reported  as  abundant  on  the  lower 
Hi  River  and  on  the  southeastern  shore  of  Lake  Balkash;  by  1930 
its  numbers  in  this  region  were  few.  There  are  old  records  from  the 


ORDER  CARNIVORA:    CARNIVORES  309 

Tarbagatai  Mountains  southeast  of  Zaisan  Nor,  and  from  Zmeino- 
gorsk,  Bisk,  and  Barnaul  in  the  Ob  Basin  of  western  Siberia.  The 
Tiger  has  entirely  disappeared  from  its  former  haunts  in  the  Dzun- 
garian  Alatau.  In  Tajikistan  it  occurs  on  the  upper  Vashni  and  on 
the  Kafiringan  Darya.  (Ognev,  1935,  pp.  273,  290-292;  map,  p.  295.) 
The  following  information  is  from  W.  G.  Heptner  (in  litt.,  Decem- 
ber, 1936) :  The  Tiger  is  found  in  limited  numbers,  but  regularly, 
at  the  mouths  of  the  Amu  Darya  and  the  Syr  Darya  and  on  Lake 
Balkash.  It  is  more  common  on  the  upper  course  of  the  Amu  Darya 
and  on  its  right  tributaries.  It  comes  over  accidentally  from  Persia 
and  Afghanistan  to  Kopet-Dag,  the  upper  Tejend,  the  upper  Mur- 
ghab,  and  Transcaucasia  (Talish) .  During  the  past  50-70  years  the 
numbers  have  been  considerably  reduced  by  hunting.  The  range 
has  also  been  reduced,  and  in  certain  areas  (Transcaucasia,  middle 
Syr  Darya,  and  Murghab)  the  Tiger  is  now  exterminated.  It  is 
difficult  to  estimate  the  total  number,  but  there  may  not  be  more 
than  200  in  Russian  Turkestan.  The  best  areas  are  the  headwaters 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Amu  Darya.  The  Tiger  is  rarely  met  with 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Hi  River  on  Lake  Balkash,  where  probably  only 
ten  or  twelve  animals  exist.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Syr  Darya  it  is 
probably  only  a  visitor,  coming  from  Amu  Darya.  Hunting  is 
allowed  throughout  the  year. 

Javaii  Tiger         , 

PANTHERA  TIGRIS  SONDAICA  (Fitzinger) 

Tigris  sondaica  Fitzinger,1  Sitz.-ber.  Akad.  Wiss.  [Wien],  math.-nat.  Cl.,  vol.  68, 
pt.  1,  p.  454,  1868.  ("Java  und  Sumatra";  type  locality  restricted  by 
Schwarz  (1912,  p.  324)  to  Java.) 

The  meager  information  available  concerning  the  status  of  the 
Javan  Tiger  indicates  that  it  is  no  longer  very  numerous  or  generally 
distributed  on  that  island. 

"Ground-colour  light  rusty;  stripes  very  narrow,  often  duplicated. 
.  .  .  Fur  short  and  close."  (Schwarz,  1912,  p.  325.)  "Apparently 
closely  resembling  the  Sumatran  race  in  size  and  coloration,  but 
distinguished  from  it,  and  from  all  other  tigers,  by  the  marked  con- 
striction of  the  occiput"  (Pocock,  1929,  p.  541). 

In  1851  Horsfield  (p.  44)  remarked  that  Tigers  were  "numerous 
and  destructive  ...  in  many  parts  of  Java." 

"Many  tigers  .  .  .  may  be  found"  on  the  Oedjoeng  koelon  Penin- 

i  This  name  is  antedated  by  Felis  tigris  sondaicus  Temminck  (Coup-d'oeil 
Possessions  Neerlandaises,  vol.  2,  p.  88,  1847).  It  is  highly  questionable,  how- 
ever, whether  Temminck's  excessively  brief  and  insufficient  description  ("le 
grand  tigre  raye  de  Sumatra  et  de  Java  forme  une  espece  distincte  du  tigre  raye 
du  continent  de  FInde")  is  nomenclaturally  valid. 


310  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

sula,  at  the  extreme  western  end  of  Java,  which  constitutes  a  nature 
reserve  (Dammerman,  1929,  p.  34) . 

"In  Java,  the  tigers  living  up  to  1914  in  the  swamp  country  near 
Maoek,  are  now  extirpated.  In  1931  they  were  seen  on  the  Goenoeng 
Malabar.  They  are  also  found  in  the  Baloeran  District,  southern 
Banjoewangi,  in  the  Southern  Mountains,  and  near  Banjoemas.  Two 
to  four  are  shot  every  year  at  Tampomas.  Finally  a  number  of 
tigers  are  also  reported  from  S.  E.  Garoet"  and  from  the  Midangan 
district.  (Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn,  1936,  p.  58.) 

[The  Sumatran  Tiger  (Panthera  tigris  sumatrae  *) ,  although  less 
common  than  formerly,  is  still  numerous  in  various  districts,  and  its 
protection  is  not  urged  at  present.  (Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn, 
1936,  p.  59).] 

Bali  Tiger 

PANTHERA  TIGRIS  BALICA  (Schwarz) 

Felis  tigris  balica  Schwarz,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist,,  ser.  8,  vol.  10,  p.  325,  1912. 

("Den  Pasar,  Siid-Bali.") 
FIG.:  Schwarz,  1913,  p.  71,  fig. 

In  Bali  the  Tiger  seems  to  be  in  rather  imminent  danger  of 
extinction. 

It  is  very  similar  to  the  Javan  Tiger,  but  smaller;  ground  color 
somewhat  brighter,  and  the  light  markings  clearer  white;  fur  short 
and  close.  Head  and  body,  1,530  mm.;  tail,  580  mm.  (Schwarz, 
1912,  p.  326.) 

About  1909-12  the  Tiger  was  considered  fairly  common  in  Bali; 
yet  information  concerning  damage  done  by  it  was  not  forthcoming 
(Schwarz,  1913,  p.  73). 

"A  few  yet  live  in  West  Bali,  but  they  are  having  a  hard  time 
because  they  are  much  sought  by  hunters  from  Java,  so  that  they 
will  certainly  disappear  within  a  few  years.  The  species  also  exists 
in  N.  W.  and  S.  W.  Bali."  (Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn,  1936, 
p.  58.) 

Order  PROBOSCIDEA:    Proboscideans 

Family  ELEPH ANTID AE :    Elephants 

The  Elephants  are  composed  of  an  Asiatic  genus  (Elephas)  and 
an  African  genus  (Loxodonta) .  Lydekker  (1916)  recognizes  4 
Asiatic  forms  and  11  African  forms,  but  Dr.  Allen  (1939b)  ques- 

i  Panthera  tigris  sumatrae  Pocock,  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  33. 
no.  3,  p.  535,  pi.  H,  1929.  ("Deli,  Sumatra.") 


ORDER  PROBOSCIDEA:    PROBOSCIDEANS  311 

tions  the  taxonomic  status  of  all  but  4  in  the  latter  group.  The 
distribution  of  the  family  covers  southeastern  Asia  (India,  Burma, 
Ceylon,  Thailand,  French  Indo-China,  Malay  Peninsula) ,  Sumatra, 
Borneo  (introduced?),  and  the  greater  part  of  Africa  south  of  the 
Sahara.  Accounts  of  three  forms  are  supplied  herein. 

Malay  Elephant 

ELEPHAS   MAXIMUS   HIRSUTUS   Lydekker 

Elephas  maximus  hirsutus  Lydekker,  Abstr.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  no.  130, 
p.  20,  1914.  ("Kuala  Pila  district  of  the  Negri  Sembilan  province  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula"  (Lydekker,  19146,  pp.  285-286).) 

FIGS.:    Lydekker,  19146,  p.  285,  fig.  1;  Lydekker,  1916,  vol.  5,  p.  84,  fig.  25. 

The  Elephant  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  is  regarded  by  competent 
authorities  (e.  g.,  F.  N.  Chasen,  in  litt.,  March  31,  1937)  as  "a 
vanishing  form." 

This  subspecies  is  "characterized  by  the  square,  instead  of  tri- 
angular, form  of  the  ear,  the  early  date  at  which  its  upper  margin 
is  bent  over,  and  the  presence  in  the  young  condition  ...  of  a 
thick  coat  of  black  and  in  part  bristly  hair"  (Lydekker,  1914a, 
p.  20). 

The  northward  range  of  the  Malay  Elephant  has  not  been  de- 
termined; it  will  here  be  provisionally  considered  to  extend  as  far 
as  the  Isthmus  of  Kra,  in  Peninsular  Siam.  In  the  remainder  of 
Siam  and  in  French  Indo-China  the  Elephant  belongs  presumably 
to  the  Indian  subspecies  and  is  reported  as  more  or  less  common 
(Gyldenstolpe,  1919,  p.  169;  James  L.  Clark,  in  litt.,  June  26,  1936; 
P.  Vitry,  in  litt.,  December,  1936;  Roche,  in  litt.,  1937). 

Malay  States— Flower  says  (1900,  p.  365) :  "Wild  elephants  do 
not  occur  in  either  Penang  or  Singapore,  nor  are  tame  ones  em- 
ployed there;  but  on  the  continent,  both  in  Siam  and  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  elephants  are  found  wild  in  suitable  localities,  and  are 
trained  for  various  purposes.  ...  I  saw  more  or  less  trained 
elephants  in  ...  Kedah,  and  Perak,  but  in  the  Southern  Malay 
States  the  people  do  not  seem  to  catch  and  tame  them."  He  also 
(p.  366)  quotes  H.  J.  Kelsall  (1894)  to  the  effect  that  "the  elephant 
appears  to  be  common  throughout  Johore";  and  H.  N.  Ridley 
(1894)  as  remarking  that  "the  elephant,  though  common  all  through 
Pahang,  is  never  caught  and  tamed." 

Referring  to  conditions  from  1900  on,  Burgess  writes  (1935, 
p.  249) :  "Elephants  roam  all  over  the  peninsula  and  are  common  as 
far  south  as  Johore.  .  .  .  Since  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  jungle 
has  yet  been  cleared,  the  probabilities  are  that  large  herds  have 
not  been  seen." 


312  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Hubback  (1923,  pp.  24-25)  reports  on  "the  damage  done  to  plan- 
tations by  elephants"  in  the  Malay  Peninsula: 

It  is  a  very  extraordinary  thing,  but  all  wild  animals  which  browse  seem 
to  acquire  an  unholy  craving  for  the  bark  and  leaves  of  Hevea  brasiliensis. 
Wild  elephants  especially,  once  they  have  tasted  the  bark,  seem  to  go  mad 
for  it.  I  have  absolutely  trustworthy  evidence  of  an  eye-witness  who  has 
seen  elephants  strip  the  bark,  from  rubber-trees  by  first  catching  hold  of  a 
small  piece  with  the  tip  of  the  trunk  and  then  pulling  upwards,  so  that 
a  strip  of  bark  is  taken  off  the  tree.  In  an  incredibly  short  time  the  tree  is 
ruined.  Then  they  love  to  lean  against  the  trees,  and  I  suppose  are  sur- 
prised and  annoyed  when  they  fall  over.  Undoubtedly  these  wild  elephants 
are  in  certain  places  a  serious  nuisance. 

A  further  account  is  given  by  Hubback  in  the  Report  of  the  Wild 
Life  Commission  of  Malaya  (vol.  2,  1932) .  He  says  that  elephants 
are  not  uncommon  south  of  Gunong  Sinting,  between  that  mountain 
and  the  Pahang  border,  and  continues: 

It  is  a  fact  beyond  question  that  wild  elephants  do  and  have  done  consider- 
able damage  amounting  to  values  of  thousands  of  pounds.  Had  it  not  been 
for  elephants  in  Malaya  still  larger  areas  planted  with  rubber  would  now  be 
yielding  latex.  These  facts  are  not  in  dispute.  .  .  . 

The  elephants  known  as  the  "Carey  Island  Herd,"  which  lived  on  a  large 
island  on  the  coast  of  Selangor,  which  island  was  given  out  for  agriculture, 
were  all  ultimately  destroyed.  Their  death  warrant  was  really  signed  when 
the  grant  for  the  land  was  made  out.  Then  there  is  the  "Kuala  Selangor 
Herd"  which  has  been  almost  totally  exterminated;  a  cow  and  a  calf  being 
reported  as  the  sole  survivors.  The  destruction  of  the  survivors  was  advo- 
cated. This  herd  must  have  consisted  of  40  or  50  animals  thirty  years  ago. 
The  "Labu  Herd"  in  Negri  Sembilan  has  been  practically  eliminated.  In 
Lower  Perak  the  "Chikus  Herd"  of  elephants  has  given  a  lot  of  trouble  and 
many  of  them  have  been  shot.  In  many  other  places  elephants  have  been 
harried  and  driven  from  locality  to  locality  in  alleged  defense  of  agriculture. 
The  records  of  elephants  that  have  been  killed  in  Malaya  during  the  last 
few  years  under  the  agriculturist's  exemption  are  incomplete — reports  are 
seldom  sent  in  of  elephants  that  have  been  wounded — but  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  Malayan  elephant  is  on  the  way  to  extermination.  It  is 
extremely  doubtful  if  the  yearly  toll  of  destruction  is  being  made  up  by  the 
yearly  production  of  calves,  and  that  means  extinction  unless  a  halt  is  called. 
One  must  take  into  account  the  fact  that  wild  animals  when  much  disturbed 
have  a  habit  of  curtailing  their  breeding,  and  it  is  almost  certain  that  this 
affects  elephants  as  well  as  the  other  large  forms  of  our  fauna. 

In  Kuala  Selangor,  Lower  Perak,  Labu,  and  elsewhere,  despite  the  sup- 
posed sanctuary  provided  by  Forest  Reserves,  the  elephants  have  not  been 
left  undisturbed,  and  have  been  unable  to  find  in  the  areas  that  they  have 
receded  to  that  tranquility  essential  to  an  elephant's  well-being. 

Where  elephants  have  been  forced  to  live  in  jungle  areas  which  are  insuffi- 
cient for  their  normal  existence,  and  where  they  have  become  a  serious 
menace  to  cultivation,  it  is  advocated  that  they  should  be  destroyed  by  per- 
sons whose  business  it  would  be  to  undertake  the  work.  .  .  . 

It  is  an  established  fact  that  wild  elephants,  always  providing  they  are  not 
suffering  from  wounds,  can  be  driven  away  by  fire  crackers  and  noise.  In 
cases  of  absenteeism,  which  is  frequently  the  contributory  cause  when  ele- 
phants visit  native  cultivation,  these  methods  cannot  be  applied.  A  woven 


ORDER  PROBOSCIDEA:  PROBOSCIDEANS        313 

wire  fence  properly  upkept  and  with  a  path  kept  reasonably  clean  on  the 
jungle  boundary  .  .  .  would  in  most  cases  keep  elephants  from  entering  the 
cultivated  area.  .  .  . 

The  removal  of  protection  from  Elephants,  a  measure  taken  in  1929,  was 
condemned  by  the  vast  majority  of  English  speaking  witnesses  before  the 
Wild  Life  Commission  of  Malaya.  This  order  was  liable  to  accentuate  the 
trouble  from  wounded  elephants  and  undoubtedly,  as  evidence  showed,  forced 
elephants  into  localities  where  they  had  never  been  known  before.  This 
unwise  order  was  rescinded  on  the  15th  of  May,  1931,  and  the  elephant 
cannot  now  be  shot  at  by  an  unlicensed  person  except  in  alleged  defence  of 
property.  .  .  . 

Raids  on  native  cultivation  are  often  due  to  neglect.  Persons  familiar  with 
the  habits  of  elephants  can  often  move  a  herd  from  the  vicinity  of  cultivation 
by  following  them  up  all  day  until  they  are  miles  away  from  the  locality 
they  visited  the  previous  night.  .  .  . 

How  do  Sakai  in  their  primitive  state  handle  the  planting  of  crops  in  ele- 
phant country?  Showing  more  wisdom  than  their  white  brothers,  they  leave 
elephants  alone.  ...  In  the  Sakai  country,  which  lies  between  the  main 
range  and  the  Kelantan  Railway,  the  Sakai  suffer  no  damage  from  elephants. 
The  elephants,  not  being  disturbed  and  harried,  have  not  learned  to  "answer 
back." 

[Some  hold  an  opinion]  that  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  so-called  damage 
done  by  elephants  is  only  done  to  patches  of  abandoned  cultivation,  and 
when  inhabited  land  is  attacked  it  is  not  infrequently  done  by  bad-tempered 
elephants  suffering  from  wounds  of  sorts  which  are  caused  by  some  home- 
made bullets  fired  from  a  shot  gun. 

F.  N.  Chasen  writes  (in  litt.,  May  5,  1937) :  "The  question  of 
protecting  the  elephant  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  raises  and  crystal- 
lizes the  whole  policy  of  local  big-game  preservation.  Can  big-game 
co-exist  with  modern  agriculturalists?  My  view  is  that  the  elephant 
should  be  protected  in  reserves :  outside  the  reserves  he  must  behave 
himself,  or  be  shot.  These  are,  of  course,  the  extremes  of  the  case 
and  a  middle  course  is,  sometimes,  permissible  when  directed  by  an 
experienced  game-warden.  The  Malayan  elephant  is  decreasing  in 
numbers,  rapidly,  in  the  settled  areas.  It  is  still  numerous  elsewhere." 

Peninsular  Siam. — The  following  two  accounts  relate  to  the 
uninhabited  country  about  the  northern  end  of  the  Inland  Sea : 

"On  the  plain  and  in  the  forest  a  herd  of  about  300  wild  elephants 
are  roaming.  .  .  .  These  elephants  have  from  time  to  time  been 
captured,  but  their  death  has  always  resulted  after  some  compara- 
tively short  time."  (Havmoller,  1926,  p.  365.) 

"From  government  officials  with  whom  I  was  traveling  I  learned 
that  a  herd  of  at  least  200  elephants  ranges  over  the  vast  grassy 
plain  extending  southward  from  near  Nakon  Sritamarat  almost  to 
Singora  on  the  west  side  of  the  Inland  Sea  and  practically  from  the 
Gulf  of  Siam  to  the  high  mountains  in  the  west.  This  plain,  suitable 
for  rice  growing,  is  entirely  uncultivated  owing  to  the  ravages  of  the 
elephants."  (H.  M.  Smith,  1926,  pp.  365-366.) 

Elephants  are  protected  in  Siam  because  "they  are  considered 


314  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

property  of  the  State,  and  therefore  a  special  permit  must  be  ob- 
tained from  the  King  before  an  elephant  may  be  killed"  (David  E. 
Kaufman,  in  litt.,  March  8,  1933). 

Suiiiatrun    Elephant 

ELEPHAS  MAXIMUS  SUMATRANUS  Temminck 

Elephas  Sumatranus  Temminck,  Coup-d'oeil  Possessions  Neerlandaises,  vol.  2, 

p.  91,  1847.   ("Sumatra.") 
FIGS.:   Lydekker,  1916,  vol.  5,  p.  83,  fig.  24;  Pieters,  1932,  p.  58,  fig. 

This  Elephant,  while  still  existing  in  considerable  numbers  in 
Sumatra,  is  evidently  losing  ground  in  contact  with  cultivation,  and 
concern  is  felt  over  its  future. 

It  is  said  to  be  characterized  by  its  small  size,  its  tessellated 
skin,  the  pyriform  shape  of  its  ear,  and  the  infolding  of  the  posterior 
edge  of  the  ear  (Lydekker,  1916,  vol.  5,  p.  84) . 

Sumatra  is  the  only  part  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  that  has  pos- 
sessed a  native  stock  of  Elephants  within  historic  times.  Those  now 
found  in  Borneo  are  considered  descendants  of  domesticated  indi- 
viduals introduced  from  the  Malay  Peninsula  (Mjoberg,  1930, 
pp.  15-16). 

In  1906  W.  L.  Abbott  (in  Lyon,  1908,  p.  622)  saw  many  trails  in 
eastern  Sumatra  opposite  Pulo  Rupat. 

Only  mature  males  may  be  hunted,  and  the  open  season  may  not 
exceed  six  successive  months.  The  export  of  either  living  specimens 
or  the  skins  of  Elephants  is  prohibited,  and  the  export  of  ivory  is 
restricted  within  certain  limits.  During  the  past  ten  years  an 
average  of  only  350  kilograms  of  ivory  has  been  exported  annually 
from  the  Netherlands  Indies.  The  published  value  is  only  10  to  20 
guilders  a  kilo.  Animals  with  very  large  tusks  have  disappeared 
for  the  most  part,  and  the  present  average  weight  of  a  pair  of 
tusks  is  estimated  at  10  to  12  kilograms.  Thus  the  above-mentioned 
export  figures  represent  the  annual  taking  of  about  35  Elephants. 
(Dammerman,  1929,  pp.  13-14.) 

"The  two  principal  ports  to  which  the  ivory  is  sent,  are  Singapore 
and  Penang.  Much  ivory  is  also  carved  here  locally,  so  we  may 
suppose  that  yearly  many  more  elephants  are  killed  than  the  35 
the  tusks  of  which  are  exported.  With  the  new  regulations  export 
of  elephant-tusks  weighing  less  than  5  kilograms  a  piece,  is  for- 
bidden." (Dammerman,  1929,  p.  14.) 

The  same  author  (in  Skottsberg,  1934,  p.  422)  considers  the 
Sumatran  Elephant  threatened  with  extermination.  According  to 
Pieters  (1932,  p.  58),  the  greatest  danger  is  the  encroachment  of 
cultivation  on  its  habitats. 

"There  are  still  some  elephants  in  Langkat  District,  but  not  as 


ORDER  PROBOSCIDEA:    PROBOSCIDEANS  315 

many  as,  say  10  years  ago.  There  are  some  on  Lepan,  Besitang, 
and  Namoe  Oengas.  Elephants  are  shifting  from  one  place  to  an- 
other, and  then  come  back  to  the  starting  point  again."  (J.  Gourin. 
in  Hit.,  August  7,  1933.) 

The  following  account  is  given  by  Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van 
Heurn  (1936,  pp.  48-50) : 

Very  detailed  reports  on  the  elephant  were  received  from  many  districts. 
While  some  believe  they  will  be  exterminated  within  the  next  twenty-five 
years,  others  think  that  they  are  holding  their  own  as  there  are  yet  about 
2000  elephants  in  Southern  Sumatra  alone.  This  estimate  is,  however,  called 
in  doubt  by  competent  observers.  In  the  subdivision  Ogan  Oeloe  there  were  at 
the  most  about  45  elephants  in  1926.  There  is  much  difference  of  opinion 
about  the  damage  these  animals  do.  In  Rokan  they  have  increased  so  rapidly 
that  they  have  become  a  nuisance;  nevertheless  they  are  not  hunted  much. 

A  report  from  Soengi  Radja  relates  that  in  1929  a  herd  of  14  head  was 
discovered;  efforts  are  being  made  to  preserve  them.  Elephants  were  also 
seen  near  Soengi  Roka  in  May  1932.  In  Siak  their  number  is  estimated  as 
still  quite  large,  likewise  in  Indragiri,  although  they  do  not  appear  there 
in  the  swampy  coastal  districts.  In  the  lowlands  they  are  found  only  in 
Reteh,  and  the  largest  herds  in  South  Seberida  in  the  Boekit  Tiga  Pdeloeh. 
In  the  first-named  district  a  reward  of  twenty-five  Dutch  guilders  is  offered 
for  every  elephant  tail.  The  controler  of  the  district,  which  comprises  the 
middle  course  of  the  Siak  River,  paid  twenty-eight  such  premiums  in  1930. 
A  correspondent  estimates  that  about  200  elephants  roam  over  Siak  and 
urges  the  repeal  of  the  old  local  regulation  concerning  the  premiums,  as 
well  as  not  extending  the  permits  for  the  fire-arms  kept  in  the  kampongs. 

In  Djambi,  Moeara  Tambesi  and  Moeara  Tebo  they  are  fairly  common; 
also  even  now,  in  South  west  Bangko,  where  the  controler  estimates  they 
will  be  extinct  within  10  years.  They  are  very  rare  in  Moeara  Boengo.  In 
Djambi  they  are  estimated  at  about  250-350. 

There  is  a  herd  of  about  30  in  Korintjih,  and  seven  in  the  Ophir  district 
(July  1932)  viz:  one  young  male,  and  six  females.  In  1915  this  same  group 
numbered  still  18.  In  1916  the  herd  of  North  Korintjih  were  hunted  by  men 
specially  appointed  for  the  purpose  by  the  Demang  of  Korintjih  and  the 
Civil  Authority  of  Air  Hadji.  Not  even  the  females  and  the  young  were 
spared  at  that  time.  Along  the  Mesoedjih  River  elephants  are  caught  in 
pitfalls  by  the  Natives  and  the  younger  ones  are  sold  in  Palembang.  The 
older  ones  are  left  to  starve,  in  order  to  obtain  the  tusks  to  sell.  It  is  generally 
thought  that  the  present  regulations  merely  postpone  the  extermination  of 
the  elephant.  Only  establishing  extensive  reserves  might  bring  adequate 
protection.  .  .  . 

The  report  of  a  herd  of  14  in  Soengi  Radja  is  of  much  interest,  for  these 
animals  occupy  a  rather  small  area  that  has  been  completely  surrounded  by 
cultivation  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and  though  much  hunted  they  have 
succeeded  in  holding  their  own.  The  establishing1  of  a  reserve  here  was  urged 
in  1929.  In  1932,  the  Netherlands  Committee  for  International  Nature  Pro- 
tection requested  this  from  the  Government  of  the  Netherlands  Indies,  but 
as  yet  no  actual  steps  have  been  taken. 

A  second  important  fact,  emphasized  by  our  enquiries,  is  that  at  certain 
seasons  elephants  migrate  periodically  from  the  mountains  to  the  lower 
coastal  areas.  This  too  had  been  exhaustively  recorded  in  print.  It  was  one 
of  the  strongest  arguments  used  by  the  Netherlands  Committee,  when  sub- 


316  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

mitting  their  proposal  for  requesting  the  Indian  Government  to  include  in 
the  reserve  certain  lowland  swampy  areas.  This  has  not  been  done  at  present ; 
but  the  Committee  intends  calling  the  Government's  special  attention  to  the 
new  information  received  which  further  supports  their  claim.  The  protection 
of  the  elephants  remains,  moreover,  a  separate  problem.  Even  after  re- 
serves are  established,  and,  of  course,  after  the  Decree  on  Hunting  becomes 
effective  in  Sumatra,  the  careful  listing  of  existing  herds  will  be  imperative. 
The  continued  gathering  of  data  regarding  each  herd,  in  order  to  determine 
which  way  they  travel,  their  increase  or  decrease,  and  what  damage  they  do, 
will  furnish  the  foundation  for  their  protection  and  for  the  preservation 
of  the  remaining  herds.  .  .  .  May  complete  cooperation  by  the  Department 
of  the  Interior  facilitate  this  task  of  the  Netherlands  Committee. 


South  African  Bush  Elephant 

LOXODONTA  AFRICANA  AFRICAN  A    (Blumenbach) 

Elephas  ajricanus  Blumenbach,  Handbuch  der  Naturg.,  ed.  5,  p.  125,  atlas, 
pi.  19,  fig.  C,  1797.  (Selected  as  Orange  River,  South  Africa.) 

SYNONYMS:  Elephas  capensis  F.  Cuvier,  Tableau  Elem.  de  PHist.  Nat.  des 
Anim.,  p.  149,  1798  (Orange  River  region,  South  Africa) ;  Elephas  ajri- 
canus toxotis  Lydekker,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1907,  pp.  385,  388,  Aug.  1, 
1907  (Addo  Bush,  South  Africa) ;  Loxodonta  africana  zukowskyi  Strand, 
Arch,  fur  Naturg.,  vol.  90,  sect.  A,  pt.  1,  p.  68,  footnote,  July  1924  (Kaoko- 
veld,  South-West  Africa). 

FIGS.:  (Of  the  Tanganyika  animal)  M.  Maxwell,  1930,  11  plates  from 
photographs. 

Because  of  its  great  size,  its  strength,  its  tusks  of  ivory,  its 
remarkable  trunk,  or  proboscis,  and  its  intelligence,  the  African 
Elephant  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  mammals.  At  first  con- 
fused by  early  naturalists  with  the  Indian  Elephant,  it  is,  however, 
so  different  that  the  two  are  now  placed  in  separate  genera.  The 
African  Elephants  (Loxodonta)  differ  in  many  points,  such  as  the 
structure  of  the  tip  of  the  proboscis,  with  its  two  instead  of  single 
fingerlike  tips,  the  huge  ears  extending  back  to  cover  the  sides  of  the 
neck  as  far  as  the  shoulder  blade,  the  forehead,  which  is  less  globular 
than  in  the  Indian  species,  the  cheek  teeth  having  fewer  of  the  high 
enamel  prisms  which  form  their  essential  grinding  structure,  the  six 
successive  teeth  with  usually  3,  6,  7,  7,  8,  and  10  prisms,  respectively, 
against  4,  8,  12,  12,  16,  24  in  the  Indian  Elephant  ( W.  L.  Sclater) . 
The  African  Elephant  is  slightly  the  larger,  but  seldom  exceeds 
11  feet  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  a  distance  not  easily  measured  with 
accuracy  even  when  the  animal  lies  dead.  The  weight  of  the  famous 
"Jumbo"  was  about  6.5  tons.  In  color  the  skin  is  slaty  gray  but  may 
appear  in  life  of  different  tints,  according  to  the  light,  the  dryness 
of  the  skin,  and  the  amount  of  earth  clinging  to  it  if  animals  have 
been  dusting  or  wallowing.  A  sparse  coat  of  short  stiff  hairs  is 
insufficient  to  obscure  the  hide,  but  near  the  tip  of  the  tail  these 
hairs  become  stout  coarse  bristles  growing  from  the  edges  of  the 


ORDER  PROBOSCIDEA:    PROBOSCIDEANS  317 

compressed  terminal  part,  several  inches  in  length.  The  upper  pair 
of  incisors  are  enormously  enlarged  to  form  tusks,  which  are  larger 
in  the  male  than  in  the  female,  or  may  in  the  latter  sometimes  be 
lacking.  These  are  used  as  weapons  or  in  digging  for  roots.  The 
largest  tusks  come  from  Kenya  Colony,  with  a  record  length  on  the 
outside  curve  of  11  feet  5^  inches,  and  a  weight  for  the  two  of 
293  pounds  (Roland  Ward,  1935) . 

The  African  Elephants  have  at  various  times  been  subdivided  into 
local  races  by  systematists,  but  there  is  still  much  doubt  as  to  the 
value  of  the  characters  claimed,  and  the  number  of  valid  geographical 
forms.  In  general  one  may  distinguish  the  larger  "Bush  Elephants" 
and  the  smaller  "Forest  Elephants,"  the  former  distinguished  by 
minor  additional  points  such  as  the  larger,  more  elongated  ears,  the 
more  forwardly  directed  tusks,  less  abundant  hair.  There  is  a  ques- 
tion whether  these  two  types  should  be  regarded  as  merely  races  or 
as  separate  species,  but  the  likelihood  is  that  they  have  evolved 
side  by  side  though  in  different  habitats,  the  former  avoiding  the 
denser  forests,  the  latter  keeping  more  strictly  to  their  shelter,  with 
the  result  that  at  present  the  two  types  seem  different  enough  for 
separation  as  distinct  species.  The  larger  Bush  Elephants,  again, 
have  been  regarded  as  of  several  local  races,  of  which  that  of  South 
Africa,  the  first  to  be  named,  is  at  present  much  reduced  in  numbers. 
Farther  to  the  northeast,  the  East  African  animal  has  been  named 
L.  a.  knochenhaueri,  and  the  Sudanese  Elephant,  L.  a.  oxyotis.  There 
is  still  much  doubt  as  to  the  validity  of  the  characters  distinguishing 
these  races,  but  until  series  of  skulls  and  measurements  can  be  com- 
pared one  can  only  await  further  information.  The  character  of  the 
ear  lobe  invoked,  for  example  by  Lydekker,  is  so  subject  to  modi- 
fication through  distortion  in  dried  or  mounted  specimens  that 
little  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  it.  One  may  then  consider  the 
status  of  the  Bush  Elephants  as  a  whole,  with  special  reference  to 
the  South  African  race. 

In  classical  times  elephants  were  found  over  most  of  Africa  except 
the  most  desert  areas.  There  seems  to  be  evidence  that  in  ancient 
times  they  were  found  abundantly  in  Abyssinia,  for  under  the 
Ptolemies,  in  the  third  century  B.  C.,  elephants  for  use  in  warfare 
were  captured  and  trained  in  Ethiopia  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea 
and  were  taken  thence  in  specially  constructed  boats  to  Egypt. 
Entire  army  corps  were  sometimes  engaged  in  their  capture.  In 
Carthaginian  days  elephants  were  captured  in  Libya  and  in  Maure- 
tania  among  the  forest-covered  foothills  of  the  Atlas  Mountains. 
Here,  however,  they  have  long  ceased  to  exist  and  are  not  now  found 
north  of  the  southern  borders  of  the  Sahara.  In  the  eastern  Sudan 
elephants  still  occur  in  small  numbers  (I  myself  saw  their  "sign" 
on  the  Blue  Nile,  near  the  Abyssinian  border  in  1913),  but  have 


318  EXTINCT  AND*  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

long  ago  retreated  from  the  borders  of  the  Red  Sea.  Swayne  wrote 
a  quarter  of  a  century  or  so  ago:  "There  is  practically  no  elephant 
shooting  to  be  got  in  Somaliland  north  of  the  Haud  Plateau,  or  in 
the  Haud,  at  the  present  time.  In  the  gorges  which  descend  from 
the  highlands  of  Abyssinia  to  Ogaden — in  the  country  about  the 
head-waters  of  the  Webbi  Shabeyleh  and  Juba  Rivers  there  are 
still  plenty  of  elephant.  A  few  herds,  it  is  believed,  wander  down 
those  river  valleys  to  the  Marehan  Country  far  to  the  south-east 
of  Berbera."  A  certain  amount  of  ivory-hunting  by  natives  may 
keep  these  herds  in  check.  But  recent  travelers  up  the  Nile  report 
large  numbers  of  elephants  in  the  practically  impenetrable  papyrus 
swamps  of  "the  Sudd"  where  they  will  doubtless  find  sanctuary  for 
a  long  period  to  come.  Between  this  area  and  Uganda  there  are 
large  numbers  of  elephants,  and  in  the  Kenya  forests  and  thorn- 
bush  a  good  many  still  survive. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  present  report,  chief  interest  centers  in  the 
elephant  of  South  Africa,  which  nowadays  with  increasing  settle- 
ment of  this  part  of  the  continent  comes  into  close  association  with 
white  men  and  has  had  to  suffer  in  consequence.  The  following  brief 
notes  are  given  in  summary  from  Shortridge  (1934,  vol.  1,  p.  362)  and 
W.  L.  Sclater  (1900) .  This,  the  typical  race  of  African  Elephant,  at 
present  seems  to  be  characterized  in  part  by  its  rather  short  stout 
tusks  as  compared  with  the  other  Bush  Elephants,  but  how  far  this 
may  have  been  due  to  the  process  of  selecting  largest  tusks  and  elimi- 
nating these  animals  in  ivory  hunting  is  not  clear.  "In  the  days  of 
van  Riebeck  (1653)  elephant  were  plentiful  as  far  south  as  the  Cape 
Peninsula,"  but  by  the  beginning  of  the  next  century  seem  to  have 
become  rare,  for  according  to  Theal  the  last  one  shot  in  this  region 
was  killed  "just  beyond  Cape  Flats  in  1702;  the  expedition  of  Cap- 
tain Hop,  in  1761,  found  plenty  just  north  of  the  Oliphant  River 
in  what  is  now  the  district  of  Clanwilliam,  while  in  the  eastern  half 
of  the  Colony,  elephant  hunting  was  regularly  pursued  till  about 
1830.  ...  In  Natal  a  few  survived  till  1860;  in  the  north  the 
hunters  of  the  early  part  of  the  century  made  large  bags  near 
Kuruman ;  Harris  in  1836  shot  chiefly  in  Magaliesberg  of  the  western 
Transvaal;  Gordon  Gumming  in  1846  in  Sechele's  country  in 
northern  Bechuanaland,  and  Livingstone  and  Baldwin,  in  1849  and 
1858,  found  elephants  innumerable  on  the  Botletli  River  and  near 
Lake  Ngami,  and  finally  Selous'  hunting  ground  in  the  seventies 
and  early  eighties  was  in  what  is  now  Matabeleland  and  Mashona- 
land."  Elephants  were  formerly  so  plentiful  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  Cape  that  an  important  ivory  market  was  established  in  1824 
at  Fort  Willshire.  After  1860,  however,  the  herds  in  the  Knysna 
Forest  and  the  Addo  Bush  were  placed  under  government  protection. 
The  last  elephant  in  Zululand  was  said  to  have  been  a  solitary  bull, 


ORDER  PROBOSCIDEA:    PROBOSCIDEANS  319 

which  was  killed  in  February,  1916,  and  its  skeleton  is  now  mounted 
in  the  Natal  Museum.  In  Matabeleland,  elephants  existed  in  large 
numbers  in  1872  and  had  been  little  hunted,  but  in  the  few  succeeding 
years  Lo  Bengula's  hunters  in  addition  to  Europeans  swarmed  into 
the  region  and  in  three  years  took  out  an  estimated  100,000  pounds 
of  ivory.  Even  then,  tusks  over  70  pounds  in  weight  were  rare,  and 
the  average  was  40  to  50  pounds,  rather  small  as  compared  with 
those  farther  north.  By  1902  elephants  had  disappeared  from  the 
Transvaal,  but  in  late  years  a  few  have  come  back  into  Kruger  Park 
from  adjacent  areas  of  Portuguese  East  Africa.  Shortridge  sums 
up  the  present  situation  in  the  Cape  Province  and  adjacent  terri- 
tory: "Scattered  and  comparatively  small  herds  of  elephant  still 
wander  in  Ngamiland,  Southern  Rhodesia,  Portuguese  East  Africa. 
...  In  the  Cape  Province,  the  remnant  of  a  herd  is  preserved  in 
the  Addo  Bush.  There  may  still  be  half  a  dozen  or  so  in  the  Knysna 
Forest."  In  South-West  Africa,  there  may  be  from  600  to  1,000  head 
in  the  Kaokoveld,  but  larger  estimates  are  probably  unwarranted. 
The  other  region  where  they  occur  is  in  the  Caprivi,  where  two  fair- 
sized  herds  are  said  to  survive,  one  near  the  Kwando  River,  the 
other  between  Popa  and  Kagera.  There  are  still  elephants  in  south- 
western Angola  and  especially  along  the  Kwando  in  the  southeastern 
part.  An  estimate  of  the  elephant  population  of  any  district  is  not 
easy  to  make,  however,  since  on  account  of  their  wandering  habits 
the  same  animals  may  appear  within  a  short  time  at  points  far  apart. 

In  South  Africa,  aside  from  the  restricted  herds  of  Caprivi  and  the 
Kaokoveld,  there  exist  four  other  herds:  (1)  that  in  the  Knysna 
Forest,  said  to  number,  in  1935  about  a  dozen  animals,  which  are 
under  Government  protection;  (2)  the  Addo  Bush  herd,  near  Port 
Elizabeth,  numbering,  in  1933,  about  16;  (3)  the  Kruger  Park  herd, 
which  seems  most  favorably  situated  and  is  believed  to  receive 
occasional  increments  from  animals  seeking  this  sanctuary  from 
adjacent  Portuguese  territory;  and  (4)  a  small  number  that  occa- 
sionally appear  in  straggling  parties  from  across  the  Limpopo  in 
times  of  drought  and  enter  the  northern  Transvaal.  Concerning 
the  Addo  Bush  herd,  in  the  early  part  of  1920  its  numbers  were  126, 
more  than  could  well  be  maintained  there,  and  so  by  Government 
order  110  were  killed,  and  the  remnant  was  confined  to  a  more  limited 
space,  which  apparently  the  animals  more  or  less  recognize  and  keep 
within  its  limits.  A  boring  to  supply  them  with  water  has  been  made 
to  help  in  keeping  them  within  these  bounds,  but  the  difficulty  of 
restricting  their  wanderings  is  not  easily  overcome.  In  Kruger 
National  Park  there  are  said  to  be  (1933)  approximately  150-200 
elephants,  in  five  separate  groups.  They  tend  to  spread  out  from 
their  fastnesses  among  the  reed  beds  of  the  Letaba  River  (1934) . 

Apart  from  its  great  interest,  from  both  esthetic  and  zoological 


320  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

points  of  view,  the  African  Elephant  has  for  centuries  supplied  a 
large  part  of  the  world's  demand  for  ivory;  it  is  a  source  of  meat 
for  many  native  tribes;  and  in  recent  years  it  has  again  been  the 
subject  of  attempts  at  domestication,  in  this  instance  in  the  Belgian 
Congo,  where  imported  mahouts  from  India  as  well  as  tame  Indian 
Elephants  have  succeeded  in  rendering  the  Forest  Elephant  more  or 
less  tractable.  Their  timidity,  however,  often  impairs  their  useful- 
ness, while  the  large  amounts  of  food  they  require  add  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  an  economical  value.  According  to  Lavauden  (1933,  pp. 
21-22),  in  1921,  ivory  to  the  amount  of  800  tons  of  elephants'  tusks 
was  sent  to  the  world's  markets;  in  1925  this  had  fallen  to  500  tons, 
but  the  average  weight  of  the  tusks  had  considerably  decreased  as 
well.  Elephants,  on  the  other  hand,  often  do  much  damage  to  the 
crops  of  the  agricultural  natives,  wrecking  their  fields,  granaries,  and 
even  houses  at  times.  This  damage,  although  "it  is  very  doubtful  if 
it  would  amount  to  1  percent  of  the  entire  crop,"  is  nevertheless  at 
times  a  considerable  loss,  and  of  late  years  measures  have  been  taken 
in  countries  under  British  rule  to  cope  with  this,  by  appointing  an 
official  to  undertake  elephant  control  through  killing  a  certain  num- 
ber in  areas  where  they  are  reported  to  be  doing  such  damage.  In 
his  book  Elephant,  David  E.  Blunt  (1933),  who  had  charge  of  this 
work  in  East  Africa,  reports  that  elephants  seem  very  quickly  to 
learn  the  bounds  of  regions  to  which  they  must  be  confined,  and 
after  a  few  of  a  marauding  herd  are  shot  the  trouble  to  plantations 
is  stopped  for  at  least  the  time  being.  Thus  while  it  is  possible  by 
this  means  to  reduce  greatly  the  elephant  damage  in  agricultural 
areas  near  large  forests  or  other  country  inhabited  by  herds  of  these 
animals,  it  is  likely  that  with  increase  of  settlement  this  protection 
of  crops  will  become  less  needed,  and  the  animals  will  gradually  give 
way.  Nevertheless  there  will  undoubtedly  be  plenty  of  elephants  in 
some  sections  of  Africa  for  many  years  to  come,  in  spite  of  hunting. 
Moreover,  these  will  prove  an  asset  on  account  of  the  returns  from 
purchases  of  big-game  licenses  and  additional  fees  for  each  elephant. 
In  East  Africa  animals  with  tusks  under  fifty  pounds  in  weight  (the 
two  together)  may  not  legally  be  killed  under  penalty  and  confis- 
cation of  the  ivory.  This  limit,  according  to  Brocklehurst  (1933), 
has  been  lately  reduced  in  Abyssinia  from  30  to  20  pounds  so  that 
females  now  are  killed. 

It  appears  from  statistics  that  Uganda  is  likely  to  be  one  of  the 
regions  where  elephants  will  long  hold  out  and  may  be  an  asset  in 
the  way  mentioned.  In  1929,  the  Game  Department  reported  a  kill 
of  1,439  elephants,  of  which  1,135  were  accounted  for  by  the  Govern- 
ment control  operations.  In  1931  the  Game  staff  killed  1,211;  in 
1933,  the  number  was  1,380,  and  yet  "with  the  exception  of  the  Toro 
district,  the  southern  portion  of  West  Nile,  and  possibly  the 
Mubende  district,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  elephant  num- 


ORDER  PROBOSCIDEA:    PROBOSCIDEANS  321 

bers  are  other  than  steadily  increasing  in  all  parts  of  the  protec- 
torate in  which  this  great  beast  occurs."  In  1934,  it  is  said  that 
2,716  elephants  were  killed  in  Tanganyika  Territory.  Taylor,  in 
East  Africa,  July  9, 1936,  believes  that  the  method  of  control  adopted 
is  "the  most  humane  method  possible  of  enabling  men  and  elephant 
to  live  in  peace  and  concord  in  one  territory."  With  the  stopping 
of  such  methods  of  slaughter  as  once  were  practiced  by  natives  in 
encircling  elephant  herds  by  grass  fires  and  using  pitfalls,  and  with 
the  reduction  of  poaching  for  ivory,  and  the  licensing  of  hunters,  no 
doubt  the  hazards  for  the  species  are  sufficiently  lessened  to  counter- 
balance the  large  numbers  just  noted  that  are  killed  in  control 
measures.  The  ivory  from  such  elephants  as  are  killed  in  this  way 
is  Government  property  and  a  source  of  revenue.  Ivory  is  also  a 
regular  product  of  the  Belgian  Congo,  where  many  animals  must 
annually  be  killed,  although  at  the  present  time  this  requires  special 
license. 

For  the  future,  the  opinion  of  those  conversant  with  the  situation 
seems  to  be  that  in  South  Africa  the  relatively  small  areas  of  national 
reserves  may  continue  to  hold  elephant  herds  indefinitely,  but  the 
size  of  the  herds  must  be  regulated  by  the  area  of  the  reserve  and 
its  suitability  to  their  needs.  With  reduction  to  small  numbers  there 
is  always  a  danger  of  an  unlooked-for  change  which  may  be  un- 
favorable. In  South-West  Africa,  the  numbers  yet  remaining  are 
under  government  protection,  so  far  as  it  may  be  enforceable,  but 
the  elephants  here  doubtless  owe  their  continuation  quite  as  much 
to  the  inaccessibility  of  their  habitat.  In  the  less  settled  parts  of 
East  Africa,  they  will  continue  in  numbers  and  with  the  present 
efficient  supervision  of  the  game  departments  should  prove  on  the 
whole  a  decided  asset  and  attraction,  notwithstanding  a  certain 
amount  of  local  damage  to  plantations.  In  Uganda,  where  the  herds 
are  still  abundant,  there  is  evidence  of  slight  increase  in  numbers  in 
some  districts,  while  in  the  great  papyrus  swamps  of  "the  Sudd"  of 
the  upper  Nile,  they  are  present  in  great  numbers  and  are  likely  to 
find  this  a  safe  retreat.  Airplane  photographs  taken  by  the  late  Mar- 
tin Johnson  in  this  region  show  some  astonishingly  large  herds.  The 
game  warden  of  Uganda  in  his  report  for  1925  believes  that  with 
the  spread  of  settlement  and  development  elephants  will  have  to  be 
killed  out  or  "expelled"  from  certain  areas,  but  that,  since  extermi- 
nation is  impossible  and  impracticable,  good  sanctuaries  are  neces- 
sary, which  shall  protect  the  main  breeding  areas  of  the  herds. 
Elephants  quickly  learn  to  recognize  the  areas  in  which  they  are 
free  from  molestation,  so  that  this  trait  will  help  to  keep  them  within 
such  bounds.  A  proper  sanctuary,  however,  must  include  sheltered 
valleys  with  abundance  of  food  and  sufficient  water,  else  at  periods 
of  drought  the  animals  will  move  off  in  search  of  better  localities. 

G.  M.  A. 


322  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Order  PERISSODACTYLA:    Odd-toed  Ungulates 

Family  EQUIDAE:    Horses,  Zebras,  and  Asses 

Some  conservative  zoologists  recognize  but  one  genus  in  this 
family,  while  granting  subgeneric  status  to  the  Horses  (Equus), 
Zebras  (Dolichohippus,  Hippotigris) ,  and  Asses  (Asinus) .  Others 
raise  these  subgenera  to  generic  rank,  and  Shortridge  (1934,  vol.  1, 
p.  397)  proposes  an  additional  genus  (Quagga)  for  the  Quagga  and 
Burchell's  Zebra.  Dr.  Allen  maintains  a  conservative  viewpoint  and 
employs  the  generic  name  Equus  for  all  the  Zebras  (including  the 
Quagga),  while  I  prefer  to  keep  both  the  African  and  the  Asiatic 
Asses  in  a  separate  genus,  Asinus.  The  single  surviving  species  of 
Wild  Horse  (Equus  przewalskii)  is  now  confined  to  Mongolia.  The 
nine  forms  of  Zebras  (two  extinct)  occupy  eastern  and  southern 
Africa.  One  extinct  and  two  living  forms  of  African  Wild  Asses 
(Asinus  atlanticus  and  A.  africanus  subspp.),  with  ranges  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  portions  of  that  continent,  are  herein  recog- 
nized; also  six  forms  of  Asiatic  Wild  Asses  (Asinus  hemionus) , 
ranging  from  Mongolia  and  Tibet  to  Syria.  The  generally  pre- 
carious status  of  the  family  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  all  but 
one  of  the  Asiatic  forms  and  all  but  six  of  the  African  forms  are 
treated  in  the  following  pages. 

Przewalski's  Horse;  Mongolian  Wild  Horse;  Mongolian  Tarpan 

EQUUS  PRZEWALSKII  Poliakov 

Equus  Przewalskii  Poliakov,  Izviestiia  Imper.  Russk.  Geogr.  Obshchestvo, 
vol.  17,  p.  1,  1881.  (The  type  specimen  was  obtained  by  a  "hunting- 
expedition  sent  by  M.  Tihonof  from  the  post  Zaisan  to  the  sand  deserts 
of  Central  Asia"  (Poliakof,  1881,  p.  19).  Type  locality  restricted  by 
Harper  (1940,  p.  195)  to  the  oasis  of  Gashim,  eastern  Dzungaria  (approxi- 
mately lat.  44°  30'  N.,  long.  90°  E.).) 

SYNONYM:    Equus  hagenbecki  Matschie  (1903). 

Fios.:  Poliakov,  op.  cit.,  pi.  1;  Przewalski,  1883,  pi.  facing  p.  40;  Lydekker, 
1901,  p.  284,  fig.  65;  Salensky,  1902,  pi.  1,  pp.  12,  16,  17,  figs.  2-4;  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  London  1902,  vol.  1,  pi.  13;  Matschie,  1903,  p.  582,  fig.; 
Ridgeway,  1905,  p.  27,  fig.  18,  p.  29,  fig.  19;  Wrangel,  1908,  vol.  1,  p.  3, 
fig.  1;  Lydekker,  1916,  vol.  5,  p.  8,  fig.  4;  Peake,  1933,  pi.  31,  fig.  a; 
Pocock,  1937,  p.  715,  fig.;  Reed  and  Lucas,  1937,  p.  129,  fig.  44;  Schmidt, 
1938,  pi.  10. 

A  very  special  interest  attaches  to  this  animal,  as  the  only  truly 
wild  horse  surviving  in  the  world  today.  There  is  a  remarkable 
dearth  of  first-hand  information  concerning  it,  especially  during 
the  past  quarter  of  a  century  or  so.  Only  one  of  the  numerous 
scientific  expeditions  to  Central  Asia  during  recent  years  seems  to 
have  come  into  contact  with  it.  It  is  somewhat  doubtful  if  the 
alleged  Mongolian  Tarpans  now  exhibited  in  American  zoos  are 
purebred  animals. 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA:    ODD-TOED  UNGULATES  323 

Przewalski's  Horse  is  distinguished  from  other  horses  by  its  erect 
mane  and  lack  of  a  forelock.  The  following  description  is  derived 
from  Salensky  (1902,  pp.  7-18),  who  had  more  than  a  dozen  speci- 
mens at  his  disposal,  rather  than  from  Poliakof  (1881),  who  had 
only  one. 

This  species  is  of  the  size  of  a  small  ordinary  horse;  grown  male 
with  a  height  at  the  rump  of  1,240  mm.;  head  relatively  larger  than 
that  of  the  Wild  Ass ;  average  length  of  ears,  140  mm. ;  mane  erect, 
highest  (160-200  mm.)  in  the  middle  of  its  length;  tail  long,  reach- 
ing in  some  individuals  nearly  to  the  hoofs,  and  provided  on  the 
dorsal  side  toward  the  base  with  short  hairs,  elsewhere  with  long 
hairs;  hoofs  rounder  than  those  of  the  Kiang  and  the  Kulan; 
"chestnuts"  on  all  four  limbs. 

Winter  pelage  lighter  than  that  of  summer;  yellowish  on  the  back, 
becoming  lighter  on  the  sides  and  almost  white  on  the  under  parts. 
Summer  pelage  much  shorter  than  that  of  winter,  smooth,  not  wavy; 
back  and  sides  light  reddish  brown,  gradually  changing  to  yellowish 
white  on  the  belly;  head  colored  like  the  back,  but  white  on  the 
muzzle  about  the  nostrils  and  on  the  lips;  ears  light  brown  basally, 
darker  at  the  tips;  inner  surface  of  ears  white.  Pronounced  tufts  of 
hair  on  sides  of  head  in  winter,  and  along  entire  lower  part  of  head 
in  summer.  Mane  dark  brown,  with  shorter  tufts  of  light  gray  hairs 
on  each  side;  a  median  dorsal  stripe  of  reddish  brown,  about  5  mm. 
wide,  and  distinctly  visible  only  in  summer  pelage,  extending  along 
the  entire  back  and  on  to  the  tail;  a  brown  or  black  shoulder  stripe, 
more  noticeable  in  summer  than  in  winter ;  lower  part  of  limbs  more 
or  less  black  (occasionally  gray  in  younger  animals) ;  a  black  ring, 
up  to  80  mm.  wide,  bordering  the  hoofs;  inner  side  of  legs  gray, 
generally  with  distinct  bars,  up  to  the  knees. 

The  principal  range  seems  to  have  been  on  both  sides  of  the  Altai 
Mountains  in  western  Mongolia  and  in  Dzungaria.  But  Prejevalsky 
(1876,  vol.  2,  p.  170)  also  reported  Wild  Horses  much  farther  south, 
in  western  Koko  Nor  and  in  southeastern  Chinese  Turkestan :  "Wild 
horses,  called  by  the  Mongols  dzerlik-adu,  are  rare  in  Western 
Tsaidam,  but  more  numerous  near  Lob-nor.  They  are  generally  in 
large  herds,  very  shy,  and  when  frightened  continue  their  flight  for 
days,  not  returning  to  the  same  place  for  a  year  or  two.  Their  colour 
is  uniformly  bay,  with  black  tails  and  long  manes  hanging  down  to 
the  ground.  [This  last  expression  is,  of  course,  wholly  erroneous  as 
applied  to  the  manes.]  They  are  never  hunted,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  chase."  This  report,  apparently  based  upon  native 
information,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  substantiated  by  later 
records,  and  is  open  to  question.  In  this  connection,  however,  it  may 
be  recalled  that  Sven  Hedin  has  remarked  (1903,  vol.  1,  p.  357)  on 


324  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

the  increasing  scarcity  of  even  the  Wild  Camel  east  of  Lob-nor, 
owing  perhaps  to  the  increasing  desiccation  of  the  region. 

The  animal  must  have  been  somewhat  rare  in  the  Altai  region 
even  before  the  advent  of  Europeans.  Atkinson  (1858),  who  made 
extensive  explorations  in  that  region  about  the  middle  of  the  past 
century,  and  comments  frequently  on  the  other  large  animals,  does 
not  refer  to  any  personal  encounter  with  the  Wild  Horse.  However, 
in  a  later  work  (I860,  p.  325),  he  describes  the  Kirghiz  method  of 
hunting  "wild  horses,  which  at  this  season  [May]  are  found  in 
great  herds  near  the  foot  of  the  mountains"  beyond  the  Hi  River, 
apparently  toward  Issyk  Kul.  But  his  description  of  these  horses 
as  "varying  in  colour  from  black,  bay,  grey  and  white"  creates 
considerable  doubt  as  to  whether  they  were  truly  wild  or  merely 
feral.  Possibly  the  herds  were  composed  of  a  mixture  of  both  kinds 
of  animals.  Atkinson  gives  the  Kirghiz  name  for  the  wild  horse 
as  "muss." 

Brehm  (1876,  p.  339)  received  a  report  of  a  second  kind  of  Wild 
Horse  (besides  the  Kulan),  called  "Surtake,"  which  was  said  to 
occur  about  250  versts  southeast  of  the  boundary  post  of  Zaisan,  in 
the  Kanabo  area.  It  was  described  as  light  yellow,  with  many  light 
spots  and  a  shorter  tail  than  the  Kulan's. 

Younghusband,  referring  to  the  region  about  the  southern  base  of 
the  eastern  Altai,  at  about  long.  96°-100°E.,  says  (1888,  p.  495) : 
"We  .  .  .  saw  here  .  .  .  wild  horses  too — the  Equus  Prejevalskii — 
roaming  about  these  great  open  plains." 

Ten  years  after  Przewalski's  discovery,  the  brothers  Grum-Grshi- 
mailo  took  some  specimens  in  1889  at  the  oasis  of  Gashun,  northeast 
of  Guchen  in  eastern  Dzungaria  (Wrangel,  1908,  vol.  1,  p.  2) . 

The  following  report  of  Grum-Grshimailo  (in  Morgan,  1891,  pp. 
217-218)  probably  refers  chiefly  to  the  Gashun  area:  "Springs 
enable  the  numerous  animals  inhabiting  Dzungaria  to  exist;  of 
these  the  most  interesting  is  Prejevalsky's  horse.  .  .  .  Prejevalsky 
himself,  though  he  crossed  the  desert  of  Dzungaria  in  three  several 
directions,  never  came  across  any  of  these  wild  horses,  and  if  he 
wrote  otherwise  he  was  mistaking  kulans  he  had  seen  in  the  distance 
for  wild  horses,  a  mistake  the  most  experienced  hunters  are  liable 
to  make,  for  at  that  distance  it  is  almost  impossible  to  distinguish 
between  them.  .  .  .  We  were  the  first  Europeans  who,  for  twenty 
days,  made  a  study  of  these  interesting  animals,  adding  the  skins 
of  three  handsome  stallions  and  one  mare  to  our  collection." 

Salensky  (1902,  pp.  2-3)  records  specimens  from  the  following 
localities,  chiefly  in  or  near  the  Dzungarian  Gobi:  Gashun;  the 
Kobdo  region;  behind  the  Baitik-Bogdo  (Charamelechetai) ;  between 
Nursu  and  Simigendse;  Ebi  Spring,  near  the  Kobdo-Barkul  route; 
Guchen  Lake;  and  the  River  Bulunga.  He  gives  the  range  (p.  63)  as 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  325 

extending  north  to  the  Urungu  River  and  Kobdo ;  east  to  longitude 
90°-91°  E.;  south  to  latitude  46°  N.;  and  west  to  longitude  84°  E. 
[=86°?].  (This  range  is  too  restricted  on  the  east  and  south.) 

In  1899  three  newborn  foals  were  captured  and  in  the  following 
year  were  brought  to  the  estate  of  Herr  Falz-Fein  in  Ascania  Nova, 
southern  Russia  (Salensky,  1902,  p.  20) . 

In  1901  Carl  Hagenbeck  sent  a  large  expedition  to  Dzungaria  for 
Wild  Horses.  His  animals  were  caught  in  three  different  districts 
lying  south  of  the  Mongolian  city  of  Kobdo.  In  the  west  the  area 
consists  of  a  wide  plain,  bordered  on  the  east  by  the  Altai  Mountains. 
It  is  bordered  on  the  north  by  the  Kui-Kuius  River,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Urungu  River,  both  of  which  rise  in  the  Altai  and 
discharge  into  the  Tusgul  [Ulungur?]  Lake.  This  lake  forms  the 
western  boundary  of  the  plain.  The  second  area  is  a  plain  which 
lies  about  322  km.  south  of  Kobdo  and  is  enclosed  by  the  Altai 
Mountains.  The  third  group  comes  from  the  vicinity  of  Zagan  Nor 
[apparently  near  long.  95°  E.].  Foals  from  the  three  groups  differ 
in  color  characters,  though  quite  alike  in  general  appearance 
(Wrangel,  1908,  vol.  1,  pp.  2-3) . 

The  foals  are  dropped  between  the  end  of  April  and  May  20.  Their 
capture  takes  place  as  follows.  Hundred  of  Mongols  lie  in  ambush 
behind  hills.  As  soon  as  they  see  a  considerable  number  of  mares 
and  foals  together,  they  rush  upon  them  with  loud  cries.  Since  the 
foals  can  not  keep  up  with  the  fleeing  mares,  the  Mongols  soon  catch 
them  with  nooses  on  long  poles.  They  are  then  conducted  to  near-by 
corrals,  where  Mongolian  mares  are  ready  to  take  over  the  duties 
of  foster-mothers.  Of  the  animals  thus  captured  by  the  Hagen- 
beck expedition,  28  arrived  in  Hamburg  in  1901  (Wrangel,  1908, 
vol.  1,  p.  4) . 

"There  is  no  doubt  that  the  wild-horse  .  .  .  also  inhabits  the 
northern  portions  of  that  region  [ Dzungaria].  We  were  never  lucky 
enough  to  see  any,  but  the  natives,  both  Kalmuk  and  Kazak,  all 
told  the  same  tale,  often  volunteering  the  information  that,  in 
addition  to  the  kulon,  there  were  wild-horses.  .  .  .  They  said,  the 
meat  was  not  so  good  [as  the  kulon 's].  They  told  us  that  there 
were  large  herds  of  them  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Ulungur,  and  east- 
wards along  the  southern  foot  of  the  Altai;  also  north  of  that  range." 
(J.  H.  Miller,  in  Carruthers,  1913,  p.  608.) 

From  a  point  on  the  north  side  of  the  Altai,  about  100  miles  west 
of  Ikhe  Bogdo,  R.  C.  Andrews  reports  (1926,  p.  322) :  "The  wild 
.  .  .  horses  were  two  hundred  miles  to  the  southwest,  they  [some 
Chinese  caravan  men]  said,  just  above  the  border  of  Chinese 
Turkestan." 

Morden  writes  (1927,  p.  286)  concerning  a  place  in  eastern  Dzun- 
garia, northeast  of  Kucheng:  "Around  the  spring,  which  our  men 


326 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 


we  heard  that  the  wild  horses  of 
.  .  were  sometimes  seen  by  cara- 


said  was  called  Kainar  Bulak  .  . 
western  Mongolia  and  Dzungaria 
vans  approaching  the  place." 

The  range  of  the  species  was  extended  eastward  by  Lattimorc 
(1929,  p.  228).  In  a  journey  of  1926,  he  mentions  passing  the  "Yeh- 
ma  Ching"  or  Wild  Horse  Well,  which  is  situated  in  the  Khara  Gobi 


FIG.  33. — Mongolian  Wild  Horse   (Equus  przewalskii) .    After  photograph 

in  Brehm. 


west  of  Edsin  Gol,  at  about  latitude  42°  N.,  longitude  98°  E.  "They 
say  that  on  this  fringe  of  the  Khara  Gobi  there  are  wild  horses 
(equ,us  prjevalskii]  and  wild  asses."  This  recalls  Ridgeway's  state- 
ment (1905,  p.  28) :  "Mr.  Hagenbeck  informs  me  that  wild  horses 
of  another  variety  are  said  to  exist  600  miles  south  of  Kobdo. 
that  is,  somewhere  in  the  great  Gobi  desert." 

Teichman  also  passed  by  the  Wild  Horse  Well,  in  1935,  and  makes 
the  following  remarks  (1937,  pp.  74-75) :  "The  Hardt-Citroen  expe- 
dition followed  from  Suchou  to  Mingshui  a  camel  trail  which  took 
them  through  this  range.  They  found  a  region  of  rich  pastures, 
abundant  water,  the  haunt  of  ...  the  wild  horse  and  wild  ass. 
.  .  .  Wild  horses  and  wild  camels  are  said  to  exist  in  this  neighbour- 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  327 

hood.  We  saw  no  direct  evidence  of  either.  The  wild  ass  is  common 
and  is  often,  with  characteristic  Chinese  lack  of  accuracy,  referred 
to  as  Yeh  Ma  ('wild  horse') ,  which  may  explain  the  name  of  Yeh-ma 
Ching." 

Reymond,  the  zoologist  of  the  expedition  mentioned  by  Teichman, 
records  (1932,  pp.  807-809)  a  Wild  Horse  seen  in  May,  1931,  and  a 
carcass  recently  devoured  by  Wolves  near  the  northern  border  of  In- 
ner Mongolia  at  longitude  105°  30'  E.,  latitude  "40°"  [  =42°]  N.  The 
skull  of  the  latter  was  identified  by  Professor  E.  Bourdelle  of  the 
Paris  Museum.  Reymond  also  heard  that  a  favorite  haunt  of  Wild 
Horses  was  the  plateau  of  Pei  Chan,  occupying  the  extreme  western 
triangle  of  Inner  Mongolia.  Other  members  of  the  Haardt-Audouin- 
Dubreuil  Expedition  (as  it  is  here  called)  saw  in  1931  two  solitary 
animals  in  this  general  region:  one  in  June,  20  km.  west  of  Hou 
Hung  Chuan  (long.  96°  E.,  lat.  "40°"  [  =  42°]  N.),  and  one  in 
December  near  Hsin  Hsin  Chia  on  the  Kansu-Sinkiang  frontier. 
The  first  of  Reymond 's  records  is  by  far  the  easternmost  one  to  date. 

"Przewalski's  wild  horse  is  found  in  small  herds  in  Chinese  Tur- 
kestan (Sinkiang)  and  Western  Mongolia.  It  does  not  appear  to  be 
at  all  numerous,  and  should  be  protected  if  possible,  if  only  because 
it  is  the  sole  surviving  true  wild  horse  in  the  world  to-day.  It  is  too 
small  to  be  of  any  economic  value,  the  so-called  Mongol  pony  used 
by  the  Mongols  and  other  Central  Asian  people  easily  supplanting 
it.  The  latter  is  probably  a  cross  between  Przewalski's  horse  and 
various  domestic  breeds,  and  is  sufficiently  hardy  to  live  in  the  great 
wastes  of  Central  Asia  in  a  feral  state."  (Sowerby,  1937,  p.  250.) 

Antonius  writes  (1938,  pp.  558-559) : 

The  statements  of  the  brothers  Grum-Grshimajlo  and  the  expeditions  of 
Falz-Fein  and  Hagenbeck  for  obtaining  living  specimens  make  it  possible 
to  give  the  geographic  distribution  about  1900.  There  was  only  one  district  on 
the  Northern  ranges  of  the  Ektag  Altai:  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Zedsig- 
Nor,  called  also  Zagan-Nor,  and  three  or  four  in  the  deserts  on  the  southern 
ranges:  the  steppes  on  the  upper  Urungu,  the  Ebi-mountain,  the  Gashium- 
desert.  If  my  Russian  information  is  correct — and  I  have,  alas!  no  doubt 
that  it  is, — the  Przevalski  horse  has  been  extirpated  since  the  great  war  and 
the  Russian  revolution,  the  old  fork-muskets  of  the  Mongolian  hunters 
having  been  replaced  by  modern  fire-arms  of  great  power.  Therefore  it  is 
probable  that  the  descendants  of  the  Falz-Fein  and  Hagenbeck-imports  living 
in  Ascania  Nova,  Woburn  Abbey,  and  in  a  few  Zoos  in  Europe,  America,  and 
Australia,  are  the  last  survivors  of  the  Przevalski-horse,  and  of  the  true  wild 
horse  in  general. 

There  would  appear  to  be  considerable  likelihood  that  Przewalski's 
Horse,  if  not  exterminated  outright,  has  proceeded  far  along  the  road 
to  extinction  through  dilution  with  the  ponies  of  the  Mongols.  In 
Salensky  (1902,  p.  21)  we  find  a  report  of  domestic  mares  mating 
with  wild  stallions.  In  remarking  on  the  variations  in  color  exhibited 


328  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

by  Przewalski's  Horse  in  different  parts  of  its  range,  Lydekker  says 
(1912,  p.  89) :  'These  differences  suggest  that  there  has  been  some 
admixture  with  domesticated  breeds."  Who  can  even  say  that  the 
type  specimen  was  purebred? 

The  chances  of  mixture  with  domestic  stock  are  suggested  by 
Carruther's  report  (1913,  pp.  532-533)  of  "immense  droves  of  horses 
running  half  wild  over  the  prairies"  in  the  vicinity  of  Barkul, 
southern  Dzungaria.  "We  .  .  .  believe  that  the  real  'wild  animals'  of 
the  Barkul  basin  signify  the  great  herds  of  unridable  horses  which 
roam  untamed  over  the  steppes.  These  form  an  Imperial  Stud,  and 
are  said  to  number  fifteen  thousand,  the  pick  of  which  are  trans- 
ported yearly  to  Pekin." 

Domestication. — On  this  subject  Peake  (1933,  pp.  99-100)  says: 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  horse  was  first  tamed  in  the  grasslands 
of  Central  Asia,  for  it  is  only  there  that  the  wild  horse,  known  as  Przewal- 
sky's  horse,  is  to  be  found  to-day.  The  first  mention  of  the  horse  that  has 
been  met  with  is  in  a  document  from  Babylon,  dating  from  before  2000  B.  C., 
in  which  it  is  called  the  ass  from  the  East.  This  indicates  the  direction  from 
which  it  came,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  introduced  into  Mesopotamia 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Kassite  conquerors  about  1746  B.  C.  We  have, 
however,  some  reasons  for  believing  that  it  had  been  tamed  at  an  earlier 
date.  Into  the  north  of  Mesopotamia  there  had  arrived  some  centuries  earlier 
a  people  known  as  the  Kharians,  some  of  whom  were  later  called  the  Mitanni. 
These,  we  know,  were  great  horsemen.  They  occupied  the  country  around 
Haran,  which  lies  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  just  below  the  points 
at  which  they  emerge  from  the  mountains,  and  they  seem  to  have  arrived  in 
that  district  from  the  North-east,  probably  from  the  Persian  plateau,  whence 
later  the  Kassites  descended  upon  Mesopotamia.  The  horse  was  well  known 
also  to  the  Hittites,  the  capital  of  whose  kingdom  lay  in  the  centre  of  Asia 
Minor.  These  people  are  believed  to  have  arrived  there  about  1900  B.  C. 
from  the  North-west.  All  this  evidence  tends  to  show  that  the  horse  was 
used  as  a  means  of  transport  both  in  Persia  and  upon  the  Russian  steppe 
well  before  2000  B.  C.  It  seems  likely  that  it  was  first  tamed  in  that  part 
of  the  world,  or  still  farther  east  in  Mongolia,  as  early  as  3000  B.C.,  if  not 
before  that  date. 

Lamm  Wild  Horse 

EQUUS  sp. 

Surprising  news  of  a  generally  overlooked  and  probably  extinct 
Wild  Horse  in  the  Kolyma  Basin  of  northeastern  Siberia  is  fur- 
nished by  Pfizenmayer  (1939,  pp.  112-113).  While  excavating  the 
frozen  carcass  of  a  Mammoth  on  the  Beresovka  River  in  1901,  he 
questioned  two  Lamut  visitors  as  to 

what  sort  of  wild  animals  they  found  in  their  distant  hunting-ground  on  the 
Omolon.  To  our  great  astonishment  Taitshin  mentioned  the  wild  horse.  As 
zoologists  thought  wild  horses  existed  only  on  the  steppes  of  central  Asia,  we 
received  his  statement  very  doubtfully,  though  Amuksan  confirmed  it  by  a 
quite  professional  imitation  of  horses  neighing.  The  reliability  of  the  natives 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  329 

is  such  that  we  did  not  imagine  they  were  spinning  a  yarn  when  they  told  us 
about  the  wild  horse  in  the  tundras  bordering  the  forests  of  this  vast  area. 
They  described  in  detail  its  size — equal  to  that  of  a  Yakut  horse — its  long 
whitish -grey  hair,  and  its  flesh,  which  was  very  fat  and  pleasant  to  taste. 
If  the  description  were  really  that  of  wild  [=  feral]  horses,  it  was  a  puzzle 
how  and  when  their  tame  ancestors  could  have  reached  this  quite  uninhabited 
Arctic  region.  And  if  they  actually  existed  in  the  district  between  the  two 
largest  tributaries  of  the  Kolyma — the  Omolon  and  the  Anjui — which  had 
never  yet  been  explored  by  any  scientist,  it  was  a  very  interesting  matter 
which  scientists  would  find  it  well  worth  while  to  investigate. 

Pfizenmayer's  assumption  that  these  horses  were  descended  from 
tame  ancestors  is  by  no  means  necessarily  correct.  In  this  connection 
it  is  of  interest  to  recall  Hay's  opinion  (1913,  p.  9)  that  in  the  Yukon 
Basin  and  adjacent  parts  of  Alaska  horses  "became  extinct  about 
the  middle  of  the  glacial  epoch." 

Pfizenmayer  writes  further  (pp.  176-177) : 

The  prehistoric  wild  horse — to  which  is  probably  related  the  animal  that 
Przevalski,  the  Russian  explorer  of  Asia,  discovered  in  1870  and  called  a 
wild  horse — has  left  remains  everywhere  in  central  and  northern  Siberia. 
There  is  hardly  one  place  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes  in  the  district 
of  Yakutsk  in  which  prehistoric  remains  of  animals  have  been  found  that 
has  not  yielded  skeletal  fragments  of  the  prehistoric  wild  horse. 

In  the  landslide  on  the  Beresovka  we  found,  among  the  debris  between 
the  larch  trunks  lying  around  in  confusion  and  the  masses  of  fallen  earth,  the 
perfectly  preserved  upper  skull  of  a  prehistoric  horse,  to  which  fragments  of 
muscular  fibre  still  adhered.  .  .  . 

An  exiled  student  told  me,  in  Verkhoyansk  on  my  way  back  from  Kolymsk, 
that  an  ivory  hunter  had  found  the  carcass  of  a  horse  four  years  before, 
sticking  half  out  of  the  frozen  earth  in  a  fissure  in  the  bank  of  a  lake  in  the 
tundra,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  district.  According  to  the  description 
by  the  man,  who  puzzled  over  the  find — unusual  there — the  parts  of  the 
body  sticking  out  of  the  ground  showed  a  covering  of  very  long  greyish-white 
hair.  Certainly  the  Yakut  horse,  a  vigorous  breed  of  pony,  with  probably  a 
strain  of  the  wild  horse,  also  has  long  hair  to  protect  it  from  cold.  Since, 
however,  there  were  no  Yakut  settlements  for  hundreds  of  miles  round  the 
site  of  the  find,  we  may  conclude  that  the  body  was  that  of  a  prehistoric 
wild  horse.  But  it  was  naturally  neither  investigated  nor  salvaged. 

Determination  of  the  relationship  between  this  prehistoric  horse 
and  the  Recent  Lamut  Wild  Horse  must  await  the  acquisition  of 
suitable  museum  material. 

In  commenting  upon  some  earlier  publication  of  Pfizenmayer's 
findings,  Antonius  writes  (1938,  p.  559) :  "One  might  suppose  that 
these  white  horses  are  descendants  of  any  semiferal  Jakute-breed — 
the  Jakutes  being  the  most  northern  horse-breeders, — but  ...  it, 
could  be  possible  that  these  wild  horses  of  the  Lamutes  are  the  last 
survivors  of  a  northern  branch  of  the  Caballus-Group,  and  there 
are  some  indications  for  a  formerly  much  greater  distribution  includ- 
ing not  only  Eastern  Siberia,  but  also  Alaska.  Since  the  excavation 
of  the  Beresovka-Mammoth  there  are  no  records  of  the  Lamute 
horses." 


330  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

The  plausibility  of  a  white  horse  on  the  Siberian  tundra  is  en- 
hanced by  Janikowski's  account  of  present-day  domesticated  descen- 
dants of  the  Wild  Horse  of  Poland.  He  refers  (1942,  p.  682,  figs.  4-5) 
to  two  survivors  "which  had  the  remarkable  and  unique  property  of 
turning  white  in  winter  ....  Every  winter  they  changed  the 
mouse-grey  summer  coat  .  .  .  into  a  snow-white  coat,  only  the  face, 
fetlocks,  mane  and  tail  retaining  the  dark  colour." 

European  Wild  Horses 

EQUUS  spp. 

The  taxonomic  and  nomenclatural  status  of  European  Wild  Horses, 
especially  during  the  more  recent  historical  times,  becomes  extraor- 
dinarily complicated  owing,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  lack  of  ade- 
quate material  and  authoritative  data  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to 
the  probability  of  interbreeding  with  domestic  types.  The  technical 
nomenclature  is  too  involved  to  be  discussed  in  detail  in  this  brief 
account.  Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  some  of  the  described  forms 
were  truly  wild  or  were  mixed  with  the  blood  of  domestic  horses. 
Only  purebred  wild  animals  come  properly  within  the  scope  of  the 
present  report. 

Remains  of  Pleistocene  or  older  horses  have  been  recorded  in 
various  localities  from  India  and  Turkestan  to  Spain,  France,  and 
England ;  some  of  these  were  doubtless  ancestral  to  the  present-day 
horses. 

In  classical  times  Strabo  reported  Wild  Horses  in  Spain.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  there  are  records  of  Wild  Horses  in  Germany,  Poland, 
Lithuania,  and  Russia;  but  there  is  some  question  as  whether  all 
of  these  records  refer  to  purebred  wild  animals. 

In  1768  S.  G.  Gmelin  collected  four  Tarpans  in  the  Government 
of  Voronesh,  Russia.  Pallas  (1811)  reported  Wild  Horses  as  inhab- 
iting the  steppe  country  from  the  Dnieper  to  the  Altai  and  beyond 
into  Central  Asia,  but  as  partly  mixed  with  feral  animals.  Hamilton 
Smith  (1845-1846,  pp.  160-166,  pi.  3)  received  information  from 
Cossacks  and  others  early  in  that  century  concerning  truly  wild 
animals  in  Russian  Turkestan  and  Mongolia. 

Antonius  (1912,  p.  513)  mentions  three  animals  captured  alive  in 
Russia  as  late  as  the  period  1853-66 ;  he  considers  these  the  last  Wild 
Horses  taken  in  Europe.  However,  Lydekker  (1912,  p.  81)  suspects 
that  even  Gmelin's  specimens  were  hybrid  Tarpans,  and  it  is  all 
the  more  to  be  doubted  that  the  animals  of  1853-66  were  purebred. 
Antonius  (1912,  p.  516)  has  given  the  name  of  Equus  gmelini  to  the 
three  last-mentioned  animals,  at  the  same  time  stating  that  Gmelin's 
specimens  were  probably  though  not  certainly  identical  with  them. 
If  the  specimens  on  which  the  name  Equus  gmelini  was  based  were 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  331 

not  purebred,  the  name  can  hardly  be  applied  to  their  truly  wild 
forebears  in  Russia,  which  have  been  extinct  for  probably  more  than 
a  century.  In  the  present  rather  chaotic  state  of  the  nomenclature, 
I  feel  unable  to  fix  upon  any  one  of  the  numerous  names  proposed  as 
applying  strictly  and  validly  to  the  form  represented  by  the  last 
truly  wild  and  purebred  horses  of  Europe. 

A  few  quotations  from  the  literature  will  indicate  some  of  the 
varying  opinions  on  a  complex  subject.  The  later  accounts  can 
hardly  refer  to  purebred  wild  animals.  Poliakof  (1881,  p.  20)  says: 

The  information  regarding  the  tarpan  collected  by  Rytchkof,  Gmelin, 
Georgi,  and  Pallas  is  of  so  contradictory  and  confusing  a  nature  that  many 
zoologists  have  decided  that  the  so-called  wild  horses,  or  "tarpans,"  were 
not,  strictly  speaking,  wild,  but  tamed  horses  which  had  resumed  their 
wild  state  on  recovering  their  liberty  ....  Pallas  .  .  .  assumed  the  feral  horses 
.  .  .  roaming  over  the  steppes  of  the  Yaik  [Ural]  and  the  Don  as  well  as  on 
that  of  Baraba  to  have  originated  from  domesticated  horses  owned  by  Kirghiz, 
Kalmuks,  or  other  wandering  tribes,  and  to  have  become  wild.  .  .  .  Un- 
fortunately we  have  no  reliable  information  on  this  legendary  tarpan  since 
the  end  of  the  last  century,  not  a  single  traveller  either  in  Siberia  or  Russia 
having  communicated  any  information  concerning  it  during  the  present 
century. 

"The  nearest  approach  to  truly  wild  horses  existing  at  present  are 
the  so-called  Tarpans,  which  occur  in  the  steppe-country  north  of 
the  Sea  of  Azoff,  between  the  river  Dnieper  and  the  Caspian.  They 
are  described  as  being  of  small  size,  dun  color,  with  short  mane  and 
rounded,  obtuse  nose.  There  is  no  evidence  to  prove  whether  they 
are  really  wild  ...  or  feral."  (Flower,  1892,  p.  83.) 

Calinescu  (1931,  p.  82)  reports  Equus  caballus  gmelini  as  sur- 
viving in  Moldavia,  Rumania,  up  to  1716. 

Vetulani  (1933,  pp.  281-282)  gives  the  following  account  for 
Poland.  Hacquet  (1794)  describes  wild  horses  kept  in  a  zoological 
garden  near  Samosch.  They  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  some 
were  shot  and  others  were  sent  to  Lemberg  for  use  in  combats  with 
carnivores.  In  Kajetan  Kozmian's  reminiscences  of  the  years  1780- 
1815  (published  in  1858),  we  read  likewise  of  wild  horses  in  a 
zoological  garden  near  Zamosc  or  Samosch.  They  were  allowed  to 
become  extinct,  apparently  because  in  winter  it  was  necessary  to 
provide  barns  and  hay  for  them.  These  two  references  concern  the 
last  wild  Forest  Tarpans  of  Poland  ("E.  c.  gmelini  ssp.  silvatica") . 
From  Brincken  (1874)  we  learn  that  this  stock  was  derived  from 
the  last  wild  horses  in  the  Forest  of  Bialowies,  and  that  finally  they 
were  captured  in  the  zoological  garden  near  Samosch  and  divided 
among  the  peasants.  This  represented  the  last  stage  in  the  domesti- 
cation of  the  European  Wild  Tarpan.  We  still  find  in  this  vicinity 
representatives  of  the  Forest  Tarpan  type  in  an  especially  pure  and 


332  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

typical  form.  It  is  proposed  to  introduce  and  preserve  some  of  them 
in  the  Polish  National  Park  at  Bialowies. 

"According  to  Vetulani,  the  enigmatic  wild  white  horse  described 
by  Herodotus  as  grazing  in  the  northern  marshy  land  may  well  have 
been  the  Polish  wild  pony  grazing  in  the  Polesie  bogs  situated  close 
to  the  Bielowieza  Forest"  ( Janikowski,  1942,  p.  682) . 

According  to  Niezabitowski  (1934,  p.  196),  E.  gmelini  Antonius 
lived  formerly  in  the  steppe  region  of  eastern  Poland,  while  E. 
gmelini  silvaticus  Vetulani  inhabited  the  Bialowies  Forest  up  to 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Heptner  reports  (1934,  pp.  431-433)  that  the  last  example  of 
Tarpan  was  seen  in  1914-18.  It  lived  at  that  time  on  an  estate  in 
Dubrowka,  Mirgorod  district,  Government  of  Poltava,  and  was 
very  old.  It  had  been  purchased  as  a  young  animal  from  German 
colonists,  who  shortly  before  had  destroyed  a  small  herd  of  wild 
horses.  Hitherto  the  last  Tarpans  in  South  Russia  were  supposed  to 
have  died  out  in  the  1870's.  They  survived  longest  on  the  steppes 
of  the  Government  of  Cherson. 

From  the  foregoing  it  may  be  gathered  that  it  is  virtually  impos- 
sible to  state  even  approximately  when  the  last  truly  wild  repre- 
sentatives of  the  genus  Equus  perished  in  the  various  European 
countries.  Even  the  names  that  should  be  applied  to  them  are  far 
from  settled.  The  type  of  Equus  caballus  caballus  Linnaeus  is  the 
Scandinavian  domesticated  horse  of  the  time  of  Linnaeus — obviously 
at  least  subspecifically  distinct  from  the  Russian  Wild  Horse. 
Certainly  all  Wild  Horses  are  now  extinct,  with  the  exception  of 
Przewalski's  Horse  of  Central  Asia. 

For  a  fuller  account  of  the  Wild  Tarpan  and  its  relations,  Lydekker 
(1912,  pp.  71-116)  may  be  consulted.  For  a  discussion  of  some  of  the 
nomenclatural  problems  involved,  see  Harper  (1940,  pp.  195-197). 

Antonius  (1938,  pp.  557-558)  gives  the  following  illuminating 
account  of  the  caballus-group  of  horses : 

In  times  not  long  before  the  beginning  of  historical  days  there  were  true 
wild  horses  of  the  Caballus  type  spread  over  the  whole  Eurasiatic  continent 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  shores  of  Northern  Siberia 
to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Only  two,  or  at  the  utmost  three,  of  the  many  local 
and  geological  races  have  survived  until  our  days.  The  first  of  these  was  a 
mouse-dun  horse,  which  Albertus  Magnus,  the  great  interpreter  of  Aristotle, 
means  when  he  calls  the  colour  of  the  wild  horse  "cinereus,"  i.  e.,  ash-coloured. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  these  ash-dun  or  mouse-dun  wild  horses  were 
often  intermingled  with  escaped  domestic  horses  of  the  feral  breeds,  thence 
spread  over  Europe.  But  there  are  some  indications  by  which  in  many  cases 
their  true  wild  nature  may  be  ascertained.  The  one  is  the  high  value  of 
these  horses  for  princely  gifts,  the  other  the  short  upright  mane,  and  the 
third  the  uniformly  ash  colour,  so  often  recorded.  If  the  first  Duke  of 
Prussia,  Albert  von  Hohenzollern,  sent  wild  horses  as  highly  esteemed  gifts 
to  the  mightiest  sovereign  of  his  days,  the  Emperor,  and  also  to  the  Arch- 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  333 

duke  Ferdinand  and  others,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  horses  were  a 
truly  royal  game — like  the  Urus  and  Bison — and  not  of  a  little  valued  feral 
breed.  And  if  the  mouse-colour  and  the  short  mane  are  recorded  for  some 
of  the  last  survivors  in  Poland  and  Southern  Russia,  it  must  be  almost 
certain  that  there  was  at  least  a  strong  strain  of  true  wild  blood  in  these 
horses.  S.  G.  Gmelin,  one  of  the  many  German  explorers  of  Russia  in  the 
days  of  the  great  Catherine,  hunted  these  "Tarpans"  in  1763  in  the  surround- 
ings of  Bobrowsk,  Woronesh.  After  him  the  author  named  these  horses 
scientifically  "Equus  gmelini"  but  perhaps  there  is  an  earlier  name:  Equus 
silvestris  v.  Brincken,  dedicated  to  the  mouse-dun  wild  horses  of  Poland, 
surviving  in  the  forest  of  Bialowieza  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  in  another  game  park  until  1812.  Although  protected  very 
strictly  against  poaching  and  illegal  hunting,  the  wild  horse  in  Prussia  vanished 
in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  well-known  forest  of 
Bialowieza,  Poland,  the  "Tarpanis"  were  hunted  as  royal  game  in  1409, 
when  King  Wladislaw  Jagiello  arranged  a  great  chase  in  honour  of  his  cousin, 
Witold  of  Lithuania.  In  the  immense  forests  they  survived  until  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  they  were  extirpated  before  the  time  of  the  famous  hunting 
of  the  Saxon  Kings.  Their  last  refuge  in  the  Poland  of  to-day  was — accord- 
ing to  Vetulani — the  great  game  park  of  the  Count  Zamoyski,  situated  at 
Zwierzyniec,  near  Bilgoraj.  Here  they  were  strictly  protected,  until  in  a 
severe  winter  between  1810  and  1820,  probably  from  1812  to  1813,  the  feeding 
was  impossible.  The  last  survivors  were  captured  and  given  to  the  peasants 
of  the  surrounding  country.  According  to  these  facts  there  are  in  no  other 
district  of  Poland  more  typical  "Tarpans"  among  the  little  horses  of  the 
peasants  than  in  the  surroundings  of  Bilgoraj  [c/.  Janikowski,  1942].  Ve- 
tulani has  proved  these  Polish  wild  horses  as  a  more  or  less  degenerated 
branch — according  to  their  being  adapted  to  the  unsuitable  wood  life — of 
the  Eastern  or  Russian  Tarpan. 

The  latter  vanished  from  the  fertile  country  of  Woronesh  before  1800,  but 
survived  on  the  steppes  of  Tauria  and  Cherson  until  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  last  herds  were  certainly  more  or  less  intermingled  with 
feral  horses,  but  the  short  mane  being  recorded  even  for  the  last  example, 
demonstrated  the  predominance  of  true  wild  blood.  F.  von  Falz-Fein,  the 
well-known  founder  and  owner  of  the  matchless  Ascania  Nova  Zoo,  has 
told  the  life-history  of  that  last  wild  horse  of  Europe,  an  one-eyed  old  mare, 
lingering  for  years  around  the  feral  horses  of  a  certain  Durilin,  covered  by 
a  domestic  hehorse,  captured,  escaped  with  its  filly,  and  some  years  later 
hunted  and  killed  on  the  ice  by  the  peasants  of  Agaiman. 

There  is  only  one  drawing  from  a  living  example  hitherto  known:  in  the 
description  of  the  travels  of  Gmelin,  edited  by  Pallas  after  the  tragic  death 
of  his  comrade.  This  picture,  drawn  by  Borisow  from  a  one  year  old  mare, 
was  later  on  copied  by  Schreber  in  his  "Naturgeschichte  der  Saugetiere." 

It  must  be  recorded  that  experiments  for  the  rebreeding  of  the  mouse- 
dun  Tarpan  were  started  both  in  Germany  and  in  Poland.  In  the  Schorfheide 
near  Berlin  and  in  the  Munich  Zoo  the  Germans  try  the  rebreeding  by 
crossing  the  true  yellow-dun  Mongolian  wild  horse  with  mouse-dun  mares 
of  various  domestic  breeds,  while  in  Bialowieza  the  Poles  settled  upon  some 
most  typical  descendants  of  the  last  Bilgoraj  wild  horses,  selected  out  of  a 
great  number  of  peasant-horses  in  that  district,  without  any  interbreeding 
of  strange  blood.  The  question  is,  which  of  the  two  trials  will  have  the 
better  results. 

The  home  of  the  mouse-dun  Tarpan  extended  eastward  over  the  river 
Don  and  probably  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Wolga.  It  is  possible  in  earlier 


334  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

days  that  these  horses  were  also  spread  over  the  Caspian  steppes,  but  as  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  different  records  about  other  Equidae,  e.  g.,  the 
Kulan,  it  is  impossble  to  confirm  that  opinion. 

The  hillier  steppe-country  between  the  Wolga  and  the  Ural-Mountains, 
in  the  days  of  Pallas  already  crossed  by  a  line  of  Kossak-posts,  were  roamed  by 
another  wild  horse.  Pallas  gives  in  his  great  travel-work,  the  well-drawn 
portrait  of  a  young  filly,  captured  in  the  surroundings  of  Tozk — then  a  little 
Kossak  post.  That  picture  resembles  in  a  high  degree  the  Przevalski-fillies, 
imported  by  Hagenbeck  in  1899  and  1900.  Together  with  the  statements  of 
Pallas  about  the  colour  (Isabella  to  light  bay),  the  "suberect"  mane,  the 
tail,  etc.,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  horses  were  almost  as  pure-bred 
wild  horses  of  the  yellow-dun  Przevalski-type  as  ever  roamed  the  Dzungarian 
Gobi.  In  the  time  of  Pallas  the  wild  horses  were  spread  in  scattered  troops, 
more  or  less  intermingled  with  escaped  domestic  horses,  over  the  steppes  of 
Western  Siberia.  Georgi,  one  of  Pallas's  fellow-workers,  reports  that  they 
were  extirpated  by  a  desolating  horse-sickness  in  1785  which  destroyed  also 
the  herds  of  the  Kirghises  and  Kossaks,  causing  the  death  of  about  85,000 
horses.  In  1876  the  species  was  rediscovered  by  the  great  Russian  explorer 
Przevalski  in  the  Dzungarian  steppes  south  of  Kobdo  and  named  after  him 
by  Poljakoff  "Equus  przevalskii." 

Quagga 

EQUUS  QUAGGA  Gmelin 

Equus  quagga  Gmelin,  Linnaeus'  Syst.  Nat.,  eel.  13,  vol.  1,  pt.  1,  p.  213,  1788. 
(South  Africa.) 

FIGS.:  G.  Edwards,  Gleanings  of  Natural  History,  p.  29,  pi.  223  (col.),  1758; 
Ridgeway,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1909,  pp.  563-586,  text-figs.  157-180, 
reproductions  of  early  figures  and  photographs  of  preserved  specimens. 

The  vernacular  name,  Quagga,  of  this  handsome  zebralike  species 
is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Hottentot  khoua  khoua,  in  imitation 
of  its  barklike  cry.  The  Boers,  however,  often  applied  the  same  name 
to  the  BurchelFs  type  of  zebra,  and  it  is  sometimes  loosely  used  for 
that  animal  by  writers. 

Harris,  whose  folio  Portraits  of  the  Game  and  Wild  Animals  of 
Southern  Africa,  1840,  provides  some  first-hand  information  on  this 
species,  wrote  that  it  stands  4.5  feet  at  the  withers  and  has  a  total 
length  of  8.5  feet,  but  Cuvier  (quoted  by  W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1, 
p.  295)  gives  the  height  at  the  shoulder  as  slightly  less,  about  4  feet 
1  inch.  The  general  ground  color  of  head,  neck,  and  body  was  dark 
rufous  brown  or  bay,  becoming  gradually  more  fulvous  and  fading 
off  to  white  behind  and  beneath.  The  midline  of  the  back  was 
marked  by  a  broad  dark  stripe.  Against  the  background  of  bay,  the 
forehead  was  marked  with  longitudinal  stripes  and  the  cheeks  with 
narrow  transverse  stripes  of  buff,  "forming  linear  triangular  figures 
between  the  eyes  and  the  mouth."  Muzzle  black;  neck  and  anterior 
half  of  the  body  banded  and  brindled  with  creamy  brown,  broader 
and  more  regular  on  the  neck  (extending  across  the  short  erect 
mane),  but  becoming  finally  lost  in  spots  and  blotches  on  the  rear 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES 


335 


half  of  the  trunk.  The  legs,  tail,  and  under  surfaces  were  white, 
with  sometimes  a  short  midventral  dark  line,  and  usually  a  black 
spot  behind  the  fetlocks.  Individuals  appear  to  have  varied  con- 
siderably in  the  width  and  extent  of  the  paler  stripes  and  in  the 
amount  of  whitish  on  the  rump,  tail,  and  belly.  These  differences 
have  been  made  the  basis  of  several  subspecific  names,  but  it  is 
now  agreed  that  they  are  best  considered  as  only  variations  of  a  single 
species.  Although  Pocock  earlier  believed  that  the  Quagga  was 
merely  a  southernmost  form  of  the  BurchelPs  Zebra,  and  that  certain 


FIG.  34. — Quagga   (Equus  qwagga).    After  Standard  Natural  History. 

individuals  nearly  bridged  the  gap  between  the  extremes,  it  has  since 
been  shown  that  the  two  are  doubtless  separate  species,  and  that  the 
Quagga,  in  addition  to  the  well-marked  color  characters,  was  further 
distinguished  by  cranial  differences  as  well.  For  according  to 
Schwarz  (1912b)  the  skull  is  the  smallest  of  the  three  South  African 
species  of  zebras,  and  is  characterized  by  its  relatively  wide  zygo- 
mata, narrower  bony  eye  ring,  broader  forehead,  greater  separation 
of  the  temporal  ridges,  the  presence  of  a  small  suborbital  pit,  and 
by  having  the  posterior  border  of  the  nasals  heart-shaped.  While 
such  characters  may  be  subject  to  individual  variation,  they  may  for 
the  present  be  regarded  as  valid. 

The  Quagga  seems  first  to  have  been  brought  to  the  notice  of  natu- 
ralists by  George  Edwards,  who  in  his  Gleanings  (1758)  published 


336  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

a  colored  plate  of  a  female,  which  he  supposed  to  be  the  female  of  the 
Mountain  Zebra.  Buffon  in  1782  (Hist.  Nat.,  Suppl,  vol.  6,  p.  85) 
was  the  first  to  give  an  authentic  account  of  the  animal  on  the  basis 
of  notes  supplied  him  by  Allamand,  from  Colonel  Gordon,  a  South 
African  resident.  Subsequently  Edwards'  description  became  the 
basis  of  Gmelin's  name  Equus  quagga.  So  far  as  the  records  show, 
the  Quagga  always  had  a  somewhat  restricted  range  and  was  con- 
fined chiefly  to  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  Cape  region,  from 
Algoa  Bay  westward  at  least  to  Prince  Albert  (where  Barrow  reports 
it  in  1801),  and  Swellendam,  some  100  miles  east  of  Cape  Town, 
where  Sparrman  first  saw  it,  northward  to  the  Orange  Free  State  and 
the  Vaal  River,  and  coastwise  to  the  Kei  River.  There  is  practically 
no  record  of  travel  in  South  Africa  between  the  days  of  Kolben  in 
1705  and  the  visit  of  the  Swedish  naturalist  Sparrman  in  1775.  The 
latter,  however,  found  the  Quagga  as  near  the  coast  of  Algoa  Bay  as 
Uitenhage.  He  secured  a  foal  which  is  still  preserved  in  the  Riksmu- 
seum  at  Stockholm.  Quaggas  were  apparently  still  plentiful  in  the 
first  quarter  of  the  last  century,  especially  in  the  districts  of  Aberdeen 
(Lichtenstein,  in  1804)  and  in  Fraserburg  and  Hanover  where  Bur- 
chell  in  1812  found  them  abundant,  in  troops  of  30  to  50  on  the  plains. 
These  made  an  impressive  sight  traveling  in  single  file  as  was  their 
curious  habit,  or  when  startled,  wheeling  in  unison  like  a  squad  of 
cavalry.  It  was  said  that  they  frequently  associated  on  the  plains 
with  the  White-tailed  Gnu  or  with  ostriches;  whereas  the  Burchell's 
Zebras  preferred  the  companionship  of  the  Brindled  Gnu.  Where, 
as  in  the  Orange  Free  State,  the  range  of  the  Quagga  met  or  over- 
lapped that  of  Burchell's  Zebra,  it  is  said  the  two  did  not  mingle. 
The  Boer  farmers  evidently  took  heavy  toll  of  them  in  these  years, 
greatly  reducing  their  numbers,  and  using  the  meat  to  feed  their 
workers  although  themselves  preferring  more  tasty  kinds  of  game. 
The  result  of  this  constant  persecution  was  that  by  the  late  50's  the 
Quagga  was  practically  extinct  south  of  the  Orange  River.  According 
to  Bryden  (1889)  the  last  known  instance  was  of  two  shot  in  1858 
near  the  Tygerberg,  a  solitary  mountain  rising  abruptly  from  the 
plains  near  Aberdeen.  His  informant,  the  successful  hunter,  recalled 
the  affair  well.  Farther  north,  however,  in  the  Orange  Free  State, 
Quaggas  were  still  numerous.  About  1865,  the  Boers  of  this  state 
began  the  exploitation  of  the  large  game  of  the  region  for  their  hides. 
With  characteristic  industry  and  deadly  skill  they  gathered  and 
shipped  to  the  coast  hides  by  the  wagonload,  among  which  those  of 
Quagga  and  Burchell's  Zebra  were  especially  in  demand.  They  also 
made  use  of  Quagga  hides  for  grain  sacks,  and  Bryden  (1889)  men- 
tions seeing  old  Quagga-skin  sacks  still  in  use  at  the  time  of  his  visit. 
The  exact  date  of  the  final  extermination  of  the  Quagga  is  unknown, 
but  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  species  continued  well  into  the 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  337 

'seventies  in  the  Orange  Free  State,  probably,  according  to  W.  L. 
Sclater  (1900) ,  "till  1878  at  least,"  but  he  adds,  "it  is  difficult  to 
obtain  any  accurate  information  on  the  subject,  as  in  so  many  cases 
this  and  BurchelPs  Zebra  are  confused  together,  especially  as  they 
were  both  known  under  the  name  of  quagga." 

In  the  earlier  days  of  the  last  century  and  even  shortly  before, 
Quaggas  were  occasionally  tamed  and  also  exported  alive  to  the 
zoological  gardens  of  Europe.  In  disposition  it  was  said  to  be  much 
more  tractable  than  the  BurchelPs  Zebra,  in  captivity  quickly  be- 
coming docile  and  tamable.  On  various  occasions  they  were  broken 
to  harness,  and  Sir  William  Jardine  even  mentions  that  a  Mr.  Sheriff 
Parkins  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  drove  a  pair  in  London, 
and  was  often  seen  in  Hyde  Park  riding  in  a  phaeton  after  them. 
Probably  one  of  the  first  Quaggas  to  reach  Europe  alive  was  the  one 
belonging  to  His  Royal  Highness  the  Prince  of  Wales,  from  which 
in  1751  George  Edwards  made  his  colored  drawing.  The  specimen 
now  in  the  Paris  Museum  was  brought  to  the  menagerie  of  the  King, 
at  Versailles,  in  1793.  Others  were  later  imported  by  animal  dealers 
such  as  Frank  at  Amsterdam.  Of  the  various  specimens  extant  in  the 
museums  of  Europe,  the  larger  part  were  brought  in  alive  and 
received  by  the  museums  after  having  died  in  captivity.  Thus  the 
locality  of  capture  is  in  most  of  these  cases  unrecorded.  In  1858,  Sir 
George  Grey  presented  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  a  male 
Quagga  which  died  six  years  later,  in  1864.  "It  is  the  mounted  skin, 
skull  and  skeleton  of  this  male  which  is  now  in  the  British  Museum" 
(Ridgeway,  1909).  Previously  in  1851  the  Society  had  purchased 
a  female  Quagga  which  survived  in  Regent's  Park,  until  1872,  ap- 
parently nearly  the  last  living  example  of  the  species  of  which  any 
positive  record  exists.  Further,  this  was  the  only  living  Quagga  ever 
to  be  photographed,  and  the  picture  has  been  reproduced  by  Ly- 
dekker  in  his  Guide  to  the  Specimens  of  the  Horse  Family  and  by 
Ridgeway  in  his  paper  of  1909.  The  skin  was  not  in  condition  to  be 
preserved;  but  it  is  said  that  the  skeleton  was  saved  and  mounted, 
although  at  the  present  time  it  has  been  lost  sight  of  and  is  evidently 
not  the  one  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Finally,  the  last  known 
living  specimen  seems  to  have  been  one  that  died  in  the  Berlin 
Zoological  Garden  in  1875.  The  skin  is  mounted  in  the  Zoological 
Museum  in  that  city,  and  the  skeleton  is  also  preserved  there. 

Combining  the  lists  of  Ridgeway  (1909)  and  Hilzheimer  (1912), 
the  known  specimens  of  the  Quagga  in  the  museums  of  the  Old  World 
are  the  following  (arranged  alphabetically  by  location) : 

1.  Amsterdam   Museum. — Mounted  specimen,  and  separate  skull.    Figured 
by  Lydekker  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  1904,  vol.  1,  p.  430,  text-fig.  86)  and 
by  Ridgeway  (1909,  p.  579,  text-fig.  170). 

2.  Basle  Natural  History  Museum. — A  mounted  female  from  Silo  (Shiloh), 

12 


338  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Cape  Colony,  presented  in  1864.    Figured  by  Ridgeway   (1909,  p.  565,  text- 
fig.  157). 

3.  Berlin,  Zoological  Museum. — Mounted  female,  that  died  in  the  Berlin 
Zoological  Gardens  in  1875;  also  its  skeleton  and  two  other  skulls.  Figured  by 
Ridgeway  (1909,  p.  578,  text-fig.  168). 

4.  Cape  Town  Museum,  South  Africa. — Mounted  foal,  from  Beaufort  West, 
about  1860.   Figured  by  Ridgeway  (1909,  580,  text-fig.  171). 

5.  Darmstadt  Museum. —  Mounted  specimen. 

6.  Edinburgh,  Royal  Scottish  Museum.— A  mounted  specimen,  purchased  by 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  during  the   year  ending  June   1818.    Figured 
by  Ridgeway  (1909,  p.  575,  text-fig.  165). 

7.  Elgin  Museum,  Scotland.— A  mounted  head  and  neck,  from  King  Wil- 
liam's Town,  1861.   Figured  by  Ridgeway  (1909,  p.  581,  text-fig.  172). 

8.  Frankfurt   a.M.,   Senckenberg   Museum. — A   well-mounted   skin   and   its 
skull,  received  in  1831  by  exchange  with  the  Leiden  Museum. 

9.  Leiden,  Dutch  State  Museum  of  Natural  History. — Mounted  male  and 
its  skeleton,  shot  near  Steenbergen,  June   15,  1827.    Figured  by  Ridgeway 
(1909,  p.  577,  text-fig.  166). 

10.  London,  British  Museum. — Ridgeway   (1909,  p.  574)  has  cleared  away 
the   confusion  regarding  the  number   and   origin   of  the   specimens  in   this 
Museum.  Apparently  the  only  one  is  a  male  skin,  mounted,  and  the  skeleton 
of  the  same  animal,  which  had  been  presented  to  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London  by  Sir  George  Grey  in  1858  and  lived  in  the  Society's  Gardens  until 
its  death  in  1864.   The  female  Quagga  which  lived  in  the  Gardens  from  1851 
to  1872,  was  photographed  in  life,  but  its  skin,  upon  its  death,  was  in  too  poor  a 
state  to  be  preserved.   Its  skeleton,  however,  was  mounted  but  cannot  now 
be  traced.    The  male  specimen  as  mounted  is  figured  by  Ridgeway    (1909, 
p.  573,  text-fig.  163)  and  the  living  female  is  figured  by  Ridgeway  (1909,  p.  575, 
text-fig.  164)  from  York's  photograph  of  the  animal. 

11.  Mainz  Museum,  Germany. — According  to  Hilzheimer  (1912)  there  were 
four  mounted  Quaggas  in  this  collection,  but  Schwarz  (1912)  who  also  examined 
them,  asserts  that  one  of  the  four  is  a  Burchell's  Zebra. 

12.  Munich  Natural  History  Museum. — A  mounted  specimen  purchased  in 
1835,  and  a  separate  skull  that  may  or  may  not  belong  to  the  same  individual. 
It  was  this  specimen  that  was  the  original  of  the  figure  by  Wagner  in  "Schreber's 
Saugthiere,  Supplement."    Figured  by  Ridgeway  (1909,  p.  579,  text-fig.  169). 

13.  Paris  Museum  of  Natural  History. — A  mounted  specimen.   According  to 
the  communication  of  Dr.  E.  L.  Trouessart,  it  was  received  living  after  the 
institution  of  the  Museum's  menagerie  from  the  old  menagerie  of  the  King, 
at  Versailles  in  1793.   No  more  precise  locality  is  given  for  it  than  "Cape  of 
Good  Hope."    Figured  by  Ridgeway  (1909,  p.  577,  text-fig.  167). 

14.  Stockholm,  Riksmuseum. — The  mounted  specimen  here  is  a  full-grown 
fetus,  brought  back  by  the  Swedish  traveller  Sparrman  in  1775.  It  is  therefore 
the  oldest  extant  specimen  and  appears  to  have  the  pale  stripes  clearer  and 
extending  farther  back  than  usual.    While  the  exact  locality  is  unrecorded, 
Sparrman  mentions  that  he  first  saw  Quaggas  at  Swellendam.    Figured  by 
Ridgeway  (1909,  pp.  570,  571,  text-figs.  160,  161),  both  from  a  photograph  and 
from  a  recent  painting. 

15.  Stuttgart    Museum,    Germany. — According    to    Hilzheimer    (1912)    this 
museum  contains  a  skull  and  footbones  of  the  Quagga.   He  further  mentions 
that  in  the  Stuttgart  Altertums  Collection  is  a  miniature  model  of  a  Quagga, 
of  which  he  gives  a  figure,  and  suggests  that  it  was  probably  prepared  from 
the  two  animals  which  Frederick  I  had  in  his  menagerie  in  1812-16.    It  may 
therefore  have  a  certain  authenticity. 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  339 

16.  Tring    Museum,    England. — A    mounted    specimen,    interesting   for   the 
distinctness  of  the  posterior  stripes.    It  was  described  and  figured  by  P.  L. 
Sclater  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  1901,  vol.  1,  p.  166)  who  believed  that  it 
was  the  same  as  the  animal  formerly  living  in  the  London  Zoological  Gardens 
from  1851  to  1872.    That  this,  however,  is  not  the  case  was  made  clear  by 
Ridge  way,  who  publishes  a  letter  from  E.  Gerrard   (who  sold  the  specimen 
to  Lord  Rothschild)   stating  that  he  had  purchased  the  animal  as  an  old 
mounted  specimen  from  a  Mr.  Frank  of  Amsterdam  and  had  remounted  it 
before  selling  it  to  the  Tring  Museum.    Figured  by  Ridgeway  (1909,  p.  569, 
text-fig.  159). 

17.  Turin,   Zoological    Museum. — A    mounted   female,   and   its   skull.    The 
specimen  was  purchased  in  1827  from  the  English  dealers,  Leadbeater  father 
and  son.    It  was  made  the  type  of  Equus  trouessarti,  figured  and  described 
by  Camerano  (1908,  pi.). 

18.  Vienna   Museum. — A   mounted   female,   procured   by   Ecklon,   in    1836. 
The  specimen  was  described  by  Lorenz  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  1902,  vol.  1, 
p.  32)  and  figured  from  a  photograph  which  is  again  reproduced  by  Ridgeway 
(1909,  p.  568,  text-fig.  158). 

19.  Wiesbaden  Museum,  Germany. — A  mounted  specimen,  male,  which  was 
bought  in  1865  from  Frank,  the  Amsterdam  dealer.   It  has  no  more  definite 
locality  than  "South  Africa."  Figured  by  Ridgeway  (1909,  p.  572,  text-fig.  162). 

From  this  enumeration  it  appears  that  there  are  in  the  museums  of 
Europe  17  mounted  skins  (one  a  fetus) ,  a  mounted  head,  3  skeletons, 
and  7  skulls ;  while  elsewhere  the  only  known  specimen  is  a  mounted 
skin  of  a  foal,  in  the  South  African  Museum. 

G.  M.  A. 

Burchell's   Zebra   or   Bontequagga 

EQUUS  BURCHELLII  BURCHELLii  (Gray) 

Asinus  burchellii  Gray,  Zool.  Journ.,  vol.  1,  p.  247,  1824.    (Little  Klibbolikhoni 

Fontein,  Bechuanaland,  South  Africa.) 
FIGS.:    Gray,  op.  tit.,  pi.  9,  figs.  1,  2;  Lyon,  M.  W.,  Jr.,  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus., 

vol.  32,  pis.  1-3,  1907  (photographs  of  mounted  specimen) ;  Cabrera,  Jour. 

Mamm.,  vol.  17,  p.  97,  figs.  1-5  (pattern  diagrams),  1936;  Pocock,  Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.  London,  vol.  1,  p.  485,  fig.  48,  1909  (photo.). 

Although,  on  account  of  its  somewhat  variable  pattern,  the  Bur- 
chell's  Zebra  has  been  divided  into  many  nominal  races,  only  four  of 
these  are  regarded  as  valid  by  Cabrera  (1936)  in  his  recent  review. 
Of  these  four,  the  typical  burchellii  is  now  extinct,  and  there  are  few 
specimens  preserved. 

About  the  size  of  a  small  horse,  with  erect  mane  and  tufted  tail, 
the  color  pattern  consists  of  alternating  dark-brown  or  black  stripes 
and  whitish  stripes.  Of  the  former,  there  are  about  ten  on  the  neck, 
a  vertical  shoulder  stripe,  four  body  stripes,  then  on  the  flanks  three 
or  four  that  turn  back  dorsally,  somewhat  paralleling  the  median 
black  stripe.  The  characteristic  feature  of  typical  Burchell's  Zebra 
is  that  the  lower  haunches  and  both  fore  and  hind  legs  lack  the  small 


340 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


transverse   stripes   that   are   increasingly   developed   in   the   more 
northern  races,  and  the  tail  is  white. 

The  former  range  of  this  race  was  rather  limited  and  covered  what 
is  now  the  Orange  Free  State  and  southern  Bechuanaland,  in  South 
Africa,  but  apparently  did  not  extend  to  the  south  of  the  Orange 
River.  Over  the  plains  of  this  region  it  once  abounded  "in  countless 
thousands,"  but  with  the  coming  of  white  hunters,  followed  by 
settlers  in  the  Orange  River  colony,  it  had  already  become  rare  by 
the  middle  of  last  century.  Many  were  exported  to  Europe  for 


FIG.  35. — Burchell's   Zebra    (Equus   burchellii   burchellii).    After   Brehm. 

zoological  gardens,  and  it  is  in  part  from  these  that  have  come  the 
few  specimens  still  preserved  in  museums.  There  is  a  specimen  in  the 
British  Museum,  one  in  the  Tring  Museum,  and  a  third  in  the 
Bristol  Museum,  in  England,  and  there  is  a  mounted  one  in  the  U.  S. 
National  Museum,  and  one  in  the  Paris  Museum,  with  a  few  others  in 
other  museums,  as  Berlin,  Leiden,  and  South  Africa.  The  last 
living  specimen,  so  far  as  known,  was  one  kept  in  the  London 
Zoological  Gardens,  where  it  was  received  apparently  in  1909,  after 
evidently  having  been  in  captivity  for  a  period. 

From  Benguela  west  to  Southern  Rhodesia  and  Zululand,  this  race 
is  replaced  by  the  race  antiquorum,  with  more  cross-striping  on  the 
upper  parts  of  the  limbs.  At  the  present  time  this  animal  still  exists 
in  some  numbers  in  the  west  of  South-West  Africa.  From  the  Lim- 
popo River  northeastward  to  the  Loangwa  and  Rovuma  Rivers  is 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  341 

found  the  race  selousii,  distinguished  by  "having  the  limbs  striped  to 
the  coronet,  and  the  body  with  numerous  narrow  stripes  and  few  and 
faint  shadow  stripes."  Still  farther  northeastward,  is  the  race  bohmi, 
inhabiting  the  plains  country  of  eastern  Africa  north  to  Lake  Rudolf, 
in  which  the  shadow  stripes  (between  the  clear  black  stripes)  are 
absent  and  the  haunch  stripes  broad  and  black,  and  the  limbs  cross- 
striped  nearly  to  the  hoof.  This  race  is  still  common. 

The  chief  enemy  of  the  zebras,  apart  from  man,  is  the  Lion,  which 
seems  specially  fond  of  zebra  meat  and  finds  it  easily  obtainable. 
The  zebras  go  in  herds  which  may  at  times  be  of  large  size.  Fre- 
quently Gnus,  of  one  species  or  another,  associate  with  these  herds, 
as  if  for  companionship.  Zebras  have  at  times  been  tamed  and 
trained  to  harness  but  are  of  rather  uncertain  disposition  and  no 
great  use  of  them  in  this  way  has  been  made.  Their  meat,  though 
relished  by  the  natives,  is  not  popular  among  white  hunters,  accord- 
ing to  Selous.  The  hide  is  often  used  as  leather.  In  regions  where 
agriculture  is  practiced,  Zebras  often  become  a  nuisance  to  the 
ranchers  by  stampeding  and  breaking  through  barbed-wire  fencing. 
They  are  said  to  have  a  good  deal  of  curiosity,  and  especially  where 
mules  or  donkeys  are  in  camp,  will  often  approach  closely  to  survey 
them.  According  to  Major  Flower,  they  often  in  captivity  live  over 
12  years,  and  have  been  known  to  reach  28  or  29  years  in  zoological 
gardens.  The  name  "quagga"  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  noise 
they  make,  a  sort  of  honking  bark.  They  are  much  dependent  on 
water,  and  drink  at  least  once  a  day,  often  at  night,  but  approach 
the  waterhole  with  caution,  for  fear  of  lurking  lions. 

Although,  with  the  exception  of  the  typical  burchellii,  none  of  the 
races  is  in  present  danger  of  extinction,  their  numbers  will  undoubt- 
edly diminish  except  in  areas  where  large  extents  of  grasslands 
as  in  East  Africa  afford  them  range. 

G.  M.  A. 

Mountain  Zebra.    Wildepaard  (Boer).    Dauw  (Hottentot) 

EQUUS  ZEBRA  ZEBRA  Linnaeus 

Equus  zebra  Linnaeus,  Systema  Naturae,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  74,  1758.  (Probably 
the  Drakensberg  and  other  mountain  ranges,  Cape  of  Good  Hope.) 

Hartmann's  Mountain  Zebra 

EQUUS    ZEBRA    HARTMANNAE    Matschie 

Equus  hartmannae  Matschie,  Sitzber.  Ges.  Naturf.  Freunde  Berlin,  p.  174, 
1898.  (Between  Hoanib  and  Unilab  Rivers,  South-West  Africa.) 

FIGS.:  Of  typical  form:  Lydekker,  1912,  pi.  20,  fig.  1;  J.  E.  Gray,  Knowsley 
Menagerie,  pi.  56,  1850;  Pycraft,  1936,  p.  850,  fig.  Of  E.  z.  hartmannae: 
Haagner,  1920,  fig.  66;  Zukowsky,  1924,  fig.  6;  Maydon,  1932,  pi.  125; 
Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  1,  pi.  opp.  p.  389;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  717,  fig. 


342  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Since  there  is  still  some  doubt  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  1,  p.  389) 
whether  the  Mountain  Zebra  of  the  dry  South-West  African  uplands 
is  recognizably  distinct  from  the  typical  E.  zebra,  the  two  may  be 
treated  together,  pending  further  study  of  specimens.  Also  some 
authors,  among  them  Captain  Shortridge  (op.  cit.),  prefer  to  regard 
this  as  a  genus  distinct  from  Equus  or  from  the  South  African 
Quagga,  calling  it  Hippotigris.  Since  in  skeletal  and  tooth  characters 
it  is  very  little  different  from  the  horses,  a  conservative  course  is  to 
regard  the  latter  as  a  subgenus  of  Equus. 

The  Mountain  Zebra  was  the  first  of  the  zebras  known  to 
Europeans  and  is  the  smallest  of  the  three  species,  standing  about 
12  hands  high  (48  inches)  at  the  shoulder.  Length  of  head  and  body 
7  feet  4  inches;  tail,  with  terminal  hairs,  23  inches  (W.  L.  Sclater, 
1900).  Sclater  gives  the  following  description: 

Body,  head,  and  limbs  closely  covered  with  black  or  almost  black  stripes, 
broader  than  their  white  interspaces;  on  the  face  the  dark  markings  below 
the  eyes  become  reddish  passing  into  large  nostril  patches  of  the  same  color, 
but  the  muzzle  itself  is  black;  .  .  .  ears  long  and  rather  narrow,  posteriorly 
the  basal  two-thirds  striped,  the  terminal  third  black,  the  extreme  point 
white;  .  .  .  longitudinal  dorsal  stripe  only  noticeable  over  the  haunches, 
transverse  stripes  of  the  barrel  extending  back  over  the  haunches  to  the 
base  of  the  tail  forming  here  the  so-called  gridiron  pattern;  no  shadow 
stripes;  hairs  along  the  back  to  the  shoulders  reversed;  belly  white,  except 
for  a  longitudinal  dark  band  running  along  its  anterior  portion  which  is 
never  reached  by  the  transverse  body  stripes;  limbs  transversely  marked 
down  to  the  hoofs,  .  .  .  the  pasterns  being  quite  black;  .  .  .  hoof  rather 
narrow,  compact  and  solid;  tail  reaching  the  hocks  with  a  median  black  line 
and  traces  of  transverse  bars  at  the  base;  the  distal  quarter  with  a  tuft  of 
long  black  hairs. 

Hartmann's  Zebra  is  believed  to  differ  from  the  typical  race  in 
its  larger  size  and  more  widely  spaced  stripes,  so  that  the  pale  stripes 
are  equal  to  or  even  slightly  wider  than  the  black  ones.  The  legs 
"are  almost  evenly  banded  black  and  buff — the  black  not  predomi- 
nating as  in  zebra."  However,  this  pattern  varies  individually  and  as 
yet  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  characters  claimed  are  relatively 
constant. 

As  its  name  implies,  this  zebra  was  an  upland  species,  living  in 
the  mountains,  "from  Great  Namaqualand  (and  possibly  Damara- 
land),  through  the  various  ranges  of  Cape  Colony  to  the  Great 
Drakensberg  chain,  and  thence  to  the  end  of  that  range.  ...  At 
the  present  day,"  wrote  Bryden  (1899,  p.  94) ,  "it  is  only  to  be  found 
in  small  troops  here  and  there  in  Cape  Colony.  It  is  very  doubtful 
whether  any  now  remain  in  Great  Namaqualand,  where,  sixty  years 
ago,  Sir  James  Alexander  found  them  in  considerable  numbers.  It  is 
probable  that  the  Hottentots  .  .  .  ,  who  are  excellent  shots  .  .  .  , 
have  destroyed  the  last  remnants  ...  in  ...  Great  Namaqualand. 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES 


343 


In  Cape  Colony,  where  these  zebras  are,  as  far  as  possible,  preserved, 
small  troops  are  to  be  found  in  the  mountains  of  the  Sneeuwberg, 
Witteberg,  Tandtjesberg,  Zwartberg,  the  Winterhoek,  and  one  or  two 
other  ranges.  A  few  still  linger  along  the  Drakensberg.  .  .  .  Near 
Cradock,  .  .  .  only  a  few  years  since,  a  troop  of  twenty  was  seen." 
Under  date  of  January  23,  1935,  Herbert  Lang,  the  well-known 
explorer  and  authority  on  large  game  mammals  of  South  Africa, 


FIG.  36. — Mountain   Zebra    (Equus   zebra   zebra).    After   photographs   in 
Brehm  and  Newnes. 

wrote  that  "there  must  be  still  about  a  hundred  Mountain  Zebras 
in  various  places  in  spite  of  the  reports  to  the  contrary.  In  1926 
I  traveled  through  all  these  regions  to  observe  these  zebras  in  their 
haunts.  One  must  have  seen  these  herds  of  Mountain  Zebras  on 
their  actual  trails  to  be  enthusiastic  about  them  and  their  protec- 
tion. There  can  hardly  be  anything  more  fascinating."  By  1937, 
according  to  editorial  notes  in  the  Journal  of  the  Society  for  the 
Preservation  of  the  Fauna  of  the  Empire,  a  census  of  these  zebras 
showed  the  following  45:  in  the  Oudtshoorn  Area,  near  George,  20 
on  the  farm  of  Peter.  Heyns ;  in  the  Cradock  Area,  10  on  the  farm  of 
Paul  Michau,  8  on  the  farm  of  Lombard,  7  on  that  of  Osborn.  The 


344  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

proportion  of  sexes  among  these  animals  was  believed  to  be  very 
uneven  with  "a  great  shortage  of  mares."  This  number  is  still  less 
than  a  few  years  previously,  for  E.  L.  Gill,  writing  in  December  1932, 
said  that  at  Cradock  there  were  "two  or  three  small  herds  which  seem 
likely  to  die  out.  The  Oudtshoorn  herd  on  the  farm  Mount  Hope, 
has  been  carefully  preserved  by  the  owners,  the  brothers  Heyns,  and 
is  still  flourishing.  It  numbers  somewhere  about  70  animals  and  con- 
stitutes the  chief  hope  for  the  survival  of  the  species." 

Efforts  have  been  made  at  various  times  in  recent  years  to  induce 
the  Government  to  purchase  a  portion  of  the  Mount  Hope  Farm  as  a 
permanent  Mountain  Zebra  reserve.  In  1937,  the  Government  at 
last  voted  to  ask  the  Parliament  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa  for 
£7,600  for  the  establishment  of  such  a  reserve  and  hopes  are  high  that 
it  may  actually  be  created,  before  it  is  too  late.  Notwithstanding 
that  the  species  is  protected  at  all  times  by  the  South  African 
Government,  the  actual  enforcement  of  this  protection  has  in  the 
past  been  difficult.  It  is  one  of  the  species  listed  for  complete  pro- 
tection by  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 

While  "the  advance  of  civilization"  is  blamed  for  the  reduction 
in  numbers  of  this  zebra,  no  doubt  much  blame  must  also  be  laid 
upon  the  native  and  white  poachers  with  modern  rifles,  as  well  as 
to  other  methods  of  extermination.  Bryden  (1899)  wrote  that  occa- 
sionally the  weather  is  so  "severe  among  the  Cape  mountains  that 
even  the  tough  zebra  succumbs"  and  that  in  "the  old  days  in  Cape 
Colony,  the  Boers  were  in  the  habit  of  hunting  these  animals  for  the 
sake  of  their  hides  and  of  capturing  the  young  alive  for  the  purpose 
of  being  broken  to  harness."  For  in  the  last  century  "a  fashion  for 
using  Mountain  Zebras  in  harness  seems  ...  to  have  sprung  up  in 
the  Mauritius,  and  ...  a  good  many  of  these  animals  were  exported 
from  the  Cape  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  French  colonists. 
...  A  premium  of  £20  was  at  the  same  time  offered  for  the  young 
of  these  animals  delivered  in  Cape  Town."  "The  Boers,  to  save 
themselves  the  trouble  of  shooting,  occasionally  succeeded  in  driving 
a  number  of  these  animals  over  the  edge  of  a  precipice,  thus  securing 
the  skins  at  their  leisure"  (Bryden,  1899) . 

Although  Bryden  (1899)  feared  that  within  the  "next  fifty  years 
this  zebra  will  have  joined  the  ranks  of  extinct  creatures,"  there 
seems  still  some  hope  of  preserving  a  remnant,  owing  chiefly  to  the 
interest  of  those  farm  owners  on  whose  lands  the  survivors  still  hold 
out,  and  an  awakened  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the  Government  to 
do  what  it  can. 

While  the  future  of  the  Mountain  Zebra  in  the  Cape  Province  is 
none  too  rosy,  it  still  occurs  in  the  form  hartmannae  in  small  numbers 
among  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  western  and  northwestern  parts 
of  South-West  Africa  and  northward  across  the  Cunene  into  south- 


ORDEK  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  345 

western  Angola  at  least  as  far  as  Elephant  Bay,  100  miles  north  of 
Mossamedes,  where,  however,  it  is  not  found  more  than  30  miles 
inland.  Shortridge  (1934,  vol.  1,  pp.  390-396)  has  gathered  together 
the  available  information  concerning  it  in  this  region.  The  eastern 
limits  are  found  in  the  Kaokoveld  about  a  hundred  miles  from  the 
west  coast.  Here  it  is  sometimes  found  in  association  with  the  Bonte- 
quagga  (E.  burchellii  antiquorum)  but  is  much  fewer  in  numbers.  It 
is  partial  to  the  crests  of  arid  gorges,  and  its  small  cupped  hoofs 
are  adapted  for  rough  country.  Large  numbers  are  said  to  be  found 
in  the  Omaruru  and  the  Maltahohe  districts,  but  elsewhere  they  are 
less  common.  Steinhardt  saw  them  digging  for  water  in  sandy  river 
beds  of  this  arid  country,  making  pits  half  a  meter  deep.  They  may 
not  drink  regularly  but  sometimes  keep  away  from  water  as  long  as 
three  days.  They  are  shy  and  suspicious  and  difficult  to  approach 
under  usual  conditions.  The  Cape  Mountain  Zebra  is  believed  to  be 
a  slow  breeder,  with  foal  every  second  year  or  so.  The  period  of 
gestation  is  said  to  be  about  twelve  months.  The  height  at  the 
shoulder  is  said  to  be  in  hartmannae  about  52  to  54.5  inches,  hence 
somewhat  taller  than  the  typical  race. 

G.M.  A. 

Nubian  Wild  Ass.    Nubischer  Wildesel   (Ger.) 

ASINUS  ASINUS  AFRICANUS  Fitzinger 

Asinus  ajricanus  Fitzinger,  Naturgesch.  Saugethiere,  vol.  3,  p.  667,  1857. 
(Lydekker  (1916,  vol.  5,  p.  38)  gives  the  type  locality  as  "Nubia  (accord- 
ing to  Matschie,  Erythraea) .") 

SYNONYM:    ? 'Asinus  asinus  dianae  Dollman  (1935). 

FIGS.:  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1884,  pi.  50,  fig.  2,  1885;  Lydekker,  1904, 
pi.  20,  1912,  pi.  20,  fig.  2,  and  1916,  vol.  5,  p.  37,  fig.  16;  Antonius,  1929, 
p.  290,  fig.  1;  Zammarano,  1930,  p.  87,  fig. 

This  subspecies  is  "by  no  means  common"  (Brocklehurst,  1931, 
p.  15). 

"General  colour  of  upper-parts  greyish-fawn,  with  the  muzzle,  a 
broad  ring  round  each  eye,  .  .  .  and  the  under-parts,  white  or 
whitish ;  the  legs  being  of  the  same  pale  hue,  with  some  greyish  on  the 
front  surface,  and  a  few  small  dark  spots  on  each  side  of  the  fetlocks. 
The  mane  ...  is  short,  upright,  and  dark  brown  or  blackish  .... 
The  narrow  dorsal  stripe  ...  is  continued  as  a  thin  line  well  on  to 
the  tail";  the  two  branches  of  the  shoulder  stripe  are  about  5-6 
inches  in  length.  "The  long  hairs  of  the  terminal  tail-tuft  ...  are 
mingled  black  and  grey.  The  ears  are  about  10J  in.  in  length,  and 
are  black  at  their  tips  ....  On  the  inner  side  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  fore-leg  is  a  chestnut  patch."  Height  of  male  at  shoulder,  45^  to 
47i  inches.  (Lydekker,  1904,  p.  594.)  Baker  (1867,  p.  56)  gives  the 
height  of  a  male  from  the  Atbara  River  as  55-56  inches. 


346 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 


A.  a.  dianae  Dollman  (1935),  from  south  of  Tokar  near  the 
Eritrean  boundary,  is  so  weakly  differentiated  from  ajricanus  as  to 
seem  scarcely  worthy  of  recognition ;  it  may  represent  a  slight  inter- 
gradation  toward  somaliensis. 

"The  Nubian  wild  ass  ...  inhabits  ,  .  .  Sennar  and  Nubia,  its 
range  formerly  extending  as  far  as  the  fifth  cataract  of  the  Nile 


FIG.  37. — Nubian  Wild  Ass   (Asinus  asinus  ajricanus) 

....  Year  by  year  the  range  of  this  race  appears  to  become  more 
restricted;  and  unless  protective  measures  be  taken,  there  is  danger 
that  it  may  be  exterminated."  (Lydekker,  1908,  p.  66.) 

Heuglin  (1861,  p.  19)  reports  Wild  Asses  as  occurring  from  Suakin 
to  the  Nile  at  Berber,  in  all  northeastern  Sennaar,  and  in  the  plains 
of  the  Barka  River.  He  says  he  met  with  them  commonly  about 
the  ruins  of  Wadi  Safra,  then  on  the  Atbara,  and  along  the  route 
from  Taka  toward  Suakin ;  and  during  the  rainy  season  they  appear 
as  far  north  as  the  Desert  of  Korosko.  (Korosko  is  on  the  Egyptian 
part  of  the  Nile,  at  about  lat.  22°  30'  N.;  but  Flower  remarks  (1932, 
p.  432) :  "There  appear  to  be  no  certain  records  of  genuine  wild 
asses  having  occurred  in  Egypt  during  the  nineteenth  century.") 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA !     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  347 

Sir  Samuel  Baker  (1867,  pp.  55-56)  writes  concerning  the  Wild 
Ass  along  the  Atbara  River:  "Those  who  have  seen  donkeys  in 
their  civilized  state  have  no  conception  of  the  beauty  of  the  wild 
and  original  animal.  .  .  .  The  animal  in  its  native  desert  is  the  per- 
fection of  activity  and  courage;  there  is  a  high-bred  tone  in  the 
deportment,  a  high-actioned  step  when  it  trots  freely  over  the  rocks 
and  sand,  with  the  speed  of  a  horse  when  it  gallops  over  the  bound- 
less desert.  No  animal  is  more  difficult  of  approach;  and,  although 
they  are  frequently  captured  by  the  Arabs,  those  taken  are  invari- 
ably the  foals,  which  are  ridden  down  by  fast  dromedaries,  while 
the  mothers  escape." 

Matschie  gives  (1894,  p.  73),  as  the  northernmost  locality,  the 
Wadi  el  Homar,  a  little  north  of  Berber. 

"Their  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  Arabs  of  the  Soudan.  They  are 
ordinarily  met  with  in  twos  and  threes,  or  small  herds."  (Bryden, 
1899,  p.  70.) 

"This  animal  is  found  at  the  foot  of  the  Gebel  Hennah,  near 
Tokar.  It  is  common  in  the  Khor  Sabbat  parallel  to  the  Khor 
Baraka.  Captain  O'Connor  informs  me  that  he  has  often  seen  them 
at  the  Khor  Sabbat,  on  the  plain  of  Tokar."  (Anderson,  in  Ander- 
son and  de  Winton,  1902,  p.  330.) 

"Neither  the  wild  asses  nor  the  zebras  of  Africa  are  pursued  with 
much  enthusiasm  by  sportsmen,  and  the  first-named  animals  are 
so  shy  and  wild  that  whilst  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  within  shot  of 
them  on  foot,  if  they  are  hunted  on  horseback  they  are  so  fleet  and 
enduring  that  they  can  only  be  overtaken  with  great  difficulty  even 
by  a  really  fast  horse.  .  .  .  Thus  the  wild  ass  is  seldom  shot,  and 
is  probably  of  less  interest  to  the  average  sportsman  than  any  other 
African  game  animal."  (Selous,  1914,  p.  36.) 

"The  Wild  Ass  is  found  in  the  Sudan  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Atbara  River  in  the  provinces  of  Berber  and  Kassala;  it  is  also 
found  in  the  Red  Sea  Province  south  of  Suakin. 

"They  have  been  strictly  protected  for  a  number  of  years,  and 
although  by  no  means  common  there  is  not,  at  present,  any  danger 
of  their  being  exterminated."  (Brocklehurst,  1931,  p.  15.) 

Some  years  before  1932  Wild  Asses  were  fairly  common  in  the 
region  of  the  Baraka  Wadi  near  the  border  of  Eritrea  (Maydon, 
1932,  p.  203) . 

In  all  probability  the  very  few  Eritrean  specimens  now  extant  live 
in  the  region-  of  Upper  Barca  (De  Beaux,  1935,  p.  12) . 

Powell-Cotton  (in  Dollman,  1935,  p.  134)  writes  concerning  Wild 
Asses  south  of  Tokar  near  the  Eritrean  boundary:  "Beween  18  Feb- 
ruary and  2  March  1934  we  saw  the  animals  on  four  occasions,  as 
follows,  1,  2,  2,  3,  and  secured  the  two  specimens  permitted  us. 
.  .  .  The  Arabs  .  .  .  leave  the  Wild  Ass  unmolested  as  they  do  not 


348  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

eat  its  flesh,  and  they  told  us  they  were  more  numerous  across  the 
Eritrean  boundary." 
Antonius  (1938,  p.  560)  writes: 

[The  Nubian  Wild  Ass]  until  recent  times  spread  over  the  mountainous 
semi-deserts  of  Nubia  and  the  Eastern  Sudan  from  the  Nile  to  the  shores 
of  the  Red  sea.  The  last  specimens  of  Nubian  origin  known  to  European 
observers  were  two  males  shot  by  Sir  Reginald  Loder  about  1925,  near  the 
Gebel  Raboba,  on  the  Erythrean  frontier,  and  an  old  female,  living  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens  at  Rome  for  many  years,  the  photograph  of  which  is 
reproduced  by  Zammerano  in  his  "Fauna  e  Caggia."  To-day  there  is  a  living 
specimen  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park,  and  also  a  stallion  in  the  Zoo 
at  Rome.  The  Nubian  ass  was  domesticated  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  at 
least  in  3500  B.  C.,  and  being  hunted  by  the  King  Rameses  III. — as  is  shown 
at  the  temple  of  Medinet  Habu — it  was  well  known  as  a  wild  animal  in 
Egypt  until  at  least  1100  B.  C.  .  :  . 

The  so-called  "Nubian  Asses"  shown  in  many  Zoos,  are  by  no  means  pure 
bred  descendants  of  the  true  wild  stock;  therefore  it  seems  nearly  certain 
that  the  Nubian  ass  is  to-day  as  thoroughly  extinct  as  his  Atlantic  cousin. 
[This  remark  on  extinction  is  somewhat  premature,  in  view  of  the  statements 
just  quoted  from  Brocklehurst,  Maydon,  De  Beaux,  and  Powell-Cotton.] 

All  forms  of  the  Wild  Ass  in  Africa  enjoy  complete  protection 
under  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 

Domestication. — According  to  Lydekker  (1916,  vol.  5,  p.  37),  the 
typical  subspecies  of  the  African  Wild  Ass  (A.  a.  asinus)  is  repre- 
sented by  the  Domestic  Ass  of  Asia.  He  also  states  (1912,  p.  217) 
that  the  wild  animal  was  first  tamed  in  the  Mediterranean  countries. 
This  ancestral  wild  animal  was  doubtless  distinguishable  from  the 
present  domesticated  animal,  but  whether  it  was  identical  with  any 
of  the  wild  forms  now  recognized  (africanus,  atlanticus,  or  somali- 
ensis),  it  is  impossible  to  say.  Werth  (1930,  p.  351)  suggests  Abys- 
sinia as  the  place  of  first  domestication.  If,  however,  the  wild  ances- 
tor inhabited  the  eastern  Mediterranean  region,  where  no  wild  repre- 
sentative of  Asinus  asinus  now  exists,  it  may  have  differed  from  any 
of  the  currently  recognized  forms.  In  the  account  of  Asinus  hemionus 
hemippus  (p.  368)  I  have  suggested  the  possible  occurrence  of  some 
wild  form  of  Asinus  asinus  in  the  Palestine  region  within  compara- 
tively recent  times. 

While  space  does  not  suffice  to  discuss  the  subject  of  domestication 
at  any  length,  the  following  quotation  from  Peake  (1933,  pp.  98-99) 
is  apropos  here: 

The  ass  was  used  at  a  very  early  date,  both  in  Egypt  and  in  Mesopotamia, 
but  it  is  impossible  to  say  at  present  to  which  region  to  ascribe  the  priority. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  predynastic  period  in  Egypt,  just  before  3400  B.  C., 
the  Libyan  tribes,  who  dwelt  in  the  desert  to  the  west  of  the  Nile  Delta, 
possessed  large  herds  of  asses,  and  this  indicates  that  this  animal  had  been 
known  to  and  possessed  by  them  for  a  long  time.  At  Ur,  in  Mesopotamia, 
asses  were  used  by  those  kings  and  queens  who  were  buried  in  the  famous 
death-pits,  accompanied  by  their  slain  retainers,  and  these  must  be  relegated 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  349 

to  quite  as  early  a  date,  and  are  probably  much  earlier.  All  our  evidence 
goes  to  show  that  asses  had  been  tamed,  and  were  used  as  beasts  of  burden, 
both  in  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia,  between  4000  and  3000  B.  C.,  and  may  have 
been  domesticated  at  a  considerably  earlier  date. 

On  the  island  of  Sokotra  there  are  herds  of  wild  or  feral  asses 
closely  resembling  A.  a.  africanus  in  color  but  of  smaller  size  (stand- 
ing from  38  to  40  inches  at  the  shoulder) .  They  are  regarded  as  "the 
survivors  of  Nubian  ancestors  brought  from  the  Red  Sea  coast  by, 
probably,  the  ancient  Egyptian  incense  collectors."  Their  introduc- 
tion is  presumed  to  date  back  "for  some  thousands  of  years" — per- 
haps a  sufficient  length  of  time  for  their  insular  habitat  to  have  pro- 
duced degeneration  in  size.  "As  they  are  never  shot  at  and  rarely 
molested  by  the  natives,  they  were  by  no  means  wild."  (C/.  H.  0. 
Forbes,  1903,  pp.  xxxviii,  6,  9-11,  pi.  2.) 

[There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the  possible  existence  of 
Wild  Asses  in  the  Sahara.  Tristram  (1860,  p.  318,  as  quoted  by 
Blyth,  1862,  pp.  363-364)  "heard  that  wild  Asses  were  to  be  occa- 
sionally found  in  the  Soufa  desert,  on  the  route  to  Ghadames."  He 
was  shown  one  that  "had  been  caught  when  very  young,  and  was 
considered  unusually  tame  for  one  of  his  species."  It  was  "of  a  rich 
slatish  ash-colour";  dorsal  stripe  and  shoulder  stripe  present;  nose 
and  limbs  white;  mane  and  tail  blackish.  The  adults  were  said  to 
be  "very  difficult  to  entrap  and  impossible  to  train." 

On  a  journey  through  the  Tuareg  country  in  1913-14  Geyr  von 
Schweppenburg  (1917,  p.  298)  learned  that  wild  or  feral  asses  were 
not  uncommon  there  in  previous  years,  but  by  that  time  had  virtually 
disappeared,  having  been  captured,  shot,  and  fed  to  dogs.  The  local 
Mohammedans  did  not  eat  the  flesh.  He  was  inclined  to  consider 
that  at  least  some  of  the  asses  were  genuinely  wild,  and  not  merely 
feral.  He  also  mentioned  reports  of  Wild  Asses  in  this  region  by 
previous  travelers  (Duveyrier,  Bissuel,  Benhazera,  and  others). 

According  to  Spatz  (in  Werth,  1930,  p.  347) ,  these  wild  or  feral 
asses  constantly  molested  the  domesticated  animals  and  often  led 
them  astray. 

Antonius  (1931,  pp.  133-136,  pi.  3,  fig.  3)  calls  attention  to  some 
wild-living  asses  reported  by  Fraulein  von  Wagner-Jauregg  in  the 
Hoggar  massif  in  the  southern  territories  of  Algeria,  where  the 
Tuaregs  distinguish  them  by  name  from  the  Domestic  Asses.  A 
captured  foal  showed  evidence  of  a  strong  wild-blooded  component, 
even  if  it  coud  not  be  considered  a  pure-blooded  wild  ass.  It  is  feared 
that  these  wild-living  asses  of  the  Hoggar  will  disappear  if  energetic 
protective  measures  are  not  adopted. 

On  the  other  hand,  Hilzheimer  and  Spatz  (Zeitschr.  fiir  Sauge- 
tierk.,  vol.  17,  p.  15,  1932)  express  the  opinion  that  the  animals  of 
the  Hoggar  are  merely  Domestic  Asses  that  have  run  wild.  Selous 


350  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

(1914,  p.  35)  and  Lavauden  (1933,  p.  20)  state  that  Wild  Asses  do 
not  pass  west  of  the  Nile. 
Antonius  (1938,  p.  560)  says: 

It  is  very  interesting  that  the  only  mention  of  a  wild  ass  captured  in  the 
Western  Sahara,  given  by  Canon  Tristram,  agrees  not  with  the  appearance 
of  the  Atlantic,  but  with  that  of  the  Nubian,  race.  Although  very  exactly 
describing  the  coloration  of  his  wild  born  ass,  Tristram  does  not  say  any- 
thing about  banded  limbs.  The  wild  asses  once  roaming  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  caravan  route  to  Chadames  [Ghadames]  and  Chat  [Ghat]  were 
therefore  probably  not  of  the  strongly  marked  Atlanticus-type,  but  of  the 
Nubian  with  unbanded  limbs.  This  opinion  is  strengthened  by  the  colours 
of  the  so-called  "ahoulil"  of  the  Tuareg — wild  or  feral  asses,  lingering  in  the 
Ahaggar  mountains  in  single  pairs  and  small  troops.  A  filly  of  these  ahoulil, 
captured  in  1927  in  the  heart  of  the  Ahaggar  mountains  for  the  Schonbrunn 
Zoo,  but  dying  before  transported  to  Europe,  was  of  exactly  the  same  Nubian 
type.  Probably  there  is  in  these  ahoulil  at  least  a  strong  strain  of  originally 
wild  blood,  more  or  less  intermingled  with  the  Atlanticus  blood  of  escaped 
domestic  Tuareg  donkeys. 

Finally  comes  the  extremely  interesting  information  from  Mai- 
brant  (1936,  p.  27)  that  in  French  Central  Africa  Wild  Asses  are 
restricted  to  the  massif  of  Tibesti.  Views  differ  as  to  their  origin  and 
systematic  status,  but  Malbrant  inclines  toward  the  opinion  that 
they  are  genuinely  wild  animals  of  the  subspecies  africanus.  They 
exist  in  the  region  of  Zouar  and,  farther  north,  in  the  Tarsoa,  moun- 
tainous ridges  situated  north  of  Emi  Koussi.  Here  they  are  not  rare. 
The  plateau  of  Daski  and  the  region  of  Trotron  (between  Yebi  and 
Zoumri)  likewise  shelter  many.  They  live  in  bands  of  as  many  as 
30  or  40  individuals.  The  natives  capture  young  ones  in  snares  near 
the  water-holes,  train  them,  and  use  them  as  pack  animals. 

A  view  differing  from  Malbrant's  is  held  by  Thesiger,  who  remarks 
(1939,  p.  441)  that  in  Tibesti  "donkeys  are  extensively  used,  and 
many  have  run  wild  among  the  mountains  probably  for  generations." 

The  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  Tibesti  Asses  awaits  the  collec- 
tion of  specimens.] 

Somali  Wild  Ass.   Somali- Wildesel  (Ger.) 

ASINUS   ASINUS    SOMALIENSIS    Noack 

A[sinus]  taeniopus  var.  Somaliensis  Noack,  Zool.  Garten,  vol.  25,  no.  4,  p.  101, 
1884.  ("Somaliland";  type  locality  restricted  by  Lydekker  (1916,  vol.  5, 
p.  39)  to  "Berbera  district  of  [British]  Somaliland.") 

FIGS.:  Nouv.  Arch.  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.  Paris,  vol.  5,  Bull.,  pi.  5,  1869  (subsp.?) ; 
Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1884,  pi.  50,  fig.  1;  Akeley,  1914,  pp.  112,  115,  117, 
figs.;  Zammarano,  1930,  p.  88,  fig.;  Schmidt,  1938,  pi.  11. 

In  British  Somaliland  this  Wild  Ass  "is  strictly  preserved,  but .  .  . 
much  reduced  in  number"  (Antonius,  1938,  p.  560) . 

It  is  more  strongly  built  than  A.  a.  africanus]  general  color  a  deli- 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA .'     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  351 

cate  reddish  ash-gray ;  snout  gray ;  behind  it  a  broad,  light  gray  band 
from  the  nose  to  beyond  the  corner  of  the  mouth ;  a  light  ring  about 
the  eye ;  inner  surface  of  ears  ash-gray,  with  black  border  and  tip ; 
outer  surface  of  ears  yellowish  red ;  mane  light  gray  basally ,  fuscous 
above;  shoulder  stripe  absent;  a  dark  but  not  very  pronounced 
median  dorsal  stripe  extending  from  the  lumbar  region  to  the  tail 
tuft;  forelegs  yellowish  gray  anteriorly,  light  gray  posteriorly;  dark 
bands  about  all  the  legs  up  to  the  level  of  the  body,  but  only  on  the 
anterior  side  of  the  forelegs  (Noack,  1884,  pp.  101-102).  Height  at 
shoulder  about  51  inches  (Menges,  1887,  p.  262).  Pocock  (1909, 
p.  528)  remarks  on  a  seasonal  change  of  color,  from  clear  gray  in 
summer  to  sandy  fawn  in  winter. 

Menges  (1887,  pp.  263-267)  gives  the  following  account: 

The  range  is  apparently  restricted  to  Somaliland  and  part  of  the 
Red  Sea  coastal  plain  south  of  Massaua,  Eritrea;  it  probably  in- 
cludes the  Danakil  region  and  extends  south  to  the  Webi  Shebeli. 
A  particular  habitat  is  the  coastal  lowlands,  where  the  animal  is 
not  exactly  rare;  another  favored  haunt  is  the  barren  Hekebo  Pla- 
teau (2,000  feet  high),  southeast  of  Bulhar.  It  is  commonly  found  in 
herds  of  5  to  20  head,  and  is  extremely  shy  and  cautious. 

In  general  it  leads  a  rather  undisturbed  existence,  though  occa- 
sionally falling  victim  to  the  Leopard  or  the  Lion.  Most  of  the 
Somalis  do  not  touch  the  flesh,  but  one  or  two  tribes  pursue  the 
animal  to  some  extent.  Only  a  few  hides  are  brought  from  the 
interior  to  the  coastal  markets.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  coast 
districts  of  the  Red  Sea  the  Wild  Ass  is  eagerly  pursued,  with  the 
object  of  shipping  captured  animals  to  Arabia,  where  they  are  used 
for  crossing  with  the  Domestic  Ass.  One  result  of  this  crossing  is 
the  hardy  and  beautiful  riding  ass  of  Yemen.  Among  the  Somalis 
themselves  one  finds  many  Domestic  Asses  bearing  evidence  of 
crossing  with  the  wild  animals. 

"In  certain  parts  of  Guban,  notably  in  the  sterile  district  lying 
near  the  coast,  about  twenty  miles  east  of  Berbera,  the  Wild  Ass  is 
not  very  uncommon.  We  met  with  it  also  in  considerable  numbers 
on  the  high  plateau  west  of  Laferug,  and  also  saw  some  individuals 
south  of  the  Golis  Range  ....  The  flesh  of  these  animals  is  very 
good,  almost  the  best  we  ate  in  Somaliland  ....  It  does  not  seem 
to  be  a  very  plentiful  species  even  in  the  country  of  its  nativity, 
and  I  should  judge  it  would  not  require  much  persecution  to  speedily 
extinguish  the  race."  (Elliot,  1897,  pp.  139-140.) 

"The  Somali  wild  ass  is  fairly  common.  I  first  met  with  them 
about  twenty  miles  to  the  south  of  Berbera,  and  they  are  also  found 
on  the  plateau  to  the  south  of  the  Golis  range.  They  do  not  live  on 
the  mountain  ranges,  but  frequent  the  low  stony  hills  in  the  desert. 


352  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

They  go  in  small  herds.  The  largest  I  saw  consisted  of  five."  (In- 
verarity,  in  Bryden,  1899,  p.  71.) 

''They  are  common  to  the  eastward  of  Berbera,  behind  Siyaro,  in 
among  the  sand  dunes  and  rocky  hills,  and  also  south  of  Bulhar  in 
similar  localities,  especially  around  the  Issitugan  Valley.  South  of 
the  Golis  Range  they  inhabit  the  low  stony  hills  around  Halo, 
Haloka  Yer,  and  near  Segig;  they  are  also  found  on  Negegr  Plateau." 
They  are  "usually  seen  in  herds  of  four  or  five  individuals  and  not 
uncommonly  singly."  (Drake-Brockman,  1910,  p.  103.) 

Akeley  (1914)  gives  an  account  of  hunting  Wild  Asses  about  30 
miles  from  Berbera.  One  reason  for  their  scarcity  is  indicated  in 
his  statement  (p.  117)  that  "one  English  'sportsman'  boasted  of 
having  killed  twenty-eight." 

De  Beaux  (1928a,  p.  6)  records  seven  specimens  from  Italian 
Danakil.  He  also  remarks  (p.  13)  that  the  present  subspecies  is  sepa- 
rated from  ajricanus  by  the  Ethiopian  plateau,  which  approaches  the 
Red  Sea  at  the  Gulf  of  Zula  [Annesley  Bay]. 

Thesiger,  who  traversed  Abyssinian  and  Italian  Danakil  in  1933, 
found  Wild  Asses  quite  common  north  and  south  of  the  lower 
Hawash  (Neumann,  1935,  p.  153) . 

Antonius  (1938,  p.  561)  writes: 

Because  many  hides  from  Berbera,  as  well  as  from  Danakil,  although  typical 
in  all  other  points,  show  a  more  or  less  developed  shoulder  cross,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  neither  the  existence  of  it  nor  its  absence  is  thoroughly 
typical  [of  somaliensis}.  .  .  . 

It  is,  alas!  to  be  feared  that  the  Abyssinian  war  has  its  consequences  for 
the  African  wild  asses:  warring  soldiers,  and  especially  askaris,  are  never 
the  best  protectors  of  vanishing  game!  Whether  the  "Asinus  somaliensis" 
exists  also  in  Southern  Abyssinia  or  not  is  not  positively  known.  A  well- 
informed  Austrian,  who  had  been  living  in  Abyssinia  for  many  years,  told  me 
that  he  had  seen  wild  asses  in  the  Bale  country  on  the  upper  Juba.  I  suggest 
for  geographical  reasons  that  the  animals  are  not  true  wild  asses,  but  either 
Zebras  or  domestic  donkeys  of  a  feral  breed,  similar  to  the  beautiful  asses 
of  the  Turkana  people  on  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Rudolf,  at  first  seen  by 
von  Hoehnel  and  Count  Teleky,  and  since  recorded  by  modern  visitors  to  that 
country. 

Lydekker  (1916,  vol.  5,  p.  39)  records  a  specimen  from  as  far 
south  as  "Shebeli  Valley,  Somaliland." 

Atlas  Wild  Ass;    Algerian  Wild  Ass 

ASINUS  ATLANTIOUS  (Thomas) 

Equus  asinus  atlanticus.  P.  Thomas,  Mem.  Soc.  Ge"ol.  France,  ser.  3,  vol.  3, 
no.  2,  p.  45,  1884.  (Recent  Quaternary  deposits,  Oued  Seguen,  near 
Constantine,  Algeria.) 

SYNONYM:    Equus  asinus  atlanticus  Werth  (1930). 

FIGS.:  Thomas,  op.  cit.,  pi.  2,  figs.  7,  7a;  Werth,  1930,  p.  348,  fig.  3;  Jennison, 
1937,  pi.  facing  p.  145. 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  353 

Apparently  a  Wild  Ass  inhabited  Algeria  up  to  at  least  about 
A.  D.  300,  but  subsequently  became  extinct.  It  was  probably  distinct 
from  any  form  now  living. 

P.  Thomas  (1884,  p.  45)  based  the  name  Equus  asinus  atlanticm 
upon  a  mandible  with  teeth,  found  in  late  Quaternary  deposits  near 
Constantine,  Algeria.  In  these  he  found  characters  apparently  inter- 
mediate between  those  of  Pliocene  Hipparion  and  those  of  the 
present-day  Domestic  Asses  of  Algeria. 

The  name  atlanticus  may  be  applied  at  least  provisionally  to  the 
Algerian  Wild  Ass  of  Roman  times.  Werth  (1930,  p.  350,  map) 
indicates  the  presumable  former  distribution  as  including  Morocco 
and  Tunisia  as  well  as  Algeria. 

"In  a  Roman  villa  at  Bona,  in  Algeria,  was  found  a  large  and 
well-preserved  picture,  dating  from  about  A.  D.  300,  of  an  African 
hunt.  Its  main  effect  is  a  representation  of  a  drive  of  carnivora.  .  .  . 
The  use  of  the  lasso  is  illustrated  in  the  same  picture,  where  a 
Numidian,  riding  bareback  and  stirrupless,  is  throwing  one  at  a  wild 
ass."  (Jennison,  1937,  pp.  145-146.) 

Antonius  (1938,  pp.  559-560)  says: 

The  true  asses  of  African  origin — the  wild  stock  from  which  our  domestic 
donkey  descends — belong  to  the  many  mammalia  which  became  totally  extinct 
in  our  days.  There  were  in  Roman  times  at  least  three  local  races,  one  of 
which  became  extinct  before  it  was  ever  seen  by  a  modern  zoologist.  It  was 
the  "Asinus  atlanticus  Thomas,"  well  known  from  the  rock  picture  of  Enfouss, 
Algeria,  published  erroneously  as  "Quagga"  by  Frobenius.  An  excellent  Roman 
mosaic  at  Hippo  Regius,  the  modern  Bone,  also  shows  that  donkey.  It 
possessed  a  well-developed  shoulder  stripe,  strongly  marked  limbs,  and  the 
ears  perhaps  a  little  shorter  than  its  East  African  cousins.  The  geographic 
distribution  of  these  Atlantic  asses  seems  not  to  have  exceeded  the  ranges 
of  the  Atlas  mountains.  The  time  of  their  extinction  is  unknown. 

Mongolian  Wild  Ass;   Chigetai;  Dziggetai;  Kulan ;  Kulon 

ASINUS  HEMIONUS  HBMiONUS   (Pallas) 

Equus  hemionus  Pallas,  Nov.  Comm.  Acad.  Sci.  Imper.  Petropolitanae,  vol.  19, 
p.  394,  pi.  7,  1775.  ("Ad  Lacum  Tarei  Davuriae"  =  Tarei  Nor,  on  the 
Siberian-Mongolian  boundary,  about  lat.  50°  N.,  long.  115°  E.) 

SYNONYMS:  Equus  onager  castaneus  Lydekker  (1904);  Equus  (Asinus) 
hemionus  bedfordi  Matschie  (1911) ;  Equus  (Asinus)  hemionus  luteus 
Matschie  (1911).  (C/.  Harper,  1940,  pp.  197-198.) 

FIGS.:  Pallas,  op.  cit.,  pi.  7,  and  1781,  pi.  1;  Lydekker,  19046,  pi.  27  (bedfordi) ; 
Lydekker,  1904c,  pi.  18  (castaneus);  Lydekker,  1912,  pi.  15,  fig.  2 
(castaneus);  Lydekker,  1916,  p.  13,  fig.  6  (castaneus);  Carruthers,  1913, 
pis.  facing  pp.  602,  606;  R.  C.  Andrews,  1924,  pp.  152-156,  figs.,  and  1926, 
pi.  facing  p.  129. 

During  recent  years,  in  all  its  vast  range,  the  Mongolian  Wild 
Ass  seems  to  have  been  reported  as  plentiful  in  only  one  region — that 
about  Orok  Nor  and  Zagan  Nor  in  central  Mongolia  (about  long. 


354  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

100°-102°  E.).  It  has  apparently  disappeared  from  eastern  Mon- 
golia (including  adjacent  parts  of  Siberia  and  Manchuria).  Wild 
Asses  throughout  the  world,  with  the  apparent  exception  of  the 
Tibetan  Kiang,  are  a  vanishing  type. 

The  following  is  derived  from  Pallas's  early  description  (1781, 
pp.  16-17) ,  supplemented  by  Radde's  description  (1862,  pp.  293-294) 
of  what  were  virtually  topotypical  specimens  from  the  vicinity  of 
Dalai  Nor:  The  general  color  of  the  summer  pelage  is  reddish  yellow, 
with  a  slight  grayish  tinge;  in  winter  the  color  is  more  reddish  than 
yellow,  and  the  hair  is  longer.  Snout  whitish ;  rest  of  head  more  and 
more  yellowish ;  mane  brownish ;  lower  side  of  the  neck  of  the  general 
body  color;  upper  rump  ochraceous;  limbs  and  ventral  surface  paler 
than  sides;  posterior  side  of  forelegs,  inner  side  of  hind  legs,  lower 
rump,  and  posterior  border  of  the  thighs  whitish ;  a  brownish-black 
median  dorsal  stripe  from  the  mane  to  the  bushy  part  of  the  tail, 
broadest  on  the  hindquarters;  bristly  hairs  above  the  hoofs  blackish. 
Height  at  shoulder,  about  3  feet  10  inches;  length  of  ears,  about  7 
inches;  length  of  tail  without  hairy  tuft,  about  1  foot  4  inches. 

The  former  range  apparently  covered  the  greater  part  of  Outer 
Mongolia  (except  the  present  Tannu-Tuva) ,  small  areas  in  Siberia 
and  Manchuria  adjacent  to  the  northeastern  corner  of  Mongolia,  at 
least  the  western  part  of  Inner  Mongolia,  and  the  northern  part  of 
Chinese  Turkestan  (chiefly  north  of  the  Tian  Shan) . 

According  to  Pallas  (1781,  pp.  5-8),  the  Argun  steppes  are  the 
only  place  where  these  animals  are  still  met  with  in  Siberia.  From 
the  rest  of  Dauria,  where  they  once  ranged,  they  have  retreated  into 
the  Mongolian  deserts,  on  account  of  settlements.  They  still  swarm 
about  Tarei  Nor.  Formerly  they  were  seen  on  the  Argun  steppes  in 
great  herds,  but  now  only  as  solitary  individuals  or  in  scattered 
troops.  On  the  Mongolian  Gobi  they  occur  in  numerous  herds.  This 
is  a  game  animal  for  the  Mongols  and  Steppe  Tungus,  who  eat  the 
flesh  and  make  boots  of  the  hide. 

Radde  writes  (1862,  p.  293)  that  in  the  fall  and  winter  of  1856  a 
strong  northward  migration  extended  to  the  region  between  Tarei 
Nor  and  Dalai  Nor,  and  that  several  animals  were  taken  north  of 
Dalai  Nor-  (in  northwestern  Manchuria) .  In  a  rare  journal  (Beitrage 
Kenntniss  Russ.  Reiches,  vol.  23,  pp.  431-433)  Radde  gives  addi- 
tional information  on  life  history,  hunting,  and  economic  uses. 

A  dearth  of  recent  records  of  Wild  Asses  in  eastern  Mongolia 
bodes  ill  for  their  survival  in  that  region.  They  are  evidently  gone 
from  the  adjacent  parts  of  Siberia  and  Manchuria.  Arthur  de  C. 
Sowerby  (in  Hit.,  March  14,  1938)  believes  they  have  ceased  to 
exist  in  all  these  areas. 

In  1887,  in  the  region  about  the  southern  base  of  the  eastern  Altai, 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  355 

at  about  longitude  96°-100°  E.,  Younghusband  (1888,  p.  495)  saw 
"considerable  numbers  of  wild  asses." 

In  the  central  Gobi,  in  1922-25,  R.  C.  Andrews  (1924,  pp.  152-154; 
1926,  pp.  132-145,  299-302,  317-318)  found  considerable  numbers 
of  Wild  Asses  in  the  vicinity  of  Orok  Nor  and  Zagan  Nor  (about 
long.  100°-102°  E.)  "During  the  first  two  years  of  our  work  in  the 
Gobi,  we  never  saw  wild  asses  in  herds  of  more  than  fifteen  or 
twenty,  but  we  did  not  arrive  in  their  country  until  after  the  breed- 
ing-season. In  1925  the  herds  numbered  thousands.  Evidently 
they  collect  at  favorable  localities  just  before  the  young  are  born  . 
.  .  .  The  young  are  dropped  about  the  beginning  of  July,  and  the 
asses  seek  a  flat  plain,  undoubtedly  for  protection  from  wolves." 
(P.  302.) 

"I  have  been  asked  by  many  people  if  it  would  be  possible  to 
catch  wild  asses  when  they  are  young  and  use  them  for  breeding 
purposes.  I  do  not  believe  that  this  would  be  practicable,  due  to 
the  extraordinary  wildness  of  the  animals.  Certainly,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  tame  an  adult  wild  ass."  (R.  C.  Andrews,  1924,  p.  154.) 

In  1926  the  Kulan  was  very  common  at  the  northern  base  of  Iche- 
Bogdo,  in  the  valley  of  the  lakes  west  of  Orok  Nor,  and  in  the  desert 
area  to  the  northwest  as  far  as  the  Baidarik  River  (Formozow, 
1931,  p.  77). 

In  1911  Carruthers  (1913,  p.  532)  found  that  the  western  shore 
of  Bar  Kul,  in  southern  Dzungaria,  was  the  haunt  of  droves  of 
Wild  Asses.  His  companion,  J.  H.  Miller,  supplies  much  additional 
information  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  pp.  582,  588-589,  603-608).  In 
the  hills  west  of  Bar  Kul,  towards  the  end  of  April,  "a  few  wild- 
asses,  straight  from  their  winter  quarters  on  the  lowlands  to  the 
north,  were  busy  making  up  for  their  scanty  winter  fare"  (p.  588) . 
In  the  vicinity  of  Shi-Kho,  at  the  northern  base  of  the  Tian  Shan, 
a  domesticated  Kulon  was  examined;  it  was  perfectly  docile,  but 
could  not  be  broken  to  the  saddle.  A  large  wild  herd  was  seen  in  the 
same  area.  (P.  603.)  In  Guchen  a  Kirghiz  reported  Kulon  very 
numerous  in  the  sand-dune  area  to  the  north,  and  Miller  himself 
found  fair  numbers  there  (p.  604) .  Two  specimens  were  secured  near 
the  Dzungarian  Gate  north  of  Ebi  Nor,  where  a  spring  was  much  fre- 
quented by  Kulon  (p.  605) . 

"My  specimens  are  undoubtedly  Equus  hemionus  typicus  .... 
Its  extreme  eastern  distribution  is  at  present  imperfectly  known; 
Sir  Francis  Younghusband,  in  his  journey  across  the  Northern  Gobi, 
mentions  seeing  kulon  in  the  Gobi  at  the  extreme  eastern  end  of  the 
Altai.  They  are  found  north  of  the  Altai  Range  on  the  plains, 
round  the  large  lakes  in  the  Kobdo  region;  we  met  with  them  near 
Barkul,  and  in  several  other  places  throughout  Southern  Dzungaria. 
.  .  .  The  natives  hunt  them  occasionally  for  their  skins  and  meat, 


356  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

which  they  consider  more  palatable  that  the  best  mutton."  (J.  H. 
Miller,  in  Carruthers,  1913,  pp.  607-608.) 

"The  wild  ass,  or  kulon,  is  unlikely  to  be  seen  unless  a  special 
attempt  is  made.  .  .  .  The  kulon  is  a  rare  animal,  excessively  wild 
and  lives  in  very  difficult  country.  Featureless  plains,  bitterly  cold 
in  winter,  waterless  and  sunbaked  in  summer,  are  its  habitat.  The 
kulon  ranges  .  .  .  through  Dzungaria  to  the  edge  of  the  Gobi.  We 
have  seen  them  at  the  lowest  elevation  in  the  heart  of  the  conti- 
nent, and  at  7,000  to  8,000  feet  above  the  sea,  in  localities  not  very 
far  distant  from  each  other."  (Carruthers,  1915,  p.  154.) 

In  1926  a  journey  made  by  Lattimore  (1929,  pp.  228-321) 
through  the  southwestern  Gobi  filled  in  some  blank  spaces  in  the 
known  distribution  of  this  species.  West  of  Edsin  Gol,  at  the  Wild 
Horse  Well  (about  lat.  42°  N.,  long.  99°  E.) :  "They  say  that  on 
this  fringe  of  the  Khara  Gobi  there  are  wild  horses  .  .  .  and  wild 
asses"  (p.  228).  Near  the  "House  of  the  False  Lama"  (about  lat, 
42°  30'  N.,  long.  98°  E.) :  "To  this  whole  series  of  springs  there 
come  at  night  antelope,  wild  asses,  and,  they  say,  wild  camels"  (p. 
243) .  In  the  vicinity  of  Ming  Shui  (about  lat.  43°  N.,  long.  96°  E.) : 
"To  our  camp  that  day  there  came  riding  a  Mongol,  who  had  fol- 
lowed us  for  two  marches  to  sell  the  hinder  half  of  a  wild  ass  that 
he  had  shot  in  the  Mongol  way  from  a  pit  near  the  drinking  place" 
(p.  251) .  West  of  Ming  Shui,  near  the  eastern  outposts  of  the  Kar- 
lik  Tagh:  "Here  the  camel  herders  in  the  dawn  reported  a  herd 
of  wild  asses.  It  was  the  only  sight  of  them  that  I  ever  had  .... 
Their  skins  make  first-class  clothing,  with  much  more  wear  than  the 
antelope  skin.  I  have  heard  that  there  is  a  Turki  proverb  that  wild 
asses  are  so  hard  to  kill  that  even  when  you  get  the  skin  of  one 
safely  spread  out  on  your  sleeping  platform  it  wiggles.  The  meat 
is  something  like  beef,  but  a  sublime  beef.  It  is  very  dry,  with  a 
coarse  grain  and  a  strange  aromatic  sweetness.  Chinese  and  Mon- 
gols put  it  above  any  other  game,  and  it  undoubtedly  ranks  with 
the  noblest  vension."  (P.  252.)  At  Wu-t'ung  Wo-tze,  about  100 
miles  northeast  of  Kucheng,  in  the  Dzungarian  Gobi:  "It  .  .  .  was 
formerly  a  well-known  wild-ass  ground;  but  the  wild  ass  in  this 
region  has  been  almost  killed  off  by  the  Qazaqs.  Both  Mongols  and 
Qazaqs  will  put  themselves  to  more  trouble  to  bag  wild  ass  than 
almost  any  other  game."  (P.  321.) 

Farther  southwest  than  the  territory  covered  by  Lattimore,  along 
the  route  from  Hami  to  Bulundsir  River,  Wild  Asses  were 
reported  in  1898  in  a  number  of  places  by  Futterer  (1901,  pp.  179, 
180,  184, 188) .  A  specimen  obtained  northwest  of  the  last-mentioned 
locality  became  the  type  of  Equus  hemionus  luteus  Matschie. 
In  1934  Sven  Hedin  (1940,  pp.  195,  197,  200)  found  tracks  in  the 
Ghashun  Gobi  about  75  miles  west  of  Futterer 's  route.  This  area 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  357 

seems  to  constitute  the  southwestern  limit  (as  far  as  known  at 
present)  of  the  range  of  the  Mongolian  Wild  Ass. 

Enemies. — Among  predatory  animals,  the  Wolf  seems  to  be  the 
only  enemy  of  any  importance,  and  doubtless  it  has  never  affected 
the  Wild  Asses  at  all  seriously.  Apparently  it  cannot  successfully 
attack  any  except  the  young  Asses  within  a  few  weeks  of  their 
birth.  Older  animals  are  able  to  outrun  the  Wolf  on  the  open  plains. 

Increasing  use  and  precision  of  firearms  in  the  hands  of  the 
Asiatics  have  undoubtedly  contributed  chiefly  to  the  decline  of  the 
AVild  Asses. 

Transcaspian  Wild  Ass;  Transcaspian  Kulan;  Wild  Ass  of 
Russian  Turkestan.   Transkaspischer  Kulan  (Ger.) 

ASINUS  HEMIONUS  FiNscHi  (Matschie) 

Equus  (Asinus)  hemionus  finschi  Matschie,  in  Futterer,  Durch  Asien, 
vol.  3,  pt.  5,  Zoologie  (Nachtrag),  p.  24,  1911.  ("Nordostlich  vom  Saisan- 
nor"  (Zaisan  Nor,  in  former  Province  of  Semipalatinsk,  Russian  Turke- 
stan).) (Cf.  Harper,  1940,  p.  198.) 

FIGS.:  Radde,  Sammlungen  Kaukas.  Mus.,  vol.  1,  Zoologie,  pi.  facing  p.  60, 
1899;  Brehm's  Tierleben  (IV),  12,  p.  670,  tab.  Unpaarhufer  V,  fig.  2, 
1915;  Schwarz,  1929,  p.  92,  fig.  5. 

This  Wild  Ass  is  now  very  scarce  in  Russian  Turkestan,  having 
evidently  disappeared  from  the  greater  part  of  the  country.  It  was 
long  ago  exterminated  in  southern  Russia. 

Matschie  describes  the  type  (from  the  vicinity  of  Zaisan  Nor) 
as  reddish  salmon,  with  a  slight  tinge  of  gray;  the  lips  are  white; 
the  whitish  of  the  under  parts  extends  well  up  on  the  flanks;  the 
dark  vertebral  stripe  continues  on  to  the  base  of  the  tail.  Schwarz 
adds  (1929,  p.  91)  that  the  maximum  width  of  the  vertebral  stripe 
is  42  mm.  Radde  and  Walter  (1889,  p.  1059)  describe  a  full-grown 
male  from  the  Askabad  region  as  lacking  a  shoulder  stripe;  its 
height  at  the  shoulder  was  1,110  mm.;  tail  (including  tuft) ,  590  mm. 

"It  is  clear  [from  Strabo's  account]  that  the  wild  ass  (onager) 
existed  all  across  southern  Russia  in  the  fifth  century  B.  C.,  for  it 
was  hunted  both  by  the  Sarmatian  tribes  who  lived  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Don  (Tanais)  and  by  the  Scythians  who  occupied  the  region 
to  the  west  of  that  river.  It  is  even  possible  that  the  wild  ass  dwelt 
in  the  Danube  valley  almost  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  historical 
period.  It  seems  certain  that  neither  Sarmatian  nor  Scythian  ever 
domesticated  the  wild  ass,  a  circumstance  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  had  a  more  docile  and  serviceable  animal  in  the  wild 
horses  of  the  same  region."  (Ridgeway,  1905,  pp.  51-52.) 

"In  former  days  kulan  and  onagers  appear  to  have  ranged  much 
further  westward  than  is  the  case  at  the  present  day.  It  is  stated, 
for  instance,  by  the  Russian  naturalist  Rytschkov  that  in  the 
eighteenth  century  kulan  abounded  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Volga, 


358  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

and  from  time  to  time  troops  swam  that  river  and  made  their  ap- 
pearance in  the  Waldinsel  Steppe."  (Lydekker,  1912,  p.  185.) 

Pallas  gives  the  following  account  in  1780  (pp.  261,  273).  Kulans 
are  still  very  numerous  in  the  deserts  of  Tatary,  and  come  annually 
to  spread  over  the  mountainous  deserts  east  and  north  of  the  Aral 
Sea,  where  they  pass  the  summer  and  assemble  in  autumn  by  hun- 
dreds and  even  thousands  for  their  return  toward  India,  for  a  winter 
asylum.  They  scarcely  pass  beyond  lat.  48°  N.  The  skins  are 
sought  by  the  residents  of  Bokhara  for  preparation  in  the  manner 
of  shagreen. 

Hablizl  states  (1783,  p.  93)  that  the  Wild  Ass  is  rarely  found  in 
Astrabad  and  Mazanderan,  Persia.  (The  animal  of  this  Caspian 
region  was  probably  the  Turkestan  form  rather  than  the  Persian.) 

In  1840  (p.  56)  Eversmmann  records  several  recent  specimens 
from  the  steppes  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Aral  Seas. 

Ladyjensky  (1841,  pp.  361-362)  speaks  of  sending  to  Moscow  a 
Wild  Ass  captured  when  young  in  the  vicinity  of  Aktava  in  the 
Kirghiz  Steppe,  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  old  district  of 
Omsk.  In  this  region,  he  adds,  the  Wild  Asses  are  found  in  numerous 
troops,  which  are  composed  sometimes  of  more  than  a  thousand 
head  and  raise  a  thick  cloud  of  dust  in  moving  across  the  steppe. 
The  Kirghiz  have  not  yet  found  the  means  of  taking  the  young  ones 
alive. 

Severtzoff  writes  (1876,  p.  387)  that  Equus  hemionus  "is  rather 
rare  in  Turkestan,  and  to  be  found  only  about  the  Karatau  moun- 
tains and  near  the  rivers  Aris,  Keless,  Chirchik,  and  the  delta  of  the 
Sir-Darja,  and  even  there  only  during  the  winter." 

In  1881  (p.  22)  Poliakof  refers  to  the  Kulan  as  having  been  numer- 
ous not  long  since  in  the  environs  of  Lake  Balkash.  "In  my  last 
excursion  to  Balkash,  during  several  days  passed  in  its  solitudes  I 
did  not  observe  a  kulan,  and  only  saw  the  tracks  of  one  imprinted 
on  the  saline  soil." 

According  to  Radde  and  Walter  (1889,  p.  1058) ,  it  still  inhabited 
at  that  time  the  entire  Turkoman  Steppes  in  considerable  numbers, 
but  had  retreated  from  the  Transcaspian  railway  and  the  new  mili- 
tary posts  farther  into  the  undisturbed  deserts.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  construction  large  herds  were  often  observed  near  the  railway  in 
the  vicinity  of  Kazanjik  and  Dushakh,  but  later  disappeared.  It 
was  considered  more  numerous  in  the  steppes  north  of  the  Atrek 
River  and  also  along  the  Afghanistan  boundary  in  the  hilly  desert 
between  the  Tejend  and  the  Murghab.  Here  Walter  saw  many  in 
1887.  While  the  European  hunter  rarely  had  success,  the  Saryk 
Turkoman  managed  to  approach  within  gun  range  of  the  animals  by 
taking  cover  behind  a  carefully  maneuvered  camel.  The  flesh  was 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  359 

much  prized  by  the  Turkomans,  and  in  winter  was  commonly  sold 
at  the  bazaar  in  Yolatan. 

Matschie  (1911,  p.  23),  besides  recording  the  type  of  finschi  from 
northeast  of  Zaisan  Nor,  mentions  another  specimen  from  the 
Maiterek  Steppe  north  of  this  lake. 

J.  H.  Miller  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  p.  608)  states  that  the  animals 
" extend  throughout  Northern  Russian  Turkestan,  being  exceedingly 
numerous  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Balkash."  It  is  doubtful, 
however,  if  this  statement  was  appropriate  as  late  as  1913. 

Schwarz  (1929,  p.  91)  mentions  a  specimen  from  the  vicinity  of 
Merv  that  formerly  lived  in  the  Berlin  Zoological  Garden.  He  gives 
the  range  of  this  form  as  extending  from  the  northern  border  of  the 
Persian  Plateau  through  West  Turkestan  and  the  Kirghiz  Steppe  to 
the  western  slope  of  the  Altai. 

Nazaroff  (1932,  p.  54)  refers  to  the  species  as  extinct  in  the  Tash- 
kent region. 

According  to  W.  G.  Heptner  (in  litt.,  December,  1936) ,  the  Kulan 
is  now  a  rare  animal  with  a  small  distribution  in  the  U.  S.  S.  R. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  occupied  the  plains  of 
Turkestan  and  almost  all  the  steppes  of  Kazakstan.  It  is  now  met 
with  in  Turkmenia  (principally  west  of  the  Murghab) ,  and  persists 
in  small  numbers  in  the  desert  steppes  near  Lake  Balkash.  Hunting 
is  absolutely  forbidden,  and  reserves  are  being  organized. 

"Today  there  are  only  a  few  scattered  troops,  in  yearly  diminished 
numbers,  near  the  Oasis  of  Merw  and  the  Afghanistan  frontier — the 
last  remnants  of  the  immense  herds  which  roamed  the  steppes  of 
Asiatic  Russia  100  years  ago"  (Antonius,  1938,  p.  559) . 

North  Persian  Wild  Ass;  Persian  Onager;  Ghor-khar 

ASINUS  HEMIONUS  ONAGER   (Boddaert) 

[Equus]  Onager  Boddaert,  Elenchus  Animalium,  p.  160,  (1784)  1785.  (Based 
upon  the  "Onager"  of  Pallas,  Neue  Nord.  Beytrage,  vol.  2,  p.  22,  pi.  2, 
1781;  type  locality  erroneously  stated  as  "in  desertis  Argunis";  corrected 
by  Harper  (1940,  p.  199)  to  "mountains  about  Kasbin,  "  northwestern 
Persia.) 

FIGS.:  Pallas,  1780,  pis.  11-12;  Pallas,  1781,  pi.  2;  Pallas,  Zoographia  Rosso- 
Asiatica,  pi.  to  vol.  1,  p.  264,  1834-42;  Hamilton  Smith,  1841,  pi.  18; 
Lydekker,  1904,  pi.  19;  Kennion,  1911,  pi.  facing  p.  121;  Brehm's  Tier- 
leben  (IV),  12,  p.  674,  tab.  Unpaarhufer  V,  fig.  3,  1915;  Antonius,  1939, 
figs.  2-3. 

The  present  numerical  status  of  the  North  Persian  Wild  Ass, 
like  that  of  various  other  mammals  of  that  country,  is  a  matter  on 
which  up-to-date  information  is  difficult  to  acquire.  It  is  probably 
quite  scarce;  at  least  it  very  seldom  affords  a  glimpse  of  itself  to 
the  scientific  traveler.  The  Wild  Ass  of  Afghanistan  is  provisionally 
referred  to  the  present  subspecies. 


360  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Both  Pallas  (1781,  pp.  34-37)  and  Hablizl  (1783,  pp.  89-92) 
furnished  descriptions  of  the  original  two  specimens  (male  and 
female)  from  Kasbin.  Since  Hablizl  alone  was  acquainted  with  the 
male  in  life,  his  description  of  that  sex  may  be  considered  the  more 
dependable,  and  is  here  utilized.  In  the  male  the  top  and  sides  of 
the  head  are  half-reddish,  the  lower  side  and  the  muzzle  white; 
outer  surface  of  ears  reddish  yellow  at  base  and  tip,  white  in  the 
middle;  sides  of  neck  and  of  body  and  fore  part  of  haunch  reddish 
yellow  (isabelline) ;  mane  light  brown,  composed  of  hairs  3-4  inches 
long;  a  light-brown  vertebral  stripe,  up  to  2^  to  3  inches  wide,  extend- 
ing from  the  mane  to  end  of  the  tail;  a  similar  but  smaller  stripe 
crossing  this  at  right  angles  on  the  shoulders;  lower  neck,  lower 
shoulder,  breast,  belly,  buttocks,  vertical  area  in  front  of  thigh, 
dorsal  area  bordering  the  vertebral  stripe,  and  legs  white;  tail  like 
a  cow's,  with  a  tuft  of  long,  light-brown  and  white  hairs.  Height  at 
shoulder,  50  inches;  ear,  11^  inches;  tail  (including  tuft),  25  inches. 
The  female  is  similar,  but  smaller,  and  lacks  the  shoulder  stripe. 
Height  at  shoulder,  44  inches;  ear,  8J  inches;  tail,  20  inches. 

The  three  skins  from  Yezd,  Persia,  listed  by  Lydekker  (1916, 
vol.  5,  pp.  14-15) ,  are  very  white  on  the  sides  and  belly  and  have  no 
shoulder  stripe  (J.  C.  Phillips,  in  litt.,  June,  1938).  Whether  these 
specimens  are  all  females,  or  whether  some  males  lack  the  shoulder 
stripe,  is  difficult  to  say.  Goodwin  (1940,  p.  17)  decribes  the  summer 
pelage  as  either  avellaneous  or  light  pinkish  cinnamon,  with  a  faint 
shoulder  stripe ;  and  the  winter  pelage  as  sayal  brown,  without  a 
shoulder  stripe. 

Persia. — The  Persian  range  of  this  Wild  Ass  is  here  considered 
restricted  to  a  portion  of  the  Persian  Plateau,  extending  north  to  the 
Elburz  Mountains,  east  to  Afghanistan,  south  to  about  the  latitude 
of  Seistan,  Kerman,  and  Shiraz,  and  west  (at  least  formerly)  to  the 
mountain  ranges  extending  along  the  line  Kasbin-Ispahan-Shiraz.1 

Since  Omar  Khayyam  was  a  resident  of  Naishapur  in  Khorassan, 
it  was  doubtless  the  present  subspecies  that  he  had  in  mind  in  the 
following  verse: 

They  say  the  Lion  and  the  Lizard  keep 
The  Courts  where  Jamshyd  gloried  and  drank  deep : 
And  Bahrain,  that  great  Hunter — the  Wild  Ass 
Stamps  o'er  his  head,  but  cannot  break  his  Sleep. 


1  There  is  considerable  uncertainty,  however,  as  to  the  boundary  between  the 
ranges  of  this  and  the  Indian  subspecies.  For  example,  Lydekker  (1904,  p. 
589,  pi.  17)  refers  to  the  latter  a  male  in  the  London  Zoo  that  was  said 
(probably  erroneously)  to  have  come  from  the  desert  near  Meshed,  in  north- 
eastern Persia;  it  lacked  the  shoulder  stripe  generally  considered  diagnostic 
of  onager.  There  seem  to  be  extremely  few  records  of  specimens  with  shoulder 
stripes  and  from  a  definite  locality. 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA !     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  361 

According  to  Pallas  (1780,  pp.  259-273),  Onagers  are  found  in 
the  mountains  about  Kasbin  at  all  times  of  the  year.  The  Persians 
seek  to  take  them  alive  in  pitfalls,  driving  them  toward  these  spots. 
The  young  ones  captured  alive  are  sold  for  a  considerable  price  for 
the  studs  of  the  nobles.  From  the  mating  of  these  tame  Onagers  there 
is  derived  the  fine  race  of  riding  asses  in  Persia  and  Arabia.  They 
are  clearly  distinguished  from  the  sorry  race  of  ordinary  asses  that 
are  used  for  carrying  burdens.  The  bile  is  esteemed  among  the 
Persians  as  a  remedy  for  obscure  vision  and  for  cataract. 

Hablizl  writes  (1783,  pp.  93-94)  that  the  Wild  Ass  is  frequently 
seen  in  herds  in  the  valleys  of  the  mountains  about  Kasbin.  Yet  it 
is  reckoned  among  the  rarest  animals  in  all  Persia,  being  known  to 
most  of  the  inhabitants  only  by  name.  It  is  captured  only  to  be 
presented  to  some  Khan,  who  has  it  kept  as  a  mere  rarity.  In  a  few 
months  it  becomes  completely  tame,  more  especially  if  it  has  been 
caught  while  young. 

"In  the  eastern  provinces  of  Persia  .  .  .  their  venison  is  highly 
prized,  and  the  chase  of  them,  from  the  time  of  Rustum  to  the 
present,  has  always  been  held  the  pastime  of  heroes  and  princes" 
(Hamilton  Smith,  1841,  pp.  309-310) . 

Blanford  writes  (1876,  p.  85) :  "In  Persia  they  appear  ...  to  be 
common  in  some  places,  generally  on  the  borders  of  desert  plains, 
rare  or  unknown  elsewhere;  but  they  occur  scattered  over  all  the 
more  level  parts  of  the  country,  except  in  the  North-western  and 
Caspian  provinces.  I  saw  none  during  my  journey,  though  I  often 
came  across  their  tracks." 

To  this  St.  John  adds  (in  Blanford,  1876,  pp.  85-86) :  "All  of 
twenty  or  more  specimens  that  I  have  seen  from  Western  Persia  were 
undoubtedly  E.  onager  ....  The  Persian  wild  ass  is  not,  I 
believe,  found  west  of  the  main  road  from  Tehran  to  Shiraz,  except 
possibly  in  that  arm  of  the  salt  desert  which  extends  north  of  Korn- 
.  .  .  towards  Saveh.  It  is  most  plentiful  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
patches  of  salt  desert,  'Kafah'  or  'Kavir/  which  are  so  marked  a 
character  of  Eastern  Persia.  In  the  summer  a  herd  occasionally 
wanders  into  the  loftier  desert  valleys.  I  have  several  times  seen 
them  whilst  travelling  post  along  the  plain  that  stretches  from 
Khan-i-Khora,  a  short  distance  north  of  Dehbid,  in  Fars,  to  the 
Kulah  Kazi  or  Urchin  Hills,  near  Isfahan,  a  distance  of  nearly  150 
miles,  at  an  elevation  of  5500  to  7000  feet  above  the  sea.  Persians 
say  that  they  can  not  be  caught  by  a  single  horseman  when  ap- 
proached in  the  open;  but  if  the  sportsman  can  manage  to  conceal 
himself  and  his  horse  in  the  vicinity  of  a  spring,  and  wait  until  the 
wild  asses  have  quenched  their  thirst,  they  can  readily  be  come  up 
with  when  full  of  water,  by  a  short  spurt  on  a  fast  horse.  At  other 
times  they  are  caught  in  relays  of  horsemen  and  greyhounds.  The 


\ 

362  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

flesh  is  said  in  books  on  Persia  to  be  prized  above  all  other  venison ; 
but  Persians  have  told  me  that  it  should  only  be  eaten  under  absolute 
necessity,  being  equally  disagreeable  to  the  conscience  of  a  good 
Mussulman,  and  to  the  palate  of  a  gourmand." 

In  his  journey  of  1906,  Sven  Hedin  (1910,  vol.  1,  pp.  216,  218,  222, 
228,  243-244,  396-397;  vol.  2,  p.  65)  saw  a  few  Wild  Asses  and 
noted  tracks  or  received  reports  of  numerous  others  on  the  western 
and  southern  borders  of  the  Great  Salt  Desert  ("Kevir")  in  north- 
eastern Persia.  On  the  western  border  "the  herdsmen  .  .  .  are  ac- 
customed to  the  presence  of  wild  asses,  and  take  no  notice  of  them." 
On  the  southern  border  a  native  "had  shot  many  wild  asses,  and  was 
wont  to  sell  their  skins  to  the  shoemakers  of  Tebbes.  When,  as  now, 
there  was  much  rain,  the  chase  was  not  profitable,  for  the  wild  asses 
could  find  water  anywhere;  at  other  times  they  are  dependent  on 
springs,  and  then  is  the  time  for  the  huntsman  to  stalk  his  prey." 
Farther  south,  in  Kuhistan,  the  animals  were  said  to  be  very 
numerous  in  the  desert  between  Tebbes  and  Bahabad,  and  a  local 
hunter  "had  killed  two  hundred  wild  asses." 

"Most  of  the  remoter  deserts  of  Eastern  Persia  are  roamed  over 
by  wild  asses.  Unfortunately,  .  .  .  these  animals  have  always  been 
remorselessly  persecuted  for  the  sake  of  their  meat  and  hides, 
usually  by  the  ignoble  plan  of  sitting  up  over  water,  with  the  con- 
sequence that  they  are  now  scarce."  (Kennion,  1911,  p.  119.) 

"His  [the  Anatolian  Onager's]  near  ally  in  Iran  (Equus  hemionus 
onager  Zimm.) ,  although  still  rambling  over  the  salt  deserts  of  his 
country  in  considerable  numbers,  is  hard  pressed  by  modern  guns" 
(Antonius,  1938,  p.  559) . 

The  most  recent  account  is  by  Legendre   (1939,  pp.  240-241) : 

"Goodwin  had  succeeded  in  shooting  one,  50  miles  from  Teheran. 

"At  the  village  of  Abbasabad  [north  of  the  Great  Salt  Desert] 
we  received  information  that  there  were  herds  of  wild  ass  to  be 
found  in  the  desert  80  miles  away,  near  a  salt  spring."  At  this 
spring  "there  were  tracks  everywhere,"  but  none  of  the  animals  could 
be  located. 

Two  natives  reported  "that  the  wild  asses  had  all  migrated  to 
the  south  two  months  before  ....  They  assured  us,  however, 
that  they  were  to  be  found  in  herds  of  ten  to  forty  around  the  salt 
spring,  from  June  until  September." 

The  locality  referred  to  by  Legendre  is  evidently  identified  by 
Goodwin  (1940,  p.  17)  as  Siah  Parde,  whence  he  records  three 
specimens. 

Afghanistan. — Scarcely  any  information  seems  to  be  available 
concerning  the  Wild  Ass  in  this  country,  save  that  secured  by  the 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  363 

Afghan   Delimitation    Commission    of    1884-85    (Aitchison,    1889, 
pp.  61-62) : 

[On  November  30,  1884,  herds  were  seen  on  the  march  between  Tut-i-chi 
and  Aftao,  north  of  the  Paropamisus  Range.]  They  occupied  the  country 
in  the  vicinity  of  Gulran,  as  they  were  known  to  have  attacked  and  injured 
some  Mules  and  Donkeys  that  had  been  turned  loose  to  graze.  .  .  . 

In  my  march  from  Gal-i-cha  [south  of  the  Paropamisus  Range]  to  the 
base  of  the  Kambao  Pass,  on  the  29th  of  April,  1885,  I  had  to  cross  the 
northern  end  of  a  great  plain  called  "Gulam-i-maidan,"  or  the  plain  of  the  Wild 
Ass.  .  .  .  My  guide  took  me  to  a  slight  elevation,  and  from  it  pointed 
out  to  me  where  I  was  to  look  for  the  animals:  for  some  time  I  could  see 
nothing ;  at  last,  whilst  using  my  glasses,  I  noticed  clouds  of  dust,  like  the  line 
of  smoke  left  in  the  track  of  steamers.  .  .  .  These  several  lines  of  dust-cloud 
were  caused  by  herds  of  Asses,  galloping  in  various  directions  over  the  great 
plain.  One  herd  came  well  within  a  mile's  distance ;  from  its  extent,  I  am 
even  now  of  the  opinion  which  I  then  held,  that  the  herd  consisted  of  at 
least  1000  animals.  I  counted  sixteen  of  these  lines  of  dust-cloud  at  one 
time  on  the  horizon.  My  guide  said  that  at  this  period  of  the  year  the  Wild 
Asses  are  always  united  in  great  herds  on  that  plain,  owing  to  the  mothers 
having  their  foals  at  foot,  but  that  in  a  few  weeks  the  great  herds  would 
break  up,  and  the  animals  would  spread  themselves  all  over  the  country  in 
parties  of  ten  to  twelve.  This  is  the  season  at  which  the  young  are  caught, 
by  riding  them  down;  usually,  the  mother  will  not  leave,  viciously  attacking 
men  and  horses  upon  their  coming  near  her  foal.  It  is  a  very  rare  circum- 
stance to  get  a  foal  unless  by  shooting  it.  ... 

Between  Karez-dasht  and  Sher-baksh  [lat.  33°-34°  N.],  to  the  south-east  of 
the  Do  Shakh  range,  we  were  informed  was  a  locality  for  the  Wild  Ass, 
also  the  country  between  Kushk-rud  and  Zagin,  still  further  south,  but  I  did 
not  hear  of  any  having  been  seen  by  members  of  the  Mission. 

It  is  undoubtedly  too  much  to  hope  that  Wild  Asses  abound  in 
such  numbers  today,  as  they  did  half  a  century  ago,  in  north- 
western Afghanistan. 

Indian  Wild  Ass;  Baluchi  Wild  Ass;  Ghor-khar.   Ane  de  Hnde 
(Fr.).    Indischer  Wildesel   (Ger.). 

ASINUS    HEMIONUS    KHUR    (LeSSOn) 

Equus  khur  Lesson,  Manuel  Mammalogie,  p.  347,  1827.  (Based  upon  "der 
wilde  Esel"  of  Oken's  Isis,  1823,  Band  2,  Heft  7,  p.  764,  1823,  inhabiting 
"die  wiiste  Strecke  Landes,  welche  Cattuwar  von  Cuth  trennt  (bey  den 
Eingebornen  Run  genannt)."  Thus  the  Little  Rann  of  Cutch,  western 
India,  is  the  type  locality.) 

SYNONYMS:  Equus  indicus  George  (1869) ;  Equus  hemionus  var.  indicus  W.  L. 
Sclater  (1891). 

FIGS.:  Cuvier,  Regne  Animal,  disciples'  ed.,  Mamm.,  atlas,  pi.  83,  fig.  1, 
1836-49;  J.  E.  Gray,  Gleanings  from  Knowsley  Menagerie,  pi.  53,  1850; 
Lydekker,  1904,  pi.  17  (ssp.?);  N.  Y.  Zool.  Soc.  Bull.,  vol.  24,  no.  1, 
p.  12,  fig.,  1921;  Schwarz,  1929,  figs.  1-4;  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc., 
vol.  37,  no.  1,  suppl.,  pi.  29,  1934. 

The  range  limits  of  this  subspecies  toward  the  north  and  west  are 
uncertain.  The  Wild  Ass  of  southeastern  Persia  will  be  provisionally 


364  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

considered  the  same  form  as  that  of  Baluchistan  and  western  India. 
The  animal  has  evidently  disappeared  over  a  great  part  of  this 
range.  It  survives  in  small  numbers  in  the  Rann  of  Cutch,  India, 
and  probably  in  some  of  the  desert  tracts  of  southeastern  Persia. 

The  general  color  (in  summer)  is  sandy ;  muzzle,  buttocks,  breast, 
lower  parts,  and  inside  of  limbs  white  x ;  ears  sandy  externally,  white 
internally,  with  a  blackish  tip  and  outer  border;  mane  and  tail  tuft 
blackish  brown;  a  chocolate-brown  vertebral  stripe  extending  from 
mane  to  tail,  bordered  from  the  withers  backward  by  a  light  area; 
front  of  all  four  limbs  very  light,  with  a  slight  yellowish  tinge;  a 
narrow  blackish  ring  above  the  hoofs.  The  winter  pelage  is  longer, 
and  grayish.  Height  of  male  at  shoulder,  about  47  inches.  (Chiefly 
from  Jerdon,  1874,  pp.  236-237,  and  Schwarz,  1929,  pp.  87-88.)  An 
adult  female  from  the  Punjab-Sind  frontier  measured:  height,  46 
inches;  tail  (including  hair),  26  inches;  ear  from  crown,  9  inches 
(Blanford,  1891,  p.  470). 

The  absence  of  a  shoulder  stripe  in  the  male,  the  presence  of  a 
blackish  ring  above  the  hoofs,  and  apparently  the  less  pure  white 
of  the  lower  parts,  may  serve  to  distinguish  the  Indian  from  the 
North  Persian  subspecies  (onager). 

The  place  of  this  animal  in  ancient  history  is  sketched  by  Ridge- 
way  (1905,  pp.  47-48).  According  to  Herodotus  (VII,  86),  "some 
of  the  Indians  in  the  army  of  Xerxes  drove  chariots  drawn  by  'wild 
asses.' 

"From  this  it  is  clear  that  the  peoples  of  western  Hindustan,  who 
did  not  possess  horses,  had  made  the  wild  ass  obedient  to  the  yoke. 

"In  Carmania  .  .  .  ,  a  region  bounded  by  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
Persian  Gulf  on  the  south,  and  by  Persia  on  the  west,  down  to  the 
time  of  Strabo,  'asses  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  horses'  were 
'generally  made  use  of  in  war.  They  sacrifice  an  ass  to  Ares,  who  is 
the  only  god  worshipped  by  them,  for  they  are  a  warlike  people.'  " 

According  to  an  anonymous  writer  in  Oken's  Isis  (Band  2,  Heft 
7,  p.  764, 1823) ,  herds  numbering  up  to  60  or  70  were  observed  in  the 
Rann  of  Cutch.  The  animals  are  said  by  the  natives  to  be  very  shy 
and  hard  to  capture.  In  November  and  December  they  come  deeper 
into  the  land,  in  herds  of  hundreds,  and  cause  great  damage  in  the 
cultivated  fields.  Therefore  they  are  caught  in  pitfalls.  The  flesh 
is  considered  good  by  many  people  of  the  lower  classes,  who  lie  in 
wait  for  them  when  they  come  to  drink. 

The  breeding  of  captive  animals  from  Hindustan  was  successfully 
carried  out  in  Paris  from  1842  to  1849.  Of  nine  foals  produced 
during  this  period,  six  survived  in  1849.  The  animal  was  also  said 

i  A  specimen  recorded  by  Lydekker  (1916,  vol.  5,  p.  13)  from  the  Sham  Plains. 
Baluchistan,  is  not  so  pure  white  on  the  lighter  parts  as  three  specimens  of 
A.  h.  onager  from  Yezd,  Persia  (J.  C.  Phillips,  in  Hit.,  June,  1938). 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES 


365 


to  be  used  occasionally  in  its  native  land  for  agricultural  work. 
(I.  Geoffroy,  1849,  p.  35.) 

"The  ghorkhur  is  found  sparingly  in  Cutch,  Guzrat,  Jeysalmeer 
and  Bikaneer,  not  being  found  further  south,  it  is  said,  than  Deesa, 
or  east  of  75°  east  longitude.  It  also  occurs  in  Sindh,  and  more 
abundantly  west  of  the  Indus  river,  in  Beluchistan  ....  It  appears 
that  the  Bikaneer  herd  consists  at  most  of  about  150  individuals 
.  .  .  . "  A  writer  in  the  Indian  Sporting  Review  is  quoted  on  the 


FIG.  38. — Indian  Wild  Ass   (Asinus  hemionus  khur) 

animal's  occurrence  in  the  desert  country  west  of  the  Indus,  above 
Mithunkote :  "The  foaling  season  is  in  June,  July,  and  August, 
when  the  Beluchis  ride  down  and  catch  numbers  of  foals,  finding 
a  ready  sale  in  the  cantonments  for  them,  as  they  are  taken  down  on 
speculation  to  Hindustan.  They  also  shoot  great  numbers  of  full- 
grown  ones  for  food,  the  ground  in  places  in  the  desert  being  very 
favourable  for  stalking."  The  same  method  of  capturing  foals  is 
practiced  in  Bikaneer.  (Jerdon,  1874,  p.  238.) 

"Wild  asses  are  renowned  for  speed,  but  in  the  Rann  of  Cutch 
adults  have  been  run  down  by  men  on  horseback  and  speared.  I 
believe,  however,  the  animals  run  down  were  mares  in  foal."  (Blan- 
ford,  1891,  p.  471.) 

"I  told  his  Highness  of  Bikaner  in  London  last  autumn  that  I 
wished  to  intercede  with  him  'on  behalf  of  an  oppressed  minority 


366  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

resident  in  his  dominions';  the  official  books  allege  that  Bikaner  has 
'a  herd  of  about  100  wild  asses/  He  assured  me  the  books  were 
wrong;  he  himself  had  never  seen  one,  but  very  occasionally  one 
strayed  into  his  borders  from  Bhawalpur.  They  still  exist  in  Kutch, 
or  did  until  yesterday.  These  too  are  in  an  isolated  area  where  they 
cannot  be  replenished  from  outside."  (Edward  Thompson,  in  Lon- 
don Times,  August  19,  1932?) 

"Within  recent  years,  it  has  become  confined  to  the  Rann  of 
Kutch  ....  The  depletion  in  numbers  is  attributed  to -the  fact 
that  it  has  for  long  been  hunted  by  certain  tribes  for  food;  and  it 
is  significant  that  it  now  only  exists  in  appreciable  numbers  in  an 
inaccessible  locality  like  the  Rann,  where  it  is  rigorously  protected 
by  His  Highness'  Government.  The  killing  ...  is  illegal  throughout 
His  Highness'  territory;  and  such  killing  as  at  present  takes  place  is 
due  entirely  to  hunters  from  British  India  and  from  the  States  on  the 
Indian  side  of  the  Rann,  who  occasionally  make  raids  upon  the 
animal,  either  to  secure  a  rare  trophy  or  to  kill  it  for  food.  This 
Government  contemplates  addressing  a  request  to  the  British  author- 
ities that  the  killing  of  the  animal  should  be  made  an  offence  else- 
where, on  the  analogy  of  the  rules  already  in  force  in  Kutch.  But  the 
wild  Asses  found  within  Kutch  jurisdiction,  and  not  straying  outside 
it,  are  perfectly  secure."  (Dewan's  Office,  Kutch,  in  litt.,  February, 
1937). 

The  present  range  in  India  is  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Rann  of 
Cutch,  in  very  reduced  numbers.  The  Wild  Ass  has  been  recom- 
mended by  the  All-India  Conference  for  the  Protection  of  Wild  Life 
as  one  of  the  species  which  should  be  specially  protected.  The  testes 
are  believed  to  possess  aphrodisiac  properties.  (Bombay  Natural 
History  Society,  in  litt.,  December,  1936) . 

Blanford  says  (1876,  p.  85) :  "Wild  asses  are  locally  distributed 
in  [Persian]  Baluchistan,  and  I  only  heard  of  their  being  abundant 
near  Bampur.  None  are  said  to  be  found  in  the  deserts  north  of 
Jalk  and  Kalagan  [in  northwestern  Baluchistan],  though  Ferrier 
speaks  of  them  as  common  farther  north  in  Sistan."  Detailed 
reports  from  Baluchistan  of  more  recent  date  do  not  seem  to  be 
available. 

Lydekker  (1904,  p.  589,  pi.  17)  records  a  male  specimen  in  the 
London  Zoo,  apparently  referable  to  this  subspecies,  and  "stated 
to  have  been  captured  as  a  foal  in  the  desert  near  Meshed,"  north- 
eastern Persia.  The  alleged  provenance,  however,  may  be  regarded 
as  distinctly  questionable.  Schwarz  (1929,  p.  91)  refers  this  speci- 
men to  onager,  despite  the  impure  white  of  the  lower  parts  and  the 
lack  of  a  shoulder  stripe. 

Schwarz  (1929,  pp.  85-89,  figs.  1-4)  describes  and  figures  a 
specimen  in  the  Berlin  Zoological  Garden,  evidently  belonging  to 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA:    ODD-TOED  UNGULATES  367 

the  Indian  subspecies  and  said  to  have  come  from  the  desert  north- 
east of  Kerman,  Persia.  He  regards  this  locality  as  the  present 
western  limit  for  the  subspecies,  although  he  makes  Asinus  hamar 
Hamilton  Smith  (from  the  northern  part  of  the  Province  of  Fars) 
a  synonym  of  A.  h.  khur.  I  prefer  to  consider  hamar  indeterminable 
at  the  present  time. 

Syrian  Wild  Ass.    Hemippe  de  Syrie  (Fr.)«    Syrischer 
Halbesel  (Ger.) 

ASINUS  HEMIONUS  HEMIPPUS  (I.  Geoffrey) 

Equus  hemippus  I.  Geoff roy-Saint-Hilaire,  C.  R.  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris],  vol.  41, 
p.  1214,  (1855)  1856.  (Based  upon  two  live  captives,  said  to  have  come 
"du  desert  de  Syrie,  entre  Palmyre  et  Bagdad"  (op.  cit.,  p.  1219, 
footnote).) 

FIGS.:  Milne-Edwards,  Nouv.  Archives  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.  Paris,  vol.  5,  Bulletin, 
pi.  4,  1869  (cotype);  Antonius,  1928,  figs.  1-5,  and  1939,  fig.  1. 

The  question  of  the  Wild  Asses  of  the  Syria-Palestine-Arabia- 
Iraq  region  is  a  very  troublesome  one,  especially  on  account  of  the 
meagerness  of  material  and  information.  It  is  further  complicated 
by  the  fact  that  a  number  of  authors  recognize  two  distinct  species 
in  this  region,  although  in  no  other  part  of  the  world  are  as  many 
as  two  different  forms  of  Wild  Asses  definitely  known  to  occur  to- 
gether. The  Wild  Ass  of  this  region  must  be  on  the  verge  of  extinc- 
tion, if  not  already  extinct. 

Since  Geoffrey's  cotypes  (1856,  p.  1217)  were  both  subadult 
females,  we  shall  turn  to  Antonius  (1928,  pp.  21-22)  for  a  description 
of  both  sexes  of  hemippus.  This  is  the  smallest  form  of  Recent 
Equidae.  The  general  color  of  the  male  is  "avellaneous"  (Ridgway) , 
becoming  a  sort  of  mouse  gray  with  age ;  the  color  is  lightest  on  the 
head,  darkest  on  the  haunches;  a  light  area  in  front  of  hips;  buttocks, 
belly,  and  inner  side  of  legs  dirty  grayish  white;  outer  side  of  legs, 
lower  side  of  neck,  and  outer  surface  of  ears  "tilleul  buff";  tips  of 
ears  originally  dark  brown,  later  almost  white;  mane  rather  long, 
"natal  brown";  vertebral  stripe,  of  the  same  color,  extending  from 
the  mane  to  the  tail  tuft,  and  bordered  by  a  lighter  area;  area 
above  the  nostrils  grayish  white;  nostrils  very  large  and  nasal 
region  swollen.  Height  at  shoulder,  1  meter. 

The  general  color  of  the  female  is  between  avellaneous  and  fawn 
color;  buttocks  and  lower  parts  pure  white;  outer  side  of  legs  and 
ears  "pinkish  buff";  tips  of  latter  scarcely  darker.  Height  at 
shoulder,  1  meter. 

Tristram  (1884),  Aharoni  (1930),  and  Bodenheimer  (1935)  fail 
to  assign  any  adequate  diagnostic  characters  to  the  two  kinds  of 
Wild  Asses  that  they  recognize;  they  also  place  both  of  them  in  the 


368  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Syrian  Desert  and  neighboring  regions.  Thus  the  two  forms  must  be 
specifically  distinct,  if  distinct  at  all.  The  names  applied  are  onager 
and  hem,ippus,  which  are  currently  considered  subspecies  of  a  single 
species.  It  is  almost  unquestionable  that  the  name  Asinus  hemionus 
onager  (Boddaert) ,  typified  by  the  Wild  Ass  of  northwestern  Persia, 
cannot  be  applied  to  a  form  of  the  Syrian  Desert.  If  there  was  a 
Wild  Ass  in  this  region  distinct  from  hemippus,  some  other  name  than 
onager  must  be  found  for  it. 

In  view  of  the  extension  of  various  African  types  of  mammals 
past  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  into  Syria  and  Arabia,  it  is  perhaps  not 
beyond  the  bounds  of  possibility  that,  if  there  was  a  second  form  of 
Wild  Ass  in  the  Syrian  Desert,  it  was  some  form  of  the  African 
Wild  Ass  (A sinus  asinus) .  A  character  this  species  has  in  common 
with  the  Persian  Onager  is  a  shoulder  stripe.  The  type  of  asinus, 
according  to  Lydekker  (1916,  p.  37),  is  the  domesticated  ass  of 
Asia;  but  he  also  remarks  (1912,  p.  217)  that  we  have  no  evidence 
that  its  wild  progenitor  ever  existed  to  the  eastward  of  the  Red  Sea. 
A  different  view  is  expressed  by  Tristram  and  by  Ridgeway,  who  are 
quoted  below.  It  is  perhaps  now  too  late  to  secure  conclusive  light 
on  the  subject.  The  following  account  will  include  both  alleged 
forms. 

Tristram  says  (1884,  pp.  2-3)  concerning  "Asinus  onager":  "This 
Wild  Ass,  the  origin  of  the  Domestic  Ass,  was  formerly  well  known 
in  Arabia,  and  is  not  extinct  there,  though  very  rare.  I  have  seen 
this  species  in  a  state  of  nature  frequently  in  the  Sahara,  and  have 
handled  captured  though  not  tamed  individuals.  It  no  doubt,  as  the 
Arabs  assure  me,  occasionally  enters  the  Hauran  [at  the  north  of 
the  Syrian  Desert].  Their  language,  as  well  as  the  Hebrew,  recog- 
nises two  species  of  Wild  Ass." 

Ridgeway  (1905,  pp.  52-53)  writes  in  similar  vein:  "There  is 
strong  evidence  that  the  Arabs  had  domesticated  some  kind  of  E. 
hemionus  from  a  very  early  time,  for  we  shall  find  later  on  that  the 
Arab  tribes  possessed  asses  from  the  dawn  of  history,  and  Strabo 
when  describing  the  littoral  of  the  Red  Sea  after  Eratosthenes  and 
Artemidorus,  speaks  of  a  region  south  of  Nabataea  well  wooded  and 
well  watered,  abounding  with  all  kinds  of  cattle,  wild  asses 
(hemionoi),  wild  camels,  deer,  and  gazelles  ....  As  there  were 
thus  both  wild  asses  and  wild  camels  in  Arabia  down  to  the  Christian 
era,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  domestic  asses  and  camels  of 
the  Arab  tribes  were  derived  from  the  wild  species  of  that  region." 

Tristram  also  gives  (1884,  p.  3)  the  following  account  of  "Asinus 
hemippus":  "This,  rather  smaller  than  the  true  Onager,  and  con- 
fined to  Syria,  Mesopotamia  and  North  Arabia,  very  rarely  enters 
the  north  of  Palestine  from  the  Syrian  desert,  but  is  still  common 
in  Mesopotamia.  It  does  not  extend  into  India,  but  in  summer  herds 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  369 

of  this  animal  frequently  visit  the  Armenian  mountains.   It  is  the 
Wild  Ass  of  Scripture  and  of  the  Ninevite  sculptures." 

"The  fluctuations  of  the  Beduin  troops  during  the  World  War  in 
general  and  of  the  Wahabi  tribes  in  late  years  have  quite  wiped  out 
the  limits  of  both  species  of  Wild  Asses  (Asinus  hemippus  and  A. 
onager)  reaching  Trans-Jordania,  and  have  pushed  back  these 
extraordinarily  shy,  freedom-loving  animals  into  the  center  of  the 
desert.  They  now  occur  so  sporadically  that  many  Beduin  clans 
have  not  seen  them  at  all  during  late  years."  (Aharoni,  1930,  p.  330; 
translation.) 

"In  earlier  days  Wild  Asses  were  fairly  common  in  the  Syrian 
Desert,  and  they  entered  Trans jordania  freely.  They  have  since 
become  rare  and  are  probably  on  the  verge  of  extinction  in  the 
Syrian  desert.  Two  forms  occurred  there  which  correspond  to  the 
two  Wild  Asses  of  the  Bible,  i.  e.  the  Syrian  Wild  Ass  (Equus  hemip- 
pus) and  the  Onager  (E.  onager) ."  (Bodenheimer,  1935,  p.  116.) 

"That  the  onager  was  regularly  captured  and  domesticated  in 
Assyria  in  ancient  times  is  clearly  established  by  one  (Fig.  23)  of 
the  bas-reliefs  discovered  by  Sir  A.  H.  Layard  at  Kouyunjik 
(Nineveh).  The  relief,  which  is  one  of  a  series  of  slabs  recording 
scenes  in  the  life  and  hunting  expeditions  of  Assur-Bani-Pal  (B.  C. 
668-626),  represents  two  of  the  king's  attendants  lassoing  a  wild 
ass.  The  other  asses  are  seen  running  away."  (Ridgeway,  1905, 
p.  48.) 

Xenophon  (Anabasis,  book  1,  ch.  5)  mentions  seeing  large  numbers 
of  Wild  Asses,  in  company  with  Ostriches,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Euphrates  in  401  B.  C. 

Porter  (1821,  pp.  460-461)  gives  the  following  brief  account  of 
the  animal  in  Mesopotamia:  "I  was  informed  by  the  mehmandar, 
who  had  been  in  the  desert,  .  .  .  that  the  wild  ass  of  Irak  Arabi 
[in  the  lower  Tigris-Euphrates  Basin]  differs  in  nothing  from  the 
one  I  had  just  seen  [in  the  Province  of  Fars,  Persia].  He  had 
observed  them  often,  for  a  short  time,  in  the  possession  of  the  Arabs, 
who  told  him  the  creature  was  perfectly  untameable." 

In  the  1840's  Layard  (1850,  pp.  265-266)  observed  a  large  herd  of 
Wild  Asses  in  the  Sinjar  region  west  of  Mosul.  He  adds  that  those 
mentioned  by  Xenophon  must  have  been  seen  in  these  very  plains. 
"The  Arabs  sometimes  catch  the  foals  during  the  spring,  and  bring 
them  up  with  milk  in  their  tents.  .  .  .  They  are  of  a  light  fawn 
color — almost  pink.  The  Arabs  still  eat  their  flesh." 

"Wild  ass  ...    range  over  the  plain  between  the  Tigris  and  the 

Euphrates,  but  do  not,  as  generally  stated,  extend  into  the  Syrian 

Desert.  The  only  locality  which  I  know  of  as  being  a  sure  place  to 

come  in  contact  with  these  very  elusive  beasts  is  the  Jebel  Sinjar, 

13 


370  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

between  Deir  on  the  Euphrates  and  Mosul  on  the  Tigris."  (Carru- 
thers,  1915,  p.  22.) 
A  later  account  by  Carruthers  (1935,  pp.  147-149)  is  as  follows: 

The  Syrian  Wild  Ass  .  .  .  had  a  wide  range  over  the  Syrian  Hammad  in 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  John  Eldred  saw  wild  asses  between  Hit  and 
Aleppo  in  1584,  Cartwright  in  1603  beheld  "every  day  great  droves  of  wild 
beasts,  as  wild  asses  all  white,"  this  was  not  far  from  Ana  on  the  Euphrates. 
Teixeira  a  few  years  later  saw  many  herds  in  the  region  of  Ur  in  the 
Chaldees,  while  Delia  Valle  described  a  captive  "wild  ass  or  little  onager" 
which  he  saw  in  the  piazza  before  the  Pasha's  house  in  Basra  in  1625  .... 

It  would  appear  that  the  Wild  Ass  disappeared  from  the  Syrian  Desert 
during  the  18th  century,  and  was  exterminated  in  Northern  Arabia  during 
the  19th.  Burckhardt  reported  that  they  were  still  numerous  in  the  Shararat 
country  in  the  first  decade  of  last  century.  Its  last  refuge  appears  to  have 
been  in  the  lava  country  to  the  south-east  of  Jabal  Druz.  Musil  says  [1927 
or  1931]  "I  have  heard  that  as  late  as  a  hundred  years  ago  there  were  Wild 
Asses  roaming  near  the  depression  of  Sirhan,  where  they  had  an  abundance 
of  water  and,  in  the  volcanic  district,  good  pasture  and  still  better  hiding 
places.  It  is  said  that  the  last  Wild  Ass  was  shot  at  the  wells  of  Al  Ghamr, 
[34  miles]  south-east  of  the  lake  of  Azrak.  Old  Hmar  told  stories  of  his 
grandfather's  hunts  for  Wild  Asses  near  the  depression  of  Sirhan;  but  since 
firearms  have  come  to  be  used  by  the  Bedouins,  Wild  Asses  have  become 
less  and  less  numerous.  They  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  Jezire,  between  the 
middle  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  whence  the  Sleyb  often  bring  their  Asses  for 
breeding  purposes."  Guarmani  confirms  this  custom  of  crossing  the  domestic 
asses  with  the  wild  ones,  and  also  the  fact  of  the  extermination  of  the  latter 
south  of  the  Euphrates.  He  says  "When  winter  comes,  many  of  the  Saleib 
cross  the  Euphrates  to  hunt  the  Wild  Ass  in  Mesopotamia,  there  being  no 
more  of  these  now  (1865)  in  the  Hammad.  They  take  a  certain  number 
of  them  alive  to  breed  with  their  own."  .  .  . 

It  is  almost  certain  that  they  have  now  been  exterminated  in  their  last 
refuge,  north  of  the  Euphrates,  the  Jabal  Sin  jar,  none  having  been  seen 
since  1927.  Whether  or  not  there  are  a  few  left  in  South  Arabia,  or  in  the 
Oman  hinterland,  seems  doubtful. 

The  British  Museum  has  a  specimen  from  Mesopotamia,  presented 
by  Layard  before  1852,  and  a  Syrian  specimen,  received  from  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London  in  1867.  No  modern  zoologist  seems 
to  have  met  with  this  subspecies  in  the  field,  and  wild-killed  animals 
are  evidently  among  the  rarest  of  all  museum  specimens. 

Antonius  (1928,  pp.  19-20)  records  a  male  that  had  been  received 
in  1911  from  the  "desert  north  of  Aleppo,"  Syria,  and  was  still 
living  in  the  Schonbrunn  Zoo  in  1928;  also  three  preserved  specimens 
that  had  lived  at  Schonbrunn  in  the  latter  part  of  the  past  century. 

"The  little  Hemippus  ...  of  Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  domesti- 
cated by  the  ancient  Sumers  before  the  introduction  of  the  horse, 
.  .  .  became  perhaps  totally  extinct  in  recent  years.  It  could  not 
resist  the  power  of  the  modern  guns  in  the  hands  of  the  Anazeh  and 
Shammar  nomads,  and  its  speed,  great  as  it  may  have  been,  was  not 
sufficient  always  to  escape  from  the  velocity  of  the  modern  motor 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  371 

car  which  more  and  more  is  replacing  the  Old  Testament  Camel- 
Caravan."  (Antonius,  1938,  p.  559) . 

In  a  later  paper  (1939)  Antonius  makes  out  a  strong  case  for  the 
domestication  of  the  Syrian  Wild  Ass  by  the  Sumerians  in  the  third 
millennium  B.  C. 

Shooting  of  gazelles  and  other  game  from  motor  cars  in  now  said 
to  go  on  throughout  the  Syrian  and  Arabian  Deserts  (J.  C.  Phillips, 
in  litt.,  June,  1938).  Perhaps  this  modern  "sport"  was  instituted 
before  the  last  Syrian  Wild  Asses  had  been  killed,  and  it  may  have 
been  the  final  factor  in  their  disappearance. 

The  Onager  of  Anatolia 

ASINUS  HBMIONUS  SUbsp. 

Of  this  animal  there  evidently  remains  nothing  but  a  tradition. 
It  was  presumably  a  subspecies  of  Asinus  hemionus;  but  whether  it 
was  the  North  Persian  onager,  the  Syrian  hemippus,  or  some  unde- 
scribed  form,  we  shall  probably  never  know.  It  must  have  inhabited 
the  rolling  downs  that  Carruthers  describes  (1915,  p.  10)  as  the 
habitat  of  the  Anatolian  Wild  Sheep  (Ovis  ophion  anatolica). 

Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  VIII,  44)  reported  "Onagers"  in  ancient  Phrygia 
and  Lycaonia,  corresponding  more  or  less  to  the  modern  Anatolia. 

"In  early  days  the  wild  ass  was  well  known  in  Paphlagonia 
[a  country  on  the  south  of  the  Black  Sea] ,  for  Homer,  when  speaking 
of  the  Eneti  who  came  from  thence  to  aid  Priam  and  the  Trojans, 
describes  their  land  as  'the  home  of  wild  mules.'  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  wild  mule  of  Paphlagonia  was  some  form  of  Equus 
hemionus,  probably  the  same  variety  as  that  called  'mule'  (he- 
mionus) in  Aristotle's  time."  (Ridgeway,  1905,  pp.  50-51.) 

"The  Onager  of  Anatolia,  so  well  known  to  Pliny  and  other  an- 
cient authors,  was  exterminated  before  modern  times"  (Antonius, 
1938,  p.  559). 

Family  TAPIRIDAE:    Tapirs 

This  family  is  represented  by  two  genera  (Tapirus  and  Tapirella) 
in  Central  and  South  America  and  by  one  genus  (Acrocodia)  in 
southeastern  Asia  and  Sumatra.  Of  the  seven  New  World  forms, 
ranging  from  Mexico  to  Argentina,  one,  Tapirus  roulinii,  is  dealt 
with  in  Dr.  Allen's  volume.  An  account  of  the  single  Old  World 
species  follows  here. 


372  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Malay  Tapir 

ACROCODIA  INDICA  (Desmarest) 

Tapirus  indicus  "Cuvier"  Desmarest,  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Nat.,  vol.  32,  p.  458, 

1819.    (Malay  Peninsula.) 
FIGS.:     Geoffroy  and   Cuvier,   Hist.   Nat.   Mammif.,   pi.  303,    1825;    Gervais, 

Hist.  Nat.  Mammif.,  pt.  2,  pi.  51,  1855;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  458, 

fig.,  1894;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1908,  p.  786,  fig.;  Kerr,  1927,  pi.  7; 

Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  37,  no.  1,  suppl.,  pi.  34,  1934;  Pocock, 

1937,  p.  710,  fig. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  this  interesting  animal  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  Archipelago  deserves  and  requires  protection,  though 
its  numbers  may  not  yet  be  reduced  to  the  danger  point. 

The  general  form  is  heavy;  limbs  short  and  stout;  tail  short; 
ears  oval;  eyes  small;  nose  and  upper  lip  produced  into  a  short 
proboscis;  front  feet  four-toed;  hind  feet  three-toed;  head,  limbs, 
and  front  part  of  body  brownish  black;  body  behind  the  shoulders, 
including  rump  and  upper  part  of  thighs,  and  ear  tips  grayish  white. 
Height  at  shoulder,  36  to  42  inches.  Young  brownish  black,  spotted 
and  streaked  with  brownish  yellow  and  white.  (Blanford,  1891, 
pp.  478-479.) 

Malay  Peninsula  and  adjacent  region. — Blanford  (1891,  p.  479) 
reported  the  Tapir's  northern  limit  at  about  lat.  15°  N.  in  Tenas- 
serim,  but  Arthur  S.  Vernay  extended  the  range  about  3°  farther 
north,  on  the  Burmo-Siamese  frontier  (Jour.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  Siam, 
vol.  6,  p.  318,  1924). 

Its  status  in  Burma  is  discussed  by  Peacock  (1933,  pp.  201-202)  : 

Tapirs  are  found  only  in  the  Tenasserim  forests  in  southernmost  Burma. 
They  are  found  only  in  very  dense  evergreen  forests,  but  are  much  more 
common  than  their  retiring  habits  would  lead  one  to  believe.  I  found  tapirs 
to  be  very  common  indeed  along  the  Big  Tenasserim  River  and  in  the 
Victoria  Point  Range  in  the  Mergui  Forest  Division.  Tapirs  are  generally 
found  in  pairs  or  solitary.  .  .  . 

The  tapir  appears  to  be  singularly  blessed  in  that  neither  man  nor  the 
carnivora  appear  to  be  particularly  keen  on  hunting  it.  ... 

There  can  be  no  pleasure  or  object  in  shooting  a  gentle,  shy  animal  that 
does  not  bear  even  an  insignificant  trophy.  I  have  heard  of  tapir  being 
shot  only  on  two  occasions. 

Tapirs  are  wholly  protected  animals  under  existing  game  laws. 

"The  distribution  of  the  Tapir  in  Siam  is  very  imperfectly  known, 
but  it  seems  to  occur  in  Peninsular  and  South-western  Siam.  Said 
to  be  fairly  common  in  Patani,  and  recorded  from  Hat  Sanuk  and 
Hue  Sai  near  the  Siam-Tenasserim  frontier."  (Gyldenstolpe,  1919, 
p.  170.) 

Gairdner  (1915,  p.  141)  reports  finding  tracks  of  the  Tapir  in  the 
Petchaburi  Valley,  Siam,  and  adds:  "They  are  never,  I  believe, 
intentionally  shot  by  jungle  folk,  who  look  upon  these  rather 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES 


373 


defenceless  creatures  as  peculiar.  They  allege  that  the  Creator, 
having  devised  all  other  beasts  to  his  entire  satisfaction,  had  left 
over  numerous  remnants  of  clay.  Taking  these  in  his  hands,  he 
rolled  them  all  up  together  ....  Hence  the  tapir." 

According  to  Giles  (1936,  pp.  167-168),  "They  are  also  found  in 
the  forests  of  Tavoy  and  Mergui  in  Burma  and  in  the  Malay  States 
....  The  flesh  of  this  animal  is  not  much  esteemed  as  food  nor  is 
the  animal  sought  after  for  commercial  purposes.  The  reason  for 
this  animal  having  survived  may  be  found  in  these  two  main  factors. 
The  chief  enemy  of  the  tapir  is  the  tiger." 


FIG.  39. — Malay  Tapir   (Acrocodia  indica) 


In  1933  total  protection  was  recommended  by  the  Siam  Society. 

In  Cambodia  Tapirs  have  almost  completely  disappeared  at  the 
present  time  (Resident  Superieur  of  Cambodia,  in  Hit.,  November  20, 
1936). 

In  southeastern  Indo-China  the  species  was  still  fairly  common 
15  years  ago,  but  it  is  becoming  rarer  and  rarer.  It  was  believed  to 
have  practically  disappeared,  when  last  year  a  report  came  from  a 
trustworthy  source  that  two  had  been  killed  by  native  trappers  in 
the  Hongquan  district  of  eastern  Cochin  China.  The  species  is 
absolutely  protected  under  the  law.  (Andre  Kieffer,  in  Hit.,  Novem- 
ber 21, 1936.) 

In  the  Malay  Peninsula,  according  to  Ridley  (1895,  pp.  161-162), 
"This  animal  is  still  tolerably  abundant  in  the  further  jungles  of  the 
interior,  and  though  rarer  than  the  rhinoceros,  is  oftener  to  be  seen 
in  captivity.  .  .  .  When  taken  young  it  becomes  very  tame  and 


374  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

amusing.  As  the  jungles  are  cleared  the  tapir  becomes  rarer  and 
rarer." 

S.  S.  Flower  (1900,  pp.  368-369)  gives  records  for  Province  Welles- 
ley,  Kedah,  Malacca,  Pahang,  and  Perak,  and  adds:  "H.  H.  the 
Rajah  Mudah  of  Kedah  told  me  (June  1898)  that  the  Tapir  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  swamps  of  Kedah,  within  a  day's  journey  of  Alor 
Star.  Mr.  F.  H.  Malcolm  Staples  told  me  (Sept.  1897)  that  the  Tapir 
is  still  sometimes  met  with  about  Batu  Pahat,  Johore." 

It  is  "still  not  uncommon  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  Sumatra, 
but  much  persecuted  by  menagerie  keepers.  No  zoo  anywhere  in  the 
world  is  considered  complete  without  a  pair  of  Malayan  tapirs  and 
for  every  animal  that  survives  in  an  exhibition,  several  die  in  Singa- 
pore, or  in  transit."  It  needs  protection.  (F.  N.  Chasen,  in  litt., 
March  31  and  May  5,  1937.) 

Sumatra. — "Concerning  the  possibilities  of  the  survival  of  the 
Indian  Tapir  opinions  are  at  variance.  Some  speak  of  'relentless 
hunting'  by  Natives,  while  others  claim  that  the  tapir  needs  no 
protection  by  law,  since  it  has  no  market  value,  the  meat  is  not  eaten, 
and  the  animal  is,  moreover,  very  shy.  In  addition,  owing  to  Native 
superstition  it  is  little  molested.  .  .  .  They  are  yet  quite  numerous 
near  the  headwaters  of  the  Koealoe  and  Bila  Rivers;  as  well  as 
farther  south  near  the  kotta  Siak  Sri  Indrapoera  and  the  Mandau 
River;  as  well  as  near  the  salt  springs  of  Ampoe  Gadang,  Djambi 
and  N.  West  Palembang. 

"Few  will  question  the  necessity  of  enforcing  rigidly  and  thor- 
oughly the  Decree  on  Game  Protection  with  regard  to  this  animal." 
(Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn,  1936,  p.  50.) 

"I  know  of  one  authentic  case  near  the  borders  of  our  plantation 
[at  Dolok  Merangir,  east-central  Sumatra]  in  which  a  group  of 
native  clerks  were  hunting  at  night.  They  saw  a  pair  of  eyes  and 
shot — to  find  that  they  had  a  large  tapir ;  one  of  a  pair  known  to  be 
in  that  region.  It  seems  that  rhinoceros  and  other  large  animals  are 
killed  by  the  same  methods  and  by  planned  attacks  by  the  natives 
without  any  serious  consequences."  (Walter  N.  Bangham,  in  litt., 
1933.) 

According  to  Dammerman  (in  Skottsberg,  1934,  p.  422),  the 
species  is  threatened  with  extinction. 

Kuiper  (1926,  pp.  425-426)  records  three  black  individuals  from 
the  Palembang  region,  southeastern  Sumatra.  He  considers  that 
these  represent  "more  than  an  individual  aberration,"  and  gives 
them  the  name  Tapirus  indicics  var.  brevetianus. 

"The  Malay  tapir  is  strictly  protected  by  Dutch  law  in  Sumatra ; 
not  even  scientific  institutions  being  allowed  to  collect  it.  ... 

"Carl  Berthold,  the  well-known  animal  dealer  of  Medan,  has  noted 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  375 

that  tapirs  in  the  wilds  suffer  from  an  eye  disease  and  are  often 
blind."  (Ulmer,  in  Miller,  1942,  p.  161.) 

Various  authors,  including  De  Beaufort  (1926,  p.  61),  extend  the 
Malay  Tapir's  range  to  Borneo,  while  others  consider  it  confined  to 
Sumatra  within  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

"It  is  not  yet  certain  that  the  tapir  has  been  met  with  in  Borneo, 
although  there  are  persistent  reports  that  an  animal  of  its  size  and 
appearance  exists  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  It  would  be  wise  to 
suspend  our  judgment  for  the  present  and  content  ourselves  with  the 
fact  that  so  far  it  has  only  made  its  appearance  on  the  North 
Bornean  postage  stamps!"  (Mjoberg,  1930,  p.  22.) 

Family   RHINOCEROTIDAE:    Rhinoceroses 

Two  genera  (Ceratotherium  and  Diceros) ,  of  two  forms  each, 
occur  in  southern  and  eastern  Africa,  and  from  the  Sudan  westward 
to  Nigeria.  Two  additional  genera  (Rhinoceros  and  Dicerorhinus) , 
consisting  of  four  or  five  forms,  range  from  India  and  Indo-China 
through  the  Malay  Peninsula  to  Sumatra  and  Borneo.  Unfortu- 
nately, a  work  of  the  present  scope  requires  a  discussion  of  every 
living  form  of  rhinoceros. 

Great  Indian  Rhinoceros;  Great  One-horned  Rhinoceros. 
Rhinoceros  unicorne    (Fr.) 

RHINOCEROS  UNICORNIS  Linnaeus 

[Rhinoceros}  unicornis  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  56,  1758.  ("Habitat 
in  Africa,  India"  (Linnaeus) ;  "probably  the  sub-Himalayan  Tarai  of 
Assam"  (Lydekker,  1916,  vol.  5,  p.  48).) 

FIGS.:  Geoffrey  and  Cuvier,  1824,  vol.  2,  pis.  306,  307;  Gervais,  Hist.  Nat. 
Mammif.,  pt.  2,  pi.  facing  p.  164,  1855;  P.  L.  Sclater,  1876,  pi.  95;  Royal 
Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  pi.  facing  p.  464,  1894;  Lydekker,  1900,  pi.  1,  fig.  2; 
Van  der  Byl,  1915,  pi.  32;  Faunthorpe,  1924,  pp.  174,  181,  figs.;  New  York 
Zool.  Soc.  Bull.,  vol.  27,  p.  72,  fig.,  1924;  Jour.  Bombay  Nat,  Hist.  Soc., 
vol.  37,  no.  1,  suppl.,  pi.  31,  1934;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  709,  fig. 

With  a  former  range  extending  from  the  North-West  Frontier 
Province  of  India  eastward  perhaps  as  far  as  French  Indo-Qiina, 
this  species  has  more  recently  become  restricted  largely  or  wholly 
to  the  Nepal  Terai,  northern  Bengal,  and  Assam.  Its  numbers  also 
have  greatly  diminished. 

This  is  the  largest  of  the  Asiatic  rhinoceroses,  reaching  a  height 
of  6  feet  4  inches  at  the  shoulder  and  a  total  length  of  14  feet  1  inch, 
with  a  horn  of  24  inches;  fold  of  skin  in  front  of  shoulder  not  con- 
tinued across  back  of  neck;  other  folds  behind  shoulder,  in  front  of 
and  across  thigh,  and  around  the  neck;  sides  of  body  and  upper 
limbs  studded  with  large  rounded  tubercles;  skin  naked  except  for 
a  fringe  of  hairs  on  the  margin  of  the  ears  and  some  bristly  hairs  on 


376 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


the  tail;  general  color  uniformly  blackish  gray,  with  more  or  less 
pink  on  the  margins  of  the  folds  (Lydekker,  1900,  pp.  21-22) . 

India. — "In  the  history  of  Timur-bec,  it  is  described  how  in  1398 
on  the  frontier  of  Kashmir,  Timur  hunted  and  killed  many  rhi- 
noceroses. In  the  memoirs  of  Baber  it  is  described  how  in  about 
1519  he  hunted  the  rhinoceros  in  bush  country  near  the  Indus.  And 
in  the  book  of  Sidi  Ali  dated  1554  it  is  stated  that  rhinos  were  seen 
near  the  Kotal  Pass,  west  of  Peshawar. 


FIG.  40. — Great    Indian    Rhinoceros    (Rhinoceros   unicornis) 

"These  references  are  of  interest,  for  they  show  that  in  old  times 
the  rhinoceros  was  plentiful  and  further,  ranged  over  a  great  portion 
of  India,  whereas  it  is  now  approaching  extinction."  (Hobley,  1931, 
p.  19.) 

"Not  improbably  .  .  .  the  rhinoceroses  found  till  about  the  year 
1850  in  the  grass-jungles  of  the  Rajmehal  Hills,  in  Bengal,  belonged 
to  the  present  species.  Now,  however,  this  huge  animal  has  re- 
treated almost,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  eastward  of  the  Tista  valley, 
on  the  borders  of  Kuch  Behar;  its  main  strongholds  being  the  great 
grass-jungles  of  that  province  and  of  Assam."  (Lydekker,  1900, 
p.  23.) 

Shebbeare  (1935,  pp.  1229-1231)  gives  the  following  account: 

Though  this  rhinoceros  is  becoming  alarmingly  rare  everywhere,  Nepal  and 
Assam  are  better  off  than  Bengal,  where  its  habitat  is  restricted  to  a  few 
places  in  the  Duars  and  Cooch  Behar  State.  Here  the  last  main  stronghold 
of  the  species  is  a  tract  of  high  grass  savannah  along  the  Torsa  river, 
stretching  from  the  foothills  of  Bhutan,  through  the  Duars  into  Cooch  Behar. 
It  is  a  narrow  strip,  not  more  than  40  miles  from  the  north  to  the  south 
and,  at  its  widest,  four  miles  from  east  to  west — perhaps  50  or  60  square 
miles.  Outside  this  tract  the  few  scattered  colonies  can  perhaps  muster  a 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA:    ODD-TOED  UNGULATES  377 

dozen  individuals  in  all,  but  unfortunately  these  outliers  have  no  spare 
coverts  into  which  they  can  expand.  .  .  . 

Contrary  to  what  one  hears  of  African  rhino,  ours  is  seldom  aggressive, 
nor  does  he  cause  havoc  to  agricultural  crops  like  the  elephant. 

For  the  last  25  years  in  Bengal  and  Assam  rhino  have  been  closed  to 
sportsmen,  but  this  has  not  saved  them  from  poachers,  who  shoot  them  to 
obtain  their  horns.  From  time  immemorial  these  have  been  highly  prized 
for  superstitious  reasons.  A  cup  made  of  the  horn  of  a  rhinoceros  is  still 
believed  to  render  poison  innocuous,  a  point  of  some  importance  to  tyran- 
nical rulers,  and,  when  powdered,  it  is  held  in  the  East,  especially  in  China, 
to  be  the  most  potent  aphrodisiac.  It  is  believed  that  most  of  the  horns 
that  are  smuggled  out  of  these  jungles  eventually  find  their  way  to  China, 
but  however  this  may  be  their  present  value  in  the  Calcutta  market  is  about 
half  their  weight  in  gold.  A  single  horn  retrieved  from  the  poachers  recently 
fetched  150  pounds,  and  still  higher  prices  have  been  known.  That  an 
animal  by  nature  condemned  to  carry  such  a  price  on  his  nose  should  tempt 
poachers  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  but  the  remoteness  of  their  strongholds, 
and  their  armour,  too  thick  to  be  penetrated  by  "gas-pipe"  guns,  was  their 
protection,  and  up  to  about  six  years  ago  there  were  probably  some  200 
animals  living  in  the  small  tract  I  have  described. 

Then  poaching  began.  The  first  poachers  came  from  Assam,  where  they 
had  plied  the  same  trade,  and  brought  with  them  muzzle-loading  guns  heavy 
enough  to  kill  a  rhino.  They  were  j pined  by  local  men  of  the  same  tribe 
(Mechs)  and  formed  themselves  into  gangs.  Their  plan  was  to  build  a 
light  bamboo  staging  about  8  ft.  above  the  ground  at  strategic  points,  usually 
where  two  well-worn  rhino  tracks  met,  and  lie  up  when  ths  moon  was  nearly 
full.  Sooner  or  later  a  victim  was  bound  to  pass  and  received  a  heavy  bullet 
at  a  range  of  a  few  feet  ....  They  seldom  took  more  than  the  horn;  to 
try  to  dispose  of  the  meat,  which,  by  the  way,  is  -excellent  eating,  would 
have  aroused  suspicion  ....  For  nearly  three  years  this  went  on  without 
any  suspicion  being  aroused. 

After  the  poaching  was  detected,  it  required  six  months  or  more  of 
effort  by  the  Forest  Department  and  the  Government  of  Bengal  to 
stop  the  poaching.  A  bill  was  passed,  making  the  killing  of  rhino, 
except  in  defense  of  life,  an  offense. 

"Our  attempts  have  so  far  been  successful.  Since  Christmas,  1931, 
so  far  as  we  know,  only  one  rhino  has  been  killed,  and  the  perpe- 
trators are  now  in  gaol." 

The  Government  of  Bihar  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  sends  the 
following  information:  "The  Great  One-horned  Rhinoceros  was 
formerly  fairly  common  in  the  jungles  of  North  Bihar  bordering  on 
Nepal,  especially  .  .  .  near  the  Kosi  river,  and  individuals  were 
found  until  50  or  60  years  ago.  The  jungles  in  this  area  have  prac- 
tically disappeared  and  the  animal  is  unknown  except  as  an  occa- 
sional stray  visitor  from  Nepal  into  the  jungles  in  the  North  West 
corner  of  the  Champaran  district." 

The  Senior  Conservator  of  Forests,  Bengal,  writes  (in  litt.,  Sep- 
tember, 1937) : 

"Former  range:  Jalpaiguri  Forests  (common)  and  Riparian 
Forests  of  the  Buxa  Division  (no  information  as  to  number) . 


378  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

"Present  range:  4  or  5  in  the  Jalpaiguri  Forests,  56  in  the  Riparian 
Forests  bordering  the  Torsa  and  Malangi  Rivers  and  wet  forests  of 
Kanbari. 

"Causes  of  depletion:  in  Jalpaiguri  Forests:  probably  shooting 
and  poaching  and  possibly  disease.  In  the  Buxa  Division  the  species 
showed  up  to  1932  tendency  to  extinction  due  to  heavy  poaching. 
Since  1933  they  are  increasing  in  number.  The  horn  is  worth  8  to  10 
times  its  weight  in  silver.  The  hide  is  also  valuable.  ...  A  Game 
Sanctuary  to  the  extent  of  26  sq.  miles  is  being  maintained." 

In  years  gone  by,  in  this  general  region,  the  animals  were  suffi- 
ciently numerous  or  destructive  to  have  called  for  the  establishment 
of  a  bounty.  "They  sometimes  will  travel  long  distances  to  reach 
rice  and  corn  fields,  and  do  immense  mischief,  so  much  so  that 
there  is  a  Government  reward  of  twenty  rupees  to  anyone  shooting 
a  rhinoceros"  (Baldwin,  1876,  p.  144) . 

Nepal. — This  species  is  "decreasing  rapidly  in  Nepal.  In  the 
Morang  District  of  the  Nepal  Tarai  this  rhinoceros  was  plentiful 
not  many  years  ago,  but  now  not  a  single  specimen  is,  I  believe,  to  be 
found  within  two  hundred  miles."  Several  specimens  were  collected 
in  the  Gandak  Valley  in  1923.  (Faunthorpe,  1924,  pp.  179-188.) 

Further  information  is  as  follows  (Anonymous,  1934,  p.  89) : 

Along  the  numerous  rivers  which  flow  through  the  jungles  of  the  Nepal 
Terai  the  rhino  has  particular  places  for  dropping  its  excreta.  Mounds  so 
accumulate  in  places.  In  approaching  these  spots  a  rhinoceros  walks  back- 
wards and  falls  an  easy  victim  to  poachers.  .  .  . 

The  food  consists  chiefly  of  grass.  In  Nepal  during  the  rains  Rhinoceros 
frequently  enter  cultivation.  .  . 

In  Nepal  the  flesh  and  the  blood  of  the  Rhinoceros  is  considered  highly 
acceptable  to  the  Manes.  High  caste  Hindus  and  most  Gurkhas  offer  libation 
of  the  animal's  blood  after  entering  its  disembowelled  body.  On  ordinary 
Sradh  days  the  libation  of  water  and  milk  is  poured  from  a  cup  carved  from 
its  horn.  The  urine  is  considered  antiseptic  and  is  hung  in  a  vessel  at  the 
principal  door  as  a  charm  against  ghosts,  evil  spirits  and  diseases.  These 
beliefs  connected  with  the  Rhinoceros  are  prevalent  in  varying  form  in  Burma, 
Siam  and  China.  They  set  a  great  value  upon  the  animal  and  provide  the 
main  reason  for  its  persecution.  In  Nepal,  the  Indian  Rhinoceros  is  found 
only  in  the  country  to  the  east  of  the  Gandak  river  known  as  Chitawan 
where  strict  preservation  by  the  Nepal  Government  has  saved  it  from 
extinction. 

Twenty  to  thirty  years  ago,  according  to  the  Bombay  Natural 
History  Society  (in  litt.,  December,  1936),  it  "was  still  common  in 
the  Sikhim  Terai  and  in  Nepal  as  far  west  as  Rohilkund." 

Arthur  S.  Vernay  writes  (in  litt.,  March  11,  1936)  on  economic 
conditions: 

"I  think  .  .  .  that  there  is  one  mistake  he  [Shebbeare]  has  made, 
that  is  in  regard  to  the  crops  being  destroyed  by  the  rhinoceros.  This 
is  one  of  the  chief  complaints  which  the  Nepalese  have  in  the  Nepal 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  379 

Terai.  One  sees  all  over  the  place  high  bamboo  shelters  which  are 
built  in  their  cultivations,  and  these  during  certain  seasons  of  the 
year  are  occupied  at  night  by  Nepalese  in  order  to  have  bells,  gongs, 
and  so  on,  to  frighten  the  rhinoceros  away  during  their  night  feeding 
in  the  cultivations.  .  .  . 

"One  of  the  methods  of  poaching  which  is  being  used  from  time 
to  time  is  building  deep  pits  into  which  the  rhinoceros  falls." 

Lt.-Col.  F.  M.  Bailey,  of  the  British  Legation,  Nepal,  writes  (in 
litt.,  March  16,  1936) :  "Yesterday  I  had  a  talk  with  His  Highness 
the  Maharaja  about  the  numbers  of  Indian  rhinoceros  in  Nepal. 
He  told  me  that  it  was  estimated  that  in  1910  there  were  about  1,100, 
in  1930  the  number  had  dwindled  to  about  100.  Very  strict  measures 
were  taken  to  preserve  them  and  he  told  me  that  he  now  estimates 
there  must  be  some  200  and  there  is  every  sign  that  they  are  on  the 
increase." 

Assam. — "This  rhinoceros  is  very  plentiful  along  the  Terai  and  in 
the  Durrung,  Nawgong  and  Goalpara  districts  in  Assam"  (Pollok, 
1879,  p.  95) . 

"Mr.  Shebbeare  has  taken  great  pains  in  an  attempt  to  estimate 
the  approximate  number  of  R.  unicornis  still  surviving  in  Assam 
(North  Bengal).  They  first  occur  about  51  miles  south-east  of 
Darjeeling  and  there  are  sporadic  occurrences  along  the  foothills 
for  about  330  miles  due  east  as  far  as  Sibsagar.  In  this  long  strip 
of  country  he  estimates  that  not  more  than  220  specimens  survive 
to-day."  (Hobley,  1932,  pp.  20-21.) 

Milroy  (1934,  pp.  99-101)  contributes  the  following  information: 

The  two  Game  Sanctuaries  [Monas  and  Kazirunga]  .  .  .  were  originally 
selected  for  the  Great  One-horned  Rhinoceros  .  .  ..,  and  a  very  fine  stock 
of  these  animals  was  raised  as  the  result  of  the  protection  afforded.  .  .  . 

The  rhinoceros,  our  most  important  animal  from  the  natural  history  point 
of  view,  is  a  difficult  species  to  preserve  even  though  its  destruction  is 
forbidden  by  law  ....  The  demand  for  rhinoceros'  horns  has  always  been 
considerable  in  India,  but  of  recent  years  China  has  also  been  in  the  market, 
consequent  on  the  practical  extermination  of  R.  sondaicus  in  Lower  Burma, 
Tenasserim,  etc.,  with  the  result  that  a  horn  is  now  worth  just  about  half 
its  weight  in  gold.  The  prospect  of  a  lucrative  business  led  to  an  organiza- 
tion being  formed  for  passing  on  rhinoceros'  horns  and  elephant  tusks  to 
Calcutta,  and  the  disturbed  political  conditions  provided  the  virile  Boro 
tribes  (Meches  and  Kacharies)  living  near  the  Monas  with  the  opportunity 
to  take  up  poaching  on  a  large  scale. 

The  operations  of  the  financiers  in  the  background  were  checked  for  the 
time  being;  the  advent  of  the  Assam  Rifles  restored  order;  additional  game- 
watchers  were  engaged,  and  an  Assistant  Conservator  was  placed  in  charge 
of  the  Sanctuary  .... 

Apart  from  the  two  Sanctuaries  mentioned  previously,  the  rhino  have  one 
remaining  refuge,  namely  the  Balipara  Political  Area.  Here  some  very  valuable 
protection  has  been  afforded  to  this  animal  in  one  area  by  a  planter  who  is 
an  enthusiastic  game  preserver. 


380  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

The  Chief  Secretary  of  the  Assam  Government  writes  (in  Hit., 
June,  1937) :  "Former  range:  probably  occurred  all  along  the  Brah- 
maputra between  Kalangmukh  and  the  present  Kaziranga  game 
sanctuary  and  in  a  sporadic  condition  in  Sibsagar.  Present  range: 
about  a  dozen  in  the  Laokhowa  reserve  in  Nowgong,  about  100  in  the 
Kaziranga  sanctuary  and  adjoining  U.  S.  F.  in  Sibsagar.  Causes  of 
depletion:  opening  up  of  the  jungle  and  shooting  by  poachers  .... 
Complete  protection  under  the  game  laws." 

Burma. — The  records  for  this  country  are  not  at  all  satisfactory. 
Pollok  (1879,  pp.  95-96)  states  that  rhinoceroses  of  three  kinds  are 
abundant  in  Burma,  the  large  single-horned  species  occurring  "in 
the  Yonzaleen  and  Arrakan  range,  and  perhaps  the  Yomahs."  On 
the  other  hand,  Jerdon  (1874,  p.  233)  had  no  information  as  to  its 
extending  south  of  the  region  adjoining  the  Himalayas,  and  Peacock 
(1933)  does  not  mention  it  in  his  book  on  the  game  animals  of 
Burma. 

Siam. — Its  occurrence  in  this  country  is  doubtful  (Hobley,  1931, 
p.  21,  and  1932,  p.  20).  Flower  (1900,  p.  366)  has  no  definite  record, 
and  Gyldenstolpe  (1919)  does  not  include  it  in  his  list  of  the  mam- 
mals of  Siam. 

French  Indo-China. — The  older  works  do  not  include  this  country 
in  the  range  of  the  species,  and  the  recent  reports  probably  require 
verification.  De  la  Chevasnerie  (1936?,  pp.  340-341)  quotes  Millet 
to  the  effect  that  unicornis  extends  as  far  as  Tonkin,  and  he  adds 
(translated) : 

It  may  still  be  found  between  the  Rivers  Da  R'Man  and  Krong  Kno, 
lower  branch  of  the  Srepok.  Also  between  the  River  Song-Quao  and  the 
road  from  Phantiet  to  Djiring,  region  of  Catot.  Also  in  the  massif  extending 
along  the  right  bank  of  the  Song-Phan,  from  the  Nui-Visong  to  Nui-Be. 
Also,  according  to  native  report,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Da  Nhim  above 
the  post  of  Dran  (Lang-Bian)  and  about  two  days'  journey  from  the  center; 
the  place  is  called  Lieng-Du.  Likewise  in  the  region  of  Tutra  (Lang-Bian) 
near  the  mountains  Mu  K'Bay  and  Cay  Ko  Mao,  in  the  forest  of  Mour- 
Neuill. 

While  there  remain  a  certain  number  of  unicornis  in  Indo-China,  the 
individuals  of  the  other  two  species  could  probably  be  counted  on  the  fingers, 
if  any  survive  at  all. 

The  Chief  of  Veterinary  Service,  Cochin  China,  writes  (in  litt., 
December,  1936)  that  it  no  longer  exists  in  Cochin  China. 

According  to  the  Resident  Superieur  de  Cambodge  (in  litt.,  No- 
vember, 1936),  different  authors  indicate  that  unicornis  is  one  of 
three  species  found  in  Indo-China.  It  is  rather  possible  that  one  or 
even  two  of  these  species  have  now  disappeared  from  Cambodia. 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  381 

Javan  Rhinoceros ;  Smaller  One-horned  Rhinoceros. 
Rhinoceros  de  la  Sonde  (Fr.) 

RHINOCEROS  SONDAICUS  Desmarest 

Rhinoceros  sondaicus  Desmarest,  Mammalogie,  pt.  2,  p.  399,  1822.  ("Sumatra.") 
FIGS.:  Temminck,  Natuurl.  Geschiedenis  Nederl.  overz.  bezittingen,  Zool., 
Mammalia,  pi.  33,  1839-44;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1874,  pi.  28;  Trans. 
Zool.  Soc.  London,  vol.  9,  pi.  96,  1876;  Blanford,  1891,  p.  475,  fig.  155; 
Lydekker,  1900,  pi.  1,  fig.  3;  Kloss,  1927,  pi.  5;  Dammerman,  1929,  p.  25, 
fig.  6;  Barbour  and  Allen.  1932,  pi.  11;  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc., 
vol.  37,  no.  1,  suppl,  pi.  32,  1934;  Ward,  1935,  p.  338,  upper  fig.;  Loch,  1937, 
pis.  3,  4. 

This  is  one  of  the  rarest  and  most  famous  of  the  large  mammals 
now  facing  extinction.  The  last  survivors  linger  in  a  few  localities 
in  southeastern  Asia  and  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

It  is  somewhat  smaller  than  R.  unicornis;  color  dusky  gray 
throughout;  fold  of  skin  in  front  of  the  shoulder,  like  that  behind 
the  shoulder  and  that  in  front  of  the  thighs,  continuous  across  the 
back;  skin  divided  by  cracks  into  small,  polygonal,  scalelike  disks; 
ears  with  a  short  hairy  fringe ;  tail  hairy  below  and  at  tip ;  single  horn 
of  the  male  reaching  a  length  of  a  little  more  than  10  inches;  horn 
generally  absent  in  the  female.  Height  of  male  at  shoulder,  5  feet 
10  inches;  of  female,  5  feet  6  inches.  (Blanford,  1891,  p.  475;  Ly- 
dekker, 1900,  pp.  25-26.) 

The  range  formerly  extended  from  Bengal,  Assam,  Burma,  Siam, 
and  Indo-China  through  the  Malay  Peninsula  to  Sumatra  and  Java 
(cj.  Loch,  1937,  map  facing  p.  130) . 

India  and  Burma. — In  the  past  the  species  was  distributed  in 
the  Sundarbans  and  other  parts  of  eastern  Bengal,  and  through 
Assam  and  Burma.  It  is  mentioned  as  having  been  once  abundant 
in  the  forests  along  the  larger  rivers  of  Tenasserim.  At  present  it 
is  practically  exterminated  from  India  proper.  A  few  may  survive 
in  the  North  Lushai  Hills  and  in  Manipur.  It  is  doubtful  if  more 
than  half  a  dozen  animals  survive  in  Burma.  It  is  completely 
protected  by  law  in  Burma.  Every  part  of  the  animal,  including  the 
blood  and  the  entrails,  is  in  demand.  (Bombay  Natural  History 
Society,  in  Hit.,  December,  1936.) 

Shebbeare  writes  (1935)  of  its  former  occurrence  along  the  Torsa 
River,  Bengal:  'The  Lesser  Indian  rhinoceros  (R.  sondaicus)  in- 
habited these  jungles  until  at  least  as  recently  as  30  years  ago,  when 
one  was  shot  by  a  forest  officer."  This  was  "one  of  the  last,  if  not 
the  last,  of  its  race  in  this  locality." 

"There  have  been  rumors  of  the  former  existence  of  R.  sondaicus 
in  the  forests  of  Orissa  and  about  the  delta  of  the  Mahanadi  River, 
in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  This  has  been  discredited  by  some  authorities 


382  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

and  as  specimens  have  not  been  seen  by  Europeans,  we  have  now  no 
means  of  ascertaining  the  truth. 

"In  the  Sunderbans  delta  .  .  .  the  last  tracks  of  the  animal  were 
seen  .  .  .  about  1887  so  that  by  1890  it  had  probably  died  out." 
(Loch,  1937,  p.  132.) 

In  Bengal  the  former  range  included  the  Jalpaiguri  and  Chitta- 
gong  Forests.  Extinction  was  due  to  poaching.  (Senior  Conservator 
of  Forests,  Bengal,  in  litt.,  September,  1937) . 


FIG.   41. — Javan   Rhinoceros    (Rhinoceros   sondaicus) 

Its  status  in  Assam  is  discussed  by  Milroy  (1934,  p.  102) :  "It 
is  on  record  that  Messrs.  Rowland  Ward  identified  the  head  and 
shield  from  a  rhino  shot  by  a  Forest  Officer  in  the  Bengal  Dooars 
as  belonging  to  this  species,  and  it  would  be  strange  if  it  did  not 
also  occur  in  the  contiguous  Goalpara  Reserves  and  Monas  Sanc- 
tuary. Pairs  of  smaller,  less  truculent,  and  definitely  less  armoured 
rhino  can  be  put  up  in  the  Sanctuary  and  these,  if  not  cases  of  R. 
unicornis  pairing  while  still  far  from  mature,  must  be  specimens  of 
R.  sondaicus" 

Loch  (1937,  p.  132)  quotes  Pollock  (1900)  as  follows: 

"It  is  fairly  plentiful  on  the  left  bank  [of  the  Brahmaputra] 
South  of  Goalparah,  where  I  have  killed  it. 

"I  may  here  mention  about  them  in  Assam  .  .  .  that  I  shot  there 
forty-four  to  my  own  gun,  and  probably  saw  some  sixty  others 
slain,  and  lost  wounded  fully  as  many  as  I  killed." 

On  this  Loch  comments  (p.  133) :  "The  latter  paragraph,  no 
doubt,  refers  to  all  species  of  rhino.  Colonel  F.  T.  Pollock  spent 
seven  years,  in  the  '60s,  in  Assam,  and  was  an  accurate  observer  and 
keen  shikari.  If  one  European  can,  in  seven  years,  account  for  so 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  383 

many  little  wonder  that  the  Javan-rhinoceros  is  now  extinct  in  the 
country." 
Peacock  (1933,  pp.  77-79)  says: 

In  Burma,  there  is  no  authentic  record  of  its  shooting,  except  in  one 
instance,  viz.  a  specimen  shot  .  .  .  some  years  ago  ...  in  the  Mergui  Dis- 
trict in  southernmost  Burma.  .  .  . 

The  Javan  rhinoceros  has  been  shot  illicitly  on  numerous  occasions  by 
professional  hunters  and  poachers:  in  fact,  it  has  now  been  poached  almost 
out  of  existence.  .  .  . 

It  is  open  to  question  whether  the  Javan  rhinoceros  ever  existed  outside 
of  the  Thaton,  Salween  and  Mergui  Forest  Divisions  in  Lower  Burma.  The 
only  definite  records  of  its  existence  come  from  these  three  Divisions. 

The  best-known  grounds  used  to  be  the  forests  of  the  Victoria  Point  Sub- 
division in  the  Mergui  District.  Although,  as  Divisional  Officer  in  charge  of 
the  Mergui  Forest  Division,  I  spent  four  months  in  touring  through  that 
Division,  I  could  find  no  evidence  of  its  existence  outside  of  the  Victoria 
Point  Subdivision.  .  .  . 

The  forests  of  the  Victoria  Point  Subdivision  undoubtedly  held,  at  one 
time,  a  very  fair  number  of  Javan  rhinoceros,  but  these  have  long  since 
been  poached  out  of  existence  for  the  sake  of  the  valuable  horn  and  blood 
which  realize  an  even  greater  price  than  that  of  the  Sumatran  rhinoceros.  .  .  . 

It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  there  are  now  more  than  half  a  dozen 
specimens  of  R.  sondaicus  in  existence  in  Burma,  and  it  is  unlikely  that  they 
will  survive. 

This  is  the  most  threatened  mammal  in  Burma.  It  "is  now,  so  far 
as  known,  confined  to  the  Kahilu  Game  Sanctuary  in  the  Thaton 
Forest  Division  of  Lower  Burma.  This  Sanctuary  was  formed  with 
the  chief  object  of  affording  shelter  to  these  rhino  which  are  believed 
to  number  six  specimens.  No  death  has  been  reported  since  1931  and 
there  are  grounds  for  believing  that  these  rhino  will  be  saved  from 
extinction.  Hunting  prohibited.  In  the  past  ruthlessly  persecuted 
for  the  sake  of  the  blood  which  is  claimed  to  have  medicinal  proper- 
ties." (Game  Warden,  Burma,  in  litt.,  November,  1936.) 

"In  a  letter  received  from  the  Forest  Department,  Shwebb,  it 
stated  that  four  specimens  of  the  Javan  rhinoceros  probably  occur 
in  the  Kahilu  Game  Sanctuary.  This  is.  located  in  the  Thaton  and 
Salween  Districts,  in  Lower  Burma.  In  the  Shwe-U-Daung  Game 
Sanctuary  in  Upper  Burma,  it  is  hoped  that  a  few  may  exist  but  it 
is  unlikely."  (Loch,  1937,  p.  133.) 

Siam. — Flower  (1900,  pp.  366-367)  records  a  specimen  brought  to 
the  Siamese  Museum  in  1897,  apparently  from  the  Laos  Country.  He 
also  remarks  on  the  eagerness  of  the  volunteer  skinners  (mostly 
Siamese  women)  to  secure  the  blood,  flesh,  and  bones. 

In  his  notes  on  R.  sondaicus  and  R.  sumatrensis  in  Siam,  Gylden- 
stolpe  (1919,  p.  170)  confuses  the  technical  and  the  common  names 
of  the  two  species,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  allocate  the  notes  to  the 
right  species.  Both  animals,  however,  were  evidently  rare  at  that 
time. 


384  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

In  1931  total  protection  was  recommended  by  the  Siam  Society. 

"Of  its  occurrence  in  the  Siamese  part  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  we 
have  practically  no  evidence"  (Kloss,  1927,  p.  207). 

Loch  (1937,  pp.  133-134)  quotes  William  W.  Fegan  (1933)  as 
follows: 

I  may  state  that  both  the  one-horned  and  two-horned  rhinoceros  (R. 
sondaicus  and  R.  sumatrensis)  are  to  be  found  in  Siam  but,  owing  to  the 
hunting  by  the  hill  tribes  both  are  now  extremely  rare  .... 

As  to  the  one-horned,  I  have  been  thirty-three  years  in  this  part  of  the 
world  and  have  travelled  over  the  major  part  of  Siam  and  I  have  never  yet 
met  a  man,  native  or  European,  who  has  shot  one.  Some  twenty  years  ago 
two  Europeans,  survey ors,  in  the  hilly  district  near  the  Three  Pagodas, 
on  the  Siam-Burma  frontier,  tried  to  bag  one  but  failed.  It  was  later  on 
trapped  in  a  pitfall  by  the  neighbouring  tribesmen  and  I  saw  the  horn 
and  strips  of  the  skin  which  were  brought  to  a  place  called  Kanburi. 

In  more  recent  times  I  have  heard  of  two  of  the  animals  having  been 
seen  in  Eastern  [=  western]  Siam,  near  the  Meklong,  but  know  nothing 
more  about  them.  A  Siamese  official  who  had  spent  some  years  in  this 
district  told  me  that  he  had  heard  of  the  existence  of  seven  or  eight  and  he 
knew  personally  of  two  of  them  having  been  killed.  The  question  of  how 
many  of  the  animals  remain  alive  to-day  in  Siam  is  rather  a  mystery  .... 
About  the  year  1886  a  one-horn  was  captured  and  brought  alive  to  Bangkok 
from  a  place  near  Krabin,  to  the  west  of  the  capital. 

Loch  adds  that  a  few  years  ago  A.  S.  Vernay  could  get  no  informa- 
tion as  to  the  animal's  presence  in  central  and  northwestern  Siam. 

French  Indo-China. — Information  on  the  status  of  the  two  species 
of  rhinoceros  occurring  in  this  country  (Rhinoceros  sondaicus  and 
Dicerorhinus  sumatrensis)  is  so  imperfect  that  in  some  cases  it  is 
virtually  impossible  to  segregate  the  records  of  one  species  from 
those  of  the  other.  The  following  notes  probably  refer  in  part  to 
both  species. 

Rhinoceroses  have  certainly  become  very  rare  in  Indo-China,  if 
indeed  a  single  one  is  left.  In  South  Annam  Defosse  succeeded, 
about  1903  or  1904,  in  killing  five.  About  1896  M.  Oderra  killed  25 
Rhinos;  M.  de  Monestrol  certifies  to  this.  (De  la  Chevasnerie, 
1936?,  p.  340.) 

In  Cambodia  the  disappearance  of  rhinos  is  almost  complete  at 
present.  They  were  formerly  recorded  as  very  rare  in  the  Massifs 
de  PElephant  and  des  Cardamomes,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Mekong. 
A  specimen  was  killed  about  1930  in  the  Province  of  Kompong- 
Cham.  Some  may  still  exist,  but  in  very  sparse  numbers,  in  the 
region  of  Sre-Umbell  (Kampot)  and  in  the  Province  of  Stung- 
Treng.  The  number  must  be  very  small  (probably  less  than  a 
dozen) .  It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  exact  species.  Various 
authors  have  recorded  sondaicus,  sumatrensis,  and  unicornis  from 
Indo-China.  It  is  quite  possible  that  one  or  two  of  these  species  have 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  385 

completely  disappeared  from  Cambodia.  (Resident  Superieur  of 
Cambodia,  in  Hit.,  November  20,  1936.) 

Twenty  years  ago  sondaicus  and  sumatrensis  were  abundant  in 
the  whole  Mekong  Valley,  and  they  were  hunted  not  far  from 
Saigon,  in  the  marshy  plains  covered  with  spiny  bamboo.  Since  then 
the  two  types  have  completely  disappeared.  The  last  specimen 
killed  (sondaicus)  was  secured  by  a  European  hunter  in  upper  Cam- 
bodia two  years  ago.  The  animals  may  be  considered  practically 
annihilated.  (Andre  Kieffer,  in  litt.,  November  21,  1936.) 

P.  Vitry  (in  litt.,  December  20,  1936)  sends  the  following  infor- 
mation concerning  sondaicus  and  sumatrensis  in  Laos.  Before  1890 
they  were  still  quite  numerous  on  the  western  buttresses  of  the 
Annam  mountain  chain.  The  maximum  frequency  was  in  the  south 
and  more  particularly  on  the  Boloven  Plateau  and  the  slopes  ex- 
tending west  to  the  Mekong  on  the  boundary  of  Cambodia.  During 
the  last  30  years  I  have  only  once  seen  tracks.  The  last  specimen 
killed  in  southern  Laos,  so  far  as  I  know,  was  in  1911  in  the  Boloven 
Plateau  region.  I  am  sure  that  a  very  few  still  exist:  in  the  Sonla- 
Samnena  region,  probably  also  in  certain  regions  of  the  Boloven 
Massif,  practically  uninhabited  and  not  visited  by  the  natives,  and 
in  the  mountain  buttresses  separating  the  upper  Selanong  and  Sekong 
from  Kontum.  There  has  most  certainly  been  an  intensive  destruc- 
tion by  native  hunters  on  both  banks  of  the  Mekong ;  they  even  drive 
the  animals  down  to  the  sea  (particularly  in  the  Phanrang,  Cam- 
ranh,  and  Phanthiet  districts  in  southern  Annam).  The  purchase 
price  for  a  complete  rhino  ranges  from  about  1,000  piasters  in  1910 
to  about  2,000  piasters  at  the  present  time.  Everything  is  utilized  by 
the  Chinese  pharmacies — not  only  the  horns,  but  also  the  meat,  the 
hide,  the  blood,  the  vital  organs,  and  especially  the  urine!  In  my 
opinion  no  protective  measures  can  be  taken. 

Loch  (1937,  pp.  142-144)  has  assembled  more  definite  information 
concerning  this  species  in  Indo-China.  He  quotes  E.  M.  de  Villa  as 
follows:  "The  one-horned  rhinoceros  ...  is  still  to  be  found  in 
several  parts  of  Indo-China,  being  fairly  well  represented  on  both 
sides  of  the  great  Annamite  Range,  and  both  north  and  south  of  it. 
...  It  is  known  and  hunted  on  the  Dar  Lac  Plateau  at  an  elevation 
of  about  3,000  feet,  and  last  year  some  natives  invited  me  to  hunt  a 
party  of  about  four  rhinos  near  Cua  Rao,  about  100  feet  above  sea 
level.  Rhinoceros  and  elephants  .  .  .  are  met  with  between  Kratie 
and  Sung  Treng,  south  of  Sara  vane  (in  Cambodia — to  the  east  of  the 
Mekong)  and  in  many  places  in  Laos." 

Loch  (1937,  p.  143)  writes: 

M.  Antoine  Lagreze,  the  Resident  at  Vinh  in  Northern  Annam,  .  .  .  has 
written  .  .  .  that  several  specimens  still  exist  in  the  dense  forests  separating 
the  provinces  of  Vinh  and  Thanh-Hoa,  in  northern  Annam.  Also  in  the 


386  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

forests  between  the  province  of  Luang-Prabang  and  the  Verne  military  terri- 
tory. The  writer  states  that  during  1924  he  located  a  band  of  rhinos  in  the 
province  of  Sam-Nua  where  formerly  they  abounded.  .  .  .  Fifty  years  ago 
these  animals  were  numerous  in  the  Annamite  Chain  and  in  the  forests  of 
Nord-Annam  and  Haut-Laos.  They  have  been  destroyed  by  Meos,  a 
mountain  people  who  have  immigrated  from  China  in  recent  times.  .  .  .  The 
value  of  the  horns  was  so  great  that  they  figured  in  the  tribute  sent  by 
the  King  of  Luang-Prabang  every  year  to  the  Emperor  of  China  and  the 
Emperor  of  Annam.  At  the  present  time  in  the  royal  marriages  of  Luang- 
Prabang  a  rhino  horn  frequently  figures  in  the  dowry  of  the  young  princess.  .  .  . 

Professeur  Bourret,  .  .  .  writing  from  Hanoi  is  certain  ...  of  sondaicus 
as  far  north  as  Tonkin  where  it  has  recently  been  killed  in  the  province  of 
Son  La.  .  .  . 

Bourret  maintains  that  sondaicus  .  .  .  has  been  killed  in  La  Nha,  also  at 
Bien-Hoa  at  Cap  St.  Jacques  not  far  from  Saigon,  in  the  south  of  Cambodia. 
Also  in  the  region  of  Xieng-Khouang  in  Tran  Ninh,  North-east  Laos  ....  He 
estimates  that  perhaps  30  of  the  one-horned  rhinos  have  been  killed  in  Indo- 
China  by  European  hunters  since  1900.  About  1900,  two  skulls  were  sent  home 
from  Bien-Hoa  to  the  Paris  Museum, — these  appear  to  be  the  only  specimens 
of  sondaicus  from  Indo-China  in  any  Museum. 

"M.  J.  Loupy,  Commissaire  du  Gouvernment  at  Luangprabang  in 
Laos,  from  enquiries  from  native  authorities,  thinks  that  no  rhino 
has  been  met  with  during  the  last  five  years  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Luangprabang"  (Loch,  1937,  p.  144) . 

Malay  States. — According  to  Ridley  (1895,  p.  161),  the  common 
rhinoceros  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  "appears  to  be  J?.  sondaicus.  It 
frequents  the  hill-jungles,  ascending  to  4,000  feet  altitude  .... 
As  the  jungle  gets  cleared,  it  wanders  often  into  the  low,  open 
country,  apparently  losing  its  way.  It  is  a  quiet,  inoffensive  beast." 

"In  1921  it  was  known  that  two  animals  of  this  rare  species  were 
round  about  Changkat  Jong  not  far  away  from  Chikkus,  and  one  of 
them  was  shot  by  a  planter"  (Times  of  Malaya  and  Planters'  and 
Miners'  Gazette,  Ipoh,  February  1, 1932) . 

"In  Perak,  lower  Malay  Peninsula,  .  .  .  two  individuals  have 
been  killed  in  the  last  thirty  years,  the  mounted  heads  of  which  are 
now  in  the  Selangor  Museum"  (Barbour  and  Allen,  1932,  p.  146). 
"Both  these  animals  seem  to  have  been  extremely  savage  and  given 
to  unprovoked  attacks.  The  Pinjih  beast  had  been  the  terror  of  its 
valley  from  long  before  the  British  Occupation  (1874)."  (Kloss, 
1927,  p.  208.) 

Comyn-Platt  (19376,  p.  48)  writes: 

Undoubtedly  the  rhinoceros  is  having  the  most  serious  time,  and  I  fail 
to  see  how  his  existence  can  be  much  further  prolonged.  After  all  trade 
will  always  defeat  sentiment  in  the  long  run,  and  as  the  Chinese  are  con- 
vinced that  rhinoceros  horn  is  a  most  valuable  aphrodisiac  and  will  pay  as 
much  as  three  or  four  hundred  dollars  to  get  it,  can  one  be  surprised  if  this 
animal  is  being  hunted  to  extinction?  And  this  is  happening  in  other  countries 
besides  Malaya. 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  387 

Whether  or  no  commercialism  is  the  reason  for  the  practical  disappearance 
of  Rhinoceros  sondaicus  I  am  not  prepared  to  say.  But  the  fact  remains 
that  it  is  rarely,  if  ever,  seen  nowadays.  It  is  believed  that  two  or  three  are 
still  to  be  found  in  the  swampy  lands  of  South  Perak.  There  is  no  certainty, 
however,  about  this. 

Loch  writes  (1937,  p.  135)  on  its  status  in  Malaya: 

Few  specimens  of  the  Javan  rhinoceros  are  left  in  Malaya  at  the  present 
time.  In  the  state  of  Perak,  at  least  three  are  believed  to  exist  in  the  Erong 
and  Chawang  areas,  to  the  west  of  Trolak.  At  least  one  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Lekir  district,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Perak  River  near  Sitiawan.  After  the 
shooting  of  a  sondaicus  in  1928  at  Ujong  Pematang,  a  search  was  made  at 
the  instance  of  the  Game  Warden  in  the  area  between  the  Selangor  and 
Bernam  Rivers.  The  results  were  unsatisfactory,  but  it  is  believed  that  the 
tracks  of  two  were  found.  These  half-dozen  are  all  that  are  known  to  exist 
in  the  Malay  Peninsula.  There  may  be  others;  it  is  sad  to  think  there  may 
not  be  so  many.  .  .  . 

We  do  not  know  if  the  Javan  rhinoceros  was  ever  numerous  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula  previous  to  the  British  occupation  of  the  Straits  Settlements.  Early 
Portuguese  and  Dutch  writers  refer  to  the  "badaks"  to  be  found  inland,  and 
there  must  have  been  a  continuous  trade  in  rhinoceros  horns  between  the 
Malays  and  merchants  from  China. 

Loch  also  enumerates  (pp.  135-140)  the  known  records  from 
Malaya,  as  follows:  Province  Wellesley,  1816;  Pahang,  an  un- 
verified sight  record  in  1891  (the  only  record  from  the  east  side  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula) ;  Temoh,  Perak,  1890's;  Batu  Gajah,  in  Kinta, 
two  in  1897;  Sungai  Palawan,  Lower  Perak,  1898;  Pinji  Valley,  in 
Kinta,  1899;  Bindings  and  Bruas  district  of  Perak,  four  between 
1905  and  1921;  Telok  Anson,  1924  and  1932;  Ujong  Permatang, 
Selangor,  1928. 

"Whether  or  not  the  species  still  exists  in  the  Malay  Peninsula 
is  a  moot  point.  My  own  view  is  that  this  species  should  not  be 
killed  under  any  circumstance,  scientific,  or  otherwise."  (F.  N. 
Chasen,  in  litt.,  May  5,  1937.) 

Sumatra. —  Hazewinkel  (1933,  p.  1019)  records  the  killing  of 
seven  specimens  in  Sumatra,  and  adds:  "The  Chinese  gladly  pay 
quite  a  lot  of  money  for  the  hide  of  the  one-horned  rhino  (up  to  fl. 
1500) ,  and,  in  particular,  the  chula,  or  horn,  will  fetch  fancy  prices, 
even  up  to  4000  guilders  (nearly  £500) .  The  two-horned  Rhinoceros 
Sumatrensis  is,  on  the  contrary,  far  less  valuable:  will  fetch,  in 
fact,  only  about  one-tenth  of  the  above-mentioned  prices.  Hide, 
horn,  bloods,  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  pulverized  or  as  an 
extract,  provide  the  most  essential  ingredients  for  very  potent  and 
renowned  medicines.  According  to  the  Chinese  and  the  natives, 
those  medicines  should  be  able  to  give  back  lost  strength,  youth, 
and  vitality,  and  cure  various  diseases.  The  horns  are  sometimes 
modelled  into  goblets.  Water  or  some  other  liquid,  when  left  in  such 


388  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

a  vessel  for  some  days,  should  then  become  a  veritable  panacea 
against  all  ailments  and  diseases,  even  tuberculosis  and  the  plague!" 
Heynsius-Viruly   and  Van  Heurn    (1936,  pp.   40-47)    give  the 
following  account: 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  Sumatra  both  species  of  rhinos  were  known  by  the 
natives  for  ages  past.  [Reports  by  Marsden  (1811),  Raffles  (1822),  and  Hagen 
(1890)  are  quoted.]  In  1885  Neumann  wrote:  "...  Formerly  the  export 
of  this  article  thorn]  was  rather  important,  but  at  present  it  has  largely 
ceased,  first  because  the  rhino  has  become  scarce  and  secondly  because  the 
natives  no  longer  indulge  much  in  hunting."  .  .  . 

The  district  in  Atjeh,  now  set  apart  as  a  large  game  reserve,  is  criss-crossed 
by  many  .  .  .  rhinoceros  paths  [apparently  made  by  both  species].  .  .  . 

In  1925  Mr.  Hazewinkel  had  the  good  fortune  to  shoot  a  sondaicus  in 
South  Sumatra.  Later  he  shot  six  more  and  two  sumatrensis.  [He  tells] 
how  they  became  aggressive  through  contact  with  man  (and  bullets),  how 
they  kill  cattle  .... 

Presumably  the  magic  power  [of  the  horn]  manifests  itself  in  three  ways: 

1.  A  poisonous  snake  bite  may  be  healed  by  placing  a  small  piece  of  the 
horn  on  it. 

2.  A  poisonous  drink  may  be  detected  by  putting  it  in  a  tumbler  made  of 
rhinoceros  horn.  If  it  contains  poison,  the  liquid  will  foam. 

3.  It  works  as  an  aphrodisiac  when  taken  in  powder  form  or  mixed  with 
water. 

Belief  in  the  first  and  second  of  these  superstitions  is  to  be  found  all  the 
way  from  Arabia  to  China  and  Japan.  Bombay  is  one  of  the  most  important 
markets  for  rhinoceros  horn.  .  .  .  Even  Indo-Europeans  sometimes  believe  in 
it.  ...  The  general  opinion  is  that  the  effect  is  nil  or  based  upon  sugges- 
tion. .  .  . 

Little  is  known  as  yet  of  the  action  as  an  aphrodisiac  mentioned  above.  .  .  . 

Reports  received  from  Sumatra  [as  to  the  occurrence  of  rhinoceros]  .  .  . 
are  not  at  all  optimistic.  The  last  sondaicus  seen  in  South  Palembang  is 
said  to  have  been  shot  in  1928.  In  the  Lampong  Districts  the  same  distinction, 
reported  by  Hagen  from  the  East  Coast,  is  made  between  the  "Badak  karbo" 
and  the  "scaly  badak,"  the  latter  seemingly  being  sondaicus.  .  .  . 

Reports  from  all  other  parts  of  Sumatra  where  rhinoceros  are  said  to  occur, 
always  mention  that  they  are  found  very  sporadically  only.  On  the  whole, 
rhinoceros  still  occur  in  the  plateaus  and  mountain  swamps  of  Atjeh,  espe- 
cially in  the  Gajo  and  Alas  districts,  in  the  extensive  forests  in  the  hinterland 
of  Langkat,  at  the  salt  springs  on  Sumatra's  East  Coast,  at  Indragiri  (be- 
tween Taloek  and  the  P.  R.  I.),  in  Riouw,  Djambi  as  well  as  N.  W.  Palem- 
bang (Benarat).  On  the  western  coast  they  are  still  found  in  the  Barisan 
Mountains,  though  in  small  numbers.  In  the  early  19th  century,  rhinos 
were  quite  numerous  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Peak  of  Korintjih,  but  they  are 
practically  extinct  there  since  1915,  mainly  owing  to  intensive  hunting  by 
means  of  pit  traps.  They  are  threatened  with  rapid  extermination  in  Bangko, 
where  the  controler  BB.  reports  that  "they  may  perhaps  hold  their  own  for 
some  ten  years  more." 

De  Voogd  [1933]  .  .  .  remarks  with  some  sarcasm  that  since  or  due 
perhaps  to  the  hunting  expeditions  of  Hazewinkel  about  1925,  the  rhinos 
have  decreased  at  a  terrific  rate. 

Java. — Lydekker  makes  the  remarkable  statement  (1900,  p.  27) 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :      ODD-TOED    UNGULATES  389 

that  "in  Java  tame  individuals  are  frequently  to  be  seen  wandering 
about  the  villages  of  the  natives." 

"In  Java  the  Rhinoceros  is  now  reduced  to  a  single  herd,  which 
is  confined  to  the  Bantam  district,  at  the  extreme  west  of  the  Island. 
The  herd  is  said  to  consist  of  about  fifty  individuals,  which  are 
very  strictly  preserved."  (Harmer,  1922,  p.  16.) 

According  to  Dammerman  (1929,  pp.  7-8) ,  "the  Javanese  species 
.  .  .  has  decreased  so  considerably  that  its  number  for  Java  has 
been  estimated  at  hardly  more  than  a  few  dozens.  .  .  .  From  Java 
hardly  any  export  has  taken  place  publicly  as  here  the  rhinoceros 
has  been  protected  since  1909,  but  all  the  same,  many  a  specimen 
has  been  killed  illegally." 

Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn  (1936,  pp.  40-46)  give  the  fol- 
lowing account: 

In  Java  ...  it  has  been  exterminated,  except  for  a  few  specimens.  .  .  . 

Much  has  been  written  about  the  fierceness  of  the  rhinoceros.  .  .  .  They 
seem  to  have  an  especial  dislike  for  naturalists.  In  1827,  G.  von  Raalten, 
anatomist  of  the  "Natural  History  Committee  of  the  Netherlands  Indies," 
was  attacked  and  seriously  wounded  by  a  rhinoceros  [sondaicus}  at  Krawang, 
Java.  .  .  . 

Meanwhile  the  rhinoceros  disappeared  long  ago  from  Krawang.  In  their 
original  habitat  in  Java,  which  was  restricted  to  the  western  and  central 
districts,  steady  hunting  during  the  past  century  has  made  them  so  scarce 
that  their  complete  extermination  is  seriously  feared.  This  is  all  the  more 
immediate  since  one  can  expect,  at  the  most,  one  young  every  five  or  six 
years.  .  .  . 

In  Java,  according  to  reports,  sondaicus  will  soon  be  a  thing  of  the  past, 
if  it  does  not  prove  possible  to  sufficiently  guard  the  few  remaining  specimens 
in  Southwest  Bantam  and  in  the  Nature  Monument  Oedjoengkoelon.  Although 
poachers  are  now  punished  more  severely  than  before,  three  corpses  of 
rhinoceros  were  found  in  the  Nature  Monument  in  1932.  The  presence  of  a 
single  rhinoceros  in  the  district  Karangnoengal  was  reported;  also  a  few 
specimens  in  the  Garoet  Mountains  as  well  as  near  Pameungpeuk  and  to  the 
west  of  Lake  Kinder. 

Borneo. — This  species  "has  been  supposed  to  inhabit  .  .  .  Borneo 
as  well,  but  statements  to  that  effect  need  confirmation,  and  are  very 
likely  to  be  wrong"  (Harmer,  1922,  p.  16) . 

"The  evidence  for  its  occurrence  in  Borneo  is  far  from  good, 
being  based  in  part  on  native  report  (see  Sclater,  1869) "  (Barbour 
and  Allen,  1-932,  p.  145) . 

Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn  (1936,  p.  47)  evidently  consider 
reports  of  sondaicus  from  Borneo  due  to  confusion  with  sumatrensis. 

"E.  Banks,  Curator  of  the  Sarawak  Museum  .  .  .  does  not  believe 
that  sondaicus  really  exists  in  Borneo"  (Loch,  1937,  p.  145) . 

Specimens. — Barbour  and  Allen  (1932,  pp.  147-149)  list  the 
known  museum  specimens,  and  Loch  (1937,  p.  147)  does  likewise, 
making  a  total  of  18  mounted  skins,  6  mounted  heads,  20  skeletons, 
and  40  skulls. 


390  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Loch  also  gives  (p.  146)  an  estimate  of  66  specimens  living  at 
present,  including  4  in  Burma,  6  in  the  Malay  States,  6  in  Sumatra, 
24  in  Java,  8  in  Siam,  and  18  in  Indo-China. 

Sumatra ii  Rhinoceros.    Rhinoceros  de  Sumatra    (Fr.) 

DlCERORHINUS   SUMATRENSIS  SUMATRENSIS    (G.  Fischer) 

[Rhinoceros]  sumatrensis  G.  Fischer,  Zoognosia,  vol.  3,  p.  301,  1814.  (Based 
upon  "the  double  horned  rhinoceros  of  Sumatra"  of  Bell,  Philos.  Trans. 
Royal  Soc.  London  1793,  pt.  1,  p.  3,  pis.  2-4,  1793;  "about  ten  miles 
from  Fort  Marlborough,"  Sumatra.) 

FIGS.:  Bell,  1793,  pi.  2;  Temminck,  Natuurl.  Geschiedenis  Nederl.  overz. 
bezittingen,  Zool.,  Mammalia,  pi.  34,  1839-44 ;  Gervais,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif ., 
pt.  2,  pi.  31,  1855;  Elliot,  1907,  p.  105,  fig.  25;  Mjoberg,  1930,  pi.  2. 

This  typical  subspecies  of  the  two-horned  Sumatran  Rhinoceros, 
occurring  in  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  has  very  seriously  declined  in 
numbers. 

It  is  said  to  be  distinguished  from  the  form  of  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula by  skull  differences  and  also  by  its  grayish  instead  of  blackish 
color  (J.  E.  Gray,  1873,  pp.  358-359).  According  to  Bell's  original 
description  (1809,  pp.  283-284),  the  general  color  is  brownish  ash; 
belly  between  the  legs  and  folds  of  skin  dirty  flesh-colored;  ears 
small  and  pointed,  edged  with  short  black  hair;  upper  lip  pointed  and 
prehensile;  whole  skin  rough  and  covered  very  thinly  with  short 
black  hair;  tail  covered  with  long  hair;  a  fold  of  skin  behind  the 
shoulder,  and  others  on  the  lower  side  of  the  neck.  Height  of  male  at 
shoulder,  4  feet  4  inches;  length  from  tip  of  nose  to  end  of  tail,  8  feet 
5  inches;  anterior  horn,  about  9  inches;  posterior  horn,  4  inches. 

Sumatra. — Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn  (1936,  pp.  40-41) 
refer  to  early  records  by  Bell  (1793) ,  Marsden  (1811) ,  Raffles  (1822) , 
and  Neumann  (1885). 

In  1906  W.  L.  Abbott  (in  Lyon,  1908,  p.  623)  found  rhinoceroses 
(species  not  determined)  common  on  the  mainland  in  Eastern 
Sumatra  opposite  Pulo  Rupat.  The  following  remarks  of  Dammer- 
man  (1929,  pp.  7-9)  apply  to  two  species: 

The  rhinoceroses  need  protection  urgently.  The  Javanese  species  (Rhinoceros 
sondaicus)  has  decreased  so  considerably  that  its  number  for  Java  has  been 
estimated  at  hardly  more  than  a  few  dozens,  and  also  the  Sumatra  kind  (Rh. 
sumatrensis)  is  strongly  on  the  decline.  These  animals,  besides  being  a  victim 
to  big-game  hunting,  are  taken  by  the  natives  for  the  sake  of  their  horns 
....  These  horns  are  highly  valued  by  the  Chinese,  at  some  hundred  guilders 
a  piece,  and  are  used  for  a  secret  medicine.  .  .  .  The  exported  horns  go 
mostly  to  Singapore,  only  a  small  quantity  goes  directly  to  China.  ...  In 
the  islands  outside  Java  the  rhinoceroses  remained  pretty  much  unprotected 
up  to  the  present.  The  principal  port  for  export  of  this  product  is  Tandjoeng- 
selor  in  East  Borneo.  .  .  .  We  see  by  the  given  prices,  which  vary  between 
200  and  400  guilders  a  kilogram,  what  large  sums  the  Chinese  will  spend  for 
these  horns.  We  do  not  possess  exact  figures  about  the  weight  of  rhinoceros 
horns,  but  it  is  improbable  that  the  weight  of  the  two  horns  of  the  Sumatra 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  391 

species  should  exceed  one  kilogram.  So  we  may  suppose  that  during  the 
last  ten  years  an  average  of  forty  rhinoceroses  yearly  were  sacrificed  to 
the  superstition  of  the  Chinese,  for,  of  course,  there  can  be  no  question  of  any 
curative  action  of  the  horn.  With  the  new  regulations  both  species  of  rhi- 
noceroses will  be  protected  and  also  the  export  of  their  horns  will  be  forbidden, 
so  we  hope  to  be  in  time  to  save  these  remarkable  animals  from  total 
destruction. 

According  to  the  statistics  given  by  Dammerman  (1929,  pp. 
90-91),  49  kilos  of  rhinoceros  horns  were  exported  from  the  Nether- 
lands Indies  in  1919,  70  in  1920,  38  in  1921,  68  in  1922,  39  in  1923, 
24  in  1924,  16  in  1925,  22  in  1926,  and  26  in  1927.  These  figures 
indicate  unmistakably  an  increasing  scarcity  of  the  animals. 

J.  Gourin  (in  litt.,  August  7,  1933)  speaks  of  sumatrensis  as 
pretty  rare.  Formerly  "we  had  them  near  Boeloe  Telang,  and  I 
believe  there  is  still  a  couple  living  on  Lepan." 

Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn  (1936,  pp.  43-44)  give  the  fol- 
lowing information : 

Otto's  hunting  descriptions  [1903]  are  of  particular  interest  to  the  Nether- 
lands Committee  because  they  relate  to  that  part  of  Langkat  lying  along  the 
Upper  Lepan  River,  a  district  set  apart  long  ago  as  a  forest  reserve  and 
which  connects,  along  the  boundary  of  Langkat  and  Atlas,  with  the  recently 
proclaimed  game  reserve.  All  rhinoceros  shot  by  Otto  belonged  to  the  two- 
horned  species.  .  .  .  There  is  ...  much  chance  that  both  species  will  be 
found  in  the  newly  established  game  reserve.  .  .  . 

The  Netherlands  Committee  for  International  Nature  Protection  formerly 
described  how  the  Natives  [in  northern  Sumatra!  hunt  rhinoceros  by  means 
of  a  spear-trap. 

Mjoberg  writes  (1930,  p.  18) :  "In  Sumatra,  so  it  is  said,  the 
Battas  creep  up  so  close  to  the  rhinoceros  as  to  be  able  to  cut  the 
sinews  of  its  back  legs  with  a  sharp  knife." 

"Rhinoceroses  are  close  to  extinction  in  northern  Sumatra,  al- 
though a  few  are  supposed  to  remain  in  remote  parts  of  the  Wilhel- 
mina  Range.  A  'pawong'  or  native  chieftain  told  us  that  the  animals 
once  were  very  numerous  on  the  plateau  at  Blangbeke.  .  .  .  The 
pawong  and  his  men  hunted  the  rhinos  here  twenty  years  ago,  using 
both  guns  and  dead-falls  over  the  rhino  trails.  .  .  .  The  pawong 
personally  had  captured  24  rhinos  with  these  spike  traps.  .  .  .  The 
pawong  used  to  obtain  250  rupees  (guilders)  for  a  catty  (1.36  Ibs.)  of 
powdered  horn."  (Ulmer,  in  Miller,  1942,  pp.  161-162.) 

Borneo. — "The  Rhinoceros  ...  is  still  extant,  but  it  seems  to  be 
confined  to  the  mountainous  regions  in- the  far  interior  of  the  island, 
and  I  do  not  suppose  that  more  than  half  a  dozen  specimens  have 
been  sent  to  European  museums"  (Shelford,  1916,  p.  42) . 

To  the  foregoing  statement,  H.  N.  Ridley  adds  in  a  footnote  that 
sumatrensis  is  common  in  British  North  Borneo,  and  that  he  passed 
four  in  one  trip. 


392  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Mjoberg  (1930,  pp.  17-19)  gives  the  following  account  for  Borneo: 

He  lives  in  the  most  inaccessible  tracts,  which  are  free,  as  a  rule,  from  all 
human  visitors.  .  .  . 

Near  the  upper  springs  of  the  River  Boh,  in  Central  Borneo,  we  one  day 
.  .  .  came  upon  no  less  than  four  specimens.  [Three  of  these  fled  but  one 
attacked  the  procession  of  bearers.  The  meeting  with  a  party  of  four  was 
very  exceptional.] 

The  nomad  tribes  that  wander  through  the  central  districts  of  Borneo  are 
very  keen  rhinoceros-hunters.  The  Punans  follow  his  trail  without  a  sound 
and  blow  poisoned  darts  at  his  more  vulnerable  points.  They  may  follow 
one  and  the  same  animal  for  weeks  without  giving  up  the  pursuit,  until  they 
have  secured  a  suitable  opportunity  to  use  their  blow-pipe.  .  .  . 

It  is  chiefly  the  horns  that  are  highly  prized  for  trading  purposes.  They 
are  sold  for  several  hundred  shillings  apiece  to  the  Chinese  from  the  districts 
round  the  coast,  who  use  them  for  the  preparation  of  a  medicine  in  great 
request  ...  as  a  cure  for  ailments  of  every  description. 

The  fate  of  the  rhinoceros  family  should  soon  be  sealed  in  Borneo,  for 
every  year  a  very  large  number  of  them  are  killed  simply  for  the  sake  of 
their  horns.  At  the  twelfth  hour  the  Sarawak  Government — acting  on  the 
author's  initiative — has  introduced  certain  restrictions  on  rhinoceros-hunting, 
but  they  are  not  strictly  enough  enforced.  ...  It  is  of  course  true  that 
the  rhinoceros  is  also  to  be  found  in  Dutch  Borneo,  but  apparently  not  in 
such  numbers  as  in  highly  favoured  Sarawak.  .  .  . 

The  hunting  of  the  rhinoceros  ought  to  be  entirely  forbidden  for  humani- 
tarian reasons.  It  is  a  perfectly  harmless  creature,  that  does  not  do  any 
mischief.  .  .  .  The  rhinoceros  stands  badly  in  need  of  protection  to  enable 
it  to  survive  in  modern  conditions. 

Banks  (1931,  pp.  19-20)  writes  concerning  the  Bornean  animal: 

[It  occurs]  in  the  mountainous  region  in  the  Lawas  interior,  various  places 
in  the  far  interior  of  the  Baram  and  Rejang  Rivers,  occasionally  straying  as 
far  down  as  the  Ulus  of  Mukah  and  Oya  but  is  not  found  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rejang  or  down  into  Saribas  and  Sarawak  proper.  .  .  . 

Now  there  can  at  the  moment  be  no  fear  of  Rhinoceros  becoming  scarce 
for  as  many  as  36  trophies  were  brought  into  Belaga  in  two  years  not  so  long 
ago  and  I  have  met  men  who  have  claimed  to  have  shot  over  30  in  the  course 
of  their  life  time,  but  it  must  be  evident  that  such  a  slow  breeding  animal 
cannot  stand  destruction  for  long  at  this  rate  .... 

Reserves  so  successfully  made  in  other  countries  are  impossible  to  enforce 
here. 

Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn  (1936,  pp.  47-48)  contribute  the 
following: 

Reports  from  Borneo  are  hardly  more  favorable  [than  from  Sumatra]. 
We  are  told  that  in  West  Koetai  rhinoceros  are  quite  scarce  and  confined 
to  remote  and  inaccessible  spots.  The  area  it  occupies  is  said  to  be  large, 
but  the  numbers  few  and  steadily  decreasing,  once  more  due  to  hunting. 

In  some  subdivisions  their  survival  is  seriously  threatened,  while  they  are 
already  extinct  in  Martapoera.  They  occur  nowadays  mainly  north  of  the 
Mahakam  River,  where  they  extend  high  up  into  the  mountains.  .  .  . 

R.  sumatrensis  is  also  reported  from  Boentok  and  Apau-Kajan;  and  is  said 
to  be  fairly  numerous  in  the  highlands  near  the  boundary  of  British  North 
Borneo,  outside  inhabited  districts,  as  well  as  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Malinau 
and  Toeboe. 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA:    ODD-TOED  UNGULATES  393 

The  foregoing  localities  are  shown  on  a  map  accompanying  an  article  by 
J.  L.  P.  Zondag  [De  Tropische  Natuur,  vol.  20,  p.  221,  1931].  Although  there 
are  quite  a  few  of  these  places,  the  small  number  of  specimens  gives  food 
for  thought.  May  the  establishment  of  large  reserves  soon  remove  all  danger 
of  their  extermination  in  Borneo  also. 

Comyn-Platt  (1937,  p.  54)  writes  of  conditions  in  British  North 
Borneo:  "As  to  R.  sumatrensis,  I  understand  there  are  still  a  few 
left.  I  can  well  believe  its  approaching  extinction,  for  ...  the 
Chinese  will  pay  any  price  for  the  horn,  which  has  a  medicinal 
value.  But  realizing  the  great  demand  the  Customs  Authorities  take 
every  precaution  to  prevent  the  export.  It  is  not  easy." 

"The  Dyaks  make  or  have  made  a  very  good  thing  out  of  hunting 
sumatrensis  for  sale  to  the  Chinese"  (Loch,  1937,  p.  145) . 

Chittagong  Rhinoceros ;  Hairy-eared  Sumatran  Rhinoceros 

DlCERORHINUS    SUMATRENSIS   LASIOTIS    (Buckland) 

Rhinoceros  lasiotis  "Sclater"  Buckland,  Land  and  Water,  August  10,   1872. 

(Based  upon  a  living  female  captured  south  of  Chittagong,  Bengal,  at  a 

distance  from  that  point  marched  by  elephants  in  about  16  hours  (P.  L. 

Sclater,  1872,  p.  493).)    (On  the  authorship  of  lasiotis,  see  Harper,  1940, 

p.  201.) 
FIGS.:   Nature,  vol.  5,  p.  427,  1872,  and  vol.  6,  p.  519,  fig.  2,  1872;  P.  L.  Sclater, 

1872,  pi.  23,  1873,  pp.  791-792,  figs.  1-3,  and  1876,  pi.  98. 

Malaccan  Rhinoceros 

DlCBRORHINUS    SUMATRENSIS    NIGER    (J.    E.    Gray) 

Ceratorhinus  niger  J.  E.  Gray,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  4,  vol.  11,  p.  357, 

1873.  ("Malacca.") 

SYNONYM:    Ceratorhinus  blythii  J.  E.  Gray  (1873). 

FIGS.:  P.  L.  Sclater,  1873,  p.  793,  figs.  4,  5,  and  pi.  67;  P.  L.  Sclater,  1876, 
pi.  97;  Lydekker,  1900,  pi.  1,  fig.  4;  Peacock,  1933,  pi.  6  (no  posterior 
horn  visible) ;  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  37,  no.  1,  suppl., 
pi.  33,  1934. 

Since  the  ranges  of  the  two  mainland  representatives  of  the  Asiatic 
Two-horned  Rhinoceros  have  not  been  satisfactorily  delimited,  it 
seems  advisable  to  treat  both  in  a  single  account.  The  Two-horned 
Rhinoceros  has  been  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  but  is  not  yet  so 
near  the  vanishing  point  as  the  Smaller  One-horned  Rhinoceros 
(sondaicus) . 

The  type  of  lasiotis  was  a  female  about  4  feet  4  inches  high  at 
the  shoulder  and  about  8  feet  from  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail ; 
anterior  horn  low  and  rounded,  above  the  nostril;  posterior  horn 
conical,  above  the  eye;  ears  fringed  with  drooping  hair  about  5 
inches  long;  interior  of  ear  conch  nearly  naked;  upper  lip  pointed 
and  prehensile;  tail  with  numerous  transverse  folds,  and  with  long 
hair  on  the  anterior  and  posterior  borders  of  its  lower  third;  skin 


394  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

ashy  gray,  covered  with  bristles  about  1  inch  long;  bristles  rufous 
on  back,  dark  brown  between  shoulders,  almost  white  on  neck  and 
head,  black  on  lower  half  of  trunk  and  on  limbs;  tubercles  of  the  skin 
so  small  and  flat  that  the  skin  is  almost  smooth  (Anderson,  1872, 
pp.  129-131;  P.  L.  Sclater,  1873,  p.  791).  No  adequate  description 
of  the  male  of  lasiotis  seems  to  be  available.  A  male  from  20  miles 
south  of  Comillah,  in  Tipperah,  Bengal,  presumably  of  this  sub- 
species, had  a  front  horn  8^  inches  long,  while  its  second  horn  was  a 
mere  stud  (Prop.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1877,  p.  269). 

The  type  specimen  of  niger  "is  peculiar  for  having  a  very  rough 
skin,  the  body  being  covered  with  thick  black  hair"  (J.  E.  Gray, 
1873,  p.  357).  An  average  male  from  Burma,  presumably  of  this 
form,  was  9  feet  5  inches  from  nose  to  tip  of  tail ;  tail,  1  foot  9  inches ; 
light  buff  on  body;  face,  tail,  outsides  of  legs,  and  portions  of  flanks 
black;  under  parts  of  body,  legs,  and  hips  a  light  flesh  color;  hairy 
throughout,  but  less  hairy  on  face  and  head ;  very  hairy  on  legs  and 
ears;  a  thick  fringe  of  hairs  along  the  flattened  surface  at  the  tip 
of  the  tail ;  heavy  folds  of  skin  behind  the  shoulder,  in  front  of  the 
thigh,  and  round  the  neck.  The  front  horns  of  males  average  7  or  8 
inches,  and  those  of  females  about  3  inches;  the  posterior  horns  of 
males  average  about  3  inches,  and  those  of  females  are  mere  knobs. 
(Peacock,  1933,  pp.  71-72.) 

Specimens  from  Bengal  and  Assam  may  be  provisionally  regarded 
as  lasiotis,  and  those  from  elsewhere  on  the  Asiatic  mainland  (Burma, 
Siam,  French  Indo-China,  and  Malay  States)  as  niger. 

Bengal  and  Assam. — Specimens  of  the  Two-horned  Rhinoceros 
have  been  recorded  from  the  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra,  40-50  miles 
northeast  of  Dohbree,  Assam,  and  from  20  miles  south  of  Comillah, 
Tipperah,  Bengal  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1875,  p.  566,  and  1877, 
p.  269) .  By  1900  the  animal  was  considered  rare  in  Assam  (Lydek- 
ker,  1900,  p.  29) . 

"In  the  [Assam]  reserves  a  great  number  of  rhinos  were  destroyed 
last  year,  but  with  military  police  guards  stationed  in  these  localities 
this  summer,  it  is  hoped  that  there  will  not  be  so  much  poaching" 
(Hanson,  1931,  p.  37). 

Milroy  writes  (1934,  p.  102)  as  follows  concerning  the  animal  in 
Assam: 

Formerly  common  in  the  Lushai  and  Manipur  Hills  and  occasionally  found 
in  North  Cachar,  but  by  now  almost  hunted  to  the  vanishing  point  by 
Lushais  and  Kukis.  The  opening  up  by  forest  villagers  of  several  big  patches 
of  marshy  land  in  the  Forest  Reserves  of  South  Cachar  seriously  reduced 
the  number  of  suitable  haunts  available  for  this  species.  Most  of  the  remaining 
patches,  however,  will  have  to  be  kept  closed  to  cultivation  in  order  to 
preserve  feeding-grounds  for  the  timber-dragging  elephants,  and  some  special 
steps  have  already  been  taken  to  try  and  look  after  the  few  rhino  still  left 
alive  in  this  difficult  country  where  little  control  can  be  exercised  over 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  395 

shikaries.   The  record  flood  of  July,  1929,  drove  the  rhino  up  into  the  hills 
and  very  few  have  been  allowed  by  the  Lushais  to  return. 

"Whether  this  species  continues  to  exist  in  India  proper  is  a  matter 
of  speculation.  It  has  probably  been  exterminated  or  is  on  the  verge 
of  extinction  from  this  country.  Probably  does  not  survive  in 
Assam."  (Bombay  Natural  Histopy  Society,  in  Hit.,  December, 
1936.) 

Burma. — "While  at  Bhamo  in  Upper  Burmah,  I  was  informed  by 
an  intelligent  native  that  two-horned  Rhinocerotes  are  found  in  the 
Mogonny  district,  which  is  close  to  the  confines  of  Assam,  and  as 
far  north  as  the  twenty-sixth  degree  of  north  latitude"  (J.  Anderson, 
1872,  p.  129). 

Peacock  (1933,  pp.  72-73)  gives  the  following  account: 

In  the  days  before  the  advent  of  fire-arms  the  Sumatran  rhinoceros  must 
have  been  fairly  common  throughout  Burma.  Even  now  it  is  thinly  dis- 
tributed near  the  watersheds  of  most  of  the  important  hill-systems  from 
Myitkyina  in  the  north  to  Victoria  Point  in  the  extreme  south  of  the 
Province.  .  .  . 

The  Sumatran  rhinoceros  has  been  so  heavily  poached  within  the  past 
twenty  years  that  there  are  now  vast  stretches  of  suitable  evergreen  forest 
from  which  it  has  been  completely  exterminated.  It  may  still  be  located  in 
parts  of  Myitkyina,  in  the  angle  between  the  Chindwin  and  the  Uyu  Rivers, 
in  the  Arakan  Hills  as  far  south  as  Bassein,  in  parts  of  the  Pegu  Yomas,  in 
parts  of  the  Salween  and  Tenasserim  drainages  and  in  a  few  other  remote 
hill  tracts.  .  .  . 

The  only  area  in  which  rhinoceros  is  now  fairly  common  is  the  Shwe-u- 
daung  Game  Sanctuary  in  the  Mogok  Subdivision  of  the  Katha  District. 
There  are  about  ten  rhinoceros  in  this  sanctuary  but,  in  default  of  adequate 
protection,  I  should  not  be  surprised  to  hear  that  they  had  been  decimated 
by  some  enterprising  gang  of  poachers.  The  perpetuation  of  this  species 
undoubtedly  depends  on  the  proper  protection  of  this  sanctuary  which,  hitherto, 
has  been  guarded  only  by  the  occasional  visits  of  one  or  two  forest  subordi- 
nates and  a  peculiar  superstition  to  the  effect  that  the  sanctuary  is  occupied 
by  wood-spirits  which  are  intolerant  of  poaching. 

The  blood  and  horn  of  the  Sumatran  rhinoceros  have  a  very  high  medicinal 
value  in  the  imagination  of  Chinamen,  Burmans  and  tribesmen  indigenous 
to  Burma.  One  gathers  that  such  parts  of  a  rhinoceros  have  the  properties  of  a 
very  potent  aphrodisiac.  An  average  horn,  about  8  inches  in  length,  is  worth 
about  1000  rupees,  and  the  blood,  when  dried,  is  valued  at  its  own  weight  in 
silver.  Other  parts  of  the  rhinoceros  have  a  lesser  value  but,  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Burma,  the  inhabitants  find  a  medicinal  use  even  for  the  urine  and 
dung.  An  animal,  the  parts  of  which  are  invested  with  such  value,  is  bound 
to  be  mercilessly  hunted,  and  this  has  been  the  fate  of  the  Sumatran  rhinoceros 
in  Burma. 

Siam. — "I  may  state  that  both  the  one-horned  and  two-horned 
rhinoceros  (R.  sondaicus  and  R.  sumatrensis)  are  to  be  found  in 
Siam  but,  owing  to  the  hunting  by  the  hill  tribes  both  are  now 
extremely  rare,  so  much  so  that  some  five  years  ago  the  killing  of 
them  was  prohibited  by  the  government.  Their  extermination  was 


396  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

mainly  due  to  the  Chinese  for  their  horns  for  medicinal  purposes, 
the  said  horns  being  probably  worth  their  weight  in  gold  to-day. 
There  has  for  many  years  been  a  special  customs  duty  on  them." 
(William  W.  Fegan,  in  Loch,  1937,  pp.  133-134.) 

(See  also  the  account  of  R.  sondaicus  in  Siam.) 

French  Indo-China. — (See  the  account  of  R.  sondaicus  in  this 
country.) 

Barthelemy  (1930,  pp.  131,  139)  refers  to  this  species  as  a  rare 
animal  in  Indo-China,  living  in  rocky,  densely  thicketed,  moun- 
tainous places;  he  records  one  killed  by  Laos  hunters  in  1904  at 
Camranh,  south  of  Nhatrang,  Annam. 

Undoubtedly  the  present  species  has  existed,  and  probably  still 
exists,  in  Indo-China,  since  M.  H.  Maitre  and  M.  Fernand  Millet 
himself  have  seen  several  skulls  armed  with  two  horns.  Its  occur- 
rence in  Cambodia  and  on  the  Darlac  is  noted.  (De  la  Chevasnerie, 
1936?,  p.  340.) 

Malay  States. — "There  are  several  known  of  in  Perak  (this  was  in 
Jan.  1932)  also  Selangor  and  Hubback  told  me  himself  that  they 
were  in  Pahang"  (Arthur  S.  Vernay,  in  Hit.,  March  1,  1933). 

"Personally,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  the  last  species  of  rhinoceros 
to  exist  will  be  the  Sumatrensis  as  this  animal  lives  in  the  most 
remote  and  inaccessible  places,  in  hills  that  are  practically  impossible 
to  man,  and  quite  impossible  to  elephants,  whereas  the  Unicornis 
is  quite  easy  to  obtain  and  kill,  and  the  Sondaicus,  almost  gone, 
also  lives  in  fairly  accessible  country"  (Arthur  S.  Vernay,  in  litt.} 
October  27,  1933). 

In  the  Malay  Peninsula  "the  two-horned  animal  (R.  sumatrensis) 
is  more  common  [than  sondaicus]  but  I  did  not  see  any.  In  recent 
years  one  of  these  was  shot  by  the  Sultan  of  Johore  ....  H.  H. 
The  Sultan  is  very  jealous  as  regards  the  protection  of  animals  in  his 
own  jungles,  and  great  credit  is  due  him  for  instituting  game  laws  in 
his  State,  even  before  development  of  the  country  had  begun." 
(Burgess,  1935,  p.  251.) 

This  rhinoceros  "needs  rigid  protection  everywhere.  In  the 
mountainous  parts  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  it  is,  probably,  still  not 
uncommon."  (F.  N.  Chasen,  in  litt.}  May  5,  1937.) 

Black  or  Hook-lipped  Rhinoceros 

DICEROS  BICORNIS  BicoRNis  (Linnaeus) 

Rhinoceros  bicornis  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Naturae,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  56,  1758.  ("India," 
but  fixed  by  Thomas  as  Cape  of  Good  Hope.) 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  397 

Somali  Black  Rhinoceros 

DlCBROS  BIOORNIS  SOMALIENSIS   (Potocki) 

Rhinoceros  bicornis  somaliensis  Potocki,  Sport  in  Somaliland,  p.  82,  1900. 
Fias.:    Dugmore,  A.  R.,  Camera  Adventures  in  the  African  Wilds,  figs.  opp. 

p.  16,  1910;  Ward,  1935,  figs.  opp.  pp.  343,  345,  347;  Maxwell,  M.,  3  pis., 

1930. 

The  African  Black  Rhinoceros  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  rather 
narrow  muzzle,  with  a  hooked  rather  than  squared  upper  lip.  The 
two  horns  are  placed  one  behind  the  other  on  the  nose,  the  posterior 
one  usually  the  smaller,  though  in  some  cases  the  reverse  is  true 
(giving  rise  to  the  belief  that  this  condition  represented  a  second 
species,  the  keitloa).  Skin  thick  and  dark  brown  in  color.  Hoofs 
three  on  each  foot.  Head  and  body  about  10  feet  long;  tail,  28 
inches.  The  record  front  horn,  measured  on  the  outside  curve,  is 
given  by  Rowland  Ward  as  53.5  inches  (a  female) .  The  average  is 
much  less,  perhaps  about  20  inches. 

The  Black  Rhinoceros  avoids  wet  forest  country  but  prefers  rather 
dry  thorn  bush  and  plains  with  streams  here  and  there  where  it  may 
drink.  Its  range  therefore  included  formerly  the  Cape  region  in  the 
south,  from  southwestern  Angola  across  the  Cape  Province  to  eastern 
Africa,  and  north,  avoiding  the  Congo  Basin  and  its  rain  forests, 
to  Somaliland  and  southwestern  Ethiopia,  thence  westward  along  a 
strip  between  the  Sahara  and  the  Congo  and  Nigerian  forests  to 
the  region  of  Lake  Chad  and  the  French  Cameroons.  Over  this  vast 
area  are  localities  where  rhinos  are  absent,  as  along  the  coast  of 
Kenya  and  Tanganyika  Territory,  or  between  the  Chobe  and  the 
Zambesi,  where  according  to  Selous  the  natives  say  there  were  none 
even  in  days  before  white  occupation.  Formerly  common  locally, 
the  Black  Rhino  has  become  much  reduced  of  late  years.  In  the 
northeast  of  this  general  range,  east  of  the  Tana  River  and  Lake 
Rudolf  in  Kenya  Colony,  the  animal  is  supposed  to  be  slightly 
smaller  and  is  generally  regarded  as  a  distinct  race,  somaliensis,  but 
the  extent  of  these  differences  needs  more  particular  definition,  and 
the  two  may  here  be  considered  together. 

Sclater  (1900)  and  Shortridge  (1934)  have  given  a  good  summary 
of  its  history  in  South  Africa.  It  seems  to  have  first  become  known 
to  Europeans  about  1653  at  the  time  of  the  first  settlement  of  the 
Cape.  "It  is  frequently  mentioned  in  van  Riebeck's  diary,  and  ap- 
parently at  that  time,  was  common  enough  on  the  slopes  of  Table 
Mountain  and  on  the  Cape  Flats;  a  further  incident  corroborating 
this  is,  that  the  coach  in  which  Simon  van  der  Stel,  the  Governor, 
was  proceeding  northwards,  on  a  journey  to  Namaqualand  in  1685, 
was  upset  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Piquetberg,  by  the  charge  of  a 
rhinoceros,  and  the  Governor  himself  had  a  narrow  escape.  Tachard 


398  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

who  spent  some  few  weeks  at  the  Cape  at  the  same  time  (1685) ,  and 
Kolben  who  wrote  about  fifty  years  later"  give  descriptions  of  it. 
In  those  days  widespread  over  the  whole  of  South  Africa,  it  was 
still  common  along  the  south  coast  of  the  Colony  in  1700.  The  last 
one  in  the  Cape  region  was  said  to  have  been  killed  in  1853,  on  the 
Coega  River,  close  to  Port  Elizabeth,  while  in  the  Orange  Free  State 
the  last  one  killed  is  said  to  have  been  in  1842,  a  decade  earlier,  in  the 
Kroonstad  district.  In  the  1840's  rhinos  were  still  rather  common  in 
Bechuanaland,  "but  now  they  are  extinct  both  there  and  probably 
also  in  Rhodesia."  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900.)  In  1900,  according  to 
Sclater,  their  last  haunts  south  of  the  Zambesi  were  "Zululand,  the 
Lydenburg  district  (where  a  few  are  preserved) ,  the  Beira-Zambesi 
country  and  perhaps  Ovampoland." 

Kirby  (in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  38-40)  wrote  at  the  end  of  the  last 
century  that  "a  few  years  ago  rhino  were  far  more  widely  distributed 
throughout  central  South  Africa  than  at  present.  There  are  probably 
not  a  dozen  left  in  even  the  remotest  corners  of  the  northeastern 
Transvaal,  where  once  they  abounded ;  two  or  three  in  the  Matamiri 
bush,  and  a  few  in  the  Libombo  range  near  Oliphant's  River  repre- 
sent all.  In  the  rough  broken  country  south  of  the  Zambesi  and  east 
of  the  Falls,  in  parts  of  ...  Portuguese  East  Africa  they  are  still 
fairly  numerous,  and  there  are  a  few  in  Matabeleland,  Mashona- 
land,  and  Amatongaland."  This  statement  is  apparently  more  or 
less  near  the  truth  at  the  present  day,  nearly  forty  years  later.  At 
all  events,  in  the  annual  report  as  to  conditions  in  what  is  now 
Kruger  National  Park,  the  Game  Ranger  states  in  1925  as  follows: 
"A  few  of  the  species  exist  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Shingwedsi 
River.  I  was  long  under  the  impression  that  no  survivors  now 
existed  south  of  the  Olifants  River;  but  during  the  past  year,  I 
personally  came  on  fresh  tracks  of  a  single  animal  in  the  Sabi  Bush, 
and  it  is  therefore  fairly  certain  that  the  dense  covert  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Matumiru  Spruit,  still  holds  several  of  the  species. 
The  rhinoceros  is  a  type  fast  disappearing  from  even  the  best  game 
countries  of  Africa  today,  and  in  view  of  its  slow  breeding  nature, 
exceptional  efforts  should  be  made  to  preserve  it  from  extinction. 
Fortunately  it  has  no  natural  enemies."  The  most  recent  report 
available,  1934,  gives  as  an  estimate  of  the  numbers  in  eastern  South 
Africa,  "a  few"  in  the  Umfolosi  Reserve,  approximately  85  in  the 
Hluhluwe  Reserve,  and  a  few  in  the  Mkuzi  Reserve,  Natal.  The 
number  in  Kruger  Park  in  1932  was  believed  to  be  "under  half  a 
dozen."  In  western  South-West  Africa  a  small  remnant  still  exists. 
In  the  Kaokoveld,  according  to  Shortridge  (1934),  between  the 
lower  Ugab  River  and  the  Cunene  there  may  be  still  between  40 
and  80  rhinoceros,  but  "in  1923  Manning  estimated  that,  at  most, 
there  were  50  in  the  entire  territory,"  so  that  a  slight  increase  may  be 


ORDER   PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  399 

indicated.  Steinhardt  estimated  about  one  to  every  12  km.  along 
the  south  bank  of  the  Cunene,  across  which  in  southwestern  Angola 
they  are  more  plentiful.  Shortridge  states  that  they  are  very  rare 
in  Ovamboland,  with  none  in  the  Namutoni  Game  Reserve.  There 
are  still  a  few  in  the  central  Caprivi,  but  none  in  the  eastern.  In 
Portuguese  East  Africa  there  are  apparently  a  number  of  these 
animals,  and  it  is  believed  that  from  time  to  time  they  come  over 
the  border  into  the  sanctuary  of  Kruger  National  Park.  In  Northern 
Rhodesia  they  appear  to  be  restricted  to  the  southern  and  eastern 
parts,  where,  however,  according  to  David  Ross  (in  letter,  1936)  they 
are  "being  thinned  out  to  the  danger  line."  In  Nyasaland  they  are 
"very  scarce  in  most  districts,  though  still  to  be  found  in  several  of 
the  more  remote  parts  of  the  country,  such  as  in  the  Dowa  and  Kota- 
kota  districts.  They  are  protected  and  but  one  may  be  obtained  on  a 
visitor's  full  license  or  on  a  special  license."  (Wood,  in  Maydon, 
1932,  p.  315.) 

Proceeding  northeastward  from  these  localities,  the  Black  Rhi- 
noceros seems  to  have  its  present  center  of  abundance  in  Tangan- 
yika and  especially  in  Kenya  Colony.  Up  to  1920,  at  least,  it  was 
considered  "abundant  in  the  northern  districts,  becomes  scarcer  in 
Tabora,  Kilimatinde  and  Handeni,  and  is  present  in  small  numbers 
only  in  Mahenge,  Malinyi,  Mamanyere  and  Tunduru,  apparently 
becoming  abundant  south  of  the  railway  only  at  Ifakara"  (Jour. 
Soc.  Preservation  Fauna  Empire,  pt.  2,  p.  47,  1922).  In  Kenya 
Colony,  C.  W.  Hobley  writes  (in  August,  1936)  that  in  the  past  20 
years  the  rhino  population  has  greatly  decreased  and  is  at  present 
probably  only  20  percent  of  what  it  then  was.  "If,  however,  the 
permanency  of  the  great  reserves  is  assured,  the  perpetuation  of 
the  species  is  certain."  From  the  report  of  the  Kenya  Game  Depart- 
ment for  1926,  it  appears  that  along  the  edge  of  the  forest,  these 
rhinos  became  so  numerous  that  at  the  request  of  the  local  inhabi- 
tants the  department  undertook  to  reduce  the  number  of  the  animals 
in  the  Nyeri  district  "where  they  had  for  some  time  been  a  source  of 
danger  and  annoyance."  Twenty-eight  were  thus  killed.  A  later 
report  (in  East  Africa,  June  8,  1933)  tells  that  "Mr.  J.  A.  Hunter, 
the  Kenya  white  hunter,  recently  shot  eleven  rhino  near  Nyeri  in 
three  days."  Such  measures  will  inevitably  reduce  the  animals 
considerably  but  they  may  be  needed  in  areas  under  settlement. 
This  condition  of  affairs  was  foreseen  by  the  Swedish  naturalist 
Lonnberg,  who  wrote  in  1912:  "In  settled  districts  and  such  with  a 
lively  traffic,  rhinoceroses  may  be  a  troublesome  nuisance,  especially 
if  they  are  numerous.  But  there  are  vast  stretches  of  land  in  British 
East  Africa,  as  well  dry  steppe  as  arid  thornbush  country,  which  can 
never  produce  any  kind  of  crops,  and  where  at  most  nomadic  tribes 
may  be  able  to  feed  their  flocks.  There  the  rhinoceroses  can  do  no 


400  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

harm,  and  there,  at  least,  they  may  be  allowed  to  remain  in  reason- 
able number." 

Passing  again  to  the  westward,  we  find  these  animals  few  in 
Uganda.  Here  their  areas  are  very  limited  in  extent,  and  within 
these  areas  they  "do  not  diminish  in  number,  there  is  no  trade  in 
their  horns,  and  they  are  little  used  for  food.  It  is  probable  that  ... 
not  more  than  ten  are  killed  in  a  year."  (Coryndon,  1921,  p.  28.) 

North  of  Uganda,  rhinos  are  found  as  far  as  Mongalla,  and  the 
north  end  of  Lake  Rudolf,  and  thence  westward  to  the  Ubangi- 
Shari  district  and  the  French  Cameroons,  avoiding  the  rain-forest 
areas  of  the  Congo  Basin.  In  the  Ubangi-Shari  district  they  have 
been  protected  partly  since  1916  and  totally  since  1933.  L.  Blancou 
(in  response  to  query  in  1937)  states  that  there  are  several  groups, 
totalling  about  fifty  individuals  in  the  Pare  National  and  the  ad- 
joining game  reserve,  where  they  are  strictly  guarded.  From  official 
sources  (Ministry  of  Colonies,  Paris,  1936,  and  Inspection  of  Waters 
and  Forests,  Yaounde,  1937)  it  is  learned  that  they  are  found  mainly 
in  the  north  of  the  territory,  in  the  region  north  of  Maroua,  where 
estimates  place  the  numbers  at  most  as  120,  probably  less.  Their 
disappearance  is  laid  to  European  and  native  hunting — by  the  latter 
for  the  sale  of  the  horns.  At  the  present  time  they  are  absolutely 
protected  by  regulations. 

This  species  reaches  its  westward  limit  in  the  Lake  Chad  region 
and  eastern  Nigeria.  Here  in  the  Yola  Province  north  of  the  Benue 
River,  a  few  survivors  "may  still  be  encountered,  though  possibly 
only  a  dozen  specimens  exist  in  the  country;  their  bones,  however, 
are  numerous  in  the  Benue  basin  and  on  the  Song  plateau,  while  the 
ingrained  fear  which  the  native  has  of  'Kilifou'  shows  that  the  species 
was  plentiful  not  very  long  ago"  (Oakley,  1931,  p.  34) .  To  much  the 
same  effect  adds  Haywood  (1932,  p.  32)  that  "around  the  junction 
of  the  Provinces  Bornu,  Adamawa,  and  Bauchi,  it  seems  unlikely 
that  more  that  50  at  most  survive.  .  .  .  Rhino  are  so  scarce  that 
they  should  certainly  not  be  allowed  to  be  killed  under  any  cir- 
cumstances." 

The  Black  Rhino  to  the  northeast  of  the  Tana  River  and  Lake 
Rudolf  is  believed  to  represent  a  smaller  and  slightly  different  race, 
somaliensis,  although  its  distinctive  characters  do  not  seem  very 
well  defined.  It  ranges  at  present,  or  did,  not  so  many  years  ago, 
into  the  Blue  Nile  Valley  near  the  borders  of  Ethiopia,  and  into  the 
Rift  Valley  region  of  southern  Ethiopia,  as  well  as  eastward  into 
British  Somaliland.  It  is  probably  now  much  reduced  in  numbers 
owing  to  constant  hunting  by  the  natives.  In  1912,  while  the  late 
Dr.  John  C.  Phillips  and  I  were  on  the  upper  Blue  Nile,  we  were  told 
that  the  animal  was  then  rare.  Tracks  were  occasionally  reported 
by  native  hunters,  but  of  solitary  adults,  with  no  evidence  of  the 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  401 

spoor  of  young  accompanying  them.  They  believed  that  the  few 
remaining  animals  in  the  region  were  so  scattered  that  they  were  not 
breeding.  In  1899  they  were  "fairly  common  on  the  southern  side  of 
the  Haud  [in  Somaliland]  .  .  .  and  again  south  of  the  Webbi  Shey- 
belli"  (Stracker,  in  Bryden,  1899) .  Drake-Brockman,  in  1910,  wrote 
that  it  was  no  longer  to  be  found  south  of  Burao,  but  was  still 
present  in  the  Haud  and  Nogel  Valley,  toward  the  Ethiopian  border, 
and  was  said  to  be  plentiful  in  Ogaden.  On  account  of  persecution 
he  predicted  that  "a  few  more  years  will  see  its  disappearance  from 
all  save  the  most  remote  regions."  In  1932,  Swayne  (in  Maydon, 
1932,  p.  235)  regarded  it  as  "almost  extinct"  in  British  Somaliland, 
though  probably  still  found  in  Ogaden.  It  formerly  "penetrated 
north  to  Toyo  Plains  in  Ogo." 

Unlike  the  somewhat  more  peaceably  inclined  White  Rhinoceros, 
the  Black  Rhino  is  rather  truculent  and  at  times  dangerous,  of  poor 
eyesight,  but  keen  of  scent  and  hearing.  On  being  approached,  it 
is  quite  as  likely  to  come  charging  down  upon  the  source  of  the 
disturbing  sound  or  smell  as  to  dash  away  out  of  sight.  At  close 
quarters,  it  is  as  agile  as  a  polo  pony  and  may  follow  up  its  charge 
and  make  matters  disagreeable.  For  this  reason  it  becomes  a  source 
of  danger  if,  as  in  the  case  mentioned  in  the  Nyeri  district,  its 
numbers  become  too  great  in  settled  or  agricultural  localities.  Other- 
wise, it  is  a  harmless  animal,  browsing  contentedly  on  twigs  and 
sheltering  by  day  in  dense  thickets  of  thorn  scrub.  As  the  surviving 
member  of  its  genus,  Dicer vs,  and  one  of  the  end  forms  of  an  evolu- 
tionary line  of  ancient  development,  it  possesses  peculiar  interest 
and  deserves  protection,  but  this  can  best  be  given  in  special  re- 
serves. The  chief  menace  to  which  it  is  exposed  is  from  hunting  by 
natives,  which  cannot  always  be  stopped  in  thinly  populated 
districts.  The  Somalis  value  its  hides  especially  for  making  their 
small  round  shields,  in  which  they  take  much  pride,  as  after  a  time 
these  become  whitish.  Some  of  the  native  tribes  will  eat  the  flesh. 
But  the  chief  reason  for  its  pursuit  by  natives  and  white  poachers 
is  for  its  horns,  which  are  sold  to  the  Chinese  to  be  ground  up  for 
medicine  in  the  potency  of  which  they  have  great  faith.  To  this 
cause  is  laid  the  great  reduction  in  its  numbers  in  the  French 
Cameroons,  Somaliland,  and  Ethiopia,  and  its  continued  pursuit 
elsewhere.  C.  W.  Hobley  writes  (1936) :  "There  is  little  demand  for 
rhino  horn  in  Europe  but  in  China  high  prices  are  still  paid  for 
supposed  medicinal  uses,  and  this  is  the  danger,  for  although  legal 
export  is  forbidden,  smuggling  still  continues  and  is  difficult  to 
check."  This  for  Kenya  Colony.  Lavauden  (1933)  says:  in  "French 
Africa  it  is  seriously  threatened,  thanks  to  the  ridiculous  trade  in 
rhino  horn."  In  the  French  Cameroons  there  is  apparently  a  good 
deal  of  such  illicit  hunting  by  the  natives,  and  this  is  not  easily 
14 


402  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

stopped.  In  Kenya  Colony  "the  poaching  and  smuggling  of  rhi- 
noceros horn  has  become  a  serious  problem  for  the  Game  Depart- 
ment." One  lot  of  187  horns  was  recently  (about  1930)  seized. 
Presumably  the  Wakamba  kill  the  animals  with  poisoned  arrows  in 
the  Ukamba  Reserve.  Most  of  the  horn  is  smuggled  into  Italian 
Somaliland,  whence  it  can  be  freely  exported  (East  African  Standard, 
March  7,  1930).  There  has  also  been  a  great  illegal  trade  in  rhino 
horns  going  on  through  Zanzibar,  but  steps  have  been  taken  to  stop 
it.  According  to  Caldwell  (1924,  pp.  51,  53),  the  Somalis,  pene- 
trating Kenya  Colony  from  the  north,  make  use  of  the  native 
hunters  to  obtain  this  horn  as  well  as  elephant  ivory,  which  they 
then  smuggle  out  through  Italian  Somaliland.  "The  only  real  cure  is 
to  get  Italy  to  cooperate,  and  to  conform  to  the  Ivory  Convention 
to  which  she  was  a  signatory."  In  the  Chad  Territory  it  is  said  that 
the  Arabs,  under  the  pretext  of  hunting  elephants  with  a  regular 
permit,  also  kill  many  rhinos.  A  local  sultan  near  Fort  Archambault 
has  his  subjects  hunt  in  his  behalf,  and  this  has  resulted  in  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  rhino  from  localities  where  it  was  particularly 
abundant  a  few  years  ago.  During  the  period  when  rhino  horn  was 
valuable,  the  horns  of  at  least  300  animals,  weighing  900  kilograms, 
were  sold  there  (Ramecourt,  1936) .  It  is  said  that  the  Chinese  prize 
the  horn  of  the  Asiatic  rhinos  more  highly  than  that  of  the  African 
species,  but  nevertheless,  with  the  growing  scarcity  of  the  former, 
tKat  of  the  latter  seems  to  command  high  enough  prices  to  make 
its  smuggling  worth  while. 

G.  M.  A. 

Southern  White  Rhinoceros;   Burchell's  Rhinoceros;   Square- 
mouthed  Rhinoceros;  Square-lipped  Rhinoceros.    Witre- 
noster  (Boer).    Rhinoceros  blanc  du  Sud  (Fr.) 

CERATOTHBRIUM  SIMUM  SIMUM  (Burchell) 

Rhinoceros,  simus  Burchell,  Bull.  Sci.  Soc.  Philom.  Paris,  annee  1817,  p.  97, 
1817.  ("L'interieur  de  1'Afrique  Meridionale,  .  .  .  vers  le  vingt-sixieme 
degre  de  latitude";  Burchell  himself  seems  to  give  no  further  details,  but 
Selous  (in  Bryden,  1899,  p.  52)  indicates  as  type  locality  "the  Batlapeen 
country,  not  far  from  the  present  native  town  ...  of  Kuruman  [British 
Bechuanaland].") 

FIGS.:  Burchell,  op.  cit.,  pi.  facing  p.  100;  A.  Smith,  1849,  pi.  19;  Harris,  1840, 
pi.  19;  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  Supplementband  4,  pi.  317K,  1844;  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  London  1886,  pi.  16,  fig.  1;  Coryndon,  1894,  pi.  18;  Bryden, 
1899,  pi.  1,  figs.  2,  6;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  1,  figs.  2,  6,  and  pp.  36,  45,  figs. 
13-14;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  2,  right-hand  fig.;  Vaughan-Kirby,  1920,  pi.  27; 
New  York  Zool.  Soc.  Bull.,  vol.  27,  p.  146,  fig.,  1924;  Jour.  Soc.  Preserva- 
tion Fauna  Empire,  n.  s.,  pt.  9,  frontisp.,  1929;  Ward,  1935,  p.  344,  left- 
hand  fig. 

Formerly  enjoying  an  enormous  range  in  South  Africa,   from 
Namaqualand  to  Zululand,  and  from  the  Orange  River  to  the  Zam- 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  403 

besi,  this  rhinoceros  is  now  extinct  except  in  or  about  two  reserves  in 
Natal  and  possibly  in  one  or  two  remote  areas  of  Southern  Rhodesia. 

Largest  of  all  land  mammals  after  the  elephants;  hairless  except 
for  a  fringe  along  the  edge  of  the  ear  and  for  the  tail  bristles ;  color  a 
slaty  gray-black;  upper  lip  straight  all  round  with  no  trace  of  a 
proboscis;  ears  longer  than  in  the  Black  Rhinoceros,  springing  from 
a  closed  cylinder  about  3  inches  long;  anterior  horn  usually  longer 
and  slenderer  than  in  the  other  species;  posterior  horn  usually 
short,  straight,  conical.  Height  of  male  at  shoulder  up  to  6  feet 
6  inches;  female  rather  smaller.  Record  length  of  horn,  62.5  inches. 
(W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  pp.  300-301.) 

The  former  range  corresponds  somewhat  to  the  more  northerly 
portions  of  the  Kalahari  Arid  District  and  the  Southeast  Veldt 
District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  259,  260).  The  distribution  is 
indicated  on  maps  by  Heller  (1913,  pi.  10) ,  by  Roosevelt  and  Heller 
(1914,  vol.  2,  p.  671),  and  by  Lavauden  (1933,  pi.  facing  p.  25). 

Angola.— This  animal  occurred  formerly  on  both  sides  of  the 
Okavango,  and  possibly  a  few  individuals  remain  on  the  Kwando. 
Yet  there  is  no  unquestionable  record  in  this  region.  (Wilhelm,  1933, 
pp.  55-56.) 

"According  to  Zukowsky,  as  ascertained  by  Mattenklodt  in  1906, 
White  Rhino  are  'very  rare'  at  Lujana  (S.  E.  Angola)  in  the 
Tschbombe  Bush. 

"According  to  Schulz  and  Hammer  (The  New  Africa,  London, 
1877) ,  they  were  plentiful  in  that  region  in  the  1870  V  (Shortridge, 
1934,  vol.  1,  p.  425.) 

In  his  recent  list  of  Angolan  mammals  Monard  (1935)  does  not 
include  this  species. 

South-West  Africa. — Of  this  rhino  in  South-West  Africa,  Short- 
ridge  (1934,  vol.  1,  pp.  425,  427)  writes: 

Beyond  any  reasonable  doubt  the  White  Rhinoceros  has  been  extinct  in 
South- West  Africa  for  the  last  50  years  or  more;  since  then  no  actual 
occurrence  has  been  recorded.  .  .  . 

The  fact  that  the  Nama  Hottentots  and  local  Bushmen  had  distinguishing 
names  for  Black  and  White  Rhinoceros  indicates  that  both  species  formerly 
existed  in  Namaqualand,  Gobabis  and  Grootfontein  Districts,  and  elsewhere 
in  the  more  level  parts  of  South-West  Africa  .... 

Zukowsky  records  horns  of  White  Rhino  from  the  sands  of  the  Omaruru 
and  lower  Ugab  Rivers  [Atlantic  drainage],  and  from  near  Usikos.  .  .  . 

As  early  as  1801,  Barrow  recorded  the  "supposed"  occurrence  of  this  species 
in  Namaqualand. 

Bechuanaland  Protectorate  and  British  Bechuanaland. — "When 
Mr.  Burchell  .  .  .  visited  Latakoo  [=Litakun],  he  found  it  com- 
mon in  that  district,  and  we  have  been  told  by  the  aborigines  that  it 
was  not  unfrequently  found  even  further  to  the  southward.  Of  late, 
however,  it  has  almost  ceased  to  exist  even  in  the  situations  where  its 


404  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

discoverer  met  it,  which  is  accounted  for  by  the  danger  to  which 
it  is  exposed  being  now  much  increased  from  the  general  introduction 
of  firearms  among  the  Bechuanas."  (A.  Smith,  1849,  text  to  pi.  19.) 
Campbell  (1822)  records  this  species  in  Bechuanaland,  and 
Livingstone  (1857)  and  Baines  (1864)  note  it  near  Lake  Ngami 
(W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  299).  Selous  (1881,  pp.  725-726) 
writes : 

Twenty  years  ago  this  animal  seems  to  have  been  very  plentiful  in  the 
western  half  of  Southern  Africa;  now,  unless  it  is  still  to  be  found  between 
the  Okavango  and  Cunene  rivers,  it  must  be  almost  extinct  in  that  portion 
of  the  country.  And  this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  when  one  reads  the  ac- 
counts in  Andersson's  and  Chapman's  books  of  their  shooting  as  many  as 
eight  of  these  animals  in  one  night  as  they  were  drinking  at  a  small  water-hole ; 
for  it  must  be  remembered  that  these  isolated  water-holes,  at  the  end  of  the 
dry  season,  represented  all  the  water  to  be  found  over  an  enormous  extent 
of  country,  and  that  therefore  all  the  Rhinoceroses  that  in  happier  times 
were  distributed  over  many  hundreds  of  square  miles  were  in  times  of  drought 
dependent  upon  perhaps  a  single  pool  for  their  supply  of  water.  In  1877, 
during  several  months'  hunting  in  the  country  to  the  south  of  Linyanti, 
on  the  river  Chobe,  I  only  saw  the  spoor  of  two  Square-mouthed  Rhinoceroses, 
though  in  1874  I  had  found  them  fairly  plentiful  in  the  same  district ;  whilst 
in  1879,  during  eight  months  spent  in  hunting  on  and  between  the  Botletlie, 
Mababe,  Machabe,  Sunta,  and  Upper  Chobe  rivers,  I  never  even  saw  the 
spoor  of  one  of  these  animals,  and  all  the  bushmen  that  I  met  with  said 
they  were  finished. 

Elsewhere  (in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  53-54)  Selous  says: 

Between  1840  and  1850  all  travellers  who  have  left  records  of  their  journeys 
report  having  found  the  white  rhinoceros  very  abundant  all  over  the  country, 
wherever  there  was  water,  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  Limpopo  between 
Secheli's  country  and  Lake  Ngami.  .  .  . 

C.  J.  Andersson  also  found  these  animals  very  numerous  during  his  travels 
between  1850  and  1854  in  the  country  lying  to  the  west  and  north-west  of 
Lake  Ngami,  and  speaks  of  killing  nearly  sixty  rhinoceroses  of  both  species 
during  one  season.  .  .  .  Yet,  notwithstanding  the  great,  and  in  many  instances 
it  is  to  be  feared  unnecessary,  slaughter  of  white  rhinoceroses  which  has 
taken  place  at  the  hands  of  Europeans,  South  Africa  is  such  a  vast  country, 
that  in  many  districts  these  animals  might  still  have  been  numerous  had  it 
not  been  for  the  rapid  spread  of  firearms  amongst  the  native  tribes,  who  have 
carried  the  war  against  these  easily-killed  beasts  into  their  remotest  retreats. 

One  of  these  animals  reported  along  the  Mababi  River  in  1884  was 
"the  last  rhinoceros  that  I  ever  heard  of  in  any  part  of  Western 
South  Africa"  (Selous,  in  Bryden,  1899,  p.  55). 

Southern  Rhodesia. — Of  this  rhino  in  Southern  Rhodesia,  Selous 
(in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  54-58)  writes: 

At  the  date  of  my  first  visit  to  South  Africa,  in  1871,  .  .  .  these  animals 
were  still  numerous  in  the  uninhabited  districts  of  Matabeleland  [and] 
Mashunaland.  [In  1872  many  were  met  with  northwest  of  Buluwayo.]  Be- 
tween the  Gwelo  and  Umniati  Rivers,  I  saw  white  rhinoceroses  almost  daily, 
and  sometimes  as  many  as  six  or  eight  in  one  day.  In  1873  I  ...  found 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA:    ODD-TOED  UNGULATES  405 

these  animals  plentiful  to  the  south  of  the  mountainous  tract  of  country 
which  extends  eastwards  from  the  Victoria  Falls  to  the  junction  of  the  Gwai 
and  Tchangani  Rivers.  .  .  . 

In  the  country  to  the  north-east  of  Matabeleland,  between  the  Sebakwe 
and  the  Manyami  Rivers,  white  rhinoceroses  were  still  fairly  numerous  in 
1878,  .  .  .  and  their  numbers  only  commenced  to  be  seriously  reduced  after 
1880.  About  that  time  rhinoceros  horns  .  .  .  increased  very  much  in  value, 
and  .  .  .  the  traders  in  Matabeleland  employed  natives  to  shoot  rhinoceroses 
for  the  sake  of  their  horns  .  .  .  and  their  hides,  which  were  utilized  as  waggon 
whips  and  sjamboks. 

One  trader  alone  supplied  400  Matabele  native  hunters  with  guns  and 
ammunition,  and  between  1880  and  1884  his  large  store  always  contained  great 
piles  of  rhinoceros  horns,  often  the  spoils  of  100  of  these  animals  at  one  time, 
although  they  were  constantly  being  sold  to  other  traders  and  carried  south 
to  Kimberley  on  their  way  to  England.  What  caused  this  sudden  demand 
for  short  rhinoceros  horns  from  1880  to  1885  I  do  not  know.  But  this  freak  of 
fashion  in  knife  handles,  combs,  or  what  not  sounded  the  death-knell  to  the 
white  and  black  rhinoceros  alike  in  all  the  country  that  came  within  reach 
of  the  Matabele  native  hunters.  [From  1892  to  1895  several  of  the  few  re- 
maining animals  between  Salisbury  and  the  Zambesi  were  killed.  Perhaps  a 
dozen  survived  by  1899.] 

"Possibly  a  few  may  still  linger,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Angwa  River  in  Northern  Mashonaland"  (Selous,  1914,  p.  15) . 

"I  have  very  definite  information  that  about  7  of  these  animals 
still  exist  on  the  Portuguese-Nuenetsi  Border;  they  have  not  been 
seen  by  Europeans,  but  well-trained  native  shikaris  have  reported 
them  on  several  occasions"  (J.  F.  Fleming,  1931,  in  Shortridge, 
1934,  vol.  1,  p.  426). 

"It  is  rumoured  that  a  few  still  exist  in  that  locality  [between 
the  Umniati  and  Hunyani  Rivers],  but  .  .  .  only  native  information 
is  available  ....  Many  white  people  visiting  the  area  and  even 
those  stationed  in  it  declare  that  there  are  white  Rhino  present  today 
but  no  concrete  proof  .  .  .  can  be  obtained.  It  is  also  rumoured 
that  a  few  white  Rhino  exist  on  the  Portuguese  Rhodesia  border 
near  Nuanetsi  Ranch  ....  The  areas  in  which  the  animals  may 
still  exist  are  both  inaccessible  and  in  the  case  of  the  Umniati  area 
.  .  .  there  is  a  danger  of  sleeping  sickness ;  these  conditions  serve  to 
protect  all  fauna  and  the  white  Rhino  as  well  should  it  still  exist. 
Legally  considered  as  'Royal  Game.'  "  (Game  Warden,  Wankie 
Game  Reserve,  in  litt.,  March,  1937.) 

Transvaal.— Harris  (1839,  pp.  160,  174,  221)  found  numbers  of 
this  species  along  the  Marico  and  Crocodile  Rivers.  On  one  occa- 
sion, in  a  distance  of  half  a  mile,  "we  counted  no  less  than  twenty- 
two  of  the  white  species  of  rhinoceros." 

"In  1871  .  .  .  these  animals  were  still  numerous  in  ...  certain 
portions  of  the  Eastern  and  South-Eastern  Transvaal.  .  .  . 

"The  flesh  of  the  white  rhinoceros  was  always  considered  by  both 


406  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Dutch  and  English  hunters  to  be  superior  to  that  of  any  other  game 
animal  in  South  Africa,  and  in  this  verdict  I  entirely  agree." 
(Selous,  in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  52-54,  64.)  Elsewhere  (1914,  pp. 
14-15)  Selous  writes: 

The  emigrant  Boers  first  encountered  the  white  rhinoceros  just  north  of 
the  Vaal  River  on  the  open  grassy  downs,  where  the  towns  of  Klerksdorp  and 
Potchefstroom  now  stand,  and  I  have  had  the  actual  spots  pointed  out  to 
me  by  old  Boer  "voortrekkers".  ...  In  those  days  these  huge  pachyderms  were 
practically  without  enemies,  for,  with  the  exception  of  the  small  number  which 
fell  into  native  pitfalls,  very  few  could  have  been  killed,  and  before  the 
advent  of  the  European  hunter  with  his  death-dealing  fire-arms,  the  species 
must  have  increased  almost  to  the  limit  of  its  food  supply.  Within  fifty  years, 
however,  of  the  time  when  Cornwallis  Harris  had  met  with  the  white  rhinoceros 
in  almost  incredible  numbers,  .  .  .  thousands  upon  thousands  of  these  huge 
creatures  were  killed  by  white  hunters,  and  natives  armed  with  the  white 
man's  weapons,  and  the  species  had  become  practically  extinct. 

Natal. — "In  1894  ...  a  few  of  these  animals  were  discovered  to 
be  still  surviving  in  a  corner  of  Zululand,  and  it  is  said  that  six  of 
them  were  shot  there  during  that  year"  (Selous,  in  Bryden,  1899, 
p.  58). 

"There  are  still  said  to  be  a  few  surviving  in  Zululand,  where  they 
are  very  strictly  preserved,  and  where,  perhaps,  they  may  have  a 
chance  of  increasing  if  proper  precautions  are  observed"  (W.  L. 
Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  302). 

Vaughan-Kirby  (1920)  gives  the  following  information: 

In  Zululand,  at  the  present  day,  the  white  rhinoceros  is  to  be  found  only 
in  the  Mfolozi  Game  Reserve  .  .  .  and  in  a  narrow  strip  of  country  along 
the  south  bank  [of  the  White  Mfolozi  River], 

From  time  to  time  evidence  has  been  adduced  which  indicates  that  there 
may  be  a  few  of  these  animals,  probably  not  exceeding  five  or  six  in  number, 
in  the  dense  bush  at  the  north  end  of  False  Bay.  (P.  225.) 

They  are  frequently  accompanied  by  the  "Tick-birds"  (Buphagus  erythro- 
rhynchus)  and  sometimes  by  the  Buff-backed  and  the  Little  Egrets  (Bubulcus 
ibis  and  Herodias  garzetta).  The  former  scramble  about  all  over  the  huge 
animals,  exactly  as  they  do  upon  cattle,  and  as  they  are  particularly  wide- 
awake birds  it  is  very  difficult  to  approach  their  host  when  they  are  present, 
as  they  invariably  .  .  .  sound  a  warning  of  which  even  this  dull-witted 
pachyderm  never  fails  to  avail  itself.  The  egrets  sedately  follow  up  the 
rhinoceroses  as  they  move,  and  may  frequently  be  seen  taking  ticks  from 
under  the  animal's  belly.  (P.  240.) 

"There  are  only  some  twenty  of  this  southern  sub-species  now 
remaining  in  the  world.  They  are  .  .  .  confined  in  ...  the  Um- 
volosi  Reserve.  They  have  been  and  still  are  in  the  greatest  peril 
of  extinction  at  the  hands  of  the  neighbouring  settlers,  some  of  whom 
resent  their  presence  because  to  it  and  that  of  the  other  wild 
animals  they  ascribe  the  continued  existence  of  the  tsetse  fly  in 
the  locality.  Three  of  these  white  rhinos  were  illegally  killed  in 
1928,  and  in  the  'game  drive'  of  1921  five  are  said  to  have  been  shot." 
(Jour.  Soc.  Preservation  Fauna  Empire,  pt.  9,  1929.) 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I      ODD-TOED    UNGULATES  407 

In  and  near  the  Umfolosi  Reserve  "the  animals  have  bred  well 
during  the  year  and  there  are  now  just  over  200. 

"The  White  Rhino  have  apparently  come  to  stay  in  the  Hluhluwe 
Reserve.  A  recent  census  shows  that  at  least  eleven  adults  and  two 
calves  are  at  present  resident  there."  (Ann.  Rept.  for  1933  of  H.  B. 
Potter,  Game  Conservator,  Zululand.) 

"There  are  about  200  of  these  animals  now,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  they  are  increasing  at  the  rate  of  about  30  each  year.  .  .  . 
At  least  40  were  in  the  area  lying  between  the  Umfolosi  and 
Hluhluwe  Reserves,  which  area  we  hope  to  add  to  the  Reserves. 
The  remaining  60  of  the  wanderers  were  on  the  Crown  lands  to  the 
west  of  the  Umfolosi  Reserve  adjoining  the  Mahlabatini  Native 
Reserve,  which  cannot  be  used  as  a  Game  Reserve."  (Charter,  1934, 
P- 2.) 

"There  were  terrific  droughts  from  1931  to  1933  in  this  portion 
of  Zululand.  According  to  some  reports  most  of  the  rhinoceroses 
wandered  about  aimlessly  and  a  few  died  and  were  killed."  (Herbert 
Lang,  in  litt.,  January  23,  1935.) 

The  present  range  is  limited  to  the  area  surrounding  and  including 
the  Umfolozi  and  Hluhluwe  Game  Reserves.  The  number  is 
estimated  at  between  250  and  300.  Depletion  took  place  before 
the  Natal  game  laws  were  enforced  in  Zululand  in  1906.  The  horn 
can  be  used  to  make  handles  for  walking  sticks  and  also  for  other 
ornaments.  (Administrator's  Office,  Natal,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

"This  rhinoceros  for  the  time  being  may  be  regared  as  in  a  fairly 
firm  position"  (Dollman,  1937,  pp.  73-74). 

Both  subspecies  of  the  White  Rhinoceros  are  accorded  full  pro- 
tection under  Schedule  A  of  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 

Northern  White  Rhinoceros;  Nile  White  Rhinoceros. 
Rhinoceros  blanc  du  Soudan  (Fr.) 

CERATOTHERIUM  SIMUM  COTTONI   (Lydekker) 

Rhinoceros  simus  cottoni  Lydekker,  Field,  vol.  Ill,  no.  2878,  p.  319,  1908. 
("The  Lado  district  of  Equatorial  Central  Africa";  type  locality  said  by 
Heller  (1913,  p.  29)  to  be  "some  distance  north  of  the  station  of  Kiro, 
almost  precisely  on  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Lado  Enclave.") 

FIGS.:  Trouessart,  1909,  pis.  29-31;  Roosevelt,  1910,  pis.  facing  pp.  400,  414, 
420,  422,  428;  Heller,  1913,  pis.  1,  6-9,  31  (figs.  2-5);  Roosevelt  and 
Heller,  1914,  vol.  2,  pi.  facing  p.  664;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  2,  left-hand  fig.; 
Lydekker,  1916,  vol.  5,  p.  57,  fig.  20;  Lang,  1920,  pp.  65-92,  figs.,  and 
1923,  pi.  16;  Brocklehurst,  1931,  frontisp.  and  pis.  facing  pp.  107,  108, 
and  110;  Lavauden,  1934,  pi.  15;  Ward,  1935,  pp.  342,  346,  figs.;  Am.  Mus. 
Nat.  Hist.  Sci.  Guide  118,  ed.  2,  p.  106,  fig.,  1943. 

About  15  years  ago  the  Northern  White  Rhinoceros  was  much 
persecuted,  and  fears  were  expressed  concerning  its  survival.  Its 
status  in  the  northeast  of  the  Belgian  Congo  is  still  unsatisfactory, 


408 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


but  of  late  it  has  been  well  protected  in  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan 
and  Uganda,  and  its  future  there  seems  assured.  A  small  number 
survive  in  the  Ubangi-Shari  Territory  of  French  Equatorial  Africa 
along  the  Sudan  frontier. 

"The  Nile  race  resembles  very  closely,  in  external  appearence  and 
size,  the  southern  race  ....  It  differs,  however,  by  the  possession 
of  a  flatter  dorsal  outline  to  the  skull  .  .  .  and  by  the  smaller  size  of 
the  teeth.  The  measurements  of  skulls  of  the  two  races  show  them  to 


FIG.  42. — Northern    White   Rhinoceros    (Ceratotherium   simum    cottoni). 

After  Lang. 

be  of  practically  the  same  bodily  size.  .  .  .  Height  at  shoulders, 
5  feet  8  inches."  (Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  2,  pp.  662,  670) . 
Record  length  of  front  horn,  45|  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  347) . 

"The  range  .  .  .  was  believed  to  be  restricted  to  the  Lado  country 
and  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  Nile.  Contrary  to  all  sur- 
mises its  range  has  steadily  increased.  These  white  rhinoceroses  are 
now  positively  known  to  extend  from  a  little  north  of  Lake  Albert 
to  three  hundred  miles  down  the  Nile  to  a  point  near  Shambe.  From 
there  it  stretches  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles  westward  to  the  Dar 
Fertit  section,  and  two  hundred  miles  south  to  Rafai  [on  the  Bomu 
River  at  about  long.  24°  E.].  The  southern  limit  extends  about  five 
hundred  miles  across  the  northeastern  Uele  district  to  the  territory 
northwest  of  Lake  Albert.  This  habitat  thus  forms  an  oblong  area 
of  about  100,000  square  miles,  all  situated  west  of  the  Nile."  (Lang, 
1920,  p.  76.)  This  range  corresponds  more  or  less  to  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  Ubangi-Uele  Savanna  District  of  Chapin  (1932, 
p.  90)  or  the  Ubangi  Savanna  District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258) . 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA I     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  409 

Distributional  maps  are  provided  by  Heller  (1913,  pi.  11),  Roose- 
velt and  Heller  (1914,  vol.  2,  p.  671),  Lang  (1920,  p.  77,  and  1923, 
p.  156),  and  Lavauden  (1933,  pi.  facing  p.  24,  and  1934,  p.  431, 
fig.  45). 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. — "By  his  account  published  in  1869  von 
Heuglin  was  actually  the  first  who  recorded  the  presence  of  the 
West  Nile  race  of  square-lipped  rhinoceros"  (Lang,  1923,  p.  158) . 

According  to  Heller  (1913,  p.  34),  "the  first  real  evidence  of  its 
occurrence  to  the  north  of  the  Zambesi  River  was  the  skull  procured 
in  1900  by  Major  Gibbons  in  the  Lado  Enclave."  He  seriously 
questions  "the  earlier  reports  ...  by  Speke,  Grant,  Von  Hohnel, 
Gregory,  and  others.  .  .  .  There  is  little  doubt  but  that  all  their 
records  referred  to  the  black  rhino."  He  continues  (pp.  36-38) : 

The  square-nosed  rhinoceros  is  found  at  the  present  time  in  a  wild  state 
only  in  the  Lado  Enclave  and  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  province  of  equatorial 
Africa.  .  .  . 

In  the  Lado  Enclave  they  are  confined  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
western  bank.  .  .  .  Very  little  is  yet  known  of  their  distribution  westward. 
The  farthest  point  inland  where  they  were  met  by  Colonel  Roosevelt  was 
.  .  .  approximately  12  miles  west  of  Rhino  Camp.  [This  part  of  the  former 
Lado  Enclave  is  now  included  in  Uganda. 1  In  this  vicinity  nine  were  seen 
by  Colonel  Roosevelt  in  one  day's  journey  ....  A  few  days  later  Kermit 
Roosevelt  encountered  10  in  the  same  general  neighborhood.  .  .  .  The  known 
distribution  of  the  white  rhinoceros  covers  the  two  widely  separated  localities 
of  Lado  Station  and  Rhino  Camp,  which  are  some  120  miles  apart,  and  the 
more  distant  Dar  Fertit  country.  .  .  . 

There  is  little  doubt  but  that  the  species  is  quite  local  in  distribution, 
and  to  this  circumstance  its  long  escape  from  discovery  is  to  be  attributed. 

"During  Mr.  A.  L.  Butler's  direction  of  the  Game  Department  of 
the  Sudan  Government  the  white  rhinoceros  was  placed  on  the  'Pro- 
tected List' — that  is,  the  killing  of  it  was  absolutely  prohibited. 
But  since  his  retirement  in  1914  the  poor  remnant  of  rhinos  that  still 
survive  along  the  west  bank  of  the  Upper  Nile  have  been  replaced 
on  the  'Game  List/  in  respect  of  a  paltry  premium  of  £5.  Unless 
that  wicked  action  is  reversed  it  spells  the  death  warrant  of  the  few 
white  rhinos  that  remain  on  the  Nile."  (Chapman,  1922,  p.  44.) 

"The  case  of  the  white  rhino  .  .  .  is  a  pretty  hopeless  one.  He 
obviously  belongs  to  another  world,  and  his  extinction  in  this  is 
fairly  certain  in  the  near  future.  In  the  British  Sudan  very  few  in- 
dividuals remain.  Those  along  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile  can,  I 
should  fancy,  not  exceed  half-a-dozen  pairs. 

"A  little  farther  westward,  along  the  Nile-Congo  Divide,  from 
about  Yei  in  Western  Mongala,  to  a  point  some  distance  north- 
west of  Tembura  in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  they  are  more  numerous, 
especially  in  that  section  of  the  divide  between  Meridi  and  Yambio. 
In  that  district  in  1916  I  came  upon  them  many  times  in  my 
rambles."  (Christy,  1923,  p.  63.) 


410  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Brocklehurst  (1931,  p.  109)  writes: 

It  is  still  comparatively  plentiful  in  certain  parts  of  Uganda  and  the 
Sudan,  west  of  the  Nile,  and  owing  to  their  strict  preservation  they  are 
certainly  on  the  increase.  In  one  year,  in  Mongalla  Province  alone,  I  have 
seen  no  less  than  eight  cows  accompanied  by  calves.  The  natives  seldom 
kill  them  now  as  it  is  not  easy  to  kill  so  rare  a  beast  without  the  fact  being 
known  sooner  or  later  by  the  District  Commissioner,  who  inflicts  a  heavy 
punishment  on  anyone  infringing  the  law. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  cow  carries  the  longest  horn,  they  were  more 
sought  after  by  hunters,  which  would  account  for  their  rapid  decrease  and 
almost  entire  extermination.  .  .  . 

Unlike  the  Black  Rhinoceros  they  are  extremely  inoffensive,  depending 
entirely  on  scent  and  almost  invariably  seek  safety  in  flight. 

French  Equatorial  Africa. — The  occurrence  of  the  White  Rhi- 
noceros in  this  country  has  only  recently  been  verified.  When  Lang 
states  (1924,  p.  177)  that  "no  square-lipped  rhinoceros  is  known 
from  the  Ubangi-Shari  region,"  he  contradicts  his  previous  testimony 
(1920,  p.  76)  and  is  in  obvious  error. 

"Two  horns  [presumably  of  the  White  Rhinoceros],  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  were  brought  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake 
Tchad  by  Messrs.  Denham  and  Clapperton  in  the  first  quarter  of 
the  last  century"  (Lydekker,  1908,  p.  37) . 

In  1927  G.  Babault  recorded  seeing  at  Khartum  a  lot  of  more 
than  150  White  Rhinoceros  horns,  which  had  come  from  the  general 
region  of  Abecher  in  eastern  Chad  Territory  and  had  been  collected 
in  the  course  of  a  year.  The  animal  still  exists  (unfortunately  in 
small  numbers)  to  the  southeast  of  Abecher,  in  the  regions  of  Goz- 
Be'ida  and  Mongororo.  There  are  also  records  from  eastward  of 
Mangueigne  (near  the  Aouk  River)  and  from  the  eastern  part  of 
Ubangi-Shari  (near  Yalinga) .  A  recent  decree  protects  the  animal 
absolutely  in  French  Equatorial  Africa.  (Lavauden,  1933,  p.  24.) 

It  is  certain  that  seven  or  eight  years  ago  this  animal  was  found 
between  Birao  (northeastern  Ubangi-Shari)  and  Lake  Mamoum, 
and  at  the  junction  of  the  Aouk  River  with  the  Bahrs  Ouandja  and 
Gunda.  At  present  there  are  probably  no  White  Rhinoceroses  within 
the  limits  of  Chad  Territory.  Possibly,  however,  there  are  a  few 
survivors  in  the  east  of  the  Ubangi,  between  Birao  and  Zemio. 
(Malbrant,  1936,  p.  26.) 

Formerly  there  were  some  hundreds  along  the  Sudan  frontier, 
about  the  headwaters  of  the  tributaries  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Mbomu  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Aouk.  There  are  now  a  few 
individuals  in  the  same  region.  Depletion  is  due  to  the  trade  in 
horns.  The  animal  has  been  totally  protected  since  1916.  There 
ought  to  be  a  few  individuals  in  the  Pare  National  du  Goz  Sassulkou 
and  in  the  game  reserves  of  Ouanda-Djale  and  Zemango.  (L. 
Blancou,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA :     ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  411 

Belgian  Congo. — From  Lang's  excellent  and  comprehensive  ac- 
count (1920)  the  following  excerpts  are  taken: 

The  habitat  of  these  white  rhinoceroses  lies  in  the  northeastern  savannah 
of  the  Belgian  Congo,  and  beyond  it  to  the  Nile  (p.  69). 

[They  evidently  suffered  from  the  rinderpest  that]  swept  across  Africa  from 
the  northeast  in  the  early  nineties  ....  Only  in  the  last  ten  years  have  the 
white  rhinoceroses  and  other  game  become  sufficiently  numerous  in  that 
section  to  figure  once  more  in  the  natives'  larder.  (P.  77.) 

[In  the  territory  of  Maruka,  the  great  chief  of  the  Logo],  the  regular 
annual  toll  of  white  rhinoceroses  killed  by  natives  for  meat  exceeded  forty 
(p.  78).  [Twenty-nine  had  fallen  to  the  spear  of  a  single  Azande  hunter  (p.  80).] 

With  the  exception  of  man  they  have  no  enemies  but  lions  and  leopards, 
which  prowl  about  seeking  their  young.  Near  the  crossing  in  a  papyrus 
swamp  we  came  upon  the  remains  of  a  calf  that  had  been  overpowered  by 
two  leopards,  and  later  feasted  upon  by  hyenas.  (Pp.  87-88.) 

Reproduction  is  ...  unexpectedly  rapid  ....  Often  troops  of  five  in- 
cluded, besides  the  adults,  a  calf,  a  three-quarter  grown  and  another  still 
youthful  member.  (P.  88.) 

Among  the  smaller  pests  that  may  inconvenience  white  rhinoceroses  are 
various  ticks  ....  They  chiefly  infest  the  softer,  wrinkled  parts  of  the 
hide  ....  Credited  with  removing  these  insects  are.  the  oxpeckers  (Buphagus 
africanus).  (P.  88.) 

[A]  minute,  blood-sucking  fly  (Lyperosia)  is  a  characteristic  companion, 
constantly  hovering  in  great  swarms  about  their  huge  prey.  .  .  .  The  hides 
of  rhinoceroses  have  thousands  of  little  injuries  whose  exudations  furnish 
ample  nourishment  for  these  insects. 

More  remarkable  still  is  an  oestrid  fly  (Gyrostigma  pavesii),  whose  grub- 
like  larvae  often  cover  large  portions  of  the  stomach  lining  .... 

Intestinal  parasites,  especially  round  worms  (nematodes)  are  numerous, 
and  most  noteworthy  is  a  ...  tape  worm  (Taenia).  (P.  89.) 

What  has  indirectly  contributed  more  than  anything  else  to  the  gradual 
extermination  of  the  white  rhinoceros  are  the  horns  ....  They  made  the 
horn-bearer  a  danger,  and  the  horns  could  be  sold.  Greek  and  Hindu  traders 
were  ready  to  buy  them  at  the  value  of  ivory  which  has  proven  so  fatal  to 
the  elephant.  Superstitions  of  peoples  in  far  off  Asia  made  a  market  for 
horns,  at  good  prices.  Greasy  and  sleek  humanity  .  .  .  has  been  willing  to 
guarantee  health  to  those  stolidly  believing,  so  long  as  the  mere  powder  and 
scrapings  from  rhino  horns  sufficed.  The  craze  among  native  chiefs  to  own  a 
horn  staff  of  unsurpassed  length  helped  decimate  the  white  rhinoceroses  in 
South  Africa. 

White  man,  too,  has  bid  for  these  rarities,  and  not  in  vain.  Polished  and 
scraped  into  canes,  gold-topped  and  diamond  encrusted,  these  horns  become 
valuable  "curios."  Amulets  to  keep  away  witchcraft  were  carved  easily,  and 
worn  willingly.  A  cup  turned  out  of  rhinoceros  horn  was  believed  to  splinter 
at  the  mere  touch  of  obscure  poison  ....  Now  statuettes  and  other  bric-a- 
brac,  fashioned  by  artists  of  many  lands,  still  delight  those  eager  for  quaint 
trinkets. 

The  many-thonged  slave-trader's  lash  cut  out  of  rhinoceros  hide  now  finds 
its  counterpart  in  the  dainty  horse-whip  of  the  more  refined.  The  hide,  raw  or 
burnished,  or  given  an  amber-like  appearance  and  polish,  is  often  transformed 
into  queer-looking  tables,  trays,  and  smaller  objects.  .  .  .  And  finally,  indus- 
try has  found  that  disks  cut  from  the  hide  and  put  on  the  lathe  give  a 
high  polish  and  stand  great  wear.  (Pp.  89-90.) 


412  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Fortunately  the  white  rhinoceroses  of  the  Congo-Nile  race  have  little  of 
the  aggressiveness  that  makes  the  black  form  so  dangerous  a  brute.  Their 
realm  lies  far  remote  from  civilization,  and  they  leisurely  roam  over  regions 
wherein  the  call  of  forward  struggling  civilization  is  still  faint.  They  are  pro- 
tected by  the  natural  indolence  of  natives,  and  the  commercial  poverty  of 
nature.  They  have  a  fair  chance  to  survive  the  native  spear,  but  not  modern 
gun  and  powder,  and  today  the  negro  marvels  at  the  small  bullet  that  brings 
him  so  easy  and  big  an  exchange  in  meat. 

Judging  from  observations  made  by  others  and  ourselves,  from  2000  to 
3000  white  rhinoceroses  may  still  be  alive  in  the  entire  northern  range.  Just 
how  rapidly  their  numbers  will  decrease,  depends  upon  the  protection  afforded 
them.  .  .  .  Perhaps  complete  restrictions  to  traffic  in  the  horns  of  white 
rhinoceroses  would  be  the  most  important  step  toward  saving  [them  from 
extinction].  (Pp.  90-91.) 

Christy  (1923,  pp.  64-65)  writes  of  his  experiences: 

In  1916  on  the  Congo  side  of  the  Divide,  especially  in  the  district  opposite 
the  Meridi-Yambio  section,  I  found  the  species  individually  was  much  more 
common  than  anywhere  on  the  British  side.  ...  In  a  Greek  store  at  Aba 
...  I  was  shown  a  pile  of  at  least  a  hundred  rhino  horns,  worth  from  £1  to  £3 
apiece,  I  think  the  trader  told  me,  but  which  he  could  not  sell  owing  to  the 
restrictions  put  upon  their  sale  in,  or  transit  through,  the  Sudan. 

Westward  of  Aba,  and  more  or  less  throughout  the  Haut  Uele  district 
north  of  the  Uele  river,  I  came  upon  the  animals  .  .  .  almost  daily.  .  .  . 

The  small  region  in  the  Congo  in  which  the  animal  is  commonest  is  almost 
uninhabited,  and  it  would  not  be  difficult  for  the  Congo  Administration  to 
enforce  upon  Chief  Bwendi  ...  a  prohibition  in  favour,  of  this  interesting 
species,  forbidding  at  the  same  time  the  sale  of  rhino  horn  throughout  the 
Congo. 


Lang  writes  again  (1924,  pp.  176-177) : 


There  is  little  fear  of  the  destruction  of  these  rhinoceroses  by  natives  armed 
with  spears,  as  Christy  supposes;  the  danger  lies  in  gun  and  powder  of 
which  there  is  always  an  abundance,  of  either  lawful  or  smuggled  provenance. 
The  few  Azande  hunters, 'justly  famed  among  the  tribes  for  dangerous  exploits, 
are  admired  as  much  for  killing  a  rhinoceros  with  a  spear  as  an  elephant  or 
a  buffalo  ....  These  rhinoceroses  are  of  course  attacked  when  sleeping.  .  .  . 

There  seems  to  be  no  effective  means  at  present  of  stopping  the  whole- 
sale slaughter  of  this  northern  form.  Its  meat  is  one  of  the  important  parts 
of  the  native  diet,  procurable  at  all  times  without  much  difficulty.  Even 
though  the  principal  chiefs  were  willing  to  enforce  protection  there  would 
still  be  a  great  number  of  native  poachers  and  such  a  law  would  never  be 
adequately  respected.  To  properly  police  these  vast  areas  is  practically 
impossible. 

The  situation  would  be  helped  in  part  by  the  more  drastic  enforcement  as 
regards  confiscations  and  fines  for  the  transportation,  sale  and  exportation 
of  the  horns  and  pieces  of  hide.  Khartum  is  the  great  center  at  present 
for  the  exportation  of  horns  to  the  Orient  and  for  the  manufacture  therefrom 
of  articles  sought  alike  by  sportsmen  and  curio  collectors. 

A  recent  decree  provides  that  all  Rhino  horns  in  the  Belgian 
Congo,  however  acquired,  shall  become  the  property  of  the  State. 
Previously  it  had  been  lawful  to  kill  an  "attacking"  Rhinoceros  and 
to  keep  the  horns  of  one  so  killed.  (Schouteden,  1927,  p.  [30].) 


ORDER  PERISSODACTYLA:    ODD-TOED  UNGULATES  413 

A.  J.  Jobaert  writes  (in  litt.,  November  10,  1936) :  "Eleven  years 
ago,  competent  naturalists  estimated  that  there  could  not  remain 
more  than  40-60  Rhinoceroses  in  the  Belgian  Congo.  In  the  last 
15  years  I  do  not  believe  that  more  than  20  of  these  animals  have 
been  killed  by  Europeans,  in  each  case  under  special  permit.  But 
the  increase  in  the  value  of  the  horns  led  to  an  intensive  demand  on 
the  part  of  the  traders,  and  apparently  to  an  incessant  hunting  on 
the  part  of  the  natives.  The  animal  is  officially  protected,  but  the 
possession,  transport,  sale,  and  even  export  of  skins  are  not  for- 
bidden. The  animal  is  now  respected  only  by  the  conscientious 
European  hunter,  and  is  on  the  verge  of  extinction  in  the  Belgian 
Congo.  The  only  means  of  saving  it,  that  I  can  see,  is  the  establish- 
ment of  its  range  as  a  game  reserve,  with  adequate  supervision." 

Uganda. — "The  existence  of  the  square-lipped  rhinoceros  in  the 
Nile  Province  of  the  Uganda  Protectorate  is  now  proved"  (Johnston, 
1902,  p.  374).  This  statement,  however,  lacks  substantiation,  since 
there  is  no  authentic  record  from  east  of  the  Nile,  where  the  Nile 
Province  of  that  period  was  located. 

The  14  specimens  secured  by  the  Smithsonian  African  Expedition 
in  1910  came  from  the  vicinity  of  Rhino  Camp,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Nile,  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Lado  Enclave  of  that  time. 
This  region  is  now  included  in  Uganda. 

In  Uganda  the  range  "does  not  extend  more  than  probably  forty 
miles  along  the  left  or  west  bank  of  the  Nile  above  Nimule,  and, 
say,  fifteen  miles  inland.  This  range  is  remote  from  any  European 
settled  area,  and  is  very  sparsely  inhabited  by  primitive  natives, 
who  possess  very  few  firearms.  ...  I  believe  that  poaching  is  now 
almost  non-existent."  (Coryndon,  1921,  p.  28.) 

In  his  annual  report  for  1925,  the  Game  Warden  of  Uganda  writes: 

Every  endeavour  has  been  made  to  put  a  stop  to  the  illegal  destruction  of 
this  animal  by  the  natives  and  the  result  is  distinctly  gratifying. 

During  the  year  under  review  two  white  rhinoceros  fell  into  a  deep  salt-lick 
in  West  Madia  and  were  drowned.  Also,  a  certain  number  of  these  animals 
probably  fall  victims  to  game-pits.  ... 

The  result  of  the  first  census  leads  to  the  belief  that  there  are  possibly 
no  more  than  150  of  these  grand  animals  left  in  Uganda  at  the  present  time. 

The  persecution  of  the  white  rhinoceros  is  as  good  an  instance  as  any  of 
the  deplorable  results  which  are  likely  to  occur  from  killing  game  for  profit, 
for  I  understand  that  prior  to  the  demand  for  rhinoceros  horn  this  species 
was  scarcely  molested. 

Three  years  later  a  marked  diminution  was  noticed.  The  total 
number  in  Uganda  was  then  estimated  at  130.  (Ann.  Rept.  Uganda 
Game  Dept.,  1928.) 

"Next  to  the  gorilla  this  ranks  as  Uganda's  most  interesting  mam- 
mal. Its  habitat  is  restricted  to  the  West  Nile  district  where  it  is 
believed  about  150  examples  still  remain. 


414  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"The  range  is  unchanged,  and  there  are  no  data  to  indicate  whether 
present-day  numbers  reveal  a  marked  reduction.  It  is  possible 
that  formerly  250  to  300  of  these  prehistoric  monsters  roamed  this 
locality. 

"Between  ten  and  thirty  years  ago  it  is  unquestionable  that 
numerous  white  rhinoceros  were  slaughtered  by  the  natives  to  meet 
the  ever-increasing  demands  of  the  Far  East  for  rhinoceros  horns 
....  To  a  far  lesser  extent  examples  were  sometimes  hunted  by 
the  natives  for  meat. 

"The  white  rhinoceros  .  .  .  enjoys  complete  protection  and  not 
even  a  Governor's  permit  is  granted  to  collect  specimens  for  scien- 
tific purposes.  For  nearly  ten  years  this  species  has  enjoyed  absolute 
immunity  from  molestation,  and  the  measures  adopted  for  its  pro- 
tection have  proved  most  effective."  (Game  Warden,  Uganda,  in 
litt.,  December,  1936.) 

Order    ARTIODACTYLA :     Even-toed    Ungulates 

Family  HIPPOPOTAMIDAE:   Hippopotamuses 

This  family  consists  of  two  genera  (Choeropsis  and  Hippopot- 
amus), with  one  species  in  each.  The  latter,  however,  is  divided  into 
five  subspecies.  The  various  forms  are  widely  distributed  over 
Africa  south  of  the  Sahara.  All  are  treated  in  the  following  pages. 

Northern  Hippopotamus 

HIPPOPOTAMUS  AMPHIBIUS  AMPHIBIUS  Linnaeus 

Hippopotamus  amphibius  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Naturae,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  74,  1758. 
(Nile  River,  Egypt.) 

Cape  Hippopotamus 

HIPPOPOTAMUS  AMPHIBIUS  CAPENSIS  Desmoulins 

Hippopotamus  capensis  Desmoulins,  Dictionn.  Classique   Hist.  Nat.,  vol.  8, 
p.  222,  1825.    (Lower  Berg  River,  western  Cape  of  Good  Hope.) 

Angola  Hippopotamus 

HIPPOPOTAMUS  AMPHIBIUS  CONSTRICTUS  Miller 

Hippopotamus  constrictus  Miller,  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  vol.  54,  no.  7,  p.  1, 
pis.  1-4,  July  1924.   (Angola.) 

East  African  Hippopotamus 

HIPPOPOTAMUS  AMPHIBIUS  KIBOKO  Heller 

Hippopotamus   amphibius   kiboko   Heller,   Smithsonian   Misc.   Coll.,  vol.  61, 
no.  22,  p.  1,  Jan.  26,  1914.   (Lake  Naivasha,  Kenya  Colony.) 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  415 

Nigerian  Hippopotamus 

HIPPOPOTAMUS  AMPHIBIUS  TSCHADENSIS  Schwarz 

Hippopotamus  amphibius  tschadensis  Schwarz,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  8, 
vol.  13,  p.  31,  Jan.  1914.  (Katana,  Bornu,  northern  Nigeria.) 

FIGS.:  Dugmore,  A.  R.,  1910,  7  plates  facing  p.  96,  pi.  opp.  p.  98;  Shortridge, 
1934,  vol.  2,  pi.  opp.  p.  643;  Miller,  G.  S.,  Jr.,  op.  cit.,  pis.  1-4  (skull). 

As  a  species  the  big  Hippopotamus  formerly  ranged  all  over 
Africa  except  in  the  Sahara,  keeping  to  the  larger  streams,  down  to 
the  very  mouth  of  the  Nile.  Five  subspecies  are  currently  recog- 
nized, based  on  small  characters,  particularly  of  the  skull.  Shortridge 
believes,  however,  that  the  race  constrictus  of  Angola  is  inseparable 
from  capensis  of  South  Africa.  In  typical  Hippopotamus  amphibius, 
the  least  width  of  the  nasal  bones  is  said  to  be  less  than  1.25  inches, 
while  the  least  width  of  the  rostral  constriction  goes  about  5.5  times 
or  more  in  the  greatest  length  of  the  skull.  In  the  race  kiboko,  the 
nasal  bones  are  wider,  1.5  inches  or  more,  and  the  least  width  of 
the  rostral  constriction  goes  about  five  times  in  the  skull  length. 
In  tschadensis,  the  face  is  short  and  broad,  the  orbits  strongly  pro- 
jecting and  laid  forward,  and  the  cheek-tooth  series  is  shorter  than  in 
the  typical  race.  In  the  race  constrictus,  which  may  prove  identical 
with  capensis,  the  rostral  constriction  is  much  greater  than  in 
typical  amphibius,  and  goes  more  than  six  times  in  the  length  of  the 
skull.  How  far  these  supposed  differences  will  hold  good  is  yet  to 
be  demonstrated.  The  precise  limits  of  range  of  the  different 
forms,  and  even  their  validity,  are  not  as  yet  well  ascertained ;  hence 
the  species  may  be  treated  as  a  unit. 

Of  ponderous  size,  with  a  large,  squarish  head,  small  ears,  eyes 
placed  high,  short  stout  limbs,  and  4-toed  feet,  it  is  nearly  hairless 
except  for  a  few  tufts  on  the  lips,  at  the  sides  of  the  head  and  neck, 
at  the  tips  of  the  ears,  and  the  end  of  the  tail.  Skin  thick,  of  a  "dirty 
or  greyish  black  above,  lighter  below."  Incisors  and  lower  canines 
large  and  tusklike.  Length,  10  to  12  feet;  tail,  about  13  inches; 
height  at  shoulder,  4  feet  8  inches.  Weight  of  one  living  in  the  Lon- 
don Zoological  Gardens,  4  tons.  Record  length  of  lower  canine  tusk, 
not  malformed,  48  inches  on  outer  curve,  but  35  inches  is  a  large  size. 

The  Hippo  has  been  known  from  ancient  times,  but  on  account 
of  its  large  size  and  its  damage  to  crops  near  its  aquatic  habitat  it  is 
persistently  hunted;  its  meat  is  in  favor  among  native  tribes  in 
Africa,  and  its  hide  is  used  in  making  whips.  Formerly  there  was 
much  use  of  its  tusks  in  the  manufacture  of  false  teeth,  and  they  are 
still  used  to  some  extent  as  ivory.  Otherwise  the  species  is  of  rela- 
tively little  economic  value,  but  in  regions  of  human  settlement 
it  may  become  somewhat  of  a  nuisance,  destroying  crops  or  attacking 
canoes  and  boats  with  little  or  no  provocation.  It  has  been  suggested 


416  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

that  in  the  latter  case,  it  mistakes  the  boat  for  a  crocodile  and  at- 
tacks to  drive  the  supposed  enemy  from  its  young,  or  merely  on 
principle. 

While  Hippos  are  still  common  in  many  parts  of  Africa,  as  in 
the  upper  Nile,  parts  of  the  Congo,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  elsewhere, 
they  have  become  reduced  in  the  more  settled  areas  or  entirely 
exterminated.  A  brief  review  of  the  present  status  may  therefore  be 
given.  S.  S.  Flower  (1932)  places  the  last  recorded  Hippopotamus 
in  the  Nile  Delta  at  about  1815,  when  one  appears  to  have  been 
killed  near  Damietta.  In  the  following  year,  one  is  mentioned  by 
Burckhardt  at  Deran,  23  miles  north  of  AJswan.  Within  recent  years 
they  are  not  regularly  found  below  the  junction  of  the  White  and  the 
Blue  Niles  at  Khartoum.  Capt.  Flower  about  1908  saw  the  tracks 
of  one  at  that  point,  but  regarded  the  circumstance  as  very  unusual 
even  then.  In  1912,  the  late  Dr.  John  C.  Phillips  and  I,  in  going  up 
the  Blue  Nile,  saw  nothing  of  Hippos  until  well  above  Singa.  Higher 
up  they  were  still  to  be  found  in  small  numbers.  They  are^  said  to  be 
common  in  southern  Abyssinia,  in  parts  of  Somaliland,  and  even  in 
the  Lorian  Swamp,  Kenya  Colony,  a  region  which  may  at  times  be 
much  dried  out,  they  seem  common,  seeking  the  deeper  pools  when 
the  stream  goes  partly  dry.  They  are  common  in  the  Great  Lakes  of 
East  Africa,  and  according  to  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Game 
Department  of  Uganda,  1933,  "there  is  little  realization  of  the  almost 
incredible  and,  I  believe,  steadily  increasing,  numbers  which  frequent 
the  shores  of  .the  Victoria  Nyanza  and  its  islands."  Indeed,  in  the 
1927  report,  it  "  is  classed  as  vermin  in  Lakes  Victoria,  Albert, 
Edward  and  George,  and  in  the  River  Nile ;  and  as  there  is  a  ready 
sale  for  its  teeth  a  certain  amount  of  trading  takes  place  in  this  com- 
modity, but  so  far  this  fact  has  resulted  in  no  undue  slaughter,  and 
the  hippopotamus  is  quite  as  plentiful,  and  in  many  places  as  great 
a  nuisance,  as  ever." 

In  the  Belgian  Congo  it  was  formerly  abundant  in  all  the  rivers, 
lakes,  and  pools.  According  to  Leplae  (1925),  "it  is  now  [1925] 
shot  or  trapped  by  hundreds  by  meat-hunters,  white  and  native. 
Its  ivory  brings  a  good  price,  and  its  skin  is  used  for  making  whips. 
Its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed  by  the  blacks,  and  even  Europeans  eat 
it  upon  occasion.  Owing  to  the  enormous  slaughter  in  the  Belgian 
Congo,  some  rivers  are  already  entirely  depopulated."  Lavauden 
writes  hi  1933,  however,  that  it  is  still  widely  spread  in  Central 
Africa,  and  that  while  it  is  not  seriously  threatened  in  French 
Equatorial  Africa,  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  French  West  Africa. 
A  reserve  on  Lake  Edward  has  permitted  its  survival  there.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  it  provides  natives  with  meat,  its  hunting  should 
be  limited  and  controlled.  The  extent  to  which  Hippos  are  being 
destroyed  to  furnish  meat  to  laborers  in  the  Chad  territory  is  indi- 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN -TOED  UNGULATES  417 

cated  by  Ramecourt  (1936),  who  states  that  in  a  recent  year  more 
than  a  thousand  of  these  animals  besides  a  multitude  of  other  species 
were  killed  for  food  for  workmen  on  the  Brazzaville-Ocean  railway. 

Westward,  the  Hippo  is  found  still  in  the  larger  rivers  of  Nigeria 
and  the  Gambia.  About  1933,  two  reserves  were  created  for  them  on 
the  Benue  Donga  and  Katsina  Rivers  and  within  15  miles  of  Aboli 
(Observer,  1934,  p.  53).  In  the  Gambia,  Haywood  (1933)  reports 
them  as  locally  "numerous/"'  while  in  Sierra  Leone  he  estimates  150 
on  Rokel  River,  Little  and  Great  Scarcies  River,  and  Mungo  River. 
Some  damage  to  crops  is  done  by  them. 

In  South  Africa  particularly,  with  settlement  and  agriculture,  the 
Hippo  has  everywhere  receded  before  the  onward  course  of  white 
occupation.  W.  L.  Sclater  (1900)  summarizes  the  status  of  the 
species  in  this  area  as  follows: 

In  South  Africa  it  was  originally  found  everywhere  along  the  coasts  and 
rivers;  Theal,  in  his  history  records  from  van  Riebeck's  diary  that  in  1652, 
hippopotamuses  disported  themselves  in  the  swamp  now  occupied  by  Church 
Square,  in  the  centre  of  Cape  Town;  even  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
century  Kolben  speaks  of  them  as  being  not  uncommon  in  the  neighbourhood, 
but  with  the  great  expansion  that  took  place  in  the  middle  of  that  century 
the  hippopotamus  retreated,  and  Paterson,  Sparrman,  and  the  other  travellers 
had  to  go  nearly  as  far  as  the  Great  Fish  River  before  meeting  these  monsters ; 
Burchell  witnessed  a  ...  hunt  close  to  where  the  Vaal  and  Orange  Rivers 
meet,  but  Harris  and  Gumming,  1830-40,  only  came  across  them  in  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Limpopo  and  its  tributaries. 

A  few  individuals  lingered  for  many  years  near  the  mouth  of  the  Berg 
River  almost  70  miles  north  of  Cape  Town;  and  the  head  of  one  killed  in 
1856,  is  still  preserved  in  the  South  African  Museum,  and  the  last  is  said 
to  have  disappeared  about  1874. 

Nowadays,  except  for  a  few  said  to  be  still  surviving  in  the  lower  reaches 
of  the  Orange  River,  the  hippopotamus  may  be  regarded  as  extinct  in  the 
Colony;  in  Xatal  there  are  a  few  strictly  preserved  in  "Zeekoe  lake"  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Umgeni  River  a  few  miles  north  of  Durban;  north  of  this, 
especially  in  St.  Lucia  Bay,  in  the  Komati  and  other  rivers,  in  the  eastern 
Transvaal  and  Portuguese  territory  up  to  the  Zambesi,  they  are  still  found 
in  reduced  numbers  in  less  frequented  districts  as  also  in  the  upper  waters  of 
that  river,  the  Okovango  and  the  Ngami  swamps. 

At  the  present  time  the  Hippo  is  thus  practically  extinct  south  of 
the  eastern  Transvaal  and  Zululand  (Natal).  In  the  Zambesi  region 
it  is  still  fairly  common,  as  well  as  in  the  Maputo  and  Inkomati 
Rivers  of  Portuguese  Southeast  Africa  (Haagner,  1920,  p.  147). 
A  few  may  still  be  found  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orange  River  (Hobley) . 
Under  careful  protection  in  Kruger  Park,  in  the  eastern  Trans- 
vaal, Stevenson-Hamilton  (1933)  reports  that  they  are  now  "very 
numerous"  all  along  the  Olifants  River,  and  according  to  Hobley 
there  were  estimated  to  be  about  200  here  within  the  Park.  "A 
good  deal  of  damage  was  done  by  these  animals  to  farmers'  lands 
across  the  Crocodile  River,  and  arrangements  were  made  in  some 


418  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

cases  to  help  landowners  by  putting  up  wire  fences  to  keep  them  out. 
A  very  low  fence  suffices  to  stop  a  hippo,  who  will  not  step  over  even 
a  low  obstacle  and  does  not  seem  to  push  through  a  wire  fence."  The 
protected  herd  in  Natal  also  seems  to  be  flourishing  at  present. 
Here,  according  to  H.  B.  Potter,  Game  Conservator,  there  were  in 
1933  in  the  False  Bay  and  St.  Lucia  Lake  area,  "about  100  hippo- 
potami in  the  whole  area,  sixty  of  which  have  their  home  in  St. 
Lucia  Lake."  In  the  following  year  Mr.  Potter  reported  that  in  the 
latter  area  they  were  doing  well,  calves  had  been  seen,  and  no  deaths 
had  been  noted  during  the  year,  nor  any  accidents  to  visitors  caused 
by  them.  Evidently  here  as  in  Kruger  Park  they  form  an  attraction 
to  visitors  and  should  continue  so  for  the  future. 

In  South-West  Africa,  according  to  Shortridge  (1934,  vol.  2,  p.  644) 
a  few  still  survive  in  the  lower  Cunene,  "probably  because  the  nar- 
rowly reed-fringed  banks  of  that  river  are  unpopulated  and  seldom 
visited.  ...  It  is  doubtful  if  more  than  a  dozen  hippo  remain  to- 
day between  the  Rua  Cana  Falls  and  the  mouth  of  the  Cunene." 
There  are  "very  few"  in  the  middle  section  of  the  Okavango,  "per- 
haps half  a  dozen,"  but  in  the  Caprivi  district  they  seem  to  be 
"fairly  plentiful."  In  the  adjacent  parts  of  Angola  there  are  a  good 
many,  though  according  to  Statham  "disappearing  more  rapidly  than 
any  other  game."  Shortridge  reports  that  in  1914-15,  after  a  particu- 
larly dry  period,  when  the  Cunene  almost  ceased  to  flow,  they  were 
nearly  exterminated  by  squatters  in  southern  Angola.  Yet  they  are 
still  common  in  the  upper  Okavango  and  the  Kwando  as  well  as  in 
the  rivers  between.  The  reduction  in  numbers  in  the  general  region 
is  in  part  a  result  of  the  gradual  drying  out  of  the  country  in  recent 
decades.  According  to  Selous  (in  Bryden,  1899) ,  at  the  end  of  the 
last  century,  "natives  now  living  remember  the  time  when  hippo- 
potami were  plentiful  in  the  Molopo  River,  where  these  animals 
could  not  exist  at  the  present  day;  and  Dr.  Livingstone  mentions 
that,  according  to  native  report,  hippopotami  used  to  live  in  the  river 
flowing  from  the  spring  of  Kuruman,  which  even  in  his  time  had 
become  quite  a  small  stream." 

While  adult  Hippos  seem  to  have  no  natural  enemies  other  than 
man,  it  may  be  that  crocodiles  occasionally  capture  the  young. 
There  is  some  evidence,  however,  that  they  are  subject  to  occasional 
epizootic  disease.  Of  this,  Hobley  (1932,  p.  21)  writes  of  a  report  by 
the  captain  of  a  river  steamer,  that  in  1904  or  1905  a  serious  epizootic 
occurred  among  Hippos  on  the  Kasai  and  Sankuru  Rivers  in  the 
Congo  basin  from  which  "vast  numbers"  died.  Again,  in  the  Annual 
Report  of  the  Uganda  Game  Department  for  1932,  it  is  stated  that 
sixty  were  counted  dead  "from  a  mysterious  disease  on  a  short 
stretch  of  shore  of  Lake  Albert."  However,  the  herds  that  were 
decimated  quickly  recovered. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  419 

From  the  foregoing  it  appears  that  the  Hippo  is  likely  to  remain 
in  numbers  in  the  upper  Nile,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  parts  of  the 
Congo,  and  a  certain  number  are  well  protected  and  thriving  in 
parts  of  Tanganyika,  the  Transvaal  (Kruger  Park),  and  Natal 
(St.  Lucia  Lake  reserve) .  Their  numbers  are  being  reduced  in  parts 
of  the  French  Equatorial  possessions,  and  on  the  borders  of  the 
range  in  the  west;  in  South-West  Africa  they  are  being  rather  rapidly 
reduced  in  some  sections,  but  remain  common  in  others;  but  are 
likely  to  continue  their  retreat  from  the  drier  parts,  with  desiccation 
of  the  country.  In  South  Africa,  particularly,  except  for  the  herds 
in  the  reserves  mentioned,  the  animal  is  gone.  Given  sufficient  pro- 
tection, however,  there  seems  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  may  not 
continue  to  thrive  in  regions  where  it  is  now  still  common,  and  with 
proper  management  might  in  addition  be  a  source  of  food  for  the 
native  population  and  of  interest  to  visitors. 

G.  M.  A. 

Pygmy  Hippopotamus 

CHOEROPSIS  LIBERIENSIS  (Morton) 

Hippopotamus    (Tetraprotodon)    liberiensis    Morton,   Jour.    Acad.    Nat.    Sci. 

Philadelphia,  ser.  2,  vol.  1,  p.  232,  1849.   (St.  Paul's  River,  Liberia.) 
FIGS.:    Morton,  op.  cit.,  1849,  pis.  32-34;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1923,  p.  1096, 

fig.;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  643,  fig. 

The  Pigmy  Hippo  has  always  been  a  little-known  species.  Even  in 
the  region  where  it  exists,  one  may  travel  for  days  through  the  coun- 
try and  find  nothing  of  it.  In  general  much  like  a  smaller  replica  of 
the  large  Hippo,  it  is  a  stoutly  built  animal  about  the  size  of  a  domes- 
tic pig.  Biittikofer  (1890),  who  spent  several  years  in  zoological 
work  in  Liberia,  describes  its  color  as  shining  grayish  blue-black.  It 
differs  from  the  big  Hippo  further  in  the  smaller  proportions  of  the 
head,  and  in  usually  having  only  one  pair  instead  of  two  pairs  of 
lower  incisors.  The  feet  have  the  toes  slightly  more  separate  and 
spreading.  Length,  about  1.4  meters;  height,  80  cm. 

Although  skulls  much  like  that  of  this  species  are  found  in  super- 
ficial deposits  in  Madagascar,  and  fragments  of  related  type  in  the 
Mediterranean  islands,  indicating  a  former  wider  distribution,  the 
living  species  is  known  only  from  a  restricted  area  in  the  rivers  and 
primeval  forests,  of  the  Ivory  Coast,  Liberia,  and  the  adjacent  parts 
of  Sierra  Leone.  The  statements  of  Haywood  that  it  is  found  in  the 
Niger  Delta,1  and  of  Lavauden  of  its  occurrence  in  the  Gabun 

i  More  recently,  however,  confirmation  of  the  animal's  occurrence  in  Nigeria 
has  been  supplied  by  Dollman  (1940),  on  the  basis  of  two  skulls  sent  to  the 
British  Museum  from  the  Owerri  and  Warri  Provinces.  "It  is  possible,"  Doll- 
man adds  (p.  288),  "that  the  range  of  this  animal  may  be  even  still -greater 
than  is  at  present  known  and  may  extend  into  French  Equatorial  Africa." — F.  H. 


420  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

and  Spanish  Guinea,  are  undoubtedly  based  on  faulty  information; 
nor  can  any  credence  be  given  the  report  published  by  Letcher 
(1911)  of  its  presence  in  Rhodesia. 

Biittikofer  states  that,  unlike  its  larger  relative,  it  is  not  social 
but  solitary,  or  at  times  is  found  in  pairs.  In  his  experience,  each 
pair  seemed  to  have  its  special  area,  so  that  although  it  may  be 
well  known  in  a  district,  it  is  nowhere  common  in  its  restricted 
range.  It  is  found  in  the  streams  and  wet  forests  and  swamps  and 
is  less  given  to  purely  aquatic  life  than  the  large  Hippo.  It  is 


FIG.  43. — Pygmy  Hippopotamus  (Choeropsis  liberiensis) 

largely  inactive  by  day,  but  by  night  wanders  forth  to  seek  by  stream 
and  forest  the  shoots,  leaves,  and  fallen  forest  fruits  on  which  it 
subsists.  In  swampy  places  its  short  legs  sink  deep  so  that  it's 
body  leaves  a  trail.  Biittikofer  secured  three  specimens  for  the 
Leiden  Museum,  but  apparently  himself  saw  little  of  the  animal. 
He  speaks  of  the  natives'  relish  for  the  flesh,  which  tastes  like  that 
of  a  wild  pig.  To  the  native  Liberians  it  is  known  as  "sea-cow"  or 
"water-cow." 

Apparently  the  first  to  attempt  the  capture  of  living  specimens  for 
exhibition  was  Hans  Schomburgk,  who  in  1911-12  after  much  effort 
succeeded  in  capturing  a  pair  by  means  of  pitfalls.  These  were 
sold  by  Hagenbeck  to  the  New  York  Zoological  Society.  Another 
was  sent  to  the  National  Zoological  Park  at  Washington  in  1927, 
and  there  have  been  captive  specimens  in  the  London  Zoological 
Gardens.  Schomburgk  (1912)  has  given  an  account  of  his  search 
for  this  species  and  its  capture.  Other  than  for  food  it  is  of  no 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN -TOED  UNGULATES  421 

economic  importance  to  the  natives  of  the  region  where  it  occurs, 
but  apparently  it  is  so  uncommon  that  no  special  effort  is  made  for 
its  capture.  Specimens  for  exhibition  in  zoological  gardens  are 
in  some  demand,  however.  Because  of  its  restricted  range  and  ap- 
parent scarcity,  this  species  is  accorded  complete  protection  by  the 
London  Conference  of  1933. 

G.  M.  A. 

Family  CAMELIDAE:   Camels 

This  family  consists  of  three  living  genera.  In  South  America  the 
Llamas  (Lama)  and  the  Vicunas  (Vicugna),  each  with  two  wild 
subspecies,  range  from  Ecuador  to  Tierra  del  Fuego ;  all  are  treated 
in  Dr.  Allen's  volume  (1942).  In  the  Old  World  there  is  a  single 
genus  (Camelus),  with  two  species.  One  (C.  dromedarius)  is  now 
known  only  as  a  domesticated  species.  The  other  (C.  bactrianus)  is 
represented  by  a  domesticated  subspecies  and  by  a  wild  subspecies. 
Only  the  last  comes  within  the  scope  of  this  report.  It  occurs  in 
Chinese  Turkestan  and  Mongolia. 

Wild  Bactrian  Camel 

CAMELUS  BACTRIANUS  FERUS  Przewalski 

Camelus  bactrianus  ferus  Przewalski,  Third  Journey  in  Central  Asia,  p.  43, 
1883  (in  Russian).  ("From  Tarim,  Lob-nor,  and  Kami  to  southern 
Dzungaria;  from  Guchen  and  Manas  to  northwestern  Zaidam,  Tibet." 
Type  locality  restricted  by  Harper  (1940,  p.  202)  to  ''the  border  of  the 
Kum-tagh,  east  of  Lob-nor  and  north  of  the  Altyn-tagh,  Chinese 
Turkestan.") 

FIGS.:  Przewalski,  1883,  pi.  facing  p.  42;  Littledale,  1894,  p.  447,  fig.;  Hedin, 
1903,  vol.  1,  pp.  353,  370,  figs.,  pi.  facing  p.  366,  and  vol.  2,  pp.  101,  102, 
107,  figs.;  Leche,  1904,  pp.  50,  51,  figs.  60,  61;  Hedin,  1904,  pp.  127,  256,  figs. 

The  Wild  Bactrian  Camel  still  exists  in  restricted  numbers  in 
certain  desert  areas  of  Chinese  Turkestan  and  Mongolia.  It  has  long 
been  a  moot  question  as  to  whether  this  is  the  aboriginally  wild 
animal,  or  merely  the  feral  descendant  of  escaped  domestic  stock, 
or  possibly  a  mixture  of  the  two.  The  anatomical  differences  revealed 
by  a  comparison  of  specimens  lend  considerable  weight  to  the  view 
that  Camelus  bacterianus  ferus  is  a  genuinely  wild  animal,  not 
contaminated  to  any  appreciable  extent  with  the  blood  of  the  domes- 
tic animal.  Leche  (1904,  p.  60)  considers  the  Wild  Camel  more 
closely  related  to  certain  Pleistocene  species  than  to  the  Domestic 
Bactrian  Camel. 

Length  of  skin  of  an  old  male  (from  Altimish-bulak,  at  the 
southern  base  of  the  Kurruk-tagh)  from  snout  to  root  of  tail, 
3,030  mm.;  tail,  530  mm.;  ear,  95  mm.  In  comparison  with  the 


422  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Domestic  Bactrian  Camel,  its  humps  are  smaller;  elongated  hairs 
occur  only  at  the  top  of  the  humps,  on  the  neck,  on  the  lower  chin, 
on  the  outer  part  of  the  thigh  and  the  proximal  part  of  the  lower 
arm,  and  on  the  tip  of  the  tail;  the  rest  of  the  pelage  is  short  and 
soft;  the  body  hairs  are  grayish  brown  basally  and  reddish  brown 
at  the  tip;  the  snout  and  the  ears  are  shorter;  the  general  size  of 
the  wild  form  is  not  greater  than  that  of  the  domestic  form,  but  its 
skull  is  not  smaller  than  that  of  the  latter.  (Leche,  1904,  pp.  49-54.) 

Leche  (1904,  p.  61)  quotes  Sven  Hedin  as  follows  on  the  distri- 
bution of  C.  b.  jerus.  It  ranges  from  the  lower  course  of  the  Keriya- 
darya  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Tarim's  former  bed,  the  Atschik-darya. 
According  to  native  report,  it  also  occurs  frequently  in  the  desert 
areas  south  of  the  Tarim  from  the  meridian  of  the  Keriya-darya 
to  the  vicinity  of  Karaul  (long.  86°  30'  E.).  It  is  most  numerous  in 
the  deserts  and  mountains  south  of  the  Kurruk-tagh ;  it  is  also 
common  in  the  mountain  wastes  between  Kurruk-tagh  and  Tschol- 
tagh  [south  of  Turfan].  It  visits  the  north  shores  of  the  newly 
formed  lakes  in  the  Lob  Desert,  and  also  the  desert  region  from  the 
Kurruk-tagh  eastward  to  the  route  between  Kami  and  Su-chow. 
Large  herds  were  observed  in  the  region  north  of  the  Anambaruin- 
ula,  in  the  deserts  at  the  base  of  the  Altyn-tagh,  and  in  the  valleys 
within  the  Altyn-tagh.  (The  animal  was  also  reported  in  former 
days  from  Dzungaria,  as  will  be  seen  later.) 

Yule  (in  Prejevalsky,  1876,  vol.  1,  pp.  xxvi-xxviii)  reviews  the 
testimony  on  the  existence  of  genuine  Wild  Camels  in  Mongolia 
and  Chinese  Turkestan,  and  considers  it  irresistible ;  one  of  the 
records  goes  back  as  far  as  A.  D.  1420. 

Prejevalsky  (1879,  pp.  88-96)  gives  the  following  account: 

According  to  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  Lob-nortsi,  the  chief  habitat 
of  the  wild  camel  at  the  present  day  is  the  desert  of  Kum-tagh,  to  the 
east  of  Lake  Lob;  this  animal  is  also  occasionally  found  on  the  Lower  Tarim, 
in  the  Kuruk-tagh  mountains,  and  more  rarely  still  in  the  sands  bordering 
with  the  Cherchen-daria  ....  Twenty  years  ago,  wild  camels  were  numerous 
near  Lake  Lob,  where  the  village  of  Chargalik  now  stands,  and  farther  to 
the  east  along  the  foot  of  the  Altyn-tagh,  as  well  as  in  the  range  itself. 
Our  guide,  a  hunter  of  Chargalik,  told  us  that  it  was  not  unusual  in  those 
days,  to  see  some  dozens,  or  even  a  hundred  of  these  animals  together.  He 
himself  had  killed  upwards  of  a  hundred  of  them  in  the  course  of  his  life 
(and  he  was  an  old  man),  with  a  flint  and  steel  musket.  With  an  increase 
of  population  at  Chargalik,  the  hunters  of  Lob-nor  became  more  numerous, 
and  camels  scarcer.  Now,  the  wild  camel  only  frequents  the  neighbourhood  of 
Lob-nor,  and  even  here  in  small  numbers.  Years  pass  without  so  much  as  one 
being  seen;  in  more  favourable  seasons  again  the  native  hunters  kill  their 
five  and  six  during  the  summer  and  autumn.  The  flesh  of  the  wild  camel, 
which  is  very  fat  in  autumn,  is  used  for  food,  and  the  skins  for  clothing. 
These  fetch  ten  tengas  or  a  ruble  and  thirty  kopecks  at  Lob-nor.  .  .  . 

During  the  excessive  heats  in  summer,  the  camels  are  attracted  by  the 
cool  temperature  of  the  higher  valleys  of  Altyn-tagh,  and  make  their  way 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  423 

thither  to  an  altitude  of  11,000  feet,  and  even  higher  ....  In  winter  the 
wild  camel  keeps  entirely  to  the  lower  and  warmer  desert,  only  entering 
the  mountains  from  time  to  time.  .  .  . 

When  caught  young,  wild  camels  are  easily  tamed  and  taught  to  carry  a  pack. 

[Enemies]  are  very  few  in  number  in  the  localities  that  it  inhabits — man 
and  wolves  being  the  only  ones  it  has  to  encounter.  Even  wolves  are  rare 
in  the  desert,  and  would  scarcely  be  dangerous  to  a  full-grown  camel.  .  .  . 

It  seems  to  me  possible  to  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  wild  camel 
of  the  present  day  is  the  direct  descendant  of  wild  parents,  but  that  from 
time  to  time  escaped  domesticated  animals  probably  became  mixed  with  them. 

C.  S.  Cumberland  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1892,  pp.  370-371) 
writes  as  follows  concerning  the  animal  of  Chinese  Turkestan: 

The  habitat  of  the  Wild  Camel  is  the  Gobi  steppe  [=Takla  Makan  Desert] 
from  Khotan  to  Lob  Nor.  Except  when  snow  lies  on  the  ground  these  animals 
may  be  met  with  here  and  there  along  the  old  bed  of  the  Yarkand  and 
Tarim  rivers,  which  they  frequent  for  the  pools  of  brackish  water  that  are  to 
be  found  here  and  there.  But  as  soon  as  the  snow  falls  they  move  off  into 
the  desert,  as  if  then  independent  of  the  water-supply.  .  .  .  The  Camel  is 
very  shy  in  its  habits,  and,  so  far  as  I  could  ascertain,  has  never  been  caught 
and  domesticated.  .  .  .  They  appear  to  me  to  be  distinct  from  the  Bactrian 
Camel;  they  are  less  stumpy  in  build,  the  hair  is  finer,  closer,  and  shorter. 
They  vary  in  colour,  like  the  domestic  species,  from  dark  brown  to  lightish 
dun. 

On  several  occasions  in  1893  Littledale  (1894,  pp.  446-448)  came 
upon  Wild  Camels  in  small  numbers  in  the  Lob-Nor  region  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Altyn-tagh,  and  secured  four  of  them.  There  was 
one  herd  of  nine  animals. 

Sven  Hedin  writes  (1903,  vol.  1,  pp.  357-358) : 

According  to  Przhevalsky,  the  wild  camel  was  common  in  the  desert  of 
Kum-tagh,  to  the  east  of  the  marsh  of  Kara-koshun.  At  the  present  time  he 
is  never  seen  there,  or  very  rarely  indeed ;  which  may  be  owing  to  the  desicca- 
tion of  the  lake,  or  is,  perhaps,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  pools  of  water  which 
still  survive  in  that  quarter  are  situated  too  near  to  inhabited  regions.  .  .  . 

The  wild  camel  is  frequently  seen  quite  solitary  by  himself,  often  also  in 
pairs;  but  the  general  rule  is  for  a  troop  of  four  to  six  individuals  to  asso- 
ciate tpgether.  Troops  of  12  to  15  are  extremely  rare.  .  .  . 

The  wild  camel  is  found  everywhere  between  Yardang-bulak  [lat.  41°  N., 
long.  89°  E.]  and  the  district  of  Khami;  but  he  never  goes  west  of  the 
caravan  route  from  Ying-pen  [lat.  41°  N.,  long.  88°  E,]  to  Turfan. 

Hedin  also  mentions  (pp.  356-357)  a  young  domestic  animal,  not 
yet  broken  to  work,  that  "had  once  or  twice  run  away  .  .  .  and 
joined  itself  to  a  herd  of  wild  camels,  and  been  received  by  them 
without  hostility." 

Younghusband,  referring  to  the  region  about  the  southern  base 
of  the  eastern  Altai,  at  about  long.  96°-100°  E.,  says  (1888,  p.  495) : 

(  It  was  in  this  region,  that  I  first  heard  of  the  wild  camel.  The  guide  one 
day  pointed  out  to  me  a  prominent  peak  in  the  Altai  Mountains,  and  said 
that  behind  it  was  a  grassy  hollow,  which  wild  camels  usually  frequented. 


424  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Later  on  I  met  a  Mongol  hunter  who  said  the  Mongols  shoot  the  wild 
camel  for  the  sake  of  its  skin,  and  they  also  catch  the  young  ones  to  train 
up  for  riding  purposes,  and  I  was  assured  that  these  would  go  for  200  miles  a 
day  for  a  week,  but  they  can  never  be  broken  to  carry  a  load.  They  were 
described  to  me  as  being  smaller  than  the  tame  species,  and  were  said  to  have 
short  smooth  hair  in  place  of  the  long  hair  of  the  ordinary  Mongolian  camel. 
I  was  once  shown  the  track  of  a  wild  camel,  and  it  was  certainly  very  much 
smaller  than  that  of  the  tame  one. 

Lattimore  (1929)  contributes  very  interesting  information  con- 
cerning the  Wild  Camel  of  the  Gobi.  In  passing  along  the  more 
northerly  route  westward  from  Edsin  Gol,  he  reports  (p.  217) : 

The  old  way  is  said  to  pass  through  the  chief  country  of  the  wild  camels. 
I  was  told  this  by  several  caravan  masters,  and  one  young  Mohammedan 
camel  puller  told  me  that  he  had  seen  one  which  was  shot  by  a  Turki  cara- 
van master.  It  was  of  a  grayish  color,  of  about  the  same  height  as  an  ordinary 
caravan  camel,  but  slender  in  build  and  with  very  small  humps  "like  a 
woman's  breasts." 

Wild  camels  are  also  found  nearer  to  the  Edsin  Gol.  I  was  told  that  a 
Mongol,  the  year  before,  had  caught  a  very  young  one,  but  when  I  passed 
it  had  already  escaped  to  the  desert  again.  They  say  that  on  the  Two  Dry 
Stages  the  wild  camels  come  sometimes  out  of  the  hills  to  look  at  the 
caravan  herds  at  pasture,  but  that  even  so  they  seldom  come  at  all  near  and 
are  shy  and  almost  impossible  to  shoot.  There  are  men  who  say  that  even 
when  caught  extremely  young  they  can  never  be  tamed;  but  a  Hami  man 
told  me  he  had  known  an  Edsin  Gol  Mongol  who  used  one  for  riding,  and  that 
the  wild  camel  is  considered  a  very  fast  and  most  distinguished  mount  for  a 
Mongol  who  fancies  himself.  Reliable  information  about  wild  camels  collected 
by  modern  travelers  remains  incomplete,  but  there  seems  to  be  a  general 
agreement  that  they  can  be  tamed  for  riding,  though  never  for  carrying  loads; 
and  everybody  who  has  been  told  that  they  can  be  ridden  has  been  told  fan- 
tastic tales  of  the  distances  they  can  cover.  It  seems  to  be  evident  that  it  is  a 
rare  and  startling  thing  even  for  a  Mongol  to  catch  and  tame  one. 

In  describing  an  area  in  the  Gobi  near  the  "House  of  the  False 
Lama"  (about  lat.  42°  30'  N.,  long.  98°  E.),  Lattimore  writes  (p. 
243) :  "To  this  whole  series  of  springs  there  come  at  night  antelope, 
wild  asses,  and,  they  say,  wild  camels.  .  .  .  The  tracks  which 
were  pointed  out  to  me  as  those  of  wild  camels  were  frequent. 
They  were  [not?]  more  than  half  the  size  of  the  tracks  of  a  caravan 
camel,  and  more  elliptical  in  shape.  Nor,  at  least  as  it  seemed  to  me, 
were  the  toe  prints  quite  so  deep — perhaps  because  the  wild  camel, 
whose  gait  is  not  affected  by  the  carrying  of  loads,  places  his  weight 
differently.  The  caravan  men  were  positive  that  the  tracks  were  not 
made  by  half-grown  camels  belonging  to  Mongols." 

In  former  times,  at  least,  Dzungaria  formed  part  of  the  range  of 
the  Wild  Camel.  Elias  writes  (1874,  pp.  79-80) :  "To  the  north  of 
the  Tian-Shan,  the  evidence  I  received  on  this  subject  in  1872  from 
intelligent  Chinese  travellers,  as  well  as  from  the  native  Mongols, 
is  undoubted.  Many  of  the  former,  who  declared  they  had  seen 
these  animals  between  Kobdo  and  Hi,  Uliassutai  and  Kuchen,  &c., 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN -TOED  UNGULATES  425 

I  questioned  as  to  their  being  really  wild,  or  having  become  so  sub- 
sequent to  domestication;  but  the  answers  were  always,  emphati- 
cally, that  they  had  never  been  tame  ....  The  wild  camels  were 
always  described  to  me  as  smaller  in  size  and  much  darker  in  colour 
than  tame  ones." 

Brehm  (1876,  pp.  339-340)  had  reports  of  Wild  Camels  about 
250  versts  southeast  of  the  frontier  post  of  Zaisan,  in  the  direction 
of  Guchen,  where  they  were  hunted  by  the  Kirghiz  and  the  Torguts. 
They  ranged  thence  to  the  Tian  Shan,  and  were  found  at  times  in 
herds  of  as  many  as  30  head. 

"The  camels  inhabiting  Dzungaria  .  .  .  are  found  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  towns  of  Guchen  and  Manas  immediately  north 
of  the  Bogdo-ola  range,  and  some  distance  south  of  Zaizan,  as 
indicated  by  Pallas;  they  are,  however,  in  comparatively  small 
numbers"  (Lydekker,  1901,  p.  272) . 

It  is  probably  significant  that  Carruthers  (1913),  in  his  fine 
account  of  Dzungaria  and  its  fauna,  makes  no  mention  of  Wild 
Camels.  I  have  found  no  recent  record  from  that  region. 

In  writing  of  northeastern  Persia,  Hedin  says  (1910,  vol.  1,  p. 
398) :  "It  was  also  said  that  forty  years  ago  wild  camels  occurred  in 
the  sandy  deserts  at  the  edge  of  the  Kevir,  but  that  nothing  had  been 
heard  of  them  in  recent  times."  This  region  is  so  distant  and  so 
isolated  by  mountain  barriers  from  the  known  range  of  C.  6.  ferus 
that  it  seems  very  doubtful  if  the  Persian  animals  could  be  of  the 
same  origin  and  status.  More  likely  they  were  merely  feral. 

Family  TRAGULIDAE:    Chevrotains  or  Mouse-deer 

This  family  consists  of  two  widely  separated  genera,  the  Asiatic 
Tragulus  and  the  African  Hyemoschus.  More  than  50  forms  of  Trag- 
ulus  are  recognized ;  they  range  from  India  through  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula to  Java  and  Borneo.  Hyemoschus  consists  of  a  single  species, 
with  three  subspecies,  ranging  in  the  tropical  forests  from  Gambia 
to  the  eastern  Congo;  and  Dr.  Allen  contributes  accounts  of  these 
to  the  present  volume. 

Water  Chevrotain 

HYEMOSCHUS  AQUATICUS  AQUATICUS  (Ogilby) 

Moschus  aquaticus  Ogilby,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1840,  p.  35,  1841.    (Sierra 

Leone.) 
Fios.:    Johnston,  1906,  figs.  279-281,  and  col.  plate  opp.  p.  726. 

Bates's  Water  Chevrotain 

HYEMOSCHUS  AQUATICUS  BATESI  (Lydekker) 

D[orcatherium]  alquaticwri]  batesi  Lydekker,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  vol.  1, 
p.  133,  June  7,  1906.   (Efulen,  Cameroons.) 


426  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Powell-Cotton's  Water  Chevrotain 

HYEMOSCHUS  AQUATICUS  COTTONI  (Lydekker) 

D[orcatherium]    a\_quaticum]    cottoni   Lydekker,    Proc.    Zool.    Soc.    London, 
vol.  1,  p.  133,  June  7,  1906.    (Ituri  Forest,  eastern  Belgian  Congo.) 

The  Water  Chevrotain,  as  its  name  implies,  is  closely  associated 
with  the  streams  in  heavy  forest  from  the  Gambia  and  Sierra  Leone 
in  the  west  to  the  Ituri  Forest  at  the  eastern  border  of  the  Congo 
Basin,  and  southward  to  the  Cameroons.  In  addition  to  the  typical 
race,  two  others  have  been  named,  from  the  southern  and  eastern 


FIG.  44. — Water  Chevrotain  (Hyemoschus  aquations  subsp.).    After  Brehm. 

corners,  respectively,  of  the  general  range.  A  comparison  of  speci- 
mens from  these  regions,  however,  reveals  little  constant  difference, 
so  that  it  is  doubtful  if  more  than  one  form  is  distinguishable  satis- 
factorily. For  this  reason  all  three  are  treated  together. 

The  chevrotains  are  remarkable  in  that  the  long  metapodial  bones 
of  both  fore  and  hind  feet  are  complete  in  the  second  pair  of  small 
outer  digits,  instead  of  being  incomplete  or  absent  as  in  typical 
deer,  camels,  or  antelopes.  Further,  the  stomach  is  less  complicated, 
with  only  three  instead  of  four  compartments.  The  species  of  the 
African  forest  is  the  largest  living  member  of  these  primitive  ungu- 
lates, which  are  represented  in  the  Oriental  region  by  the  little 
Mouse-deer  (Tragulus).  About  3  feet  long,  with  stumpy  tail,  and 
standing  some  14  inches  high  at  the  shoulder,  this  animal  is  of  a 
rich  brown,  marked  on  the  body  with  several  lengthwise  rows  of 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  427 

white  spots  which  become  fused  to  form  broken  lines  on  the  flanks. 
A  white  stripe  runs  along  the  edge  of  the  jaw  and  sides  of  the  neck. 
The  male  is  slightly  darker  than  the  female,  and  has  the  upper 
canines  developed  as  projecting  tusks  about  an  inch  long. 

Little  is  recorded  of  the  habits  of  this  peculiar  species.  It  is  found 
along  the  watercourses  in  dense  forests  and,  when  disturbed,  plunges 
into  the  water  and  is  gone,  to  come  up  under  the  cover  of  overhang- 
ing vines  and  bushes  farther  upstream.  It  is  more  active  by  night, 
and  then  comes  out  to  feed  upon  "grass,  water  weeds,  and  water- 
lily  roots/'  according  to  Sir  Harry  Johnston  (1906),  but  Biittikofer, 
who  opened  the  stomach  of  one,  found  nothing  but  grass.  Johnston 
has  published  photographs  of  the  peculiar  tiptoe-like  posture  of  this 
Water  Chevrotain  when  standing.  According  to  the  natives,  it  will 
sometimes  climb  up  on  a  sloping  trunk  and  lie  out  there  resting. 
They  hunt  the  animal,  the  flesh  of  which  they  much  appreciate, 
either  by  means  of  snares  or  by  driving  a  small  section  of  bush, 
and  catching  the  quarry  in  a  long  net.  Their  folklore  has  many  tales 
of  the  cunning  and  intelligence  of  the  creature. 

Although  probably  in  no  special  danger  of  extermination  at  pres- 
ent, the  restricted  range  in  the  rain-forest  areas  of  western  Africa, 
the  avidity  with  which  it  is  sought  for  food  and  hide,  and  the  fact 
that  it  is  a  modern  survivor  of  an  ancient  group  of  primitive  hoofed 
animals,  make  its  preservation  a  matter  of  interest.  In  the  London 
Convention  schedule  of  1933  it  is  therefore  placed  in  Class  A.  Re- 
ports as  to  its  abundance  vary,  some  observers  regarding  it  as  scarce, 
others  elsewhere  reporting  it  fairly  common.  Probably  its  secretive 
habits  enhance  the  belief  in  its  rarity,  while  in  some  regions  it  is 
doubtless  overhunted  by  natives,  who  constitute  its  chief  enemy. 

G.  M.  A. 

Family  MOSCHIDAE:    Musk  Deer 

The  Musk  Deer  constitute  a  single  genus  and  species,  with  about 
half  a  dozen  subspecies,  all  of  which  are  treated  in  the  following 
pages.  They  range  from  Siberia,  Sakhalin,  and  Korea  to  the  Hima- 
layan region. 

Siberian  Musk  Deer 

MOSCHUS  MOSCHIFERUS  MoscHiFERUs  Linnaeus 

Moschus  moschijerus  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  66,  1758.  ("Tataria 
versus  Chinam."  Range  restricted  by  Flerov  (1929,  p.  515)  to  "mountains 
of  Western  and  Central  Siberia";  further  restricted  by  Harper  (1940, 
p.  202)  to  "the  Russian  Altai.") 

SYNONYM:    Moschus  sibiricus  Pallas  (1779)  (cf.  Harper,  1940,  p.  202). 

Fia:    Pallas,  1779,  pi.  4. 


428  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  various  subspecies  of  Musk  Deer  show  remarkable  powers 
of  survival  in  the  face  of  very  severe  persecution  by  native  trappers 
and  hunters  in  the  mountains  of  Asia.  Their  small  size  and  secre- 
tive habits  constitute  perhaps  their  chief  protection.  European 
hunters  see  comparatively  little  of  them.  Reports  as  to  their  present 
numbers  vary  considerably  from  one  area  to  another.  For  the  sake 
of  completeness,  all  of  the  subspecies  will  be  mentioned  at  least 
briefly  in  the  following  accounts. 

In  the  group  as  a  whole,  the  build  is  stout  and  heavy ;  the  limbs 
(especially  the  hind  ones)  are  long  and  thick;  antlers  absent;  tail 
rudimentary;  ears  large;  hair  coarse,  thick,  brittle,  pithy;  lateral 
hoofs  large  and  functional;  upper  canines  greatly  developed  and 
projecting  below  the  lips  in  the  male,  smaller  in  the  female;  male 
with  a  globular,  musk-secreting  gland  in  the  skin  of  the  abdomen. 
Height  at  shoulder,  about  20-24  inches.  (Lydekker,  18986,  p.  310.) 

The  general  color  of  the  typical  subspecies  is  brownish  (warm 
sepia  or  Prouts  brown) ;  spots  reddish  brown  and  yellowish ;  ears 
brownish  gray  at  base,  dark  brown  at  tip;  abdomen  brownish  gray 
(Flerov,  1929,  p.  516). 

The  taxonomic  status  and  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
various  proposed  subspecies  are  not  well  determined  and  so  can 
be  given  here  only  provisionally.  The  name  M.  m.  moschijerus  will 
be  applied  to  the  animal  inhabiting  the  mountain  areas  from  the 
Altai  to  eastern  Siberia  and  Manchuria. 

"The  first  musk  deer  to  reach  Europe  was  perhaps  the  one  men- 
tioned by  Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian  traveller,  who  in  the  thirteenth 
century  brought  back  with  him  the  head  and  feet  of  a  specimen 
he  secured  in  his  journey  to  'Tartary.'  He  mentions  it  as  abundant 
in  the  Altai  and  northern  Chinese  country,  especially  about  Si-fan." 
(G.  M.  Allen,  1930,  pp.  7-8.)  Allen  records  two  specimens  from 
45  to  60  miles  northeast  of  Urga,  Mongolia. 

Pallas  (1779,  pp.  15-16)  records  the  species  from  the  Altai  region, 
including  the  headwaters  of  the  Irtish,  the  Ob,  and  the  Yenisei; 
also  from  the  upper  Lena  and  the  Vitim. 

Carruthers  writes  (1913,  pp.  157,  630)  that  in  western  Mongolia 
the  Musk  Deer  is  found  only  in  the  mountains  of  the  Upper  Yenisei 
Basin  and  that  it  is  represented  in  the  profusion  of  skins  adorning 
every  native's  home  in  that  region. 

According  to  Salesski  (1934,  pp.  369-370),  the  range  in  western 
Siberia  is  largely  restricted  to  the  Altai  region.  Here  it  occurs 
from  the  headwaters  of  the  two  Abakan  Rivers  to  Lake  Teletzk 
and  the  Chulyshman  Plateau.  It  is  found  also  on  the  north  slope  of 
the  Chuya  Alps  and  on  the  southeastern  side  of  the  Sailugem  Range. 
In  this  whole  region  it  is  more  or  less  common.  Twenty-five  or 
thirty  years  ago  it  still  occurred  in  the  region  of  Abai  and  Ustj-kan. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  429 

In  the  Kusnetzk  Alatau  it  was  found  only  on  the  upper  courses 
of  the  Black  and  White  Yussi.  In  the  Yenisei  region  it  is  recorded 
from  the  headwater  rivers,  Mana  and  Kan,  and  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  Minussinsk  district.  Here  it  is  most  numerous  on  the 
upper  courses  of  the  Kasyr  and  the  Kisir. 

According  to  Schrenck  (1859,  pp.  161-162) ,  the  Musk  Deer  occurs 
in  various  localities  from  the  upper  Amur  to  the  Pacific  coast,  in- 
habiting chiefly  coniferous  forests  in  mountainous  areas.  It  is 
numerous  along  the  Amur  below  the  mouth  of  the  Gorin.  It  is  used 
for  both  clothing  and  food  by  the  natives  of  those  parts.  The  tubular 
leg  bones  are  utilized  as  arrowheads.  An  important  trade  in  the 
musk  pods  is  carried  on  with  the  Manchus  and  the  Chinese.  The 
animal  is  common  along  the  coast  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Amur, 
but  apparently  absent  on  the  coast  to  the  northward,  although 
Middendorff  found  it  common  on  the  crest  of  the  Stanovoi  Moun- 
tains. (Some  of  Schrenck's  remarks  apply  to  M.  m.  parvipes,  if 
Flerov  (1929,  p.  517)  is  correct  in  extending  the  range  of  the  latter 
north  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amur.) 

Radde  (1862,  pp.  275-277)  records  the  species  in  the  Yablonoi 
and  the  eastern  Sayan  Mountains  up  to  7,000  feet.  In  the  latter 
region  good  hunters  get  30-40  animals  per  year;  at  the  north  end 
of  Lake  Baikal,  10-12  animals;  in  the  Khingan  Mountains,  up  to 
20  animals.  It  was  common  in  the  Baikal  Mountains  until  1852, 
when  it  became  rarer.  It  is  rare  in  the  mountains  of  Transbaikalia 
and  in  the  Bureya  Mountains.  Along  the  tributaries  of  the  Amur 
it  is  preyed  upon  by  the  Yellow-throated  Marten  (Charronia  flavi- 
gula) .  It  is  commonly  caught  in  snares.  The  skins  are  little  utilized. 

Sowerby  (1923,  pp.  109-111)  contributes  the  following  account 
(covering  in  part  both  M.  m.  moschiferus  and  M.  m.  parvipes) : 

One  of  the  least  often  seen  of  the  Manchurian  deer,  if  not  the  rarest,  is 
the  little  musk-deer.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  always  as  uncommon 
as  it  is  now,  and  there  are  certainly  places  where  it  is  still  sufficiently  plenti- 
ful to  make  it  worth  the  hunter's  while  to  set  snares  for  it.  It  is  by  snares 
that  the  musk  is  captured,  and  the  same  type  of  snare  is  used  in  Manchuria 
and  neighbouring  regions  as  is  used  throughout  China  even  to  the  Thibetan 
border.  .  .  .  This  is  at  once  a  brutal  and  wasteful  method,  for  females  and 
young  males,  which  have  not  yet  developed  musk-pods,  are  indiscriminately 
caught  along  with  the  old  males  (over  three  years)  which  alone  are  of  any 
value.  .  .  . 

I  saw  a  specimen  ...  at  I-mien-p'o,  North  Kirin,  .  .  .  and  I  also  heard 
of  the  existence  of  the  animal  in  other  parts  from  the  Yalu  to  the  Lower 
Sungari  and  in  Heilungkiang  Province.  So  its  range  may  be  considered  as 
coincident  with  the  forested  areas  of  the  whole  region.  .  .  . 

The  musk  is  seldom  seen,  and  even  more  seldom  shot,  by  sportsmen. 
[The  musk  pod  it  carries]  is  the  cause  of  its  persecution.  Every  man's  hand 
is  against  it.  ... 

The  flesh  of  the  musk-deer  is  not  considered  very  good,  while  the  skin  is 
too  small  to  be  of  much  value,  though,  owing  to  its  toughness  it  makes  excellent 
buck-skin  leather  when  properly  dressed. 


430  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

G.  G.  Goodwin  writes  (in  litt.,  May  18,  1937) :  "The  musk  deer, 
...  in  eastern  Siberia,  is  really  quite  plentiful,  and  I  don't  think 
that  at  the  present  time  there  is  any  danger  of  its  immediate  exter- 
mination. Hunters  get  a  few  in  their  traps  from  time  to  time,  but 
[in  1929-30]  I  saw  plenty  of  evidence  of  a  number  of  animals  in 
the  Amur  region." 

The  Cedar  Valley  Reservation  (Kedrovaya  Pad) ,  on  Amur  Bay, 
comprising  7,500  hectares,  provides  for  the  protection  of  Musk  Deer, 
among  other  animals  (Makaroff,  in  Skottsberg,  1934,  p.  433) . 

[The  Musk  Deer  of  the  Verkhoyansk  region  of  Siberia  has  been 
described  as  Moschus  moschiferus  arcticus  Flerov  (C.  R.  Acad.  Sci. 
URSS,  1928A,  no.  24,  p.  516, 1929;  type  locality,  "Mount  Toulaiakh- 
khaia,  north-eastern  branch  of  the  chain  of  Taskhaiakhtakh," 
460  km.  north  of  Verkhoyansk) .  It  is  described  as  having  a  smaller 
skull  and  darker  coloration  than  M.  m.  moschiferus.  Its  range  is 
given  as  the  Verkhoyansk  district,  from  latitude  60°  N.  to  lati- 
tude 70°.  (According  to  Pallas  (1779,  p.  16) ,  the  Musk  Deer  ranges 
as  far  east  as  the  Indigirka,  where  it  is  rare.) 

No  recent  information  is  at  hand  as  to  the  numerical  status  of 
arcticus.  Pallas,  however,  remarks  (1779,  p.  16)  that  at  the  junction 
of  the  Ilga  with,  the  Lena  a  hunter  will  often  get  over  100  specimens 
during  a  winter.  (In  the  absence  of  information  as  to  the  exact 
location  of  the  "Ilga,"  it  cannot  be  stated  with  certainty  to  what 
subspecies  Pallas's  remark  applies.)  ] 

Sakhalin  Musk  Deer 

MOSCHUS    MOSCHIFERUS    SACHALINENSIS    FlerOV 

Moschus  moschiferus  sachalinensis  Flerov,  C.  R.  Acad.  Sci.  URSS,  1928A, 
no.  24,  p.  517,  1929.    ("The  island  of  Sakhalin.") 

The  Musk  Deer  of  Sakhalin  is  "threatened  with  destruction" 
(Miyoshi,  in  Skottsberg,  1934,  p.  411). 

It  is  distinguished  from  M.  m.  moschiferus  on  skull  characters. 

According  to  Schrenck  (1859,  pp.  162-163),  it  was  found  only  in 
the  high,  forested  mountains  in  the  interior  of  the  island.  At  that 
period  skins  and  musk  pods  were  being  traded  to  a  Russian- 
American  company.  Kuroda  writes  (1928,  p.  228)  that  "it  seems  to 
be  rare." 

Korean  Musk  Deer 

MOSCHUS  MOSCHIFERUS  PARVIPES  Hollister 

Moschus  parvipes  Hollister,  Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Washington,  vol.  24,  p.  1,  1911. 
("Mountains  near  Mok-po,  South  Tscholla  Province,  Korea/') 

The  Korean  Musk  Deer  is  doubtless  suffering  from  the  same  sort 
of  persecution  as  the  other  subspecies. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  431 

It  is  a  smaller  animal  than  M.  m.  moschiferus;  legs  slender  and 
feet  small,  with  much  smaller  main  and  lateral  hoofs;  color  strik- 
ingly rich  and  dark,  with  sharp  markings ;  hair  of  winter  coat  much 
softer  and  shorter  than  in  moschiferus,  only  about  35  mm.  long  on 
shoulders  (Hollister,  1911,  p.  1). 

Pere  David  (1867,  p.  29)  was  perhaps  the  first  to  record  the  Musk 
Deer  from  Korea. 

Flerov  (1929,  p.  517)  gives  the  range  of  the  present  subspecies 
as  "Korea,  Ussuri  land,  on  the  north  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  Amour." 
Sowerby  states  (1937,  p.  253)  that  it  "occurs  in  Eastern  Manchuria, 
the  Ussuri,  the  Primorsk  and  Korea." 

Some  of  the  remarks  quoted  from  Schrenck  and  from  Sowerby 
in  the  preceding  account  of  M.  m.  moschiferus  apply  to  the  present 
subspecies. 

Kansu  Musk  Deer.    Moschustier  (Ger.) 

MOSCHUS  MOSCHIFERUS  siFANicus  Buchner 

Moschus   sifanicus  Buchner,   Melanges  Biol.,   vol.   13,   livr.   1,   p.    162,    1891. 

("Southern  Kansu,"  China.) 
SYNONYM:    ? Moschus  berezovskii  Flerov  (1929). 
FIGS.:    Milne  Edwards  and  Milne  Edwards,  1868-74,  pis.  19   (subsp.?),  20; 

Schafer,  1937,  pis.  facing  pp.  192,  193;  Engelmann,  1938,  pis.  14-16,  figs. 

58,  59,  62. 

This  animal  somehow  manages  to  survive  despite  very  severe 
persecution. 

The  outer  surface  of  the  ear  is  deep  black,  with  a  broad  yellowish 
tip ;  inner  surface  yellowish  or  rufous ;  upper  half  with  a  conspicuous 
blackish  border;  skull  large  (Buchner,  1891,  pp.  162-163).  The 
general  color  is  uniform  yellowish  brown;  abdomen  pale  yellowish 
(Flerov,  1929,  p.  518). 

The  range  extends  from  Kansu,  eastern  Tibet,  and  Yunnan 
eastward  at  least  as  far  as  Shansi  and  Honan.  A.  Milne  Edwards 
(1868-74,  p.  176,  pi.  19)  records  a  Musk  Deer  of  some  subspecies 
from  the  mountains  near  Peking  in  Chihli ;  and  others  from  Tibet  and 
Szechwan.  Prejevalsky  (1876,  vol.  1,  p.  261)  speaks  of  Musk  Deer 
in  the  Ala-shan  west  and  north  of  the  Yellow  River. 

"Owing  to  ceaseless  persecution  by  the  Chinese,  the  Musk  Deer 
has  been  nearly  exterminated  in  the  country  [Chino-Tibetan  bor- 
derland] where  Mr.  Zappey  collected.  The  musk  glands  are  keenly 
sought  and  much  esteemed  by  the  Chinese.  In  the  mountains  of 
western  Szechwan,  at  Shuowlow,  a  single  male  was  shot  at  an  alti- 
tude of  14,000  feet.  Although  others  were  seen  they  were  so  shy  that 
it  was  impossible  to  approach  within  range."  (G.  M.  Allen,  1912, 
p.  205.) 


432  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Wilson  (1913,  vol.  2,  pp.  169-171)  gives  the  following  account: 

This  pretty  little  animal  ...  is  still  fairly  common  throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  Chino-Thibetan  borderland,  but  is  everywhere  sorely  hunted 
for  its  musk.  .  .  .  This  Musk  ...  is  by  far  the  most  important  export 
passing  through  the  border  towns  of  western  Szechuan.  Hosie  .  .  .  says  that 
some  60,000  pods  of  musk,  worth  from  20  to  50  rupees  each,  according  to 
size  and  quality,  are  annually  sent  through  the  district  of  Litang  to  Tachienlu, 
where  they  are  trimmed  and  prepared  for  the  Chinese  and  foreign  market. 
An  ordinary  pod  in  its  raw  state  weighs  about  an  ounce,  and  with  its  fringe 
of  skin  and  hair  is  about  an  inch  across.  .  .  . 

Hosie  .  .  .  puts  the  annual  exports  of  musk  from  Tachienlu  at  over 
24,500  ounces,  valued  at  Tls.  300,000.  Watson  .  .  .  gives  the  export  of  musk 
through  Kuan  Hsien  as  16,000  ounces,  valued  at  Tls.  216,000;  from  Sungpan 
...  to  the  value  of  Tls.  60,000.  Through  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs 
at  Chungking  between  40,000  and  50,000  ounces  of  musk  pass  annually.  .  .  . 
But  these  figures  represent  only  a  part  of  the  export,  since  they  do  not 
cover  what  passed  through  the  Native  Customs.  In  addition  to  this  export 
large  quantities  are  consumed  in  the  wealthy  cities  west  of  Chungking.  In 
the  last  Decennial  Report  (pub.  1904)  the  Commissioner  of  Customs,  Chung- 
king, writes:  "The  destruction  of  these  animals  must  be  enormous  and  must 
lead  to  their  extinction  if  the  present  slaughter  continues."  The  figures  given 
above  amply  justify  the  commissioner's  views. 

This  much  persecuted  little  animal  frequents  the  upper  wooded  country 
between  8000  feet  altitude  and  the  tree-limit  (11,500  to  14,000  feet,  according 
to  climate)  ....  It  occurs  solitary  or  in  pairs,  though  in  a  small  area  several 
may  be  found.  .  .  .  The  natives  trap,  snare,  and  more  rarely  shoot 
them.  .  .  . 

The  flesh  is  excellent  eating  ....  We  were  informed  that  they  [some 
animals  in  an  enclosure]  bred  in  captivity. 

Sowerby  writes  (1923,  p.  110) :  "In  Shansi,  North  China,  where 
the  musk-deer  is  plentiful  in  the  forested  mountainous  areas,  the 
hunters  will  not  tolerate  this  method  [of  snares],  resorting  to  driv- 
ing and  shooting;  which  .  .  .  ensures  that  only  the  males  with 
musk-pods  are  taken.  In  view  of  the  value  of  the  musk-deer  to 
the  country  it  would  be  a  good  thing  if  the  Chinese  Government 
made  it  illegal  to  employ  the  snare  in  the  hunting  of  this  little 
animal." 

According  to  the  same  author  (1937,  pp.  252-253),  the  present 
subspecies  "ranges  from  South-western  Kansu  southward  into  Yun- 
nan and  north-eastward  along  the  Tsing  Ling  range  in  South 
Shensi  into  Honan  and  West  Shansi.  ...  In  the  Chinese-Tibetan 
border  regions  the  musk  deer  is  hunted  mainly  with  nooses  set  in 
the  animal's  runways.  As  this  method  kills  females,  which  have  no 
value,  as  well  as  males*,  it  is  very  wasteful.  Formerly  abundant, 
the  musk  deer  is  rapidly  approaching  extinction.  Nothing  is  done 
to  protect  this  extremely  valuable  animal." 

In  Szechwan,  according  to  Roosevelt  and  Roosevelt  (1929,  p.  266) , 
"Musk  deer  .  .  .  are  plentiful  in  many  localities.  In  their  pursuit 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVP:N-TOED    UNGULATES  433 

the  local  hunters  almost  invariably  use  dogs.  .  .  .  The  tushes  of 
the  deer  are  in  common  use  as  ornaments." 

Schafer  writes  (1933,  pp.  301-303)  that  this  is  the  commonest 
game  animal  of  the  border  regions  of  China  and  Tibet.  It  is  ubiq- 
uitous in  the  forested  country,  from  2,000  m.  up  to  the  tree  line.  It 
is  a  solitary  animal,  and  flees  from  culture.  It  is  very  secretive  and 
entirely  nocturnal,  and  thus  very  difficult  to  meet  with.  The  natives 
either  hunt  it  with  dogs  or  set  foot  snares  for  it. 

According  to  Brooke  Dolan,  II  (MS.,  1938;  cf.  also  Dolan  in 
G.  M.  Allen,  1939,  p.  280) ,  Musk  Deer  are  universally  distributed 
throughout  the  marches  of  eastern  Tibet.  They  range  "from  com- 
paratively low  altitudes  to  the  highest  growth  of  dwarf  rhododen- 
dron. Their  favorite  habitat  is  probably  at  about  12,500  ft.  in  rho- 
dodendron, spruce  or  prickly  oak.  It  is  principally  there  that  they 
are  trapped  by  professional  musk  hunters,  but  their  salvation  seems 
to  lie  in  the  fact  that  there  is  a  reserve  in  higher  altitudes  where  the 
native  hunters  cannot  trap  them  profitably." 

According  to  a  recent  estimate,  from  10,000  to  15,000  of  the 
animals  are  killed  yearly.  In  addition  to  the  musk  pods,  the  hide 
and  the  flesh  are  prized  by  the  natives.  Natural  enemies  include 
the  Yellow-throated  Marten,  Wild  Dog,  Tibetan  Lynx,  Wolf, 
Leopard,  Blue  and  Black  Bears,  and  Golden  Eagle.  (Engelmann, 
1938,  p.  23.) 

Himalayan  Musk  Deer 

MOSCHUS    MOSCHIFERUS    CHRYSOGASTER    HodgSOn 

Moschus  chrysogaster  Hodgson,  Jour.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal,  vol.  8,  p.  203, 
1839.  ("Cis  and  Trans-Hemalayan  regions";  type  locality  shown  to  be 
"Nepal"  (Lydekker,  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  6).) 

FIG.:    Stockley,  1928,  pi.  facing  p.  164. 

The  Himalayan  Musk  Deer  has  perhaps  fared  a  little  better  at 
the  hands  of  man  than  the  other  subspecies  have. 

Hodgson  (1839,  p.  203)  applies  the  name  chrysogaster  to  what  is 
apparently  one  of  several  color  phases  found  in  the  Himalayan 
region.  He  describes  it  as  follows:  "Bright  sepia  brown  sprinkled 
with  golden  red ;  orbitar  region,  lining,  and  base  of  ears,  whole  body 
below,  and  insides  of  the  limbs,  rich  golden  red  or  orange;  a  black- 
brown  patch  on  the  buttocks  .  .  . ;  limbs  below  their  central  flexures 
fulvescent." 

Blanford  (1891,  p.  553)  gives  the  range,  in  part,  as  "throughout 
the  Himalayas  as  far  west  as  Gilgit,  at  elevations  exceeding  8000 
feet  (in  Sikhim  in  the  summer  above  12,000) ,  in  forest  and  brush- 
wood." Lydekker  (1915,  vol.  4,  p.  6)  records  a  specimen  from  as  far 
east  as  "Kachar"  (Assam) . 

15 


434  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

In  the  upper  Himalayas,  according  to  Vickers  (in  Louis,  1894, 
p.  160) ,  "musk  deer  .  .  .  literally  swarm  above  10,000  feet,  but  so 
cute  and  retiring  are  they  .  .  .  that  I  have  never  bagged  one  .... 

"They  are  frequently  snared  for  the  musk  of  commerce,  and  the 
method  employed  is  identical  with  that  for  pheasants,  viz.  a  sharp 
pine-clad  ridge  is  chosen,  along  it  for  some  hundreds  of  paces  a 
rough  hedge  is  thrown  up,  unpassable  except  at  certain  places  where 
a  rope  noose  attached  to  a  bent  sapling  is  arranged  to  catch  the 
animal." 

Kinloch  (1892,  p.  253)  records  the  Musk  Deer  "from  Gilgit  to 
Bhutan, "and  adds:  "It  is  .  .  .  much  less  common  .  .  .  than  it  used 
to  be,  for  the  value  of  the  musk  is  well  known,  and  no  animal  is 
more  persecuted.  In  some  of  the  more  rugged  parts  of  Kashmir, 
such  as  Gares  and  Tilel,  and  in  the  rugged  district  of  Pangi,  it  is 
probably  now  as  numerous  as  anywhere.  The  Ganges  valley  used 
to  be  a  favorite  locality,  but  I  believe  that  few  deer  are  now  left 
there." 

Burrard  writes  (1925?,  pp.  143-144) :  "Indians  poach  them 
everywhere.  .  .  .  Musk  pods  will  sometimes  fetch  as  much  as  Rs. 
30,  a  huge  sum  to  a  hillman." 

The  Musk  Deer  is  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  within  Indian 
limits.  It  has  been  recommended  for  special  protection  by  the  All 
India  Conference.  Shooting  is  controlled  by  regulations  in  Kashmir 
State.  The  musk  pod  is  much  in  demand  for  perfume.  (Bombay 
Natural  History  Society,  in  Hit.,  December,  1936.) 

In  Kashmir  the  animal  is  plentiful,  but  it  is  impossible  to  give 
even  an  approximate  number.  If  a  decrease  should  take  place,  it- 
will  be  due  to  the  high  prices  offered  by  exporters,  making  it  worth 
the  poachers^  while  to  take  the  risk  of  game  laws.  The  musk  pod 
forms  a  very  important  ingredient  of  many  Indian  medicines  and  of 
perfumes;  hence  its  high  value.  Shooting  is  prohibited  except  under 
a  special  license,  for  which  a  prohibitive  fee  is  charged.  Heavy 
penalties  are  imposed  for  poaching,  and  protection  is  thus  very  ade- 
quate. (Game  Warden,  Kashmir,  in  Hit.,  May,  1937.) 

Musk  Deer  were  formerly  plentiful  in  the  forested  hills  of  Kumaun 
above  10,000  feet.  Now  they  are  very  scarce  and  confined  to  a  few 
isolated  areas  in  the  Almora  district.  Netting,  noosing,  and  shoot- 
ing are  the  causes  of  depletion.  No  measure  is  taken  for  the  preser- 
vation of  the  species.  (Major  Corbett,  Joint  Secretary  Game 
Preservation  Association  of  the  United  Provinces,  in  lilt.,  March, 
1937.) 

The  Game  Warden  of  the  Punjab  and  North  West  Frontier  Prov- 
ince reports  (in  litt.,  November,  1936)  that  the  species  is  now  never 
seen  in  localities  where  it  was  once  common.  Relentless  poaching 
is  perhaps  the  sole  cause  for  its  decline.  The  musk  is  used  as  a 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  435 

base  for  scents,  as  an  aphrodisiac,  and,  among  the  rich,  for  imparting 
aroma  to  food.  The  animal  is  protected  throughout  the  year  and 
can  be  trapped  only  to  the  extent  provided  by  prescriptive  sport- 
ing rights. 

According  to  information  received  from  the  Government  of  North 
West  Frontier  Province  (in  litt.,  December,  1936) ,  the  Musk  Deer 
was  formerly  fairly  common  in  the  higher  wooded  hills  of  the  Hazara 
District,  but  is  now  very  scarce. 

"It  is  a  great  pity  that  these  little  beasts  are  so  terribly  persecuted 
.  .  .  ,  for  they  are  most  harmless  and  interesting.  How  they,  with 
their  foolishly  confiding  ways,  have  managed  to  survive  at  all,  is 
surprising,  for  they  are  still  fairly  common  in  parts  of  Kashmir." 
(Stockley,  1936,  p.  160.) 

Family  CERVIDAE:   Deer 

The  deer  family  is  composed  of  approximately  20  genera  and  200 
species  and  subspecies.  It  occurs  over  the  greater  part  of  the  earth 
but  is  absent  from  the  West  Indies,  all  of  Africa  except  the  extreme 
north,  and  the  Papuan  and  Australian  regions.  Dr.  Allen  (1942) 
provides  accounts  of  34  New  World  forms,  and  the  present  volume 
includes  25  Old  World  forms.  The  large  proportion  of  endangered 
or  vanishing  species  is  due  chiefly  to  man's  reckless  exploitation  of 
these  graceful  animals  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh,  hides,  and  antlers. 

Hairy-fronted  Muntjac 

MUNTIACUS  CRINIFRONS  (P.  L.  Sclater) 

Cervulus  crinijrons  P.  L.  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1885,  p.  1,  pi.  1, 

1885.   ("Vicinity  of  Ningpo,  China.") 
FIGS.:    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1885,  pi.  1  and  p.  2,  fig.;  Lydekker,  18986, 

pi.  16,  fig.  2. 

Known  only  from  three  specimens  from  Chekiang  Province,  this 
species  must  be  close  to  extinction. 

"A  large  muntjac,  ...  of  a  general  dark  blackish-brown  color, 
including  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  tail,  but  the  head  and  neck  very 
slightly  mixed  with  ochraceous;  forehead,  sides  of  the  face,  backs  of 
the  ears,  and  the  occiput  including  its  well-developed  tuft  of  longer 
hairs,  ochraceous;  interramal  area,  a  small  mark  above  each  hoof, 
the  edges  of  the  buttocks,  the  lower  side  of  the  tail,  and  the  inguinal 
area  white,  the  last  with  a  narrow  ochraceous  border.  Antlers 
short  [65  mm.],  with  a  small  projection  on  the  inner  side  at  the 
base."  (G.  M.  Allen,  1930,  p.  15.)  Height  at  shoulder,  about  24 
inches;  tail,  about  9  inches  (P.  L.  Sclater,  1885,  p.  2). 

Shortly  after  Sclater's  description  of  the  type,  Styan  (1886, 
pp.  267-268)  records  a  female  specimen  from  Ningpo,  and  adds: 


436  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"This  species  appears  to  be  very  rare;  ever  since  the  description  of  it 
first  appeared,  the  man  I  employed  to  hunt  has  been  specially  look- 
ing for  it,  but  has  only  procured  this  single  specimen." 

G.  M.  Allen  remarks  (1930,  p.  15) :  "Special  interest  .  .  .  attaches 
to  the  capture  of  a  third  specimen,  a  male,  brought  back  by  the 
Asiatic  Expeditions  from  Tunglu,  Chekiang  Province.  .  .  .  Prob- 
ably this  is  a  species  close  to  the  verge  of  extinction,  of  which  a 
few  remain  in  eastern  China." 

Schomburgk's  Deer 

RUCERVUS   SCHOMBURGKI  Blyth 

Rucervus  schomburgki  Blyth,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London   1863,  p.   155,   1863. 

("Probably  .  .  .  Siam.") 
FIGS.:    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1863,  p.  156,  figs.;  Blyth,  1868,  pp.  837-839, 

figs.  6-12;  Lydekker,  18986,  p.  194,  fig.  53;  Lydekker,  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  98, 

fig.  19;  Kemp,  1918,  pi.  1;  Ward,  1935,  p.  20,  fig.;  Leister,  1935,  p.  63,  fig.; 

Giihler,  1936,  pis.  19,  20. 

Schomburgk's  Deer,  first  introduced  to  science  in  1863,  is  now  on 
the  verge  of  extinction  if  not  already  extinct.  It  is  scarcely  known 
outside  of  Siam. 

"Height  at  shoulder  about  3  feet  5  inches;  hair  in  winter  rather 
long  and  coarse.  General  colour  of  pelage  uniform  brown,  darkest 
on  the  nose  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail,  and  lightest  on  the 
cheeks  and  flanks;  under-parts,  lower  surface  of  tail,  and  lower  lip 
whitish;  a  tinge  of  rufous  on  the  upper  lip,  the  back  of  the  head, 
and  limbs;  the  hair  on  the  front  of  the  lower  part  of  the  fore-leg 
elongated  to  form  a  fringe.  Antlers  large,  complex,  smooth,  and 
polished;  the  brow-tine  very  long,  frequently  forked,  and  arising 
nearly  at  a  right  angle  from  the  beam;  the  beam  very  short  and 
more  or  less  laterally  compressed,  then  forking  dichotomously,  with 
each  of  the  main  branches  about  equally  developed,  and  again 
forking  in  a  similar  manner,  to  terminate  in  long  cylindrical  tines." 
(Lydekker,  18986,  p.  194.)  The  record  length  of  antlers,  measured 
on  the  outside  curve,  is  35^  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  29). 

Valuable  information  on  this  species  has  been  contributed  by 
Kemp  (1918),  Kloss  (1921),  Pigot  (1929),  Bhicharana  (1932),  and 
Guehler  (1933).  More  recently  the  last-mentioned  author  (Giihler, 
1936)  has  furnished  a  comprehensive  summary,  from  which  the 
following  account  is  mainly  derived. 

This,  perhaps  the  rarest  of  all  deer,  has  never  been  seen  in  the 
wild  by  a  European,  although  a  number  of  scientific  expeditions 
have  sought  it  in  Siam.  From  1862  to  1911  eight  living  examples 
were  known  in  zoos  (at  London,  Hamburg,  Berlin,  Koln,  Paris,  and 
Shanghai) .  The  only  known  mounted  specimen  in  existence  is  pre- 
served in  Paris;  it  is  doubtless  the  one  that  lived  in  the  Jardin  des 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES 


437 


Plantes  in  1867.  Many  antlers  (perhaps  to  the  number  of  300  or 
400)  and  some  skulls  are  found  in  various  museums  and  in  private 
possession.  The  antlers  figure  particularly  in  the  Chinese  pharma- 
ceutical trade.  The  female  is  practically  unknown. 


FIG.  45. — Schomburgk's   Deer    (Rucervus   schomburgki) 

Perhaps  the  most  recent  specimen  is  said  to  have  been  shot  in 
September,  1932,  in  the  forests  near  Sayok  (lat.  14°  30'  N.,  long. 
98°  50'  E.),  along  the  Qwe-Noi  River.  Although  the  date  of  the 
specimen  is  questioned  in  some  quarters,  the  record  gives  some 
ground  for  believing  that  the  species  still  exists. 

Forty  or  fifty  years  ago  entire  herds  occurred  in  the  swamps 
near  Rangsit  (lat.  U°-  05'  N.,  long.  100°  35'  E.).  At  times  of  high 
water  the  deer  were  said  to  have  been  hunted  with  boats,  driven  on 
to  dry  islands,  and  killed  with  spears. 

There  are  a  few  early  reports  of  the  species  from  beyond  Siam — 


438  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

in  Yunnan,  the  Shan  States,  and  Indo-China.  Bentham  (1908, 
p.  89)  figures  an  apparently  authentic  frontlet  and  antlers  from  the 
Sanda  Valley,  Yunnan,  presented  by  J.  Anderson  in  1878.  The 
report  from  the  Shan  States  (Blanford,  1891,  p.  540)  is  highly 
indefinite,  and  that  from  Indo-China  erroneous  (Lydekker,  1915, 
vol.  4,  p.  99).  Kemp  (1918)  limits  the  range  to  a  quadrilateral  in 
Siam  between  latitude  15°  and  17°  N.  and  longitude  101°  and  103° 
E.  But  Guhler  changes  the  boundary  of  this  area  to  latitude  14° 
and  16°  N.  and  longitude  98°  30'  and  102°  E.  Bhicharana  (1932) 
believes  that  the  animal  still  occurs  between  the  Suphan  and  the 
Meklong  Rivers,  while  Stockley  (1933)  indicates  the  area  about 
Sayok  as  "practically  our  last  hope." 

We  may  safely  conclude,  from  the  number  of  antlers  still  extant 
and  from  the  reports  of  the  Siamese,  that  Schomburgk's  Deer  was 
not  uncommon  toward  the  end  of  the  past  century.  It  was  adapted 
to  open  lands  with  abundant  moisture  and  sparse  tree  growth. 
Increasing  cultivation  of  the  land,  together  with  the  introduction 
of  railroads  and  irrigation,  forced  it  more  and  more  into  thick 
forests  and  into  a  generally  unsuitable  environment.  Thus  man 
has  contributed  both  directly  and  indirectly  to  its  disappearance. 
Hitherto  in  Siam  there  have  been  no  game  laws  or  game  preserves. 
The  antlers  of  Schomburgk's  Deer  perhaps  fetch  a  better  price  with 
the  Chinese  than  those  of  the  Sambar  or  the  Thamin. 

No  one  knows  whether  a  few  of  the  present  species  may  still 
survive  in  the  inaccessible  parts  of  the  Suphan  district. 

In  1931  total  protection  was  recommended  by  the  Siam  Society. 

Kloss  (1921,  p.  105)  quotes  Seidenfaden  [1920]  concerning  a 
tribe  of  savages  who  live  "on  the  slopes  of  the  big  Pu  Kio  mountain 
[between  lat.  16°  and  17°  N.  and  long.  101°  and  102°  E.]"  and 
"chase  and  kill  .  .  .  that  rare  animal,  Schomburgk's  deer,  which  is 
living  just  in  this  region." 

Bhicharana  reports  (1932,  p.  312) : 

I  used  to  question  some  of  my  old  surveyors  as  to  whether  they  had  ever 
seen  animals  called  sa-man  while  doing  their  work  up-country  twenty-five 
or  more  years  ago.  They  told  me  there  were  plenty  of  such  deer.  .  .  .  The 
particular  area  which  these  surveyors  reported  as  being  frequented  by  this 
deer  was  between  the  Suphan  and  Menam  Noi  Rivers.  About  1926  I  sent 
men  to  make  inquiry  as  to  whether  this  deer  was  still  to  be  found  there,  but 
it  was  reported  that  all  had  disappeared,  as  the  people  had  opened  up  the 
bamboo  jungle  which  once  existed  and  converted  it  into  rice  fields. 

In  1928  when  going  up  Klong  Makam  Dhao  I  ...  learned  that  there 
was  still  one  Schomburgk  deer  which  the  people  saw  roaming  about.  ...  In 
1930  I  was  told  that  this  deer  had  disappeared. 

Dr.  John  C.  Phillips  writes  (in  Hit.,  August  10,  1937) :  "Arthur 
Vernay  .  .  .  agrees  with  us  that  it's  extinct,  that  he  made  three 
journeys  to  Siam  for  this  animal,  the  first  one  being  in  1920;  another 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  439 

going  from  Moulmein  [Burma]  right  through  to  Bangkok  covering 
untouched  territory  on  the  Meklong  River." 

Brow -an  tiered  Deer;  Burmese  Thamin;  Eld's  Deer. 
Sangnai  (Manipuri) 

RUCERVUS  ELDII  ELDii  (M'Clelland) 

Cervus  Eldii  M'Clelland,  Calcutta  Jour.  Nat.  Hist,  vol.  2,  p.  417,  1842.  ("The 
valley  of  Munipore"  [Manipur],  Assam.) 

SYNONYMS:  Cervus  (Rusa)  frontalis  M'Clelland  (1843);  Rucervus  thamin 
Thomas  (1918);  R.  t.  brucei  Thomas  (1918). 

FIGS.:  Eld,  1842,  pi.  12;  M'Clelland,  Calcutta  Jour.  Nat.  Hist,  vol.  3,  pis. 
13,  14,  1843;  Blyth,  1868,  p.  841,  figs.  13-17;  Lydekker,  1898b,  p.  197, 
fig.  54,  p.  199,  fig.  55;  Lydekker,  1900,  pi.  6,  fig.  8,  p.  235,  fig.  49;  Lydekker, 
1915,  vol.  4,  p.  101,  fig.  20;  Stockley,  1928,  pi.  facing  p.  160;  Peacock,  1933, 
pi.  21;  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc,  vol.  37,  no.  1,  suppl,  pi.  25,  1934; 
Ward,  1935,  p.  18,  fig.;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  694,  fig. 

This  Thamin,  ranging  from  Manipur  through  Burma,  has  suffered 
so  severely  from  overshooting  and  from  the  extension  of  cultivation 
that  there  is  much  apprehension  as  to  its  chances  for  survival. 

"Mature  stags  are  dark  brown  or  almost  black  in  colour,  with 
a  long,  thick  ruff  of  coarse  hair  around  the  neck.  The  hinds  are 
fawn-coloured."  (Peacock,  1933,  p.  137.)  The  antlers  "are  rounded 
and  rough,  with  a  long  curved  brow-tine,  forming  a  continuation 
of  the  curve  of  the  beam,  which  is  set  at  right  angles  to  the  pedicle ; 
the  beam  unbranched  for  some  distance,  much  curved,  and  finally 
forked,  with  the  outer  prong  more  subdivided  than  the  inner.  Height 
at  shoulder,  about  4  feet  3  inches."  The  record  length  of  antlers 
on  the  outside  curve,  not  including  the  brow-tine,  is  42  inches. 
(Ward,  1935,  p.  16.)  The  female  is  much  smaller  than  the  male. 

Assam. — According  to  Eld  (1842,  p.  415),  this  deer  is  found  [in 
Assam]  only  in  the  Valley  of  Manipur,  and  not  in  Cachar  or  the 
Kubo  Valley  or  the  Naga  Hills.  "After  the  annual  grass  burning. 
I  have  frequently  seen  herds  of  two  or  three  hundred." 

The  following  information  on  its  present  status  in  Assam  comes 
from  the  Political  Agent  in  Manipur  and  J.  C.  Higgins  (in  Hit., 
March,  1937) .  It  lives  only  in  the  swamps  in  the  low  parts  of  the 
Manipur  Valley.  It  has  decreased  in  numbers  in  recent  years,  partly 
owing  to  extension  of  cultivation,  but  more  to  poaching.  There  are 
rules  for  its  protection,  which  are  often  disregarded,  because  there 
is  no  special  staff  to  enforce  them. 

The  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  writes  (in  litt.,  December, 
1936)  that  Wild  Dogs  and  poachers  are  factors  in  its  decrease.  "In 
time  of  high  flood  the  animals  are  driven  out  of  their  haunts  to 
isolated  places  of  high  ground  and  slaughtered  regardless  of  sex  or 
age."  The  meat,  hide,  and  horns  are  utilized. 


440  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Burma. — The  following  comprehensive  account  is  furnished  by 
Peacock  (1933,  pp.  137-141) : 

Before  the  introduction  of  guns  and  rifles,  thamin  were  probably  the  most 
numerous  of  the  deer  tribe  in  Central  Burma.  Their  range  extended  from 
the  Katha  District  in  Northern  Burma  to  the  Pegu  district  in  Lower 
Burma.  .  .  . 

At  the  present  time  thamin  are  found  in  greatest  numbers  in  the  Dry  Zone, 
in  the  forest  divisions  of  Shwebo,  Mu,  Lower  Chindwin,  Yaw,  Meiktila, 
Minbu,  Mag  we  and  Thayetmyo.  A  few  thamin  are  also  to  be  found  in  parts 
of  the  Mogok,  Yamethin,  Henzada  and  other  Divisions,  but  their  numbers 
are  decreasing  so  rapidly  that  they  are  sure  to  be  eliminated  very  soon  from 
all  except  typically  Dry  Zone  Divisions. 

The  case  of  the  thamin  is  one  of  the  very  black  spots  in  the  page  of  game 
conservation  in  Burma.  In  the  face  of  a  terribly  rapid  diminution  in  their 
numbers  one  of  the  most  beautiful  species  of  deer  remain  unprotected  by  a 
single  sanctuary  or  game  park. 

The  brow-antlered  deer  is  one  which  cannot  tolerate  heavy  forests  or  hills. 
His  habitat  is  the  open  scrub  and  indaing  forests  on  the  flat  or  undulating  land 
....  No  matter  how  he  is  persecuted  he  will  not  change  his  habitat.  More- 
over, he  is  remarkably  stupid  in  that  he  will  allow  a  bullock-cart  to  be 
driven  within  a  few  yards  of  his  stand.  Previous  to  the  revision  of  the 
game  rules  and  the  prohibition  of  shooting  from  any  vehicle,  thamin  were 
slaughtered  in  hundreds  by  sportsmen(?)  and  poachers  who  approached  them 
in  this  manner. 

The  habitat  of  thamin,  always  very  accessible,  is  now  being  increasingly 
threaded  by  railway,  road  and  water  communications,  and  the  number  of  guns 
issued  to  natives  of  the  country  is  also  on  the  increase.  Cultivation  has 
spread  over  the  grounds  occupied  by  thamin  and,  since  these  deer  will  not 
change  their  grounds  or  cease  from  their  habit  of  feeding  on  man-made 
crops  within  their  reach,  they  are  being  shot  out  partly  in  defence  of  crops 
and  partly  under  cover  of  that  excuse. 

Obviously,  the  only  certain  means  of  perpetuating  the  existence  of  thamin 
is  to  set  aside  a  few  sanctuaries  or  parks  in  localities  which  are  not  required 
for  cultivation  and  sufficiently  removed  from  crops  to  render  the  preserva- 
tion of  these  deer  feasible.  This  course  would  have  been  an  easy  one  a  few 
years  ago:  now  it  is  not  so  easy.  .  .  . 

In  the  absence  of  sanctuaries  there  is  nothing  so  certain  as  an  early 
termination  to  the  existence  of  the  brow-antlered  deer.  .  .  . 

In  the  Singaung  area  in  the  Shwebo  District  I  saw  herds  of  fifteen  animals 
and  more  as  recently  as  last  year.  .  .  . 

They  enter  crops  and  the  stubble  of  crops  nightly  when  such  are  within 
reach,  and  fall  a  frequent  victim  of  the  poacher,  the  light  from  whose  electric 
torch  appears  to  fascinate  them  into  immobility.  .  .  . 

Thamin  .  .  .  can  become  an  unmitigated  nuisance  to  the  villager  in  some 
localities.  .  .  . 

Females,  and  stags  not  in  hard  horn,  are  protected  throughout  the  year. 

Stags  in  hard  horn  may  be  shot  in  unclassed  forests  without  a  game  license 
and,  in  reserved  forests,  under  authority  of  a  game  license.  The  license  usually 
prescribes  that  only  one  stag  may  be  shot,  and  that  his  horn  must  exceed 
30  inches  in  length. 

Any  wild  animal  engaged  in  crop  destruction  may  be  shot.  ...  So  there 
is  every  opportunity  for  the  poacher  and  field-owner  to  shoot  these  deer 
under  cover  of  crop  protection. 


ORDER   ART1ODACTYLA I      EVEN -TOED    UNGULATES  441 

C.  W.  A.  Bruce  writes  (in  Lydekker,  1900,  pp.  407-408) : 

The  flesh  is  coarse  and  poor  eating;  many  Burmaas  will  not  touch  it,  as 
they  say  it  renders  the  eater  liable  to  leprosy. 

Thamin  are  often  killed  by  Burmans  with  a  dah  (large  knife),  Two  men 
go  out  at  night,  one  with  a  light  on  his  head  (in  a  cooking-pot,  the  light 
shining  through  a  hole  broken  in  the  side) ;  the  thamin,  when  he  sees  this 
light,  stands  staring  at  it,  while  the  man's  companion,  the  one  armed  with 
the  dah,  sneaks  round  and  hamstrings  the  deer.  Many  also  are  caught  in  huge 
nets  into  which  they  are  driven,  and  many  in  the  rains  are  speared  from 
boats  while  swimming  from  islands  left  in  the  inundated  plains. 

The  Game  Warden  of  Burma  writes  (in  litt.,  November,  1936) : 
"During  the  past  15  years  this  deer  has  been  disappearing  at  an 
alarming  rate  ....  Government  has  now  ordered  steps  to  be 
taken,  for  the  provision  of  some  sanctuaries  for  this  animal  and 
at  the  moment  two  areas,  one  in  Shwebo  Forest  Division  and  one  in 
Minbu  Forest  Division,  are  being  investigated." 

Siamese  Thamin;  Siamese  Brow-antlered  Deer. 
Lamang   (Siamese) 

RUCERVUS  ELDII  PLATYCEROS  (J.  E.  Gray) 

Panolia  platyceros  J.  E.  Gray,  List  Mammalia  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  181,  1843.  (Based 
upon  "Cervus,  n.  s.,  Gray,  Proc.  ZooL  Soc.  1837,  45";  type  locality, 
"India"  =  Siam.) 

SYNONYM:    Cervus  eldi  siamensis  Lydekker  (1915). 

FIGS.:  Blyth,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1867,  p.  841,  figs.  20-23;  Kloss,  Jour. 
Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  Siam,  vol.  3,  pi.  8,  1919. 

Severe  hunting  has  evidently  reduced  the  Thamin  of  Siam  and 
Indo-China  to  a  fraction  of  its  former  numbers. 

"Antlers  with  the  main  termination  much  flattened,  a  number  of 
small  snags  on  the  sharp  hind  edge,  and  the  brow-tine  relatively 
short;  general  colour  reddish  at  all  seasons,  with  spots  along  middle 
of  back,  and  in  some  cases  also  on  sides"  (Lydekker,  1915,  vol.  4, 
p.  105).  The  record  length  of  antlers  on  the  outside  curve,  not 
including  the  brow-tine,  is  40  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  18) . 

Siam. — Irwin  (1914t»,  pp.  113-115)  gives  the  following  account: 

It  undoubtedly  occurs,  or  was  found  until  recently,  in  Ratburi  Province. 
[In  1908  a  herd  of  six  was  seen  in  the  neighborhood  of  Chawm  Bung,  a  swampy 
plain  at  about  latitude  13°  40',  longitude  99°  35'.] 

In  recent  years  the  plain  of  Chawm  Bung  itself  has  been  largely  brought 
under  cultivation.  Formerly  it  would  have  furnished  an  ideal  haunt  for  these 
deer.  There  has  also  been  an  enormous  increase  in  the  number  of  people 
who  enter  this  district  ....  The  wood-cutters  do  a  certain  amount  of  game 
shooting  by  sitting  up  over  waterholes,  and  ...  it  seems  to  me  probable 
that  this  deer  may  have  been  almost,  if  not  quite  exterminated  by  now  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Meklawng  River  by  this  method  of  shooting.  .  .  . 

In  the  Province  of  Nakawn  Chaisi  .  .  .  the  "lamang"  occasionally  enter 
and  feed  on  the  rice  crops  during  the  wet  season.  .  .  . 


442  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

These  deer  were  found  until  recent  years  in  patches  of  high  grass-jungle 
between  the  railway  and  the  river,  north  of  Lopburi  in  Krung  Kao  Province, 
approximate  Lat.  14°  55',  where  I  saw  them  on  more  than  one  occasion  in 
the  year  1906.  Since  then  some  of  this  jungle  has  been  brought  under  culti- 
vation, possibly  all  of  it.  ...  I  see  no  reason  why  "lamang"  should  not  be 
found  on  the  west  of  the  Menam  Chao  Praya  in  this  latitude. 

Gyldenstolpe  writes  (1919,  p.  172) :  "  Thamins'  are  not  uncom- 
mon in  suitable  localities  throughout  the  whole  country,  but  their 
southern  limit  of  range  still  not  ascertained.  Specimens  recorded 
from  Chienghai,  Me  Lua  (N.  Siam) ,  Non  Luum  (E.  Siam) ,  Chawn 
Bung  and  Nawng  Pla  Duk  (Ratburi) ,  Chorake  Sampan  (Kanburi) 
and  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Lopburi  (Central  Siam)." 

In  1931  protection  of  the  female  only  throughout  the  year  was 
recommended  by  the  Siam  Society. 

Indo-China. — "Mr.  H.  Warington  Smith  .  .  .  says  the  plain 
round  Battambong  'is  much  frequented  by  herds  of  the  Lamang,  or 
Eld's  Deer/  and  describes  how  the  Cambodians  capture  them" 
(Flower,  1900,  p.  372) . 

The  Resident  Superieur  of  Cambodia  writes  (in  Hit.,  November 
20,  1936)  that  this  species  is  found  in  11  provinces  of  Cambodia. 
The  shooting  of  females  is  forbidden. 

In  Cambodia  it  still  maintains  itself  well,  but  in  Cochin  China 
and  Annam,  where  it  abounded  about  1920-25,  it  has  been  quickly 
wiped  out  by  the  intensive  pursuit  of  native  hide-hunters.  Its 
predilection  for  open  savannas  and  its  confiding  nature  place  it  in 
a  worse  position  for  survival  than  the  other  deer.  (Andre  Kieffer, 
in  litt.,  November £1, 1936.) 

In  Cochin  China  its  former  range  was  more  extensive  and  more 
densely  populated  than  the  present  range.  It  now  occurs  in  the  north 
of  the  Provinces  of  Tayninh  and  Thudaumot  and  in  the  east  of  the 
Province  of  Bienhoa.  Its  numbers  are  about  a  thousand.  It  is  of 
interest  as  a  game  animal,  but  the  value  of  its  hide  and  antlers  is 
insignificant.  The  hunting  is  regulated.  (Roche,  Chef  du  Service 
Veterinaire  du  Cochinchine,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

P.  Vitry  writes  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  that  this  deer  formerly 
occurred  in  all  the  plains  and  open  forests  in  Lower  and  Middle  Laos, 
including  the  provinces  situated  south  of  Luang  Prabang  and  Tran- 
ninh.  The  greatest  frequency  was  in  the  southern  half  of  Savan- 
nakhet,  the  basin  of  Sedone,  the  middle  and  lower  basin  of  Sekong, 
and  the  two  shores  of  Mekong,  except  the  mountainous  and  densely 
forested  parts.  In  the  basin  of  Sedone  alone  there  were  more  than 
1,000  head  in  1910;  but  less  than  one-fourth  of  that  number  are  left 
at  present.  The  herds  found  on  Attopen  some  years  ago  have  been 
reduced  to  a  few  individuals.  The  present  range  includes  the 
southern  part  of  Savannakhet,  the  center  of  Saravane,  and  the 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  443 

extreme  southern  part  of  Bassac.  The  animal  is  nowhere  frequent. 
Where  three  herds  of  15  to  30  head  each  could  be  met  with  in  one 
day,  only  one  herd  is  observed  now — and  not  every  day — of  2  or  at 
most  5  head!  The  causes  of  depletion  are:  hunting  by  night  with 
lanterns  (in  the  whole  territory) ;  hunting  with  nets  (particularly  in 
Saravane) ;  and  organized  encircling  hunting  (in  Saravane  alone 
on  two  occasions  previous  to  1921).  Protective  measures  which 
ought  to  be  adopted  are:  prohibition  of  the  forms  of  hunting  men- 
tioned above;  prohibition  of  hunting  during  the  breeding  season; 
and  establishment  of  temporary  reserves.  Economic  uses  include 
consumption  of  the  meat  and  trade  in  the  horns  and  hides. 

James  L.  Clark  writes  (in  litt.,  June  26,  1936) : 

"The  sambar  and  the  hog  deer  and  also  the  Eld's  deer,  which 
grow  horns  in  the  velvet,  are,  of  course,  in  danger  at  all  times  from 
the  onslaught  of  the  Chinese  and  their  agents. 

"About  1925,  in  and  around  Dalat,  the  natives  and  others  were 
killing  the  Eld's  Deer  by  night  and  by  day,  so  fast  that  the  Govern- 
ment shut  down  completely  on  their  killing  and  established  an 
enclosed  area,  now  completely  surrounded  by  a  road,  which  has 
frequent  parking  places  where  people  can  stop  and  view  the  animals 
from  the  road. 

"No  one  is  allowed  to  carry  a  gun  within  this  area,  and  apparently 
the  French  are  controlling  it  very  well. 

"As  a  guess,  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  from  2,000  to  5,000 
Eld's  deer  in  the  Dalat  reserve." 

[The  Hainan  Brow-antlered  Deer  (Rucervus  eldii  hainanus 
Thomas,  1918)  is  restricted  to  that  island.  No  information  is  at  hand 
concerning  its  numerical  status  or  need  for  protection.  It  is  figured 
by  Lydekker  (1898b,  pi.  15).] 

Shansi  Sika 

CERVUS  NIPPON  GRASSIANUS  (Heude) 

S[ikdillus]  grassianus  Heude,  Mem.  Hist.  Nat.  Empire  Chinois,  vol.  4,  pt.  4, 
p.  210,  pi.  37,  fig.  13,  1898.  ("Chan-si  septentrional"  —  Tching-lo-hsien, 
near  Ning-wu-fu,  Shansi  (fide  Sowerby,  1917,  pp.  11,  17,  18).) 

This  deer  is  evidently  facing  extinction. 

Head  in  general  grayish  brown;  body  dark  grayish  brown,  shading 
into  rich  brown  on  the  back  and  lower  portions  of  the  legs;  spots 
almost  invisible;  a  patch  of  long  white  hairs,  surrounded  by  black, 
on  outer  hind  leg  below  heel;  tail  black  above,  white  beneath;  croup 
disk  white,  edged  with  black  above ;  belly  and  inner  surface  of  thighs 
white.  Head  and  body,  60  inches;  height  at  shoulders,  42  inches; 
tail,  8  inches;  horns,  19|  inches;  weight  of  male,  about  220  Ib. 
(Sowerby,  1918,  p.  120.) 


444  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Sowerby  (pp.  120-121)  continues: 

The  habitat  of  this  species  may  be  considered  as  confined  to  the  forested 
and  mountainous  areas  of  that  part  of  Shansi  that  lies  west  of  the  Fen  Ho. 
Even  here  it  occurs  only  in  a  few  isolated  districts,  namely :  [south  of  Ning-wu 
Fu ;  90  miles  west  of  Tai-yuan  Fu ;  and  100  miles  southwest  of  Fen-chou  Fu.] 

Formerly  its  range  extended  throughout  the  whole  of  the  mountainous 
area  of  West  Shansi,  as  well  as  in  the  mountains  that  extend  in  a  north  and 
south  line  between  Shansi  and  Chihli;  but  it  has  been  almost  exterminated 
by  native  hunters  for  the  sake  of  its  horns,  which  are  highly  valued  as 
medicine.  Only  a  few  isolated  herds  occur  in  the  districts  above  mentioned, 
where  they  keep  to  the  densest  parts  of  the  forest.  Even  so,  they  are  being 
steadily  exterminated. 

...  It  is  during  August  and  September  that  this  species  is  most  sedulously 
hunted  by  the  natives,  for  then  the  horns  are  considered  to  be  in  their  prime. 

"The  last  specimen  known  to  have  been  shot  was  killed  by  a 
Chinese  hunter-guide  in  1920.  The  forests  in  West  Shansi,  formerly 
fairly  extensive,  have  been  greatly  reduced  during  the  past  few  years, 
and  with  them  must  vanish  this  fine  deer.  It  is  probably  now  too 
late  to  save  it."  (Sowerby,  1937c,  p.  252.) 

The  distribution  of  the  three  Chinese  Sikas  is  mapped  by  G.  M. 
Allen  (1940,  fig.  67). 

North  China  Sika 

CEBVUS  NIPPON  MANDARINUS  A.  Milne  Edwards 

Cervus  maridarinus  A.  Milne  Edwards,  Recherches  Hist.  Nat.  Mammiferes, 
p.  184,  pis.  22,  22A,  1871.  ("La  Chine";  type  locality  restricted  by 
Lydekker  (1915,  p.  114)  to  "N.  China.") 

FIGS.:  Milne  Edwards  and  Milne  Edwards,  1868-1874,  vol.  2,  pis.  22,  22A; 
Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1897,  ph  1  (subsp.?) ;  Lydekker,  18986,  pi.  9 
(subsp.?) ;  Lydekker,  1901,  pi.  4,  fig.  4,  and  p.  235,  fig.  56. 

The  North  China  Sika  is  apparently  in  much  the  same  unfortunate 
status  as  the  Shansi  Sika. 

White  spots  of  the  body  in  summer  pelage  much  larger  and  less 
numerous  in  this  form  than  in  mantchuricus ;  general  color  paler; 
less  white  in  the  rump  patch;  belly  not  white,  but  colored  like  the 
flanks.  Winter  pelage  dark,  spots  on  back  remaining  visible;  hairs 
of  neck  long  and  shaggy.  Antlers  more  divergent  than  in  mant- 
churicus. (A.  Milne  Edwards,  1871,  pp.  185-186.) 

"This  species  occurs  in  a  wild  state  only  in  the  Imperial  Hunting 
Grounds,  north  of  the  famous  Tung  Ling  (Eastern  Tombs) ,  and  in 
the  Wei-ch'ang  to  the  north  of  Jehol,  both  in  Chihli  province,  to 
the  north  and  north-east  of  Peking.  It  occurs  in  a  semi-domesti- 
cated state  in  the  magnificent  park  at  Jehol. 

"Up  to  recent  times  this  deer  has  been  strictly  preserved,  but  in 
1911-12  the  Manchu  soldiers  that  were  sent  out  of  Peking  and  were 
camped  in  the  Eastern  Tombs  and  Imperial  Hunting  Grounds  were 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  445 

allowed  to  kill  as  many  as  they  liked,  while  since  that  date  native 
hunters  have  been  allowed  to  hunt  in  these  districts,  with  the  result 
that  in  the  wild  state  the  species  is  practically  extinct."  (Sowerby, 
1918,  p.  122.) 

The  same  author  writes  (1937,  p.  252)  that  this  form  "still  occurs, 
though  in  greatly  reduced  numbers,  in  the  Tung  Ling  area"  and  that 
it  "is  preserved  in  captivity  in  the  Jehol  area  on  Chinese  deer  farms." 

Manchurian  Sika 

CERVUS  NIPPON  MANTCHURICUS  Swinhoe 

C[ervus]  mantchuricus  Swinhoe,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1864,  p.  169,  1864. 

(Based  upon  a  captive  specimen  obtained  at  Newchwang,  Manchuria.) 
SYNONYMS:   Cervus  hortulorum  Swinhoe  (1864);  Cervus  dybowskii  Taczanow- 

ski  (1876). 
FIGS.:    Wolf,  1867,  vol.  2,  pi.  13;  Trans.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  vol.  7,  pis.  31,  32, 

1871;  Noack,  1889,  pp.  10-11,  figs.  1-3;  Lydekker,  1898b,  pi.  7,  and  p.  115, 

fig.  30;  Lydekker,  1901,  p.  233,  fig.  55. 

The  Manchurian  Sika  is  being  rapidly  exterminated  in  a  wild 
state,  but  is  preserved  in  domestication  in  considerable  numbers. 

"Size  larger  than  C.  taivanus,  with  horns  short  in  the  stem,  and 
more  resembling  those  of  C.  sika.  Colouring  very  similar  (in  winter 
coat)  to  that  of  C.  taivanus.  Red  patch  on  occiput,  on  each  shoulder, 
and  on  side  of  neck.  Black  line  down  back  somewhat  indistinct; 
mane  from  side  and  back  of  neck  rather  long,  thick,  shaggy,  and 
dark-coloured.  Belly  pale  reddish  white.  Thighs  light  reddish 
brown."  (Swinhoe,  1864,  p.  169.) 

"This  fine  deer  ...  is  still  found  in  the  eastern  part  of  Man- 
churia and  the  neighbouring  Ussuri,  Primorsk  and  Amur  regions 
of  Eastern  Siberia  and  Northern  Korea,  but  is  rapidly  being  exter- 
minated in  a  wild  state.  .  .  .  Formerly  it  was  very  plentiful,  ob- 
servers having  reported  large  herds  on  the  move  in  the  Amur-Ussuri 
Region."  (Sowerby,  19376,  p.  252.)  Elsewhere  (1923,  pp.  106-108) 
Sowerby  writes : 

[The  Manchurian  Sika]  is  a  somewhat  rare  animal  at  the  present  time 
owing  to  the  persecution  to  which  it  has  been  subjected  for  the  sake  of  its 
horns  when  in  velvet,  which  are  supposed  by  the  Chinese  to  be  better  than 
those  of  the  wapiti,  and  so  fetch  the  highest  prices.  The  only  living  specimens 
I  have  come  across  have  been  in  captivity.  At  Hua-shu  Lin-tzu  on  the 
Upper  Sungari  there  were  three  or  four  bucks  and  a  herd  of  about  thirty 
does  kept  on  a  farm.  There  are  many  such  farms  scattered  over  Manchuria, 
so  that  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  species  is  thus  being  preserved  from 
extinction. 

In  North  Corea  a  sika  ...  is  said  to  be  very  plentiful,  and  from  all  accounts 
is  on  the  increase.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Japanese,  themselves  but 
indifferent  hunters,  have  forbidden  the  use  of  fire-arms  and  traps  amongst 
the  Coreans.  . 


446  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  pitfall  is  the  chief  means  employed  by  natives  to  capture  this  deer, 
though  they  also  resort  to  driving  and  shooting.  .  .  . 

My  friend  Mr.  Jacobus,  who  resided  in  Vladivostok  for  some  time,  informs 
me  that  some  of  the  Russians  there  have  immense  farms  of  these  deer,  which 
they  keep  for  the  sake  of  their  horns,  and  which  are  allowed  to  roam  at  will 
over  very  extensive  forested  grounds.  The  number  of  head  so  kept  runs  into 
thousands. 

South  China  Sika;  Kopsch's  Deer 

CERVUS  NIPPON  KOPSCHI  Swinhoe 

Cervus  kopschi  Swinhoe,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1873,  p.  574,  1873.  ("De- 
partment of  Kienchang,  on  the  eastern  side  of  this  province  (Kiangse), 
bordering  on  Fokien,"  China.) 

This  deer  of  the  lower  Yangtze  Basin  is  apparently  facing 
extinction. 

The  upper  parts  are  brown,  mottled  with  light  yellowish  brown; 
a  dark  median  dorsal  stripe  from  crown  to  rump,  with  a  row  of 
indistinct  white  spots  along  each  border;  shoulders,  flanks,  and 
thighs  light  purplish  brown;  head,  neck,  and  outer  surface  of  ears 
brown;  hair  on  neck  rather  coarse,  on  abdomen  long  and  curly; 
belly  and  inside  of  limbs  brownish  white  to  white;  a  deep  brown 
median  line  on  breast ;  glandular  metatarsal  spot  grizzled  black  and 
white,  with  a  buff  border;  upper  surface  of  tail  black.  Height  at 
shoulder,  about  34  inches.  (Swinhoe,  1873,  pp.  574-575.) 

Swinhoe  (1873,  p.  574)  had  reports  of  this  deer  from  the  moun- 
tains along  the  border  of  Anwhei  and  Chekiang,  where  "men  from 
the  Fokien  province  came  yearly  ...  to  hunt  Stags  for  their  velvet, 
which  is  greatly  valued  for  its  medical  properties  ....  At  Kiu- 
kiang,  up  the  Yangtse  river,  .  .  .  now  and  then  dead  antlered  Deer 
were  brought  into  the  market  ...  for  sale  during  the  winter." 

According  to  Wallace  (1915,  p.  171),  "Kopsch's  deer  .  .  .  is  .  .  . 
found  in  the  province  of  Anwhei.  Commander  Hon.  R.  0.  Bridge- 
man  tells  me  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  two  years  trying  to  obtain 
a  specimen  in  the  Feng-huan-shan  and  Wei-yao-shan  ranges. 
Major  M'Neill  also  hunted  them  without  success,  though  Europeans 
are  said  to  have  killed  them.  They  inhabit  rough,  stony  bush-clad 
hills  about  4,000  feet  high,  and  always  keep  in  the  densest  cover. 
Commander  Bridgeman  writes :  The  stags  I  saw  generally  had  eight 
points,  but  I  saw  certainly  one  with  fourteen.' ': 

The  British  Museum  has  specimens  from  Chin-teh  and  Tai-Kung- 
Shan,  Anwhei  (Lydekker,  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  115).  Sowerby  (1937, 
p.  251)  writes: 

The  beautiful  spotted  Kopsch's  deer,  which  once  ranged  over  a  wide  area 
in  the  Lower  Yangtze  Valley  and  southward  into  Chekiang  and  Kiangsi 
Provinces,  is  now  all  but  extinct.  It  is  to  be  found  only  in  a  more  or  less 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  447 

restricted  area  in  the  mountains  of  Southern  Anhui  and  closely  adjacent  North- 
western Chekiang  and  South-eastern  Kiangsi.  Its  horns  when  in  velvet  fetch 
a  price  of  several  hundred  dollars  a  pair,  and  consequently  it  is  hunted  merci- 
lessly by  local  hunters.  No  protection  of  any  kind  is  afforded  this  or  any 
of  the  foregoing  species  of  deer,  and  their  extermination  in  the  near  future  is 
certain. 

Specimens  of  deer  of  this  type,  collected  some  forty  to  fifty  years  ago  and 
now  in  the  Heude  Museum  ...  in  Shanghai,  show  that  it  ranged  all  through 
the  Yangtze  Valley  and  Central  China,  being  found  in  areas  where  it  is  now 
extinct. 

Manchurian  Wapiti 

CERVUS  ELAPHUS  XANTHOPYGUS  Milne  Edwards 

Cervus  Xanthopygus  A.  Milne  Edwards,  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  ser.  5,  zool.,  vol.  8, 
p.  376,  1869.  ("Environs  de  Pekin";  later  Milne  Edwards  (1868-74,  text 
to  pi.  21)  gives  "Mantchourie"  as  the  place  of  origin  of  the  type  specimen.1) 

SYNONYMS:  Cervus  luhdorfi  Bolau  (1880);  C.  isubra  Noack  (1889);  C.  bed- 
fordianus  Lydekker  (1897). 

FIGS.:  Milne  Edwards,  1868-74,  pi.  21;  Bolau,  Abhandl.  Naturwissen.  Verein 
Hamburg,  vol.  7,  pi.  4,  1880;  Noack,  Humboldt,  vol.  8,  p.  13,  fig.  5, 
1889;  Lydekker,  1897,  pis.  48,  49;  Lydekker,  18986,  pi.  3;  Lydekker,  1901, 
pp.  71-75,  figs.  19-22;  Natural  History,  vol.  20,  p.  358,  lower  fig.,  1920. 

This  is  another  of  the  much  persecuted  Asiatic  deer,  which  has 
been  exterminated  in  some  parts  of  its  extensive  range.  The  range 
includes  southeastern  Siberia,  northeastern  Mongolia,  Manchuria, 
northern  Korea,  and  northeastern  China. 

The  Manchurian  Wapiti  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  European 
Red  Deer.  The  general  color  in  summer  is  bright  reddish  brown 
(duller  in  older  animals) ;  in  winter  it  is  brownish  gray,  with  darker 
under  parts  and  a  long  blackish  mane;  a  large  orange  rump-patch. 
Antlers  shorter  and  stouter  than  in  songaricus;  tips  of  fourth  and 
fifth  tines  in  subadult  stags  curving  toward  one  another;  length  of 
antlers  on  outside  curve,  33-43  inches.  Height  at  shoulder,  about 
54  inches.  (Lydekker,  1901,  pp.  74-75,  and  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  134; 
Ward,  1935,  p.  4.) 

Middendorff  (1853,  p.  121)  extended  the  range  of  this  Wapiti 
north  to  the  Stanovoi  Mountains,  and  reported  it  on  the  upper 
tributaries  of  the  Selemja  and  the  Bureya  (where  formerly  it  was 
very  common) . 

According  to  Schrenck  (1859,  pp.  172-173),  it  was  not  less 
numerous  than  the  Roe  on  the  upper  Amur.  Here  it  was  of  great 
importance  to  the  natives,  not  merely  for  its  flesh  and  its  hide  (the 
latter  being  tanned  for  use  as  clothing) ;  the  horns  in  the  velvet 
were  traded  with  the  Manchus,  the  Chinese,  and  the  Russians,  and 

i  Lydekker  makes  various  statements  regarding  the  type  locality:  "Northern 
China"  (1897,  p.  933) ;  "Imperial  gardens  at  Pekin"  (18986,  p.  81) ;  "Manchuria" 
(1901,  p.  70);  "Northern  Manchuria,  probably  the  Usuri  district"  (1915,  vol.  4, 
p.  134).  The  Ussuri  district  is  in  eastern,  rather  than  northern,  Manchuria. 


448  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

the  animal  was  also  utilized  in  the  payment  of  tribute  to  the  Chinese. 
It  was  numerous  about  the  mouth  of  the  Ussuri,  and  extended  down 
the  Amur  as  far  as  the  mouths  of  the  Gorin  and  the  Chelasso 
Rivers,  where  it  reached  its  final  limit  at  latitude  51°  N.  It  also 
occurred  along  the  seacoast  northward  to  within  two  days'  journey  of 
Alexandrovsk. 

Radde  (1862,  p.  285)  extended  the  range  west  to  the  Yablonoi 
Mountains.  In  the  Khingan  Mountains  a  single  hunter  in  1856 
secured  60  animals.  The  species  was  everywhere  rather  common 
in  the  Bureya  Mountains,  where  the  average  annual  kill  for  a  good 
hunter  was  7  to  8  animals. 

Sowerby  (1923,  pp.  103,  105)  writes  of  this  deer: 

In  Manchuria  the  wapiti  is  to  be  found  wherever  there  are  forests,  though 
it  is  comparatively  rare  in  those  parts  that  are  being  invaded  by  settlers.  It  is 
nowhere  plentiful  except  in  the  most  inaccessible  parts  of  the  Kirin  forest, 
in  the  upper  and  middle  basin  of  the  Ussuri,  and  in  the  central  and  western 
parts  of  Heilungkiang.  .  .  . 

The  Manchurian  wapiti,  by  reason  of  much  persecution,  has  become  very 
timid  and  difficult  to  approach.  The  natives  hunt  it  with  the  gun,  but  more 
often  they  dig  pitfalls  in  the  paths  that  the  animal  frequents.  Deer-farming 
has  become  a  very  profitable  industry,  and  a  live  deer  is  worth  much  more 
than  a  dead  one.  .  .  .  The  value  of  a  deer  lies  in  its  horns,  which  when  in  the 
velvet  fetch  anything  from  £10  to  £30  per  pair  at  the  apothecary's  emporium. 
It  has  been  found  that  the  horns  in  the  velvet  may  be  cut  from  the  living 
animal  without  injury  to  it,  or  endangering  the  growth  of  the  following  year. 
Thus  a  stag  which  costs  but  little  to  feed  brings  in  an  annual  sum  that  is  a 
small  fortune  to  the  poor  settler  that  owns  it.  It  is  on  this  account  that  the 
Chinese  prefer  to  trap  the  deer  alive. 

In  writing  on  the  Wild  Dogs  (Cuon  alpinus)  of  the  Manchurian 
region,  Sowerby  says  (1923,  p.  46) :  "The  lordly  wapiti  stag  .  .  . 
cannot  escape  these  relentless  hunters,  unless  he  can  succeed  in 
placing  some  wide  and  swift  river  between  himself  and  them." 

"The  Manchurian  wapiti  is  rapidly  being  exterminated  by  Chinese 
and  Russian  hunters  for  the  sake  of  its  horns  ....  The  female 
is  hunted  for  the  sake  of  the  foetal  young,  which  is  also  considered 
of  high  medicinal  value.  Formerly  this  large  and  handsome  deer 
was  very  plentiful  in  the  forested  areas  of  Manchuria,  the  Amur, 
Transbaicalia,  the  Ussuri,  the  Primorsk  and  Northern  Korea. 
To-day  it  is  greatly  reduced  in  numbers,  and  has  actually  been 
exterminated  in  many  areas."  (Sowerby,  1937,  p.  250.) 

G.  M.  Allen  (1930,  p.  16)  refers  to  this  subspecies  a  specimen  from 
60  miles  northeast  of  Urga,  Mongolia. 

"The  Manchurian  Wapiti  ...  is  in  some  danger  of  extermina- 
tion, due  to  the  fact  that  the  antlers  in  the  velvet  bring  a  good  price 
in  China,  and  also  tails  of  the  animal  are  in  great  demand.  I  saw 
one  hunter  with  a  collection  of  ten  or  twelve  tails.  These  practices 
are  strongly  disapproved  of  by  the  government  and  are  against  the 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN -TOED    UNGULATES  449 

law.  Despite  this  there  is  still  quite  a  trade  going  on.  There  are, 
however,  a  few  wapiti  in  eastern  Siberia."  (G.  G.  Goodwin,  in  litt., 
May,  18,  1937.) 

W.  G.  Heptner  writes  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  that  during  the 
last  decades  the  numbers  have  decreased,  and  this  Wapiti  is  now 
common  only  in  the  most  remote  mountain  regions.  It  is  most 
frequent  in  the  Sikhota  Alin  (Ussuri  territory)  and  especially  in 
the  great  reserves,  comprising  1,000,000  hectares.  The  hunting  of 
males  is  allowed. 

Ala-shan  Wapiti 

CERVUS  ELAPHUS  ALASHANICUS  Bobrinskoy  and  Flerov 

Cervus  canadensis  alashanicus  Bobrinskoy  and  Flerov,  Arch.  Mus.  Zool.  Univ. 

Moscou,  vol.  1,  p.  29,  1934.    (The  Ala-shan,  Inner  Mongolia.) 
FIG.:   Bobrinskoy  and  Flerov,  1934,  p.  40,  fig. 

While  no  information  concerning  the  present  numerical  status 
of  the  Wapiti  in  the  Ala-shan  is  available,  it  is  no  doubt  seriously 
threatened  in  the  same  manner  as  the  neighboring  forms. 

It  was  found  in  the  Ala-shan,  west  and  north  of  the  Yellow 
River,  by  Prejevalsky,  who  reports  on  it  (1876,  vol.  1,  pp.  261-262) 
as  follows:  "Deer  are  plentiful  in  the  Ala-shan  mountains,  where 
they  are  strictly  preserved  by  order  of  the  prince.  They  are  never- 
theless killed  secretly,  especially  in  summer,  at  the  season  of  the 
growth  of  the  young  horns,  so  valuable  in  China.  While  we  were 
in  the  mountains  .  .  .  the  loud  call-note  of  the  males  resounded  in 
the  forests  day  and  night."  One  specimen  was  secured. 

This  specimen  has  been  made  the  type  of  Bobrinskoy  and 
Flerov's  alashanicus.  Their  paper  is  wholly  in  Russian. 

The  following  records  may  be  at  least  provisionally  considered 
as  applying  to  the  same  form.  In  1912  and  1913  Sowerby  (1918, 
•  pp.  122-128,  207-208)  found  numbers  of  Wapiti  in  the  mountains  of 
the  Kueihuacheng  district  of  northern  Shansi  (now  in  Suiyan) .  R. 
C.  Andrews  (1920,  pp.  358,  372)  records  three  specimens  from 
northern  Shansi,  and  remarks:  "The  elk  of  north  China  will  soon 
be  extinct."  A.  B.  Howell  (1929,  p.  76)  records  six  specimens  from 
west  of  Kueihuacheng,  Shansi. 

"The  North  China  wapiti  is  found  in  the  mountains  of  Suiyan 
Province  on  the  Mongolian  border  of  Shansi,  westward  into  Ninghsia 
....  It  occurs  only  in  more  or  less  restricted  areas,  is  nowhere 
abundant,  and  is  much  hunted."  (Arthur  de  C.  Sowerby,  in  litt., 
April  24,  1937.) 


450  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Kansu  Wapiti 

CERVUS   ELAPHUS    KANSUENSIS  PoCOck 

Cervus  kansuensis  Pocock,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1912,  p.  558,  1912.    ("30 
miles  S.E.  of  Tao-chou,  Kansu,  in  China,  at  an  altitude  of  11,000  feet.") 
FIGS.:    Wallace,  1913,  pis.  facing  pp.  200,  206,  214;  Wallace,  1915,  pi.  66. 

The  Kansu  Wapiti,  ranging  from  southern  Kansu  to  northern 
Szechwan,  is  evidently  faced  by  the  same  threat  of  extinction  as  its 
Asiatic  relatives. 

The  winter  pelage  of  the  stag  is  brown-gray;  legs  darker  than 
the  body;  height  at  the  shoulder,  about  57  inches;  antlers  with  5 
or  6  tines,  length  along  the  curve  up  to  43|  inches  (Wallace,  1913, 
p.  203).  The  general  color  of  the  female  is  speckled  brown;  a 
blackish-brown  patch  on  the  croup;  white  of  the  hind-quarters  of 
about  the  same  extent  as  in  macneilli;  tail  with  a  narrow  median 
dark  stripe  (Pocock,  1912,  p.  572) . 

Wallace  (1913,  pp.  199-206)  gives  the  following  account  of  this 
Wapiti  as  he  found  it  in  the  Min  Shan  along  the  boundary  between 
Kansu  and  Szechwan: 

The  huge  forests  which  originally  existed  on  the  borders  of  North-Western 
[=  northeastern]  Thibet,  have,  during  the  course  of  centuries,  been  fearfully 
depleted.  The  natural  home  of  the  wapiti,  .  .  .  deforestation  alone,  even  to 
the  enormous  extent  to  which  it  has  been  carried,  would  have  had  out  small 
effect  upon  their  numbers.  They  have,  however,  been  reduced  to  an  even 
greater  extent  than  have  the  firs  and  pines  which  form  their  home.  Nor  is 
the  reason  far  to  seek.  Whatever  the  true  medicinal  value  of  hartshorn,  its 
efficacy  has  been  magnified  a  thousand  fold  by  the  Chinese.  The  wretched 
wapiti  have  but  practically  two  months'  immunity  from  slaughter  in  the  year, 
namely  May  and  June.  They  shed  their  horns  in  April  and  therein  lies  their 
sole  safeguard,  for  minus  their  horns  their  commercial  value  is  small.  ...  It 
is  a  matter  of  astonishment  that  they  have  not  been  totally  exterminated 
long  since.  .  .  . 

Given  ...  a  race  of  hunters  (and  nearly  every  man  on  the  Thibetan 
border  possesses  a  gun),  plus  a  powerful  motive  for  the  killing  of  game,  and 
its  annihilation  becomes  inevitable.  It  may  take  generations — some  exotic 
factor  such  as  the  importation  of  modern  rifles  may  hasten  it  within  an  in- 
conceivably short  period — but  that  it  will  sooner  or  later  disappear,  unless 
the  evil  is  checked  by  drastic  reforms,  is  as  certain  as  the  setting  of  the 
sun.  .  .  . 

According  to  the  old  hunters,  even  within  their  own  lifetime,  a  noticeable 
decrease  has  taken  place  in  the  numbers  of  the  wapiti.  ...  As  it  is,  he 
may  survive  for  a  few  remaining  years.  .  .  . 

Of  the  numbers  killed  annually  some  idea  may  be  gained  from  the  fact 
that  Dr.  Smith  tells  me  that  while  crossing  the  Kjaling  River,  he  saw  on 
the  ferry-boat  a  string  of  about  fifteen  mules  loaded  entirely  with  wapiti 
horns.  They  were  bound  from  Sining  to  Hanchung-fu.  The  horns  were  in 
the  dry  state  and  were  intended  for  eye-medicine.  An  average  mule-load 
is  between  300  Ib.  and  400  Ib.  Taking  the  horns  at  20  Ib.  per  pair,  it  gives 
fifteen  to  twenty  pairs  per  mule.  This  gives  between  250  and  300  pairs  of 
horns  in  one  string,  though  doubtless  many  were  "shed."  .  .  . 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN -TOED    UNGULATES  451 

A  very  large  number  of  females  and  young  are  also  killed  annually.  In 
addition  to  human  hunters,  a  persistent  enemy  of  the  wapiti  is  a  species  of 
wild  dog  called  tsaikou  [Cuon  alpinus],  .  .  . 

I  saw  only  three  stags  .... 

They  are  found  in  the  Minshan  Mountains  over  an  area  of  about  fifty  by 
twenty-five  miles.  They  do  not  extend  to  the  north,  east  or  west,  but  are  said 
to  exist  to  the  south  beyond  the  mountains. 

They  are  kept  in  captivity  by  the  Chinese,  who  saw  the  horns  off  annually 
when  they  are  in  the  velvet.  Many  of  these  animals  are  in  a  wretched  con- 
dition, being  haltered  to  a  stall. 

Altai  Wapiti.    Maralhirsch  (Ger.).    Maral  (Russ.) 

CERVUS  ELAPHUS  ASIATICUS  Lydekker 

[Cervus  maral}   Vau.  asiatica  Severtzov,  Izviestia  Imper.  Obshchestvo   Liub. 

Estest.,  Antrop.  Etnogr.   [Moscow],  vol.  8,  pt.  2,  p.  109,  1873    (nomen 

nudum). 
Cervus  canadensis  asiaticus  Lydekker,  Deer  of  All  Lands,  p.  104,  pi.  6,  1898. 

("The   Altai   and   Thian-Shan    Mountains";    type    locality   restricted   by 

G.  M.  Allen   (1930,  p.  17)    to  "the  district  to  the  southward  of  Lake 

Teletsk,  near  the  sources  of  the  Yenisei."    This  lake  is  actually  on  the 

Bija  River,  one  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Ob.) 
SYNONYMS:     ICervus   wachei  Noack   (1902);    Cervus  biedermanni   Matschie 

(1907);  Cervus  canadensis  baicalensis  Lydekker  (1915). 
FIGS.:   Lydekker,  18986,  pi.  6  and  p.  106,  fig.  27;  Elwes,  1899,  pp.  31-32,  figs.; 

Demidoff,  1900,  pp.  50-53,  figs.;   Lydekker,   1901,  pp.  68-69,  figs.  17,  18. 

The  Altai  Wapiti  was  evidently  common  three-quarters  of  a 
century  ago  but  had  become  scarce  by  1898  and  has  now,  over  the 
greater  part  of  its  range,  seriously  dwindled  in  numbers  in  a  wild 
state,  although  many  are  maintained  in  domestication.  The  range 
of  asiaticus  will  be  provisionally  considered  to  extend  from  the 
Altai  to  the  Baikal  region,  including  the  Tannu-Ola  and  Sayan 
Mountains  and  the  upper  Yenisei  and  Irtish  Basins. 

The  Altai  Wapiti  is  somewhat  lighter  in  color  and  perhaps 
smaller  than  that  of  the  Tian  Shan  (Severtzoff ,  1876,  p.  377) .  The 
antlers  of  the  former  are  less  stout  and  lighter  in  color,  and  have 
the  fourth  tine  inclining  outward  instead  of  inward;  backward 
inclination  of  the  beam  less  marked;  only  one  large  tine  (the  fourth) 
on  the  front  surface  of  the  upper  half  of  the  beam  (Lydekker,  1915, 
vol.  4,  p.  135) .  The  record  length  of  the  antlers  on  the  outside  curve 
is  50f  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  3) .  Height  at  shoulder,  about  5  feet 
(Lydekker,  18986,  p.  108). 

Pallas  (1811,  vol.  1,  p.  217)  extended  the  Wapiti's  range  as  far 
as  the  headwaters  of  the  Lena  and  the  Vitim. 

According  to  Radde  (1862,  p.  285),  it  was  often  met  with  up  to 
1858  in  the  eastern  Sayan  Mountains,  about  the  sources  of  the 
Dshida,  the  Irkut,  and  the  western  Oka.  But  by  the  next  year  it 
had  been  largely  driven  from  these  areas  by  the  Siberian  Wild  Dog 
(Cuon  alpinus) . 


452  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Atkinson  (1858,  p.  373)  speaks  of  securing  "many  a  stag"  in  the 
Tannu-Ola  Mountains  in  the  1850's. 

Severtzoff  (1876,  p.  383)  says  this  Wapiti  is  met  with  only 
occasionally  in  the  Karkalinsk  and  Bayan-aulsk  mountains  of  Semi- 
palatinsk.  He  adds  (p.  384)  that  in  several  places  stags  are  kept 
and  bred  for  the  sake  of  their  horns,  especially  in  the  Altai 
Zabaikalje.  "This  stag  inhabits  in  Siberia  the  country  about  the 
upper  part  of  the  Jennissey,  as  far  as  Crasnojarsk,  as  well  as  the 
wooded  hills  of  the  Sajan  and  Zabaikalje;  to  the  south  it  probably 
goes  as  far  as  the  desert  of  Gobi"  (p.  385) . 

Elwes  (1899,  pp.  29-31)  gives  the  following  account: 

•  This  species  has  now  become  scarce  in  a  wild  state  in  the  Russian  Altai 
owing  to  the  number  which  are  shot  by  the  native  and  Russian  hunters,  who 
sell  their  horns,  if  killed  while  "in  the  velvet,"  at  high  prices  to  the  Chinese. 
They  are,  however,  kept  alive  in  parks  at  several  places  in  the  Altai  for  the 
sake  of  their  horns,  which  are  annually  cut  for  sale,  and  which  sometimes 
realize  as  much  as  100  roubles  a  pair  at  the  rate  of  10  roubles  a  pound. 

The  killing  of  these  deer  has  now  been  prohibited  by  the  Government  in 
the  Altai  district,  and  we  never  saw  the  animal  in  a  wild  state,  and  though 
we  picked  up  horns,  shed  many  years  previously,  in  the  high  treeless  moun- 
tains south  of  the  Tchuja  valley  .  .  .  ,  I  believe  that  they  are  now  very 
scarce  except  in  the  heavily  wooded  country  east  of  the  Katuna.  In  the 
Yenisei  and  Abakan  valleys  this  deer,  or  a  nearly  allied  form  of  it,  is  much  more 
numerous. 

Lydekker  writes  (18986,  p.  108) :  "During  the  winter  months 
large  numbers  are  captured  by  the  natives,  who  drive  them  into 
nets." 

Carruthers  (1913,  pp.  161-162)  contributes  the  following  on  the 
economic  exploitation : 

Wapiti  come  so  close  to  the  village  [of  Sabie,  in  Tannu-Tuva]  that  it 
is  an  easy  and  profitable  undertaking  to  capture  the  younger  animals  alive. 
These  the  colonists  keep  in  enclosures  (as  is  the  custom  in  all  localities  along 
the  Russo-Chinese  frontier  where  wapiti  exist) ,  and  take  a  yearly  tribute  from 
the  stags  in  the  shape  of  their  soft  horns  when  in  velvet.  The  nearness  of  the 
Chinese  markets,  to  which  these  horns  find  their  way,  as  well  as  the  exis- 
tence of  many  wild  wapiti,  has  caused  Sabie  to  be  a  flourishing  settlement. 
The  inhabitants  told  us  that,  during  the  winter,  they  employed  the  Urian- 
khai,  owing  to  their  exceptional  skill  in  forest-lore,  to  catch  the  wapiti.  The 
method  they  employed  was  to  dig  pitfalls  and  to  attract  the  stags  to  the 
locality  by  distributing  salt  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Wallace  writes  (1915,  p.  208) : 

Owing  chiefly  to  the  persecution  of  native  hunters,  who  are  encouraged  by 
the  value  put  on  the  immature  horns  by  the  Chinese,  the  fine  deer  of 
Central  Asia  are  rapidly  being  exterminated.  This  is  the  real  reason  why  good 
heads  are  so  difficult  to  procure  and  why  the  pursuit  of  large  deer  in 
districts  under  Chinese  influence  is  attended  by  so  much  disappointment. 
The  introduction  of  modern  rifles,  the  gradually  increasing  nomadic  popu- 
lation, .  .  .  tend  to  drive  the  deer  into  the  most  remote  and  inaccessible 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  453 

retreats  they  can  find.    They  are  now  rarely  to  be  met  with  in  the  lower 
parts  of  the  upper  foothills. 

W.  G.  Heptner  (in  Hit.,  December,  1936)  informs  us  that  during 
the  last  50  years  the  numbers  in  Siberia  have  decreased  considerably ; 
in  certain  regions  the  animal  has  become  rare,  and  its  range  has, 
in  general,  been  restricted.  However,  there  are  still  regions  in  the 
Altai  where  the  animal  is  very  numerous.  Hunting  is  completely 
forbidden. 

Salesski  (1934,  pp.  373-375,  distr.  map)  contributes  the  following 
information:  The  range  is  quite  restricted,  including  the  Altai, 
[Kusnetsk?]  Alatau,  and  Sayan.  In  the  lowland  the  animal  appears 
only  accidentally,  as  when  it  descends  from  the  Kusnetsk  Alatau 
as  far  as  the  middle  course  of  the  Chulym.  In  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  the  Maral  was  everywhere  common  in  the  Altai,  from 
the  Tigirek  and  Korgon  Alps  to  the  Mongolian  boundary  on  the 
east.  During  the  winter  wanderings  it  extended  to  the  southwestern 
Baraba  (between  Chany  and  Slavgorod).  Now  it  occurs  only  in 
the  central  and  eastern  Altai;  in  the  Chuya  and  Kuraja  Alps,  on 
the  divide  between  Lake  Teletsk,  Bashkaus,  and  Katum,  toward 
the  north  not  farther  than  Chemal,  Pysko,  and  Uimenj,  likewise 
between  the  Bashkaus  and  Chulyshman  and  on  the  upper  Abakan. 
During  the  World  War,  when  there  were  fewer  hunters,  the  Maral 
increased  and  appeared  for  a  time  in  the  Sseminsk  Mountains  be- 
tween the  Katum  and  Pestshanoye  Rivers. 

So  far  the  Maral  is  still  common  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
Shorien  mountain  country,  on  the  upper  courses  of  the  Tom  and  the 
Taransk.  Southward  on  the  Mrassu  it  occurs  in  smaller  numbers. 
It  is  not  rare  at  the  northern  point  of  the  Kusnetsk  Alatau.  It  is 
much  rarer  on  the  Urjup,  a  tributary  of  the  Chulym. 

In  the  West  Sayan  it  is  pretty  common  on  the  Rivers  Dzebash 
and  Ana.  It  is  also  not  rare  on  the  upper  course  of  the  Kabansuk. 

In  the  Yenisei  taiga  it  remains  chiefly  on  the  passes  through  the 
Sayan  Mountains.  It  also  occurs  on  the  whole  course  of  the  Uss  and 
on  the  midlle  course  of  the  Oya.  Farther  east  and  northeast  it  is 
common  on  the  Rivers  Kizir,  Kazir,  and  Amil.  From  the  Amil 
region  the  bulk  of  the  Marals  migrate  to  Tannu-Tuva,  though 
some  remain  in  the  districts  with  less  snow. 

Demidoff  (1900,  pp.  49-55)  describes  a  "maralnik,"  or  enclosure 
for  Maral,  in  the  country  south  of  Bisk,  in  the  upper  Ob  Basin.  Here 
about  150  animals  were  confined.  He  says: 

Some  of  the  animals  had  been  bred  in  the  enclosure,  others  had  been 
caught  in  the  woods,  when  young,  by  native  Kalmuks  with  dogs,  in  winter, 
when  deep  snows  render  this  task  easier.  .  .  .  There  are  many  similar 
enclosures  in  the  Altai  district,  especially  in  the  eastern  parts,  and  statistics 
show  that  about  6,000  deer  are  thus  enclosed  in  parks,  constituting  one  of 
the  most  important  trades  of  the  country  with  China  ....  An  average  head 


454  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

fetches  from  100  to  120  roubles  (£10  to  £12)  ....    The  Maral  is  becoming 
exterminated  in  the  Altai  .... 

On  our  return  journey  we  met  several  caravans  [laden  with  horns  on  their 
way  to  Mongolia  and  China]. 

An  extensive  account  of  Maral  raising  is  given  by  Nikolskii 
(1927).  This  industry  originated  in  middle  Asia  during  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  was  brought  there  from  North  China  (Amsch- 
ler,  1931). 

Tian  Shan  Wapiti 

CBRVUS  ELAPHUS  SONGARICUS  Severtzov 

[Cervus  maral]  Var.  songarica  Severtzov,  Izviestia  Imper.  Obshchestvo 
Liub.  Estest.,  Antrop.  Etnogr.  [Moscow],  vol.  8,  pt.  2,  p.  109,  1873;  Eng- 
lish translation  in  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  4,  vol.  18,  p.  386,  1876. 
(The  Za-ilisky  Alatau,  east  of  Vyernyi,  on  the  summits  of  Turgeni,  near 
the  eastern  portion  of  Issik-kul,  and  the  fir-woods  of  Shamsi  in  the 
Alexandrovsk  Mountains;  type  locality  restricted  by  Harper  (1940, 
p.  203)  to  the  first  of  these  two  localities.) 

SYNONYM:    Cervus  eustephanus  Blanford   (1875). 

FIGS.:    Wallace,  1915,  pis.  74,  75. 

The  Wapiti  of  the  Tian  Shan,  like  most  of  the  Asiatic  deer,  has 
been  seriously  reduced  in  numbers  by  the  demand  for  antlers  in 
the  Chinese  market. 

The  general  color  of  this  animal  is  brownish  gray  tinged  with 
yellow,  the  head  and  neck  being  darker.  It  is  very  similar  to  the 
American  Wapiti  but  is  "apparently  distinguished  by  the  narrower 
and  more  orange-coloured  rump-patch,  not  including  the  middle 
line  of  the  tail,  which  is  coloured  like  the  back;  the  larger  amount  of 
black  on  the  borders  of  the  rump-patch,  thighs,  and  flanks,  the 
greyer  general  colour  in  summer,  and  the  shorter  and  stouter  fourth 
tine  of  the  antlers."  The  antlers  are  said  "to  be  distinguished  by 
their  stoutness  and  the  length  and  massiveness  of  their  tines,  as 
well  as  by  their  dark  colour."  (Lydekker,  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  136.)  The 
antlers  measure  50-60  inches  along  the  curve,  and  have  14  to  16 
points  or  even  more  (Wallace,  1915,  p.  198).  Height  at  shoulder, 
58-60  inches  (Severtzoff,  1876,  p.  377) . 

This  Wapiti  is  found  more  or  less  throughout  the  Tian  Shan 
system,  extending  west  on  the  Russian  side  to  the  area  between  the 
Chu  and  the  Naryn  Rivers,  and  on  the  east  to  the  Karlik  Tagh 
beyond  Hami.  According  to  Lydekker  (1915,  vol.  4,  p.  136),  the 
range  also  includes  the  Tarbagatai  district.  On  the  other  hand, 
Wallace  states  (1915,  p.  198) :  "The  Ala  Tau  is  their  northern  limit, 
though  a  few  stragglers  may  be  found  in  the  Barlik  Tagh.  To  the 
south  the  Narin  River  is  approximately  their  boundary,  while  to 
the  west  they  extend  to  the  Issi  Kul  Lake  and  the  Alexandrovsk 
range." 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  455 

Severtzoff  writes  (1876,  pp.  383-385)  as  follows: 

In  Russian  Siberia  it  has  been  met  with  on  the  Semiretchje  and  Zailisky 
Alatau,  in  the  mountains  near  Issik-kul  and  Narin,  everywhere  in  fir-woods, 
and  only  in  the  greenwood  districts.  .  .  . 

During  the  months  of  June  and  July  the  newly-grown  horns  are  soft;  and 
this  is  the  time  when  these  animals  are  mostly  pursued  by  the  Cossacks 
for  the  sake  of  their  horns,  which  are  readily  bought  by  the  Chinese  people. 

According  to  the  statements  of  the  Kirgies  it  is  to  be  met  with  on  all  the 
mountain-chains  of  the  western  Thian-Shan,  on  the  tributaries  of  the  Susa- 
mir,  Talas,  and  Chirchik,  as  well  as  in  the  Karatau  mountains. 

According  to  Carruthers  (1913,  p.  630),  the  animals  "range  over 
the  northern  forested  slopes  of  the  Tian  Shan,  Ala-tau,  and  Barlik 
ranges,  and  extend  eastwards  as  far  as  does  the  forest.  The  large 
wapiti  probably  stop  at  the  Karlik.Tagh." 

J.  H.  Miller  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  pp.  576,  582,  601)  contributes 
the  following  items.  Tracks  were  noted  in  the  Urta  Saryk  Valley, 
south  of  the  Ala-tau.  In  Dzungaria  in  general  "the  dark  forests  of 
spruce  and  scrub  conceal  wapiti — of  all  beasts  in  this  land  the  most 
persecuted  by  man."  In  the  Tian  Shan  south  of  Ta-shih-tu  the 
program  of  two  Chanto  hunters  was  to  go  into  these  mountains  in 
June  for  a  month's  stag-hunting.  "The  Chinese  merchants  will 
readily  give  as  much  as  from  a  hundred  to  two  hundred  rubles  for 
a  good  pair  of  wapiti  horns  in  the  velvet." 

Roosevelt  and  Roosevelt  (1926,  pp.  171-192)  describe  their  ex- 
periences in  hunting  Wapiti  in  the  Tian  Shan  in  the  region  of  the 
Kooksu  River  and  the  Akyas  Valley.  "All  the  native  hunters, 
Kalmuks,  Kazaks  and  Kirghiz,  hunt  them  continually  during  the 
late  spring  and  early  summer.  .  .  .  Church  in  his  book  written 
in  1899  considered  them  to  be  on  the  verge  of  extinction.  ...  All 
told  we  had  seen  ten  wapiti  during  the  week  we  had  been  hunt- 
ing them." 

Morden  writes  (1927,  pp.  185-186,  196)  concerning  the  Kok-su 
district: 

Native  hunters  .  .  .  come  to  shoot  stags  when  the  horns  are  in  the  velvet 
and  immature.  The  antlers  of  the  Thian  Shan  stag  .  .  .  are  used  when  in 
the  velvet  by  the  Chinese  for  medicinal  ingredients,  and  numbers  of  them 
are  annually  brought  into  the  bazaars  of  the  cities  of  Sin  Kiang.  . 

Owing  to  the  number  of  stags  annually  killed  while  the  horns  are  in  the 
velvet,  they  are  much  less  numerous  now  than  they  were  a  few  years  ago.  This 
will  become  increasingly  true  with  the  advent  of  modern  firearms,  which  are 
slowly  creeping  into  all  sections  of  Central  Asia. 

Nazaroff  writes  (1932,  p.  236)  that  there  are  plenty  of  Wapiti  in 
the  mountains  between  the  Chu  and  the  Naryn  Rivers. 

According  to  W.  G.  Heptner  (in  litt.,  December,  1936) ,  this  ani- 
mal is  evidently  found  in  the  mountainous  region  in  the  east  and  the 


456  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

northeast  of  Semiretchie,  but  is  absent  in  the  Alexandrovsk  Range. 
Its  occurrence  in  the  coniferous  forests  of  the  mountains  is  sporadic 
but  not  numerous,  although  a  certain  increase  has  been  observed 
during  the  last  15  years.  Hunting  is  not  allowed. 

Domestication. — "A  maral  stag,  if  caught  when  young,  is  very 
easily  tamed;  the  one  seen  by  me  in  Vernoe  [in  the  Alatau  region] 
followed  its  master  like  a  dog,  and  was  also  very  friendly  with 
strangers.  .  .  .  Sometimes  it  ran  about  the  town,  and,  in  fact, 
knew  the  streets  very  well  indeed,  as  it  came  home  by  itself  and 
never  lost  its  way. 

"M.  W.  P.  Semenoff  also  kept  a  stag  for  about  six  years.  It  was 
always  allowed  to  run  about  at  liberty,  sometimes  keeping  in  the 
mountains  for  several  days,  but  always  coming  back  again.  During 
the  breeding-season  it  associated  with  the  wild  deer;  but  after  this 
season  was  over  it  came  back  again  to  stables,  which  it  very  seldom 
left  during  the  winter."  (Severtzoff,  1876,  p.  384.) 

Red  Deer  of  Central  Spain.    Ciervo   (Sp.) 

CERVUS  ELAPHUS  BOLIVARI  Cabrera 

Cervus  elaphus  Bolivari  Cabrera,  Bol.  Real  Soc.  Espafi.  Hist.  Nat.  [Madrid], 

vol.  11,  p.  558,  1911.    ("El  Pardo,"  Madrid,  Spain.) 
FIGS.:    Chapman  and  Buck,  1910,  pis.  facing  pp.  162,  172,  and  figs,  on  pp.  168, 

169;  Cabrera,  1914,  pi.  21. 

This  Red  Deer  seems  to  be  declining  seriously  in  numbers. 

The  ochraceous  rump  patch  is  bordered  with  a  dark  zone,  as  in 
C.  e.  atlanticus;  antlers  as  large  as  in  the  latter;  winter  pelage  paler 
and  without  a  mane.  Head  and  body,  2,150  mm. ;  height  at  shoulder, 
1,120  mm.;  antlers  along  outside  curve,  1,110  mm.  (Cabrera,  1911, 
pp.  558-559.) 

The  range  includes  the  mountainous  interior  of  the  Iberian  Pen- 
insula, from  Aragon  (where  it  is  very  rare  and  has  disappeared  in 
many  localities) ,  the  Sierra  de  la  Demanda,  and  the  Montes  de  Leon, 
south  to  the  Sierra  Morena  in  Andalusia;  and  from  Portugal  to 
the  Serrania  de  Cuenca.  In  the  greater  part  of  this  area  it  is  found 
only  in  certain  mountains,  as  in  the  Provinces  of  Madrid  and 
Segovia,  where  it  has  become  restricted  to  the  royal  country  seats 
of  El  Pardo  and  Rio  Frio;  in  Portugal,  outside  of  the  mountains 
of  the  district  of  Castello  Branco,  it  seems  to  be  met  with  only  in 
some  enclosures  of  Lisbon.  It  is  still  abundant,  however,  in  the 
Sierra  de  Grata  (Las  Hurdes) ,  in  some  mountains  of  the  Provinces 
of  Caceres  and  Badajoz,  and  especially  in  the  Montes  de  Toledo  and 
in  the  Sierra  Morena  and  its  spurs.  (Cabrera,  1914,  pp.  339-340.) 

"All  lands  in  which  deer  are  found,  both  on  mountain  and  plain, 
are  preserved"  (Chapman  and  Buck,  1893,  p.  437) . 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  457 

Apparently  the  deer  derive  considerable  protection  from  the  dense 
cover  they  affect.  In  such  places  as  the  Sierra  Morena  shooting  is 
practically  confined  to  "driving"  with  beaters  (Chapman  and  Buck, 
1910,  p.  158.) 

"The  only  enemies  the  full-grown  stag  has  to  fear  are  mankind 
and  the  wolf,  but  chiefly  the  latter,  since  not  only  do  single  wolves 
destroy  in  the  sierra  large  numbers  of  the  newly  born  calves,  but, 
worse  still,  when  a  troop  of  wolves  have  once  tasted  venison  they 
commence  habitually  to  hunt  both  hinds  and  even  the  younger  stags, 
which  they  persistently  follow  day  after  day  till  the  deer  are  ab- 
solutely worn  out.  .  .  . 

"The  calves  of  red  deer  ...  are  also  preyed  upon  by  golden 
eagles."  (Chapman  and  Buck,  1910,  p.  156.) 

In  1933  the  Spanish  Director  General  de  Montes,  Pesca  y  Caza 
reports  that  the  Red  Deer  is  in  danger  of  disappearing  and  is  worthy 
of  special  protection. 

[Cervus  elaphus  hispanicus  was  described  by  Hilzheimer  (Archiv 
fur  Rassen-  und  Gesellschafts-Biologie,  1909,  p.  313)  on  the  basis 
of  a  skull  fragment,  with  antlers,  from  an  unknown  locality  in  Spain. 
Cabrera  (1911,  p.  557;  1914,  p.  343)  restricts  this  name  to  the  Red 
Deer  inhabiting  the  littoral  of  the  Province  of  Huelva,  between  the 
Rio  Odiel  and  the  Guadalquivir.  Chapman  and  Buck  (1910,  pp. 
43  ff.)  describe  the  hunting  of  this  animal  at  some  length.  Ap- 
parently it  was  common  at  that  time.  No  recent  information  on  its 
numerical  status  is  at  hand.] 

North  African  Red  Deer;    Barbary  Stag 

CERVUS  ELAPHUS  BARBARUS  Bennett 

Cervus  barbarus  Bennett,  List  Animals  in  Gardens  Zool.  Soc.,  London,  p.  31, 

1887.    (North  Africa.) 
FIGS.:    Jour.  Soc.  Preservation  Fauna  Empire,  n.  s.,  pt.  30,  pi.  facing  p.  65, 

1937;  Bryden,  1899,  p.  512;  Fraser,  Zoologia  Typica,  pi.  13,  1849;  Ward, 

1935,  pi.  facing  p.  1  (antlers). 

The  presence  of  a  Red  Deer  in  northern  Africa  adds  a  Palearctic 
element  to  its  fauna,  but  the  species  is  at  present  rapidly  declining 
and  is  confined  to  a  circumscribed  area  of  forested  territory  on  the 
Algerian-Tunisian  border. 

The  Barbary  Stag  is  slightly  smaller  than  the  typical  Red  Deer  of 
southern  Sweden,  standing  about  46  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder. 
The  coat  usually  retains  in  the  adult  some  trace  of  white  spots  in 
the  otherwise  dark  brown  of  the  body;  there  is  a  grayish-brown 
dorsal  stripe,  and  a  rump  patch  much  lighter  than  the  back,  without 
dark  anterior  border,  and  including  the  tail.  The  antlers  are  peculiar 
in  usually  lacking  the  bez  tine;  but  they  show  the  cupping  of  the 


458 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 


three  terminal  tines.  Record  antler  has  a  length  on  the  outside  curve 
of  38J  inches. 

In  former  times,  according  to  Cabrera  (1932,  p.  311),  this  deer 
was  represented  in  Morocco  and  was  probably  found  there  at  least 


FIG.  46. — Barbary  Stag  (Cervus  elephus  barbarus) 

up  to  the  period  of  Roman  domination.  In  spite  of  a  report  as  late 
as  1920  (Carpentier,  1932,  p.  21)  of  one  having  been  seen  at  the  post 
of  Tagouzatt,  by  a  Captain  Vizios  and  his  companions,  it  seems  very 
unlikely  that  any  exist  there  at  the  present  time.  Nor  it  is  easy  to 
believe  Lydekker's  (1915)  statement  that  it  formerly  occurred  in 
Senegambia.  In  1848  Gervais  recorded  it  from  the  forests  in  the 
vicinity  of  Bone,  Calle,  and  Tebessa,  and  here  is  where  it  still  per- 
sists. Lataste,  in  1885,  writing  of  the  deer  in  this  region,  mentions 
that  it  was  common  in  Gervais's  time  and  that  there  was  a  con- 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  459 

siderable  export  trade  in  the  antlers.  According  to  information 
gathered  by  Miss  Hone  (1933,  p.  44),  this  deer  is  most  numerous  in 
the  cork-oak  forests  of  northwestern  Tunisia  and  the  pine  forests 
east  of  Tebessa,  which  is  a  strip  of  well-forested  and  mountainous 
country  extending  from  the  Mediterranean  coast  near  La  Calle, 
along  the  Algerian-Tunisian  border.  Within  this  area,  the  forests 
of  Feidja,  Gardimaou,  and  Khroumirie  and  the  region  about  Feirana 
are  given  as  specific  localities.  Joleaud  believed  that  these  deer 
which  still  lived  a  few  years  ago  in  the  region  of  Negrine  must  often 
have  gone  without  drinking,  since  the  few  springs  in  the  south  of 
the  Nemencha  country  were  constantly  surrounded  by  encampments 
of  natives,  thus  making  another  element  of  an  unfavorable  nature. 
Through  correspondence  with  consular  offices,  a  certain  amount  of 
information  has  been  gathered  as  to  the  present  attitude  of  the  offi- 
cials in  the  countries  where  the  Barbary  Stag  still  exists,  from  which 
it  appears  that  in  Algeria  the  killing  of  the  species  is  prohibited, 
as  well  as  in  Tunisia.  According  to  the  Directeur  du  Service  des 
Forets  in  the  latter  country,  it  is  believed  that  about  50  deer  remain, 
in  the  extreme  northwestern  part,  near  Tabarka  and  Ain  Draham. 
Nevertheless,  in  Algeria  a  proprietor  or  tenant  of  land  may  legally 
kill  a  deer  on  his  own  property,  provided  that  it  is  actually  causing 
or  threatening  to  cause  damage,  but  this  permission  applies  only  to 
land  actually  having  crops  or  fruit  trees  on  it.  Furthermore,  the  sale 
during  the  closed  season,  of  animals  killed  legally,  is  forbidden. 
The  Barbary  Stag  is  placed  among  the  species  in  Schedule  A,  of 
the  London  Convention  of  1933,  to  be  protected  at  all  times.  Al- 
though Johnston  (in  Bryden) ,  writing  in  1899,  believed  that  in  this 
section  of  Tunisia  the  stag  was  actually  increasing  "considerably" 
in  numbers,  Capt.  M.  W.  Hilton-Simpson  (in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  123) 
reports  that  they  are  "so  scarce  that  they  may  not  even  be  seen  in 
the  course  of,  say,  a  fortnight  on  the  shooting  ground,"  and  Dr. 
K.  Jordan  in  the  same  year  (1932)  wrote  that  there  are  "very  few 
specimens  left,  but  protection  will  no  doubt  enable  the  species  to 
recuperate." 

G.  M.  A. 
Sardinian  Stag 

CERVUS  ELAPHUS  CORSICANUS  Erxleben 
[Cervus]  Corsicanus  Erxleben,  Syst.  Regni  Anim.,  vol.  1,  p.  304,  1777.  (Corsica.) 

This  deer,  limited  to  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  has  been  greatly 
reduced  by  overshooting. 

The  general  color  is  darker  than  in  any  of  the  small  continental 
forms.  Height  of  male  at  shoulder,  800  mm.  (Miller,  1912,  p.  970.) 

Miller  (1912,  p.  969)  quotes  Polybius  (xii,  cap.  iii)  to  the  effect 
that  this  stag  is  not  native  to  Corsica. 


460  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

De  Beaux  (1932,  p.  9)  expresses  concern  for  its  future. 

According  to  Colosi  (1933,  pp.  39,  85),  it  still  lives  in  the  wild 
state  in  Sardinia;  it  is  also  widespread  and  rather  abundant  in 
Corsica,  although  pitiless  hunting  has  decimated  the  herds  in  the 
wooded  zone  of  medium  altitude. 

It  inhabits  the  public  forests  and  certain  other  areas,  but  is 
not  numerous  and  is  decreasing.  It  will  be  protected  in  the  Sar- 
dinian National  Park  now  under  preparation.  (Laboratorio  di 
Zoologia  Applicata  a  Caccia,  in  litt.,  September,  1936.) 

McNeill's  Deer.    Macneillshirsch  (Ger.) 

CERVUS  MACNEILLI  Lydekker 

Cervus.    cashmirianus    macneili    [sic]    Lydekker,    Abstr.    Proc.    Zool.    Soc. 

London,  no.  71,  p.  26,  1909.    ("Sze-chuen.") 
Cervus    cashmirianus    macneilli    Lydekker,    Proc.   Zool.    Soc.    London    1909, 

p.  590,  pi.  69,  1909.   ("Sze-chuen."  The  type  locality  has  been  subsequently 

restricted:  "Tibetan  side  of  the  border"  (Lydekker,  1911a,  p.  987);  "Sze- 

chuan  border  of  Tibet"  (Lydekker,  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  145);  "near  Litang" 

(Brooke  Dolan,  II,  MS.,  1938).) 

SYNONYM:    Cervus  canadensis  wardi  Lydekker  (1911). 
FIGS.:  Lydekker,  1909,  pi.  69;  Lydekker,  1911a,  p.  988,  fig.  143;  China  Jour.,  vol. 

25,  no.  5,  pi.  facing  p.  288,  1936;  Engelmann,  1938,  pis.  18-20;  G.  M.  Allen, 

1939a,  pi.  23. 

This  little-known  deer  of  the  Chino-Tibetan  borderland,  much 
persecuted  for  the  sake  of  its  horns,  it  is  believed  by  Brooke 
Dolan,  II,  to  be  rapidly  approaching  extinction. 

The  general  color  of  the  female  is  pale  speckled  French  gray, 
somewhat  darker  on  the  back  and  more  so  on  the  head ;  the  white  of 
the  hindquarters  restricted  to  the  back  of  the  hams;  tail  almost 
wholly  black  above ;  a  blackish  brown  patch  on  the  croup ;  ears  and 
muzzle  similar  to  those  of  Cervus  wallichi  affinis.  Antlers  6-tined, 
terminal  fork  comparatively  narrow.  (Lydekker,  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  145, 
and  1911a,  pp.  988-989.) 

"The  winter  pelage  as  represented  by  Mr.  Dolan  ?s  skins,  seems 
grayer  [than  the  summer  pelage  of  the  type] ,  with  a  brownish  wash 
on  the  back,  the  throat  and  sides  of  the  neck  a  mixed  gray.  The 
white  pygal  area  is  as  narrow  as  in  the  summer  condition.  ...  In 
adult  males  both  brow  and  bez  tines  are  long  and  well  developed, 
with  a  light  upward  curvature ;  the  course  of  the  main  beam  is  then 
upward  and  outward,  as  seen  from  in  front,  until  the  trez  tine  is 
reached,  situated  on  the  outer  side  of  the  beam.  ...  At  this  point 
the  main  beam  turns  decidedly  inward."  It  "forks  in  such  a  way 
that  there  is  an  anterior  and  a  posterior  tine,  .  .  .  while  a  third  one 
arises  on  the  outer  side."  (G.  M.  Allen,  1939a,  pp.  283-284.) 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  461 

Height  of  adult  male  at  shoulder,  137  cm.;  length  of  antlers,  115 
cm.  (Engelmann,  1938,  pp.  31,  33). 

The  two  original  female  specimens  secured  by  Capt.  Malcolm 
McNeill,  and  the  set  of  antlers  described  as  Cervua  canadensis  wardi, 
remained  for  years  as  the  only  available  specimens  of  this  deer. 

"Under  its  native  name  of  Peh  Lu-tsze  I  have  heard  this  animal 
spoken  of  as  far  north  as  Sungpan,  and  very  likely  it  ranges  through- 
out the  whole  Chino-Thibetan  borderland"  (Wilson,  1913,  p.  164) . 

R.  C.  Andrews  writes  (1919,  pp.  175-176)  concerning  the  region 
between  Taku  ferry  and  Chung-tien,  northwestern  Yunnan:  "We 
made  arrangements  to  go  with  a  number  of  the  Lolos  to  a  spot 
fifteen  miles  away  on  the  Chung-tien  road  to  hunt  wapiti  (probably 
Cervus  macneilli)  which  the  natives  call  maloo.  .  .  . 

"At  present  these  deer  are  abundant  in  but  few  places.  .  .  .  The 
growing  horns  .  .  .  are  considered  of  great  medicinal  value  and, 
during  the  summer,  the  animals  are  trapped  and  hunted  relentlessly 
by  the  natives.  In  Yiin-nan,  when  we  were  there,  a  pair  of  horns  were 
worth  $100  (Mexican)." 

According  to  Sowerby  (1937,  p.  250),  "This  deer  replaces  the 
foregoing  [C.  e.  kansuensis]  in  eastern  Tibet,  Sikong  and  West 
Szechuan.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  very  plentiful  ....  It  is 
probably  on  the  way  to  extinction." 

Brooke  Dolan,  II  (MS.,  1938;  cf.  also  Dolan  in  G.  M.  Allen, 
1939a,  p.  285)  contributes  the  following:  "McNeill's  deer  occurs 
in  the  marginal  forests  of  the  Mekong,  Yangtze  and  Yalung  ranges, 
usually  above  11,000  ft.,  in  heavy  growth  of  dwarf  rhododendron. 
First  collected  near  Litang  by  Captain  McNeill,  they  are  now  very 
scarce  in  that  locality,  and  we  saw  no  evidences  of  them  except 
antlers  and  velvet  shown  to  us  by  merchants  in  Litang  and  said  to 
have  been  killed  in  the  vicinity,  although  they  might  very  well  have 
come  from  far  away.  We  collected  them  in  March  of  1935,  two  days 
to  the  west  of  Jyekundo.  .  .  .  Schafer  later  collected  them  in  the 
Mekong  drainage  southwest  of  Jyekundo,  and  in  September  found 
them  most  plentiful  near  the  monastery  of  Dzogchen,  not  far  from 
Derge  in  the  Yalung  watershed.  .  .  .  These  deer  have  been  much 
persecuted  by  the  natives  for  the  aphrodisiac  properties  believed 
by  the  Chinese  to  be  inherent  in  antler  velvet,  and  probably  they 
were  once  plentiful  over  most  of  eastern  Tibet.  They  are  now  pro- 
tected by  the  monastery  at  Dzogchen,  and  we  heard  in  Jyekundo 
that  native  chieftains  protected  them  to  the  west  of  Jyekundo." 
Mr.  Dolan  adds  that  he  very  roughly  estimates  the  total  numbers 
of  the  animal  at  possibly  5,000. 


462  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Yarkand  Stag 

CERVUS  YARKANDENSIS  Blanford 

Cervus  [cashmirianus]  yarkandensis  Blanford,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1892, 

p.  117,  1892.    ("Eastern  Turkestan."1) 
FIGS.:    Blanford,  1892a,  p.  116,  fig.;  Lydekker,  1901,  pi.  4,  fig.  2;  Hedin,  1904, 

p.  279,  fig.;   Leche,  1904,  p.  45,  fig.  56;   Lydekker,  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  140, 

fig.  25. 

This  animal,  which  is  apparently  restricted  to  Chinese  Turkestan, 
is  said  to  be  "practically  extinct"  (Morden,  1927,  p.  123) . 

It  is  a  rufous-fawn  deer,  with  a  large  and  well-defined  orange 
rump  patch,  which  includes  the  tail;  antlers  usually  five-tined,  the 
terminal  fork  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  middle  line  of  the  head, 
so  as  to  look  directly  forwards;  fifth  tine  larger  than  the  fourth, 
and  generally  inclined  inwards;  length  of  antlers  on  outside  curve 
up  to  41^  inches  (Lydekker,  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  139;  Ward,  1935,  pp. 
8-9).  Height,  55  inches  (Cumberland,  1895,  p.  153). 

According  to  Blanford  (1892a,  p.  117),  "Prejvalski  .  .  .  found 
this  Deer  common  around  the  Lower  Tarim  and  Lobnor  in  1876." 

In  1889-90  Cumberland  (1895,  pp.  145-160)  found  the  species 
rather  common  at  various  points  between  Yarkand  and  Aksu. 

Leche  (1904,  pp.  45-49)  records  a  skeleton  from  the  Cherchen 
Darya  and  a  skull  from  the  vicinity  of  Kashgar,  and  adds  that  Sven 
Hedin  met  with  this  deer  at  various  places  along  the  Tarim  River. 
He  also  presents  a  figure  of  a  tamed  individual.  Hedin  (1905,  p. 
389)  refers  to  the  species  as  plentiful  along  the  Cherchen  Darya. 

"The  Yarkand  stag  ...  is  found  on  the  lower  courses  of  the 
Kashgar,  Yarkand  and  Khotan  Rivers,  and  on  the  main  Tarim. 

"These  stags  are  fairly  numerous,  but  very  difficult  to  hunt  .... 

"The  natives,  of  course,  are  always  after  them  in  the  summer 
when  their  horns  are  still  soft  .  .  .  whereas  during  the  period  when 

1  Contradictory  statements  by  Lydekker  indicate  a  state  of  confusion  in  regard 
to  the  type  specimen  and  the  exact  type  locality  of  yarkcwidensis.  In  Blan- 
ford's  original  description  (1892a,  pp.  116-117)  there  is  no  designation  of  a 
type.  He  exhibited  before  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  on  February  16, 
1892,  two  heads  and  a  skin,  "lent  for  exhibition  by  Major  C.  S.  Cumberland, 
who  shot  the  animals  in  the  woods  on  the  Yarkand  or  Tarim  River  in  1890." 
(Of.  Cumberland,  1895.)  Blanford  also  presented  notes  on  three  heads  "ob- 
tained by  Mr.  A.  O.  Hume  from  Yarkand"  and  "now  in  the  British  Museum"; 
one  of  these  he  figured.  It  would  probably  be  proper  to  consider  all  five  or  six 
of  the  Cumberland  and  Hume  specimens  as  cotypes.  Lydekker  states  (1913&, 
p.  35)  :  "The  type  [=  lectotype?]  specimen  is  a  skull,  with  antlers,  presented  to 
the  Museum  by  Major  C.  S.  Cumberland."  However,  two  years  later  (1915, 
vol.  4,  pp.  139-140)  he  not  only  fails  to  list  any  skull  or  antlers  from  Major 
Cumberland  among  the  specimens  in  the  British  Museum,  but  he  states  that 
specimen  "91.  8.  7.  4.  Skull  and  antlers,"  presented  by  A.  0.  Hume,  1891,  is  the 
"type"  [=  lectotype?] ;  this  specimen  is  from  the  "Maralbashi  Forest,  Eastern 
Turkestan,"  which  Lydekker  here  designates  as  the  "typical  locality."  Possibly 
the  question  of  type  or  lectotype  and  type  locality  could  be  settled  by  reexamina- 
tion  of  the  material  in  the  British  Museum. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  463 

the  stags  are  worth  shooting  from  our  point  of  view  they  are  not 
so  harassed."  (Carruthers,  1915,  pp.  154-155.) 

At  Maralbashi  "a  tame  Yarkand  stag  and  doe  .  .  .  were  led  out 
for  our  amusement.  They  were  full  grown  animals  which  the 
Amban  said  had  been  captured  in  the  forests  a  few  miles  from 
Maralbashi.  .  .  .  The  Yarkand  stag  is  practically  extinct.  We 
heard  that  a  few  stags  were  occasionally  killed  by  native  hunters." 
(Morden,  1927,  p.  123.) 

J.  H.  Miller  writes  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  p.  609)  of  the  virtually 
unknown  Wapiti  of  the  Dzungarian  lowlands: 

The  habitat  of  the  stag  points  to  its  being  identical  with  Cervus  cash- 
mirianus  yarkandensis  of  the  Tarim  basin,  on  the  south  of  the  Tian  Shan. 
The  altitude,  the  dense  reed-beds,  and  the  poplar  forests  are  identical.  To 
the  best  of  my  knowledge,  no  specimen  of  this  Dzungarian  stag  has  ever  been 
brought  to  Europe  for  identification.  They  are  not  much  hunted  by  the 
natives,  owing  to  the  density  and  mosquito-scourged  nature  of  their  country, 
the  mountain  wapiti  (Cervus  canadensis  asiaticus)  being  more  numerous 
and  much  easier  to  secure.  Their  habitat  is  the  whole  of  the  jungle-covered 
country  from  just  east  of  the  Manas  River  to  the  south-east  of  Ebi  Nor. 

Hariri  an   Wapiti;    Turkestan  Deer;    Bokhara  Deer 

CERVUS  BACTRIANUS  Lydekker 

Cervus  bactrianus  Lydekker,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  7,  vol.  5,  p.  196, 
1900.  (Based  upon  a  captive  specimen  in  Moscow  from  "Russian  Turke- 
stan." Later  (Lydekker,  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  138)  the  type  locality  was  said 
to  be  "probably  Bokhara.") 

SYNONYM:    Cervus  hagenbeckii  Shitkow  (1904). 

FIGS.:  Lydekker,  18986,  p.  109,  fig.  28,  and  1901,  p.  228,  fig.  54;  Shitkow, 
1904,  pp.  94-103,  figs. 

This  is  a  rare  and  little-known  animal,  existing  in  small  numbers 
in  certain  parts  of  Russian  Turkestan.  The  available  descriptions 
are  based  upon  captive  specimens. 

The  general  color  at  all  seasons  is  ashy  gray,  with  a  light  yel- 
lowish sheen;  rump  patch  sandy  white;  an  obscure  vertebral  stripe 
extending  forward  to  the  crown;  whole  margin  of  upper  lip  light- 
colored;  lower  lip  and  chin  sandy  white;  antlers  glossy  white,  nor- 
mally f our-tined ;  bez  tine  absent ;  fourth  tine  better  developed  than 
the  third;  length  of  antlers  on  outside  curve,  40  inches.  Height  of 
male  at  shoulder,  46  inches;  of  female,  about  44  inches.  (Lydekker, 
18986,  p.  109;  Shitkow,  1904,  pp.  92-102;  Ward,  1935,  p.  3.) 

Several  specimens  are  said  to  have  come  from  Tashkent  and 
Chenkend  [=Chimkent?]  (Lydekker,  1901,  p.  228,  and  1902,  p.  79). 

Carruthers  writes  (1915,  p.  149) : 

The  stag  of  the  Oxus  [Amu  Darya]  Valley  is  confined  to  the  jungles  which 
margin  the  river,  its  habits  and  environment  corresponding  to  those  of  the 
Yarkand  stag  ....  I  know  this  stag  to  be  numerous  on  the  course  of  the 


464  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

river  east  of  the  point  where  the  Vaksh  enters  it.  ...  It  is  a  wild  locality, 
uninhabited,  and  impenetrable  for  the  greater  portion  of  the  year.  Further 
up  the  valley  the  stags  roam  as  far  as  Kulab ;  beyond  this  the  mountains  hem 
in  the  river  and  allow  no  suitable  ground.  Whether  or  not  these  deer  extend 
the  whole  length  of  the  Oxus  as  far  as  the  Sea  of  Aral  I  cannot  say.  Severtzoff 
mentions  finding  such  a  beast  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Syr  Daria,  which  I 
imagine  must  have  been  of  this  variety. 

Nazaroff  (1932,  p.  208)  refers  to  the  occurrence  of  a  large  deer  in 
the  steppes  about  Lake  Balkash,  which  is  quite  distinct  from  the 
Siberian  Maral.  Possibly  this  is  bactrianus. 

W.  G.  Heptner  writes  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  that  this  animal 
has  a  very  limited  distribution.  It  is  met  with  near  the  sources  of  the 
Amu  Darya,  along  the  Vaksh,  on  the  delta  of  the  Amu  Darya  and 
the  adjacent  part  of  the  desert,  and  about  the  mouth  of  the  Syr 
Darya.  The  total  number  is  very  inconsiderable,  but  along  the 
upper  Amu  Darya  it  is  common  at  certain  places.  Hunting  is 
strictly  forbidden. 

White-lipped  Deer;  Thorold's  Deer.   Weisslippenhirsch  (Ger.) 

CERVUS  ALBIROSTRIS  Przewalski 

Cervus  albirostris  Przewalski,  Third  Journey  in  Central  Asia  [St.-  Peters- 
burg], p.  124,  1883  (in  Russian),  and  Reisen  in  Tibet  [Jena],  pp.  73,  76, 
fig.,  1884.  (River  Koko-su,  left  tributary  of  River  Dan-kho,  in  the 
western  ramifications  of  the  Humboldt  Mountains,  Nan  Shan,  near  the 
Kansu-Tibet  boundary.) 

SYNONYM:    Cervus  thoroldi  Blanford  (1893). 

FIGS.:  Przewalski,  1883,  pi.  facing  p.  124;  Prschewalski,  1884,  p.  76,  fig.;  Sclater, 
Jour.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal,  vol.  58,  pt.  2,  pi.  11,  1889;  Blanford,  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  London  1893,  pi.  34;  Lydekker,  18986,  pi.  5,  and  1915,  vol.  4, 
p.  150,  fig.  28;  China  Jour.,  vol.  25,  no.  5,  pis.  following  p.  288,  1936; 
Schafer,  1937,  pis.  facing  pp.  160,  161;  Engelmann,  1938,  pis.  21,  22. 

This  little-known  and  much  persecuted  deer,  inhabiting  high 
mountain  areas  from  the  Nan  Shan  to  eastern  Tibet  and  western 
Szechwan,  is  considered  in  danger  of  extinction. 

It  is  a  large  species,  standing  51  inches  high  at  the  shoulder,  and 
with  a  length  of  about  7  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  muzzle  to  the  base 
of  the  tail.  The  general  color  is  snuff  brown  (Ridgway)  in  summer, 
wood  brown  in  winter;  abdomen  lighter  than  pinkish  buff;  a  large, 
sharply  defined  rump  patch,  near  sayal  brown;  area  about  nose,  lips, 
chin,  and  throat  white;  facial  area  darker  than  the  general  color; 
coarse  hair  of  the  withers  directed  forward,  forming  a  kind  of  hump. 
Antlers  much  flattened,  nearly  white,  with  a  single  brow  tine;  bend- 
ing suddenly  backward  at  origin  of  third  tine;  length  round  the 
outside  curve,  38  inches.  Female  grayer  than  the  male,  and  lacking 
the  dark  facial  area.  (Flerov,  1930,  pp.  116-120;  Lydekker,  1915, 
vol.  4,  p.  149;  Schafer,  1937,  pis.  facing  pp.  160,  161.)  G.  M.  Allen 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  465 

(1939,  p.  282)  records  an  antler  measuring  41£  inches  "on  the  chord 
from  the  anterior  base  of  the  burr  to  the  tip  of  the  most  distant 
point." 

This  is  one  of  the  rarest  of  deer  in  museum  collections.  Flerov 
(1930,  pp.  115-116)  lists  six  specimens  (four  in  Leningrad,  one  in 
London,  one  in  Calcutta)  from  the  following  localities:  Nan  Shan; 
southern  Koko  Nor  mountains;  River  Di-chu,  eastern  Tibet;  and 
200  miles  northeast  of  Lhassa.  Rowland  Ward  (1935,  p.  11)  men- 
tions two  specimens  from  central  Tibet  in  Lord  Rothschild's  col- 
lection. Besides  these,  Schafer  (1937,  p.  208)  secured  three  speci- 
mens in  the  vicinity  of  Batang,  near  the  Szechwan-Tibet  boundary. 

Przewalski's  party  obtained  the  first  two  specimens  in  the  western 
portion  of  the  Nan  Shan  in  1879  (Przewalski,  1884,  p.  76).  Dr. 
W.  G.  Thorold  obtained  two  more  (the  types  of  "Cervus  thoroldi") 
in  1891  about  200  miles  northeast  of  Lhassa.  Bower,  who  was 
Thorold's  companion,  writes  as  follows  (1894,  pp.  290-291) : 

"This  grand  stag  ...  is  found  in  Eastern  Tibet  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Tsuk  Sun  Dong  Gong  [about  lat.  31°  40'  N.,  long. 
93°  30'  E.]  to  Garthok  [south  of  Batang],  but  does  not  appear  to  be 
numerous  anywhere.  It  is  found  in  the  scrub  jungle  just  above  the 
forest  line  at  elevations  of  about  14,000  feet.  The  herd  of  which 
Dr.  Thorold  got  two,  consisted  of  six,  all  males.  According  to  the 
natives  they  wander  about  a  great  deal,  being  found  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  according  to  the  time  of  year." 

Wilson  (1913,  p.  163)  writes  as  follows  concerning  the  "Hung  Lu- 
tsze"  (Red  Deer)  of  the  Chinese  (which  is  doubtless  the  present 
species)  on  the  eastern  borders  of  Tibet:  "Perhaps  the  commonest  of 
the  three  [deer]  found  in  these  regions.  It  ranges  from  the  Yunnan 
border  northward  to  south-western  Kansu  and  possibly  beyond." 

He  also  contributes  (pp.  161-163)  the  following  account  of  the 
Chinese  trade  in  deer  horns: 

[The  three  deer  species  (Cervus  albirostis,  C.  macneilli,  and  Rusa  unicolor 
dejeani)  of  the  Chino-Tibetan  borderland]  are  sadly  persecuted  for  their 
horns  when  in  velvet.  Fortunately,  it  is  the  males  only  that  are  so  keenly 
sought  after,  otherwise  they  must  have  become  extinct  ere  this.  The  full 
extent  of  this  trade  it  is  impossible  to  determine,  but  .  .  .  speaking  of  the 
trade  of  Tachienlu  ...  Sir  Alexander  Hosie  says:  "Deer  horns  in  velvet, 
to  the  value  of  Tls.  30,000,  are  exported  annually." 

Mr.  W.  C.  Haines-Watson  gives  1500  catties  of  Deer  horns  in  velvet, 
valued  at  Tls.  30,000,  as  the  annual  export  from  Kuan  Hsien.  ...  He  puts 
the  annual  export  .  .  .  from  Sungpan  at  Tls.  15,000.  There  are  other  places 
like  Chungpa,  Kiung  Chou,  and  Sui  Fu  where  a  large  annual  export  of  Deer 
horns  in  velvet  obtains,  but  no  figures  are  obtainable.  However,  the  above 
is  sufficient  to  indicate  how  great  a  slaughter  of  stags  there  must  be  annually 
in  these  regions.  At  the  lowest  estimate  at  least  a  thousand  stags  are  killed 
every  year  for  their  horns  in  the  velvet. 

The   Chinese  consider  these   horns  ...  an   extraordinarily  valuable   medi- 

16 


466  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

cine,  possessing  wonderful  tonic  and  aphrodisiac  properties.  This  is  evidenced 
by  the  almost  fabulous  prices  they  will  pay  for  them.  .  .  .  Western  pharma- 
cologists may  say  there  is  no  virtue  or  medicinal  value  in  these  horns,  but 
John  Chinaman  believes  otherwise,  and  is  willing  to  pay  the  price,  high  and 
extortionate  as  it  may  be. 

The  leg  sinews  of  these  Deer  are  also  of  considerable  medicinal  value  and 
are  exported  in  quantity  from  the  far  west.  Shed  horns  are  valued  for 
making  medicinal  glue,  used  in  mixing  pills,  etc.  There  is  a  large  trade  in 
these,  the  annual  exports  from  Tachienlu  alone  being  estimated  at  30,000 
catties,  valued  at  Tls.  8500. 

In  every  medicine  shop  of  note,  in  every  village  and  town  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  China,  Deer  horns  are  in  evidence.  In  Szechuan  and 
other  wealthy  regions  they  are  abundantly  so.  If  one  inquires  in  the  east 
and  central  parts  of  China  where  they  come  from,  the  answer  received  is 
invariably  Chungking  and  Yunnan.  At  Chungking  it  is  always  Yunnan  and 
Thibet.  West  of  the  Min  River  one  begins  to  close  up  to  the  question 
pretty  quickly.  Coolies  laden  with  Deer  horns  are  frequently  met  with 
on  all  the  roads  leading  from  the  far  west  of  Szechuan.  Tachienlu,  Sungpan, 
and  other  towns  mentioned  .  .  .  are  all  trade  entrepots,  and  are  fed  from 
the  surrounding  country. 

The  highlands  of  Thibet  proper  probably  contribute  to  this  trade,  but  the 
headquarters  is  the  wild,  almost  unknown,  region  lying  between  the  Upper 
Min  River,  the  Chiench'ang  Valley,  and  the  frontier  of  eastern  Thibet.  This 
is  a  region  of  high  mountain  ranges  where  virgin  forests  of  great  size  still 
remain.  The  upper  limits  of  these  forests  are  the  home  of  these  Deer.  These 
haunts  are  very  difficult  of  access,  and  very  few  foreigners  have  had  oppor- 
tunity of  shooting  these  Deer,  consequently  information  is  most  meagre. 

Schafer  (1937,  pp.  143-212)  describes  an  extremely  difficult  and 
exhausting  hunt  for  this  deer  in  the  mountains  about  Litang  and 
Batang,  western  Szechwan.  It  proved  to  be  rare  in  the  forested 
country  of  Molachi  south  of  Litang,  where  one  animal  was  seen  and 
the  tracks  of  a  doe  and  a  fawn  were  noted — the  latter  followed  by 
a  Wolf.  The  species  is  pursued  by  many  native  hunters,  who  are 
considered  chiefly  responsible  for  its  threatened  extinction.  Accord- 
ing to  the  superstition  of  the  Chinese  and  the  Tibetans,  the  antlers 
in  the  velvet  have  a  rejuvenating  power,  and  a  set  costs  more  than 
two  good  riding  horses.  All  bones  and  flesh  are  prized  for  their  heal- 
ing power,  and  the  fresh  blood  and  heart  are  consumed  for  courage- 
giving  qualities.  In  the  vicinity  of  Batang  Schafer  finally  secured 
three  specimens  out  of  a  small  herd. 

Brooke  Dolan,  II  (MS.,  1938;  cf.  also  Dolan,  in  G.  M.  Allen, 
1939a,  p.  282)  contributes  the  following  account: 

A  more  widely  distributed  animal  than  McNeill's  deer,  still  occurring  all 
the  way  from  the  Tachienlu  mountains  westward  into  central  Tibet  and  north- 
ward probably  to  the  grasslands  around  the  Amnye  Machen.  They  were  seen 
by  us  to  the  south  of  Litang,  around  Batang,  and  to  the  northwest  of  Jyekundo, 
and  tracks  were  found  in  the  Tachienlu  mountains.  They  have  been,  however, 
so  persecuted  that  the  stand  is  down  to  nothing  in  many  localities.  Four  or 
five  #ears  ago  they  were  said  to  be  extremely  plentiful  around  Batang,  but  a 
brigade  of  Tibetan  troops  with  British  military  rifles  had  so  far  reduced  them 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  467 

in  a  season  or  two,  that  we  had  great  difficulty  in  finding  them.  They  range 
from  mid-spruce  forest  up  through  rhododendron  and  dwarf  rhododendron  to 
the  grasslands  just  below  the  peaks,  i.  e.  from  about  12,000  to  16,000  ft.  They 
occur  on  the  fringes  of  the  high  steppes  along  the  scarps  of  the  upper  Yangtze 
River  in  dwarf  rhododendron  forest.  These  animals  are  also  probably  pro- 
tected by  native  chiefs  and  lamaseries  in  the  interior  of  Tibet,  for  of  13  full  yak 
loads  of  antlers  observed  by  us  when  they  were  brought  to  the  market  at 
Jyekundo  about  90%  were  shed  antlers.  The  antlers  are  said  to  be  retained 
well  through  the  month  of  March. 

The  herds  generally  consist  of  5  to  20  animals,  and  occasionally 
of  as  many  as  40  (Schafer,  in  Engelmann,  1938,  p.  36) . 

Pere  David's  Deer.    Mi-lu;  Ssu-pu-hsiang   (Chinese) 

ELAPHURUS  DAVIDIANUS  Milne  Edwards 

Elaphurus  Davidianus  A.  Milne  Edwards,  C.  R.  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris],  vol.  62, 
p.  1091,  1866.  (Imperial  Park  at  some  distance  from  [a  league  south  of] 
Pekin,  China.) 

FIGS.:  Nouv.  Arch.  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.  Paris,  vol.  2,  Bull.,  pi.  4,  1866;  Trans.  Zool. 
Soc.  London,  vol.  7,  pi.  28,  1871;  Hunting  in  Many  Lands  (Book  Boone 
and  Crockett  Club),  pi.  facing  p.  271,  1895;  Lydekker,  1898b,  pi.  19,  and 
p.  234,  fig.  63;  Lydekker,  1901,  pi.  5,  fig.  1,  and  p.  261,  fig,  62;  Lydekker, 
19036,  pi.  facing  p.  274;  Bridges,  1935,  p.  42,  fig.  10;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  702, 
fig. 

This  remarkable  deer  is  unknown  in  the  wild  state.  It  was  origi- 
nally brought  to  the  attention  of  zoologists  in  1865  through  the 
presence  of  a  herd  in  the  Imperial  Hunting  Park  south  of  Peking. 
In  1935  it  was  reported  as  "apparently  now  represented  only  by  the 
herd  at  Woburn  Abbey,  Bedfordshire,"  England  (Ward,  1935,  p.  12) . 

The  general  carriage  is  unlike  that  of  a  Red  Deer;  the  gait  is 
donkeylike;  the  bushy  tail  is  donkeylike  and  longer  than  that  of  any 
other  deer,  reaching  the  hocks;  the  stags  have  the  unique  habit  of 
shedding  the  antlers  twice  a  year.  The  general  color  is  reddish 
tawny,  verging  toward  gray;  lower  part  of  the  limbs  paler;  muzzle, 
area  about  eyes,  inside  of  ears,  buttocks,  and  under  parts  whitish; 
tip  of  tail  blackish  brown;  a  blackish  brown  longitudinal  stripe  on 
neck,  fore  part  of  back,  and  chest.  Height  at  shoulder,  about  45 
inches.  Antlers  about  28  to  35  inches  along  the  outside  curve ;  fork- 
ing at  a  short  distance  above  the  burr;  the  front  prong  dividing 
again,  the  hind  prong  long  and  straight.  Young  at  first  profusely 
spotted  with  white.  (Lydekker,  1901,  p.  265,  and  1915,  vol.  4,  p.  153; 
Ward,  1935,  p.  12.) 

"Its  original  home  was  probably  the  plains  of  Chihli  before  they 
became  settled  up,  where  it  lived  in  swamps  covered  with  reeds  and 
willows;  and  ...  as  the  whole  of  these  plains  were  brought  under 
cultivation  the  animal  disappeared,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  that 
were  kept  by  the  Emperors  in  large  parks  and  hunting  grounds" 
(Sowerby,  1923,  p.  112). 


468 


EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 


In  former  times  the  Chinese  emperors  maintained  a  hunting 
park  south  of  Peking,  known  as  the  Non  Hai-tzu.  It  was  strictly 
guarded,  and  no  Europeans  were  allowed  entrance.  In  1865,  how- 
ever, the  French  missionary  Pere  Armand  David  managed  to  look 
over  the  surrounding  brick  wall  and  to  obtain  a  view  of  the  remark- 
able deer  that  was  eventually  named  for  him.  In  1866  several 


FIG.  47. — Pere   David's  Deer    (Elaphurus   davidianus) 

specimens  were  procured  by  diplomatic  and  other  means  and  sent  to 
Paris,  where  Milne  Edwards  described  them  as  Elaphurus  davi- 
dianus. In  subsequent  years  a  number  of  living  specimens  were 
shipped  to  Europe,  and  their  descendants  were  distributed  in  various 
zoological  gardens.  (Lydekker,  1903,  pp.  273-276.) 

Meanwhile  disaster  overtook  the  herds  in  China,  as  recorded  by 
Bushell  (1899,  pp.  588-589) :  "I  am  well  acquainted  with  the  habits 
of  the  Cervus  (Elaphurus)  davidianus,  and  used  often  to  ride  among 
the  herds  which  formerly  swarmed  in  the  Non  Hai-tzu,  the  Imperial 
Hunting  Park  south  of  Peking,  which  is  enclosed  by  a  wall  forty-five 
miles  in  circuit.  But  four  years  ago  the  brick  wall  was  breached  in 
many  places  by  the  waters  of  the  Hun  Ho,  as  they  flooded  the 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA !      EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  469 

adjoining  country,  and  the  deer  escaped,  to  be  devoured  by  the 
famine-stricken  peasantry.  I  fear  that  none  are  left;  but  will  make 
further  inquiry  when  I  return  to  my  post  next  year." 

Although  Bushell  apparently  made  no  further  report,  some  rem- 
nants of  the  species  must  have  survived  in  China  for  a  time  longer. 
"The  Imperial  Hunting  Park  .  .  .  was  thrown  open  in  1900  and  all 
the  deer  in  it  killed  by  the  International  troops"  (Sowerby,  1914, 
p.  14).  On  this  subject  Jean  Delacour  writes  (in  litt.,  1935) :  "The 
herd  in  Peking  was  destroyed  in  1900  by  the  .  .  .  soldiers  who 
were  stationed  in  the  park.  They  shot  several  hundreds  and  sold 
the  meat  to  the  Chinese!  About  15  years  ago,  one  female  still 
existed  in  Peking.  None  since." 

Lydekker  writes  (1901,  pp.  260-261) :  "Of  late  years  the  Duke 
of  Bedford  has  been  forming  a  herd  at  Woburn  Abbey,  which  now 
(June  1901)  includes  over  twenty  head.  So  far  as  is  known,  with 
the  exception  of  a  very  few  specimens  in  continental  menageries,  the 
Woburn  herd  comprises  all  the  individuals  of  this  species  now 
surviving." 

Phillips  reports  (1925,  p.  284)  that  in  1922  the  Woburn  herd 
included  47  adults,  and  that  17  fawns  had  been  born  that  spring. 
"The  herd  seems  to  be  holding  its  own  and  the  animals  look  in  good 
condition,  and  on  casual  inspection  show  no  ill  effects  from  inbreed- 
ing, with  the  possible  exception  of  albinism  [in  two  specimens]." 

According  to  Jean  Delacour  (in  Hit.,  1935),  the  Woburn  herd 
has  now  increased  to  well  over  200. 

Scandinavian   Reindeer;   Lapland   Reindeer.     Renne    (Fr.). 
Rentier  (Ger.).    Severnyi  Olenj  (Russ.) 

RANGIFER  TARANDUS  TARANDUS  (Linnaeus) 

[Cervus]   Tarandus  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  67,  1758.    (Alpine 

region  of  Swedish  Lapland.) 
FIGS.:    Lydekker,  18986,  pi.  1;  Lydekker,  1901,  pi.  1,  fig.  5;  Wollebaek,  1926, 

p.  45,  fig.  16;  Jacobi,  1931,  pi.  1,  figs.  1,  2;  Flerov,  1933,  p.  330,  fig.  2. 

This  account  is  concerned  primarily  with  the  wild  Scandinavian 
Reindeer.  The  domesticated  animals  of  the  Lapps,  although  de- 
rived from  the  same  stock  and  bearing  the  same  name,  appear  to 
have  become  somewhat  modified  through  countless  generations  of 
domestication  (cj.  Jacobi,  1931,  p.  51).  The  wild  representatives 
of  the  present  subspecies  now  appear  to  be  restricted  to  Norway; 
the  limits  of  its  former  range  to  the  eastward  are  not  exactly  known. 

The  general  color  is  grayish  or  drab  brown  above,  buffy  whitish 
beneath  and  on  the  muzzle;  brown  of  back  well  distinguished  from 
the  whitish  neck;  a  darker  longitudinal  area  on  the  flanks;  tail 
buffy  white,  with  dark  median  line;  a  white  ring  above  the  hoofs. 


470  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Antlers  approximating  those  of  the  Barren  Ground  Caribou,  but  less 
elongated,  and  with  a  distinct  back-tine  in  the  male.  Height  of  male 
at  shoulder,  about  1,150  mm.  .  (Lydekker,  18986,  p.  38;  Miller,  1912, 
p.  981;  Flerov,  1933,  p.  331.) 

Norway. — The  original  range  extended  over  the  entire  mountain 
system  of  Scandinavia,  almost  from  the  Skagerrack  to  the  North 
Cape  (Jacobi,  1931,  p.  154). 

"In  Norway,  wild  reindeer  inhabit  the  high  fjelds  ....  At  the 
present  day  the  numbers  of  the  wild  Norwegian  reindeer  are 
greatly  reduced.  But  it  appears  from  Mr.  J.  Lloyd's  Scandinavian 
Adventures  that  in  the  early  part  of  the  century  these  animals  were 
as  abundant  as  blesbok  in  Africa.  In  that  work  it  is  stated  that 
one  day  in  June  1826  the  fjeld,  for  a  breadth  of  seven  miles,  was 
covered  with  reindeer  as  thickly  as  an  English  field  by  sheep  when 
feeding;  the  herd  extending  so  far  that  the  eye  could  not  embrace 
the  whole  at  once."  (Lydekker,  1898,  p.  40.) 

"Unfortunately  the  introduction,  a  few  years  ago,  of  the  Krag- 
Jorgansen  rifle  among  the  peasantry  has  meant  the  doom  of  the  wild 
Reindeer,  and  now  only  a  few  are  left  in  the  above-mentioned  dis- 
trict [between  the  Laerdal  and  the  Hallingdal],  Gudbrandsdal,  the 
Dovrefjeld,  on  the  mountains  above  the  Hardanger  Fjord,  and  in 
Telemarken.  A  close  time  has  been  decreed  by  the  Government 
until  the  year  1907,  but  this  is,  like  all  Norwegian  game  laws,  only 
a  dead  letter  and  a  thing  to  be  scoffed  at."  (Millais,  1906,  vol.  3, 
p.  79.) 

In  southern  Norway  the  animals  "still  exist,  although  not  so 
numerously  as  formerly,  and  also  partly  mixed  with  runaway  tame 
Reindeer  which  have  been  introduced  from  the  north"  (Lonnberg, 
1909,  p.  3) . 

Miller  (1912,  p.  981)  gives  the  range  as  follows:  "Formerly  the 
entire  alpine  region  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula;  now  confined 
in  the  wild  state  to  two  widely  separated  districts  in  Norway;  west 
Finmarken  in  the  north,  and  the  main  high  mountain  region  in 
the  south." 

Hj.  Broch  writes  (in  Hit.,  December,  1936)  that  in  earlier  times 
the  Reindeer  was  the  chief  game  of  all  Norwegian  mountains  and 
adjacent  mountain  forests,  but  by  1800  Wolves  and  excessive  hunt- 
ing had  decimated  the  stock.  During  the  last  century  the  numbers 
went  down  rapidly  and  the  range  diminished.  Total  protection 
from  1902  to  1906  resulted  in  a  great  increase,  but  subsequent 
decimation  has  been  so  great  that  there  is  danger  of  the  extinction 
of  wild  Reindeer  in  Norway.  At  present  only  some  small  herds 
are  left  in  the  high  mountains  of  southern  Norway,  especially  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Hardangervidda.  The  Norwegian  mountain 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  471 

people  hunt  the  wild  Reindeer  both  legally  and  illegally,  and, 
furthermore,  the  keeping  of  domestic  Reindeer  herds  is  a  constant 
danger  to  the  wild  herds,  for  the  herdsmen  shoot  every  wild  Reindeer 
that  approaches.  Thus,  although  the  law  theoretically  protects  the 
wild  Reindeer,  it  will  be  difficult  to  save  it  from  extinction  in 
Norway.  Inspection  is  almost  impossible  in  the  remote  mountain 
districts  where  wild  herds  are  still  left. 

According  to  the  Norwegian  Director  of  Forestry  (in  litt.,  Janu- 
ary, 1937) ,  the  wild  stock  in  Norway  has  greatly  decreased,  except 
in  the  very  latest  years.  At  present  the  animals  occur  in  several 
separate  mountain  districts,  from  Snehetta  in  the  north  to  the 
Sirdal  ridges  in  the  south.  The  largest  stock  is  no  doubt  to  be 
found  on  the  Sirdal  ridges  and  in  the  adjacent  mountainous  areas. 
Here  there  are  no  doubt  several  thousand  animals.  In  the  Snehetta 
districts  there  are  about  600  animals,  while  the  stock  in  the  other 
districts  must  be  considerably  smaller.  The  decrease  is  primarily 
attributable  to  the  keeping  of  tame  Reindeer.  In  some  places  there 
has  perhaps  been  too  much  hunting.  Finally,  the  wild  Reindeer 
seem  to  have  some  difficulty  in  getting  accustomed  to  the  increased 
traffic  in  the  mountains.  They  have  been  carefully  protected  for  a 
long  time,  and  only  a  fixed  number  may  be  shot  each  year. 

"Efforts  are  being  made  to  set  aside  an  area  near  the  city  of 
Stavanger  ...  in  the  central  parts  of  Suldals  and  Bykleheiene  for 
the  protection  of  wild  reindeer  which  are  being  exterminated  there 
and  elsewhere  in  Norway"  (Julius  Wadsworth,  in  litt.,  May  9, 1933) . 

Sweden. — "This  animal  is  now  .  .  .  extinct  in  Sweden  but  at  the 
time  of  Linnaeus  and  still  during  the  first  half  of  the  last  century 
it  was  fairly  numerous  in  the  southern  parts  of  its  former  area  of 
distribution,  that  is  in  Northern  Dalecarlia  Sarna  and  Idre.  .  .  . 

"Rangifer  tarandus  Lin.  comprises  thus  the  now  extinct  Reindeer 
of  the  Swedish  fells  formerly  distributed  southward  to  Dalecarlia, 
the  still  existing  wild  Norwegian  Reindeer,  and  the  tame  Mountain 
Reindeer  of  Swedish  Lapland  and  adjoining  parts  of  Norway  and' 
probably  northern  Finland  as  well."  (Lonnberg,  1909,  pp.  2-3.) 

"About  the  year  1850  .  .  .  the  wild  Reindeer  occurred  in  great 
flocks  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Idre  [northwestern  part  of  the  present 
Province  of  Kopparberg].  They  came  down  then  into  the  forests 
quite  near  to  Idre  church-village  and  were  eagerly  hunted  there. 
By  the  moving  in  of  new  settlers  and  even  Laps  the  shy  Reindeer 
were  driven  away  to  the  least  accessible  places  and  they  grew  more 
and  more  scarce  within  the  Swedish  boundaries.  I  know  with  cer- 
tainty that  residents  shot  wild  Reindeer  in  the  year  1860."  (Wahl- 
berg,  in  Lonnberg,  1909,  p.  2.) 

"When  the  Lapps  were  allowed  to  extend  their  wanderings  with 
their  herds  of  'domesticated'  reindeer  into  the  district  mentioned 


472  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

[northernmost  Dalecarlia],  the  wild  reindeer  were  soon  extermi- 
nated. They  mixed,  especially  during  the  rutting  season,  with  the 
'tame'  herds  and  could  then  be  approached  by  the  Lapps  within 
shooting  distance  and  were  thus  killed.  The  extermination  took 
place  within  a  comparatively  short  time,  so  that  probably  the  last 
wild  reindeer  in  Sweden  was  killed  soon  after  1860."  (E.  Lonnberg, 
in  litt.,  1937.) 

Great  Britain. — The  ancient  occurrence  of  Reindeer  in  Great 
Britain  may  be  briefly  mentioned  here,  although  the  subspecific 
status  of  the  British  animal  does  not  appear  to  have  been  satisfac- 
torily determined.  According  to  Harting  (1880,  pp.  62-75),  the 
abundance  of  its  remains  in  British  postglacial  deposits  is  very 
remarkable.  It  gradually  became  extinct  during  the  prehistoric 
period,  although  there  is  a  "tradition  that  the  jarls  of  Orkney 
in  the  twelfth  century  were  in  the  habit  of  crossing  the  Pentland 
Firth  for  the  purpose  of  hunting  the  Red-deer  and  the  Reindeer 
in  the  wilds  of  Caithness."  There  is,  however,  some  dispute  as  to 
the  authenticity  of  this  tradition.  Jacobi  (1931,  p.  161)  evidently 
accepts  it,  for  he  remarks  that  the  extreme  north  of  Scotland  was 
still  in  the  Middle  Ages  a  refuge  for  the  Reindeer  of  the  Glacial 
Period.  The  same  author  (1931,  p.  102)  refers  the  European  Pleisto- 
cene Reindeer  to  R.  arcticus. 

Enemies. — In  his  discussion  of  the  enemies  of  Reindeer  and 
Caribou  in  general,  Jacobi's  remarks  (1931,  pp.  154-158,  218,  240- 
247)  apply  in  part  to  both  the  wild  and  the  domestic  stock  of 
R.  t.  tarandus.  The  range  limits  of  the  Reindeer  have  been  con- 
siderably pushed  back  by  Europeans  and  even  by  primitive  peoples 
who  sell  the  products  of  the  chase  to  Europeans.  With  few  excep- 
tions, it  is  always  the  hand  of  man  (and  especially  civilized  man) 
that  has  had  a  disastrous  effect  upon  these  animals. 

The  original  and  ever-menacing  enemy  is  the  Wolf.  The  Reindeer 
transfers  its  well-grounded  fear  of  this  animal  to  the  tame  Wolf, 
the  domestic  dog;  consequently,  among  peoples  whose  reindeer- 
keeping  is  less  ancient,  such  as  the  Chukchis,  no  shepherd  dog  can 
be  kept.  Where  the  domestication  is  ancient  and  advanced,  as 
among  the  Soyots,  the  Samoyeds,  and  the  Lapps,  both  behave  as 
with  a  flock  of  sheep. 

During  its  whole  life  the  Reindeer  is  threatened  by  numerous 
dangers.  Snowstorms  and  recurrence  of  winter  cold  take  toll  of 
young  fawns.  Individuals  and  even  whole  bands  fall  into  glacier 
crevices.  Still  larger  numbers  are  sometimes  destroyed  by  snow 
avalanches.  This  happened  to  300  in  Norway  in  the  winter  of 
1910-11. 

The  Lapps  and  the  Samoyeds  have  to  be  on  guard  day  and 
night  to  protect  their  herds  from  the  Wolf.  The  attempted  establish- 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  473 

ment  of  a  Reindeer  industry  in  the  southern  mountains  of  Norway 
had  to  be  given  up  on  account  of  this  beast  of  prey.  The  Reindeer 
can  protect  itself  to  some  extent  against  the  Wolf,  less  with  its 
antlers  than  with  blows  of  its  forefeet. 

The  Wolverine  stands  next  to  the  Wolf  as  a  Reindeer  enemy. 
It  creeps  up  on  its  prey  or  lies  in  ambush  for  it.  At  calving  time 
it  is  extremely  dangerous  to  the  doe  and  its  offspring. 

In  summer  Reindeer  suffer  greatly  from  plagues  of  flies  and  mos- 
quitoes (Tabanidae  and  Culicidae)  and  even  succumb  to  their 
attacks.  Both  wild  and  domestic  stock  suffer.  Warbles  of  Oestridae 
also  are  serious  pests,  rendering  meat  and  hides  more  or  less  unfit 
for  human  use.  Cephenomyia  nasalis  deposits  its  living  larvae  in 
the  nostrils  of  the  Reindeer;  this  is  a  very  serious  pest,  sometimes 
causing  death.  Reindeer  are  also  infested  with  various  cestodes 
and  nematodes.  Domestic  animals  are  sometimes  decimated  by  a 
disease  called  "Siberian  plague." 

Domestication  and  acclimatization. — The  domestication  of  the 
Scandinavian  Reindeer  by  the  Lapps  is  too  familiar  and  too  lengthy 
a  theme  to  require  discussion  here.  (Cf.  Laufer,  1917.)  The  various 
successful  and  unsuccessful  acclimatization  experiments  in  other 
countries  (chiefly  with  this  domesticated  form)  may,  however,  be 
briefly  mentioned  here.  The  information  is  derived  mainly  from 
Jacobi  (1931,  pp.  158-165). 

Between  1771  and  1787,  a  hundred  Reindeer  were  brought  to 
Iceland  from  Finnmark  and  released  in  two  different  areas.  By  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  they  had  so  greatly  increased 
that  they  caused  great  damage  by  overgrazing.  In  1817  hunting 
was  permitted,  and  this  greatly  reduced  the  number  on  the  Reikjan 
Peninsula.  In  the  hard  winter  of  1880-81  the  greater  part  of  these 
perished.  By  the  end  of  the  century  only  15-20  were  left.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  herds  in  the  interior  flourished,  and  about  1888  their 
numbers  were  estimated  at  700-1,000.  After  1860  the  fine  stand  was 
decimated  by  English  hunters.  By  1902  they  were  reduced  again 
to  about  150.  According  to  Laufer  (1917,  p.  144),  the  Norwegian 
Reindeer  introduced  into  Iceland  were  wild  stock;  they  are  now 
almost  exterminated. 

In  1816  three  Reindeer  of  the  Samoyed  race  were  imported  from 
Archangel  and  released  in  the  Orkneys,  but  they  did  not  survive. 
About  1820  Bullock  introduced  about  200  animals  from  time  to 
time  in  the  Pentland  Highlands  of  Scotland,  but  they  gradually 
succumbed.  Various  other  unsuccessful  efforts  in  Great  Britain  are 
mentioned  by  Millais  (1906,  vol.  3,  pp.  78-79). 

In  1910  and  later  about  400  Reindeer  were  introduced  from 
Norway  into  Jutland,  Denmark,  but  the  experiment  failed  in  a  few 
years. 


474  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

From  the  sixteenth  to  the  twentieth  centuries  various  attempts 
were  made  to  introduce  Reindeer  into  northern  Germany,  but  all 
came  to  naught. 

During  the  last  century  efforts  were  made  on  a  small  scale  to 
acclimatize  Reindeer  in  the  Alps  of  Austria  and  Switzerland,  but 
they  proved  abortive.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Gran  Paradise 
National  Park  in  Italy  (Laboratorio  di  Zoologia  Applicata  a  Caccia, 
in  litt.,  September,  1936) . 

On  the  subantarctic  island  of  South  Georgia  a  dozen  Lapland 
Reindeer  were  introduced  in  1908  by  Capt.  C.  A.  Larsen,  subse- 
quently increasing  to  400  or  500.  They  have  also  grown  to  excep- 
tional size,  and  have  reversed  their  breeding  season  to  fit  the 
Antipodes. 

In  1908  and  1909  Dr.  Grenfell  introduced  300  Lapland  Reindeer, 
in  two  herds,  into  Labrador. 

We  learn  from  Dr.  N.  von  Transehe  (in  litt.,  February,  1937) 
and  from  the  Latvian  Forest  Department  (in  litt.,  March,  1937) 
that  in  1935  four  Reindeer  were  introduced  from  Norway  and  set 
free  in  Kolkasrags  in  Kurland,  Latvia.  The  two  bucks  soon  died, 
but  the  two  does  each  had  a  fawn.  A  further  attempt  at  acclimati- 
zation is  planned. 

Sakhalin  Reindeer 

RANGIFER  TARANDUS  SETONI  Flerov 

Rangijer  tarandus  setoni  Flerov,  Jour.  Mammalogy,  vol.  14,  no.  4,  p.  337, 

fig.  7,  1933.  ("Saghalien.") 
Fia.:  Flerov,  1933,  p.  332,  fig.  7. 

This  endemic  subspecies  of  Sakhalin  is  "threatened  with  de- 
struction" (Miyoshi,  in  Skottsberg,  1934,  p.  411). 

It  is  "closely  allied  to  the  R.  tarandus  phylarchus  by  its  cranial 
characters  but  well  distinguished  from  all  Palaearctic  wild  reindeer 
by  the  dark  brown  color  of  the  belly  without  whitish  area"  (Flerov, 
1933,  p.  337) . 

Schrenck  (1859,  pp.  167-168)  speaks  of  the  northern  part  of 
Sakhalin  as  one  of  the  places  in  the  Amur  region  where  the  Rein- 
deer occurs  in  largest  numbers;  it  extends  also  in  the  mountains 
to  the  southern  end  of  the  island,  where  it  is  frequently  killed  by 
the  Ainus. 

Kuroda  (1928,  p.  228)  records  antlers  from  Chirie,  Sakhalin. 

[The  domesticated  Reindeer  of  Sakhalin  are  apparently  derived 
from  some  mainland  stock.  According  to  Schrenck  (1859,  pp.  169- 
170),  the  Oroks  on  the  east  coast,  from  about  latitude  49°  30'  to 
52°  30'  N.,  have  a  Reindeer  culture,  using  the  animals  for  draft 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  475 

purposes.  In  Schrenck's  time  the  Oroks,  with  their  Reindeer,  were 
in  the  habit  of  crossing  the  narrow  strait  between  the  island  and  the 
mainland  each  winter  on  the  ice. 

"A  very  large  reindeer  exists  on  the  island  of  Saghalien  and  is 
used  for  ploughing  by  the  Japanese.  It  is  probably  of  the  foregoing 
sub-species  [R.  t.  phylarchus] ,  having  been  imported  long  ago,  as 
ancient  Japanese  pictures  give  representations."  (Millais,  1915, 
p.  223.)] 

Novaya  Zemlya  Reindeer 

RANGIFER  TARANDUS  PEARSONI  Lydekker 

Rangijer  tarandus  pearsoni  Lydekker,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1902,  vol.  2, 

pt.  2,  p.  361,  1903.    ("Novaia  Zemlia.") 
FIGS.:  Pearson,  1899,  pi.  14;  Lydekker,  1903,  p.  362,  fig.  77,  and  1915,  vol.  4, 

p.  245,  fig.  41;  Flerov,  1933,  p.  330,  fig.  3. 

This  Reindeer  has  become  so  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  that  its 
status  is  distinctly  precarious.  The  presence  of  domesticated  Rein- 
deer aggravates  the  situation. 

It  was  originally  "distinguished  from  other  Old  World  forms  of 
Reindeer  by  the  symmetry  of  the  antlers  and  the  excessive  palma- 
tion  of  both  their  brow-  and  bez-tines  and  their  summits"  (Lydek- 
ker, 1903,  p.  361).  "Coloring  in  winter  very  light,  almost  white. 
The  light  rose-brown  color  is  present  only  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  head  and  back.  This  color  but  lighter  is  found  also  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  limbs.  No  trace  of  a  longitudinal  dark  area  is  present 
on  the  sides  of  the  body.  Fur  very  long,  especially  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  neck."  (Flerov,  1933,  p.  335.) 

This  Reindeer  seems  to  be  more  or  less  restricted  to  Novaya 
Zemlya.  According  to  Heuglin  (1874,  p.  35),  it  occurs  commonly 
in  herds  in  the  more  southerly  parts  of  this  territory.  On  the  North 
Island  its  range  extends  about  to  Cape  Nassau,  and  occasionally 
tracks  are  found  farther  east.  Matotchkin  Strait  and  the  southern 
and  southwestern  coasts  of  the  South  Island  are  more  favored  areas, 
though  the  animals  are  much  hunted  there.  It  is  reported  that 
"Tundra  Reindeer"  [presumably  R.  t.  sibiricus]  occasionally  cross 
Waigatch  Island  on  their  way  to  Novaya  Zemlya. 

Pearson  writes  (1899,  pp.  53,  119,  124-125)  that  Samoyeds  are 
brought  to  Novaya  Zemlya  by  Russian  merchants  and  left  there 
during  the  winter  to  hunt  Reindeer  and  other  animals.  Each  of 
several  Samoyed  settlements  killed,  or  was  expected  to  kill,  100  or 
more  Reindeer  during  the  year.  "I  feel  convinced  this  destruction 
is  considerably  in  excess  of  the  natural  increase,  so  that  reindeer 
must  soon  cease  to  exist  in  this  country"  (p.  125) .  "The  crew  of  a 
Norwegian  ship,  .  .  .  some  twenty  years  ago,  had  shot  over  a  hun- 
dred during  their  short  stay"  (p.  127) . 


476  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

According  to  0kland  (1928,  pp.  45-46,  53),  there  are  various 
records,  dating  from  about  1871  to  1887,  of  herds  numbering  from 
about  5  to  500  individuals.  Doubtless  the  stand  was  subject  to 
great  variation.  As  long  ago  as  1839  v.  Baer  reported  the  animals 
to  have  become  rare,  at  least  on  the  west  coast,  on  account  of  the 
frequent  wintering  of  walrus-hunters.  Nearly  50  years  later  Kri- 
woscheja  stated  that  Reindeer  had  become  rarer  since  Samoyeds 
had  established  permanent  quarters  in  Novaya  Zemlya  in  1877, 
but  that  about  1870  one  could  obtain  Reindeer  flesh  everywhere. 
In  1881-82,  800  animals  were  killed  in  the  vicinity  of  Moller  Bay. 
But  in  1882-83  the  Samoyeds  killed  altogether  few  more  than  100. 
The  number  of  Reindeer  killed  by  colonists  on  Novaya  Zemlya 
between  1891  and  1906  is  said  to  have  been  2,610. 

The  Samoyeds  appear  to  have  brought  domesticated  Reindeer 
with  them  from  the  mainland  to  Novaya  Zemlya  (cf.  Wollebaek, 
1926,  pp.  58-60) .  If,  as  has  happened  elsewhere,  there  has  resulted 
here  a  certain  mixture  of  the  tame  and  the  wild  stock  (which  belong 
to  two  different  races),  the  wild  Novaya  Zemlya  Reindeer  would 
tend  to  become  extinct  through  dilution,  even  if  they  escaped  direct 
slaughter. 

The  latest  information  at  hand  is  the  following  account  by  Zub- 
kov  (1935,  p.  61) : 

During  a  fairly  long  period  the  catch  of  reindeer  occupied  a  prominent  place 
in  the  hunting  on  Novaya  Zemlya,  not  only  covering  the  need  of  meat  and 
skins  of  the  hunting  and  fishing  population,  but  forming  also  an  object  of 
export.  From  1891  to  1923,  for  instance,  about  8000  reindeer  skins  were  brought 
out  of  Novaya  Zemlya. 

Since  the  foundation  of  hunting  settlements  on  Novaya  Zemlya  and  up  to 
the  present  time,  reindeer-hunting  knew  no  restrictions.  The  hunting  was 
carried  on  through  all  seasons  and  especially  at  the  periods  of  glazed  frosts 
there  used  to  be  wholesale  killing  of  reindeer,  the  catch  attaining  a  hundred 
heads  and  more  to  every  hunter.  Owing  to  such  rapacious  hunting  and  the 
consequent  driving  back  of  the  herds  from  the  rich  pasture  lands,  the  wild 
reindeer  has  nearly  wholly  disappeared:  a  small  herd  only  inhabits  now  the 
still  inappropriated  coasts  of  the  Northern  island  and  a  few  groups  are  met 
with  on  the  Southern  island.  For  the  past  ten  years  the  catch  amounted  to 
a  few  dozen  heads  per  annum  for  the  entire  archipelago. 

The  author  deems  it  necessary  to  raise  the  question  of  an  absolute  inter- 
diction of  wild  reindeer  hunting,  inasmuch  as  the  hunting,  as  practiced  at 
present,  may  lead  to  the  complete  extinction  of  the  reindeer  on  Novaya  Zemlya. 

Finland  Reindeer 

RANGIFER  TARANDUS  FENNICUS  Lonnberg 

Rangifer  tarandus  fennicus  Lonnberg,  Arkiv  f.  Zoologi,  vol.  6,  no.  4,  p.  10, 
1909.  ("Tome  Lappmark  (thus  probably  in  Enontekis),"  northwestern 
Finland.) 

SYNONYM  f:   Rangifer  tarandus  silvicola  Hilzheimer  (1936). 

FIG.:   Jacobi,  1931.  pi.  5,  fig.  35. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  477 

Taxonomically,  this  Reindeer  is  variously  rated:  as  a  subspecies 
of  Rangifer  tarandus  by  Lonnberg  (1909,  p.  10)  and  by  Lydekker 
(1915,  vol.  4,  p.  243) ;  as  a  species  by  Miller  (1912,  p.  981)  and  by 
Jacobi  (1931,  p.  125) ;  and  as  identical  with  R.  t.  tarandus  by 
Flerov  (1933,  p.  331).  Its  former  range  is  quite  uncertain,  espe- 
cially toward  the  east,  but  may  be  considered  provisionally  as  cov- 
ering the  forested  portions  of  northern  Sweden,  northern  and  eastern 
Finland,  and  northern  Russia,  possibly  east  to  the  Urals.  It  is  now 
extinct  over  the  greater  part  of  this  region. 

This  animal  is  larger  than  the  Scandinavian  Reindeer,  the  height 
of  the  male  at  the  shoulder  being  about  1,200  mm.  It  is  also  dis- 
tinguished by  cranial  and  dental  characters.  The  antlers  are  strong 
and  heavy,  the  beam  rather  flattened,  the  bez-tines  flat  and  pal- 
mated,  both  brow-tines  palmated  and  converging.  A  set  of  antlers 
from  Karelia  is  910  mm.  in  length;  one  from  Olonetz,  940  mm. 
(Lonnberg,  1909,  pp.  4-10;  Jacobi,  1931,  p.  126.)  No  description 
of  the  skin  seems  to  be  available,  unless  that  of  one  from  the  central 
Urals  applies  to  the  present  form  (Jacobi,  1931,  p.  125) . 

Lonnberg  (1909,  pp.  3-14)   furnishes  the  following  information: 

To  the  east  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  wild  Reindeer  are,  or  were  to 
be  found  in  northern  Finland  and  their  distribution  extended  towards  the 
north  into  the  peninsula  of  Kola  and  southwards  along  the  Finnish-Russian 
frontier  through  Carelia,  and  at  least  during  the  winter  their  wanderings 
carried  them  even  to  the  south  of  Lake  Ladoga.  .  .  . 

In  the  present  time  its  habitat  is  very  much  restricted  from  what  it  used 
to  be.  ... 

From  this  report  [by  Pleske,  on  the  Kola  Peninsula,  1884]  it  may  be  seen 
that  wild  Reindeer  have,  at  least  formerly,  been  distributed  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  peninsula  but  that  their  number  had  been  greatly  diminished  by 
wolves  and  men.  How  it  is  at  present  is  uncertain.  Wild  Reindeer  are  still 
to  be  found  on  the  Kola  Peninsula  but  it  is  unknown  to  the  present  author 
whether  they  are  numerous  or  scarce.  Ramsay  mentions  [1892]  that  he  observed 
a  flock  of  11  wild  Reindeer  in  the  upper  Kunjok-valley  east  of  Lake  Imandra, 
and  on  the  Umptek-tundra  he  saw  such  animals  too.  In  the  year  1870  Mr.  K. 
Hilden  .  .  .  wrote  that  wild  Reindeer  were  to  be  found  in  Northern  Finland 
within  an  area  extending  220  verst  in  length  and  with  an  average  width  of  120 
verst.  This  area  consisted  of  "the  forest-clad  wilderness  which  is  situated  be- 
tween the  inhabited  country  of  the  parochial  districts  Enontekis,  Kittila, 
Sodankyla  and  the  eastern  part  of  Kuolajarvi,  and  the  Norwegian  frontier 
towards  the  east  along  Vaskonjoki  over  Padar  Lake,  along  Joenjoki  and  Enare 
Lake  down  Patsjoki  to  the  Russian  frontier."  In  the  year  1900  Mr.  Granit 
states  that  in  northern  Finland  wild  Reindeer  were  to  be  found  "only  in 
Enontekis  (very  little)  and  in  Sodankyla  and  Enare  parochial  districts  within 
the  great  wildernesses  which  form  the  watershed  between  the  affluents  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean  and  those  to  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia."  From  this  district  and  towards 
the  south  the  same  author  did  not  believe  that  there  existed  any  wild  Reindeer 
nearer  than  at  Ilomants  and  thence  along  the  Russian  frontier  towards  Ladoga. 
Quite  lately,  however,  Dr.  Alex  Luther  kindly  has  communicated  that  it  appears 
certain  that  the  wild  Reindeer  now  are  exterminated  in  the  southern  parts  of 
the  present  Finland  even  if  now  and  then  some  stragglers  from  Russian 


478  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Carelia  are  seen  near  the  frontier.  But  "in  Ladoga-Carelia  wild  Reindeer 
have  been  observed  even  during  the  last  years,  principally  on  the  grounds 
belonging  to  the  monastery  of  Valamo,  where  they  must  not  be  molested." 

The  Finland  Reindeer  is  thus  very  nearly  exterminated  in  the  greatest 
part  of  its  former  habitat  and  it  look§  almost  as  a  bitter  irony  of  fate  that  it 
should  not  be  recognized  and  discerned  as  a  separate  race  before  it  was  in 
so  imminent  danger  of  becoming  entirely  extinct.  .  .  . 

The  forest-clad  area  of  Finland,  which  was  the  principal  habitat  of  this 
animal,  is  or  was  fully  continuous  with  that  of  Northern  Sweden,  and  it  must 
...  be  probable  that  the  Finlandic  woodland  Reindeer  also  extended  its 
distribution  into  the  latter  country.  ...  It  is  a  fully  established  fact  that 
in  former  days  wild  Reindeer  occurred  in  the  forests  of  Northern  Sweden,  and 
it  is  also  well  known  that  these  were  larger  than  the  Reindeer  of  the  moun- 
tains, even  the  wild  ones.  [From  an  account  by  Hollsten  in  1774]  it  is  ap- 
parent that  still  during  the  later  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  race  of  very 
large  wild  Reindeer  lived  in  the  wildernesses,  wide  moors  and  forests,  below 
the  haunts  of  the  Lapland  Reindeer,  thus  to  the  east  of  and  below  the 
mountains  and  fells  that  form  the  watershed  of  the  peninsula.  These  Rein- 
deer lived  thus  in  other  districts  and  had  different  biological  habits  than 
the  Lapland  Reindeer,  with  which  they  did  not  mix,  or  only  accidentally 
did  so  during  the  rutting  season.  There  can  hardly  be  any  doubt  that  this 
large  Woodland  Reindeer  was  identical  with  the  one  described  above  as 
Rangifer  tamndus  fennicus  ....  It  has  already  been  mentioned  above  that 
the  tame  Reindeer  of  the  Laps  belong  to  the  latter  race  [R.  t.  tarandus], 
but  there  exists  still  in  some  parts  of  Northern  Sweden  a  smaller  number  of 
tame  Reindeer,  that  all  the  time  live  in  the  woodland  and  on  the  moors, 
never  ascending  the  mountains.  [These  Reindeer  are  larger  that  the  others, 
and  it  may  be  assumed  that  they]  have  descended  from  the  formerly  exist- 
ing wild  Woodland  Reindeer,  or  more  probable  still  have  originated  as 
products  from  crossing  the  tame  Reindeer  (the  typical  R.  tarandus)  with 
wild  stags  of  the  Woodland  race. 

Miller  writes  (1912,  p.  985)  of  this  Reindeer:  "Now  probably 
confined  to  the  wooded  portions  of  Finland,  east  to  the  Kola  Penin- 
sula, and  nearly  extinct." 

Schulman  [1910]  has  shown  that  the  Reindeer  must  have  once 
occurred  throughout  Finland  but  that  it  had  disappeared  in  western 
and  central  Finland  by  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  (Jacobi, 
1931,  p.  147). 

In  Russia  the  range  extends  across  Karelia  to  the  White  Sea, 
Lake  Ladoga,  and  Lake  Ilmen,  and  through  the  Dvina  Basin.  The 
former  southern  limit  extended  from  Lake  Ilmen  across  the  Valdai 
Hills  through  the  Governments  of  Tver  and  Vladimir  to  the  Kiasma, 
Volga,  Kama,  and  Bielaia  Rivers,  and  in  the  Urals  as  far  south 
as  latitude  52°  N.,  northeast  of  Orenburg.  (Jacobi,  1931,  pp.  128, 
148-149.)  This  author  would  even  refer  to  fennicus  the  Reindeer 
of  the  Irtish  and  the  Ob  Basins  in  western  Siberia. 

Pallas  (1776,  pt.  3,  p.  597)  recorded  Reindeer  from  as  far  south 
as  the  Caucasus  Mountains. 

The  Reindeer  is  now  rare  in  European  Russia,  and  its  range  has 
been  greatly  reduced.  In  the  middle  of  the  last  century  it  extended 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  479 

as  far  south  as  the  latitude  of  Gorky,  in  the  vicinity  of  Smolensk. 
The  animal  is  now  found  only  in  the  northernmost  part  of  Russia, 
where  hunting  is  forbidden.  Great  reserves  have  been  established 
in  [Russian?]  Lapland,  with  the  principal  aim  of  giving  protection 
to  the  Reindeer.  Owing  to  the  natural  increase  of  the  stock  and  to 
the  introduction  of  specimens  from  neighboring  territories,  the 
number  in  the  herds  has  doubled  during  three  years  (1929-32). 
(W.  G.  Heptner,  in  Hit.,  December,  1936.)  [Does  the  foregoing- 
statement  concerning  recent  numbers  possibly  refer  to  domesticated 
Reindeer?] 

[Hilzheimer  (1936,  p.  156,  fig.  1)  describes  Rangifer  tarandus 
dichotomus  from  Seitowski  Possad,  near  Orenburg  in  the  southern 
Ural  region.  The  name  is  apparently  based  upon  a  single  Recent 
antler,  without  skull  or  skin,  and  a  fossil  antler.  In  this  connection 
we  may  recall  Flerov's  remark  (1933,  p.  328) :  "The  deer  antlers 
generally  are  very  variable  and  give  no  satisfactory  constant  char- 
acters for  the  classification  of  small  groups."  Hilzheimer  considers 
that  this  Reindeer  of  southern  Russia  is  now  extinct.  On  zoogeo- 
graphical  grounds  one  might  expect  the  type  locality  of  dichotomus 
to  be  occupied  by  a  Reindeer  more  or  less  intermediate  between 
R.  t.  fennicus  Lonnberg  and  R.  t.  buskensis  (Millais).] 

Spitsbergen  Reindeer 

RANGIFER  PLATYRHYNCHUS  (Vrolik) 

Cervus  (Tarandus)  platyrhynchus  Vrolik,  Nieuwe  Verhandel.    Kron.  Nederl. 

Inst.,  Eerste  Klasse,  pt.  2,  p.  160,  1829.    ("Spitzbergen,  see  Vrolik,  1.  c.,  p. 

239"  (Miller,  1912,  p.  985).) 

SYNONYM:  Cervus  tarandus  forma  spetsbergensis  Andersen  (1862). 
FIG.:  Wollebaek,  1926,  p.  44,  fig.  15. 

This  Reindeer,  which  is  confined  to  Spitsbergen,  had  become  very 
seriously  reduced  in  numbers  by  1925,  when  Norway  assumed  sov- 
ereignty over  this  territory.  The  protective  measures  then  adopted 
probably  saved  the  species  from  extermination,  and  have  enabled 
it  to  make  a  good  recovery. 

This  is  the  smallest  of  the  Palearctic  Reindeer.  In  winter  the 
pelage  is  long,  woolly,  and  whitish;  in  summer  it  is  dark  brown  on 
back  and  rump,  with  a  mixture  of  white  hairs;  antlers  similar  to 
those  of  R.  t.  tarandus.  Height  of  male  at  shoulder,  829-940  mm. 
(Wollebaek,  1926,  pp.  46-48.) 

The  following  account  is  contributed  by  Wollebaek  (1926,  pp. 
50-53) : 

Up  to  a  short  time  ago,  the  reindeer  occurred  over  practically  the  whole 
of  the  ice-free  parts  of  Spitsbergen,  and  it  has  undoubtedly  been  far  more 


480 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


numerous  in  earlier  times  than  now.    First  the  Dutch  and  the  English,  and 
later  on  the  Russians  and  Norwegians,  hunted  reindeer  in  Spitsbergen. 

[In  the  1860's,  according  to  Johan  Hagerup,]  reindeer  swarmed  in  Sassen 
Bay,  Advent  Bay,  and  Green  Harbour,  and  it  did  not  take  long  to  kill 
a  hundred  reindeer  or  so.  In  the  seventies,  cod-fishing  began  in  those  waters. 
For  several  years  about  30  fishing  vessels  lay  in  Isfjorden  and  other  places, 
and  each  of  these  vessels  took  yearly  25  to  50  reindeer.  Later  on  tourists 
came,  who  shot  a  great  many;  they  took  the  heads  as  hunting  trophies, 
and  left  the  carcasses.  . 


FIG.  48. — Spitsbergen   Reindeer    (Rangijer  platyrhynzhus) .    After  Wollebaek. 


Norwegian  hunters  have  shot  reindeer  both  on  Kong  Karls  Land  and  on 
the  north  coast  of  North-East  Land,  and  on  islands  lying  still  farther  away 
to  the  north  (Castrens,  Parrys,  Martens  and  Phipps  0yer),  the  reindeer, 
according  to  A.  E.  Nordenskiold  [1880],  .  .  .  has  been  fairly  common. 

Capt.  Hans  Johannesen  .  .  .  has  informed  me  that  Edge  0y  was  the 
best  hunting  ground  for  reindeer  in  Spitsbergen.  .  .  .  Some  hunters  could, 
in  former  years,  when  reindeer  were  far  more  numerous  in  Spitsbergen  than 
now,  return  with  up  to  150  animals.  .  .  .  Other  Arctic  travellers  have  stated 
as  the  best  hunting-grounds:  the  north  side  of  Bellsund,  round  Isfjorden  and 
Wijde  Bay,  on  the  coasts  of  Hinlopenstredet  and  at  Heleysund.  .  .  . 

"That  the  Spitsbergen  reindeer,  which  are  [=is]  killed  yearly  in  great 
numbers  by  Arctic  hunters,  is  not  exterminated,  seems  a  proof,"  says  Kolthoff 
[1903],  "that  it  is  found  in  greater  numbers  in  the  valleys  which  stretch 
into  the  country,  where  these  hunters  never  go."  Besides,  it  may  be  men- 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  481 

tioned  as  an  indirect  reason,  that  the  polar  wolf  does  not  occur  in  Spits- 
bergen. .  .  . 

Extensive  hunting  of  the  reindeer  during  recent  years  has  driven  it 
from  the  easily  accessible  /west  coast  of  Spitsbergen.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  still,  according  to  Hoel  (1916),  abundant  on  the  north  coast  (west  of  Wood 
Bay  and  eastward),  on  the  east  side  of  the  main  island,  as  well  as  in  Barents 
Land  and  Edge  0y. 

At  this  point  Wollebaek  (1926,  pp.  53-55)  quotes  at  length  from 
a  manuscript  of  Hoel's,  dated  1921: 

Until  50  or  60  years  ago  the  reindeer  was  distributed  over  the  whole  of 
Spitsbergen.  To  the  end  of  last  century  the  Spitsbergen  reindeer  was 
hunted  chiefly  by  sealers,  who  occasionally  went  ashore  and  also  by  hunting 
expeditions  wintering  there.  .  .  .  Hunting  took  place  in  summer,  and 
the  hunters  had  to  carry  the  reindeer  on  their  backs  to  the  coast,  which 
in  itself  limited  their  invasion  inland. 

Reindeer-hunting  has  lately,  however,  completely  changed  as  the  wintering 
Arctic  hunters  have  added  polar-sledges  and  dogs  to  their  equipment,  and 
by  these  means  of  transport  they  can  cover  almost  unlimited  distances  and 
search  out  and  kill  reindeer  in  their  most  secluded  places  of  refuge.  Further- 
more, on  account  of  shortage  of  meat  and  the  high  prices  ruling  in  Norway 
during  the  war,  sealing  vessels  have  in  increasing  numbers  visited  the  coasts 
of  Spitsbergen,  where  they  have  killed  reindeer  in  hundreds,  partly  for  their 
own  requirements  and  partly  for  sale  in  Norway. 

In  addition,  there  is  the  growing  exploitation  of  Spitsbergen's  coal  deposits 
and  the  resultant  increase  of  population  just  in  the  best  reindeer  district, 
between  Isfjorden  and  Bellsund.  .  .  .  These  [mining]  companies  keep  also 
dogs  and  polar-sledges,  with  which  they  can  make  extensive  hunting  expedi- 
tions and  load  up  on  one  sledge  8-10  reindeer.  Some  of  these  companies 
have  spared  the  reindeer  as  much  as  possible,  whilst  other[s]  have  hunted 
extensively.  .  .  . 

Statistics  for  the  last  few  years  show  that  the  Spitsbergen  reindeer  is 
taxed  too  heavily.  At  the  Troms0  Custom  House  the  following  numbers  of 
Reindeer  were  registered  during  the  years  1915-1925: 

1915     1916    1917    1918    1919    1920    1921     1922    1923    1924    1925 
159      499      535      993      268      293        61       115        55        68        90 

But  besides  the  reindeer  which  have  been  brought  to  ports  in  the  north 
of  Norway,  a  considerable  number  have  been  shot  for  local  consumption, — 
one  may  reckon  at  least  a  couple  of  hundred  a  year  up  to  1920. 

There  is  only  a  single  year  in  all  the  time  Norwegians  have  hunted  on 
Spitsbergen,  i.  e.  for  over  a  hundred  years,  that  so  many  reindeer  have  been 
shot  as  in  1918;  this  was  in  the  year  1878,  when  1491  animals  were  killed. 

These  numbers  prove  that  the  Spitsbergen  reindeer  has  until  lately  been 
quite  numerous.  .  .  .  But  ...  it  is  clear  that  the  reindeer  stock  in  that 
region  cannot  bear  such  heavy  inroads  upon  their  numbers.  .  .  .  The  rein- 
deer has  been  heavily  decimated  everywhere  in  Spitsbergen  during  the 
last  few  years.  If  this  is  continued  for  3  or  4  years  more  the  reindeer  will 
be  entirely  exterminated,  in  any  case  in  the  Isfjorden  and  Bellsund  districts. 

Wollebaek  then  continues  (1926,  pp.  55-65) : 

In  the  same  proposal  Hoel  mentions  the  following  places  in  Spitsbergen 
where  the  reindeer  is  found  at  present: 

1.  On  the  north  and  west  coast  of  the  Nordostland. 


482  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

2.  A  part  of  the  north  coast  of  Spitsbergen: — Rensdyrlandet,  Liefde  Bay  and 
Wood  Bay  districts,  peninsula  between  Wood  Bay  and  Wijde  Bay,  Wijde 
Bay's  vicinity. 

3.  District  between  Isfjorden  and  Van  Mijen  Bay  and  the  valleys  running 
up  from  these  fjords  eastward  to  Storfjorden. 

4.  The  islands  Edge  0y  and  Barents  Land. 

Daniel  N0is  (April  1923)   has  given  me  the  following  particulars  .  .  .  :— 

"Far  more  are  being  shot  than  ever  come  into  existence.  .  .  .  The  rein- 
deer stock  has  been  reduced  in  an  alarming  degree  both  on  the  north  and 
east  coast.  .  .  . 

"On  the  south  side  of  Isfjorden,  Green  Harbour  and  Sassendalen  included, 
no  less  than  about  400  reindeer  were  shot  in  1905  and  1906  by  hunters  winter- 
ing there  and  by  coal-mining  companies.  .  .  . 

"The  Spitsbergen  reindeer  does  not  generally  roam  far,  and  it  therefore 
has  difficulty  in  re-establishing  itself  in  a  place  in  which  it  has  once  been 
exterminated .' ' 

[When  Norway  assumed  sovereignty  over  Spitsbergen  in  1925,]  the 
first  administrative  step  taken  .  .  .  was  to  prohibit  the  killing  of  reindeer 
for  a  period  of  ten  years.  [In  that  summer  only  23  of  the  animals  were  seen 
by  four  government  parties  that  crossed  the  best  reindeer  grounds  of  West 
Spitsbergen  in  every  direction.  Only  55  had  been  shot  by  about  40  hunters 
in  that  territory  during  the  previous  winter.] 

The  number  of  reindeer  still  left  in  the  remote  parts  of  these  islands  is 
believed  to  be  sufficient  for  the  renewal  of  the  stock  by  immigration  through- 
out the  archipelago. 

The  annual  reports  of  the  National  Association  for  Nature 
Protection  in  Norway  furnish  additional  information.  In  the  re- 
port for  1931  Adolf  Hoel  states  that  the  total  protection  granted 
has  had  a  most  successful  effect  upon  the  Reindeer  stock.  In  the 
Advent  Valley,  where  no  Reindeer  existed  before  the  protection, 
larger  and  smaller  herds  are  seen  all  the  time. 

In  the  report  for  1934  E.  Sverdrup  states  that  the  animals  are 
seen  in  herds  of  5  to  20  head.  Wintering  hunters  still  kill  a  good 
many  illegally,  but  this  hunting  most  probably  does  no  harm. 
The  poaching  carried  on  from  sealing  ships  in  summer  is,  however, 
more  serious.  The  sealers  are  able  to  do  much  more  harm  than 
the  relatively  few  fox-hunters  (25-30  men)  who  kill  only  for  their 
own  use. 

In  1934  total  protection  was  extended  to  cover  a  new  period  of 
ten  years. 

On  a  number  of  occasions  marked  Reindeer  have  been  killed  in 
Spitsbergen,  and  this  is  apparently  accepted  by  Gordon  (1922, 
p.  11),  Wollebaek  (1926,  pp.  58-61),  and  others  as  evidence  of  the 
immigration  of  tame  Samoyed  Reindeer  from  Novaya  Zemlya 
over  the  polar  ice,  perhaps  by  way  of  Franz  Josef  Land.  This, 
however,  would  be  an  amazingly  long  and  foodless  migration — 
380  km.  from  Novaya  Zemlya  to  Franz  Josef  Land,  and  340  km. 
more  from  Franz  Josef  Land  to  Spitsbergen.  Jacobi  (1931,  p.  76) 
discredits  the  evidence  adduced  in  support  of  the  migration  theory. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  483 

Other  Eurasian  Reindeer 

The  remaining  forms  of  wild  Reindeer  in  northern  Europe  and 
Asia  may  be  very  briefly  noticed  here.  Their  numerical  status  is 
evidently  more  satisfactory  than  that  of  the  forms  already  dis- 
cussed. Yet  all  seem  to  show  an  inevitable  tendency  toward  reduc- 
tion in  numbers  and  restriction  of  range.  There  is  considerable 
disagreement  among  various  zoologists  as  to  the  taxonomic  status 
of  some  of  these  forms,  and  the  following  arrangement  is  merely 
provisional : 

Rangifer  tarandus  sibiricus  (Schreber)  (Saugthiere,  vol.  5,  pi. 
248c,  1784;  type  locality  restricted  by  Hollister  (1912,  p.  7)  to  "the 
Obi,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Beresov  Mountains").  Range: 
"Siberian  and  east  European  tundra  zone;  islands  of  Asiatic  Arctic 
Sea"  (Flerov,  1933,  p.  336).  Tarandus  rangifer  lenensis  Millais 
(1915,  p.  219)  and  Rangifer  arcticus  asiaticus  Jacobi  (1931,  p.  85) 
are  perhaps  synonyms. 

Rangifer  tarandus  buskensis  (Millais)  (The  Gun  at  Home  and 
Abroad,  vol.  4,  p.  222,  1915;  type  locality,  "the  Busk  Mountains 
near  Semipalatinsk") .  A  probable  synonym  is  R.  t.  valentinae 
Flerov  (1933,  p.  336;  p.  329,  fig.  1;  p.  331,  fig.  5),  whose  range  is 
shown  as  extending  through  the  forested  zone  of  Siberia,  from  the 
Urals  in  the  west  to  the  Stanovoi  Mountains  in  the  east,  and  south 
to  the  Altai.  Hilzheimer  (1936,  p.  155)  apparently  overlooks  the 
two  foregoing  names  in  proposing  R.  t.  transuralensis  for  the  animal 
of  the  Konda  River,  western  Siberia. 

Rangifer  tarandus  phylarchus  Hollister  (Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll., 
vol.  56,  no.  35,  p.  6, 1912;  type  locality,  "southeastern  Kamchatka"). 
Range:  "Kamchatka,  coast  of  Okhotsk  Sea,  Amurland"  (Flerov, 
1933,  p.  337) . 

Rangifer  angustirostris  Flerov  (Arbeit.  Ausschusses  Erforschung 
Naturschatze,  Yakutsk  ser.,  no.  4,  publ.  by  Acad.  Sci.  URSS,  p.  8, 
1932 ;  type  locality,  Bargusin  Mountains,  northeastern  coast  of  Lake 
Baikal).  Range:  "Highlands  of  Transbaikalia"  (Flerov,  1933, 
p.  337). 

Two  additional  names  (Tarandus  rangifer  chukchensis  Millais 
(1915,  p.  220)  and  T.  r.  yakutskensis  Millais  (1915,  p.  222)) 
were  based  upon  domesticated  Reindeer,  and  so  need  not  be  con- 
sidered here. 

Wild  Reindeer  (R.  t.  sibiricus)  have  long  since  disappeared  from 
the  tundra  along  the  Arctic  coast  of  Russia,  including  the  Kanin 
Peninsula  and  Kolguev  Island,  and  likewise  from  the  extensive 
mainland  tundra  on  the  Urals  (Jacobi,  1931,  pp.  67,  155) . 

W.  G.  Heptner  writes  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  that  in  Siberia 
Reindeer  are  quite  widely  distributed  in  the  taiga  zone  and  very 


484  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

common  in  certain  areas ;  in  other  places  they  are  quite  rare.  Hunt- 
ing is  forbidden  in  different  regions. 

For  additional  information  on  the  range  and  status  of  wild  Rein- 
deer in  Siberia,  see  Schrenck  (1859,  pp.  167-170),  Miller,  in  Car- 
ruthers  (1913,  p.  234),  Millais  (1915,  pp.  218-223),  Sowerby  (1923, 
pp. 112-113) ,  Jacobi  (1931,  pp.  67-69, 131-133, 149, 188-190) ,  Scalon 
(1931,  p.  224),  and  Salesski  (1934,  pp.  372-373). 

Many  of  the  Siberian  natives  keep  domesticated  Reindeer.  On 
this  subject  consult  Carruthers  (1913,  pp.  127-128),  Millais  (1915, 
p.  217),  and  Laufer  (1917).  The  present  Reindeer  industry  of 
Alaska  and  northwestern  Canada  had  its  origin  in  domesticated 
stock  imported  from  eastern  Siberia  (c/.  Hadwen  and  Palmer,  1922; 
also  Proc.  North  American  Wildlife  Conference  1936,  pp.  424-427, 
1936) . 

Family  GIRAFFIDAE:    Giraffes  and  Okapi 

This  family  consists  of  two  Recent  species:  Giraffa  camelopar- 
dalis,  divisible  into  12  subspecies,  and  Okapia  johnstoni.  The  entire 
family  is  now  restricted  to  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara. 

All  Giraffes  are  accorded  protection  under  Schedule  B  of  the 
London  Convention  of  1933.  Therefore  all  subspecies  are  included 
in  the  following  accounts,  although  some  of  them  are  still  fairly 
common.  The  Okapi  is  placed  in  Schedule  A  by  the  London  Con- 
vention. 

"The  giraffe  is  surely  as  impressive  and  wonderful  a  form  of  life 
as  any  that  has  ever  been  evolved  on  this  planet.  ...  To  me,  at 
any  rate,  whenever  I  have  watched  them  feeding  on  the  tall  feath- 
ery-leaved acacias,  to  which  they  are  very  partial,  or  stalking  slowly 
and  majestically  through  the  park-like  country  they  very  com- 
monly frequent,  giraffes  have  always  appeared  to  be  amongst  the 
most  graceful  and  beautiful  of  all  wild  creatures."  (Selous,  1914, 
p.  40.) 

An  inoffensive  animal,  ornament  of  the  mimosa  savannas,  the 
Giraffe  is  perhaps  the  most  worthy  of  protection  of  all  the  animals 
of  Africa  (Lavauden,  1933,  p.  27) . 

Sennar  Giraffe;  Nubian  Giraffe.    Girafe  (Fr.).    Giraffe  (Ger.) 

GIRAFFA  CAMELOPARDALIS  CAMELOPARDALIS   (Linnaeus) 

[Cervus]    Camelopardalis  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.   10,  vol.   1,  p.  66,   1758. 

("Aethiopia  and  Sennar";   type  locality  restricted  by  Harper   (1940,  p. 

322)  to  "Sennar,"  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.) 
FIGS.:  Gervais,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif.,  pt.  2,  pi.  42,  1855;  Lydekker,  1904,  pis. 

9,   10,  and   1905,   pp.  340-341,   figs.  85-86;    Lydekker  and   Elaine,   1914, 

vol.  3,  p.  243,  fig.  41;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  6,  right-hand  fig.;   Zammarano, 

1930,  p.  89,  fig. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  485 

A  century  ago  this  Giraffe  was  abundant,  and  today  it  is  for- 
tunately still  common,  in  the  southeast  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan. 

The  general  pattern  of  coloration  is  the  same  in  both  sexes ;  spots 
large,  sandy  or  chestnut  in  color,  more  or  less  distinctly  quad- 
rangular in  form,  and  divided  by  a  coarse  network  of  compara- 
tively narrow  lines,  which  are  buffish  white  in  immature  bulls  and 
nearly  white  in  immature  cows;  front  of  face  in  bulls  somewhat 
spotted,  and  sides  of  face  fully  spotted;  large  spots  on  shoulders 
and  upper  part  of  forelegs;  shanks  white,  the  hind  pair  more  or 
less  spotted  superiorly;  under  parts  and  inner  surfaces  of  limbs 
comparatively  free  from  spots;  anterior  horn  well  developed,  but 
no  occipital  horns  (Lydekker,  1904,  p.  205;  Lydekker  and  Elaine, 
1914,  vol.  3,  p.  242).  Height  probably  about  16  feet. 

The  Sennar  Giraffe  apparently  occurs  more  or  less  throughout 
that  portion  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  lying  east  of  the  Nile 
and  south  of  the  latitude  of  Khartum.  Its  range  also  seems  to 
extend  into  adjacent  parts  of  Eritrea  and  Ethiopia,  exclusive  of 
the  mountains  (Riippell,  1835,  p.  24) .  There  is,  however,  a  certain 
vagueness  in  regard  to  its  distribution,  as  indicated  by  the  follow- 
ing remarks  of  Lydekker  and  Elaine  (1914,  vol.  3,  pp.  242-243) : 
"Two  types  of  colour-pattern  occur  in  the  giraffes  of  the  Eastern 
Sudan,  namely,  that  just  described  [G.  c.  camelopardalis]  and 
the  one  recorded  under  the  next  heading  [G.  c.  antiquorum],  but 
which  represents  the  typical  C.  giraffa  [  =  camelopardalis]  of  Lin- 
naeus, it  is  impossible  to  decide.  Neither  is  there  any  definite 
information  with  regard  to  the  precise  habitat  of  the  form  here 
identified  with  the  typical  race." 

The  combined  ranges  of  G.  c.  camelopardalis  and  G.  c.  antiquorum 
correspond  roughly  to  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Sudanese  Savanna 
District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258). 

"In  the  mountains  of  Dendor,  a  district  towards  the  Atbara,  and 
six  or  eight  journeys  south-east  of  Shendi,  the  Giraffe  is  found 
....  It  is  hunted  by  the  Arabs,  Shukorein  and  Kowahel,  and  is 
highly  prized  for  its  skin,  of  which  the  strongest  buckles  are  made." 
(Burckhardt,  Travels  in  Nubia,  p.  282,  1819,  as  quoted  in  Anderson 
and  de  Winton,  1902,  p.  352.) 

In  1861  Baker  (1867,  pp.  175-202)  encountered  large  herds  of 
Giraffes,  numbering  up  to  more  than  150  individuals,  along  the 
Atbara  River  in  the  vicinity  of  Sofi,  above  the  mouth  of  the  Setit. 

"It  is  still  found  in  small  numbers  on  the  Settit,  and  in  larger 
numbers  throughout  the  uninhabited  tracts  on  both  sides  of  the 
Binder,  between  the  Rahad  and  the  Blue  Nile"  (W.  B.  Cotton, 
1912,  p.  46). 


486  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"On  the  frontier  of  Abyssinia  on  the  Binder  River,  a  few  are 
killed  annually  by  poachers. 

"In  1927  they  were  considerably  depleted  in  this  area  by  a  form 
of  rinderpest,  and  many  were  found  dead  and  dying  in  the  river- 
bed." (Brocklehurst,  1931,  p.  65.) 

"Giraffes  are  fairly  numerous  on  the  Setit,  and  on  the  Binder, 
but  are  not  allowed  to  be  shot"  (Butler,  in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  148) . 

Up-to-date  information  on  the  distribution  of  the  Sennar  Giraffe 
in  Eritrea  and  Ethiopia  is  lacking. 

According  to  Heuglin  (1877,  vol.  2,  p.  134) ,  it  occurs  in  the  steppes 
of  the  Atbara,  the  Gash,  and  the  Barka,  northward  at  least  to  lat. 
18°  N.;  likewise  on  the  Abyssinian  Mareb  and  on  the  lower  Anseba. 
(The  Gash  and  the  Barka  cross  the  Sudan-Eritrean  boundary; 
the  Mareb  extends  along  the  Ethiopian-Eritrean  boundary  at  about 
long.  38°  E.;  and  the  Anseba  is  an  easterly  tributary  of  the  Barka 
in  extreme  northern  Eritrea.) 

"Buring  the  last  year  or  so,  1897-98,  they  have  been  encountered 
within  a  few  hours  of  Kassala  [near  the  Sudan-Eritrean  border] 
by  officers  of  the  recent  Italian  garrison"  (Bryden,  1899,  p.  501). 

Lydekker  and  Elaine  (1914,  vol.  3,  p.  243)  record  a  specimen  from 
"Bembelas,  Abyssinia."  This  is  apparently  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  the  country. 

The  live  specimens  imported  by  Menges  were  shipped  from  Mas- 
saua,  Eritrea,  and  were  derived  from  the  hinterland,  probably  from 
the  vicinity  of  Kassala  in  British  territory  (Schwarz,  1920,  p.  899) . 

Kordofan  Giraffe 

GlBAFFA   CAMELOPARDALIS   ANTIQUORUM    (SwainSOn). 

Camelo'pardalis  antiquorum  Swainson,  Geography  and  Classification  of  Animals, 
p.  95,  1835.  (Based  upon  the  Giraffe  of  Riippell  (i.  e.,  the  "Camelopardalis 
Giraffa  (Linne)"  of  Cretzschmar,  1826,  p.  23,  pis.  8-9);  type  locality 
said  by  Schwarz  (1920,  p.  898,  footnote)  to  be  "Baggara  el  Homr," 
southern  Kordofan  (lat.  10°  N.,  long.  28°  E.?;  cf.  Harper,  1940,  pp.  822- 
323).) 

FIGS.:  Cretzschmar,  1826,  pis.  8-9;  Jardine,  Nat.  Libr.,  Mammalia,  vol.  3, 
Ruminantia,  pt.  1,  pi.  21,  1835;  Lydekker,  1904,  pi.  11,  p.  206,  fig.  24; 
Lankester,  1907,  p.  120,  figs.  42-43;  Lydekker  and  Blaine,  1914,  vol.  3, 
p.  245,  fig.  42. 

This  Giraffe  is  still  common  in  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  west 
of  the  Nile. 

It  is  closely  allied  to  the  Sennar  Giraffe,  but  distinguished  by 
having  the  spots  on  the  upper  part  of  the  limbs — from  just  above 
the  line  of  the  abdomen  downward— broken  up  into  a  number  of 
very  small  and  irregular  ones,  which  contrast  strongly  with  the 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  487 

larger  ones  above;  similar  spots  also  occur  on  the  under  parts  and 
the  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs.  Horns  as  in  the  Sennar  Giraffe. 
(Lydekker,  1904,  p.  206.)  Height  about  16  feet  (Cretzschmar,  1826, 
p.  23).  This  subspecies  is  said  by  Schwarz  (1920,  p.  898)  to  differ 
from  G.  c.  peralta  only  in  its  brighter,  more  reddish  coloration. 

The  range  may  be  tentatively  considered  to  include  Kordofan 
and  Darfur  in  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.  The  areas  where  this 
subspecies  presumably  intergrades  with  G.  c.  peralta  on  the  west 
and  with  G.  c.  congoensis  on  the  south  have  not  been  determined. 

According  to  Cretzschmar  (1826,  p.  25),  Ruppell  obtained  five 
specimens  on  his  journeys  in  Nubia  and  Kordofan.  The  species  lives 
in  small  companies  in  all  deserts  south  of  Simrie  [about  lat.  17°  N., 
long.  30°  45'  E.],  and  is  common  in  the  deserts  of  Darfur. 

Ruppell  (1829,  pp.  69,  70, 123)  speaks  of  the  Arabs  of  the  Dongola 
region  hunting  Giraffes  from  horseback,  their  hides  being  especially 
prized  for  leather  work.  He  also  mentions  tracks  seen  at  the  Wadi 
Serafe,  near  latitude  16°  N.,  along  the  caravan  route  from  Debba 
to  El  Obeid.  He  remarks  later  (1835,  p.  24)  that  the  animal  occurs 
pretty  commonly  in  small  families  of  four  to  six  individuals  in  the 
scrubby  steppes  and  valley  lowlands  south  of  latitude  17°. 

"The  Giraffe  is  found  in  great  numbers  on  the  road  from  El 
Debbeh  (on  the  Nile)  to  Kordofan,  between  Sabrian  and  Jebel  el 
Arazi,  and  behind  Kordofan,  on  the  Bahr  el  Abiad,  in  the  territory 
of  the  Baggara"  (Hoskins,  Travels  in  Ethiopia,  p.  187,  1835,  as 
quoted  in  Anderson  and  de  Winton,  1902,  p.  353) . 

Brocklehurst  (1931,  pp.  64-65)  gives  the  following  account: 

Giraffes  are  common  throughout  the  Sudan  on  both  banks  of  the  Nile, 
and  during  the  rainy  season  extend  as  far  north  as  the  Wadi  Howar  in  north- 
western Darfur,  approximately  lat.  16°  N.  .  .  . 

Giraffes  generally  run  in  herds  of  ten  or  fifteen  ....  Quite  close  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  there  is  a  herd  of  several  hundred  Giraffes, 
which  never  seem  to  move  away  from  this  one  particular  place. 

In  parts  of  southern  Kordofan  they  are  still  hunted  by  the  Arabs  on  horse- 
back with  the  sword  .... 

It  is  very  rarely  that  any  visitors  to  the  Sudan  ever  want  to  kill  one  of 
these  beautiful,  harmless  creatures;  but  I  remember  the  case  of  one  lady 
whose  sole  ambition  was  to  kill  a  Giraffe  in  order  to  have  a  coat  made  from 
its  hide ! 

Nigerian  Giraffe 

GlRAFFA    CAMELOPARDALIS    PERALTA    ThbmaS 

Gtirafia]    clamelopardalis']   peralta  Thomas,  Proc.  Zool.   Soc.   London    1898, 

p.   40,   1898.     ('To   the   south-east   of   the   junction   of    the    Benue   and 

Niger  ....  Approximately  8°  E.,  and  7°  N.") 
FIGS.:    Lydekker,  19056,  pi.  12,  figs.  1-2;   Mitchell,  1905,  pp.  245,  247,  figs. 

50,  51;  Duke  of  Mecklenburg,  From  the  Congo  to  the  Nile,  vol.  1,  fig. 

56,  1913;  Schwarz,  1920,  pi.  37;  Antonius,  19296,  pp.  376-378,  figs.  4-6; 

Lavauden,  1934,  pi.  11,  fig.  35;  Malbrant,  1936,  pi.  15. 


488  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

The  Nigerian  Giraffe  appears  to  have  decreased  practically  every- 
where throughout  its  wide  range,  and  it  is  scarcely  to  be  regarded 
as  common  anywhere  unless  in  certain  parts  of  French  Equatorial 
Africa. 

"Allied  to  the  Nubian  race  [G.  c.  camelopardalis] ,  but  distin- 
guished by  its  paler  coloration — especially  on  the  head —  and  its 
more  numerous  and  differently  arranged  spots,  a  characteristic 
feature  being  the  white,  sparsely  spotted  occipital  region,  and  the 
presence  of  a  large  fawn-coloured  patch  below  the  ears,  covering 
an  area  which  is  white  in  the  Nubian  race,  and  in  other  races  marked 
with  small  spots"  (Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  246). 
"On  the  neck  the  blotches  are  of  a  somewhat  darker  fawn  on  a 
whity-brown  ground.  These  blotches  are  very  large,  few  in  number, 
and  separated  by  very  wide  interspaces  ....  The  spots  on  the 
back  are  pale  chestnut-brown,  with  trefoil-shaped  dark  brown 
centres.  ...  A  constant  distinction  between  the  two  forms  would 
appear  to  be  the  much  greater  number  of  the  spots  on  the  back 
and  flanks  of  peralta,  these  spots  becoming  much  broken  up  on  the 
thighs."  (Lydekker,  19056,  p.  120.) 

The  range  limits  of  this  subspecies  have  not  been  exactly  deter- 
mined (especially  toward  the  east),  but  all  Giraffes  from  Senegal  on 
the  west  to  French  Equatorial  Africa  on  the  east  will  be  included 
in  the  present  account.  The  range  appears  to  correspond  roughly 
to  the  western  portion  of  the  Sudanese  Arid  District  of  Bowen 
(1933,  pp.  256,  258). 

French  Equatorial  Africa. — Despite  eager  hunting  by  the  natives, 
the  Giraffe  is  still  a  rather  common  animal.  It  is  particularly  abun- 
dant in  the  middle  and  southern  parts  of  the  Chad  Territory,  north 
to  Kanem  and  Manga;  also  north  of  Wadai  some  large  herds  are 
found  at  Kobe  (about  15°  N.)  near  the  Sudan  frontier,  and  the 
species  even  ranges  in  the  Dar  Zaghaoua  to  the  wells  of  Orba  and 
the  Wadi  Howa  (16°  N.).  Except  for  the  real  desert  regions,  there 
are  few  places  in  Chad  where  the  Giraffe  is  not  found,  but  it 
becomes  really  common  only  in  sparsely  populated  regions  where 
there  are  thick  growths  of  mimosa  trees,  the  leaves  of  which  are 
its  principal  food.  Its  range  changes  according  to  the  seasons  and 
also  according  to  the  hunting  by  the  Arabs  on  horseback.  Among 
the  areas  where  it  is  found  most  frequently  are  Baguirmi  (along 
the  lower  Shari)  and  Salamat  and  Dar  Sila  (south  of  Wadai). 
More  to  the  south  it  is  also  common  between  the  Bahr  Salamat 
and  the  Aouk,  east  of  Fort  Archambault.  It  becomes  rarer  in  Dar 
Kouti,  south  of  the  Aouk.  (Malbrant,  1936,  pp.  100-101.) 

The  Giraffe  occurs  in  small  numbers  in  the  Ubangi-Shari  dis- 
trict northward  from  about  latitude  8°  N.  (or  even  7°  on  the 
frontier  of  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan).  These  numbers  increase  to- 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  489 

ward  the  north.  Depletion  is  due  to  the  utilization  of  the  flesh, 
hides,  and  tails  by  the  natives  and  to  hunting  on  horseback  by 
the  Arabs.  The  hides  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  native  san- 
dals. The  species  has  been  partly  protected  since  1916.  A  few 
occur  in  the  north  of  the  Pare  du  Bamingui-Bangoran  and  in  the 
game  reserve  of  Ouanda-Djale  as  well  as  in  the  east  of  the  reserve 
of  Zemango,  along  the  Sudan  frontier.  The  existence  of  the  Giraffe 
is  not  now  threatened  in  the  Chad,  though  its  numbers  have  cer- 
tainly diminished  since  the  occupation  of  the  country.  (L.  Blan- 
cou,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

French  Cameroons. — Schwarz  (1920,  pp.  893-894)  mentions  ear- 
lier records  from  Ndokulla,  south  of  Marua,  by  Passarge,  and  from 
the  southern  base  of  the  Mandara  Mountains,  northern  Adamawa, 
by  Schultze. 

The  Giraffe  inhabits  the  Chad  Basin,  but  its  numbers  can  scarcely 
exceed  a  hundred  head.  It  is  partially  protected  by  law.  (Ministry 
of  Colonies,  Paris,  in  litt.,  November  7,  1936.) 

This  is  one  of  the  animals  that  are  decreasing  in  numbers  but 
are  not  threatened  with  extermination.  Depletion  is  due  to  native 
hunting  for  food  and  to  the  advance  of  cultivation  in  areas  formerly 
uninhabited.  It  is  protected  in  the  game  reserve  of  Wassa.  (Inspec- 
tion of  Waters  and  Forests,  Yaounde,  in  litt.,  January  12,  1937.) 

Nigeria. — In  the  present  Province  of  Bornu,  Barth  (1857,  vol.  2, 
p.  359)  found  "many  footprints  of  the  giraffe"  at  about  latitude 
12°  N.,  longitude  13°  E.  Referring  to  the  district  of  Woloje  (about 
lat.  11°  30'  N.,  long  14°  E.) ,  he  says  (1857,  vol.  3,  p.  162) :  "It  is  not 
at  all  rare  in  the  wildernesses  which  alternate  with  the  densely 
populated  regions  of  these  districts." 

Oakley  writes  (1931,  p.  34)  of  the  Yola  Province:  "The  giraffe 
also  frequents  this  bush,  an  animal  absolutely  protected,  but  still  a 
prey  to  the  native  hunter  and  trapper." 

"Reported  as  fairly  plentiful  in  the  Ruma  Bush  of  Zaria  Province. 
Tew'  or  'Scarce'  in  parts  of  Sokoto,  Bornu,  Bauchi,  Benue,  and 
Adamawa.  ...  It  is  prohibited  to  kill  Giraffe  in  the  old  Chad 
Reserve  and  in  the  Katsena  Division  of  Zaria  Province."  Total 
prohibition  as  well  as  a  sanctuary  are  urged.  (Haywood,  1932, 
pp.  32-33.) 

French  West  Africa.— Barth  (1857,  vol.  1,  pp.  520-521)  places 
the  northern  limit  of  the  Giraffe  at  about  latitude  17°  15'  N.  on  the 
southern  borders  of  Air.  A  little  south  of  this  point  he  found 
"numerous  footprints."  He  likewise  reports  (1858,  vol.  5,  p.  199) 
footprints  near  Bourem  on  the  Niger. 

Buchanan  (1921,  pp.  86,  113)  reports  a  small  band  some  30-40 
miles  north  of  Zinder  and  tracks  between  Tanout  Fort  and  Agades. 

In  1925  a  military  detachment  on  its  ,way  from  Chad  to  Zinder 


490  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

opened  fire  on  a  band  of  11  Giraffes,  killing  every  one  and  leaving 
their  bodies  to  the  hyenas  and  vultures  (Lavauden,  1933,  pp.  27-28) . 

In  many  parts  of  French  Africa,  where  the  Tuaregs  and  the 
southern  Arabs  hunt  it  from  horseback,  the  Giraffe  has  almost 
disappeared.  Its  speedy  gait  permits  it  to  escape  the  large  carni- 
vores, which  rarely  capture  it.  (Lavauden,  1934,  p.  412.) 

The  Giraffe  is  found  in  the  Ferlo  district  of  Senegal;  in  the  region 
about  Nioro  and  Bassikouno  between  the  Senegal  and  the  Niger; 
and  northward  from  the  Niger  as  far  as  the  southern  part  of  Time- 
trine  (about  lat.  19°  N.,  long.  1°  W.).  It  is  also  met  with  near  the 
Niger  between  Bamba  and  Bourem.  Between  the  Niger  and  Chad 
it  occurs  in  the  region  north  of  Tahoua  (about  lat.  15°  N.,  long. 
5°  E.),  in  Damergou,  Tegama  (north  of  Damergou),  and  Manga.  It 
is  found,  accidentally,  in  the  region  of  Labbezzenga  (on  the  Niger 
at  about  0°  40'  E.),  in  the  sands  of  Menaka  (northeast  of  the  last 
point),  and  south  of  Kidal  (about  lat.  18°  30'  N.,  long.  1°  20'  E.). 
(General  Government  of  French  West  Africa,  in  litt.,  November, 
1936.) 

Senegal  and  Gambia. — The  Giraffe  lives  in  small  bands  in  the 
Ferlo  desert  country  of  Senegal,  and  sometimes  ventures  as  far  as 
the  Lac  de  Guier,  a  tributary  of  the  Senegal  River.  The  natives 
love  to  hunt  it  for  the  sake  of  its  hide,  of  which  they  make  amulets 
and  sandals  that  are  reputedly  indestructible;  they  are  convinced 
that,  shod  in  these  sandals,  they  have  nothing  to  fear  from  the  Lion. 
(Cligny,  1900,  p.  291.) 

Near  the  middle  course  of  the  Gambia  River  Giraffes  "appear 
to  be  extremely  rare"  (Budgett,  1900,  p.  933) . 

"It  seems  agreed"  that  Giraffes  "do  not  now  exist  in  the  Gambia" 
(Haywood,  1933,  p.  36). 

Along  the  Gambia  River  "a  young  Giraffe  was  captured  a  few 
miles  from  Kontaour  (150  miles  up)  some  years  ago  ....  We  are 
still  wondering  how  this  animal  got  into  the  Gambia."  (E.  Johnson, 
1937,  p.  64.) 

Congo  Giraffe.    Girafe  du  Congo   (Fr.) 

GIRAFFA  CAMELOPARDALIS   coNGOENSis  Lydekker 

Girafta  camelopardalis  congoensis  Lydekker,  in  Hutchinson's  Animal  Life, 
vol.  2,  p.  83,  1903.  ("Katanga"  =  Dimgu,  in  the  northeast  of  the  Uelle 
district,  Belgian  Congo  (fide  Schouteden,  1912,  p.  135).) 

FIGS.:    Lydekker,  1904,  p.  220,  fig.  33;  Leplae,  1925,  p.  102,  fig. 

This  Giraffe  is  seriously  reduced  in  numbers  in  its  range  in  the 
northeastern  corner  of  the  Belgian  Congo.  Presumably  the  same 
subspecies  extends  over  the  Sudan  frontier  into  the  Bahr  el  Ghazal 
and  the  western  part  of  Mongalla  Province,  where  the  animals  are 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  491 

perhaps  better  protected.  It  may  likewise  be  this  form  which  occurs 
in  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the  Ubangi-Shari  district  of  French 
Equatorial  Africa  (cf.  the  account  of  G.  c.  peralta).  If  there  is 
any  correspondence  between  its  distribution  and  the  Ubangi-Uelle 
Savanna  District  of  Chapin  (1932,  p.  90)  or  the  Ubangi  Savanna 
District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258),  this  subspecies  may  extend 
considerably  farther  to  the  westward  toward  the  Cameroon  border. 

The  Congo  Giraffe  is  closely  allied  to  the  northern  and  eastern 
subspecies.  It  is  "characterised  by  the  well-developed  frontal  horn," 
by  "the  full  spotting  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  limbs/7  and  by 
"the  large  size  and  subquadrangular  form  of  the  body-spots,  which 
show  no  tendency  to  split  up  into  stars."  The  sides  of  the  head  are 
well  spotted,  and  the  terminal  tuft  of  the  tail  is  unusually  large. 
(Lydekker,  1904a,  pp.  219-220.) 

Up  to  1912  this  Giraffe  was  known  only  from  the  type  locality. 
Then  information  became  available  indicating  that  its  range  ex- 
tended into  the  province  of  Lado  [now  Mongalla]  along  the  left 
bank  of  the  Nile.  Dungu,  the  type  locality,  is  probably  one  of  the 
extreme  points  in  its  range.  (Schouteden,  1912,  pp.  134-137.) 

"The  race  occurring  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile  may  be 
congoensis  ....  Giraffes  were  seen  near  Rejaf  by  Colonel  Roose- 
velt, at  Lado  Station  by  Major  Powell-Cotton,  and  they  have  also 
been  reported  in  the  vicinity  of  Mahaji  west  of  the  Albert  Nyanza 
by  sportsmen.  What  race  occurs  in  the  Lado  Enclave  district  is 
at  present  unknown."  (Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  1,  p.  316.) 

The  range  of  this  animal  in  the  Belgian  Congo  was  exactly 
that  of  the  Northern  White  Rhino.  Its  rarity  has  remained  as 
great.  There  may  not  be  more  than  four  or  five  very  small  groups 
of  Giraffes  in  the  northeast  of  the  colony.  For  several  years  none 
have  been  shot  except  a  few  under  special  authorization  given  to 
naturalists.  But  the  natives  continue  to  hunt  the  few  survivors. 
Only  the  establishment  of  a  national  park  here  will  save  the  last 
Giraffes  of  the  Belgian  Congo.  (A.  J.  Jobaert,  in  litt.,  November 
10,  1936.) 

Baringo   Giraffe;   Uganda   Giraffe.    Girafe   du   Baringo    (Fr.) 

GlRAFFA    CAMELOPARDALIS    ROTHSCHILDI    Lydekker 

Giraffa  camelopardalis  rothschildi  Lydekker,  in  Hutchinson's  Animal  Life, 
vol.  2,  p.  122,  1903.  ("Guasin-gisha  Plateau,  to  the  south-east  of  Mount 
Elgon  and  west  of  Lake  Baringo,  B.  E.  Africa,  nearly  1°  north  of  the 
equator"  (Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  248).) 

SYNONYM:   Giraffa  camelopardalis  cottoni  Lydekker  (1904). 

FIGS.:  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  14,  fig.  2;  Johnston,  1902,  vol.  1,  pi.  facing  p.  25  and 
pp.  376-379,  figs.  231-233;  Lydekker,  1904a,  pis.  12-13  and  pp.  211-213, 
figs.  26-27;  Powell-Cotton,  1904,  pis.  facing  pp.  194,  387;  Lydekker,  19056, 
pi.  12,  fig.  3;  Lankester,  1907,  p.  121,  fig.  44;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  14,  fig. 


492  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

2,  and  pp.  359-360,  figs.  69-70;  Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  pp. 
239,  249,  figs.  40A,  44;  Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  1,  pi.  facing  p. 
302,  middle  fig.,  pi.  facing  p.  306,  bottom  fig. 

In  its  main  range  in  Uganda  this  Giraffe  was  probably  never 
very  plentiful,  but  at  least  several  hundreds  still  remain  (Game 
Warden,  Uganda,  in  Hit.,  December,  1936). 

"Adult  bulls  have  a  height  of  17  or  18  feet.  The  body  is  marked 
by  large,  regular  spots  separated  by  narrow  reticulations  as  in  the 
reticulated,  but  the  neck  may  be  either  reticulated  or  blotched 
similarly  to  the  Masai  giraffe.  The  legs  below  the  hocks  and 
knees  are  uniform  cream-buff,  without  darker  markings  ....  The 
bulls  are  not  consistently  darker  than  the  cows,  but  vary  from 
seal-brown  to  tawny  in  coloration,  independent  of  age."  (Roosevelt 
and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  1,  pp.  315-316.)  "Skull  with  front  horn 
strongly  developed,  and  a  pair  of  occipital  horns  behind  the  main 
pair"  (Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  248) . 

The  range  extends  "from  the  Uasin  Gishu  Plateau  and  Lake 
Baringo  northwestward  over  the  highland  and  desert  region  of 
Uganda  to  the  latitude  of  Gondokoro;  east  probably  as  far  as  the 
west  shores  of  Lake  Rudolf  and  west  as  far  at  least  as  the  east 
bank  of  the  Nile;  limits  of  range  not  known"  (Roosevelt  and  Heller, 
1914,  vol.  1,  p.  314,  map,  p.  319) .  This  range  corresponds  roughly 
to  the  Uganda  Savanna  District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258)  or  to 
the  northernmost  portion  of  the  East  African  Highland  District 
of  Chapin  (1932,  p.  90). 

"These  animals  go  about  in  large  herds,  and  the  old  ones,  males 
or  females,  seem  to  stand  sentry  whilst  the  rest  of  the  herd  browses 
unconcernedly  on  the  branches  and  leaves  of  trees.  ...  I  have 
never  seen  a  more  impressive  sight  in  Africa  than  a  large  herd  of 
these  animals  moving  about  unconcernedly,  taking  little  or  no 
notice  of  our  presence  amongst  them;  for  in  this  country  round 
Mount  Elgon  they  had  evidently  been  unattacked  by  man  for  a 
long  period.  .  .  .  We  passed  through  subsequent  herds  containing 
hundreds  of  these  animals."  (Johnston,  1902,  vol.  1,  p.  377.) 

"Mr.  John  Jay  White  .  .  .  found  giraffes  in  good  numbers  on 
the  Guas  Ngishu  Plateau  in  1908.  Herds  numbering  up  to  a  dozen 
or  fifteen  animals  were  frequently  seen,  and  one  herd  of  about  75 
was  noted."  (Hollister,  1924,  p.  58.) 

"G.  c.  rothschildi  occurs  in  the  Mongalla  Province"  of  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan  (Brocklehurst,  1931,  p.  64). 

The  Game  Warden  of  Uganda  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  con- 
tributes the  following  account:  "This  Giraffe  was  formerly  wide- 
spread in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  Provinces,  where  it  probably 
numbered  about  a  thousand  individuals  but  was  never  plentiful. 
It  is  still  wide-spread  in  Gulu,  Chua,  parts  of  western  Lango,  and 
in  Karamoja  and  Sebei  (at  the  northern  foot  of  Mount  Elgon). 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  493 

Native  hunting,  until  absolutely  prohibited,  was  the  chief  cause  of 
depletion.  Also  rinderpest  is  periodically  responsible  for  consider- 
able mortality.  Luckily  for  the  Giraffe  in  most  of  the  areas  in  which 
it  roams,  native  settlement  is  sparse  or  absent.  The  species  is  of  con- 
siderable sentimental  importance.  It  can  be  hunted  only  under  a 
Special  Licence  costing  £15.  During  the  twelve  years  I  have  been 
Game  Warden  of  Uganda,  no  licence  to  hunt  a  Giraffe  has  been 
granted.  The  species  is  steadily  increasing  throughout  its  range." 

Reticulated  Giraffe;  "Somali"  Giraffe.    Girafe  reticulee  (Fr.) 

GlRAFFA   CAMELOPARDALIS   RETICULATA   de    Winton 

Giraffa  camelopardalis  reticulata  de  Winton,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  7, 
vol.  4,  p.  212,  1899.  ("A  little  to  the  east  of  the  Loroghi  Mountains," 
Northern  Guaso  Nyiro  district,  Kenya  (de  Winton,  1897,  p.  279;  cf.  also 
Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  1,  p.  305).) 

SYNONYMS:  Giraffa  reticulata  nigrescens  Lydekker  (1911);  Giraffa  camelo- 
pardalis nigricans  Roosevelt  and  Heller  (1914)  (lapsus  for  nigrescens). 

FIGS.:  de  Winton,  1897,  p.  280,  fig.  1;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  14,  fig.  1,  and  pp.  497, 
501,  figs.  46-47;  Lankester,  1907,  p.  124,  fig.  47;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  14, 
fig.  1,  and  p.  373,  figs.  76-77;  Rothschild  and  Neuville,  1911,  pi.  2,  fig.  2, 
pp.  9-33,  figs.  1-9;  Lonnberg,  1912,  pi.  7,  fig.  3;  Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914, 
vol.  3,  p.  239,  fig.  40  B;  Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  1,  pi.  facing  p.  302, 
bottom  fig.,  pis.  facing  pp.  310,  316;  Zammarano,  1930,  p.  174,  fig.;  Am. 
Mus.  Nat.  Hist.  Sci.  Guide  118,  ed.  2,  p.  108,  1943. 

The  Reticulated  Giraffe  was  formerly  abundant,  and  apparently 
still  exists  in  considerable  numbers. 

"Excepting  for  the  white  ears  and  legs  below  the  knees  and  hocks, 
and  the  spotted  head  and  upper  neck,  this  Somaliland  giraffe  might 
be  described  as  a  liver-red  animal  with  a  coarse  network  of  narrow 
white  lines  dividing  the  body-colour  into  large  sharply  defined 
patches"  (de  Winton,  1899,  p.  212).  "On  the  head  the  red  areas 
change  to  rounded  chestnut  spots  on  a  fawn  ground  ....  Anterior 
horn  well  developed."  (Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  237.) 
"The  legs  from  the  knees  and  hocks  downward  nearly  as  far  as  the 
fetlocks  are  reticulated  by  buffy-whitish  ground-color  and  tawny 
blotches.  .  .  .  The  height  of  the  bull  seldom  or  never  exceeds 
sixteen  feet."  (Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  1,  pp.  312-313.) 

The  range  comprises  the  "desert  region  from  the  northern  slopes 
of  Mount  Kenia  and  the  north  bank  of  the  Tana  River  northward 
to  southern  Abyssinia  and  west  as  far  as  the  east  shore  of  Lake 
Rudolf.  .  .  .  The  southeastern  and  southern  limits  of  the  race  in 
the  Tana  district  are  not  yet  known."  (Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914, 
vol.  1,  pp.  304,  314,  map,  p.  319.)  This  range  corresponds  approxi- 
mately to  the  North  Kenya  Savanna  District  of  Bowen  (1933, 
pp.  256,  258). 


494  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

A.  D.  Smith  (1897,  pp.  163,  179,  212,  213,  291,  354,  355)  found 
many  Giraffes  from  the  lower  Dawa  River  (about  lat.  4°  N.,  long. 
42°  E.)  westward  through  southern  Ethiopia  to  the  north  end  of 
Lake  Rudolf,  and  southeast  of  that  lake  toward  the  Guaso  Nyiro. 

Ffinch  (in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  508-509)  reports  small  numbers  in 
or  near  the  Karanleh  country  not  far  from  the  Webbi  Shebeyli 
(about  lat.  6°  N.,  long.  43°  E.).  This  locality  is  probably  close  to 
the  northern  limit  of  the  Reticulated  Giraffe. 

Neumann  (in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  491-495)  writes  of  this  Giraffe: 

It  is  particularly  plentiful  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Gwaso  Nyiro  River, 
a  little  north  of  Kenia  .  .  .  ;  and  I  have  there  seen  very  large  herds  (contain- 
ing forty  or  fifty  or  more  individuals)  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  .  .  . 

The  cows  sometimes  get  very  fat,  and  then  their  meat  is  unsurpassed  by 
that  of  any  African  animal,  and  none  will  keep  so  long.  .  .  . 

The  Ndorobo  natives  are  very  rarely  able  to  shoot  giraffes  with  the  bow 
and  poisoned  arrow,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  getting  near  them.  But  they 
occasionally  catch  them  in  their  fall  traps,  set  in  places  where  they  are  in 
the  habit  of  crossing  gullies  or  in  paths  through  thick  patches  of  bush.  .  .  . 

They  are  such  strangely  beautiful,  such  grotesquely  graceful  creatures,  and 
withal  so  harmless,  that  one  feels  some  hesitation  in  slaying  them  except 
for  urgent  needs.  It  is  a  particularly  lovely  sight  to  see  from  an  eminence  or 
opposing  slope  the  lofty  necks  of  a  herd  towering  above  a  sea  of  bush,  with 
the  early  morning  sun  full  upon  them  .... 

I  do  not  think  that  lions  very  often  succeed  in  killing  these  animals, 
defenceless  though  they  be. 

Lonnberg  (1912,  pp.  143-148)  says: 

When  we  had  crossed  to  the  northern  side  of  the  Guaso  Nyiri  .  .  .  the 
Giraffes  became  more  numerous.  .  .  . 

Around  the  water-place  of  the  Rendiles  called  Njoro  Giraffes  were  not 
uncommon.  .  .  .  When  we  ...  were  camping  some  distance  below  Chanler 
Falls,  the  Giraffes  were  found  to  be  still  more  common  and  less  shy.  [Aside 
from  Lions]  I  suppose  that  the  fullgrown  Giraffes  have  hardly  any  other 
enemies  than  man.  The  hide-hunting  has  been  successfully  stopped,  I  be- 
lieve, by  the  regulation  that  5  £  must  be  paid  for  the  license  permitting  one 
Giraffe  to  be  killed.  ...  I  hope  that  these  beautiful  and  interesting  animals 
shall  be  able  to  live  long  in  the  arid  thorn-bush  country,  north  of  Guaso 
Nyiri  where  certainly  no  settlers  can  expect  to  raise  any  crops  on  the 
gravel.  ...  It  does  not  therefore  appear  to  be  any  reasonable  cause  for 
that  they  should  be  exterminated,  and  for  the  present  the  stock  is  good,  I 
am  glad  to  say.  .  .  . 

This  Giraffe  was  infested  by  a  great  number  of  ticks  ....  They  proved  to 
belong  to  the  species  Hyalomma  aegyptium  (L.). 

"The  Somali  giraffe  is  found  in  astonishing  numbers  throughout 
Jubaland,  for  the  character  of  the  country  in  the  interior  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  their  habits.  ...  I  saw  about  280  in  all,  of  which 
the  greater  number  were  in  the  districts  of  Joreh,  Arroga  and  Rama 
Gudi ;  and  in  the  thorn  country  to  the  west  of  Marti  Mountain  they 
were  also  exceedingly  plentiful."  (Dracopoli,  1914,  p.  250.) 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  495 

In  the  Northern  Game  Reserve  of  Kenya  there  are  fair  numbers, 
but  the  animals  have  suffered  considerably  during  recent  troubles, 
many  being  killed  by  Abyssinians  and  Turkana  (Percival,  1923, 
p.  70). 

Masai  Giraffe;  Kilimanjaro  Giraffe 

GIRAFFA  CAMELOPARDALIS  TIPPELSKIRCHI  Matschie 

Giraffa  tippelskirchi   Matschie,   Sitz.-ber.   Ges.   naturf.   Freunde   Berlin   1898, 

p.  78,   1898.     (Steppe   not  far  from   Lake   Eyasi,   Tanganyika  Territory 

(about  lat.  3°  30'  S.,  long.  35°  E.) .) 
SYNONYM:    Giraffa  schillingsi  Matschie  (1898). 
FIGS.:     Lydekker,   1904a,   pp.   214-218,  figs.   28-32;    Lydekker,   19056,  pi.   11; 

Rothschild  and   Neuville,   1911,  pi.  2,  fig.   1,  pp.   106-107,  131-133,  figs. 

31-35  (as  "rothschildi") ;  Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  1,  pi.  facing  p. 

302,  upper  fig.,  pi.  facing  p.  306,  3  upper  figs.;  Maxwell,  1924,  pis.  facing 

pp.  117,  121,  123,  124,  126;  Zool.  Garten,  n.  s.,  vol.  1,  nos.  10-12,  p.  408, 

fig.,  1929. 

Thanks  to  the  good  protection  it  receives  over  most  of  its  range, 
the  Masai  Giraffe  still  exists  in  satisfactory  numbers. 

Forehead  black;  temples  strongly  spotted;  legs  dark  gray,  with 
dark  spots  down  nearly  to  the  hoofs ;  dark  brown  spots  on  the  body 
and  neck  strongly  dissected  (Matschie,  1898,  p.  78).  "This  race  is 
indeed  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  Giraffes,  and  is  especially 
characterised  by  the  fullness  of  its  spotting"  (Lydekker,  1905, 
p.  121).  Frontal  horn  smaller  than  in  G.  c.  rothschildi;  coloration 
of  the  legs  subject  to  much  individual  variation;  height  of  male 
up  to  17  feet  2  inches  (Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  1,  pp.  317, 
320). 

The  range  comprises  "British  East  Africa  from  the  south  bank 
of  the  Tana  River,  the  southern  slopes  of  Mount  Kenia,  Lake 
Nakuru,  the  Loita  Plains,  and  Amala  River  drainage  southward 
to  central  German  East  Africa  at  least;  limits  of  range  unknown" 
(Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  1,  pp.  316-317). 

Kenya. — Of  this  Giraffe  in  Kenya  Colony,  Roosevelt  and  Heller 
(1914,  vol.  1,  pp.  318,  320)  have  written: 

They  are  found  in  small  parties,  or  herds  of  twenty  or  thirty  individuals, 
or  singly.  They  are  usually  the  most  wary  of  game;  and  yet  at  times  show 
foolish  tameness.  .  .  . 

Giraffes  are  such  strange,  picturesque  creatures,  and  so  harmless  that  they 
ought  to  be  killed  only  when  absolutely  needed  for  scientific  purposes.  .  .  . 

In  the  field  herds  have  been  seen  near  the  railroad  stations  of  Voi,  Simba, 
Makindu,  Kui,  and  Ulu,  in  the  Rift  Valley,  near  Mount  Suswa,  and  on  the 
Loita  Plains.  They  occur  practically  everywhere  throughout  the  desert  nyika 
of  the  coast  and  inland  through  the  bush  country  to  the  edge  of  the  grassy 
plains  up  to  an  altitude  of  7,000  feet. 


496  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"Curiously  enough,  it  [public  opinion]  is  not  'flabby'  where  giraffe 
is  concerned.  The  general  public  like  to  see  their  giraffe;  and  any- 
body who  kills  giraffe,  unless  he  does  so  very  quietly,  will  be  re- 
ported straight  away.  That  is  why  you  can  find  many  giraffe  in  the 
settled  areas."  (Caldwell,  1924,  p.  50.  ) 

"Governor's  permits  for  the  capture  of  eighteen  giraffe  on  Trans 
Nzoia  were  issued  during  the  year.  If  it  is  necessary  for  the  numbers 
of  these  fine  beasts  to  be  reduced  in  the  heart  of  a  settled  area — 
and  it  is  necessary,  unfortunately,  in  parts  of  the  Trans  Nzoia — 
it  is  obviously  better  that  zoological  societies  rather  than  the  hyenas, 
should  reap  any  incidental  benefit.  I  am  sorry  to  say  that  mis- 
fortune attended  the  catching  and  subsequent  operations."  (Ann. 
Kept.  Kenya  Game  Dept.,  1931.) 

"Over  the  remainder  of  the  Colony  [outside  of  the  north  and  the 
northwest],  in  suitable  areas,  Tippelskirchi  is  common  and  widely 
distributed.  Except  in  part  of  the  thorn  country,  where  they  are 
persecuted  by  the  bush  folk — a  malediction  on  those  elusive  gentle- 
men!— their  freedom  from  molestation  makes  them  as  tame  as  the 
deer  in  Richmond  Park;  and  they  form  an  ideal  subject  for  the 
cameras  of  Sunday  snapshot  enthusiasts."  (Ritchie,  in  Maydon, 
1932,  p.  253.) 

Giraffes  are  "on  the  increase  throughout  Kenya"  (Game  Warden, 
Kenya,  in  litt.,  November,  1936) . 

Tanganyika  Territory. — Matschie  (1895,  p.  103)  gives  records 
for  numerous  localities  in  this  country.  Several  cases  are  mentioned 
of  Giraffes  breaking  telegraph  wires  with  their  long  necks. 

The  Giraffe  "is  particularly  abundant  down  to  and  within  the 
central  districts,  as  Tabora,  Kilimatinde,  Irangi,  Morogoro  and 
Bagamoyo,  though  more  sparsely  present  in  Kondoa-Irangi.  It 
occurs  elsewhere  also,  fairly  abundantly,  for  example,  at  Namnyere, 
less  freely  in  Bukoba  and  Mbeya."  (Jour.  Soc.  Preservation  Fauna 
Empire,  pt.  2,  p.  49,  1922.) 

During  World  War  I,  "in  certain  districts  [of  East  Africa]  the 
giraffes  had  to  be  shot  owing  to  the  damage  they  did  to  the  telegraph 
wires"  (Miss  Buxton,  1921,  p.  50). 

The  British  and  Indian  troops  made  a  great  slaughter  of  Giraffes 
during  the  late  war  (Leplae,  1925,  p.  104) . 

"The  trade  in  wildebeeste  and  giraffe  tails  amongst  natives,  for 
making  bangles,  has  to  some  extent  dwindled"  (Ann.  Rept.  Game 
Dept.,  Tanganyika  Territory,  1932). 

Giraffes  are  very  numerous  in  the  northern  half  of  the  territory. 
They  are  also  often  seen  in  the  southern  half  but  not  in  the  same 
numbers.  There  is  no  danger  of  extinction.  (Game  Preservation 
Department,  Tanganyika  Territory,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  497 

Thornicroft's  Giraffe;  North  Rhodesian  Giraffe 

GlRAFFA    CAMELOPARDALIS    THORNICROFTI    Lydekker. 

G[iraffa]  camelopardalis  thornicrojti  Lydekker,  Nature,  vol.  87,  no.  2189,  p. 
484,  1911.  ("North-eastern  Rhodesia";  type  locality  restricted  by  Lydek- 
ker (1912c,  p.  771)  to  the  Petauke  district,  which  lies  in  the  Luangwa 
Valley  in  the  eastern  part  of  Northern  Rhodesia.) 

FIG.:    Lydekker,  1912c,  pi.  86. 

During  recent  years  this  Giraffe  has  shown  a  very  gratifying 
increase  in  numbers  from  about  70  to  some  300  or  400. 

"Characterised  by  the  low  and  conical  frontal  horn,  the  grey 
colour  and  scattered  spotting  of  the  sides  of  the  face,  the  chestnut- 
brown  forehead,  deepening  into  black  on  the  tips  of  the  horns,  the 
absence  of  a  distinctly  stellate  pattern  in  the  neck  and  body  spots, 
which  are  light  brown  on  a  yellowish-fawn  ground"  (Lydekker, 
1911,  p.  484).  Shanks  "rufous-fawn  with  very  faint  traces  of  spot- 
ting nearly  down  to  the  fetlocks."  Height  "close  on  18  feet,  or 
possibly  rather  more."  (Lydekker,  1912c,  pp.  771,  773.) 

Thornicroft's  Giraffe  has  a  decidedly  restricted  range,  chiefly  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Luangwa  River  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
Petauke  district.  Here  it  is  isolated  from  all  other  Giraffes  by  a 
distance  of  several  hundred  miles.  (Pitman,  1934,  map  F.) 

Lydekker  refers  (1912c,  p.  771)  to  "the  single  herd  in  this  part 
of  Rhodesia." 

"A  few  herds  exist  in  the  Petauke  area  of  the  Luangwa  Valley. 
They  are  strictly  preserved  and  can  be  shot  only  under  a  Governor's 
Licence."  (Kingston,  1930,  p.  26.) 

"There  is  only  one  herd  in  Northern  Rhodesia  which  is  usually 
found  in  the  country  between  Petauke  and  Mzazas  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Loangwa  River"  (Lyell,  in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  332). 

"Captain  Pitman  remarked  that  some  years  ago  there  were  only 
about  70  specimens,  whereas  now  they  had  increased  to  some  300 
or  400.  They  do  not  go  about  in  one  mob  but  in  parties  of  not 
more  than  fifteen  and  usually  less  than  six."  (Jour.  Soc.  Preserva- 
tion Fauna  Empire,  n.  s.,  pt.  19,  p.  9,  1933.) 

Pitman  (1934,  pp.  83,  377)  also  gives  the  following  account: 

Thornicroft's  giraffe  is  one  of  the  outstanding  examples  [of  pronounced 
increase],  as  well  as  Cookson's  wildebeest,  both  inhabitants  of  East  Luangwa, 
and  both,  as  far  as  is  known,  the  remaining  representatives  of  their  particular 
races. 

I  cannot  help  feeling  that  the  whole-hearted  co-operation  of  the  local 
Native  Authorities  is  mainly  responsible  for  such  a  satisfactory  state  of 
affairs.  .  .  . 

The  opportunity  was  taken  of  visiting  a  portion  of  the  giraffe  habitat  in 

the  Petauke  District  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Luangwa,  between  the  village 

of  Chirongozi  and  the  Lusangazi  confluence.    None  of  these  animals  were 

actually  seen,  though  some  of  the  carriers  returning  by  a  different  route  to 

17 


498  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

myself  came  across  a  small  party,  but  recent  spoor  and  droppings  were 
plentiful,  and  freshly  browsed  trees  and  bushes  observed.  It  was  noticeable 
that  the  giraffe  habitat  is  confined  to  localities  where  certain  species  of 
acacias — on  which  this  creature  appears  primarily  to  feed — are  plentiful. 
These  same  conditions  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Kapamba  River  on 
the  Mpika-Serenje  side  of  the  Luangwa,  and  it  is  reported  that  when  the 
river  is  low,  giraffes  occasionally  stray  across  to  the  right  bank,  but  so  far 
have  always  returned  whence  they  came  .... 

It  is  well-known  that  during  the  past  30  years  the  giraffe  has  enjoyed 
almost  complete  immunity  from  molestation  with  a  resultant  very  gratifying 
increase,  its  numbers  being  more  than  quadrupled,  but  I  have  reason  to  believe 
that  giraffe  meat  ...  is  sometimes  included  in  the  bill  of  fare  of  the  local 
natives. 

Barotse  Giraffe.    Sambesi-Giraffe  (Ger.) 

GlRAFFA  CAMELOPARDALIS  INFUMATA  Noack 

Giraffa  injumata  Noack,  Zool.  Anz.,  vol.  33,  no.  11,  p.  356,  1908.    (Barotse 
region  north  and  south  of  the  "middle"  [=upper]  Zambesi.) 

Comparatively  little  information  is  available  concerning  the 
Barotse  Giraffe,  but  its  numbers  appear  to  be  rather  few. 

Frontal  horn  rather  large;  no  occipital  horns  evident;  ears  longer 
and  broader  than  in  other  Giraffes.  General  color  pattern  re- 
sembling that  of  G.  c.  capensis;  spots  large,  more  or  less  regularly 
3-,  4-,  or  5-cornered,  and  arranged  especially  on  the  neck  in  pretty 
regular  rows;  on  the  hind  legs  (especially  in  the  male)  spots  in 
rosettes,  broken  up  with  many  irregular  indentations,  and  extend- 
ing halfway  from  the  knees  and  hocks  to  the  fetlocks ;  ground  color 
smoky  brown;  a  small  black  band  in  front  of  the  forehead;  ocular 
area  whitish,  with  a  fuscous  border,  the  latter  extending  as  a  stripe 
to  the  nose;  cheeks  with  small  spots;  body  and  neck  spots  madder- 
colored,  darker  in  the  middle;  a  slight  mane  foxy  red,  extending  to 
the  withers;  lower  parts  of  limbs  brownish  ochraceous;  whitish 
under  parts  with  small  reddish  spots.  Height  up  to  19  feet.  (Noack, 
1908,  pp.  354-355.) 

Pitman  (1934,  pp.  50-51,  map  F)  indicates  the  range  of  this 
Giraffe  as  being  comprised  between  the  Zambesi  and  Kwando 
Rivers,  in  the  Sesheke  and  Nalolo  districts  in  the  extreme  southwest 
of  Northern  Rhodesia.  There  is  no  present  evidence  of  its  occur- 
rence on  the  north  or  left  bank  of  the  Zambesi,  whence  Noack's 
male  cotype  (a  living  captive)  was  alleged  to  have  come.  It  occupies 
a  very  small  portion  of  the  Rhodesian  Highland  District  of  Chapin 
(1932,  p.  90)  or  the  Rhodesian  Savanna  District  of  Bowen  (1933, 
pp.  256,  259). 

Cambell  (in  Pitman,  1934,  pp.  46-54)  contributes  the  following 
information  concerning  the  Barotse  animal : 

"Giraffe  .      .  are  restricted  to  the  west  of  the  Zambezi. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  499 

"Giraffe  have  always  been  protected  as  far  as  white  men  are 
concerned,  but  at  one  time  when  they  were  valuable  dozens  of 
giraffe-tails  were  sold  to  stores  by  the  natives.  I  am  happy  to  say 
one  does  not  see  many  offered  now." 

In  the  Kalabo  district  "giraffe  are  occasionally  found  along  the 
southern  border." 

At  the  Ngwesi  Pan,  in  the  Sesheke  district,  "it  is  ...  reported 
that  there  are  about  a  hundred  giraffe  left." 

The  Giraffes  of  the  Caprivi,  or  of  at  least  that  portion  of  it  lying 
east  of  the  Kwando,  doubtless  belong  to  the  present  subspecies. 
The  remaining  accounts  refer  to  this  region. 

"In  the  country  between  the  Chobe  and  the  Zambesi  the  giraffe 
is  also  found,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Linyanti ;  but  it  is  not  nearly 
so  numerous  there  as  on  the  other  side  of  the  former  river.  Imme- 
diately north  of  the  Zambesi  it  is  unknown."  (Selous,  1890,  p.  230.) 

According  to  Wilhelm  (1933,  p.  58),  it  occurs  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Okavango  River,  between  the  Kwito  and  the  Kwando. 

"In  the  Central  Caprivi — between  the  Okavango  and  the  Chobe — 
Giraffe  are  fairly  plentiful;  in  the  Eastern  Caprivi  they  are  present 
on  the  northern  border,  but  there  are  not  many  there  to-day" 
(Balme,  in  Shortridge,  1934a,  vol.  2,  p.  621). 

Angola  Giraffe.    Girafe  d' Angola  (Fr.) 

GlRAFFA    CAMELOPARDALIS    ANGOLENSIS    Lydekker 

Girafta  camelopardalis  angolensis  Lydekker,  in  Hutchinson's  Animal  Life, 
vol.  2,  p.  121,  1903.  ("Cuneni  Valley,  150  miles  south-west  of  Humbe, 
Angola"  (Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  254).) 

FIGS.:  Lydekker,  1904a,  pi.  14;  Lydekker,  1908,  p.  365,  fig.  72;  Wilhelm,  1933, 
p.  58,  fig.;  Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  pis.  facing  pp.  619,  624,  628. 

This  Giraffe  is  very  rare  in  Angola,  and  occurs  in  limited  numbers 
in  South- West  Africa. 

"Allied  to  capensis  .  .  .  ,  but  with  the  brown  markings  of  the 
sub-quadrangular  type  of  those  of  congoensis,  and  separated  from 
one  another  by  a  network  of  lighter  lines.  Spots  on  face  restricted 
to  an  area  below  a  line  connecting  the  lower  border  of  eye  with 
angle  of  mouth;  .  .  .  body-spots  large,  brown,  with  ill-defined 
margins;  a  sudden  break  into  smaller  spots  at  middle  of  thighs 
and  on  the  corresponding  part  of  fore-legs";  under  parts  abundantly 
spotted;  "ground-colour  white  or  whitish;  shanks  tawny,  profusely 
spotted  to  the  hoofs.  Anterior  horn  represented  by  a  low  tuber- 
osity."  (Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  254.)  Height  of  a 
bull  from  Angola,  18  feet  4  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  40) . 

While  the  range  of  this  subspecies  has  not  been  definitely  deter- 
mined, the  Giraffes  of  Angola  and  northern  South-West  Africa  will 


500  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

be  included  in  the  present  account.  The  animals  range  from  south- 
ern Angola  to  about  the  latitude  of  Windhoek  in  South-West  Africa. 
This  range  corresponds  roughly  to  the  northern  half  or  two-thirds 
of  the  Damara  Arid  District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  259). 

Angola. — Records  from  extreme  southeastern  Angola  (between  the 
Kwito  and  the  Kwando  Rivers)  and  from  the  adjoining  central 
Caprivi,  quoted  in  the  account  of  G.  c.  injumata,  may  refer  actually 
to  the  present  subspecies. 

"Here  [in  Angola],  especially  in  the  country  behind  Benguela, 
it  is  fairly  common"  (Bryden,  1899,  p.  501). 

"Giraffe  ...  is  probably  found  from  the  South-West  Angolan 
coast  to  the  Kwando  river,  though  the  distribution  is  patchy.  .  .  . 

"Giraffe  spoor  was  plentiful  between  the  Kubango,  Loengi  and 
Kwando,  and  I  saw  three  troops  without  hunting  for  these  animals." 
(Statham,  1924,  pp.  265-266.) 

This  animal  is  very  rare  in  Angola.  It  is  reported  in  the  Kafima 
region;  and  in  the  country  between  the  Kuvelai  and  the  Kului 
Rivers,  to  the  northwest  of  Mupa,  there  is  still  a  small  herd,  which 
will  be  promptly  decimated  if  not  strictly  protected.  (Monard, 
1935,  pp.  296-297.) 

South-West  Africa.— Shortridge  (1934,  vol.  2,  pp.  620-622,  map 
facing  p.  612)  furnishes  the  following  information: 

In  this  country  the  Giraffe  ranges  from  the  Kaokoveld  (in  the 
northwest)  to  the  Grootfontein  District  (in  the  northeast),  and 
also  in  the  Caprivi.  The  plains  of  Ovamboland  and  about  the 
Etosha  Pan  may  represent  a  region  where  extermination  has  taken 
place  comparatively  recently.  In  the  Kaokoveld  the  number  is 
estimated  at  about  200  head;  the  coastal  part  of  this  region  is  not 
occupied  by  Giraffes.  Small  parties  trek  through  western  Ovam- 
boland fairly  regularly,  but,  perhaps  owing  to  Ovambo  hunters, 
they  seldom  seem  to  remain  long.  In  the  Grootfontein  District, 
though  their  numbers  may  be  no  greater  than  in  the  Kaokoveld, 
they  have  a  wider,  far  more  scattered  distribution.  Toward  the 
Bechuanaland  border  they  are  reported  to  be  seen  occasionally  on 
the  sand  plains  far  east  of  the  Waterberg,  and  to  range  sparsely 
as  far  south  as  latitude  22°  S.  Giraffes  are  extinct  as  far  south 
as  the  Gobabis  District,  though  a  solitary  bull  is  said  to  have 
been  killed  in  this  latitude  as  recently  as  1920.  The  animals  are 
still  remembered  by  certain  native  tribes  inhabiting  the  southern 
parts  of  South-West  Africa;  but  these  probably  belonged  to  the 
subspecies  capensis. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  501 

North  Transvaal  Giraffe.    "Kameel"   (Boer) 

GIRAFFA  CAMELOPARDALIS  WARDi  Lydekker 

Giraffa  camelopardalis  wardi  Lydekker,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1904,  vol.  1, 

p.  221,  1904.    ("Northern  Transvaal.") 
FIGS.:    Harris,  1839,  pi.  facing  p.  239;   Millais,  1895,  p.  161,  fig.;   Lydekker, 

1904,  pi.  15,  fig.  2,  pp.  222-223,  figs.  34-35;  Lankester,  1907,  p.  122,  fig.  45; 

Lydekker,  1908,  p.  367,  fig.  73;  Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  255, 

fig.  45  B,  Nat.  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  2,  no.  10,  p.  65,  fig.,  1929  (subsp.?). 

This  Giraffe  (if  the  provisional  range  here  assigned  to -it  is 
more  or  less  correct)  survives  in  fair  numbers  in  the  Kruger 
National  Park;  there  are  likewise  some  in  the  southeast  and  the 
northwest  of  Southern  Rhodesia. 

"A  large  and  dark  chocolate-coloured  Giraffe,  with  the  frontal 
horn  in  old  bulls  represented  by  a  low  irregular  boss,  the  posterior, 
or  occipital,  horns  enormously  developed,  and  the  body-spots 
broken  up  into  irregular  stars."  It  is  also  characterized  "by  the 
great  length  and  massiveness  of  the  main  horns,"  which  are  7 
inches  long.  "The  general  colour  and  arrangement  of  the  spots 
on  the  head  and  neck  are  much  the  same  as  on  the  body.  Com- 
pared with  the  Cape  Giraffe  the  spots  are  much  more  irregularly 
formed  and  star-like,  there  is  more  white  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  ear,  and  the  occipital  horns"  are  each  "capped  by  a  black 
patch."  (Lydekker,  1904a,  pp.  221-224.) 

The  ranges  of  G.  c.  wardi  and  G.  c.  capensis  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  delimited  with  any  particular  degree  of  definiteness. 
The  Giraffes  of  the  Transvaal,  of  the  adjacent  part  of  Portuguese 
East  Africa,  and  of  Southern  Rhodesia  will  be  treated  provision- 
ally under  the  former  name  in  the  present  account.  This  range 
corresponds  somewhat  to  the  Southeast  Veldt  District  of  Bowen 
(1933,  pp.  256,  260). 

Transvaal. — In  1836  Harris  met  with  the  Giraffe  "in  what  are 
now  the  Marico  and  Rustenburg  districts  of  the  Transvaal"  (W.  L. 
Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  261).  "The  giraffe  is  by  no  means  a  com- 
mon animal,  even  at  its  head-quarters.  We  seldom  found  them 
without  having  followed  the  trail,  and  never  saw  more  than  five- 
and-thirty  in  a  day."  (Harris,  1839,  p.  240.) 

"In  South  Africa  it  is  not  now  to  be  encountered  until  the  trav- 
eller reaches  the  north-eastern  border  of  the  Transvaal.  In  the 
country  there  adjacent,  Portuguese  South-East  Africa,  Mashuna- 
land,  Matabeleland,  ...  it  is  still  found  more  or  less  abundantly." 
(Bryden,  1899,  pp.  501-502.) 

"Up  to  a  year  or  two  ago  there  were  plenty  of  giraffes  in  the 
Sabi  River  district  of  the  eastern  Transvaal  ....  If  any  are 
still  surviving  there  now,  they  are  strictly  preserved;  in  Portuguese 


502  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

East  Africa  and  further  south  in  Zululand  there  are  also  said  to 
be  some."  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  263.) 

"In  South  Africa  some  120  years  ago  the  giraffe  .  .  .  ranged 
.  .  .  throughout  the  wooded  country  in  the  north  and  east  of  the 
Transvaal,  and  from  thence  eastwards  as  far  as  the  Lundi  river, 
and  northwards  through  Western  Matabeleland  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Victoria  Falls"  (Selous,  1914,  p.  41). 

"In  1873  Giraffe  were  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  low-veld 
of  the  Transvaal"  (Sanderson,  as  quoted  in  Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2, 
p.  623). 

"Giraffe  have  increased  considerably  in  the  Kruger  National 
Park  of  recent  years.  They  are  found  sparingly  in  Portuguese  East 
Africa."  (S.  Hamilton,  as  quoted  in  Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  p.  622.) 

"Stevenson-Hamilton  records  one  or  two  authenticated  cases  of 
giraffe  being  killed  by  lion  in  the  Transvaal  Game  Reserves"  (Short- 
ridge, 1934,  vol.  2,  p.  625) . 

"Giraffes  .  .  .  were  soon  exterminated"  in  "northern  and  western 
Transvaal.  It  survives  now  in  fair  numbers  in  Kruger  National 
Park."  (A.  Roberts,  in  litt.,  November,  1936.) 

Southern  Rhodesia. — "In  some  parts  of  the  Matabele  country  it 
is  also  common,  but  until  within  the  last  few  years  was  never  found 
eastwards  of  the  river  Gwelo,  though  it  was  always  very  plentiful 
in  the  sand-belts  to  the  westward  of  that  river.  .  .  .  During  the 
last  three  or  four  years  a  few  giraffe  have  extended  their  range 
farther  eastwards,  and  in  1880  there  were  a  few  on  the  upper 
Gwenia,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Jomani.  Up  till  then,  however,  none 
appeared  to  have  crossed  the  Se-whoi-whoi  river  [about  long.  30° 
E.]."  (Selous,  1890,  p.  230.) 

"From  the  Limpopo  northwards,  in  many  districts  of  Western 
Matabeleland,  .  .  .  giraffes  are  still  to  be  found  in  fair  numbers" 
(Selous,  1914,  p.  42). 

"In  Southern  Rhodesia,  a  year  or  two  ago,  Giraffe  were  plentiful 
between  Nuanetsi  and  the  Limpopo"  (Fleming  (1930),  as  quoted 
in  Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  p.  622) . 

"Giraffe  have  never  frequented  a  great  portion  of  the  Colony  as 
most  of  the  country  is  unsuitable.  They  confined  themselves  to 
the  Kalahari  sand  areas  in  the  west  and  a  few  were  found  in  the 
south  eastern  corner,  where  they  still  exist.  Their  numbers  have 
not  been  greatly  depleted  and  they  have  not  been  affected  by  the 
drought.  They  are  well  established  in  the  Wankie  Game  Reserve 
and  are  increasing  steadily.  Legally  considered  as  'Royal  Game.'  M 
(Game  Warden,  Wankie  Game  Reserve,  in  litt.,  March,  1937.) 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  503 

Southern  Giraffe 

GlRAFFA   CAMELOPARDALIS    CAPENSIS    (LeSSOn) 

Camelopardalis  Capensis  Lesson,  Nouv.  Tabl.  Regne   Animal,   Mammif.,  p. 

168,    1842.     (Based  upon  "la   giraffe"  of   Le   Vaillant,   Voyage   Interieur 

Afrique,  vol.  2,  pis.  8-9,  1790;   type  locality,  Lb'wen  Fluss,  South- West 

Africa    (approximately   lat.  27°  S.,   long.   18°  E.) ;   cf.   Harper,   1940,  pp. 

323-324.) 
FIGS.:    Le  Vaillant,  1790,  vol.  2,  pis.  8-9,  and  1795,  vol.  2,  pi.  8;  Harris,  1840, 

pi.  11;  de  Winton,  1897,  p.  281,  fig.  3;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  14,  fig.  3;  W.  L. 

Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  262,  fig.  66;  Lydekker,  1904a,  vol.  1,  pi.  16,  and 

1908,  pi.  14,  fig.  3. 

Although  this  Giraffe  is  extinct  in  its  type  locality,  what  is  pre- 
sumably the  same  subspecies  survives  in  some  numbers  in  the  Kala- 
hari Desert  region. 

"Colour-pattern  of  the  'blotched  type,'  that  is  to  say,  large,  sub- 
quadrangular,  evenly  bordered  blotches  or  spots,  which  in  old  males 
are  chocolate-brown  or  blackish,  on  a  tawny  ground;  shanks  deep 
tawny  and  fully  spotted  down  to  the  hoofs;  anterior  horn  reduced 
to  a  low  boss,  and  occipital  horns  wanting"  (Lydekker  and  Elaine, 
1914,  vol.  3,  p.  256).  Height  nearly  19  feet  (Bryden,  1899,  p.  499). 

The  range  of  the  Southern  Giraffe  will  be  provisionally  considered 
to  include  Great  Namaqualand  in  South-West  Africa,  British 
Bechuanaland,  and  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate.  This  corre- 
sponds somewhat  to  the  Kalahari  Arid  District  of  Bowen  (1933, 
pp.  256,  259). 

South-West  Africa.— Le  Vaillant  (1795,  vol.  2,  pp.  293-315)  found 
a  fair  number  of  Giraffes  at  the  type  locality  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
River  of  Lions  or  the  Lowen  Fluss  in  Great  Namaqualand.  W.  L. 
Sclater  (1900,  vol.  1,  p.  263)  says: 

The  Southern  giraffe  was  formerly  found  throughout  the  country  north 
of  the  Orange  River  up  to  the  Zambesi.  Brink,  le  Vaillant,  Colonel  Gordon 
and  Paterson,  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  all  found  giraffes  immediately 
after  crossing  the  Orange  River  into  Great  Namaqualand  ....  There  does 
not  seem  to  be  any  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  this  animal  south  of  the 
Orange  River;  Bryden,  who  discusses  the  matter,  can  find  no  better  argu- 
ment than  the  bushman  pictures  in  some  caves  near  Graaff  Reinet,  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  bushmen  illustrated  animals  seen  during  their  devious 
wanderings  over  the  country,  and  by  no  means  confined  themselves  to  those 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood. 

"Giraffe  are  still  remembered  and  spoken  of  by  the  ||K'au||en 
and  Naron  Bushmen  and  other  native  tribes  inhabiting  the  southern 
parts  of  South-West  Africa"  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  p.  622). 

British  Bechuanaland  and  Bechuanaland  Protectorate. — "This 
animal,  though  its  range  has  been  sadly  reduced  since  the  days  of 
Gordon  Gumming,  is  nevertheless  still  to  be  found  in  considerable 
numbers  over  a  vast  extent  of  country  to  the  south  of  the  Zambesi 


504 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


river.  In  parts  of  the  Kalahari  desert  it  is  said  to  abound,  and  in 
all  the  dry  sandy  district  between  Bamangwato  and  Lake  Ngami, 
and  thence  to  the  Mababe,  Chobe,  and  Zambesi  rivers,  it  is  also 


FIG.  49. — Southern   Giraffe    (Giraffa  camelopardalis  capensis).    After   Brehm, 

Lydekker,  etc. 

very  numerous.    Along  portions  of  the  Botletlie  river,  and  in  the 
waterless  but  forest-clad  sand-belts  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Chobe,  it  is  particularly  plentiful."    (Selous,  1890,  p.  230.) 
Bryden  (1899,  pp.  500,  502-505)  writes: 

The  flesh  of  a  fat  cow  giraffe  ...  is  excellent,  tender,  well  tasted,  and 
resembles  young  beef,  with  a  game-like  flavour  of  its  own.  The  marrow 
bones  .  .  .  are  delicious,  and  are  one  of  the  prime  bonnes  bouches  of  African 
hunters.  .  .  . 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  505 

Its  most  favourite  country  at  the  present  day  south  of  the  Zambesi  is 
undoubtedly  in  the  vast,  waterless,  giraffe-acacia  forests  of  the  North  Kalahari. 
Here,  far  from  permanent  water,  in  country  where  even  native  hunters  can 
scarcely  penetrate,  large  troops  of  giraffes  still  roam.  In  this,  the  most  waterless 
portion  of  South  Africa,  giraffes  have  the  faculty  of  being  able  to  exist  for 
long  periods — six  or  seven  months  at  a  time — without  drinking.  .  .  .  Since 
firearms  and  hunting  horses  were  introduced — especially  the  latter — the  des- 
truction of  these  magnificent  creatures  has  proceeded  much  more  rapidly  than 
of  old.  .  .  . 

The  Dutch  and  native  hunters  of  South  Africa  .  .  .  slaughter  mercilessly 
whenever  opportunity  occurs.  Dutch  hunters  have,  of  course,  used  horses  for 
hunting  for  some  generations  past.  In  more  recent  years  the  Griquas  and 
the  various  Bechuana  tribes  have  become  possessed  also  of  horse-flesh  .... 
They  penetrate  even  into  the  waterless  deserts  after  the  periodical  rains;  and 
.  .  .  they  are  enabled,  by  the  use  of  horses,  to  pursue  and  slay  large  numbers 
of  giraffe  and  eland  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Kalahari  Thirstland  itself. 

The  value  of  the  hide  of  a  full-grown  giraffe  is  from  £4  to  £6,  the  skin 
being  largely  employed  for  making  native  sandals  and  colonial  whips,  known 
universally  in  South  Africa  as  sjamboks.  There  is  a  constant  commercial 
demand  for  these  hides.  As  a  consequence,  Boer  and  native  hunters  are  to 
be  found  shooting  giraffes  in  large  numbers,  and,  for  the  miserable  value  of 
their  skins,  these  noble  and  unique  creatures  are,  year  by  year,  and  month  by 
month,  persecuted  and  pursued  until  they  threaten,  at  no  very  distant  period, 
to  become  extinct  south  of  the  Zambesi.  .  .  .  Seven  or  eight  years  ago 
the  number  of  giraffes  slain  during  two  seasons  by  native  hunters  round  Lake 
Ngami,  a  famous  headquarter  of  these  tall  beasts,  amounted  to  more  than 
300  head  of  those  animals.  .  .  . 

In  the  farthest  recesses  of  the  Kalahari  .  .  .  seventy  or  eighty  may  occa- 
sionally be  seen  during  the  day,  according  to  reports  of  the  Masarwa  bush- 
men. 


Selous  (1914,  pp.  41-42)  says  of  this  animal: 


In  South  Africa  some  120  years  ago  the  giraffe  was  still  plentiful  im- 
mediately north  of  the  Orange  River,  in  Great  Namaqualand,  and  from 
there  it  ranged  without  a  break  northwards  through  Bechuanaland  and  the 
Kalahari  ....  Many  decades  of  hunting  .  .  .  have  very  much  curtailed  the 
range  of  the  giraffe  in  this  part  of  the  continent;  but  it  is  quite  a  mistake  to 
think  that  the  indiscriminate  slaughter  of  these  most  interesting  animals  is 
still  going  on  in  those  regions,  and  that  the  species  in  that  part  of  Africa  is 
in  immediate  danger  of  extinction.  .  .  .  Throughout  most  of  the  Bechuana- 
land Protectorate,  the  Northern  Kalahari,  and  from  thence  to  the  Province  of 
Angola,  giraffes  are  still  to  be  found  in  fair  numbers.  .  .  .  Few  animals 
will  be  less  affected  by  the  advance  of  European  settlement  in  Africa  than 
giraffes,  as,  although  they  may  be  found  in  certain  well-watered  districts, 
they  are  more  often  met  with  in  semi-desert  tracts,  where  no  European  settle- 
ment can  ever  take  place,  and  in  which  only  a  very  sparse  native  population 
can  live. 

"Giraffes  occurred  at  one  time  in  Namaqualand  south  of  the 
Orange  River,  but  were  soon  exterminated  there  when  settlers  ad- 
vanced; the  same  may  be  said  of  Griqualand  West"  and  "southern 
Bechuanaland."  They  survive  "precariously  in  parts  of  Bechuana- 
land, where  the  natives  are  allowed  to  hunt  them  with  but  little 
restraint."  (A.  Roberts,  in  Hit.,  November,  1936.) 


506  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Okapi    (Eng.,  Fr.,  Ger.) 

OKAPIA  JOHNSTONI  (P.  L.  Sclater) 

Equus(t)  johnstoni  P.  L.  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1901,  vol.  1,  p.  50, 
1901.  ("In  sylvis  fluvio  Semliki  adjacentibus,"  presumably  in  the  vicinity 
of  Mbeni  (or  Beni),  northeastern  Belgian  Congo.) 

SYNONYMS:  Helladotherium  tigrinum  Johnston  (1901);  Okapia  liebrechtsi 
Major  (1902);  Okapia  erikssoni  Lankester  (1902). 

FIGS.:  P.  L.  Sclater,  1901,  pi.  1;  Cornish,  1901,  vol.  1,  pp.  269-270,  figs.; 
Johnston,  1902,  vol.  1,  frontisp.  and  p.  381,  fig.  234;  Lankester,  1902, 
pi.  30;  Fraipont,  Annales  Mus.  Congo,  zool.,  ser.  2,  vol.  1,  pis.  l-2ter, 
and  pp.  7-19,  23-32,  96,  figs.  1-13,  22-42,  77,  1907;  Lydekker,  1908,  pp. 
377,  383,  figs.  78,  80;  Rothschild  and  Neuville,  Annales  Sci.  Nat.,  zool., 
ser.  9,  vol.  10,  pi.  1,  and  p.  6,  fig.  1,  1909;  Lankester  and  Ridewood,  1910, 
pis.  1,  29-47;  Ber.  Senckenb.  Naturf.  Gesell.,  vol.  43,  pi.  5,  pp.  290-291, 
figs.;  Lydekker  and  Blaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  262,  fig.  49;  Selous,  1914,  pi. 
7;  Lang,  1918,  pp.  1600-1611,  figs.;  Christy,  1924,  figs.  31-38;  Leplae, 
1925,  p.  108,  figs.;  Rev.  Zool.  Bot.  Africaine,  vol.  16,  suppl.:  Bull.  Cercle 
Zool.  Congolais,  vol.  5,  fasc.  3,  pp.  [71]-[73],  figs.,  1928;  Rev.  Zool.  Bot. 
Africaine,  vol.  29,  suppl.:  Bull.  Cercle  Zool.  Congolais,  vol.  13,  fasc.  1,  p. 
(14),  fig.,  1936;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  691,  fig.;  Reed  and  Lucas,  1937,  p.  185, 
fig.  65. 

The  Okapi  leads  such  an  extremely  secretive  life  in  the  equatorial 
rain  forest  of  the  Upper  Congo  that  estimates  of  its  numerical 
strength  are  very  difficult  to  make.  These  estimates  vary  from 
500-600  (Leplae,  1925,  p.  109)  to  "some  thousands"  (J.  P.  Chapin, 
oral  communication,  February,  1938).  Attilio  Gatti  (MS.,  1936) 
believes  that  about  a  thousand  are  killed  each  year  but  that  the 
animal  is  largely  safeguarded  by  the  fact  that  a  very  considerable 
proportion  of  its  range  in  the  forest  depths  is  not  penetrated  even 
by  the  natives. 

"Size  much  smaller  than  in  Girafja,  and  neck  and  limbs  much  less 
elongated;  females  larger  than  males,  which  alone  carry  a  pair  of 
frontal  horns,  capped  with  knobs  of  bare  bone;  ears  broad;  .  .  . 
tail  shorter  than  in  typical  genus  [Giraffa],  with  a  smaller  tuft." 
"Sides  of  face  pale  puce;  crown,  backs  of  ears,  neck,  and  greater 
part  of  body  plum-colour;  sides  of  buttocks  and  upper  portion  of 
limbs  transversely  barred  with  black  and  white  stripes  of  varying 
width ;  shanks  mainly  white,  with  black  fetlock  rings,  and  a  vertical 
black  stripe  on  anterior  surfaces  of  front  pair."  "Shoulder-height  in 
females  about  5  feet  4  inches."  (Lydekker  and  Blaine,  1914,  vol.  3, 
pp.  258-259.) 

The  first  fragment  of  an  Okapi 's  skin  was  made  known  to  science 
only  in  1900.  Such  a  recent  discovery  of  so  large  and  striking  a 
creature  constitutes  one  of  the  chief  romances  of  modern  mam- 
malogy. 

Information  in  regard  to  its  total  range  has  accumulated  rather 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES 


507 


slowly,  although  Lonnberg  (1906,  p.  309)  long  ago  had  the  main 
facts  from  "Lieutenant  Karl  Eriksson,  who  delivered  to  Sir  Harry 
Johnston  the  first  skull  and  skin  of  the  Okapi.  ..." 

He  believed  it  to  be  distributed  practically  over  the  whole  of  the  "equatorial 
forest"  of  the  Congo  Free  State.  He  showed  me  ...  the  approximate  limits 
of  this  area  of  distribution.  If  we  begin  at  the  River  Ubangi  in  the  west  about 
midway  between  Mobena  and  Jmese,  from  there  the  limit  extends  north- 


FIG.  50. — Okapi  (Okapia  johnstoni) 


east  towards  Businga  at  the  River  Likame  or  somewhat  north  of  that  place, 
and  then  more  east  to  the  River  Uele  just  before  it  joins  the  River  Ubangi. 
From  that  place  and  eastward  the  River  Uele  is  the  northern  limit  to  a  point 
about  midway  between  Amadi  and  Suruaugo.  From  there  it  turns  south-east, 
passing  somewhat  east  of  Mawambi,  and  continuing  to  a  point  a  little  west 
of  Karimi.  Not  much  south  of  this,  the  most  eastern  point  of  the  great 
forest,  the  boundary-line  turns  westward  again  and  crosses  the  great  Congo 
River  at  Ponthierville,  and  continues  westward  a  little  south  of  Tschuapa 
River,  but  bends  by-and-by  a  little  north,  so  that  it  passes  on  the  northern 
side  of  Bolondo  towards  Coquilhatville.  It  is  evident  that  this  is  only  a 
rough  outline  of  the  area  of  distribution  of  the  Okapi,  but  it  may  hold  good 
in  a  general  way. 

Lang  (1918,  p.  1602,  map),  despite  his  first-hand  knowledge  of 
the  Okapi,  limits  its  range  to  the  north  of  the  equator,  between 
the  rivers  Ubangi  and  Uele  on  the  north  and  the  Congo  on  the  south. 


508  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Some  years  ago  it  was  reported  in  the  region  of  Lodja.  Now  two 
pieces  of  skin  have  been  brought  from  the  region  south  of  Moma. 
There  are  also  reports  from  the  region  of  Opala.  (Schouteden,  1935, 
pp.  9-10.)  These  localities  are  between  latitude  1°  and  4°  S.,  and 
longitude  23°  and  25°  E. ;  or  between  the  Lomami  and  Lukenie 
Rivers. 

Now  a  specimen  is  recorded  as  taken  in  a  native  trap  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Lomela,  toward  latitude  2°  S.  This  confirms  a  previous  report 
from  Lomami.  Its  distributional  area  seems  to  coincide  with  the 
contour  of  500  m.  M.  Guilmot  says  the  animal  is  not  common  on 
the  left  bank,  yet  is  not  rare.  Its  presence  there  is  known  to  all 
the  Europeans  of  the  region.  (Schouteden,  1936,  pp.  14-15.) 

Although  there  had  been  vague  previous  reports  of  this  animal 
by  Stanley,  Junker,  Marchand,  and  Stuhlmann,  it  was  Sir  Harry 
Johnston  who  really  brought  the  Okapi  to  scientific  attention  by 
sending  to  P.  L.  Sclater  in  1900  two  strips  of  skin,  in  the  form  of 
bandoliers,  which  he  had  purchased  from  natives  at  the  post  of 
Mbeni  on  the  Semliki  River.  Sclater,  in  the  belief  that  these  frag- 
ments represented  some  unknown  species  of  Zebra,  proposed  for 
them  the  name  Equus(l)  johnstoni.  When  a  complete  skin  and  two 
skulls  were  received  from  Sir  Harry  Johnston  in  1901,  the  relation- 
ship of  the  Okapi  to  the  Giraffes  became  evident,  and  Lankester 
established  for  it  the  genus  Okapia,  in  the  family  Giraffidae. 

"The  defenceless  okapi  .  .  .  survived  by  slinking  into  the  densest 
parts  of  the  Congo  Forest,  where  the  lion  never  penetrates,  and 
where  the  leopard  takes  to  a  tree  life  and  lives  on  monkeys.  The 
only  human  enemies  of  the  okapi  hitherto  have  been  the  Congo 
Dwarfs  and  a  few  Bantu  negroes  who  dwell  on  the  fringe  of  the 
Congo  Forest.  How  much  longer  the  okapi  will  survive  now  that 
the  natives  possess  guns  and  collectors  are  on  the  search  for  this 
extraordinary  animal,  it  is  impossible  to  say."  (Johnston,  1902, 
vol.  1,  p.  383.) 

"There  are  certainly  many  thousand  individuals  of  it  inhabiting 
the  forest  of  this  region.  .  .  .  The  natives  are  extremely  reluctant 
to  penetrate  far  into  the  forest,  and  hence  it  is  that  the  Okapi  is 
but  seldom  seen  and  is  known  chiefly  to  the  Wambutti  or  Akka, 
the  dwarf  race  who,  like  the  Okapi  itself,  seek  the  recesses  of  the 
forest  as  a  protection  against  light-loving  enemies."  (Lankester, 
1902,  pp.  282-283.) 

"The  Okapi  is  extremely  wary  and  shy,  and  nocturnal  in  its 
habits.  It  lives  singly  or  perhaps  in  pairs,  never  in  herds.  The 
negroes  know  very  little  about  it,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is  only  the  Wam- 
butti dwarfs  who  are  able  to  kill  it.  ... 

"I  am  glad  to  be  able  to  add  that  the  Okapi  is  protected  by  law, 
so  that  it  is  forbidden  to  kill  it  without  special  permission.  The 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  509 

Wambutti-dwarfs  and  the  leopards  do  not,  however,  respect  any 
laws,  and  therein  lies  the  danger  for  the  existence  of  this  animal." 
(Lonnberg,  1906,  p.  310.) 

Lang  (1918)  has  furnished  a  very  interesting  account,  from  which 
the  following  excerpts  are  taken: 

Having  walked  more  than  a  thousand  miles  in  the  tracks  of  the  Okapi, 
I  unhesitatingly  state  that  a  great  wariness  and  nocturnal  habits  efficiently 
protect  it  from  being  successfully  stalked  by  white  men  (p.  1605). 

The  Okapi's  one  great  enemy  is  man.  The  wariness  of  the  game  is  but 
an  added  stimulus  to  the  cunning  Pygmy  hunter  who,  like  the  Okapi,  claims  the 
forest  jungle  as  his  home.  A  quarry  so  large  provides  coveted  meat  for  days 
of  feasting.  The  more  powerful  Bantu  negro,  living  in  villages  and  owning 
plantations,  with  a  craving  for  meat  that  had  made  him  a  cannibal,  also 
trapped  the  Okapi  in  well-concealed  snares  and  pitfalls,  and  the  Pygmy 
would  gladly  exchange  the  product  of  his  chase  for  vegetables.  These 
negroes  .  .  .  used  the  quaintly  striped  portions  of  the  hide  ...  for  adorn- 
ment, especially  belts.  So  highly  were  they  prized  that  in  some  regions 
to  sit  upon  a  skin  or  wear  portions  of  it  became  the  privilege  of  chieftains 
and  their  families.  (Pp.  1608-1609.) 

Okapi  are  caught  by  various  methods  ....  Strong  nets,  in  sections,  are 
hung  loosely  from  the  trees,  barring  the  trails  of  the  Okapi  whose  where- 
abouts are  previously  known  to  the  hunters.  So  rapidly  are  they  driven 
towards  the  nets  by  small  dogs  with  wooden  clappers  and  followed  by  men 
shouting  at  the  top  of  their  lungs  that  they  usually  try  to  break  through. 
But  the  net  instantly  falls,  completely  entangling  them,  when  they  are 
quickly  dispatched  by  natives  in  ambush.  This,  however,  calls  for  hundreds 
of  drivers  and  only  powerful  chiefs  can  afford  to  catch  big  game  in  this 
manner.  Pitfalls  ten  feet  long,  eight  feet  deep,  but  less  than  three  feet  wide 
near  the  surface  also  claim  many  victims.  [Many  traps  in  the  form  of  foot 
snares,  set  in  the  Okapi's  narrow  trails,  are  also  employed.]  (P.  1609.) 

Since  the  Belgian  government  has  undertaken  to  stamp  out  cannibalism, 
hunger  for  meat  has  driven  these  [Azande]  negroes  to  seek  the  game  of 
the  forest.  Though  hunting  Okapi  is  legally  forbidden,  many  chiefs  have 
stationed  in  special  camps  hunters,  who  are  forbidden  by  superstition  to  eat 
Okapi  meat.  In  course  of  time  one  section  after  another  is  thus  depleted  of 
the  Okapi.  Some  years  ago  the  great  Mangbetu  chief,  Zebandra,  with  the 
aid  of  eight  hundred  drivers,  caught  eleven  within  a  week.  (P.  1610.) 

Christy  (1924,  pp.  52-72)  gives  a  detailed  and  very  interesting 
account  of  hunting  the  Okapi  with  the  help  of  Pygmies.  ;  <- 

The  rarity  of  the  animal  has  raised  its  price,  up  to  the  time  of 
the  war,  to  25,000  francs  for  a  well-preserved  specimen.  Despite 
legal  protection,  the  natives  continue  to  kill  a  rather  large  number 
each  year.  (Leplae,  1925,  p.  109.) 

The  Okapi  is  included  in  Schedule  A  by  the  London  Convention 
of  1933. 


510  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Family  BOVIDAE:    Cattle,  Sheep,  Goats,  and  Antelopes 

About  60  genera  are  recognized  in  this  family.  Lydekker  (1913c) 
and  Lydekker  and  Elaine  (1914)  list  approximately  485  species 
and  subspecies  in  their  catalogues.  The  family  is  nearly  worldwide 
in  distribution,  but  the  West  Indies,  South  America,  Madagascar, 
and  the  Papuan  and  Australian  regions  are  lacking  in  indigenous 
species.  In  the  preceding  volume  Dr.  Allen  (1942)  discusses  17  New 
World  forms.  In  the  present  volume  there  are  full  accounts  of  about 
102  forms,  with  remarks  on  a  number  of  additional  forms.  Thus 
the  total  number  of  extinct  or  vanishing  forms  is  considerably 
greater  in  the  Bovidae  than  in  any  other  family  of  mammals.  Man 
has  required  the  grazing  grounds  of  many  species  for  his  domestic 
flocks  or  his  cultivated  fields,  and  he  has  destroyed  other  species 
for  their  flesh  and  hides.  Since  man  has  raised  himself  from  sav- 
agery to  civilization  primarily  with  the  help  of  domesticated  ani- 
mals, his  debt  to  certain  members  of  the  present  family  (cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats)  is  immense. 


Cambodian  Wild  Ox;  Indo-Chinese  Forest  Ox.    Boeuf  sauvage 
cambodgien  (Fr.).    Kou  Prey  (Cambodian) 

NOVIBOS  SAUVELI   (Urbain) 

Bos  (Bibos)  Sauveli  l  Urbain,  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  vol.  62,  p.  307,  2  fig., 
1937.  ("Aux  environs  de  Tchep,  Nord  Cambodge"  (Urbain,  1939,  p.  1007).) 

FIGS.:  Urbain,  1937a,  pp.  305,  306,  figs.;  Urbain,  19376,  pi.  10;  Mammalia, 
vol.  3,  nos.  3-4,  pi.  10,  fig.  4,  1939;  Urbain,  1940,  p.  519,  fig.;  Coolidge, 
1940,  pis.  1-8. 

The  very  recent  discovery  of  this  wild  ox  in  Cambodia  is  com- 
parable to  that  of  the  Okapi  in  the  Belgian  Congo  a  generation 
previously.  Its  present  population  is  estimated  "at  about  a  thou- 
sand head."  (Coolidge,  1940,  pp.  424,  521.) 

The  Kou  Prey  differs  from  both  the  Gaur  and  the  Banteng.  It 
attains  a  shoulder  height  of  1.9  m.  (6  feet  3  inches).  The  old  bulls 
are  black,  with  whitish  patches  on  shoulders  and  rump;  the  cows 
and  calves  are  gray;  lower  part  of  the  limbs  white;  dewlap  pro- 
nounced; tail  long;  slender  legs  longer  than  in  the  Banteng;  feet  also 
very  slender.  The  horns  are  cylindrical,  widely  separated,  recurved 
in  front  in  the  bull  and  lyre-shaped  in  the  cow;  in  some  old  males 
they  are  curiously  frayed  near  their  tips.  (Urbain,  1937a.)  Greatest 
spread  of  horns,  840  mm.;  tip  to  tip,  460;  length  on  outside  curve, 
810  (Coolidge,  1940,  p.  442). 

i  This  name  is  perhaps  antedated  by  one  or  more  of  the  numerous  names 
proposed  by  Heude  (Mem.  Hist.  Nat.  Empire  Chinois,  vol.  5,  pt.  1,  pp.  2-11, 
pis.  3-11,  1901)  for  the  wild  cattle  of  Indo-China. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  511 

The  Kou  Prey  is  a  very  rare  animal  of  the  forest  glades  of  north- 
ern Cambodia,  where  it  has  been  seen  by  very  few  hunters  (Urbain, 
1937a).  The  holotype  is  a  male  captured  as  a  young  animal  in 
1936  and  brought  in  1937  to  the  Zoological  Park  at  Vincennes  (Ur- 
bain, 1939) . 

It  is  probably  this  same  species  to  which  P.  Vitry  refers  (in  litt., 
December,  1936)  under  the  native  name  of  "Ngoua  po."  It  is  par- 
ticularly a  northern  Cambodian  animal,  but  apparently  a  few  cross 
the  frontier  into  Laos  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Mekong  River.  It  is 
ashy  gray  in  color,  and  its  hoofs  and  horns  differ  from  those  of  the 
"Red  Banteng,"  which  is  a  far  commoner  animal. 

In  a  circular  for  hunting  parties,  privately  printed  in  1930, 
Defosse  referred  to  this  species.  It  was  informally  described  three 
years  later  by  R.  Vittoz.  At  about  this  time  a  bull  was  secured  by 
A.  V.  Pietri  "in  Cambodia  about  200  kilometers  north  of  Saigon 
near  or  not  far  from  the  Saigon-Kratie  highway."  In  1939  another 
specimen  was  killed,  probably  in  the  same  locality,  by  Ezra  B. 
Cornell.  (Coolidge/ 1940,  pp.  515-521.) 

An  adult  male,  secured  in  1939  near  Samrong  in  eastern  Cambodia 
by  F.  Edmond-Blanc  and  A.  V.  Pietri,  has  been  utilized  as  the  main 
basis  for  Coolidge's  monograph  (1940). 

"It  is  ...  most  essential  that  the  Government  of  French  Indo- 
China  should  immediately  recognize  the  importance  of  making  every 
effort  to  preserve  this  interesting  and  rare  primitive  wild  bovid,  and 
especially  to  protect  it  against  meat  or  trophy  hunters  and  live- 
animal  dealers"  (Coolidge,  1940,  p.  423). 

Aurochs;  European  Wild  Ox.    Aurochs;  Ur   (Ger.) 

Bos  PRIMIGENIUS  Bojanus 

Bos  primigenius  Bojanus,  Nova  Acta  Acad.  Caes.  Leop.-Car.,  vol.  13,  pt.  2, 
p.  422,  1827.  (Based  upon  the  Pleistocene  animal  of  northern  Europe; 
more  particularly,  according  to  Mertens  (1906,  p.  104),  upon  the  nearly 
complete  skeleton  excavated  near  Hassleben,  north  of  Erfurt,  Germany, 
and  preserved  in  the  Jena  Museum.  It  is  questionable  whether  the  name 
primigenius  is  applicable  to  the  Aurochs  of  historical  times.  It  is  perhaps 
also  debatable  whether  "Bos  primigenius  Bojanus"  is  a  valid  example 
of  binominal  nomenclature,  and  not  merely  a  descriptive  term;  Bojanus 
does  not  seem  to  use  it  in  the  nominative  case  or  to  capitalize  Bos.) 

FIGS.:  Bojanus,  op.  cit.,  pi.  24;  Griffith's  Anim.  Kingdom,  vol.  4,  pi.  facing  p. 
410,  1827;  Lydekker,  1898,  p.  10,  fig.  1;  Keller,  1902,  pp.  128-140,  figs.  44-47; 
Mertens,  1906,  pp.  110-111,  figs.  3,  5,  6,  8,  9;  Lydekker,  1912,  pi.  3;  Natur 
und  Volk,  vol.  66,  no.  10,  p.  511,  fig.  1,  p.  518,  fig.  3,  1936;  Schmidt, 
1938,  pi.  6. 

A  special  interest  attaches  to  the  Aurochs  as  a  wild  relative  of 
our  domestic  cattle.  It  has  been  extinct  in  its  former  European 
range  for  more  than  three  centuries. 


512  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Szalay  (1930)  concludes  that  the  color  of  the  north  European 
animal  was  deep  blackish  brown  in  the  bull,  more  or  less  dark 
brown  in  the  cow,  and  reddish  brown  in  the  calf...  "It  must  have 
been  a  huge  animal,  probably  standing  at  least  six  feet  high  at 
the  shoulders,  and  with  horns  not  very  unlike  those  of  the  modern 
Chillingham  cattle,  only  very  much  larger.  The  horns  usually  have 
an  outward  and  forward  curvature  at  first,  after  which  they  bend 
somewhat  upwards  and  inwards."  (Lydekker,  1898,  p.  13.) 

Pleistocene  remains  of  Bos  primigenius  are  known  from  France, 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  The  Netherlands,  Switzerland,  Austria, 
Hungary,  Denmark,  southern  Sweden,  and  Russia  as  far  as  Siberia 
(Mertens,  1906,  p.  48).  Here,  however,  we  are  concerned  only  with 
the  animal's  status  during  historical  times.  The  following  account 
is  derived  mainly  from  Mertens  (1906)  and  from  Lydekker  (1912, 
pp.  37-67). 

Julius  Caesar,  writing  about  65  B.  C.  (De  Bello  Gallico,  bk.  6, 
chap.  29),  describes  the  "Ur"  in  the  forests  of  Germany.  It  was 
captured  in  pitfalls,  and  the  horns  were  used  for  drinking  vessels. 
It  also  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  Roman  arena  (Jennison, 
1937,  p.  167). 

In  the  sixth  century  the  poet  Fortunatus  and  Gregorius,  Bishop 
of  Tours,  refer  to  the  hunting  of  these  animals  in  the  "Wasgen- 
wald"  (Vosges  Mountains).  At  the  same  period  wild  bulls  were 
said  to  be  found  in  the  Province  of  Maine,  in  France;  and  during 
the  ninth  century  Charlemagne  hunted  the  Aurochs  near  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  At  the  close  of  the  tenth  century  the  flesh  of  this  animal 
is  mentioned  as  an  article  of  food  at  an  abbey  in  Switzerland.  The 
Aurochs  was  met  with  by  Crusaders  passing  through  Germany  in 
the  eleventh  century.  According  to  the  Niebehmgenlied,  Siegfried 
slaughtered  four  of  the  animals  in  the  vicinity  of  Worms  during 
the  twelfth  century.  In  1170  their  occurrence  in  the  Rhine  district 
is  mentioned  by  Von  Aue.  Aurochs  horns  mounted  as  drinking- 
cups  were  formerly  preserved  in  many  inns,  churches,  and  castles 
in  South  Germany  and  Alsace-Lorraine.  An  old  account  book 
shows  that  the  species  still  occurred  up  to  about  1409,  though  per- 
haps rarely,  in  East  Prussia  and  Lithuania.  At  this  period,  how- 
ever, it  had  disappeared  in  the  remainder  of  Germany  and  in 
Western  Europe,  and  even  its  name  became  gradually  confused 
with  that  of  the  Wisent.  Doubtless  its  disappearance  was  due 
largely  to  the  clearing  of  the  extensive  primeval  forests  in  which  it 
lived,  while  hunting  also  contributed  to  its  extermination. 

After  about  1409  Poland  seems  to  have  been  the  sole  remaining 
refuge  for  the  Aurochs.  In  1298  Duke  Boleslaus  of  Masovia  had 
prohibited  its  hunting,  and  in  1359  Duke  Ziemovit  of  Masovia 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  513 

had  taken  similar  action.  It  survived  longest  in  the  Jaktorowka 
Forest  in  Masovia,  western  Poland.  An  account  and  figure  of  the 
Aurochs  in  this  area  are  given  by  Herberstein  (1557).  In  1596  the 
species  was  still  maintained  in  the  Jaktorowka  Forest  and  also  in 
a  royal  preserve  near  Warsaw.  The  Jaktorowka  herd  numbered 
30  individuals  in  1564,  24  in  1599,  and  4  in  1602.  By  1620  the  sole 
survivor  was  a  cow,  and  it  died  in  1627.  This  was  apparently  the 
last  wild  Aurochs. 

"Towards  the  end  of  the  14th  century  King  Wladislaus  Jagiello 
[of  Poland]  established  laws,  which  in  high  degree  restricted  the 
persecution  of  the  aurochs  ....  In  the  16th  century  the  Polish 
King  Sigismund  III  Vasa,  seeing  the  imminent  danger  of  a  quick 
and  total  extermination  of  the  aurochs,  proclaimed  orders  with  the 
object  of  protecting  the  feeding  grounds  of  these  animals,  the 
number  of  which  at  this  time  did  not  amount  to  more  than  some 
ten  pieces.  Unluckily  the  enactment  of  those  orders  came  too  late 
and  in  consequence  the  aurochs  disappeared  in  the  lands  belonging 
to  the  Republic  as  soon  as  the  next  century  (XVII,  1627)."  (Bene- 
dyct  Fulinski,  MS.,  1933.) 

The  species  had  little  to  fear  from  natural  enemies.  According 
to  Swiecicki  (1634),  a  solitary  bull  was  a  match  for  several  wolves. 

During  Biblical  times  the  range  of  the  Aurochs  extended  to 
Syria;  it  is  referred  to  in  the  Bible  as  the  reem.  "On  the  Assyrian 
monuments  its  chase  is  represented  as  the  greatest  feat  of  hunting 
in  the  time  of  the  earliest  dynasties  of  Nineveh;  but  does  not 
appear  in  those  of  the  later  period  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy  at 
Kuyonjik.  ...  I  obtained  its  teeth  in  bone-breccia  in  Lebanon, 
proving  its  co-existence  there  with  man."  (Tristram,  1884,  p.  8.) 

Domestication. — In  Keller's  opinion  (1902,  p.  141),  the  Aurochs 
was  first  tamed  and  domesticated  in  southeastern  Europe  by  the 
oldest  Grecian  peoples  in  pre-Homeric  times — perhaps  about  2000 
B.  C.  Thence  the  culture  spread  to  the  Baltic  lowlands,  Switzer- 
land, England,  and  southern  Sweden.  Keller  lists  (p.  217)  the 
following  domestic  breeds  as  derivatives  from  the  Aurochs:  Eng- 
lish park  cattle,  North  German  lowland  cattle,  Dutch  cattle,  steppe 
cattle,  Simmenthal  and  Freiburg  spotted  cattle. 

"The  black  Spanish  fighting  bulls  also  claim  descent  from  the 
aurochs.  They  have  a  light-colored  line  along  the  spine,  which  was 
characteristic  of  the  aurochs."  (Lydekker,  1910,  vol.  2,  p.  927.) 


514  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Indian  Gaur;   Indian  Bison 

BIBOS  GAURUS  GAURUS   (Hamilton  Smith) 

Bios]   Gaums  Hamilton  Smith,  Griffith's  Animal  Kingdom,  vol.  4,  p.  399, 

1827.    (Based  upon  the  "Gaour"  of  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  Mem.  Mus. 

Hist.  Nat.   [Paris],  vol.  9,  p.  71,  1822;   type  locality,  Mainpat,  in  the 

Sarguja  Tributary  States,  India,  at  approximately  lat.  23°  N.,  long.  83°  E. 

C/.  Harper,  1940,  p.  324.) 
FIGS.:    Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  1;  Lydekker,  1900,  pi.  2,  figs.  1,  la,  p.  41,  fig.  3, 

p.  45,  fig.  4;  Lydekker,  1912,  pi.  21,  fig.  1;  Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  pp. 

14,  16,  figs.  8,  9;  Van  der  Byl,  1915,  pi.  31;  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc., 

vol.  36,  no.  4,  suppl.,  pis.  1,  5,  1933. 

The  Indian  Gaur  has  declined  seriously  in  numbers  and  has 
lost  considerable  ground  in  parts  of  its  range. 

Adult  bulls  reach  a  shoulder  height  of  6  feet  4  inches;  the  build 
is  massive,  with  deep  body  and  relatively  short  limbs;  dorsal  ridge 
pronounced,  ending  suddenly  behind  the  withers;  horns  flattened 
at  base,  strongly  curved,  with  inwardly  inclined  black  tips,  else- 
where pale  greenish;  tail  reaching  hocks;  generally  little  or  no 
dewlap;  hair  short,  olive-brown  to  black,  paler  on  under  parts; 
upper  part  of  forehead  to  nape  ashy  gray  to  dirty  white;  lower 
part  of  legs  whitish;  cows  and  immature  bulls  less  dark  in  color. 
(Blanford,  1891,  pp.  484-485;  Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  pp.  15-17.) 
The  horns  attain  a  length,  on  the  outside  curve,  of  about  34  inches 
(Ward,  1935,  p.  315). 

According  to  Blanford  (1891,  pp.  485-486),  this  animal  inhabits 
"all  the  great  hilly  forest-tracts  of  the  Indian  Peninsula."  There 
are  some  uncertain  former  records  from  Ceylon.  "In  India  at 
present  its  extreme  north-western  habitat  is  probably  the  Rajpipla 
hills,  near  Broach;  and  west  of  long.  80°  East  the  river  Nerbudda 
forms  approximately,  though  not  absolutely,  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  its  range.  It  does  not  inhabit  the  grass- jungles  of  the 
Gangetic  plain,  except  close  to  the  Himalayas;  but  it  is  found  in 
the  forests  at  the  foot  of  thdse  mountains  as  far  west  as  Nepal. 
South  of  the  Ganges  it  exists  in  suitable  tracts  in  Chutia  Nagpur, 
Orissa,  and  the  northern  Circars,  the  Central  Provinces,  Hy- 
derabad territories,  Mysore,  and  throughout  the  Western  Ghats, 
wherever  it  has  not  been  exterminated  or  driven  away."  The 
eastern  limits  of  the  subspecies,  where  it  presumably  intergrades 
with  the  Burmese  Gaur,  have  not  been  exactly  defined. 

Richmond  writes  (1935,  pp.  221-223)  concerning  the  Madras 
Presidency:  "In  the  Godavari  .  .  .  the  gaur  is  probably  on  the 
increase  ....  The  Javadi  and  Salem  hills  contain  gaur  which 
are  closely  protected  and  which  do  some  damage  to  forest  works." 
In  the  Madura  district  a  well-protected  herd  has  persisted.  Gaur 
are  to  be  found  on  the  "Grassy  Hills"  in  the  forest  area  of  South 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  515 

Coimbatore,  at  an  elevation  of  6,000-8,000  feet.  "This  forest  divi- 
sion contains,  in  one  particular  part,  the  white  bison  which  appears 
to  be  developing  into  a  distinct  variety.  .  .  .  The  forests  of 
Malabar  ...  are  for  the  most  part  exceedingly  well  stocked  with 
.  .  .  gaur." 

Morris  remarks  (19356,  p.  227) :  "The  new  experimental  meas- 
ure for  the  compulsory  inoculation  of  village  cattle  in  the  Kol- 
legal  and  North  Coimbatore  Divisions  should  keep  bison  com- 
paratively free  from  rinderpest,  and  it  is  a  measure  that  I  should 
like  to  see  carried  out  in  other  districts  where  bison  occur." 

The  Chief  Conservator  of  Forests  of  Madras  writes  (in  litt., 
November,  1936) :  "No  immediate  danger  of  extinction.  In  any 
numbers  only  in  the  Government  Reserved  Forests.  .  .  .  The  bag 
is  limited  with  regard  to  number,  size  and  sex.  Steps  against  the 
spread  of  Rinderpest  to  Bison  are  being  taken  by  inoculating 
domestic  animals." 

Salim  Ali  (1935,  pp.  231-238)  contributes  the  following  informa- 
tion concerning  Hyderabad  State: 

The  forests  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Circles  .  .  .  contain  some  gaur.  .  .  . 
The  shooting  of  ...  gaur  has  been  totally  prohibited  for  some  years  past, 
owing  to  which  they  have,  for  the  time  being,  been  saved  from  extinction.  .  .  . 

There  were  a  few  herds  of  gaur  in  Sirpur-Tandur  in  the  1890's.  One  whole 
herd  was  reported  to  have  perished  from  foot-and-mouth  disease  at  Manikgarh. 
These  animals  are  now  very  scarce  ....  Inspite,  however,  of  the  total  pro- 
hibition of  the  killing  of  these  bovines,  I  came  across  more  persons  than 
one  who  boastfully  claimed  to  have  shot  them  in  recent  years!  .  .  . 

Large  tracts  of  game  country  have  been  known  to  be  cleared  by  rinderpest 
and  foot-and-mouth  disease  contracted  from  infected  cattle  left  to  graze  in 
forests  inhabited  by  wild  animals.  Measures  should  be  enforced  that  as 
soon  as  the  first  signs  of  an  outbreak  of  these  epidemics  are  detected  in  village 
cattle,  they  should  be  prevented  from  being  let  loose  in  Government  forests 
containing  game.  One  epidemic  of  this  sort,  as  is  well  known,  will  do  damage 
from  which  it  will  be  difficult  for  game  to  regain  its  position  for  years 
afterwards.  Often  the  damage  is  irreparable,  and  in  many  cases  the  serious 
diminution,  or  even  complete  extinction,  of  bison  and  buffalo  in  certain 
areas  can  be  traced  directly  to  disease  contracted  in  this  way  from  domestic 
cattle. 

The  Chief  Conservator  of  Forests  of  Mysore  writes  (in  litt., 
May,  1937) :  "Former  and  present  range:  in  all  the  high  forests  in 
the  Districts  of  Mysore,  Kassan,  Kadur  and  Shimoga.  Seems  to 
be  no  diminution  in  numbers.  Economic  use:  skin,  horn  and  flesh. 
Protected  by  the  Game  Regulations." 

Traill  refers  (1824,  p.  340)  to  the  Gaur's  former  abundance 
at  the  type  locality  in  the  Sarguja  Tributary  States:  "So  numer- 
ous are  they  on  Myn  Pat,  that,  in  one  day,  the  hunting  party 
computed  that  not  less  than  80  gours  had  passed  through  the 
stations  occupied  by  the  sportsmen." 


516  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

The  Chief  Conservator  of  Forests  of  the  Central  Provinces  gives 
the  following  information  (in  litt.,  July,  1937) : 

"This  animal  .  .  .  has  undoubtedly  lost  ground  considerably  in 
the  past.  Its  former  range  was  what  it  is  at  present,  but  the  numbers 
of  the  herds  and  of  the  individuals  in  the  herds  have  become  very 
much  less.  There  are  less  undisturbed  areas  and  stretches  of  un- 
broken forest  now  than  formerly,  and  this  animal  is  peculiarly 
liable  to  epidemic  diseases.  The  distribution  formerly  was  the  hilly 
forest  tracts  of  Nimar,  the  Melghat,  Hoshangabad,  Betul,  Chind- 
wara,  Seoni,  Chanda,  Balaghat,  Mandla,  Bilaspur,  Raipur,  Yeotmal 
and  Damoh  Districts.  ...  In  Damoh  it  is  now  extinct  ....  It 
is  probable  that  there  has  been  disappearance  from  many  privately 
owned  and  non-reserved  forests  ....  Reduction  in  the  number  of 
Bison  occurs  periodically  from  epidemic  disease  (the  main  cause 
of  the  decline  of  the  species)  and  herds  take  several  years  to  recover. 
Frequently  such  attacks  are  so  severe  as  to  result  in  enfeeblement  of 
the  stock  or  even  total  destruction  of  local  herds.  In  the  Melghat 
Forest  Division,  to  take  one  example  only,  however,  the  present 
population  of  Gaur  must  run  into  well  over  a  thousand,  and  of 
recent  years  the  number  has  increased  rapidly. 

"Practically  no  economic  use.  The  animal  is  so  obviously  related 
to  the  sacred  cow  of  India  that  poaching  is  not  common  .... 
Even  a  few  of  the  forest  tribes  are  averse  to  eating  the  meat.  The 
hide  is  usually  too  heavy  for  local  demand  and  being  rarely  met 
with  is  not  popular. 

"Protection  of  this  species  in  the  Government  Forests  has  been 
rigid  in  the  past  and  still  is.  In  some  districts  total  prohibition  has 
been  in  force  for  several  years.  .  .  .  Inoculation  of  cattle  resorting 
to  grazing  has  been  undertaken  for  the  first  time  this  year  in  the 
Banjar  Reserve  of  Mandla  which  is  a  game  sanctuary." 

Edward  Thompson  writes  (in  London  Times,  August  19,  1932?) : 
"The  Indian  bison  is  safe  in  South  India.  Indore,  in  Central  India, 
still  has  a  tiny  herd,  which  the  Maharajah  protects,  and  told  me 
he  had  every  intention  of  continuing  to  protect.  He  had  taken  note 
of  what  had  happened  in  the  neighbouring  state  of  Gwalior,  whose 
last  bison,  a  herd  of  30,  were  surrounded  and  shot  down  15  years 
ago  by  'temporary  gentlemen'  (I  am  quoting  a  seditious  Englishman 
in  Gwalior),  who  had  taken  the  trouble  to  come  over  20  miles  to 
achieve  this  feat." 

The  Government  of  Bihar  reports  (in  litt.,  December,  1936) : 
"This  animal  is  nowhere  common.  Its  numbers  have  been  greatly 
reduced  at  times  through  rinderpest.  It  is  found  in  the  Palamau 
district,  where  there  are  two  or  three  herds  of  about  8  in  each 
herd,  and  in  parts  of  the  Singhbhum  district  where  there  is  perhaps 
the  same  number.  Its  habitat  was  formerly  somewhat  more  exten- 


ORDER    ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  517 

sive,  but  within  the  last  100  years  it  has  never  been  common  outside 
the  areas  mentioned.  Females  are  protected  by  law." 

According  to  the  Conservator  of  Forests  of  Orissa  (in  litt.,  Janu- 
ary, 1937),  the  Gaur  is  not  rare.  The  destruction  of  forests  is  re- 
garded as  the  reason  for  the  decline  in  numbers  of  the  Cervidae  and 
Bovidae.  In  Government  Forests  in  North  Orissa  there  are  game 
sanctuaries  and  all  shooting  is  regulated.  In  South  Orissa  there  are 
no  measures  for  the  preservation  of  game. 

For  Bengal  the  Senior  Conservator  of  Forests  gives  the  following 
information  (in  litt.,  September,  1937) :  "Former  range:  Jalpaiguri, 
Buxa  and  Chittagong  Forests  (common  in  the  last).  Present  range: 
Upper-Tondu  Forests  of  Jalpaiguri  (30-40),  Buxa  Forests  (50), 
extreme  northern  and  southern  blocks  of  the  Chittagong  forests 
(100).  Causes  of  depletion:  rinderpest  and  poaching  in  Jalpaiguri, 
rinderpest  infection  from  cattle  in  Buxa  and  poaching  in  Chittagong 
forests.  Economic  use:  meat.  In  Jalpaiguri  shooting  is  closed  for 
the  whole  year.  In  Buxa  Forests  a  game  sanctuary  to  an  extent  of 
26  sq.  miles  is  being  maintained;  grazing  of  domestic  cattle  has 
been  prohibited.  In  Chittagong  forests  restriction  has  been  made 
with  respect  to  numbers  to  be  shot  in  any  year." 

Burmese  Gaur;   Burmese  Bison 

BIBOS  GAURUS  READEI  (Lydekker) 

Bos  gaums  readei  Lydekker,  Zoologist,  ser.  4,  vol.  7,  p.  266,  1903.   ("Myitekyina, 

in  Upper  Burma.") 
FIGS.:    De  Barthelemy,  1930,  pi.  2;  Field  Mus.  News,  vol.  4,  no.  5,  p.  1,  fig., 

1933;  Peacock,  1933,  pis.  10-13;  Thorn,  1934,  pi.  2. 

The  numerical  status  of  the  Burmese  Gaur  varies  considerably 
according  to  locality,  and  consequently  the  accounts  of  different 
observers  vary  likewise.  In  general,  however,  there  is  evidently 
need  of  better  protection  for  this  animal,  which  is  certainly  one  of 
the  finest  of  existing  bovines. 

"Characterized  by  the  tall  stature,  dark,  nearly  black,  body- 
colouring,  thickly  haired,  fringed  ears,  the  presence  of  a  dewlap 
furnished  with  a  fringe  or  tuft  of  hair  in  adult  bulls,  the  downward 
extension  of  the  tawny  grey  area  on  the  forehead,  and  in  some  cases 
by  a  tawny  band  round  the  lower  part  of  the  jaw  just  above  the 
muzzle"  (Lydekker,  1913,  vol.  1,  p.  20).  The  body  color  is  jet 
black  in  old  bulls;  black,  with  a  sprinkling  of  chestnut-brown  hairs, 
in  young  bulls  and  cows;  and  light  brown  to  chestnut  in  calves. 
The  "stockings"  vary  from  white  to  light  golden  yellow.  (Peacock, 
1933,  p.  100.)  The  record  length  of  horn  on  the  outside  curve  is 
33i  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  315). 

The  range  of  this  subspecies,  while  not  thoroughly  worked  out, 


518  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

may  be  provisionally  considered  to  include  Assam,  Burma,  Siam, 
and  French  Indo-China. 

Assam. — "Just  as  the  buffalo  is  having  a  bad  time  from  everyone 
wanting  to  grow  rice  where  it  wants  to  live,  so  the  gaur,  though 
safe  from  the  Hindu  and  living  in  hills  in  which  shifting  cultivation 
alone  is  practised,  is  suffering  from  the  hillmen,  who  sit  up  at 
night  over  saltlicks  and  plug  everything  that  comes  along;  conse- 
quently it  is  already  only  a  tradition  in  many  hills  where  formerly 
numerous"  (Milroy,  1934,  p.  103) . 

"Bison  .  .  .  are  destroyed  everywhere  and  at  all  times  over  salt- 
licks and  pools,  and  their  meat,  skins,  and  horns  often  sold  in  the 
market  places"  (Hanson,  1931,  p.  37). 

In  Manipur  "this  animal  is  now  very  rare.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  found  all  over  the  hills  until  it  was  almost  exterminated  by 
foot  and  mouth  disease  in  1896.  No  special  measures  are  taken  for 
its  protection."  (Political  Agent  in  Manipur  and  J.  C.  Higgins, 
in  Hit.,  March,  1937.) 

Blanford  refers  (1891,  p.  484)  to  specimens  from  the  Mishmi 
Hills,  on  the  northeastern  border  of  Assam. 

Burma. — Of  this  Bison  in  Burma,  Peacock  (1933,  pp.  102,  109) 
says: 

Bison  delight  in  forest-clad  hills.  The  encroachment  of  permanent  culti- 
vation and  the  extension  of  communications  hardly  affect  their  main  habitat, 
and  Bibos  gawus  is  still  found  in  very  fair  numbers  in  most  of  the  hill 
systems  of  Burma. 

Statistics  show  that  only  about  twenty-five  to  thirty  bison  are  shot  annually 
under  sporting  licenses.  This  is  a  negligible  number,  and  the  casualties  from 
epidemic  disease  and  poachers  are  main  considerations. 

Anthrax  has  been  responsible  for  the  devastation  of  many  good  grounds. 
Some  of  the  best  grounds  on  the  flats  and  in  the  valleys  of  Northern 
Burma  .  .  .  are  subject  to  epidemic  disease.  The  Homalin  kwins,  in  which 
Evans  mentions  having  seen  a  herd  of  100  bison,  have  been  ravaged  by  anthrax, 
as  also  many  another  fine  bison  and  saing  ground  in  Northern  and  Central 
Burma.  .  .  . 

The  Pidaung  Game  Sanctuary  still  contains  herds  numbering  from  forty 
to  fifty  bison.  This  sanctuary  has  been  reasonably  well  protected  during 
the  past  five  years.  As  a  result,  epidemic  disease  and  poachers  have  been  ex- 
cluded ....  There  is  many  another  spot  in  Burma  where  bison  are  still 
as  plentiful  as  they  are  in  the  Pidaung  Sanctuary  .... 

On  the  whole,  bison  are  very  fairly  plentiful  throughout  Burma  and  will 
continue  so,  without  prejudice  to  human  interests,  if  given  an  ordinarily 
decent  measure  of  protection.  .  .  . 

Bison  are  "protected  game"  and  may  not  be  shot  either  in  reserved  or 
unclassed  forests  without  a  game  license.  .  .  . 

Only  two  bison  bulls  of  the  prescribed  standard  may  be  .shot  by  any  one 
person  in  any  one  year. 

There  were  188  Bison  in  the  Pidaung  Sanctuary  in  1928-29,  and 
197  in  1929-30  (Peacock,  1931,  p.  53). 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  519 

Siam. — Flower  (1900,  p.  369)  recorded  a  pair  of  horns  from  near 
Raheng,  but  very  little  further  information  concerning  the  Gaur  in 
Siam  seemed  to  be  available  at  that  time. 

"The  Burmese  race  of  the  Gaur  probably  inhabits  Northern  and 
North-western  Siam,  where  it  seems  to  be  fairly  common  in  the 
mountain  regions.  Southern  limit  of  range  not  definitely  known. 
Gaur  are,  however,  not  rare  on  the  Siam-Tenasserim  boundary." 
(Gyldenstolpe,  1919,  p.  174.) 

"Practically  all  Siamese  specimens  have  been  obtained  in  the 
north  or  west"  (Kloss,  1919,  p.  391). 

Gairdner  (1914,  p.  37)  mentions  the  animal's  occurrence  in  the 
Ratburi  and  Petehaburi  districts. 

Protection  of  the  female  only  throughout  the  year  was  recom- 
mended by  the  Siam  Society  in  1931. 

French  Indo-China. — In  Cambodia  the  Gaur  is  in  no  danger  of 
extermination.  It  is  found  especially  in  the  Province  of  Kratie, 
Stung-Treng,  Kompong-Thom,  Siemreap,  Battambang,  and  Kam- 
pot.  Only  adult  males,  in  limited  number  and  at  certain  seasons, 
may  be  killed.  (Resident  Superieur  of  Cambodia,  in  litt.,  Novem- 
ber 20,  1936.) 

In  Cochin  China  the  former  range  was  more  extensive  and  more 
densely  populated  than  the  present  range.  The  Gaur  now  occurs 
in  the  north  of  the  Provinces  of  Tayninh  and  Thudaumot,  and  in 
the  east  of  the  Provinces  of  Bienhoa  and  Baria.  The  numbers  are 
difficult  to  estimate,  but  may  amount  to  a  thousand.  The  horns 
are  sometimes  used  in  Chinese  pharmacy.  The  hunting  is  regu- 
lated. (Roche,  in  litt.,  1937.) 

In  the  region  where  Cochin  China,  Cambodia,  and  Annam  meet, 
depletion  of  the  herds  is  more  pronounced  in  the  case  of  the  Gaur 
than  in  the  case  of  the  Banteng.  The  central  plateau  of  Indo- 
China  was  formerly  noted  for  its  Gaurs.  There  are  still  many 
today,  but  the  herds  under  observation  for  15  years  melt  away 
little  by  little.  Fully  mature  individuals  are  rarer  and  rarer.  The 
decrease  is  not  due  to  epizootics;  those  which  strike  the  Bovidae 
are  manifested  in  Indo-China  with  a  remarkable  periodicity.  They 
have  always  existed.  Thus  they  could  not  account  for  the  pro- 
gressively accelerated  diminution  that  everybody  has  noticed 
during  the  past  15  years.  The  existence  of  the  Gaur  and  the 
Banteng  is  seriously  threatened,  regardless  of  favorable  appear- 
ances at  certain  points,  but  a  few  protective  measures  seriously 
applied  would  remove  the  danger.  (Andre  Kieffer,  in  litt.,  Novem- 
ber 21,  1936.) 

James  L.  Clark  (in  litt.,  June  26,  1936)  reports  the  species  on 
the  Lagna  River,  125  miles  northeast  of  Saigon.  "The  gaur  are 
apparently  plentiful,  but  their  ranges  are  spotty  and  limited." 


520  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

The  Gaur  inhabits  the  whole  of  Laos,  from  the  Chinese  frontier 
to  that  of  Cambodia.  In  spite  of  the  refuge  afforded  by  the  great 
mountains,  it  has  decreased  in  numbers  since  1910,  and  relatively 
more  so  than  the  Banteng.  Like  the  latter,  it  has  been  depleted 
by  repeated  epizootics  (rinderpest),  by  night  hunting  with  fire- 
arms, and  by  hunting  both  day  and  night  with  great  crossbows 
and  poisoned  arrows.  In  a  territory  20  km.  by  8-10  km.,  which  is 
well  known  to  the  writer  and  which  could  support  about  100 
Gaurs  and  200  Bantengs,  there  are  practically  no  Gaurs  left  but 
still  about  70-80  Bantengs.  Wherever  the  domestic  stock  has  suf- 
fered from  the  rinderpest,  the  Gaurs  of  adjacent  areas  have  paid 
a  heavy  toll.  The  meat  is  utilized  and  there  is  a  trade  in  horns. 
The  hide  is  without  any  value,  except  that  the  natives  appreciate 
it,  no  less  than  the  meat,  as  food.  Protective  measures  that  ought 
to  be  adopted  include  the  prohibition  of  night  hunting  and  of  any 
poisoned  weapon.  (P.  Vitry,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

Enemies. — "Bison  have  only  Iwo  enemies  to  fear,  viz.  tiger,  and 
man,  but  the  former  is  no  match  for  a  full-grown  bull  and  it  is 
only  when  a  bison  feels  his  end  is  approaching  through  old  age, 
disease  or  w.ounds,  that  he  succumbs  to  the  repeated  attacks  of  a 
tiger"  (Thorn,  1934,  p.  111). 

Domestication. — The  Gayal  or  Mythun  (Bibos  frontalis  (Lam- 
bert)) has  long  been  an  outstanding  puzzle  to  taxonomists.  Early 
writers  reported  it  as  occurring  in  the  wild  as  well  as  the  domesti- 
cated state  in  eastern  Bengal  and  in  Assam.  Lydekker  (1913, 
vol.  1,  p.  15)  refers  to  it  as  "the  domesticated,  or  semi-domesti- 
cated, representative  of  the  gaur." 

More  recently,  however,  a  somewhat  different  and  perhaps  more 
plausible  explanation  has  been  offered.  "The  Gyal  or  Mythun 
...  is  the  product  of  interbreeding  between  a  bull  Gaur  and 
domestic  cattle.  At  the  fourth  generation  the  true  stage  of  mythun 
is  reached — an  animal  of  lesser  stature  than  the  Gaur,  shorter  limbs 
and  usually  a  well  developed  dewlap.  .  .  .  The  horns  show  a  slight 
upward  curve  without  the  terminal  inward  sweep.  .  .  .  Mythun 
are  found  in  the  mountainous  tracts  from  North  Cachar,  through 
Manipur,  to  the  Lushai  and  Chin  Hills.  They  are  the  peculiar  and 
characteristic  possession  of  the  hill  tribes  inhabiting  this  region." 
(Anonymous,  1933,  p.  28.) 

On  the  other  hand,  Peacock  (1933,  p.  119)  considers  the  Mythun 
simply  the  domesticated  Gaur.  He  has  never  heard  of  any  cross 
between  the  Gaur  and  domestic  cattle  except  on  the  northern  fron- 
tiers of  Burma. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  521 

Malayan  Gaur;  Malayan  Bison.    Seladang   (Malayan) 

BIBOS  GAURUS  HUBBACKI  (Lydekker) 

Bos  gaurus   hubbacki  Lydekker,   Game   Animals  of  India,  Burma,   Malaya, 

and  Tibet,  p.  64,  1907.    (Pahang,  Malay  Peninsula.) 
FIGS.:    Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  17,  fig.  10;  Hubback,  1932,  vol.  2,  frontisp., 

and  1936,  frontisp.,  pis.  on  pp.  7,  8,  18;  Hubback,  1937,  figs.  1-4;  Leister, 

1935,  p.  58,  fig. 

The  status  of  the  Seladang  has  become  quite  precarious.  It  is 
"on' the  danger  list  despite  protection"  (Comyn-Platt,  19376,  p.  48). 

"No  dewlap,  lower  segments  of  legs  dirty  yellow,  and  the  inter- 
cornual  arch  but  slightly  developed  .  .  .  ,  being  altogether  absent 
in  the  type  specimen,  which  in  this  respect  closely  resembles  a  gayal. 
Compared  with  the  typical  Indian  race,  there  is  a  greater  extent 
of  the  tawny  grey  area  on  the  forehead;  and  there  is  also  a  distinct 
whitish  band  above  the  muzzle."  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  20.) 
Hubback  states  (1937,  p.  268)  that  some  mature  animals  have  a 
very  pronounced  dewlap,  and  that  the  mature  bull  measures  up  to 
6  feet  3^  inches  at  the  shoulder. 

"The  range  of  this  race  includes  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  may 
extend  northwards  to  Tenasserim"  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  20). 

Its  former  abundance  is  attested  by  Ridley  (1895,  p.  163) :  "The 
Seladang  usually  inhabits  the  denser  hill-jungles,  where  its  tracks 
may  be  often  seen;  but  it  is  also  abundant  in  the  more  open,  grassy 
spots,  such  as  the  banks  of  the  Pahang  river." 

"In  the  Museum  at  Taiping  there  are  horns  from  Batang  Padang, 
Perak,  and  many  fine  heads  from  Pahang  ....  In  the  Museum  at 
Kuala  Lumpor  there  are  a  stuffed  bull  and  numerous  heads  shot 
...  in  Selangor.  The  Raffles  Museum  contains  a  skull  from  Ulu 
Pahang."  (Flower,  1900,  p.  369.) 

Hubback  (1923,  pp.  21-22)  gives  the  following  account  of  native 
persecution : 

Here  is  an  instance  of  what  has  been  going  on  during  the  last  few  years  in 
one  of  the  more  remote  places  of  Pahang.  An  entire  herd  of  seladang,  prob- 
ably averaging  twenty  head  at  least,  has  been  wiped  out  from  an  area  of 
about  four  hundred  square  miles  over  which  they  used  to  wander.  This  work 
was  probably  done  by  Malays,  most  of  whom  would  certainly  not  have  had 
licences  to  shoot  big  game.  The  last  seen  of  this  herd,  as  far  as  I  can  ascertain, 
was  some  three  years  ago,  when  a  Malay  came  across  the  remaining  survivors. 
They  were  three  bulls.  What  a  picture !  The  cows  and  young  calves  killed  off 
to  the  last  pound  of  meat — yes,  that  is  what  counts — and  the  more  dangerous 
and  less  palatable  bulls  left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  These  bulls  would 
eventually  separate  and  become  solitary,  which  they  have  probably  done  by 
now  if  still  alive;  but  the  herd?  Gone,  never  to  be  replaced.  This  herd  was 
not  rounded  up  and  wiped  out  that  way  .  .  .  but  they  were  gradually  potted 
at  and  potted  at  for  meat,  and  from  what  I  know  of  the  native  hunter, 
probably  for  every  one  actually  secured  at  least  two  died  in  the  jungle 
from  wounds  inflicted  with  inadequate  weapons  in  the  hands  of  unskilled 
hunters. 


522  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

This  district  lies  in  the  Ulu  Tanum  and  its  tributaries — .  .  .  the  mouth  of 
the  Tanum  being  about  fifteen  miles  up-stream  from  Kuala  Lipis,  the 
capital  of  the  State  of  Pahang. 

The  following  additional  information  on  the  recent  status  of  the 
Seladang  is  also  given  by  Hubback  (1932,  vol.  2) : 

Careful  conservation  during  the  last  five  or  six  years  in  the  Gunong  Tahan 
Game  Reserve  [in  Pahang,  Trengganu,  and  Kelantan]  has  saved  the  seladang 
from  what  would,  by  this  time,  have  been  a  dangerous  decrease,  and  they  are 
gradually  returning  to  old  haunts  which  have  not  seen  them  for  some  years. 

The  seladang  in  the  Ulu  Sat,  which  at  times  come  into  the  Gunong  Tahan 
Game  Reserve,  at  other  times  into  the  Ulu  Spia,  are  I  believe  on  the  in- 
crease. When  one  gets  across  to  the  west  side  of  the  reserve,  the  few  remaining 
head  of  seladang  and  rhinoceros  which  were  left  after  years  of  poaching  are 
beginning  to  benefit  from  conservation  and  are  also  on  the  increase.  The 
seladang  in  the  Ulu  Tanum  had  been  reduced  to  three  head  in  1924.  (P.  139.) 

The  Serting  Game  Reserve  in  Negri  Sembilan,  which  was  created  in  October, 
1923,  was  rescinded  in  September,  1929,  which  enabled  part  of  the  area  .  .  . 
to  be  alienated  immediately  for  rubber  cultivation. 

Sungei  Lui  Game  Reserve  in  Pahang,  created  in  June,  1925,  whose  southern 
boundary  marched  with  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Serting  Game  Reserve, 
was  also  rescinded  in  September,  1929.  .  .  . 

A  determined  effort  was  made  to  revoke  the  Krau  Game  Reserve  [in 
Pahang],  the  most  valuable  Reserve  for  seladang  in  the  whole  of  Malaya, 
and  a  most  important  Sanctuary  for  all  sorts  of  wild  life,  including  Sakai. 
Fortunately  the  Krau  Game  Reserve  was  saved  ....  The  latest  Reserve  to 
be  established  is  the  Sungkai  Game  Reserve  in  Perak,  a  small  Reserve,  which 
is  chiefly  a  Sanctuary  for  one  of  the  last  remaining  herds  of  seladang  in 
Perak.  (P.  195.) 

The  seladang  in  the  Serting  Valley  had  been  badly  poached  and  the  large 
number  of  seladang  there — I  have  seen  as  many  as  thirty  in  one  padang — 
had  been  reduced  to  about  twelve  head  in  1923.  The  effect  of  the  conservation 
that  had  taken  place  for  six  years  in  the  Serting  Game  Reserve  had  increased 
those  seladang  to  probably  double  that  number.  (P.  198.) 

The  Sungkai  Game  Reserve  [in  Perak],  which  contains  a  small  herd  of 
seladang,  is  only  4,460  acres  in  extent  and  is  therefore  small  as  a  permanent 
home  for  these  seladang  (p.  208). 

The  seladang  of  Perak  have  nearly  disappeared,  and  these  seladang  will 
disappear  too  unless  adequate  steps  are  taken  to  protect  them.  I  was  informed 
when  we  were  sitting  in  Tapah  that  seladang  poaching  is  not  yet  a  forgotten 
art,  and  when  a  stage  has  been  reached  whereby  the  seladang  have  been 
reduced  to  two  or  three  herds  in  a  large  state  like  Perak,  then  surely  it  is 
time  to  make  serious  effort  to  prevent  them  disappearing  altogether.  (P.  209.) 

Page  writes  (1934,  pp.  39-40) : 

"The  rescission  of  the  Serting  Game  Reserve  in  1929  was  the 
death  knell  for  the  seladang  in  that  portion  of  Negri  Sembilan. 
There  are  none  elsewhere  in  Negri  Sembilan  in  sufficient  numbers 
to  enable  them  to  breed  or  thrive.  .  .  . 

"This  animal  is  decreasing  and  .  .  .  when  the  decrease  reaches  a 
certain  point  it  becomes  geometrical  decrease." 

F.  N.  Chasen  remarks  (in  litt.,  May  5,  1937)  that  the  Seladang 
needs  rigid  protection  if  its  numbers  are  to  be  maintained. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  523 

Javan  Banteng 

BIBOS  SONDAICUS  soNDAicus  (Schlegel  and  Miiller) 

Bos  sondaicus  Schlegel  and  Miiller,  in  Temminck's  Verb.  Natuurl.  Geschiedenis 
Nederl.  overz.  bezittingen,  Zool.,  Mammalia,  pis.  35-39,  1840(?)  [at 
least  not  later  than  1844] ;  accompanying  text  (pp.  195  ff.)  published  in 
1845.  ("Java.")  (Cf.  Harper,  1940,  p.  324.) 

SYNQNYMS:  Bos  banteng  "Raffl."  Wagner  (1844);  Bos  banting  "Raffl."  Sun- 
devall  (1846). 

FIGS.:  Schlegel  and  Muller,  op.  cit.,  pis.  35-39;  Lydekker,  1898a,  pi.  25,  fig. 
2;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  3;  Lydekker,  19126,  pi.  20,  fig.  2  (subsp.?) ;  Lydek- 
ker, 1912d,  p.  903,  fig.  123;  Lydekker,  1913,  vol.  1,  p.  24,  fig.  11;  Tropische 
Natuur,  vol.  14,  p.  46,  fig.,  1925;  Dammerman,  1929,  p.  35,  fig.  9. 

This  extremely  interesting  form  of  wild  ox  occurs  only  in  Java, 
where  its  numbers  are  now  so  limited  that  it  is  "threatened  with 
extinction"  (Dammerman,  in  Skottsberg,  1934,  p.  422). 

Size  smaller  and  build  lighter  than  in  the  Gaur,  with  the  dorsal 
ridge  less  developed ;  head  more  elongate ;  horns  relatively  small  and 
slender,  curving  upward  and  outward ;  tail  well  tufted  and  reaching 
below  the  hocks;  general  color  (including  the  face)  of  adult  bulls 
blackish  brown  or  black;  white  rump-patch  very  large  and  distinct; 
females  reddish  chestnut,  with  very  small  horns;  lower  part  of  legs 
in  adults  whitish.  Height  at  shoulder,  5  feet  9J  inches.  (Lydekker, 
1898a,  p.  277,  and  1913,  vol.  1,  pp.  22-24.)  Length  of  horn  on  outside 
curve  up  to  26J  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  321). 

Presumably  the  Banteng  formerly  inhabited  Sumatra  also,  but 
died  out  there  (De  Beaufort,  1926,  p.  62).  It  is  not  found  in  the 
wild  state  on  the  Lesser  Sunda  Islands,  although  feral  domestic 
Bantengs  occur  on  Bali  and  Lombok  (Mertens,  1936,  p.  279).  It 
"will  breed  freely  with  domestic  cattle,  and  is  itself  kept  in  a  more 
or  less  domesticated  condition  by  various  native  tribes  of  the  Malay 
countries"  (Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  37). 

According  to  Muller  (1839,  p.  45),  it  is  pretty  common  in  Java  in 
all  wooded  regions,  both  lowland  and  mountainous. 

Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn  (1936,  pp.  51-52)  give  the  fol- 
lowing account: 

In  Java  the  banteng  is  reported  from  Oedong  Koelan,  the  Tegal-waroe 
districts,  east  of  the  dessa  Dampak  on  the  slopes  of  Andjasmoro,  near  the 
Baloeran,  in  the  Nature  Monument  of  the  Blambangan  Peninsula,  and  further 
westward  to  Poegoer;  again  in  the  districts  of  Karangnoenggal  and  Pangan- 
daran.  The  40  bantengs  of  the  Krawang  district  are  specially  protected. 
Bantengs  are  by  no  means  rare  in  the  southern  parts  of  West  Indramajoe, 
where,  according  to  estimates,  there  are  4  or  5  herds,  totalling  about  50  head. 

In  South  Bali,  bantengs  were  formerly  common  in  the  forests  of  Sangketan 
at  the  foot  of  the  Batoekaoe;  but  with  the  deforestation  of  these  areas  they 
have  disappeared  completely.  One  finds  there,  though,  Bali  cattle  gone  wild, 
looking  much  like  banteng.  .  .  . 


524  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Already  in  1909  partial  protection  of  wild  cattle  was  started.  The  method 
used  at  the  time  is  fully  discussed  in  Koningsberger's  "Java  Zoologisch  en 
Biologisch  [1915]."  It  was  partial  protection  because  the  Heads  of  the 
Regional  Administration  had  the  power  to  revoke  the  protection  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  but  temporarily  and  under  conditions  to  be  specified  in  each 
case.  This  authority  is  at  present  somewhat  limited,  nevertheless  better  pro- 
tection is  much  needed,  especially  outside  of  Java. 

A  number  of  Government  foresters  in  various  parts  of  Java  have 
supplied  detailed  information  (in  litt.,  1937)  on  the  status  of  the 
Banteng,  but  there  is  space  here  only  for  the  following  summaries 
of  their  reports. 

The  species  occurred  over  the  greater  part  of  Banjoewangi  at  the 
beginning  of  this  century  and  is  now  found  in  small  numbers  in  two 
different  areas.  From  1933  to  1936  all  the  forest  reserves  on  the 
southern  coast  became  wildlife  reserves,  and  in  1937  the  forests  in 
North  Banjoewangi  were  to  be  closed  to  hunting.  But  hunters 
congregate  in  adjacent  areas.  It  would  be  advisable  to  stop  all 
hunting  of  the  Banteng  in  the  whole  forest  district  of  Banjoewangi 
for  a  ten-year  period.  The  animal  does  only  a  little  harm,  which 
can  be  easily  prevented. 

In  the  southern  forests  of  Djolosoetro,  Serang,  Tambak,  Soem- 
berboto,  and  South  Toeloengagoeng  the  herds  are  estimated  to  con- 
tain respectively  30,  15,  12,  8,  and  15  head.  A  few  have  been  killed 
illegally,  but  the  numbers  remain  unchanged. 

The  Banteng's  present  distribution  includes  West  Java,  South 
Kederi,  South  Malang,  and  the  former  residency  of  Besoeki.  It  is 
rare,  and  decreases  year  by  year. 

On  the  south  coast  of  Indramajoe  it  is  still  numerous,  and  a  few 
individuals  are  left  in  South  Malang  and  in  the  northeastern  corner 
of  Java.  In  all  its  range  in  West,  Middle,  and  East  Java  there  is  a 
strong  decrease. 

In  Middle  Java  there  are  now  only  about  100  specimens  between 
Madjenang  and  Noesakembangan  in  Tjilatjap.  The  hunting  in 
Middle  Java  is  forbidden  for  two  years  from  1936. 

The  number  remaining  in  East  Brantas,  in  the  forest  reserve  in 
the  southern  mountains  and  vicinity,  is  estimated  at  about  200. 

In  the  regency  of  Garoet  the  numbers  have  decreased,  but  a  good 
many  remain,  in  herds  of  up  to  20  head. 

The  last  Banteng  in  the  forest  district  of  Ngandjoek  is  said  to 
have  been  killed  in  1921. 

The  species  is  still  quite  common  in  the  primitive  forest  in  the 
Tjampoerdarat  district  along  the  south  coast. 

In  the  Banjoemas  region  the  total  number  remaining  is  probably 
200-250. 

In  1920  there  were  more  than  100  animals  in  the  Indramajoe 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  525 

• 

forest  district  and  vicinity ;  about  30  are  now  left.  There  has  prob- 
ably been  crossing  with  feral  domestic  cattle. 

In  the  North  Bandoeng  region  the  Banteng  ought  to  exist  still  in 
Pamanoekan  and  Tjiasem.  In  one  place  15  animals  are  reported. 

'  In  the  Middle  Preanger  region  it  is  found  only  on  the  south  coast 
in  Tjipondok,  where  it  is  being  exterminated  through  shooting. 

In  the  West  Preanger  region  there  are  considerable  numbers.  In 
the  area  which  will  form  the  Tjikepoeh  wildlife  reserve  there  are 
several  hundred  and  possibly  a  thousand.  In  two  other  areas  there 
are  about  300.  The  numbers  have  increased  recently,  but  they  were 
decreasing  rapidly  before  the  introduction  of  the  Game  Preservation 
Ordinance.  The  good  position  of  the  stock  in  Tjikepoeh  has  been 
brought  about  by  the  "Vereeniging  Venatoria,"  which  has  organized 
the  hunting.  Efforts  have  been  made  (but  so  far  in  vain)  to  abolish 
licenses  for  shooting  game  in  the  other  forest  reserves  where  Ban- 
teng are  found. 

In  the  Dj  ember  region  the  species  formerly  existed  in  great 
numbers  in  the  forests  of  South  Besoeki.  Herds  of  30-50  animals 
were  seen  as  late  as  1920-25.  In  1937  one  herd  of  6-10  animals  was 
seen.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  Game  Preservation  Ordinance 
there  has  been  practically  no  hunting. 

The  Banteng  is  quite  numerous  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
regency  of  Tasikmalaja.  Various  forest  reserves  in  this  district  have 
been  closed  to  all  hunting. 

In  these  reports  there  is  general  agreement  on  poaching  and  the 
advance  of  cultivation  as  the  chief  causes  of  depletion.  The  natives 
like  the  Banteng's  meat  very  much.  The  hides  are  used  for  leather, 
and  the  horns  for  various  articles.  There  is  a  good  demand  for  the 
species  on  the  part  of  traders  in  wild  animals.  It  does  some  harm 
in  paddy,  rubber,  and  fiber  plantations. 

Domestication. — On  a  previous  page  mention  has  been  made  of 
domesticated  Bantengs  in  the  Malay  countries,  and  especially  in 
the  islands  of  Bali  and  Lombok.  These  apparently  bear  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  wild  Banteng.  Keller  (1902,  pp.  144-154,  217) 
discusses  various  other  domestic  cattle  of  the  Old  World  (and  par- 
ticularly the  Zebu)  as  descendants  or  derivatives  of  the  Banteng. 

Malay  Banteng.     Sapi  Utan    (Malayan) 

BIBOS  SONDAICUS  BUTLERi  (Lydekker) 

Bos  sondaicus  butleri  Lydekker,  Field,  vol.  105,  p.  151,  1905,  and  Jour.  Fed. 

Malay  States  Mus.,  vol.  1,  p.  62,  1905.    ("Perak,"  Malay  Peninsula.) 
FIG.:   Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  13,  p.  192,  fig.,  1900. 

So  little  definite  information  is  available  concerning  this  animal 
that  it  almost  belongs  in  the  mythical  class.  The  name  butleri 
was  based  upon  a  skull. 


526  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

• 

"The  bantin  found  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  appears  to  be  very 
rare  and  local,  and  the  possibility  of  its  being  nothing  more  than 
a  feral  race  of  the  domesticated  Bali  bantin,  which  is  largely 
imported  into  Singapore,  should  be  borne  in  mind.  The  colour  is 
stated  to  be  blackish  in  the  bulls  and  reddish  chestnut  in  the  cows, 
with  little  or  no  white  on  the  rump,  at  least  in  the  latter;  the 
lower  portion  of  the  legs  varying  in  colour  from  dirty  white  to 
reddish  or  blackish.  Horns  of  cows  very  short,  as  in  typical  race, 
to  which  this  bantin  appears  closely  related."  (Lydekker,  1913, 
vol.  1,  p.  29.) 

"The  Banting  is  probably  very  rare  in  the  Malay  Peninsula: 
Mr.  H.  N.  Ridley  told  me  one  was  killed  by  Mr.  Oxley  at  Muar 
[ Johore]  about  fifty  years  ago"  (Flower,  1900,  p.  370) . 

"Notwithstanding  Butler's  and  Lydekker's  identification  of  the 
female  skull  of  some  kind  of  ox  from  Perak  as  a  banteng,  there 
is  no  real  proof  of  the  existence  of  the  species  in  the  Malay  States: 
a  great  number  of  horns  and  frontlets  obtained  by  Europeans  and 
Malays  have  been  seen,  but  all  are  unquestionably  those  of  gaur 
or  seladang:  undoubtedly  if  the  banteng  occurred,  trophies  of  it 
would  have  been  noticed  among  them.  The  distribution  is  there- 
fore parallel  with  that  of  several  other  animals  and  some  birds, 
i.  e.,  the  species  occurs  in  Indo-China  and  one  or  other  of  the  Malay 
Islands  but  skips  the  Peninsula."  (Kloss,  1917,  p.  317.) 

More  recent  news  is  furnished  by  Hubback  (1932,  pp.  24-27,  213) : 

I  believe  that  there  are  still  .  .  .  possibly  what  are  known  as  Bos  banteng 
(sapi  utan)  in  the  Mukim  of  Sok  [Kedah].  .  .  . 

If  sapi  utan  .  .  .  are  to  be  found  there,  then  that  would  be  the  most 
southern  point  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  in  which  they  were  to  be  found  .... 

When  in  Perlis  I  saw  two  frontal  skull  bones,  with  horns  attached,  of 
sapi  utan  which  had  been  shot  by  the  ex-Penghulu  of  Chuping  in  1930  within 
a  few  miles  of  his  house,  and  he  informed  me  that  only  the  week  previously  a 
herd  of  sapi  utan  had  been  in  the  same  place.  The  trophies  I  saw  were 
typical  Bos  banteng  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  species,  which  is  very 
rare  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  although  common  in  Burma  and  Borneo,  is 
still  to  be  found  in  Perlis  and  it  would  be  of  great  interest  if  it  was  recorded 
in  Kedah  as  well,  and  of  still  greater  interest  if  its  habitat  could  be  set  aside 
as  a  sanctuary. 

This  species  of  wild  cattle  has  never  been  authentically  recorded  from  the 
Federated  Malay  States,  Kelantan,  Trengganu  or  Johore.  .  .  . 

The  ex-Penghulu  of  Chuping  .  .  .  knew  that  the  herd  from  which  he  had 
shot  his  two  head  the  previous  year  frequently  crossed  and  recrossed  the 
Perlis-Siam  border,  stating  that  there  were  salt  licks  both  in  Perlis  and  Siam 
which  these  animals  periodically  visited.  He  volunteered  the  information  that 
it  was  his  opinion  that  this  herd  went  as  far  as  the  Ulu  Telian  salt  licks  in 
Kedah,  and  if  this  surmise  is  correct  it  would  be  reasonable  to  expect  to 
find  Bos  banteng  distributed  between  the  points  mentioned.  .  .  . 

The  ex-Penghulu  of  Chuping  informed  me  [that  these  banteng]  were 
sometimes  to  be  found  in  a  herd  of  as  many  as  fifteen  animals. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  527 

F.  N.  Chasen  writes  (in  litt.,  May  5, 1937) :  "In  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula is  found  only  in  the  north.  The  species  has  been  recorded  from 
as  far  south  as  Perak,  but  I  do  not  believe  in  this  record.  In,  at 
least,  the  southern  parts  of  its  range  the  species  certainly  needs 
protection." 

Other  Bantengs 

In  addition  to  the  Javan  and  Malayan  Bantengs  discussed  above, 
several  subspecies  on  the  mainland  of  southeastern  Asia  and  one 
in  Borneo  have  been  described.  While  all  these  have  evidently  suf- 
fered reduction  in  numbers  during  recent  decades,  their  status  is 
not  yet  so  unsatisfactory  as  to  require  more  than  passing  mention. 

The  Burmese  Banteng,  Tsaine,  or  Saing  (Bibos  sondaicus  bir- 
manicus *  (Lydekker) )  is  "distributed  throughout  Burma  from 
Mergui  in  the  extreme  south  to  Myitkyina  in  the  north.  .  .  .  There 
are  still  thousands  of  square  miles  throughout  Burma  in  which  saing 
are  found  in  fair  numbers."  (Peacock,  1933,  p.  113.) 

Lydekker  (1898c,  p.  43)  describes  (without  naming)  a  Manipur 
race  of  the  Banteng.  Its  distribution  is  given  (p.  45)  as  "the  Kubbu 
Valley,  between  Manipur  and  Northern  Burma;  perhaps  extending 
to  the  ranges  eastward  of  Chittagong,  where  this  form  may  inter- 
grade  with  the  Burmese  race."  "Large  herds"  were  reported  in  1897, 
and  it  is  still  said  to  be  common  in  the  Kabaw  Valley  (Political 
Agent  in  Manipur  and  J.  C.  Higgins,  in  litt.,  March,  1937) . 

Lydekker  has  applied  the  name  porteri 2  to  certain  Siamese  Ban- 
tengs with  spotted  pelage.  This,  however,  is  considered  by  various 
authors  (Gairdner,  1917,  p.  250;  Kloss,  1917,  p.  316;  Gyldenstolpe, 
1919,  p.  174)  as  merely  an  individual  variation.  For  the  present, 
therefore,  the  Siamese  Bantengs  may  be  referred  to  the  Burmese 
form  (Bibos  sondaicus  birmanicus).  These  animals  appear  to  be 
moderately  common  as  yet  in  Siam,  especially  in  the  northern, 
central,  and  western  parts  (Gyldenstolpe,  1919,  p.  174;  R.  M.  de 
Schauensee,  oral  communication,  April,  1938). 

The  Banteng  of  French  Indo-China  may  also  be  referred  pro- 
visionally to  birmanicus;  but  if  it  should  prove  to  be  distinct,  several 
names  applied  to  the  wild  cattle  of  this  region  by  Heude  (Mem. 
Hist.  Nat.  Empire  Chinois,  vol.  5,  pt.  1,  pp.  2-11,  pis.  3-11,  1901) 
are  available.  While  it  has  decreased  decidedly  in  some  localities, 
a  moderate  stock  seems  to  remain  elsewhere  (James  L.  Clark,  in  litt., 
June  26,  1936;  Andre  Kieffer,  in  litt.,  November  21,  1936;  P.  Vitry, 
in  litt,,  December,  1936;  Roche,  in  litt.,  December,  1936). 

iBos  sondaicus  birmanicus  Lydekker,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1898,  p  277 
pi.  25,  fig.  1,  1898.  (Burma.) 

2  Bos  sondaicus  porteri  Lydekker,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1909  p  669  1909 
("Siam.") 


528  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

The  Bornean  Banteng  (Bibos  sondaicus  lowi1  (Lydekker))  is 
confined  to  that  island.  It  is  reported  as  still  common  in  Dutch 
Borneo  by  several  Government  foresters  (in  litt.,  1937).  It  also 
occurs,  though  not  abundantly,  in  the  northern  parts  of  Borneo 
(Shelford,  1916,  p.  46;  Mjoberg,  1930,  p.  19). 

Wild  Yak 

POEPHAGUS  GRUNNIENS  MUTUS  Przewalski 

Poephagus  mutus  Przewalski,  Third  Journey  in  Central  Asia  (in  Russian), 
p.  191,  pi.  facing  p.  190,  1883.  (Alpine  region  of  the  western  part  of  the 
Nan  Shan  (approximately  lat.  39°  20'  N.,  long.  95°  E.)  between  the 
Anembar-Ula  on  the  west  and  the  Humboldt  Range  on  the  east;  cf. 
Harper,  1940,  pp.  325-326.) 

FIGS.:  Prejevalsky,  1876,  vol.  2,  p.  188,  fig.;  Przewalski,  1883,  pi.  facing  p.  190; 
Prschewalski,  1884,  pi.  facing  p.  108;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  4,  and  1900, 
pi.  2,  figs.  4,  4a;  Hedin,  1899,  vol.  2,  pp.  1015,  1018,  1021,  figs.,  and  1904, 
p.  211,  fig.;  Leche,  1904,  p.  12,  fig.  8,  p.  14,  fig.  9,  pi.  3;  Hedin,  Southern 
Tibet,  vol.  4,  pi.  following  p.  72,  1922;  Stockley,  1928,  pi.  facing  p.  126; 
Schafer,  1938,  p.  73,  fig.  45;  Engelmann,  1938,  fig.  112. 

The  Wild  Yak  is  suffering  severely  from  intensive  hunting  with 
modern  rifles  in  a  region  where  game  laws  are  unknown,  and  its 
range  as  well  as  its  numbers  have  become  considerably  reduced. 

"The  body  is  covered  with  thick  black  hair,  which  in  the  old 
males  assumes  a  chestnut  colour  on  the  back  and  upper  parts  of 
the  sides,  and  a  deep  fringe  of  black  hair  hangs  down  from  the 
flanks.  The  muzzle  is  partly  grey,  and  the  younger  males  have 
marks  of  the  same  colour  on  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  whilst  a 
narrow  silvery  grey  stripe  runs  down  the  centre  of  the  back."  A 
full-grown  bull  measures  11  feet  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  bushy 
tail,  which  is  3  feet  long;  height  at  the  hump,  6  feet.  The  female 
is  much  smaller,  with  shorter  and  lighter  horns;  height  at  the  hump, 
4  feet  9  inches.  (Prejevalsky,  1876,  vol.  2,  pp.  187-189.)  The  record 
length  of  horns  is  38J  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  314). 

"Wild  yak  range  from  the  eastern  part  of  Ladak,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Chang-Chenmo  (where  they  now  appear  to  be  ex- 
terminated) as  far  east  as  Kan-su  and  northwards  to  the  Kuen-lun, 
at  elevations  between  14,000  and  20,000  feet."  Specimens  are  re- 
corded from  Ladak;  Tibet;  Tibet  north  of  Sikhim;  and  Kuen-lun 
(94°  E.,  35°  N.).  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  pp.  33-34.) 

Prejevalsky  (1876,  vol.  2,  pp.  189-200)  gives  the  following 
account : 

In  these  inhospitable  wastes  [of  northern  Tibet],  in  the  midst  of  a  desolate 
nature,  yet  far  removed  from  pitiless  man,  the  famous  long-haired  ox  roams 

i  Bos  sondaicus  lowi  Lydekker,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1912,  p.  906,  1912. 
("Rejang  Valley,"  Sarawak,  Borneo.) 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  529 

in  unrestricted  freedom.  This  animal  ...  is  also  found  further  north,  and  is 
said  to  haunt  in  considerable  numbers  the  mountain  ranges  of  Kan-su  near 
the  headwaters  of  the  Tatung  and  Etsina,  the  northernmost  limit  of  its 
distribution.  In  Kan-su,  however,  it  is  becoming  extinct,  owing  to  the  way 
in  which  it  is  persecuted  by  the  native  hunters.  .  .  . 

At  all  other  times,  except  the  rutting  season,  the  old  bulls  keep  single,  or 
in  small  troops  of  three  or  five;  younger  fully  grown  bulls  .  .  .  are  more 
often  found  in  separate  troops  of  ten  or  twelve,  with  one  or  two  old  bulls 
among  them.  The  females,  young  bulls,  and  calves  assemble  in  enormous 
herds  of  several  hundred  or  a  thousand  head.  In  such  large  numbers  they 
have  difficulty  in  finding  sufficient  food,  but  the  calves  are  thus  best  protected 
from  the  attacks  of  wolves.  .  .  . 

We  first  saw  single  animals  soon  after  crossing  the  Burkhan  Buddha,  but 
it  was  not  until  we  came  to  the  Baian-kara-ula  .  .  .  that  we  saw  herds  of 
them,  and  again,  in  the  valley  of  the  Murui-ussu ;  previously  we  had  seen  two 
small  troops  near  the  river  Shuga.  .  .  . 

Their  favourite  resorts  are  thickly  strewn  with  their  dung,  which  is  the  only 
fuel  in  these  deserts,  and  without  which  the  journey  across  Tibet  would  be 
impracticable,  for  there  are  no  bushes  of  any  kind  in  this  country.  .  .  . 

Gifted  with  enormous  physical  strength,  the  yak  in  its  native  deserts,  far 
from  the  haunts  of  men,  has  no  dangerous  enemies,  and  generally  dies  of 
old  age.  But  he  is  subject  to  a  kind  of  mange  .  .  .  which  spreads  over  the 
whole  body,  and  causes  the  hair  to  fall  off.  I  cannot  say  whether  they  ever 
recover  from  this  complaint,  or  whether  in  time  it  proves  fatal  .... 

The  Mongols  of  Tsaidam  .  .  .  often  hunt  the  wild  yak,  their  chief  induce- 
ment being  the  large  quantity  of  meat  which  it  yields;  gluttony  overcoming 
their  fears.  .  .  .  Besides  eating  the  yak  beef,  Mongols  use  the  heart  and 
blood  of  this  animal,  taken  internally,  for  medicinal  purposes;  the  hides  are 
sent  to  Tonkir,  and  ropes  are  spun  from  the  long  hair  of  the  tail  and  flanks. 

Rockhill  reports  (1891,  p.  177)  that  the  hills  around  a  plain  south 
of  the  Yellow  River,  in  eastern  Tibet,  were  black  with  Yaks,  which 
were  little  molested  by  man.  "They  could  be  seen  by  thousands." 

Bower  (1894,  p.  286)  also  testifies  to  their  former  abundance: 
"Herds,  and  occasionally  solitary  old  bulls,  are  to  be  seen  all  over 
the  Chang.  Sometimes  as  many  as  a  hundred  were  seen  in  a  day, 
and  for  days  together  some  were  always  in  sight." 

"In  Ladak  the  great  district  for  yak  is  the  Chang-chenmo  valley, 
and  the  dreary  regions  between  this  and  the  upper  Indus;  but  these 
animals  are  yearly  becoming  scarcer  within  the  territories  under  the 
rule  of  the  Maharaja  of  Kashmir,  although  reported  to  be  numerous 
in  Tibet  proper"  (Lydekker,  1900,  p.  68). 

Hedin  (1899,  vol.  2,  pp.  1019-1021)  was  told  that— 

in  Cherchen,  Charkhlik,  and  Achan  (places  at  the  northern  foot  of  the 
Kwen-lun  mountains)  there  lived  .  .  .  hunters,  who  gained  their  livelihood 
almost  entirely  by  hunting  the  yak.  Their  hunting  grounds  are  the  Arka- 
tagh  and  Chimen-tagh,  in  Northern  Tibet.  Each  hunter  takes  with  him  two 
men,  and  a  donkey  to  carry  home  the  skin.  But  generally  two  or  more 
hunters  work  together,  so  as  to  support  one  another  if  they  are  attacked  by 
the  yak.  .  .  . 

The  best  leather  is  obtained  from  the  section  off  the  back  ....     It  is 
18 


530  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

employed  for  making  saddles,  saddle-girths,  bridle-reins,  whips,  and  so  on,  as 
well  as  for  the  better  kind  of  boots.  .  .  .  The  tail  is  generally  hung  up  as 
a  religious  offering  ...  at  some  .  .  .  saint's  tomb. 

The  skins  are  sold  to  the  merchants  of  Cherchen,  Charkhlik,  and  Achan, 
and  they  carry  them  to  Khotan,  where  they  sell  them  to  the  .  .  .  tanners  and 
saddlers.  The  skin  of  the  yak  is  highly  valued  because  of  its  extraordinary 
toughness  and  durability.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  wear  it  out.  The  price 
for  the  skin  of  a  full-grown  yak  bull  is  about  17s.  Qd. 

Hedin  (1899,  vol.  2,  p.  1054,  and  1904,  pp.  168-205)  found  Yaks, 
including  one  herd  of  30  and  another  of  over  100,  among  the  moun- 
tain ranges  between  the  Altyn-Tagh  and  the  Arka-Tagh. 

"The  yak  is  to  be  found  in  Changchenmo  and  thence  a  long  way 
into  Tibet,  but  owing  to  the  game  regulations  it  is  not  possible  to 
hunt  him  in  Kashmir  territory.  The  Maharajah  of  Kashmir,  being 
a  Hindu,  to  whom  the  cow  is  a  sacred  animal,  this  law  has  been 
introduced  to  avoid  hurting  his  religious  susceptibilities.  .  .  . 

"The  tufted  tail  of  a  yak  is  considered  a  trophy,  and  is  used  in 
India  as  a  fly  whisk  on  ceremonial  occasions."  (Van  der  Byl,  1915, 
p.  121.) 

"They  are  certainly  found  on  that  part  of  the  Ladak  Range 
which  lies  between  the  Indus  and  Sutlej  in  Tibet,  but  not  on  any 
other  part  of  this  mountain  system,  and  they  exist  in  limited  num- 
bers on  some  of  the  higher  mountains  which  lie  between  the  upper 
part  of  the  Sutlej  in  Tibet  and  the  Zaskar  Range.  In  fact  they  very 
occasionally  cross  the  crest-line  of  the  Zaskar  Range  into  Kumaon 
near  the  Kangri  Bingri  Pass.  (Burrard,  1925?,  pp.  244-245.) 

Schafer  shows  (1938,  map)  that  half  a  century  ago  the  range 
of  the  Wild  Yak  in  eastern  Tibet  extended  south  in  the  steppe 
country  nearly  to  Jekundo  and  Seshu,  but  has  now  receded  to  a 
line  running  northeast-southwest  between  Tsaring  Nor  and  Oring 
Nor,  near  the  southern  base  of  the  Marco  Polo  Range. 

Brooke  Dolan,  II,  writes  (MS.,  1938;  cf.  also  Dolan,  in  G.  M. 
Allen,  1939a,  pp.  292-293) :  "The  wild  yak  of  northern  Tibet  and 
Kokonor  seem  to  have  retreated  steadily  west  and  north  into  north- 
ern Tibet,  due  to  unceasing  hunting  by  nomads  living  on  the  fringe 
of  the  high  Tibetan  desert.  Skulls  and  bones  litter  the  steppes  of 
the  upper  Yellow  River  but  the  yak  have  not  been  common  there 
for  a  decade  so  far  as  we  could  determine.  The  nomads  in  recent 
years  have  obtained  European  rifles  and  ammunition,  chiefly  Eng- 
lish, through  Darjeeling.  The  military  ammunition  wounds  three 
animals  to  every  one  brought  down  for  food  and  meat.  Schafer  saw 
yak  only  three  or  four  times  in  the  course  of  six  weeks'  traveling 
on  the  steppes  of  the  upper  Yellow  River  and  the  Yangtze."  Dolan 
also  remarks  (oral  communication,  1937)  that  the  main  Yak  country 
is  now  north-central  Tibet. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  531 

[The  Domestic  Yak  (Poephagus  grunniens  grunniens  (Linnaeus) ) 
is  one  of  the  most  important  beasts  of  burden  in  the  high  plateaus 
and  mountains  of  Central  Asia.  It  is  even  used  as  a  saddle  animal. 

They  "are  always  much  smaller  than  their  wild  cousins,  with  very 
inferior  horns,"  and  "vary  much  according  to  locality.  ...  At 
lower  levels  in  various  parts  of  Ladak  and  the  Himalaya  pied 
domestic  breeds  are  common;  and  it  is  from  the  tails  of  these  that 
the  fly-whisks,  or  chowris,  used  in  India  are  made.  Near  Darjiling 
there  exists  a  very  small  breed  of  yak,  some  individuals  of  which 
are  black,  and  others  black  and  white.  Of  this  and  other  breeds 
living  at  comparatively  low  elevations  there  is  a  polled  form,  which 
probably  keeps  true.  Domestic  yak  are  freely  crossed  with  the 
ordinary  Indian  cattle."  (Lydekker,  1898c,  pp.  54-55.) 

The  use  of  the  Domestic  Yak  has  extended  far  beyond  the  range 
of  its  wild  ancestor,  as  "all  over  the  eastern  half  of  Turkestan" 
above  6,000  feet  (Severtzoff,  1876,  p.  336)  and  in  the  Russian  Altai 
(Demidoff,  1900,  pp.  176-180,  185).] 

Lithuanian  Bison.    Wisent  (Ger.).    Zubr  (Russian) 

BISON  BONASUS  BONASUS  (Linnaeus) 

Bos  bonasus  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  71,  1758.  (Type  locality 
probably  Bielowitza,  Lithuania,  fide  Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  35.) 

FIGS.:  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  frontisp.,  1894;  Lydekker,  19126,  pi.  22,  upper 
fig.;  Jour.  Soc.  Preservation  Fauna  Empire,  pt.  11,  frontisp.,  1930;  Lund- 
bergh,  1933,  p.  132,  fig.;  Leister,  1935,  p.  56,  fig.;  Mohr,'l935?,  5  figs.; 
Pocock,  1937,  p.  655,  fig. 

By  1935  the  pure-blooded  Lithuanian  Bison  remaining  in  cap- 
tivity did  not  number  more  than  a  few  dozen  individuals;  none 
were  left  in  a  wild  state. 

"Height  at  shoulder  from  6  feet  to  6  feet  2  inches;  hind-quarters 
relatively  high,  pasterns  long,  tail  reaching  hocks  or  below.  Horns, 
black,  relatively  long  and  slender,  curving  upwards,  forwards,  and 
inwards  ....  Mane  of  males  in  summer  coat  curly,  moderately 
long,  and  not  extending  very  far  back  on  body,  .  .  .  forming  a 
larger  and  thicker  mass  on  head,  neck,  throat,  and  middle  line  of 
chest.  In  females  restricted  to  nape,  forehead,  middle  of  lower  part 
of  face,  and  median  line  of  chest.  Colour  brown,  with  a  tinge  of 
plum-colour."  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  pp.  35-36.) 

STATUS  OF  THE  SPECIES  UP  TO  1800 

The  Wisent  was  once  "abundant  throughout  Europe,  as  proved 
by  the  fossil  remains  of  this  or  a  closely  allied  form.  .  .  .  Caesar 
mentions  it  as  abounding,  along  with  the  aurochs,  in  the  forests  of 
Germany  and  Belgium.  It  appears  to  have  been  occasionally  cap- 
tured and  afterwards  exhibited  alive  in  the  Roman  amphitheatres. 


532  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

At  that  period,  and  long  after,  it  seems  to  have  been  common 
throughout  central  Europe,  as  we  learn  from  the  evidence  of  Herber- 
stein  in  the  16th  century."  (Lydekker,  1910,  vol.  4,  p.  11.) 

"Unfortunately,  there  is  some  difficulty  in  ascertaining  the  precise 
limits  of  the  range  of  the  bison,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  was  pre- 
ceded by  a  closely  allied  extinct  species  (B.  prisons).  .  .  .  The 
wonderful  rock-paintings  on  the  walls  of  the  cavern  of  Altamira, 
in  Spain,  prove  that  bison  formerly  inhabited  that  country;  and 
there  is  likewise  evidence  that  they  once  existed  in  Greece."  The 
range  of  the  bison  is  "known  to  have  extended  from  western  and 
southern  Europe  through  the  intermediate  countries  to  Poland, 
Russia,  and  the  Caucasus,  while  there  is  evidence  that  it  likewise 
stretched  so  far  north  as  the  valley  of  the  Lena,  in  Siberia."  (Ly- 
dekker, 1912,  p.  209.) 

Brandt  mentions  (1867,  p.  175),  as  lands  where  the  Bison  has 
existed  within  historic  times,  the  Caucasus,  European  Russia, 
Thrace,  Macedonia,  Rumania,  Hungary,  Poland,  Germany,  Bo- 
hemia, and  Switzerland;  he  also  mentions,  as  possible  parts  of  its 
range,  Central  Asia,  Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  France,  Eng- 
land, Denmark,  and  Sweden.  Floericke  (1930,  p.  8)  reports  it  from 
France  as  late  as  the  sixth  century.  In  the  Carpathians  (Rodnaer 
Gebirge)  it  survived  certainly  up  to  1762  (Calinescu,  1931,  p.  82). 
In  Saxony  it  was  exterminated  in  1793  (Krumbiegel,  1930,  p.  6). 

The  existence  of  the  species  in  the  Jaktorowka  Forest  of  Poland 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  is  recorded  by  Herber- 
stein.  "The  bison  was  gradually  killed  off  in  western  Europe  as 
cultivation  and  civilization  advanced,  so  that  the  range  of  the 
species  became  restricted  to  the  more  eastern  and  northern  parts 
of  the  Continent.  When  it  finally  disappeared  from  France  and 
western  Germany  does  not  appear  to  be  known ;  but  there  is  evidence 
that  the  last  East  Prussian  bison  was  killed  by  a  poacher  in  the  year 
1755  between  Labiau  and  Tilsit."  (Lydekker,  1912,  p.  210.) 

Economic  uses. — In  the  Middle  Ages  the  animals  were  taken  in 
pitfalls.  In  Poland  the  flesh  was  considered  a  delicacy  and  was 
utilized  as  a  princely  gift.  The  hide  was  commonly  made  into  thongs 
and  traces.  Horns  and  hoofs  were  made  into  various  objects,  to 
which  superstition  ascribed  secret  virtues.  The  horns  were  orna- 
mented with  silver  and  used  as  drinking  vessels.  Although  as  a 
rule  the  animal  remains  untamable,  it  is  said  that  in  1740  Count 
Lazar  was  driven  to  a  meeting  of  the  diet  in  Hermannstadt,  Tran- 
sylvania, behind  a  team  of  Wisents.  For  some  two  centuries  at  least 
(say  1550  to  1750),  combats  between  Wisents  and  Wolves,  Bears, 
and  other  animals  were  staged  in  Germany  for  the  amusement  of 
the  populace.  (Floericke,  1930,  pp.  11,  32.) 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  533 

Enemies.— The  chief  enemy  was  the  Wolf.  While  a  compact  herd 
was  safe  enough,  an  isolated  Wisent  would  succumb  to  the  combined 
attack  of  a  pack  of  Wolves.  In  a  combat  with  a  Bear  the  Wisent 
was  often  enough  victor.  (Floericke,  1930,  p.  32.) 

STATUS  OF  THE  LITHUANIAN  BISON  FROM  1800  TO  1936 

In  Rumania. — Floericke  (1930,  p.  10)  reports  its  survival  in  the 
mountains  of  Transylvania  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
A  hunting  horn  used  by  a  Rumanian  family,  and  dated  1808,  is 
offered  as  evidence  of  the  existence  of  this  species  in  Bukowina  at 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  (Botezat,  1932) . 

In  Russia.— Floericke  (1930,  p.  10)  quotes  Dolmatoff  as  having 
seen  the  skins  and  horns  of  seven  Bison  killed  in  the  Semenov  dis- 
trict (central  Russia)  between  1840  and  1848. 

In  Lithuania. — According  to  Trouessart  (1910,  p.  243),  the  Bison 
was  then  found  only  in  Lithuania  (forest  of  Bielowitza  in  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Grodno) ,  where  it  was  protected  by  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment, and  in  some  large  private  parks. 

"The  herd  [at  Bielowitza]  has  been  subject  to  many  vicissitudes, 
having  suffered  more  or  less  severely  during  the  various  Polish 
revolts.  ...  It  attained  its  maximum  in  point  of  numbers  between 
the  years  1851  and  1860.  ...  In  1857  ...  the  total  was  1898. 
In  1892  the  number  had  become  reduced  to  375.  At  that  time  there 
was  .  .  .  living  ...  a  herd  of  101  head  in  the  neighboring  forest 
of  Swisslotch."  (Lydekker,  1912,  pp.  210-211.) 

The  Bielowitza  herd  was  maintained  for  many  years,  up  to  the 
time  of  the  World  War,  as  the  private  property  of  the  imperial 
family  of  Russia.  Meanwhile  a  comparatively  small  number  were 
allowed  to  be  shot  by  sportsmen,  and  little  harm  seems  to  have 
been  done  by  poaching  except  in  war  times.  A  certain  number  were 
captured  alive  and  presented  to  zoological  gardens. 

In  former  years  "bears  and  wolves"  were  "their  deadly  enemies, 
while  it  is  probable  that  many  calves  are  killed  by  lynxes."  War 
was  waged  upon  these  four-footed  enemies,  and  before  the  end  of 
the  last  century  their  depredations  were  no  longer  of  importance. 
"The  herd  has  suffered  much  from  diseases,"  including  liver  fluke. 
"The  gradual  waning  of  the  Lithuanian  bison"  is  attributed  by 
Buchner  (1896)  "to  continuous  in-and-in  breeding,  the  slowness  of 
breeding  of  the  cows,  and  the  large  percentage  of  bulls  to  the  latter." 
(Lydekker,  1898c,  pp.  73-77.) 

Overstocking  of  the  Bialowies  Forest  with  Red  Deer  (Cervus 
elaphus)  resulted  in  a  scarcity  of  food  for  the  Wisents,  and  feeding 
was  necessary  from  November  through  March  (Stechow,  1929). 
This  overstocking,  together  with  artificial  feeding,  and  a  plague  of 


534  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

caterpillars  defoliating  the  forest,  culminated  in  diseases  that 
decimated  the  game  of  Bialowies  before  the  World  War  (Floericke, 
1930,  p.  16). 

"In  1913,  just  before  the  war,  there  remained  but  750  [in  this 
herd].  Prior  to  the  German  military  occupation  of  Bialowies,  the 
greater  part  of  the  above  had  perished,  yet  the  Germans  succeeded 
in  raising  the  number  of  wisents  to  about  120.  But  the  unfavorable 
end  of  the  war  resulted  finally  in  all  of  those  remaining  being  killed 
by  poachers  and  disbanded  soldiers. 

"Soon  after  the  consolidation  of  the  new  Polish  State  the  Forest 
Administration  .  .  .  succeeded  in  purchasing  elsewhere  suitable 
animals,  a  corral  was  erected  in  the  Bialowies  forest  with  an  area 
of  240  acres  and  5  wisents  [were]  introduced  there.  These  have 
increased  and  at  present  there  are  in  all  14,"  among  which  "only  9 
are  pure  blooded  stock,  5  cows  being  hybrids  between  wisent 
and  bison. 

"The  second  largest  herd  of  wisents  in  Poland — 9 — live  in  the 
forests  of  Prince  Pless,  Polish  Upper  Silesia,  in  practical  liberty. 
These  wisents  descend  from  animals  [a  bull  and  three  cows] 
turned  over  to  Pless  in  1865  from  Bialowies  (then  Russian) .  Dur- 
ing the  war  the  Pless  herd  had  increased  to  74,  but  continuous 
political  troubles  and  disorders  resulted  in  the  death  of  all  but  3. 
After  more  peaceful  times  these  wisents  had  increased  to  11,  but 
2  died  quite  recently.  The  above  9  wisents  are  absolutely  pure 
blooded  and  quite  wild. 

"In  March,  1935,  an  exchange  of  wisents  was  arranged  between 
Poland  and  Sweden.  .  .  .  Poland  gave  two  Caucasus  stock 
heifers  ...  to  the  wisent  herd  near  Stockholm,  and  received  in 
exchange"  a  22-year-old  cow  and  a  5-year-old  bull.  These  two, 
together  with  two  cows  "which  have  been  living  in  Bialowies 
since  1929  and  1930,  are  the  only  ones  of  pure  Bialowies  breed 
remaining  and  they  will  from  now  on  be  bred  further  as  Lithu- 
anian stock."  (Theodor  G.  Ahrens,  MS.,  October,  1935.) 

In  Sweden. — "There  are,  aside  from  seven  pure  blooded  wisents, 
five  first-class  grades  with  bison  blood.  Some  of  the  animals  are 
in  the  Stockholm  Zoo  on  Skansen  while  the  others  are  in  a  large 
game-preserve  in  Vaestmanland."  (Mohr,  1933,  p.  261.) 

In  England. — "The  largest  herd  of  all  is  that  of  the  Duke  of 
Bedford  in  Woburn  Abbey  consisting  of  20  pure  blooded  animals 
and  19  cross  breeds."  The  latter  "have  traces  of  the  blood  of  the 
gray  domestic  cattle  of  the  steppe  of  Southern  Russia."  (Mohr, 
1933,  pp.  260-261.) 

In  Germany. — "In  a  most  beautiful  old  timber-forest"  belong- 
ing to  Count  Arnim  in  Boitzenburg,  Uckermark,  "13  pure  blooded 
animals  are  kept,  .  .  .  and  with  the  exception  of  one  cow  they  all 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN -TOED  UNGULATES  535 

have  Caucasian  blood.  .  .  .  The  Berlin  Zoo  owned  five  pure 
blooded  wisents,  In  Hanover,  Munich,  Springe  and  Stellingen 
there  was  1  bull  each."  (Mohr,  1933,  pp.  260-261.)  A  pure- 
blooded  wisent  herd  belonging  to  Herr  von  Beyme,  at  Scharbow 
in  Mecklenburg,  developed  foot-and-mouth  disease  and  perished 
in  1926.  The  loss  of  this  herd  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the 
policy  of  "Verdrangungs-Zucht." 

In  other  parts  of  Europe. — "The  breeding  efforts  in  Amsterdam 
are  of  a  somewhat  recent  date  but  look  very  promising.  There 
is  one  bull  in  Wien-Schoenbrunn  and  one  in  Budapest  of  which 
the  one  in  Hungary  is  used  for  cross  breeding.  It  has  thus  far 
been  impossible  to  ascertain  whether  the  animals  that  used  to 
be  in  Ascania  Nova  in  South  Russia  are  still  alive.  It  seems  as 
if  the  cow  of  that  region  was  sterile.  The  bulls  of  this  breeding 
place  are  used  in  the  famous  old  'supplantation  breeding'  (Ver- 
drangungs-Zucht)." (Mohr,  1933,  p.  261.) 

Breeding  experiments. — "Verdrangungs-Zucht  (breeding  by  elimi- 
nation) is  as  follows:  Bison  cows  are  bred  to  pureblood  wisent  bulls 
and  the  resulting  female  calves  brought  in  due  time  also  to  a  wisent 
bull  and  so  on,  while  the  male  calves  are  excluded  from  breeding. 
Experience  shows  that  by  continuing  this  process  long  enough,  even 
at  the  end  of  10  generations  the  descendants  can  scarcely  be  dis- 
tinguished from  pure  stock  wisents.  ...  To  Springe  all  the  avail- 
able pure-blooded  wisents  have  been  brought  and  are  said  to  be  doing 
well.  In  the  meantime  a  large  new  reserve  has  been  created  in  the 
Schorfheide,  a  very  extensive  forest  in  the  Uckermark.  ...  There 
are  here  a  pure-blooded  wisent  bull  and  quite  a  number  of  hybrid 
cows,  and  the  above  discussed  Verdrangungszucht  is  to  be  con- 
tinued, there  being  in  all  29  animals  here."  (Theodor  G.  Ahrens, 
MS.,  October,  1935.) 

A  new  Wisent  park,  with  a  stock  of  6  animals,  was  to  be  opened 
in  connection  with  the  Hellabrunn  Zoo,  near  Munich,  in  1936. 

Similar  breeding  experiments  are  being  undertaken  by  the  Polish 
Forest  Administration  at  a  new  Wisent  enclosure  in  the  Forestry 
District  of  Ksionsch  on  the  Pilica  River  southwest  of  Warsaw.  "All 
the  halfbreed  cows  in  Bialowies  will  be  brought  here  and  bred  to  a 
pureblooded  bull,  while  in  Bialowies,  in  the  future,  only  pure- 
blooded  animals  will  be  tolerated."  (Theodor  G.  Ahrens,  MS., 
October,  1935.)  A  further  step  contemplated  is  the  segregation  of 
the  pure  Lithuanian  stock  (B.  b.  bonasus)  at  Bialowies  and  the 
provision  of  a  place  for  the  Caucasus-blooded  line  (B.  b.  caucasicus) 
in  the  Tatra  (Mohr,  1934). 

Rate  of  increase. — The  feral  Wisent  cow  keeps  her  calf  with  her 
about  three  years  and  does  not  rut  during  this  time.  For  a  more 
rapid  increase,  30-40  cows  of  the  Bialowies  herd  were  kept  in  a 


536  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

smaller  enclosure  and  fed  heavily  with  oats,  and  the  calves  were 
weaned  early.  As  a  result,  the  cows  produced  a  calf  about  every 
year.  (Stechow,  1929.) 

Present  status. — The  number  of  purebred  animals  (of  both  sub- 
species) remaining  at  the  end  of  1932  was  only  73  (Mohr,  1933, 
p.  260).  These  are  all  contained  in  various  European  parks  and 
zoos.  Efforts  to  obtain  the  best  breeding  results  from  this  small 
and  scattered  stock  appear  to  have  been  hampered  somewhat  by 
international  rivalries. 

Caucasian  Bison.    Kaukasischer  Wisent  (Ger.). 
Zubr  (Russian) 

BISON  BONASUS  CAUCASICUS  Hilzheimer 

Bison    caucasicus    Hilzheimer,    Mitteil.    Nat.-kab.    Stuttgart,    p.    252,    1909. 

(Caucasus.) 
FIGS.:    Demidoff,  1898,  frontisp.  and  fig.,  p.  77;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  5  and  fig. 

15,  p.  76. 

The  Caucasian  Bison  was  believed  to  have  been  completely  ex- 
terminated by  1925  (B.  K.  Fortunatow,  Natur-  und  socialistische 
Wirtschaft,  vol.  5,  pp.  172-188,  (1932)  1933,  as  quoted  in  Zeitschr.  /. 
Saugetierkunde,  vol.  9,  p.  40,  1934).  While  a  few  survivors  were 
reported  as  late  as  1930  (Pfizenmayer),  the  race  is  now  probably 
extinct  in  its  native  wild.  At  last  accounts,  however,  certain  captive 
specimens  in  other  parts  of  Europe  were  at  least  partly  of  Caucasian 
ancestry. 

"Very  similar  in  external  appearance  to  the  typical  race/  but 
perhaps  somewhat  more  lightly  built,  with  less  long  hair  on  the 
fore-quarters.  .  .  .  According  to  Hilzheimer,  the  skull  .  .  .  ap- 
proximates in  many  features  ...  to  the  American  species."  (Ly- 
dekker, 1913c,  vol.  1,  pp.  36-37.) 

How  far  this  subspecies  may  have  once  extended  from  the 
Caucasus  toward  the  northwest  to  meet  the  range  of  the  Lithuanian 
Bison,  or  in  other  directions,  will  perhaps  never  be  known.  It  had 
apparently  become  almost  or  entirely  restricted  to  the  Caucasus 
region  by  the  time  scientific  records  of  it  began  to  be  kept.  Early 
records  are  somewhat  uncertain  by  reason  of  possible  confusion 
between  the  Bison  and  the  Aurochs  (Bos  primigenius) .  Brandt, 
however,  considers  (1867,  p.  157)  that  the  records  by  Lamberti 
(1654)  and  by  Lowitz  and  Guldenstadt  (end  of  eighteenth  century) 
probably  pertain  to  the  present  species  in  the  Caucasus;  he  also 
states  (p.  158)  that  an  unquestionable  skin  was  brought  from  the 
Caucasus  to  St.  Petersburg  in  1836.  By  this  time  the  animal  seems 
to  have  retired  to  the  inner  parts  of  the  Caucasus,  including  the 
valleys  of  the  Zellentchuk  and  the  Kuban.  Brandt  goes  on  to  sug- 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  537 

gest  (p.  162)  that  the  drinking  horns  that  Xenophon  found  among 
the  Paphlagonians  in  Asia  Minor  may  have  belonged  to  this  species. 
Radde  reports  (1893,  p.  175) : 

This  animal  is  at  present  confined  to  the  district  around  the  sources  of  the 
Laba  and  Bjellaja  on  the  north  side  of  the  Caucasus,  and  extends  eastwards 
from  the  former  locality  to  the  springs  of  the  Selentschuk.  The  Bison  is 
scarce  everywhere,  and  generally  seen  in  twos  and  threes.  .  .  .  Evidently 
the  Bison  has  discontinued  its  settled  habits,  and  has  taken  to  wandering  about 
in  this,  its  last  refuge.  Through  the  ever  increasing  encroachments  of  the 
settlers,  and  the  consequent  dispersal  of  the  wild  animals,  and  also,  in  many 
places,  owing  to  the  new  supervision  of  the  forests,  the  Bison  is  driven  more 
and  more  towards  the  higher  ridges  of  the  mountains.  .  .  . 

Formerly,  30  or  40  years  ago,  it  was  met  with  much  lower  down,  about 
5000  feet,  and  it  was  also  more  common.  .  .  . 

It  is  under  Imperial  protection  in  the  Caucasus.  .  .  .  Nevertheless  it  is 
very  difficult  to  keep  guard  over  these  last  remaining  animals  satisfactorily. 

Prince  Demidoff  writes  (1898,  pp.  3-5) : 

Not  so  long  ago  the  Aurochs  [=Bison]  used  to  haunt  most  of  the  valleys 
of  the  Kouban  territories,  such  as  the  Zellentchuk,  where  there  are  said  to 
be  some  at  the  present  time,  both  the  Great  and  Little  Laba,  Urrushten, 
and  elsewhere.  But  so  shy  an  animal  could  not  long  continue  to  live  within 
easy  reach  of  men,  and  had  constantly  to  retire  before  advancing  civilization. 
It  is  now  concentrated  in  the  dense  forests  overlooking  the  valleys  of  the 
Kisha,  and  fifty  years  hence  it  is  to  be  feared  will  have  entirely  disappeared. 

There  is  no  doubt  of  the  existence  of  the  Aurochs  on  the  southern  part 
of  the  Caucasian  range,  between  the  hills  and  the  Black  Sea  ....  Some 
thirty  years  ago,  as  I  was  told  by  native  hunters,  the  Aurochs  used  to  be 
seen  in  herds  of  fifty  or  sixty  head,  but  at  the  present  time  one  seldom  sees 
more  than  five  or  six  together.  .  .  . 

Leopards  .  .  .  are  supposed  to  trouble  them  a  great  deal. 

Greve  (1906)  gives  a  full  summary  of  records  of  this  Bison  from 
1633  to  1906.  These  records  cover  roughly  the  northern  slopes  of 
the  western  half  of  the  Caucasus  range.  By  1895  the  animal  seems 
to  have  become  largely  restricted  to  the  basins  of  the  Pshekka, 
Byelaya,  Laba,  Kisha,  and  Zellentchuk  Rivers. 

"It  is  very  difficult  to  prevent  poaching,  and  .  .  .  much  ill-feeling 
has  been  created  by  making  the  natives  vacate  their  grazing  grounds, 
to  which  they  have  considered  themselves  entitled  from  time  imme- 
morial" (Van  der  Byl,  1915,  p.  43). 

The  recent  status  of  the  Caucasian  Bison  is  summarized  by 
Pfizenmayer  (1929;  1930)  as  follows:  At  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War  there  were  more  than  500  individuals;  in  1918  there  were  still 
100;  in  1919,  only  50.  Reports  for  the  year  1928  give  no  positive 
evidence  of  living  individuals.  However,  in  1930  there  was  a  trust- 
worthy report  of  a  few  survivors  in  one  of  the  least  accessible  parts 
of  the  Kuban  district. 

"The  Soviet  Government  has  made  a  reserve  in  the  Caucasus 


538 


EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 


of  over  three-quarters  of  a  million  acres  in  a  locality  formerly 
occupied  by  the  European  bison,  of  which,  however,  the  keepers 
have  yet  found  no  trace"  (Mitchell,  1931,  pp.  36-37). 

For  the  laudable  purpose  of  preserving  racial  purity,  it  would 
seem  just  as  desirable  to  prevent  interbreeding  between  the  Lithu- 
anian and  the  Caucasian  Bisons  in  Europe  as  between  the  Plains 
and  the  Woodland  Bisons  in  America.  Such  a  policy  is  strongly 


J-jp—    t       ._      ro 

FIG.  51. — Caucasian  Bison  (Bison  bonasus  caucasicus) 

advocated  by  Groeben  (1929).  Unfortunately,  it  seems  doubtful 
whether  any  pure-blooded  Caucasian  Bison  survive  in  zoos  or 
preserves;  at  any  rate,  there  are  probably  not  a  sufficient  number 
to  perpetuate  this  racial  stock  in  an  undiluted  condition. 

Wild  Indian  Buffalo.    Arna   (male),  Arni   (female) 
(Hindustani) 

BUBALUS   BUBALIS   ARNEE    (Kerr) 

Bos  Arnee  Kerr,  Linnaeus'  Anim.  Kingdom,  p.  336,  pi.  facing  p.  356,  upper 
left-hand  fig.,  1792.  ("India  north  from  Bengal";  type  locality  restricted 
by  Harper  (1940,  p.  326)  to  "Kuch  Bihar.") 

FIGS.:  Inverarity,  1895,  pis.  A-C;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  9,  p.  119,  fig.  25; 
Lydekker,  1900,  pi.  2,  figs.  5,  5a,  p.  75,  fig.  10;  Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1, 
p.  42,  fig.  15;  Van  der  Byl,  1915,  pi.  35;  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.  Sci.  Guide 
118,  ed.  2,  p.  113,  1943. 


ORDER    ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  539 

During  the  past  few  decades  the  Wild  Indian  Buffalo  has  suf- 
fered serious  reduction  in  numbers.  It  "requires  strict  protection 
if  it  is  not  to  be  exterminated"  (Bombay  Natural  History  Society, 
in  Hit.,- December,  1936). 

"General  form  heavy,  body  massive,  legs  thick  and  short,  hoofs 
large.  Tail  reaching  the  hocks  ....  Hair  on  the  body  very  thin, 
especially  in  old  animals.  .  .  .  Head  carried  very  low.  .  .  . 
Horns  very  large,  flattened,  transversely  rugose,  trigonal  in  section, 
tapering  slowly  and  gradually  from  the  base,  curving  at  first  up- 
ward, outward,  and  slightly  backward  from  the  plane  of  the  face, 
the  curve  increasing  towards  the  ends,  where  the  horns  curve  in- 
wards and  a  little  forwards.  .  .  .  Colour  throughout  dark  ashy, 
almost  black.  The  legs  are  sometimes  whitish  ....  Horns  black." 
(Blanford,  1891,  p.  492.)  The  height  at  the  shoulder  may  reach 
6  feet. 

Owing  to  the  uncertain  status  of  the  Long-horned  Indian  Buffalo 
(B.  macrocerus] ,  it  is  difficult  to  state  the  maximum  length  of  horn 
in  B.  b.  arnee.  Inverarity  (1895,  p.  41)  considers  a  57-inch  horn 
unusually  long  for  a  Buffalo  of  the  Central  Provinces. 

Blanford  (1891,  p.  492)  gives  the  range  (without  regard  to  sub- 
species) as  "plains  of  the  Brahmaputra  and  Ganges  from  the  eastern 
end  of  Assam  to  Tirhoot,  and  the  Terai  as  far  west  as  Rohilcund, 
the  plains  near  the  coast  in  Midnapore  and  Orissa,  and  also  plains 
in  the  Eastern  Central  Provinces  (Mandla,  Raipur,  Sambalpur, 
Bastar,  and  other  districts)  as  far  south  as  the  Godavari  and 
Pranhita  rivers,  and  perhaps  a  little  beyond." 

Blanford  adds  (p.  493) :  "Buffaloes  associate  in  herds,  often  of 
large  size.  I  have  seen  50  together,  and  have  heard  of  much 
larger  assemblages.  .  .  .  They  commit  great  havoc  amongst  grow- 
ing crops.  Sometimes  a  herd  or  a  solitary  bull  will  take  possession 
of  a  field  and  keep  off  the  men  who  own  it.  ...  A  herd  will  attack 
a  tiger  or  other  dangerous  animal  without  hesitation." 

Kinloch  (1892,  p.  124)  refers  to  the  Buffalo  as  "extremely  abun- 
dant" in  Assam.  "It  is  also  to  be  met  with  in  suitable  localities  on 
the  banks  of  many  of  the  great  rivers  and  swamps  in  Bengal 
Proper,  and  immense  herds  inhabit  the  unreclaimed  portions  of  the 
Sunderbuns." 

"The  buffalo,  though  by  no  means  so  bloodthirsty  and  dangerous 
an  animal  as  he  is  generally  described  to  be,  charges  sufficiently 
often  to  render  his  pursuit  on  foot  pleasureably  exciting.  In  fact,  I 
think,  he  is  more  likely  to  charge  when  unwounded  than  any  animal 
I  know."  (Inverarity,  1895,  p.  43.)  Some  of  these  charges  result 
fatally  to  the  persons  attacked. 

The  general  range  at  present  is  said  to  be  nearly  as  extensive  as 
in  Blanford 's  time,  though  locally  reduced.  "The  numerous  herds 


540  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

.  .  .  ,  once  seen  in  the  C[entral]  Provinces],  are  now  a  mere 
tradition"  (Anonymous,  1933,  p.  31). 

"The  sparsely  populated  south  [of  the  vast  tract  of  Vizagapatam 
and  Jeypore]  is  the  only  place  in  the  Madras  Presidency  where 
the  buffalo  is  found"  (Richmond,  1935,  p.  221). 

In  Madras  "fears  are  entertained  for  the  existence  of  the  Buffalo. 
Found  in  any  numbers  only  in  the  Government  Reserved  Forests. 
In  these  nothing  may  be  shot  except  under  licence."  (Chief  Con- 
servator of  Forests,  Madras,  in  Hit.,  November,  1936.) 

In  Hyderabad  State  "a  few  buffalo  are  said  to  occur  in  the  Eturna- 
garam  Range  of  the  Mulug  Taluka  (Warangal  District)  but  their 
numbers  are  very  small.  The  shooting  of  buffalo  and  gaur  has  been 
totally  prohibited  for  some  years  past,  owing  to  which  they  have, 
for  the  time  being,  been  saved  from  extinction."  (Salim  Ali,  1935, 
p.  231.) 

The  Chief  Conservator  of  Forests  of  the  Central  Provinces 
writes  (in  litt.,  July,  1937) : 

"This  animal  has  evidently  never  existed  in  the  majority  of  the 
Central  Provinces  forests  area  as  it  demands  large  grassy  plains 
with  plentiful  water  supply.  .  .  .  The  past  distribution  was  prob- 
ably based  on  the  present  one  viz.  the  south-east  portion  of  the 
Central  Provinces.  Their  western  limits  are  the  Feudatory  States, 
just  east  and  north-east  of  Balaghat  District.  From  these  states, 
Buffalo  have  always  occasionally  wandered  into  the  Balaghat  Dis- 
trict and  the  Banjar  Valley  of  the  Mandla  District.  From  North 
Raipur  Division  down  to  Bastar  State  is  another  locality  holding 
Buffalo.  At  present  a  few  survivors  of  the  herds  which  formerly 
ranged  in  both  Chanda  and  South  Chanda  exist  in  South  Chanda. 
The  Buffalo  have  within  the  last  40  years  disappeared  from  the 
Zamindari  areas  north  of  Balispur  as  from  many  other  tracts.  .  .  . 

"The  causes  of  depletion  (and  extinction  in  many  localities) 
are  the  former  slaughter  (with  poisoned  arrows)  by  the  aboriginal 
population  for  the  sake  of  the  hides  (which  became  saleable  when 
the  country  was  even  slightly  opened  up) ,  the  spread  of  cultiva- 
tion in  the  comparatively  few  areas  suitable  for  them  and  of 
epidemic  disease  (to  which  they  are  as  liable  as  the  domestic  cattle 
with  whom  they  not  infrequently  associate). 

"Hides  and  meat  are  saleable. 

"Protection  of  this  species  in  the  Government  forests  has  been 
rigid  in  the  past  and  still  is.  In  some  districts  total  prohibition 
has  been  in  force  for  several  years.  .  .  .  The  prohibition  .  .  . 
has  saved  the  few  remaining  herds,  the  survival  of  which  now 
depends  on  the  ability  of  the  species  to  recover  from  epidemic 
diseases." 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  541 

J.  W.  Nicholson,  Conservator  of  Forests,  reports  (in  litt.,  Decem- 
ber 23,  1936)  for  Orissa:  "Rare  probably  owing  to  lack  of  natural 
habitats  suitable  to  their  existence.  Buffalo  used  to  exist  in  Sam- 
balpur  district  but  they  were  exterminated  and  the  only  known 
surviving  herds  in  Orissa  are  one  or  two  in  Patna  State.  I  heard  a 
few  months  ago  that  some  have  since  returned  to  the  West  of  Sam- 
balpur  district  but  I  have  not  been  able  to  confirm  the  statement. 
Otherwise  there  are  no  buffaloes  within  British  Orissa."  This  report 
is  supplemented  by  A.  F.  W.  Dixon  (in  litt.,  January  23,  1937) : 
"I  am  to  add  that  a  few  buffaloes  are  to  be  found  in  the  Malkangiri 
Taluk  of  Koraput  District  (Jeypore  Estate)." 

The  Government  of  Bihar  reports  (in  litt.,  December,  1936) : 
"Is  now  extinct  in  Bihar,  except  for  a  herd  in  North  Bhagalpur, 
which  is  however  believed  (o  be  descended  from  domesticated 
animals.  Was  formerly  found  in  Singhbhum,  but  has  not  been 
known  there  for  60  years  or  more." 

The  Buffalo's  status  in  Bengal  is  summarized  by  the  Senior  Con- 
servator of  Forests  (in  litt.,  September,  1937) :  "Former  range: 
Jalpaiguri  Forests  (common)  and  Buxa  Forests  (no  information). 
Present  range:  Torsa  forests  of  the  Jalpaiguri  Division  (still  found) 
and  Buxa  forests  (20).  Causes  of  depletion:  poaching  and  rinder- 
pest infection  from  cattle.  A  game  sanctuary  to  the  extent  of  26 
sq.  miles  is  being  maintained  in  the  Buxa  Forests;  grazing  of 
domestic  cattle  has  been  prohibited." 

There  seems  to  be  some  question  as  to  whether  the  Buffaloes  of 
Ceylon  are  truly  wild  or  merely  feral  descendants  of  introduced 
domesticated  animals.  Blanford  (1891,  p.  492)  speaks  of  them  as 
wild  and  abundant  in  northern  Ceylon,  and  Lydekker  also  (1913, 
vol.  1,  p.  43)  refers  to  them  as  wild.  A  divergent  view  is  expressed 
in  the  following  account  received  from  the  Ceylon  Game  and  Fauna 
Protection  Society  (in  litt.}  October,  1936) : 

"Wild  Buffaloes  are  still  very  plentiful  in  certain  areas  of  the 
lowlands.  In  the  Yala  Sanctuary  and  surrounding  reserves,  they 
are  very  numerous,  and  may  be  seen  in  large  herds  at  any  time. 
In  the  Wilpattu  Sanctuary,  in  the  northwest,  and  the  Veddichchai 
reserve,  in  the  northeast,  a  few  herds  are  still  to  be  found  and 
there  are  also  herds  in  some  of  the  most  remote  jungle  tracts  in 
other  parts  of  the  lowlands.  In  all  probability,  the  Wild  Buffalo 
in  Ceylon  is  the  descendant  of  imported  stock  that  has  escaped  to 
the  jungles.  Many  wild  Buffaloes  are  noosed  annually  and  the 
young  ones  tamed  for  domestic  purposes  and  a  few  of  the  larger 
bulls  are  shot  by  sportsmen.  In  the  sanctuaries,  the  Buffalo  receives 
the  same  absolute  protection  that  is  given  to  all  other  animals  and 
in  the  reserves  and  outside,  a  Rs/20/-licence  is  required  before  one 
can  be  shot.  It  is,  therefore,  adequately  protected  in  Ceylon  and 


542  EXTINCT    AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

its  numbers  are  not  likely  to  diminish  greatly  unless  some  epidemic 
disease  breaks  out  amongst  them." 

The  Chief  Secretary  of  the  Assam  Government  contributes  the 
following  information  (in  litt.,  June,  1937) :  "Former  range:  prob- 
ably most  of  the  plains  portion  of  Nowgong,  was  plentiful  in  Dar- 
rang,  a  large  number  in  Sibsagar.  In  the  North  Cachar  Hills  and 
Kamrup.  Present  range:  Laokhowa  and  Lumding  reserves,  in  Kuki 
reserve  during  rains  and  along  the  Jamuna  river  up  to  the  Disama 
reserve  during  cold  weather,  in  and  near  Jamuna  reserve  in  Now- 
gong  and  along  the  Borpani  River  in  the  North  Cachar  Hills  and  in 
all  about  100  in  Nowgong  Division.  About  60  in  Darrang,  increas- 
ing in  Siju,  Chuimang  and  Rangbinggiri  area,  in  Garo  Hills  a  good 
number  still  exist,  a  few  in  the  Panidehing  and  Deroi  reserves  and 
some  herds  in  the  Kaziranga  reserve  in  Sibsagar,  about  400  round 
about  Nagerbera  in  North  Kamrup.  Causes  of  depletion:  Rinder- 
pest, poaching,  opening  up  of  land  for  cultivation,  increase  in  the 
number  of  guns  for  crop  protection.  The  bull  improves  the  domestic 
stock  with  which  it  interbreeds.  Flesh  eaten  by  certain  castes  and 
head,  horns  are  used  as  combs,  buttons,  drinking  cups,  country 
flutes  and  various  other  minor  articles  are  made  out  of  horns,  bones 
are  valued  for  manure,  hides  form  articles  of  trade  especially  in  the 
tanning  industry.  Mature  males  are  protected  in  the  reserved  forests 
from  1st  June  to  31st  October  but  in  the  North  Cachar  Hills,  Garo 
Hills  and  in  four  mauzas  of  the  North  Lakhimpur  Division  these 
species  are  protected  throughout  the  whole  year.  The  killing  and 
capture  of  females  are  prohibited  in  all  reserved  forests.  There  is  a 
proposal  for  the  establishment  of  reserves  for  the  preservation  of 
these  species.  Limitation  of  the  number  that  can  be  shot  in  the 
forest  reserves  is  imposed." 

Peacock  (1933,  p.  121)  writes  concerning  the  Buffalo's  status  in 
Burma : 

It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  true  wild  buffalo  still  exists  in  Burma.  One 
gathers  from  Colonel  Pollock's  book  on  shooting  in  Burma  that  wild  buffaloes 
were  very  plentiful  along  the  banks  of  the  Irrawaddy  and  its  main  tributaries 
a  few  decades  ago. 

Wild  buffaloes  may  still  exist  in  the  forests  of  the  Irrawaddy  Delta.  The 
villagers  near  the  Kadonkani  Reserve,  in  the  Delta  Forest  Division,  maintained 
that  the  true  wild  buffalo  still  existed  in  that  Reserve :  in  1923  they  showed  me 
some  old  and  very  large  tracks  and  said  that  the  wild  buffalo  was  a  much 
larger  and  heavier  beast  than  the  domesticated  one.  ...  I  ...  still  believe 
that  they  were  the  last  remaining  members  of  the  original  wild  buffalo.  .  .  . 

The  last  of  the  wild  buffaloes  have,  no  doubt,  been  exterminated  since 
I  heard  of  them  in  1923. 

Enemies. — The  Indian  Buffalo  seems  to  have  no  serious  enemies 
other  than  man  and  epizootics.  "Association  with  domestic  cattle, 
grazing  in  wild  Buffalo  grounds,  places  these  animals  in  constant 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  543 

danger  of  disease  to  which  they  are  most  susceptible"  (Bombay 
Natural  History  Society,  in  litt.,  December,  1936). 

Referring  primarily  to  the  domesticated  animals,  Peacock  says 
(1933,  p.  122) :  "Buffaloes  seldom  show  any  fear  of  tigers  or 
panthers.  They  have  any  amount  of  courage  and  will  readily 
charge  and  fight  with  any  tiger  that  attempts  to  molest  them.  As 
a  rule,  tigers  leave  buffaloes  very  much  alone,  but  a  large  tiger, 
if  it  happens  to  be  very  hungry,  will  kill  a  solitary  buffalo." 

Domestication. — Domesticated  Buffaloes  (Bubalus  bubalis  bu- 
balis  (Linnaeus))  of  various  parts  of  the  world  are  generally 
regarded  as  descendants  of  the  Wild  Indian  Buffalo,  and  it  has 
been  a  common  practice  to  apply  the  same  technical  name  to  both. 

Hamilton  Smith  writes  (1827,  p.  393) : 

The  Bhain  of  India  [designated  as  "Bos  Bubalus1'  and  distinguished  from 
the  wild  "Bos  Ami"]  may  be  regarded  as  the  true  stock  of  the  Domestic 
Buffaloes  of  Southern  and  Western  Asia,  North  Africa,  and  Eastern  Europe. 
Little  doubt  can  be  raised,  that  in  India  that  animal  was  first  subdued,  per- 
haps, by  means  of  the  intelligence  and  powers  of  the  Elephant,  who  alone 
could  compel  it  to  subjection;  from  thence,  commerce  or  remote  military 
expeditions  seem  to  have  introduced  it  into  Tartary  and  Eastern  Persia,  till 
by  either  of  these  means  the  Domestic  Buffalo  was  found  on  the  shores  of 
the  Caspian.  Here  they  resided  at  the  time  of  the  Macedonian  invasion  .... 
They  were  found  by  the  Mahomedan  Arabs  in  Persia,  and  during  their 
wars  bfought  westward  into  Syria,  and  Egypt.  Baron  Cuvier  .  .  .  proves 
the  pilgrims  and  writers  concerning  Palestine  to  have  noticed  them  by  the 
name  of  Buflus,  early  in  the  eighth  century,  and  we  have  already  seen  at  what 
period  [sixth  century]  they  reached  Italy. 

In  India  "tame  buffaloes  are  chiefly  kept  for  milk  and  for 
draught"  (Blanford,  1891,  p.  493). 

"At  the  present  day  buffaloes  are  met  with  in  a  more  or  less 
completely  domesticated  state  throughout  the  Malay  countries,  a 
large  portion  of  China,  Afghanistan,  Baluchistan,  Persia,  Mesopo- 
tamia, Syria,  Hungary,  the  landes  of  Gascony,  Italy,  and,  I  believe, 
Spain,  as  well  as  Egypt,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  probably  Morocco" 
(Lydekker,  19126,  pp.  182-183).  Lydekker  goes  on  to  describe 
(pp.  184-186)  several  of  the  "numerous  more  or  less  well-defined 
local  breeds"  in  India. 

[No  information  is  at  hand  concerning  the  numerical  status  of 
the  Upper  Assam  Buffalo  (Bubalus  bubalis  fulvus1  (Blanford)), 
which  is  distinguished  by  its  dun  color  and  by  skull  characters. 
"The  range  incMtes  the  Mishmi  Hills  as  well  as  Upper  Assam" 
(Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  46).] 

1  Bos  bubalus  var.  fulvus  Blanford,  Fauna  Brit.  India,  Mammalia,  p.  492, 
1891;  type  locality,  "Upper  Assam." 


544  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Long-horned  Indian   Buffalo 

BUBALUS  MACROCERUS  Hodgson 

[Bubalus  Arna\  var.  Macrocerus  Hodgson,  Jour.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal,  vol.  10, 
pt.  2,  p.  912,  1841  (nomen  nudum). 

[Bubalus]  Macrocerus  Hodgson,  Jour.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal,  vol.  16,  pt.  2,  p. 
710,  1847.  ("India";  type  locality  restricted  by  Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1, 
p.  45)  to  "Assam.") 

FIGS.:  Philos.  Trans.  1727,  no.  397,  pi.,  figs.  2,  3;  Griffith,  Anim.  Kingdom, 
vol.  4,  pi.  facing  p.  366,  fig.  2,  1827;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1855,  Mam- 
malia, pi.  11;  Ward,  1935,  p.  313,  fig. 

Extremely  meager  information  is  available  concerning  this  ani- 
mal, which  now  seems  to  be  considered  extinct. 

It  was  distinguished  by  Hodgson  merely  on  the  length  and  shape 
of  its  horns.  He  speaks  (1847,  p.  710)  of  both  long-horned  animals 
(macrocerus)  and  curve-horned  animals  (speirocerus)  being  found 
in  the  wildernesses  of  India  as  well  as  in  the  cow-houses.  "The 
length  of  the  horns  of  Macrocerus  is  sometimes  truly  enormous,  or 
6J  feet  each.  There  is  such  a  pair  in  the  British  Museum,  and  an- 
other pair  I  saw  in  Tirhut."  He  also  says:  " Whether  they  be  sepa- 
rate species  or  merely  varieties,  I  shall  not  venture  to  decide,  but 
I  incline  to  regard  them  as  species." 

The  apparently  sporadic  occurrence  of  this  form  in  the  domesti- 
cated as  well  as  in  the  wild  herds  of  Buffaloes  suggests  that  it  is 
not  entitled  to  recognition  as  either  a  species  or  a  subspecies,  but 
represents  merely  an  individual  variation  in  both  Bubalus  bubalis 
bubalis  and  B.  b.  arnee. 

"The  alleged  difference  [between  the  two  forms]  ...  is  cer- 
tainly not  sufficient  to  warrant  their  receiving  different  scientific 
names"  (Kinloch,  1892,  p.  124) . 

Lydekker  remarks  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  45) :  "Characterized  by  the 
great  length  and  outward  direction  of  the  horns,  which  turn  up- 
wards only  towards  the  extremities.  Whether  the  difference  in  this 
respect  from  the  typical  representative  of  the  species  is  of  racial  or 
merely  of  dimorphic  value,  has  yet  to  be  determined. 

"These  long-horned  buffaloes  are  natives  of  Assam  and  Kuch- 
Behar;  but  horns  of  a  very  similar  type  occur  in  Malaya,  although 
it  is  not  known  whether  they  belong  to  wild  or  tame  animals." 

"Both  types  may  be  found  together  in  the  same  herd  and  there 
is  much  inter-grading  between  the  two  forms.  .  .  .  The  largest 
known  horn — a  cow's — is  77|  ins.  in  length.  Giants  of  this  size  must 
be  exceptional."  (Anonymous,  1933,  p.  31.) 

In  Assam  "the  great-horned  variety,  macroceros,  formerly  existed 
on  the  Monas,  but  had  been  practically  shot  out  before  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Sanctuary.  The  writer  was  fortunate  enough  to  meet 
the  last  survivor,  a  well-known  cow,  at  least  a  hand  higher  than 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  545 

the  ordinary  sized  bull  with  which  she  was  consorting.  The  Vernay- 
Fa[u]nthorpe  Expedition  searched  for  this  cow  unsuccessfully,  and 
she  was  never  seen  afterwards."  (Milroy,  1934,  p.  102.) 

Ward  (1935,  p.  308)  refers  to  macrocerus  as  "probably  now 
extinct." 

Indo-Chinese  Buffalo 

BUBALUS    BUBALIS    Subsp. 

FIGS.:  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1931  Year  Book,  p.  34,  fig;  Field  Mus. 
News,  vol.  3,  no.  3,  p.  1,  fig.,  and  vol.  3,  no.  5,  p.  1,  fig.,  1932;  Jour.  Bom- 
bay Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  36,  no.  4,  suppl.,  pi.  7,  1933. 

The  question  as  to  whether  truly  wild  Buffaloes  occur  in  French 
Indo-China  and  Siam  does  not  seem  to  be  definitely  settled.  If  they 
do  exist,  the  question  of  subspecific  designation  also  remains  un- 
settled. On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  as  to  the 
occurrence  in  Indo-China  of  Buffaloes  that  are  at  least  feral. 

Siam.— Flower  (1900,  p.  370)  refers  to  the  Buffalo  as  "wild  or 
feral  in  parts  of  Burma,  Siam,  and  the  Malay  Peninsula."  He  had 
information  of  "Buffaloes  near  Pailin,  in  Siam,  descendants  of  some 
that  ran  wild  about  fifty  years  ago." 

According  to  Gyldenstolpe  (1919,  p.  173),  "some  herds  of  semi- 
domesticated  Water  Buffaloes  occur  in  Siam,  where  they  have  been 
recorded  from  Muang  Pimai  in  Eastern,  from  Pailin  in  South- 
eastern, from  Sam  Roi  Yot  in  South-western,  and  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Raheng  in  Central,  Siam,  but  really  wild  Water 
Buffaloes  do  not  occur  in  the  country." 

In  1931  protection  of  the  female  only  throughout  the  year  was 
recommended  by  the  Siam  Society. 

Guehler  says  (1936,  pp.  171-172)  that  in  1935  "we  ...  met  a 
herd  of  wild  buffalo  far  up  on  the  Me  Wong  near  the  Burmese 
frontier." 

French  Indo-China. — "In  Cambodia  I  saw  the  tracks  of  buffalo 
about  E.  Long.  105°,  and  the  guides  with  me  stated  that  these  were 
wild  animals"  (Elwes,  1914,  p.  111). 

The  Resident  Superieur  of  Cambodia  writes  (in  Hit.,  November 
20,  1936)  that  the  Buffalo  is  observed  in  all  forested  parts  of  the 
country,  and  specifically  in  nine  different  provinces.  Hunting  is 
limited  to  males,  in  a  certain  number  and  at  a  certain  season.  There 
is  no  danger  of  extinction. 

In  Cochin  China  the  former  range  included  the  Cochin  China 
delta,  and  the  Provinces  of  Tayninh,  Thudaumot,  Bienhoa,  and 
Baria.  The  present  range  includes  the  northern  part  of  Tayninh 
and  Thudaumot  and  the  eastern  part  of  Bienhoa.  The  present 
numbers  are  about  1500.  The  Buffalo  is  of  interest  as  a  big-game 


546  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

animal,  and  there  is  occasional  economic  utilization  of  the  hides. 
Three  males  may  be  killed  on  a  license,  but  females  are  protected. 
(Roche,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

P.  Vitry  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  gives  the  following  informa- 
tion for  Laos.  Even  25-30  years  ago  the  Buffalo  was  not  very  num- 
erous. About  1910  one  or  two  herds  were  observed  below  Ban 
Houeisai  on  the  left  shore  of  the  Mekong,  the  same  number  in  a 
great  forest  south  of  Savannakhet  near  Sebang  Nouane,  and  a  few 
somewhat  more  important  herds  on  the  east  and  southeast  of  Bassac 
and  on  the  Cambodian  border  along  the  Mekong.  These  are  the 
only  places  where  a  few  individuals  may  perhaps  still  exist.  The 
natives  do  not  seem  to  have  been  particularly  interested  in  killing 
them,  although  the  meat,  horns,  and  hide  are  in  some  demand.  Since 
the  animal  is  almost  extinct,  complete  protection  would  not  change 
the  situation.  The  country  does  not  seem  to  form  a  favorable 
habitat,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Boloven  Plateau.  Al- 
though feral  domesticated  animals  seem  to  thrive  there,  Wild 
Buffaloes  are  not  known  to  have  been  observed. 

James  L.  Clark  (in  litt.,  June  26,  1936)  refers  to  two  great  game 
areas  where  Buffaloes  still  survive.  "One  is  the  plains  of  the  Lagna 
River,  125  miles  northeast  of  Saigon;  the  other  is  Cioba,  in  Annam. 

"In  spite  of  all  the  loose  shooting  .  .  .  ,  the  game  generally,  with 
the  exception  of  the  buffalo,  is  holding  its  own  very  well.  .  .  . 

"On  account  of  their  being  confined  to  a  very  limited  type  of 
habitat,  the  buffalo  are  really  in  danger  of  extinction. 

"Defosse  [a  professional  hunter]  told  me  that  the  game  had  been 
tremendously  plentiful  there  in  the  early  days,  but  about  1912 
rinderpest  came  in  and  wiped  it  out  in  great  numbers;  and  again 
about  1920  rinderpest  came  and  again  destroyed  the  buffalo. 

"Louis  Defosse  told  me  that  his  father  must  have  shot  2,000  or 
3,000  of  these  wild  buffalo  for  hides,  which  he  sold  for  25  piastres 
each.  At  this  time,  which  was  20  years  ago,  they  were  there  in 
thousands  and  the  whole  plains  were  sometimes  covered  with  them." 

Malay  Peninsula. — "Malayan  Bubalus  are  feral  and  need  no  pro- 
tection" (F.  N.  Chasen,  in  litt.,  March  31,  1937). 

Bornean  Buffalo 

BUBALUS  BUBALIS  HOSBI  (Lydekker) 

Bos  bubalis  hosei  Lydekker,  Wild  Oxen,  Sheep,  &  Goats,  p.  126,  1898. 
("Borneo";  type  locality  restricted  by  Lydekker  (1913,  vol.  1,  p.  46)  to 
"Sarawak,  Borneo.") 

Very  meager  information  is  available  as  to  the  numerical  and 
even  the  systematic  status  of  this  animal.  Authorities  do  not  agree 
as  to  whether  it  is  an  aboriginally  wild  form.  It  is  included  here 
mainly  to  round  out  the  account  of  Asiatic  and  Malayan  Buffaloes. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  547 

"Size  small,  the  height  at  the  shoulder  being  about  3  feet  8i  inches, 
with  relatively  short  horns,  which  are  continuous  with  the  plane 
of  the  forehead,  without  any  backward  curvature.  General  colour 
ashy-black;  the  lower  lip,  a  narrow  gorget  on  the  throat,  the  fore- 
legs from  above  the  knees  downwards,  the  front  of  the  thighs  and 
of  hind  legs  below  hocks,  except  for  a  triangular  patch  on  the  fet- 
locks, dirty  white."  (Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  126.) 

"This  form  is  represented  by  a  mounted  specimen  [the  type]  in 
the  British  Museum  sent  by  Mr.  C.  Hose  from  Borneo,  purporting 
to  be  that  of  a  wild  animal.  .  .  .  Mr.  Hose  mentions  that  buffaloes 
exist  in  a  wild  state  on  the  Miri  and  Baram  rivers,  and  it  is  quite 
as  probable  that  there  should  be  a  native  race  of  buffalo  in  Borneo 
as  in  the  Philippines.  Accordingly,  the  present  form  is  provision- 
ally reckoned  as  such."  (Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  126.) 

It  is  remarkable  that  Hose's  own  account  of  the  Buffalo's  struc- 
ture and  habits,  in  his  Mammals  of  Borneo  (1893,  pp.  64-65),  is 
merely  a  copy  of  Blanford's  account  (1891,  pp.  492-493)  of  the 
Indian  Buffalo,  and  hence  has  no  particular  bearing  on  the  Bornean 
form. 

"The  well-known  Water-Buffalo,  Bos  bubalis,  has  been  domesti- 
cated by  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts  of  Borneo,  and  is 
quite  a  familiar  object  of  the  country-side.  Two  or  three  herds 
have  run  wild  at  the  mouth  of  the  Baram  River,  and  have  afforded 
exciting  sport  to  not  a  few  of  the  Sarawak  Government  officials." 
(Shelford,  1916,  p.  46.) 

In  discussing  the  question  as  to  whether  certain  Buffaloes  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula  are  truly  wild  or  merely  feral,  Lydekker  remarks 
(1912,  p.  228) :  "A  somewhat  similar  degree  of  uncertainty  obtains 
with  regard  to  the  buffaloes  found  wild  in  parts  of  Borneo." 

Banks  (1931,  pp.  37-38)  writes  that  "the  Buffalo  is  found  wild  in 
various  places  in  Sarawak  notably  at  Baram  Point  and  at  Tanjong 
Sirik,  though  it  has  occurred  at  other  localities  such  as  the  Ulu 
Mukah";  he  maintains  that  "the  wild  ones  differ  in  no  way  from 
the  tame  ones,"  and  that  it  is  "likely  that  there  are  no  indigenous 
buffaloes  in  Borneo." 

Ward  (1935,  p.  308)  apparently  limits  the  range  of  the  Bornean 
Buffalo  to  "the  neighbourhood  of  the  Miri  and  Baram  Rivers." 

The  type  description  of  hosei  differs  so  decidedly  from  descrip- 
tions of  the  domesticated  Indian  Buffalo  (B.  b.  bubalis}  that  the 
two  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  identical. 


548  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Mindoro   Buffalo;   Tamarao 

ANOA  MINDORENSIS  (Heude) 

Bubalus  mindorensis  Heude,  Mem.  Hist.  Nat.  Empire  Chinois,  vol.  2,  pp.  4, 

50,  1888.    ("L'ile  de  Mindoro,"  Philippines.) 
FIGS.:    Meyer,  1896,  pi.  7;  Steere,  1891,  pis.  24,  25;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  10; 

Worcester,  1898,  p.  403,  fig.;  Taylor,  1934,  pi.  25;  Field  Mus.  News,  vol. 

7,  no.  7,  p.  4,  fig.,  1936. 

As  a  distinctive  member  of  the  Buffalo  group,  confined  to  a  single 
island  in  the  Philippines,  the  Tamarao  enlists  our  interest.  It  has 
suffered  depletion  in  the  past,  and  its  restricted  insular  range  in- 
creases our  concern  for  its  future.  Recently,  however,  it  has  been 
made  the  subject  of  special  protective  legislation. 

"A  small,  stoutly  built  species,  in  many  respects  intermediate 
between  B.  bubalis  hosei  and  B.  depressicornis.  Horns  short  and 
stout,  with  deep  irregular  grooves  and  pits  on  the  surface,  directed 
mainly  upwards,  with  the  tips  somewhat  incurved.  .  .  .  General 
colour  ashy  black,  sometimes  tending  to  brown;  a  triangular  patch 
on  inner  side  of  eye,  one  or  two  spots  on  side  of  lower  jaw,  lower 
lip,  in  some  cases  one  or  two  gorgets  on  throat,  inner  side  of  ear, 
and  a  band  or  patch  above  hoof,  whitish  or  greyish  white.  .  .  . 
Shoulder  height  about  3^  feet."  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  47.) 
Length  of  horn  on  front  curve,  up  to  16^  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  312) . 

Steere  (1889,  pp.  414-415)  writes  as  follows:  "The  animals  .  .  . 
come  out  upon  the  sandy  reaches  of  the  rivers  at  night  .  .  .  ,  and 
gather  together  in  bands  of  some  size.  They  separate  by  day  going 
two  or  three  together,  or  solitarily.  .  .  . 

"The  domestic  Buffalo  (Bubalus  indicus)  .  .  .  has  escaped  from 
its  owners  in  the  island  of  Mindoro  in  large  numbers,  and  is  now 
found  wild.  .  .  .  The  Tamaron  and  these  come  in  frequent  conflict, 
the  Tamaron  being  said  to  attack  it  at  first  sight,  and,  though  much 
smaller,  being  quicker  and  stronger,  to  drive  the  Buffaloes  back." 

Steere  gives  a  further  account  in  another  paper  (1891). 

Meyer  (1896,  pp.  13,  15)  refers  to  the  Tamarao  as  apparently 
numerous  and  distributed  throughout  the  island. 

Whitehead  (in  Thomas,  1898,  pp.  410-411)  writes:  "This  inter- 
esting little  Bovine  is  not  uncommon  in  the  huge  virgin  forests  that 
cover  nearly  the  entire  island  of  Mindoro.  It  is,  however,  difficult 
to  hunt  the  animal  successfully,  unless  a  number  of  beaters,  accom- 
panied by  good  dogs,  are  employed.  .  .  .  The  aboriginals  of  Min- 
doro told  me  that  they  never  attack  the  'Tamarau/  being  much  too 
afraid  of  it;  the  only  reduction  of  its  numbers  is  caused  by  a  few 
sporting  Spaniards  and  one  or  two  professional  Indian  hunters." 

Worcester  (1898,  pp.  364-425)  gives  an  extended  account  of  hunt- 
ing this  animal  in  the  wilds  of  Mindoro,  and  adds  (p.  513) :  "It 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  549 

lives  in  the  densest  jungles.  It  voluntarily  attacks  and  kills  the 
much  larger  carabao.  If  trapped,  it  will  usually  kill  itself  in  trying 
to  escape,  and  in  any  event  will  refuse  to  eat.  It  is  said  that  its 
young  calves,  when  captured  and  put  to  suck  to  a  tame  buffalo, 
will  not  only  refuse  to  eat,  but  will  attempt  to  attack  their  foster- 
mother.  Although  the  timarau  is  abundant  in  Mindoro,  it  is  seldom 
killed,  on  account  of  its  wildness  and  pugnacity.  Its  flesh  is  good 
eating." 

In  a  recent  manuscript  Pedro  de  Mesa  gives  the  following  ac- 
count: "The  Tamarao  is  the  king  of  the  forests  of  Mindoro,  being 
very  furious  though  wild.  It  fights  to  the  last  breath  and  kills 
human  beings  as  well  as  other  animals,  especially  when  it  is  in  a 
disadvantageous  and  dangerous  position  and  sees  its  foes.  But  when 
it  smells  or  notices  a  person  at  a  distance,  it  tries  to  run  away  if 
there  is  a  chance  to  do  so.  ...  The  Tamarao  is  so  wild  that  it  can 
not  be  tamed.  .  .  . 

"The  Tamarao  is  mostly  found  in  Mount  Halcon  and  Calavite 
Mountains,  and  in  the  interior  forests  of  Mindoro,  as  well  as  in  the 
forests  near  San  Jose,  Mansalay,  and  Bulalacao  in  the  south." 

He  adds  that  the  natives  capture  the  animal  by  means  of  rope 
snares  suspended  from  trees,  corral  traps,  and  pitfalls,  into  all  of 
which  the  animals  are  driven.  Desperate  and  occasionally  fatal  en- 
counters with  the  Tamarao  are  experienced  by  the  natives.  The 
Government  is  now  trying  to  preserve  this  species.  According  to  an 
executive  order  of  the  Governor-General,  a  hunter  is  allowed  to 
take  only  one  Tamarao  per  year.  Calavite  Mountain  is  a  reserve, 
in  which  no  hunting  of  this  animal  is  permitted.  Sportsmen  from 
various  countries  are  attracted  to  Mindoro  to  hunt  the  Tamarao. 

Theodore  Roosevelt  (1934)  and  a  companion  secured  three  speci- 
mens in  the  southern  part  of  Mindoro,  where  the  species  appeared 
to  be  moderately  common. 

The  Tamarao  "is  in  danger  of  early  extinction."  In  recent  years 
A.  W.  Exline  has  obtained  three  specimens  for  the  Field  Museum. 
(Field  Mus.  News,  vol.  7,  no.  7,  p.  4,  1936.) 

The  Philippine  Bureau  of  Science  reports  (in  litt.,  April,  1937) 
that  although  depletion  of  the  species  is  observed  by  everybody 
concerned,  there  are  no  statistics  available  to  prove  it.  Poaching 
for  food  and  the  settlement  of  a  large  part  of  its  former  range  are 
the  two  main  causes  of  depletion.  Formerly,  during  the  open  season 
in  January,  the  taking  of  one  male  was  allowed  but  females  were 
protected.  Since  1936  both  males  and  females  are  completely  pro- 
tected, except  that  they  may  be  killed  for  the  protection  of  person 
or  property,  or  for  scientific  purposes  duly  authorized  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture  and  Commerce. 


550  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

About  15  years  ago,  when  rinderpest  was  raging  among  the  Cara- 
baos  of  Mindoro,  the  Tamaraos  were  also  affected.  In  the  mean- 
time the  rinderpest  has  been  brought  largely  under  control.  (E.  D. 
Merrill,  oral  communication,  1938.) 

Common  Anoa 

ANOA  DEPRESSICORNIS  (Hamilton  Smith) 

A[ntilope]  Depressicorms  Hamilton  Smith,  Griffith's  Cuvier's  Anim.  Kingdom, 
vol.  4,  p.  293,  1827.  ("Island  of  Celebes";  type  locality  here  restricted  to 
the  vicinity  of  Menado,  northeastern  Celebes.1) 

FIGS.:  Quoy  and  Gaimard,  1829,  pi.  20;  Quoy  and  Gaimard,  Voy.  Astrolabe, 
Atlas  zool.,  Mamm.,  pi.  26,  1833;  Gray,  Gleanings  from  Knowsley  Mena- 
gerie, pi.  30,  1850;  Schlegel,  Handleiding  Dierk.,  Atlas,  pi.  5,  fig.  5,  1857; 
Vogt  and  Specht,  1883,  p.  337,  fig.;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  207,  fig., 
1894;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  10  and  p.  133,  fig.  26;  Lydekker,  1903,  pi. 
facing  p.  304;  Ouwens,  1911,  pi.  2. 

Evidently  the  Anoas  of  Celebes  are  at  least  less  numerous  than 
formerly,  and  F.  N.  Chasen  writes  us  (in  litt.,  March  31,  1937)  that 
the  two  species  "are  certainly  worthy  a  place  in  your  list." 

Owing  to  the  long-standing  confusion  in  the  systematics  of  these 
animals,  and  to  the  vagueness  of  many  of  the  records  as  to  locality, 
it  is  frequently  impossible  to  differentiate  between  the  two  forms 
in  the  literature.  However,  as  a  provisional  arrangement,  all  Anoas 
of  Celebes,  except  those  of  certain  mountain  areas  in  the  western 
part,  will  be  ref erred  to  depressicornis  (cj.  distributional  map  in 
Mohr,  1921,  p.  212). 

The  height  at  the  shoulder  is  about  3  feet  3  inches;  limbs  rather 
short,  body  plump,  neck  thick;  tail  reaching  about  to  the  hocks; 
young  animals  covered  thickly  with  woolly  hair;  skin  of  old  ones 
almost  completely  bare;  color  of  adults  varying  from  dark  brown  to 
blackish,  often  with  white  areas  on  lower  limbs,  throat,  hind  part 
of  neck,  in  front  of  eyes,  on  sides  of  lower  jaw,  and  on  inner  surface 
of  ears;  under  parts  generally  light  brown.  Horns  up  to  15|  inches 
in  length  along  outer  curve,  ringed  and  triangular  at  the  base,  nearly 
straight,  and  directed  upwards  and  outwards  nearly  in  the  plane 
of  the  forehead;  tips  sharply  pointed.  (Lydekker,  1898c,  pp.  132- 
133.)  Tail,  11  to  11|  inches  (Quoy  and  Gaimard,  1830,  vol.  1, 
p.  136).  The  white  areas  in  the  pelage  appear  to  be  a  variable 
feature.  The  horns  are  much  longer  than  in  fergusoni;  those  of  the 
type  were  described  as  "ten  inches  long." 

Heller  (1892,  p.  4)  refers  to  the  Anoa  as  common  in  Gorontalo, 
northern  Celebes.  He  also  says  (p.  6)  that  it  is  retreating  before 

itf/.  Weber  (1890-91,  p.  112):  "Hitherto  this  curious  animal  has  been  known 
only  from  North-Celebes/'  The  first  definite  locality  mentioned  in  the  literature 
seems  to  be  Menado  (Quoy  and  Gaimard,  1829,  p.  426). 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES 


551 


advancing  culture  more  and  more  into  the  interior  of  the  island, 
abandoning  coastal  areas  where  it  was  previously  common. 

Weber  (1890-91,  pp.  112-113)  gives  the  following  information, 
without  differentiating  between  the  two  species  now  recognized : 

Hitherto  this  curious  animal  has  been  known  only  from  North-Celebes. 
But  without  question  it  is  spread  over  the  whole  island.  I  heard  of  it 
first  ...  in  South-Celebes,  where  the  Prince  of  Sidenreng  told  me  that  it 
was  found  in  the  central  part  of  Celebes.  Afterwards  .  .  .  different  people 
told  me,  that  it  was  met  with  in  Bingkoka,  one  of  the  provinces  of  the 


FIG.  52. — Common  Anoa  (Anoa  depressicornis) 


principality  of  Luwu,  situated  in  the  south-eastern  peninsula  of  Celebes. 
Here  it  extends  up  to  the  small  island  of  Kubuna,  south  of  island  Muna  near 
the  well  known  island  Buton.  .  .  . 

Also  on  the  south-western  peninsula  of  Celebes  Anoa  is  living,  but  as  far 
as  I  could  make  out  only  on  the  peak  of  Bonthain.  .  .  . 

The  fact,  that  Anoa  is  spread  over  the  whole  island  of  Celebes,  although 
it  is  wanting  in  many  places,  is  of  much  interest.  .  .  . 

From  1893  to  1903  P.  and  F.  Sarasin  (1905,  vol.  1,  pp.  67,  73, 
154,  159,  170;  vol.  2,  pp.  6,  48)  encountered  the  Anoa  or  its  tracks 
in  various  places.  It  was  evidently  locally  common  in  northern 
Celebes  at  that  period,  although  it  had  disappeared  from  the  vicinity 
of  Sonder,  south  of  Menado,  since  that  area  had  been  put  largely 
under  cultivation.  The  Sarasins  also  reported  the  Anoa  about  Palu 
and  Lindu  Lake  (in  the  northwestern  part  of  central  Celebes) ,  and 
spoke  of  many  occurring  in  the  Konaweha  Basin  (southeastern 
peninsula)  [evidently  fergusoni  in  the  latter  area]. 


552  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Harry  C.  Raven  informed  me  that  about  25  years  ago  he  secured 
about  half  a  dozen  specimens  of  Anoas  (species  not  specified). 
He  considered  the  animal  fairly  common;  it  occurs  even  in  some 
of  the  more  thickly  settled  districts.  There  is  no  doubt  about  its 
viciousness.  It  inhabits  very  dense  forests  and  is  by  no  means 
easy  to  come  upon. 

The  nature  reserve  of  Gunong  Tjongkoko  Batoeangoes,  in  the 
northeast  of  the  Minahassa,  is  maintained  more  especially  for  the 
Babirussa  and  the  Anoa  (Dammerman,  1929,  pp.  26,  62). 

Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn  write   (1936,  p.  52) : 

In  Kolaka  [southeastern  peninsula]  some  animals  weigh  as  much  as  300 
Kg.  on  the  hoof  [thus  doubtless  depressicornis,  not  fergusoni].  .  .  . 

They  live  as  a  rule  in  higher  remote  mountainous  country,  such  as  the 
Bonthain  district  ....  With  the  exception  of  the  kind  called  "tokata"  by 
the  Toradja  [fergusoni}  .  .  .,  they  are  very  dangerous  when  shot  at;  as  a 
consequence  they  are  only  sporadically  hunted.  ,  .  . 

Dwarf  buffalo  are  still  abundant  in  the  islands  south  of  Celebes,  especially 
in  Kendari  (District  Laiwoei).  Elsewhere  they  are  decreasing  slowly.  In 
Totallang  it  is  felt  that  their  hunting  should  be  prohibited.  The  extension 
of  the  Decree  on  Hunting  to  this  species  is  therefore  desirable. 

The  Forest  Officer  for  the  Division  of  Menado  reports  (in  Hit., 
April,  1937)  that  the  Anoa  is  still  quite  common  there. 

The  Forest  Officer  at  Gorontalo,  northern  Celebes,  writes  (in  Hit., 
March,  1937)  that  the  former  distribution  included  all  areas  cov- 
ered with  old  forests  in  Gorontalo,  and  has  not  changed  up  to  the 
present.  Although  the  animals  are  now  seen  less  frequently  than 
previously,  and  have  evidently  been  affected  by  the  development 
of  agriculture,  no  real  depletion  has  been  observed.  In  former  days 
they  were  hunted  quite  commonly  for  food,  but  only  in  the  forests 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  plantations.  They  are  not  killed 
by  professional  hunters  and  therefore  are  shot  only  occasionally. 
Hunting  is  here  allowed  practically  only  on  permission  of  the 
Resident,  and  a  maximum  of  six  head  is  allowed  on  each  annual 
license.  The  use  of  lamps,  fire-lights,  traps,  nets,  etc.,  is  forbidden. 

The  Chief  Forester  of  Celebes  writes  (in  Hit.,  May,  1937) :  "I 
know  from  personal  experience  that  this  animal  is  common  in  the 
subdivisions  of  Mamoedjoe,  Mamasa,  Makale-Rantepao,  Palopo, 
Boeton  (mainland),  Kendari  and  Kolaka,  which  seems  to  prove 
that  it  must  also  be  common  in  Malili  and  Masamba.  Protected 
according  to  the  Game  Pres.  Ord.  1931." 

The  Forester  at  Blora,  Java,  writes  (in  litt.,  February,  1937), 
from  former  experience  in  northern  and  central  Celebes,  that  the 
Anoa  is  still  locally  numerous,  though  decreasing  as  long  ago  as 
1928.  The  decrease  is  due  to  eager  hunting  for  the  horns  and  hide, 
and  the  animal  is  also  driven  away  by  the  advancing  cultivation. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  553 

It  is  still  frequently  collected  for  zoos.  The  hide  [presumably  of 
fergusoni]  is  highly  appreciated  everywhere  in  Toradja.  The  Koela 
people  (Paloe  Subdivision,  Donggala  Division)  use  the  hide, 
tanned  white  with  the  tail  still  on,  as  a  dancing  dress.  The  nature 
reserves  of  G.  Lokon  and  G.  Tjongkoko  Batoeangoes  are  of  prac- 
tically no  use  since  water  is  lacking.  Some  other  suitable  reserve 
in  the  Menado  Residency  would  perhaps  be  the  means  of  saving 
the  species  from  extermination. 

The  Sarasins  report  (1905,  vol.  1,  p.  159)  that  the  Anoas  are 
apparently  not  attacked  by  the  bloodthirsty  land  leeches  that 
swarm  in  the  mountains;  this  is  perhaps  because  of  the  toughness 
of  their  hides. 

Mountain  Anoa 

ANOA  FERGUSONI  (Lydekker) 

Bos  (Bubalus)  depressicornis  fergusoni  Lydekker,  The  Field,  vol.  106,  no.  2747, 
p.  378,  1905.  (Type  locality  unknown;  probably  the  mountains  of  western 
Celebes.) 

SYNONYM:   Anoa  quarlesi  Ouwens  (1910). 

FIGS.:  Ouwens,  1910,  frontisp.,  and  1911,  pi.  1;  Lydekker,  1912,  pi.  23;  Mohr, 
1921,  p.  210,  fig.;  Dammerman,  1929,  p.  27,  fig.  7. 

Scarcely  any  information  is  available  as  to  the  numerical  status 
of  the  Mountain  Anoa,  which  appears  to  have  a  much  more  re- 
stricted range  than  the  Common  Anoa.  From  the  nature  of  its 
haunts,  it  perhaps  enjoys  more  security  than  the  latter. 

The  name  fergusoni  was  unfortunately  based  upon  a  zoo  animal 
of  unknown  origin.  "The  height  of  the  female  is  only  27  in.,  and 
that  of  the  male  29^  in.  Both  animals  are  brown,  and  both  show 
spots  on  the  face,  while  in  both  the  tail  does  not  reach  nearly  to  the 
hocks."  (Lydekker,  1905,  p.  378.)  They  are  further  described 
as  woolly-coated  when  young. 

Ouwens  (1910,  p.  7)  was  evidently  not  aware  of  Lydekker 's 
jergusoni  when  he  described  Anoa  quarlesi  from  the  high  forested 
mountains  of  the  central  region  of  Toradja.  (These  mountains  lie 
near  the  northwestern  angle  of  the  Gulf  of  Boni.)  The  essential 
characters  given  for  quarlesi  are:  pelage  uniform  light  brown, 
except  for  small  light  spots  on  all  limbs  above  the  hoofs;  hair 
long,  soft,  and  woolly;  tail  short,  reaching  scarcely  more  than 
halfway  to  the  hocks;  inner  surface  of  ears  dark  brown;  height  at 
shoulder,  25  inches;  length  of  tail,  7  inches;  horns,  about  6-6J 
inches. 

The  two  descriptions  are  in  such  close  accord  as  to  make  it 
appear  extremely  probable  that  quarlesi  is  a  synonym  of  fergusoni. 

Practically  the  only  information  we  have  on  the  range  of  the 
Mountain  Anoa  is  furnished  by  Ouwens  (1910,  pp.  6-7;  1911, 


554  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

pp.  452-453).  The  two  living  cotypes  of  quarlesi  came,  as  men- 
tioned above,  from  the  mountains  of  Toradja.  The  same  small 
form  occurs  in  the  high  districts  of  Binoewang  (on  the  west  coast 
of  Celebes,  at  about  lat.  3°  30'  S.).  Even  the  natives  distinguish  it 
from  the  Common  Anoa  by  a  name  signifying  "Small  Anoa."  The 
large  form  alone  occurs  in  the  swampy  lowland  woods  of  Malili 
Rongkong  and  Kolaka  (on  the  southeastern  peninsula),  and  not 
in  the  mountains.  Specimens  of  the  latter  are  recorded  from  Malili 
and  the  island  of  Buton. 

Thus  fergusoni  appears  to  be  a  dwarf  form  restricted,  as  far  as 
known,  to  the  mountains  of  western  Celebes  (c/.  distributional  map 
in  Mohr,  1921,  p.  212).  In  the  absence  of  any  definite  evidence  of 
intergradation  with  depressicornis,  it  may  rank  as  a  full  species. 

Ouwens  remarks  (1910,  p.  2)  on  the  gentle  nature  of  the  present 
species,  as  compared  with  the  viciousness  of  the  Common  Anoa. 
Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn  (1936,  p.  52)  refer  to  it  as  "the 
kind  called  'tokata'  by  the  Toradja  (perhaps  a  distinct  species)," 
and  remark  on  its  not  being  dangerous. 

P.  and  F.  Sarasin  (1905,  vol.  2,  p.  318)  report  Anoas  as  numerous 
about  the  high  Peak  of  Bantaeng  [or  Bonthain]  (near  the  tip  of  the 
southwestern  peninsula),  where  the  natives  pursue  them  with  dogs 
and  spear  them.  This  suggests  the  probability  of  the  Bonthain  Anoa 
being  fergusoni,  since  the  Common  Anoa  would  be  a  very  dangerous 
animal  to  hunt  by  such  a.  method. 

Cape  Buffalo 

SYNCERUS  CAFFER  CAFFER  (Sparrman) 

Bos  caffer  Sparrman,  Kongl.  Svenska  Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  Stockholm,  vol.  40, 
p.  79,  1779.  (Sunday  River,  Algoa  Bay,  Cape  of  Good  Hope.) 

SYNONYMS:  See  Allen,  G.  M.,  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  vol.  83,  pp.  551-552, 
Feb.  1939. 

FIGS.:  Illustr.  London  News,  vol.  99,  no.  2583,  p.  1  (insert),  1936  (col.  photo., 
Addo  Bush) ;  Roosevelt  and  Heller,  Life  Histories  of  African  Game 
Animals,  vol.  1,  pis.  facing  pp.  406,  412,  1914  (East  Africa) ;  Rowland 
Ward's  Records  of  Big  Game,  ed.  10,  pi.  facing  p.  300  (horns),  1935. 

In  spite  of  the  many  names  applied  to  the  buffaloes  of  Africa, 
there  seem  to  be  but  two  really  valid  forms  of  the  larger  open- 
country  species:  the  typical  one  of  southern  and  eastern  Africa 
and  a  northern  and  eastern  race  (aequinoctialis) ,  The  smaller  ani- 
mal of  the  Congo  basin  is  at  present  regarded  as  a  distinct  species, 
S.  nanus,  the  Dwarf  or  Forest  Buffalo.  The  typical  form  is  now 
gone  from  much  of  its  former  range  in  southern  Africa  but  is  still 
plentiful  in  suitable  localities  over  the  eastern  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent, while  the  northern  race  also  is  locally  common.  It  will  suffice 
to  call  attention  merely  to  the  present  status  of  the  typical  race. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  555 

W.  L.  Sclater's  (1900)  excellent  description  follows:  "General 
appearance  bulky  and  oxlike,  with  no  marked  ridge  or  hump  at  the 
shoulders ;  body  very  thinly  covered  with  black  hairs,  rather  thicker 
on  the  face,  neck,  and  along  the  middle  of  the  back,  the  skin,  which 
is  a  dark  grey  black,  showing  through  almost  everywhere;  head 
massive,  facial  line  somewhat  convex,  rhinarium  very  large,  extend- 
ing well  above,  but  not  much  below  the  nostrils,  which  are  separated 
by  a  considerable  space;  skin  of  the  throat  somewhat  loose  and 
flabby,  forming  an  incipient  dewlap;  ears  drooping,  of  moderate 
size,  rather  broad,  nearly  naked  within,  hairy  behind,  generally 
much  torn  and  slit;  limbs  massive,  with  broad  and  rounded  hoofs 
and  with  pointed  and  well  developed  false  hoofs;  tail  reaching  the 
hocks,  thinly  clothed  with  short  hairs  ending  in  a  considerable 
brush.  Female  smaller.  .  .  .  Young,  reddish.  .  .  .  Very  old  ani- 
mals quite  hairless."  The  horns  arise  nearly  together  at  the  vertex 
of  the  skull,  where  they  are  flattened  and  ridged;  they  curve  out- 
ward and  down,  then  up  and  in,  and  slightly  forward.  Rowland 
Ward's  Records  of  Big  Game  gives  56^  inches  as  the  record  spread, 
and  41  inches  or  slightly  over  for  the  length  on  the  front  curve. 
Anything  over  44  inches  in  width  across  the  beams  is  large.  In  a 
mounted  male  buffalo  the  head  and  body  were  9  feet  1  inch ;  tail,  28 
inches;  height  at  shoulder,  59  inches. 

In  localities  where  there  is  plenty  of  water  and  grazing,  with  thick 
bush  or  swamp  near  at  hand  for  cover,  buffaloes  were  "formerly 
found  throughout  the  southern  and  eastern  parts"  of  South  Africa. 
Kolben  states  that  in  his  time,  about  1731,  "they  were  common  close 
to  Cape  Town,"  and  Paterson  at  the  end  of  that  century  met  with 
them  at  Caledon.  By  1900,  W.  L.  Sclater  wrote  that  "there  are  still 
a  considerable  number  in  the  Addo  and  Kowie  bush,  in  the  districts 
of  Uitenhage,  Alexandria,  Bathurst,  and  Albany;  also  in  Zululand, 
Damaraland,  Rhodesia  and  the  Beira  Province.  They  appear  to  be 
exterminated  in  Bechuanaland  and  in  the  Transvaal,  though  a  few- 
years  ago  there  were  a  good  many  along  the  Sabi  River  in  the  east- 
ern Transvaal."  There  is  a  mounted  skeleton  in  the  South  African 
Museum  from  the  Addo  Bush,  and  skulls  and  horns  from  Knysna, 
where  it  is  now  extinct.  In  Portuguese  East  Africa,  Tanganyika, 
Kenya  Colony  and  into  the  Sudan,  buffaloes  are  still  locally  common. 
In  some  areas,  as  in  Northern  Rhodesia,  buffaloes  are  even  "increas- 
ing to  an  alarming  extent  and  the  country  is  overrun  with  large  herds 
of  these  animals"  (David  Ross,  in  litt.  1936).  Again,  as  in  some 
parts  of  Tanganyika,  the  numbers  have  increased  to  the  extent  that 
"even  its  removal  from  the  schedule  would  probably  not  reduce  its 
numbers,  provided  no  export  were  permitted  of  its  skins"  (Jour. 
Soc.  Pres.  Fauna  Empire,  pt.  2,  p.  46,  1932).  In  1933,  there  were 
said  to  be  about  20  buffaloes  in  the  Addo  Reserve,  South  Africa.  In 


556  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Natal,  in  1934,  there  were  about  500  on  the  Umfolosi  Reserve  and 
some  400  on  the  Hluhluwe  Reserve.  In  the  Transvaal,  there  were 
in  the  Game  Reserve  in  1902  a  little  over  a  dozen  individuals,  but 
in  1925  this  number  had  increased  in  much  the  same  degree  "as 
domestic  cattle  might  be  expected  to  do  under  reasonably  favourable 
conditions"  and  were  then  "well  spread  over  much  of  the  area  in 
the  central  parts  of  the  Reserve,  between  the  Sabi  and  Crocodile 
Rivers"  (Ann.  Rept.  Transvaal  Game  Res.,  1925).  By  1933  this 
herd  was  estimated  at  "close  on  800." 

South-West  Africa  is  too  arid  to  support  buffaloes  over  much 
of  its  extent,  nevertheless  they  are  present  along  the  river  valleys 
of  the  northern  and  northwestern  parts,  as  in  the  eastern  and  cen- 
tral Caprivi  near  the  Maschi  and  on  the  lower  Okavango.  In  times 
of  low  water  they  may  cross  over  occasionally  from  the  Angola 
side  of  the  Okavango  River.  In  Angola  there  are  some  numbers 
also  along  the  Kwando  and  on  the  Cunene,  while  throughout  the 
district  of  Benguela  (lat.  12°  south)  they  are  reported  in  large 
numbers,  "right  up  to  the  Congo"  as  well  as  along  the  southern 
border  of  the  Congo  basin,  between  "the  Kasai  on  the  west  and 
the  Lualaba  on  the  east,"  but  are  "completely  wiped  out  in  certain 
regions"  as  the  Haut  Katanga  and  southern  Bukama.  ...  In 
one  of  the  regions  where  it  was  most  abundant — the  region  of 
Ankoro — commercial  hunting  has  destroyed  enormous  quantities. 
The  construction  of  the  [railroad]  from  Bukama  to  the  limit  of 
Kasai  was  also  the  cause  of  regrettable  massacres.  In  1935  the 
native  hunters  employed  by  the  coffee  plantations  of  Katompe 
killed  about  400  buffaloes.  Each  year  the  brush  fires  destroy  entire 
troops,  and  the  native  hunters  give  them  no  respite.  In  and  about 
the  zones  of  stock  raising,  the  buffaloes  have  been  systematically 
exterminated.  If  it  is  desired  to  save  the  species"  the  following 
measures  are  urgent:  (1)  strict  bag  limits;  (2)  prohibition  of  com- 
mercial hunting;  (3)  prohibition  of  the  employment  by  Europeans 
of  native  hunters  for  provisioning  their  personnel;  (4)  total  pro- 
tection in  certain  zones  (A.  J.  Jobaert,  in  litt.  1936) . 

While  thus  the  species  as  a  whole  is  in  no  immediate  danger,  it 
becomes  clear  that  its  reduction  is  certain  in  the  areas  of  settlement, 
whereas  in  agricultural  regions  it  will  more  slowly  be  reduced,  either 
through  hunting  for  food  or  for  sport  by  Europeans.  In  reserves 
its  numbers  regularly  increase  and  may  from  time  to  time  need 
thinning  as  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  range  is  approached  or 
the  proportionate  representation  that  appears  desirable  is  attained. 
As  a  game  animal,  the  buffalo  is  among  the  most  dangerous  and 
at  times  will  even  attack  without  apparent  provocation,  so  that  its 
very  nature  confers  on  it  a  certain  immunity,  while  at  the  same 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  557 

time   making  its   too   close   proximity   to   human   settlement  un- 
desirable. 

Buffaloes  are  subject  to  epizootic  attacks  of  the  rinderpest,  intro- 
duced into  South  Africa  50  years  or  more  ago.  During  a  severe 
outbreak  about  1896,  it  wiped  out  all  the  herds  south  of  the  Oka- 
vango  in  South-West  Africa  and  these  have  never  since  reestab- 
lished themselves.  According  to  Sir  F.  J.  Jackson,  after  an  out- 
break in  1890,  buffaloes  almost  disappeared  in  East  Africa  and 
became  one  of  the  rarest  animals  in  the  country.  After  about  twenty 
years,  however,  they  gradually  built  up  their  numbers  and  are  again 
locally  common.  As  an  example  of  this,  A.  B.  Percival  states  that 
in  the  case  of  the  El  Donyo  Sabuk  herd,  which  in  1901  was  reduced 
to  less  than  40  head,  he  counted  in  1917  nearly  400,  in  spite  of 
shooting;  again  in  the  Kapiti  swamps  of  East  Africa,  where  in 
1901  he  found  only  some  30  animals,  the  number  had  increased  by 
1917  to  at  least  200.  In  Uganda,  in  spite  of  the  widespread  ravages 
of  the  rinderpest  in  recent  years,  the  species  not  only  continues  to 
hold  its  own,  but  is  actually  increasing. 

G.  M.  A. 

Wild  Sheep  of  the  Old  World 

The  Wild  Sheep  of  the  entire  world  are  a  distinctly  menaced  and 
gradually  vanishing  group.  The  areas  they  occupy  are  for  the 
most  part  beyond  or  above  the  limits  of  agriculture,  although  there 
is  some  contact  or  conflict  with  grazing  domestic  flocks.  The  menace 
comes  from  excessive  hunting,  on  the  part  of  both  primitive  peoples 
and  those  of  more  advanced  culture.  Great  increase  in  the  use 
and  precision  of  firearms  during  recent  decades  has  contributed 
largely  to  the  present  state  of  affairs. 

While  probably  not  more  than  one  or  two  forms  of  Old  World 
Wild  Sheep  have  disappeared  completely,  and  while  some  stocks 
in  the  most  remote  and  inaccessible  regions  may  have  held  their  own 
fairly  well  up  to  the  present,  the  next  few  decades  are  likely  to  be 
critical  for  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  Old  World  forms.  It  is 
therefore  important  to  make  an  inventory  of  the  entire  group,  as  a 
basis  for  future  conservation  measures.  For  this  reason  all  known 
forms  will  be  included  in  the  following  account,  although  those 
that  seem  fairly  safe  for  the  present  will  be  accorded  rather  brief 
treatment. 

Sushkin's  paper  (1925)  furnishes  the  main  basis  for  the  classifica- 
tion employed.  It  does  not  appear  logical,  however,  that  certain 
subspecies  of  Ovis  ammon  should  be  widely  separated  from  certain 
other  subspecies,  while  the  intervening  territory  is  occupied  by  va- 
rious forms  of  Ovis  polii.  I  have  therefore  reverted  to  Lydekker's 
point  of  view,  in  treating  all  these  as  subspecies  of  Ovis  ammon. 


558  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Cyprian  Mouflon;  Cyprian  Wild  Sheep;  Cyprian  Red  Sheep. 
Moufloii   de  Cypre    (Fr.) 

Ovis  OPHION  OPHION  Blyth 

[Ovis  Musimon]  var.  orientalis  Brandt  and  Ratzeburg,  Getreue  Darstellung 
und  Beschreibung  der  Thiere,  vol.  1,  p.  54,  1827.  (Cyprus.1)  (Preoccupied 
by  Ovis  orientalis  S.  G.  Gmelin  (1774).) 

Ovis  Ophion  Blyth,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1840,  p.  73,  1841.  (Cyprus.) 

SYNONYM:    Ovis  cyprius  Blasius  (1857). 

FIGS.:  Brandt  and  Ratzeburg,  1829,  pi.  9,  figs.  1,  A;  Biddulph,  1885,  pi.  58, 
and  p.  594,  figs.  1,  2;  Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  164,  fig.  31 ;  Lydekker,  1901,  p.  138, 
fig.  30;  Lydekker,  1913a,  pi.  11,  fig.  2,  pi.  19,  fig.  2;  Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  4, 
fig.  1. 

In  1936  the  numbers  of  the  Cyprian  Mouflon  were  said  to  be  re- 
duced to  25  or  30  individuals.  This  reduction,  in  connection  with 
the  restricted  insular  range  of  the  animal,  indicates  that  its  status 
has  become  distinctly  precarious. 

Horns  of  male  yellowish  brown,  three-sided,  curved  at  first  up- 
ward and  outward,  then  downward  and  inward ;  longer  hairs  varying 
from  white  to  reddish  yellow  or  blackish  brown;  eye  region,  stripe 
near  the  nose,  muzzle,  chin,  ears,  and  a  spot  on  throat  brownish 
white;  stripe  on  breast,  one  along  flanks,  and  one  along  front  of 
thigh  blackish  brown;  under  parts  and  inner  side  of  limbs  white, 
partly  mixed  with  brown.  Height  at  shoulder,  about  26  inches. 
(Brandt  and  Ratzeburg,  1829,  pp.  54-55.)  Biddulph  (1885,  pp.  595- 
596)  states  that  the  general  color  above  is  rufous-fawn,  with  an 
indistinct  saddle-patch  on  the  ribs  formed  by  a  few  scattered  white 
hairs;  front  of  forelegs  above  the  knees  blackish;  horns  23-24 
inches  along  fronto-nuchal  edge;  the  fronto-orbital  edge  almost 
completely  rounded  off.  The  females  are  hornless  (Nasonov,  1923, 
p.  21). 

Biddulph  (1885,  pp.  593-595)  writes  of  this  sheep: 

The  Cyprian  Mouflon  is  not  found  in  all  parts  of  the  island,  but  is  confined 
to  the  Troodos  mountains  in  the  western  central  portion,  where  the  highest 
point  rises  to  6590  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Here  the  Wild  Sheep  have  a 
considerable  area  of  pine-clad  mountain  to  wander  over,  disturbed  only  by 
occasional  wood-cutters  and  peasants  herding  goats  and  sheep.  At  the  time 
of  the  first  occupation  in  1878  it  was  supposed  that  the  Wild  Sheep  had  been 
exterminated  with  the  exception  of  a  single  flock  of  twenty-five  members, 
and  a  check  was  placed  on  their  slaughter.  Since  then  their  numbers  have 
increased  and  it  may  be  hoped  that  under  modified  restrictions  Mouflon- 
stalking  in  Troodos  may  long  continue  to  be  one  of  the  sports  of  Cyprus. 

Bate  (1904,  p.  348)  says: 

The  Moufflon  ...  is  still  found  in  the  forests  of  the  western  part  of  the 
Troodos  Range,  this  being  the  wildest  and  least  inhabited  district  in  ^the 

i  Although  the  authors  include  Persia  in  the  range,  they  state  that  a  Cyprian 
specimen  formed  the  basis  of  their  description. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  559 

island.  On  more  than  one  occasion  during  the  summer  of  1902  some  were 
seen  on  Olympus,  the  highest  point  in  the  island,  and  probably  the  most 
easterly  to  which  they  now  roam. 

During  my  visit  in  1901  and  1902  none  were  allowed  to  be  shot,  and  at  all 
times  a  special  license  is  necessary.  In  spite  of  this  it  is  supposed  that  many 
are  still  killed  by  the  peasants;  I  myself  saw  several  skins  and  horns,  mostly 
of  immature  specimens,  that  were  undoubtedly  illegally  come  by  ....  As 
a  rule  the  horns  are  hidden  or  thrown  away  in  the  forest,  where  some  have 
been  subsequently  found  by  the  police. 

"It  is  pleasing  to  be  able  to  record  that  a  flock  of  some  200 
Mouflon  is  still  to  be  found  in  this  Island.  These  animals  live 
mainly  in  the  forest  of  Paphos  and  are  under  the  protection  of  the 
Forest  Department  of  the  local  Government."  (Editorial,  Jour. 
Soc.  Preservation  Fauna  Empire,  pt.  8,  p.  41,  1928.) 

"Some  20  or  30  years  ago  its  numbers  were  approximately  200. 
Now  it  is  doubtful  if  there  are  more  than  25  or  30  left.  They 
inhabit  the  mountain  range  of  Troodos  at  a  height  of  4,000  to  6,000 
feet,  and  in  some  localities  have  become  extinct.  The  reason  for 
this  depletion  is  ...  poaching  during  the  winter  months  when  the 
mountains  are  covered  in  snow  and  the  Mouflon  come  down  to  lower 
ground  for  food,  thus  falling  an  easy  prey  to  poachers.  Measures 
are  however  now  being  taken  for  the  stricter  preservation  of  the 
species.  It  is  hoped  that  their  number  will  increase."  (G.  F.  Wilson, 
in  litt.,  September,  1936.) 

Anatolian  Wild  Sheep;   Anatolian   Red   Sheep 

Ovis  OPHION  ANATOLICA  Valenciennes 

Ovis  anatolica  Valenciennes,  Rev.  et  Mag.  Zool.,  ser.  2,  vol.  8,  p.  346,  1856, 
and  Comptes  Rendus  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris],  vol.  43,  p.  65,  1856.1  ("Bul- 
gardagh,"  Cilician  Taurus,  Asia  Minor.) 

FIGS.:  Danford  and  Alston,  1880,  pp.  56,  57,  figs.  2,  3,  5,  6;  Nasonov,  1911, 
pp.  1278,  1279,  figs.  2,  3,  and  1923,  pi.  5,  fig.  1;  Ward,  1935,  p.  297,  lowest  fig. 

Our  latest  information  on  the  status  of  this  form  of  Red  Sheep 
dates  from  about  30  years  ago,  when  it  was  evidently  on  the 
decrease. 

Danford  and  Alston  (1877,  p.  277)  give  the  following  description 
of  a  male,  evidently  from  the  district  of  Eregli  and  therefore  virtu- 
ally a  topotype.  "Head,  neck,  back,  and  sides,  russet-yellow;  belly 
and  underparts  of  legs  white;  space  before  the  eye,  nose,  chin,  and 
undersides  of  the  ears  whitish;  a  dark  purple-brown  mark  above 
the  knee  on  the  fore  legs,  and  a  darkish  line  on  the  chest;  the 
ridge  of  the  neck  and  back  somewhat  darker  than  the  rest  of  the 
back;  neck  thick  and  bushy.  .  .  .  Height  at  shoulder  33  inches." 

i  According  to  Danford  and  Alston  (1880,  p.  59),  the  first  of  these  two  cita- 
tions is  the  original  description. 


560  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"In  the  Cilician  Sheep  the  terminal  portion  of  the  horns  are  bent 
boldly  upwards  ....  The  fronto-orbital  edge  is  not  distinct,  ex- 
cept at  the  base  ....  The  females  are  hornless."  (Danford  and 
Alston,  1880,  pp.  55,  58.)  Length  of  horn  on  outside  curve  up  to 
30i  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  296) . 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  148)  gives  the  range  of  anatolica  as  "Cilician 
Taurus;  Bulgar  Dagh;  Ala  Dagh;  and  probably  Anti-Taurus." 

Danford  and  Alston  (1877,  pp.  276-277)  give  the  following  ac- 
count (under  the  name  of  Ovis  gmelini} : 

Common  in  many  districts  of  the  interior,  particularly  about  the  salt  lakes 
in  the  Vilayet  of  Konia.  It  is  also  found  in  the  elevated  plain  of  Palanga, 
above  Marasch,  and  thence  ranges  east  and  north  to  Kurdestan  and  Armenia. 
It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  Danford  could  find  no  trace  of  this  animal 
either  in  the  country  to  the  north  of  the  Ala  Dagh  or  on  the  wide-reaching 
grassy  plateau  between  Kaisariyeh  and  the  Black  Sea. 

It  seems  hardly  ever  to  occur  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Taurus,  pre- 
ferring the  barer  districts  of  the  north.  .  .  . 

Specimens  were  obtained  from  the  district  of  Eregli,  where  they  are  common, 
and  frequent  the  salt-licks  in  large  flocks.  .  .  .  The  severe  winter  of  1873-74, 
which  was  so  fatal  to  the  tame  breeds  of  Sheep,  also  destroyed  a  great  number 
of  the  wild  species. 

Gmelin's  Sheep  is  a  very  graceful  animal,  deer-like  in  its  appearance,  having 
long  fine  limbs,  and  in  the  male  a  thick  bushy  throat. 

Carruthers  (1915a,  pp.  10-16)  writes  of  it  as  follows  (under  the 
name  of  Ovis  orientalis  gmelini) : 

The  difficulties  encountered  [in  hunting  it  in  Asia  Minor]  are  owing  chiefly 
to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  also  to  the  gradual  curtailment  of  "wild"  country 
by  increasing  domesticated  flocks.  The  habitat  of  the  sheep  consists  of  rolling 
downs,  without  breaks,  with  smooth,  even  sky-lines;  also  always  utilized  by 
the  native  shepherds  and  their  flocks.  The  result  of  this  is  a  most  phenomenal 
shyness  and  an  extreme  wariness  on  the  part  of  the  game.  .  .  . 

This  comparatively  arid  region  [the  interior  of  Asia  Minor]  has  its  own 
peculiar  fauna,  amongst  which  is  an  exceedingly  beautiful  little  wild  sheep 
(or  mouflon)  ....  The  traveller  .  .  .  will  come  into  the  westernmost  haunts 
of  the  mouflon  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Konia.  .  .  . 

There  is  a  large  area  of  country  here  [the  plateau  basin  of  inner  Anatolia, 
north  and  east  of  Konia]  which  one  would  consider  suitable  for  wild  sheep, 
yet  their  range  is  very  circumscribed.  In  1913  ...  I  traversed  the  north- 
eastern portion  of  the  plateau  between  the  Anti  Taurus,  Kaizariyeh  and 
Angora.  We  never  found  traces  of  mouflon,  nor  could  even  find  natives  who 
knew  of  them  by  name.  .  .  .  Konia  was  once  the  centre  of  a  large  area  of 
country  inhabited  by  mouflon,  for  they  ranged  from  the  north-eastern  slopes 
of  Sultan  Dagh,  south  of  Akshehr,  to  Boz  Dagh  and  other  small  ridges  on 
the  plains  of  Axylon  [lat.  39°  N.,  long.  32°  E.].  In  these  days  the  mouflon  are 
almost  driven  out  of  the  western  portion  of  this  area  .... 

From  the  Boz  Dagh  they  range  over  all  the  country  to  the  south  and  east. 
In  the  little  hills  within  sight  of  the  railway  between  Karaman  and  Eregli 
Mr  J.  H.  Miller  has  seen  them  in  numbers ;  while  in  the  foothills  of  the  main 
Taurus,  to  the  south  of  the  railway,  in  the  same  locality,  several  travellers 
have  successfully  hunted  them  ....  These  mouflon  confine  themselves,  for 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  561 

the  most  part,  to  the  rolling  foothills  and  the  outlying  spurs  of  the  Cilician 
Taurus.  They  inhabit  quite  isolated  ridges,  lying  far  out  in  the  plains,  as 
well  as  the  flanks  of  the  main  Taurus.  In  these  localities  a  wide  expanse  of 
featureless  country  forms  their  retreat  and  saves  them  from  extinction,  in- 
stead of  rugged  ranges  of  high  altitude.  The  mouflon  apparently  never  go 
very  high,  even  on  the  spurs  of  the  Taurus.  .  .  .  The  northern  range  of 
the  mouflon  on  the  central  plateau  of  Asia  Minor  is  probably  somewhere 
about  Akserai,  to  the  east  of  Tuz  Kul.  .  .  . 

The  mouflon  turns  up  again  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Anti  Taurus  in  the 
same  form,  ranging,  in  isolated  habitats,  as  far  north  as  Erzerum  and  as  far 
south  as  the  Karaja  Dagh  between  Urfa  and  Mardin.  .  .  . 

Mouflon  are  said  to  exist  in  this  area  [Aintab,  Marash,  Albistan,  and 
Malatia],  but  I  cannot  find  definite  information  as  to  the  exact  localities. 

Armenian  Red  Sheep 

OVIS    OPHION    ARMBNIANA    NaSOnOV 

O[vis]  ophion  armeniana  Nasonov,  Bull.  Acad.  Sci.  Russie,  ser.  6,  vol.  13,  pt. 
2,  p.  1231,  (1919)  1921.  (Mountains  near  the  town  of  Bayazid,  sanjak  of 
Bayazid  [west  of  Mount  Ararat],  Turkey  (Nasonov,  1923,  p.  25).) 

FIGS.:  Nasonov,  1921,  figs.  11,  12  (facing  p.  1230),  p.  1240,  fig.  13,  and  1923, 
pi.  1  and  figs.  2,  3. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  present  century  this  sheep  appeared  to 
exist  in  moderate  numbers,  but  it  has  probably  suffered  depletion 
in  the  meantime. 

General  color  varying  from  reddish  yellow  to  brownish  red ;  throat 
ruff  long  in  winter,  but  shorter  and  less  developed  in  summer; 
saddle  patches  lacking  in  summer  pelage  but  sometimes  very  dis- 
tinct in  winter;  fronto-orbital  edge  of  the  horns  weakly  developed. 
The  females  seldom  have  horns;  they  never  hav.e  throat  ruff  or 
saddle  patches.  (Nasonov,  1923,  pp.  27-28.) 

The  range  extends  north  to  Alaghez;  east  to  the  mountains  of 
the  Nakhitchevan  district  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Araxes;  south  to 
the  vicinity  of  Ordubad,  the  Negram  Mountains,  and  the  vicinity  of 
Khoi  (north  of  Lake  Urmi) ;  west  to  the  district  of  Bayazid  and  to 
the  Pir-Reshid  mountains  60-80  km.  east  of  Lake  Van  (Nasonov, 
1923,  pp.  25-26).  These  localities  are  in  Armenia,  northwestern 
Persia,  and  extreme  eastern  Turkey.  Sushkin  (1925,  p.  148)  sum- 
marizes the  range  as  "Alaghez;  Djulfa;  Ararat;  Bayazid." 

According  to  Radde  (in  Satunin  and  Radde,  1899,  p.  Ill),  this 
sheep  lives  in  summer  on  the  lower  course  of  the  western  [  =  east- 
ern?] Arpatchai.  In  severe  winters  it  moves  in  considerable  num- 
bers down  into  the  Araxes  Valley;  it  is  then  very  cautious,  and 
wanders  eastward  from  Erivan  in  the  foothills  between  Nak- 
hitchevan and  Ordubad. 

Satunin  (1896,  p.  312)  reports  a  Wild  Sheep  as  pretty  common 
in  the  mountains  of  the  Erivan  and  Kars  districts ;  it  extends  north- 
ward about  to  the  vicinity  of  Novo  Bayazet,  west  of  Sevan  Lake. 
19 


562  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Satunin  writes  later  (1904)  that  it  is  sedentary  on  Ararat  and  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Nakhitchevan  district;  but  from  Ararat 
to  Sarikamish  it  appears  only  in  winter;  it  is  especially  numerous 
on  the  Zor  Heights  (south  of  Igdyr)  about  40  km.  west  of  Ararat 
(Nasonov,  1923,  p.  26) . 

Carruthers  (1915,  pp.  18,  20-21)  gives  the  following  account: 

The  mouflon  find  suitable  haunts  amongst  these  high  mountain  masses 
[south  and  southeast  of  Lake  Van].  .  .  . 

They  are  much  more  numerous  and  easier  to  stalk  than  the  ibex  ....  They 
are  not  always  easy  to  find.  One  traveller  records  them  on  a  certain  range 
and  the  next  visitor  is  disappointed  at  finding  nothing  there.  It  is  certain 
that  they  change  their  quarters  and  migrate  at  fixed  seasons,  one  of  the 
most  important  influences  in  forcing  their  movements  being  the  annual 
migrations  of  the  Kurd  shepherds,  for  they  come  in  thousands,  with  their 
flocks  and  herds  in  tens  of  thousands,  eating  up  the  whole  country  as  they 
go  by,  and  disturbing  all  the  game.  .  .  . 

Captain  Dickson  spoke  of  finding  many  wild  sheep  in  the  ranges  to  the 
south-east  of  Van;  other  hunters  have  failed  to  find  any  game  there  at 
all.  .  .  .  Mr  Isidor  Morse  tells  me  that  he  actually  killed  ibex  and  sheep 
on  the  same  ground  in  the  Ardost  Dagh,  at  the  south-east  corner  of  Lake  Van. 

W.  G.  Heptner  writes  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  that  this  sub- 
species exists  [within  the  Soviet  Republic]  only  in  a  very  limited 
region  of  the  Armenian  mountains,  and  that  hunting  is  forbidden. 

Erzerum  Sheep 

OVIS  GMELINII  GMELINII   Blyth 

OCfis]  Gmelinii  Blyth,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1840,  p.  69,  1841.  (Blyth 
states  that  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  received  the  cotypes  "from 
Erzeroom,"  but  this  does  not  necessarily  indicate  the  exact  type  locality. 
Sushkin  remarks  (1925,  p.  139)  concerning  Erzerum:  "Reputed  terra 
typica;  no  wild  sheep  have  been  found  by  later  explorers  near  Erzerum 
and  no  specimens  exactly  similar  to  the  type  have  been  found  elsewhere.") 

FIGS.:  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  7,  pi.  5,  fig.  8,  1841;  Lydekker,  1901,  pi.  3, 
fig.  5;  Nasonov,  1911,  p.  1276,  fig.  1,  and  1921,  p.  1228,  fig.  10. 

In  view  of  what  has  been  said  concerning  the  uncertain  type 
locality,  there  is  very  little  that  can  be  added  on  the  distribution 
or  status  of  this  subspecies. 

"Size  of  an  ordinary  tame  sheep,  with  a  remarkably  short  coat, 
of  a  lively  chestnut-fulvous  colour,  deepest  upon  the  back ;  the  limbs 
and  under  parts  whitish,  with  few  traces  of  dark  markings,  except 
a  finely  contrasting  black  line  of  more  lengthened  hair  down  the 
front  of  the  neck  of  the  male  only,  widening  to  a  large  patch  on  the 
breast;  and  in  both  sexes  a  strip  of  somewhat  lengthened  mixed 
black  and  white  hairs  above  the  mid.  joint  of  the  fore-limbs  an- 
teriorly .  .  .  ;  tail  small,  and  very  slender;  horns  of  the  male  sub- 
trigonal,  compressed,  and  very  deep,  with  strongly  marked  angles 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  563 

and  cross-striae,  diverging  backwards,  with  a  slight  arcuation  to 
near  the  tips,  which  incline  inwards.  .  .  . 

Horns  ...  20  inches  over  the  curvature  ....  Around  the  eye 
and  muzzle  this  species  is  whitish;  the  chaffron  and  front  of  the 
limbs  are  more  or  less  tinged  with  dusky.  .  .  .  Female  generally 
similar,  but  smaller,  with  no  black  down  the  front  of  the  neck, 
and  in  the  observed  instances  hornless."  (Blyth,  1841,  pp.  69-70.) 

Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  80)  refers  to  this  subspecies  speci- 
mens from  "Khodarendikian,  Asia  Minor,"  and  from  "Ivuz  Dagh, 
near  Enagli,  Asia  Minor" — places  which  I  have  not  located  in  any 
atlas.  Perhaps  the  first  of  these  should  read  "Khodavendikyar"  or 
"Khodawendikiar,"  a  vilayet  in  western  Asia  Minor,  although  Wild 
Sheep  do  not  seem  to  have  been  recorded  otherwise  from  this  region. 
Possibly  the  second  should  read  "Ibris  Dagh,  near  Eregli";  this, 
however,  is  very  close  to  the  type  locality  of  Ovis  ophion  ana- 
tolica.  Perhaps  Lydekker's  colored  figure  (1901,  pi.  3,  fig.  5)  is 
based  upon  the  first  of  these  specimens  (cf.  op.  cit.,  p.  135). 

Ispahan   Sheep 

OVIS   GMELINII   ISPHAGANICA    NaSODOV 

Ovis  orientalis  isphaganica  Nasonov,  Bull.  Acad.  Imper.  Sci.  St.-Petersbourg, 
ser.  6,  vol.  4,  pt.  1,  p.  686,  1910.  (Mountains  in  the  vicinity  of  Ispahan, 
Persia  (Nasonov,  1923,  p.  33).) 

FIGS.:  Nasonov,  op.  cit.,  pi.  facing  p.  702;  Nasonov,  1911,  fig.  9  (facing  p. 
1296). 

Our  information  on  the  numbers  of  this  sheep  is  meager  and  far 
from  up-to-date. 

It  is  closely  related  to  0.  g.  urmiana,  but  its  horns  are  more 
closely  curled;  females  hornless  (Nasonov,  1923,  pp.  32,  35). 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  148)  gives  the  range  as  "mountains  of  south- 
western Persia:  near  Ispahan;  Range  Pushti-Kuh." 

"About  Isfahan  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  wild  sheep  grazing  in 
the  plain  near  the  hills"  (0.  St.  John,  in  Blanford,  1876,  p.  88). 

In  years  gone  by  Wild  Sheep  were  "not  too  plenty  not  far  from 
Ispahan"  (William  Lord  Smith,  in  litt.,  February  17,  1938). 

Nasonov  (1923,  p.  33)  records  specimens  from  Kamyshlu  (60  km. 
from  Ispahan),  from  the  vicinity  of  Dopolun  (southwest  of  Ispa- 
han) ,  and  from  the  Pusht  i  Kuh. 

Urmian  Red  Sheep 

OVIS    GMELINII    URMIANA    Gunther 

Ovis  ophion  var.  urmiana  Gunther,  Jour.  Linnean  Soc.  [London],  zool.,  vol. 
27,  p.  374,  1899.  ("Koyun  Daghi,  the  largest  island  of  the  Urmi  Archi- 
pelago," Lake  Urmi,  northwestern  Persia.) 


564  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

FIGS.:    Giinther,  1899,  pi.  22;  Lydekker,  1901,  p.  140,  fig.  31;  Nasonov,  1911, 
pp.  1283,  1284,  figs.  4,  5,  and  1923,  pi.  6,  fig.  2,  and  p.  37,  fig.  9. 

Little  is  known  of  the  present  numbers  of  this  sheep. 

"The  horns  are  bent  outwards  in  a  regular  curve,  describing  a 
semicircle,  without  any  trace  of  that  spiral  twist  at  the  extremity 
.  .  .  constant  in  the  adult  Cyprian  Mouflon;  .  .  .  remarkably  flat- 
tened and  compressed  in  a  vertical  direction,  with  an  obtuse  upper 
and  a  sharp  lower  ridge";  the  whole  of  the  broad,  flat  posterior  sur- 
face in  the  same  plane;  horns  with  transverse  wrinkles  and,  at 
irregular  intervals,  five  deep  grooves;  length  round  outer  curve 
500  mm.  (Giinther,  1899,  p.  375;  description  based  upon  a  cranium 
with  horns  and  skin  attached).  Some  females  possess  horns  (Na- 
sonov, 1923,  p.  39) . 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  148)  gives  the  range  as  "Islet  Koiun-Daghy 
in  the  Urmi  Lake  (introduced?) ;  Mountains  Kara-Dagh;  north  of 
Travriz  (?)  [^Tabriz?]."  He  adds  (p.  150):  "The  true  home  of 
O.  g.  urmiana  is  unknown." 

Nasonov  (1923,  pp.  36-39)  contributes  the  following  information: 
In  1916  Smirnov  estimated  the  Koyun  Daghi  herd  at  no  more  than 
350-400  head,  and  Verestchagin  considered  the  number  even  less. 
The  permission  of  the  owner  of  the  island  was  required  for  hunting. 
The  island  is  11  by  6  km.,  and  the  mountains  are  not  very  high. 
According  to  the  Russian  consuls  at  Urmia,  the  sheep  were  brought 
to  the  island  by  human  agency  from  other  places.  One  of  the  con- 
suls, Baron  Tcherkassoff,  wrote  that  the  sheep  were  descended  from 
a  couple  of  animals  that  had  been  captured  alive  50  to  75  years  ago 
by  order  of  some  princes  in  the  district  of  Baba-Bagy  in  Kara- 
Dagh,  and  thereafter  had  been  introduced  on  the  island.  Possibly 
the  Wild  Sheep  were  brought  there  many  times  and  from  different 
places.  Nasonov  records  two  specimens  from  Kara-Dagh,  which  he 
is  inclined  to  consider  the  true  home  of  urmiana. 

Laristan   Sheep 

Ovis  LARISTANICA  Nasonov 

Ovis  laristanica  Nasonov,  Bull.  Acad.  Imper.  Sci.  St.-Petersbourg,  ser.  6,  vol.  3, 

pt.  2,  p.  1179,  1909.    ("Laristan,  southern  Persia.") 
FIGS.:    Nasonov,  1911,  fig.  10  (following  p.  1296);  Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  4,  fig.  2, 

and  p.  38,  fig.  10. 

Information  on  the  numerical  status  of  the  Laristan  Sheep  is 
lacking. 

Horns  subtrigonal,  weak,  and  with  edges  similar  to  those  of  0. 
vignei;  black  line  of  longer  hairs  below  neck  interrupted  in  middle; 
white  patches  on  each  side  of  body  joined  dorsally.  Height  at 
shoulder  about  28  inches.  (Nasonov,  1911,  p.  1295.) 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN -TOED  UNGULATES  565 

General  color  of  upper  parts  in  winter  dark  brownish  yellow; 
a  dark  band  across  the  shoulder,  with  whitish  patches  before  and 
behind,  forming  a  sort  of  double  saddle-patch;  a  blackish  flank- 
band;  belly  white;  crown,  forehead,  and  muzzle  blackish;  a  black 
streak  from  eye  to  mouth,  and  below  this  a  narrower  gray  one; 
outer  side  of  ears  gray;  tail  whitish;  front  and  outer  side  of  fore- 
legs above  knees,  and  front  of  shank  below  white  knees,  blackish 
tawny ;  elsewhere  lower  part  of  forelegs  and  the  whole  of  lower  part 
of  hind  legs  white;  a  strong  black  throat-ruff,  with  some  brownish 
yellow  hairs.  In  summer  the  general  color  changes  to  chestnut, 
with  almost  complete  obliteration  of  the  saddle-patch.  (Lydekker, 
1913,  vol.  1,  pp.  83-84.) 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  148)  gives  the  range  as  "Laristan  (southern 
Persia)  and  (?)  probably  to  Persian  Baluchistan." 

The  following  remarks  of  St.  John  (in  Blanford,  1876,  p.  88)  on 
Persian  sheep  may  refer  in  reality  to  the  present  species:  "The 
wild  sheep  of  the  south  is  found,  so  far  as  I  have  observed,  at  much 
lower  elevations  than  that  of  the  north.  In  Fars  I  have  noticed 
that  0.  cycloceros  is  generally  found  in  the  lower  hills." 

Nasonov  (1923,  p.  39)  writes  that  the  exact  place  of  occurrence 
in  Laristan  is  unknown.  Some  specimens  taken  by  Zarudny  in  the 
vicinity  of  Raskin,  southeastern  Persia,  resemble  the  type.  Thus 
the  range  may  extend  through  the  mountains  of  southern  Persia 
from  Laristan  to  Persian  Baluchistan. 


Elburz  Red  Sheep 

Ovis  ORIENTALIS  S.  G.  Gmelin 

Ovis  oriental-is  S.  G.  Gmelin,  Reise  durch  Russland,  vol.  3,  pp.  432,  486,  1774. 

(Bare  mountains  of  Gilan  and  highest  mountains  of  Mazanderan,  Persia; 

type  locality  restricted  by  Nasonov  (1923,  p.  42)  to  the  eastern  part  of  the 

Elburz  Mountains,  Persia.) 

SYNONYM:    Ovis  gmelini  erskinei  Lydekker  (1904). 
FIGS.:    Gmelin,  1774,  vol.  3,  pi.  55;  Nasonov,  1910,  pp.  700,  701,  figs.  9,  10, 

and  1911,  pp.  1288,  1289,  figs.  6,  7,  and  fig.  8,  facing  p.  1290;  Lydekker, 

1913a,  pi.  19,  fig.  1,  and  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  82,  fig.  25;  Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  8, 

fig.  3,  and  p.  37,  fig.  8. 

Although  Nasonov  (1923,  p.  42)  and  Sushkin  (1925,  p.  148) 
recognize  both  Ovis  orientalis  orientalis  Gmelin  and  Ovis  gmelinii 
erskinei  Lydekker,  it  must  be  noted  that  their  type  localities  and 
general  ranges  are  practically  identical,  and  that  no  very  tangible 
distinction  can  be  found  in  the  type  descriptions.  Accordingly 
erskinei  is  here  considered  a  synonym.  It  would  be  most  unusual 
for  two  species  of  the  genus  Ovis  to  occupy  the  same  range.  Possibly 
Ovis  gmelinii  Blyth  will  prove  to  be  a  subspecies  of  orientalis. 


566  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

General  color  of  head  whitish;  area  in  front  of  horns,  and  a 
broad  band  from  each  eye  to  mouth,  dark  red;  hairs  on  chin  dark 
gray  and  yellowish ;  beard  with  numerous  bristly  hairs,  whitish  and 
black;  area  beneath  eyes  with  bristly  black  hairs,  longer  than  those 
of  the  beard;  back  of  head  red;  outer  surface  of  ears  ashy,  in- 
ner surface  white;  hairs  of  back  apically  reddish,  basally  whitish; 
a  prominent  throat  ruff,  of  long,  stiff  hairs,  black  at  the  tips ;  upper 
parts  of  limbs  colored  like  upper  part  of  body ;  lower  parts  of  limbs 
like  under  parts  of  body,  ashy  gray,  but  with  traces  of  reddish 
on  the  hind  feet.  Horns  of  male  compressed  and  curved  spirally 
backwards;  provided  all  around  with  raised  cross  rings;  tapering 
to  thin  and  sharp  tips;  length,  20J  inches.  Female  hornless.  (Gme- 
lin,  1774,  vol.  3,  pp.  487-491.) 

The  above  type  description  of  orientalis  may  be  compared  with 
the  rather  meager  description  of  erskinei,  which  follows.  "So  far 
as  can  be  judged  from  the  head  and  neck,  the  colour  is  less  dis- 
tinctly red  than  in  the  Cyprian  [ophion]  and  Armenian  [gmelinii] 
races,  while  there  is  a  distinct  front  outer  angle  to  the  horns,  and  a 
strongly  developed  dark  throat-ruff  in  winter"  (Lydekker,  1913c, 
vol.  1,  p.  83).  "The  horns  .  .  .  sweep  backwards  in  a  spiral  exactly 
the  opposite  to  that  of  those  of  the  true  urial  ....  The  fineness 
of  the  ridges  on  adult  horns,  the  flatness  of  the  inner  surface  of  the 
latter,  and  the  bevelling  off  of  the  front  angles,  are  .  .  .  charac- 
teristic ....  The  horns  of  the  Persian  sheep  have  a  flatter  front 
surface  [than  those  of  gmelinii],  more  or  less  distinctly  defined 
from  the  lower  surface,  instead  of  merging  imperceptibly  into  the 
latter."  (Lydekker,  1904d,  p.  1031.)  Length  of  horns  on  front 
curve  up  to  27J  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  298) . 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  148)  gives  the  range  of  orientalis  as  "eastern 
part  of  Elburz  Mountains,  Persia";  of  erskinei,  as  "Elburz  Moun- 
tains; Mount  Savelan." 

According  to  Gmelin  (1774,  vol.  3,  pp.  486,  492),  this  animal 
lives  in  flocks  in  association  with  various  goats  in  Mazanderan, 
and  is  confined  to  the  highest  mountains.  He  speaks  of  having 
been  in  a  place  where  the  horns,  broken  off  in  combats  between  the 
rams,  almost  covered  the  earth.  The  flesh  is  a  real  delicacy,  but  the 
wool  is  of  scant  value. 

Blanford  (1876,  p.  88)  records  a  specimen  from  the  Elburz 
Mountains,  north  of  Teheran,  at  an  elevation  of  12,000  feet.  St. 
John  (in  Blanford,  1876,  p.  88)  refers  to  the  animal  in  those  days 
as  "very  plentiful  everywhere." 

Lydekker  (1913a,  p.  258)  mentions  "a  series  of  heads  obtained 
about  1904  at  an  elevation  of  some  10,000  ft."  in  the  Elburz  Range. 
The  type  specimen  of  erskinei  was  included  in  this  series. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  567 

Nasonov  (1923,  p.  35)  records  specimens  of  "erskinei"  from  the 
vicinity  of  Dere-Kazah  (12-18  km.  north  of  Teheran),  from  the 
southwestern  side  of  Mount  Demavend,  and  from  Mount  Savelan. 

Ladak  Urial;   Astor  Urial;   Shapu 

Ovis  VIGNEI  VIGNEI  Blyth 

Otws]    Vignei  Blyth,  Proc.  Zool.   Soc.   London   1840,  p.  70,   1841.     ("Little 

Thibet,   and  .  .  .  the    Sulimani    range    between    India    and    Khorassan"; 

type   locality   restricted   by   Blyth    (p.   78)    to   "Little   Thibet,"   and   by 

Blanford  (1891,  p.  498)  to  "Astor,"  Kashmir,  India.) 
FIGS.:    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1860,  pi.  79   (Mammalia);   Lydekker,  1898c, 

p.  166,  fig.  32,  and  1900,  pi.  3,  fig.  3;  Van  der  Byl,  1915,  pi.  46;  Nasonov, 

1923,  pi.  8,  fig.  4;  Stockley,  1928,  pi.  facing  p.  120. 

Apparently  this  Urial  still  exists  in  moderate  numbers. 

General  color  rufous-brown;  face  "livid,"  without  a  white  muzzle; 
a  conspicuous  fringe  of  lengthened  blackish  hairs  down  the  front  of 
the  neck;  belly  white,  bordered  by  a  black  lateral  band;  limbs 
brown,  with  a  whitish  ring  above  each  hoof,  then  a  dark  ring.  Horna 
subtriangular,  compressed,  describing  three-fourths  of  a  circle  and 
pointing  towards  the  back  of  the  neck;  32^  inches  in  length  over 
the  curvature.  (Blyth,  1841a,  p.  71.)  Record  length  of  horns  on 
front  curve,  39  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  292).  Height  at  shoulder, 
36  inches  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  85).  The  females  of  all  the 
subspecies  have  horns  (Nasonov,  1923,  p.  53) . 

"The  range  extends  from  Astor  to  Zaskar,  Ladak,  and  probably 
Tibet"  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  85).  "In  Zanskar  and  Ladak 
this  sheep  is  found  at  elevations  of  from  12,000  to  14,000  feet 
elevation"  (Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  169).  Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149) 
gives  the  distribution  as  "Ranges  along  the  upper  Indus  as  far 
south  as  Gilgit,  north  to  Vakhan  (southwestern  Pamir)." 

"Vast  numbers  of  this  species  are  driven  down  by  the  snow  in 
winter  to  the  branches  of  the* Indus,  near  Astor,  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  Little  Thibet,  where  the  river  breaks  through  the 
chain  of  the  Himalaya"  (Vigne,  in  Blyth,  1841,  p.  72). 

"In  Ladak  good  heads  have  been  getting  scarce  of  late  years. 

"In  winter  they  come  low  down,  especially  near  Bunji  in  Astor. 
In  the  old  days  the  native  hunters  used  to  account  for  many  at 
this  season,  but  this,  fortunately,  is  now  restrained  by  the  officials 
of  the  Game  Preservation  Department."  (Van  der  Byl,  1915, 
p.  118.) 

Burrard  (1925?,  p.  188)  writes  of  this  Urial: 

This  handsome  sheep  is  essentially  an  inhabitant  of  the  valley  of  the  Indus. 
It  is  found  in  hills  and  mountains  on  both  banks  of  that  great  river,  and 


568  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

also  in  the  basins  of  most  of  its  tributaries  from  Ladak  to  the  Plains  of  India, 
but  it  never  occurs  in  the  basin  of  the  Jhelum  in  Kashmir.  ...  In  Ladak 
it  is  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Zaskar  Range  ....  Hence  it  follows  the  valley 
of  the  Indus  down  stream,  although  it  is  much  more  common  to  the  south  of 
the  river  than  to  the  north,  as  far  as  Chilas.  Between  Chilas  and  Attock  the 
Indus  is  unexplored,  but  as  oorial  occur  in  the  hills  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
both  these  places  I  see  no  reason  to  doubt  their  being  found  on  both  banks 
of  the  river  in  between. 

To  the  north-east  [=northwest]  they  extend  up  to  the  Hindu  Kush  Range 
beyono!  Chitral  and  Gilgit. 

Punjab  Urial 

Ovis  VIGNEI  PUNJABIENSIS  Lydekker 

Ovis  vignei  punjabiensis  Lydekker,  Cat.  Hume  Bequest  Brit.   Mus.,  p.   10, 

1913.    ("Salt  Range,  Punjab,"  India.) 
FIGS.:    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1860,  p.  128,  fig.,  and  pi.  80   (Mammalia) 

("cycloceros") ;   Stockley,   1922a,   pi.  facing   p.  529,  and   1928,  frontisp.; 

Ward,  1935,  p.  297,  upper  fig. 

This  Urial  has  recently  shown  a  marked  decline,  in  at  least  part 
of  its  range. 

"A  rather  smaller  and  redder  sheep  than  the  last  [0.  v.  vignei}, 
with  the  girth  of  the  horns  seldom  exceeding  10  inches"  (Lydekker, 
19136,  p.  10).  (The  girth  in  0.  v.  vignei  is  10  to  12  inches.)  Height 
at  shoulder  about  32  inches;  curves  of  horn  nearly  in  one  plane, 
and  tending  to  form  a  circle;  ruff  strongly  developed  (Lydekker, 
1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  87).  The  record  length  of  horns  on  the  front 
curve  is  38f  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  294) . 

"No  reliance  can  be  placed  on  horn  characteristics,  as  individual 
variation  is  very  great  even  in  members  of  the  same  herd.  In  the 
Kala  Chitta  Range  near  Campbellpore,  native  shikaris  recognise 
two  distinct  types  of  horn  .  .  .  ;  one  has  a  wide  spiral  with  the 
points  turning  inwards,  the  other  a  close  flat  spiral  with  the  points 
diverging  outwards."  (Stockley,  1922a,  p.  529.) 

Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  87)  records  specimens  from  the  Salt 
Range,  Nishnapur,  and  Akhor  Hills  (north  of  Campbellpur) ,  in  the 
Punjab.  Ward  (1935,  p.  294)  records  additional  specimens  from 
near  Attock,  near  Rawal  Pindi,  and  Kala  Chitta  Hills,  Punjab. 
Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149)  gives  the  distribution  as  "Salt  Range, 
Punjab;  perhaps  also  Soliman  Range." 

Stockley  (19226,  pp.  1126-1128)  speaks  of  hunting  Urial  in  the 
Shahpur  and  Talagang  districts  and  in  the  Nili  rukh  (Jhelum 
district) ,  and  adds : 

It  has  always  been  found  that  on  grounds  where  the  old  males  have  been 
shot  off,  that  the  heads  never  recover  their  strength,  even  with  several  years 
complete  preservation  .... 

A  possible  alternative  to  complete  cessation  of  shooting  for  five  years  is 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  569 

closing  for  two  or  three  years  and  then  reopening  to  limited  shooting  with 
a  higher  size  limit:  I  would  recommend  26  inches.  .  .  . 

As  far  as  relative  damage  by  sportsmen  and  villagers  is  concerned,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  modern  young  officer  has  still  to  be  educated  in 
the  ethics  of  sport  and  the  principles  of  preservation.  There  is  a  great  deal 
of  poaching  carried  out  by  Europeans  in  rukhs  near  the  railway:  notably 
Nili  and  Lehri  Godari.  I  heard  of  three  British  officers  basing  their  operations 
on  Tarki  railway  station  in  the  middle  of  last  October,  and  killing  14  rams 
between  them.  I  have  personal  knowledge  of  two  other  cases  ....  I  found 
that  much  of  this  was  due  to  ignorance  of  the  shooting  regulations,  and  after 
getting  the  Commandant  of  the  Musketry  School  at  Rawalpindi  to  post  a 
notice  on  the  subject,  the  practice  ceased  to  a  large  extent.  .  .  . 

Villagers'  dogs  are  a  fruitful  source  of  damage,  as  they  chase  ewes  heavy 
with  young,  and  frequently  destroy  the  new-born  lambs.  .  .  . 

Complaints  as  to  destruction  of  crops  .  .  .  were  justified  in  some  few 
localities  before  this  last  disastrous  season. 

Burrard  (1925?,  p.  189)  regards  the  animal  as  "still  fairly  plen- 
tiful" in  the  Punjab  Salt  Range. 

"In  the  first  half  of  November  I  was  in  the  oorial  preserves  of 
the  Campbellpore  district,  and  consider  that  the  stock  is  one  third 
of  what  it  was  five  years  ago:  again  due  to  unlicensed  rifles  and 
want  of  whole-time  watchers"  (C.  H.  Stockley,  in  litt.,  December 
12,  1933). 

Afghan  Urial 

OVIS    VIGNBI    CYCLOCEROS    Hutton 

Ovis  Cycloceros  Hutton,  Calcutta  Jour.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  514,  1842.  ("The 
Huzarreh  [=Hazara]  hills,"  Afghanistan.) 

SYNONYM:    fOvis  blanfordi  Hume  (1878). 

FIGS.:  Hutton,  1842,  pi.  19;  Jour.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal,  vol.  46,  pt.  2,  pi.  4, 
1878  ("blanfordi");  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  13,  and  1900,  pi.  3,  figs.  4,  4a, 
p.  91,  fig.  12;  Lydekker,  1913a,  pi.  20,  fig.  1,  and  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  88,  fig.  26. 

The  fact  that  much  of  the  Afghan  Urial's  range  lies  beyond  the 
ordinary  reach  of  European  hunters  would  seem  to  augur  well 
for  its  survival  in  fair  'numbers  to  the  present  day.  Information 
from  some  localities,  however,  is  not  encouraging. 

Upper  parts  uniform  yellowish  or  fawn-colored  brown;  but- 
tocks, under  parts,  and  inside  of  limbs  white;  knees  and  fore 
pasterns  dirty  white;  face  bluish  gray;  forepart  of  forelegs  gray- 
ish; a  black  beard,  interspersed  with  white  or  gray  hairs,  ex- 
tending from  the  jaws  to  the  chest.  In  summer  the  hair  is  stiff  and 
short;  in  winter,  coarser  and  less  smooth,  and  of  a  darker  shade  of 
brown.  The  upper  parts  become  interspersed  with  white  in  old 
individuals.  Horns  triangular,  strongly  wrinkled;  curving  strongly 
from  the  base,  forming  nearly  a  circle.  Height  at  shoulder,  32  inches. 
(Hutton,  1842,  pp.  515-516.)  Hay  (1840,  pp.  440-441)  describes 
an  adult  male  from  Bameean,  in  the  Hindu  Kush,  as  being  40  inches 


570  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

in  height  at  the  shoulder,  with  horns  30  inches  in  length;  he  states 
that  the  female  has  small  horns.  Ward  (1935,  p.  294)  gives  the 
record  length  of  horn  on  the  front  curve  as  41^  inches. 

The  range  of  this  subspecies  will  be  provisionally  considered  to 
include  Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan,  extending  eastward  into  the 
North  West  Frontier  Province  of  India  and  westward  perhaps  as 
far  as  eastern  Persia.  Sushkin  (1925,  p.  148),  following  Nasonov 
(1923,  pp.  47-48),  gives  the  range  as  "Great  Balkan  (Transcaspia) , 
Kopet  Dagh,  and  Paropamir,  east  to  Peshawar  and  Kandahar," 
but  admits  (p.  150)  that  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of 
Kopet  Dagh  specimens.  I  prefer  to  follow  Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1, 
pp.  88-89)  and  Ward  (1935,  p.  291)  in  not  extending  the  range  so 
far  to  the  northwest.  There  is  some  indication,  however,  of  the 
occurrence  of  this  form  in  eastern  Persia  in  the  following  remark 
by  Kennion  (1915,  p.  63) :  "The  sheep  found  in  Seistan  and  the 
Kainat  .  .  .  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  the  urial  of  Baluchistan  and 
the  Punjab."  He  reports  (1911,  pp.  128-137)  moderate  numbers  in 
the  Palang  Koh,  Seistan. 

Among  the  localities  from  which  Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  pp. 
89-90)  records  specimens  of  cycloceros  are  the  following:  Seah 
Koh,  Afghanistan;  Pishin  Valley,  Kelat,  Pubbi  Hills,  and  Quetta, 
Baluchistan;  hills  north  of  Peshawar,  North-West  Frontier  Province; 
and  Chitral. 

"During  winter"  they  "frequently  descend  to  the  plains  and  val- 
leys [of  Afghanistan]  in  small  flocks.  They  are  pursued  by  the 
hunters  for  the  sake  of  the  flesh,  which  is  good  and  well-flavoured; 
while  the  horns  are  placed,  as  are  those  of  Goats,  as  trophies  of 
success,  and  proofs  of  skill,  upon  tombs  and  temples. 

"When  taken  young  they  are  easily  domestic ated,  .  .  .  and  will 
breed  readily  with  the  domestic  Sheep."  (Button,  1842,  p.  517.) 

"They  are  gregarious  in  flocks  of  about  40"  (Hay,  1840,  p.  441). 

Blanford  (1876,  p.  87)  refers  to  this  form  two  specimens  collected 
at  Jalk  and  Dizak,  "Baluchistan"  (now  southeastern  Persia),  and 
adds:  "We  heard  of  its  occurrence,  and  saw  its  tracks,  close  to  the 
sea  level  on  some  low  hills  three  marches  west  of  Gwadar  in 
Baluchistan,  a  country  with  an  excessive  summer  temperature,  and 
it  is  found  on  hills  of  no  great  height  in  Sind,  where  the  climate  is 
still  hotter.  It  is  usually  met  with  in  small  herds,  which  keep  to  the 
slopes  of  hills  and  small  valleys  between  the  ranges."  It  may  be 
recalled  here  that  Nasonov  (1923,  p.  39)  provisionally  extends  the 
range  of  0.  laristanica  eastward  to  Persian  Baluchistan. 

Thomas  (in  Aitchison,  1889,  p.  63)  records  specimens  "of  the 
most  pronounced  cycloceros  type"  from  Gulran,  Kambao,  Khusan, 
Bala-morghab,  and  Chasma-sabz  Pass,  in  northwestern  Afghanistan. 
Aitchison  adds  (p.  64) :  "This  Wild  Sheep  ...  is  very  numerous 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  571 

on  the  higher  ground  and  lower  ranges  of  hills  throughout  the  Bad- 
ghis,  from  2000  feet  and  upwards.  I  saw  a  skull  and  horns  at  a 
Ziarat  or  shrine  .  .  .  between  Kara-kainta  and  Kushk." 

"At  one  time  they  were  common  in  the  hills  round  Quetta  [Balu- 
chistan], but  they  have  been  rather  shot  out  in  this  neighbourhood" 
(Burrard,  1925?,  pp.  188-189). 

"Oorial  (locally  called  (gudy)  are  scattered  all  over  the  district 
[Zhob  Valley,  Baluchistan],  are  still  fairly  plentiful  in  spite  of 
much  shooting,  and  good  rams  are  still  to  be  met  with  fairly  close 
to  main  roads"  (Stockley,  1930,  p.  567). 

"The  Afghan  race  ...  is  said  to  include  the  Urial  inhabiting 
the  Khirtar  range  and  its  lower  spurs  in  Sind"  (Anonymous,  1933, 
p.  33). 

"I  am  ...  on  my  way  back  from  the  Kirchat  preserve  in  W. 
Sind.  I  have  been  to  it  three  times  before,  since  the  War,  and 
estimated  that  there  were  between  ...  80  to  100  oorial  on  the 
preserve,  which  is  about  90  miles  north  of  Karachi.  ...  In  1931 
...  the  local  native  gentry  swarmed  in  and  slaughtered  the  ani- 
mals. ...  I  reckon  the  stock  is  now  under  ...  30  oorial."  (C.  H. 
Stockley,  in  litt.,  December  12,  1933.) 


Bokharan   Urial;   Panja  Urial 

OVIS  VIGNEI  BOCHARIENSIS   NaSOnoV 

O[vis]  vignei  bochariensis  Nasonov,  Bull.  Acad.  Imper.  Sci.  [Petrograd], 
ser.  6,  vol.  8,  pt.  2,  p.  1130,  1914.1  (Baljuan,  Russian  Turkestan  (about 
lat.  38°  20'  N.,  long.  69°  30'  E.)  (Nasonov,  1923,  p.  59).) 

FIGS.:  Nasonov,  1921,  figs.  1-6  (following  p.  1224),  pp.  1225-1227,  figs.  7-9; 
Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  9,  fig.  1,  p.  58,  fig.  13;  Serebrennikov,  1931,  pi.  4,  fig.  2. 

W.  G.  Heptner  (in  litt,  December,  1936)  has  no  information  in 
respect  to  the  numbers  of  this  Urial,  but  regards  it  as  probably  not 
threatened. 

It  is  very  near  to  0.  v.  vignei,  but  differs  by  its  small  size  and 
thinner  horns.  The  shape  of  the  horns  varies  greatly  with  age. 
(Nasonov,  1923,  pp.  57-59.) 

This  Urial  ranges  north  to  the  upper  Zerafshan,  and  south  to  the 
mountains  about  the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Panja  River  (from 
about  Shirabad  in  the  west  to  Baljuan  and  Khuljab  in  the  east).  It 
was  reported  by  Lazdin  (1915)  as  absent  from  the  Darwaz  district 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  Pamir.  (Nasonov,  1923,  pp.  56-57.) 

Serebrennikov  (1931,  p.  161)  mentions  a  young  one  caught  in  the 
southern  foothills  of  the  Hissar  Mountains. 

i  Nasonov  (1923,  p.  57)  also  gives  an  earlier  reference:  Nasonov,  For.  Trav. 
Rep.,  1913. 


572  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Transcaspian   Urial 

Ovis   VIGNEI   ARKAL   Eversmann 

Ovis  arkal  Eversmann  (ex  Brandt  in  litt.),  Estest.  Istoriya  Orenburghsk 
Kraya  [Natural  History  of  the  Orenburg  Government],  vol.  2,  p.  271, 
1850.  ("Typical  locality  Ust-Urt  Plateau,  Transcaspia"  (Lydekker,  1913c, 
vol.  1,  p.  91).  Cf.  Harper,  1940,  p.  326.) 

SYNONYMS:  Ovis  arkar  Brandt  (1852);  ?O.  arkal  Blasius  (1857);  ?O.  vignei 
varenzovi  Satunin  (1905);  ?0.  arcar  dolgopolovi  Nasonov  (1913). 

FIGS.:  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1903,  p.  103,  fig.  10;  Kennion,  The  Field,  vol. 
109,  p.  529,  fig.,  1907;  Nasonov,  1913,  fig.  2,  facing  p.  10  (varenzovi},  p.  18, 
fig.  4  (arkal),  p.  24,  fig.  6  (varenzovi),  fig.  11,  following  p.  32  (arkal},  fig. 
12,  following  p.  32  (varenzovi),  fig.  13,  following  p.  32  (dolgopolovi); 
Lydekker,  1913a,  pi.  20,  fig.  2,  and  p.  266,  fig.;  Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1, 
p.  91,  fig.  27;  Kennion,  1915,  pi.  19;  Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  8,  fig.  1  (dolgo- 
polovi), pi.  8,  fig.  2  (arkal). 

This  sheep  has  apparently  maintained  itself  in  fair  numbers,  at 
least  in  parts  of  its  range  in  Russian  Turkestan  /  and  northeastern 
Persia. 

"Size  (teste  Kennion)  very  large,  but  measurements  of  height  not 
available.  Horns  with  the  front  surface  much  flattened  and  sparsely 
wrinkled,  and  the  two  front  angles  strongly  developed;  frequently 
forming  more  than  a  complete  circle;  basal  girth  in  fine  specimens 
from  10  to  12^  inches.  Ruff  almost  wholly  white  in  front  in  adult 
rams;  .  .  .  general  colour  of  body  rufous."  (Lydekker,  1913c, 
vol.  1,  pp.  91-92;  description  based  probably  upon  Persian  speci- 
mens). Record  length  of  horns  on  front  curve,  45^  inches  (Ward, 
1935,  p.  295).  According  to  Nasonov  (1923,  pp.  46,  51),  the  females 
of  "dolgopolovi"  are  hornless,  while  those  of  "arcar"  are  horned. 

Nasonov  (1923)  recognizes  "0.  orientalis  arcar"  of  the  Ust-Urt 
Plateau;  "0.  orientalis  cycloceros"  extending  northwestward  from 
Afghanistan  to  the  Kopet-Dagh  and  the  Great  Balkan;  and  "0. 
orientalis  dolgopolovi"  of  the  Astrabad  region  and  the  Ala-Dagh, 
in  northeastern  Persia.  He  considers  0.  vignei  varenzovi  Satunin 
a  synonym  of  cycloceros.  In  view  of  the  plasticity  of  this  group, 
the  range  assigned  by  Nasonov  to  cycloceros  seems  unduly  extensive. 
Evidently  more  material  is  required  to  settle  the  taxonomic  status 
of  the  Urials  of  this  region. 

The  combined  range  of  the  three  proposed  forms  (arkal,  varen- 
zovi, and  dolgopolovi)  extends  from  the  Mangyshlak  Peninsula  and 
the  Ust  Urt  Plateau  south  through  the  Great  Balkan  and  the  Kopet- 
Dagh  to  the  mountains  of  Astrabad  and  Khorassan  (cf.  Sushkin, 
1925,  pp.  148-149). 

According  to  Radde  and  Walter  (1889,  pp.  1066-1067),  this 
animal  is  unusually  numerous  in  the  entire  Kopet-Dagh,  from 
Tejend  to  the  western  end  of  the  range,  and  likewise  common  in 
Astrabad  and  on  the  Great  Balkan.  It  ranges  northward  to  the 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  573 

region  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Aral  Seas,  and  reaches  the 
coast  of  the  former,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  Krasnovodsk.  In  the  Kopet- 
Dagh  they  observed  it  mostly  in  flocks  of  5  to  20,  and  occasionally 
of  60  to  100.  In  the  winter  of  1886-87  a  hundred  of  these  sheep 
were  bought  by  a  German  sausage-maker  in  Ashkhabad. 

"The  best  district  for  urial  in  Persia — and  probably  in  Asia- 
is  the  hill  country  that  lies  south-east  of  the  Caspian,  where  the 
Elburz  chain  is  split  up  into  a  number  of  small  spurs  and  subsidiary 
ranges,  the  Kopet  Dagh  and  others.  ...  On  these  hills  I  have  had 
four  stalks  in  a  day  after  different  herds.  Once  I  saw  a  mixed  herd 
of  at  least  three  hundred  sheep  that  raised  a  cloud  of  dust  like  an 
army  as  they  swept  across  a  dry  ravine,  and  immediately  after  I 
found  a  herd  of  forty  hoary  old  rams."  (Kennion,  1915,  p.  64.) 
Five  of  Kennion's  specimens  from  "Bujnurd,  Ala-Dagh,"  north- 
eastern Persia,  are  recorded  by  Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  92). 

Ogneff  and  Heptner  (1928,  p.  266)  report  this  sheep  as  very 
numerous  in  many  places  on  the  mountain  plateaus  of  the  Kopet- 
Dagh. 

There  is  no  information  with  respect  to  the  numbers  on  the 
Mangyshlak  Peninsula  and  the  Ust  Urt  Plateau,  but  the  sheep 
of  the  Kopet-Dagh  are  still  rather  common  (W.  G.  Heptner,  in  Hit., 
December,  1936) . 

European  Mouflon;   Sardinian   Moufflon.     Moufflon    d'Europe; 
Moufflon  de  Corse  (Fr.).    Muflone  (Ital.) 

Ovis  MUSIMON  (Pallas) 

Aegoceros  Musimon  Pallas,  Zoogr.  Rosso-Asiat.,  vol.  1,  p.  230,  1811.  (Type 
locality  restricted  to  Sardinia  (cf.  Miller,  1912,  p.  987).) 

FIGS.:  Pallas,  1834-42,  pi.  19,  fig.  7;  Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif., 
livr.  1,  pi.  3,  livr.  19,  pi.  114,  1824-42;  Gervais,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif.,  pt.  2, 
pi.  40,  1855;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  226,  fig.,  1894;  Lydekker,  1898c, 
pi.  12,  and  pp.  155,  156,  figs.  29,  30;  Martin,  1910,  pi.  47;  Lydekker,  1913c, 
vol.  1,  p.  76,  fig.  24;  Millais,  1914,  pi.  79;  Colosi,  1933,  pi.  4;  Didier  and 
Rode,  1935,  p.  332,  fig.  195;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  687,  fig.;  Schmidt,  1938,  pi.  8. 

The  European  Mouflon  has  been  reduced  by  persecution  to  a  mere 
remnant  in  its  native  range  in  Sardinia  and  Corsica  and  now  appears 
to  have  a  better  chance  of  survival  in  various  continental  localities 
where  it  has  been  introduced. 

General  color  of  back  and  sides  reddish  brown;  a  blackish  me- 
dian stripe  on  neck  and  shoulders;  a  grayish-white  patch  on  pos- 
terior half  of  sides;  under  parts  of  body  and  inner  surface  of  legs 
dull  whitish ;  a  blackish  area  on  front  of  neck,  continued  down  fore- 
leg nearly  to  hoof ;  a  black  stripe  extending  along  the  side  and  down 
the  outer  side  of  hind  leg  to  heel;  tail  black  above  (Miller,  1912, 
p.  989) .  Height  at  shoulder  about  27  inches.  Horns  forming  a  close 


574  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

spiral  curve,  the  tips  generally  bending  forward  and  outward,  but 
sometimes  inward;  length  in  wild  specimens  up  to  34J  inches.  Sar- 
dinian females  usually  with  short  horns;  those  of  Corsica  generally 
hornless.  (Millais,  1914,  pp.  376-377.) 

"The  Musmons  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica  .  .  .  live  in  small  herds, 
.  .  .  uniting  occasionally  into  flocks  of  near  one  hundred  .... 
Their  skins  are  used  for  various  purposes,  and  ...  the  mountain- 
eers still  convert  them  into  vests,  and  a  kind  of  cloaks,  which  may 
be  the  present  representatives  of  the  Mastruca  Sardorum,  noticed  in 
the  commentaries  on  Cicero."  (Hamilton  Smith,  1827,  p.  324.) 

In  1856  Valenciennes  (p.  56)  reported  the  species  as  still  rather 
abundant  in  Corsica  and  Sardinia. 

"Though  by  law  the  close  time  extends  from  November  till  June, 
the  law  has  little  force  in  the  mountain  ranges  which  these  animals 
inhabit  [in  Sardinia],  and  they  are  shot  indiscriminately,  and  with 
impunity  all  the  year  round"  (Tennant,  1885,  p.  195). 

"Muflon  are  restricted  to  certain  mountain  ranges  in  their  native 
islands,  and  there  frequent  only  the  higher  portions  ....  For- 
merly, at  any  rate,  muflon  were  found  in  flocks  of  very  large  size 
....  If  sufficiently  hung,  the  flesh  of  the  rams  is  excellent  for  the 
table  when  the  animals  are  in  good  condition  ....  Muflon  will 
breed  with  domesticated  sheep."  (Lydekker,  1898c,  pp.  157-158.) 

It  lives  in  small  bands,  and  decreases  day  by  day,  being  much 
persecuted  by  the  Corsican  hunters  (Martin,  1910,  pp.  47a-47b). 

Millais  (1914,  pp.  376-378)  gives  the  following  account: 

This  grand  little  sheep  holds  its  own  in  Sardinia,  in  spite  of  constant  per- 
secution; but  in  Corsica  the  numbers  are  decreasing,  although  it  is  well 
preserved  on  a  few  estates.  ... 

They  are  seldom  found  in  flocks  of  more  than  a  dozen  .  . 

The  native  method  of  hunting  moufflon  both  in  Corsica  and  Sardinia  is  to 
drive  the  animals  to  well-known  passes.  This  usually  results  in  the  moufflon 
being  seen  and  females  and  young  being  killed,  but  the  old  rams  are  seldom 
killed  in  this  way. 

It  lives  in  the  mountains  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia  in  small  bands, 
which  remain  by  day  in  the  most  rugged  spots  and  in  the  thickets 
(maquis).  It  is  much  hunted,  and  diminishes  in  number.  (Didier 
and  Rode,  1935,  p.  334.) 

"It  still  exists  in  some  numbers  in  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  where 
it  is  protected.  But  I  don't  know  how  efficiently!"  (Jean  Delacour, 
in  Hit.,  July  25,  1936.) 

In  Sardinia  the  Mouflon  is  found  especially  on  the  Gennargentu. 
Its  numbers  appear  to  be  rather  few.  Hunting  is  not  allowed.  The 
National  Park  of  Gennargentu,  now  under  preparation,  will  be 
created  mainly  to  protect  this  species.  It  has  been  introduced  into 
some  reserves  in  Italy,  including  the  Mount  Circee  National  Park 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES 


575 


in  Latium.    (Laboratorio  di  Zoologia  Applicata  a  Caccia,  in  Hit., 
September,  1936.) 

Mouflon  introduced  into  the  Sila  Mountains,  Calabria,  Italy,  in 
the  middle  of  the  last  century  have  long  since  disappeared  (Hecht, 
1932,  p.  23). 


FIG.  53. — European   Mouflon    (Ovis  musimon) 

In  past  years  Mouflon  have  been  introduced  in  various  parts  of 
Germany  (Hesse,  Harz,  Thuringia) ,  and  have  everywhere  increased 
satisfactorily.  In  the  Schorfheide  Reserve  near  Berlin  there  are 
already  50  head.  (Theodor  G.  Ahrens,  MS.,  December,  1935.) 

In  1905,  20  Mouflon  were  introduced  in  the  Harz  Mountains,  and 
by  1916  they  had  increased  to  80  individuals.  In  1912  a  similar 
attempt  succeeded  in  the  Schaffgott  district.  (Krumbiegel,  1930, 

Ffrfc) 

In  1882  the  species  was  introduced  in  the  districts  of  Nyitra, 
Gomor,  and  Upper  Tatra,  Hungary  (now  Czechoslovakia) .  At  that 
time  it  was  absolutely  protected.  (J.  Schenk,  in  Hit.,  November, 
1936.) 


576  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

In  Austria  it  has  been  introduced  in  various  places  in  Burgen- 
land,  Carinthia,  and  Lower  Austria.  In  Salzburg  there  are  about 
200  head.  Where  care  is  taken  of  the  animals,  they  seem  to  thrive 
quite  well.  (G.  Schlesinger,  in  Hit.,  March,  1937.) 

In  Rumania  the  animal  was  introduced  from  1860  on,  in  Ghimes, 
Transylvania.  The  attempt  gave  very  good  results;  the  hunting 
from  1871  to  1904  yielded  759  individuals.  This  stock  was  ex- 
terminated during  the  Communists'  trouble  (1918),  but  is  now  being 
reestablished.  There  have  been  two  other  very  successful  at- 
tempts— at  Bale,  Bihar,  Transylvania,  and  on  Mount  Retezat  in 
the  southern  Carpathians.  (R.  J.  Calinescu,  in  litt.,  September, 
1937.) 

Siberian  Argali;   Mongolian  Argali 

Ovis  AMMON  AMMON  (Linnaeus) 

Capra  Ammon  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  70,  1758.  (Based  upon  the 
"Argali"  of  J.  G.  Gmelin  (Reize  door  Siberien  naar  Kamtschatka  1733-43, 
vol.  1,  p.  193,  1752)  or  the  "Rupicapra  cornubus  arietinis"  of  J.  G.  Gmelin 
(Novi  Comm.  Acad.  Sci.  Imper.  Petrop.,  vol.  4,  p.  388,  pi.  8,  figs.  2,  3, 
1758) ;  type  locality,  apparently  the  mountains  (Russian  Altai)  about 
Ust-Kamenogorsk,  on  the  Irtish  River,  Semipalatinsk,  Russian  Turkestan.) 

SYNONYMS:  Ovis  argali  Pallas  (1777-80);  Ovis  argali  mongolica,  0.  a.  cdtaica, 
and  O.  a.  dauricus  Severtzov  (1873);  Ovis  ammon  przevalskii  Nasonov 
(1923). 

FIGS.:  Gmelin,  op.  cit.,  1758,  pi.  8,  figs.  2,  3;  Pallas,  1834-1842,  pi.;  Severtzov, 
1873,  pi.  4;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  14,  p.  178,  fig.  33;  Demidoff,  1900,  frontisp., 
pis.  facing  pp.  260,  290,  310;  Lydekker,  1902,  p.  81,  fig.  15,  1913a,  pi.  21, 
fig.  2,  and  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  95,  fig.  28;  C'arruthers,  1913,  vol.  2,  frontisp., 
pis.  facing  pp.  338,  342,  and  1915,  pis.  68,  71;  Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  12,  fig.  1, 
pi.  15,  fig.  1,  pi.  16,  fig.  1;  Ward,  1935,  p.  283,  lower  fig.;  Bull.  New  York 
Zool.  Soc.,  vol.  38,  no.  2,  p.  45,  fig.,  1935. 

Sushkin  (1925,  pp.  149-150)  restricts  this  subspecies  to  the 
Russian  Altai  but  considers  0.  a.  przevalskii,  of  the  adjacent  Sailu- 
ghem  Range,  of  uncertain  validity.  Nasonov  (1923,  p.  113)  and 
Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149)  recognize  mongolica  as  a  distinct  form,  and 
give  it  a  range  extending  from  the  Mongolian  Altai  to  Transbaikalia. 
However,  the  occurrence  of  both  ammon  and  mongolica  in  a  single 
mountain  range  (the  combined  Russian  and  Mongolian  Altai)  does 
not  impress  one  as  a  very  logical  state  of  affairs.  Furthermore,  as 
Hollister  (1919,  p.  46)  has  pointed  out,  Severtzov's  name  mongolica 
is  preoccupied  and  not  available.  For  the  present,  therefore,  I  shall 
treat  both  mongolica  and  przevalskii  as  synonyms  of  ammon,  and 
extend  the  range  of  the  last  from  the  Russian  Altai  through  north- 
western Mongolia  to  Transbaikalia. 

This  Argali  has  been  extinct  for  about  a  century  in  Transbaikalia, 
and  is  likewise  extinct  in  the  western  part  of  the  Russian  Altai 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  577 

(Sushkin,  1925,  p.  149).  However,  in  various  parts  of  the  inter- 
vening territory  it  still  occurs  in  considerable  numbers. 

An  old  ram  from  the  Altai  (Chagan  Gol  district)  is  described 
by  J.  H.  Miller  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  p.  339)  as  follows:  horns  61J 
inches  in  length,  20i  inches  in  girth,  and  with  a  spread  of  37-| 
inches;  height  at  shoulder,  53  inches;  in  autumn  coat  the  nose  is 
white,  forehead  and  cheeks  gray-brown,  and  neck  and  upper  part 
of  body  dark  chocolate,  freely  sprinkled  with  white  hairs;  belly 
and  rump-patch  white;  legs  gray-mottled  above  and  white  below 
the  knees.  "In  full  winter  coat  an  ammon  ram  is  of  a  dirty-white 
colour  on  the  body  and  neck,  and  pure  white  on  the  nose,  legs,  and 
rump.  .  ,  .  He  does  not  grow  a  long  neck-ruff." 

Elsewhere  Carruthers  (1915,  p.  181)  writes: 

The  home  of  the  ammon  stretches  from  the  Siberian  frontier  to  the  borders 
of  the  high  Gobi  Desert;  it  consists,  in  fact,  of  the  north  portion  of  the  great 
plateau.  The  wild  sheep  range  on  to  the  watershed  of  the  mountains  which 
form  the  actual  frontier  between  the  two  Empires  ....  The  Little  Altai,  the 
Sailugem  Range  and  the  Tannu-ola  Mountains  form  the  northern  limit;  the 
crest  of  the  Mongolian  or  Great  Altai  bounds  their  territory  on  the  west; 
towards  the  south  and  east  they  range  as  far  as  well-pastured  hill  country 
extends  into  the  Gobi.  The  nucleus  of  their  range  ...  is  ...  between  the 
Little  and  the  Mongolian  Altai.  This  is  where  they  are  most  numerous  and 
run  largest;  towards  the  south  and  east  they  diminish  in  numbers  and  size, 
it  being  still  doubtful  whether  the  wild  sheep  which  the  Russian  explorers 
have  found  on  the  Ati-bogdo  and  Gurbun  Saikhan  ranges  in  the  Northern 
Gobi  are  true  Ovis  ammon  or  some  new  variety  of  the  species.  .  .  .  There 
is  a  wild  sheep  in  the  mountains  to  the  south-east  of  Lake  Baikal  which  is 
probably  of  the  same  type. 

According  to  Ledebour  and  Bunge,  Argali  had  disappeared  by 
1820  from  Uimon,  east  of  Ust-Kamenogorsk,  but  were  numerous  on 
the  Chulyshman  Mountains ;  they  were  also  found  on  the  mountains 
along  the  Katun  and  the  Chuya.  Pevtzoff  (1883)  reports  them  as 
not  numerous  in  the  Khangai  Mountains,  southeast  of  Ubsa  Nor. 
The  present  eastern  limit  is  the  sources  of  the  Selenga  River.  (Na- 
sonov,  1923,  pp.  117,  120-121.)  Sushkin  (1925,  p.  154)  mentions 
the  Russian  Altai,  Tannu-ola,  and  the  mountains  near  Kosso  Gol 
as  the  extreme  northern  habitats. 

Miller  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  pp.  320-346)  gives  the  following 
account: 

[In  the  Little  Altai]  roams  one  of  the  finest  beasts  in  nature,  the  father 
of  all  sheep,  the  Ovis  ammon.  .  .  .  There  are  few  species  of  big  game  that 
appeal  more  to  the  heart  of  the  hunter  and  lover  of  the  wild  regions  of  the 
earth,  than  an  old  ram  in  his  upland  solitudes.  Apart  frpm  the  magnificent 
horns  he  carries,' his  unrivalled  wariness  tests  the  resources  of  the  hunter  to 
the  utmost.  .  .  . 

It  is  principally  persecution,  from  time  immemorial,  by  their  most  dreaded 
enemies,  the  wolves,  that  has  made  them  the  wonderful  tacticians  that  they 
are. 


578  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

[Near  the  Chagan-gol  Valley]  we  covered  an  enormous  stretch  of  country 
that  day,  and  saw  large  numbers  of  sheep  ....  We  came  across  a  great 
quantity  of  derelict  horns  that  day;  in  one  small  valley  below  a  cliff  I  counted 
fifty  in  about  half  a  mile;  it  is  in  places  like  this  that  most  of  the  horns 
are  met  with,  the  reason  being  that  the  driven  snow  lies  deep  in  such 
places  in  winter.  At  that  season  packs  of  wolves  are  continually  harrying  the 
sheep;  a  herd,  in  its  mad  rush  for  safety,  gets  caught  in  a  drift;  the  females 
and  young  rams,  unencumbered  with  40  Ib.  weight  of  horn,  make  good  their 
escape,  while  the  old  rams  get  stuck  fast  and  are  killed.  This  accounts  for  the 
predominance  of  fair-sized  horns  lying  about  in  certain  localities.  .  .  . 

Undoubtedly,  in  by-gone  ages,  the  distribution  of  these  sheep  was  con- 
siderably wider  than  it  is  at  the  present  day.  At  the  period  of  Central  Asian 
history  when  the  whole  land  was  one  great  battlefield,  and  every  able-bodied 
man  was  drafted  into  the  ranks  of  the  vast  hordes  which  swept  backwards 
and  forwards  under  the  banners  of  Jenghis  and  other  conquerors,  people 
could  have  had  little  time  for  hunting,  and,  in  all  probability,  lived  in  com- 
pact communities  for  safety's  sake;  this  allowed  the  sheep  to  roam  undis- 
turbed over  large  areas  to-day  overrun  by  the  nomads. 

In  more  recent  times  the  introduction  of  firearms  into  the  country  has 
undoubtedly  helped  to  thin  out  the  game ;  but  .  .  .  this  is  only  a  minor  cause 
for  their  steady  decrease,  both  in  number  and  distribution;  the  primary  cause 
is  undoubtedly  the  rapid  increase  of  the  population  on  the  Chinese-Russian 
frontier.  Not  only  is  the  birth-rate  among  the  Kirghiz  increasing,  but  yearly 
large  numbers  are  driven  over  to  the  Chinese  side  by  the  advancing  Russian 
settlers.  This  necessitates  the  opening  up  of  new  grazing-grounds  year  by 
year,  so  that  the  game  is  slowly  but  surely  being  driven  into  higher  and 
more  inaccessible  regions.  The  contraction  of  their  grazing  grounds  is  the 
chief  cause  of  the  steady  decrease  in  the  numbers  of  the  wild-sheep  of  Cen- 
tral Asia. 

The  southern  slope  of  the  Tannu-ola  Range,  at  the  point  where  we  crossed 
it  [northwest  of  Ubsa  Nor],  was  the  first  place  where  we  came  upon  signs 
of  sheep,  in  the  shape  of  a  few  old  horn-cores  and  fragments  of  horn.  But 
they  were  of  great  age,  and  I  can  safely  say  that,  at  the  present  time,  no 
sheep  reach  as  far  east  as  this.  The  western  slope  of  the  Kundelun  group 
[southwest  of  Ubsa  Nor]  was  the  first  place  where  we  came  upon  fresh  horns, 
it  being  the  limit  of  their  winter  range  in  this  direction.  The  natives  say 
that  there  are  sheep  at  the  head-waters  of  the  Kemchik  [near  the  western 
end  of  the  Tannu-ola] ;  .  .  .  this  would  be  the  most  northerly  limit  of  the 
ammon.  .  .  . 

Between  the  Chagan-bugazi  and  Ulan-daba  is  the  region  which  sportsmen 
have  most  visited,  and,  without  doubt;  it  is  the  nucleus  of  the  ammon  ground. 
The  higher  pastures  of  this  broad  mass  of  ideal  sheep-country  lie  above  the 
summer  range  of  the  Mongols,  and  rams  are  still  undoubtedly  plentiful  there. 
The  Bain-Khairkhan,  in  the  days  of  Demidoff  and  Littledale,  must  have 
abounded  in  rams,  but  to-day  the  natives  graze  their  flocks  over  the  greater 
part  of  it,  and  the  chances  of  shooting  a  good  head  there  are  remote.  There 
is  ample  proof  that  the  range  of  Ovis  ammon  typica  extends  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  Great  or  Mongolian  Altai,  to  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  range. 

Miller  adds  (pp.  346-347)  that  the  Kirei  Kirghiz  reported  plenty 
of  sheep  in  "the  Baitik  Bogdo  Range,  a  southern  and  somewhat 
isolated  appendage  of  the  Altai." 

According  to  Salesski  (1934,  p.  375),  the  range  of  this  animal 
formerly  extended  over  nearly  all  of  the  southern,  southwestern, 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  579 

central,  and  eastern  Altai.  Now  it  is  restricted  to  a  small  area, 
including  the  Katun  and  Chuya  Alps,  the  Sailughem  Range,  and  the 
upper  courses  of  the  Chulyshman  and  the  Bashkaus.  But  even  here 
the  Argali  is  rare  and  would  perhaps  be  wholly  wiped  out,  if  hunting 
was  not  forbidden  throughout  the  year. 

In  Transbaikalia  Argali  were  known  from  the  vicinity  of  the 
Ingoda  and  Selenga  Rivers  as  long  ago  as  1724.  According  to 
Radde  (1862),  shortly  after  the  severe  winter  of  1831-32  the  last 
few  Argali  were  killed  on  the  Odon-cholon  Range,  west  of  the  Onon 
River,  on  the  Mongolian  frontier.  (Nasonov,  1923,  pp.  113-114.) 
"The  Cossacks  are  said  to  be  responsible  for  the  disappearance  of 
this  fine  sheep  from  the  greater  portion  of  Eastern  Siberia,  where  it 
appears  to  have  been  once  common"  (Lydekker,  1901,  p.  125). 

Gobi  Argali 

Ovis  AMMON  DARWINI  Przewalski 

Ovis  Darwini  Przewalski,  Third  Journey  in  Central  Asia,  p.  453,  1883  [in 
Russian],  and  Prschewalski,  Reisen  in  Tibet,  p.  268,  1884.  (Southern 
slopes  of  the  Hurku  Mountains  and  southern  and  northern  borders  of 
the  Galbyn  Gobi  (about  lat.  42°  N.,  long.  105°  E.).) 

SYNONYMS:  Ovis  jubata  Peters  (1876)  (preoccupied);  Ovis  kozlovi  Nasonov 
(1913);  Ovis  comosa  Hollister  (1919). 

FIGS.:  Peters,  1876,  pis.  1-4;  Przewalski,  1883,  pi.  facing  p.  454;  Prschewalski, 
1884,  p.  269,  fig.;  Nasonov,  1913,  pp.  624,  625,  figs.  2,  3;  Sowerby,  1918, 
pis.  8,  13;  R.  C.  Andrews,  1920,  p.  350,  fig.;  Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  16,  fig.  1; 
R.  C.  Andrews,  1926,  pi.  facing  p.  165;  Sowerby,  1937,  pi.  following  p.  252. 

G.  M.  Allen  (1930a,  p.  2)  finds  "no  difference  that  would  possibly 
be  of  value  in  distinguishing  the  sheep"  from  the  central  Gobi  and 
the  Chinese  provinces  of  Shensi,  Shansi,  and  Chihli  (now  Jehol?), 
and  I  follow  him  in  regarding  the  three  names  mentioned  above  as 
synonyms  of  0.  a.  darwini. 

Early  extinction  is  feared  for  the  few  remaining  Wild  Sheep  in 
northern  China,  and  the  numbers  in  central  Mongolia  now  appear 
to  be  rather  limited. 

Height  at  the  shoulder  of  a  male  6-7  years  old,  105  cm.  Horns 
with  the  form  of  hodgsoni;  much  curved,  measuring  88  cm.  round 
the  curve;  basal  circumference,  36  cm.  Pelage  dark  brown,  more 
pronounced  on  the  hind  parts,  wavy  and  rather  long  on  the  withers 
and  back;  muzzle,  outer  border  of  eyes,  inner  surface  of  ears,  lower 
limbs,  buttocks,  and  border  of  abdomen,  reddish;  tail  and  median 
dorsal  stripe  gray.  (Prschewalski,  1884,  pp.  268-269.) 

Under  the  name  of  0.  a.  jubata,  Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149)  extends 
this  form  southwest  to  the  Columbus  Range  in  the  Altyn-Tagh 
region  of  Chinese  Turkestan  and  to  the  Tangla  Mountains  of  Tibet. 
It  is  very  doubtful,  however,  if  darwini  actually  extends  so  far  to 


580  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

the  southwest.  (See  the  account  of  0.  a.  hodgsonii.)  Sushkin  him- 
self remarks  (p.  150) :  "The  races  which  inhabit  the  Alashan 
Range,  mountains  of  southeastern  Mongolia  (Sumakhada  and 
Khara-narin-ula) ,  eastern  Nan-shan,  and  the  mountains  south  of 
Tangla  are  uncertain." 

In  the  type  locality  of  darwini,  in  the  southern  Gobi,  Prschewalski 
(1884,  p.  270)  found  this  animal  not  shy,  "since  it  is  not  pursued  by 
man."  He  also  had  (Prejevalsky,  1876,  vol.  1,  p.  261)  native  re- 
ports of  the  occurrence  of  Argali  in  the  northern  unforested  parts 
of  the  Ala-Shan  range. 

Prior  to  1905,  Kozlov  found  small  herds  in  the  isolated  Yabarai 
Mountains  in  the  southern  Gobi  (Nasonov,  1923,  p.  111).  Nasonov 
(1913,  p.  621)  described  the  animal  of  this  region  as  0.  kozlovi. 

In  1923-25  R.  C.  Andrews  (1926,  pp.  243,  294,  343)  found  these 
animals  on  Artsa  Bogdo,  Baga  Bogdo,  and  Jichi  Ola  in  the  central 
Gobi;  on  the  first-mentioned  range  they  were  apparently  common. 
Perhaps  the  Wild  Sheep  reported  by  Kozlov  (fide  Carruthers,  1913, 
p.  629)  on  the  Ati  Bogdo  (about  lat.  43°  N.,  long.  98°  W.)  belong 
to  the  present  form.  Lattimore  (1929,  p.  242)  sighted  a  solitary 
ram  in  the  Gobi  south  of  the  Ati  Bogdo,  near  the  "House  of  the 
False  Lama." 

Formozow  (1931,  p.  76)  found  considerable  numbers  of  Argali  on 
Iche  Bogdo,  just  west  of  Artsa  Bogdo. 

G.  M.  Allen  (1930a,  p.  2)  records  "nine  from  Kweihuacheng, 
Shansi,  as  well  as  a  single  one  from  Lao  Tsa  Tao,  Chihli  Province, 
one  hundred  miles  north  of  Peking,  and  another  from  Tai  Pei  Shan, 
Tsingling  Mountains,  Shensi,  the  last  apparently  a  new  locality  for 
sheep  in  China." 

Sj Slander  (1922,  pp.  140-144)  gives  an  interesting  but  melan- 
choly picture  of  the  animals  in  the  Ta  Tsing  Shan,  north  of  Kuei- 
Hua-Ch'eng  in  Suiyuan.  "They  are  no  doubt  doomed  to  extinction 
within  the  not  very  distant  future,  because  here  as  elsewhere  in  the 
borderland  agriculture  conquers  yearly  new  strips  of  land."  They 
are  much  disturbed  by  hundreds  and  thousands  of  "people  from  the 
plains  roaming  about  in  the  hills  in  search  for  fuel."  The  largest 
flock  he  saw  consisted  of  22  animals.  "The  regions  where  the  sheep 
can  live  their  own  natural  life  are  very  few  and  far  between  in  this 
part  of  Ta-Tsing-Shan." 

Arthur  de  C.  Sowerby  writes  (1937,  pp.  255-256) : 

The  range  of  this  fine  wild  sheep  is  from  the  mountains  north  of  Peking 
in  what  is  now  known  as  Jehol  westward  through  Charhar  into  Suiyuan  and 
Ninghsia  Provinces  and  northward  throughout  Southern  or  Inner  Mongolia 
where  suitable  country  occurs.  There  is  a  record  of  a  single  specimen,  referred 
to  this  species  by  Dr.  Glover  M.  Allen,  which  was  taken  by  Dr.  Roy  Chap- 
man Andrews  in  the  T'ai  Pai  Shan  area  in  the  Tsing  Ling  range  in  South 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  581 

Shensi,  but  no  other  Western  hunter  or  collector  appears  even  to  have  heard 
of  this  type  of  sheep  in  this  region.  .  .  . 

Though  formerly  plentiful,  the  North  China  wild  sheep  is  now  practically 
extinct  in  the  eastern  section  of  its  range,  and  is  only  at  all  plentiful  in  the 
high  mountains  in  Suiyuan,  from  immediately  west  of  K'uei-hua-ch'eng  west- 
ward to  north  of  Pao-t'ou.  Here  it  is  in  grave  danger  of  extermination  at 
the  hands  of  American  and  European  so-called  sportsmen  from  Tientsin  and 
Peiping.  Recently  several  shooting  parties  have  committed  the  grossest  out- 
rages in  killing  large  numbers  of  ewes  and  small  rams,  which  were  sent  back 
to  Peiping  and  Tientsin  in  a  frozen  condition  and  distributed  as  food.  The 
natives  also  hunt  these  fine  sheep  for  food,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
species  is  doomed  to  extinction  unless  protected. 

Semipalatinsk  Argali 

Ovis  AMMON  COLLIUM  Severtzov 

O[vis]  collium  Severtzov,  Izviestia  Imper.  Obshchestvo  Liub.  Estest.,  Antrop. 
i  Etnogr.  [Moscow],  vol.  8,  pt.  2,  p.  154,  1873.  (Based  upon  the  "Arkhari 
ou  Moutons-des  rochers"  of  Kareline  (1841,  p.  563),  inhabiting  "les  monts 
Arkhates  et  les  monts  Tchinguis";  type  locality  here  restricted  to  the 
Cm'nghiz-tau,  in  the  Kirghiz  Steppe,  east  of  Karkaralinsk  and  north  of 
Lake  Balkash  (c/.  Kareline,  1841,  p.  562).) 

FIGS.:  Proc,  Zool.  Soc.  London  1900,  p.  114,  fig.;  Nasonov,  1914a,  pis.  3,  5, 
and  1923,  pi.  9,  fig.  2,  pi.  18. 

If  this  sheep  is  not  exterminated,  it  is  in  any  case  very  rare  (W.  G. 
Heptner,  in  litt.,  December,  1936) . 

The  general  color  varies  from  chocolate-brown  to  yellowish  brown 
(Nasonov,  1923,  p.  82).  "Nasonov's  figure  shows  a  large  white- 
muzzled  argali,  with  horns  approximating  closely  to  the  0.  a.  poli 
type,  but  stouter  and  less  expanded"  (Lydekker,  1916,  vol.  5,  p.  98). 

According  to  Nasonov  (1923,  pp.  79-80),  the  range  includes  the 
mountains  (Ortau)  in  the  eastern  part  of  Akmolinsk,  the  mountains 
in  the  Karkaralinsk  and  Kyzyl-tau  districts  of  Semipalatinsk,  and 
the  Chinghiz-tau  and  the  Arkat  Mountains  north  of  Lake  Balkash ; 
it  also  extends  eastward  to  the  Irtish  River  in  the  vicinity  of  Zaisan 
Nor  and  southward  to  the  Tarbagatai,  Monrak,  and  Saur  Moun- 
tains. Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149)  omits  the  Monrak  and  Saur  Moun- 
tains from  the  range. 

Kareline  (1841,  p.  563)  speaks  of  securing  several  specimens  on 
the  Chinghiz-tau  in  1840. 

Jair  Argali 

Ovis  AMMON  SAIRENSIS  Lydekker 

Ovis  sairensis  Lydekker,  Wild  Oxen,  Sheep,  &  Goats,  p.  185,  1898.  ("The 
Sair,  or  Saiar  Mountains,  situated  in  the  Great  Altai  on  the  north-western 
border  of  Mongolia,  nearly  due  east  of  a  point  midway  between  the 
Semipalatinsk  and  the  Semirechinsk  Altai,  in  latitude  [—  longitude]  86° 
E.  longitude  [=  latitude]  47°."  Type  locality  later  given  by  Lydekker 


582  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

(1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  101)  as  "the  Saiar,  Sair,  or  Jair  Mountains  of  Zungaria." 
Nasonov  (1923,  p.  92)  evidently  considers  the  Jair  Mountains  (about 
lat.  46°  N.,  long.  84°  E.)  the  true  type  locality ;  he  states  that  the  more 
northerly  Sair  or  Saur  Mountains  are  inhabited  by  O.  a.  collium.) 
FIGS.:  Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  186,  fig.  36,  and  1902,  pi.  7,  fig.  2;  Nasonov,  1923, 
pi.  15,  fig.  2. 

Up-to-date  information  on  the  status  of  this  sheep  seems  to  be 
lacking. 

"Considerably  smaller  than  hodgsoni,  but  with  relatively  massive 
horns,  which  form  rather  more  than  a  complete  circle,  and  measure 
(in  the  few  specimens  known)  from  45^  to  47  inches  in  length  .... 
In  summer  the  whole  of  the  upper-parts,  with  the  exception  of  the 
white  muzzle,  as  well  as  the  upper  portion  of  the  legs,  are  reddish 
fawn,  there  being  no  rump-patch,  while  most  of  the  under-parts  are 
darker.  Females  with  a  dark  dorsal  streak."  (Lydekker,  1913c, 
vol.  1,  p.  101.)  Height  at  shoulder  about  38  inches  (Lydekker, 
1898c,p.  185). 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149)  gives  the  range  as:  "  'Saiar,  Sair  or  Jair 
Mountains';  also  'Semi-tau,'  '86°  E.  long.,  47°  N.  lat.';  'and  84°  E. 
long.,  46°  N.  lat.'  Probably  Saur  (or  eastern  Tarbagatai) ;  Semiz- 
tau;  and  Jair."  He  adds  in  a  footnote  that  this  form  is  "doubtful 
geographically  and  systematically." 

Nasonov  (1923,  p.  93)  quotes  Pevtzoff  (1879)  to  the  effect  that 
the  highlands  and  high  valleys  of  the  mountains  of  Semis-tau  and 
Urkashar  are  the  principal  habitats  of  Wild  Sheep  in  Tarbagatai. 

Miller  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  pp.  548-552)  writes  as  follows  con- 
cerning the  present  form  in  the  Barlik-Maili  Range,  situated 
between  the  Jair  Mountains  and  the  Dzungarian  Ala-tau: 

The  chance  of  procuring  specimens  of  that  rare  sheep — Ovis  sairensis — 
lured  us  to  this  region,  but  our  quest  was  tantalizing  and  unsuccessful.  The 
range  of  this  sheep,  which  was  first  discovered  by  Mr.  St.  George  Littledale 
in  the  Sair,  or  Jair,  Mountains  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Tarbagatai,  and 
south-east  of  Lake  Zaisan,  extends  southwards  through  the  Urkashar  and 
other  small  ranges  as  far  as  the  Maili-Barlik  group.  This  is  also  its  eastern  [?] 
limit.  How  far  its  range  extends  westwards  along  the  Tarbagatai  seems  to  be 
imperfectly  known.  .  .  . 

Large  numbers  of  yurts  scattered  over  the  lower  slopes  [of  the  Barlik] 
account,  in  no  small  degree,  for  the  scarcity  of  game.  I  shall  not  weary  the 
reader  with  an  account  of  the  strenuous  days  spent  in  searching  for  those 
scarce  and  elusive  sheep;  only  one  small  band  of  ewes  and  three  yearling 
rams  were  sighted.  [Later  several  more  sheep  were  sighted  on  the  Western 
Maili  plateau.] 

"The  area  it  inhabits  is  composed  of  the  Barlik  and  Maili  ranges, 
besides  the  Sair  and  probably  the  jumble  of  mountains  to  its 
south,  such  as  the  Urkashar  and  Jair  uplifts.  .  .  .  There  is  much 
to  be  learnt  with  regard  to  this  sheep.  .  .  .  Knowledge  of  its 
range  and  habits  are  both  needed."  (Carruthers,  1915,  p.  147.) 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  583 

Littledale's  Argali;   Kulja  Argali 

Ovis  AMMON  LITTLEDALEI  Lydekker 

O[vis]  sairensis  littledalei  Lydekker,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1902,  vol.  2, 
p.  83,  1902.  ("One  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Hi  Valley  on  the  northern 
flank  of  the  eastern  Thian-Shan,  some  distance  to  the  southeast  of  Kuldja 
or  Hi,"  Chinese  Turkestan.) 

FIGS.:  Lydekker,  op.  cit.,  pi.  7,  fig.  1;  Lydekker,  1913a,  pi.  22,  fig.  2  (type), 
and  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  102,  fig.  30;  Carruthers,  1913,  pi.  facing  p.  550,  and 
1915,  pis.  57,  64;  Leister,  1935,  p.  61,  fig. 

A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  this  sheep  was  decidedly  numerous, 
but  probably  its  numbers  have  now  declined  to  some  extent. 

General  color  of  upper  parts  bright  rufous-fawn,  darker  on 
middle  of  back,  but  no  distinct  dorsal  line  or  flank  band;  head 
grayish  brown,  muzzle  pure  white;  throat  ruff  and  tail  pale  yellow- 
ish fawn;  thighs  colored  like  back;  no  light  rump-patch.  Horns 
forming  a  little  more  than  one  complete  turn;  rising  from  the 
head  at  a  much  greater  angle  than  in  ammon  and  polii;  more 
massive  and  less  elongated  than  those  of  polii;  length  up  to  58 
inches;  girth  17  inches.  (Lydekker,  1902,  pp.  81-82,  and  1913c, 
vol.  1,  p.  102.) 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149)  gives  the  range  of  littledalei  as  "Dzun- 
garian  Alatau,  west  to  the,  River  Chilik  (tributary  of  Hi),  east 
along  upper  Hi  and  Yulduss;  perhaps  as  far  as  Kami." 

Severtzoff  (1876,  p.  220)  writes  as  follows  concerning  sheep  on 
the  Russian  side  of  the  Dzungarian  Alatau:  "In  the  neighbourhood 
of  Copal,  ...  in  the  central  steppes  of  Kara,  .  .  .  the  sheep  have 
been  driven  out  from  these  places  and  only  visit  them  late  in  the 
autumn.  In  places  where  good  meadows  and  rocky  places  are  found, 
sheep  can  be  met  with  ...  to  about  10,000  feet  at  the  rivers  Lepsa, 
Larkan,  Kora,  Karatala,  and  Koksa." 

Prejevalsky  (1879,  p.  45)  reports  "Ovis  Poli"  as  often  seen  in 
Yulduz,  in  the  central  Tian  Shan,  in  herds  of  thirty  to  forty. 

Most  of  our  information  concerning  littledalei  is  due  to  J.  H. 
Miller  and  Douglas  Carruthers,  although  they  refer  to  it  as  karelini. 

In  two  days  in  1911,  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Dzungarian 
Alatau,  "I  must  have  seen  not  less  than  three  hundred  ewes  and 
young,  but  not  a  single  ram"  (Miller,  in  Carruthers,  1913,  p.  557) . 
Later  a  number  of  rams  were  secured  here,  in  the  upper  Borotala 
Valley,  which  is  referred  to  (p.  578)  as  "undoubtedly  one  of  the 
finest  sheep  countries  in  Central  Asia." 

Miller  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  pp.  569-570,  593)  writes: 

The  distribution  of  Ovis  ammon  karelini  [in  reality,  littledalei]  stretches 
from  the  north-east  end  of  the  [  Dzungarian  1  Ala-tau  Mountains,  which  is 
their  northern  limit,  westwards  along  the  range  to  the  head  of  the  Borotala, 
and  from  there  eastwards  along  the  whole  length  of  the  northern  declivities 


584  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

of  the  Tian  Shan,  from  Sairam  Nor  to  the  Karlik  Tagh,  which  forms  the  most 
easterly  extremity  of  the  range.  .  .  .  The  horns  seen  in  the  Karlik  Tagh, 
right  on  the  edge  of  the  Gobi,  were  in  every  respect  similar  to  those  of  the 
Borotala.  It  is  in  the  region  of  the  Manas- Yulduz  divide  that  the  puzzle 
commences,  for  on  the  Yulduz  littledalei  are  to  be  found  on  the  same  ground 
with  karelini  and  in  almost  equal  numbers.  .  .  . 

The  two  days  at  Ta-shih-tu  [on  the  northern  side  of  Tian  Shan,  90-100 
miles  west  of  Barkul]  were  spent  in  hunting  for  sheep.  There  were  a  good 
many  of  them  about. 

"The  outlying  Kanjik  ridge,  to  the  north-east  of  Sairam  Nor, 
which  is  of  no  altitude  and  does  not  form  much  of  a  retreat,  is 
inhabited  by  wild  sheep.  .  .  .  We  know  from  our  own  observations 
that  wild-sheep  exist,  in  winter,  on  the  low  foothills  at  the  northern 
base  of  the  range  in  the  vicinity  of  Shi-Kho."  (Carruthers,  1915, 
pp.  146-147.)  The  same  author  (pp.  142-148)  supplies  considerable 
information  concerning  sheep  in  other  parts  of  the  Tian  Shan. 

[Miller  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  p.  571)  refers  to  a  third  and  "as 
yet  imperfectly  known"  variety  of  Tian  Shan  sheep.  It  "is  appar- 
ently considerably  rarer  than  the  other  two  [karelini  and  littledalei]. 
It  approximates  to  the  0.  a.  hodgsoni,  its  chief  characteristics  being 
great  massiveness,  short  length,  and  narrow  spread.  There  is  prac- 
tically no  second  twist  to  the  horn.  Colonel  Biddulph  .  .  .  mea- 
sured several  heads  in  the  Western  Yulduz  and  found  them  to 
average,  length  40  to  50  in.,  girth  16  to  18  in.,  and  spread  17  to  20  in. 
As  this  type  of  horn  appears  to  differ  just  as  much  from  the  other 
two  as  they  do  from  one  another,  it  has  every  right  to  be  considered 
a  distinct  variety." 

Sven  Hedin  (1903,  vol.  1,  p.  339)  reports  wild  sheep  in  the  rather 
isolated  Kurruk  Tag,  a  range  lying  south  of  the  Tian  Shan,  toward 
the  Tarim  River  and  Lop  Nor.  According  to  Nasonov  (1923,  p.  78), 
Kozlov  had  also  found  them  in  this  range  about  1893-95.  Possibly 
this  is  the  form  rather  loosely  described  by  Kowarzik  (1913,  p.  442) 
as  Ovis  poll  adametzl,  with  no  more  exact  type  locality  than  the 
Lop  Nor  region.] 

Karelin's  Argali;  Issyk  Kill  Argali;  A  hit  an  Argali 

Ovis  AMMON  KARELINI  Severtzov 

Ovis  Karelini  Severtzov,  Izviestia  Imper.  Obshchestvo  Liub.  Estest.,  Antrop.  i 
Etnogr.  [Moscow],  vol.  8,  pt.  2,  pp.  84,  86,  1873.  (Alatau  of  Semiretchie, 
Russian  Turkestan;  this  Alatau,  according  to  Sushkin's  interpretation 
(1925,  p.  149),  lies  between  the  Hi  River  and  Issyk  Kul.) 

FIGS.:  Severtzov,  1873,  pi.  1,  pi.  5,  fig.  3;  Lydekker,'  1913a,  pi.  22,  fig.  1,  and 
1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  104,  fig.  32;  Nasonov,  1914a,  p.  704,  fig.  3,  and  pi.  1; 
Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  3;  Roosevelt  and  Roosevelt,  1926,  pi.  facing  p.  152 
(subsp.?). 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  585 

According  to  the  latest  information  available,  this  sheep  seems  to 
have  survived  in  fair  numbers. 

Horns  moderately  thick,  with  rather  rounded  edges;  frontal  sur- 
face very  convex;  orbital  surface  flat;  tips  curving  spirally  out- 
wards; length,  44-45  inches.  Neck  covered  with  a  white  mane, 
shaded  with  grayish  brown ;  light  brown  of  back  and  sides  separated 
from  yellowish  white  of  belly  by  a  wide  dark  line;  toward  the  tail 
the  color  becomes  grayish  white ;  tail  and  a  small  patch  round  it 
yellowish  white ;  a  distinct  dark  median  line  on  the  back.  Height  at 
shoulder,  42  inches.  Female  with  short  horns.  (Severtzoff,  1876, 
pp.  210,  219.)  Most  or  all  of  the  horn  measurements  given  by  Ward 
(1935,  p.  285)  for  this  subspecies  are  probably  of  specimens  of 
littledalei. 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149)  gives  the  range  of  karelini  as  "Trans- 
Ilian  or  Za-Iliiskii  Alatau;  upper  Naryn  (sources  of  Syr  Daria) ; 
and  around  Issik-kul."  The  sheep  of  the  central  Tian  Shan,  from 
the  international  boundary  east  of  Issyk  Kul  as  far  east  as  the 
Yulduz  Valley,  may  be  more  or  less  intermediate  between  karelini, 
littledalei,  and  humei.  There  is  much  confusion  in  the  literature  as 
to  the  ranges  of  karelini,  littledalei,  humei,  and  polii.  For  example, 
Miller  (in  Carruthers,  1913,  pp.  569-573,  593)  and  Carruthers  (1915, 
p.  143)  seem  to  mistake  littledalei  more  or  less  throughout  for 
karelini.  This  is  apparently  due  to  an  assumption  that  the  Dzun- 
garian  Alatau,  instead  of  the  Trans-Ilian  Alatau,  is  the  type  locality 
of  karelini.  Lydekker  (1909,  p.  117)  is  particularly  hazy  in  referring 
to  the  range  of  karelini  as  "the  Alatau  and  other  parts  of  the  Altai." 
Thus  much  of  the  more  recent  literature  dealing  with  "karelini" 
applies  actually  to  littledalei,  if  Sushkin's  interpretation  (1925,  p. 
149)  of  the  ranges  is  correct  in  the  main.  South  of  Issyk  Kul, 
along  or  near  the  crest  of  the  southwestern  Tian  Shan,  the  range 
of  karelini  seems  to  meet  that  of  humei. 

Severtzoff  (1876,  p.  220)  gives  the  following  account: 

O.  Karelini  inhabits  all  the  Semiretchje  Altai  [=  Alatau]  and  also  the 
Saplisky  Altai  [=  Za-Iliiskii  Alatau],  but  is  not  so  common  there  as  it  is 
in  the  mountains  between  Turgeli  and  Kaskelen;  it  has  been  lately  driven 
out  of  the  latter  locality  by  the  Cossack  sportsmen,  and  has  gone  to  a 
higher  elevation,  namely  the  Kebin  steppe  above  the  range  of  trees.  East 
of  Turgeli,  on  the  bare  mountains  and  plains  near  the  rivers  Chilik  and 
Keben  [=Kelen],  0.  Karelini  is  still  very  abundant,  except  in  localities  which 
are  covered  with  trees,  extending  from  Chilik  as  far  as  Lantash  [=Santash]. 
Further,  it  inhabits  all  the  neighbourhood  of  Issik-kul;  it  is  rather  rare 
on  the  northern  part  of  the  Thian-Shan,  which  is  thickly  covered  with  trees. 
I  also  met  with  numerous  flocks  in  the  steppes  of  the  Narin,  where  they  find 
such  an  abundance  of  food  on  the  meadows  and  shelter  among  the  rocks; 
these  localities  are  about  12,000  to  13,000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

O.  Karelini  is  sometimes  also  met  with  on  the  mountains  separating  the 
Narin  from  its  tributary  the  Atpash,  as  far  as  the  plains  between  the  rivers 


586  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Kurtka  and  Chatir-kul;  but  from  the  eastern  sources  of  the  Atpash  down  as 
far  as  the  Chatir-kul  it  is  only  found  in  company  with  O.  Polii  [=:  O.  a.  humei]. 

Severtzoff  adds  some  remarks  on  the  distribution  of  sheep  on 
the  Russian  side  of  the  Dzungarian  Alatau,  a  territory  now  included 
in  the  range  of  0.  a.  littledalei. 

Nazaroff's  notes  (1932),  referring  to  the  period  about  1919-20, 
furnish  some  of  the  latest  information  we  have  concerning  this 
sheep.  "Here  [in  the  ravine  of  Kegats,  somewhere  near  Issyk  Kul] 
there  are  quantities  of  wild  sheep  (arkhar,  Ov is  karelini) ,  which  go 
about  in  large  flocks"  (p.  179) .  "In  Kok  Mainak  [near  the  western 
end  of  Issyk  Kul]  wild  sheep  and  ibex  come  down  from  the  moun- 
tains in  the  early  morning  to  water  in  the  Chu"  (p.  221) .  "There  are 
lots  of  arkhars  in  this  district  [near  the  station  of  Sary  Bulak, 
southwest  of  Issyk  Kul]"  (p.  232). 

In  1925  T.  and  K.  Roosevelt  (1926,  pp.  132-145)  found  consider- 
able numbers  of  sheep  in  the  Kooksu  district  of  the  Tian  Shan, 
southwest  of  the  Yulduz.  They  refer  to  them  as  karelini,  but  the 
specimen  figured  on  the  plate  facing  page  152  does  not  appear  to  be 
altogether  typical  of  that  subspecies;  it  is  perhaps  an  intergrade 
between  two  or  three  subspecies.  Its  horns  measured  61  inches. 

[Ovis  heinsii  Severtzov  (Izviestia  Imper.  Obshchestvo  Liub. 
Estest.,  Antrop.  i  Etnogr.  [Moscow],  vol.  8,  pt.  2,  pp.  84,  87, 
1873),  was  based  upon  subadult  skulls  found  in  the  Tokmak  dis- 
trict, about  100  miles  west  of  Issyk-kul,  Russian  Turkestan.  It 
does  not  seem  to  be  very  clearly  differentiated  from  0.  a.  karelini. 
Tokmak  is  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Chu  River,  and  the  moun- 
tains both  to  the  north  and  to  the  south  are  inhabited,  according 
to  Nasonov  (1923,  pp.  73-74),  by  karelini.  This  author  (p.  90) 
considers  it  quite  possible  that,  owing  to  the  increase  in  the  number 
of  villages  in  the  Tokmak  district,  heinsii  has  become  extinct. 
W.  G.  Heptner  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  expresses  the  same 
opinion.] 

Karatau   Sheep;     Karatau  Argali 

OVIS  AMMON   NIGRIMONTANA  SevertzOV 

Ovis  nigrimontana  Severtzov,  Izviestia  Imper.  Obshchestvo  Liub.  Estest., 
Antrop.  i  Etnogr.  [Moscow],  vol.  8,  pt.  2,  p.  87,  1873.  (Karatau,  between 
the  Syr  Darya  and  the  Chu,  Russian  Turkestan.) 

FIGS.:  Severtzov,  op.  cit.,  pi.  5,  fig.  7;  Nasonov,  1914a,  p.  706,  fig.  4,  p.  712, 
fig.  6;  Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  10,  fig.  1. 

The  Karatau  Sheep  was  formerly  abundant  but  has  now  be- 
come rare. 

Horns  not  massive;  nuchal  edge  very  sharp,  and  the  two  other 
edges  not  much  rounded;  frontal  surface  narrow,  and  the  two  other 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  587 

surfaces  rather  concave;  length,  38  inches.  General  color  light 
grayish  brown;  belly  and  rump  white.  Height  at  shoulder,  34 
inches.  (Severtzoff,  1876,  pp.  211-212.)  Throat-ruff  weakly  de- 
veloped, dirty  white  in  old  males  (Nasonov,  1923,  p.  71). 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149)  gives  the  distribution  as  "Range  Kara- 
tau,  north  of  Syr  Daria,"  explaining  that  this  is  the  "western  con- 
tinuation of  the  range  Alexandrovskii." 

Severtzoff  (1876,  pp.  327-328)  gives  the  following  account: 

This  species  inhabits  almost  the  entire  Karatau ;  it  is  abundant  on  the 
summits  of  the  Buguni,  on  the  rocks  near  Marnin-saz,  and  on  the  western 
portion  of  the  Teramsk  hills,  where  the  numerous  steep  rocks  and  ravines 
near  the  river  Borolday  afford  good  hiding-places  to  these  animals.  They 
also  occur  on  the  summits  of  the  Chayan  mountains;  further  in  a  north- 
westerly direction  I  met  with  them  on  the  rocks  of  the  Turlansky-Pereval ; 
and,  according  to  the  native  tribes  living  there,  these  sheep  are  abundant 
also  on  the  Min-Djelkey,  the  highest  point  of  the  Karatau  mountains;  and 
are  to  be  found  even  at  the  foot  of  these  mountains,  namely  in  the  Kara- 
murun  hills,  about  1000  feet  high,  and  the  steppes  not  above  1500  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  .  .  . 

These  sheep  keep  in  very  small  flocks  of  from  three  to  four  individuals; 
and  often  single  females  with  a  lamb  are  to  be  met  with,  and  even  single 
males.  This  cannot  be  attributed  to  the  usual  habits  of  this  species;  but 
the  reason  for  this  scattering  is  more  to  be  looked  for  in  the  very  rocky 
nature  of  the  parts  of  the  Karatau  mountains  to  which  this  sheep  is  driven 
by  the  different  nomad  tribes  of  the  Kirgies,  with  their  numerous  flocks  and 
herds.  .  .  . 

O.  nigrimontana  .  .  .  certainly  is  one  of  the  smallest  and  weakest  of  the 
whole  group  of  the  Central-Asiatic  sheep.  It  is  also  very  cautious  and  shy; 
and  the  reason  for  this  is  easily  found — namely,  the  way  in  which  it  is  con- 
stantly driven  out  of  its  localities. 

Nasonov  (1923,  p.  70)  records  a  considerable  number  of  speci- 
mens from  the  Karatau  region. 

W.  G.  Heptner  writes  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  that  this  sheep 
is  now  rare  in  the  Karatau. 

Severtzov's  Sheep;   Severtzov's  Argali 

Ovis  AMMON  SEVERTZOVI  Nasonov 

Ovis  severtzovi  Nasonov,  Bull.  Acad.  Imper.  Sci.  St.-Petersbourg,  ser.  6,  vol.  8, 
pt.  1,  p.  761,  1914.  ("Nuratau,"  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Kizil  Kum 
Desert  northwest  of  Samarkand,  Russian  Turkestan.) 

FIGS.:  Carruthers,  1909,  p.  623,  fig.;  Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  103,  fig.  31; 
Nasonov,  19146,  fig.  1  (facing  p.  764)  and  pis.  1-3;  Carruthers,  19156, 
pis.  56,  62;  Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  17;  Ward,  1935,  p.  288,  fig. 

Airty-five  years  ago  Carruthers  wrote  (1909,  p.  623) :  "These 
sheep  are  not  numerous,  and  only  inhabit  the  extreme  north- 
western end  of  the  Nurata  Dagh."  Probably  their  status  has  not 
improved  in  the  meantime. 


588  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Size  small.  "Above  dark  brown,  slightly  paler  on  the  neck, 
greyish-brown  on  the  flanks,  belly  and  rump  white;  tail,  greyish- 
brown;  mane,  tinged  with  grey  .  .  .  ;  head,  darker  than  the  neck, 
with  white  face  markings.  Legs  dirty  white,  with  dark  reddish  - 
brown  stripes."  Horns  resembling  those  of  Ovis  vignei  blanjordi; 
flat-surfaced,  sharp-edged,  and  deeply  grooved  on  frontal  surface; 
tips  remarkably  thick  and  blunt,  turning  outward;  length  along 
front  curve  35J  inches.  (Carruthers,  1909,  p.  623.)  The  throat- 
ruff  does  not  reach  the  lower  part  of  the  head.  Horns  of  female 
14  cm.  (Nasonov,  19146,  p.  776.) 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149)  gives  the  distribution  as  "Range  Nuratau 
or  Karatau,  southern  part  of  Desert  Kizyl-Kum,"  and  adds  that 
this  is  "not  to  be  confounded  with  another  Karatau,  habitat  of 
nigrimontana,  which  lies  much  farther  north."  He  also  says 
(p.  153) :  "Of  0.  polii,  the  least  specialized  form  is  severtzovi  of 
the  hill-ranges  of  Kisyl-Kum  Desert.  Its  origin  is  supposed  to  be 
postpliocenic  and  preglacial.  .  .  .  Next  to  severtzovi  comes,  geo- 
graphically and  morphologically,  nigrimontana  of  the  westernmost 
branch  of  the  Tian-Shan  System." 

As  long  ago  as  1872  A.  P.  Choroschichin  found  this  sheep  in 
Aktau,  in  the  southern  part  of  Kizil  Kum,  and  saw  two  at  the 
spring  Ak-Kuduk,  in  the  mountains  between  Aktau  and  Tamdy 
(Nasonov,  19146,  p.  761).  Nasonov  (19146,  p.  763)  records  speci- 
mens from  Nuratau,  Aktau,  and  Petro-Alexandrovsk. 

Carruthers  (1915,  pp.  150-151)  writes  of  this  as  "an  exceedingly 
beautiful  little  wild  sheep,"  "which  is  restricted  to  the  most  outlying 
desert  hills  of  this  mountain  world"  [southeastern  Russian  Turke- 
stan]. "The  Nurata  Dagh  is  a  ridge  about  a  hundred  miles  long." 
In  1908  "the  sheep  existed  on  the  further  half  of  the  range  alone, 
being  found  in  twos  and  threes,  as  well  as  in  herds  of  a  dozen  or 
more.  .  .  .  Owing  to  the  presence  of  native  shepherds  and  their 
flocks  they  are  very  wary  of  man,  never  allowing  a  close  approach 
.  .  .  .  Their  refuge  is  in  the  ruggedness  of  the  escarpments,  not  in 
high  altitude  or  huge  areas  of  rolling  country.  There  is  no  portion 
of  their  habitat  which  is  more  than  2,000  feet  above  the  plain." 

Kashgarian  Argali;   Hume's   Argali 

Ovis  AMMON   HUMEI  Lydekker 

Ovis  ammon  humei  Lydekker,  Cat.  Hume  Bequest  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  6,  .1913. 
.  ("To  the  south  of  Chatir  Kul,  on  the  Thian  Shan"  (Brooke  and  Brooke, 

1875,  p.  513);    "Tian   Shan,  north-west   of  Kashgar"    (Lydekker,    1913c, 

vol.  1,  p.  106).) 
FIGS.:    Severtzov,  1873,  pis.  2,  3;  Stoliczka,  1874,  pi.  53  (inaccurate);  Brooke 

and  Brooke,  1875,  p.  512,  figs.  2,  3;  Carruthers,  1915,  pi.  59,  lower  fig. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  589 

This  sheep  was  formerly  abundant,  but  its  present  numerical 
status  is  uncertain. 

"Horns  more  or  less  of  the  littledalei  type,  but  with  the  outer 
front  edge  rounded  in  adults.  Head  greyish  brown  above  and  at 
sides,  but  whitish  on  most  of  face;  back  brownish  gray,  without 
dark  dorsal  streak,  and  no  distinct  flank-band;  under-parts,  limbs 
(including  whole  of  thighs),  a  large  rump-patch,  and  tail  pure 
white."  (Lydekker,  19136,  p.  8.)  Record  length  of  horns  on  front 
curve,  54J  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  286).  Height  at  shoulder,  46 
inches  (Severtzoff,  1876,  p.  212) . 

Nasonov  (1923,  p.  66)  and  Sushkin  (1925)  do  not  recognize  this 
form,  considering  it  a  synonym  of  0.  a.  polii.  Severtzoff  (1876, 
pp.  220-225)  likewise  referred  specimens  of  this  animal  to  polii. 

Its  range  may  be  considered  to  extend  approximately  from  the 
Terek-tau,  northwest  of  Kashgar,  through  the  Kokshal-tau  as  far 
as  Khan-tengri,  on  the  international  boundary  east  of  Issyk-kul. 

Under  the  name  of  Ovis  polii,  Severtzoff  (1876,  pp.  223-225) 
gives  the  following  information  concerning  this  sheep : 

O.  Polii  was  met  with  by  Mr.  Semenoff  on  the  high  plains  near  the  snow- 
covered  summits  of  the  gigantic  mountains  of  Han-tengri,  at  the  sources  of 
the  rivers  Karkara,  Tekes,  and  Sari-jaws.  These  places  form  the  most  northern 
limits  of  its  range,  which,  to  the  south-west,  extends  as  far  as  the  Narin, 
the  upper  Syr-Darja,  and  the  tributaries  of  the  Kashgar-Darja  at  the  frontier 
of  Turkestan.  I  found  skulls  of  0.  Polii  within  a  distance  of  from  10  to  12 
versts  to  the  north  of  the  above-mentioned  rivers,  at  the  Ulan,  about  the 
mountains  of  Atpash ;  here  it  lives  together  with  O.  Karelini,  but  only  in  very 
limited  numbers;  and  these  localities  form  the  narrow  line  where  these  two 
species  are  found  together. 

On  the  high  plain  of  the  Aksay  only  0.  Polii  is  to  be  met  with,  and  is 
very  abundant  there;  here  it  usually  keeps  in  the  mountains  of  Bos-adir,  on 
the  left  or  north  shore  of  the  Aksay  .... 

I  saw  this  species  on  Han-tengri  and  Aksay  in  small  scattered  flocks  of  from 
five  to  ten  individuals — unlike  O.  Karelini,  which  species  I  have  seen  in 
flocks  of  hundreds  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Narin.  .  .  . 

At  the  Aksay,  .  .  .  the  sheep  are  not  pursued  at  all,  and  therefore  do  not 
avoid  spots  which  afford  hiding-places  for  a  man;  but  on  the  plains  of  Han- 
tengri,  which  in  summer  are  regularly  visited  by  the  different  Kirgees  tribes, 
these  sheep  are  very  cautious. 

Stoliczka  writes  (1874,  p.  425) :  "Large  flocks  .  .  .  were  ob- 
served on  the  undulating  high  plateau  to  the  south  of  the  Chadow- 
Kul  [  =Chadir  or  Chatir  Kul]." 

In  1889-90  Pevtzoff  found  these  sheep  very  numerous  ii4  the 
Kokshal-tau  (Nasonov,  1923,  p.  84). 

Carruthers  (1915,  p.  145)  speaks  of  the  Kashgar,  the  Kok-kia, 
and  the  Kok-shal  ranges  as  all  being  good  sheep  country. 


590  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Pamir  Argali;   Marco  Polo's   Sheep 

Ovis  AMMON  POLII  Blyth 

Ovis  Polii  Blyth,  Proe.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1840,  p.  62,  1841.  ("Pamir."  Ac- 
cording to  Lydekker  (1898c,  p.  191),  the  type  was  obtained  "on  the 
high  plateau  near  Lake  Siri  Kol  [=  Victoria  Lake],  at  an  elevation  of 
about  16,000  feet."  This  lake  is  in  the  Wakhan  district,  northeastern 
Afghanistan.) 

FIGS.:  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  7,  pi.  5,  fig.  1,  1841;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Lon- 
don 1875,  pp.  514-515,  figs.  4,  4a,  5,  5a;  De  Poncins,  1895,  pi.  facing  p.  53; 
Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  16,  p.  189,  fig.  37,  p.  201,  fig.  39;  Lydekker,  1900, 
p.  79,  fig.  11,  pi.  3,  figs.  1,  la;  Lydekker,  1913a,  p.  282,  fig.;  Lydekker, 
1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  107,  fig.  33;  Royal  Nat.  Hist,  vol.  2,  p.  221,  fig.,  1894; 
Carruthers,  19156,  pi.  52;  Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  9,  fig.  2;  Morden,  1927,  pis. 
facing  pp.  95,  106;  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  36,  no.  4,  suppl, 
pi.  10,  1933;  Ward,  1935,  p.  289,  fig.;  Leister,  1935,  p.  60,  fig. 

This  famous  sheep  has  actually  increased  during  the  past  20 
years  on  the  Alai  plain  and  in  part  of  the  Russian  Pamirs  (W.  G. 
Heptner,  in  litt.,  December,  1936),  but  in  the  Tagdumbash  or 
Chinese  Pamirs  its  numbers  have  been  reduced. 

"Horns  slender  and  forming  a  more  open  and  outwardly  extended 
spiral  than  in  any  of  the  other  races ;  length  of  fine  specimens  69  to 
75  ...  inches.  .  .  .  General  colour  .  .  .  light  speckled  brown; 
most  or  all  of  face,  throat,  chest,  under-parts,  buttocks,  and  legs 
white  or  whitish,  the  white  extending  largely  on  to  outer  side  of 
thighs;  a  blackish  streak  from  nape  to  withers;  no  distinct  throat- 
ruff.  In  winter  the  hair  considerably  longer,  forming  a  white  ruff 
on  throat  and  chest  and  a  darkish  crest  from  nape  to  withers.  .  .  . 
In  females,  which  have  no  ruff,  the  front  of  the  neck  is  brown  in 
winter,  while  in  summer  there  is  no  dark  stripe  from  nape  to  tail." 
(Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  107.)  Height  at  shoulder,  44  inches 
(Morden,  1927,  p.  92). 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149),  following  Nasonov  (1923),  gives  the 
range  as  "Pamir  and  Alai,  south  to  Hunza,  north  to  Khan-tengri." 
On  the  other  hand,  Lydekker  (1913a,  p.  284)  limits  its  northward 
extension  to  the  Alai,  and  distinguishes  the  animal  of  the  south- 
western Tian  Shan  as  0.  a.  humei.  In  the  western  Pamirs  (e.  g., 
vicinity  of  Ishkashim)  it  is  apparently  replaced  by  some  form  of  0. 
vignei  (Nasonov,  1923,  p.  86).  It  is  "rarely  found  at  elevations 
below  10,000  and  11,000  feet"  (Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  192),  and 
ascends  to  more  than  18,000  feet. 

According  to  De  Poncins  (1895,  p.  61),  "Big  herds  always  consist 
of  females  and  young  males."  The  herds  of  old  males  "spend  the 
summer  in  the  highest  and  most  remote  nullahs,  but  in  winter  they 
come  lower  down  and  many  die  of  starvation  in  the  spring."  This 
author  estimated  the  number  he  saw  during  a  single  day  near  the 
Great  Pamir  Lake  at  600  head. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  591 

Cobbold  writes  (The  Field,  Nov.  5,  1898)*  that  rinderpest  raged 
all  over  the  Pamirs  throughout  the  winter  of  1897-98,  and  that 
these  sheep  succumbed  literally  by  hundreds. 

Carruthers  (19156,  pp.  129-131)  writes  of  this  sheep: 

For  the  most  part  the  poll  have  retreated  westwards,  where  the  great 
feeding  grounds  of  the  Alichur,  the  Great  and  Little  Pamirs  and  Kara-kul 
still  afford  a  safe  retreat.  .  .  . 

Harassed  by  stray  sportsmen  in  summer,  killed  off  by  wolves  and  natives 
in  winter,  the  wild  sheep  have  retreated  westwards,  where  there  is  less  per- 
secution and  wilder  country.  .  .  . 

The  colossal  heads  of  70  and  75  inches  are  no  longer  to  be  obtained,  even 
on  the  Russian  Pamirs.  The  Chinese  Pamir  has  not  produced  many  heads 
over  60  inches  for  several  years,  and  one  is  lucky  to  get  one  over  50  inches  now. 

In  1925  Theodore  and  Kermit  Roosevelt  (1926,  pp.  223-242) 
found  fair  numbers  in  the  Chinese  and  the  Russian  Pamirs. 

Conditions  during  the  following  year  are  reported  by  Morden 
(1927,  pp.  73,  83,  93-94) : 

With  the  advent  of  more  modern  firearms  and  the  absence  of  any  restric- 
tions, it  is  to  be  feared  that  in  a  few  years  the  herds  of  Marco  Polo's  sheep 
will  be  materially  decreased.  .  .  . 

Ovis  poli,  while  scarce  in  Chinese  territory,  were  plentiful  in  the  Russian 
Pamirs.  During  our  month  in  that  region  we  counted  1052  rams  and  607 
females  and  young.  .  .  . 

We  were  told  that  the  sheep  were  found  practically  everywhere  in  the 
Pamirs  .... 

The  lives  of  the  poli  must  be  made  miserable  by  the  great  number  of 
parasites  infesting  them.  All  adults  collected  by  us  had  quantities  of  grubs 
beneath  the  skins  ....  Grubs  were  found  in  the  noses  of  many  specimens 
and  all  were  infested  with  ticks.  The  ticks  probably  caused  the  frequent 
rubbing  against  rocks  which  we  noticed. 

"Within  Indian  limits,  Ovis  poli  are  found  only  in  Hunza.  The 
Mir  of  Hunza  has  given  them  for  some  years  strict  protection  in  his 
territory."  (Anonymous,  1933,  p.  35.) 

Altyn-Tagh  Argali 

Ovis  AMMON  DALAI-LAM AE  Przewalski 

Ovis  dalai-lamae  Przewalski,  Cat.  Zool.  Coll.  Przewalski  Central  Asia,  p.  16, 
1887.  (Apparently  the  Moscow  Range,  south  of  the  Altyn-Tagh,  and 
adjacent  to  the  Columbus  Range,  Chinese  Turkestan.) 

FIG.:    Nasonov,  1923,  pi.  14,  fig.  2. 

The  slight  information  we  have  concerning  this  apparently  rare 
sheep  is  far  from  up-to-date.  That  given  below  is  derived  chiefly 
from  Nasonov  (1923,  pp.  101-103),  since  most  of  the  works  from 
which  he  quotes  have  not  been  available  to  me. 

Horns  small,  32^  inches  in  length  on  the  front  curve;  throat-ruff 
weakly  developed,  not  clear  white;  muzzle,  belly,  groin,  and  but- 


592  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

tocks  white;  height  at  shoulder  almost  4  feet  (Przewalski,  Fourth 
Journey  in  Central  Asia,  p.  275,  1888) . 

Much  remains  to  be  done  in  delimiting  the  animal's  range.  It  is 
given  by  Sushkin  (1925,  p.  149)  as  "Altyn-Tagh,  Toguz-Davan, 
and  (?)  Russkii  Range,  south  to  Przevalski's  Range." 

Przewalski  (op.  cit.,  pp.  274,  275)  met  with  this  sheep  in  the 
Khatyn-Zana  Valley  between  the  Zaidam  and  the  Columbus  Moun- 
tains, and  in  the  Zaisan-saitu  Valley  between  the  Zaidam  and  the 
Moscow  Mountains.  He  reported  it  as  inhabiting  the  central  Kuen- 
lun,  the  Chamen-Tagh,  and  the  Altyn-Tagh,  and  as  being  ex- 
tremely rare. 

Roborovsky  (Rept.  Tibet  Exped.  1889-1890,  pt.  3,  pp.  15,  22,  47, 
1896)  reports  it  on  the  Muzluk  Range  (southwest  of  Altyn-Tagh 
and  west  of  the  Moscow  Range) ,  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Toguz- 
Davan,  and  on  the  Przewalski  Range. 

Pevtzoff  (Rept.  Tibet  Exped.  1889-1890,  pt.  1,  pp.  224,  226, 
1895)  states  that  this  sheep  lives  in  the  western  part  of  the  Prze- 
walski Range,  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Bostan-tograk — a  place 
seldom  visited  by  hunters. 

A  specimen  secured  by  Sven  Hedin  in  the  Columbus  Range,  and 
described  and  figured  by  Leche  (1904,  p.  2),  is  referred  by  Nasonov 
(1923,  p.  102)  to  O.  a.  jubata,  although  on  geographical  grounds  it 
should  apparently  be  close  to  or  identical  with  dalai-lamae. 

Tibetan  Argali 

OVIS    AMMON    HODGSONII    Blyth 

Ovis  Hodgsonii  Blyth,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1840,  p.  65,  1841.  (Based 
upon  the  "Wild  Sheep  of  the  Hemalaya"  of  Hodgson  (Asiatic  Researches, 
vol.  18,  pt.  2,  p.  134  and  2nd  pi.  following  p.  138,  1833) ;  type  locality 
restricted  by  Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  98)  to  "Tibet;  probably  on  the 
northern  frontier  of  Nepal.") 

SYNONYM:    Ovis  henrii  A.  Milne-Edwards  (1892). 

FIGS.:  Jour.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal,  vol.  15,  pis.  1,  3.  [4],  1846;  Brooke  and 
Brooke,  1875,  pp.  520-521,  figs.  6,  7;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  15.  pp.  182.  184, 
figs.  34,  35;  Lydekker,  1900,  pi.  3,  figs.  2.  2a;  Burrard,  1925?,  pi.  facing 
p.  206;  Stockley,  1928.  pi.  facing  p.  112;  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc., 
vol.  36,  no.  4,  suppl.,  pi.  9,  1933;  Ward,  1935,  p.  283,  upper  fig. 

Formerly  plentiful,  the  Tibetan  Argali  is  now  somewhat  reduced 
in  numbers. 

Size  somewhat  less  than  in  0.  a.  ammon.  "Horns  with  the  tips 
.  .  .  less  everted  than  in  ammon,  the  descending  portion  nearly 
vertical,  the  front  outer  angle  often  distinct,  and  the  whole  form- 
ing about  one  complete  circle  ....  A  large  throat-ruff,  apparently 
at  all  seasons,  and  a  nuchal  crest.  General  colour  greyish  brown 
above,  paler  and  whitish  below;  rump-patch,  buttocks,  throat,  chest, 
under-parts,  and  inner  sides  of  the  legs  white;  crest  and  a  stripe 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN -TOED  UNGULATES  593 

down  front  of  each  leg  dark,  ...  In  females  there  is  little  or  no 
crest  and  no  ruff,  while  the  white  is  less  pure,  and  the  rump-patch 
less  distinct."  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  98.)  Height  of  old  rams 
at  shoulder  3^  to  4  feet,  females  not  much  less"  (Blanford,  1891, 
p.  495).  Record  length  of  horns  on  front  curve,  55£  inches  (Ward, 
1935,  p.  281). 

The  northern  and  eastern  distributional  limits  of  this  sheep  are 
none  too  definitely  known.  Blanford  (1891,  p.  495)  gives  the 
range  as  "the  plateau  of  Tibet  from  Northern  Ladak  to  the  country 
north  of  Sikhim  and  probably  farther  east.  This  sheep  does  not 
range  south  of  the  main  Himalayan  axis;  it  is  not  found  in  summer 
below  about  15,000  feet  elevation;  in  winter  it  may  descend  to  about 
12,000  in  places."  Lydekker  (1900,  p.  85)  extends  the  range  "north- 
wards to  the  Kuen-lun,"  but  Nasonov  asserts  (1923,  p.  96)  that 
its  presence  in  those  mountains  is  not  yet  proved. 

"Large  flocks  of  ewes  and  young  rams  .  .  .  are  met  with  in  the 
Chang-chenmo  district"  of  Ladak  (Lydekker,  1900,  pp.  85-86) .  In 
1891  it  required  a  good  many  days'  hunting  to  secure  two  out  of 
a  few  rams  seen  in  the  Chang-chenmo  Valley  (Hunter,  in  Lydekker, 
1900,  pp.  396-397).  Carruthers  writes  of  this  same  area  in  1915 
(p.  117) :  "Now  that  the  'block'  system  has  been  introduced  for 
their  further  protection  the  total  number  that  can  be  shot  each 
season  has  been  materially  reduced.  Hitherto  the  twenty  'guns' 
allowed  into  Ladak — both  first  and  second  leave — were  each  allowed 
to  kill  one,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  new  regulations  will  be 
found  sufficient  for  the  preservation  of  these  fine  sheep." 

Burrard  writes  (1925?,  pp.  193,  196,  206-207;  distr.  map  facing 
p.  194) : 

There  are  two  spots  in  which  Ammon  rams  will  sometimes  cross  the  crest 
of  the  Zaskar  Range,  although  they  will  never  wander  far  down  the  southern 
slopes  of  that  range.  These  two  places  are:  first,  just  to  the  south  of  the 
Tso  Morari  (lake),  where  they  may  be  occasionally  found  at  the  head  of  the 
Kibber  Valley  in  Spiti;  and  secondly,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Kangri 
Bingri  Pass  on  the  borders  of  Kumaon  and  British  Garhwal.  .  .  . 

I  believe  .  .  .  that  in  hard  winters  when  food  is  scarce  the  rams  with  the 
biggest  and  heaviest  heads  find  the  burden  of  them  too  much  to  carry  easily 
and  are  unable  to  gallop  as  fast  as  the  others,  and  so  fall  a  prey  to  the 
wolves. 

[The  habitat  in  Ladak]  has  been  so  heavily  hunted  for  very  many  years 
past,  that  rams  with  shootable  heads  are  not  common.  In  1911  a  friend  of 
mine  traversed  Ladak  from  Chang  Chen  Mo  in  the  north  to  Hanle  in  the 
south,  and  saw  but  one  ram  worth  shooting  ....  They  are  also  sometimes 
to  be  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tso  Lhama  (lake)  at  the  head  of  the 
Tista  River  in  the  extreme  north  of  Sikkim,  but  here  again  they  are  only 
occasional  visitors. 

C.  H.  Stockley  writes   (in  Hit.,  September  16,  1933) :    "Ammon 
have  been  wiped  out  in  the  Tiri  Foo  [Kashmir],  which  used  to  be  a 
20 


594  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

sanctuary:  the  usual  result  in  India  of  creating  a  'sanctuary'  with- 
out proper  protection;  it  merely  becomes  a  poacher's  paradise. 

"On  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus  there  are  still  plenty  of  ammon  on 
their  old  grounds." 

The  same  authority  says  (1936,  p.  169) :  "For  about  nine  months 
of  the  year  they  are  to  be  found  on  the  high  plateaux  of  the  Rupshu 
district,  and  the  immediately  adjoining  nullahs,  in  the  whole  of  the 
Changchenmo  district,  the  country  round  the  Pangong  Lake  and 
thence  southward  right  along  the  east  flank  of  the  Himalayas  to 
Sikkim  and  Eastern  Tibet." 

The  Game  Warden  of  Kashmir  writes  (in  litt.,  May,  1937)  con- 
cerning conditions  in  Ladak:  "Plentiful,  but  impossible  to  give  even 
an  approximate  number.  Strict  Game  Laws  protect  them.  Only  a 
limited  number  of  heads  allowed  to  be  shot  annually  with  the  size 
limit  of  over  38  inches." 

The  name  that  should  be  applied  to  the  Argali  of  the  northeastern 
Tibetan  region  (now  known  as  Ching-hai),  from  the  Nan  Shan 
south  to  the  Tangla  Mountains  and  the  Szechwan  border,  has  long 
been  a  matter  of  doubt.  Probably  some  of  the  following  records 
summarized  by  Nasonov  should  be  only  provisionally  referred  to 
hodgsonii. 

Kozlov  found  Argali  in  the  Burkhan  Buddha  Range;  he  reported 
them  very  common  in  the  Nan  Shan,  and  extremely  numerous  in 
the  Humboldt  Range.  They  were  reported  by  Przewalski  as  very 
numerous  south  of  the  Shugan-ula,  and  as  rare  in  the  Baien  Kara 
Mountains.  He  also  had  Mongol  report  of  their  occurrence  in  the 
South  Kuku  Nor  Range.  Sven  Hedin,  Roborovsky,  and  Kozlov 
found  Argali  in  the  Anembar-ula,  situated  between  the  Humboldt 
Range  and  the  Altyn-Tagh.  (Nasonov,  1923,  pp.  105-110.) 

E.  H.  Wilson  writes  (1913,  vol.  2,  p.  146)  concerning  the  Chino- 
Tibetan  borderland:  "Another  Sheep,  probably  Hodgson's  .  .  .  , 
occurs  immediately  to  the  west  and  north  of  Tachienlu,  but  is  very 
rare.  It  has  been  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Litang  by  at  least 
two  travellers  ....  Zappey  saw  three  near  the  Rama-lal  Pass." 

G.  M.  Allen  reports  (1939a,  pp.  291-292)  on  the  Second  Dolan 
Expedition  (1934-1936)  as  follows: 

Several  fine  specimens  from  the  extreme  upper  waters  of  the  Yangtse  in 
Chinghai  (Kokonor,  Tibet)  doubtless  represent  typical  Ovis  ammon  hodgsoni 
and  agree  with  Lydekker's  diagnosis  of  that  race  .... 

Mr.  Dolan  writes  that  this  sheep  was  first  found  on  the  steppe  of  Seshu 
(Camp  61)  [about  lat.  32°  50'  N.,  long.  98°  15'  E.],  where  they  inhabited 
island-like  ranges  of  granite  rising  from  the  steppe.  Skulls  and  old  sign  were 
seen  here.  Later,  specimens  were  collected  west  of  Drechu  Gomba  (Camp  79) 
[about  lat.  33°  40'  N.,  long.  97°  20'  E.]  and  farther  west  on  the  Chang  Tang. 
Sheep  were  seen  also  on  granite  ranges  north  of  Tossun  Nor  on  the  steppes 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  595 

of  the  upper  Yellow  River  in  Kokonor.  Two  large  solitary  rams  were  seen  in 
May,  and  in  July  rams  and  ewes  were  found  in  separate  bands  on  the  moun- 
tains of  the  high  steppe  northwest  of  Jyekundo. 

Kamchatka!!  Bighorn 

Ovis  NIVICOLA  NIVIOOLA  Eschscholtz 

Ovis  nivicola  Eschscholtz,  Zool.  Atlas,  Heft   1,  p.  1,  1829.    (Mountains  of 

Kamchatka.) 

SYNONYM:   Ovis  storcki  Allen  (1904). 
FIGS.:    Eschscholtz,  1829,  pi.  1;  Guillemard,  1885,  p.  676,- fig.  1;  Royal  Nat. 

Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  216,  fig.,  1894;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  17  A,  p.  222,  fig  42, 

and  1901,  pi.  1,  fig.  2,  pp.  20,  22,  figs.  5,  6;  J.  A.  Allen,  1904,  pp.  294,  296, 

figs.  1,  2,  4,  5. 

This  sheep  is  "still  very  numerous  in  Kamchatka"  (W.  G.  Hept- 
ner,  in  litt.,  December,  1936) . 

Horns  brown,  trigonal,  forming  a  circle,  with  the  tips  pointing 
forward  and  outward ;  hair  yellowish  gray  on  back,  lighter  on  belly, 
almost  straw  yellow  on  neck  and  head ;  legs  rufous  in  front,  yellow- 
ish gray  behind ;  hind  part  of  thigh  and  caudal  disk  yellowish  white 
( Eschscholtz 's  description  (1829,  p.  1)  of  the  type,  an  old  male  in 
winter  pelage).  Height  at  shoulder  up  to  41  inches  (Guillemard, 
1885,  p.  678) .  "Good  horns  measure  from  34  to  39i  inches  in  length" 
(Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  121). 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  150)  gives  the  range  of  this  form  as  "Kam- 
chatka." Ovis  storcki  Allen,  from  northwestern  Kamchatka,  is  con- 
sidered by  Nasonov  (1923,  p.  11)  to  represent  merely  a  very  old 
specimen  of  nivicola. 

Eschscholtz  remarked  (1829,  p.  1)  that  this  animal  was  killed 
commonly  in  the  mountains. 

In  1881,  according  to  Dybowski,  300  of  them  were  killed  in  Kam- 
chatka (Kuntze,  1932,  p.  47). 

In  1882  Guillemard  (1885,  pp.  675-678)  found  small  herds,  con- 
taining three  to  nine  individuals  (exclusively  males),  on  the  sea 
cliffs  about  50  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Petropavlovsk.  Here  his  party 
bagged  13  individuals  in  the  course  of  two  days.  He  was  informed 
of  others  near  Gunol,  in  the  south-central  part  of  the  peninsula,  and 
also  in  the  Bolcheresk  Valley. 

Demidoff  (1904,  pp.  200,  216-217)  speaks  of  this  animal  as  plenti- 
ful along  the  coasts  of  Kamchatka,  and  mentions  "a  precious  medi- 
cine" made  by  a  native  "of  the  dried  hearts  of  wild  sheep;  these 
he  had  roasted  and  ground  into  powder,  which  he  said  was  a  sure 
remedy  against  any  kind  of  disease  ....  He  intended  to  sell  the 
powder  in  China,  where  he  could  obtain  a  high  price  for  this  quaint 
medicine." 

Storck  (in  J.  A.  Allen,  1904,  p.  293)  remarks  concerning  the  form 


596  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

described  as  0.  storcki  that  specimens  "are  very  hard  to  get,  as  they 
are  found  only  in  the  central  range  of  mountains  in  the  northwestern 
portion  of  Kamchatka." 

Carruthers  writes  (1915,  p.  190) : 

They  are  common  at  3,000  to  4,000  feet  on  the  ranges  in  the  interior  during 
the  summer  months,  but  probably  all  migrate  seawards  in  winter.  .  .  . 

The  existence  of  sheep  is  only  known  of  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Avatcha 
Bay,  on  which  Petropavlovsk  lies,  and  around  the  extinct  volcano  of  Kam- 
chatskaia  Vershina  which  Demidoff  and  Littledale  visited.  They  are  said  to 
be  numerous  on  the  coastal  range  to  the  north  and  south  of  Petropavlovsk. 

In  1921  Burnham  (1929,  p.  134)  had  a  report  that  sheep  were  still 
very  abundant  at  Cape  Shipunski;  also  that  many  were  to  be  seen 
along  the  Kamchatka  River. 

Although  Bighorns  are  ordinarily  such  sure-footed  animals,  even 
they  seem  occasionally  to  fall  victims  to  the  precipitous  nature 
of  their  environment.  Guillemard  (as  quoted  by  Lydekker,  1898c, 
pp.  225-226)  tells  of  witnessing  the  fatal  slip  of  one  of  them  over 
the  edge  of  a  Kamchatkan  precipice. 

Allen's  Bighorn 

Ovis  NIVICOLA  ALLENI  Matschie 

Ovis  alleni  Matschie,  in  Niedieck,  Kreuzfahrten  im  Beringmeer,  p.  236,  1907 
(English  translation,  p.  226,  1909).  (Based  upon  a  specimen  (No.  18212, 
Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.)  figured  by  J.  A.  Allen  (1904,  pp.  295,  296,  figs.  3,  6) 
as  Ovis  borealis  (?);  type  locality,1  "Taiganose  Peninsula,  N.  E.  Siberia" 
(approximately  lat.  61°  N.,  long.  161°  E.).) 

SYNONYM:    Ovis  middendorfi  [properly,  middendorffi]  Kowarzik  (1913). 

FIGS.:  Middendorff,  1853,  pi.  12,  fig.  1;  J.  A.  Allen,  1904,  pp.  295,  296,  figs.  3,  6; 
Burnham,  1929,  pis.  facing  pp.  121,  128  (subsp.?). 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  this  sheep  was  reported 
as  common,  but  in  the  meantime  its  numbers  have  dwindled  con- 
siderably. 

The  name  alleni  was  based  upon  a  figure  of  a  skull  with  horns. 
The  horns  apparently  are  more  divergent  than  those  of  nivicola, 
and  do  not  form  quite  such  a  complete  circle;  their  length  along 
the  outer  edge  is  730  mm.,  and  the  spread  at  the  tips  is  453  mm. 
The  description  of  the  pelage  given  by  J.  A.  Allen  (1903,  p.  131) 
is  apparently  a  composite  one,  based  upon  specimens  from  the 
Taiganos  Peninsula  and  from  Baroness  Korf  Gulf,  which  are  not 
necessarily  identical. 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  150)  gives  the  range  as  "Taiganos  Peninsula; 
Kolyma  Range;  and  Djugdjura  Range."  (The  last-mentioned  range 

i  This  type  locality  may,  however,  be  erroneous.  In  a  previous  publication 
J.  A.  Allen  stated  (1903,  p.  130)  that  specimen  No.  18212  came  from  Baroness 
Korf  Gulf,  which  is  situated  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Kamchatka  Peninsula. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  597 

forms  part  of  the  Stanovoi  system,  at  about  lat.  56°  N.,  long.  132°- 
137°  E.)  He  adds  that  "the  subspecies  which  inhabits  the  Chukchi 
Peninsula  is  still  unknown."  I  shall  include  the  latter  provisionally 
with  the  present  form. 

According  to  Middendorff  (1853,  p.  116),  the  Tungus  stated  that 
a  Wild  Sheep  inhabited  the  mountain  summits  about  the  source 
of  the  Utshur  River,  in  the  Djugdjura  Range;  further,  that  the 
mountains  east  of  the  Polowinnaja  River,  and  south  of  the  above- 
mentioned  range,  contained  many  sheep.  In  June  and  July  some  of 
the  hunters  resorted  there  with  dogs;  the  sheep  retreated  to  the 
highest  points,  where  they  either  were  cut  off  and  killed,  or  ran  the 
gauntlet  of  the  remaining  hunters  holding  the  passes. 

Buxton  (in  J.  A.  Allen,  1903,  p.  132)  says: 

Mountain  Sheep  probably  occur  all  over  Northeastern  Siberia  wherever  the 
mountains  are  rugged  enough  to  attract  them,  although  I  have  only  a  few 
reliable  records  of  their  presence  at  widely  separated  places  in  that  vast  terri- 
tory. They  are  found  in  the  Stanovoi  Mountains,  at  Ayan,  Okhotsk,  Ola, 
Yamsk,  Mickina  or  Niakinsk,  and  on  as  far  north  at  least  as  the  Arctic 
Circle,  and  perhaps  further,  although  the  range  becomes  much  less  rugged 
towards  the  north.  They  are  also  found  along  the  Kolyma  River  to  the 
westward  of  that  range.  A  few  are  taken  in  the  mountains  in  the  Anadyr 
Territory  about  Marcova.  They  are  common  on  the  Taiganose  Peninsula 
....  The  wandering  reindeer  Koryaks  inhabiting  the  Taiganose  Peninsula 
kill  a  few  every  winter. 

In  1921  Burnham  (1929)  made  an  expedition  along  the  south 
coast  of  the  Chukchi  Peninsula,  from  Emma  Harbor  to  Holy  Cross 
Bay,  expressly  in  search  of  sheep.  He  found  them  very  scarce  and 
severely  pressed  by  the  natives.  The  Chukchi  deer-herders  are 
"exceptionally  capable  stalkers  and  if  they  succeed  in  locating  a 
sheep  they  follow  until  they  get  it.  Under  such  conditions  the  sheep 
are  doomed."  (P.  120.)  Burnham  killed  a  female  near  the  Shair- 
rainnik  River,  west  of  Emma  Harbor  (p.  108),  and  saw  a  few 
others  or  found  traces  of  them  at  several  additional  places,  including 
Mount  Matasingi,  at  the  head  of  Holy  Cross  Bay  (pp.  247-267). 
He  quotes  a  manuscript  of  Sokolnikoff's,  who  states  that  about 
1900  he  secured  a  specimen  from  the  Paku-Puai  Mountains,  and  two 
others  from  the  mountains  to  the  south  of  Anadyr  (p.  200).  He 
states  (p.  280)  that  "the  sheep  from  the  Matasingi-Chaun  Bay 
sector  have  coal  black  horns." 

Belopolski  indicates  (1933,  p.  186  and  map)  that  sheep  occur  on 
all  the  more  prominent  ranges  from  the  Stanovoi  Mountains  east- 
ward to  Bering  Strait,  but  that  their  numbers  have  greatly  declined 
in  the  past  20-30  years. 


598  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

• 

Lydekker's  Bighorn;  Clifton's  Bighorn;  Verkhoyansk  Bighorn 

Ovis  NIVICOLA  LYDEKKERI  Kowarzik 

O[w«]  borealis  lydekkeri  Kowarzik,  Zool.  Anzeiger,  vol.  41,  no.  10,  p.  443,  1913. 
(Based  upon  a  specimen  described  and  figured  by  Lydekker  (1902,  pp. 
83-85,  pi.  8)  as  Ovis  canadensis  borealis  Severtzov;  type  locality,  "North- 
ern Siberia,  at  a  point  distant  about  40  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Yana  River.  The  exact  locality  is  the  north-west  end  of  the  Verkhoyansk 
Mountains,  forming  the  watershed  between  the  valleys  of  the  Yana  and 
the  Lena.") 

FIGS.:    Lydekker,  1902,  pi.  8,  and  1913a,  pi.  24,  fig.  2. 

While  no  information  of  very  recent  date  is  available  concerning 
the  numerical  status  of  this  sheep,  at  last  accounts  it  appeared  fairly 
plentiful. 

"Essentially  the  same  type  of  animal"  as  the  Kamchatkan  Big- 
horn; "although  its  general  coloration  is  decidedly  lighter,  there  is 
a  much  greater  proportion  of  white,  and  the  dorsal  streak  and  tail 
are  much  darker.  ...  In  the  male  .  .  .  the  white  rump-patch  is 
much  larger  ....  The  face,  too,  is  white,  with  the  exception  of  a 
wood-brown  transverse  band  midway  between  the  nostrils  and  the 
eyes,  which  expands  out  to  include  each  cheek.  The  whole  nape  is 
also  white  mingled  with  grey.  An  indistinct  dark  line  runs  down  the 
back  and  becomes  more  distinct  as  it  approaches  the  tail,  which  is 
blackish  brown.  There  is  also  a  larger  proportion  of  white  on  the 
legs  and  under-parts.  .  .  . 

"A  female  head  ...  is  wholly  greyish  white,  passing  into  pure 
white  on  the  forehead  and  muzzle."  (Lydekker,  1902,  p.  85.) 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  150)  gives  the  distribution  as  "northeastern 
Verkhoyansk  Range." 

Bunge  (1884,  pp.  34-35)  speaks  of  meeting  with  this  sheep  in 
1883  on  the  extreme  northern  point  of  the  right  bank  of  the  Lena 
River,  opposite  Stolbovoi  Island,  where  it  was  apparently  not  rare. 
He  adds  that  several  specimens  were  secured  in  the  vicinity  of 
Bulun,  a  post  on  the  lower  Lena.  According  to  Nehring  (1890, 
pp.  36-37),  Bunge  found  the  animal  in  the  entire  extent  of  the 
Verkhoyansk  Range. 

About  1901  J.  Talbot  Clifton  secured  two  specimens,  at  least  one 
of  them  at  a  point  "40  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Yana  River" 
(Lydekker,  1902,  pp.  83-85). 

From  information  recently  supplied  by  Pfizenmayer  (1939,  pp. 
68-69,  138,  204-214),  it  appears  probable  that  this  sheep  occurs  on 
most  or  all  of  the  larger  ranges  situated  between  the  lower  Lena 
and  the  Indigirka.  In  1901  he  saw  many  sheep  in  the  Tas-chayach- 
tach  Mountains  (which  form  the  divide  between  the  Yana  and  the 
Indigirka),  at  about  latitude  67°  40'  N.  Here  he  noted  two  herds  of 
over  a  hundred  individuals  each.  In  1908  he  found  a  fair  number 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  599 

on  and  near  the  Kharaulakh  Mountains,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Lena  just  above  its  delta,  and  secured  several  specimens. 

Syverma  Bighorn 

Ovis  NIVICOLA  BOREALIS  Severtzov 

Ovis  borealis  Severtzov,  Izviestia  Imper.  Obschestvo  Liub.  Estest.,  Antrop.  i 
Etnogr.  [Moscow],  vol.  8,  pt.  2,  p.  153,  1873.  (Mountains  and  highlands 
of  the  Piasina  and  Khatanga  districts  in  northern  Siberia.) 

Our  information  concerning  this  sheep  is  extremely  meager. 

It  was  briefly  described  as  an  intermediate  form  between  0. 
nivicola  and  0.  ammon,  and  nearer  the  former;  from  the  latter  it 
differs  in  its  smaller  horns,  inferior  size,  and  whitish  belly  (Severt- 
zov, 1873,  p.  153). 

Sushkin  (1925,  pp.  150-154)  gives  its  distribution  as  the  Syverma 
Range,  between  the  sources  of  the  Piasina  and  the  Khatanga  Rivers. 
He  regards  it  as  "somewhat  uncertain  in  its  characters  and  dis- 
tribution," and  states  that  its  range  "is  divided  from  that  of  the 
geographically  nearest  lydekkeri  by  a  distance  of  about  1,000  kilo- 
meters of  woodland." 

Middendorff  (1853,  p.  117)  received  information  concerning  the 
occurrence  of  a  Wild  Sheep  at  about  latitude  67°  N.,  east  of  the 
Yenisei  in  the  Syverma  Range,  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Cheta.  A 
Tungus  chief  assured  him  that  his  people  had  formerly  hunted  this 
animal  on  the  steep  summits  of  the  range,  but  for  some  time  had 
not  ventured  to  do  so,  since  on  the  last  occasion  one  of  the  hunters 
had  been  tossed  by  the  animals  into  an  abyss. 

Severtzov  (1873,  p.  86)  speaks  of  this  sheep  as  occurring  in  the 
mountains  that  separate  the  basin  of  the  Lower  Tunguska  from 
those  of  the  Piasina  and  the  Khatanga.  He  states  that  several 
specimens  were  obtained  by  Schmidt  for  the  Zoological  Museum  of 
the  Russian  Academy  of  Sciences. 

"Typical  locality  apparently  Verkhoyansk  Mountains,  between 
Yana  and  Lena  Valleys;  Matschie  gives  Byrranga  Mountains,  south 
of  Taimyr  Peninsula,  between  Lena  and  Yenisei  Valleys"  (Lydek- 
ker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  122).  Here  both  Lydekker  and  Matschie  are 
unquestionably  in  error. 

Yablonoi  Bighorn 

Ovis  NIVICOLA  POTANINI  Nasonov 

Ovis  nivicola  potanini  Nasonov,  Bull.  Acad.  Imper.  Sci.  [Petrograd],  ser.  6, 
vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  1599,  1915.  ("La  chaine  de  montagnes  Jablonovoj"  — 
Yablonoi  Mountains.) 

FIGS.:  Nasonov  and  Dorogostajskij,  1915,  p.  1605,  fig.  2,  and  fig.  3,  facing 
p.  1616. 


600  EXTINCT 'AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Practically  all  the  information  on  this  sheep,  including  the  orig- 
inal description,  is  sequestered  in  the  Russian  literature. 

Sushkin  (1925,  p.  150)  gives  the  distribution  as  "southwestern 
part  of  Stanovoi  Range."  This  apparently  means  the  Yablonoi 
Mountains. 

An  account  of  the  animal  is  given  by  Nasonov  and  Dorogostajskij 
(1915). 


FIG.  54. — Barbary  Sheep    (Ammotragus  lervia  subsp.) 

Barbary  Sheep;  Ami;  Aoudad,  Audad,  or  Udad.    Mouflon  a 

Manchettes  (Fr.).    Mahnenschaf  (Ger.).    Arrui   (Sp.)« 

Muflone  berbero  (It.) 

AMMOTRAGUS  LERVIA   (Pallas) 

The  species  as  a  whole  ranges  over  the  Saharan  region  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Red  Sea,  north  to  the  Barbary  states  and  south  to 
the  bend  of  the  Niger  and  to  Kordof an ;  it  is  also  reported  as  formerly 
occurring  in  Palestine. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN  -TOED  UNGULATES  601 

Separate  and  detailed  accounts  will  be  given  of  four  out  of  the 
six  described  subspecies.  The  other  two  require  no  more  than  brief 
mention  here. 

The  typical  Barbary  Sheep  (A.  1.  lervia  l)  is  still  rather  wide- 
spread and  moderately  common.  It  ranges  from  Morocco  through 
Algeria  to  Tunisia.  The  subspecific  status  of  the  animal  of  Rio  de 
Oro  and  Mauretania  remains  to  be  determined. 

Although  the  Sudan  Arui  (A.  I.  blainei  2)  seems  to  have  suffered 
some  reduction  in  range,  and  probably  in  numbers  as  well,  it  is  not 
yet  to  be  classed  among  the  vanishing  forms.  It  ranges  west  of  the 
Nile  through  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  (Dongola,  Kordofan,  and 
Darfur)  .  Some  form  of  Ammotragus  lervia  (perhaps  blainei)  is  also 
common  in  Ennedi  and  Tibesti,  French  Equatorial  Africa,  while  a 
few  of  the  animals  are  found  as  far  south  as  Wadai,  below  latitude 
15°  N.  (Malbrant,  1936,  p.  49). 

Egyptian  Arui.    Mouflon  a  Manchettes    (Fr.) 

AMMOTRAGUS  LERVIA  ORNATA  (I.  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire) 

Ovis  ornata  I.  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  Diet.  Class.  Hist.  Nat.,  vol.  11,  p.  264, 

1827.   ("Near  the  gates  of  the  city  of  Cairo.") 
FIG.:    Savigny,  Descr.  Egypte,  Hist.  Nat.,  Atlas,  vol.  1,  Mammif.,  pi.  7,  fig.  2, 


Some  years  ago  this  sheep  was  apparently  brought  to  the  verge 
of  extinction  by  extended  drought  and  by  hunting,  but  more  recently 
good  rainfall  and  a  measure  of  protection  have  considerably  im- 
proved the  animal's  status. 

General  color  reddish  fawn  ;  dorsal  line  brownish  ;  under  parts 
and  inner  surfaces  of  limbs  white;  a  median  longitudinal  black  spot 
between  the  legs;  fringe  of  hairs  on  lower  neck  12-13  inches  long, 
on  forelegs  6-7  inches  long;  beard  on  each  jaw  2-4  inches  long;  tail 
with  a  terminal  brush.  Horns  at  base  somewhat  quadrangular;  tips 
directed  inwards  and  tapering  to  a  point;  wrinkles  little  developed, 
and  only  toward  the  base.  (I.  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  op.  cit., 
pp.  264-265.) 

The  Egyptian  Arui  is  now  confined  to  the  region  between  the 
lower  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea.  There  are  also  unverified  reports  of 

1  Ant^il&pe]    Lervia   Pallas,    Spieil.    Zool.,    fasc.    12,   p.    12,    1777.     ("Africae 
borealiori  propria";   type  locality  restricted  by  Harper    (1940,  p.  327)    to  "De- 
partment of  Oran,  western  Algeria.") 

2  Ovis   lervia   blainei   Rothschild,   Novit.   Zool.,   vol.   20,   no.   2,   p.   460,   1913. 
("Border  of  Dongola  Province  and  Kordofan,"  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.) 


602  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

the  former  occurrence  of  some  form  of  the  Barbary  Sheep  in  Pales- 
tine ;  this  would  be  either  ornata  or  some  undescribed  subspecies. 

Egypt. — Heuglin  (1861,  p.  16)  reports  the  Arui  at  least  as  far 
south  as  latitude  24°  N. 

The  only  locality  that  Schweinfurth  knew  for  this  animal  in  1893 
was  the  Wadi  El  Gos,  east  of  Minieh.  There  are  also  records  from 
Sarras  (on  the  Nile,  about  lat.  21°  40'  N.)  and  from  near  the  Wadi 
Medisa  (about  lat.  27°  N.,  long.  33°  10'  E.).  (De  Winton,  in  Ander- 
son and  de  Winton,  1902,  p.  335.) 

Flower  (1932,  p.  435)  gives  the  following  account: 

More  than  one  form  occurs  in  Nubia,  the  ornata  once  to  be  found  within 
a  day's  ride  of  Cairo  has  vanished,  and  the  affinities  of  the  sheep  from  southern 
Upper  Egypt  have  yet  to  be  determined.  .  .  . 

Between  1900  and  1909  Arui  Wild  Sheep  were  reported  to  have  been  seen  on 
both  sides  of  the  Nile  in  Upper  Egypt,  but  they  were  very  much  rarer  than 
the  Ibex,  which  occurred  east  of  the  Nile  only.  By  1910  the  sheep  had  become 
really  scarce.  From  1912  onwards  various  projects  for  their  protection  were 
under  consideration,  but,  for  many  reasons,  the  subject  was  a  very  difficult  one. 

Capt.  G.  W.  Murray,  M.  C.,  of  the  Survey  of  Egypt,  writing  to  me,  3  April, 
1920,  of  the  country  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  in  Upper  Egypt,  said: — 

"1.  A  pair  of  wild  sheep  existed  for  a  long  time  at  Bir  Abu  Shaar  (about 
33°  40'  E.  by  27°  20'  N.)— two  heads  offered  to  me  for  sale  at  Jemsa  in  1910 
probably  represented  the  end  of  them. 

"2.  The  Arabs  of  Dr.  Hume's  party  saw  tracks  and  droppings  at  Bir  Laseifa 
(about  32°  30'  E.  by  26°  50'  N.)  in  1912. 

"3.  Nimr  eff.  Ali,  of  the  Coast  Guard,  now  the  Frontier  District  Adminis- 
tration, shot  and  killed  one  near  Wadi  Tarfa  (about  31°  50'  E.  by  28°  20'  N.) 
some  years  ago.  On  my  recent  trip  the  Maaza  Arabs  declared  that  several 
still  existed  near  Wadi  Tarfa. 

"4.  I  saw  fresh  tracks  and  droppings  which  my  guide  declared  to  be  wild 
sheep — and  they  were  certainly  not  ibex — at  near  Gebel  Aradia  (about  33° 
30'  E.  by  26°  20'  N.)  in  March  1920." 

"Barbary  Sheep  might  be  obtained  in  the  isolated  gebels  to  the 
north  of  the  Port  Sudan-Khartoum  railway,  but  of  this  the  writer 
has  no  experience.  They  are  not  found  south  of  the  railway  and 
do  not  belong  to  the  mountain  area."  (Maydon,  1932,  p.  194.) 

"H.  M.  the  King  of  Egypt  .  .  .  has  given  orders  for  ...  areas 
to  be  dedicated  as  sanctuaries  for  the  few  Barbary  sheep  that  are 
still  to  be  found  in  the  Assiuti  wadi  200  miles  south  of  Rishrash" 
(Russell,  1934,  p.  18). 

'"I  managed  to  get  local  Arretes  passed  by  all  Upper  Egypt 
provinces  making  it  illegal  to  kill  ibex  and  Barbary  sheep  in  the 
Eastern  desert  i.  e.  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea. 

"The  sheep  were  on  the  verge  of  extinction  a  few  years  ago  owing 
to  lack  of  rain  (i.  e.  grazing)  and  hunting. 

"The  sheep  area  is  not  a  big  one,  being  about  100  miles  in 
length  from  North  to  South  with  an  average  width  of  about  80 
miles:  outside  this  area  sheep  do  not  exist  at  all.  Twenty  five 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  603 

years  ago  they  were  quite  numerous  as  we  had  rain  up  there  most 
winters.  Till  last  winter  however  we  had  had  no  real  rain  for 
some  seven  years  and  the  sheep  population  had  dropped  to  nearly 
nil.  Bedouin  hunting  with  dogs  was  taking  its  toll  of  the  sheep  and 
snaring  over  the  few  water  holes  was  Jtilling  large  numbers  of  ibex 
(incidentally  the  sheep  never  go  to  the  water  holes  and  exist  on 
the  dew). 

"Then  last  winter  .  .  .  three  big  rains  .  .  .  brought  to  life  all 
the  dormant  plant  seeds  in  the  wadis.  .  .  . 

"I  sent  a  patrol  up  in  August  and  the  reports  were  most  en- 
couraging. .  .  .  Quite  a  number  of  sheep  tracks  in  the  smaller 
and  more  inaccessible  wadis  where  the  grazing  had  not  been  good 
enough  for  camels  but  amply  good  for  game."  [Sheep  will  not 
stay  in  the  Ibex  reserve  about  50  miles  south  of  Cairo.] 

"The  secret  of  the  Assiuti  sheep  country  is  the  western  face 
of  the  Wadi  Qena:  for  100  kilometers  it  consists  of  a  steep 
precipice  1000  feet  high  with  only  two  or  three  passes  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom  of  Wadi  Qena.  This  forms  the  refuge  for  the 
sheep;  when  things  are  quiet  they  work  out  over  the  plateau  and 
feed  to  within  thirty  miles  of  the  Valley  but  when  the  country  is 
disturbed  or  grazing  nonexistent  they  go  back  into  the  cliffs  of 
Wadi  Qena  for  safety  and  for  certain  shrubs  there  which  survive  the 
drought.  No  other  part  of  the  Eastern  desert  has  a  similar  in- 
accessible refuge  area.  .  .  .  The  sheep  panics  at  the  slightest 
sign  of  man  or  camels."  (T.  W.  Russell,  in  litt.,  October  27, 
1935.) 

Palestine. — "No  more  wild  Bovidae  live  in  Palestine  to-day.  Up 
to  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  Ammotragus  lervia  still  lived  in  the 
Wadi  Arabah.  The  Bedouins  hunted  it  under  the  name  of  'el- 
Kebsch'  ('the  sheep').  It  was  already  extremely  rare  when  I  came 
to  Palestine  29  years  ago."  (Aharoni,  1930,  p.  328.) 

"The  Barbary  Wild  Sheep  .  .  .  may  have  lived  in  the  mountains 
around — and  south  of — the  Dead  Sea  up  to  the  beginning  of  this 
century.  However,  more  reliable  data  are  needed  before  this  de- 
termination can  be  definitely  accepted."  (Bodenheimer,  1935, 
p.  116.) 

Libyan  Arui 

AMMOTRAGUS  LERVIA  FASSINI  Lepri 

Ammotragus   lervia   Fassini   Lepri,   Atti   Pontif.   Accad.    Sci.   Nuovi   Lincei, 

Anno  83,  p.  271,  1930.    (Garian  range,  northwestern  Libya.) 
FIG.:    Zammarano,  1930,  p.  26,  fig.  (subsp.?). 

This  Libyan  subspecies  is  considered  a  very  rare  animal  (Zam- 
marano, 1930,  p.  26) . 


604  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

In  comparison  with  A.  I.  lervia,  the  horns  taper  more  suddenly 
and  are  more  divergent  at  the  base;  the  tips  are  more  distinctly 
inclined  backwards;  pelage  slightly  more  reddish;  head  with  mix- 
ture of  brown  and  reddish  hairs;  chin  black;  a  dark  triangular  spot 
below  the  ears;  beard  mixed  with  tawny  and  brown,  and  widely 
margined  with  dark  brown ;  a  short  dorsal  mane  extending  from  the 
nape  to  the  lumbar  region,  the  tips  of  the  hairs  dark  brown, 
setting  off  the  mane  from  the  light  color  of  the  body  (Lepri,  1930, 
p.  270). 

The  present  form  occurs  in  the  Libyan  hinterland,  especially  be- 
tween Murzuk  and  Sokna,  in  the  west  central  part  of  the  country. 
When  introduced  into  Italy,  it  flourishes  either  in  captivity  or  in 
reserves.  (Zammarano,  1930,  pp.  25-26.) 

"I  understand  from  Western  Arabs  that  the  great  field  for  game 
nowadays  is  in  the  'Harush'  [apparently  in  central  Libya].  .  .  . 
There  considerable  numbers  of  ...  Barbary  sheep  exist."  (Colonel 
Green,  in  litt.,  March  13,  1933.) 

This  animal  is  rare  and  of  rather  uncertain  distribution  in  Libya. 
Reduced  rainfall  is  a  cause  of  depletion.  Hunting  is  allowed  only 
on  permit  from  August  15  to  October  14.  Permits  may  be  issued 
no  more  than  twice  per  year  to  a  given  person.  (Ministry  of  Col- 
onies, Rome,  in  litt.,  March  5,  1937.) 


Saharan  Ami.    Mouflon  a  Manchettes   (Fr.). 
Mahnenschaf  (Ger.) 

AMMOTRAGUS  LERVIA   SAHARIENSIS    (Rothschild) 

Ovis  lervia  sahariensis  Rothschild,  Novit.  Zool.,  vol.  20,  p.  459,  1913. .  ("Oued 
Mya"  between  El-Golea  and  In-Salah,  southern  Algeria  (approx.  lat.  29°  N., 
long.  3°  E.).) 

This  subspecies  occurs  rather  widely  in  the  west-central  Sahara, 
but  in  probably  limited  and  decreasing  numbers. 

"Horns  strongly  depressed,  turning  sharply  down  before  bending 
backwards.  Uniform  pale  rufous  sand-colour  all  over;  a  whitish 
patch  below  and  somewhat  behind  the  ear,  no  trace  of  a  median 
facial  stripe."  (Rothschild,  1913a,  p.  459.) 

Since  the  southern  and  western  limits  of  sahariensis  have  not 
been  precisely  determined,  the  animals  of  the  Timbuktu  region  and 
of  Mauretania  and  Rio  de  Oro  are  only  provisionally  referred  here. 

"The  'Barbary  Sheep'  .  .  .  extends  into  the  Sahara,  at  least  as 
far  as  A'in  Guettara  [lat.  28°  N.],  and,  according  to  hearsay,  even 
to  the  Hoggar  mountains.  .  .  .  We  saw  a  very  old  male  at  Ain 
Guettara  .  .  .  ;  but  we  found  many  traces  and  droppings  in  the 
little  affluents  and  side-valleys  of  the  Southern  Oued  Mya,  and  in 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  605 

the  latter  itself.  ...  A  fine  male  was  shot  in  the  Oued  Mya  at 
dusk;  its  meat  was  excellent."  (Hartert,  1913,  p.  36.) 

In  southern  Algeria,  in  1913-14,  a  good  many  tracks  and  a  few 
animals  were  seen  between  Temassinin  and  the  Ahaggar  Plateau 
(Geyr  von  Schweppenburg,  1917,  pp.  260,  266,  267,  276,  300). 

Some  form  of  the  Barbary  Sheep  occurs  near  Timbuktu,  on  the 
heights  adjacent  to  Lake  Faguibin,  descending  there  to  latitude 
17°  N.  More  to  the  west,  it  lives  in  the  north  of  Tagant,  the  Maure- 
tanian  Adrar  (region  of  Atar),  the  "koudiat"  of  Idjil  and  all  the 
mountainous  massifs  of  Rio  de  Oro  (Zoug,  Adrar  Sotof,  etc.). 
Within  the  vast  Saharan  range  of  the  species  as  a  whole,  there  is 
no  rocky  summit  that  does  not  serve  as  a  refuge  for  it;  but  in  the 
erg,  the  reg,  the  hammada,  the  chott,  the  species  is  generally  lacking 
and  it  is  only  accidentally  that  it  penetrates  such  environments, 
where  it  is  in  a  poor  position  to  resist  the  pursuit  of  its  enemies. 
(Joleaud,  1927,  p.  44.) 

Seurat  (1934,  p.  12)  reports  the  Saharan  subspecies  from  the 
Tademait,  the  Mouydir,  the  Hoggar,  and  the  Tefedest. 

Heim  de  Balsac  (1934,  p.  489)  records  two  specimens  from  Tin- 
Aberda  (just  north  of  Adrar) ,  and  remarks  that  probably  here  and 
in  the  neighboring  Massif  des  Ifohras  a  distinct  race  exists. 

The  same  author  (1936,  p.  311)  states  that  the  Barbary  Sheep 
ranges  over  all  the  Saharan  hills  whence  man  has  not  driven  it.  In 
the  south  it  reaches  the  bend  of  the  Niger  and  even  crosses  the 
river  and  inhabits  the  declivities  on  the  opposite  side.  This  last 
area  is  identified  by  the  General  Government  of  French  West  Africa 
(in  litt.,  November,  1936)  as  the  cliffs  of  Bandiagara. 

Buchanan's  Ami 

AMMOTRAGUS  LERVIA  ANGUSI  Rothschild 

Ammotraffus  lervia  angusi  Rothschild,   Novit.  Zool.,   vol.   28,   p.   75,   1921. 
("Tarrouaji  Mt.,  Asben,  3,100  ft.,"  French  West  Africa.) 

This  subspecies  is  apparently  confined  to  the  region  of  Asben  and 
Air  in  the  south-central  Sahara,  where  it  was  reported  in  1920  in 
moderate  numbers. 

"Differs  from  .  .  .  other  forms  ...  in  the  horns  being  much  more 
upright  on  the  head,  and  curving  farther  backwards  and  inwards. 
General  colour  very  deep  rufous,  darker  than  in  I.  ornatus;  no  dark 
face  stripe;  dorsal  crest  mixed  with  black,  more  strongly  on  front 
half.  Beard  on  sides  of  lower  jaw  cinnamon-rufous;  long  hair  on 
legs  and  knee  tufts,  apparently  more  sparse  and  restricted  than  in 
the  other  forms."  Height  at  shoulder,  36  inches.  Horn,  21  inches 
over  curve.  (Rothschild,  1921,  p.  75.) 

Practically  all  our  information  on  this  Arui  is  owed  to  Capt. 


606  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Angus  Buchanan  (1921),  who  discovered  it  in  1920.  At  Tegguidi 
cliff,  south  of  Agades,  "a  few  Barbary  sheep  are  to  be  found" 
(p.  132).  In  Baguezan,  Asben,  two  animals  were  killed  (p.  156). 
"Four  animals  were  seen  late  in  morning  far  up  the  mountain  side 
of  Aouderas,  but  we  were  unable  to  get  near  them.  Signs  of  sheep 
are  plentiful  enough,  but,  so  far  as  I  can  judge  at  present,  they  are 
very  wary  and  wild  and  secretive  in  their  movements,  resting  and 
hiding  in  the  dark  mountain  caves  by  day,  and  coming  out  to  feed 
in  late  evening  and  through  the  night."  (Pp.  160-161.) 

"Fresh  tracks  of  wild  sheep  were  numerous"  on  a  mountain  in 
the  Aguellal  range,  Air  (p.  202) .  "In  the  country  east  of  Baguezan 
.  .  .  there  are  Wild  Sheep  on  the  mountain  faces;  but  .  .  .  the 
rugged  western  side  of  the  mountain  is  much  the  better  hunting- 
ground"  (p.  216).  "In  the  Aouderas  neighbourhood  [Asben],  I  had 
the  good  fortune  to  kill  three  wild  sheep"  (p.  225).  "Those  [Tar- 
rouaji]  hills  ...  are  seldom,  if  ever,  entered  by  natives,  which  ac- 
counts, no  doubt,  for  the  number  of  Barbary  Sheep  which  I  found 
inhabiting  this  range  ....  On  this  day  I  killed  no  fewer  than 
four  animals,  and  looked  upon  half  a  dozen  others  within  range." 
(P.  230.) 

Pyrenean  Ibex.    Bouquetin  des  Pyrenees  (Fr.).    Steinbock  der 
Pyrenaen   (Ger.).    Cabra  monies   (Sp.) 

CAPRA  PYRENAICA  PYRENAICA  Schinz 

Capra  pyrenaica  Schinz,  Neue  Denkschr.  Allg.  Schweiz.  Ges.  Naturw.,  vol.  2, 
p.  9,  1838.  ("In  den  spanischen  Pyrenaen,  auf  den  Gebirgen  der  Sierra  de 
Randa  und  der  Kb'nigreiches  Granada" ;  type  locality  restricted  by  Harper 
(1940,  p.  327)  to  "the  vicinity  of  the  Maladetta  Pass,  in  Huesca,  Spain.") 

Fios.:  Geoffrey  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif.,  pi.  396,  1833;  Schinz,  1838, 
pis.  1,  2;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  22,  and  1901,  pi.  3,  fig.  8;  Gourdon,  1908,  pi.  1, 
fig.  A;  Cabrera,  1911,  p.  968,  fig.  195  A,  and  1914,  p.  312,  fig.  81  A. 

Only  eight  or  nine  survivors  of  the  Pyrenean  Ibex  were  reported 
in  1907,  and  it  is  probably  now  extinct. 

"The  species,  as  a  whole  [C.  pyrenaica],  may  be  described  as  a 
pale  brown  animal  with  the  outer  side  of  the  limbs  black,  a  black 
band  on  the  lower  part  of  the  flanks,  and  a  short  black  mane,  con- 
tinued along  the  back  by  a  narrow  stripe.  The  forehead  and  the 
beard  are  blackish  or  very  dark  brown,  and  the  belly  and  inner  part 
of  the  limbs  white.  In  winter  pelage  there  is  a  whitish  underfur, 
quite  absent  in  summer,  when  the  general  colour  is  browner  and  the 
black  areas  become  more  abruptly  definite.  The  females  lack  at  all 
seasons  the  mane  and  the  black  markings  of  the  head  and  body, 
presenting  only  a  blackish  tint  on  the  anterior  face  of  the  limbs, 
and  it  is  the  same  with  young  males."  (Cabrera,  1911,  p.  967.) 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  607 

In  the  typical  subspecies  "the  dorsal  line  appears  considerably 
broadened  on  the  withers,  ...  in  old  specimens  .  .  .  coming  down- 
wards to  coalesce  with  the  black  of  the  fore  limbs."  Length  of  horn 
on  outside  curve  up  to  1020  mm.  (Cabrera,  1911,  pp.  967,  974.) 
Height  at  shoulder,  2  feet  8  inches  (Schinz,  1838,  p.  15). 

"There  are  .  .  .  strong  reasons  for  believing  that  in  the  past 
Ibexes  [C.  pyrenaica  subspp.]  inhabited  every  suitable  point  of 
almost  every  mountain  ridge  in  Spain."  The  typical  subspecies 
occupied  the  "Pyrenean  area,  comprising  the  Spanish  side  of  the 
Pyrenees  and,  in  former  times,  the  eastern  part  of  the  Cantabrian 
chain."  (Cabrera,  1911,  pp.  964-966,  map.) 

In  1838  it  was  said  to  be  no  longer  present  in  the  French  Pyrenees, 
but  only  on  the  Spanish  side.  It  was  then  known  to  the  Toulouse 
botanist,  Moquin  Tandon,  from  only  a  single  locality,  near  the  Ma- 
ladetta  Pass,  and  even  there  it  was  very  rare  and  difficult  to  obtain, 
so  that  its  early  extinction  was  feared.  However,  during  the  pre- 
ceding year  five  specimens  reached  various  museums.  (Schinz, 
1838,  pp.  16-18.) 

"This  animal  does  not  now  occur  anywhere  in  the  Cantabrian 
range  ....  In  the  Cuevo  de  la  Mora  ...  we  found  a  quantity 
of  bones  which  are  referable  to  this  Spanish  Wild  Goat.  The  former 
existence  of  this  species  in  the  Cantabrian  range  is  therefore  proved, 
and  its  absence  nowadays  is  probably  due  to  extermination." 
(Gadow,  1897,  pp.  372-373.) 

In  1908  Gourdon  wrote  (pp.  4-10)  that  the  massif  of  Maladeta, 
in  Huesca,  was  formerly  a  favored  resort  for  the  Ibex,  but  not  one 
had  been  recorded  for  15  or  20  years  previously.  One  was  killed 
there  by  an  avalanche  in  1876.  The  Val  d'Arras  (or  Ordesa  Valley) , 
on  the  French  side  of  the  massif  of  Mont  Perdido,  in  the  Hautes 
Pyrenees,  was  expected  to  be  the  last  resort  of  this  Ibex.  Sir  Victor 
Brooke  killed  one  there  in  1878  and  another  in  1879.  Some  years 
later  he  estimated  that  40  head  remained  on  the  precipices  of  Arras. 
As  late  as  1907  one  or  two  were  killed  there  annually. 

"It  may  be  considered  as  practically  extinct,  being  today  found 
only  in  the  northern  extreme  of  the  Huesca  Province,  about  the 
Mount  Perdido.  Two  old  bucks,  three  females,  and  three  or  four 
half-grown  individuals  remained  there  in  1907.  In  a  recent  letter 
.  .  .  the  Count  of  San  Juan  .  .  .  informs  me:  'I  think  that  prob- 
ably no  more  than  ten  or  twelve  Ibexes  remain  in  all  the  Pyrenean 
chain.  A  pair  survived  recently  in  the  Maladeta;  somebody  shot 
the  female,  and  the  male  sought  refuge  among  a  herd  of  domestic 
Goats  and  was  subsequently  killed  by  the  goatherd.'  "  (Cabrera, 
19116,  p.  966.) 

In  the  fourteenth  century  this  Ibex  abounded  on  both  slopes  of 
the  Pyrenees.  Now,  of  all  the  mammals  of  the  Iberian  fauna,  it 


608  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

seems  to  be  the  one  that  is  condemned  to  disappear  in  the  shortest 
time.  A  slow  persecution,  but  continued  over  many  centuries,  has 
been  driving  out  this  interesting  creature  from  all  those  mountains 
in  which  it  was  comparatively  common  two  or  three  hundred  years 
ago.  (Cabrera,  1914,  p.  316.) 

Portuguese  Ibex.    Cabra  montez  de  Portugal;  Cabra  do  Gerez 

(Port.)*    Cabra  monies  portuguesa   (Sp.). 

Bouquetin  du  Gerez  (Fr.) 

CAPRA  PYRENAICA  LUSITANICA  Franca 

Capra  lusitanica  "Boc."  Franca,  Bull.  Soc.  Portugaise  Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  2,  fasc.  1-2, 
p.  144,  (1908)  1909.  (Based  upon  the  "cabra -montez  da  serra  do  Gerez" 
of  Du  Bocage,  Mem.  Acad.  Real  Sci.  Lisboa,  Cl.  Sci.  Math.,  Phys.  e  Nat., 
n.  s.,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  1,  1857;  type  localitj',  Serra  do  Gerez,  Minho,  Portugal.) 

FIGS.:  Du  Bocage,  1857,  pis.  1,  2;  Franga,  1909,  p.  144,  fig.  1;  Cabrera,  1914, 
p.  313,  fig.  81-bis  D;  Franga,  1917,  pis.  1,  3-6. 

The  Portuguese  Ibex  became  extinct  about  1892. 

In  pelage  it  is  intermediate  between  C.  p.  victoriae  and  C.  p. 
hispanica,  but  nearer  to  the  former;  belly,  inside  of  limbs,  space 
about  eyes  and  near  muzzle,  isabelline;  front  of  limbs  dark  brown, 
slightly  more  intense  in  winter  than  in  spring;  male  with  a  slight 
brown  mane  and  a  short,  dark  brown  beard,  both  longer  in  winter; 
at  this  season  it  also  has  a  dark  brown  dorsal  stripe,  reaching  the 
tail;  a  large  dark  area  on  breast.  Horns  shorter  and  less  curved 
than  those  of  other  Iberian  forms,  but  of  greater  circumference  and 
closer  together  toward  the  base;  most  similar  to  those  of  victoriae; 
length  along  outside  curve,  up  to  570  mm.  Height  of  male  at 
shoulder,  up  to  740  mm.;  of  female,  up  to  700  mm.  The  winter 
pelage  of  the  female  has  the  same  blackish  markings  as  the  male's, 
but  less  intense  and  less  clear.  (Franca,  1917,  pp.  32-42.) 

Du  Bocage  (1857,  pp.  4, 15, 17)  records  five  specimens  taken  in  the 
Serra  do  Gerez,  northern  Portugal,  in  1852,  and  quotes  Link  and 
Hoffmansegg  (1808)  to  the  effect  that  this  is  the  only  area  in  the 
country  where  the  species  is  found.  He  also  mentions  two  additional 
specimens  in  the  Museum  of  Coimbra.  He  attributes  the  survival 
of  this  Ibex  to  the  difficulties  and  perils  of  the  chase. 

Gadow  writes  (1897,  pp.  372-373)  of  "its  regular  occurrence  in 
the  Serra  de  Gerez,  in  the  northern  corner  of  Portugal.  Formerly 
more  common,  the  species  is  now,  in  the  Serra  de  Gerez,  reduced  to 
a  small  herd 'of  perhaps  only  half  a  dozen.  One  specimen  was  shot 
there  a  few  years  ago  by  the  King;  a  young  one  was  caught  alive 
in  1891  [  =  1890],  a  photograph  of  which  I  owe  to  the  kindness  of 
.  .  .  Mr.  A.  Tait  of  Oporto.  In  the  summer  of  1885  I  made  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  stalk  these  cabras  bravas,  as  they  are  called 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  609 

by  the  Portuguese.  .  .  .  From  information  received  at  the  Sierra 
de  Picos,  I  think  that  this  goat  occurs  also  on  the  Sierra  da  Pena 
negra,  to  the  south-west  of  Leon." 

Cabrera  writes  (1911,  p.  966)  that  the  Ibex  of  the  mountains  of 
Galicia  and  northern  Portugal  "is  well-nigh  extinct,  only  a  few 
specimens,  if  any,  remaining  in  the  Portuguese  mountains  of  Gerez"; 
and  also  (p.  964)  that  "in  1861,  the  date  of  Seoane's  'Fauna  masto- 
logica  de  Galicia/  a  few  individuals  remained  in  the  mountains  of 
that  region." 

In  former  times  its  range  probably  extended  to  all  the  large 
mountains  in  the  northwest  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  and  about 
the  middle  of  the  last  century  a  few  individuals  still  existed  in 
Galicia.  It  is  very  likely  that  this  subspecies  is  completely  extinct; 
at  least  there  is  no  record  of  any  specimen  taken  since  a  female 
was  captured  in  1890,  so  that  if  it  has  not  disappeared  entirely,  it 
must  be  very  rare  or  have  taken  refuge  in  places  that  are  inaccessible 
and  never  visited  by  hunters.  (Cabrera,  1914,  pp.  324-325.) 

From  the  excellent  monograph  of  Franga  (1917)  the  following 
information  is  derived.  During  the  eighteenth  century  the  animal 
was  doubtless  still  represented  by  numerous  examples.  In  a  work 
of  this  century  the  supposed  therapeutic  value  of  its  bezoar-stones 
is  discussed.  Another  work  of  this  period  describes  a  trap  used  by 
the  shepherds  of  Gerez  for  capturing  the  Ibex.  Link  shows  (1803) 
that  it  was  still  abundant  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
that  its  range  then  extended  from  Borrageiro  to  Montalegre.  It  was 
much  hunted  by  the  inhabitants.  A  hunter  who  would  gladly  sell 
the  hide  esteemed  the  flesh  too  highly  to  part  with  it.  Coverlets 
were  made  of  the  hide,  and  the  horns  were  used  for  ornament  in  the 
houses.  In  later  times  the  use  of  the  horns  as  trumpets  is  mentioned. 

This  Ibex  commenced  to  disappear  during  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  By  1870  it  was  very  rare.  Single  males  were 
killed  in  1874,  1876,  and  1885.  A  dozen  animals  were  seen  in  1886. 
The  last  one  to  be  captured  was  an  old  female  taken  alive  in  Sep- 
tember, 1890;  it  died  a  few  days  later.  Two  others  were  found 
dead  in  1890  and  1891;  the  latter  was  the  victim  of  an  avalanche. 
The  final  ones  were  seen  in  1892  near  Lomba  de  Pau. 

Hunting  was  especially  destructive  in  May,  when  the  young  were 
small  and  the  animals  descended  to  lower  levels.  The  Wolf  and 
the  Golden  Eagle  must  have  contributed  to  the  diminution.  Some 
were  victims  of  avalanches.  Disease  and  a  disproportion  of  the 
sexes  (fewer  females  than  males)  are  considered  additional  factors 
in  the  extinction  of  the  Portuguese  Ibex. 

Franc.a  considers  the  Portuguese  Ibex  a  distinct  species,  not 
merely  a  subspecies  of  Capra  pyrenaica. 


610  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Ibex  of  Central  Spain;  Credos  Ibex.    Cabra  monies  (Sp.) 

CAPRA  PYRENAICA  VICTORIAE  Cabrera 

Capra  pyrenaica  victoriae  Cabrera,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1911,  p.  975,  1911. 

("Madrigal  de  la  Vera,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Sierra  de  Gredos," 

Province  of  Caceres,  Spain.) 
FIGS.:    Chapman  and  Buck,  1910,  pis.  facing  pp.  140,  152  (figs.  A,  C),  216, 

220;  Cabrera,  1911,  pis.  53,  54,  p.  968,  fig.  195  A,  p.  970,  fig.  196;  Cabrera, 

1914,  pi.  19,  p.  312,  fig.  81  B. 

This  Ibex  is  "in  danger  of  disappearing  and  worthy  of  special 
protection"  (Director  General  de  Montes,  Pesca  y  Caza,  in  litt., 
1933). 

"An  intermediate  form,  in  size  and  in  the  extent  of  the  black 
markings,  between  C.  p.  pyrenaica  and  C.  p.  hispanica,  rather 
browner  than  hispanica  in  the  summer  coat,  and  with  horns  similar 
in  size  to  those  of  that  race,  but  comparatively  broader  and  flatter." 
Height  at  shoulder,  700  mm.  Length  of  horn  on  outside  curve,  up 
to  815  mm.  (Cabrera,  1911,  pp.  974-976.) 

The  range  includes  "the  Sierra  de  Gredos  and,  in  the  past,  the 
ridges  of  El  Barco,  Bejar  and  Francia,  and  the  hills  of  Toledo." 
The  subspecies  is  "at  present  reduced  to  a  single  colony  in  the 
highest  peaks  of  Gredos."  (Cabrera,  1911,  p.  966,  and  map, 
p.  965.) 

The  following  information  is  derived  from  the  excellent  account 
by  Chapman  and  Buck  (1910,  pp.  139-146) : 

In  the  Spanish  ibex  Spain  possesses  ...  a  game-animal  of  the  first  rank.  .  .  . 

Since  we  first  wrote  on  this  subject  in  1893  the  Spanish  ibex  has  passed 
through  a  crisis  that  came  perilously  near  extirpation.  Up  to  the  date  named, 
and  for  several  years  later,  none  of  the  great  landowners  of  Spain  .  .  .  had 
cherished  either  pride  or  interest  in  the  Spanish  wild-goat.  Some  were  dimly 
conscious  of  its  existence  on  their  distant  domains;  but  that  was  all.  .  .  . 
These  mountain-ranges  are  so  remote  and  so  elevated  as  often  to  be  almost 
inaccessible  ....  Their  sole  human  inhabitants  are  a  segregated  race  of 
goat-herds,  every  man  of  them  a  born  hunter,  accustomed  from  time  immemo- 
rial to  kill  whenever  opportunity  offered — and  that  regardless  of  size,  sex,  or 
season.  That  the  ibex  should  have  survived  such  persecution  by  hardy  moun- 
taineers bespeaks  their  natural  cunning.  Their  survival  was  due  to  two  causes — 
first,  the  antiquated  weapons  employed,  but,  more  important,  the  astuteness 
of  the  game  and  the  "defence"  it  enjoyed  in  the  stupendous  precipices  and 
snow-fields  of  those  sierras  .... 

But  no  wild  animal  .  .  .  can  withstand  for  ever  perpetual,  skilled  human 
persecution.  During  the  early  years  of  the  present  century  the  Spanish  ibex 
appeared  doomed  beyond  hope.  .  .  . 

We  rejoice  to  add  that  at  this  eleventh  hour  a  new  era  of  existence  has 
been  secured  to  Capra  hispanica  ....  The  change  is  due  to  graceful  action 
by  the  landowners  in  certain  great  mountain-ranges  .... 

In  certain  sierras  .  .  .  the  owners  have  undertaken  the  preservation  of  the 
ibex  partly  from  their  realising  the  tangible  asset  this  game-beast  adds  to 
the  value  of  barren  mountain-land,  and  partly  in  view  of  the  legitimate  eport 
that  an  increase  in  stock  may  hereafter  afford. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  611 

But  the  main  factor  which  has  assured  success  .  .  .  took  origin  in  the  great 
Sierra  de  Credos.  .  .  . 

In  1905,  when  the  ibex  were  about  at  their  last  gasp,  the  proprietors  of  the 
Nucleo  central,  which  we  may  translate  as  the  Heart  of  Credos,  of  their  own 
initiative,  ceded  to  King  Alfonso  XIII.  the  sole  rights-of-chase  therein,  and 
His  Majesty  commissioned  the  Marquis  of  Villaviciosa  de  Asturias  to  appoint 
an  adequate  force  of  guards. 

The  ceded  area  comprised  all  the  best  game-country  [of  the  Sierra  de  Credos]. 

In  1896  we  estimated  the  stock  of  ibex  at  fifty  head,  and  during  the  fol- 
lowing years  it  fell  far  below  that — by  1905  almost  to  zero.  In  1907,  after 
only  two  years  of  "sanctuary,"  it  was  computed  by  the  guards  that  the  total 
exceeded  300  head.  .  .  . 

Though  the  hill-shepherds  in  summer  drive  out  their  herds  of  goats  to 
pasture  on  the  higher  sierra,  when  they  may  come  in  contact  with  their  wild 
congeners,  yet  no  interbreeding  has  ever  been  known;  nor  can  the  wild  ibex 
be  domesticated.  Wild  kids  that  are  captured  invariably  die  before  attaining 
maturity.  .  .  .  The  ibex  .  .  .  can  never  have  been  the  progenitor  of  the  race 
of  goats  now  domesticated  in  Spain. 

Chapman  and  Buck  also  remark  (1910,  p.  219) :  "When  Don 
Manuel  Silvela  .  .  .  was  here  twenty  years  ago  [1876],  some  150 
ibex  were  driven  past  his  post  above  the  Laguna  de  Gredos.  Not  a 
quarter  of  that  number  now  [1896]  survive  in  all  the  range." 

"The  .  .  .  Sierra  de  Francia  in  the  Salamanca  Province,  and  the 
Toledo  Mountains,  where  it  does  not  exist  to-day,  formed  parts 
of  its  range  sixty  years  ago,  and  it  has  been  found  in  the  Sierra 
de  Bejar,  between  the  Sierras  of  Francia  and  Gredos,  so  recently 
as  1897"  (Cabrera,  1911,  p.  964).  "The  colony  [on  the  Sierra  de 
Gredos]  consists  of  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  head,  and  having 
been  under  royal  protection  since  1905  it  is  rapidly  improving" 
(Cabrera,  1911,  p.  966).  Now  [1914]  their  number  is  probably  about 
500  head  (Cabrera,  1914,  p.  320). 

Of  late  years  the  prospects  for  the  remaining  Ibex  in  Spain  seem 
to  have  become  very  discouraging.  "I  hear  privately  from  a  friend 
who  has  just  come  back  from  Spain  that  the  situation  [in  regard 
to  Ibex]  is  extremely  bad  and  that  no  effort  is  being  made  to  check 
poaching"  (Martin  Stephens,  in  litt.,  May  25,  1936). 

No  more  recent  information  is  at  hand.  It  may  be  remarked, 
however,  that  the  aftermath  of  wars  usually  creates  a  difficult  period 
for  the  game  of  any  country. 

Mediterranean  Ibex.    Cabra  monies   (Sp.) 

CAPRA  PYRENAICA  HISPANICA  Schimper 

Capra  hispanica  Schimper,  Comptes  Rendus  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris],  vol.  26,  p.  318, 
1848.  ("Picacho  de  Veleta  et  du  Mulahacen,"  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  south- 
ern Spain.) 

FIGS.:  Rosenhauer,  1856,  pis.  1,  2;  Chapman  and  Buck,  1910,  pi.  facing  p.  152, 
figs.  B,  D;  Cabrera,  1911,  pi.  52,  and  p.  968,  fig.  195  C;  Cabrera,  1914, 
p.  313,  fig.  81-bis  C. 


612  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Some  years  ago  this  Ibex  appeared  to  be  in  better  status  than 
any  of  the  other  Spanish  subspecies.  Now,  like  the  form  of  central 
Spain,  it  is  said  to  be  in  danger  of  disappearing  (Director  General 
de  Montes,  Pesca  y  Gaza,  in  litt.,  1933) . 

It  is  smaller  than  C.  p.  victoriae,  with  the  black  markings  still 
more  reduced;  summer  pelage  more  rufous  and  horns  less  curved 
and  more  widely  spreading;  dorsal  stripe  not  broadened  anywhere; 
black  of  the  forelimbs  reaching  at  most  the  lower  shoulder  and 
chest,  and  on  the  haunches  narrowed  to  a  mere  band.  Height  at 
shoulder,  655  mm.  Length  of  horn  on  outside  curve,  up  to  850  mm. 
(Cabrera,  1911,  pp.  967-974,  and  1914,  pp.  321-322.) 

This  Ibex  once  inhabited  all  the  large  mountains  parallel  to  the 
Mediterranean  littoral  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  from  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro,  including  the  Sierra  Morena. 
At  present  this  distributional  area  seems  reduced  to  seven  isolated 
colonies,  viz.:  one  in  Sierra  Morena,  about  Fuencaliente ;  one  in 
the  Sierras  of  Ronda  and  Bermeja,  from  their  connection  with  that 
of  Tolox;  one  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  whence  it  extends,  by  way  of 
the  Alpuj arras,  as  far  as  the  Sierras  of  Frigiliana  and  Alhama;  a 
fourth  in  the  Sierra  of  Cazorla  (where  the  author  believed,  in  1911, 
it  had  become  extinct,  but  a  specimen  was  taken  later  and  sent  to 
the  Madrid  Museum) ;  a  fifth  in  the  Sierra  Martes,  in  Valencia ; 
a  sixth  in  the  Sierra  de  Cardo  and  the  Mountains  of  Tivisa;  and  a 
seventh  on  the  other  side  of  the  Ebro,  on  Monte  Caro.  (Cabrera, 
1914,  p.  322.) 

Schimper  (1848,  p.  318)  believed  the  Ibex  did  not  exist  in  the 
Sierra  Morena,  but  this  was  evidently  an  error. 

According  to  Rosenhauer  (1856,  p.  4),  it  is  rare  in  the  Sierra  de 
Ronda,  but  somewhat  common  in  the  Sierra  Nevada.  In  the  course 
of  four  weeks  15  of  the  animals  were  brought  to  Granada  for  sale. 

Chapman  and  Buck  (1910,  p.  152)  state: 

The  "defences"  of  the  ibex  in  the  Sierra  Quintana  [a  range  in  the  Sierra 
Morena]  lie  among  some  fairly  big  crags  forming  the  eastern  and  southern 
faces  of  the  range.  The  shooting  at  that  time  [1901]  was  free;  hence  the 
goats  were  never  left  in  peace  by  the  mountaineers,  who  all  carried  guns, 
and  used  them  whenever  a  chance  presented  itself.  The  result  was  that  the 
few  surviving  goats  had  become  severely  nocturnal  in  habit  .... 

At  this  period  (1901)  the  surviving  ibex  had  fallen  to  a  mere  handful. 
Fortunately  here,  as  elsewhere  in  Spain,  there  was  aroused,  within  the  next 
five  years,  the  tardy  interest  of  Spanish  landowners  to  save  them. 

These  authors  also  (p.  153)  quote  the  Marquis  del  Merito  to 
the  effect  that  the  Ibex  kids  "have  a  terrible  enemy  in  the  golden 
eagles,  since  their  birth  coincides  with  the  period  when  these  rapa- 
cious birds  have  their  own  broods  to  feed,  and  when  they  become 
more  savage  than  ever." 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES 


613 


"The  main  chain  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  constitutes  one  of  the 
strongholds  of  the  Spanish  ibex  ....  Though  totally  unprotected, 
they  yet  hold  their  own — a  fair  average  stock  survives  along  the 
line  of  the  Veleta,  Alcazaba,  and  Mulahacen.  This  survival  is  due 
to  the  vast  area  and  rugged  regions  over  which  (in  relatively  small 


FIG.  55. — Mediterranean    Ibex    (Capra    pyrenaica    hispanica).     After 
Lydekker    and    Ward. 

numbers)  the  wild-goats  are  scattered;  but  even  more  to  the 
antiquated  muzzle-loading  smooth-bores  hitherto  employed  against 
them.  That  moment  when  cheap,  repeating  cordite  rifles  shall  have 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  mountain-peasantry  will  sound  the 
death-knell  of  the  ibex."  (Chapman  and  Buck,  1910,  pp.  302-303.) 
Cabrera  remarks  (1911,  pp.  965-966)  on  the  Spanish  Ibex  being 
"how  reduced  to  a  number  of  small  isolated  colonies  by  continued 
persecution  from  the  Middle  Ages,  when  wild-goat  meat  was  a  very 
favoured  dish  at  every  Spanish  table." 


614  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  same  author  states  (1914,  p.  322)  that,  although  not  abun- 
dant, the  Mediterranean  Ibex  does  not  seem  so  directly  threatened 
with  extinction  as  that  of  the  Pyrenees,  nor  as  that  of  Gredos  was  a 
few  years  ago.  In  the  Sierra  Morena,  where  it  was  becoming  rare, 
it  is  now  under  the  protection  of  the  Marquis  del  Merito. 

At  present,  while  precise  information  is  lacking,  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  conditions  of  the  past  several  years  have  not  been,  and  those 
of  the  near  future  will  not  be,  at  all  favorable  to  the  preservation 
of  the  two  remaining  forms  of  Ibex  in  Spain. 

Alpine  Ibex.     Bouquet  in  des  Alpes    (Fr.)«    Steinbock    (Ger.). 

Stambecco  (It.) 

CAPRA  IBEX  Linnaeus 

[Capra]  Ibex  Linnaeus,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  68,  1758.    ("In  Wallesiae 

praeruptis  inaccessis"  =  Alps  of  Valais,  Switzerland.) 
FIGS.:    Fitzinger,  Bilder-Atlas,  Saugthiere,  fig.  211,  1860;   Royal  Nat.  Hist., 

vol.  2,  pi.  facing  p.  247,  1894;  Lydekker,  1901,  pi.  3,  fig.  9,  and  p.  165,  fig.  39; 

Gourdon,  1908,  pi.  1,  fig.  B;    Martin,  1910,  pi.  46;   Colosi,   1933,  pi.  2; 

Didier  and  Rode,  1935,  p.  335,  fig.  197. 

Formerly  ranging  through  the  Alps  of  Switzerland,  France,  Italy, 
and  Austria,  this  Ibex  was  gradually  exterminated  in  all  but  a  few 
specially  protected  localities.  What  may  be  the  original  stock  still 
survives  in  the  Gran  Paradiso  National  Park  in  the  Italian  Alps, 
and  recently  some  colonies  have  been  established  in  Switzerland 
by  reintroduction.  Perhaps  a  small  colony  remains  in  Salzburg, 
Austria. 

"Height  about  32  to  34  inches.  Horns  inclining  backwards  in  a 
bold  scimetar-like  sweep,  distinctly  triangular  in  section,  with  the 
front  surface  broad,  flattened,  and  carrying  a  number  of  bold  trans- 
verse knots  or  knobs.  Beard,  which  is  confined  to  chin,  moderate. 
General  colour  dusky  grey,  darker  on  chin,  upper  portion  of  throat 
and  under-parts;  blackish  below  and  along  anterior  surface  above, 
this  dark  area  not  noticeably  contrasted  or  sharply  defined;  tail 
.  .  .  blackish  at  tip.  Fine  horns  measure  from  30  to  44|  inches 
along  front  curve."  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  141.) 

Lydekker  (1901,  pp.  163-164)  gives  the  following  general  account: 

Originally  inhabiting  all  the  higher  Alps  of  the  Tyrol,  Savoy,  and  Switzer- 
land, the  ibex,  after  the  wild  ox  and  the  bison,  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the 
first  of  the  wild  ruminants  of  continental  Europe  whose  range  and  numbers 
were  seriously  affected  by  human  persecution.  And,  always  excepting  the 
wild  ox,  it  is  actually  the  first  which  has  become  practically  exterminated  as  a 
wild  animal.  For  ibex-shooting,  save  to  a  few  fortunate  individuals  who  re- 
ceive special  royal  permission,  has  become  a  sport  of  the  past;  this  handsome 
and  interesting  animal  being  now  represented  only  by  a  few  small  herds  which, 
under  the  protection  of  Government,  survive  in  certain  carefully-guarded 
Alpine  valleys  on  the  Italian  side  of  Monte  Rosa.  As  might  be  expected,  the 
members  of  these  herds  appear  to  be  of  much  smaller  bodily  dimensions  than 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  615 

their  ancestors  who  roamed  at  will  over  the  Alps;  and,  judging  from  speci- 
mens which  occasionally  reach  England,  it  would  seem  highly  probable 
that  some  at  least  of  these  protected  herds  have  a  strain  of  the  blood  of  the 
domesticated  goat  in  their  veins.  ...  As  early  as  the  sixteenth  century  the 
numbers  of  this  animal  had  been  so  reduced  that  it  was  even  then  regarded 
as  rare  and  local  in  most  parts  of  Switzerland.  The  year  1540  is  stated  to 
have  witnessed  its  final  disappearance  from  the  valley  of  Martinswand,  while 
it  only  survived  another  decade  in  Glarus,  and  by  1574  had  become  extremely 
scarce  in  Graubiinden.  In  Bergell  and  the  Upper  Engadine  the  species  survived 
till  a  somewhat  later  date,  laws  for  its  protection  being  propounded  in  1612 
and  again  in  1633.  And  even  so  late  as  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  ibex  were  to  be  found  in  the  mountains  bordering  the  Val  de  Bagnes 
(Bagnethal),  a  tributary  of  the  Rhone  in  the  south  of  Valais  (Wallis),  while 
in  other  districts  of  the  same  canton  a  few  lingered  on  as  late  as  the  com- 
mencement of  the  nineteenth  century.  These,  however,  were  the  last  sur- 
vivors of  the  species  in  Switzerland.  In  Salzburg  and  the  Tyrol  the  species 
had  become  scarce  by  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  ....  In  Salzburg 
ibex  horns,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  animal,  were  much  esteemed  as 
medicine,  and  in  1584  the  Archbishop  made  great  endeavours  to  save  the 
species  from  extermination.  ...  In  1666  a  few  ibex  still  remained  in  the 
Zillerthal.  And  about  that  period  further  steps  were  taken  to  protect  the  ibex 
in  these  districts,  the  peasants  being  paid  a  certain  sum  annually  in  order  to 
refrain  from  pasturing  their  cattle  on  the  high  Alps.  The  ibex  being  thus 
undisturbed,  accordingly  increased  somewhat  in  numbers  up  to  the  year  1698, 
at  which  date  the  flocks  comprised  seventy-two  bucks,  eighty-three  does,  and 
twenty-four  kids.  But  with  this  increase  in  numbers  shooting  and  trapping 
were  once  again  permitted,  with  the  usual  inevitable  result;  and  in  1706  the 
Tyrol  flock  was  reduced  to  five  bucks  and  seven  does,  and  with  these  the  record 
of  the  species  closes  in  this  district.  The  year  1699  seems  to  have  been  the 
one  in  which  the  ibex  were  most  numerous  in  the  mountains  of  the  Tyrol 
and  Salzburg,  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  having  in  that  year  been 
counted  in  the  Floitenthal  alone. 

On  the  southern,  or  Piedmont,  side  of  the  Alps,  where  the  ibex  appear  to 
have  been  moderately  abundant  throughout  the  eighteenth  century,  a  very 
serious  diminution  in  their  numbers  was  reported  in  1821.  This  led  to  the 
enactment  of  rigorous  laws  for  their  protection ;  and  it  is  owing  to  these  laws 
that  the  ibex  has  not  long  since  been  numbered  among  the  species  that  have 
disappeared  for  ever  from  the  world.  By  1865  a  large  number  of  old  bucks 
had  reappeared  on  the  flanks  of  Monte  Rosa  in  spots  where  not  a  single  head 
had  been  observed  for  some  fifty  years  previously. 

In  1838  Schinz  (p.  9)  considered  this  species  restricted  to  the 
chain  of  Mont  Blanc  and  Monte  Rosa. 

Switzerland. — Since  1869  attempts  have  been  made  to  reintroduce 
the  Ibex,  the  stock  being  obtained  from  the  Italian  National  Park. 
By  1927  it  had  spread  out  from  seven  centers  of  distribution,  and 
its  numbers  were  estimated  at  120.  (Boubier,  1927.) 

In  the  Alps  of  Valais  the  last  Ibex  (or  one  of  the  last)  was  killed 
in  1809.  As  a  result  of  successive  releases  since  1911,  the  number 
in  nine  localities  in  Switzerland  had  increased  to  an  estimated  total 
of  338-380  by  the  end  of  1934;  and  to  410-470  by  1937.  Hunting 
of  this  species  is  absolutely  forbidden;  furthermore,  all  the  Ibex 
colonies  are  located  in  reserves  where  no  hunting  of  any  kind  is 


616  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

permitted.  (Federal  Forest,  Game,  and  Fish  Inspection,  in  Hit., 
June,  1936,  and  March,  1937.) 

Germany. — The  species  has  been  exterminated  here  since  the 
fifteenth  century  but  has  lately  been  reintroduced  into  the  Bavarian 
Alps,  where  it  is  protected  by  law  (Internationale  Gesellschaft  zur 
Erhaltung  des  Wisents,  in  litt.,  October,  1936) . 

France. — The  date  of  the  disappearance  of  the  Alpine  Ibex  in  this 
country  does  not  seem  to  be  definitely  fixed.  Schinz  writes  (1838, 
p.  20)  that  the  high  prices  offered  for  museum  specimens  have  con- 
tributed to  its  decrease  in  Savoy.  Trouessart  states  (1884,  pp.  279- 
280)  that  it  has  become  very  rare  and  is  scarcely  found  save  on 
the  massif  of  Monte  Rosa,  Italy;  also  that  the  female,  at  need, 
defends  its  young  with  its  horns  against  the  attack  of  Eagle  or  Lam- 
mergayer.  Later  Trouessart  writes  (1910,  p.  237)  that  it  is  extermi- 
nated in  Savoy. 

E.  Bourdelle  writes  (in  litt.,  March,  1937)  that  the  Ibex  still  ex- 
isted in  the  highest  parts  of  the  Alps  in  very  small  numbers  at  the 
end  of  the  last  century,  but  can  now  be  considered  extinct  in  France. 
Perhaps  the  restocking  of  certain  areas  in  the  former  range  of  the 
species  could  be  considered. 

Italy. — At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  some  indi- 
viduals were  still  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Monte  Rosa  and  the 
Cervino.  The  reserve  of  Gran  Paradiso  was  established  by  Victor 
Emanuel  II  and  completed  in  1854.  Thus  protected,  the  Ibex  in- 
creased to  about  600  in  1879  and  3,020  in  1914.  In  1922  Gran  Para- 
diso was  made  a  National  Park.  Through  relaxed  supervision  during 
the  World  War  some  of  the  Ibex  had  been  killed  off,  but  by  1927 
their  numbers  had  risen  again  to  2,800.  Some  are  found  outside  the 
park  in  adjacent  territory.  (Colosi,  1933,  pp.  34-35.) 

"The  ibex  in  the  Piedmontese  Alps  is  holding  its  own,  largely 
because  when  Dr.  Zumstein  contrived  [in  1816]  to  have  it  made 
Royal  Game  he  knew  nothing  of  the  modern  'control-methods/  and 
a  vanishing  species  re-established  itself  so  firmly  by  a  natural 
process  that  it  should  survive  for  an  indefinite  period"  (H.  W.  Shoe- 
maker, in  litt.,  November  18,  1932). 

"At  Abruzzi  in  Italy  ...  a  large  national  reserve  has  been  estab- 
lished chiefly  for  sub-alpine  plants  and  animals  and  now  contains 
ibex,  chamois,  brown  bears,  and  wolves"  (Mitchell,  1931,  p.  36). 

The  Field  (October  7,  1933)  announced  that  by  order  of  the 
Italian  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Forests  "the  male  ibex  may  be 
shot  from  now  until  the  end  of  the  year.  The  shooting  fee  is  lire 
8,000  (about  130  pounds)  for  the  first  head,  and  lire  6,000  (about 
100  pounds)  for  additional  heads,  so  it  would  not  appear  that  any- 
great  inroads  will  be  made  on  the  existing  herds.  ...  It  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  at  present"  in  the  Gran  Paradiso  area  "about 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  617 

3500  head  of  ibex  .  .  .  ,  for  whose  protection  there  is  a  special  corps 
of  Royal  Hunt  Guards." 

The  Alpine  Ibex  is  also  found  on  the  royal  hunting  grounds  of 
S.  Anna  di  Valdieri  and  will  be  introduced  into  the  Stelvio  National 
Park  (Laboratorio  di  Zoologia  Applicata  a  Caccia,  in  litt.,  Sep- 
tember, 1936) . 

Austria. — To  judge  by  the  horns  found,  the  Ibex  occurred  in 
Carinthia  very  long  ago.  In  Nieder-Osterreich  (where  it  has  per- 
haps been  absent  throughout  historical  times)  introduction  was  tried 
in  1936  in  the  region  of  Schneeberg-Rax,  but  the  result  is  not  known 
as  yet.  In  Salzburg  the  species  was  certainly  common  in  former 
days,  and  now  a  colony  of  about  30  head  is  found  in  Bluhnbachtal. 
In  the  Tyrol  it  was  generally  distributed  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
but  was  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  during  the  next  century,  and 
the  last  ones  were  observed  in  1706  in  the  Floitental,  a  tributary 
of  the  Zillertal.  Efforts  are  now  being  made  to  reintroduce  it  in 
that  region.  In  Vorarlberg  the  Ibex  has  been  exterminated  since  the 
sixteenth  century.  Here  as  well  as  in  the  Tyrol  extinction  was  due 
to  poaching  by  the  local  residents,  who  superstitiously  believed  in 
the  medicinal  properties  of  certain  parts  of  the  animal.  These  were 
considered  "sympathetic"  remedies  against  illness  and  were  also 
used  to  increase  generative  faculties,  etc.  (G.  Schlesinger,  in  litt., 
March,  1937). 

Yugoslavia. — An  introduced  herd  exists  on  the  property  of  Baron 
Born  at  Sveta  Ana,  south  of  Loibl  Pass  on  the  Carinthian  frontier. 
Before  the  World  War  the  stock  was  38  head,  but  then  became  re- 
duced to  6.  This  herd  is  said  not  to  be  pure-blooded,  but  interbred 
with  domesticated  goats.  (G.  Schlesinger,  in  litt.,  March,  1937.)  By 
1936  the  herd  had  increased  again  to  about  20  head  (M.  Hirtz, 
in  litt.,  November,  1936) . 

Rumania. — Remains  in  the  Carpathians  indicate  that  Ibex  co- 
existed with  man  in  prehistoric  times  (R.  J.  Calinescu,  in  litt.,  Sep- 
tember, 1937) . 

Extinction  through  dilution? — There  is  apparently  some  possi- 
bility of  the  extinction  of  the  Alpine  Ibex  as  a  purebred  species.  If 
the  Italian  stock  (at  one  time  practically  the  last  remnant  of  the 
species)  is  not  pure,  probably  no  other  stocks  of  the  present  day  are. 
In  1886  P.  L.  Sclater  wrote  (p.  315) :  "Whether  the  pair  of  this 
species  presented  to  us  by  the  late  King  of  Italy  in  1862  were  really 
perfectly  pure  was,  I  have  always  thought,  a  little  doubtful;  at  all 
events  it  is  well  known  that  the  Alpine  Ibex  breeds  freely  with  the 
Domestic  Goat,  and  I  have  seen  many  such  hybrids."  Still  earlier 
Schinz  had  remarked  (1838,  p.  6)  on  the  long-known  fact  that  the 


618  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Alpine  Ibex  interbred  with  the  domestic  goat  in  complete  freedom 
and  produced  fertile  crosses. 

Nubian  Ibex;  Beden 

CAPRA  NUBIANA  NUBIANA  F.  Cuvier 

Copra  nubiana*  F.  Cuvier,  in  Geoffrey  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,  "vol.  3, 
livr.  50,  pi.  347  (399)  in  Brit.  Mus.  copy,  1825"  (Flower,  1932,  p.  435). 
(Type  locality  "not  known.  The  species  was  described  in  June  1825  from 
a  young  male  received  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  Menagerie,  Paris,  which 
had  been  sent  from  Egypt  by  M.  Drovetti,  French  Consul  at  Alexandria, 
to  H.  R.  H.  the  Duke  d'Angouleme."  (Flower,  1932,  p.  436.)) 

FIGS.:  Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  op.  cit.,  pi.  347;  P.  L.  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 
London  1886,  pi.  32;  Lydekker,  1908,  p.  90,  fig.  30;  Brocklehurst,  1931, 
p.  81,  fig.,  pi.  facing  p.  82;  Ward,  1935,  p.  275,  fig. 

This  Ibex  appears  to  have  suffered  severely  from  persecution 
throughout  its  range  along  the  Red  Sea  littoral,  but  it  has  at  least 
one  stronghold  in  the  shape  of  a  national  reserve  about  50  miles 
southeast  of  Cairo. 

Knots  on  the  horns  more  strongly  developed  and  more  regularly 
arranged  in  this  subspecies  than  in  C.  n.  sinaitica;  general  color  of 
upper  parts  brownish  or  yellowish  fawn;  muzzle,  chin,  beard,  flanks, 
chest,  nape-tuft,  dorsal  line,  and  outer  side  of  legs  (except  knees  and 
pasterns)  blackish  brown  or  black;  inner  sides  of  thighs  and  but- 
tocks, a  streak  on  the  abdomen,  inner  sides  and  back  of  hind  legs 
below  the  hocks,  most  of  the  corresponding  surfaces  of  the  forelegs 
above  the  knees,  and  a  band  above  each  hoof,  white  or  whitish; 
horns  black  (Lydekker,  1908,  p.  90).  Height  of  male  at  shoulder, 
33  inches  (Brocklehurst,  1931,  p.  81).  Record  length  of  horns  on 
front  curve,  4?i  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  272).  "So  far  I  have  been 
unable  to  find  any  constant  points  of  difference  between  the  Ibex  of 
Sinai  and  those  of  Upper  Egypt  and  Nubia"  (Flower,  1932,  p.  436). 

The  Nubian  Ibex  ranges  from  Lower  Egypt  to  northern  Eritrea, 
and  is  confined  to  the  east  side  of  the  Nile.  Old  reports  from  Mo- 
rocco and  Senegambia  are  undoubtedly  erroneous. 

Heuglin  (1861,  p.  16)  speaks  of  this  animal  as  occurring  in  nu- 
merous families  on  the  Egyptian  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  south  as  far 
as  the  Tropic  of  Cancer. 

In  1886  Floyer  (1887,  pp.  671-680)  reported  Ibex  as  rather  plenti- 
ful in  the  Kittar  mountain  region,  between  Kena  and  the  Gulf  of 
Suez.  The  Bedouin  were  said  to  fire  from  rude  shelters  at  the  Ibex 
coming  to  water-holes. 

"The  natives  use  dogs  for  hunting  the  ibex,  which  is  very  common 
in  the  Erba  Mountains  [northwest  of  Port  Sudan]  and  all  along  the 

iNot  listed  by  Sherborn  (Index  Animalium). 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  619 

range  from  the  Amarar  Asortriba  [near  Port  Sudan]  to  Abu  Darag, 
near  Suez.  The  general  way  of  hunting  ibex  is  to  surround  a  moun- 
tain and  let  the  dogs  go ;  they  chase  the  ibex,  which  invariably  makes 
up  the  hill  at  first;  the  dogs  follow  till  they  run  them  to  bay  on  some 
crag  or  boulder,  and  the  Arabs  surround  the  animal  and  then  spear 
it.  Four  or  five  big  ibex  are  sometimes  taken  like  this  in  a  morning." 
(Wylde,  1888,  p.  215.) 

Burckhardt  wrote  in  1819:  "I  frequently  saw  mountain-goats  of 
the  largest  size  brought  to  the  market  of  Shendi  [about  lat.  17°  N.] ; 
.  .  .  their  flesh  is  esteemed  a  great  dainty."  Schweinfurth  in  1893 
reported  Ibex  "just  opposite  Nagi  Hamada,  near  Farchout  [about 
lat.  26°  N.] ,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Nile."  (De  Winton,  in  Ander- 
son and  de  Winton,  1902,  p.  333.) 

"The  Nubian  Ibex  is  common  on  most  of  the  large  mountains  at 
the  back  of  Souakin"  (Cotton,  1912,  p.  51). 

Flower  (1932,  pp.  436-437)  gives  the  following  account: 

The  large  numbers  of  Ibex  heads  and  horns  that  used  to  be  offered  for 
sale  in  Suez  as  from  "Mount  Sinai"  might  be  from  anywhere  on  either  side 
of  the  Gulf  of  Suez  or  the  Red  Sea.  .  .  . 

Ibex  inhabited  the  hills  on  the  east  side  of  the  Nile  from  Cairo  and  Suez 
southwards  to  the  Sudan  frontier.  During  my  time  I  saw  two  individuals  that 
had  been  caught  alive  in  the  El  Saff  country,  the  district  of  Giza  Province 
that  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  but  most  specimens  came  from  the 
Assiut,  Girga,  and  Qena  Provinces.  Englishmen  employed  on  the  construc- 
tion of  the  railway  between  Luxor  and  Aswan  in  the  last  decade  of  the 
nineteenth  century  told  me  that  in  the  Aswan  Province  the  Ibex  came  right 
down  to  the  river  to  drink  .... 

Throughout  the  area,  in  spite  of  several  attempts  at  protection  by  legislation, 
by  watchmen,  and  by  stopping  the  sale  of  horns,  this  fine  animal  became 
very  rare  in  all  districts  of  easy  access,  owing  to  much  persecution  from  men 
with  firearms  who  waylaid  the  Ibex  at  the  water-holes.  Capt.  G.  W.  Murray, 
M.  C.,  wrote,  3  April,  1920: — "Ibex  tracks  and  dung  are  rare  in  the  big  hills, 
except  on  the  almost  inaccessible  Gebel  Shayeb  (about  33°  30'  E.  by  27°  N.), 
where  I  saw  fresh  dung  in  every  nook  and  corner  from  4000  feet  to  the  very 
summit  of  the  mountain,  7200  feet.  They  must  be  very  numerous,  but  I  saw 
none  of  them." 

By  1922  the  Ibex  in  Upper  Egypt  appeared  to  be  in  great  danger  of  extermi- 
nation; but  fortunately  there  were,  and  are,  some  men  in  leading  positions 
in  Egypt  doing  all  they  could  to  save  the  species. 

"Eritrea  contains  a  very  few  Nubian  Ibex  in  the  extreme  north." 
Some  years  prior  to  1932,  in  the  Red  Sea  Hills  near  Tokar,  "there 
were  plenty  of  Ibex."  (Maydon,  1932,  pp.  194,  201.) 

Thirty  years  of  preservation  on  the  Wadi  Rishrash,  about  50  miles 
southeast  of  Cairo,  have  prevented  the  annihilation  of  the  local  Ibex. 
This  was  a  private  shooting  reserve  about  20  miles  long  and  10 
miles  wide,  established  by  the  late  Prince  Kamal  el  Din  Hussein. 
It  is  now  maintained  as  a  national  reserve  by  King  Fuad.  Forty 
Ibex  were  seen  there  at  one  time.  (Russell  Pasha,  1934,  pp.  16-18.) 


620  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

The  following  account  is  furnished  by  T.  W.  Russell  (in  litt., 
October  27,  1935) : 

"I  managed  to  get  local  Arretes  passed  by  all  Upper  Egypt  prov- 
inces making  it  illegal  to  kill  ibex  and  Barbary  sheep  in  the  Eastern 
desert,  i.  e.,  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea. 

"Ibex  are  still  numerous  in  all  the  mountainous  parts  of  the 
desert,  i.  e.,  parts  where  grazing  and  refuge  are  to  be  found 

"Bedouin  hunting  with  dogs  was  taking  its  toll  of  the  sheep  and 
snaring  over  the  few  water  holes  was  killing  large  numbers  of 
ibex.  .  .  . 

"I  then  got  the  Government  to  appoint  a  special  Camel  Corps 
police  patrol  for  that  area,  got  out  local  game  laws  and  put  it  across 
the  poaching  Arabs. 

"Last  winter  .  .  .  three  big  rains  .  .  .  brought  to  life  all  the 
dormant  plant  seeds  in  the  wadis.  .  .  . 

"I  sent  a  patrol  up  in  August  and  the  reports  were  most  en- 
couraging. .  .  .  Large  quantities  of  ibex  ...  in  the  smaller  and 
more  inaccessible  wadis  where  the  grazing  had  not  been  good  enough 
for  camels  but  amply  good  for  game.  .  .  . 

"The  ibex  don't  seem  to  need  such  a  refuge  [as  serves  the  Egyptian 
Arui  on  the  western  face  of  the  Wadi  Qena] ;  much  smaller  rough 
country  does  for  him ;  he  trusts  to  cunning  whereas  the  sheep  panics 
at  the  slightest  sign  of  man  or  camels." 

"A  mountainous  area  of  about  400  square  miles  in  the  Red  Sea 
province  has  been  dedicated  as  a  sanctuary  for  ibex"  (Hobley, 
1933,  p.  45). 

"The  Ibex  in  the  Sudan  is  confined  to  the  Red  Sea  Hills,  where 
it  is  comparatively  common,  especially  in  the  Karora  District,  bor- 
dering the  frontier  of  Eritrea.  .  .  . 

"Their  chief  enemies  are  Leopards,  which  abound  in  the  Red  Sea 
Hills  .... 

"Ibex  have  lately  been  introduced  into  the  Shabluka  Hills  about 
sixty  miles  north  of  Khartoum,  .  .  .  and,  up  to  the  time  of  writing, 
they  are  doing  very  well."  (Brocklehurst,  1931,  pp.  81-82.) 

"The  Red  Sea  tribes,  who  hunt  on  foot,  drive  herds  of  Ibex  up  a 
narrow  gully  until  the  animals  are  forced  to  walk  in  single  file. 

"Natives,  previously  concealed  behind  rocks,  pelt  them  with 
stones,  and  later  kill  the  cripples  with  knives."  (R.  S.  Audas,  in 
Brocklehurst,  1931,  p.  161.) 

"In  the  Red  Sea  province  several  hills  were  declared  as  sanc- 
tuaries for  ibex,  but  it  was  found  that  the  stock  in  these  sanctuaries 
decreased  rather  than  increased.  The  reason  for  this  was  found  to 
be  that  the  native  took  care  to  preserve  the  ibex  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  his  village  in  order  to  encourage  the  visiting  sportsmen, 
from  whom  he  derived  considerable  benefit.  He  considered  the  sane- 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  621 

tuaries  as  'no  man's  land,'  where  he  could  hunt  the  ibex  himself 
or  drive  them  into  a  more  profitable  area."  (Brocklehurst,  1933, 
p.  740.) 

De  Beaux  writes  (1935,  pp.  7-10)  that  two  specimens  were  killed 
in  Eritrea  in  1932  by  Capt.  Arnoldo  Bizzarri.  The  only  herd  that 
he  found  (composed  of  8  individuals)  was  in  the  mountains  near 
the  valley  of  Sciancolet,  on  the  Eritrean-Sudan  boundary.  The 
specimens  proved  to  be  Capra  nubiana,  and  northeastern  Eritrea  is 
definitely  the  present  southeastern  limit  of  this  animal.  The  Italian 
Minister  of  Colonies  instructed  the  Governor  of  Eritrea  to  take 
measures  for  the  preservation  of  the  Ibex  in  that  colony. 

The  causes  of  depletion  in  Egypt  are  injudicious  hunting  and 
reduced  rainfall.  The  skins  and  horns  have  been  sold,  and  the  meat 
has  been  used  for  food.  Shooting  is  prohibited  by  Frontiers  Depart- 
ment Decision  of  6.V.1930.  (Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Zoological 
Garden,  Cairo,  in  litt.,  January,  1937.) 

"The  Nubian  Ibex  .  .  .  also  in  our  judgment  calls  for  attention. 
The  type  locality  of  this  species  is  given  as  Nubia  and  its  range 
includes  the  high  ground  of  Upper  Egypt  and  the  mountainous 
region  of  the  Red  Sea  Littoral.  This  species,  both  on  account  of 
its  rarity  and  interest,  as  fully  deserves  protection  as  the  Abyssinian 
Ibex,  .  .  .  which  already  figures  in  Class  A  of  the  Annex.  We  hope 
that  before  the  next  Conference,  the  Egyptian  Government  will  give 
consideration  to  the  question  of  including  also  the  Nubian  Ibex  in 
that  Class  of  the  Annex."  (Hemming  et  al.,  1938,  pp.  12-13.) 

Sinaitic  Ibex.     Sinai-Steinbock    (Ger.) 

CAPRA  NUBIANA  SINAITICA  Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg 

Capra  sinaitica  Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg,  Symbolae  Physicae,  Mamm.,  decas 
2,  pi.  18,  1833.  ("Ex  Aegypto  superiore  et  e  montibus  sinaiticis";  type 
locality  later  restricted  (op.  cit.,  p.  kk  and  p.  following  nn,  1833)  to  "mon- 
tem  Sinai,"  and  perhaps  more  particularly  to  "Wadi  Hebran,"  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  Sinai  Peninsula.) 

FIGS.:  Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg,  1833,  pi.  18;  Tristram,  1884,  pi.  2;  Bryden, 
1899,  p.  130,  fig.  21;  Anderson  and  de  Winton,  1902,  pi.  58  (cj.  Flower, 
1932,  p.  436);  Beddard,  1902,  p.  325,  fig.  175;  Carruthers,  1915a,  pi.  8, 
upper  fig. 

Although  this  Ibex  was  formerly  common,  conditions  since  World 
War  I  have  affected  it  adversely,  and  it  stands  much  in  need  of 
better  protection. 

Color  yellowish  dusky;  hair  short;  female  beardless;  adult  male 
with  long,  graceful  horns,  extending  in  a  curve  exceeding  a  semi- 
circle and  almost  in  the  same  plane;  horns  quadrangular  at  base, 
triangular  in  middle,  two-sided  at  tip,  and  furnished  with  convex 
knobs;  legs  blackish,  much  variegated  with  white  (Hemprich  and 


622  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Ehrenberg,  1832,  p.  following  nn) .  Knobs  on  horns  narrower,  taller, 
and  more  irregularly  disposed  than  in  C.  n.  nubiana;  good  horns 
measuring  from  30  to  38^  inches  along  front  curve  (Lydekker,  1913, 
vol.  1,  pp.  154-155). 

The  range  includes  mountainous  or  rugged  parts  of  the  Sinai 
Peninsula,  Palestine,  and  Trans-Jordan.  The  southeastern  limits  of 
the  subspecies,  where  it  presumably  intergrades  with  C.  n.  mengesi, 
have  not  been  accurately  determined. 

Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg  (1832,  p.  kk  and  p.  following  nn}  re- 
ported seeing  many  in  the  Sinai  mountains,  in  flocks  of  4  to  20. 

"The  Syrian  Ibex,  or  Beden,  is  still  found,  not  only  in  the  ravines 
of  Moab,  but  in  the  wilderness  of  Judaea,  near  the  Dead  Sea.  I 
have  procured  several  specimens  on  both  sides  of  Jordan.  .  .  .  The 
Beden  ...  is  the  'Wild  Goat'  of  Scripture.  I  obtained  it  twice  at 
Engedi,  where  it  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  David's  wander- 
ings." (Tristram,  1884,  pp.  6-7.) 

John  C.  Phillips  writes  (in  G.  M.  Allen,  1915,  p.  14) : 

The  Sinai  Ibex  still  persists  over  all  the  rugged  parts  of  the  Sinai  peninsula, 
near  Akaba  and  up  at  least  as  far  as  the  northeast  end  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
Although  undoubtedly  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  since  Tristram's  time 
(1884),  it  manages  to  persist  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  every  hand  is  against  it 
during  the  entire  year,  and  its  freshly  dropped  kids  are  eagerly  hunted  by  the 
natives  with  dogs.  I  hunted  three  days  and  saw  only  four  smallish  animals, 
but  signs  were  fairly  numerous.  .  .  .  The  leopard  hunts  these  Ibexes  and 
presumably  kills  a  good  many,  as  various  sportsmen  have  testified. 

Carruthers  (1915a,  pp.  23-26)  gives  the  following  account: 

[This  Ibex  ranges]  northwards  as  far  as  the  upper  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  .... 

[On  the  plateau  of  Moab]  the  ibex  find  a  very  safe  and  rarely-disturbed 
retreat.  .  .  .  The  streams  which  come  down  from  the  plateau  of  Moab  have 
cut  deep  trenches,  which  are  a  favourite  retreat  for  the  ibex  in  localities  where 
there  are  no  natives.  But  in  other  districts  the  ibex  has  left  the  higher  and 
more  rugged  country  to  the  Arab  shepherds  and  retreated  down  to  the 
most  barren  hills  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  Dead  Sea  depression.  .  .  . 

They  are  also  found  in  small  numbers  on  the  west  side  of  the  Dead  Sea 
....  Southwards  they  range  without  a  break  to  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  and  thence 
extend  into  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai.  .  .  . 

The  easiest  conditions  under  which  to  find  these  ibex  are  when  they  inhabit 
secluded  desert  ranges  where  they  are  not  harassed  by  native  hunters.  Some 
sort  of  protection  is  needed,  and  in  these  days  it  is  either  the  very  rugged 
country,  such  as  Sinai,  or  very  featureless  and  apparently  inadequate  hills 
situated  in  uninhabited  localities. 

In  1909  Carruthers  (1935,  pp.  60,  64,  70,  82)  found  Ibex  of  an 
undetermined  subspecies  "in  considerable  numbers"  on  Jabal  Tu- 
baiq,  approximately  150  miles  east  of  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akaba.  Farther  south,  at  Jiraniyat,  "I  witnessed  the  unusual  sight 
of  two  Ruwalla  youths  hunting  the  wild-goats  on  foot;  with  the 
aid  of  falcons  and  long-dogs  they  literally  ran  them  down!" 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  623 

This  Ibex  is  still  comparatively  common  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  often  wanders  to  the  mountains  of  Ber-Seba.  A 
specimen  from  the  latter  area  seems  to  differ  from  typical  sinaitica. 
(Aharoni,  1930,  p.  328.) 

The  animals  are  found  "on  rocky  mountains  around  the  Dead 
Sea,  in  the  Negeb  and  in  Sinai.  .  .  .  Occasionally  they  may  be 
found  even  near  Jerusalem.  They  live  usually  in  small  troops  led  by 
an  old  male  ....  The  Beduins  of  the  desert  mountains  hunt  them 
and  the  wide  distribution  of  modern  rifles  is  one  of  the  main  reasons 
for  their  decrease.  The  long  period  of  extreme  dryness,  which  we 
are  experiencing  at  present,  has  been  another  reason  for  the  diminu- 
tion in  their  numbers.  They  still  inhabit  the  steep  mountains  near 
Engeddi  as  in  Biblical  times."  (Bodenheimer,  1935,  p.  112.) 

Prof.  Bodenheimer  writes  more  recently  (in  Hit.,  March,  1937) 
that  this  Ibex  is  officially  protected  in  Palestine  as  well  as  in  Sinai. 
But  its  remote  habitat  and  the  bitter  armament  of  the  Bedouins 
prohibit  any  real  enforcement  of  the  laws. 

In  Sinai  "ibex  became  extremely  scarce  after  the  War,  as  every 
Arab  in  the  Mid-East  had  obtained  possession  of  at  least  one  modern 
rifle  and  unlimited  ammunition.  To  protect  the  few  remaining  speci- 
mens, keepers  were  appointed  to  guard  six  of  the  most  important 
mountain  ranges  in  the  south,  the  sale  of  ...  ibex  meat  was  pro- 
hibited, and  rifles  and  ammunition  were  confiscated."  (Jarvis,  1935, 
p.  16.) 

Jarvis  also  says  (1932,  pp.  201-202) :  "In  the  summer  the  Arabs 
constructed  hides  round  the  water-holes  [in  Sinai]  and  shot  them 
as  they  came  down  to  drink.  .  .  .  What  really  put  an  end  to  the 
wholesale  slaughter  was  the  running  low  of  the  stock  of  ammunition, 
and  the  deplorable  state  of  the  Arab  rifles  after  a  few  years'  neglect." 

[The  South  Arabian  Ibex  (Capra  nubiana  mengesi  Noack)  occurs 
in  southern  and  southwestern  Arabia,  and  to  an  undetermined  dis- 
tance toward  the  northwest.  In  1915  Carruthers  (p.  33)  regarded 
it  as  plentiful.  Later  information  is  lacking.  It  appears  to  be  almost 
unknown  to  European  hunters.] 

%  Abyssinian  Ibex ;   Wali 

CAPRA  WALIE  Riippell 

Capra  walie  Riippell,  Neue  Wirbelthiere  zu  der  Fauna  von  Abyssinien  gehorig, 
Saugethiere,  p.  16,  1835.  ("The  highest  rocky  mountains  of  Abyssinia, 
...  in  the  Provinces  of  Simien  and  Go j jam";  type  locality  restricted 
by  Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  156)  to  "mountains  of  Simien,  Abyssinia.") 

FIGS.:  Riippell,  op.  dt.,  pi.  6;  Lydekker,  1908,  p.  93,  fig.  31 ;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  63; 
Maydon,  1932,  pis.  51,  55,  57;  Ward,  1935,  p.  270,  fig.;  Field  Mus.  News, 
vol.  7,  no.  2,  p.  3,  fig.,  1936. 


624 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


The  restricted  range  of  this  Ibex  in  Ethiopia,  and  the  persecution 
to  which  it  has  been  long  subjected  by  the  natives,  render  it  of 
particular  concern  to  conservationists. 


FIG.  56. — Abyssinian  Ibex   (Capra  walie).    From  photograph,  Field  Museum 

of  Natural  History. 

It  differs  from  other  Ibexes  by  its  strongly  convex  facial  profile 
and  by  a  conical  hump  between  the  horn  bases ;  horns  with  two  right 
angles  in  front,  but  rounded  behind;  a  short  beard  on  chin.  Front 
and  upper  side  of  head,  neck,  and  back  chestnut-brown;  nose,  a 
streak  between  eye  and  ear,  and  sides  of  neck  and  body  reddish 
umber-brown;  area  beneath  eye  and  ear,  chin,  throat,  chest,  inner 
side  of  the  upper  half  of  the  legs,  and  posterior  half  of  the  belly 
dirty  white;  outer  side  of  limbs  and  flanks  ashy  gray;  lower  parts 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  625 

of  limbs  whitish,  with  broad  black  stripes  in  front,  extending  down 
to  the  fetlocks ;  base  of  tail  chestnut-brown,  tip  black ;  inner  surface 
of  ears  white,  border  and  outer  surface  reddish  brown.  (Ruppell, 
1835,  pp.  18-19.)  Height  at  shoulder  about  38  inches;  record  length 
of  horns  on  front  curve,  44  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  271) . 

P.  H.  G.  Powell-Cotton  (as  quoted  by  Lydekker,  1908,  pp.  91- 
92)  writes  as  follows: 

This  ibex  ...  is  said  to  exist  only  in  the  mountains  of  Simien.  I  shot  four 
specimens.  [On  June  26]  I  saw  two  large  males  .  .  .  with  thirteen  females. 
.  .  .  The  natives  hunt  these  animals  persistently  for  their  flesh,  skins,  and 
horns  (which  they  use  for  tumblers),  and  now  that  they  are  so  much  better 
armed,  I  believe  in  a  very  few  years  the  animals  will  be  extinct.  .  .  . 

I  found  the  ibex  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Mount  Buiheat,  one  of  the  highest 
in  the  Simien  range.  .  .  . 

I  found  numerous  traces  of  where  native  shikaris  had  lain  up  to  get  a  shot 
at  them,  generally  overlooking  a  drinking-place  or  a  favourite  shelter. 

A.  M.  Bailey  (1932,  pp.  69-74)  describes  the  exceptional  difficul- 
ties of  hunting  this  Ibex  on  the  great  cliffs  in  the  mountains  of  Simien. 
Several  specimens  were  secured,  and  one  band  numbering  a  dozen 
or  more  animals  was  sighted. 

Maydon  writes  (1933,  p.  738) : 

Extremely  rare  and  so  far  only  located  in  the  Semien  mountains  n.  e.  of 
Lake  Tsana  in  a  40  mile  area.  On  the  north  side  there  is  a  huge  scarp,  in 
places  14,000  feet  high  and  dropping  sheer  precipices  to  the  lowlands  of  3000 
ft.  alt.  On  this  scarp  the  Ibex  live.  They  are  much  harried  by  the  Abyssinians 
for  the  meat  and  sale  of  the  horns  (to  make  cups,  etc.). 

In  1925  Capt.  G.  Blaine  and  I  saw  only  about  a  dozen  herds  in  6  weeks' 
hunting  and  after  exploring  most  of  the  scarp.  .  .  .  (Note:  At  present  I  see 
no  possible  means  of  trying  to  preserve  game  in  Abyssinia.) 

The  species  is  accorded  complete  protection  under  the  London 
Convention  of  1933. 


Sind  Wild  Goat;   Sind  Ibex 

CAPRA  HIRCUS  BLYTHI  Lydekker 

Capra  Blythi  Hume,  Proc.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal    1874,   p.   240,   1875    (nomen 

nudum) . 
Capra   hircus  blythi  Lydekker,  Wild   Oxen,   Sheep,  &   Goats,   p.  264,    1898. 

("Sind";  the  type  specimen  is  later  shown  by  Lydekker   (1913c,  vol.  1, 

p.  160)  to  have  come  from  the  Eric  Hills  in  Sind.) 
FIGS.:    Lydekker,  1900,  pi.  4,  figs.  1,  la,  and  pp.  98,  99,  figs.  13,  14;  Kennion, 

1911,  pis.  facing  pp.  34,  59  (subsp.?) ;  Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  159,  fig.  39; 

Stockley,  1928,  pi.  facing  p.  122;  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  36, 

no.  4,  suppl.,  pi.  13,  1933;  Ward,  1935,  p.  274,  fig. 

This  Wild  Goat  is  sadly  reduced  in  numbers;  of  late  years  it 
seems  to  have  received  insufficient  protection  from  poachers. 
21 


626  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

It  is  smaller  than  the  Persian  Wild  Goat  (C.  h.  aegagrus) ;  the 
front  edge  of  the  scimitar-shaped  horns  of  the  males  either  totally 
devoid  of  knobs,  or  with  only  a  very  few  and  these  very  small; 
ground  color  very  much  paler,  but  the  face  markings  darker  and 
more  sharply  defined;  the  bucks  often  showing  a  large  patch  of 
dirty  white  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  having  the  greater  part 
of  the  body  behind  the  dark  brown  shoulder  collar  nearly  pure  white 
(Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  264,  and  1900,  p.  100) .  Length  of  horn  on  front 
curve  up  to  52|  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  274) . 

"Within  Indian  limits,  this  wild  goat  is  found  on  the  barren  hills 
of  Baluchistan  and  Western  Sind,  but  not  east  or  north-east  of  the 
Bolan  Pass  and  Quetta,  as  it  is  replaced  by  C.  falconeri."  It  occurs 
"in  herds  of  varying  numbers."  (Blanford,  1891,  p.  503.)  The 
northwestern  limits  of  this  subspecies,  where  it  presumably  inter- 
grades  with  C.  h.  aegagrus,  have  not  been  accurately  determined,  but 
they  may  lie  somewhere  in  Persia.  The  Ibex  that  Kennion  (1911,  pp. 
34-61)  found  rather  common  on  the  ranges  of  Seistan,  in  eastern 
Persia,  are  apparently  intermediate  between  aegagrus  and  blythi. 

C.  H.  Stockley  writes  (in  litt.,  December  12,  1933)  of  a  recent 
visit  to  "the  Kirchat  preserve  in  W.  Sind.  I  have  been  to  it  three 
times  before,  since  the  War,  and  estimated  that  there  were  between 
400  and  500  Sind  Ibex  .  .  .  and  80  to  100  oorial  on  the  preserve, 
which  is  about  90  miles  north  of  Karachi.  I  have  met  and  conversed 
with  others  who  were  there  in  1927  &  1929,  and  they  said  that  the 
stock  was  then  fully  up  to  this  level.  In  1931,  for  motives  of  econ- 
omy, the  watchers  were  all  discharged,  though  the  place  nominally 
remained  a  reserve,  and  the  local  native  gentry  swarmed  in  and 
slaughtered  the  animals.  ...  I  reckon  the  stock  is  now  under 
200  ibex  and  30  oorial.  There  is  not  a  full  grown  buck  ibex  on  the 
ground  (except  perhaps  one  ...)....  They  are  supposed  to 
carry  a  gall  bladder  of  exceptional  medicinal  value. 

"The  Kirchat  preserve  could  be  efficiently  keepered  by  4  men  @ 
15  rupees  per  month,  which  equals  £54  per  annum." 

The  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  writes  (in  litt.,  December, 
1936) :  "In  the  Khirtar  range  in  Sind  the  animal  has  been  seriously 
reduced  in  numbers  particularly  in  the  Karachi  Dudu  section  of  the 
range  where  it  is  being  rapidly  exterminated.  In  the  Kohistan 
section  conditions  are  better  mainly  owing  to  rigid  protection  by 
private  agency.  .  .  .  The  Khirtar  range  lies  outside  forest  admin- 
istration and  though  some  efforts  have  been  made  to  stem  the 
destruction  of  these  animals  in  British  Territory,  they  have  not 
been  successful.  This  species  was  particularly  recommended  for 
protection  by  the  All  India  Wild  Life  Conference.  Effective  warding 
supported  by  special  legislation  is  necessary  to  protect  the  animals 
in  this  zone." 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  627 

[The  Persian  Wild  Goat  (Capra  hircus  aegagrus  Erxleben)  ranges 
"from  the  Daghestan  district  of  the  Caucasus  through  the  mountains 
of  Asia  Minor  and  Persia,  including  the  Kopet  Dagh,  to  the  confines 
of  Baluchistan  and  Sind"  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  158).  Though 
considerably  persecuted,  it  has  evidently  survived,  in  at  least  some 
parts  of  its  range,  in  more  satisfactory  numbers  than  the  Sind  Wild 
Goat. 

Another  subspecies,  C.  h.  neglectus  Zar.  and  Bilk.,  has  been  de- 
scribed from  intermediate  territory  in  Seistan,  Persia.  Ognev  and 
Heptner  (1928,  p.  266)  consider  this  very  close  to,  if  not  identical 
with,  C.  h.  blythi.] 

Astor  Markhor 

CAPRA  FALCONERI  FALCONERI  (Hugel  and  Wagner) 

Aegoceros  (Capra)  falconeri  Hugel  and  Wagner,  Gelehrte  Anzeigen  K.  Bayer. 

Akad.  Wissen.  [Miinchen],  vol.  9,  no.  183,  p.  430,  1839.    (No  type  locality 

stated  except  as  implied  in  incidental  references  to  "Kashmir"  and  "the 

highest   parts   of   the   Tibetan   Himalayas";    type    locality   restricted   by 

Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  162)  to  "Astor.") 
FIGS.:    Schreber's  Saugthiere,  Supplementband  4,  pi.  287  E,  fig.  2,  1844;  Hugel, 

Kaschmir,  vol.  4,  pi.  facing  p.  579,  1844;  Lydekker,  1898c,  pi.  25  and  pp. 

289,  290,  figs.  54,  55;  Lydekker,  1900,  pi.  4,  fig.  3,  and  p.  Ill,  fig.  16; 

Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  163,  fig.  40;  Van  der  Byl,  1915,  pis.  41,  44; 

Stockley,  1928,  pi.  facing  p.  126. 

The  Astor  Markhor,  like  the  several  other  subspecies,  has  declined 
to  at  least  some  extent  from  overshooting;  but  detailed  information 
on  its  numerical  status  is  not  available. 

The  size  is  large,  probably  fully  equal  to  that  of  the  Pir  Panjal 
Markhor;  hair  short  in  summer,  long  and  silky  in  winter,  with  little 
or  no  underfur ;  in  old  males  at  all  seasons  a  profuse  beard  extending 
from  chin  to  chest  and  sides  of  neck ;  beard  black  in  front,  light  gray 
behind;  general  color  in  winter  gray,  in  summer  rich  reddish  brown, 
but  in  old  males  whitish  throughout.  Horns  of  males  forming  an 
extremely  open  spiral,  more  divergent  than  in  any  other  race,  and 
perhaps  never  exceeding  one  and  a  half  turns;  length  on  outside 
curve  up  to  about  60  inches.  (Lydekker,  1898c,  pp.  286-291.) 

Statements  in  the  literature  indicate  that  the  ranges  of  the  Astor 
and  the  Pir  Panjal  Markhors  overlap  or  interdigitate  in  a  most  con- 
fusing manner.  Some  of  these  statements  are  probably  entitled  to 
no  more  than  provisional  acceptance  until  the  taxonomy  of  the  group 
is  better  worked  out. 

Lydekker  (1898c,  p.  288)  gives  the  range  of  the  present  sub- 
species as  "Astor  and  Baltistan;  apparently  intergrading  with  the 
next  race  [cashmiriensis]  on  the  confines  of  Hazara  and  Gilgit." 


628 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 


Burrard  (1925?,  p.  175)  describes  its  distribution  as  follows: 

The  valley  of  the  Astor  River  is  its  stronghold,  but  heads  of  this  type  are 
also  found  farther  north  in  Baltistan,  as  well  as  nearer  its  home  in  two  or 


FIG.  57. — Markhor    (Capra   jalconeri   subsp.).    After   Cassell. 


three  valleys  to  the  south  of  Astor,  all  of  which  join  the  Indus  on  its  left 
bank.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  variety  is  never,  or  at  any  rate  rarely, 
found  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus,  but  this  is  not  correct,  as  it  occurs  in 
almost  all  the  nullahs  running  into  the  Indus  on  its  right  bank  from  Rondu 
in  Baltistan  down  to  Chilas.  It  is  true,  however,  that  heads  of  this  type  are  in 
the  minority  in  these  nullahs.  It  is  also  sometimes  found  in  the  Gilgit  Agency. 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  629 

Blanford  writes  (1891,  p.  508)  of  the  species  as  a  whole:  "It 
generally  occurs  in  herds,  and  keeps  much  to  steep  rocky  cliffs. 
.  .  .  Wherever  it  inhabits  high  ranges  it  is  usually  driven  to  the 
valleys  when  heavy  snow  falls  ....  The  markhor  is  in  appear- 
ance by  far  the  grandest  of  all  wild  goats,  and  ...  no  species  excels 
it  in  agility  and  skill  in  climbing  difficult  and  dangerous  ground." 

Arbuthnot  says  (in  Burrard,  1925?,  p.  181) :  "In  some  nullahs  in 
Astor  and  Haramoosh  they  may  be  seen  in  large  herds,  but  the  old 
veterans  generally  live  apart." 

C.  H.  Stockley  (in  litt.,  May  29,  1933),  without  particularizing 
subspecies,  writes  of  "the  rapid  decrease  of  that  very  fine  animal 
the  markhor.  I  fear  they  are  likely  to  disappear  entirely  on  the 
N.  W.  Frontier  and  are  terribly  reduced  in  Kashmir." 

Stockley  also  remarks  (1936,  p.  142)  on  the  confusing  distribution 
of  the  Astor  and  the  Pir  Pinjal  types  of  horns: 

There  is  ...  a  curious  difference  in  the  majority  of  the  heads  from  the 
two  areas  [Baltistan  and  the  country  farther  west];  those  of  the  right  bank 
nullahs  above  Haramosh  often  looking  just  as  if  they  came  from  the  Kaj-i-Nag, 
their  close  spiral  contrasting  with  the  very  open  curve  of  the  Haramosh  and 
Astor  heads,  in  which  the  first  outward  turn  of  the  horns  just  above  the  skull, 
is  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  base  of  the  horn,  and  the  next  rising  turn  almost 
square  again  with  the  first.  I  have  seen  a  head  of  53  inches  from  the  Turmik 
nullah  of  the  right  bank  which  had  a  closer  spiral  than  most  heads  from  the 
Kaj-i-Nag,  while  of  over  forty  bucks  which  I  saw  in  the  Mushkin  nullah 
on  the  left  bank  every  one  was  of  the  very  open  type. 

There  is  a  further  note  by  Stockley  (1936,  p.  144)  on  the  present 
subspecies:  "The  nullahs  on  the  Astor  river  rarely  produce  a  good 
head  nowadays,  but  it  is  well  worth  while  doing  the  few  extra 
marches  beyond  Bunji  and  trying  Jutyal,  Khaltar,  or  the  Haramosh 
Nullah." 

The  Game  Warden  of  Kashmir  (in  litt.,  May,  1937)  writes  op- 
timistically concerning  the  Astor  and  the  Pir  Panjal  Markhors 
together,  stating  that  they  are  plentiful  and  show  no  decrease.  The 
shooting  of  a  limited  number  of  fixed  horn  length  is  permitted  on  a 
shooting  license. 

Pir  Panjal  Markhor 

CAPRA  FALCONERI  CASH MIRIEN sis  Lydekker 

Capra  jalconeri  cashmiriensis  Lydekker,  Wild  Oxen,  Sheep,  &  Goats,  p.  290, 
1898.  ("The  Pir-Panjal  and  Kajnag  ranges  on  the  south  side  of  the 
valley  of  Kashmir,  unknown  on  the  northern  side  of  that  valley,  and 
not  extending  farther  east  than  the  Chinab;  to  the  north-west  in  Hazara 
and  Gilgit";  type  locality  restricted  by  Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  164) 
to  "Pir  Panjal  Range.") 

FIGS.:  Blanford,  1891,  p.  506,  fig.  165;  Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  292,  fig.  56;  Lydekker, 
1900,  pi.  4,  fig.  4,  and  p.  114,  fig.  17;  Stebbing,  1912,  p.  239,  fig.;  Lydekker, 
1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  165,  fig.  41;  Jour.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  36,  no.  4, 
suppl.,  pi.  14,  1933;  Ward,  1935,  p.  266,  fig. 


630  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

In  at  least  parts  of  its  range  the  Pir  Panjal  Markhor  has  suffered 
severely  from  overshooting.  During  recent  years,  however,  better 
protection  in  some  areas  has  brought  an  improvement  in  the  animal's 
status. 

"Size  large,  the  height  reaching  to  40  or  41  inches  at  the  shoulder. 
Horns  of  males  with  the  spiral  less  open  than  in  the  typical  race,  and 
showing  in  fine  examples  from  one  to  two  complete  turns.  As  ob- 
served by  Mr.  Blanford,  the  horns  of  this  race  pass  into  those  of  the 
last  [falconeri]  and  the  next  [megaceros]  by  every  conceivable 
gradation,  probably  on  the  confines  of  their  respective  distributional 
areas."  (Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  290.)  The  record  length  of  horn  along 
the  outer  curve  is  here  given  as  59  inches,  but  Burrard  mentions 
(1925?,  p.  176)  a  later  record  of  65  inches. 

Lydekker's  original  statement  of  range  is  quoted  above.  In  Gilgit 
the  Astor  and  the  Pir  Panjal  races  "seemingly  intergrade,  so  that  no 
hard-and-fast  lines  can  be  drawn  between  their  respective  habitats" 
(Lydekker,  1900,  p.  113).  Burrard  (1925?,  pp.  175-176)  writes  of 
the  distribution: 

This  variety  is  found,  as  its  name  indicates,  in  the  Pir  Panjal  Range,  but 
only  where  that  system  lies  in  Kashmir  proper;  it  also  occurs  in  the  Kaj  Nag 
and  Shamsberi  systems,  both  of  which  lie  entirely  within  the  vale  of  Kashmir 
and  are  off-shoots  of  the  Pir  Panjal  Range,  and  even  in  some  of  the  nullahs 
which  run  down  into  the  lower  part  of  the  Kishengunga  Valley  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river.  In  addition  to  .being  a  feature  of  the  grounds  in  Kashmir, 
the  Pir  Panjal  type  is  the  common  variety  which  occurs  throughout  Baltistan, 
Gilgit  and  Chitral,  and  it  is  also  found  in  the  nullahs  of  the  Astor  Valley, 
but  here  it  is  not  as  common  as  the  Astor  variety.  Its  northern  limits  appear 
to  be:  in  the  Lutkho  Valley  at  a  point  halfway  between  Drusp  and  Shogot; 
in  the  Chitral  main  valley  and  valleys  joining  it  on  the  left  bank  at  Mori 
(about  10  miles  above  Chitral).  In  Chitral  proper  its  southern  limits  are 
said  to  be  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kunar  River  at  Chigar  Serai,  and  on 
the  left  bank  at  Nari  (Narsat). 

"The  Pir-Panjal  markhor  is  one  of  the  animals  in  imminent  danger 
of  extermination  in  its  typical  habitat,  unless  the  new  forest  laws 
of  the  Kashmir  Government  are  sufficiently  stringent  to  enable  it  to 
recover  its  numbers"  (Lydekker,  1898c,  pp.  291-292) . 

"In  the  old  days  markhor-shooting  .  .  .  was  one  of  the  finest  of 
Kashmir  sports,  but  the  numbers  of  old  bucks  with  fine  horns  have 
been  grievously  reduced  in  recent  years"  (Lydekker,  1900,  p.  115) . 

"Markhor  are  still  fairly  plentiful  in  Chitral  and  Chilas,  and 
round  the  slopes  of  Mount  Nanga  Parbat  ....  Following  up  the 
Indus  Valley  from  its  junction  with  the  Astor  River,  Haramoosh 
is  famous  for  big  markhor,  and  they  inhabit  most  of  the  nullahs  on 
either  bank  as  far  east  as  Rondu."  (Arbuthnot,  in  Burrard,  1925?, 
p.  178.) 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  631 

The  following  remarks  by  Stockley  (1936,  pp.  140-144)  apply,  at 
least  for  the  most  part,  to  the  present  subspecies : 

The  markhor  of  the  Pir  Panjal  were  the  first  to  receive  the  attentions  of 
the  Nimrods  of  last  century,  and  shooting  ethics  being  in  a  crude  state  .  .  .  , 
they  suffered  severely  and  were  reduced  almost  to  vanishing  point.  The 
Maharajahs  of  Poonch  State,  the  north-eastern  boundary  of  which  is  the 
crest  of  the  Pir  Panjal,  began  to  preserve  them  strictly,  and  they  are  now 
once  more  in  considerable  numbers  and  would  be  plentiful  if  it  were  not  for 
poaching  Gujars.  The  heads  from  this  area  have  also  begun  to  improve 
greatly,  and  three  over  50  inches  were  shot  in  1932  and  '33.  .  .  . 

Going  north  again,  the  next  range  holding  markhor  is  the  Samshibri,  with 
the  Slakalla  spur  on  its  north  side.  Unfortunately  neglect  to  carry  out  real, 
as  opposed  to  nominal,  preservation,  has  led  to  the  practical  extermination  of 
the  markhor  in  this  area  at  the  hands  of  local  poachers,  and  it  is  not  until 
the  Indus  is  crossed,  and  Chilas  reached,  that  there  are  markhor  in  any  numbers. 
Nanga  Parbat  may  be  considered  the  hub  of  the  markhor  world,  and  this 
grand  and  forbidding  mountain  has  markhor  on  every  side  of  it.  .  .  . 

The  left  bank  nullahs  [on  the  Indus]  from  Rondu  to  Bulachi  have  been 
almost  cleaned  out  by  poachers,  as  there  is  a  village  in,  or  at  the  mouth  of, 
every  one  .... 

Gilgit  is  almost  entirely  a  close  preserve  of  the  garrison  there,  and  few  out- 
side that  small  and  select  body  have  had  the  opportunity  to  a  shoot  in  that 
excellent  district. 

The  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  writes  (in  litt.,  December, 
1936)  that  Markhor,  while  still  plentiful,  have  suffered  in  certain 
areas  in  Kashmir.  A  survey  in  the  Mogi  Nullah,  Kaj-i-nag  Moun- 
tains, carried  out  by  a  reputable  observer  and  naturalist  in  1924  and 
again  in  1934,  revealed  that  a  serious  depletion  had  taken  place 
there. 

Calml  Markhor 

CAPRA  FALCONERI  MEGACEROS  Hutton 

Capra  Megaceros  Hutton,  Calcutta  Jour.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  535,  1842.  (From 
Button's  account  it  is  difficult  to  make  out  any  more  definite  type  locality 
than  Afghanistan;  this  is  restricted  by  Blanford  (1891,  p.  507)  to  "near 
Cabul.") 

FIGS.:  Hutton,  op.  cit.,  pi.  20;  Wolf,  Zool.  Sketches,  ser.  2,  pi.  20,  1867;  Blan- 
ford, 1891,  p.  507,  fig.  166;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  251.  fig.,  1894; 
Lydekker,  1900,  p.  117,  fig.  19;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1902,  vol.  2,  pi.  27 
(intermediate  between  megaceros  and  cashmiriensis) ;  Lydekker,  1913c, 
vol.  1,  p.  168,  fig.  43;  Ward,  1935,  p.  266,  fig.;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  680,  fig. 

This  Markhor,  having  escaped  the  attention  of  European  hunters 
over  much  of  its  range  in  Afghanistan,  perhaps  survives  in  better 
numbers  than  the  other  subspecies.  Definite  information,  however, 
is  lacking. 

"The  horns  .  .  .  diverge  gradually  from  the  base  so  as  to  form 
the  capital  letter  V.  They  are  spirally  twisted,  but  differ  much  in 


632  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

the  closeness  of  the  volutions,  some  turning  round  a  straight  and 
direct  axis  from  the  base  to  the  apex,  others  taking  a  wider  or  more 
circular  spiral  sweep. 

"The  colours  of  the  male  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  female 
.  .  .  ,  but  he  possesses  a  long  black  beard,  which  in  her  is  wanting; 
the  colour  of  the  upper  parts  is  a  yellowish  brown,  yielding  to  greyish 
with  age.  Along  the  dorsal  ridge  is  a  narrow  pale  stripe  .  .  .  ;  the 
forepart  of  the  limbs  are  deep  brown,  of  a  chestnut  hue,  and  the  tail 
is  of  the  same  colour;  the  belly  white.  .  .  .  The  tail  is  about  six 
inches  long."  (Hutton,  1842,  p.  538.)  The  record  length  of  horn 
in  a  straight  line  is  39|  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  265) . 

Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  167)  gives  as  the  distribution  of  this 
subspecies  "the  mountain  ranges  of  Northern  Afghanistan,"  and 
refers  to  it  specimens  from  such  widely  distant  points  as  Chitral  in 
the  North-West  Frontier  Province  and  Quetta  in  Baluchistan.  It 
is  unknown  in  northeastern  Persia  (Kennion,  1911,  p.  37). 

Animals  of  the  Cabul  type  "are  first  found  in  the  hills  on  the 
northern  edge  of  the  Peshawar  district,  and  they  are  the  variety 
which  occurs  in  the  Kabul  Valley  and  all  the  hill  ranges  of  the 
North-West  Frontier  of  India  down  to  the  Gomal  River,  which  may 
be  said  to  be  its  southern  limit"  (Burrard,  1925?,  p.  176) . 

It  is  presumably  this  form  of  Markhor  that  occurs  in  extreme 
southeastern  Russian  Turkestan.  W.  G.  Heptner  writes  (in  litt., 
December,  1936)  that  it  exists  only  in  a  very  limited  area  in  the 
mountains  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Amu  Daria  and  in  the  most 
remote  regions.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  threatened. 

On  the  popular  utilization  of  this  animal,  Hutton  writes  (1842, 
p.  539) : 

The  name  of  "Markhore,"  or  "Snake-eater,"  is  given  to  the  animal  by  the 
Afghans  from  an  idea,  that  it  has  an  instinctive  feeling  which  prompts  it  to 
seek  for  and  devour  snakes.  Hence  it  is  believed  also,  that  if  a  man  be  bitten 
by  a  snake,  the  wound  may  speedily  be  healed,  and  the  poison  neutralised  by 
eating  of  the  flesh  of  the  Markhore.  The  hunters  also  declare,  that  the  fat 
of  the  stomach  is  so  excessively  nutritious,  that  it  enables  them  to  pursue 
the  chase  with  greater  vigour  than  any  other  food,  and  even  after  a  meal 
of  it,  to  endure  a  fast  of  several  days. 

The  "bezoar"  is  said  to  be  often  found  in  the  stomach  of  this  animal,  and 
is  thought  to  be  efficacious  in  drawing  out  the  poison  from  a  snake  bite, 
and  it  is  applied  for  this  purpose  to  the  wounded  part. 

Chialtan  Markhor 

Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  171,  fig.  45)  has  described  Capra 
falconeri  chialtanensis  from  "the  Chialtan  Range,  near  Quetta, 
Baluchistan,"  adding  that  "the  race  is  believed  to  be  extinct."  The 
horns  form  an  open  spiral  of  rather  more  than  one  complete  turn, 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  633 

and  at  the  completion  of  the  first  turn  the  hind  keel  is  situated  on 
the  inner  border,  whereas  in  all  other  Markhors  this  position  is 
occupied  by  the  front  keel. 

Burrard  writes  (1925?,  p.  177)  that  this  "is  the  characteristic 
type  for  the  area  comprising  the  Chialtan,  Takatu  and  Zarghan 
Ranges,  and  almost  all  the  hill  systems  situated  between  Quetta  and 
Chilas.  ...  It  has  been  stated  that  the  Chialtan  variety  is  a 
hybrid  between  markhor  and  domesticated  goats,  but  this  is  not 
the  case." 

On  the  other  hand,  Ward  remarks  (1935,  p.  264)  :  "May  perhaps 
turn  out  to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  Markhor  and  domesticated  goat ; 
some  Chialtan  specimens  being  almost  certainly  of  this  nature." 

If  it  is  a  thoroughly  wild  animal,  and  if  the  distribution  given  by 
Burrard  is  correct,  the  Chialtan  Markhor  occupies  an  intermediate 
geographical  position  between  megaceros  and  jerdoni,  yet  its  taxo- 
nomic  characters  are  not  at  all  intermediate  between  those  of  the 
other  two.  Furthermore,  Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  169)  records 
specimens  of  megaceros  from  Quetta,  close  to  the  type  locality  of 
cMaltanensis.  Thus  the  position  of  the  latter  is  decidedly  anomalous, 
unless  it  is  either  a  hybrid  or  specifically  distinct  from  the  other 
Markhors. 

Suleman  Markhor 

CAPRA  FALCONERI  JERDONI  Hume 

Capra  Jerdoni  Hume,  Proc.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal  1874,  p.  240,  1875.  ("Suleyman 
Range.") 

FIGS.:  Blanford,  1891,  p.  507,  fig.  167;  Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  295,  fig.  57;  Lydekker, 
1900,  pi.  4,  figs.  5,  5a,  and  pp.  119,  121,  figs.  20,  21;  Stebbing,  1912,  p.  246, 
fig.;  Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  170,  fig.  44;  Ward,  1935,  p.  266,  fig. 

This  Markhor,  with  its  headquarters  in  the  Suleman  Range,  has 
suffered  severe  persecution,  and  its  numbers  are  apparently  more 
seriously  reduced  than  those  of  any  other  subspecies. 

Height  at  the  shoulder  not  exceeding  38  inches;  horns  compara- 
tively short  (up  to  about  48  inches  in  length  in  a  straight  line), 
forming  a  perfectly  straight  cone,  upon  which  the  front  and  hind 
keels  are  wound  in  a  sharp  spiral,  forming  in  good  specimens  two  to 
three  complete  turns.  Beard  said  to  be  less  developed  than  in  the 
Astor  and  Pir-Panjal  subspecies.  (Lydekker,  1898c,  p.  294;  1900, 
p.  120.) 

The  ranges  of  the  various  subspecies  of  Markhor  are  difficult  to 
define.  The  horns,  upon  which  the  classification  is  chiefly  based, 
exhibit  considerable  variation  even  in  a  single  area,  and  consequently 
our  knowledge  of  subspecific  limits  is  none  too  exact.  "These  'types,' 
as  laid  down  in  the  average  book  of  museum  origin,  are  by  no  means 


634  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

constant  and  must  only  be  taken  as  the  more  usual  form  of  the 
horns  of  the  particular  local  race  after  which  they  are  named;  for 
museum  workers  still  fail  to  realize  that  naming  new  races  of  un- 
gulates on  the  strength  of  differences  in  horn  of  one  or  two  specimens, 
is  a  very  unsound  proceeding"  (Stockley,  1936,  p.  140) . 

Lydekker  (1898c,  p.  295)  gives  the  distribution  of  jerdoni  as  "the 
Trans-Indus  hill-ranges  of  the  Punjab  frontier,  Afghanistan,  and 
Baluchistan,  extending  in  the  Suleman  range  as  far  south  as  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mithankot,  and  also  found  in  the  Quetta  district." 
He  quotes  Colonel  Percy  to  the  effect  that  it  "is  found  all  over  the 
low  ranges  that  run  parallel  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus  below 
Attock;  it  used  to  be  found  in  fair  numbers  near  Sheik  Budin,  a 
small  station  near  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  and  in  the  hills,  or  rather  the 
steep  ravines,  in  the  plateau  behind  Dera  Ghazi  Khan." 

"South  of  the  Gomal  River  we  have  a  few  markhor  of  the  pure 
Suleiman  type  ....  But  generally  speaking  the  markhor  found  to 
the  southward  throughout  the  mountain  ranges  of  Baluchistan,  as 
far  as  Quetta,  are  curiously  enough  of  two  mixed  types — one 
resembling  the  Astor  .  .  .  ,  and  the  other  the  Pir  Panjal."  (Burrard, 
1925?,  pp.  176-177.) 

"The  Government  of  Baluchistan  issue  cartridges  at  the  rate  of 
30-50  a  month  to  the  posts  of  the  Zhob  Militia  in  order  that  the  men 
may  shoot  markhor  and  oorial  for  meat.  I  was  commanding  at  Fort 
Sandeman  in  '29  and  '30  and  saw  every  post  had  its  walls  lined 
with  heads  of  small  markhor  and  oorial  while  3  trips  I  made  to 
various  ranges  of  hills  showed  not  a  single  adult  male.  I  heard 
in  May  last  from  an  officer  just  returned  from  the  Zhob  Militia  that 
the  same  system  still  persists.  ...  It  would  appear  that  the  saving 
effected  by  not  providing  the  men  of  the  Zhob  Militia  with  a  meat 
ration  is  more  important  than  the  survival  of  the  animal  life  of  the 
country."  (C.  H.  Stockley,  in  litt.,  September  16,  1933.) 

Stockley  also  contributes  (1936,  pp.  145-147)  the  following  infor- 
mation : 

Bucks  from  the  Takht-i-Suliman  of  Baluchistan,  which  massif  is  over  11,000 
feet  in  height  and  is  well-wooded,  are  bigger  and  heavier  in  coat  than  those 
from  Sheikh  Budin  and  the  Isa  Khel  Hills,  which  live  at  under  6,000  feet.  .  .  . 

Although  the  markhor  of  Kashmir  has  some  sort  of  protection,  his  un- 
fortunate relation  of  the  Frontier  hills  is  persecuted  by  all  and  sundry  at 
all  times  of  the  year,  while  the  local  inhabitants  are  well-armed,  and  the  peace 
which  has  lately  invested  that  country  has  only  given  the  tribesmen  more 
leisure  to  hunt.  Small  wonder  that  the  markhor  have  decreased  almost  to 
vanishing  point  and  are  likely  to  decrease  still  further  unless  measures  are 
adopted  for  their  protection.  Such  measures  are  difficult  to  enforce  in  country 
where  my  last  four  trips  have  had  to  be  carried  out  with  an  escort  of  forty 
rifles,  but  at  least  the  authorities  might  make  some  effort  in  places  immediately 
under  their  control,  instead  of  encouraging  the  local  soldiery  to  shoot  markhor 
and  oorial  for  meat  in  lieu  of  meat  rations,  using  government  ammunition 
to  do  it. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  635 

Recent  reports  from  Baluchistan  are  more  encouraging,  ,and  the  preserves 
established  near  Ziarat  will  save  markhor  for  many  a  day  and  give  many  a 
sportsman  the  thrill  of  climbing  on  the  cliffs  of  Khilafat ;  but  in  the  North- 
West  Frontier  Province  the  case  of  the  markhor  seems  almost  hopeless. 

The  Government  of  the  North-West  Frontier  Province  writes  (in 
litt.,  December,  1936)  that  this  Markhor  is  now  reduced  in  that 
province  to  a  few  specimens  on  the  Sheikh  Budin  Range  in  the  Bannu 
district.  The  cause  of  depletion  is  overshooting;  there  is  no  legal 
protection. 

Sumatran   Serow 

CAPRICORNIS  SUMATRAENSIS  SUMATRAENSIS  (Bechstein) 

Antilope  sumatraensis  Bechstein,  Pennant's  tlbersicht  vierfiiss.  Thiere,  vol.  1, 
p.  98,  1799.  (Sumatra.) 

FIGS.:  Geoffroy  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif.,  vol.  4,  livr.  27,  pi.  160,  1821; 
Hamilton  Smith,  1827,  pi.  facing  p.  276;  Jardine,  Nat.  Libr.,  vol.  22, 
Mamm.,  Ruminantia,  pt.  2,  pi.  "1"  [=2],  1836;  De  Tropische  Natuur, 
vol.  7,  p.  132,  fig.,  1919;  Mjoberg,  1930,  pi.  18;  Mohr,  1934,  figs.  1-8,  and 
1936,  figs.  1-9. 

Although  recent  investigation  indicates  that  the  Sumatran  Serow 
is  not  quite  so  rare  as  formerly  supposed,  nevertheless  its  need  of 
better  protection  is  shown  by  its  generally  decreasing  numbers. 

The  general  color  of  two  adult  males  from  the  Korinchi  Valley, 
West  Sumatra,  is  black;  a  short  dense  black  crest  on  median  line  of 
back;  tail  black;  under  parts  of  body,  inner  sides  and  lower  parts 
of  limbs  brownish  black ;  area  above  hoofs  ochraceous-tawny ;  mane 
composed  of  black,  white,  drab,  and  ochraceous-tawny  bristles;  lips 
and  patch  on  chin  and  throat  buffy  white  (Robinson  and  Kloss, 
1918,  pp.  66-67).  Length  of  horn,  6  inches  (Schneider,  1905,  p.  141). 
Height  at  shoulder  about  3  feet. 

Bock  states  (1879,  p.  308)  that  this  Serow  is  sparingly  distributed 
in  the  Padang  highlands,  the  best  district  being  Lolo. 

Schneider  (1905,  pp.  138-140)  gives  it  a  similar  status  in  the 
Battak  and  Simbolon  Mountains,  where  it  occurs  in  troops  of  three 
to  six  individuals  on  the  steep,  thickly  grown  slopes.  The  Battaks 
capture  the  animal  in  snares  and  pitfalls.  They  utilize  the  bones  and 
marrow  for  food,  and  the  horns  as  containers  for  charms. 

According  to  Mjoberg  (1930,  pp.  45-49),  this  timid  creature  ap- 
pears "on  the  summits  of  Sumatra's  sulphurous  volcanoes  and  in  the 
most  difficult  districts  of  the  Karo-Batta  Plateau  .... 

"Many  Sumatra  sportsmen  have  made  lengthy  expeditions  to  the 
Sibayak  Volcano,  but  their  pursuit  has  been  to  no  purpose.  .  .  . 

"The  'serow'  is  still  in  existence,  although  in  our  days  it  has 
retreated  into  the  most  impenetrable  tracts  surrounding  the  sum- 


636 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 


mils  of  the  volcanoes,  where  neither  tigers  nor  men — the  two  most 
formidable  of  all  beasts  of  prey — can  get  at  it." 

Dammerman  (in  Skottsberg,  1934,  p.  422)  considers  the  animal 
"threatened  with  extinction." 

Heynsius-Viruly  and  Van  Heurn  (1936,  pp.  52-53)  give  the  fol- 
lowing account: 

Although  serows  still  occur  in  many  places  in  Sumatra,  their  number  de- 
creases rapidly,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  population  centers.  .  .  .  They 


FIG.  58. — Sumatran  Serow   (Capricornis  sumatraensis  sumatraensis). 
After  Mohr,  1934. 

are  very  shy,  but  with  the  aid  of  dogs  they  are  easily  shot.  They  are  fre- 
quently caught  in  snares  ....  This  method  of  catching  them  is  so  successful 
that  in  the  last  ten  years  the  mountain  antelope  has  been  exterminated  on 
Merapi,  Singalang,  and  Tandikat.  In  contrast  with  past  years,  live  mountain 
antelope  or  their  horns  are  no  longer  offered  for  sale  at  Fort  de  Kock. 

Small  herds  are  yet  to  be  found  on  the  steep  slopes  of  Sarogodoeng.  from 
Sipirok  to  Hoeta  Gadoeng  (Baringin),  Saroloengoen,  Bangko,  the  Doeabelas 
Mountains  and  Korintjih.  .  .  .  This  animal  occurs  in  the  reserve  of  the 
Gajo  and  Alas  districts.  Let  us  hope  that  it  will  hold  its  own  also  in  the 
other  above-mentioned  localities. 

A  number  of  Government  foresters  in  Sumatra  have  kindly  con- 
tributed (in  litt.,  February  to  June,  1937)  the  following  information: 
The  Serow  seems  to  vary  from  rare  to  common  on  steep,  rocky 
mountains  over  a  considerable  part  of  the  island;  among  these  are 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  637 

the  mountains  of  Djambi,  Toba,  Karo,  Barisan,  Singkel,  Groot 
Atjeh,  Tapanoeli,  Pesagi,  and  Way  Paja.  It  is  nominally  protected 
by  law,  but  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  poaching  both  by  natives 
and  by  Europeans,  and  reserves  are  essential  for  the  preservation  of 
the  species.  It  is  hunted  with  dogs  and  snares.  The  horns,  hide,  and 
flesh  are  prized,  and  the  animals  are  sometimes  offered  for  sale.  The 
nature  of  the  Serow's  habitat  gives  it  some  protection  from  man, 
and  the  Tiger  is  said  not  to  occur  there.  The  Serow 's  shyness  is 
such  that  it  seems  to  disappear  from  some  areas  because  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  cultivation  in  the  vicinity. 

White-maned   Serow 

CAPRICORNIS  SUMATRAENSIS  ARGYROCHAETES  Heude 

Capricornis  argyrochaetes  Heude,  Mem.  Hist.  Nat.  Empire  Chinois,  vol.  2, 
p.  4,  footnote,  1888.  ("Montagnes  du  Tche-Kiang,"  China;  type  locality 
later  restricted  by  Heude  (1894,  p.  228)  to  "hautes  montagnes  de  la  sous- 
prefecture  de  Tchou-ki,  province  de  Tche-kiang.") 

FIGS.:    Heude,  1894,  pi.  31,  figs.  1-4,  7,  8,  10,  II.1 

This  Serow  of  southeastern  China  is  considered  in  danger  of 
extinction. 

Size  large  2 ;  face  and  ears  dusky  rufous ;  a  white  stripe  at  the 
angle  of  the  mouth  and  a  white  patch  on  the  throat ;  space  between 
the  maxillaries  brownish;  a  long,  thick  mane,  entirely  dirty  white, 
extending  to  the  middle  of  the  chest;  a  straight  dorsal  stripe  and  the 
short  tail  blackish  brown;  sides  and  back  with  mixed  black  and 
dirty  white  hairs;  thighs  and  shoulders  black;  legs  marked  with 
brown  and  light  rufous.  Horns  black,  with  straight,  deep  cancella- 
tions ;  diverging  at  first,  but  slightly  converging  at  the  tips.  (Heude, 
1894,  pp.  228-229.)  Length  of  horn  about  9  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p. 
254). 

Heude's  description,  quoted  above,  is  of  the  female  type.  An  aber- 
rant specimen  is  noted  by  G.  M.  Allen  (1930a,  p.  4) :  "One  of  the 
Chekiang  skins  has  the  body,  legs,  and  feet  deep  black  throughout." 

Owing  to  the  state  of  confusion  that  prevails  in  the  taxonomy  of 
the  genus  Capricornis,  the  distribution  as  well  as  the  characters  of 
C.  s.  argyrochaetes  can  be  stated  only  provisionally.  The  name  will 
be  here  restricted  to  the  animal  occurring  in  the  mountainous  areas 
of  southeastern  China,  west  as  far  as  eastern  Szechwan.  More  or 
less  white-maned  individuals  (presumably  of  the  subspecies  milne- 
edwardsii)  are  found  also  in  the  mountains  of  western  Szechwan 
and  Kansu. 

1  It  is  doubtful  whether  various  other  published  illustrations  of  "argyrochaetes" 
are  actually  of  the  subspecies  of  southeastern  China. 

2  A  related  form  of  western  China  stands  about  44  inches  at  the  shoulder. 


638  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

"The  type-locality  is  the  mountains  of  Chekiang,  hence  four  speci- 
mens in  the  collection  from  Tunglu  and  Mokanshan  of  that  province 
may  be  taken  as  typical.  I  can  find  no  differences  of  moment  that 
would  distinguish  these  from  a  series  of  skins  and  skulls  from  Fukien 
and  eastern  Szechwan."  (G.  M.  Allen,  1930a,  p.  4.) 

"This  subspecies  is  distributed  throughout  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts of  Southeastern  China.  It  may  be  found  in  the  T'ien  T'ai 
Shan,  Chekiang.  About  five  years  ago  one  was  secured  from  Pai  Mai 
Shan,  south  of  Wu-hu.  The  present  specimen  came  probably  from 
Huang  Shan,  which  is  in  Southern  [part]  of  Anhuei."  (Ho,  1935,  p. 
176.) 

Arthur  de  C.  Sowerby  writes  (in  litt.,  April  24,  1937)  as  follows: 
"The  white-maned  serow,  properly  speaking,  is  confined  to  East 
China  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Yangtze  River,  that  is  to  say,  to 
the  highest  mountains  of  Chekiang,  Fukien,  Southern  Anhuei  and 
Kiangsi."  He  adds,  concerning  the  five  Chinese  forms  of  Serows 
that  he  recognizes:  "All  of  these  are  persistently  hunted  by  the 
natives  for  medicinal  purposes,  the  horns,  skins  and  other  parts 
being  believed  by  the  Chinese  to  have  great  healing  virtue.  The 
serows  haunt  high  rocky  heavily  wooded  ridges  ....  Wherever 
they  exist  the  natives  keep  noose-traps  set  constantly  along  the 
paths  used  by  these  animals,  with  the  result  that  in  the  aggregate 
considerable  numbers  are  caught  annually,  and  nowhere  are  serows 
at  all  plentiful.  They  are  doomed  to  extinction  in  the  not  very 
distant  future  unless  protected  in  some  way." 

Malayan   Serow 

CAPRICORNIS  SUMATRAENSIS  SWETTENHAMI  (Butler) 

Nemorhaedus   swettenhami   Butler,   Proc.   Zool.    Soc.    London    1900,   p.   675, 

1900.    ("Larut  Hills,  Perak,"  Malay  Peninsula.) 
SYNONYM?:    Capricornis  sumatraensis  robinsoni  Pocock  (1908). 
FIGS.:    Sketch,  April  26,  1899,  p.  22,  fig.;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1908,  p.  186, 

fig.  35  (robinsoni) . 

The  Malayan  Serow  is  "much  less  numerous  than  formerly"  (F.  N. 
Chasen,  in  litt.,  May  5,  1937)  and  is  "on  the  danger  list  despite 
protection"  (Comyn-Platt,  19376,  p.  48) . 

Butler  (1900,  pp.  675-676)  gives  the  following  description  of  the 
female  type:  "General  colour  black,  the  back  strongly  and  the  sides 
slightly  grizzled  with  grey  ....  Along  the  lips  whitish  grey;  the 
posterior  portion  of  the  upper  lips,  a  patch  on  each  side  of  the  lower 
jaw  and  one  on  the  throat  rusty  red.  .  .  .  Mane  black,  mixed  with 
whitish  .  .  .  and  with  reddish  hairs  ....  Insides  of  the  thighs 
rusty  red.  Remainder  of  head,  neck,  chest,  belly,  and  legs  black. 
Tail  black. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN -TOED    UNGULATES  639 

"Height  at  shoulder  36-J  inches  ....  Length  of  horns  6  inches." 
Other  horns  are  recorded  up  to  about  8  inches  in  length. 

Butler  adds  (p.  676) :  "Although  this  Serow  is  so  little  known  to 
Europeans  the  horns  are  occasionally  obtained  from  the  Sakai  tribes 
of  the  hills  ....  It  is  found  on  the  mountains  of  the  Peninsula 
from  2000  ft.  to  4000  ft.  altitude,  and  is  said  also  to  occur  on  various 
isolated  limestone  hills  of  much  lower  elevation." 

"The  black  Wild  Goat  .  .  .  inhabits  the  isolated  patches  of  lime- 
stone rocks  which  flank  at  intervals  the  main  granite  chain  of  the 
Peninsula.  Though  apparently  not  rare  in  these  places,  it  has  never 
been  shot  by  any  sportsman,  and  the  only  specimens  I  have  seen 
are  skeletons  and  a  head  in  the  Perak  Museum."  (Ridley,  1895,  p. 
163.) 

"The  kambing  gurun  is  ...  quite  a  common  animal  in  suitable 
localities  throughout  the  Peninsula,  though  no  more  than  one  speci- 
men has  ever  been  shot  by  a  European.  ...  It  was  not  uncommon 
on  Bukit  Besar  ....  By  offering  a  liberal  reward  we  managed  to 
persuade  some  of  the  Biserat  natives  to  snare  us  two  specimens." 
(Robinson,  in  Bonhote,  1903,  p.  41.) 

Hubback  (1932,  vol.  2,  p.  214)  gives  the  following  information: 

"One  witness  .  .  .  stated  that  serow  (Kambing  grun)  were 
getting  ve*ry  scarce  [in  Perlis]  and  considered  that  this  was  due  to 
the  trapping  of  animals  which  were  sold  to  shop-keepers  in  Kangar 
who  attempt  to  export  them  alive.  This  witness  added  'The  Kambing 
grun  almost  always  dies  in  captivity.' 

"The  whole  country  might  be  looked  upon  as  a  Reserve  for  serow 
.  .  .  and  I  recommend  that  their  shooting  or  trapping  in  the  State 
of  Perlis  should  be  entirely  prohibited." 

Hubback  also  (p.  136)  reports  Serow  on  Gunong  Sembilu,  in  the 
proposed  Gunong  Tahan  National  Park. 

"All  the  forms  are  very  local  in  their  distribution  and  need  foster- 
ing" (F.  N.  Chasen,  in  litt.,  May  5,  1937) . 

"Many  with  whom  I  talked  [in  Malaya]  .  .  .  were  insistent  that 
such  animals  as  the  .  .  .  serow  are  to-day  practically  non-existent" 
(Comyn-Platt,  19376,  p.  48) . 

It  is  quite  possible  that  this  subspecies  ranges  northward  from 
the  Malay  States  into  Peninsular  Siam,  but  its  limits  in  that  direc- 
tion have  not  been  determined.  Lydekker  (1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  189) 
refers  to  C.  s.  robinsoni  (type  locality  Selangor)  as  perhaps  insepar- 
able from  swettenhami. 


640  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Tonkin   Serow 

CAPRICORNIS  MARITIMTJS  Heude 

Clapricornis]  maritimus  Heude,  Mem.  Hist.  Nat.  Empire  Chinois,  vol.  2, 
p.  4,  footnote,  1888.  ("Les  rochers  de  la  baie  d'Along,  au  Tonquin,"  French 
Indo-China.) 

FIGS.:   Heude,  1894,  pi.  32,  figs.  1-8. 

This  Serow  has  virtually  disappeared  from  the  coast  of  Tonkin 
and  Annam.  In  Laos  Serows  of  undetermined  identity,  but  possibly 
belonging  to  this  form,  are  represented  by  a  small  but  almost  un- 
known stock.1 

According  to  Heude's  inadequate  description  (op.  cit.,  p.  4,  and 
1894,  p.  227),  C.  maritimus  is  a  brownish  animal,  smaller  than  C.  s. 
argyrochaetes.  The  horns  are  flattened  transversely  at  the  base,  and 
laterally  in  the  distal  half ;  they  converge  slightly  at  the  tips. 

Information  on  the  range  and  numbers  of  this  Serow,  as  well  as  on 
its  taxonomic  status,  is  very  meager. 

Andre  Kieffer  writes  (in  litt.,  November  21,  1936)  as  follows: 
"Thirty-five  years  ago,  when  I  first  arrived  in  Indo-China,  Serows 
were  widely  distributed  on  the  isles  and  promontories  of  the  littoral 
of  the  China  Sea,  from  the  Bay  of  Along  on  the  north  to  southern 
Annam  (Cape  Varela).  I  have  seen  this  animal  decrease  with  an 
extraordinary  rapidity.  It  was  hunted  under  the  name  of  'Mouflon.' 
An  island  in  the  Bay  of  Tourane  had  received  the  name  of  "lie  aux 
Mouflons.'  Nothing  was  easier  than  drives  in  an  area  as  restricted 
as  the  coastal  islands  of  Annam.  Fifteen  years  ago  I  could  not  find 
a  trace  of  'Mouflons'  on  the  island  of  Cac-Ba  (Bay  of  Along) ,  where 
they  formerly  abounded.  I  consider  that  there  is  not  a  single  indi- 
vidual left  in  French  Indo-China,  save  perhaps  in  the  mountainous 
regions  bordering  Burma  and  Yunnan." 

P.  Vitry  writes  (in  Hit.,  December,  1936)  of  an  animal  (evidently 
a  Serow)  called  "Nhuang"  by  the  natives  throughout  Laos.  He  has 
seen  specimens  in  the  upper  Nam-ou  on  the  upper  Mekong,  at 
Saravane  in  1910-12,  at  Pakse  on  several  occasions,  and  has  killed 
three  himself  in  1932-33  south  of  Saravane;  these  were  all  of  the 
same  species.  Two  specimens  were  sent  to  the  Paris  Museum.  The 
animal  ranges  throughout  Laos,  but  occurs  only  in  wooded  ravines 
with  dense  undergrowth  and  on  steep  mountain  slopes  with  sufficient 
shade  and  water.  M.  Vitry  formerly  considered  it  very  rare,  but 
now  believes  that  the  total  stock  in  the  country  must  be  more  than 
200.  However,  the  animal  is  very  seldom  seen;  for  example,  only 
three  out  of  more  than  a  hundred  inhabitants  of  a  village,  close 
to  which  his  first  specimen  was  killed,  had  ever  seen  the  species 

i  Heude  has  applied  several  additional  names  to  the  Serows  of  Indo-China 
(cf.  Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  202). 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  641 

before.  The  tongue  and  the  horns  are  used  for  medicinal  purposes. 
Certain  Kha  of  the  upper  basin  of  Sekong  use  the  hides  for  their 
bucklers.  The  meat  is  excellent.  Practically  no  destruction  is  carried 
on;  the  species  is  well  protected  by  its  environment  and  by  its 
extreme  shyness. 

Other  Serows 

As  far  as  information  is  obtainable,  the  remaining  Serows  of  the 
Asiatic  mainland  have  maintained  a  more  satisfactory  status  than 
those  discussed  above.  They  include  the  following  subspecies: 

C.  s.  milne-edwardsi  David,  of  western  China  and  eastern  Tibet. 
C.  s.  montinus  G.  M.  Allen,  of  the  Lichiang  Range,  Yunnan. 
C.  s.  jamrachi  Pocock,  of  the  Darjeeling  district,  northern  Bengal. 
?  C.  s.  thar  (Hodgson) ,  of  Nepal. 
C.  s.  rodoni  Pocock,  of  Chamba,  northern  India. 
C.  s.  humei  Pocock,  of  Kashmir. 
C.  s.  rubidus  Blyth,  of  Burma. 
C.  s.  annectens  Kloss,  of  western  Siam. 

Concerning  the  Formosan  Serow  (C.  swirihoii  Gray),  we  have  no 
recent  information. 

Japanese  Serow 

CAPRICORNIS  CRISPUS  (Temminck) 

Antilope  crispa  Temminck,  Fauna  Japonica,  Mamm.,  p.  56,  1845.  ("Nippon 
(Hondo),  Japan"  (fide  Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  200).) 

SYNONYM?:    Capricornis  pryerianus  Heude  (1894). 

FIGS.:  Temminck,  1845,  pis.  18,  19;  Heude,  1894,  pi.  33,  figs.  1-8  (pryerianus), 
fig.  9  (crispiis) ;  Cambridge  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  10,  Mammalia,  p.  326,  fig.  176, 
1902. 

Some  years  ago  the  range  of  this  animal  had  become  greatly 
restricted,  and  its  numbers  very  few.  Under  recent  protection,  how- 
ever, it  has  shown  a  very  gratifying  increase. 

It  is  smaller  than  the  mainland  Serows,  without  heavy  mane,  and 
with  a  thicker  and  more  woolly  coat  and  more  bushy  tail;  coat 
long,  harsh,  and  crisp;  general  color  varying  in  winter  from  blackish 
gray  to  rufous  brown,  becoming  whitish  on  the  under  parts;  cheeks 
white;  legs  blackish  brown  (Lydekker,  1913c,  vol.  1,  p.  200). 

"The  Japanese  serow  is  believed  to  inhabit  the  high  mountains  of 
the  islands  of  Nipon  and  Sikok,  but  definite  information  on  this 
point  is  much  wanted"  (Lydekker,  1901,  p.  175). 

Thomas  (1906,  p.  357)  records  two  specimens  from  Washikaguchi, 
Nara  Ken,  Hondo,  and  quotes  M.  P.  Anderson  as  follows:  "The 
Goat- Antelope  is  exceedingly  rare  in  Nara  Ken,  and  probably  every- 


642  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

where,  for  this  is  but  the  second  place  where  I  have  heard  of  its 
existence.  I  was  told  that  5  to  7  are  killed  yearly  in  Nara  Ken.  It 
inhabits  dense  forested  heights,  and  when  pursued  seeks  the  rockiest 
and  most  precipitous  places  where  it  can  find  cover." 

The  species  "is  confined  to  Hondo  and  Kiushu"  (Hatta,  1928,  p. 
1032). 

T.  Inukai  (in  litt.,  March  20,  1933)  comments  as  follows:  "Rare. 
Only  on  high  mountain  in  southern  Japan." 

"Among  the  nature  reserves  already  designated,  Kamikochi,  an 
extensive  valley  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  Japanese  Alps  and 
at  an  elevation  of  about  1,500  metres  above  sea  level,  is  by  far  the 
most  notable  from  the  scientific  point  of  view.  ...  Of  mammals, 
the  most  important  forms  are  the  goat  antelope  (Capricornis  cris- 
pus] ,  the  Siberian  ermine  (Mustela  erminea  kanei] ,  and  the  brown- 
toothed  shrew  (Sorex  shinanensis) ."  (Kaburaki,  1934,  pp.  4187- 
4188.) 

The  taking  of  the  Japanese  Serow  is  absolutely  prohibited  by  law. 
The  reserve  in  Nagano  Prefecture  is  for  protecting  this  animal. 
(Uchida,  1935,  pp.  4,  12.) 

"When  I  was  in  Nikko  in  1906  there  were  lots  of  skins  in  the  fur 
market  there  but  I  understand  now  that  they  don't  turn  up  often" 
(J.  C.  Phillips,  in  Hit.,  July  27,  1936) . 

"Range:  Hondo,  Shikoku,  Kiusiu  only.  As  the  species  decreased 
once,  it  is  now  prohibited  to  capture  the  species  all  the  year.  Con- 
sequently it  has  remarkably  increased  in  number,  and  it  is  said  that 
even  a  troop  of  one  hundred  (usually  observable  about  3  or  5 
individuals)  can  be  seen  in  Miye  Prefecture,  Hondo.  The  flesh 
tastes  better  than  Sika  nippon,  and  the  fur  is  valuable  as  a  carpet." 
(Nagamichi  Kuroda,  in  litt.,  July  5,  1938.) 

The  same  writer  (1938,  p.  8)  gives  the  following  locality  records 
for  Hondo:  Shimotsuke,  Shinano,  Musashi,  Hida,  Kaga,  Yamato 
(N.  Okada),  Aomori,  Tochigi,  Saitama,  Nagano,  Gifu,  Ishikawa, 
Toyama,  Nara,  Wakayama  Prefectures  (Kishida) ,  Okuradake,  Aichi 
and  Yokohama  in  Pref.  Aomori  (Wada,  1937).  For  Shikoku:  Tosa 
(N.  Okada),  Kochi  (Kishida).  For  Kiusiu:  Hiuga  (N.  Okada), 
Miyazaki  (Kishida). 

Bubal  Hartebeest.    Bubale  (Fr.).    Biibalo  (Sp.) 

ALCELAPHUS  BUSELAPHUS  BUSELAPHUS  (Pallas) 

Antilope  buselaphus  Pallas,  Misc.  Zool.,  p.  7,  1766.1    ("Typical  locality  prob- 
ably Morocco"  (Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  2,  p.  5).) 

1  Type  "fixed  here  on  the  Vache  de  Barbaric,  pi.  xxxix.  ('Memoires  pour 
servir  a  1'histoire  des  animaux,'  ii,  p.  24)"  (Ruxton  and  Schwarz,  1929,  p.  575). 
This  is  apparently  the  same  as  the  "Barbary  Cow,"  Memoirs  for  a  Natural 
History  of  Animals,  p.  127,  pi.  facing  p.  126,  1701,  London. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  643 

SYNONYM:   Bubalis  bubastis  Blaine  (1914). 

FIGS.:  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  pi.  277B..  1787;  Geoffrey  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat. 
Mamm.,  vol.  6,  pi.  390,  1824;  Schinz,  Naturg.  Saugethiere,  ed.  2,  pi.  126, 
1827;  Wood,  Bible  Animals,  p.  145,  fig.,  1876;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1894, 
vol.  1,  pi.  1;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  4,  fig.  1;  Ward,  1935,  p.  47,  fig.;  Powell- 
Cotton,  1937,  pi.  facing  p.  65,  lower  fig. 

This  Hartebeest  is  regarded  by  several  authorities  as  extinct, 
although  a  few  others  maintain  that  a  bare  remnant  lingers  on  in  the 
hinterland  of  Algeria. 

"Colour  uniform  pale  rufous  or  fawn  .  .  .  ;  there  is,  however, 
an  ill-defined  patch  of  greyish  on  each  side  of  the  muzzle  above  the 
nostrils.  .  .  .  Tail  black  on  the  terminal  tuft  only."  Height  at 
shoulder  about  43  inches.  Horns  forming  a  U  when  viewed  from 
the  front.  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1894,  vol.  1,  pp.  8-9.)  Record 
length  of  horns  on  front  curve,  15^  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  43). 

The  former  range  of  the  Bubal  extended  across  North  Africa  from 
Morocco  to  Egypt.  There  have  also  been  reports,  none  too  well 
substantiated,  from  Arabia  and  Palestine. 

While  this  Hartebeest  was  long  regarded  as  a  distinct  species,  it  is 
treated  by  Ruxton  and  Schwarz  (1929)  as  conspecific  with  various 
other  Hartebeests,  ranging  from  Senegal  and  Gambia  to  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan,  Somaliland,  and  Tanganyika  Territory  (cj.  G.  M. 
Allen,  19396,  pp.  470-474) . 

Morocco,  Algeria,  and  Tunisia. — In  1738  large  herds  were  reported 
on  the  north  of  the  Atlas,  but  since  then  "the  Bubal  has  retired 
far  beyond  the  Atlas  into  the  recesses  of  the  desert,  and  has  become 
a  difficult  animal  to  meet  with"  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1894,  vol.  1, 
p.  9). 

In  1850  Barth  encountered  what  may  have  been  this  Hartebeest 
in  the  mountain  region  of  Anahef,  which  lies  in  the  central  Sahara 
at  about  latitude  23°  15'  N.,  longitude  8°  E.  He  remarks  (1857, 
vol.  1,  p.  263) :  "The  country  ...  is  covered,  as  well  as  the  whole 
centre  of  the  desert,  with  large  herds  of  wild  oxen  (Antilope  bubalis) 
....  Our  men  tried  to  catch  them,  but  were  unsuccessful,  the 
animal  .  .  .  climbing  the  rocks  with  much  more  ease  than  men." 

According  to  Loche  (1867) ,  it  is  found  in  Algeria  only  in  the  south ; 
it  occurs  in  fairly  numerous  bands  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the 
Sahara,  the  Souf,  and  the  country  of  the  Tuaregs.  It  appears  much 
rarer  than  the  Addax  in  Algeria,  and  perhaps  it  is  completely  lack- 
ing in  Tunisia.  (Lataste,  1885,  p.  292.) 

The  species  was  still  found  in  1870  in  the  mountains  in  the  south 
of  Tunisia,  on  the  Algerian  frontier,  but  has  now  completely  disap- 
peared. Some  individuals  may  perhaps  still  be  found  in  the  Saharan 
mountains  and  in  the  Hammada  between  Bir-Aou'ine  and  Ghadames. 
One  was  killed  in  1902  at  Bir-Ksira,  150  km.  southwest  of  Foum- 
Tatahouine.  (Lavauden,  1924,  p.  22;  1932,  p.  21.) 


644  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

The  Bubal  still  existed  in  1925  in  the  region  of  Missour  (eastern 
Morocco),  in  1900  between  the  Chott  Tigri  and  Mecheria,  in  1888 
in  the  environs  of  Ain  Sefra  (western  Algeria) ;  perhaps  it  still  lives 
south  of  Geryville  (Algeria) ,  as  well  as  on  the  south  of  the  Moroccan 


FIG.  59. — Bubal  Hartebeest  (Alcelaphus  buselaphus  buselaphus).  After  photo- 
graph in  Brehm. 

High  Atlas,  among  the  Ait  Merrad  (north  of  Tafilalet)  and  the  Ait 
Ounir  (west  of  Tafilalet)   (Joleaud,  1929,  p.  448) . 
Ruxton  and  Schwarz  (1929,  p.  575)  state: 

The  typical  race  of  this  species  has,  in  former  years,  been  a  frequent  in- 
habitant of  menageries.  But  we  have  seen  no  skin  or  skull  of  a  wild-killed 
specimen.  There  are  none  in  the  British,  Paris,  and  Berlin  Museums.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  appears  highly  probable  that  this  form  is  utterly  extinct. 
All  inquiries  have  proved  fruitless  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  as  well  as  in 
Morocco.  .  .  . 

A  private  communication  from  Dr.  E.  Hartert  of  Tring  speaks  of  the 
occurrence  of  A.  b.  buselaphus  in  the  valley  of  the  Muluya  River,  Morocco, 
but,  according  to  Dr.  Russo,  chief  of  the  Hydrological  Service  at  Rabat, 
Morocco,  it  is  no  longer  found  there.  A  specimen  .  .  .  has  been  obtained 
near  Geryville,  south  of  the  Chott  Chergui,  in  the  Saharan  Atlas,  Algeria. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  645 

'The  Bubal  Antelope  ...  is  now  extinct.  The  last  survivor,  a 
female,  died  in  Paris  in  1923."  Another  individual,  that  died  in 
Paris  in  1916,  had  lived  in  captivity  for  almost  19  years.  (Flower, 
1931,  pp.  211-212.) 

Cabrera  (1932,  pp.  336-339)  gives  the  following  account  for 
Morocco: 

The  range  includes  the  east  central  part  of  the  country,  at  the 
extreme  eastern  base  of  the  Grand  Atlas,  in  the  region  comprised 
between  the  upper  Muluya,  the  sources  of  the  Guir,  and  the  small 
rivers  which  give  rise  to  the  Wadi  Ziz.  Thence  it  extends  to  the 
south  of  Oran. 

It  was  recorded  from  Barbary  as  early  as  1573  by  Marmol,  who 
spoke  of  it  as  occurring  in  herds  of  one  or  two  hundred.  At  that  time 
it  ranged  from  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Morocco  to  Tunisia. 

Its  complete  disappearance,  in  a  little  more  than  three  centuries, 
from  localities  in  Morocco  where  Marmol  reported  it  in  large  herds, 
is  the  more  interesting  because  it  relates  to  regions  where  European 
civilization  has  penetrated  only  very  recently.  Since  practically  no 
trustworthy  traveler  of  the  nineteenth  century  mentions  the  Bubal, 
this  seems  to  indicate  that  it  disappeared  from  the  more  frequented 
zones  over  a  hundred  years  ago,  to  remain  exiled  in  the  interior  of 
the  empire,  then  impenetrable.  Bede  (1926),  after  a  careful  inves- 
tigation, records  the  killing  of  a  Bubal  in  the  region  of  Misur  in 
1925,  and  the  extinction,  about  the  same  date,  of  the  last  examples 
that  lived  in  the  territory  of  the  Ulad-el-Hach. 

Though  perhaps  not  completely  gone,  it  is  quite  evident  that  the 
Bubal  has  reached  the  verge  of  extinction,  and  it  is  probably  too 
late  to  adopt  any  measure  for  warding  off  that  fate. 

Maydon  reports  (1933,  p.  738)  that  careful  inquiries  in  Algeria 
and  Tunisia  have  failed  to  reveal  any  trace  of  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  Joseph  I.  Touchette,  American  Vice  Consul  at 
Algiers,  writes  us  (in  litt.,  March  28,  1933)  that  according  to  Prof. 
L.  G.  Seurat,  of  the  University  of  Algiers,  the  Bubal  still  exists  in 
very  limited  numbers  in  certain  protected  valleys  south  of  the  De- 
partment of  Oran.  It  is  seen  particularly  between  the  Geryvillc 
region  and  the  Chott  Tigri,  whence  it  occasionally  migrates  to  the 
eastern  Moroccan  mountains. 

It  is  decidedly  rare  at  present  in  Barbary,  but  half  a  century 
ago  it  was  widely  spread  on  the  high  plateaus  and  on  the  hills  at 
the  edge  of  the  Sahara  (Heim  de  Balsac,  1936,  p.  101) . 

"It  existed  not  very  long  ago  (1870)  in  all  the  South  Algerian  and 
Tunisian  mountains.  It  prefers  a  rocky  country  and  is  not  an  animal 
of  the  sandy  desert  as  it  has  sometimes  been  wrongly  described. 


646  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

"It  has  at  the  present  time  practically  disappeared  from  the 
northern  border  of  the  Sahara,  and  has  entirely  disappeared  from 
the  Aures  and  South  Tunis  ....  The  species  still  exists  in  the 
south  of  Oran,  in  the  large  hollows  which  open  into  Chott  Tigri  from 
the  south  of  Geryville."  (Gruvel,  1937,  p.  63.) 

Powell-Cotton  (1937,  pp.  65-66)  gives  the  following  account  of  two 
quests  in  Morocco: 

[In  1930]  Caid  Krit,  a  great  hunter,  whom  we  met  at  Outat  [on  the  Muluya, 
at  the  southeastern  base  of  the  Middle  Atlas],  told  us  he  had  shot  many  in 
the  past,  but  the  last  herd  that  he  had  found,  in  the  plain  some  70  kilometres 
south-east  of  Outat,  numbered  fifteen,  and  of  these  he  had  shot  five  males 
.  .  .  and  seven  females  .  .  .  ;  this  was  in  the  autumn  of  1917,  since  when 
he  had  neither  seen  nor  heard  of  the  beast.  .  .  .  According  to  him  fifteen 
was  an  exceptionally  large  herd;  three  or  four  the  usual  number  and  occa- 
sionally he  had  come  across  a  solitary  male. 

A  doctor  quartered  at  Outat  showed  us  a  couple  of  horns — the  right  of  a 
male  and  the  left  of  a  female — both  of  which  had  been  shot  by  the  Caid. 

[In  1936,  in  extreme  southwestern  Morocco,]  Caid  Aied  at  Talaint  .  .  . 
eagerly  recognized  the  photo  of  the  Bubal,  and  said  that  some  twenty  years 
previously  he  had  a  living  pair  of  them  sent  him  from  the  south  .... 

At  Talsint,  some  90  kilometres  south  of  Outat,  the  Caids  of  three  different 
districts  assured  us  they  had  never  heard  of  the  beast.  .  .  . 

At  Outat  itself  we  found  a  tribesman  of  Caid  Krit  who  confirmed  that 
some  twenty  odd  years  before,  herds  of  Bubal,  up  to  twenty  animals,  existed 
in  that  region  among  the  foothills,  but  all  had  now  disappeared,  and  no  one 
knew  whither. 

Thus  ended  a  journey  of  some  2,700  kilometres  by  motor  and  mule,  and  the 
question  still  remains  whether  any  Bubal  exist  further  south  among  the  rough 
country  on  the  northern  frontier  of  the  Sahara. 

Pease  (1937,  p.  80)  contributes  the  following  information:  In 
Algeria,  in  years  gone  by,  "I  .  .  .  talked  to  many  Frenchmen  and 
Arabs  who  had  known  the  Bubal  to  be  very  numerous  in  Algeria 
and  Tunisia,  and  to  one  or  two  French  colonels  who  had  shot  them  in 
the  great  battles  of  game,  which  massacres  were  organized  in  the 
early  days  of  the  French  occupation.  ...  I  ...  collected  evi- 
dence that  they  were  still  to  be  found  in  the  Hammada,  south  of 
Geryville,  and  towards  the  Moroccan  frontier  as  late  as  1895-6." 

In  1905  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia  received 
an  adult  female  from  the  Zoological  Society  of  Philadelphia.  The 
mounted  skin  and  the  skeleton  represent  perhaps  the  only  specimen 
in  America.  The  mount  stands  38^  inches  at  the  shoulder. 

Libya  and  Egypt. — Outside  of  Barbary  the  Bubal  is  found  in 
North  Africa  as  far  as  Egypt  (Lataste,  1885,  p.  293) . 

"From  the  Algeria  Sahara  the  Bubal  extends  no  doubt  into  .  .  . 
Tripoli  ....  In  Egypt  .  .  .  the  Bubal  appears  to  be  now  quite 
extinct."  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1894,  vol.  1,  p.  10.) 


ORDER    ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  647 

"The  Bubaline  Antelope  .  .  .  formerly  found  in  Tunisia  is  now 
quite  extinct  there,  I  hear,  though  it  is  still  found  in  Southern 
Algeria  and  in  the  Tripolitaine.  It  must  have  extended  its  range 
once  into  Central  or  even  Northern  Tunisia,  judging  by  the  frequency 
of  its  appearance  in  Roman  frescoes  and  mosaics.  I  am  informed 
by  a  German  naturalist,  Mr.  Spatz,  that  in  the  districts  where  it 
still  lingers  in  Tripoli  it  affects  plateaux  with  a  fair  amount  of  vege- 
tation, rather  than  the  sandy  desert  which  is  the  home  of  the 
Addax."  (Johnston,  1898,  p.  352.) 

Cabrera  (1932,  p.  337)  includes  the  interior  of  Tripoli  in  the 
range. 

Enders  (1927,  pp.  293-296)  records  a  Hartebeest's  horn  and  at- 
tached fragment  of  a  skull,  excavated  in  1924-25  at  "the  mound  of 
Kom  Aushim  on  the  northern  border  of  the  Fayum  province  of 
Egypt  ....  This  mound  was  formed  by  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
town  of  Karanis."  The  specimen  belongs  "to  the  period  between 
the  middle  of  the  second  and  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  after 
Christ."  Although  the  horn  is  very  doubtfully  referred  to  A.  lichten- 
steini,  it  is  much  more  likely,  on  zoogeographical  grounds,  to  be 
buselaphus. 

"The  specimens  from  the  Egyptian  Tombs  at  Abadiyeh,  near 
Kairo,  and  from  the  Fayum,  described  by  Elaine  as  Bubalis  bubastis, 
are,  however,  very  similar  [to  buselaphus],  and  the  same  is  true  of 
the  two  splendid  specimens  from  the  Tombs  of  Sakkara,  near  Thebes 
....  From  the  general  appearance  of  these  skulls  and  from  the 
measurements  taken  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  are  true 
buselaphus."  (Ruxton  and  Schwarz,  1929,  p.  575.) 

"There  is  no  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  Hartebeestes  as  wild 
animals  in  Egypt,  though  the  bones  of  these  antelopes  have  been 
found  in  the  process  of  excavating  ancient  Egyptian  tombs"  (Flower, 
1932,  p.  437). 

"A  hundred  years  ago  the  Western  Desert  of  Egypt  contained  a 
number  of  species  of  antelope  such  as  the  .  .  .  hartebeest"  (T.  W. 
Russell,  MS.,  September  12,  1934) . 

Palestine  and  Arabia. — "The  Bubale  I  never  saw  in  Palestine; 
but  it  certainly  exists  on  the  eastern  borders  of  Gilead  and  Moab, 
and  is  well  known  to  the  Arabs,  who  assure  me  it  sometimes  comes 
down  to  drink  at  the  headwaters  of  the  streams  flowing  into  the 
Dead  Sea,  where  they  not  unfrequently  capture  it.  It  roams  through 
Arabia  and  North  Africa."  (Tristram,  1884,  p.  5.) 

"It  reappears  in  Arabia  and  extends  even  up  to  the  confines  of 
Palestine.  .  .  .  Canon  Tristram  has  kindly  allowed  one  of  us  to 
examine  a  pair  of  horns  obtained  from  the  Arabs  in  this  locality 
[Dead  Sea  region],  which  are  apparently  referable  to  a  female  of 
this  species."  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1894,  vol.  1,  p.  10.) 


648  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

On  the  other  hand,  Lydekker  and  Elaine  (1914,  vol.  2,  p.  6)  are 
"unable  to  find  any  other  testimony  that  this,  or  any  other,  harte- 
beest  inhabits  south-western  Asia." 

"No  recent  specimen  has  ever  been  studied  from  the  alleged 
eastern  range  of  this  form  [in  Asia]"  (Ruxton  and  Schwarz,  1929, 
p.  575). 

The  last  example  disappeared  from  Palestine  about  25  years  ago 
(Aharoni,  1930,  p.  329). 

"A  less  common  intruder  from  the  Arabian  deserts  [than  Oryx 
leucoryx]  is  the  Bubalis  ....  Both  these  species  were  probably 
more  common  in  the  deserts  of  Transjordania  and  S.  Palestine  in 
earlier  periods."  (Bodenheimer,  1935,  p.  116.) 

"There  is  not  one  shred  of  evidence  to  show  that  the  Bubal  Harte- 
beest  ever  existed  out  of  Africa  ....  The  one  pair  of  horns,  said 
to  have  been  obtained  by  Tristram  from  the  Arabs  of  Syria,  is  not 
sufficient  evidence  to  go  on.  There  is  no  record  by  any  traveller,  at 
any  date,  in  Syria  or  Arabia  of  this  most  unmistakable  species." 
(Carruthers,  1935,  pp.  163-164.) 

There  seem  to  be  no  game  reserves  within  the  recent  range  of  this 
species.  It  is  completely  protected  in  Africa  under  the  London 
Convention  of  1933. 

Cape  Red  Hartebeest.    Rooi  Hartebeest  (Boer) 

ALCELAPHUS  CAAMA  CAAMA  (Cuvier) 

Antilope  caama  Cuvier,  Diet.  Sci.  Nat.,  ed.  1,  vol.  2,  p.  242,  1804.    ("Cap" — 

Cape  of  Good  Hope.) 
FIGS.:    Buffon,  Hist.  Nat.,  Suppl.,  vol.  6,  pi.  15,  1782;  Schreber,  Saugthiere, 

vol.  5,  pi.  277,  1787;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1894,  vol.  1,  pi.  4. 

Some  of  those  who  recognize  the  distinctness  of  the  subspecies 
caama  and  selbornei  agree  that  the  former  is  extinct;  however,  Capt. 
G.  C.  Shortridge  (in  litt.,  1936)  regards  caama  as  still  represented 
by  a  herd  of  about  55  animals  on  Moe's  Farms  at  New  Hanover  in 
Natal. 

According  to  Cuvier's  type  description  (op.  cit,,  pp.  242-243), 
the  color  is  a  fawn  bay,  browner  on  the  back;  a  large  black  spot 
about  the  base  of  the  horns;  a  black  band  on  the  lower  two-thirds 
of  the  face ;  a  straight  line  on  the  neck,  a  stripe  on  each  leg,  and  end 
of  tail  black.  In  the  female  these  markings  are  brown  rather  than 
black,  and  the  horns  are  a  little  smaller. 

Lydekker  (1913d,  p.  821)  defines  the  present  subspecies  as  fol- 
lows: "General  colour  rich  rufous-brown;  face-blaze  black  and  ex- 
tending, with  the  exception  of  a  narrow  fawn  band  between  the 
eyes,  from  horns  to  muzzle;  limb-markings  plum-colour,  and  form- 
ing a  continuous  stripe  on  front  of  fore-legs."  There  is  very  meager 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  649 

information  on  shoulder  height  and  horn  length;  but  reference  may 
be  made  to  these  measurements  in  A.  c.  selbornei. 

In  view  of  the  uncertainty  concerning  the  limits  of  the  original 
range  of  the  present  subspecies,  we  may  provisionally  restrict  it  to 
the  Southeast  Veldt  District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  260).  "The 
range  originally  extended  from  the  Cape  Town  district  as  far  north 
as  the  Limpopo  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent"  (Lydekker  and 
Elaine,  1914,  vol.  2,  p.  27). 

According  to  Sclater  and  Thomas  (1894,  vol.  1,  pp.  35-37),  at  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  "the  Hartebeest  was  very  abundant 
all  over  the  Cape  Colony,  and  was  found  in  large  troops  even  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  Cape  Town. 

"In  1811  .  .  .  the  Hartebeest  appears  to  have  become  already 
much  less  abundant."  By  1876  it  had  become  one  of  the  rarest 
animals  in  the  Cape  Colony. 

"In  Natal  the  hartebeest  is  now  very  rare,  and  is  only  to  be 
seen  here  and  there  on  certain  farms,  where  it  is  carefully  protected" 
(Bryden,  1899,  p.  152) . 

It  "once  inhabited  Basutoland,  although  it  is  doubtful  if  any  sur- 
vive to-day  in  that  locality"  (Haagner,  1920,  p.  159) . 

"Not  long  ago  there  used  to  be  six  or  seven  hundred  of  these  ani- 
mals in  the  Natal  Midlands"  (E.  Warren,  in  Shortridge,  1934,  vol. 
2,  p.  453) . 

"Cape  Hartebeest  was  formerly  abundant  in  the  midlands  of 
Natal,  but  the  farmers  have  now  destroyed  them  all,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  small  herd  of  about  25  on  a  farm  owned  by  Messrs.  Moe 
Bros.,  who  do  everything  possible  to  protect  them  against  the  blood - 
lust  of  neighbouring  farmers  and  the  savage  attacks  of  dogs  owned 
by  the  natives"  (corresponding  member  of  the  International  Office, 
Brussels,  in  litt.,  January  24,  1933) .  "A  few  Cape  Hartebeest  also 
survive  in  the  Giant's  Castle  Reserve  on  the  slopes  of  the  Drakens- 
berg  in  Natal"  (E.  L.  Gill,  in  litt.,  December  13,  1932) . 

According  to  G.  C.  Shortridge  (in  litt.,  February  9, 1938) ,  the  Moe 
farm  was  to  be  divided  up  and  sold  in  the  near  future,  and  that  event 
would  mean  the  extermination  of  its  historic  herd  of  Hartebeest, 
then  numbering  under  100  head.  "If  only  the  Union  Government 
can  be  induced  to  do  something  about  these  hartebeest,  every  one 
of  the  remaining  game  animals  of  the  Union  of  S.  Africa  will  be 
receiving  some  measure  of  protection  in  one  or  other  of  the  Reserves." 


650  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Northern   Red   Hartebeest.     Rooi  Hartebeest    (Boer) 

ALCELAPHUS  CAAMA  SELBORNEI  (Lydekker) 

Bubalis  caama  selbornei  Lydekker,  Abstr.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  no.  119,  p. 
19,  1913.  ("The  Transvaal"  (loc.  cit.) ;  "in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kimber- 
ley"  (Lydekker,  1913d,  p.  819);  "Kimberley  Game  Farm,"  Griqualand 
West,  "the  herd  there  having  apparently  been  imported  from  the  Trans- 
vaal" (Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  2,  p.  27)  (cj.  Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2, 
p.  451).) 

FIGS.:  A.  Smith,  1849,  pi.  30;  Lydekker,  1913d,  fig.  135;  Lydekker  and  Elaine, 
1914,  vol.  2,  p.  26,  fig.  4;  Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  pis.  opp.  pp.  449,  450,  454. 

Although  virtually  or  wholly  exterminated  in  its  former  haunts  in 
the  Transvaal,  Orange  Free  State,  and  Cape  Province,  this  sub- 
species seems  to  survive  in  fair  numbers  in  the  Kalahari  Desert 
region  of  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate  and  in  the  eastern  parts  of 
South- West  Africa. 

It  is  distinguished  from  A.  c.  caama  as  follows:  "General  colour 
yellowish  fawn;  face-blaze  mingled  with  tawny,  stopping  short  of 
horns  and  muzzle,  and  interrupted  by  a  long  interval  in  region  of 
eyes;  limb-markings  mingled  with  tawny,  interrupted  above  knees, 
on  which  they  form  a  cap,  and  represented  by  a  small  patch  on  front 
of  shanks"  (Lydekker,  1913c?,  p.  821).  These  alleged  subspecific 
characters  "seem  to  be  abnormal  or  due  to  immaturity,  as  other  heads 
from  the  Kimberley  herd  show  full  development  of  the  face-blaze" 
(Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  2,  p.  27).  The  validity  of  this 
subspecies  is  denied  by  Capt.  Guy  Dollman  (in  litt.,  1936) . 

If  it  can  be  accepted  provisionally,  its  original  range  may  be  said 
to  have  corresponded  roughly  to  the  Kalahari  Arid  District  of 
Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  259) :  i.  e.,  from  the  northern  and  northwestern 
parts  of  Cape  Province  north  to  the  Lake  Ngami  region,  and  from 
the  western  Transvaal  and  western  Orange  Free  State  to  the 
eastern  parts  of  South- West  Africa. 

About  1835  "the  Hartebeest  had  retreated  still  further  into  the 
interior"  of  Cape  Province.  But  it  was  still  met  with  on  the  plains 
beyond  the  Orange  River  in  immense  herds.  In  1881  F.  C.  Selous 
reported  it  fairly  plentiful  in  Griqualand  West;  found  all  along  the 
eastern  border  of  the  Kalahari;  plentiful  about  salt-pans  between 
the  Botletlie  River  and  the  road  from  Bamangwato  to  the  Zambesi ; 
but  not  known  farther  north.  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1894,  vol.  1, 
pp.  35-37.) 

By  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Cape  Hartebeest  was 
found,  south  of  the  Orange  River,  only  "in  the  parched  deserts  of 
the  Bushmanland  country,  in  the  far  north-west  of  the  old  colonial 
limits.  Here  a  few  troops  are  now  and  again  to  be  encountered.  .  .  . 

"These  animals  are  to  be  found  in  troops  ranging  from  a  dozen 
to  fifty.  In  recent  years  I  have  seen  troops  of  eighteen  or  so  in 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  651 

British  Bechuanaland,  and  as  many  as  thirty  or  forty  in  the  North 
Kalahari  thirstlands.  Occasionally  troops  are  to  be  met  with  num- 
bering as  many  as  eighty  or  a  hundred."  (Bryden,  1899,  pp.  152, 
156.) 

"It  is  still  found  in  the .  parched  and  arid  district  known  as 
Bushmanland  in  the  north-west  of  the  Cape  Colony"  (Selous,  1914, 
p.  66) .  By  1920  the  species  was  said  to  be  restricted,  in  Cape  Colony, 
to  Little  Namaqualand  (Haagner,  1920,  p.  159). 

In  South-West  Africa  the  Red  Hartebeest  is  more  or  less  numerous 
in  Ovamboland,  the  Etosha  Pan,  the  Kaukauveld,  and  the  Groot- 
fontein,  Otjiwarongo,  Gobabis,  and  Gibeon  Districts,  but  less  nu- 
merous in  other  areas  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  pp.  450-451  and  map 
opp.  p.  452).  The  more  northerly  of  the  areas  just  mentioned  may 
be  occupied  by  the  subspecies  evalensis. 

"It  is  said  that  the  last  preserved  herd  of  Cape  hartebeest  in  the 
Transvaal  was  annihilated  about  1922  when  the  wholesale  slaughter 
of  the  wildebeeste  was  permitted  owing  to  the  suspicion  that  they 
were  carriers  of  a  disease  the  Boers  called  'snotsiekte.' 

"This  unfortunate  permission  was  rescinded  after  a  few  months 
for  it  was  found  that  the  disease  occurred  where  there  were  no  wilde- 
beeste or  other  wild  animals."  (C.  W.  Hobley,  in  Hit.,  January  4, 
1934.) 

"The  preservation  of  the  Red  Hartebeeste  in  the  Kimberley  Dis- 
trict has  had  the  attention  of  this  Society  and  the  Animal  Welfare 
Society  of  South  Africa.  Joint  representations  on  the  subject  to 
Messrs.  De  Beers  Consolidated  Mines  have  elicited  the  information 
that  the  Red  Hartebeeste  in  several  hundreds  are  carefully  preserved 
on  the  farm  'KlipfontehV  40  miles  west  of  Kimberley  where  a 
strictly  limited  amount  of  hunting  occasionally  takes  place  under 
permit  from  the  Provincial  Secretary."  (Ann.  Rept.  Transvaal 
Branch  Comm.  Wild  Life  Protection  Soc.  South  Africa,  1935.)  This 
herd  was  apparently  imported  originally  from  the  Transvaal  (Lydek- 
ker  and  Blaine,  1914,  vol.  2,  p.  27) . 

The  Red  Hartebeest  "is  still  comparatively  plentiful  in  Northern 
and  Central  Bechuanaland,  and  in  the  North-eastern  parts  of  South 
West  Africa — to  as  far  north  as  the  Angola  border"  (G.  C.  Short- 
ridge,  in  litt.,  1936) . 

In  the  future  the  species  will  probably  receive  adequate  protec- 
tion in  the  Gemsbuck  National  Park  in  the  Bechuanaland  Protec- 
torate, where  it  is  still  fairly  numerous.  A  few  are  preserved  on 
farms  in  Cape  Province.  (J.  Stevenson-Hamilton,  in  litt.,  February 
22,  1933.) 

Economic  uses. — "The  skin  is,  and  always  has  been,  in  great  de- 
mand among  the  various  Bechuana  tribes  for  making  the  handsome 
cloaks  affected  by  these  people. 


652  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

"The  flesh  of  the  hartebeest  ...  is  fairly  good  eating.  ...  It  is 
used  a  good  deal  as  biiltong,  and  in  that  form  ...  is  very  palatable. 
A  hartebeest  stew  is  by  no  means  bad."  (Bryden,  1899,  pp.  151, 156.) 

This  species  must  have  suffered,  like  other  South  African  mam- 
mals, from  the  vast  hide-hunting  operations  of  the  Boers  a  century 
ago.  In  the  Kalahari  it  is  still  being  shot  by  poachers,  who  can  now 
penetrate  to  the  waterless  areas  in  motor  cars  without  trouble  (J. 
Stevenson-Hamilton,  in  Hit.,  February  22,  1933) . 

Factors  in  preservation. — "Hartebeests  are  extremely  wary  ante- 
lopes; they  are  possessed  of  marvellous  powers  of  scent  and  hearing, 
and  .  .  .  they  have  managed  to  maintain  their  ground  against  the 
many  hunters  ...  at  least  as  well  as  most  other  South  African 
beasts  of  chase.  .  .  .  The  desert  nature  of  much  of  their  habitat 
has,  no  doubt,  enabled  them  thus  to  prolong  their  unequal  combat 
against  the  advances  of  civilization  and  the  increasing  plenty  of  arms 
of  precision."  (Bryden,  1899,  p.  156.) 


Angolan  Red  Hartebeest 

ALCELAPHUS  CAAMA  EVALENSIS  (Monard) 

Bubalis  caama,  sb.  evalensis  Monard,  Bull.  Soc.  Neuchateloise  Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  57, 
p.  64,  figs.  9-10,  1933:  (Evale,  200  km.  south  of  Vila  da  Ponte,  southern 
Angola.) 

This  subspecies  was  based  upon  only  two  specimens  from  Evale, 
and  the  meager  additional  records  indicate  a  probable  scarcity  in 
Angola. 

Pelage  almost  the  same  as  in  A.  caama  caama,  but  horns  of  the 
male  distinctly  different;  pelage  brownish  rufous,  darker  on  the  head, 
neck,  front  of  shoulders,  and  median  dorsal  line ;  black  markings  on 
legs;  chin  black;  muzzle  yellowish;  face  and  forehead  black,  inter- 
rupted by  brown  at  the  level  of  the  eyes.  Viewed  from  in  front,  the 
horns  form  three-quarters  of  a  circle,  its  interior  diameter  16  cm.; 
they  are  then  bent  backward  for  20  cm.,  where  they  are  parallel. 
The  female  is  colored  like  the  male,  except  that  all  the  marks  are 
paler.  This  subspecies  is  much  more  distinct  from  the  two  others 
than  they  are  from  each  other.  (Monard,  1933,  pp.  64-66.) 

In  a  later  paper  (1935,  pp.  266-267)  Monard  discards  the  horn 
characters  as  individual  variations,  but  maintains  the  subspecies  on 
the  basis  of  slight  differences  in  coloration.  He  also  records  a  third 
specimen  from  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Roc.adas  on  the  middle  course  of 
the  Cunene  River,  and  speaks  of  having  seen  the  animal  in  fairly 
numerous  bands  in  that  region. 

In  Angola  "the  Hartebeest  seems  to  be  restricted  to  a  triangle 
bounded  by  the  Cunene,  the  Chitanda  (an  eastern  affluent  of  the 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA !     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  653 

Cunene) ,  and  the  Okavango"  (Baum,  1903,  as  quoted  in  Shortridge, 
1934,  vol.  2,  p.  451) .  The  range  of  this  subspecies  lies  in  the  extreme 
western  part  of  the  Rhodesian  Savanna  District  of  Bowen  (1933, 
pp.  256,  259) .  Possibly  it  extends  south  to  about  the  Grootfontein 
District  of  South-West  Africa,  where  the  transition  from  the  Rhode- 
sian Savanna  District  to  the  Kalahari  Arid  District  seems  to  take 
place. 

For  the  status  of  the  species  in  northern  South-West  Africa,  see 
the  preceding  account  of  A.  c.  selbornei. 

Bontebok 

DAMALISCUS  DORCAS  (Pallas) 

Antilope  Dorcas  Pallas,  Misc.  ZooL,  p.  6,  1766.  (Type  locality  not  given; 
restricted  by  Harper  (1940,  p.  329)  to  "Kaffir  Kuils  River,  in  the  River- 
dale  district,  Cape  Province.") 

SYNONYM:   Antilope  pygargus  Pallas  (1767). 

FIGS.:  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  pi.  273,  1784;  Harris,  1840,  pi.  17;  Gray.  Glean- 
ings Knowsley  Menagerie,  pi.  22,  figs.  2-3,  1850;  Millais,  1895,  p.  235,  fig.; 
Sclater  and  Thomas,  1895,  vol.  1,  pi.  8,  p.  77,  fig.  10;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  5, 
fig.  5;  W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  139,  fig.  4;  Elliot,  1907,  p.  57,  fig.  12; 
Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  5,  fig.  4;  Maydon,  1932,  pi.  107;  Ward,  1935,  p.  68, 
fig.;  Illus.  London  News,  vol.  99,  no.  2583,  p.  I  (insert),  1936;  Pocock,  1937, 
p.  667,  fig.;  Leister,  1938,  p.  77,  fig.;  Unspoilt  Africa,  Union  National 
Parks,  p.  7,  fig.,  1938. 

Throughout  historical  times  the  Bontebok  has  apparently  been 
restricted  to  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  Cape  Province.  It  is 
now  extinct  in  a  wild  state,  and  only  about  a  hundred  individuals 
survive  in  the  Bontebok  National  Park  near  Bredasdorp  and  on  a 
few  adjacent  farms.  (Warden  of  Kruger  National  Park,  in  litt., 
1937;  Kaffrarian  Museum,  in  litt.,  March,  1937.) 

Anterior  half  of  back  rufous  fawn ;  crown,  sides  of  face  and  neck, 
flanks,  thighs,  anterior  half  of  rump,  and  upper  part  of  limbs  vary- 
ing from  very  rich  dark  brown  to  blackish;  whole  front  of  face 
covered  with  a  white  blaze  (brown  in  immature  animals) ,  narrower 
above  the  eyes;  rump-patch,  belly,  and  lower  limbs  (except  dark 
line  in  front),  white.  Height  at  shoulder,  40  inches.  Horns  black, 
sublyrate,  with  15-16  ridges;  record  length,  16f  inches.  (Sclater  and 
Thomas,  1895,  vol.  1,  p.  74;  Selous,  1914,  p.  84;  Ward,  1935,  p.  66.) 

Selous  (in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  175-179)  was  the  first  to  point  out 
that  the  ranges  of  the  Bontebok  and  the  Blesbok  are  entirely  distinct ; 
previously  there  had  been  much  confusion  in  the  names  of  these 
two  very  similar  species. 

Selous  writes  (1914,  pp.  83-86) : 

Ages  ago,  no  doubt,  the  common  ancestors  of  the  bontebok  and  the  blesbok 
had  a  continuous  range  over  all  the  open  plains  of  South  Africa  from  Cape 


654  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Agulhas  to  the  territories  now  known  as  Bechuanaland  and  the  Transvaal. 
The  gradual  desiccation,  however,  of  the  Karroo  in  the  south-western  por- 
tions of  the  Cape  Colony  ...  no  doubt  caused  the  withdrawal  of  these 
animals  to  the  north  and  east  from  those  parched  and  waterless  plains.  Those 
individuals  of  the  species,  however,  which  had  reached  the  neighbourhood 
of  Cape  Agulhas,  where  there  is  plenty  of  water,  would  have  had  no  reason  to 
move,  and  thus  a  portion  of  the  race  became  isolated,  and  in  course  of  time 
differentiated,  from  the  original  stock.  This  isolated  race  of  antelopes  con- 
fined within  very  narrow  geographical  limits  on  the  plains  bordering  the 
sea  near  Cape  Agulhas  .  .  .  was  first  met  with  by  the  early  Dutch  settlers 
at  the  Cape  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  named  by 
them  "bonteboks"  .... 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  protection  which  has  long  been  afforded  by  the 
Cape  Government,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  bontebok,  owing  to 
the  very  small  area  of  its  range,  would  long  since  have  disappeared  ....  Even 
in  spite  of  stringent  laws,  this  dire  calamity  might  have  happened  had  it  not 
been  for  the  action  of  Mr  Alexander  Van  der  Byl,  who,  in  1864,  whilst 
enclosing  the  extensive  area  known  as  Nachtwacht  Farm,  near  Bredasdorp, 
managed  to  drive  something  like  three  hundred  bonteboks  within  the  enclosed 
space.  There  they  have  been  carefully  preserved  and  protected  ever  since, 
and  though  they  have  not  increased  in  number,  it  is  said  that  they  are  not 
decreasing.  Another  herd  of  bonteboks  is  preserved  on  a  neighbouring  farm 
belonging  to  Dr.  Albertyn  ....  In  addition  to  these  bonteboks  now  care- 
fully preserved  on  enclosed  farms,  there  are  also  still  a  few  surviving  on  the 
unenclosed  plains,  both  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bredasdorp  and  near  the 
village  of  Swellendam.  It  is  doubtful  .  .  .  whether  more  than  three  hundred 
bonteboks  are  in  existence  to-day.  .  .  .  No  doubt,  before  the  advent  of 
Europeans  in  South  Africa,  bonteboks  once  congregated  in  large  droves,  but 
to-day  they  can  only  be  seen  in  small  herds  of  from  half-a-dozen  to  twenty 
or  thirty  individuals. 

"Formerly  the  bontebok  was  somewhat  more  widely  spread 
throughout  the  south-western  corner  of  the  Colony.  Sparrman 
[1785]  mentioned  seeing  a  herd  near  the  Bot  River  in  Caledon  and 
Smuts  [1832]  notes  it  from  the  Breede  River  in  Swellendam."  (W. 
L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  140.) 

"They  are  confined  to  ...  the  'Strand  Veldt'  .  .  .  bordered  by 
the  sea  on  the  south-west,  south,  and  south-east,  and  by  a  range 
of  undulating  country  or  low  hills  rising  to  the  Caledon  Ranges  and 
Zwart  Bergen  on  the  northern  side"  (E.  L.  Layard,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 
London  1871,  p.  625,  1872).  Curiously  enough,  in  all  the  literature 
there  seems  to  be  no  definite,  reliable  record  of  the  Bontebok  ranging 
north  of  this  "Strand  Veldt"  even  as  far  as  the  Little  Karroo. 

The  Bontebok  reserve  was  proclaimed  in  July,  1931,  and  included 
then  only  17  animals.  Now  they  have  increased  to  44.  (Herbert 
Lang,  in  litt.,  January  23,  1935.) 

In  1936  the  number  in  the  reserve  was  reported  as  57  (C.  W.  Hob- 
ley,  in  Hit.,  August  18,  1936). 

"The  Magistrate  at  Bredasdorp  .  .  .  tells  me  the  bontebok  are 
doing  splendidly  and  multiplying  fast."  A  person  who  shot  one  from 


ORDER    ARTIODACTYLA  I      EVEN -TOED    UNGULATES 


655 


a  motor  car  was  fined  two  hundred  pounds.    (T.  Barbour,  in  litt., 
December  28,  1936.) 

"It  has  been  preserved  entirely  as  a  result  of  the  foresight  of  the 
Van  der  Byl  family,  who  have  for  generations  preserved  it  on  their 


FIG.  60. — Bontebok   (Damaliscus  dorcas) .    After  Brehm  and  Lydekker. 

properties — often  at  great  risk  from  unscrupulous  poachers"  (Rob- 
erts, 1937,  p.  776) . 

The  Bontebok  National  Park  is  "an  area  of  approximately  850 
morgen."  "In  it  are  especially  preserved  a  herd  of  69  Bontebuck, 
the  only  surviving  members  of  this  species,  except  a  few  others  on 
another  farm  in  that  vicinity."  (Unspoilt  Africa,  Union  National 
Parks,  p.  7,  1938.) 

The  Bontebok  is  accorded  protection  as  a  Class  B  species  under 
the  London  Convention  of  1933. 


656  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Blesbok 

DAMALISCUS  PHILLI^I  Harper 

Damaliscus  phillipsi  Harper,  Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Washington,  vol.  52,  p.  90,  1939. 
(Orange  Free  State.)  Hitherto  known  (erroneously)  as  Damaliscus  albi- 
frons  (Burchell,  1824). 

FIGS.:  Harris,  1840,  pi.  21;  Gray,  Gleanings  Knowsley  Menagerie,  pi.  22,  fig.  1, 
1850;  Millais,  1895,  pi.  facing  p.  234,  fig.  on  p.  235;  Sclater  and  Thomas, 
1895,  vol.  1,  pi.  9,  p.  82,  fig.  11;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  5,  fig.  5;  W.  L.  Sclater, 
1900,  vol.  1,  p.  142,  fig.  42;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  5,  fig.  5;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  22; 
Maydon,  1932,  pi.  108;  Ward,  1935,  p.  69,  fig.;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  666,  fig. 

The  Blesbok,  while  extinct  in  the  wild  state,  is  preserved  on  a  num- 
ber of  farms  in  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal  as  well  as  in 
the  Somerville  Reserve  in  the  former  state. 

This  species  is  very  similar  to  the  Bontebok,  but  is  of  a  generally 
lighter  color  and  lacks  the  prominent  white  rump-patch  of  the  latter; 
also  the  cream-colored  face  blaze  is  generally  separated  from  the 
buffy -white  median  stripe  on  forehead  and  crown  by  a  narrow  chest- 
nut band  between  the  eyes.  Rest  of  head  and  neck  mainly  chestnut; 
median  dorsal  area  Rood's  brown,  changing  on  sides  to  Vandyke 
brown;  triangular  rump-patch  auburn  to  Sayal  brown,  with  a  nar- 
row posterior  border  of  white;  tail  mostly  black;  chest  with  more 
or  less  chestnut;  rest  of  under  parts  white;  legs  mainly  sepia;  horns 
blackish,  the  basal  two-thirds  with  13  more  or  less  complete  rings. 
Male  type:  head  and  body,  1,480  mm.;  tail,  260;  height  at  shoulder, 
1,020.  (Harper,  1939,  pp.  90-91.)  Record  length  of  horns,  18|  inches 
(Ward,  1935,  p.  67). 

In  days  long  past  the  Blesbok  "was  an  inhabitant  of  the  plains  to 
the  south  of  the  Orange  River  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Cape  Colony, 
and  of  all  the  open  country  to  the  north  of  that  river  in  the  ter- 
ritories now  known  as  the  Orange  River  Colony,  the  Transvaal  and 
Bechuanaland"  (Selous,  1914,  p.  84) .  Selous  continues  (pp.  86-87) : 

[The  Blesbok,]  once  undoubtedly  the  most  numerous  of  all  African  ante- 
lopes, has  long  been  exterminated  over  the  greater  portion  of  its  original 
range,  and  some  twenty  years  ago  had  come  very  near  to  complete  extinc- 
tion. At  that  time,  the  only  blesboks  in  existence  were  a  few  herds  preserved 
by  Dutch  farmers  in  the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal,  and  of  these 
a  large  proportion  were  destroyed  during  the  continuance  of  the  Boer  War. 
Since  that  time,  however,  the  surviving  blesboks  have  been  carefully  pre- 
served and  have  multiplied  exceedingly,  and  as  they  have  lately  been  intro- 
duced into  many  enclosed  areas  in  the  Orange  Free  State  and  Transvaal 
they  are  likely  to  increase  in  numbers  rather  than  to  decrease,  and,  at  any 
rate,  the  survival  of  the  species  seems  assured.  .  .  . 

Despite  the  great  numbers  of  blesboks  which  were  annually  killed,  but 
little  diminution  was  apparent  in  their  legions  until  after  1865.  Subsequently 
to  that  date,  however,  the  value  of  their  skins  for  export  to  England,  coupled 
with  the  fact  that  the  Boer  colonists  were  by  that  time  very  generally 
armed  with  long-range  breech-loading  rifles,  brought  about  the  extermination 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  .  657 

of  the  blesboks  throughout  the  greater  part  of  their  range  in  a  surprisingly 
short  space  of  time.  When  I  first  visited  South  Africa  in  1871,  vast  numbers 
of  blesboks  certainly  still  existed  on  both  sides  of  the  Vaal  River,  but  some 
fifteen  years  later  practically  none  were  left  anywhere,  except  on  a  few 
farms  in  the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Southern  Transvaal  ....  Whilst 
travelling  from  Potchefstroom  in  the  Transvaal  to  Kronstad  in  the  Orange 
Free  State  early  in  1875,  I  met  with  very  large  numbers  of  blesboks.  .  .  . 

Two  years  later,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Hartz  River,  in  the  South- 
western Transvaal,  I  for  the  last  time  saw  blesboks  collected  together  in 
large  numbers.  They  were  then,  however,  being  shot  down  for  the  sake  of  their 
skins  with  pitiless  persistence,  and  by  1885  but  few  were  left  anywhere  but 
on  a  few  farms  ....  The  furthest  point  north  where  I  ever  met  with  blesboks 
was  in  the  province  of  Marico,  in  the  north-west  of  the  Transvaal,  on  the 
plains  to  the  south  of  the  Dwarsberg. 

In  1848,  along  the  Vet  River  in  Orange  Free  State,  Gumming 
(1850,  vol.  2,  pp.  242-243)  came  upon  "herds  of  thousands  of  bles- 
boks." "The  plain  exhibited  one  purple  mass  of  graceful  blesboks, 
which  extended  without  a  break  as  far  as  my  eye  could  strain:  the 
depth  of  their  vast  legions  covered  a  breadth  of  about  six  hundred 
yards." 

Bryden  (1899,  pp.  187-189)  writes  as  follows: 

In  British  Bechuanaland  they  still  ranged  freely  in  small  herds  until  about 
1882  ....  But  after  the  expedition  of  Sir  Charles  Warren  in  1884-85,  and  the 
influx  of  white  settlers,  blesboks  disappeared.  ...  A  year  or  two  since 
(1897)  ...  a  few  blesboks  were  straying  back  into  Bechuanaland.  .  .  . 

I  myself  have  seen,  three-and-twenty  years  ago,  the  waggons  rolling  down 
country  to  Port  Elizabeth  from  the  Orange  Free  State  and  Transvaal  loaded 
up  with  the  dried  skins  of  blesbok  and  springbok.  And  any  middle-aged 
London  hide-broker  will  tell  you  that  from  five-and-twenty  to  forty  years 
ago  tens  of  thousands  of  blesbok  skins,  among  the  pelts  of  other  South  African 
animals,  were  annually  disposed  of  at  the  Mincing  Lane  Sale  Rooms. 

In  the  whole  of  the  Orange  Free  State  and  Transvaal  there  are  now  re- 
maining probably  not  more  than  3000  head  of  these  once  innumerable 
antelopes. 

"In  actually  protected  conditions  blesbok  and  springbok  exist 
only  in  the  Sommerville  Reserve"  in  the  Orange  Free  State  (Herbert 
Lang,  in  litt.,  January  23,  1935).  There  are  about  6,000  of  the 
former  species  in  this  reserve  (J.  Stevenson-Hamilton,  in  litt.,  Jan- 
uary 22,  1933) . 

"It  is  estimated  that  there  are  now  over  50,000  on  farms  in  the 
Orange  Free  State"  (Ward,  1935,  p.  67). 

The  species  is  "in  no  danger,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  has  a 
definite  market  value:  Blesbok  forms  the  chief  source  of  the  venison 
supply  in  the  Union,  and  is  bred  on  farms  for  the  Markets  in 
Johannesburg"  (G.  C.  Shortridge,  in  litt.,  October  14,  1937) . 

There  is  a  herd  of  ten  in  the  Giant  Castle  game  reserve  in  Natal 
(Administrator's  Office,  Natal,  in  litt.,  December,  1936) . 

22 


658  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Hunter's  Hartebeest;  Hunter's  Antelope.    Damalisque  de 
Hunter    (Fr.).    Herola  (Galla) 

DAMALISCUS  HUNTERI  (P.  L.  Sclater) 

Cobus  hunteri  P.  L.  Sclater,  Field,  vol.  73,  p.  260.  1889.  (North  t^east] 
bank  of  Tana  River,  "about  150  miles  up,"  near  village  of  Durani,  Kenya; 
this  village  shown  by  Roosevelt  and  Heller  (1914,  vol.  1,  p.  359)  to  be 
"only  about  70  miles  in  a  direct  line"  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tana.) 

FIGS.:  P.  L.  Sclater,  1889,  pi.  42,  pp.  373-375,  figs.  A-C;  Willoughby,  East 
Africa,  pi.  4,  fig.  6,  1889;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1894,  vol.  1,  pi.  6,  pp.  54-55, 
figs.  7a,  7b,  7c;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  5,  fig.  1;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  5,  fig.  1; 
Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  2,  p.  47,  fig.  7;  Zammarano,  1930,  p.  176, 
fig.;  Maydon,  1932,  pis.  69,  73,  75;  Ward,  1935,  p.  63,  fig. 

Although  this  Hartebeest  is  fairly  numerous  where  it  occurs  at  all, 
its  very  restricted  range  along  the  border  of  Kenya  and  Italian 
Somaliland  gives  it  a  special  interest  in  the  eyes  of  conservationists. 

General  color  uniform  rufous,  a  little  darker  above;  a  curved  line 
between  the  eyes,  area  about  eyes,  inside  of  ears,  tail,  and  belly 
white;  horns  black,  rounded,  strongly  ringed,  curving  outward  and 
backward,  the  tips  pointing  directly  upward.  Height  at  shoulder, 
about  48  inches;  female  a  little  smaller.  (P.  L.  Sclater,  1889,  pp. 
372-373.)  Record  length  of  horns  on  front  curve,  27^  inches  (Ward, 
1935,  p.  59) . 

This  species  was  discovered  in  1888  by  H.  C.  V.  Hunter,  who 
writes  (in  Sclater,  1889,  pp.  376-377)  as  follows: 

We  first  met  with  this  Antelope  about  150  miles  up  the  Tana  River.  It  is 
only  found  for  certain  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river.  ...  It  is  generally 
met  with  in  herds  of  from  15  to  25  individuals.  .  .  . 

We  did  not  come  across  these  Antelopes  again  for  some  days,  but  then  met 
with  them  in  large  numbers  and  got  several  specimens.  .  .  .  This  species 
certainly  does  not  extend  down  to  the  coast,  but  we  saw  them  as  far  as  the 
furthest  point  we  reached  (about  250  miles)  up  the  river,  at  a  place  called 
Mussa. 

"I  believe  that  it  has  never  been  met  with  during  the  twenty-five 
years  which  have  elapsed  since  its  first  discovery  anywhere  but  in  a 
small  area  of  country  near  the  north  bank  of  the  Tana  ....  The 
range  of  Hunter's  hartebeest  does  not  .  .  .  extend  as  far  north  as 
the  Juba  River,  and  in  the  dry  season  it  is  only  found  in  the  near 
vicinity  of  the  Tana."  (Selous,  1914,  p.  77.) 

"North  of  the  Tana  River  it  extends  parallel  to  the  coast  as  far 
as  the  latitude  of  Port  Durnford"  (Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914, 
vol.  1,  p.  359). 

"It  is  efficiently  protected"  (Kingston,  1930,  p.  43) . 

Ritchie  (in  Maydon,  1932,  pp.  256-257)  writes: 

These  fine-looking  animals  .  .  .  are  found  only  in  a  comparatively  small 
part  of  Kenya  and  the  adjacent  Italian  Territory.  They  inhabit  a  zone  some 
sixty  miles  broad  north  of  the  Tana  River,  which  is,  roughly,  as  follows: 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  659 

from  about  Massa  Bubu  on  the  Tana,  downstream  to  within  some  forty  miles 
of  the  coast,  the  zone  runs  for  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles,  first 
north-easterly  and  then  northward.  Within  this  area  they  are  fairly  numerous, 
being  found  in  herds  of  from  half  a  dozen  to  forty  or  more,  though  it  is 
uncommon  to  see  more  than  twenty  together.  .  .  . 

Lions  are  their  chief  enemy,  though  doubtless  Leopards  and  Wild  Dogs 
kill  a  few.  Fortunately  the  Somali  do  not,  I  think,  kill  them  at  all;  and  their 
wildness  cannot  be  attributed  to  human  molestation. 

"Very  few  are  ever  shot  owing  to  its  habitat  .  .  .  being  so  remote 
and  only  one  is  allowed  on  a  full  licence"  (P.  W.  Whetham,  in  Hit., 
March  8, 1933) . 

"Have  been  very  difficult  to  reach  in  former  times,  but  now  their 
country  can  be  approached  by  car"  (Maydon,  1933,  p.  738) . 

The  range  is  said  to  extend  from  the  Tana  River  to  Lak  Dera  in 
Jubaland,  about  160  miles  (Prentiss  N.  Gray,  MS.) . 

From  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Experts  (1938,  p.  12),  we 
read: 

Another  case  of  a  species  of  a  highly  restricted  distribution  is  the  Hirola, 
or  Hunter's  Hartebeest,  .  .  .  which  occurs  only  between  the  southern  border 
of  Somaliland  (both  British  and  Italian)  and  the  north  bank  of  the  Tana 
River.  To  some  extent,  this  species  enjoys  a  natural  protection  owing  to  the 
inaccessibility  of  its  habitat,  but  with  the  constant  improvement  in  com- 
munications, it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  stock  of  this  species  will  decrease 
unless  protective  measures  are  adopted.  We  are  glad  to  note  the  assurance 
of  the  Italian  Representative  that  special  consideration  will  be  given  by  the 
Italian  authorities  to  the  possibility  of  affording  a  regime  of  protection  to 
this  species  as  soon  as  the  Italian  Government  receives  the  report  of  the  East 
African  Scientific  Mission  ....  The  United  Kingdom  Representatives  also 
have  undertaken  to  give  careful  consideration  to  this  matter  before  the  next 
meeting  of  the  Conference. 

White-tailed  Gnu;   Black  Wildebeest,     /wart  Wildebeest 
(Cape  Dutch) 

CONNOCHAETES  GNOU  (Zimmermann) 

Bos  Gnou  Zimmermann,  Spec.  Zool.  Geogr.,  p.  372,  1777.  (Interior  of  Africa, 
between  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Tropic  of  Cancer;  type  locality  re- 
stricted by  Harper  (1940,  p.  329)  to  the  "Colesberg  district  of  the  Cape 
Province.") 

FIGS.:  Buffon,  Hist.  Nat.,  suppl.,  vol.  6,  pis.  8-9,  1782;  Harris,  1840,  pi.  1; 
Millais,  1895,  pis.  facing  pp.  220,  226,  figs,  on  pp.  222-228,  231;  Sclater 
and  Thomas,  1895,  vol.  1,  pi.  12,  pp.  115-116,  figs.  15,  15a;  Bryden,  1899, 
pi.  3,  fig.  6,  p.  209,  fig.  26;  W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  149,  fig.  44; 
Elliot,  1907,  p.  59,  fig.  13;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  3,  fig.  6,  p.  131,  fig.  35; 
Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  2,  p.  49,  fig.  8;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  11;  May- 
don, 1932,  pi.  109;  Ward,  1935,  p.  78,  fig.;  Field  Mus.  News,  vol.  8,  no.  2, 
p.  1,  fig,  1937;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  664,  fig.;  Leister,  1938,  p.  78,  fig.  A. 

"The  Black  Wildebeest  is  extinct  in  a  wild  state.  There  appears 
to  be  a  fair  number  of  semi-protected  herds  on  farms  in  the  Trans- 
vaal and  the  Orange  Free  State."  (Shortridge,  1934,  p.  463.) 


660  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

General  color  dark  brown  or  blackish;  tufts  of  long  hairs  on 
muzzle,  throat,  and  between  forelegs  black;  mane  upright,  longer 
middle  hairs  black,  shorter  outer  hairs  yellowish  white ;  tail  reaching 
nearly  to  ground,  whitish,  except  for  dark  brown  base.  Horns  ex- 
panded at  base,  directed  at  first  downward  and  forward,  but  finally 
curving  upward;  record  length  on  front  curve,  30|  inches.  Height  at 
shoulder,  46  inches.  Females  much  smaller.  (Sclater  and  Thomas, 
1895,  vol.  1,  p.  112;  W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  pp.  148-150;  Ward, 
1935,  p.  78.) 

Selous  (1914,  pp.  53-54)  writes: 

This  animal  was  once  very  abundant  on  all  the  open  plains  and  karroos 
of  the  Cape  Colony  from  Cape  Agulhas  to  the  Orange  River,  and  in  all  the 
open  grass  lands  of  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  the  high  veld  of  the  Southern 
and  Western  Transvaal,  sometimes  ranging  beyond  the  south-western  border 
of  that  territory  into  Southern  Bechuanaland.  I  met  with  them  there  myself 
both  in  1872  and  1880. 

By  1871  .  .  .  black  wildebeests  had  already  been  exterminated  in  every 
part  of  the  Cape  Colony  with  the  exception  of  the  district  of  Beaufort  West, 
where  they  lingered  on  for  some  years  longer.  But  at  that  time  they  were 
still  to  be  seen  in  great  herds  in  many  parts  of  the  Orange  Free  State  and 
the  Transvaal.  In  1875  I  saw  very  considerable  numbers  of  these  animals 
between  Potchefstroom  in  the  Transvaal  and  Harrismith  in  the  Orange  Free 
State,  and  again  in  1876  I  met  with  a  good  many  in  the  Western  Transvaal 
near  the  Hartz  River.  But  at  this  time  they  were  being  shot  down  in  every 
part  of  their  range  at  a  terribly  rapid  rate  merely  for  the  value  of  their 
hides,  and  I  doubt  if  there  was  a  single  black  wildebeest  left  alive  in  any 
part  of  the  Transvaal  at  the  end  of  the  year  1885.  By  that  date  the  species 
would  no  doubt  have  already  become  absolutely  extinct  had  it  not  been 
for  the  public  spirit  of  two  Boer  farmers  of  the  Orange  Free  State — Messrs 
Du  Plessis  and  Terblanc — who  carefully  protected  the  poor  remnants  of  the 
once  great  herds  of  black  wildebeests  which  were  still  running  on  their  farms. 
[There  were  about  300  of  the  animals  on  each  of  the  two  farms,]  Mr  F.  E. 
Blaauw  .  .  .  has  also  introduced  some  black  wildebeests  into  Holland,  where 
they  have  thriven  exceedingly  well  on  his  estate  near  Amsterdam. 

Harris  (1839,  p.  375)  refers  to  the  species  as  "abundant  on  the 
plains  south  of  the  Vaal  River." 
Bryden  (1899,  pp.  207-213)  gives  the  following  account: 

The  black  wildebeest  is  in  its  behaviour  one  of  the  oddest,  most  capricious, 
and  most  fantastic  of  all  wild  creatures.  ...  Its  sudden  and  fantastic  antics 
and  capers  are  always  a  source  of  wonderment  to  the  onlooker.  .  .  . 

If  it  had  not  been  for  a  devastating  disease  known  as  the  "brand-sickte," 
or  burning  sickness,  which  periodically  thinned  the  herds  of  these  and  other 
game,  their  numbers  would  have  been  far  too  many  even  for  that  vast  country 
[Cape  Colony]  to  have  supported.  .  .  .  Down  to  the  year  1850  an  immense 
amount  of  slaughter  had  been  performed  by  the  Dutch  hunters  and  farmers 
for  something  like  eighty  or  a  hundred  years  among  these  and  other  crea- 
tures. .  .  .  The  range  of  this  wildebeest  never  seems  to  have  extended  east- 
ward in  the  Cape  Colony  beyond  the  Kei  River.  .  .  . 


ORDER    ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  661 

The  flesh  of  the  black  wildebeest  is  not  by  any  means  good  eating.  .  .  . 

The  total  number  now  existing  in  the  whole  of  South  Africa  is  probably 
.  .  .  well  under  600  or  700  head.  [The]  Boers  find  that  they  can  easily  ob- 
tain from  rich  men  at  Johannesburg  and  elsewhere  £10  and  more  for  the 
privilege  of  shooting  ...  a  single  head  of  these  rare  animals.  ...  In  the 
old  days  in  Cape  Colony  the  frontier  farmers  shot  black  wildebeest  and 
quagga  principally  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  their  Hottentot  herdsmen 
and  servants  with  a  food  supply,  and  thus  saving  their  sheep  and  goats.  .  .  . 
They  also  shot  these  animals  for  their  skins,  which  they  required  for  ropes, 
halters,  sacks,  riems,  harness,  whips,  and  other  gear.  Under  this  free-and-easy 
system  the  game  of  Cape  Colony  soon  began  to  vanish.  But  it  remained 
for  the  wasteful  farmers  of  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State  to  become 
mere  sordid  skin-hunters,  and  to  destroy  millions  of  animals  for  the  paltry 
value  of  their  hides.  These  hides  were  sent  down  country  and  shipped  to 
Europe.  In  forty  years  even  the  once  apparently  inexhaustible  herds  of  the 
Free  State  and  Transvaal  became  shot  out,  and  these  countries  are  now  all 
but  devoid  of  the  noble  game  that  once  gave  life  and  beauty  and  a  perfectly 
unique  charm  to  many  an  otherwise  dreary  landscape. 

W.  L.  Sclater  writes  (1900,  vol.  1,  p.  152) :  "The  white-tailed  gnu 
forms  the  dexter  supporter  of  the  arms  of  the  Colony  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  .  .  .  ,  and  it  would  be  a  thousand  pities  if  so  character- 
istic a  form  was  allowed  to  become  altogether  extinct,  as  seems  not 
unlikely  to  happen." 

"It  is  at  present  only  found  in  the  Orange  Free  State  (where  herds 
are,  amongst  other  localities,  still  preserved  in  the  Kroonstad  and 
Winburg  districts)  and  in  the  South-Western  Transvaal.  ...  In 
May,  1918,  ...  we  saw  about  800  of  these  .  .  .  creatures  on  a  farm 
near  Marquard,  in  the  Winburg  district.  They  consorted  in  herds 
of  from  fourteen  to  sixty  individuals."  (Haagner,  1920,  pp.  168- 
169.) 

"The  species  benefited  greatly  from  the  breaking  down  of  fences 
during  the  Boer  War;  the  herds  got  mixed  and  the  results  of  in- 
breeding were  cancelled.  Now  they  are  all  enclosed  again  and  their 
continuance  depends  purely  upon  the  fancy  of  the  owners  of  the 
farms.  There  is  a  small  herd  ...  on  the  outskirts  of  Cape  Town. 
It  numbers  7  at  present."  (E.  L.  Gill,  in  litt.,  December  13,  1932.) 

"Black  wildebeest  venison  may  frequently  be  seen  in  game  shops 
in  Johannesburg  and  Pretoria"  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.. 2,  p.  463) . 

"Most  of  them  are  kept  essentially  for  lucrative  purposes,  actual 
protection  is  a  subterfuge.  On  account  of  the  sport  they  offer  when 
pursued  on  horseback,  hunters  are  willing  to  pay  during  the  open 
season  the  high  fees  (five  pounds)  for  every  animal  killed.  I  see 
no  possibility  of  definite  protection  except  by  buying  one  or  more 
of  the  most  suitable  farms."  (Herbert  Lang,  in  litt.,  January  23, 
1935.) 

Roberts  (1937,  pp.  774-775)  writes: 

So  far,  I  believe,  it  has  not  been  introduced  into  the  only  Government 
game  reserve  in  the  Orange  Free  State,  Somerville  Estate,  a  defect  that 


662 


EXTINCT   AND  VANISHING    MAMMALS 


should  be  remedied  without  delay.  Some  are  preserved  on  the  De  Beers 
Company's  property  in  Griqualand  West;  but  I  understand  that  one  estate 
in  the  Kroonstad  district,  where  there  were  a  large  number,  has  recently 
come  into  the  market  owing  to  the  demise  of  the  owner,  and  in  such  ways 
the  animal  may  become  exterminated  should  new  owners  not  care  to  pre- 
serve it.  It  may  be  stated  that  such  peculiar  and  rare  types  are  worth  a 
hundred  times  more  than  domestic  cattle,  and  if  ever  there  were  a  need  for 
protecting  relict  types  this  is  one  of  the  greatest. 

"A  few  recently  introduced  into  the  Somerville  Reserve,  Orange 
Free  State  . 


FIG.  61. — White-tailed  Gnu   (Connochaetes  gnou) 

"Apparently  only  a  few  hundred  in  existence.  Should  receive 
careful  legislative  protection,  otherwise  its  numbers  may  dwindle  to 
a  dangerous  degree."  (G.  C.  Shortridge,  in  litt.,  October  14,  1937.) 

While  it  is  not  indigenous  to  Natal,  there  are  at  present  a  few 
specimens  on  private  farms  in  northern  Natal,  where  they  are 
rigidly  protected  by  the  owners  (Administrator's  Office,  Natal,  in 
Hit.,  December,  1936) . 

There  are  about  eighty  animals  on  the  De  Beers  Farm  south  of 
Kimberley.  Those  on  farms  in  the  Kroonstad  and  Odendaalsrust 
districts  of  Orange  Free  State  suffered  very  heavily  during  the 
severe  drought  of  1933.  (R.  Bigalke,  in  litt.,  October,  1936.) 

As  a  Class  B  species,  the  White-tailed  Gnu  is  accorded  partial 
protection  under  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 


ORDER    ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  663 

Yellow-backed   Duiker;    Bush-goat.     Cephalophe   a   dos   jaune 
(Fr.).    Waldbock    (Ger.) 

CEPHALOPHUS  SYLVICULTRIX  SYLVICULTRIX  (Afzelius) 

Antilope  Sylvicultrix  Afzelius,  Nova  Acta  Reg.  Soc.  Sci.  Upsaliensis,  vol.  7, 
p.  265,  1815.  ("Mountains  of  Sierra  Leone  and  districts  adjoining  the 
Sousso  Rivers  Pongas  and  Quia"  [both  rivers  apparently  in  French 
Guinea];  type  locality  restricted  by  Lydekker  and  Blaine  (1914,  vol.  2, 
p.  64)  to  Sierra  Leone.) 

SYNONYMS:  Cephalophus  thomasi  Jentink  (1901);  C.  sclateri  Jentink  (1901); 
C.  coxi  Jentink  (1906). 

FIGS.:  Afzelius,  op.  cit.,  pi.  8,  fig.  1;  Gray,  Gleanings  Knowsley  Menagerie, 
pi.  23,  fig.  3,  1850;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1895,  vol.  1,  pi.  13,  pi.  14,  fig.  2; 
Bryden,  1899,  pi.  6,  fig.  1;  Jentink,  1901,  pis.  1-2;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  6, 
fig.  1;  Lydekker  and  Blaine,  1914,  vol.  2,  p.  65,  fig.  10;  Maydon,  1932, 
pi.  128;  Ward,  1935.  p.  87,  fig.;  Spl.  Publ.  Am.  Comm.  Intern.  Wild  Life 
Protection,  no.  6,  p.  25,  fig.,  1935. 

This  Duiker,  as  a  Class  B  species,  is  given  partial  protection 
under  the  London  Convention  of  1933.  It  has  a  wide  range,  from 
Angola  and  Northern  Rhodesia  at  least  to  French  Guinea,  and, 
despite  serious  persecution,  seems  to  maintain  itself  in  moderate 
numbers. 

Form  stout  and  heavy;  general  color  all  over,  dark  blackish 
brown;  crest  of  elongated  hairs  about  base  of  horns,  blackish  in 
front,  reddish  brown  behind ;  muzzle,  chin,  and  ear  tips  whitish ; 
a  dorsal  ornament  extending  from  middle  of  the  back  to  the  tail; 
anterior  portion  an  elongated,  brownish  yellow  triangle;  posterior 
portion  a  broad  moon-shaped  disk,  grizzled  with  black  and  yellow- 
ish hairs,  and  separated  from  the  anterior  portion  by  a  black  band. 
Height  of  female  at  shoulder,  34  inches.  Horns  long  and  tapering, 
rather  bowed  downwards  terminally,  those  of  female  much  smaller 
than  the  male's;  record  length  of  latter,  7|  inches.  (Sclater  and 
Thomas,  1895,  vol.  1,  pp.  126-127;  Jentink,  1901,  pp.  180-184;  Ward, 
1935,  p.  85.) 

Miss  St.  Leger  (1936,  p.  215)  gives  the  range  of  C.  s.  sylvicultrix 
as  "Sierra  Leone  to  Gaboon  and  Angola;  Congo  Forests  to  Ituri 
Valley  and  North  Rhodesia."  The  following  report  from  Gambia 
(E.  Johnson,  1937,  p.  64)  perhaps  requires  verification:  "This  large 
Duiker  is  rarely  seen  in  the  Gambia,  a  few  specimens  have  been  shot 
in  the  small  forest  district  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river.  Protected 
from  16th  June  to  31st  December.  A  couple  of  hundred  is  the  maxi- 
mum existing  in  the  Gambia  now." 

The  General  Government  of  French  West  Africa  (in  litt.,  Novem- 
ber, 1936)  reports  the  species  as  occurring  in  French  Guinea,  the 
Ivory  Coast,  and  the  bend  of  the  Niger  River. 

In  Sierra  Leone  it  occurs  generally  but  is  not  common.  There  is  no 


664  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

evidence  of  depletion,  and  no  protective  measures  exist.    (Colonial 
Secretary's  Office,  in  lift.,  July,  1937.) 

In  Liberia  it  occurs  sparingly  on  the  Mahfa  River,  but  more 
commonly  on  the  Manna  and  Solyman  Rivers  (Jentink,  1888,  p.  20) . 
A  specimen  was  received  by  the  Berlin  Museum  from  the  vicinity 
of  Schieffelinsville,  but  Buttikofer  (1890,  vol.  2,  p.  376)  could  find 
no  trace  of  it  there. 

In  the  Gold  Coast  it  is  "still  plentiful  and  in  no  present  danger  of 
extinction"  (Director  of  Agriculture,  Gold  Coast,  in  Hit.,  January 
22,  1937).  It  "has  probably  a  similar  range  to  that  of  the  bongo 
[northern  edge  of  the  forest  country  and  the  fringing  forest  of  the 
grass  country  in  north  and  east  Ashanti].  So  far  it  has  possibly 
not  decreased  much,  and  it  seems  that  it  has  never  been  really  com- 
mon. With  the  increasing  demand  for  meat  it  is  often  killed  at 
night."  (Asst.  Conservator  of  Forests,  Gold  Coast,  in  litt.,  July  22, 
1937.) 

"Herr  Matschie  has  recorded  its  occurrence  in  Togoland"  (Sclater 
and  Thomas,  1895,  vol.  1,  pp.  129-130). 

In  the  French  Cameroons  it  is  normally  not  common  (Inspection 
of  Waters  and  Forests,  Yaounde,  in  litt.,  January  12,  1937) .  It  is 
without  any  special  protection,  except  that  only  two  head  may  be 
killed  in  one  day  by  a  permit-holder  (Paris  Agency  of  Cameroons, 
in  litt.,  November,  1936) . 

"In  Gabun  I  have  met  with  this  Duiker  throughout  the  forest 
zone,  to  which  it  is  almost  entirely  confined.  Its  habitat  scarcely 
facilitates  encounters,  however  abundant  it  may  be  in  the  forest, 
where  it  lives  by  solitary  couples.  The  natives  capture  a  great  many 
in  nets,  to  judge  by  the  multitude  of  horns  figuring  in  the  'medica- 
ments' of  hunting — kinds  of  magic  altars  where  the  skulls  of  all  the 
animals  captured  are  hoarded,  in  order  to  bring  luck  in  hunting. 
The  various  kinds  of  Duikers  inhabit  all  the  high  secondary  forest, 
and  probably  the  primary  forest — if  there  is  any  vestige  of  it  left 
in  the  interior,  which  I  doubt.  They  are  hunted  very  actively,  and 
their  meat  forms  the  base  of  the  flesh  diet  of  the  forest  populations. 
Despite  these  inroads,  the  number  of  Duikers  does  not  seem  to  de- 
crease appreciably,  owing  to  their  prolificness  and  to  the  protection 
afforded  by  their  forest  habitat."  (Free  translation  of  letter  from 
A.  R.  Maclatchy,  February  5,  1937) . 

In  the  Ubangi-Shari  Territory  this  Duiker  occurs  in  a  number  of 
the  gallery  forests  south  of  latitude  7°  N.  in  the  Ubangi  Basin,  but 
it  is  always  rare.  It  is  not  threatened,  and  it  ought  to  be  common 
throughout  the  Great  Forest  (Middle  Congo  and  Gabun) .  (L.  Blan- 
cou,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

In  the  Congo  Basin  skulls  are  recorded  from  Ubangi  and  Uele, 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  665 

the  Equatorial  forest  (eastern  as  well  as  western) ,  Oshwe  near  Lake 
Leopold  II,  Katanga,  and  northeastern  Rhodesia.  "The  Congo-basin 
south  of  the  great  curvature  of  the  mighty  Congo  river,  west  of  Lua- 
laba  and  north  of  Kasai  rivers,  is  inhabited  by  the  largest  among 
the  Duikers,  C.  sylvicultrix."  (Lonnberg,  1919,  pp.  163,  185.) 

The  species  is  still  found,  though  in  much  reduced  numbers,  in  all 
the  forests  and  gallery  forests  of  the  Belgian  Congo.  Less  rare  than 
the  Bongo,  it  becomes  each  year  the  victim  of  the  hecatombs  at  the 
time  of  drives  with  nets.  (A.  J.  Jobaert,  in  litt.,  November  10, 1936.) 

The  hunting  of  this  species  is  not  allowed  in  the  Belgian  Congo 
(Forest  and  Game  Service, 'in  litt.,  November,  1936). 

In  Angola  it  occurs  "in  wooded  kloofs  high  on  western  plateau" 
(Varian,  in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  379) . 

It  is  "scarce  in  Northern  Rhodesia  although  occasionally  found 
in  the  country  bordering  the  Congo  Free  State."  It  can  be  gotten 
round  Kasempa  (on  Governor's  license  only).  (Lyell,  in  Maydon, 
1932,  pp.  328,  332.) 

In  Northern  Rhodesia,  "owing  to  its  strictly  nocturnal  habits  it  is 
possibly  a  good  deal  more  plentiful  than  one  would  credit,  in  fact 
I  have  been  told  that  in  parts  of  north-western  Mankoya  in  Barotse, 
there  were  localities  in  which  it  used  to  be  more  plentiful  than  the 
common  duiker.  It  still  occurs  not  uncommonly  in  parts  of  the 
Mwinilunga,  Solwezi  and  Ndola  Districts,  particularly  near  the 
Congo  border,  and  also  very  sparingly  in  the  Kawambwa,  Fort 
Rosebery,  Kasempa  and  Balovale  (Barotse)  Districts,  and  on  the 
Mankoya-Mumbwa  border. 

"Special  measures  for  protection  are  recommended  elsewhere. 

"Where  it  occurs  the  natives  trap  a  fair  number  on  their  lands." 
(Pitman,  1934,  p.  18.) 

The  number  of  Yellow-backed  Duikers  in  Northern  Rhodesia  (ex- 
cluding Barotse)  is  estimated  at  about  1,500  (Pitman,  1934,  p.  331). 

Among  the  localities  from  which  Lydekker  and  Blaine  (1914, 
vol.  2,  pp.  65-66)  record  specimens  are  the  following:  Sierra  Leone; 
Fanti,  Prang,  and  Bibianaha,  Gold  Coast;  Oban  and  Lagos,  southern 
Nigeria;  Mbaya,  southeast  Congo;  and  Kambovi,  N.  W.  Rhodesia. 

Itiiri  Yellow-backed  Duiker 

CEPHALOPHUS  SYLVICULTRIX  ITURIENSIS  M.  Rothschild  and  Neuville  # 

Cephalophus  ituriensis  M.  Rothschild  and  Neuville,  C.  R.  Acad.  Sci.  [Paris], 
vol.  144,  p.  98,  1907.   ("La  vallee  de  FIturi,"  northeastern  Belgian  Congo.) 

Little  is  known  of  this  subspecies.  It  is  the  only  one,  in  addition 
to  C.  s.  sylvicultrix,  recognized  by  Miss  St.  Leger  in  her  recent  mono- 
graph (1936,  p.  215),  where  its  range  is  given  as  "Ituri  Valley  to 
British  Ruanda." 


666  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

It  is  smaller  than  the  typical  subspecies,  and  its  general  color  is 
much  darker  than  that  of  "  C.  coxi"  [  =  C.  s.  sylvicultrix] ;  blackish 
fawn  to  light  gray  on  cheeks  and  chin ;  forehead  and  dorsal  part  of 
neck  nearly  black;  frontal  crest  rufous,  slightly  mixed  with  black; 
anterior  dorsal  patch  almost  linear,  the  hairs  pale  yellowish,  tipped 
with  fuscous;  posterior  patch  not  clearly  separated  from  the  other, 
semilunar  in  shape,  the  hairs  black,  tipped  with  white ;  under  parts 
washed  with  yellowish.  The  type  is  a  young  male,  whose  shoulder 
height  is  660  mm.;  horns,  41  mm.  (Rothschild  and  Neuville,  1907, 
pp.  98-100.) 

A  large  number  are  said  to  have  been  collected  in  the  Ituri  forest 
by  the  American  Museum  Congo  Expedition  (1909-1915). 

"A  yellow-backed  Duiker  has  recently  been  obtained  from  the 
forests  of  this  district  [Kigezi  District,  Western  Province  of  Uganda] 
by  Captain  J.  E.  T.  Phillips"  (Duke,  in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  281). 

The  species  is  said  to  have  been  seen  on  Mount  Mikeno,  Belgian 
Congo,  by  Gyldenstolpe.  Baron  de  1'Epine  has  sent  a  specimen  from 
Ruanda.  (Schouteden,  1934,  p.  302.) 

Ward  (1935,  p.  86)  records  a  specimen  from  the  Sudan-Congo 
border. 

Miss  St.  Leger  (1936,  p.  215)  mentions  three  specimens  from 
Mount  Sabinio  [near  the  Congo-Uganda-Ruanda  boundary]  and 
British  Ruanda. 

Its  existence  in  the  Pare  National  Albert  is  doubtful.  It  is  found 
on  the  mountain  chain  forming  the  Congo-Nile  watershed  east  , of 
Lake  Kivu.  '  (Conservator,  National  Parks,  Belgian  Congo,  inMtt.., 
November,  1936.) 

It  is  met  with  on  the  slopes  of  the  Virunga,  Muhavura,  and  prob- 
ably other  volcanoes  in  Ruanda  (Verhulst,  in  litt.,  January,  1937.) 

Jentink's  Duiker;  Black-headed  Duiker.    Tapirantilope  (Ger.) 

CEPHALOPHUS   JENTINKI  Thomas 

Cephalophus  jentinki  Thomas,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1892.  p.  417.  1892, 
("Liberia";  the  restricted  type  locality  is  apparently  Sharp  Hill,  near 
Schieffelinsville  (cj.  Biittikofer,  1890,  vol.  2,  p.  375).) 

FIGS.:  Notes  Leyden  Mus.,  vol.  7,  pi.  10,  1885,  and  vol.  10,  pi.  1.  1888;  Biitti- 
kofer, 1890,  vol.  2,  p.  374,  fig.;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1895,  vol.  1,  pi.  15. 

This  species  is  noteworthy  by  reason  of  its  extreme  rarity;  in  col- 
lections and  its  restricted  range  in  Liberia.  No  additional  specimens 
have  been  taken  for  more  than  half  a  century,  and  the  male  is  still 
unknown. 

"Colour  of  head,  ears,  neck  all  round  as  far  back  as  the  withers, 
throat,  and  a  narrow  sternal  line  deep  uniform  black ;  of  body  above 
arid  below  coarsely  grizzled  grey;  the  hairs  ringed  with  black  and 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  667 

white.  Lips  and  chin,  a  line  all  round  the  fore-quarters  separating 
the  black  from  the  grey,  axillae,  groins,  fore  and  hind  legs  whitish; 
a  rather  darker  mark  running  across  the  outer  side  of  the  forearm." 
Horns  of  female,  155  mm.;  height  at  shoulder,  770  mm.  (Thomas, 
1892,  p.  417.) 

This  Duiker  was  first  described  by  Jentink  (1885,  p.  272),  under 
the  impression  that  it  was  identical  with  C.  longiceps  Gray.  He 
considered  it  (1888,  p.  19)  a  very  rare  species,  since  only  three 
specimens  could  be  procured  by  the  hunters  for  the  Leyden  Museum. 

A  little  below  Schieffelinsville,  in  the  triangle  formed  by  the  Junk, 
Du  Queah,  and  Farmington  Rivers,  arises  Sharp  Hill,  covered  with 
forest  and  surrounded  by  swamps.  Here  all  three  specimens  col- 
lected for  the  Leyden  Museum  were  secured.  The  natives  hunt  the 
animals  in  the  rainy  season,  when  they  can  reach  the  hill  in  canoes. 
A  fourth  specimen  was  sighted  in  the  forests  near  Fali,  northwest 
of  Monrovia.  (Biittikofer,  1890,  vol.  2,  pp.  375-376.) 

"Apparently  no  other  collectors  [than  Biittikofer  and  Stampfli] 
have  taken  specimens,  and  the  range  is  probably  very  limited" 
(Allen  and  Coolidge,  1930,  p.  610) . 

Reports  of  the  species  in  Sierra  Leone  remain  unverified. 

"It  is  only  reported  from  Sierra  Leone.  But  according  to  Captain 
Stanley  it  is  quite  common  there."  (Hay wood,  19336,  p.  24.) 

According  to  the  Colonial  Secretary's  Office  (in  litt.,  July,  1937) , 
it  is  said  to  occur  in  Sierra  Leone,  but  must  be  rare.  There  are  no 
protective  measures. 

Miss  St.  Leger  remarks  (1936,  p.  215) :  "Apparently  confined  to 
Liberia." 

Partial  protection  of  this  Duiker,  as  a  Class  B  species,  is  accorded 
by  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 

Brooke's  Duiker 

CEPHALOPHUS  OGILBYI  BROOKEI  Thomas 

Cephalophus  Brookei  Thomas,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  7,  vol.  11,  p.  290, 
1903.  ("Fanti,"  Gold  Coast;  the  more  restricted  type  locality  is  "Antrim, 
Fanti"  (St.  Leger,  1936,  p.  222).) 

FIG.:    ?Sclater  and  Thomas,  1895,  vol.  1,  pi.  18,  fig.  2  (as  C.  ogilbyi). 

This  Duiker  "must  now  be  very  rare  or  extinct,  no  specimens 
having  been  recorded  for  a  great  number  of  years"  (Director  of 
Agriculture,  Gold  Coast,  in  litt.,  January  22, 1937). 

General  color  bright  orange  to  rufous  on  the  hind  quarters;  nose, 
nape,  and  neck  brown  or  blackish;  a  black  median  dorsal  stripe, 
with  a  maximum  width  of  2-2J  inches,  terminating  3  or  4  inches 
from  the  tail ;  tail  with  a  grizzled  black-and-white  terminal  tuft ; 
legs  uniformly  light  to  the  hoofs.  Height  at  shoulders,  500  mm. 


668  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

(Thomas,  1903,  p.  290.)  Record  length  of  horns,  4&  inches  (Ward, 
1935,  p.  85). 

This  mainland  representative  of  C.  ogilbyi  (known  only  from 
Fernando  Po)  ranges  from  Liberia  to  the  Cameroons. 

According  to  Biittikofer  (1890,  vol.  2,  p.  377),  it  appears  to  be 
common  in  the  forests  of  Liberia. 

"Specimens  .  .  .  are  recorded  ...  as  having  been  procured  on 
the  Du  Queah  and  Farmington  Rivers  in  Liberia  by  Biittikofer 
and  Stampfli.  .  .  . 

"In  the  Cameroons  the  present  species  has  been  met  with  by  the 
German  collectors  Preuss  and  Morgan,  as  recorded  by  Herr  Mat- 
schie,  and  in  Togoland,  on  the  same  authority,  by  Kling  and  Butt- 
ner."  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1895,  vol.  1,  pp.  162-163.) 

"Very  little  is  known  of  it  to  European  sportsmen"  (Bryden, 
1899,  p.  223). 

Lydekker  and  Blaine  (1914,  vol.  2,  p.  85)  record  specimens  from: 
Fanti  and  Usshur,  Gold  Coast;  Cape  Dikundscha,  Cameroons;  and 
the  Oban  district,  southern  Nigeria. 

Cape  Colony  Klipspringer.      Klippspringer    (Ger.) 

OREOTRAGUS  OREOTRAGUS  OREOTRAGUS  (Zimmermann) 

Antilope  Oreotragus  Zimmermann,  Geogr.  Geschichte,  vol.  3,  p.  269,  1783. 
("The  highest  cliffs  at  the  Cape  [of  Good  Hope].") 

SYNONYM:  Antilope  saltatrix  Boddaert  (1785). 

FIGS.:  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  pi.  259,  1785;  Steedman,  1835,  vol.  2,  pi.  facing 
p.  9;  Jardine,  Naturalists'  Libr.,  Mamm.,  vol.  7,  pi.  30,  1842;  Bryden, 
1899,  pi.  6,  fig.  8;  W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  167,  fig.  47;  Lydekker, 
1908,  pi.  6,  fig.  8;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  55;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  674,  fig. 

This  little  antelope  is  easily  shot  and  disappears  rapidly  before 
settlement.  Some  apprehension  is  felt  concerning  its  survival  in  the 
Cape  Province. 

General  color  speckled  yellow  and  brown;  hair  very  coarse,  flat- 
tened in  section,  wavy,  and  thick;  chin,  belly,  and  inner  side  of 
limbs  whitish;  margin  of  ears  black;  tail  very  short.  The  animal 
walks  on  the  tips  only  of  the  vertical  hoofs.  Height  at  shoulders,  23 
inches.  Horns  short  and  straight,  the  basal  third  ringed;  female 
hornless.  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  pp.  166-168.)  Record  length 
of  horns  of  0.  o.  oreotragus,  4^  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  108) . 

The  range  of  this  subspecies  is  here  provisionally  considered  re- 
stricted to  the  Cape  Province,  British  Bechuanaland,  and  the  south- 
ern portion  of  South-West  Africa  (Great  Namaqualand) . 

"Once  extremely  abundant  in  the  Cape  Colony,  it  is  now  daily 
becoming  more  rare — the  venison  being  deservedly  reputed  among 
the  first  that  the  country  affords,  whilst  the  elastic  hair  is  sought 
above  all  other  materials  for  the  stuffing  of  saddles.  .  .  .  Found 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA:    EVEN-TOED  UNGULATES  669 

usually  in  pairs  among  the  most  precipitous  rocks,  and  inaccessible 
summits,  the  Klipspringer  would  appear  in  Southern  Africa  to  sup- 
ply the  place  of  the  ibex  and  chamois."  (Harris,  1840,  quoted  in 
Sclater  and  Thomas,  1896,  vol.  2,  p.  8.) 

"In  the  Cape  Colony  it  is  said  that  the  Klipspringer,  when  taken 
young,  is  easily  tamed  and  makes  a  most  sagacious  pet;  but  it  does 
not  appear  to  live  long  in  captivity"  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1896, 
vol.  2,  p.  10). 

"In  the  Cape  Colony  they  are  far  less  numerous  than  formerly, 
but  throughout  .  .  .  Bechuanaland  are  still  plentiful"  (Kirby,  in 
Bryden,  1899,  p.  236) . 

"The  klipspringer  seems  to  be  recorded  from  almost  every  district, 
where  there  are  rocky  hills;  the  South  African  Museum  possesses 
examples  from  .  .  .  Worcester  and  Beaufort  West,  and  there  is 
still  a  considerable  number  of  these  antelopes  on  the  hills  running 
from  Table  Mountain  to  Cape  Point  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  Cape  Town.  .  .  . 

"They  can  be  easily  shot,  especially  if  hunted  by  dogs,  when  they 
generally  take  refuge  on  some  more  or  less  inaccessible  pinnacle  and 
form  an  easy  mark  for  the  bullet.  .  .  . 

"Mr.  Bryden  relates  a  curious  story  to  the  effect  that  the  Bechu- 
anas  are  in  the  habit  of  catching  the  young  klipspringers  alive  and 
carrying  them  about,  pinching  them  from  time  to  time  to  make  them 
squeal;  this  they  do  as  a  charm  to  bring  down  rain."  (W.  L.  Sclater, 
1900,  vol.  1,  pp.  168-169.) 

Shortridge  (1934,  vol.  2,  pp.  477-479)  writes  as  follows: 

Klipspringer  from  the  Orange  River  Valley  and  Great  Namaqualand  are 
provisionally  referred  to  the  typical  subspecies.  .  .  . 

The  Orange  River. — Found  on  rocky  plateaux  and  in  comparatively  level 
stony  country,  as  well  as  among  hills,  between  Kakamas  and  the  coast;  but 
absent  from  the  isolated  kopjes  that  rise  out  of  the  plains  between  Kakamas 
and  Upington.  Farther  east  along  the  river,  klipspringer  are  said  to  reappear 
in  Prieska  District. 

Great  Namaqualand. — Klipspringer  inhabit  the  coastal  ranges  and  the  few 
inland  mountains,  such  as  the  Karas  Ranges  and  Great  Bukaros  Mountain; 
said  to  be  scarce  in  Bethanie  District;  in  Luderitz  District,  occurring  chiefly 
around  Aus;  klipspringer  are  reported  from  the  western  parts  of  Gibeon, 
Maltahohe,  and  Rehoboth  Districts.  .  .  . 

Klipspringer  have  either  died  out  or  become  exceedingly  rare  in  most  of 
the  farming  areas  of  the  Cape  Province,  except  in  the  sub-coastal  region 
between  Uitenhage  and  Cape  Town,  where  they  are  partially  protected. 

"A  small  antelope  that  disappears  rapidly  before  settlement. 
Still  fairly  plentiful  in  Little  Namaqualand,  and  probably  else- 
where in  the  thinly  populated  parts  of  the  N.  W.  Cape — but  rare  and 
rapidly  disappearing  in  the  Eastern  Cape  Province.  Extinct  in 
Kaffraria."  (G.  C.  Shortridge,  in  lift.,  October  14,  1937.) 


670  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Transvaal  Klipspringer 

OREOTRAGUS  OREOTRAGUS  IRAN  SVAALEN  sis  Roberts 

Oreotragus  oreotragus  transvaalensis  Roberts,  Annals  Transvaal  Mus.,  vol.  5, 

no.  4,  p.  276,  1917.    (Rustenburg  District,  Transvaal.) 
FIGS.:    Millais,  1895,  p.  92?  fig.,  p.  93,  pi. 

This  subspecies  is  becoming  very  scarce  with  the  advance  of  set- 
tlement in  the  Transvaal  and  Zululand,  but  it  survives  in  moderate 
numbers  in  the  Kruger  National  Park. 

It  differs  from  the  Cape  Colony  subspecies  "in  having  a  very  dis- 
tinct dark-brown  or  black  mark  above  the  hoofs  and  the  under  parts 
of  the  body  white  in  strong  contrast  to  the  upper  parts";  and  from 
the  Nyasaland  subspecies  "in  having  the  top  of  the  head  of  the  same 
colour  as  the  back."  Head  and  body  (of  female  type) ,  800  mm.;  tail, 
75.  (Roberts,  1917,  p.  276.) 

The  range  of  this  subspecies  includes  the  Transvaal  and  Zululand 
(Roberts,  1937,  p.  783) .  The  form  of  eastern  Bechuanaland  and  that 
of  Southern  Rhodesia  will  be  here  provisionally  included  with  it. 

"It  is  far  from  common  ....  The  only  part  of  Natal  in  which 
I  have  personally  found  it  is  the  .  .  .  Drachensberg  range,  and, 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  colony,  in  the  precipitous  faces  of  the 
Bombo  mountains."  (Drummond,  1875,  p.  396.) 

Chubb  (1909,  p.  123)  records  four  specimens  from  Matabeleland, 
Southern  Rhodesia. 

"In  the  country  now  known  as  Southern  Rhodesia,  klipspringers 
used  to  be  very  plentiful  throughout  the  granite  formation,  not  only 
amongst  continuous  ranges  of  hills  and  in  the  innumerable  rocky 
kopjes  which  stud  the  country,  but  also  amongst  the  rocks  and 
boulders  through  which  many  of  the  rivers  run  on  their  way  to  the 
Zambesi  or  the  Limpopo"  (Selous,  1914,  p.  187) . 

In  Southern  Rhodesia  "Klipspringers  were  at  one  time  common 
wherever  hilly  country  occurred,  but  native  hunting  with  nets  and 
dogs  has  seriously  reduced  their  numbers  on  the  small  isolated  hills. 
In  the  more  rugged  ranges  such  as  the  Umvukwes  and  Matopoe  this 
small  antelope  is  secure.  They  occur  also  in  all  the  large  ranges 
such  as  the  Zambesi  Escarpment  and  many  other  inaccessible  parts 
of  the  country.  Legally  considered  as  'Ordinary  Game.'  "  (Game 
Warden,  Wankie  Game  Reserve,  in  litt.,  March,  1937.) 

"They  are  reported  to  be  comparatively  plentiful  in  Swaziland 
and  parts  of  the  Transvaal.  .  .  .  Klipspringer  occur  among  the 
hills  around  Molopolole  and  elsewhere  in  Eastern  Bechuanaland." 
(Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  pp.  478-479.) 

"0.  o.  transvaalensis  is  so  easily  destroyed  that  it  has  rapidly  dis- 
appeared with  the  advance  of  settlement,  surviving  only  where  land- 
owners have  specially  protected  it  or  where  the  bush  and  mountains 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  671 

have  been  difficult  to  hunt  in.  There  are  probably  more  varieties 
of  the  species  than  have  so  far  been  named,  and  it  is  important 
therefore  to  save  it  from  extinction  wherever  possible."  (A.  Roberts, 
in  litt.,  November,  1936.) 

It  is  fairly  numerous  along  the  Drakensberg  Range  and  in  game 
reserves  in  Zululand.  There  are  estimated  to  be  between  200  and 
300  of  the  animals.  Depletion  results  from  the  gradual  occupation 
of  farms.  It  is  completely  protected  as  Royal  Game.  (Administra- 
tor's Office,  Natal,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

Roberts  (1937,  p.  783)  writes: 

Formerly  plentiful  wherever  there  were  hills  and  bush-clad  ktoofs,  the 
klipspringer  is  becoming  very  scarce  with  the  advance  of  settlement.  It  is  so 
easily  shot  in  its  haunts  by  driving  or  quiet  approach  of  the  gunman,  legiti- 
mate or  otherwise,  and  found  everywhere  in  such  limited  numbers,  that  per- 
sistence in  hunting  it  soon  spells  its  doom  there.  I  know  of  places  where  it 
was  once  to  be  found,  but  where  it  was  soon  exterminated  by  the  establish- 
ment of  irrigation  settlements  in  the  vicinity.  In  the  native  territories  it  has 
been  exterminated,  too,  by  trapping  and  driving  with  dogs.  What  prospect 
has  such  a  very  local  animal  of  surviving  against  the  onslaughts  of  cunning 
and  unscrupulous  men?  None  whatever,  unless  the  laws  are  tightened  up. 

"Their  principal  enemies  are  the  Leopard  and  the  Caracal,  while 
the  young  not  infrequently  fall  victims  to  the  larger  birds  of  prey" 
(S.  Hamilton,  as  quoted  in  Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  p.  480). 

The  remaining  subspecies  of  Oreotragus  oreotragus  seem  to  have 
maintained  themselves  in  a  somewhat  more  satisfactory  numerical 
status  than  the  two  just  discussed.  They  comprise  the  following: 

0.  o.  cunenensis  Zukowsky.1  ANGOLA  KLIPSPRINGER.  Range:  An- 
gola and  northern  South-West  Africa. 

0.  o.  aceratos  Noack.2  NYASA  KLIPSPRINGER.  Range:  southern 
Tanganyika  Territory,  Nyasaland,  Northern  Rhodesia,  and  pre- 
sumably southeastern  Belgian  Congo. 

0.  o.  schillingsi  Neumann.3  MASAI  KLIPSPRINGER.  Range:  north- 
ern Tanganyika  Territory  to  central  Kenya,  and  west  to  Ruanda 
and  southwestern  Uganda. 

0.  o.  aureus  Heller.4  MARSABIT  KLIPSPRINGER.  Range:  north- 
western Kenya  and  eastern  Uganda. 

1  Oreotragus  oreotragus  cunenensis  Zukowsky,  Archiv  Naturg.,  vol.  90,  Abt. 
A,  Heft  1,  p.  124,  1924.     (Kambelefall,  north  bank  of  Cunene  River,  Angola.) 
(0.  o.  steinhardti  Zukowsky    (1924)    is  regarded  by  Shortridge    (1934,  vol.  2, 
p.  477)  as  a  synonym.) 

2  Oreotragus  aceratos  Noack,  Zool.  Anz.,  vol.  22,  no.  577,  p.  11,  1899.    (Mbem- 
kuru  region,  Lindi  Province,  Tanganyika  Territory.) 

3  Oreotragus  schillingsi  Neumann,   Sitz.-ber.   Gesell.   Naturf.   Freunde   Berlin 
1902,    nos.    7/8,    p.    170,    1902.      (Donje    Ngaptuk,    northwest    of    Kilimanjaro, 
Tanganyika  Territory.) 

4  Oreotragus  oreotragus  aureus  Heller,  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  vol.  61,  no.  13, 
p.  7,  1913.    ("Mt.  Lololokwi,  north  of  the  Northern  Guaso  Nyiro,"  Kenya.) 


672  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

0.  o.  saltatrixoides  (Riippell).1  ABYSSINIAN  KLIPSPRINGER. 
Range:  Ethiopia,  Eritrea,  and  eastern  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. 

0.  o.  somalicus  Neumann.2  SOMALI  KLIPSPRINGER.  Range:  British 
Somaliland. 

0.  o.  porteousi  Lydekker.3  NIGERIAN  KLIPSPRINGER.  Range:  north- 
ern Nigeria. 

Zulu  Suni 

NESOTRAGUS  LIVINGSTONIANUS  ZULUENSIS  Thomas 

Nlesotragus]    Living stonianus    zuluensis    Thomas,    Ann.    Mag.    Nat.    Hist., 

ser.  7,   vol.  2,   p.  317,   1898.    ("Northern  Zululand";    more   specifically, 

"Umkuzi  River"  (Thomas,  1893,  p.  238).) 
FIGS.:    Thomas,  1893,  p.  238,  fig.;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1896,  vol.  2,  p.  57, 

fig.  25;  Lydekker,  1908,  p.' 187,  fig,  41;  Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  2, 

p.  165,  fig.  17;  Roberts,  1936,  pi.  12. 

This  little  antelope  is  nowhere  common,  it  is  much  harassed  by  the 
natives,  and  it  apparently  depends  for  survival  upon  the  protection 
it  receives  in  several  game  reserves  (Roberts,  1937,  p.  783) . 

General  color  above  rich  rufous,  verging  on  chestnut;  flanks  and 
legs  far  brighter  and  more  rufous  than  in  the  Zanzibar  Suni  (Nesotra- 
gus  moschatus) ;  upper  side  of  tail  darker  than  back,  under  side 
white.  Height  at  shoulder,  13J  inches.  Horns  thick  and  heavy, 
strongly  but  closely  ridged  to  within  an  inch  of  their  tips ;  length  up 
to  about  4J  inches.  (Thomas,  1893,  pp.  237-238 ;  Sclater  and  Thomas, 
1896,  vol.  2,  p.  55;  Ward,  1935,  p.  104.) 

Lydekker  and  Elaine  state  (1914,  vol.  2,  p.  164)  that  "the  range 
extends  from  Zululand  to  Tette,  Zambesia."  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
if  it  extends  quite  so  far  to  the  north,  since  the  type  locality  of  the 
northern  subspecies,  N.  I.  living  stonianus,  is  Shupanga,  on  the  lower 
Zambesi.  The  following  are  among  the  localities  from  which  speci- 
mens are  recorded  by  these  authors  (pp.  164-165) :  Coguno,  Inham- 
bane,  Portuguese  East  Africa;  Gazaland,  P.  E.  A.;  Pongola  Valley, 
Zululand. 

Neumann,  who  secured  the  type  specimen,  writes  (as  quoted  in 
Sclater  and  Thomas,  1896,  vol.  2,  p.  56) :  "I  have  known  of  the 
existence  of  this  Antelope  in  South-eastern  Africa  for  many  years, 
but  have  only  lately  had  an  opportunity  of  obtaining  a  specimen. 
...  This  one  was  killed  in  North-eastern  Zululand,  which  district 

1  A[ntilope\  saltatrixoides  Riipp[ell],  in  Wagner,  Schreber's  Saugthiere,  suppl. 
vol.  5,  p.  412,  1855.    (Abyssinia.) 

2  Oreotragus   somalicus   Neumann,   Sitz.-ber.   Gesell.   Naturf.    Freunde    Berlin 
1902,  nos.  7/8,  p.  174,  1902.    (Sheikh,  Golis  Range,  British  Somaliland.) 

s  Oreotragus  saltator  porteusi  [misspelling  for  porteousi}  Lydekker,  Abstr. 
Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  no.  98,  p.  38,  1911.  ("Northern  Nigeria";  later  re- 
ported by  Lydekker  and  Elaine  (1914,  vol.  2,  p.  131)  as  "Duchi  n'Wai  Range, 
Zaria,  Northern  Nigeria/') 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  673 

seems  to  be  the  southerly  limit  of  its  range.  It  frequents  the  densely 
bushed  parts  of  the  low  flats  between  the  coast  and  the  Bombo 
range.  How  far  north  it  ranges  I  cannot  say,  but  I  first  heard  of  it 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Lower  Limpopo  and  Komati  rivers." 

"It  was  very  common  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Delagoa  Bay,  but  is 
getting  scarcer  every  year,  owing  chiefly  to  native  poachers"  (Haag- 
ner,  1920,  p.  183) . 

In  the  Mkuzi  Reserve,  Natal,  "50-100  Suni  (Livingstone  antelope) 
are  estimated  to  exist"  (Potter,  Ann.  Rept.,  1933). 

"The  Hluhluwe  [Reserve,  Natal,]  contains  .  .  .  the  almost  ex- 
tinct Livingstone  antelope"  (George  G.  Campbell,  in  Hit.,  January 
9,1933). 

In  Natal  it  is  found  at  present  only  in  the  northern  part  of  Zulu- 
land,  including  the  Mkuzi  and  Ndumu  Reserves,  where  there  are 
between  50  and  100  of  the  animals.  The  cause  of  depletion  is  illegal 
destruction  by  the  natives.  Full  protection  is  given  in  the  game 
reserves.  (Administrator's  Office,  Natal,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

It  is  not  recorded  from  the  Transvaal,  but  occurs  across  the 
Lebombo  Mountains  in  Portuguese  East  Africa.  In  northern  Zulu- 
land  it  occurs  in  diminishing  numbers.  (Austin  Roberts,  in  litt., 
November,  1936.)  Elsewhere  Roberts  (1937,  p.  783)  says: 

This  tiny,  graceful  antelope  is  a  tropical  one  that  comes  within  our  limits 
only  in  the  scrub  of  the  littoral  in  north-eastern  Zululand,  where  it  is  much 
harassed  by  the  natives,  and  has  a  poor  prospect  of  survival  if  not  more 
rigidly  protected  than  it  is.  Fortunately,  there  are  the  Mkusi  and  Ndumu 
Game  Reserves,  in  which  it  enjoys  a  great  measure  of  protection;  but  there 
has  been  so  much  talk  of  doing  away  with  these  game  reserves  that  I  feel 
very  uneasy  as  to  its  survival  if  that  step  is  taken.  It  occurs  beyond  our 
limits  northwards  to  East  Africa,  but  is  nowhere  common.  These  small  ante- 
lopes are  all  easily  trapped  by  natives  with  nooses  and  steel  gins,  and  were 
it  possible  to  stop  this  method  of  destruction  it  would  probably  increase 
considerably  in  numbers. 

[Comparatively  little  information  is  available  concerning  the 
numerical  status  of  the  northern  subspecies  or  Livingstone's  Suni 
(Nesotragus  living stonianus  living stoni anus  Kirk  *) ,  but  it  has  ap- 
parently fared  somewhat  better  than  the  Zulu  Suni.  It  ranges  north 
to  Nyasaland  and  the  northern  part  of  Portuguese  East  Africa.] 

iNesvtragus  living  stonianus  Kirk,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1864,  p.  657, 
1865.  ("Shupanga  and  Lupata,"  Zambesi  River,  Portuguese  East  Africa;  the 
type  locality  is  shown  by  Lydekker  and  Elaine  (1914,  vol.  2,  p.  164)  to  be 
Shupanga.) 


674  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Beira;  Baira;  Beira  Antelope 

DORCATRAGUS   MEGALOTis   (Menges) 

Oreotragus  megalotis  Menges,  Zool.  Anzeiger,  vol.  17,  no.  444,  p.  130,  1894. 
(Hekebo  Plateau,  British  Somaliland.) 

FIGS.:  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1898,  vol.  3,  pi.  75,  p.  245,  fig.  87;  Elliot,  1897, 
pis.  35-36;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  10,  fig.  8,  p.  379,  fig.  34;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  10, 
fig.  8,  p.  279,  fig.  58;  Drake-Brockman,  1910,  pi.  facing  p.  65;  Selous, 
1914,  pi.  57;  Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  2,  p.  196,  fig.  22;  Maydon, 
1932,  pi.  64. 

This  comparatively  rare  little  antelope  is  confined  to  British  and 
French  Somaliland  and  part  of  Ethiopia  and  is  given  partial  protec- 
tion as  a  Class  B  species  under  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 

General  color  reddish  gray;  head  yellowish  red,  eyes  bordered 
with  whitish ;  a  dark  brown  stripe  on  the  flanks ;  sides  of  belly  reddish 
yellow,  middle  almost  white;  limbs  yellowish  red,  inner  side  yellow- 
ish white  to  white;  hair  thick  and  coarse;  ears  extraordinarily  large. 
Horns  widely  separated  at  base,  parallel  when  viewed  from  in  front, 
curving  slightly  forward  at  tips,  and  weakly  grooved  toward  base ; 
females  hornless.  (Noack,  1894,  pp.  202-204.)  Height  of  female  at 
shoulder,  23-26  inches  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1898,  vol.  3,  p.  244) . 
Record  length  of  horns,  5^  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  91) . 

This  species  was  first  reported  from  the  Hekebo  Plateau,  British 
Somaliland,  by  Menges  in  1885  (p.  455)  but  was  not  technically 
named  by  him  till  1894.  Lydekker  and  Blaine  (1914,  vol.  2,  p.  197) 
record  specimens  from  the  following  localities  in  this  country: 
Adadleh,  Waggar  Mountains,  Sheitch,  Sogsodi,  Golis  Range,  and 
Berbera.  De  Poncins  (in  Bryden,  1899,  p.  378)  "found  these  ante- 
lopes about  eighty  miles  inland,  in  the  very  steep  and  desert  hills 
of  French  Somaliland,  and  only  there."  The  Ethiopian  range  is 
given  by  Ward  (1935,  p.  91)  as  "the  upper  part  of  the  Blue  Nile." 
Archer  (in  Archer  and  Godman,  1937,  vol.  1,  p.  Iviii)  refers  to  the 
species  as  "confined  to  Somaliland  and  eastern  Abyssinia." 

Elliot  (1897,  p.  135)  records  two  specimens  secured  from  a  small 
band  on  a  peak  known  as  Nasr  Hablod,  near  Hargeisa,  British  Soma- 
liland. "Of  all  the  antelope  we  hunted  this  species  is  the  most  dif- 
ficult to  capture.  Their  color  assimilates  so  completely  with  the 
stony  ground  they  frequent  that  at  a  hundred  yards,  unless  the 
animals  are  moving  or  stand  on  the  sky  line,  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  see  them  ....  This  practical  impossibility  of  observing  them 
together  with  their  wonderful  speed,  accounts  for  the  few  that  are 
killed  and  the  rarity  of  the  species  in  museums."  (P.  138.) 

"It  is  perhaps  commoner  among  the  Gadabursi  Hills  than  else- 
where, but  on  the  hills  to  the  westward  of  Bulhar,  around  Tssituggan. 
on  Hegepo  and  the  Dubar  Range,  and  further  south  on  Negegr  and 


ORDER    ARTIODACTYLA :      EV»N-TOED    UNGULATES  675 

the  hills  south  of  Sogsodi,  it  is  frequently  met  with"  (Drake-Brock- 
man,  1910,  p.  66) . 

"The  flat-topped  hills,  preferably  isolated  and  sufficiently  exten- 
sive, either  on  the  sun-parched  maritime  plain  or  high  up  on  the  Golis 
range  of  mountains,  six  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  are  its  only 
haunts  in  Somaliland.  A  coastal  belt,  probably  not  more  than 
seventy-five  miles  in  width  in  any  part  of  British  Somaliland  would, 
I  think,  mark  its  range.  .  .  . 

"They  are  usually  seen  in  herds  of  four  to  seven  individuals  with 
one  or  two  adult  males  in  the  herd.  I  once  found  a  herd  of  no  less 
than  twelve."  (Drake-Brockman,  in  Maydon,  1932,  pp.  246-247.) 

"We  found  that  two  good  places  for  Beira  were:  (1)  the  small 
detached  hills  eight  miles  south  of  Sheik,  not  far  from  the  wells  at 
Dubba,  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Sheik-Burao  road;  (2)  the  long, 
flat-topped  hills  immediately  west  of  and  above  Lafarug  on  the 
Berbera-Hargeisa  road  thirty  miles  from  Berbera.  .  .  . 

"They  are  generally  seen  in  pairs  or  threes  on  bare,  stony  hill- 
sides. .  .  .  We  never  found  more  than  one  herd  on  one  small  hill." 
(Maydon,  1932,  p.  232.) 

Dibatag;   Clarke's  Gazelle 

AMMODORCAS  CLARKEI  (Thomas) 

Cervicapra  Clarkei  Thomas,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  6,  vol.  7,  p.  304,  1891. 
("Northern  Somali-land";  type  locality  later  shown  (Thomas,  1891,  p.  210) 
to  be  "about  a  day  and  a  half  from  the  Buroa  [=  Burao]  Wells,  Central 
Somali,  about  100  miles  south  [=  southeast]  of  Berbera.") 

FIGS.:  Thomas,  1891,  pis.  21,  22;  Elliot,  1897.  pis.  30.  31;  Sclater  and  Thomas, 
1898,  vol.  3,  pi.  73,  p.  222,  fig.  83;  Elliot,  1907,  p.  79,  fig.  17;  Lydekker, 
1908,  pi.  10,  fig.  6;  Drake-Brockman,  1910,  pi.  facing  p.  83;  Lydekker  and 
Blaine,  1914,  vol.  3.  p.  4,  fig.  1;  Zammarano,  1930,  p.  191,  fig.;  Maydon, 
1932,  pi.  65;  Ward,  1935,  p.  142,  fig. 

This  curious  and  more  or  less  rare  gazelle  is  confined  to  the  interior 
of  British  and  Italian  Somaliland  and  southeastern  Ethiopia  (the 
Somali  Arid  District  of  Bowen,  1933,  pp.  256,  258) . 

The  general  color  is  dark  purplish  rufous;  central  facial  band 
chestnut-rufous;  light  facial  streaks  pure  white,  extending  from 
ears  to  nostrils  and  encircling  the  eyes;  below  these,  on  each  side, 
a  dark  but  not  strongly  marked  streak  extending  forward  from  the 
eye;  cheeks  and  sides  of  considerably  elongated  neck  pale  fawn; 
ears  dark  fawn  at  outer  base,  black  at  tip;  tail  long  and  thin, 
blackish  above  and  below;  belly  whitish.  Horns  evenly  curved 
upwards  and  forwards,  strongly  ridged  anteriorly  on  lower  half; 
female  hornless.  (Thomas,  1891,  p.  208.)  Record  length  of  horns  on 
front  curve,  12|  inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  144).  Height  at  shoulder, 
35  inches  (Drake-Brockman,  1910,  p.  84). 


676  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  discoverer  of  the  species,  T.  W.  H.  Clarke,  writes  (in  Thomas, 
1891,  pp.  209-210) : 

"I  saw  this  Gazelle  for  the  first  time  on  December  17th,  1890, 
about  three  hours  from  'Bairwell,'  or  about  one  day  from  'Buroa 
Well,  Habergerhagi's  country/  and  afterwards  on  the  road  all  the 
way  into  the  Marchan  [  =  Marehan]  district,  8°  N.  47°  E.  .  .  . 

"The  new  Gazelle  ...  is  more  numerous  than  any  other  kind  of 
game,  excepting  G.  soemmeringi  .... 

"I  never  saw  more  than  eight  in  a  bunch." 

Swayne  (1894,  pp.  318-319)  gives  the  following  account: 

The  Dibatag  is  common  enough  where  it  is  found  at  all,  but  it  is  very 
local  in  its  distribution. 

Since  Mr.  Clarke  first  discovered  it  in  the  distant  Marehan  country,  to 
the  south-east,  and  in  the  Dolbahanta  country,  a  few  have  been  met  with  and 
shot  by  sportsmen  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Haud  Waterless  Plateau.  .  .  . 

I  searched  for  Dibatag  at  Tur,  a  jungle  due  south  of  Toyo  grass-plains, 
the  distance  being  some  eighty  miles  from  Berbera.  .  .  . 

I  saw  a  good  many  Dibatag,  but  all  were  wild  and  shy.  This  is  their  ex- 
treme western  limit,  and  they  never  by  any  chance  come  so  far  south  [=  north] 
as  the  Golis  range.  Further  east,  towards  Buro,  they  are  more  plentiful  and 
less  shy.  .  .  . 

The  Dibatag  goes  singly  or  in  pairs,  or  small  families  up  to  half  a  dozen 
or  so. 

Elliot  (1897,  p.  124)  secured  six  specimens  south  of  Toyo  Plain 
in  British  Somaliland  and  met  with  the  species  from  that  area  "east- 
ward to  the  land  of  the  Dolbahanta.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  very 
numerous." 

Aylmer  (in  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1898,  vol.  3,  p.  224)  refers  to  the 
Leopard  as  the  Dibatag's  deadliest  enemy. 

Jackson  writes  (in  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1898,  vol.  3,  pp.  224-225, 
map) : 

I  first  saw  Dibatag  between  Bair  and  Kirrit.  They  appear  to  be  scattered 
all  over  the  country  between  Bair  and  Hodayu  [Ethiopia],  and  I  found  them 
most  plentiful  about  25  miles  from  Kirrit.  .  .  . 

Travelling  eastward  from  Hodayu  they  gradually  appeared  to  grow  less 
plentiful,  and  the  last  record  I  have  of  having  seen  one  was  about  150  miles 
from  Hodayu.  After  this  I  saw  no  more  until  between  Dagha  Dalola  [Italian 
Somaliland]  and  Mudug,  about  130  miles  from  the  former,  in  the  Mijourten 
country.  Here  I  was  surprised  to  find  them  again  very  plentiful  for  three 
days,  and  I  saw  a  few  on  the  following  three  days,  after  which  they  again 
ceased.  A  week  afterwards  I  found  them  again  plentiful  in  the  Marehan 
country,  gradually  diminishing  in  numbers  as  we  travelled  south;  the  last 
I  saw  was  about  40  miles  before  we  struck  the  Webbe  Shebeyli.  On  the 
homeward  journey  I  came  across  an  odd  pair  now  and  then  in  the  south 
of  the  Ogaden  country  [Ethiopia]. 

"This  antelope  .  .  .  has  been  found  30  miles  north-east  of  Ber  at 
Galol  Dobleh  (Parkinson),  but  it  is  more  commonly  found  through- 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  677 

out  the  Nogal  Valley  and  the  Haud  to  within  a  few  miles  of  Obbia 
on  the  east  coast,  Milmil  [Ethiopia]  in  the  west,  and  the  Webi 
Shebeleh  in  the  south"  (Drake-Brockman,  1910,  p.  84). 

Lydekker  and  Blaine  (1914,  vol.  3,  p.  4)  record  two  specimens 
from  "Darror  Wells,  Somali  Haud"  (now  in  Ethiopia) . 

In  1915  Zammarano  (1919)  found  small  numbers  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Webi  Shebeli  in  the  vicinity  of  latitude  4°  N. 

"The  Dibatag  ...  is  only  found  in  the  far  interior,  in  a  cir- 
cumscribed area,  the  greater  part  of  which  for  years  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Mullah  and  his  dervishes.  .  .  . 

"Its  sole  habitat  is  in  a  waterless  area  in  the  heart  of  the  Ogadan 
and  Dulbahanta  country  in  the  very  centre  of  Somaliland,  and  it 
appears  to  have  a  predilection  for  the  Nogal  valley."  (Drake- 
Brockman,  in  Maydon,  1932,  pp.  246-247.) 

De  Beaux  (1935,  p.  13)  considers  the  Dibatag  everywhere  local- 
ized and  rare,  certainly  very  rare  in  Italian  Somaliland.  Among  the 
localities  he  mentions  are  the  vicinity  of  Bulo  Burti  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Webi  Shebeli  and  the  Candala  Mountains  in  northern  Somali- 
land. 

"Those  I  saw  ranged  from  B.P.  79  to  B.P.  96  [west  of  Bohotleh 
in  British  Somaliland,  close  to  the  Ethiopian  boundary].  ...  I 
saw  one  herd  of  fifteen  adults  of  both  sexes."  It  is  probably  more 
abundant  than  the  Gerenuk.  (Turner,  1937,  p.  59.) 

The  species  is  placed  in  Class  B  by  the  London  Convention  of 
1933. 

Saiga 

SAIGA  TATARICA  (Linnaeus) 

Copra  tatarica  Linne,  Syst.  Nat.,  ed.  12,  vol.  1,  p.  97,  1766.  ("In  summa 
Asia";  type  locality  restricted  by  Lydekker  and  Blaine  (1914,  vol.  3,  p.  15) 
to  "Ural  Steppes.") 

FIGS.:  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  pi.  276,  1782;  Pallas,  Zoogr.  Rosso- Asiatica, 
Icones,  1834-42;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1867,  pi.  17;  Royal  Nat.  Hist., 
vol.  2,  p.  298,  fig.,  1894;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1897,  vol.  3,  pi.  49,  pp.  35, 
40,  figs.  49,  51;  Lydekker,  1901,  pi.  2,  fig.  8,  p.  189,  fig.  43;  Elliott,  1907, 
p.  73,  fig.  15;  Carruthers,  1913,  vol.  2,  pi.  facing  p.  596;  Lydekker  and 
Blaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  15,  fig.  3;  Morden,  1930,  p.  542,  fig.;  Ward,  1935, 
p.  148,  fig.;  Leister,  1938,  p.  82,  fig. 

The  demands  of  the  Chinese  pharmaceutical  trade  have  set  a  price 
upon  the  head  (or  rather  the  horns)  of  this  odd  inhabitant  of  the 
Asiatic  steppes,  and  its  ranks  have  been  decimated  accordingly. 

"Horns  (absent  in  females)  of  medium  length,  .  .  .  somewhat 
irregularly  lyrate,  heavily  ridged,  and  .  .  .  amber-coloured  or  whit- 
ish; tail  short;  nose  inflated  and  prolonged  into  a  kind  of  down- 
wardly bent  proboscis,  with  the  nostrils  opening  downwards  .... 


678  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Shoulder-height  .  .  .  about  30  inches.  General  colour  in  summer 
dull  yellowish,  with  the  throat  and  indistinct  markings  on  the  face 
whitish;  in  winter,  when  the  coat  is  much  longer  and  thicker,  the 
colour  is  uniformly  whitish  throughout."  (Lydekker  and  Elaine, 
1914,  vol.  3,  pp.  12,  15.)  Record  length  of  horns,  14|  inches  (Ward, 
1935,  p.  150). 

An  adult  male  taken  in  Kazakstan  in  October  is  thus  described 
by  Goodwin  (1935,  p.  14) :  upper  parts  cinnamon-buff  shading  into 
pinkish  buff  on  sides;  nose,  sides  of  face,  and  outside  of  ears  like 
back ;  hairs  of  crown  long  and  grizzled,  nearly  white ;  tail  above  like 
back,  white  below;  a  white  patch  on  rump,  broken  by  a  median  strip 
of  buff;  fore  and  hind  limbs  cinnamon-buff;  under  parts  white. 

An  excellent  account  by  Glitsch  (in  Bull.  Imper.  Soc.  Naturalists 
Moscow,  1865)  is  reported  by  Sclater  and  Thomas  (1897,  vol.  3, 
pp.  34-37)  as  follows: 

In  the  days  of  Pallas  .  .  .  the  Saiga  had  a  wide  distribution  in  Europe, 
extending  from  the  borders  of  Poland,  all  across  the  Dnieper  and  the  great 
flat  southern  portion  of  Russia  to  the  Caucasus  and  the  Caspian.  The  European 
herds  of  this  animal  were  also  often  reinforced  by  large  accessions  from  the 
steppes  of  Western  Asia,  which,  driven  by  stress  of  famine  from  their  native 
haunts,  crossed  the  Ural  and  the  Volga  by  the  ice  in  winter.  A  hundred  years 
later  we  find  a  great  change  in  the  range  of  the  Saiga,  caused  by  the  increase 
of  cultivation  and  population  in  the  European  portion  of  its  range,  which  has 
driven  this  animal  back  into  the  East.  On  the  Dnieper,  Herr  Glitsch  tells 
us,  the  Saiga  has  altogether  disappeared,  in  the  Ukraine  it  is  no  longer  to  be 
found/and  even  on  the  Don,  where  it  was  formerly  so  plentiful,  it  is  quite  a 
scarce  animal.  Nowadays,  in  fact,  in  Europe  the  Saiga  is  confined  to  the 
Kalmuk  Steppes  between  the  Don  and  the  Volga,  and  is  found  only  within 
the  triangle  lying  between  these  two  rivers,  of  which  Tzaritzyn  on  the  Volga 
forms  the  northern  point. 

On  the  flat  and  treeless  plains  which  lie  within  these  limits  the  Saiga  still 
exists  in  tolerable  abundance,  though  diminishing  in  numbers  yearly  as  popu- 
lation increases.  In  the  summer  months  it  is  distributed  over  the  whole  of 
this  area;  in  winter  ...  it  is  driven  by  the  snow  and  cold  from  its  northern 
resorts  towards  the  south,  where  it  finds  shelter  in  the  rich  grassy  valleys  of 
the  Sal  and  the  Manitsch.  Here  the  Saiga  passes  the  winter  on  ground 
generally  free  from  snow.  ...  In  the  spring  .  .  .  the  Saigas  go  northwards 
in  considerable  herds,  the  bucks  first,  followed  by  the  does,  and  by  the  end  of 
May  they  have  all  reached  the  most  northern  boundaries  of  their  range.  But 
there  are  many  circumstances  which  interfere  with  the  regularity  of  this 
migration,  and  at  Sarepta,  near  the  north  end  of  their  area,  there  are  remark- 
able variations  in  their  numbers.  ...  In  very  severe  winters,  when  even  the 
most  southern  districts  inhabited  by  this  Antelope  are  invaded  by  excessive 
cold  and  deep  snow,  the  hungry  beasts  are  driven  all  over  the  country  in 
search  of  food,  and  stray  even  as  far  north  as  the  vicinity  of  Sarepta.  On 
these  occasions  whole  herds  are  often  entombed  in  the  snow-drifts  and  fall 
an  easy  prey  to  the  natives,  who  follow  them  on  horseback  and  slaughter 
them  by  hundreds.  Under  these  circumstances  it  can  easily  be  understood 
that  the  Saiga  is  a  gradually  vanishing  animal  in  Europe.  .  .  . 

Besides  mankind,  Herr  Glitsch  tells  us,  the  Saiga  Antelope  in  the  Volga 
district  has  no  special  enemy.  The  wolves  and  foxes,  the  only  large  beasts 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN -TOED    UNGULATES  679 

of  prey  of  these  steppes,  can  only  attack  quite  young  animals,  the  older  ones 
easily  making  their  escape.  They  have  one  great  plague  in  the  steppes,  how- 
ever, in  the  insects,  especially  a  species  of  Oestrus,  by  which  at  times  they 
seem  to  be  driven  nearly  crazy,  and  with  the  eggs  and  larvae  of  which  their 
skins  seem  to  be  almost  always  infested. 

The  flesh  of  the  Saiga  is  said  to  be  particularly  tender  and  well-flavoured, 
and  more  like  good  mutton  than  anything  else. 

The  favourite  mode  of  chase  of  the  Saiga  is  ...  to  stalk  them  with  a 
rifle  ....  But  they  are  also  occasionally  taken  in  steel  traps  which  are  set 
upon  their  favourite  runs.  The  Kalmuks  use  leather  slings  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Sclater  and  Thomas  (1897,  vol.  3,  p.  37)  also  quote  E.  Biichner 
as  follows:  "The  Saiga  is  still  met  with,  although  very  unfrequently, 
in  the  country  of  the  Ural  Cossacks  between  the  Wolga  and  the 
Ural,  and  extends  occasionally  into  the  Government  of  Samara. 
East  of  the  river  Ural  its  range  extends  over  the  Kirghiz  Steppes 
and  the  steppe  district  of  all  West  Siberia — Turgai,  Akmolinsk,  and 
Semipalatinsk.  South  of  this  the  Saiga  is  also  found  in  the  steppes 
of  Russian  Turkestan  and  in  the  Dsungarian  steppes  of  Western 
Mongolia,  but  not  in  Transcaspia." 

Lydekker  (1901,  pp.  190-193)  writes  as  follows: 

According  to  the  excellent  account  given  in  Brehm's  Tierleben,  much  of  which 
is  derived  from  .  .  .  Pallas,  saigas  are  essentially  social  animals,  associating  in 
herds  ....  Towards  the  beginning  of  autumn  the  smaller  bands  collect  to- 
gether to  form  immense  herds,  which  may  sometimes  number  thousands 
of  individuals  ....  In  spite  of  their  speed  many  are  .  .  .  slain  by  beasts  of 
prey,  especially  the  wolf.  .  .  . 

In  spite  of  the  aromatic  odour  of  their  flesh,  saigas  are  much  hunted  for 
the  sake  of  their  venison  by  the  Kalmuks  and  Kirghiz,  who  pursue  them  on 
horseback  with  greyhounds.  .  .  .  Sometimes  eagles  are  employed  in  their 
capture.  ...  A  fly  often  lays  its  eggs  in  such  quantities  in  the  hair  that  the 
maggots  which  in  due  course  hatch  out  cause  the  death  of  the  unfortunate 
animal. 

The  Saiga  inhabited  the  steppes  of  eastern  Poland  (i.  e.,  Podolia 
and  the  Ukraine)  up  to  the  seventeenth  century  (Niezabitowski, 
1934,  p.  195). 

It  was  still  found  in  Moldavia  and  Bessarabia  about  1716,  but 
was  exterminated  during  the  eighteenth  century  (R.  J.  Calinescu, 
in  Hit.,  September,  1937) . 

It  not  only  visits  occasionally  the  steppes  of  the  northeastern 
Caucasus  but  lives  throughout  the  year  in  the  Kuma-Manich  Steppe. 
Here  it  reaches  its  western  limit  and  does  not  cross  the  Don.  (Sat- 
unin,  1901,  pp.  129,  134.) 

Eversmann  writes  (1823,  pp.  22-24)  that  the  Saiga  lives  in  herds 
in  the  Kirghiz  Steppe.  In  late  summer  and  fall  of  dry  years  it  often 
crosses  the  Ural  River  in  herds  to  Russian  territory  and  causes  great 
destruction,  especially  in  the  grainfields.  It  ranges  over  the  entire 


680  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Kirghiz  Steppe  as  far  as  Bokhara,  where  it  is  frequently  tamed  by 
the  Bokharans  and  kept  in  the  courtyards  of  the  rich.  The  Kirghiz 
capture  the  animals  on  the  steppe  by  driving  them  between  con- 
verging lines  of  turf  against  some  sharpened  reeds,  on  which  they 
are  impaled. 

"I  never  met  with  this  species,  except  in  winter,  when  it  is  tolerably 
common  throughout  Turkestan,  with  the  exception  of  the  Zarevshan 
districts  and  the  Kisil-kum  steppes,  extending  as  far  as  the  sea  of 
Aral.  For  the  summer  it  leaves  this  country  for  the  north."  (Severt- 
zoff,  1876,  p.  171.) 

"Not  longer  ago  than  the  end  of  last  century  the  saigak  was  very 
numerous  in  West  Siberia;  and  Pallas  mentions  having  seen  herds 
of  this  antelope  on  the  Irtish  below  Semipalatinsk,  where  it  is  now 
never  met  with  and  has  been  completely  forgotten.  It  is  even  rare 
at  the  present  day  in  the  environs  of  Lake  Balkash,  where  not  long 
since  it  was  as  numerous  as  the  kulan."  (Poliakof,  1881,  p.  22.) 

In  western  Siberia  the  Saiga  is  said  to  occur  in  the  basin  of  the 
Chulyshman,  where  it  is  found  along  the  Kyga  River,  on  Togolok 
Mountain.  It  is  also  reported  from  Ubagan  in  the  Altai.  According 
to  Jablonskij,  it  is  pretty  common  south  of  the  Altai,  in  Kazakstan. 
(Salesski,  1934,  p.  375.)  Morden  (1930,  pp.  539-544)  says: 

Today  .  .  .  they  are  found  only  in  limited  areas  in  Kazakstan  ....  The 
decimation  of  the  once  numerous  herds  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  the 
amber-colored  horns  of  the  bucks,  when  ground  into  powder,  constitute  a 
much-prized  ingredient  in  Chinese  medicine.  A  pair  of  these  horns  will  sell 
for  from  $100  to  $150  (gold)  in  the  bazaars,  so  saiga  hunting  has  long  been  a 
lucrative  business  in  parts  of  Middle  and  Central  Asia.  .  .  . 

In  Tashkent  we  were  told  that  saiga  had  been  seen  the  previous  year  on 
the  desert  steppes  of  central  Kazakstan  ....  Our  starting  point  was  to  be 
Kizil  Orda  .... 

When  we  arrived  there  [north  of  Kizil  Orda]  we  found  that  we  were  on 
the  very  edge  of  their  range,  and  it  was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  we 
finally  located  a  band  of  the  animals. 

Goodwin  (1935,  pp.  14-15)  records  six  specimens  from  250  miles 
north  of  Kizil  Orda,  and  adds:  "They  are  seldom  seen,  in  the 
region  visited,  in  herds  that  number  over  five  or  six."  Goodwin  also 
writes  (in  litt.,  May  18, 1937) :  "These  animals  are  rather  rigorously 
protected  by  the  Soviet  Government,  though  there  are  still  a  number 
of  so-called  Saiga  hunters.  These  men  make  a  livelihood  by  getting 
Saiga  horns  and  selling  them  'to  China  at  around  $250  a  pair.  The 
government  has  done  all  it  can  to  stop  it  in  a  general  way.  They 
have  made  it  illegal  to  ship  Saiga  horns  by  mail." 

Nazaroff  (1932,  pp.  196-197,  208)  gives  the  following  account: 

In  these  reed-beds  of  the  Chu  [below  Pishpek,  Russian  Turkestan]  .  .  .  the 

saiga  .  .  .  seeks  refuge  .  .  .  from  the  blinding  blizzards  of  the  steppes.  .  .  . 

Now  the  saiga  is  on  the  verge  of  extinction,  as  it  is  mercilessly  persecuted 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES 


681 


for  the  horns,  which  will  fetch  as  much  as  four  or  five  hundred  gold  roubles 
a  pair,  say,  forty  to  fifty  guineas;  they  are  sold  in  China  .... 

I  have  kept  saigas  in  captivity;  they  quickly  become  tame  if  caught  young, 
and  will  breed  in  captivity.  It  would  pay  to  breed  them  in  the  steppe, 
just  as  they  do  with  marals  for  the  same  market.  .  .  . 

In  the  steppes  around  [Lake  Balkash]  there  are  herds  of  ...  saiga. 


W.  G.  Heptner  writes  (in  litt.,  December,  1936) :    "At  the  begin- 
of  the  19th  century  the  Saigas  were  still  found  in  the  whole 


ning 


FIG.  62. — Saiga  (Saiga  tatarica).  After  Brehm. 

steppe  region,  from  the  Don  to  the  Chinese  frontier,  and  they  were 
very  numerous.  About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  a  great  num- 
ber existed  on  the  steppes  south  of  Orenburg  and  quite  near  this 
town.  The  Saiga  is  now  almost  exterminated,  and  hunting  is  com- 
pletely forbidden.  The  reason  for  this  destruction  is  the  high  price 
of  the  horns,  which  were  exported  kugreat  quantities  to  China  for 
medicinal  use.  In  the  time  of  sailing  vessels  the  horns  were  also 
used  for  rigging  works,  as  sewing  implements.  The  Saiga  now  exists 
in  the  Kalmuk  steppes,  in  the  region  between  the  Volga  and  the 
Ural,  and  in  scattered  numbers  in  Kazakstan  (including  Semi- 


682  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

retchie) .  The  total  prohibition  of  hunting,  ordered  since  the  first 
years  of  the  revolution,  has  afforded  good  protection,  and  in  certain 
regions  an  increase  in  numbers  has  been  observed." 

Our  information  on  the  Saiga's  status  in  Dzungaria  is  due  chiefly 
to  Douglas  Carruthers  and  J.  H.  Miller.  The  latter  writes  (in  Car- 
ruthers,  1913,  pp.  590-600) : 

Its  range  stretches  eastwards,  throughout  the  more  desert  portions  of  Russian 
Turkestan,  with  the  Siberian  Railway  for  its  northern  limit,  and  the  Trans- 
Caspian  Railway  and  Tashkent-Kulja  post-road  for  its  southern. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  low  depressions  of  Lakes  Balkash  and  Ala  Kul  it  is 
said  to  be  numerous.  It  has  for  many  years  been  supposed  that  the  Saiga 
extended  over  the  Russian-Chinese  frontier  eastwards  to  Dzungaria,  but  I 
am  not  aware  of  any  one  having  actually  seen,  much  less  shot  one,  with  the 
exception  of  that  distinguished  Russian  explorer,  Colonel  Kozloff,  who  men- 
tions having  come  across  saiga  in  the  Gobi  east  of  Barkul. 

[At  Guchen]  considerable  numbers  of  its  curious  amber-coloured  horns 
were  hanging  up  in  the  Chinese  shops  ...  for  sale.  The  Chinese  consider 
them  to  possess  valuable  medicinal  properties,  and  give  as  much  as  fifteen 
"sairs"  for  a  pair.  Every  year  consignments  are  sent  to  Pekin  ....  The  high 
price  put  on  the  head  of  a  saiga  induces  a  small  army  of  hunters,  mostly 
Chantos,  to  spend  the  summer  months  in  their  pursuit. 

[At  two  days'  march  north  of  Ta-shih-tu,  at  the  northern  base  of  the  Tian 
Shan,  a  native  hunter]  gave  us  glowing  accounts  of  his  hunting  exploits,  the 
number  of  saiga  he  had  killed,  and  how  at  certain  seasons  they  collect  into 
vast  herds  of  as  many  as  a  thousand.  [Two  of  the  animals  were  seen  here 
by  Miller.] 

[The  hunter]  told  me  that  he  had  frequently  seen  several  herds  of  burkark 
[the  local  name  for  Saiga],  numbering  hundreds,  from  this  very  position  [a 
bluff  overlooking  the  plains]  during  the  month  of  July. 

From  two  Chanto  saiga-hunters  a  day's  march  farther  westward, 
Miller  obtained  the  following  information:  "During  the  winter  the 
burkark  collect  into  vast  herds,  numbering  frequently  from  eight 
hundred  to  a  thousand,  and  retire  to  the  lowest  and  most  sandy  and 
saline  portions  of  the  plains  ....  In  April  they  split  up  into  small 
parties  of  from  two  to  six  and  spread  over  the  steppes  ....  Later 
in  the  summer  [they]  again  collect  into  herds  of  several  hundreds." 

Miller  also  reports  (p.  552)  sighting  three  Saigas  on  a  plain  north 
of  Ebi  Nor,  in  western  Dzungaria. 

Carruthers  states  (1913,  p.  628)  that  "the  saiga  antelope  .  .  .  ex- 
tends across  Dzungaria  as  far  as  Long.  92°  East,  but  no  farther." 
(As  we  have  seen  above,  however,  Kozloff  reported  it  in  the  Gobi 
east  of  Barkul.) 

"Up  to  a  couple  of  years  before,  a  large  part  of  the  mail  coming 
through  Urumchi  for  transmission  to  China  consisted  of  the  horns 
of  the  saiga  antelope,  which  the  Chinese  use  in  making  medicine. 
As  these  were  valued  at  about  $150.00  (Chinese)  per  pair,  the  mail 
carriers  were  held  up  and  robbed  so  frequently  that  the  department 
had  finally  to  refuse  to  take  them."  (Morden,  1927,  p.  258.) 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  683 

Edmi   Gazelle;   Atlas   Gazelle.     Gazelle   de   Cuvier;   Gazelle  de 
montagne    (Fr.).     Gacela  monies    (Sp.) 

GAZELLA  CUVIERI  (Ogilby) 

Antilope  Cuvieri  Ogilby,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1840,  pp.  v,  35,  1841.  ("Moga- 
dore,"  Morocco ;  the  type,  which  was  sent  alive  to  London  from  Mogador, 
came  probably  from  the  western  end  of  the  Grand  Atlas  (Cabrera,  1932, 
p.  348).) 

FIGS.:  Gray,  Gleanings  Knowsley  Menagerie,  pi.  3,  1850;  Sclater  and  Thomas, 
1898,  vol.  3,  pi.  58,  pp.  113-114,  figs.  58-59;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  9,  figs.  4-5; 
Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  9,  figs.  4-5;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  53;  Lavauden,  1924,  p.  20, 
figs.  1-2;  Zammarano,  1930,  p.  32,  fig.;  Maydon,  1932,  pi.  20;  Ward,  1935, 
p.  166,  figs.;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  671,  fig. 

This  gazelle  of  the  Barbary  States  suffers  from  poor  protection 
and  has  become  generally  scarce.  In  fact,  it  is  referred  to  as  "prob- 
ably the  rarest  of  all  the  gazelles"  (Maydon,  1932,  caption  of  pi,  20) . 

General  color  dull  fawn;  central  facial  band  brownish  fawn,  with 
a  black  patch  on  top  of  the  nose;  whitish  stripe  from  eye  to  nostril 
bordered  below  by  a  blackish  stripe;  ears  long,  pointed,  their  backs 
fawn;  a  broad,  deep  brown  band  on  the  flanks,  bordered  above  by  an 
ill-defined  light  band ;  a  broad  black  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  rump ; 
tail  tuft  black;  under  parts,  buttocks,  and  inner  surface  of  forelegs 
white;  fore-knees  with  distinct  black  tufts.  Horns  little  divergent, 
thick,  strongly  ribbed,  curving  slightly  backward  and  finally  forward 
at  the  tip;  record  length  on  front  curve,  14f  inches.  Height  at 
shoulder,  26-28  inches.  Females  similar,  but  horns  shorter,  slenderer, 
and  straighter.  (Ogilby,  1841,  p.  35;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1898,  vol. 
3,  pp.  109-110;  Ward,  1935,  pp.  163-164.) 

This  species  is  found  especially  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  the 
southern  parts  of  the  Barbary  States:  High  Atlas  of  Morocco  (region 
of  Mogador);  Ksour  of  Oran;  Djebel  Amour;  Monts  des  Ouled 
Nail;  Aures  (regions  from  Biskra  to  Negrine)  ;  southern  Tunisia 
(regions  of  Tamerza  and  Gafsa  as  far  as  the  chain  of  Tebaga,  south 
of  the  chotts)  (Joleaud,  1929,  p.  445) . 

Morocco. — This  gazelle  is  distributed  in  the  Middle  Atlas,  as  well 
as  in  the  calcareous  hills  of  the  eastern  Sherifian  Empire,  from  the 
eastern  end  of  the  High  Atlas  as  far  as  the  mountains  rising  south 
of  Oudjda;  but  it  does  not  reach  the  Beni  Snassen.  Thus  it  lives 
in  the  intermediate  chains  of  the  Atlas  across  the  zone  of  the  Hauts- 
Plateaux.  (Joleaud,  1929,  p.  445.) 

Its  range  includes  the  Middle  and  the  High  Atlas,  and  extends 
beyond  the  latter  almost  to  the  Atlantic  Coast.  It  is  doubtful  if  it 
occurs  in  the  Sahara,  on  the  border  of  the  Erg,  where  Foley  mentions 
it  under  the  name  of  G.  corinna.  It  lives  at  high  elevations  in 
Morocco,  and  in  general  in  the  same  localities  as  the  Arui,  but  in  a 
different  ecological  habitat — the  high  valleys,  the  broad  saddles,  the 


684  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

covered  slopes  of  the  low  mountains,  and  the  small  meadows  between 
the  mountain  forests.  Here  it  is  met  with  in  small  groups,  or  rather 
in  families,  never  in  herds.  It  abounds  especially  in  the  central  part 
of  the  Middle  Atlas,  in  the  territories  of  the  Beni  Mguild  and  the 
Ait  Aiach,  and  more  particularly  along  the  line  of  contact  between 
this  chain  and  the  High  Atlas.  (Cabrera,  1932,  pp.  348-350.) 

It  was  formerly  abundant  in  the  Zaian  district  of  central  Morocco, 
in  the  environs  of  Sidi  Lamine  and  Khenifra,  but  has  been  destroyed 
little  by  little.  It  still  exists  in  the  vicinity  of  Guelmous,  of  the  Ait 
Ishacq,  in  the  zone  of  posts.  A  small  band  was  met  with  near 
Alemsid.  The  natives  pursue  it  mercilessly  at  all  seasons.  Moreover, 
the  transhumant  shepherds  slaughter  it  in  summer  in  the  high  pas- 
tures which  they  seek.  (Carpentier,  1932,  p.  22.) 

H.  C.  Maydon  writes  (in  litt.,  February  28, 1933) :  "No  up  to  date 
information.  From  what  I  saw  and  heard  in  Morocco  I  fancy  they 
are  scarce  and  very  ill  protected.  The  Arabs  have  too  many  guns 
(outside  administered  zones)  and  there  are  too  many  people  ready 
to  hunt  game  in  motor  cars,  as  also  in  Syria  and  Egypt." 

This  gazelle  is  now  almost  completely  driven  back  from  the  lit- 
toral regions,  but  it  exists  in  numbers  on  the  pre-Saharan  declivities, 
from  the  Sus  to  the  Syrtes  (Heim  de  Balsac,  1936,  p.  101) . 

Algeria. — It  is  met  with  especially  on  the  borders  of  the  Sahara 
and  the  Hauts-Plateaux.  Loche  (1867)  records  it  in  southern  Algeria 
and  especially  on  the  Djebel-Amour.  (Lataste,  1885,  p.  294.) 

In  eastern  Algeria  "this  Gazelle  is  by  no  means  so  rare  as  is 
generally  supposed,  though  it  is  difficult  to  secure  ....  There  is 
hardly  a  mountain  in  the  southern  ranges  of  the  Aures  where  they 
are  unknown,  and  I  have  seen  them  on  almost  every  mountain  from 
far  to  the  N.  W.  of  Biskra  to  the  Tunisian  frontier  at  Negrine.  I 
know  that  they  are  common  on  the  Djebel  Cherchar,  and  I  have  seen 
them  as  far  north  as  the  hills  and  woods  of  Melagon,  near  Chelia. 
I  have  seldom  seen  more  than  eight  in  a  herd,  and  far  more  fre- 
quently they  are  met  with  singly  and  in  pairs,  or  bands  of  three 
to  five."  (Pease,  1897,  p.  814.) 

"This  Gazelle  ...  is  common  enough  in  the  southern  ranges  of 
the  Atlas,  especially  in  the  more  or  less  bare  rocks  near  El-Kantara, 
and  it  never  leaves  the  mountains  or  their  close  neighbourhood.  It 
appears  ...  to  be  absent  from  the  real  Sahara,  and  we  never  saw 
or  heard  of  it  south  of  Biskra."  (Hartert,  1913,  p.  33.) 

In  Algeria  it  does  not  pass  south  of  the  Aures  mountains.  It 
ranges  toward  the  north  not  only  across  the  Algerian  Hauts- 
Plateaux,  but  even  in  the  Atlas  of  Tell.  (Lavauden,  1926,  pp.  21-22.) 

In  eastern  Algeria  it  lives  on  the  rocky  hills  of  the  plains  of  Numi- 
dia  (Djebel  Tafrent,  etc.).  It  existed,  at  the  beginning  of  the  con- 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  685 

quest,  in  the  mountains  about  Constantine,  as  well  as  on  the  borders 
of  Algiers  and  Oran.  (Joleaud,  1929,  p.  445.) 

Tunisia. — "The  Mountain  Gazelle  ...  is  to  be  found  sparingly 
on  most  of  the  mountains  throughout  the  Tunisian  Regency.  .  .  . 
It  never  occurs,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  on  the  plains,  or  at  any  dis- 
tance from  hilly  country. 

"I  have  met  with  the  Edmi,  and  obtained  specimens  of  it,  on  some 
of  the  higher  ranges  near  Kasrin,  in  Central  Tunis,  and  have  found 
it  in  the  south  near  Gafsa  and  Tamerza.  In  the  north  of  the  Regency 
it  seems  to  occur  on  the  mountains  near  Zaghouan,  the  extreme 
eastern  range  of  the  Atlas,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gharimaou 
....  It  seems  evident,  therefore,  that  the  species  has  a  wide  range 
in  the  Regency,  although  perhaps  it  is  nowhere  very  abundant." 
(Whitaker,  1897,  pp.  815-816.) 

It  inhabits  the  mountains  of  the  south  and  the  center — Djebel 
Sidi-A'ich,  Djebel  Chambi,  Djebel  Selloum — and  ranges  toward  the 
north  as  far  as  Bou-Kornine.  It  lives  in  small  isolated  troops  of 
3  to  6  individuals.  It  is  always  rare.  (Lavauden,  1924,  p.  21.) 

It  only  touches  the  border  of  the  Sahara  proper,  in  certain  moun- 
tain chains  of  southern  Tunisia  (Tebaga  chain,  for  example,  south 
of  the  chotts)  (Lavauden,  1926,  p.  21). 

In  Tunisia  the  range  extends  almost  continuously  from  south  to 
north,  along  a  chain  of  small  calcareous  hills,  as  far  as  Ghardimaou 
(Ouargha  massif),  Teboursouk  (Djebel  Ech  Chehid),  and  Tunis 
(Djebels  Bou  Kournin  and  Zaghouan).  It  is  somewhat  erratic  in  its 
movements;  thus  it  disappears  from  Bargou  and  Slata,  while  remain- 
ing in  the  adjacent  mountains  of  the  Serdj  and  the  Harraba  in  central 
Tunisia.  (Joleaud,  1929,  p.  445.) 

Libya. — Reports  from  this  country  are  not  as  well  substantiated 
as  might  be  desired.  De  Beaux  (1928,  pp.  41,  74)  records  a  single 
horn  found  near  Jarabub,  but  not  certainly  of  local  provenance, 
and  perhaps  brought  from  somewhere  on  the  plateau  of  Cirenaica. 
It  is  probably  on  the  basis  of  this  specimen  that  Heim  de  Balsac 
(1936,  p.  101)  refers  to  the  occurrence  of  the  species  on  the  plateau 
of  Barka,  Cirenaica. 

Rufous  Gazelle.    Gazelle  rouge  (Fr.) 

GAZELLA  RUFINA  Thomas 

GazeUa  rufina  Thomas,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1894,  p.  467,  1894.  (Type 
locality  unknown;  the  type  specimen  was  purchased  in  Algiers.) 

FIGS.:  Thomas,  1894,  p.  468,  fig.  1;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1898,  vol.  3,  p.  168, 
fig.  73. 

Only  three  specimens  of  this  puzzling  species  are  known,  and  it  is 
probably  now  extinct  (Heim  de  Balsac,  1936,  p.  88) . 


686  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

General  color  bright  rich  rufous;  central  facial  band  especially 
rich,  and  the  light  bands  on  each  side  only  slightly  paler  than  body 
color;  crown,  cheeks,  and  sides  of  neck  pale  rufous;  dark  lateral 
bands  very  strong  and  well  defined,  1  to  1^  inches  broad,  nearly 
black;  light  lateral  bands  sharply  defined  from  deep  color  of  middle 
back,  concolor  with  neck,  cheeks,  and  crown ;  dark  pygal  band  little 
developed;  belly  white;  limbs  rufous  in  front,  whitish  behind;  tail 
rufous  basally,  black  terminally.  Horns  thick  and  strong,  292  mm. 
in  length  along  front  curve;  far  apart  basally,  and  diverging  evenly 
but  slightly;  curving  backward  for  basal  two-thirds,  then  slightly 
upward ;  about  10  rings,  strongly  developed  in  front.  Length  of  head 
and  body,  about  1,400  mm.  (Thomas,  1894,  pp.  468-469.) 

The  type  specimen  was  "purchased  at  a  shop  in  Algiers"  in  1877; 
"in  all  probability  it  was  brought  from  somewhere  in  the  interior" 
(Sclater  and  Thomas,  1898,  vol.  3,  p.  168) . 

The  species  doubtless  inhabits  the  south  of  the  Orano-Moroccan 
border  country.  There  are  reports  from  Gruz  and  from  the  borders 
of  Tafilalet.  It  is  a  form  that  has  disappeared  or  is  in  the  process 
of  disappearing,  like  the  Bubal  Hartebeest.  (Joleaud,  1929,  pp. 
447-448.) 

Lavauden  (1930,  pp.  327-332)  gives  the  following  account: 

A  second  specimen  (skin  and  skull)  was  bought  by  P.  Pallary  in 
Oran  (about  1894?).  Another  was  given  to  the  Paris  Museum  by 
M.  Demaison.  There  is  also  a  skull  in  the  possession  of  F.  Doumer- 
gue  at  Oran.  There  must  still  exist  in  Algeria  a  number  of  skins, 
prepared  as  rugs  and  unknown  to  naturalists.  In  1925  the  furriers 
of  Oran  knew  this  species  well,  and  distinguished  it  from  G.  cuvieri. 
According  to  them,  it  is  very  rare,  and  a  skin  is  seen  only  every  three 
or  four  years.  The  female  is  entirely  unknown.  The  range  is  almost 
certainly  in  the  region  of  the  Algerian-Moroccan  boundary,  and  it  is 
very  probably  extremely  restricted.  It  is  considered  an  animal  of 
the  brush  or  of  the  forest;  thus  it  may  have  remained  unknown  to 
the  human  inhabitants  of  the  region.  Most  authors  assign  to  it  a 
range  along  the  southern  part  of  the  Algerian-Moroccan  boundary. 
But  all  the  photographs,  horns,  etc.,  which  have  come  from  the 
region  of  Figuig  pertain  to  the  dark  form  of  G.  dorcas  of  eastern 
Morocco  or  to  G.  cuvieri.  The  habitat  of  the  present  species  may  be 
farther  north,  in  the  very  wild  and  little  frequented  forests  situated 
between  Frenda  and  Telagg,  on  either  side  of  the  Saida,  in  the 
central  part  of  the  Province  of  Oran.  The  dark  color  of  the  animal 
indicates  a  forested  habitat.  Moreover,  the  forest  appears  to  be  the 
best  refuge  for  large  animals  that  are  much  persecuted. 

Heim  de  Balsac  (1936,  pp.  88-89)  has  received  information  that 
some  small  bands  may  perhaps  still  exist  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts on  either  side  of  the  low  valley  of  the  Chelif,  between  Oran 
and  Algiers. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  687 

Slender-horned    Gazelle;    Loder's    Gazelle.     Gazelle    blanche; 
Gazelle  des  dunes    (Fr.).    Gazella  del  deserto    (It.) 

GAZELLA  LEPTOCEROS  (F.  Cuvier  fils) 

Antilope  leptoceros  F.  Cuvier  fils,  in  Geoffrey  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mammif., 
vol.  7,  livr.  72,  text  to  pis.  373-374,  1842.  ("Sennaar"— doubtless  erroneous; 
the  type  locality  was  "probably  desert  between  Giza  and  Wadi  Natron, 
Lower  Egypt,  as  the  type-specimen  was  brought  to  Paris  by  James  Bur- 
ton, circa  1833"  (Flower,  1932,  p.  438).) 

SYNONYM?:    Gazella  loderi  Thomas  (1894). 

FIGS.:  Geoffrey  and  Cuvier,  loc.  cit.;  Heuglin,  1877,  vol.  2,  pi.  accompanying 
p.  101;  Thomas,  1894,  pi.  32,  p.  471,  fig.  2;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1898, 
vol.  3,  pi.  63,  pp.  147-148,  figs.  67-68;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  9,  fig.  8;  Anderson 
and  de  Winton,  1902,  pi.  61;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  9,  fig.  8;  Selous,  1914, 
pi.  53;  Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  70,  fig.  15;  Zammarano,  1930, 
p.  30,  fig.;  Ward,  1935,  p.  166,  figs. 

Two  subspecies  have  been  recognized  by  some  authorities:  G.  L 
leptoceros  (F.  Cuvier  fils),  of  Egypt  and  presumably  Libya,  and 
G.  L  loderi  Thomas,  of  Algeria  and  Tunisia.  Since  they  are  doubt- 
fully distinct,  both  will  be  treated  together  here  under  the  name  of 
G.  leptoceros. 

Among  the  Gazelles,  this  species  in  particular  is  in  process  of 
serious  diminution.  It  is  less  shy  than  the  others,  and  its  tracks  may 
be  followed  very  easily  by  any  hunter  on  the  sand  of  the  Erg.  Its 
disappearance  from  the  northern  Sahara,  like  that  of  the  Addax,  is 
only  a  question  of  years.  (Lavauden,  1926,  p.  27.) 

Sexes  alike  in  color ;  upper  parts  very  light  fawn ;  a  slightly  darker 
line  on  the  sides,  bordering  the  white  venter;  tail  also  darker,  with 
a  black  tip;  upper  part  of  limbs  fawn;  brushes  at  knees;  lower  parts, 
area  about  eyes,  sides  of  muzzle  (paralleling  the  frontlet) ,  ears,  and 
end  of  muzzle,  white  (F.  Cuvier  fils,  op.  cit.} .  Height  of  male  at 
shoulder  about  25  inches  [28  in  type  of •  loderi].  Horns  slender 
closely  and  heavily  ringed  nearly  to  the  tip;  ordinarily  rather 
straighter  than  in  other  species,  curving  but  slightly  backwards; 
sometimes  diverging  very  widely.  Horns  of  female  slenderer  and 
even  less  curved  than  in  the  male.  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1898,  vol. 
3,  pp.  137-138.)  Record  length  of  horns  on  front  curve,  16|  inches 
(Ward,  1935,  p.  173) . 

Egypt  and  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. — Heuglin  (1877,  vol.  2,  p.  102) 
reports  this  species  in  the  Libyan  Desert  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Natron  and  the  Fayum. 

In  1895  Bramley  (1896,  pp.  863-865)  saw  several  of  these  gazelles 
in  the  Western  Desert,  within  sight  of  the  Fayum.  Here  the  Arabs 
were  in  the  habit  of  capturing  the  animals  in  ring  traps.  In  Novem- 
ber and  December  they  would  also  catch  the  fawns  with  trained 
hounds. 


688  EXTINCT  AND  VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"This  species  does  not  occur  in  Sennar,  and  I  have  failed  to  obtain 
any  evidence  of  its  occurrence  or  former  occurrence  in  any  part  of 
Nubia.  .  .  .  This  .  .  .  species  is  confined  to  desert  tracts  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Nile.  It  existed,  but  was  not  numerous,  in  the 
desert  west  of  Giza  which  stretches  from  the  Wadi  Natron  southward 
to  the  Fayum."  It  has  bred  in  captivity  at  the  Giza  Zoological 
Gardens.  (Flower,  1932,  pp.  438-439.) 

In  1932  Bagnold  (1933,  pp.  107-108)  found  "well-worn  gazelle 
tracks  crossing  the  country  in  every  direction"  a  little  west  of  Gebel 
'Uweinat,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. 
"The  place  was  full  of  gazelle/'  two  of  which  were  secured  and  eaten. 
Shaw  (1933,  p.  15)  refers  to  these  as  G.  leptoceros. 

Libya. — We  have  no  positive  information  on  its  presence  in  east- 
ern Fezzan  and  in  the  Libyan  Desert  proper  (Lavauden,  1926,  p.  21) . 
Joleaud  (1929,  p.  446)  refers  to  its  occurrence  in  the  dunes  of  Tripoli- 
tania  and  in  the  Libyan  Desert.  Its  range  includes  the  sandy  plains 
of  the  interior  of  Libya  (Zammerano,  1930,  p.  31 ;  De  Beaux,  1935, 
p.  13). 

Algeria  and  Tunisia. — Sir  Edmund  Loder  (1894,  pp.  473-476) 
found  this  species  occurring  singly  and  in  small  bands  of  as  many 
as  5  individuals  in  the  sand  dunes  of  Oued  Souf,  about  100  miles 
south  of  Biskra.  A  specimen  secured  here  became  the  type  of  G. 
loderi.  Pease  (1897,  p.  813)  states: 

The  Rhime  (Gazella  loderi)  ...  is  the  common  Gazelle  of  the  Sahara. 
Enormous  numbers  are  killed  by  the  Arabs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Rhadamis, 
and  their  skins  dressed  and  dyed  with  a  dye  made  from  the  rind  of  pome- 
granates and  exported  from  Rhadamis.  They  are  to  be  found  throughout  the 
region  of  the  great  Ergs  and  everywhere  in  the  Sahara  sands  where  there 
is  vegetation  sufficient  to  support  them.  The  only  places  where  they  are  to  be 
met  with,  I  believe,  north  of  El  Oued  Souf,  are  to  the  south-west  of  Bou 
Chaama  and  near  Sef  el,  Menadi.  A  number  of  their  horns  are  always  on 
sale  at  Biskra  and  sometimes  the  skins. 


Whitaker  (1897,  p.  817)  says  that  in  Tunisia- 


it  seems  to  be  true  desert  species,  never  occurring  out  of  the  sand-dune  country, 
where  it  replaces  G.  dorcas  .... 

Herr  Spatz,  who  has  resided  for  several  years  in  the  south  of  Tunis,  and 
is  well  acquainted  with  this  Gazelle,  informs  me  that  it  is  common  in  the 
inland  country  of  the  extreme  south  of  the  Regency,  being  first  met  with  at 
about  25  to  30  miles  south  of  the  Chott  Djerid.  In  the  districts  where  it 
occurs  it  is  plentiful,  and  is  generally  to  be  found  in  small  herds  ....  The 
nomad  Arabs  .  .  .  kill  a  good  many,  and  every  year  some  500  to  600  pairs 
of  horns  of  this  species  are  brought  by  the  caravans  coming  from  the  in- 
terior to  Gabes,  where  they  find  a  ready  sale  among  the  French  soldiery. 

Hartert  (1913,  p.  33)  writes  of  its  occurrence  as  follows: 

It  is  found  in  the  Erg  between  Biskra  and  El-Oued,  and  is  common  .  .  . 
between  Ouargla  and  Rhadames.  We  found  it  also  among  the  dunes  south  of 
El-Golea,  and  between  El-Golea  and  Ghardai'a.  It  is  probably  found  in  every 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  689 

Erg  of  any  great  extent.  Owing  to  the  hilly  nature  of  the  dunes  and  the 
noiseless  walking  on  the  sand,  the  Reem  is  easily  stalked,  and  generally 
killed  with  shot  by  the  Arabs,  who  have  no  idea  of  sportsmanlike  shooting: 
they  often  catch  the  young  (with  or  without  the  help  of  dogs),  then  make 
it  squeak,  and  kill  the  mother  when  coming  to  the  help  of  her  young.  In 
this  way,  and  by  waiting  patiently  for  days  and  nights  in  ambush,  these  and 
other  Gazelles  are  decimated,  and  they  will  soon  be  rare  or  disappear  from 
all  the  more  or  less  frequented  districts  of  the  northern  Sahara. 

It  is  rare  in  Iguidi  and  in  the  ergs  of  the  Azdjers  region,  and  it  is 
known  to  exist  in  the  Erg  Edeyen,  on  the  Algero-Libyan  frontier. 
The  heads  and  horns  were  found  formerly  in  great  abundance,  but 
now  much  less  commonly,  in  the  markets  of  Biskra,  Touggourt,  and 
Ouargla.  Very  few  naturalists  have  been  able  to  observe  this  gazelle 
in  the  wild,  to  kill  it,  or  even  to  see  it  in  the  flesh.  (Lavauden,  1926, 
p.  21.) 

The  species  is  found  only  in  the  Ergs  [sand-dune  regions]  of  the 
northern  half  of  the  Sahara,  from  the  Saoura  to  Egypt.  It  is  not 
really  common  except  in  the  Erg  occidental  and  the  Erg  oriental  of 
the  Algero-Tunisian  Sahara.  In  years  of  great  drought  it  leaves  the 
dunes  and  wanders  northward,  seeking  food.  Thus,  in  1927,  some  of 
the  animals,  coming  from  the  Erg  occidental,  proceeded  as  far  as  the 
Saharan  Atlas,  and  some  were  killed  not  far  from  Ain-Sefra  in  a  de- 
plorable physiological  condition.  (Heim  de  Balsac,  1936,  pp.  177, 
236,  map  14.) 

Mhorr   Gazelle.     Gazelle  Mohor    (Fr.).     Gacela   mob  or    (Sp.) 

GAZELLA  DAM  A  MHORR  (Bennett) 

Antilope  Mhorr  Bennett,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1833,  p.  2,  1833.  ("Brought 
from  the  territories  of  the  Sheikh  of  Wednoon  (twelve  days'  journey 
inland  [from  Mogador,  Morocco])"  (Bennett,  18336,  p.  3);  this  is  in- 
terpreted by  Cabrera  (1932,  p.  352)  as,  roughly,  the  region  of  the  upper 
Nun,  between  the  Anti-Atlas  and  the  basin  of  the  Draa.) 

FIGS.:  Bennett,  18336,  pi.  1;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1898,  vol.  3,  pi.  72;  Bryden, 
1899,  pi.  10,  fig.  5;  Lavauden,  1926,  pi.  2,  fig.  1. 

Very  little  is  known  of  this  rare  subspecies  or  of  the  distance  to 
which  it  extends  into  the  Sahara  from  its  type  locality  in  south- 
western Morocco.  Toward  the  south  it  presumably  inter  grades  with 
G.  d.  dama  (Pallas) ,  and  toward  the  southeast  with  G.  d.  damergou- 
ensis  Rothschild. 

Upper  parts,  including  neck,  deep  fulvous ;  head  pale  rufous ;  area 
about  eyes  and  muzzle  white;  blackish  patches  between  eye  and 
mouth  and  between  the  ears;  color  of  upper  parts  extending  as  a 
narrowing  stripe  down  the  outer  side  of  the  legs  to  the  hoofs ;  remain- 
ing surface  of  legs,  under  parts,  rump,  and  a  patch  on  front  of  neck, 
white;  tail  white,  terminal  tuft  mixed  fulvous  and  black.  Horns 
23 


690  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

black,  basal  two-thirds  well  ringed;  curving  backwards,  outwards, 
and  abruptly  forwards;  length  along  front  curve,  12  inches.  Height 
at  shoulder,  30  inches.  (Bennett,  18336,  pp.  4-5.) 

The  range  is  given  by  Cabrera  (1932,  p.  352)  as  "the  extreme 
south  of  Morocco,  in  the  hammadas  [stony  deserts]  of  the  Saharan 
district."  According  to  Lavauden  (1926,  pp.  22,  24),  the  range 
extends  southward  to  Rio  de  Oro,  but  the  form  of  Ahnet  and  Muydir, 
southern  Algeria,  is  not  mhorr. 

"The  M'horr  is  regarded  in  the  kingdom  of  Marocco  as  an  exceed- 
ingly rare  animal,  and  Mr.  Willshire  states  that  the  one  earliest 
obtained  by  him  was  the  first  individual  of  the  race  which  had  been 
seen  in  Mogadore.  It  is  highly  esteemed,  according  to  Mr.  Drum- 
mond  Hay,  on  account  of  its  producing  the  bezoars,  so  precious  in 
oriental  medicine,  and  which  are  known  in  Marocco  as  the  Baid-al- 
Mhorr,  or  Eggs  of  the  M'horr."  (Bennett,  18336,  p.  8.) 

The  species  as  a  whole  has  not  been  able  to  resist  the  advent  of 
man.  It  has  disappeared  from  all  the  places  where  man  has  im- 
planted himself,  and  has  sought  refuge  farther  and  farther  in  the 
desert.  The  progressive  formation  of  the  Sahara  has  created  for 
this  species,  through  isolation,  a  veritable  sanctuary.  (Lavauden, 
1926,  p.  26.) 

Information  on  the  status  of  the  animal  is  very  uncertain,  since 
the  region  it  inhabits  is  very  little  frequented.  Specimens  are  very 
scarce  in  museums.  (Cabrera,  1932,  p.  354.) 

[Other  subspecies  of  Gazella  dama  are:  G.  d.  dama  (Pallas),  of 
Senegal;  G.  d.  darner gouensis  Rothschild,  of  the  Air  region  and  pre- 
sumably most  of  the  rest  of  the  central  Sahara;  and  G.  d.  ruficollis 
(H.  Smith),  of  Dongola,  Kordofan,  and  Darfur.  These  have  main- 
tained a  much  more  satisfactory  status  than  G.  d.  mhorr.  In  fact, 
the  form  occurring  in  the  western  and  central  Sahara,  from  Tagant 
to  Chad,  is  said  to  be  the  commonest  gazelle  of  that  region  (Joleaud, 
1929,  p.  449).] 

Scimitar  Oryx;   White  Oryx 

AEGORYX  ALGAZEL  (Oken) 

Clemas]   algazel  Oken,  Lehrbuch  d.  Naturgesch.,  vol.  3,  pt.  2,  p.  741,  1816. 

(Upper  Egypt,  and  other  localities.) 
SYNONYMS:    Antilope  dammah  Cretzschmar  (1826);  A[ntilope]  tao  Hamilton 

Smith  (1827). 
FIGS.:    Jour.  Soc.  Pres.  Fauna  Emp.,  n.  s.,  pt.  20,  frontisp.,  1933;  Brocklehurst, 

1931,  col.  pi.  opp.  p.  6;  Maydon,  1932,  pi.  24;  Leister,  1938,  p.  88,  fig. 

The  Scimitar  Oryx  is  often  called  the  White  Oryx,  but  this  name 
is  better  reserved  for  the  Arabian  White  Oryx,  or  Leucoryx. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  691 

It  somewhat  resembles  the  Beisa  Oryx  i-n  size  and  structure;  the 
horns,  as  the  name  implies,  are  curved  gently  backward;  and  the 
general  coloring  is  pale,  whitish  with  a  more  or  less  distinct  chestnut 
tinge  on  the  neck,  shoulders,  under  parts,  upper  portions  of  the  limbs, 
and  the  facial  mark.  The  record  length  of  horn,  as  given  by  Rowland 
Ward,  is  45f  inches  on  the  front  curve. 

This  is  a  typical  desert  species,  with  a  range  in  the  arid  districts  of 
northern  Africa  from  the  Nile  to  Senegal.  Its  flesh  is  much  prized 
by  the  Arabs,  who  dry  it  and  lay  it  by  for  future  use  or  sell  it  in 
the  markets.  The  hide  is  used  for  shields  and  for  sandals,  although 
it  is  not  considered  of  first-rate  quality  for  these  purposes  (Hemp- 
rich  and  Ehrenberg). 

The  range  of  this  species  has  probably  become  considerably  re- 
stricted in  recent  decades,  and  its  numbers  have  decreased.  On  the 
north,  according  to  Cabrera  (1932),  it  evidently  existed  in  south- 
western Morocco  up  to  a  recent  date,  and  possibly  may  still  in  the 
region  of  the  Wadi  Nun  and  Wadi  Draa,  here  reaching  approximately 
its  extreme  northwestern  limit.  Thence  southward  its  range  ex- 
tended over  Rio  de  Oro  to  the  desert  parts  of  Senegal.  Within  his- 
toric times  it  seems  never  to  have  existed  north  of  the  Grand  Atlas. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  so  abundant  between  the  Grand  Atlas 
and  Rio  de  Oro  that  a  local  king  is  said  to  have  sent  as  a  present  a 
thousand  shields  made  of  its  hide!  At  that  time  it  was  the  most 
characteristic  animal  of  the  southern  part  of  Morocco.  Probably, 
according  to  Cabrera,  it  may  still  be  found  a  little  farther  to  the 
south  in  the  Spanish  Sahara.  In  Tunisia  it  is  said  by  Arambourg 
(1929,  p.  74)  to  have  persisted  in  the  extreme  south  up  to  1906, 
where  there  have  been  two  or  three  authentic  captures  in  the  two 
decades  before  1924  (Lavauden).  It  is  still  found  in  the  eastern 
Sahara,  the  Fezzan,  and  the  region  about  Kufra  (Senussi  country) . 
Lavauden  (1933)  suggests  that  the  recent  exodus  of  native  peoples 
from  Fezzan  toward  Chad,  fleeing  Italian  domination,  constitutes 
a  new  menace  to  this  species,  for  the  invasion  of  Arabs  is  always 
disastrous  to  the  large  game  of  a  region.  Brocklehurst  (1931,  p.  101) 
writes  that  "at  one  time  the  White  Oryx  was  common  in  Egypt,  as 
it  is  often  depicted  in  old  bas-reliefs  and  frescoes.  It  is  now  found 
only  in  Dongola,  northern  Darfur  and  Kordofan  Provinces."  It  is 
now  extinct  in  Egypt  but  "early  in  the  nineteenth  century  it  appears 
to  have  still  occurred  on  the  west  side  of  Giza  Province  and  round 
the  Fayum.  James  Burton  appears  to  have  seen  a  small  herd  near 
the  Wadi  Natron,  Lower  Egypt,  in  about  the  year  1831.  .  .  .  From 
accounts  given  me,  now  over  thirty  years  ago,  by  old  Bedawin 
hunters,  the  last  specimens  must  have  been  killed  about  1850." 
(S.  S.  Flower,  1932.)  This  accords  well  with  the  statement  of  T.  W. 


692 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 


Russell  in  a  letter  that  these  oryx  existed  in  the  Egyptian  Desert 
seventy  or  eighty  years  ago. 

At  the  present  time  small  numbers  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Sudan 
(Dongola,  Darfur,  Kordofan)  and  the  Chad  region.  A  recent  expedi- 
tion found  some  numbers  in  Kordofan,  not  far  to  the  west  of  Khar- 
toum. Though  the  animals  were  seen  more  often  in  twos  and  threes, 


FIG.  63. — White  Oryx  (Aegoryx  algazel).  From  specimen  in  Philadelphia  Zoo. 


larger  herds  up  to  40  or  more  were  occasional.  They  seem  to  be 
somewhat  nomadic,  moving  to  the  southern  parts  of  their  range  at 
certain  seasons.  After  the  rains,  when  grass  is  plentiful,  it  is  said 
that  they  are  easily  run  down  and  speared  by  a  man  on  a  fast  camel 
(Brocklehurst,  1931).  At  such  times  they  may  come  as  far  south  in 
the  Sudan  as  latitude  14°  or  even  farther,  having  been  seen  on  the 
road  between  El  Fasher  and  Um  Kedada.  "The  great  oryx  herds 
are,  or  were,  on  the  Wadi  Howar  in  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan" 
(Thesiger,  1939,  p.  445) .  Very  little  information  is  at  hand  as  to  their 
numbers,  since  they  inhabit  regions  seldom  hunted  by  Europeans. 
Probably  it  is  impracticable  to  stop  hunting  by  the  desert  tribes, 
which  perhaps  is  the  greatest  peril  to  these  animals  at  present. 

G.  M.  A. 


% 
ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  693 

Arabian  Oryx 

ORYX  LEUCORYX  (Pallas) 

Antilopc  leucoryx  Pallas,  Spicil.  Zool.,  fasc,  12,  p.  17,  1777.  ("Arabiae  &  forte 
Lybiae  proprium  animal";  type  locality  restricted  by  Sclater  and  Thomas 
(1899,  vol.  4,  p.  52)  to  "Southern  Arabia,  to  the  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf.") 

SYNONYMS:    Oryx  beatrix  Gray  (1857);  Oryx  leucoryx  latipes  Pocock  (1934). 

FIGS.:  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  pi.  256  B,  1784;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1857, 
Mamm.,  pi.  55;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1899-1900,  vol.  4,  pi.  82;  Lydekker, 
1901,  pi.  2,  fig.  12;  Carruthers,  1915,  pi.  11;  Hamilton,  1918,  pi.  facing 
p.  283;  Carruthers,  1935,  pis.  28,  31,  32;  Ward,  1935,  p.  211,  fig.;  Pocock, 
1937,  p.  666,  fig.;  Leister,  1938,  p.  88,  fig. 

This  is  a  rare  and  "fast-diminishing  species"  (Cheesman,  1926, 
p.  367). 

Height  of  adult  male  at  shoulder,  40  inches;  a  distinct  hump  on 
the  back;  general  color  chiefly  pure  white;  legs  dark  chocolate 
brown,  sometimes  nearly  black,  with  white  pasterns ;  a  fawn-colored 
stripe  on  each  flank,  sometimes  almost  lacking;  black  areas  in  front 
of  horns,  between  eyes  and  nostrils,  and  on  cheeks;  tail  white,  tuft 
black.  Horns  nearly  straight,  annulated;  record  length  29  inches  in 
female,  shorter  in  male.  (Carruthers,  1935,  pp.  182-184.) 

This  species  once  ranged  over  various  parts  of  the  Arabian  Penin- 
sula, north  to  the  Syrian  Desert  and  Mesopotamia. 

Tristram  (1884,  p.  5)  refers  to  it  as  "common  in  North  Arabia, 
and  found  in  the  Belka  and  Hauran.  Its  horns  may  be  purchased 
at  Damascus.  I  have  been  near  enough  to  identify  it  by  its  long 
horns."  On  the  other  hand,  Carruthers  remarks  (1935,  p.  164) : 
"It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  oryx  ever  extended  its  range  as  far 
as  the  Belga  and  Hauran." 

Lydekker  and  Elaine  (1914,  vol.  3,  p.  131)  record  specimens  from 
the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  from  Adam,  Oman,  and  from  the 
Mesopotamian  Desert. 

Carruthers  (1915,  pp.  30-32)  gives  the  following  account: 

[This  species  was]  unknown  until  quite  recently,  except  for  native  report 
and  "traded"  specimens  .... 

In  days  gone  by,  no  doubt,  the  oryx  antelope  ranged  the  deserts  bordering 
Moab  and  Edom,  but  they  are  now  restricted  to  the  inner  deserts  of  Arabia 
....  The  natural  range  of  the  oryx  might  be  best  described  as  extending 
around  the  main  sand  areas  of  Arabia.  That  is  to  say,  the  great  sand  deserts, 
such  as  the  Nafud  in  the  north-west  and  the  Roba-el-Khali  in  the  south, 
are  probably  their  true  refuge,  beyond  which  they  roam  as  far  as  pastures 
and  native  hunters  allow  them.  The  sand  belts  are  the  pasture  zones  par 
excellence  in  Arabia.  In  its  southern  habitat  the  oryx  is  unknown  (except 
for  one  specimen  .  .  .  from  Oman  .  .  .  and  live  specimens  at  Aden,  said  to 
have  been  brought  from  the  southern  Nafud) ;  it  probably  inhabits  the  country 
inside  the  coastal  belt  of  mountains,  from  the  Yemen  highlands  to  Oman. 
In  Northern  Arabia,  and  along  the  Persian  Gulf,  it  is  not  found,  but  around 


694  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

the  Nafud   in  the  north-west   the   oryx   are  numerous  and  in  this  locality 
alone  is  it  feasible  to  hunt  them. 

When  the  Bedawin  are  not  in  the  neighbourhood  the  oryx  can  be  found 
for  a  certainty  at  the  end  of  seven  days'  camel  ride  from  the  Hedjaz  rail- 
way, east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  But  should  there  be  ample  rain  the  Arabs  move 
far  into  the  desert,  and  the  oryx,  no  doubt,  retreat  farther  away.  ...  I  have 
seen  their  tracks  within  a  few  hours  of  the  railway  south  of  Tebuk  ....  In 
early  spring,  during  a  very  dry  season,  I  found  the  o^x  numerous  along 
the  western  edge  of  the  Nafud  sand  desert.  [The  sand  dunes]  were  covered 
with  tracks,  and  I  should  say  that  they  are  their  true  refuge  and  feeding  ground 
for  the  greater  portion  of  the  year.  ...  I  have  come  across  them,  too,  in 
quite  broken  country  in  the  hills  of  Tbaik  to  the  west  of  the  Nafud. 

Hamilton  (1918,  pp.  283-284,  pi.)  mentions  and  figures  two 
specimens  in  captivity  at  Riyadh.  "They  come,  I  understand  from 
the  Great  Nefudh  south-west  of  Nejd  and  are  now  somewhat  rare 
as  it  is  not  difficult  to  stalk  them  among  the  sand  dunes.  .  .  .  One 
curious  superstition  the  Arabs  hold  about  them  is  that  eating  their 
flesh  will  expel  a  bullet  which  has  lodged  in  a  man's  body  even  if 
it  has  been  embedded  for  years.  ...  As  for  their  habitat  I  expect 
they  roam  the  whole  Nefudh  or  sand  deserts  of  Arabia.  Sir  Percy 
Cox  informed  me  that  he  had  come  across  their  tracks  in  the  country 
behind  Muscat." 

Cheesman  (1926,  pp.  342,  367)  writes: 

The  Oryx  owes  its  continued  existence  in  Arabia  to  its  ability  to  live  in 
places  that  are  inaccessible  to  the  badawin  on  account  of  their  waterless 
character.  The  hunters  of  the  Oryx,  indeed,  have  to  depend  on  camels'  milk, 
and  the  extent  of  the  journeys  is  limited  to  the  time  that  their  camels  can 
exist  without  water.  .  .  . 

The  home  of  this  fast-diminishing  species  is  to-day  the  uninhabited  centre 
of  the  Great  Arabian  Desert,  to  which  they  have  been  driven  by  the  increas- 
ing arms  among  the  tribes.  The  Al  Murra  tribesmen,  who  roam  as  near  the 
centre  as  any  Arabs,  say  they  were  plentiful  many  years  ago  in  the  deserts 
around  Jabrin  in  seasons  of  good  rain,  when  they  followed  the  growing  vege- 
tation. Now  they  are  only  to  be  found  far  to  the  south  in  the  Great  Desert, 
more  particularly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Najran.  .  .  . 

It  would  be  safe  to  assume  that  ...  all  those  in  the  British  Museum  have 
had  their  origin  in  the  South  Desert,  with  the  exception  of  those  killed  by 
D.  Carruthers  in  Tebuk  in  the  Northern  Nafud. 

The  following  statement  of  Bodenheimer's  (1935,  pp.  115-116) 
would  appear  to  relate  more  properly  to  years  gone  by  than  to  the 
present  period:  "The  Arabian  Oryx  ...  is  still  common  in  the 
Syrian  and  Arabian  Deserts,  whence  it  intrudes  occasionally  into 
Transjordania."  He  adds  that  it  was  "probably  more  common  in 
the  deserts  of  Transjordania  and  S.  Palestine  in  earlier  periods." 

According  to  Pocock  (1935a,  p.  464),  Bertram  Thomas  "mentions 
killing  a  specimen  at  Wadi  Gudun  in  Nejd.1"  It  was  this  specimen 
that  was  made  the  type  of  0.  I.  latipes  Pocock. 

1  This  wadi  is  at  "the  southern  margin  of  the  Rub  al  Khali"  (Carruthers,  1935, 
p.  184,  and  map) . 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  695 

"The  oryx,  which  still  exists  in  Trans- Jordan  and  the  Hedjaz, 
was  in  those  days  [the  eighteenth  century]  to  be  found  in  con- 
siderable numbers  in  Sinai  also.  To-day  not  one  remains."  (Jarvis, 
1932,  p.  201.) 

In  1936  this  species  was  placed  on  the  list  of  protected  animals  in 
Trans-Jordan  for  a  period  of  five  years  (Jour.  Soc.  Preservation 
Fauna  Empire,  n.  s.,  pt.  31,  pp.  50-51,  1937). 

In  1909  Carruthers  (1935,  pp.  63-131)  encountered  this  species 
in  the  region  of  the  Jabal  Tubaiq,  approximately  150-200  miles  east 
of  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  and  also  farther  south,  at  a  point 
30  miles  north-northeast  of  Taima.  One  herd  of  15  was  sighted,  and 
there  were  said  to  be  herds  of  as  many  as  20  to  30  individuals.  Four 
specimens  were  secured. 

"The  sum  total  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Arabian  Oryx  in  the 
year  1909  did  not  amount  to  very  much,  for  although  he  had  been 
hunted  throughout  the  ages  either  as  a  wild  cow  in  the  desert  or  as  a 
Unicorn  through  mythology,  he  had  retained  successfully  his  solitary 
loneliness,  and  there  is  as  much  mystery  attached  to  him  to-day 
as  there  was  in  the  past  "  (Carruthers,  1935,  p.  142). 

This  author  then  presents  (p.  142  et  seq.)  an  extremely  interesting 
resume  of  the  history  of  the  species,  from  which  there  is  space  for 
the  quotation  of  only  a  few  items.  In  1528  Tenreiro  encountered 
"many  wild  cows"  along  the  lower  Euphrates,  but  by  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  they  had  disappeared  from  this  region. 

At  the  present  day  the  Arabian  Oryx  is  divided  into  two  separate  de- 
tachments, the  northern  and  the  southern.  These  two  groups  are  quite  isolated, 
they  live  at  least  seven  hundred  miles  apart,  keeping  to  their  two  eandy 
refuges — the  Northern  Nafud  and  the  Southern  Wilderness  of  Rub  al  Khali. 
The  two  groups  used  to  link  up  along  the  Dahana  sand  belts,  but  it  is 
unlikely  that  they  wander  there  any  longer.  The  exact  range  of  the  northern 
group  is  fairly  well  known,  but  there  is  a  good  deal  of  conjecture  about  that 
of  the  south  .... 

In  the  north,  the  nucleus  of  the  Oryx  left  at  the  present  day  centres 
around  the  Western  Nafud  between  Jauf  and  Taima,  but  they  do  not,  of 
course,  approach  to  within  some  distance  of  either  of  these  oases.  The  hills 
bordering  the  Hijaz  railway  on  the  east  mark  the  western  limits  of  the  Oryx. 
They  do  not  range  much  to  the  north  of  the  Jabal  Tubaiq,  nor  south  of 
Taima.  They  are  not  found  in  Jabal  Shammar,  nor  have  they  been  recorded 
from  the  southern  edge  of  the  Nafud  between  Taima  and  Hail.  Of  their 
occurrence  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  Nafud  there  has  been  only  one,  and 
that  not  a  too  reliable,  record. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Oryx  exists  any  longer  in  the  Dahana  sand-belts, 
or  indeed  in  any  of  the  other  sand-beds  in  middle  Arabia.  The  great  southern 
wilderness  of  sand  from  Najran  to  Oman  is  his  main,  and  probably  his  last, 
stronghold.  We  have  actual  records  of  him  from  the  southern  margin  of  the 
sand,  both  from  the  north  of  the  Hadhramaut  and  from  the  hinterland  of 
Dhufar;  and  we  know  he  ranges,  under  certain  conditions,  over  the  whole 
of  the  main  sand  area  of  the  Rub  al  Khali  west  of  longitude  52  degrees. 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Philby  found  traces  of  it  everywhere,  and  in  addition  he  collected  much  in- 
formation from  very  reliable  nature  [=  native?]  sources  as  to  its  habitat.  I 
say  "under  certain  conditions,"  for  at  the  time  of  Philby's  visit  [1932]  all  the 
Oryx  of  that  wide  region  traversed  by  him  on  his  journey  from  Jabrin  through 
the  Rub  al  Khali  and  back  to  Wadi  Dawasir,  had  migrated  owing  to  the 
prolonged  drought,  and  had  left  the  district.  They  had  probably  moved 
down  to  the  Najran  country.  But,  broadly  speaking,  we  may  say  that  the 
whole  of  the  western  half  of  the  Rub  al  Khali  is  Oryx  country  in  normal  sea- 
sons. We  have  no  up-to-date  information  as  to  how  far  they  extend  east- 
wards towards  Oman. 

The  sand-beds  are  the  refuge  of  the  Oryx  for  more  reasons  than  one.  Besides 
being  a  vast  and  safe  retreat,  unoccupied  by  man,  they  are  also  the  main 
source  of  their  food  supply  and  of  the  moisture  they  need. 

Cape  Gemsbok;  Gemsbuck 

ORYX  GAZELLA  GAZELLA  (Linnaeus) 

Capra  gazella  Linnaeus,  Systema  Nat.,  ed.  10,  vol.  1,  p.  69,  1758.    ("India"  t= 

Cape  of  Good  Hope.) 

SYNONYM:    Oryx  aschenborni  Strand  (1924). 
FIGS.:    Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  pis.  facing  pp.  560,  564;  Sclater  and  Thomas, 

1899,  vol.  4,  pi.  83  (col.);  Maydon,  1932,  pis.  25,  122,  132;  Pocock,  1937, 

p.  667,  fig. 

Angolan  Gemsbok 

ORYX  GAZELLA  BLAINEI  W.  Rothschild 

Oryx  gazella  blainei  W.  Rothschild,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  9,  vol.  8,  p.  209, 
Aug.  1921.    (Angola,  20  miles  inland  from  Elephant  Bay.) 

In  general  resembling  the  East  African  Oryx,  this  is  a  paler  animal 
with  straight  and  slightly  diverging  stout  horns,  tapering  to  a  rapier 
point.  It  stands  about  46  inches  high  at  the  shoulder.  Of  a  general 
fawn  gray,  the  head  has  a  rich  brown  mark  in  the  center  of  the 
muzzle  connecting  anteriorly  with  a  similarly  colored  band  from 
eye  to  mouth,  and  extending  back  under  the  jaw  to  meet  a  similar 
mark  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  thus  leaving  the  end  of  the  muzzle  and 
two  stripes  on  the  side  of  the  face  white.  Neck  with  a  short,  for- 
wardly  directed  mane.  A  brown  line  runs  along  the  lower  side  of 
the  neck  from  the  chin,  forking  on  the  chest  to  send  a  long  black 
band  down  each  side  of  the  flanks  to  the  upper  hind  leg.  Tail 
reaching  well  below  hocks,  ending  in  a  long  black  tassel.  Both  sexes 
with  horns,  those  of  the  female  slightly  longer  and  more  slender  than 
in  the  male.  Head  and  body,  6  feet  3.5  inches;  tail,  16  inches,  with 
its  terminal  tuft  27  inches;  average  length  of  horns,  about  36  inches, 
the  longest  record  given  by  Rowland  Ward  48  inches  on  the  outer 
curve  for  the  typical  race;  40f  inches  for  the  Angolan  race.  The 
latter  is  characterized  by  its  paler  and  grayer  ground  color,  with  an 
absence  of  a  buffy  suffusion,  and  a  shorter,  narrower  posterior  black 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  697 

cheek-stripe,  and  by  having  the  black  of  the  throat  more  restricted. 
Both  races  are  here  treated  together. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  spirited-looking  of  the  antelopes ;  of  erect 
carriage,  long  straight  horns,  and  with  a  smooth  slashing  trot,  a 
herd  dashing  past  may  well  be  likened,  as  Shortridge  has  done,  to 
a  troop  of  lancers.  The  South  African  forms,  though  in  no  actual 
danger  of  over-reduction,  are  nevertheless  included  here  since  their 
range  and  numbers  have  become  of  late  decades  considerably  re- 
stricted. 

Essentially  a  desert  animal,  its  habitat  was  limited  mainly  to  the 
more  arid  regions  in  South  Africa,  including  the  karoo  and  central 
plains  of  Cape  Colony.  As  late  as  about  1843,  Gordon  Gumming 
shot  many  in  what  are  now  the  Philipstown  and  Hopetown  districts, 
on  the  north  karoos  of  the  Colony.  "Somewhat  before  that  date," 
says  Bryden  (1899,  p.  383)- 

it  was  found  yet  farther  south,  on  the  Great  Karroo  itself,  in  the  very  heart 
of  the  Colony.  All  through  the  Kalahari,  in  Great  Namaqualand,  Damaraland, 
and  the  more  desert  parts  of  Bechuanaland,  in  the  western  part  of  Mata- 
beleland  as  far  as  the  Ramokwebani  River,  from  thence  westward  as  far  as 
the  Mababi  veldt — towards  Lake  Ngami — along  the  Botletli  River,  and  north- 
ward through  Khama's  country,  well  up  towards  the  Zambesi,  the  range  of 
the  gemsbuck  may  be  said  to  have  once  extended.  At  the  present  time  [i.  e., 
forty-six  years  ago]  it  is  still  to  be  found  sparingly  in  most  of  these  localities, 
but  it  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  Cape  Colony  it  has  been  driven  for  years 
by  the  tide  of  civilization  more  and  more  northwestward,  until  ...  it  is 
only  to  be  found,  south  of  the  Orange  River,  in  the  dry  waterless  wastes 
of  the  region  known  as  Bushmanland.  Here  ...  it  is  still  occasionally  to  be 
found  in  small  troops.  In  the  heart  of  the  Kalahari  the  gemsbuck  is  one 
of  the  commonest  of  the  game  animals,  and  ranges  freely  in  large  troops 
in  those  desert  regions.  .  .  .  The  flesh  of  the  gemsbuck  is  very  good,  and  its 
skin,  which  is  remarkably  tough  and  strong,  is  in  great  demand  for  making 
riems — raw-hide  thongs — and  whip-lashes. 

In  the  46  years  that  have  elapsed  since  Bryden's  account,  the 
general  aspects  of  the  picture  seem  to  have  changed  but  little.  South 
of  the  Orange  River,  now  its  southern  outpost,  "there  are  a  few  head 
left  in  the  Richtersveld,  close  to  the  mouth  of  that  river"  (Shortridge, 
in  litt.,  1937).  In  Bechuanaland  "the  Kalahari  Park  was  specially 
created  as  a  reserve  for  gemsbok,  where  they  may  be  seen  to-day  in 
thousands.  The  Park  itself  is  situated  about  250  miles  north  of 
Upington.  At  present  there  is  one  European  ranger.  Water  holes 
have  been  sunk  at  various  points  in  this  park.  Fringing  the  borders 
of  it  are  quite  a  few  herds  in  existence,  but  again  it  is  impossible  to 
give  approximate  numbers."  (1932  official  memo.)  In  Southern 
Rhodesia,  the  northern  limit  of  their  range,  "the  only  place  where 
they  exist  is  in  the  Wankie  Game  Reserve,  .  .  .  which  should  con- 
serve a  few  head  in  any  case"  (letter  of  International  Office,  1933) . 


698  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

The  Gemsbok  is  now  distributed  over  the  more  arid  districts  of 
southwestern  Africa.  Here  it  is  still  abundant  in  the  Kalahari 
Desert,  "where,  in  default  of  water,  it  uses  the  juice  of  the  t'sama 
wild  melon,  which  is  diffusely  spread  over  that  otherwise  waterless 
zone.  Consequently,  until  some  years  ago,  when  the  motor  car 
arrived  in  this  remote  region,  the  Gemsbuck  had  a  natural  reserve 
in  which  its  only  enemies  were  the  wandering  bushmen  and  other 
nomads,  and  an  occasional  Lion.  Now,  however,  all  is  changed,  and 
cars  can  penetrate  right  into  its  remotest  fastnesses.  .  .  .  The 
Gemsbuck  is,  therefore,  rapidly  decreasing,  and  though  still  existing 
in  large  numbers,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  outside  the  sanctuaries 
which  are  eventually  to  be  established  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa 
and  South-west  Africa,  the  species  will  survive  very  long."  (Steven- 
son Hamilton,  in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  344.) 

In  northern  South-West  Africa  and  the  neighboring  parts  of 
Angola  the  subspecies  blainei  is  found,  but  the  limits  of  its  inter- 
gradation  with  the  typical  race  do  not  seem  as  yet  to  have;  been 
precisely  defined.  Shortridge  (1934,  vol.  2,  p.  561)  writes  that 
"Gemsbok  are  the  most  widely  distributed  of  the  larger  antelope  in 
South -West  Africa,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Kudu:  they 
occur  very  sparsely  in  some  districts,  however,  and  are  retreating 
before  European  settlement.  Gemsbok  have  been  recorded  from 
every  part  of  South-West  Africa  except  the  Caprivi, — east  of  the 
Okavango."  Detailed  reports  by  districts  are  given  for  the  region, 
indicating  its  varying  abundance,  though  on  the  whole  they  appear 
to  be  in  most  parts  plentiful.  In  Angola  they  are  restricted  to  the 
southwestern  part,  not  extending  north  of  the  Coporollo  River 
(Elaine),  and  according  to  Statham  (quoted  by  Shortridge),  they 
are  "said  to  be  confined  to  the  coastal  zone  of  scrub  and  desert 
northwards  to  within  50  miles  of  Benguella,  and  also  near  the 
Chitanda  (Coluhi)-Cunene  Junction  and  other  parts  south  of  16 
degrees  latitude."  They  avoid  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea  and  keep 
to  the  plains  of  the  interior.  They  are  very  keen-sighted  and  will 
detect  the  slightest  movement  behind  any  but  dense  cover  (Elaine) . 
They  may  often  be  found  in  company  of  Springbok,  Wildebeest, 
or  Roan. 

G.  M.  A. 

Blaauwbok;   Blue-buck 

HlPPOTRAGUS    LEUCOPHAEUS    (Pallas) 

Antilope  leucophaea  Pallas,  Misc.  Zool.,  p.  4,  1766.  ("Promontoria  bonae 
Spei";  the  entire  range  of  the  species  was  said  by  Le  Vaillant  (1790, 
vol.  1,  p.  82)  to  be  comprised  in  the  valley  of  Soete-Melk,  Swellendam 
district,  C'ape  Colony.) 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES 


699 


FIGS.:  Buffon.  Hist.  Nat.,  suppl.,  vol.  6,  pi.  20,  1782;  Schreber,  Saugthiere, 
pi.  278,  1784;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1899,  vol.  4,  pi.  76,  p.  11,  fig.  88;  Ren- 
shaw,  1921,  pi.,  and  1934,  pi.  facing  p.  32. 

The  Blaauwbok  was  apparently  the  first  of  the  Recent  African 
mammals  to  succumb  to  civilized  man  and  his  weapons.    As  long 


FIG.  64. — Blaauwbok   (Hippotragus  leucophaeus) .    After  Daniell,  in  Jardine's 

Naturalist's  Library. 

ago  as  1799  or  1800  the  last  one  disappeared  from  the  very  restricted 
range  of  the  species  near  the  southern  tip  of  the  continent. 

General  color  bluish  gray ;  forehead  brown ;  upper  lip  and  a  patch 
in  front  of  the  eye  lighter  than  the  general  color;  mane  short, 
directed  forward;  throat-fringe  almost  wanting;  under  parts  dull 
whitish;  limbs  with  an  inconspicuous  darker  line  in  front;  tail  tuft 
grayish.  Horns  like  those  of  the  Roan  Antelope,  but  smaller  and 
slenderer,  up  to  24f  inches  in  length.  Height  at  shoulder,  45  inches 
(male)  to  40  inches  (female).  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1899,  vol.  4, 
p.  6;  Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  133.) 


700  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

"The  blaauwbok  was  never  known  in  any  other  part  of  South 
Africa  than  the  ...  division  of  Swellendam,  and  there,  probably, 
within  an  area  of  100  miles — a  curiously  confined  habitat"  (Bryden, 
1899,  p.  418) . 

Lichtenstein,  passing  through  the  Swellendam  district  in  1803, 
writes  (1812,  pp.  165-166) :  "The  beautiful  blue  antelope  ...  is, 
as  Mr.  Barrow  justly  observes,  almost  entirely  destroyed.  Some 
were  shot  so  lately  as  the  year  1800,  and  their  skins  were  brought 
to  Leyden;  but  since  that  time  they  have  not  been  seen." 

Renshaw  (1921,  pp.  24-26)  gives  the  following  account: 

The  blaauwbok  .  .  .  was  the  first  of  the  splendid  fauna  of  South  Africa  to 
disappear.  So  quickly  indeed  was  it  exterminated  .  .  .  that  it  was  hardly 
known  before  it  had  gone  forever,  and  was  for  many  years  regarded,  even  by 
naturalists  of  the  highest  standing,  as  little  more  than  a  zoological  myth.  .  .  . 

The  discovery  of  the  blaauwbok  is  unrecorded;  but  in  the  time  of  Pieter 
Kolben,  who  travelled  in  the  Colony  during  1705-1713,  it  had  become  well 
known  as  the  "blue  goat."  Its  best-known  haunt  was  the  valley  of  Soete 
Melk,  ...  an  extensive  tract  near  the  town  of  Swellendam.  .  .  .  Another 
locality  was  the  mountains  near  the  Buffalo-jagt  River,  between  Swellendam 
and  Algoa  Bay.  By  1774  the  blaauwbok  was  becoming  rare;  by  1781,  accord- 
ing to  Le  Vaillant,  the  valley  of  Soete  Melk  was  its  last  remaining  refuge.  .  .  . 
Le  Vaillant's  specimen  .  .  .  was  possibly  an  old  animal  that  had  been  ex- 
pelled from  its  troop;  even  at  this  late  period  there  were  enough  surviving 
to  allow  of  this,  for  in  1796-1797  a  small  band  appeared  in  the  wooded  hills 
behind  the  valley  of  Soete  Melk.  ...  In  1800  the  last  survivors  were  shot, 
and  the  blaauwbok  went  to  join  the  dodo,  and  the  solitaire,  and  the  aphanap- 
teryx — a  victim  of  civilization. 

Only  five  stuffed  examples  of  the  blaauwbok  survive  to-day;  they  are  pre- 
served in  the  Museums  of  Leyden,  Paris,  Stockholm,  Vienna,  and  Upsala.  .  .  . 

And  so  the  blaauwbok  heads  the  sad  procession  of  exterminated  and 
threatened  fauna  which,  having  from  immemorial  centuries  graced  South 
Africa,  has  now  long  been  retreating  before  the  hand  of  man.  Blaauwbok  and 
quagga,  bontebok  and  white  rhinoceros,  blesbok  and  black  wildebeest  indi- 
cate but  too  surely  the  path  which  the  great  game  has  taken. 

Dollman  remarks  (1937,  pp.  68-69) :  "Its  extermination  must  be 
largely  attributed  to  this  very  limited  distribution,  since  being 
found  nowhere  else  than  in  this  Province  it  was  impossible  to  re- 
plenish the  supply  once  the  original  stock  had  been  exterminated. 
The  tragedy  of  the  Blaauwbok  was  that  its  life  as  a  species  was  of 
such  short  duration,  after  the  arrival  of  the  white  man  in  South 
Africa,  that  it  was  hardly  known  to  science  before  it  was  exter- 
minated." 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  701 

South   African   Roan  Antelope.     Antilope   chevaline    (Fr.). 
Bastergemsbok ;  Bastereland  (Boer) 

HIPPOTRAGUS  EQUINUS  EQuiNus   (Desmarest) 

Antilope  equina  "Geoffr."  Desm[arest],  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Nat.,  ed.  1,  vol.  24, 
p.  4,  1804.  (Type  locality  unknown;  restricted  by  Harper  (1940,  p.  330) 
to  "the  vicinity  of  Litakun,  British  Bechuanaland,"  at  approximately 
lat.  27°  S.,  long.  24°  E.) 

FIGS.:  Jardine,  Nat.  Libr.,  Mammalia,  vol.  3,  pi.  23,  1835;  Harris,  1840,  pi.  18; 
A.  Smith,  1849,  pi.  27;  Millais,  1895,  pi.  facing  p.  188,  pp.  126,  129,  figs.; 
Sclater  and  Thomas,  1899,  vol.  4,  pi.  77,  p.  29,  fig.  90;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  12, 
figs.  6-7;  W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  218,  fig.  57;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  12, 
figs.  6-7;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  26. 

The  range  limits  of  this  subspecies  have  not  been  satisfactorily 
determined;  they  may  be  provisionally  considered  to  extend  from 
the  Orange  River,  South  Africa,  north  to  Nyasaland  and  southern 
Belgian  Congo.  This  broad  range  includes  large  portions  of  the 
Southeast  Veldt  District,  the  Kalahari  Arid  District,  and  the  Rho- 
desian  Savanna  District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  259,  260) .  Prac- 
tically everywhere  over  this  territory  the  numbers  of  the  Roan  have 
been  seriously  depleted  except  in  Northern  Rhodesia  and  in  reserves 
such  as  Kruger  National  Park.  In  Angola  it  is  replaced  by  H.  e. 
cottoni  Dollman  and  Burlace,  and  in  East  Africa  by  H.  e.  langheldi 
Matschie. 

General  color  of  male  pale  brown ;  muzzle,  chin,  a  stripe  from  base 
of  horns  past  front  of  eye,  and  a  rounded  patch  behind  eye,  white; 
rest  of  face,  and  forehead  up  to  base  of  horns,  black;  ears  with 
black  pencils  at  tips ;  a  mane  of  stiff  upright  hairs,  gray  basally  and 
brown  terminally,  extending  from  occiput  to  middle  of  back;  a 
throat-fringe  of  long  hairs;  chest  and  inside  of  forelimbs  chestnut- 
black;  outside  of  limbs  like  back;  belly  and  inside  of  hind  limbs 
white;  tail  with  black  tuft,  reaching  hocks.  Horns  stout  and  strong, 
cylindrical,  transversely  ridged,  somewhat  divergent,  curved  back- 
wards; record  length  on  front  curve,  39  inches.  Height  at  shoulder, 
54  inches.  Female  slightly  smaller,  with  shorter  horns,  and  with 
black  of  face  not  so  well  marked.  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  pp. 
217-219;  Ward,  1935,  p.  205.) 

"Not  very  many  years  ago  the  animal  was  frequently  seen  within 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  Cape  Colony,  .  .  .  from  which  it  has 
now  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  completely,  disappeared.  It  is  an 
animal  which  congregates,  and  commonly  from-  six  to  twelve  indi- 
viduals are  found  associated  together.  .  .  .  The  number  of  herds 
in  any  given  tract  is  comparatively  small,  so  that  the  animal,  though 
generally  diffused,  is,  nevertheless,  no  where  abundant."  (A.  Smith, 
1849,  text  to  pi.  27.) 


702  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Selous  (in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  406-407)  writes  of  the  Roan  as 
follows : 

Roan  antelopes  had  not  yet  become  extinct  in  Griqualand  West  in  1886. 
Travelling  northwards  I  never  met  with  this  species  either  in  British  Bechuana- 
land  or  along  the  western  border  of  the  Transvaal  ....  In  the  southern  part 
of  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate,  along  the  Notwani  River  and  on  the 
Upper  Limpopo,  near  the  junction  of  that  river  with  the  Marico,  I  have  both 
seen  and  shot  roan  antelopes;  and  from  there  eastwards  and  northwards  this 
species  used  to  be  generally  distributed  throughout  the  greater  portion  of 
South-East  Africa,  including  the  northern  and  eastern  portions  of  the  Trans- 
vaal, as  well  as  certain  districts  in  Swaziland  and  Amatongaland,  in  all  of 
which  latter  territories,  however,  it  has  now  become  very  scarce.  [It  is]  not 
uncommon  along  both  banks  of  the  Chobi  River.  In  the  flat  coast  country 
between  the  mouth  of  the  Buzi  River  [Beira]  and  the  Zambesi,  the  roan 
antelope  is,  to  the  best  of  my  belief,  unknown,  and  it  is  also  absent  from  all 
the  low-lying  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Zambesi  as  far  as  the  Victoria 
Falls.  In  fact  I  cannot  remember  to  have  met  with  this  species  in  any  part  of 
South-East  Africa  where  the  altitude  of  the  country  was  much  less  than  3000 
feet  above  sea  level. 

North  of  the  Orange  River  "it  was  formerly  found  in  Griqualand 
West,  and  southern  Bechuanaland,  though  hardly  now  surviving  in 
those  regions;  it  is  still  fairly  abundant  in  German  South-west 
Africa,  in  Matabeleland  and  Mashonaland  .  .  .;  it  is  also  found, 
though  now  very  rarely,  in  the  eastern  districts  of  the  Transvaal, 
and  has  been  recorded  as  far  south  as  Swaziland.  North  of  the 
Zambesi  the  roan  is  not  uncommon  in  Barotse,  Manica  and  Nyasa- 
land."  (W.-L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  pp.  219-220.) 

It  is  fairly  numerous  locally  in  parts  of  Kruger  National  Park 
(Warden  of  Kruger  National  Park,  in  lilt.,  December,  1936) . 

Roberts  (1937,  p.  778)  says: 

At  present  the  roan  occurs  mainly  in  such  reserves  as  Kruger  National 
Park,  and  only  elsewhere  within  the  Union  limits  on  an  estate  in  Swaziland 
and  a  few  farms  in  the  eastern  and  northern  Transvaal,  thanks  either  to  the 
proximity  of  the  Kruger  National  Park  or  the  wilder  country  north  of  our 
Union  boundaries.  It  extends  widely  over  the  bushveld  beyond  our  limits, 
and  is,  therefore,  not  in  immediate  danger  of  extermination;  but  that  should 
be  no  reason  why  more  should  not  be  done  for  its  conservation  outside  the 
sanctuaries,  in  places  where  sportsmen  can  legally  secure  trophies  of  its 
beautiful  head  and  horns. 

The  range  includes  the  western  part  of  Mozambique  (Shortridge, 
1934,  p.  570) . 

In  South-West  Africa  the  range  of  the  Roan  is  now  restricted  to 
the  northeastern  corner  of  the  country  (chiefly  beyond  Etosha  Pan 
and  Grootfontein)  ;  it  includes  the  Caprivi.  The  animals  are  fairly 
numerous  in  parts  of  this  territory.  (Shortridge,  1934,  pp.  569-570, 
map  facing  p.  570.) 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  703 

In  Southern  Rhodesia  "this  animal  is  widely  but  scarcely  distrib- 
uted, frequenting  similar  haunts  to  the  Sable,  but  in  far  less 
numbers.  They  enjoy  complete  protection  outside  the  tsetse  fly 
areas  and  are  not  in  any  great  danger  of  extermination.  Their 
numbers  have  remained  more  or  less  constant  during  the  past  few 
years,  even  though  a  considerable  number  has  been  destroyed  in 
the  tsetse  fly  campaign.  Legally  considered  as  'Royal  Game.' ' 
(Game  Warden,  Wankie  Game  Reserve,  in  litt.,  March,  1937.) 

"Roan  are  exceedingly  common  in  parts  of  Nyasaland  and  N.  E. 
Rhodesia"  (Lyell,  quoted  in  Shortridge,  1934,  p.  570) . 

"I  have  encountered  roan  antelopes  everywhere;  from  the  Kafue 
to  the  Zambesi  in  Northern  Rhodesia  and  from  Shamva  [Southern 
Rhodesia]  to  Tete  [Portuguese  East  Africa]  and  on  up  to  Chiputo 
they  were  to  be  found  everywhere.  I  have  never  seen  a  large  herd, 
seventeen  is  the  maximum,  but  they  are  numerous  nevertheless." 
(Hubbard,  1926,  p.  190.) 

The  number  of  these  animals  in  Northern  Rhodesia  (excluding 
Barotse)  is  estimated  at  60,000.  It  "must  be  one  of  the  commonest 
of  the  larger  antelopes.  Its  shy  retiring  habits,  and  its  tendency  to 
keep  always  on  the  move,  can  only  be  the  result  of  constant  moles- 
tation." Many  were  "noted  along  the  Luangwa  bank.  The  abun- 
dance of  skins  seen  in  villages  is  some  indication  of  the  extent  to 
which  this  species — not  on  the  Native  Licence — is  being  poached." 
(Pitman,  1934,  pp.  331,  344,  378.) 

In  the  Belgian  Congo  the  Roan  frequents  the  forest' of  Katanga. 
It  abounded  on  the  Bianos  and  the  Kundelungus  Mountains  in  1912 : 
we  could  not  traverse  the  Bianos  without  seeing  constantly  around 
us  a  dozen  and  sometimes  several  dozens  of  Roans,  Hartebeests, 
and  Zebras.  The  slaughter  of  big  game  by  the  hunters  for  the  con- 
structors of  the  Bukama  railway  depopulated  these  fine  hunting 
areas.  (Leplae,  1925,  p.  93.) 

The  Roan  used  to  occur  in  enormous  numbers  throughout  the 
south  of  the  Belgian  Congo  from  its  southern  frontier  to  latitude 
3°  S.,  except  in  the  forest  zones  in  the  north  of  the  Kasai  and  Kwango 
districts.  Even  15  years  ago  it  was  one  of  the  animals  most  fre- 
quently met  with.  In  the  south  of  Kwango,  in  the  Kasai,  in  the 
country  between  the  Kasai  and  the  Lulua,  in  the  stock-raising  zones 
of  the  Lualaba  and  Lomami  districts,  one  may  travel  or  hunt  for 
entire  days  without  discovering  a  single  Roan.  In  the  north  of 
Lomami  and  in  the  Tanganyika  district,  except  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lualaba  where  they  have  been  exterminated,  they  are  found  more 
frequently  without  approaching  the  abundance  of  a  few  years 
previously.  They  have  also  become  localized  in  Maniema,  in  what 
is  now  the  unguarded  game  reserve  of  the  Luama.  In  the  lower 
Congo  this  fine  animal  has  long  since  been  exterminated  by  the 


704  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

natives.  In  the  Kwango,  the  Tshokwe  and  Lunda  natives  are 
actively  engaged  in  exterminating,  especially  with  the  aid  of  en- 
circling fires,  the  last  bands  still  wandering  in  the  south  of  that  dis- 
trict. In  1934,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loange,  18  were  killed  at  a 
single  place,  in  one  encircling  fire.  In  the  district  between  the  Lulua 
and  Tanganyika,  the  natives  each  year  decimate  the  remaining 
bands,  with  the  powerful  aid  of  professional  hunters.  The  intensive 
mining  operations  in  Maniema  have  sounded  the  knell  of  the  rich 
fauna  of  that  region,  everywhere  except  in  the  Luama  reserve, 
established  tardily  and  not  guarded.  It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the 
number  of  Roans  remaining  in  the  Congo.  Completely  annihilated 
in  some  regions,  they  have  dangerously  diminished  in  all  the  others, 
where  they  are  subjected  to  ceaseless  hunting.  The  resident's  game 
license  allows  the  killing  of  52  antelopes;  commercial  permits,  180 
antelopes.  As  the  species  are  not  specified,  all  of  these  could  be 
Roans.  With  the  commercial  permits  suppressed,  the  sporting 
licenses  should  not,  in  certain  districts,  authorize  the  killing  of  more 
than  one  or  two  male  Roans.  They  ought  to  be  totally  protected 
in  all  the  rest  of  the  colony.  The  prohibition  of  encircling  fires  and 
of  the  killing  of  females  and  young,  restricted  bag  limits,  and  the 
suppression  of  commercial  permits,  seem  to  me  the  only  chances  of 
survival  for  this  species.  (A.  J.  Jobaert,  in  litt.}  November  10, 1936.) 

[The  remaining  subspecies  of  the  Roan  do  not  appear  to  have 
suffered  to  the  same  extent  as  the  South  African  form  in  reduction  of 
numbers  and  restriction  of  range.  Their  names,  together  with  their 
ranges  (which  can  be  only  approximately  stated),  are: 

H.  e.  cottoni  Dollman  and  Burlace.1  ANGOLAN  ROAN.  Range: 
Angola. 

H.  e.  langheldi  Matschie.2  EAST  AFRICAN  ROAN.  Range:  Tangan- 
yika Territory,  Kenya,  and  eastern  Uganda. 

H.  e.  bakeri  Heuglin.3  NILE  ROAN.  Range:  Uganda,  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan,  northeastern  Belgian  Congo,  and  perhaps  eastern 
French  Equatorial  Africa. 

H.  e.  scharicus  (Schwarz).4  SHARI  ROAN.  Range:  Lake  Chad 
region. 

H.  e.  koba  (Gray)  .5  GAMBIAN  ROAN.  Range:  Gambia  to  Nigeria.] 

1  H\_ippotragus]    e\_quinus\    cottoni    Dollman    and    Burlace,    Rowland    Ward's 
Records  of  Big  Game,  ed.  9,  p.  265,  1928   ("Quanza  River,"  Angola) . 

2  Hippotragus  langheldi  Matschie,  Sitz.-ber.  Ges.  Naturf .  Freunde  Berlin  1898, 
p.  182    (Tabora,  Tanganyika  Territory). 

s  Hippotragus  Bakeri  Heuglin,  Nova  Acta  Acad.  Caes.  Leopold.-Carol.,  vol.  30, 
pt.  2,  p.  16,  1863  (apparently  Atbara  River,  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan). 

4  Egocerus  equinus  scharicus  Schwarz,  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  8,  vol.  11, 
p.  266,  1913  (Abilela,  lower  Shari  River). 

s  Aegocerus  koba  Gray,  Cat.  Ruminant  Mammalia  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  35,  1872. 
(Gambia.) 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  705 

Northern   Rhodesian   Sable  Antelope.    Zwart- wit-pens    (Boer) 

HIPPOTRAGUS  NIGER  KiRKii  (J.  E.  Gray) 

Aegocerus  niger  var.  Kirkii  J.  E.  Gray,  Cat.  Ruminant  Mammalia  Brit.  Mus., 
p.  35,  1872.  (Type  locality  not  stated,  but  shown  by  Harper  (1940,  p.  330) 
to  be  "Batoka  Hills,  in  the  southern  part  of  Northern  Rhodesia,  more  or 
less  north  of  Victoria  Falls.") 

In  its  main  habitat  in  Northern  Rhodesia  and  the  southern  Belgian 
Congo  this  subspecies  has  become  so  rare  that  it  is  apparently  ap- 
proaching the  danger  line. 

It  is  similar  to  H.  n.  niger  (Harris) ,  of  the  region  south  of  the 
Zambesi,  but  the  females  are  much  redder,  never  turning  quite  black. 
Horns  of  male  up  to  52^  inches,  compared  with  a  maximum  of  49^ 
inches  in  H.  n.  niger.  (Selous,  1914,  p.  89;  Ward,  1935,  pp.  197-198.) 

The  range  of  the  present  subspecies  may  be  considered  provi- 
sionally to  include  Northern  Rhodesia,  southern  Belgian  Congo, 
Nyasaland,  and  inland  parts  of  Portuguese  East  Africa  north  of  the 
Zambesi. 

"North  of  the  Zambesi  I  have  met  with  the  sable  antelope 
wherever  I  have  traveled,  but  it  always  appeared  to  me  to  be  rather 
sparingly  distributed  through  those  regions"  (Selous,  in  Bryden, 
1899,  pp.  398-399) . 

"Northward  of  the  Zambesi  it  was  always  less  common  [than  to 
the  southward],  although  the  Batoka  plateau  is  one  of  its  present 
strongholds;  and  it  was  never  abundant  in  the  Mozambique  prov- 
ince" (Lydekker,  1908,  p.  291). 

Hubbard  (1926,  pp.  190-191)  writes: 

This  magnificent  antelope  is  found  at  its  best  on  the  Batoka  Plateau,  and 
from  there  it  spreads  everywhere,  and  is  found  in  greater  or  lesser  numbers 
over  most  of  Northern  Rhodesia  and  the  interior  of  Portuguese  East  Africa 
where  I  have  been. 

Occasionally  one  finds  sable  antelopes  in  herds  of  as  many  as  forty  indi- 
viduals, but  more  often  the  numbers  are  around  fifteen.  The  old,  black, 
fully  adult  bulls  run  by  themselves  either  singly  or  in  parties  of  two  or 
three.  .  .  . 

In  my  operations  I  have  often  had  [live]  young  sable  antelopes  brought  to 
me  for  sale  by  the  natives. 

In  Northern  Rhodesia  "Sable  Antelope  are  scarce"  about  Mpika; 
they  are  also  found  about  Kasempa  (Lyell,  in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  328) . 

The  total  number  of  Sable  Antelope  in  this  country  (excluding 
Barotse)  is  estimated  at  10,000,  according  to  Pitman  (1934,  p.  331), 
who  says  also  (p.  23) : 

This  species  is  most  plentiful  in  parts  of  North-Western  Rhodesia,  par- 
ticularly the  Kasempa  Province,  and  the  Mumbwa,  Mkushi  and  Serenje  Dis- 
tricts. .  .  .  When  wounded  it  is  a  savage  antagonist  and  in  consequence 


706  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

is  treated  with  considerable  respect  by  the  local  population,  and  thereby 
enjoys  a  certain  degree  of  immunity  from  molestation.  It  is  absent  from  the 
Luangwa  Valley  proper,  and  is  very  scarce  generally  in  East  Luangwa  where 
a  special  measure  of  protection  is  recommended,  and  occurs  only  very  sparingly 
and  locally  throughout  North-Eastern  Rhodesia  as  a  whole. 

"Sable  antelope  are  .  .  .  being  thinned  out  to  the  danger  line" 
in  Northern  Rhodesia  (David  Ross,  in  litt.,  February  14,  1936) . 

"Passing  northwards  of  the  Zambesi  we  find  the  Sable  Antelope 
recorded  by  Peters,  in  his  'Reise  nach  Mossambique,'  as  met  with 
in  the  Portuguese  dominions  west  of  Tette,  and  on  the  woody  plains 
of  Sena.  In  Nyasaland  Mr.  Crawshay  tells  us  it  is  not  by  any  means 
evenly  distributed,  but  appears  to  be  plentiful  in  some  places.  In 
the  Shire  Highlands,  as  Sir  Harry  Johnston  writes,  the  Sable  is  one 
of  the  commonest  Antelopes,  .  .  .  and  we  have  seen  many  heads 
obtained  .  .  .  from  this  district."  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1899,  vol.  4, 
p.  37.) 

In  Nyasaland  "Sable  get  progressively  scarcer  as  one  goes  north 
from  the  Bua  River"  (Wood,  in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  320) . 

A  dozen  years  previously  the  Sable  was  abundant  in  Katanga, 
Belgian  Congo,  but  it  has  been  slaughtered  to  a  point  where  it  has 
become  very  rare  (Leplae,  1925,  p.  91). 

This  beautiful  antelope  formerly  occurred  abundantly  in  the 
southeast  of  the  Belgian  Congo,  from  the  Kasai  River  on  the  west  to 
Lake  Tanganyika  on  the  east,  and  from  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  Colony  to  latitude  7°  S.,  from  Kasai  to  Lualaba.  From  Lualaba 
to  Tanganyika  its  range  extended  more  to  the  north,  as  far  as  the 
Lukuga  River.  At  present  the  Sable  has  been  exterminated  between 
the  Kasai  and  the  Lubudi,  a  western  tributary  of  the  Lualaba.  In 
the  remaining  part  of  its  range  it  has  decreased  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  Government  has  placed  it  on  the  list  of  protected  animals. 
The  European  occupation  of  Katanga,  the  development  of  public 
works,  and  commercial  hunting  are  the  responsible  factors.  The 
rare  herds  left  have  tried  to  find  a  refuge  in  the  remotest  and 
wildest  regions.  There  are  probably  not  more  than  1500-2000  head 
left  in  the  Congo.  The  prohibition  of  commercial  hunting  and  of 
the  trade  in  trophies  and  other  parts  of  the  animal,  in  addition  to  the 
protection  now  afforded  by  law  (if  really  effective) ,  would  save  the 
species  from  a  most  dangerous  decrease  in  numbers.  (A.  J.  Jobaert, 
in  Hit.,  November,  1936.) 

[The  remaining  subspecies  of  the  Sable  call  for  only  brief 
comment. 

The  taxonomic  status  of  the  form  occurring  from  Ngamiland 
through  the  Caprivi  into  southeastern  Angola  has  not  been  definitely 
determined.  If  it  should  prove  distinct,  the  name  H.  n.  kaufmanni 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  707 

Matschie  (Deutsche  Jager-Zeitung,  vol.  59,  p.  119,  1912;  based 
upon  a  specimen  from  the  Caprivi,  between  the  Chobi  and  the 
Zambesi)  is  available.  Sable  are  fairly  numerous  in  the  Caprivi 
(Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  p.  578)  and  plentiful  in  southeastern  Angola 
(Varian,  in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  379) . 

The  South  African  Sable  (H.  n.  niger  (Harris)1)  is  numerous  in 
the  Kruger  National  Park,  but  very  scarce  elsewhere  in  the  Trans- 
vaal. In  Southern  Rhodesia  it  is  "common  all  over  the  country"  and 
"in  no  danger  of  extermination"  (Game  Warden,  Wankie  Game 
Reserve,  in  litt.,  March,  1937) . 

The  East  African  Sable  (H.  n.  roosevelti  (Heller)2)  occupies  a 
coastal  strip  in  Kenya  and  Tanganyika  Territory,  from  the  vicinity 
of  Mombasa  south  to  the  Kigani  River  opposite  Zanzibar  Island. 
It  occurs  in  very  moderate  numbers,  but  receives  some  protection  and 
apparently  is  not  decreasing  rapidly. 

Many  herds  of  Sable  are  reported  in  southern  Tanganyika  Terri- 
tory, and  a  few  herds  in  the  western  part  (Annual  Rept.  Game  Dept., 
1932) .  Whether  these  represent  roosevelti,  kirkii,  or  some  unde- 
scribed  form,  has  not  been  determined.] 

Giant  Sable  Antelope;  Angolan  Sable  Antelope.    Hippotrague 
noir  <T Angola  (Fr.) 

HIPPOTRAGUS  VARIANI  Thomas 

Hippotragus  niger  variant  Thomas,  Abstr.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  no.  151, 
p.  1,  1916.  ("Luando  River,  Angola.") 

FIGS.:  Thomas,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1916,  p.  299,  fig.  1;  Elaine,  1922, 
pis.  1,  5A;  P.  N.  Gray,  1930,  pis.  facing  pp.  3,  30;  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila- 
delphia, 1930  Year  Book,  p.  6,  fig.;  Maydon,  1932,  pis.  120,  124,  127; 
Field  Mus.  News,  vol.  3.  no.  4,  p.  1,  fig.,  1932;  P.  N.  Gray,  1933,  frontisp., 
pi.  facing  p.  103;  Curtis,  1933,  pi.  facing  p.  237;  Ward,  1935,  p.  203,  fig.; 
Pocock,  1937,  p.  673,  fig. 

This  finest  of  African  antelopes  occupies  a  very  limited  range  in 
Angola,  and  its  total  population  amounts  probably  to  only  a  few 
hundred  individuals.  Its  horns  fetch  an  exceptionally  high  price  as 
trophies,  and  in  recent  years  it  has  been  sorely  pressed  by  the 
natives  in  meeting  this  demand.  The  great  need  of  safeguarding  its 
future  is  thoroughly  recognized,  and  it  ranks  as  a  Class  A  species 
under  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 

Color  of  male  above  intense  glossy  black;  under  parts  and  inside 
of  thighs  white3;  forehead  and  foreface  wholly  black,  but  a  faint 

1  Aiffocerus  niger  Harris,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1838,  p.  2,  1838.    ("On  the 
northern  side  of  the  Cashan  [now  the  Magaliesberg]  range  of  mountains,  about 
a  degree  and  a  half  south  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn"  [now  in  the  Rustenburg 
district,  Transvaal].) 

2  Ozanna  roosevelti  Heller,  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  vol.  56,  pt.  4,  p.  1,  1910. 
("Shimba  Hills,  British  East  Africa.") 

s  The  white  does  not  extend  to  the  front  of  the  thigh  as  in  H.  niger  niger. 


708  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

trace  of  cheek  stripes  in  some  specimens;  a  buffy  patch  in  front  of 
eye;  lower  part  of  cheeks,  chin,  and  lips  creamy  buff;  inside  of  ears 
white,  back  tan;  mane  of  soft,  crimped  black  hairs,  extending  to 
middle  of  back ;  tail  and  tuft  black,  with  reddish  tan  hairs  along  the 
dorsal  crest;  side  and  back  of  hocks,  and  a  stripe  down  back  of 
forelegs  to  fetlocks,  deep  tan;  rest  of  legs  black.  Females  golden 
chestnut,  under  parts  white;  a  blackish  brown  blaze  down  center  of 
face,  flanked  by  indistinct  cheek  stripes;  patch  in  front  of  eye, 
inside  of  ears,  and  sides  of  jaws  buffy  white,  paling  to  white  on  lips 
and  chin;  mane  blackish  brown;  tail-tuft  deep  brown.  Young  males 
somewhat  resembling  females,  but  with  face  black  as  in  old  males. 
Horns  of  male  rising  perpendicularly  and  curving  backwards  in  an 
arc;  usually  a  wide  outward  sweep  toward  the  tips;  laterally  com- 
pressed and  strongly  annulated,  except  at  tips;  record  length,  64 
inches.  Horns  of  females  shorter  and  less  curved.  Height  of  adult 
male  at  shoulder,  55^  inches;  of  adult  female,  47  inches.  (Elaine, 
1922,  pp.  319-320.) 

"This  splendid  Antelope,  so  far  the  finest  in  all  Africa"  (Elaine, 
1922,  p.  317) ,  was  perhaps  the  last  species  of  the  African  big  game 
mammals  remaining  to  be  described.  The  type,  secured  by  H.  F. 
Varian  in  1913,  was  named  by  Thomas  in  1916.  Though  closely 
related  to  the  Sable  Antelopes  of  South  and  East  Africa,  it  is  suffi- 
ciently distinct  in  size,  color,  skull  characters,  and  range  to  rank  as 
a  separate  species,  rather  than  subspecies. 

Elaine's  account  (1922,  pp.  320-324)  is,  in  part,  as  follows: 

The  Angolan  Sable  Antelope  is  found  in  the  strip  of  country  enclosed  by 
the  upper  waters  of  the  Quanza  River  and  its  eastern  tributary  the  Luando, 
and  it  is  also  said  on  good  authority  to  occur  between  that  river  and  its 
western  tributary  the  Kutatu  ....  I  procured  all  my  specimens  .  .  .  some  70 
miles  southeast  beyond  the  junction  of  the  Quanza  and  Luando.  The  distance 
between  these  two  rivers  is  about  30  miles,  with  a  low,  flat,  ironstone  ridge 
forming  the  divide  ....  The  Sable  here  are  mostly  found  on  the  Luando  side 
of  the  watershed  where  several  streams  rise,  such  as  the  Luce,  the  Kaluando, 
the  Dunde,  and  the  Lusinge  .... 

The  numbers  in  a  herd  vary  from  eight  to  twenty  individuals,  about  half 
of  them  being  bulls.  ...  In  a  small  herd  there  is  usually  only  one  big 
black  bull.  .  .  . 

In  this  country  they  have  few  natural  enemies,  such  as  lions  or  wild  dogs.  .  .  . 

They  [the  adult  bulls]  are  also  covered  with  several  kinds  of  ticks,  which 
are  very  numerous  on  the  neck  and  shoulders,  where  the  hair  is  worn  thin  in 
consequence.  The  younger  bulls  had  fewer  ticks  and  the  cows  fewer  still.  .  .  . 

In  conclusion,  one  is  glad  to  remark  that  there  is  no  reason  why  this  splendid 
Antelope  should  not  continue  long  to  exist  in  its  present  environment.  During 
three  months  spent  in  the  locality  I  must  have  seen  at  least  100  individuals, 
forming  several  strong  and  flourishing  herds,  and  measures  have  been  taken 
by  the  Portuguese  Government,  at  the  instigation  of  Mr.  Varian,  to  protect 
them. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES 


709 


Gray  writes  (1930,  p.  27)  that  "a  few  specimens  have  been  killed 
north  of  the  Loando."  Varian  states  (in  Maydon,  1932,  p.  380)  that 
the  southern  limit  is  the  Luaco  River.  Monard  (1935,  p.  290)  has 
reports  of  some  form  of  Sable  from  the  region  of  Kafima,  east  of 
Kuanyama.  Moreover,  Welwitsch  sent  a  head  from  the  interior  of 


FIG.  65. — Giant  Sable  Antelope  (Hippotragus  variani) 


Mossamedes,  at  a  period  prior  to  the  immigration  of  the  game- 
destroying  Boers  (1874-1880). 
P.  N.  Gray  (1930,  p.  30)  writes: 

For  the  past  four  years  it  has  been  against  the  law  to  kill  giant  sable 
except  on  a  special  license  issued  by  the  High  Commissioner.  Very  few  of 
these  have  been  issued,  with  the  result,  I  believe,  that  none  have  been  killed 
legally  since  the  Vernay  expedition  for  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History  in  1925.  However,  with  the  withdrawal  of  li cense  a  demand  for  the 
horns  has  sprung  up  so  that  the  local  Portuguese  traders  find  it  very  lucra- 
tive to  shoot  the  bulls  for  their  horns,  and  cows  for  their  hides  and  meat. 


710  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

One  trader  told  me  he  had  killed  eighteen  last  year  and  I  was  offered  at  least 
twenty  sets  of  horns  from  46  to  60  inches  in  length.  This  slaughter  plus  the 
usual  number  killed  by  the  natives  in  pits  will  soon  wipe  out  the  relatively 
few  animals  remaining. 

Varian  (in  Maydon,  1932,  pp.  384-385)  says: 

In  1912  the  Boers  raided  the  small  area  where  the  Giant  Sable  lives,  and 
heads  up  to  61  inches  were  the  result,  which  were  sold  for  high  prices.  On 
this  account  a  further  raid  was  contemplated  in  the  following  year.  For- 
tunately I  was  a  friend  of  the  Governor  of  the  district  at  the  time  and,  when 
the  matter  was  represented  to  him,  the  country  was  closed  for  shooting;  for 
the  time  being  they  were  saved  from  practical  extermination.  Poaching,  to  a 
certain  extent,  still  continued,  and  good  heads  found  a  market,  as  they  still 
do.  But  the  greater  number  and  the  largest  heads  have  been  accounted  for  by 
the  pit  traps  of  the  local  natives.  One  of  the  largest  heads  recorded  was 
traded  for  something  less  than  a  shilling  from  the  natives. 

The  district  in  which  they  live  is  an  outlying  one,  and  too  large  to  police 
for  the  game  purposes  only,  so  a  certain  amount  of  poaching,  principally  by 
natives,  goes  on.  Such  a  thing  is  likely  to  continue  as  long  as  there  is  a 
selling  value  on  the  heads,  and  until  barter  of  them  is  made  a  serious  offence. 
Lions  have  been  reported  in  the  country  in  recent  years,  as  well  as  Wild  Dogs — 
that  curse  of  African  game — and  these  have  taken  a  certain  amount  of  toll. 

At  Camacupa  "I  was  offered  two  sable  heads  for  150  Angolars 
each.  The  strict  protection  of  the  Giant  Sable  seemed  a  myth. 
Only  against  foreign  sportsmen  were  they  protected.  The  Portuguese 
residents  killed  them  wholesale  and  sold  the  heads.  In  fact,  sub- 
sequently, I  was  offered  any  number  of  heads  I  cared  to  buy,  and  I 
heard  several  Portuguese  brag  of  killing  ten  sable  in  a  month.  At 
that  rate,  this  magnificent  animal  will  soon  be  extinct."  (P.  N.  Gray, 
1933,  p.  125.) 

Curtis  (1933,  pp.  238-239,  241,  maps  facing  p.  245)  gives  the 
following  account: 

The  species  is  not  known  to  live  elsewhere  than  in  this  part  of  Angola 
where  we  were  camped,  an  area  of  perhaps  50  miles  square.  There  are  only  a 
comparatively  few  specimens  living  and  unless  these  get  better  protection 
than  the  Portuguese  government  is  giving  them  the  species  will  soon  be- 
come extinct.  Besides  those  that  are  being  killed  for  specimens,  many  are 
killed  by  the  native  black  hunters  who  offer  the  horns  for  sale  for  small 
sums.  I  have  lately  been  told  that  one  of  our  large  museums  sent  an 
expedition  to  Angola  to  collect  specimens  of  the  female  for  their  group,  and 
that  after  three  months  they  were  unsuccessful.  .  .  . 

My  son  and  I,  hunting  separately,  saw  forty-four  male,  female  and  young 
Sable  in  a  week  of  hard  hunting  from  sunrise  to  sunset  [in  1923]. 

"It  seems  that  it  is  well  protected  as  far  as  permission  to  shoot 
them  by  white  hunters  is  concerned  .... 

"I  gathered  also  that  the  local  natives  still  continue  to  trap  con- 
siderable numbers  in  pitfalls  .... 


ORDER    ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  711 

"While  these  things  are  still  possible  it  is  obvious  that  extermi- 
nation eventually  will  be  the  .  .  .  result."  (H.  F.  Varian,  in  litt., 
March  10,  1933.) 

"The  estimate  made  [by  Col.  A.  Brandao  de  Mello  in  a  recent 
letter]  in  regard  to  the  sable  I  think  is  extremely  high  [750-800] 
....  I  think  if  this  was  cut  in  half  it  would  be  on  the  high  side, 
but  I  am  glad  to  notice  that  the  Government  is  at  last  rigorously 
enforcing  protection.  .  .  .  You  will  notice  that  they  are  only  allow- 
ing four  to  be  shot  each  year  and  a  price  of  $5000  for  each  head 
taken  out.  Therefore  I  do  not  think  that  number  will  be  decreased 
by  ordinary  sportsmen  or  Museums."  (Arthur  S.  Vernay,  in  litt., 
January  18,  1937.) 

Addax    (Eng.,   Fr.,   Ital.).     Antilope  Adax    (Sp.)«     Mendesan- 

tilope  (Ger.) 

ADDAX  NASOMACULATUS  (Blaihville) 

A[ntilope]  Nasomaculata  Blainville,  Bull.  Sci.  Soc.  Philomatique  Paris  1816, 
pp.  75,  78.  (Type  locality  not  given;  regarded  by  Lydekker  and  Blaine 
(1914,  vol.  3,  p.  148)  as  "probably  Senegambia.") 

SYNONYM:    Antilope  addax  Cretzschmar  (1826). 

FIGS.:  Geoffrey  and  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,  vol.  6,  pis.  388,  389,  1824; 
Cretzschmar,  1826,  pi.  7;  Lichtenstein,  1827-1834,  pi.  2;  Hemprich  and 
Ehrenberg,  decas  2,  pi.  4,  1833;  Gray,  Gleanings  Knowsley  Menagerie,  pi. 
18,  1850;  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  280,  fig.,  1894;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  11, 
fig.  4;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1899,  vol.  4,  pi.  86,  pp.  83,  85,  figs.  95-97;  Lydek- 
ker, 1908,  pi.  11,  fig.  4,  p.  303,  fig.  63;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  28;  Antonius,  19296, 
pp.  381-382,  figs.  9-10;  Zammarano,  1930,  p.  33,  fig.;  Brocklehurst,  1931, 
pi.  facing  p.  58;  Maydon,  1932,  pis.  23,  41,  42,  131;  Ward,  1935,  p.  213,  fig.; 
Malbrant,  1936,  pi.  11,  lower  fig.;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  672,  fig.;  Leister,  1938, 
p.  89,  fig. 

This  fine  antelope  of  the  Sahara  is  suffering  from  a  general 
reduction  in  numbers  and  restriction  of  range.  In  all  the  vast  terri- 
tory it  occupies,  there  appears  to  be  not  a  single  game  reserve. 

General  color  in  summer  sandy  above,  whitish  below,  with  a 
brown  patch  on  the  forehead ;  in  winter  the  coat  is  gray  and  a  heavy 
mass  of  long  brown  hair  is  developed  on  the  neck,  shoulders,  and 
forehead;  a  streak  across  the  face  below  the  eyes,  the  lips,  and  a 
spot  on  the  outer  surface  of  each  ear,  white;  hoofs  very  wide  and 
shallow.  Horns  spirally  twisted  and  closely  ringed;  record  length 
on  front  curve,  43  inches.  Height  at  shoulder,  about  42  inches. 
(Ward,  1935,  p.  214.) 

The  range  extends  more  or  less  throughout  the  Sahara  region, 
from  Senegambia  and  Algeria  east  to  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. 
The  evidence  for  the  former  occurrence  of  the  species  in  Palestine 
and  Arabia  is  inconclusive. 


712  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Western  Sahara.— Lydekker  and  Elaine  (1914,  vol.  3,  p.  149) 
record  two  specimens  of  the  first  half  of  the  past  century  as  probably 
from  Senegambia.  According  to  Cabrera  (1932,  p.  328),  there  is  no 
real  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  the  Addax  in  Morocco  within 
historical  times. 

Algeria  and  Tunisia. — The  species  appears  rather  widespread  in 
the  Algerian  Sahara,  but  at  a  certain  distance  from  its  northern 
limits.  Its  fine  horns  are  rather  frequently  brought  by  the  Arabs  to 
Laghouat,  Bou-Saada,  and  Biskra,  where  they  are  sold  to  officers  and 
tourists  as  objects  of  ornament.  (Lataste,  1885,  p.  293.) 

Pease  (1897,  pp.  810-812)  writes  as  follows: 

The  Addax  .  .  .  visits  this  district  [Bir  Aoueen,  southern  Tunisia]  in  large 
quantities  in  favourable  years.  The  Addax  country  is  the  Erg,  the  great  region 
of  sand-dunes  covered  more  or  less  thickly  with  vegetation  according  to 
situation  and  rains.  This  sand-dune  country  covers  hundreds — it  may  me 
said  thousands — of  miles  and  the  Addax  follows  the  rains.  ...  In  one  year 
the  Addax  are  only  found  far  south  of  Rhadamis  and  Ain  Taiba  (S.  of  Ouargla), 
in  other  years  they  follow  the  rain  as  far  north  as  the  southern  borders  of 
the  Chott  Djereed  in  the  east  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Ai'n  Taiba  in  the 
west.  .  .  . 

The  Chambas  who  have  firearms  shoot  a  great  many  of  these  Antelopes 

The  Touaregs  hunt  the  Begra  el  Ouash  [Addax]  .  .  .  with  Sloughia  (Grey- 
hounds .  .  .  ).  The  sloughia  bring  it  quickly  to  bay,  and  the  men  go  in  and 
spear  it. 

Geyr  von  Schweppenburg  (1917,  pp.  251-295)  reports  small  num- 
bers of  Addax  at  various  points  west  and  south  of  Temassinin,  in 
the  southern  territories  of  Algeria. 

Half  a  century  ago  the  Addax  ranged  over  the  entire  Sahara,  but 
its  retrogression  before  man  is  considerable.  Today  it  practically 
exists  no  more  in  the  Algerian  Sahara,  unless  in  the  south  of  the  Erg 
Oriental.  The  same  statement  applies  to  the  north  of  the  Libyan 
Erg.  To  find  the  Addax  in  numerous  herds,  one  must  go  to  the 
southern  or  western  Sahara  (beyond  the  central  massifs  and  the 
Saura) .  It  lives  not  only  in  the  Ergs,  but  also  in  the  Regs  and  on  the 
plateaus.  (Heim  de  Balsac,  1936,  pp.  177-178.) 

"The  Addax  ...  is  still  to  be  found  in  the  inland  desert  country 
of  the  south  of  the  Regency  [of  Tunisia],  although  of  late  years, 
even  in  these  remote  and  uninhabited  districts,  its  numbers  seem  to 
have  diminished  considerably.  .  .  .  The  meat  of  this  animal,  it 
appears,  is  much  esteemed  by  the  Arabs  as  food,  while  the  hides  are 
still  more  highly  prized  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  soles  of  shoes 
and  sandals."  (J.  S.  Whitaker,  in  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1899,  vol.  4, 
pp.  83-84.) 

In  Tunisia  the  Addax  is  now  confined  to  the  Erg,  south  of  a  line 
passing  approximately  by  Berresof  and  Bir-Aouine.  It  is  a  normal 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES 


713 


inhabitant  of  the  great  dunes.  The  bands  are  not  large  (15  indi- 
viduals at  the  most) .  An  authorization  from  the  Director  General 
of  Agriculture  is  required  for  hunting  this  animal.  (Lavauden,  1924, 
pp.  22-23,  distr.  map;  1932,  p.  22.) 


FIG.  66. — Addax  (Addax  nasomaculatus) .    After  Brehm,  etc. 

The  present  habitat  in  Tunisia  is  the  extreme  southern  part,  in 
the  Grand  Erg  Oriental,  where  the  animal  is  quite  rare.  The  cause  of 
depletion  is  the  progress  of  civilization.  Hunting  is  allowed  only  on 
special  permit;  permits  are  given  for  the  revictualling  of  expeditions. 
(Conservator  of  Forests,  Tunisia,  in  litt.,  September,  1936.) 

Libya. — The  Addax  "certainly  existed  west  of  our  [Egyptian] 
frontier  at  the  commencement  of  the  Turco-Italian  War  as  Prince 
Imer  Toussoum  was  actually  hunting  them,  probably  in  the  vicinity 
of  Wadi  Marah  130  miles  S.  of  Derna  when  that  war  started.  Don 
Bates  who  was  through  that  country  sometime  prior  to  1911  gives 
Addax  . 


714  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

"I  understand  from  Western  Arabs  that  the  great  field  for  game 
nowadays  is  in  the  'Harush'  [apparently  in  the  central  part  of 
Libya]  ....  There  considerable  numbers  of  Addax  .  .  .  exist." 
(Colonel  Green,  in  litt.,  March  13,  1933.) 

In  Tripolitania  "it  is  reported  that  the  animals  have  practically 
ceased  to  exist  owing  to  being  machine-gunned  by  Italian  military 
patrols"  (Hone,  1933,  p.  38). 

The  Addax  is  doubtless  rarer  than  the  Barbary  Sheep  in  Libya. 
Its  presence  is  up  to  now  materially  documented  only  by  a  single 
horn  brought  back  by  the  expedition  to  the  Oases  of  Cufra.  Legal 
protection  is  urged.  (De  Beaux,  1935,  p.  14.) 

The  Addax  is  rare  and  of  rather  uncertain  distribution  in  Libya. 
It  can  be  hunted  only  under  permit,  which  may  be  issued  no  more 
than  twice  per  year  to  a  given  person.  (Ministry  of  Colonies,  Rome, 
in  litt.,  March  5,  1937.) 

Central  Sahara. — "The  disappearance  of  the  Addax  from  the 
northern  Sahara  is  only  a  question  of  years.  Happily,  it  will  main- 
tain itself  for  a  long  time  yet  in  the  solitudes  of  the  southeastern 
Sahara,  north  of  Lake  Chad,  where  I  have  seen  it  in  immense  herds. 
Mechanical  locomotion  will  some  day  permit  hunters  to  go  there  and 
pursue  it.  Let  us  hope  that  the  powers  that  be  will  take  effective 
action  for  its  protection  before  that  day  arrives."  (Lavauden,  1926, 
p.  27.) 

The  Addax  is  threatened  almost  solely  by  the  natives.  The  exodus 
toward  Chad  of  peoples  from  Fezzan,  fleeing  the  Italian  domination, 
constitutes  a  new  menace  to  the  species.  In  general,  the  invasion 
of  Arabs  is  always  disastrous  to  the  large  game  of  a  region.  (Lavau- 
den, 1933,  p.  29.) 

According  to  Ramecourt  (1936,  p.  30),  the  species  is  common 
nowhere  unless  in  the  Ti-n-Toumma,  on  the  border  of  the  immense 
dunes  of  Agadem. 

In  Chad  the  Addax  is  found  only  in  the  north  of  the  colony.  It 
inhabits,  at  times,  some  of  the  most  remote  and  arid  regions  of  the 
southern  Sahara,  where  it  is  almost  inaccessible.  It  is  a  great  wan- 
derer, but  never  goes  farther  south  than  latitude  15°  N.,  except 
perhaps  in  the  region  of  Aurak  (between  Ziguei  and  Salal) .  It  is 
quite  abundant  north  of  Eguei  [lat.  16°]  and  Bodele  [lat.  17°] 
(Kanem),  particularly  in  the  triangle  Hacha,  Koubba,  Aurak.  It 
is  sometimes  met  with  between  Faya  and  Oum  Chalouba  [15°  30' 
N.,  20°  30'  E.] ;  and  more  to  the  east  in  Ennedi,  especially  in  the 
Bideyat  country  and  at  the  north  in  the  Erdis.  While  it  is  not  so 
common  as  the  Oryx,  several  hundred  may  be  observed  in  a  single 
day.  It  is  hunted  with  dogs  by  the  Haddad,  by  certain  groups  of  the 
Toubous,  and  by  the  Bideyat  of  Ennedi.  The  Oulad  Sliman  are  said 


ORDER    ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  715 

to  hunt  the  Addax  without  dogs,  following  it  on  horseback  or  on  their 
best  camels.  (Malbrant,  1936,  pp.  87-88.) 

The  Addax  exists  in  the  region  of  Timetrine  [19°  30'  N.,  0°  30'  W.] 
and  Inguezzans  [19°  30'  N.,  5°  40'  E.],  and  in  Borku  and  Ennedi. 
The  southern  limit  is  approximately:  Chingueti  [20°  30'  N.,  13°  W.], 
Arouane  [19°  N.,  3°  30'  W.],  Tessalit  [20°  15'  N.,  0°  30'  E.], 
Iferouane  [19°  N.,  6°  E.],  Beduaram,  Ennedi.  (General  Government 
of  French  West  Africa,  in  litt.,  November,  1936.) 

Thesiger  (1939,  p.  445)  had  native  reports  of  great  herds  of  Addax 
in  Erdi,  to  the  north  of  Ennedi. 

Anglo -Egyptian  Sudan. — Brocklehurst  (1931,  pp.  1-2)  gives  the 
following  account: 

It  is  found  in  Dongola,  northern  Darfur,  and  the  northern  part  of  the 
Kordofan  Province,  its  most  southern  range  being  approximately  15°  7'  lati- 
tude North.  .  .  . 

Normally  at  the  beginning  of  the  hot  weather  after  the  southern  migration 
starts,  the  Addax  come  as  far  south  as  Jebel  Teiga,  but  in  the  very  dry 
seasons,  when  there  is  little  grazing  in  the  north,  they  have  been  known  to 
come  as  far  south  as  the  Anke  district. 

They  are  usually  found  in  herds  of  from  five  to  thirty;  but  I  have  seen 
much  larger  herds,  and  on  one  occasion  I  counted  considerably  more  than 
400  in  the  course  of  one  day's  march. 

Early  in  1927,  I  was  travelling  in  the  Bedayat  country  of  north-western 
Darfur  on  the  boundary  of  French  Equatorial  Africa  where  I  came  across 
many  Addax.  Those  near  the  frontier  were  few  and  far  between,  besides 
being  very  wary  and  difficult  to  approach,  as  they  had  been  hunted  by  parties 
of  Arabs  with  dogs.  Carrying  enough  water  for  six  or  seven  days,  a  small  party 
of  these  Arabs  mounted  on  camels  and  accompanied  by  their  dogs  will  push 
into  the  desert  until  they  strike  the  fresh  spoor  or  actually  sight  a  herd  of 
Addax,  .  .  .  and  by  following  the  undulations  of  the  ground,  the  party  is  able 
to  get  within  a  few  hundred  yards  of  their  quarry  without  being  observed. 

The  Addax  being  short-legged  and  heavy,  is  incapable  of  any  great  speed, 
and  the  cows  and  calves  are  soon  brought  to  bay,  and  even  some  of  the  old 
bulls  are  run  down  and  speared. 

Further  to  the  north  and  east,  where  they  are  seldom  disturbed,  I  encountered 
several  large  herds. 

About  1932,  north  of  Wadi  Hawa,  Dongola,  tracks  were  common 
and  a  specimen  was  secured  (Maydon,  1932,  p.  188) . 

In  1933 (?)  Addax  were  found  near  the  French  frontier  at  about 
latitude  17°  N.,  but  seemed  to  fade  out  about  16°  45'  N.  (Shaw, 
1933,  p.  15). 

Egypt. — "The  Addax,  formerly  to  be  met  with  occasionally  in 
western  Egypt,  is  now  extinct.  The  last  instance  known,  El  Miralai 
T.  W.  Russell  Pasha,  of  the  Egyptian  Police,  told  me,  12  June,  1910, 
was  that  of  an  Addax  shot  by  an  old  Bedawin  hunter  in  about  the 
year  1900  in  the  Mariut  district,  about  40  miles  west  of  Alexandria. 

"The  so-called  eastern  [A.  n.  addax]  and  western  subspecies 
[A.  n.  nasomaculatus]  are  untenable."  (Flower,  1932,  p.  441.) 


716  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

The  Addax  "have  now  all  been  completely  destroyed  and  can 
never  be  reintroduced"  (T.  W.  Russell,  MS,  September  12,  1934) . 

The  present  habitat  is  the  north  of  Haifa  plains  of  Derr  Markaz 
[not  located].  The  causes  of  depletion  are  injudicious  hunting  and 
reduced  rainfall.  The  skins  and  horns  are  sold,  and  the  meat  is  used 
for  food.  Shooting  is  prohibited  by  Frontiers  Department  decision 
of  6.V.1930.  (Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Zoological  Garden,  Cairo, 
in  Hit.,  January,  1937.) 

Palestine  and  Arabia. — "The  beautiful  milk-white  Addax  is  a 
scarce  and  very  large  Antelope,  but  has  a  wide  range  through 
Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and  Egypt,  as  well  as  Arabia.  ...  It  is  well 
known  to  the  Arabs  as  'Addas'  or  'Akas,'  and  approaches  the  southern 
and  eastern  frontiers  of  Palestine.  Its  claim  to  be  included  here  is 
rather  historical  than  actual."  (Tristram,  1884,  p.  5.) 

Addax  disappeared  from  the  limits  of  Palestine  about  25  years 
ago  (Aharoni,  1930,  p.  329) . 

"The  Addax  .  .  .  probably  only  sojourned  on  our  territories 
[Palestine]  for  a  very  short  time,  if  at  all"  (Bodenheimer,  1935, 
p.  116). 

In  the  absence  of  specimens,  the  above-quoted  reports  are  not 
regarded  as  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  former  Asiatic  occurrence  of 
the  Addax.  "The  Bubal  disappeared  as  a  myth,  and  the  Addax 
followed  suit"  (Carruthers,  1935,  p.  4) . 

Nyala;  Inyala 

TRAGELAPHUS  ANGASII  Angas1 

Tragelaphus  Angasii  "Gray"  Angas,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1848,  p.  89,  1849. 
("The  northern  shores  of  St.  Lucia  Bay,  in  the  Zulu  country,  lat.  28° 
south.") 

FIGS.:  Angas,  1849,  pis.  4,  5;  Angas,  Kafirs  Illustrated,  pi.  29,  1849;  Baldwin, 
African  Hunting,  pi.  facing  p.  92,  1863;  Drummond,  1875,  pi.  facing  p.  378; 
Sclater  and  Thomas,  1900,  vol.  4,  pi.  92,  pp.  140,  146,  figs.  105,  106;  Bryden, 
1899,  pi.  13,  fig.  4,  p.  463,  fig.  39;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  13,  fig.  4;  Lydekker 
and  Blaine,  1914,  vol.  3,  p.  181,  fig.  25;  Selous  1914,  pi.  37;  Maydon, 
1932,  pis.  110,  141;  Ward,  1935,  p.  226,  fig.;  Pocock,  1937,  p.  661,  fig. 

The  Nyala  is  locally  distributed  in  the  coastal  belt  of  south- 
eastern Africa.  Its  numbers  are  comparatively  few,  and  many 
have  been  destroyed  by  natives. 

The  male  has  a  shaggy  aspect ;  general  color  grayish  black,  tinged 
with  brown  and  ochre;  sides  with  several  transverse  white  stripes; 
forehead  sienna-brown;  mane  black  on  neck,  white  from  withers 
to  tail ;  ears  rufous,  tipped  with  black ;  a  white  chevron  between  and 
below  the  eyes ;  lips,  chin,  and  three  marks  beneath  each  eye  white ; 
a  long  fringe  of  dark  hair  extending  down  middle  of  throat,  along 
each  side  of  belly,  and  across  thighs  to  the  tail;  white  spots  or 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  717 

patches  on  dewlap,  on  upper  part  of  foreleg,  on  breast,  and  on  sides 
and  front  of  thigh;  lower  part  of  limbs  bright  rufous;  tail  black 
above,  tip  and  lower  side  white.  Height  at  shoulder,  40  inches;  tail, 
20  inches.  Horns  24  inches,  twisted  and  sublyrate;  basal  half  deeply 
ridged;  brownish  black,  with  straw-colored  tips.  (Angas,  1849, 
p.  89.)  Record  length  of  horns  on  front  curve,  32f  inches  (Ward, 
1935,  p.  224) . 

Female  smaller  and  hornless;  color  bright  orange-rufous,  paler 
below;  a  median  dorsal  ridge  of  bristly  black  hair  from  crown  to 
tail;  white  spots  on  various  parts  of  the  body  resembling  those  of 
the  male;  stripes  on  sides  more  numerous  and  more  clearly  defined; 
tail  rufous  above,  white  below,  tip  black.  Height  at  shoulder,  33 
inches.  (Angas,  1849,  p.  89.) 

The  species  ranges  from  Natal  north  to  southern  Nyasaland,  and 
inland  to  northeastern  Transvaal  and  Southern  Rhodesia. 

Natal. — Angas  (1849,  p.  90),  its  discoverer,  says  it  was  "found  in 
small  troops  of  eight  or  ten  together"  on  the  hills  near  St.  Lucia  Bay. 

In  1896  Selous  (as  quoted  in  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1900,  vol.  4, 
pp.  141-144)  found  Nyalas  still  common  in  dense  bush  along  the 
Usutu  River  in  Amatongo-land. 

Elsewhere  Selous  (in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  455-460)  writes: 

[From  St.  Lucia  Bay]  northwards  it  appears  to  have  once  existed  in  all 
the  low-lying  coast  country,  along  the  banks  of  all  the  rivers  flowing  into  the 
Indian  Ocean,  as  far  as  the  Sabi,  and,  following  the  Limpopo,  penetrated  a 
good  distance  inland  ....  Between  the  Sabi  and  the  Zambesi  it  has  not  yet 
been  met  with  .... 

Owing  to  the  protection  which  has  been  afforded  them  of  late  years  by  the 
Government  in  Zululand,  inyalas  have  recently  increased  in  that  territory, 
but  in  Amatongaland,  and  everywhere  else  in  South-East  Africa  where  these 
antelopes  exist,  they  are  being  very  rapidly  exterminated  by  the  natives; 
and  as  the  rinderpest  has  also  lately  worked  sad  havoc  amongst  them,  espe- 
cially in  Zululand,  it  is  quite  certain  that  this  beautiful  species  will  become 
very  rare,  if  not  exactly  extinct,  in  the  coming  century. 

In  Zululand  the  species  is  plentiful  along  the  Umkuzi  River.  "At 
the  present  day  the  herds  are  small,  though  the  natives  assured  me 
that  formerly,  before  the  introduction  of  guns,  they  were  commonly 
much  larger."  C.  R.  Saunders  writes  that  the  largest  number  he  has 
seen  in  one  herd  is  sixteen;  also  that  "the  inyala  is  among  the  species 
of  game  that  have  suffered  most  heavily  from  the  rinderpest  plague 
that  has  recently  swept  through  Zululand."  (Neumann,  in  Bryden, 
1899,  pp.  462-466.) 

"Zululand  is  such  an  easy  country  to  reach  that  it  is  a  marvel  and 
a  blessing  that  Nyala  have  not  long  since  ceased  to  exist  there,  de- 
spite a  very  strict  preservation.  The  advance  of  civilization  and 
occasional  organized  game  drives  for  the  elimination  of  'Fly'  do  not 
promise  much  for  the  future."  (Maydon,  1932,  p.  351.) 


718 


EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 


In  Zululand  "there  are  more  than  1000  Nyala  in  the  two  Game 
Reserves  [Hluhluwe  and  Mkuzi]  and  some  200  or  so  on  the  private 
farms  in  the  False  Bay  and  Mkuzi  sections"  (H.  B.  Potter,  Game 
Conservator,  Ann.  Kept,  for  1934).  Charter  (1934,  p.  3)  reports 
160  of  the  animals  in  the  Hluhluwe  Reserve,  and  750  in  the  Mkuzi 
Reserve. 


FIG.  67.— Nyala   (Tragelaphi 


angasii).    After  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1900. 


The  number  in  northeastern  Zululand  is  estimated  at  700  to  1,000. 
Three-quarters  of  this  number  are  found  in  the  Ndumu,  Hluhluwe, 
and  Mkuzi  Reserves.  Depletion  has  been  gradual;  reduction  has 
been  necessary  owing  to  the  spread  of  nagana.  Fuller  protection  is 
now  accorded.  (Administrator's  Office,  Natal,  in  litt.,  December, 
1936.) 

Portuguese  East  Africa. — From  Zululand  the  range  extends  north- 
ward through  Portuguese  territory  for  some  40  miles  to  the  Nim- 
peluzi  River,  and  from  west  to  east  between  the  Lebombo  and 
Maputa  Rivers,  a  distance  of  some  30  miles.  Probably  the  next  few 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  719 

years  will  see  the  extinction  of  the  species  in  Portuguese  East  Africa 
south  of  Delagoa  Bay,  where  it  has  been  systematically  destroyed  by 
the  natives  for  many  years.  It  is  next  met  with  200  miles  north  of 
Nimpeluzi  in  the  Portuguese  provinces  of  Gazaland  and  Inhambane 
not  far  from  latitude  24°  S.  Here,  as  in  the  Maputa  district,  the 
animals  are  far  from  numerous.  In  1908  the  species  was  discovered 
on  the  Inyamapuzi  River  in  Gorongoza  north  of  Beira.  (Stevenson- 
Hamilton,  1912,  pp.  134-136.) 

"In  1921  two  parties  .  .  .  went  with  waggons  into  the  Portuguese 
territory,  near  the  Rhodesian  border,  and  killed,  one  400,  and  the 
other  250,  head  of  big  game — nearly  all  sable  and  inyala — within 
two  months"  ("Sabi,"  1922,  p.  43) . 

Transvaal. — In  Kruger  National  Park  the  opening  of  a  road  along 
the  Pafuri  River  "has  enabled  tourists  to  see  them  very  frequently. 
...  A  few  have  probably  been  killed  by  lions,  leopards,  and  wild 
dogs,  but  the  species  continues  to  increase  satisfactorily."  (Ann. 
Rept.,  Kruger  National  Park,  1934.) 

"Within  recent  years  there  was  also  quite  a  number  in  the  Zout- 
pansberg  district  on  the  Limpopo,  but  these  have  now  disappeared" 
(Hone,  1933,  p.  42) . 

The  number  in  Kruger  National  Park  is  estimated  at  100  (War- 
den, Kruger  National  Park,  in  litt.,  December,  1936) . 

Nyasaland. — "The  inyala  ...  is  rare  in  British  Central  Africa. 
The  only  district  in  which  it  has  yet  been  found  is  that  bordering  on 
the  Shire  River,  from  Port  Herald  up  to  the  Murchison  Cataracts 

"They  were  not  known  to  exist  in  this  part  of  Africa  till  189i." 
(Sharpe,  in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  460-461.) 

Wood  (in  Maydon,  1932,  pp.  317-324)  writes  of  the  Nyala  in  this 
region : 

In  our  borders  it  is  only  known  to  exist  in  two  localities,  near  Chiromo 
and  near  Chikwawa.  In  both  places  their  numbers  are  very  limited  and 
Government  has  wisely  proclaimed  their  breeding  haunts  as  Game  Reserves. 
But  animals  are  often  found  at  certain  seasons  outside  the  boundaries  of 
these  reserves.  .  .  . 

The  African  Hunting  Dog  (Lycaon  pictus)  must  take  heavy  toll  of  Nyala 
in  Nyasaland.  On  several  occasions  I  have  found  skeletons  of  both  sexes 
which  would  appear  to  have  been  killed  by  them,  and  early  one  morning 
found  them  at  the  very  deed.  .  .  . 

Also  natives  have  brought  in  horns  of  Nyala  found  dead  and  presumably 
killed  by  Dogs.  They  are  a  terrible  scourge  in  that  forest  country  surround- 
ing the  main  jungles  .... 

They  [Leopards]  must  often  succeed  in  killing  Nyala,  in  particular  cows 
and  calves,  and,  with  Hunting  Dog,  are  the  obvious  natural  check  to  their 
increase. 


720  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Southern  Rhodesia. — "Nyala  ^  have  never  been  very  numerous 
and  very  few  have  been  shot  since  the  European  occupation.  A  few 
are  reported  to  survive  in  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Lundi  River  and 
in  the  Zambesi  valley  near  Angwa  river.  Legally  considered  as 
'Royal  Game.'  "  (Game  Warden,  Wankie  Game  Reserve,  in  litt., 
March,  1937.) 

Northern  Rhodesia. — Pitman  (1934,  pp.  23-25)  discusses  reports 
of  this  species  in  the  following  localities:  the  southern  extremity  of 
Lake  Tanganyika;  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Hill  on  the  Nyasaland 
border;  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Zambesi  somewhere  below  Victoria 
Falls.  "From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  realised  that  the  evidence  to 
include  the  nyala  in  the  list  of  Northern  Rhodesia  mammals  is  in- 
conclusive, though  the  localities  as  indicated  are  worth  exhaustive 
investigation." 

General.— "Not  only  is  it  a  king  amongst  its  congeners  [the  bush- 
bucks],  by  reason  of  its  much  greater  size,  but  it  is  also  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  all  the  African  antelopes"  (Selous,  1914,  p.  121) . 

The  Nyala  is  accorded  complete  protection  under  the  London 
Convention  of  1933. 

Mountain  Nyala 

TRAGELAPHUS  BUXTONI  (Lydekker) 

Strepsiceros  buxtoni  Lydekker,  Nature,  vol.  84,  no.  2135,  p.  397,  1910.  ("To 
the  west  of  the  Arusi  plateau  of  Gallaland  [Ethiopia],  in  the  Sahatu 
Mountains,  and  south-east  of  Lake  Zwei,  at  an  estimated  height  of 
9000  feet  above  sea-level.") 

FIGS.:  Lydekker,  1911,  pi.  16,  p.  351,  fig.  103;  Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914, 
vol.  3,  pp.  183-184,  figs.  26-27;  Sanford  and  LeGendre,  1930,  pp.  163,  166, 
figs.;  Maydon,  1932,  pis.  60,  139;  Ward,  1935,  p.  228,  fig. 

This  species  is  known  only  from  some  of  the  higher  mountains  of 
southern  Ethiopia,  and  its  numbers  are  limited  to  a  few  thousand 
individuals  at  most. 

The  coat  is  rather  long  and  coarse,  with  an  incipient  fringe  on  the 
throat;  color  brownish  fawn,  lighter  about  the  eyes  and  darker  on 
nose  and  forehead;  a  short  dark  brown  mane  on  neck,  continued 
backwards  as  a  brown  and  white  dorsal  crest;  tail  bushy,  white 
beneath;  chevron  below  eyes,  two  spots  on  sides  of  head,  lips  and 
chin,  a  gorget  on  throat  and  another  on  chest,  a  row  of  9  spots  on 
upper  sides,  a  spot  on  upper  part  of  thigh,  and  several  patches  on 
limbs,  white.  Height  at  shoulder  about  52  inches.  Horns  like  those 
of  T.  angasii,  but  heavier,  obliquely  ridged  at  bases,  divergent,  with 
an  open  spiral,  forming  about  one  complete  turn  and  a  quarter,  with 
smooth  yellow-tipped  terminal  portion.  (Lydekker  and  Elaine,  1914, 
vol.  3,  pp.  183-184.)  Record  length  of  horns  on  outside  curve,  44 
inches  (Ward,  1935,  p.  225). 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  721 

Females  are  said  to  be  hornless  but  similar  to  the  males  in  color 
(Lydekker,  1911,  p.  349). 

The  Mountain  Nyala  was  made  known  to  science  as  late  as  1910, 
on  the  basis  of  a  specimen  secured  by  Ivor  Buxton.  It  is  evidently 
limited  to  the  Abyssinian  Highland  District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp. 
256,  260). 

"Fairly  plentiful  in  the  Arusi  mountains  fifty  miles  s.  e.  of  Addis 
Ababa  in  a  district  bounded  by  Lake  Zwai,  both  banks  of  the  Webbi 
Shabeila  river,  and  Hawash  railway  station.  A  mountainous  country, 
running  to  12,000  feet  or  more,  forest  and  tree  heath.  They  are 
harried  by  natives  undoubtedly,  but  they  are  outside  the  zone  of 
many  Europeans  and  all  motor-cars.  No  fear  of  extinction  in  1925." 
(Maydon,  1933,  p.  738.) 

Several  herds  were  seen  and  several  specimens  were  shot  on 
Chelalo  Mountain,  south  of  Lake  Zwai.  Others  were  obtained  near 
Lajo,  south  of  the  Webbi  River.  (Maydon,  1932,  pp.  223-225.) 

Sanford  and  LeGendre  (1930,  pp.  161-166)  found  the  species  on 
Ansha  and  Kaka  Mountains  and  report  the  taking  of  over  a  dozen 
specimens  by  their  party. 

W.  H.  Osgood  (in  litt.}  April  21,  1933)  contributes  the  following 
account: 

"The  Mountain  Nyala  .  .  .  has  an  exceedingly  limited  distribu- 
tion in  the  higher  mountains  of  southern  Abyssinia.  It  is  probably 
existing  in  all  the  mountains  exceeding  9000  feet  in  height  in  the 
province  of  Arussi  and  on  a  few  of  those  in  the  provinces  of  Bale  and 
Sidamo.  These  are  mainly  the  Chilalo  Mountains,  Mount  Gugu, 
Mount  Kaka,  and  the  Gedeb  Mountains.  They  are  included  in  an 
area  scarcely  more  than  one  hundred  miles  square,  a  large  part  of 
which  is  unsuitable  for  the  nyala.  .  .  . 

"Because  it  is  so  largely  forest-inhabiting,  accurate  estimates  of 
its  numbers  are  not  possible.  It  seems  hardly  probable  that  there  are 
more  than  a  few  thousand  animals  living  and  it  may  be  that  there  are 
only  hundreds.  It  is  shy  and  difficult  to  hunt  and  some  expeditions 
into  its  range  have  failed  to  secure  it,  so  it  is  evident  it  cannot  be 
very  abundant.  .  .  . 

"The  Abyssinians  doubtless  kill  a  few  nyala  each  year,  and  the 
extent  to  which  they  have  reduced  other  game  shows  what  they 
might  do  in  this  case  if  it  were  not  that  the  higher  parts  of  the 
mountains  are  uninhabited.  It  is  unlikely  that  any  effective  regula- 
tions could  be  carried  out  to  control  killing  by  the  natives.  They 
are  remote  from  central  authority  and  given  to  independent  action. 
Many  of  them  have  guns  of  very  poor  quality  and  condition,  but 
they  are  often  good  hunters. 
24 


722  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

"It  is  usually  possible  to  find  a  few  horns  of  the  mountain  nyala 
...  at  Addis  Ababa,  and  the  sale  of  these  to  foreigners  perhaps 
might  be  stopped." 

The  species  is  placed  in  Class  A  under  the  London  Convention  of 
1933. 

South  African  Eland 

TAUROTRAGUS  ORYX  ORYX   (Pallas) 

Antilope  Oryx  Pallas,  Misc.  Zool.,  p.  9,  1766.  (Type  locality  restricted  by 
Shortridge  (1934,  p.  607)  to  "mountains  near  Cape  Town,"  Cape  Province, 
South  Africa.) 

FIGS.:  Harris,  1840,  pi.  6;  A.  Smith,  1849,  pis.  40,  41;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  12, 
figs.  1,  3;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1900,  vol.  4,  pi.  98;  Lydekker,  1908,  pi.  12, 
figs.  1,  3;  Roosevelt  and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  2,  pi.  facing  p.  470,  upper  fig.; 
Haagner,  1920,  p.  221,  fig.  130;  Leister,  1938,  p.  91,  lower  fig. 

The  South  African  Eland  has  long  been  exterminated  over  most 
of  its  former  range ;  it  now  survives  chiefly  in  a  few  protected  areas, 
such  as  the  Kruger  National  Park. 

The  general  color  of  the  male  is  rusty  sienna-yellow ;  under  parts 
pale  cream-yellow;  forehead  yellowish  brown;  middle  of  face  below 
eyes  brownish  red ;  sides  of  head  creamy  white ;  mane  thin  brownish 
yellow;  a  narrow  median  reddish  brown  stripe  from  shoulders  to 
tail;  ears  long,  narrow,  pointed;  a  dewlap  present.  Height  at 
shoulder,  5  feet  9J  inches.  Horns  directed  backwards,  very  thick 
toward  the  base,  with  two  spiral  turns;  length,  34  inches.  Female 
slightly  paler  and  with  rather  slender  horns.  (A.  Smith,  1849,  text 
to  pis.  40,  41.) 

The  former  range  of  T.  o.  oryx  may  be  considered  to  have  included 
practically  all  of  South  Africa  south  of  the  Limpopo  River  and  the 
Tropic  of  Capricorn,  except  the  coastal  part  of  Great  Namaqualand. 
This  corresponds  to  the  Southeast  Veldt  District  and  the  Kalahari 
Arid  District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  259,  260) . 

The  early  writers  recorded  the  Eland  from  many  places  in  the 
Cape  Province.  Kolben  (1731,  vol.  2,  pp.  110-111)  refers  to  the 
animal  as  inhabiting  the  mountains  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  it 
frequently  attempted  to  enter  the  garden  of  the  colonists,  and  was 
taken  in  snares  set  there. 

"•  "The  hide  of  the  Eland,  particularly  that  of  the  neck,  is  very 
thick,  and  is  highly  esteemed  as  soles  for  shoes ;  the  rest  of  the  hide, 
on  account  of  its  toughness,  is  much  sought  after  by  the  farmers, 
being  valuable  as  traces  for  horses.  Its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed  as 
food;  and  from  the  animal  being  on  these  various  accounts  so 
useful,  it  is  much  hunted  by  the  Boers,  which  accounts  for  its  being 
now  so  rarely  met  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Colony."  (A.  Smith, 
1849,  text  to  pi.  41.) 


ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES  723 

Selous  (in  Bryden,  1899,  pp.  421-422)  says: 

Time  was  when  these  magnificent  animals  roamed  in  herds  over  the  whole 
of  South  Africa  from  Cape  Agulhas  to  the  Zambesi.  .  .  .  Even  now,  or  at 
any  rate  as  lately  as  1896 — for  it  is  impossible  to  tell  just  at  present  how 
much  havoc  the  terrible  plague  of  rinderpest  which  has  recently  swept  through 
South  Africa  has  worked  amongst  the  elands — the  range  of  this  species, 
although  it  has  long  been  banished  from  all  the  settled  states  of  South  Africa, 
is  or  was  still  very  extensive.  It  is  said  that  a  few  elands  yet  survive  amongst 
the  fastnesses  of  the  Drakensberg  mountains,  where  that  range  divides  Basuto- 
land  from  Natal;  but  with  this  exception  I  doubt  whether  any  of  these  ani- 
mals are  still  to  be  found  anywhere  within  the  borders  of  Natal,  Zululand, 
Swaziland,  the  Cape  Colony,  British  Bechuanaland,  the  Orange  Free  State, 
Griqualand  West,  or  the  Transvaal.  From  all  these  territories  they  have  been 
driven  long  ago. 

"At  the  present  time  there  are  still  a  few  left  in  the  mountainous 
country  along  the  Basutoland,  Griqualand  East,  and  Natal  borders ; 
beyond  the  Colony  there  are  a  certain  number  in  the  North  Kalahari, 
in  ...  the  country  between  Beira  and  Mozambique,  and  possibly  in 
Zululand  and  the  Transvaal  Eastern  frontier;  elsewhere  they  have 
been  nearly  exterminated."  (W.  L.  Sclater,  1900,  vol.  1,  p.  250.) 

"Nothing  could  be  more  encouraging  than  the  reports  received 
regarding  the  increase  of  this  fine  species  formerly  extinct  in  the 
Transvaal.  It  seems  now  to  be  found  in  all  areas  north  of  the  Oli- 
fants  River,  and  there  are  even  unconfirmed  reports  of  individuals 
having  been  seen  south  of  it."  (Ann.  Kept.  Transvaal  Game  Reserve, 
1925.) 

"Eland  have  become  more  and  more  common  in  the  north,  and 
Ranger  Botha  saw  a  herd  of  well  over  a  hundred  with  a  number  of 
calves  in  his  section"  (Ann.  Rept.  Kruger  National  Park,  1934) . 

The  present  range  of  this  Eland  includes  parts  of  the  Kalahari 
Desert  and  the  Kruger  National  Park  in  the  northeastern  Transvaal ; 
it  is  strictly  preserved  in  both  areas.  Depletion  has  been  brought 
about  by  man  and  by  the  rinderpest  epidemic  of  1896.  There  are 
many  possibilities  in  utilization  through  domestication.  (Warden  of 
Kruger  National  Park,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

In  Natal  the  animal  is  rigidly  protected  in  the  Giant's  Castle 
Game  Reserve,  where  there  are  approximately  1,500  individuals. 
Recently  a  few  have  been  successfully  established  in  the  Hluhluwe 
Reserve.  (Administrator's  Office,  Natal,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

With  the  exception  of  those  in  the  reserves  just  mentioned,  "and 
one  or  two  small  troops  on  enclosed  farms  in  the  Transvaal  and 
Orange  Free  State,  Eland  are  already  extinct  in  the  Union  of  South 
Africa"  (Shortridge,  1934,  vol.  2,  p.  610) . 


724  EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 

Roberts  (1937,  pp.  776-777)   writes: 

The  eland  was  at  one  time  plentiful  all  over  the  Union,  and  always  a 
favourite  with  the  hunter,  owing  to  its  size,  fattiness  and  tender  quality  of 
the  meat,  the  hide  also  being  better  than  that  of  domestic  cattle.  No  wonder 
then  that  it  rapidly  disappeared  with  the  advance  of  settlement.  Attempts 
were  made  by  many  early  settlers  to  keep  it  on  their  farms,  but  it  was  either 
shot  off  by  poachers,  or  when  restless  during  droughts  migrated  elsewhere. 
Ordinary  fences  are  of  little  avail  to  keep  it  within  bounds,  as  its  tough  hide 
enables  it  to  push  through  ordinary  wire  fences  without  much  damage  to 
itself,  and  its  ability  to  leap  over  obstacles  six  feet  high  makes  it  difficult  to 
keep  in  confinement.  ...  A  few  occur  in  the  Kruger  National  Park  as  strays 
from  Southern  Rhodesia  and  Portuguese  South-East  Africa,  and  a  fair  num- 
ber are  said  to  occur  in  the  Kalahari  Gemsbok  Park.  .  .  .  The  advantages 
of  protecting  this,  the  largest  of  the  antelopes,  both  for  economic  and  tech- 
nical scientific  reasons  must  be  obvious. 

"As  the  Eland  breeds  well  in  captivity,  and  is  as  a  rule  of  a  mild 
docile  nature,  it  is  mysterious  why  no  attempt  was  made  by  our 
earlier  settlers  to  domesticate  this  fine  animal,  even  if  only  as  a 
fresh  item  for  the  bill  of  fare.  The  Elands  in  the  National  Zoolog- 
ical Gardens  breed  regularly  every  year."  (Haagner,  1920,  p.  224.) 

[The  remaining  subspecies  of  this  Eland  have  survived  in  much 
better  numbers  than  the  one  of  South  Africa,  and  require  only 
brief  mention. 

The  MASHONA  ELAND  (Taurotragus  oryx  selousi  Lydekker1) 
ranges  over  Southern  Rhodesia,  between  the  Zambesi  and  the  Lim- 
popo, and  apparently  the  adjacent  parts  of  Portuguese  East  Africa. 
According  to  the  Warden  of  the  Wankie  Game  Reserve  (in  litt., 
March,  1937),  Elands  are  common  in  most  districts  of  Southern 
Rhodesia  and  have  held  their  own,  despite  the  large  numbers  shot 
in  tsetse  fly  operations  and  despite  the  severe  effects  of  drought. 

The  name  LIVINGSTONE'S  ELAND — T.  o.  livingstonii  (P.  L.  Scla- 
ter) 2 — may  be  applied  for  the  present  to  the  Eland  of  South-West 
Africa,  the  northern  part  of  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate,  Angola, 
Northern  Rhodesia,  Nyasaland,  and  the  southern  part  of  the 
Belgian  Congo.  Apparently  it  still  occurs  in  fair  numbers  over  a 
large  part  of  this  range.  Pitman  (1934,  p.  331)  estimates  the  number 
in  Northern  Rhodesia  (excluding  Barotse)  at  30,000.  In  the  Bel- 
gian Congo,  however,  it  has  been  decimated  by  both  Europeans  and 
natives,  despite  total  legal  protection  (A.  J.  Jobaert,  in  litt.,  Novem- 
ber 10,  1936) . 

1  Taurotrayus   oryx   selousi  Lydekker,   Ward's  Records  of   Big  Game,   ed.   6, 
p.  328,  1910.     (Typified  by  two  heads  from  the  "Mashuna  country,"  Southern 
Rhodesia,  figured  by  Selous,  A  Hunter's  Wanderings  in  Africa,  pi.  1,  figs.  1,  3, 
1890.) 

2  Oreas  livingstonii  P.  L.  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  1864,  p.  105,  1864. 
(Near   Sekhosi,  on  the  Zambesi,  about   115  miles  northwest  of  Victoria   Falls, 
Northern  Rhodesia;  cf.  Harper,  1940,  p.  331.) 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :   *  EVEN -TOED    UNGULATES  725 

The  EAST  AFRICAN  ELAND  (T.  o.  patter sonianus  Lydekker1)  ranges 
from  southern  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  (east  of  the  Nile)  through 
Uganda,  Kenya,  and  Tanganyika  Territory,  and  west  to  Ruanda. 
Although  it  has  suffered  from  hunting  and  from  rinderpest,  and  is 
local  in  its  distribution,  it  remains  in  moderate  numbers  over  much 
of  its  range,  and  has  even  shown  an  encouraging  increase  in  pro- 
tected areas. 

T.  o.  billingae  Kershaw  (Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  9,  vol.  11, 
p.  598,  1923) ,  based  upon  an  incomplete  skin  from  the  Iringa  Dis- 
trict of  Tanganyika  Territory,  does  not  seem  to  be  clearly  differen- 
tiated from  T.  o.  patter  sonianus.} 

Derby  Eland;  West  African  Eland.    Elande  Derby   (Fr.) 

TAUROTRAGUS  DERBIANUS  DERBIANUS  (Gray) 

Boselaphus  Derbianus  J.  E.  Gray,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  1,  vol.  20,  p.  286, 
1847.  ("Western  Africa,  Gambia.") 

FIGS.:  Gray,  Gleanings  Knowsley  Menagerie,  pi.  25,  1850;  Reade,  1863,  pi.  22; 
Reade,  Savage  Africa,  ed.  2,  pi.  facing  p.  397,  1864;  Rochebrune,  Faune 
Senegambie,  atlas,  Mamm.,  pi.  7,  fig.  2,  1883-1885;  Bryden,  1899,  pi.  12, 
fig.  2;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1900,  vol.  4,  pi.  100,  p.  218,  fig.  119;  Lydekker, 
1908,  pi.  12,  fig.  2;  Selous,  1914,  pi.  29  (subsp.?);  Ward,  1935,  p.  248,  fig. 

The  typical  Derby  Eland  is  now  considered  rare  everywhere  in 
its  West  African  range. 

General  color  deep  chestnut  or  rufous;  14  or  15  narrow  white 
transverse  stripes  on  sides;  neck  black,  with  a  brown  mane,  and 
bordered  posteriorly  with  a  white  collar ;  adult  bulls  with  a  chocolate 
frontal  tuft;  nose  black;  sides  of  head  dusky  brown;  an  oblique 
whitish  stripe  in  front  of  each  eye;  lips  and  chin  white;  ears  large, 
marked  with  white,  black,  and  brownish;  a  broad  median  black 
dorsal  stripe  from  neck  to  tail;  under  parts  nearly  white,  middle  of 
belly  black;  a  black  patch  on  back  of  foreleg  above  the  knee; 
pasterns  black  behind.  Height  at  shoulder  probably  about  70  inches. 
Horns  large,  massive,  divergent,  twisted.  Females  smaller,  with 
smaller  horns,  and  without  frontal  tuft.  (Sclater  and  Thomas,  1900, 
vol.  4,  pp.  215-216.)  Record  length  of  horns,  36i  inches  (Ward, 
1935,  p.  246) . 

This  Eland  occurs  in  the  interior  parts  of  Senegal  (Bofing), 
Gambia,  French  Guinea  (Fouta  Djallen),  and  the  Ivory  Coast, 
and  along  the  upper  Niger  (Tinkisso)  (General  Government  of 
French  West  Africa,  in  litt.,  November,  1936) .  Portuguese  Guinea 
is  also  included  in  its  range  (Ward,  1935,  p.  246) . 

Reade  writes  (1863,  pp.  169-170)  that  when  he  was  on  the  Casa- 
mance,  in  Senegal,  he  was  told  that  the  animal  was  most  abundant 

i  Taurotragus  oryx  patter  sonianus  Lydekker,  Field,  vol.  108,  p.  579,  1906. 
(Laikipia  Plateau,  Kenya.) 


726  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING    MAMMALS 

in  the  bamboo  forest  of  Bambunda,  about  50  miles  northeast  of 
Sedhu.  The  natives  were  in  the  habit  of  annually  burning  the  under- 
growth of  the  forest  and  the  high  grass  of  the  plains,  and  at  that 
time  holding  a  "battue,"  in  which  game  animals,  including  Elands, 
were. killed  in  large  numbers.  "Thus  I  obtained  one  specimen;  the 
others  I  purchased  at  Macarthy's  Island,  Gambia." 

"Sir  Robert  [Llewelyn]  stated  that  the  Derbian  Eland  .  .  .  was 
rare  in  the  colony  [Gambia],  though  occasionally  found  in  Niam- 
mina  in  the  dry  season,  but  was  said  to  be  met  with  in  large 
quantities  on  the  upper  river"  (P.  L.  Sclater,  1898,  p.  349) . 

"This  splendid  eland  ...  is  almost  completely  unknown,  except 
by  a  few  horns,  to  hunters  and  zoologists  of  the  present  day  (Bry- 
den,  1899,  p.  439). 

In  Gambia  "it  does  not  seem  to  be  very  abundant,  and  is  undoubt- 
edly very  shy.  During  my  stay  on  the  river,  several  pairs  of  horns 
were  found  in  the  possession  of  natives.  Two  were  met  with  on  the 
south  bank,  west  of  M'Carthy's  Island,  and  one  at  Koina,  on  the 
north  bank,  100  miles  east  of  M'Carthy's  Island.  All  these  had  been 
procured  in  the  year  1899."  (J.  S.  Budgett,  in  Sclater  and  Thomas, 
1900,  vol.  4,  p.  220.) 

"It  has  long  since  been  exterminated  within  the  limits  of  500 
miles  of  Timbuktoo"  (Cotton,  1933,  p.  1037). 

E.  Johnson  reports  (1937,  p.  65)  for  Gambia:  "Only  found  in  the 
upper  river,  especially  on  the  north  bank  near  Koina,  300  miles  up. 
A  lot  are  killed  by  native  hunters  during  the  months  of  May  and 
June.  I  have  seen  as  much  as  fifteen  heads  weighing  from  600  to 
1,400  Ib.  each  brought  in  for  sale  during  the  month  of  May,  1926. 
Now,  however,  much  less  appears  in  that  district,  I  reckon  there 
are  a  thousand  heads  left.  As  these  animals  generally  come  in  a 
single  file  containing  from  six  to  a  dozen  animals,  they  become  an 
easy  target  for  the  night  hunter.  The  Wild  Animal  Regulations  for 
1916  state  'absolutely  protected'." 

All  subspecies  of  Taurotragus  derbianus  have  been  accorded  a 
place  in  Schedule  B  of  the  London  Convention  of  1933. 

Giant  Derby  Eland;   Sudani  Derby  Eland;  Nile  Derby  Eland 

TAUROTRAGUS  DERBIANUS  GIGAS   (Heuglin) 

BoselaphiLS   gigas   Heuglin,   Nova   Acta   Acad.   Caes.   Leop. -Carol.,   vol.   30, 

Abhandl.  2,  p.  19,  1863.    (West  of  the  upper  White  Nile,  at  about  lat. 

7°  N.) 
FIGS.:    Heuglin,  op.  cit.,  pi.  1,  fig.  2;  Sclater  and  Thomas,  1900,  vol.  4,  p.  208, 

fig.  117;  Novit.  Zool.,  vol.  12,  pi.  12,  1905;  Lydekker,  1908,  p.  316,  fig.; 

Brocklehurst,  1931,  pi.  facing  p.  98;  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  31,  no.  6,  cover  and 

pp.  589,  590,  593,  figs.,  1931;  Ward,  1935,  p.  245,  fig. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :     EVEN -TOED   UNGULATES  727 

There  are  no  records  to  show  that  this  Eland  ever  was  very 
common,  and  its  numbers  have  now  been  considerably  depleted  by 
disease  as  well  as  by  hunting. 

The  adult  male  has  a  frontal  mat  of  dark  chocolate-brown;  nose 
black;  sides  of  head  light  gray  to  pale  fawn;  a  narrow  white  stripe 
extending  obliquely  forward  from  the  eye,  and  a  round  white  spot  on 
the  cheek;  upper  lip  and  chin  white;  ears  large,  externally  mostly 
black,  with  white  tips ;  a  large  dewlap  of  whitish  gray ;  a  brown  and 
black  neck  mane  of  coarse  hair,  becoming  entirely  black  round  the 
base  of  the  neck  and  forming  a  conspicuous  collar,  bordered  pos- 
teriorly by  a  white  stripe  extending  halfway  to  the  withers;  body 
color  very  pale  fawn,  becoming  white  on  the  belly;  median  dorsal 
and  ventral  black  stripes;  about  10  white  stripes  running  down  the 
sides  and  haunches;  limbs  pale  fawn,  white  on  the  inner  sides,  with 
black  patches  above  the  hoofs  and  on  the  back  of  the  fore  limbs 
above  the  knees.  Horns  very  straight,  stout,  and  heavy,  with  the 
spiral  ridges  very  strongly  developed.  (Butler,  1905,  pp.  289-290.) 
Roosevelt  and  Heller  (1914,  vol.  2,  pp.  463-467)  give  the  number  of 
side  stripes  as  11  to  15,  and  the  maximum  horn  length  as  41  inches. 
Height  at  shoulder,  6  feet  (Cotton,  1933,  p.  1038) . 

"So  far  as  known  the  giant  eland  is  confined  to  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal 
and  Lado  Enclave  Provinces  of  the  Egyptian  Soudan.  It  is  limited 
to  the  western  drainage  of  the  Bahr-el-Jebel  Nile,  extending  roughly 
from  the  vicinity  of  Rejaf  northward  to  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  River 
and  its  continuation  the  Bahr-el-Arab ;  westward  it  reaches  Dem 
Zubeir  in  the  Dar  Fertit  country.  The  distribution  is  limited  to  the 
eastward  by  the  Nile  and  northward  by  its  chief  western  affluent, 
the  Bahr-el-Ghazal;  while  westward  the  heights  of  the  Nile  water- 
shed confine  it.  In  this  latter  region,  however,  it  extends  to  the  very 
borders  of  the  watershed  in  the  Niam-Niam  country."  (Roosevelt 
and  Heller,  1914,  vol.  2,  p.  459.)  The  range  is  now  known  to  extend 
into  northwestern  Uganda  and  northeastern  Belgian  Congo.  It 
corresponds  in  part  to  the  eastern  division  of  the  Sudanese  Savanna 
District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258). 

According  to  Heuglin  (1869,  as  quoted  in  Sclater  and  Thomas, 
1900,  vol.  4,  p.  207) ,  the  animal  "is  found  in  pairs  and  singly  in  the 
forests  of  the  Djur  River  and  amongst  the  Arol  negros." 

Collins  (in  Butler,  1905,  p.  290)  writes  of  seeing  a  herd  of  60. 

Roosevelt  and  Heller  (1914,  vol.  2,  pp.  459-462)  give  the  fol- 
lowing information: 

Throughout  this  range  it  is  distributed  only  locally  and  is  so  rare  that  it  is 
a  very  difficult  species  to  obtain.  .  .  . 

Heuglin  .  .  .  described  the  species  from  a  pair  of  horns  collected  some- 
where near  the  present  position  of  Wau,  probably  east  of  it.  ...  In  1874, 
Doctor  Georg  Schweinfurth  .  .  .  referred  to  the  eland  occurring  about  the 
Lehssy  River  and  the  village  of  Sabby  [in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  region]. 


728  EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

[In  the  Lado  Enclave]  they  were  found  in  herds  of  from  ten  to  thirty  or 
forty  individuals;  the  old  bulls  .  .  .  were  frequently  solitary.  .  .  . 

It  is  said  that  in  the  rainy  season,  when  the  grass  is  thick  and  tall,  they 
are  often  killed  by  lions,  which  are  then  able  to  get  so  close  as  to  seize 
them  by  the  head. 

Brocklehurst  writes  (1931,  pp.  46-48) : 

A  few  herds  are  scattered  throughout  the  Mongalla  and  Bahr-el-Ghazal 
Provinces  and  south-western  Darfur.  .  .  . 

They  are  generally  found  in  herds  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five,  though 
I  have  seen  a  herd  of  over  forty.  They  are  very  local  .... 

Eland  are  very  susceptible  to  cattle  plague  and  rinderpest,  and  between 
the  years  1923  and  1927  several  herds  were  much  depleted  by  these  diseases. 

J.  L.  Clark  (1931)  encountered  several  herds  in  the  vicinity  of 
York  House  and  Amadi,  and  secured  two  specimens.  At  this  time 
"disease  had  greatly  diminished  the  eland  and  in  certain  localities 
had  wiped  them  out  completely." 

Tweedie  (in  Maydon,  1932,  pp.  168-172)  gives  the  following 
account: 

In  the  Sudan  his  best-known  haunts  are : 

(1)  The  Jur  country,  a  few  miles  east  of  Wau. 

(2)  The  old  Lado  enclave. 

(3)  The  western  portion  of  the  Bahr  el  Ghazal. 

(4)  The  Gell  river,  between  Wau  and  Rumbek  .... 

Now  that  the  advance  of  civilization  has  made  their  habitat  so  much  more 
easily  accessible,  are  they  one  of  the  fine  beasts  that  are  doomed?  It  is 
not  perhaps  the  rifle  of  the  regulated  sportsmen  that  they  need  fear,  so  much 
as  the  local  native.  Game  sanctuaries  and  regulations  are  good,  but  who  is  to 
control  the  wild  native  himself?  Pax  Brittanica  has  freed  him  from  inter- 
tribal wars  and  slave  raids,  only  to  free  him  to  play  havoc  with  the  game. 

"From  my  own  inquiries  I  gather  that  they  are  well  protected  in 
British  administered  Sudan  (west  bank  of  Nile) ;  rare  and  protected 
in  Uganda;  very  rare  in  n.  e.  corner  of  Belgian  Congo  and  protected" 
(Maydon,  1933,  p.  738) . 

Cotton  (1933,  pp.  1037-1038)  writes  as  follows: 

Within  the  limits  of  British  territory  the  species  is  practically  confined 
to  the  Soudan,  though  herds  of  females  are  said  to  stray  into  Uganda,  and 
...  by  far  the  best  area  for  Giant  Eland  is  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  and  by  far 
the  best  district  is,  in  my  opinion,  Tonj.  .  .  .  The  tracks  of  lion  and  leopard 
are  found  occasionally;  but  the  real  enemies  of  the  game  are  the  forest 
tribes,  who  are  one  and  all  expert  hunters.  .  .  . 

The  Giant  Eland  .  .  .  never,  I  think,  trespasses  on  the  cultivation  .... 

A  herd  of  Giant  Eland  consists  usually  of  six  or  seven  cows  accompanied 
by  a  bull  ....  They  are  never  common,  and,  judging  from  the  oldest 
records  of  the  country,  these  of  Junker  and  Schweinfurth,  they  never  have 
been  common  within  historic  times.  Indeed,  they  strike  one  as  being  relics 
of  the  remote  past,  before  man  became  the  acknowledged  ruler  of  the  planet, 
and  their  survival  due  to  the  remoteness  of  their  haunts,  shut  in  between  the 
desert  and  the  equatorial  forest,  and  now,  as  Africa  is  opened  out,  the  Giant 
Eland  will  be  one  of  the  first  to  go. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA :      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  729 

The  species  did  not  formerly  occur  in  Uganda,  but  the  north- 
western portion  of  the  West  Nile  District  (formerly  the  southern 
part  of  the  Lado  Enclave)  is  occasionally  visited  by  herds  of  cows, 
totalling  less  than  a  hundred  individuals.  There  is  no  reason  to 
believe  that  the  species  is  decreasing  in  this  locality.  It  is  protected, 
and  only  males  may  be  hunted  under  Government  permit.  During 
12  years  past  no  male  has  been  seen  or  killed  by  sportsmen.  (Game 
Warden,  Uganda,  in  litt.,  December,  1936.) 

In  the  Belgian  Congo  this  animal  is  found  only  in  the  north- 
eastern corner,  and  probably  it  never  has  been  very  numerous. 
Though  long  and  completely  protected  by  law,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
in  late  years  it  has  been  hunted  not  only  by  natives  but  also  by 
unscrupulous  Europeans.  The  numerous  trophies  found  almost 
everywhere  constitute  a  proof.  There  may  not  exist,  north  of  Aba, 
but  a  few  isolated  individuals,  perhaps  a  few  small  troops.  The 
species  is  dangerously  near  extinction  in  the  Belgian  Congo.  The 
measures  adopted  for  its  protection — an  unguarded  game  reserve — 
are  notoriously  insufficient.  (A.  J.  Jobaert,  in  litt.,  November  11, 
1936.) 

Congo  Derby  Eland 

TAUROTRAGUS  DERBIANUS  CONGOLANUS  Rothschild 

Taurotragus  derbianus  congolanus  Rothschild,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  8, 

vol.  12,  p.  575,  1913.    ("Eastern  Congo,  Ubanghi  District"  =  probably  the 

Ubangi-Shari  Territory  of  French  Equatorial  Africa.) 
SYNONYM?:    Taurotragus  derbianus  cameroonensis  Millais  (1924). 
FIGS.:    Dollman,  1929,  p.  30,  fig.;   Weidholz,  1930,  figs.  1-3;   Maydon,  1932, 

pis.  31,  38,  136;  Lavauden,  1934,  pi.  5;  Malbrant,  1936,  pi.  12,  lower  fig.; 

Ramecourt,  1936,  pi.  10. 

Hunting  and  disease  have  reduced  the  stock  of  this  Eland  to  a 
point  considerably  below  its  former  status. 

Horns  longer  and  slenderer  than  in  the  other  Derby  Elands; 
anterior  crest  of  the  spiral  twist  passing  round  the  back  of  the  horns 
only  once;  distance  between  base  of  horn  and  second  frontal  point 
of  the  twist  much  greater  than  in  the  other  two  forms;  frontal  tuft 
dark  blackish  chestnut  (Rothschild,  1913,  pp.  575-576).  A  large 
dewlap  commences  at  the  chin  and  terminates  about  halfway  down 
the  neck  (Dollman,  1929,  p.  29) .  Record  length  of  horns,  44J  inches 
(Ward,  1935,  p.  247) .  Three  specimens  in  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  collected  at  Kabo,  60  miles  north  of 
Batangafo,  Ubangi-Shari,  have  13  to  14  narrow  white  stripes  on  the 
sides  and  a  white  round  spot  or  a  vertical  stripe  on  the  cheek. 

The  range  appears  to  be  restricted  to  the  central  part  of  French 


730  EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 

Equatorial  Africa  and  the  northern  part  of  French  Cameroons.1 
This  appears  to  correspond  to  the  more  westerly  portions  of  the 
Ubangi  Savanna  District  of  Bowen  (1933,  pp.  256,  258) .  The  animal 
occurs  chiefly  in  the  basins  of  the  Shari  and  upper  Benue  Rivers  and 
on  some  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Ubangi  in  Ubangi-Shari  Territory. 
It  extends  north  to  the  Bagirmi  district  and  to  Dar  Rounga  (toward 
the  Sudan  frontier) ,  west  to  the  Garua  district  of  Cameroons,  and 
south  to  the  basin  of  the  Kouango  River.  Schwarz  (1920,  p.  1022) 
records  specimens  from  between  Njia  and  Nana  Barja  and  from 
Bate,  eastern  Cameroons.  Ward  (1935,  p.  247)  records  specimens 
from  French  Chad,  "French  Congo"  [  =  French  Equatorial  Africa], 
Ubangi-Shari,  and  River  Loubo;  his  determination  of  two  specimens 
from  Cameroons  (p.  246)  as  T.  d.  derbianus  seems  open  to  question. 
Dollman  (1929,  p.  576)  records  a  specimen  from  near  Fort  Arch- 
ambault. 

At  Borkoru  (apparently  in  the  Bahr  Sara  region  southwest  of 
Fort  Archambault) ,  Akroyd  (in  Maydon,  1932,  pp.  400-401)  "found 
that  the  Eland  were  afflicted  with  some  pest,  of  which  they  were 
dying  in  considerable  numbers."  The  natives  "thereabouts  reported 
Eland  frequently  in  sight." 

According  to  Lavauden  (1934,  pp.  382-383),  the  Arabs  in  former 
times  encountered  the  animal  in  the  southern  part  of  Wadai.  It  is 
extremely  localized  in  Cameroons  and  has  become  very  rare.  It  is 
protected  by  the  game  regulations  of  French  Equatorial  Africa 
and  can  be  killed  only  on  scientific  permit,  but  enforcement  of  the 
law  remains  to  be  applied. 

In  an  area  south  of  Fort  Archambault  the  Elands  had  been 
decimated  by  disease,  by  encircling  fires,  and  by  the  systematic 
operations  of  the  hunters  of  a  local  sultan  (Ramecourt,  1936,  p.  124) . 

Malbrant  (1936,  p.  91)  states  that  this  Eland  is  still  quite  wide- 
spread in  French  Equatorial  Africa,  and  is  not  so  rare  as  generally 
believed.  He  gives  detailed  records  from  many  points  within  its 
range. 

L.  Blancou  reports  (in  litt.,  December,  1936)  that  it  was  for- 
merly found  by  thousands  throughout  French  Equatorial  Africa, 
from  latitude  6°  N.  to  the  Chad  Colony.  It  was  localized,  however, 
in  certain  favorable  regions.  It  still  has  the  same  range,  but  occurs 
only  by  hundreds  and  no  more  by  thousands.  He  is  convinced  that 
the  Derby  Eland  is  now  commoner  in  Ubangi-Shari  than  anywhere 
else.  Depletion  was  due  to  the  demand  for  its  excellent  meat.  It 

i  The  insufficiently  described  Taurotragus  derbiamis  earner oonensis  Millais 
(Far  Away  up  the  Nile,  p.  240,  1924;  "North-West  Cameroon")  is  provisionally 
included  with  the  present  subspecies. 

Rothschild's  female  paratype  of  congolanus  was  recorded  as  from  "N.  W. 
Tanganyika";  but  either  the  locality  or  the  identification  must  be  erroneous. 


ORDER   ARTIODACTYLA I      EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES  731 

has  also  been  decimated  by  epizootics,  even  more  than  the  Buffalo 
has  been,  and  at  the  same  periods.  It  seems  to  be  quite  capable  of 
domestication.  It  has  been  partly  protected  since  1929,  and  it  occurs 
in  small  numbers  in  all  the  parks  and  preserves  of  Ubangi-Shari. 

In  the  French  Cameroons  there  are  still  some  hundred  head, 
living  in  the  north.  They  are  absolutely  protected,  except  on 
scientific  permit.  (Paris  Agency,  in  litt.,  November,  1936.) 

Powell-Cotton  (in  Maydon,  1932,  pi.  136)  presents  a  photograph 
of  a  specimen  from  Kone  Hills,  south  of  Garua,  French  Cameroons. 


POSTSCRIPT 

Too  late  for  presentation  elsewhere  in  this  volume,  the  following 
information  has  come  to  hand  concerning  an  apparently  extinct 
New  Zealand  species: 

The  Short-tailed  Bat  (Mystacina  tuberculata *)  "is  on  the  brink 
of  extinction,  and  may,  indeed,  even  now  have  ceased  to  exist. 
.  .  .  Many  years  have  passed  away  since  one  of  the  species  was 
recorded."  (F.  W.  Hutton  and  J.  Drummond,  Animals  of  New 
Zealand,  pp.  31-32,  1904.)  The  species  is  confined  to  New  Zealand 
and  forms  a  family  by  itself  (G.  M.  Allen,  Bats,  p.  206,  fig.  40, 1939) . 
"Neither  axe  nor  fire  entirely  explain  [its]  disappearance."  It 
"was  always  an  extremely  rare  creature."  It  may  have  become 
the  victim  of  an  epizootic.  (Perrine  Moncrieff,  Jour.  Soc.  Preserva- 
tion Fauna  Empire,  n.  s.,  pt.  49,  p.  13,  1944.) 

With  the  disappearance  of  this  bat  an  entire  family  (the  Mysta- 
cinidae)  has  become  extinct.  The  only  other  indigenous  land  mam- 
mal of  New  Zealand,  the  Long-tailed  Bat  (Chalinolobus  morio 
(Gray)),  seems  likewise  to  have  become  extirpated  in  that  country; 
it  survives,  however,  in  Australia  and  Tasmania. 

i  Vespertilio  tuberculatus  "G.  Forster"  J.  E.  Gray,  in  E.  Dieffenbach,  Travels 
in  New  Zealand,  vol.  2,  pp.  181,  296,  1843.  ("Dusky  Bay,  New  Zealand.") 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The  following  bibliography  consists  primarily  of  the  titles  of 
books  and  papers  that  have  been  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  this 
work  and  that  have  been  quoted,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  in 
the  foregoing  pages,  with  appropriate  reference  in  each  case,  by 
author,  year,  and  page.  There  is  also  a  very  small  proportion  of 
titles  of  works  that  have  not  been  so  utilized,  but  they  are  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  list  because  of  their  value  for  reference  purposes. 
Some  of  these  have  not  been  utilized  simply  because  of  nonavail- 
ability. 

As  a  means  of  increasing  the  usefulness  of  the  bibliography,  a 
regional  index  has  been  prepared  to  precede  it.  The  index  itself  does 
not,  as  a  rule,  refer  to  general  catalogues  or  monographs  of  a  more 
or  less  cosmopolitan  scope,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  to  papers  devoted 
to  a  single  species  or  to  a  conspecific  group  of  subspecies.  It  is 
felt  that  a  suitable  approach  to  the  latter  type  of  literature  is 
provided  by  the  numerous  references  in  the  separate  accounts  of 
species  and  subspecies  in  the  main  part  of  this  report.  The  index 
is  primarily  a  guide  to  the  faunal  literature. 

REGIONAL  INDEX 

AUSTRALASIA 

Barrett,  C.,  1927  Gregory,  1921,  1924 

Barry,  1928,  1934  Grey,  1841 

Brazenor,  1931  Gunn,  1838 

Briggs,  1921  Harris,  G.  P.,  1808 

Campbell,  A.  G.,  1923  Helms,  1896 

Campbell,  T.  G.,  1925  Hoy,  1923 

Chisholm,  1923,  1925,  1927  Hull,  1923,  1929 

Collett,  1897  Iredale  and  Troughton,  1934 

Finlayson,  1927, 1930a,  19306, 1931a,  Jones,  1923a,  19236,  1924,  1925 

19316,  19336,  1934,  1935a,  19356,  Jones  and  Manson,  1935 

1935c  Kinghorn,  1928 

Fleay,  1932a  Krefft,  1871 

Flinders,  1814  "Kurrajong,"  1931 

Glauert,  1933  Le  Souef,  A.  S.,  1923a,  19236,  1924a, 
Gould,    1841a,    18416,    1841^-1842,         19246,  1928,  1929,  1930,  1932. 

1844a,  18446,  1845-1863  Le  Souef,  A.  S.,  and  Burrell,  1926 

733 


734 


EXTINCT  AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 


Le  Souef,  W.  H.  D.,  1907 

Lewis,  1928a,  19286,  1930 

Longman,  1923,  1924,  1930 

Lord,  1928 

Lord  and  Scott,  1924 

Lucas  and  Le  Souef,  1909 

Lydekker,  1894 

McCoy,  1883 

McKeown,  1923,  1929,  1933 

Mitchell,  T.  L.,  1838 

Musgrave,  1925 

Ogilby,  1892 

Osborn,  1934 

Peron  and  Freycinet,  1816 

Phillip,  1789 


Raven,  1924,  1929 

Shortridge,  1910,  1936 

Smith,  G.,  1909 

Spencer,  1896,  1897 

Spencer  and  Kershaw,  1910 

Stirling  and  Zietz,  1893 

Thomas,  0.,  1888,  1904,  19066,  1907, 

1921,  1923 

Thomas,  0.,  and  Dollman,  1909 
Tindale,  1925 

Troughton,  1931,  1932a,  19326,  1938 
Waite  and  Jones,  1927 
Waterhouse,  1841,  1842,  1846 
Wilkins,  1928 


MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO 


Allen,  J.  A.,  1910 

Andrews,  C.  W.,  1900,  1909 

Banks,  1931 

Carpenter  and  Coolidge,  1938 

Chasen,  1933 

Comyn-Platt,  1937c 

Coomans  de  Ruiter,  1932 

Dammerman,    1928,    1929a,    19296, 

1929c 

De  Beaufort,  1926 
Everett,  1893 
Heynsius-Viruly    and    Van    Heurn, 

1936 

Horsfield,  1851 
Hose,  1893 
Kies,  1936 
Lumholtz,  1920 
Lyon,  1908,  1916 
Mertens,  1936 


Meyer,  1896 

Miller,  1942 

Mjoberg,  1930 

Miiller,  1839 

Pocock,  1927c,  1933 

Raffles,  1821 

Raven,  1935 

Robinson,  H.  C.,  and  Kloss,  1918, 

1923 

Sarasin,  P.  and  F.,  1905 
Schlegel  and  Miiller,  1845 
Schneider,  1905 
Shelford,  1916 
Sody,  1936 
Taylor,  E.  H.,  1934 
Thomas,  0.,  18876,  1898 
Thomas,  0.,  and  Wroughton,  1909 
Weber,  1890-1891 
Worcester,  1898 


ASIA  (IN  GENERAL) 

Allen,  G.  M.,   1929,   1930a,  19306,      Nasonov,  1923 
1930c,  1938,  1939fl,  1940  Pocock,  1932a 

Engelmann,  1938  Sushkin,  1925 

Kinloch,  1892  Wallace,  1915 

Lydekker,  1900,  1901,  1904c  Ward,  1935 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


735 


NORTHERN  ASIA 

(SOUTH  THROUGH  RUSSIAN  TURKESTAN,  TIBET,  MONGOLIA,  MANCHURIA, 

AND  JAPAN) 


Allen,  J.  A.,  1903 

Andrews,  R.  C.,  1920a,  19206,  1924, 

1926 

Andrews,  R.  C.  and  Y.  B.,  1919 
Aoki,  1913 

Atkinson,  1858,  1860 
Belopolski,  1933 
Bower,  1894 
Brehm,  1876 

Brooke  and  Brooke,  1875 
Bunge,  1884 
Burnham,  1929 
Burrard,  1925? 

Carruthers,  1913,  19156,  1915c 
Cumberland,  1895 
David,  1867 
Demidoff,  1900,  1904 
Elias,  1874 
Elwes,  H.  J.,  1899 
Eversmann,  1823 
Flerov,  1929,  1933 
Formozow,,1931 
Futterer,  1901 
Goodwin,  1935 
Hatta,  1928 

Hedin,  1899,  1903,  1904 
Hollister,  1912 
Inukai,  19326 
Kaburaki,  1934a,  19346 
Kareline,  1841 
Kuroda,  1928 
Lattimore,  1929 
Leche,  1904 
Lydekker,  1905d 
Matschie,  1911 
Middendorff,  1853 


Millais,  1915 

Morden,  1927,  1930 

Morgan,  1891 

Nasonov,  1914a 

Nazaroff,  1932 

Nehring,  1890 

Noack,  18896 

Ognev,  1930,  1931,  1935 

Ognev  and  Heptner,  1928 

Pallas,  1811,  1834-1842 

Pfizenmayer,  1939 

Prejevalsky,  1876,  1879 

Prschewalski,  1884 

Przewalski,  1883 

Radde,  1862 

Radde  and  Walter,  1889 

Reymond,  1932 

Rockhill,  1891 

Roosevelt,  T.,  Jr.,  and  K.,  1926 

Salesski,  1934 

Scalon,  1931 

Schafer,  1937,  1938 

Schrenck,  1859 

Serebrennikov,  1931 

Severtzoff,  1876 

Severtzov,  1873 

Sjolander,  1922 

Skottsberg,  1934 

Sowerby,  1920,  1923,  1937c 

Stebbing,  1912 

Teichman,  1937 

Temminck,  1842-1845 

Thomas,  0.,  1906a 

Uchida,  1935 

Wellby,  1898 

Younghusband,  1888 


SOUTHEASTERN  ASIA 
(NORTH  THROUGH  INDIA  AND  CHINA) 


Ali,  1935 

Allen,  G.  M.,  1912 
Anonymous,  1933-1935 
Baker,  S.  W.,  1855 
Baldwin,  1876 


Barthelemy,  1930 
Bentham,  1908 
Blanford,  1888-1891 
Blyth,  1863,  1868 
Bonhote,  1900,  1903 


736 


EXTINCT   AND    VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Buchner,  1891 
Burgess,  1935 
Chasen,  1935,  1940 
Chasen  and  Kloss,  1930 
Comyn-Platt,  1937a,  19376 
De  la  Chevasnerie,  1936? 
Elwes,  1914 
Faunthorpe,  1924 
Flower,  S.  S.,  1900 
Forbes,  1840 
Fry,  1929 

Gairdner,  1914a,  19146,  1915 
Gyldenstolpe,  1919 
Hanson,  1931 
Heude,  1894 
Horsfield,  1851 
Howell,  A.  B.,  1929 
Hubback,  1923,  1932 
Irwin,  1914a 
Jerdon,  1874 
Jernigan,  1908 
Johnston,  R.  F.,  1908 
Kloss,  1916,  1917,  1919a,  19196 
Lydekker,  19136 

Milne  Edwards  et  Milne  Edwards, 
1868-1874 


Milroy,  1934 
Morris,  19356 
Osgood,  1932 
Page,  1934 

Peacock,  1931,  1933,  1934a 
Phythian-Adams,  1935 
Pocock,  1908,  1927c,  1933 
Pollok,  1879 
Richmond,  1935 
Ridley,  1895 

Roosevelt,  T.,  Jr.,  and  K,  1929 
Schafer,  1933,  1937,  1938 
Sclater,  P.  L.,  1876 
Sowerby,  1914,  1917,  1934a,  19346, 
1934c,   1935,   1936,   1937a,   1937c 
Stebbing,  1912 
Stockley,  1922a,  1928,  1936 
Styan,  1886 
Swinhoe,  1870 
Tutein-Nolthenius,  1929 
Van  der  Byl,  1915 
Wallace,  1913 
Weigold,  1924 
Wilson,  1913 


SOUTHWESTERN  ASIA 
(NORTH  THROUGH  TRANSCAUCASIA,  PERSIA,  AND  AFGHANISTAN) 


Aharoni,  1930 

Aitchison,  1889 

Allen,  G.  M.,  1915 

Blanford,  1876 

Bodenheimer,  1935 

Carruthers,  1915a,  1935 

Cheesman,  1926 

Danford  and  Alston,  1877,  1880 

Goodwin,  1940 

Hablizl,  1783 

Hay,  1840 

Hedin,  1910 

Jarvis,  1932,  1935 


Kennion,  1911,  1915 
Legendre,  1939 
Murray,  n.  d. 
Philby,  1933 
Pocock,  19346,  1935a 
Porter,  1821 
Satunin,  1896,  1906 
Satunin  and  Radde,  1899 
Stockley,  1930 
Thomas,  B.,  1932 
Thomas,  0.,  1900 
Tristram,  1884 


EUROPE  (IN  GENERAL) 


Lydekker,  1901,  1910 
Millais,  1914 
Nasonov,  1923 


Sushkin,  1925 
Trouessart,  1910 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  737 

EASTERN  EUROPE 

(WEST  THROUGH  FINLAND,  THE  BALTIC  STATES,  POLAND,  RUMANIA, 
BULGARIA,  AND  EUROPEAN  TURKEY) 

Calinescu,  1930,  1931  Niezabitowski,  1934 

Demidoff,  1898  Ognev,  1930,  1931,  1935 

Eversmmann,  1840  0kland,  1928 

Flerov,  1933  Pallas,  1776 

Gmelin,  S.  G.,  1774  Pearson,  1899 

Heuglin,  1874  Satunin,  1901 

Kuntze,  1935  Van  der  Byl,  1915 

WESTERN  EUROPE 
(INCLUDING  ICELAND  AND  SPITSBERGEN) 

Barnard,  1871  Hinton,  1935 

Bate,  1904,  1906,  1913  Krumbiegel,  1930 

Blasius,  1857  Leopold,  1936 

Bory  de  Saint-Vincent,  1833  Martin,  1910 

Bowden,  1869  Millais,  1904-1906 

Cabrera,  1911a,  19116,  1914  Miller,  1912 

Caton,  1875  Mohr,  1931 

Chapman,  A.,  1897,  1912  Pontoppidan,  1755 

Chapman,  A.,  and  Buck,  1893,  1910  Ramme,  1913 

Colosi,  1933  Raulin,  1869 

Didier  and  Rode,  1935  Rosenhauer,  1856  ' 

Fatio,  1869  Schoenichen,  1933 

Ferrant,  1931  Schroeter,  1927 

Gadow,  1897  Tennant,  1885 

Geoff roy  Saint-Hilaire,  I.,  1832  Trouessart,  1884? 

Gordon,x  S.,  1922  Van  den  Brink,  1931 

Gourdon,  1908  Wettstein,  1928 

Harting,  1880  Winge,  1908 
Hecht,  1932 

AFRICA  (IN  GENERAL) 

Allen,  G.  M.,  19396  Ramecourt,  1936 

Barth,  1857-1858  Robinson,  A.  E.,  1934 

Bryden,  1899  Ruxton  and  Schwarz,  1929 

Hemming,  1938  Selous,  1914 

Hone,  1933  Thomas,  0.,  1910 

Lavauden,  1933  Ward,  1935 

Lydekker,  1908  Zammarano,  1930 
Maydon,  1932,  1933 

NORTH  AFRICA  (PALEARCTIC) 

Anderson  and  de  Winton,  1902  Carpentier,  1932 

Bagnold,  1933  De  Beaux,  1928,  1932c 

Buchanan,  1921  Flower,  S.  S.,  1932 

Cabrera,  1932  Floyer,  1887 


738 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Geyr  von  Schweppenburg,  1917 

Gruvel,  1937 

Harcourt,  n.  d. 

Hartert,  1913 

Heim  de  Balsac,  1934,  1936 

Hilton-Simpson,  1906 

Johnston,  H.,  1898 

Joleaud,  1929 

Lataste,  1885 

Laurent,  1935 

Lavauden,  1924,  1926,  1930,  1932 

Leared,  1876 


Loche,  1867 

Morales,  1935 

Pease,  1897 

Rothschild,  W.,  1921 

Seurat,  1930,  1934 

Shaw,  W.  B.  K,  1933 

Thesiger,  1939 

Thomas,  0.,  1894,  1913a,  19136 

Trouessart,  1905 

Wagner,  1841 

Whitaker,  1897 


CENTRAL  AND  SOUTHERN  AFRICA 


Akeley,  19236 

Allen,  G.  M.,  and  Coolidge,  1930 

Allen,  J.  A.,  1925 

Andersson,  1856 

Antonius,  19296 

Aschemeier,  1921 

Bailey,  1932 

Baker,  S.  W.,  1867 

Barns,  1922,  1923 

Blaine,  1922 

Brocklehurst,  1931,  1933 

Bryden,  1889 

Budgett,  1900 

Biittikofer,  1890 

Burchell,  1822,  1824 

Capell,  1929 

Charter,  1934 

Christy,  1924 

Chubb,  1909 

Cligny,  1900 

Cotton,  1912 

Coutouly,  1926 

Cretzschmar,  1826 

Gumming,  1850 

De  Beaux,  1922,  1926,  19326,  1935 

Delme-Radcliffe,  1905 

De  Winton,  1899a 

Dracopoli,  1914 

Drake-Brockman,  1910 

Drummond,  1875 

Du  Chaillu,  1861 

Dugmore,  1910 

Elliot,  1897 

Fitzsimons,  1920 

Flower,  S.  S.,  1901 

Forbes,  1903 


Gray,  P.  N.,  1930,  1933 

Gyldenstolpe,  1928 

Haagner,  1920 

Hamerton,  1931 

Hamilton,  1924 

Harris,  W.  C.,  1839,  1840 

Hatt,  19346,  1934c 

Hayman,  1936 

Haywood,  1932,  1933«,  19336,  1933c 

Heller,  1912 

Henfrey,  1928 

Heuglin,  1861,  1877 

Hindlip,  1930 

Hingston,  1930 

Hollister,  1918,  19196,  1924 

Hubbard,  1926 

Jentink,  1882,  1885,  1888 

Johnson,  1937 

Johnston,  H.,  1902,  1906 

Kirk,  1865 

Kolben,  1731 

Lavauden,  1934 

Ledward,  1936 

Leplae,  1925 

Letcher,  1911 

Le  Vaillant,  1790,  1795 

Lichtenstein,  1812 

Lonnberg,  1912,  1917,  1919 

Lydekker,  1905a 

Malbrant,  1936 

Matschie,  1894a,  1895 

Maugham,  1914 

Maxwell,  1924, 1930 

Menges,  1885 

Millais,  1895 

Monard,  1930-1933,  1935 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


739 


Newton,  1937 

Noack,  1889o 

Oakley,  1931 

"Observer,"  1934 

Percival,  1923 

Peters,  1852,  1869 

Pitman,  1934 

Pousargues,  1896-1897 

Powell-Cotton,  1902,  1904 

Reade,  1863 

Rhoads,  1896 

Ritchie,  1931 

Roberts,  1917,  1929,  1936,  1937 

Roosevelt,  T.,  1910 

Roosevelt,  T.,  and  Heller,  1914 

Rosevear,  1937 

Rothschild,   M.   de,   and   Neuville, 

1911 

Riippell,  1829,  1835 
St.  Leger,  1936 
Sanderson,  1935 
Sanford  and  LeGendre,  1930 
Schouteden,  1913a,  1930a,  1934a, 

1934c,  1934d 


Schubotz,  1912 

Schwarz,  19126, 1920o,  19206, 1934a, 

19346 

Sclater,  P.  L.,  1884,  1898 
Sclater,  W.  L.,  1900-1901 
Selous,  1881,  1890 
Shortridge,  1934a 
Smith,  A.,  1849 
Smith,  A.  D.,  1897 
Statham,  1924 
Steedman,  1835 
Stevenson-Hamilton,  1912a 
Swayne,  1892,  1894 
Thomas,  0.,  1891,  1892,  1905 
Thomas,  0.,  and  Hinton,  1923 
Thomas,  0.,  and  Schwann,  1906 
Thomas,  0.,  and  Wroughton,  1908 
Turner,  1937 
Wilhelm,  1933 
Wood,  1928 

Yerkes  and  Yerkes,  1929 
Zukowsky,  1924 


MADAGASCAR 


Allen,  G.  M.,  1918 
Coquerel,  1859 
Delacour,  1932 
Flacourt,  1661 

Grandidier,  1867a,  1867c,  1870,  1871 
Kaudern,  1915 
Lorenz-Liburnau,  1898 
Major,  1894 
Milne  Edwards,  1871 
Milne  Edwards  and  Grandidier, 
1875a-1876,  18756 


Milne    Edwards,    Grandidier    and 

Filhol,  1896-1897 
Petit,  1931,  1933,  1935 
Pollen,  1868 
Rand,  1935 
Schlegel,  1866 
Schlegel  and  Pollen,  1868 
Schwarz,  1931 
Shaw,  G.  A.,  1879 
Sibree,  1915 
Sonnerat,  1782 


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1889.  The  zoology  of  the  Afghan  Delimitation  Commission.  (Intro- 
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AKELEY,  CARL  E. 

1914.  The  wild  ass  of  Somaliland.   Am.  Mus.  Jour.,  vol.  14,  no.  3, 

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ANONYMOUS 

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RAM  ME,  WILLY 

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1930.    The  lion  of  India.   Nat.  Hist.  [New  York],  vol.  30,  no.  1,  pp. 

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1933.    Zwei  weitere  Quellen  zur  Frage  des  europaischen  Waldtarpans. 

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WAGNER,  A. 

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WAGNER,  MORITZ 

1841.    Reisen  hi  der  Regentschaft  Algier  in  den  Jahren  1836,  1837 

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WAITE,  EDGAR  R.,  AND  FREDERIC  WOOD  JONES 

1927.    The  fauna  of  Kangaroo  Island,  South  Australia.   No.  2. — The 
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WALLACE,  HAROLD  FRANK 

1913.    The  big  game  of  central  and  western  China.  London:   pp.  xvih 

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1935.    Records  of  big  game.  African  and  Asiatic  sections.   Tenth  ed., 
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INDEX 


Aard-wolf,  250 
Cape,  250 
Angola,  251 
Masailand,  251 
Nubian,  250 
Somali,  251 
Transvaal,  251 
Aard-wolves,  250 

abaconis,  Geocapromys  ingrahami,  18 
Abbott,  W.  L.,  247,  314,  390 
aceratos,  Oreotragus,  671 

Oreotragus   oreotragus,   671 
Acinonyx,  274 

guttatus  ngorongorensis,  278 
guttatus  obergi,  276 
hecki,  281 
jubatus,  274,  286 
jubatus  hecki,  280,  281,  289 
jubatus  jubatus,  276 
jubatus  ngorongorensis,  278 
jubatus  obergi,  276 
jubatus  raddei,  284,  285 
jubatus  raineyi,  278,  279 
jubatus  soemmeringii,  280 
jubatus  velox,  278,  279 
jubatus  venaticus,  12,  283 
raddei,  285 
rex,  274,  276,  286 
Acratocnus  comes,  18 
major,  18 
odontrogonus,  18 
Acrocodia,  371 
indica,  372 

adametzi,  Ovis  poll,  584 
Addax,  16,  711 
addax,  Addax  nasomaculatus,  16,  715 

Antilope,  711 

Addax  nasomaculatus,  711 
nasomaculatus  addax,  715 
nasomaculatus  nasomaculatus,  715 
adipicaudatus,  Chirogalus,  127 
adustus,  Phascolarctos  cinereus,  64,  65. 

68 

aedium,  Plagiodontia,  18 
aegagrus,  Capra  hircus,  626,  627 
Aegoceros  (Capra)  falconeri,  627 

musimon,  573 
Aegocerus  koba,  704 
niger  kirkii,  705 
Aegoryx  algazel,  8,  16,  690 


Aepyprymnus,  93 
rufescens,  84 

aequinoctialis,  Syncerus  caffer,  554 
aethiopicus,  Lophiomys,  201 

Phractomys,  201 
affinis,  Cervus  wallichi,  460 
africana,   Loxodonta   africana,   8,    16, 

316 
africanus,  Asinus,  322,  345 

Asinus  asinus,  16,  345,  350,  352 
Elephas,  316 
.  agilis,  Macropus,  110 
agrius,  Felis,  14,  263 
Felis  ocreata,  263 
Aharoni,  J.,  229,  285,  367,  369,  603, 

623,  648,  716 

Ahrens,  T.  G.,  534,  535,  575 
Aigocerus  niger,  707 
Aitchison,  J.  E.  T.,  286,  307,  363,  570 
Akeley,  C.  E.,  175,  352 
Akroyd,  R.,  730 
alashanicus,  Cervus  canadensis,  449 

Cervus  elaphus,  449 
Albertus  Magnus,  332 
albicus,  Castor  fiber,  191 
albifrons,  Arctictis  binturong,  245,  247 
Damaliscus,  656 
Lemur,  135 
Lemur  fulvus,  138 
Lemur  macaco,  135 
Paradoxurus,  247 
albimanus,  Lemur,  140 
albipes,  Antechinus,  29 
Phascogale,   30 
Sminthopsis  murina,  30 
albipilis,    Lagostrophus    fasciatus,    96 
albirostris,  Cervus,  13,  464,  465 
Albrecht,   Duke,  224 
albus,  Indris,  146 
Alcelaphus  buselaphus  buselaphus,  15, 

20,  642 
caama,  15 

caama  caama,  648,  650,  652 
caama  evalensis,  651,  652 
caama  selbornei,  648-650,  653 
lichtensteini,  647 
Alexander,  J.,  342 
algazel,  Aegoryx,  8,  16,  690 

Cemas,  690 
algira,  Felis  caracal,  272 


811 


812 


EXTINCT  AND    VANISHING   MAMMALS 


algirus,  Caracal  caracal,  16,  272 
All,  S.,  515,  540 

Allen,  G.  M.,  1,  2,  5,  6,  125,  131,  138, 
140,  143,  144,  147,  150,  154,  157, 
160,  174,  200,  212,  217,  232,  254, 
255,  270,  287,  304,  310,  322,  371, 
425,  428,  431,  433,  435,  436,  444, 
448,  460,  461,  464,  466,  510,  530, 
579,  580,  594,  622,  637,  638,  643, 
731 

(See  also  under  Barbour,  T.) 
Allen,  G.  M.,  and  Coolidge,  H.  J.,  Jr., 

182,  187,  190,  667 
Allen,  J.  A.,  249,  595,  596,  597 
alleni,  Ovis,  596 

Ovis  nivicola,  596 
Alpheraky,  S.,  305 
alpinus,  Cuon,  448,  451 
Alston,   E.   R.    (See   under   Danford, 

C.  G.) 

altaica,  Ovis  argali,  576 
americanus,  Lepus,  190 
Ammodorcas  clarkei,  675 
ammon,  Capra,  576 
Ovis,  557,  577,  599 
Ovis  ammon,  576,  583,  592 
Ammotragus  lervia,  600 
lervia  angusi,  605 
lervia  blainei,  601 
lervia  fassini,  16,  603 
lervia  lervia,  601,  604 
lervia  ornata,  16,  601 
lervia  sahariensis,  604 
amoyensis,  Panthera  tigris,  303,  304 
amphibius,  Hippopotamus,  8,  414,  415 

Hippopotamus  amphibius,  414 
Amschler,  W.,  454 
amurensis,  Felis  tigris,  299 

Panthera  tigris,  304 
anatolica,  Ovis,  559 

Ovis  ophion,  371,  559,  563 
Anderson,  J.,  394,  395,  438 
Anderson,  J.,  and  de  Winton,  W.  E., 
201-203,  251,  281,  347,  485,  487,  602, 
619 

Anderson,  M.  P.,  214,  641 
Andersson,  C.  J.,  404 
Andrews,  C.  W.,  122,  207-209 
Andrews,  R.-C.,  304,  324,  355,  449,  461, 

580 

Ane  de  1'Inde  (Fr.),  363 
Angas,  G.  F.,  717 
angasii,  Tragelaphus,  16,  716,  720 
angolensis,  Giraffa  camelopardalis,  16, 

499 

angusi,  Ammotragus  lervia,  605 
angustirostris,  Rangifer,  483 
anjuanensis,  Lemur,  140 
annectens,    Capricornis    sumatraensis, 
641 


Anoa,  Common,  11,  550 

Mountain,  11,  553 
Anoa  depressicornis,  11,  550,  554 

fergusoni,    11,    550-553 

mindorensis,  11,  548 

quarlesi,  553,  554 
Anteater,  Banded,  43 

Scaly,  181,  184 
Anteaters,  marsupial,  43 
Antechinus  albipes,  29 

apicalis,  10,  20,  25 

fuliginosa,  30 
Antelope,  Angolan  Sable,  707 

Beira,  674 

Giant  Sable,  16,  707 

Hunter's,  658 

Northern  Rhodesian  Sable,  705 

South  African  Roan,  701 
Antelopes,  21,  510 
Anthony,  H.  E.,  7 
antillarum,  Oryzomys,  19 
antillensis,  Homopsomys,  18 
Antilope  Adax  (Sp.),  711 
Antilope  addax,  711 

bubalis,  643 

buselaphus,  642 

caama,  648 

crispa,  641 

cuvieri,  683 

dammah,  690 

depressicornis,  550 

dorcas,  653 

equina,  701 

leptpceros,  687 

lervia,  601 

leucophaea,  698 

leucoryx,  693 

mhorr,  689 

nasomaculata,  711 

oreotragus,  668 

oryx,  722 

pygargus,  653 

saltatrix,  668 

saltatrixoides,  672 

sumatraensis,  635 

sylvicultrix,  663 

tao,  690 

Antilope  chevaline  (Fr.),  701 
Arambourg,  C.,  691 
antiquorum,  Camelopardalis,  486 

Equus  burchellii,  340,  345 

Giraffa  camelopardalis,  485,  486 
Antonius,  0.,  327,  329,  332,  348-350, 

352,  353,  359,  362,  367,  370,  371 
Aoki,  B.,  199,  214,  215 
Aoudad,  600 
apache,  Ursus,  21 
Apes,  anthropoid,  164 
Aphaetreus  montanus,  18 
aphylla,  Reithronycteris,  19 


INDEX 


813 


apicalis,  Antechinus,  10,  20,  25 

Phascogale,  25 

Pptorous  tridactylus,  91 
aquaticus,  Hyemoschus,  8 

Hyemoschus  aquaticus,  425 

Moschus,  425 
arcar,  Ovis  orientalis,  572 
Arbuthnot,  A.  G.,  629,  630 
Archbold,  R.,  135 

Archer,  G.,  and  Godman,  E.  M.,  674 
Arctictis,  245 

binturong  albifrons,  245,  247 

binturong  binturong,  244,  247,  248 

binturong  kerkhoveni,  247 

binturong  niasensis,  247 

binturong    penicillatus,    245,   248, 
249 

binturong  whitei,  249 

niasensis,  247 
arcticus,  Rangifer,  472 
Arctitis  [sic]  whitei,  249 
arctos,  Ursus,  14,  217,  229 

Ursus   arctos,   218 
Argali,  Alatau,  584 

Altyn-Tagh,  591 

Gobi,  13,  579 

Hume's,  588 

Issyk  Kul,  584 

Jair,  581 

Karatau,  586 

Karelin's,  584 

Kashgarian,  588 

Kulja,  583 

Littledale's,  583 

Mongolian,  576 

Pamir,  590 

Semipalatinsk,  13,  581 

Severtzov's,  587 

Siberian,  576 

Tibetan,  592 
argali,  Ovis,  576 
argurus,  Mus,  211 

Zyzomys  argurus,  10,  20,  211 
argyrochaetes,  Capricornis  sumatraen- 

sis,  637,  640 
Aristotle,  291,  371 
arkal,  Ovis,  572 

Ovis  vignei,  572 
arkar,  Ovis,  572 
armeniana,  Ovis  ophion,  561 
Arna  [Ami]   (Hindustani),  538 
arnee,  Bos,  538 

Bubalus  bubal  is,  538,  544 
arni,  Bos,  543 
Arrhenius,  E.,  174 
Arrui  (Sp.),  600 
Artiodactyla,  414 
Arui,  600 

Buchanan's,  605 

Egyptian,  16,  601 

Libyan,   16,  603 


Arui,  Saharan,  604 

Sudan,  601 

Aschemeier,  C.  R.,  169 
aschenborni,  Oryx,  696 
asiatica,  Cervus  maral,  451 
asiaticus,  Cervus  canadensis,  451,  463 

Cervus  elaphus,  451 

Leo,  292 
asinus,  Asinus,  348,  368 

Asinus  asinus,  348 
Asinus,  322 

africanus,  322,  345 

asinus,  348,  368 

asinus  africanus,  16,  345,  350,  352 

asinus  asinus,  348 

asinus  dianae,  345,  346 

asinus   somaliensis,   16,   346,  348, 
350 

atlanticus,  15,  17,  322,  348,  352 

burchellii,  339 

hamar,  367 

hemionus,  322 

hemionus  finschi,  13,  357 

hemionus  hemionus,  353 

hemionus  hemippus,  12,  20,  367, 
371 

hemionus  knur,  13,  363 

hemionus   onager,   359,   364,   368, 
371 

hemionus  subsp.,  371 

hemippus,  368,  369 

onager,  368,  369 

taeniopus  somaliensis,  350 
Ass,  African  Wild,  348 

Algerian  Wild,  15,  17,  352 

Atlas  Wild,  352 

Baluchi  Wild,  363 

Indian  Wild,  13,  363 

Mongolian  Wild,  353 

North  Persian  Wild,  359 

Nubian  Wild,  16,  345 

Somali  Wild,  16,  350 

Syrian  Wild,  12,  20,  367 

Transcaspian  Wild,  13,  357 

Wild,  of  Russian  Turkestan,  357 
Asses,  21,  322 
Assur-Bani-Pal,  369 
ater,  Indris,  155 
Atkinson,  T.  W.,  308,  324,  452 
atlanticus,  Asinus,  15,  17,  322,  352 

Equus  asinus,  352,  353 
Audad,  600 
Audas,  R.  S.,  620 
Audebert,  J.  B.,  138 
audreyae,  Megalomys,  18 
auduboni,  Ovis  canadensis,  21 
aureus,  Oreotragus  oreotragus,  671 
Aurochs,  13,  17,  511 
australis,  Dusicyon,  19 
austrinus,  Rattus  culmorum,  205 


814 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Avahi,  Eastern  Woolly,  156 

Western  Woolly,  157 
avahi,  Semnocebus,  156 
Avahi  laniger  laniger,  156 

laniger  occidentals,  157 
Avahis,  146 

Avahis  laineux  occidental  (Fr.),  157 
Avahis  laineux  oriental  (Fr.),  156 
Avahis  laniger  orientalis,  156 
Aye-aye,  17,  158 
Aylmer,  G.  P.  V.,  676 

Babault,  G.,  410 
Babirussa  babyrussa,  11 
babyrussa,  Babirussa,  11 
bactrianus,  Camelus,  421 

Cervus,  463 
badius,  Colobus,  8,  162 

Simia  (Cercopithecus),  162 
Bar,  brauner  (Ger.),  217 
Bagnold,  R.  A.,  688 
baicalensis,  Cervus  canadensis,  451 
Baikov,  N.  A,  299 
Bailey,  A.  M.,  213,  625 
Bailey,  F.  M.,  379 
Baines,  T.,  404 
Baira,  674 
Baker,  A.  B.,  204 
Baker,  S.  W,  345,  347,  485 
bakeri,  Hippotragus,  704 

Hippotragus  equinus,  704 

Baldacci,  ,  225 

Baldwin,  C.,  100 
Baldwin,  J.  H.,  378 
Baldwin,  W.  C.,  318 
balica,  Panthera  tigris,  310 
Balme,  F.  N,  499 
Bandicoot,  Eastern  Barred,  47 

Eastern  Pig-footed,  58 

Gunn's  Striped,  48 

New  South  Wales  Barred,  10,  20, 
47 

Rabbit-eared,  51 

South  Australian  Barred,  50 

Tasmanian  Barred,  48 

Western  Barred,  10,  20,  49 

Western  Pig-footed,  59 
Bandicoots,  21,  47 
Bangham,  W.  N.,  374 
Banks,  E.,  165,  389,  392,  547 
Banteng,  Bornean,  11,  528 

Burmese,  527 

Javan,  11,  523 

Malay,  525 

banteng,  Bos,  523,  526 
banting,  Bos,  523 
barbarus,  Cervus,  457 

Cervus  elaphus,  8,  16,  457 
Barbour,  T.,  655 

Barbour,  T.,  and  Allen,  G.  M.,  386,  389 
Barclay,  F.,  299,  300,  302 


Barnard,  C.,  76 

Barnard,  M.  R.,  219 

barnardi,  Lasiorhinus  latifrons,  76 

Barns,  T.  A.,  173-175 

Baron,  L.,  159 

Barrow,  J.,  298,  700 

Barry,  H.  C.,  65,  104 

Barth,  H,  489,  643 

Barthelemy,  Marquis  de  [P.  Sauvaire], 
396 

Bastereland  (Boer),  701 

Bastergemsbok  (Boer),  701 

Bat,  Cuban  Yellow,  18 

Haitian  Long-tongued,  19 
Jamaican  Long-tongued,  19 
Lesser  Falcate-winged,  18 
Long-tailed,  731 
Puerto  Rican,  19 
Puerto  Rican  Long-nosed,  19 
Puerto  Rican  Long-tongued,  19 
Short-tailed,  731 

Bate,  D.  M.  A,  263,  558 

Bates,  D.,  713 

batesi,  Dorcatherium  aquaticum,  425 
Hyemoschus  aquaticus,  425 

Bats,  leaf-nosed,  21 
long-legged,  21 

Baum,  H.,  653 

Bear,  Atlas,  15,  19,  230 
Crowther's,  230 
Manchurian   Black,   228 
Old  World  Brown,  14,  217 
Syrian,  228 

Bear-cat,  244 

Bears,  21,  217 

beatrix,  Oryx,  693 

Beaver,  European,  14,  191 

Beavers,  191 

Becker,  J,  294 

Bede,  P.,  645 

Beden,  618 

Bedford,  Duke  of.  191,  469 

bedfordi,   Equus    (Asinus)    hemionus, 
353 

bedfordianus,  Cervus,  447 

Beira,  674 

Bell,  T.,  219 

Bell,  W.,  390 

Belopolski,  L.  O.,  597 

Benhazera,  M.,  349 

Bennett,  E.  T.,  138,  146,  147,  254,  690 

Bentham,  T.,  438 

beothucus,  Canis  lupus,  20 

Bequaert,  J.,  182,  183,  188 

berezovskii,  Moschus,  431 

Beringe,  O.  von,  174 

beringei,  Gorilla  gorilla,  168,  173 

beringeri,  Gorilla,  173 

beringianus,  Ursus  arctos,  218,  228 

bernieri,  Lagorchestes  hirsutus,  96 

Berthold,  C.,  374 


INDEX 


815 


Bettongia,  93 

campestris,  91 

gaimardi,  10,  20,  78 

gouldii,  83 

lesueur  graii,  79,  80 

lesueur  harveyi,  79,  80 

lesueur  lesueur,  79 

lesueuri,  80,  84 

penicillata,  82 

penicillata  gouldii,  83 

penicillata  ogilbyi,  83 

penicillata  penicillata,  82,  84 

rufescens,  84 

sp.,  77 

Bhicharana,  P.  J.,  436,  438 
Biber  (Ger.),  191 
Bibos  frontalis,  520 

gaurus  gaurus,  514 

gaurus  hubbacki,  13,  521 

gaurus  readei,  517 

.sondaicus  birmanicus,  527 

sondaicus  butleri,  525 

sondaicus  lowi,  11,  528 

sondaicus  sondaicus,  11,  523 
bicolor,  Propithecus.  148 
bicornis,  Diceros,  8 

Diceros  bicornis,  396 

Rhinoceros,  396 
Biddulph,  J.,  558,  584 
bidens,  Heptaxodon,  18 
biedermanni,  Cervus,  451 
Bievre  (Fr.),  191 
Bigalke,  R.,  662 
Bighorn,  Allen's,  596 

Anadyr,  13 

Badlands,  21 

Clifton's,  598 

Kamchatkan,  595 

Lydekker's,  598 

Syverma,  599 

Verkhoyansk,  598 

Yablonoi,  599 
Bilby,  51 

Barcoo,  55 

Black-footed,  55 

Lesser,  57 

Nalpa,  10,  20,  54 
New  South  Wales,  53 
Rawlinna,  54 
White-tailed,  56 

Bilkewicz,  ,  286 

billardieri,  Macropus,  113 
billardierii,  Kangurus,  112 

Thylogale,  112 

billingae,  Taurotragus  oryx,  725 
binoe,  Thylogale  eugenii,  110 
Bintoeroeng  (Dutch),  244 
binturong,    Arctictis    binturong,    244, 

247,  248 
Viverra,  244 


Binturong,  Banka,  247 

Himalayan,  247 

Javanese,  248 

Malay,  244 

Nias,  247 

Palawan,  249 

birmanicus,  Bibos  sondaicus,  527 
Bison,  American,  14 

Burmese,  517 

Caucasian,  13,  14,  20,  536 

Eastern,  18 

Indian,  514 

Lithuanian,  14,  531 

Malayan,  521 

Oregon,  19 

bison,  Bison  bison,  14 
Bison  bison  bison,  14 

bison   oregonus,   19 

bison  pennsylvanicus,  18 

bonasus  bonasus,  14,  531 

bonasus  caucasicus,  13,  14,  20,  535, 
536 

caucasicus,  536 

priscus,  532 

bisonophagus,  Ursus  rogersi,  20 
Bissuel,  H.,  349 
Bizzarri,  A.,  621 
Blaauw,  F.  E.,  660 
Blaauwbok,  15,  17,  698 
Blaine,  G.,  625,  698,  708 

(See  also  under  Lydekker,  R.) 
blainei,  Ammotragus  lervia,  601 

Ovis  lervia,  601 

Oryx  gazella,  696 
Blancou,  L,  179,  183,  188,  281,  400,  410, 

489,  664,  730 

Blanford,  W.  T.,  199,  230,  271,  275, 
283,  284,  293,  307,  361.  364-366,  372, 
381,  433,  438,  462,  514,  518,  539,  541, 
543  547,  563,  565,  566,  570,  593,  626, 
629,  630 
blanfordi,  Ovis,  569 

Ovis  vignei,  588 
Blasius,  J.  H.,  192,  195,  200,  222,  243, 

259,  266 

Blesbok,  15,  656 
Bligh,  A.  C.  V.,  29 
Blue-buck,  698 
Blunt,  D.  E.,  320 
Blyth,  E.,  231,  232,  294,  306,  308,  349, 

563,  567 
blythi,  Capra,  625 

Capra  hircus,  625 
blythii,  Ceratorhinus,  393 
Boar,  Wild,  14 

bochariensis,  Ovis  vignei,  571 
Bock,  C.,  635 
Bodenheimer,  F.  S.,  229,  230,  285,  293, 

367,  369,  603,  623,  648,  694,  716 
Boeuf  sauvage  cambodgien  (Fr.),  510 
bcihrni,  Equus  burchellii,  341 


816 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


bolivari,  Cervus  elaphus,  456 
bonasus,  Bison  bonasus,  14,  531 

Bos,  531 

Bonhote,  J.  L.,  639 
Bontebok,  15,  653 
Bontequagga,  339 
"Boomer,"  120 
borealis,  Felis,  265 

Ovis,  596,  599 

Ovis  canadensis,  598 

Ovis  nivicola,  599 
Boromys  offella,  19 

torrei,  19 
Bory  de  Saint-Vincent,  J.  B.  G.  M., 

262,  263 
Bos  arnee,  538 

ami,  543 

banteng,  523,  526 

banting,  523 

bonasus,  531 

bubalus,  543 

bubalus  fulvus,  543 

bubalis  hosei,  546 

caffer,  554 

(Bubalus)     depressicornis     fergu- 
soni,  553 

gaurus,  514 

gaurus  hubbacki,  521 

gaurus  readei,  517 

gnou,  659 

primigenius,  13,  17,  511,  536 

(Bibos)  sauveli,  510 

sondaicus,  523 

sondaicus  butleri,  525 

sondaicus  lowi,  528 

sondaicus  porteri,  527 
Boselaphus  derbianus,  725 

gigas,  726 

Boswell,  R.,  34,  39,  42,  73,  121 
Botezat,  E.,  533 
Boubier,  M.,  615 
Bouquetin  des  Alpes  (Fr.),  614 
Bouquetin  des  Pyrenees  (Fr.),  606 
Bouquetin  du  Gerez  (Fr.),  608 
Bourdelle,  E.,  193,  221,  233,  257,  327, 

616 

Bourguignat,  J.  R.,  231 
Bourret,  Prof.,  386 
Bovidae,  21,  510 
Bowden,  J.,  219,  271 
Bowen,  W.  W.,  169,  182,  187,  276,  279, 
280,  287,  403,  408,  485,  488,  491^93, 
498,  500,  501,  503,  650,  653,  675,  701, 
721,  722,  727,  730 
Bower,  H.,  465,  529 
bozasi,  Lophiomys,  203,  204 
brachyura,  Martes  zibellina,  237 

Mustela,  231 
brachyurus,  Halmaturus,  87 

Macropus,  88 
Bramley,  W.  E.  J.,  687 


Brandao  de  Mello,  A.,  711 
Brandt,  J.  F.,  260,  532,  536 
Brandt,  J.  F.,  and  Ratzeburg,  J.  T.  C., 

558 

Brauns,  D.,  213,  215 
Brazenor,  C.  W.,  27,  30,  33,  35,  36,  49, 
54,  58,  62,  63,  78,  82,  86,  90,  94,  100, 
102,  104,  105,  113,  210,  211 
Brehm,  A.,  324,  425,  679 
brevetianus,  Tapirus  indicus,  374 
brevicaudatus,  Indris,  155 
breviceps,  Petaurus,  62,  63 
Bridgeman,  R.  O.,  446 

Brincken, von,  331 

brissonianus,  Propithecus,  140 
brissonii,  Prosimia,  140 
Broch,  H.,  197,  219,  242,  269,  470 
Brocklehurst,  H.  C.,  280,  345,  347,  410, 
486,  487,  492,  618,  620,  621,  691,  692, 
715,  728 
Brooke,  V,  607 
brookei,  Cephalophus,  667 

Cephalophus  ogilbyi,  667 
Brotomys  contractus,  18 

voratus,  18 
Browne,  E.  D,,  279 
Bruce,  C.  W.  A.,  441 
brucei,  Rucervus  thamin,  439 
bruneus,  Lemur,  136 
brunneus,  Lemur,  156 
Bryden,  H.  A.,  212,  232,  252,  289,  290, 
291,  298,  336,  342,  344,  347,  352,  398, 
401,  404,  406,  418,  459,  486,  494,  500, 
501,  503,  504,  649,  651-653,  657   660 
668,  669,  674,  697,  700,  702,  705,  717, 
719,  723,  726 
Bubale  (Fr.),  642 
bubalig,  Antilope,  643 

Bubalus  bubalis,  543,  544,  547 
Bubalis  bubastis,  643,  647 
caama  evalensis,  652 
caama  selbornei,  650 
Bubalo  (Sp.),  642 
bubalus,  Bos,  543 
Bubalus  arna  macrocerus,  544 
bubalis  arnee,  538,  544 
bubalis  bubalis,  543,  544,  547 
bubalis  fulvus,  543 
bubalis  hosei,  546,  548 
bubalis  subsp.,  545 
depressicornis,  548 
indicus,  548 
macrocerus,  539,  544 
mindorensis,  548 
speirocems,  544 
bubastis,  Bubalis,  643,  647 
Buchanan,  A.,  489,  606 
Buchner,  E.,  431,  679 
Buck,  W.  J.  (See  under  Chapman,  A.) 
Budge,  M.  F.,  284 
Budgett,  J.  S.,  490,  726 


INDEX 


817 


Buffalo,  Bornean,  546 

Cape,  8,  16,  554 

domesticated,  543 

Indo-Chinese,  545 

Long-horned  Indian,  544 

Mindoro,  11,  548 

Tamarao  or  Dwarf  of  Mindoro,  11 

Upper  Assam,  543 

Wild  Indian,  538 
Buffon,  G.  L.  L.  de,  249,  336 
bugi,  Prosimia,  140 
Bunge,  A.  von,  598 

(See  also  under  Ledebour,  C.) 
Burbridge,  B.,  176 
Burchell,  W.  J.,  184,  336,  403 
burchellii,  Asinus,  339 

Equus  burchellii,  8,  339 

Hippotigris  burchellii,  15,  20 
Burckhardt,  J.  L.,  416,  485,  619 
Burgess,  H.  E.,  311,  396 
Burnet,  N.,  67 
Burnham,  J.  B.,  596,  597 
Burrard,  G.,  271,  434,  530,  567,  569,  571, 

593,  628-630,  632-634 
Burrell,    H.     (See    under    Le    Souef, 

A.  S.) 

Burton,  J.,  691 

buselaphus,  Alcelaphus  buselaphus,  15, 
20,  642 

Antilope,  642 
Bushell,  S.  W.,  468,  469 
Bush-goat,  663 

buskensis,  Rangifer  tarandus,  479,  483 
Butler,  A.  L.,  251,  281,  409,  486,  526, 

638,  639,  727 
butleri,  Bibos  sondaicus,  525 

Bos  sondaicus,  525 
Biittikofer,  J.,  182,  187,  189,  419,  420, 

667,  668 

Buxton,  C.,  496 
Buxton,  N.  G.,  597 
buxtoni,   Strepsiceros.   720 

Tragelaphus,  16,  720 
Byrne,  P.  M.,  57 

caama,  Alcelaphus,  15 

Alcelaphus  caama,  648,  650,  652 
Antilope,  648 

caballus,  Equus  caballus,  332 
Cabra  do  Gerez  (Port.),  608 
Cabra  montes  (Sp.),  606,  610,  611 
Cabra  montes  portuguesa  (Sp.),  608 
Cabra    montez    de    Portugal    (Port.), 

608 
Cabrera,  A.,  221,  232,  250,  251,  257,  263, 

266,  272-274,  282,  289,  291,  339,  456- 

458,  606-614,  645,  647,  684,  690,  691, 

712 

Cadell,  P.,  297 
Cadwalader,  C.  M.  B.,  7 
Caesar,  Julius,  291,  512 


caffer,  Bos,  554 

Syncerus  caffer,  8,  16,  554 
Caldwell,  K,  402,  496 
californicus,  Ursus,  19 
Calinescu,  R.  J.,  194,  226,  234,  259,  268 

331,  532,  576,  617,  679 
Caloprymnus,  91-93 

campestris,  91 
calura,  Phascogale,  28 
calurus,  Phascogale,  28 
Cambell,  J.  S.,  498 
cambrica,  Macrotis  lagotis,  51,  53 
Camel,  Wild  Bactrian,  421 
Camelidae,  421 
camelopardalis,  Cervus,  484 

Giraffa,  484 

Giraffa  camelopardalis,  484,  487 
Camelopardalis  antiquorum,  486 

capensis,  503 

giraffa,  485,  486 
Camels,  421 
Camelus,  421 

bactrianus,  421 

bactrianus  ferus,  421 

dromedarius,  421 
cameroonensis,  Taurotragus  derbianus, 

729,  730 

Campbell,  G.  G.,  673 
Campbell,  J.,  404 
campestris,  Bettongia,  91 

Caloprymnus,  91 
canadensis,  Castor,  191 

Cervus  canadensis,  19 
candidus,  Propithecus  diadema,  147 
caniceps,   Mixocebus,    144 
Canidae,  21,  211 
Canis  dingo,  9 

hodophilax,  11,  20,  213,  214 

lupus,  14,  215 

lupus  beothucus,  20 

lupus  hattai,  214 

lupus  lupus,  214 

lupus  rex,  214 

niger  niger,  20 

simensis,  212 

(Simenia)  simensis  citernii,  213 

viverrinus,  215 
capensis,  Camelopardalis,  503 

Elephas,  316 

Giraffa    camelopardalis,    16,   498- 
501,  503 

Hippopotamus,  414 

Hippopotamus     amphibius,     414. 

415 
Capra  ammon,  576 

blythi,  625 

falconeri,  626 

falconeri   cashmiriensis,  627,  629, 
631 

falconeri  chialtanensis,  632 

falconeri  falconeri,  627 


818 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Capra  falconer!  jerdoni,  633 

falconeri  megaceros,  630,  631,  633 

gazella,  696 

hircus  aegagrus,  626,  627 

hircus  blythi,  625 

hircus  neglectus,  627 

hispanica,  610,  611 

ibex,  614 

jerdoni,  633 

lusitanica,  608 

megaceros,  631 

nubiana,  618 

nubiana  mengesi,  622,  623 

nubiana  nubiana,  16,  618,  622 

nubiana  sinaitica,  618,  621 

pyrenaica,  14,  606,  609 

pyrenaica  hispanica,  608,  610,  611 

pyrenaica  lusitanica,   13,   19,  608 

pyrenaica  pyrenaica,  13,  20,  606, 
610 

pyrenaica  victoriae,  608,  610,  612 

sinaitica,  621 

tatarica,  677 

walie,  16,  623 
Capricornis,  637 

crispus,  641 

maritimus,  640 

pryerianus,  641 

sumatraensis,  637 

sumatraensis  annectens,  641 

sumatraensis    argyrochaetes,    637, 
640 

sumatraensis  humei,  641 

sumatraensis  jamrachi,  641 

sumatraensis  milne-edwardsi,  637, 
641 

sumatraensis  montinus,  641 

sumatraensis  robinsoni,  638,  639 

sumatraensis  rodoni,  641 

sumatraensis  rubidus,  641 

sumatraensis  sumatraensis,  11,  635 

sumatraensis  swettenhami,  638 

sumatraensis  thar,  641 

swinhoii,  641 
Caprolagus  furnessi,  190 
Caracal  caracal  algirus,  16,  272 
Carnivora,  211 
Carnivores,  211 
Carpenter,  C.  R.,  and  Coolidge,  H.  J., 

Jr.,  167 

Carpentier,  C.-J.,  274,  458,  684 
Carruthers,  D.,  199,  285,  305,  308,  325, 
328,  355,  356,  359,  370,  425,  428,  452, 
455,  463,  484,  560,  562,  577,  580,  582- 
585,  588,  589,  591,  593,  596,  622,  623, 
648,  682,  693-695,  716 
cashmiriensis,    Capra    falconeri,    627, 

629,  631 

castaneus,  Equus  onager,  353 
Castelli,  G.,  223-226 
Castor,  191 


Castor  canadensis,  191 

fiber,  14,  191 

fiber  albicus,  191 

fiber  fiber,  191 

fiber  galliae,  191 

fiber  vistulanus,  191,  198 
Castoridae,  191 
Cat,  Black-tailed  Native,  34 

Common  Eastern  Native,  32 

Geoffroy's  Native,  34 

Slender  Native,  37 

Viverrine  Native,  32 
Cats,  21.  254 

domestic,  9,  11,  14 
catta,  Lemur,  132 
Cattle,  21,  510 
caucasicus,  Bison.  536 

Bison  bonasus,  13,  14,  20,  535,  536 

Felis  catus,  263 

Felis  silvestris,  263 

Ursus  arctos,  217 

caudatus,  Colobus  polykomos,  161 
cavifrons,  Melanarctos,  228 
Cebus  polykomos,  161 
celeris,  Petrogale,  105 
Cemas  algazel,  690 
Cephalophe  a  dos  jaune  (Fr.),  663 
Cephalophus  brookei,  667 

coxi,  663,  666 

ituriensis,  665 

jentinki,  666 

longiceps,  667 

ogilbyi,  667,  668 

ogilbyi  brookei,  667 

sclateri,  663 

sylvicultrix  ituriensis.  665 

sylvicultrix  sylvicultrix,  663,  665, 
666 

thomasi,  663 
Ceratorhinus  blythii,  393 

niger,  393 
Ceratotherium,  375 

simum  cottoni,  16,  407 

simum  simum,  16,  402 

Cermenati, ,  223 

Cervicapra  clarkei,  675 
Cervidae,  21,  435 
Cervulus  crinifrons,  435 
Cervus  albirostris,  13,  464,  465 

bactrianus,  463 

barbarus,  457 

bedfordianus,  447 

biedermanni,  451 

camelopardalis,   484 

canadensis  alashanicus,  449 

canadensis  asiaticus,  451,  463 

canadensis  baicalensis,  451 

canadensis  canadensis,  19 

canadensis  merriami,  21 

canadensis  wardi,  460,  461 

cashmirianus  macneil(l)i,  460 


INDEX 


819 


Cervus  cashmirianus  yarkandensis,462, 
463 

corsicanus,  459 

(Elaphurus)  davidianus,  468 

dybowskii,  445 

elaphiis,  533 

elaphus  alashanicus,  449 

elaphus  asiaticus,  451 

elaphus  barbarus,  8,  16,  457 

elaphus  bolivari,  456 

elaphus  corsicanus,  459 

elaphus  hispanicus,  457 

elaphus  kansuensis,  460,  461 

elaphus  macneilli,  450 

elaphus  songaricus,  447,  454 

elaphus  xanthopygus,  447 

eldi  siamensis,  441 

eldii,  439 

eustephanus,  454 

(Rusa)  frontalis,  439 

hagenbeckii,  463 

hortulorum,  445 

isubra,  447 

kansuensis,  450 

kopschi,  446 

liihdorfi,  447 

macneilli,  13,  460,  465 

mandarinus,  444 

mantchuricus,  445 

maral  asiatica,  451 

maral  songarica,  454 

nippon  grassianus,  443 

nippon  kopschi,  446 

nippon  mandarinus,  444 

nippon  mantchuricus,  444,  445 

(Tarandus)   platyrhynchus,  479 

sika,  445 

taivanus,  445 

tarandus,  469 

tarandus  spetsbergensis,  479 

thoroldi,  464,  465 

wachei,  451 

wallichi  affinis,  460 

xanthopygus,  447 

yarkandensis,  13,  462 
Chaeropus  ecaudatus  ecaudatus,  58,  59 

ecaudatus  occidentalis,  58,  59 
Chalinolobus  morio,  731 
Chapin,  J.  P.,  169,  180,  182,  187,  189, 

276,  279,  280,  408,  491,  492,  506 
Chapman,  A.,  409 
Chapman,  A.,  and  Buck,  W.  J.,  221, 

456,  457,  610-613 
Charlemagne,  M.,  260 
Charronia  flavigula,  429 

Charter, ,  407,  718 

Chasen,  F.  N.,  208,  246,  311,  313,  374. 
387,  396,  522,  527,  546,  550,  638,  639 
Chat  sauvage  (Fr.),  256 
Chat  sauvage  de  Corse  (Fr.),  264 
Chat  sauvage  de  Crete  (Fr.),  263 


Chat  sauvage  de  Sardaigne  (Fr.),  264 
Cheesman,  R.  E.,  693,  694 
Cheetah,  Cooper's,  286 

East  African,  278 

Indian.  12,  283 

King,  274,  286 

North  African,  281 

Senegal,  281 

South  African,  276 

Sudan,  280 

Turkestan,  285 
Cheetahs,  274 
Cheirogaleus  major,  127 

major  crossleyi,  17,  127,  128 

major  major,  127,  128 

medius,  126 

medius  mediu?,  126 

medius  samati,  126 

milii,  127 

minor,  123 

smithii,  124 

trichotis.  16,  19,  128 

typicus,  127 

Cheirogalus  coquereli,  125 
Cheiromys    madagascariensis    laniger, 

158 
Chevrotain,  Bates's  Water,  425 

Powell-Cotton's  Water,  426 

Water,  8,  425 
Chevrotains,  425 

chialtanensis,  Capra  falconeri,  632 
Chigetai,  353 
Chimpanzee,  Common,  176 

Eastern,  177 

Lesser,  180 

Long-haired,  177 

Pygmy,  180 

Western,  177 
Chimpanzees,  8,  176 
Chirogale  mclanotis,  128 

sibreei,  128 
Chirogalus  adipicaudatus,  127 

crossleyi,  128 

gliroides,  123 

samati,  126 

Chisholm,  E.  C.,  36,  65,  85 
Choeropsis,  414 

liberiensis,  8,  16,  419 
Choeropus  occidentalis,  59 
Choroschichin,  A.  P.,  588 
Christy,  C.,  183,  409,  412,  509 
chrysampyx,  Lemur,  141 
chrysogaster,  Moschus,  433 

Moschus  moschiferus,  433 
Chubb,  E.  C..  186,  670 
chukchensis,  Tarandus  rangifer,  483 
cinereiceps,  Lemur  mongoz,  137 
cinereus,  Lemur,  131 

Lipurus,  64 

Phascolarctos  cinercus,  64,  68,  70 
citernii,  Canis  (Simenia)  simensis,  213 


820 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Civets,  244 

Clapperton,  H.    (See  under  Denham, 

D.) 

Clark,  J.  L.,  311,  443,  519,  546,  728 
Clarke,  T.  W.  H.,  676 
clarkei,  Ammodorcas,  675 

Cervicapra,  675 
Clifton.  J.  T.,  598 
Cligny,  A.,  490 
Cloete,  W.',  253 
Cobbold,  R.  B..  591 
Cobus  hunteri,  658 
collaris,  Lemur,  137 
Lemur  fulvus,  139 
Lemur  macaco,  137 
Ursus  arctos,  217,  218 
Collett,  R.,  196,  219,  269 
Collins,  B,  727 
collium,  Ovis,  581 

Ovis  ammon,  13,  581,  582 
Colobidae,  160 

Colobus,  Black-and-white,  161 
Gordons'  Red,  162 
Kirke's  Red,  161,  163 
Red,  162 
Colobus  badius,  8,  162 

badius  gprdonorum,  162 
badius  kirkii,  163 
kirkii,  163 
polykomos,  8,  161 
polykomos  caudatus,  161 
polykomos   kikuyuensis,    161 
polykomos  satanas,  161 
Colosi,  G.,  224,  258.  265,  460,  616 
colosus,  Ursus,  19 
columbianus,  Geoeapromys,  18 
comes,  Acratocnus,  18 
commersonii,  Lemur,  127 
comosa,  Ovis,  579 
Comyn-Platt,  T.,  246,  386,  393,  521, 

638,  639 

concolor,  Rattus,  208 
congoensis,  Giraffa  camelopardalis,  16, 

490,  499 
congolanug,    Taurotragus     derbianus, 

16,729 

Connqchaetes  gnou,  15,  659 
constricta.  Sminthopsis  murina,  31 
constrictus.  Hippopotamus,  414 

Hippopotamus     amphibius,     414, 

415 

contractus,  Brotomys,  18 
Coolidge,  H.  J.,  Jr.,  7,  168,  169;  171, 

173,  174,  177,  180,  510,  511 
(See  also  under  Allen,  G.  M..  and 

Carpenter,  C.  R.) 
Coomans  de  Ruiter,  L.,  246,  249 
Cooper,  A.  L..  287 
Coquerel,  C.,  143 
coquereli,  Cheirogalus,  125 
Microcebus,  17,  125 


coquereli,  Propithecus,  150 

Propithecus  verreauxi,  150,  154 
Corbett,  J.,  434 
coreensis,  Felis  tigris,  301 

Panthera  tigris,  301 
corinna,  Gazella,  683 
Corkill,  N.  L,  285 
Cornell,  E.  B.,  511 
coronatus,  Lemur,  141 

Lemur  mongoz,  140,  141 
Propithecus,  151 
Propithecus  verreauxi,  151 
corsicanus,  Cervus,  459 
Cervus  elaphus,  459 
Coryndon,  R.  T.,  400,  413 
Cotton,  W.  B.,  485,  619,  726-728 
cottoni,  Ceratotherium  simum,  16,  407 
Dprcatherium  aquaticum,  426 
Giraffa  camelopardalis,  491 
Hippotragus  equinus,  701,  703 
Hyemoschus  aquaticus,  426 
Rhinoceros  simus,  407 
Cougar,  Eastern,  21 
couguar,  Felis  concolor,  21 
coxi,  Cephalophus,  663,  666 
crassicaudata,  Sminthopsis,  30 
Crawshay,  R.,  706 
Cretzschmar,  P.  J.,  487 
Cricetidae,  21,  200 
crinifrons,  Muntiacus,  435 
crispa,  Antilope,  641 
crispus,  Capricornis,  641 
cristata,  Viverra,  250 
cristatus,  Proteles,  250 

Proteles  cristatus,  250 
Crocidura  fuliginosa,  122 

fuliginosa  trichura,  8,  10,  20,  122, 

208 
crossleyi,  Cheirogaleus  major,  17,  127, 

128 

Chirogalus,  128 
Crowther,  Mr.,  231,  232 
crowtheri,  Ursus,  15,  19,  230 
Ciyptoprocta  ferox,  17,  254 
cubanus,  Solenpdqn,  21 
Cuberow  (Ethiopian),  212 
Cumberland,  C.  S.,  423,  462 
Gumming,  R.  G.,  298,  318,  417,  503, 

657,  697 

cunenensis.  Oreotragus  oreotragus,  671 
Cuon  alpinus,  448,  451 
Curtis,  C.  P..  710 
Cuvier,  F.,  687 
Cuvier,  G.,  231,  334,  543,  648 
cuvieri,  Gazella,  16,  683,  686 

Lemur,  140 

cycloceros,  Ovis,  565,  568,  569 
Ovis  orientalis,  572 
Ovis  vignei,  569 
Cynailurus  soemmeringii,  280 
cynocephala,  Didelphis,  40 


INDEX 


821 


cynocephalus,  Thylacinus,  40 
cyprius,  Ovis,  558 

Dahl,  K.,  80 
dalai-lamae,  Ovis,  591 
Ovis  ammon,  591 
Dalgite,  51 

dama,  Gazella  dama,  689,  690 
Halmaturus,  110 
Macropus   (Thylogale),  112 
Damaliscus  albifrons,  656 
dorcas,  15,  653 
hunteri,  658 
phillipsi,  15,  656 

Damalisque  de  Hunter  (Fr.),  658 
damanus,  Prppithecus,  151 
damergouensis,  Gazella  dama,  689,  690 
Dammerman,  K.  W.,  314,  374,  389-391, 

523,  552,  636 

damonis,  Propithecus,  150 
Danford,  C.  G.,  and  Alston,  E.  R.,  199, 

285,  292,  559,  560 
Darius  the  Great,  294 
darwini,  Ovis,  579 

Ovis  ammon,  13,  579 
Dasyure,  Spotted-tailed,  36 
Dasyures,  21,  25 
Dasyuridae,  21,  25 
Dasyurus  geoffroii,  34 
geoffroii  fortis,  35 
geoffroii  geoffroii,  34 
geoffroyi,  35 
hallucatus,  35 
macrourus,  36 
maculatus,  32,  34,  36 
maugei,  32 
viverrinus,  32,  34,  210 
Daubenton,  E.  L.,  249 
Daubentonia  madagascariensis,  17,  158 
daubentonii.  Fossa,  249 
Daubentoniidae,  158 
dauricus,  Ovis  argali,  576 
Dauw  (Hottentot),  341 
David,  A.,  431,  468 
davidianus,  Cervus   (Elaphurus),  468 

Elaphurus,  467 
Dawkins,  B.,  219,  291 
De  Beaufort,  L.  F.,  375,  523 
De  Beaux,  O.,  213,  252,  267,  279,  280 
347,  352,  460,  621,  677,  685,  688,  714 
deckeni,  Propithecus  verreauxi,  149 
deckenii,  Propithecus,  152 

Propithecus    verreauxi,    152 
Deer,  21,  435 
Bokhara,  463 
Brow-antlered,  439 
Eld's,  439 

Hainan  Brow-antlered,  443 
Himalayan  Musk,  433 
Kansu  Musk,  431 
Kopsch's,  446 

27 


Deer,  Korean  Musk,  430 
McNeill's,  13,  460 
Musk,  427 

North  African  Red,  8,  457 
Pere  David's,  467 
Red,  of  central  Spain,  456 
Sakhalin  Musk,  430 
Schomburgk's,  12,  20,  436 
Siamese  Brow-antlered,  441 
Siberian  Musk,  427 
Thorold's,  464 
Turkestan,  463 
White-lipped,  13,  464 
Defosse,  L.,  384,  511,  546 
dejeani,  Rusa  unicolor,  465 
De  la  Chevasnerie,  A,  380,  396 
Delacour,  J.,  123,  126,  128,  130,  131, 
133,  134,  135,  137,  141-146,  148,  150- 
153,  156,  157,  249,  256,  469,  574 
Demaison,  M.,  686 
Demidoff,  E.,  227,  453,  531,  537,  578, 

595,  596 

Denham,  D.,  and  Clapperton,  H.,  410 
Deniker,  J.,  172 

Depoli, ,  223 

depressicornis,  Anoa,  11,  550,  554 
Antilope,  550 
Bubalus,  548 

derbiana,  Thylogale  eugenii,  110 
derbianus,  Boselaphus,  725 
Halmaturus,  109,  110 
Taurotragus,  726 
Taurotragus    derbianus,    16,    725, 

730 

Derscheid,  J.  M.,  175,  179,  253 
De  Schauensee,  R.  M.,  304,  527 
Desmarest,  A.  G.,  110 
desmarestii,  Megalomys,  21 
Devil.  Tasmanian,  38 
De  Vis,  C.  W.,  76 
De  Voogd,  C.  N.  A.,  388 
De  Winton,  W.  E.,  493 

(See  also  under  Anderson,  J.) 
diadema,  Propithecus,  146,  152 

Propithecus  diadema,  17,  146-149 
dianae,  Asinus  asinus,  345,  346 
Dibatag,  675 

Dicerorhinus  sumatrensis,  384 
sumatrensis  lasiotis,  13,  393 
sumatrensis  niger,  13,  393 
sumatrensis  sumatrensis,   11,  390 
Diceros,  375 
bicornis,  8 

bicornis  bicornis,  396 
bicornis    somaliensis,   397 
dichotomus,  Rangifer  tarandus,  479 
Dickson,  B.,  562 
Didelphis  cynocephala,  40 
penicillata,  26 
tridactyla,  89 


822 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Didelphis  ursina,  38,  72 

viverrina,  32 
Didier,  R.,  and  Rode,  P.,  192,  194,  222, 

233,  257,  265,  266,  574 
dingo,  Canis,  9 
Dinomyidae,  21 
Diprotodon,  93 
Dixon,  A.  F.  W.,  541 
Dobson,  G.  E.,  122 
Dolan,  B.,  7,  433,  460,  461,  466,  530, 

594 
dolgopolovi,  Ovis  arcar,  572 

Ovis  orientalis,  572 
Dolichohippus,  322 
Dollman,  J.  G.,  179,  346,  347,  407,  419, 
650,  700,  727,  730 

Dolmatoff,  ,  533 

Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  231 
dorcas,  Antilope,  653 

Damaliscus,  15,  653 

Gazella,  686,  688 
Dorcatherium   aquaticum   batesi,  425 

aquaticum  cottoni,  426 
Dorcatragus  megalotis,  674 
Dorogostajskij,  V.  C.  (See  under 

Nasonov,  N.  V.) 

dorreae,  Lagorchestes  hirsutus,  96 
dorsalis,  Lepilemur,  145 

Lepilemur  ruficaudatus,  145 
Doumergue,  F.,  686 
Dracopoli,  I.  N.,  494 
Drake-Brockman,  R.  E.,  202,  203,  251, 

280,  352,  401,  675,  677 
dromedarius,  Camelus,  421 
Dromicia,  31 
Drummond,  J.     (See  under  Hutton, 

F.  W.) 

Drummond,  W.  H.,  670 
Du  Bocage,  J.  V.  B.,  608 
Du  Chaillu,  P.  B.,  169 
Duiker,  Black-headed,  666 

Brooke's,  667 

Ituri  Yellow-backed,  665 

Jentink's,  666 

Yellow-backed,  663 
Duke,  H.  L.,  666 
Dumas,  P.,  294 
Dusicyon  australis,  19 
Duveyrier,  H.,  349 
Dybowski,  B.,  239,  595 
dybowskii,  Cervus,  445 
Dziggetai,  353 

ecaudatus,   Chaeropus  ecaudatus,  58, 

59 

Perameles,  58 
Echimyidae,  21 
Edentata,  181 
Edentates,  181 
edithae,  Nesophontes,  18 
Edmond-Blanc,  F.,  511 


Edwards,  G.,  133,  140,  335,  337 
edwardsi,  Lepidolemur,  145 

Propithecus,  148 

Propithecus  diadema,  148,  149 
Egocerus  equinus  scharicus,  704 
Ehrenberg,  C.  G.,  308 

(See  also  under  Hemprich,  F.  W.) 
Eland,  Congo  Derby,  729 

Congo  Giant,  16 

Derby,  725 

East  African,  725 

Giant  Derby,  726 

Livingstone's,  724 

Mashona,  724 

Nile  Derby,  726 

Senegambian  Giant,  16 

'South  African,  722 

Sudani  Derby,  726 

West  African,  725 
Elande  Derby  (Fr.),  725 
Elaphurus  davidianus,  467 
elaphus,  Cervus,  533 
Elasmodontomys  obliquus,  18 
Eld,  P.,  439 
eldii,  Cervus,  439 

Rucervus  eldii,  439 
Eldred,  J.,  370 
elegans,  Macropus,  114 

Wallabia,  114 
Elephant,  East  African,  317 

Malay,  311 

South  African  Bush,  8,  16,  316 

Sudanese,  317 

Sumatran,  11,  314 
Elephantidae,  310 
Elephants,  310 

Bush,  317 

Forest,  317 
Elephas,  310 

africanus,  316 

africanus  toxotis,  316 

capensis,  316 

maximus  hirsutus,  311 

maximus  sumatranus,  11,  314 

sumatranus,  314 
Elias,  N.,  424 
Ellerman,  J.  R.,  200 
Elliot,  D.  G.,  124,  126-129,  142,  146, 
147,  155,  160,  165,  168,  260,  291,  302, 
351,  674,  676 
Elwes,  G.  F.  W.,  545 
Elwes,  H.  J.,  452 
emiliae,  Halmaturus,  110 
Enders,  R.  K.,  647 
Endrina,  155 

Engelmann,  C.,  433,  461,  467 
Equidae,  322 
equina,  Antilope,  701 
equinus,  Hippotragus  equinus,  701 
Equus,  322,  342 

asinus  atlanticus,  352,  353 


INDEX 


823 


Equus  burchellii  antiquorum,  340,  345 

burchellii  bb'hmi,  341 

burchellii  burchellii,  8,  339 

burchellii  selousii,  341 

caballus  caballus,  332 

caballus  gmelini,  331 

caballus  subsp.,  13,  17 

gmelini,  330,  332,  333 

gmelini  silvaticus,  332 

hagenbecki,  322 

hartmannae,  341 

hemionus,  353,  358,  371 

(Asinus)   hemionus  bedfqrdi,  353 

(Asinus)  hemionus  finschi,  357 

hemionus  indicus,  363 

(Asinus)  hemionus  luteus,  353,  356 

hemionus  typicus,  355 

hemippus,  367-369 

indicus,  363 

johnstoni,  506,  508 

khur,  363 

onager,  359,  361,  369 

onager  castaneus,  353 

przewalskii,  13,  322 

quagga,  8,  334 

silvestris,  333 

spp.,  328,  330 

trouessarti,  339 

zebra,  8,  341,  342 

zebra  hartmannae,  341 

zebra  zebra,  341 
Eriksson,  K,  507 
erikssoni,  Okapia,  506 
erskinei,  Ovis  gmelini,  565,  566,  567 
erythromela,  Prosimia,  142 
Eschscholtz,  F.,  595 
Eucalyptus,  food  of  koala,  64 
eugenii,  Kangurus,  109 

Macropus,  101,  111 

Thylogale,  109 

Thylogale  eugenii,  110 
europaeus,  Homo  sapiens,  10 
eustephanus,  Cervus,  454 
evalensis,  Alcelaphus  caama,  651,  652 

Bubalis  caama,  652 
everetti,  Rattus,  206 
Eversmann,  E.,  198,  358,  679 
Exline,  A.  W.,  549 

faidherbianus,  Ursus,  231 
falconeri,  Aegoceros  (Capra),  627 

Capra,  626 

Capra  falconeri,  627 
Falz-Fein,  F.  von,  333 
fasciata,  Perameles,  10,  20,  47 
fasciatus,  Kangurus,  96 

Lagostrophus,  96 

Myrmecobius,  43 

Myrmecobius  fasciatus,  43 
fassini,  Ammotragus  lervia,  16,  603 
Fatio,  V.,  223,  233,  256,  258,  267 


Faunthorpe,  J.  C.,  378 
Faux-loup  (Fr.),  250 
Fegan,  W.  W.,  384,  396 
Felidae,  21,  22,  254 
Felis  agrius,  14,  263 

borealis,  265 

caracal  algira,  272 

catus  caucasicus,  263 

catus  ferus,  262 

catus  morea,  262 

concolor  couguar,  21 

grampia,  260 

guttata,  281 

isabellina,  271 

jubatus,  276 

lanea,  276 

leo,  288 

leo  goojratensis,  292 

leo  persicus,  292 

libyca  sarda,  264 

lynx,  265 

ocreata  agrius,  263 

reyi,  14,  264 

sarda,  14,  258,  264 

silvestris,  264,  265 

(Catus)  silvestris,  256 

silvestris  caucasicus,  263 

silvestris  grampia,  14,  260 

silvestris  morea,  259,  262 

silvestris   silvestris,   14,  256,  261, 
262,  264 

silvestris  tartessia,  263 

tartessia,  263 

tigris,  300,  306 

tigris  amurensis,  299 

tigris  coreensis,  301 

tigris  lecoqi,  304 

(Tigris)  tigris  septentrionalis,  306 

tigris  sondaicus,  309 

tigris  trabata,  306 

venatica,  283 

virgata,  305 
fennicus,  Rangifer  tarandus,  14,  476, 

479 

Fenton,  L.  L.,  296 
fergusoni,  Anoa,  11,  550-553 

Bos  (Bubalus)  depressicornis,  553 
ferox,  Cryptoprocta,  17,  254 
Ferrant,  V.,  256 
Ferrier,  J.  P.,  307,  366 
ferus,  Camelus  bactrianus,  421 

Felis  catus,  262 
Ffinch,  B.  T.,  494 
fiber.  Castor,  14,  191 

Castor  fiber,  191 
Filippi,  F.  de,  284,  286 
Finlayson,  H.  H.,  28,  35,  46,  47,  53, 
54,  56,  57,  69,  70,  75,  80-82,  85,  90-93, 
95,  96,  100,  104,  109,  111,  114,  116, 
117,  119,  210 


824 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


finschi,  Asinus  hemionus,  357 

Equus  (Asinus)   hemionus,  357 
Flacourt,  S.  de,  149 
flavifrons,  Prosimia,  137,  138 
flavigula,  Charronia,  429 
flaviventer,  Lemur,  142 
Fleay,  David  H.,  27,  34,  37,  40,  48, 

107,  113 

Fleming,  J.  F.,  405,  502 
Flerov,  C.  C.,  428,  429,  431,  464,  465, 

470,  474,  475,  477,  479,  483 
Flinders,  M.,  72 
flindersi,  Thylogale,  78,  108 
Floericke,  K,  532,  533,  534 
Flower,  S.  S.,  214,  229,  245,  272,  282, 
311,  341,  346,  374,  380,  383,  416,  442, 
519,  521,  526,  545,  602,  618,  620,  645, 
647,  688,  691,  715 
Flower,  W.  H.,  331 
Flower,  W.  H.,  and  Lydekker,  R.,  291 
Floyer,  E.  A.,  618 

Foley,  ,  683 

Forbes,  H.  0.,  128,  130,  131,  133,  134, 

156-158,  160,  349 
Formozow,  A.  N.,  355,  580 
fortis,  Dasyurus  geoffroii,  35 
Fortunatow,  B.  K.,  536 
Fortunatus,  512 
Fossa,  17,  254 

Lesser,  249 
fossa,  Fossa,  17,  249,  256 

Viverra,  249 
Fossa  daubentonii,  249 

fossa,  17,  249,  256 
Fossane,  17,  249 
Fox,  European  Red,  9 

Long-eared  Kit,  20 
Foxes,  21,  211 
fraenata,  Onychogalea,  98 
fraenatus,  Macropus,  98 
Fran5a,  C.,  608,  609 
Fraser,  L.,  187 
frater,  Monophyllus,  19 
frederici,  Prosimia,  135 
Freycinet,  L.  (See  under  Peron,  F.) 
Frobenius,  L.,  353 
frontalis,  Bibos,  520 

Cervus  (Rusa),  439 
fuliginosa,  Antechinus,  30 

Crocidura,  122 

Sminthopsis  murina,  30 
Fulinski,  B.,  197,  226,  260,  268,  513 
fulvus,  Bos  bubalus,  543 

Bubalus  bubalis,  543 

Lemur,  134,  136-138,  142 

Lemur  macaco,  136 
furcifer,  Lemur,  129 

Phaner,  125,  129 
furnessi,  Caprolagus,  190 

Pentalagus,  190 


fuscus,  Mastacomys,  210 
Futterer,  K.,  356 

Gacela  mohor  (Sp.),  689 
Gacela  monies  (Sp.),  683 
Gadow,  H.,  221,  257,  607,  608 
Gaimard,    J.    P.     (See    under    Quoy, 

J.  R.  C.) 
gaimardi,  Bettongia,  10,  20,  78 

Kangurus,  78 

Gairdner,  K.  G.,  245,  372,  519,  527 
Galago  madagascariensis,  123 
galapagoensis,  Oryzomys,  19 
galliae,  Castor  fiber,  191 
Gato  montes  (Sp.),  256 
Gato  sauvage  (Sp.),  256 
Gatti,  A.,  506 
Gatto  selvatico  (It.),  256 
Gatto  selvatico  di  Sardegna  (It.),  264 
Gaur,  Burmese,  517 

Indian,  514 

Malayan,  13,  521 
gaurus,  Bibos  gaurus,  514 

Bos,  514 
gazella,  Capra,  696 

Oryx,  8 

Oryx  gazella,  696 
Gazella  corinna,  683,  686 

cuvieri,  16,  683,  686 

dama  dama,  689,  690 

dama  damergouensis,  689,  690 

dama  mhorr,  16,  689 

dama  ruficollis,  690 

dorcas,  686,  688 

leptoceros,  16,  687 

leptoceros  leptoceros,  687 

leptoceros  loderi,  687 

loderi,  687,  688 

rufina,  15,  20,  685 

soemmeringi,  676 
Gazella  del  deserto   (Ital.),  687 
Gazelle,  Atlas,  683 

Clarke's,  675 

Cuvier's,  16 

Edmi,  683 

Loder's,  687 

Mhorr,  16,  689 

Rufous,  15,  20,  685 

Slender-horned,  16,  687 
Gazelle  blanche  (Fr.) ,  687 
Gazelle  de  Cuvier  (Fr.),  683 
Gazelle  de  montaghe  (Fr.),  683 
Gazelle  des  dunes  (Fr.),  687 
Gazelle  Mohor  (Fr.),  689 
Gazelle  rouge  (Fr.),  685 
Gemsbok,  Angolan,  696 

Cape,  8,  696 
Gcmsbuck,  696 
Geocapromys  columbianus,  18 

ingrahami  abaconis,   18 


INDEX 


825 


geoffroii,  Dasyurus,  34 
Dasyurus  geoffroii,  34 

Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,    E.,    135-137, 
143 

Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,    I.,    132,    142, 
144,  263,  365,  367,  601 

geoffroyi,  Dasyurus,  35 

Georgi,  J.  G.,  260,  331,  334 

Geppard  (Ger.),  274 

Gerrard,  E.,  339 

Gervais,  F.  L.  P.,  458 

Gesner,  C.,  194 

Geyr  von  Schweppenburg,  H.,  349, 605, 
712 

Ghepardo  (It.),  274 

Ghesquiere,  J.,  180 

Ghor-khar,  359,  363 

gigantea,  Manis,  181 
Smutsia,  181 

giganteus,  Macropus,  121 

gigas,  Boselaphus,  726 
Hydrodamalis,  18 
Taurotragus  derbianus,  726 

Giglioli,  H.  H.,  201 

Gilbert,  J.,  26,  29,  31,  63,  64,  87,  88, 
97,  98,  101,  119 

gilbertii,  Hypsiprymnus,  86 

gilberti(i),  Potorous,  10,  18,  86-88 

Giles,  F.  H.,  373 

Gill,  E.  L.,  344,  649,  661 

gillespiei,  Lasiorhinus  latifrons,  75 
Phascolomys,  75 

Girafe  (Fr.),  484 

Girafe  d'Angola  (Fr.),  499 

Girafe  du  Baringo  (Fr.),  491 

Girafe  du  Congo  (Fr.),  490 

Girafe  reticulee  (Fr.),  493 

giraffa,  Camelopardalis,  485,  486 

Giraffa,  506 

camelopardalis,  484 
camelopardalis  angolensis,  16,  499 
camelopardalis   antiquorum,    485, 

496 
camelopardalis       camelopardalis, 

484,  487 
camelopardalis  capensis,  16,  498- 

501,  503 
camelopardalis  congoensis,  16,  490, 

499 

camelopardalis  cottoni,  491 
camelopardalis  infumata,  498,  500 
camelopardalis  nigricans,  493 
camelopardalis  peralta,  16,  487 
camelopardalis  reticulata,  493 
camelopardalis    rothschildi,    491, 

495 

camelopardalis  thornicrpfti,  497 
camelopardalis  tippelskirchi,  495 
camelopardalis  wardi,  501 
infumata,  498 
reticulata  nigrescens,  493 


Giraffa  schillings!,  495 

tippelskirchi,  495 
Giraffe,  Angola,  16,  499 

Baringo,  491 

Barotse,  498 

Congo,  16,  490 

Kilimanjaro,  495 

Kordofan,  486 

Masai,  495 

Nigerian,  16,  487 

North  Rhodesian,  497 

North  Transvaal,  501 

Nubian,  484 

Reticulated,  493 

Sennar,  484 

"Somali,"  493 

Southern,  16,  503 

Thornicroft's,  497 

Uganda,  491 
Giraffes,  484 
Giraffidae,  484 

Glauert,  L.,  26-28,  30-32,  35,  44,  49, 
52,  59,  60,  64,  79,  84,  88,  89,  95,  97, 
98,  102,  112,  120,  211 
gliroides,  Chirogalus,  123 
Glitsch,  C.,  678 
globiceps,  Lepidolemur,   145 
Glouton  arctique  (Fr.),  241 
Glutton,  241 
Gmelin,  J.  F,  155,  158 
Gmelin,  S.  G,  307,  330,  331,  333,  566 
gmelini,  Equus,  330,  332,  333 

Equus  caballus,  331 

Ovis  orientalis,  560 
gmelini(i),  Ovis,  560,  562,  565 

Ovis  gmelin(i),  562,  566 
gnou,  Connochaetes,  15,  659 
Gnu,  White-tailed,  15,  659 
Goat,  Persian  Wild,  626,  627 

Sind  Wild,  625 
Goats,  21,  510 
Godman,  E.  M.    (See  under  Archer, 

G.) 

Goldfinch,  G.  H.,  204,  205 
Goodwin,  G.  G.,  7,  300,  360,  362,  430, 

449,  678,  680 

goojratensis,  Felis  leo,  292 
Gordon,  S.,  482 
gordonorum,  Colobus  badius,  162 

Piliocolobus,  162 
Gorilla  (Ger.),  168 
Gorilla,  Coast,  168 

Mountain,  173 
Gorilla,  164 

beringeri,  173 

gorilla  beringei,  168,  173 

gorilla  gorilla,  168 

uellensis,  174 
gorilla,  Gorilla  gorilla,  168 

Troglodytes,  168 
Gorille  (Fr.),  168 


826 


EXTINCT  AND    VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Gorille  des  montagnes  (Fr.),  173 
Gould,  J,  25,  28,  30,  35,  39,  40,  48, 
49,  52,  59,  60,  65,  75,  79,  80,  82,  84, 
87-91,  93,  94,  95,  97,  98,  101,   103, 
106,  107,  110,  112,  114,  116,  120,  121 
gouldii,  Bettongia,  83 

Bettongia  penicillata,  83 
Gourdon,  M.,  607 
Gourin,  J.,  315,  391 
gracilis,  Macrppus,  110 
graii,  Bettongia  lesueur,  79,  80 

Hypsiprymnus,  79 
Graim,  Mrs.  T.,  7 
grampia,  Felis,  260 

Felis  silvestris,  14,  260 
Grandidier,  A.,  125,  127,  145,  149,  150 

(See  also  under  Milne  Edwards, 

A.) 

grandidieri,  Lepidolemur,  145 
grandis,  Macrotis  lagotis,  10,  20,  51,  54 
Granit,  A.  W.,  477 
Grant,  R.,  38 
grassianus,  Cervus  nippon,  443 

Sikaillus,  443 
gravis,  Quemisia,  18 
Gray,  J.  E.,  47,  49,  60,  104,  110,  124, 

130,  141,  249,  390,  394 
Gray,  P.  N.,  659,  709,  710 
Green,  Col.,  604,  714 
Green,  H.  T.,  171 
Gregorius,  Bishop  of  Tours,  512 
Gregory,  W.  K,  10,  68,  170 
Grenfell,  W.  T.,  474 
Greve,  C.,  537 
Grey,  G.,  92,  102,  337,  338 
greyi,  Macropus,  117 

Macro  pus  (Halmaturus),  116 

Wallabia,  10,  20,  116 
griseorufus,  Microcebus  minor,  123 
griseus,  Hapalemur,  130,  131,  145 

Hapalemur  griseus,  131,  132 

Lemur,  131 

Mioxicebus,  127 
Grizzly,  Apache,  21 

Black  Hills,  20 

California  Coast,  19 

Henshaw's,  21 

Klamath,  20 

Lillooet,  20 

Manchurian,  228 

Mendocino,  19 

Mount  Taylor,  20 

Navajo,  19 

New  Mexico,  19 

Plains,  19 

Sacramento,   19 

Sonora,  19 

Southern  California,  20 

Tejon,  20 

Texas,  20 


Groeben,  G.,  538 

Grum-Grshimailo  brothers,  324 

grunniens,  Poephagus  grunniens,  531 

Gruvel,  M.  A.,  646 

Grypotherium  listai,  18 

Guarmani,  C.,  370 

Giihler  [Guehler],  U.,  436,  438,  545 

Guepard  (Fr.),  274 

Guereza,  161 

Guillemard,  F.  H.  H.,  595 

Guilmot,  M.,  508 

Guldenstadt,  A.  J.  von,  536 

gulo,  Gulo,  241 

Mustela,  241 
Gulo  gulo,  241 
Gunn,  R.,  39,  40,  49,  113,  121 
gunnii,  Perameles,  47,  48 
Gunther,  A.,  129,  149,  564 
guttata,  Felis,  281 
Gyldenstolpe,  N.,  176,  245,  311,  372, 

383,  442,  519,  527,  545,  666 
Gymnobelideus  leadbeateri,  10,  20,  61 

Haagner,  A,  185,  298,  649,  651,  661, 

724 

Hablizl,  C.,  358,  360,  361 
Hacquet,  B.,  331 

Hadwen,  S..  and  Palmer,  L.  J.,  484 
Hand,  M.,  290 
Hagen,  B,  246,  388 
Hagenbeck,  C,  325,  326,  334 
hagenbecki,  Equus,  322 
hagenbeckii.  Cervus,  463 
Hagerup,  J.,  480 
hainanus,  Rucervus  eldii,  443 
Haines-Watson,  W.  C.,  465.    (See  also 

Watson,  W.  C.  H.) 
Halbesel,  syrischer  (Ger.),  367 

Hall, ,  298 

hallucatus,  Dasyurus,  35 
Halmaturus  brachyurus,  87 

dama,  110 

derbianus,  109,  110 

emiliae,  110 

houtmanni,  110 

irma,  119 

parma,  107 

thetis,  106 
hamar,  Asinus,  367 
Hamilton,  E.,  257,  259,  260 
Hamilton,  R.  E.  A.,  694 
Hamilton,  S.,  252,  671,  698 
Hanson,  R.  C.,  518 
Hapalemur  griseus,  130,  131,  145 

griseus  griseus,  131,  132 

griseus  olivaceus,  131,  132 

olivaceus,  132 

schlegeli,  131 

simus,  17,  130,  131 
Hare,  Amami,  190 

Liu  Kiu,  190 


INDEX 


827 


Hare-wallaby,  Banded,  96 

Brown,  93 

"Common,"  93 

Rufous,  94 

Western,  94 
Hares,  190 
Harmer,  S.  F.,  389 
Harper,  F.,  8,  332,  656,  724 
Harris,  G.  P.,  38 
Harris,  W.  C.,  334,  405,  417,  501    660 

669 
harrisii,  Sarcophilus,  38 

Ursinus,  38 
Harrison,  G.  L.,  7 

harrisoni,  Proteles  cristatus,  251,  252 
Hartebeest,  Angolan  Red,  652 

Black,  659 

Bubal,  15,  20,  642 

Cape  Red,  15,  648 

Hunter's,  658 

Northern  Red,  650 
Hartebeest,  Rooi  (Boer),  648,  650 
Hartert,  E.,  605,  644,  684,  688 
Harting,  J.  E.,  192,  194,  196,  219 
hartmannae,  Equus,  341 

Equus  zebra,  341 
harveyi,  Bettongia  lesueur,  79,  80 

Perameles,  80 
Hatt,  R.  T.,  182,  187-190 
Hatta,  S.,  199,  214,  215,  642 
hattai,  Canis  lupus,  214 
Hattock  (Madagascar),  145 
Hauchecorne,  F.,  258 
Havmoller,  R.,  313 
Hay,  D.,  690 
Hay,  O.  P,  329 
Hay,  R.  G,  569,  570 
Hayman,  R.  W.,  187,  190 
Haywood,  A.  H.  W.,  171,  178,  179,  400, 

417,  419,  489,  490,  667 
Hazewinkel,  J.  C.,  387,  388 
Hecht,  G.,  224,  575 
hecki,  Acinonyx,  281 

Acinonyx  jubatus,  280,  281,  289 
Hedin,  S,  305,  323,  356,  362,  421,  423, 

425,  462,  529,  530,  584,  592,  594 
Heim  de  Balsac,  H.,  274,  282,  291,  605, 

645,  684-686,  689,  712 
heinsii,  Ovis,  586 
Heifer  and  Heifer,  199 
Helladotherium  tigrinum,  506 
Heller,  E.,  162,  203,  251,  279,  280,  403, 
409,  550 

(See  also  under  Roosevelt,  T.) 
Helms,  R.,  45,  95 
Hemigalus,  245 
hemionus,  Asinus,  322 

Asinus  hemionus,  353 

Equus,  353,  358,  371 
Hemippe  de  Syrie  (Fr.),  367 


hemippus,  Asinus,  368,  369 

Asinus  hemionus,  12,  20,  367,  371 

Equus,  367-369 
Hemming,  F.,  200,  621 
Hemprich,    F.    W.,    and    Ehrenberg, 

C.  G.,  229,  621,  622,  691 
henrii,  Ovis,  592 
henshawi,  Ursus,  21 
Heptaxodon,  21 

bidens,  18 

Heptaxodontidae,  21 
Heptner,  W.  G.,  198,  199,  227,  235,  241 
244,  270,  272,  286,  300,  306,  309, 
332,  359,  449,  453,  455,  464,  479, 
483,  562,  571,  573,  581,  586,  587, 
590,  595,  632,  681 

(See  also  under  Ogneff,  S.  I.) 
Herberstein,  S.  von,  513 
herberti,  Petrogale,  104 
Herodotus,  231,  291,  332,  364 
Herola  (Galla),  658 
hessi,  Manis,  189,  190 
Heteropsomys  insularis,  18 
Heude,  P.  M.,  510,  527,  637,  640 
Heuglin,  M.  T.  von,  281,  346,  475,  486, 

602,  618,  687 
Hewitt,  J.,  298 
Hexolobodon,  Haitian,  18 
Hexolobodon  phenax,  18 
Heynsius-Viruly,      Mrs.,      and      Van 
Heurn,  F.  C.,  246,  248,  310,  315,  374, 
388-392.  523,  552,  554,  636 
Higgins,  J.  C.,  439,  518,  527 
Hilden,  K.,  477 
Hilton-Simpson,  M.  W.,  459 
Hilzheimer,  M.,  243,  279,  286,  304,  337, 

338,  349,  457,  479,  483,  536 
hindei,  Lophiomys  ibeanus,  204,  205 
Kingston,  R.  W.  G.,  497,  658 
Hinton,  M.  A.  C.,  262 
Hipparion,  353 
Hippopotamidae,  414 
Hippopotamus,  414 

amphibius,  8,  414,  415 

amphibius  amphibius,  414 

amphibius  capensis,  414,  415 

amphibius  constrictus,  414,  415 

amphibius  kiboko,  414 

amphibius  tschadensis,  415 

capensis,  414 

constrictus,  414 

(Tetraprotodon)  liberiensis,  419 
Hippopotamus,  Angola,  414 

Cape,  414 

East  African,  414 

Nigerian,  415 

Northern,  414 

Pygmy,  8,  16,  419 
Hippopotamuses,  8,  414 
Hippotigris,  342 


828 


EXTINCT  AND    VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Hippotigris  burchellii  burchellii,  15,  20 

quagga,  15,  19 

zebra  zebra,  15 

Hippotrague  noir  d'Angola  (Fr.),  707 
Hippotragus  bakeri,  704 

equinus  bakeri,  704 

equinus  cottoni,  701,  704 

equinus  equinus,  701 

equinus  koba,  704 

equinus  langheldi,  701,  704 

equinus  scharicus,  704 

langheldi,  704 

leucophaeus,  15,  17,  698 

niger  kaufmanni,  706 

niger  kirkii,  705 

niger  niger,  705,  707 

niger  roosevelti,  707 

niger  yariani,  707 

variani,  16,  707 
hirsutus,  Elephas  maximus,  311 

Lagorchestes,  80,  94,  95 

Lagorchestes  hirsutus,  94 

Vombatus  hirsutus,  73 
Hirtz,  M.,  194,  225,  256,  259,  267,  617 
hispanica,  Capra,  610,  611 

Capra  pyrenaica,  608,  610,  611 
hispanicus,  Cervus  elaphus,  457 
Ho,  H.  J.,  638 
Hobley,  C.  W.,  67,  171,  379,  380,  399, 

401,  417,  418,  620,  651,  654 
Hodgson,  B.  H.,  433,  544 
hodgsonii,  Ovis,  592 

Ovis  ammon,  579,  580,  584,  592 
hodophilax,  Canis,  12,  20,  213,  214 
Hoel,  A,  481,  482 
Hoffmansegg,  J.  C.  von,  608 
Hollister,  N.,  201,  203-205,  252,  279, 

431,  483,  492,  576 
Hollsten,  J.,  478 
Holmwood,  F.,  186 
holomelas,  Propithecus,  148 

Propithecus  diadema,  148,  149 
Home,  E.,  72 
Homer,  371 
Homo,  177 

sapiens  europaeus,  10 
Homopsomys  antillensis,  18 
Hone,  E.,  459,  714,  719 
Honey  Mouse,  60 
Honey  Possum,  60 
Hopkinson,  H.  C.  B.,  282 
horriaeus,  Ursus,  19 
horribilis,  Ursus  horribilis,  19 
Horse,  Lamut  Wild,  328 

Mongolian  Wild,  322 

Przewalski's,  13,  322 
Horses,  21,  322 

European  Wild,  13,  17,  330 
Horsfield,  T.,  309 
hortulorum,  Cervus,  445 
Hose,  C.,  248,  547 


hosei,  Bos  bubalis,  546 

Bubalus  bubalis,  546,  548 
Hosie,  A.,  432,  465 
Hoskins,  G.  A.,  487 
houtmanni,  Halmaturus,  110 
Howell,  A.  B.,  449 
Hoy,  C.  M.,  35,  38,  100,  111 
Hubback,  T.  R.,  312,  521,  522,  526,  639 
hubbacki,  Bibos  gaurus,  13,  521 

Bos  gaurus,  521 
Hubbard,  W.  D.,  703,  705 
Hume,  A.  0.,  462 
humei,  Capricornis  sumatraensis,  641 

Ovis  ammon,  585,  586,  588,  590 
Hunter,  H.  C.  V.,  658,  593 
Hunter,  J.  A.,  399 
hunteri,  Cobus,  658 

Damaliscus,  658 
Hutia,  Cuban  Short-tailed,  18 

Crooked  Island,  18 

Great  Abaco,  18 

Hispaniolan,  18 

Narrow-toothed,  18 
Hutton,  F.  W.,  and  Drummond,  J., 

731 

Hutton,  T.,  569,  570,  632 
Hydrodamalidae,  21 
Hydrodamalis  gigas,  18 
Hyemoschus,  425 

aquaticus,  8 

aquaticus  aquaticus.  425 

aquaticus  batesi,  425 

aquaticus  cottoni,  426 
Hypsiprymnus  gilberti(i),  86,  87 

graii,  79 

murinus,  89,  90 

ogilbyi,  83 

platyops,  88 

white,  78 
Hystricomorph,  Puerto  Rican,  18 

ibeanus,  Lophiomys,  202,  204 

Lophiomys  ibeanus,  204 
Ibex,  Abyssinian,  16,  623 

Alpine,  614 

of  central  Spain,  610 

Gredos,  610 

Mediterranean,  611 

Nubian,  16,  618 

Portuguese,  13,  19,  608 

Pyrenean,  13,  20,  606 

Sinaitic,  621 

Sind,  625 

South  Arabian,  623 

Spanish,  14 
ibex,  Capra,  614 
letermago  (Boer),  184 
Ijzer  Magauw  (Boer),  184 
imhausi(i),  Lophiomys,  201-204 
indica,  Acrocodia,  372 


INDEX 


829 


indicus,  Bubalus,  548 

Equus,  363 

Equus  hemionus,  363 

Tapirus,  372 
Indri,  146,  155 
indri,  Indri,  155 

Lemur,  155 
Indri  indri,  155 

niger,  155 
Indriidae,  146 
Indris,  155 
Indris  albus,  146 

ater,  155 

brevicaudatus,  155 

longicaudatus,  156 

variegatus,  155 

indutus,  Zyzomys  argurus,  211 
infumata,  Giraffa,  498 

Giraffa    camelopardalis,   498,   500 
inornata,  Petrogale,  104 
Insectivora,  122 
Insectivores,  122 

Antillean,  18,  19,  21 
insularis,  Heteropsomys,  18 
interjecta,  Macrotis  lagotis,  51,  54,  55 
Inukai,  T,  215,  227,  240,  642 
Inverarity,  J.  D.,  352,  539 
Inyala,  716 

Iredale,  T.,  and  Troughton  E.  Le  G., 
6,  26,  29,  36,  54,  104,  107,  108,  110 
irma,  Halmaturus,  119 

Wallabia,  119 
Irwin,  A.  J.,  441 
isabellina,  Felis,  271 

Lynx  lynx,  270,  271 
isabellinus,  Ursus  arctos,  218 
Isolobodon,  Haitian,  18 

Puerto  Rican,  18 
Isolobodon  levir,  18 

portoricensis,  18 
Isoodon  nauticus,  78 
isphaganica,  Ovis  gmelinii,  563 

Ovis  orientalis,  563 
isubra,  Cervus,  447 
itatsi,  Mustek,  240 
ituriensis,  Cephalophus,  665 

Cephalophus  sylvicultrix,  665 
Ivanauskas,  T.,  197,  226,  234,  242,  268 

Jackal,  Maanhaar  (Boer),  250 

Jackson,  F.  J.,  557 

Jackson,  H.  M.  G.,  287 

Jackson,  R.  W.,  676 

Jacobi,  A.,  469,  470,  472,  473,  477,  478, 

482,  483,  484 
Jacobus,  Mr.,  446 
Jafry,  H.  A.,  294 
Jagiello,  W.,  513 
jamrachi,     Capricornis    sumatraensis, 

641 
Janikowski,  T.,  330,  332,  333 


Jardine,  W.,  337 

Jarvis,  C.  S.,  623,  695 

Jennison,  G.,  353,  512 

Jentink,  F.  A.,  182,  187,  189,  190   663 

664,  667 

jentinki,  Cephalophus,  666 
Jerdon,  T.  C.,  364,  365,  380 
jerdoni,  Capra,  633 

Capra  falconeri,  633 
Jobaert,  A.  J.,  179,  184,  278,  413,  491 

556,  665,  704,  706,  724,  729 
Johannesen,  H.,  480 
Johnson,  E.,  178,  274,  490,  663,  726 
Johnson,  M.,  321 

Johnston,  H.,  163,  189,  232,  289,  290 
413,  427,  459,  492,  507,  508,  647,  706 
johnstom,  Equus,  506,  508 

Okapia,  16,  484,  506 
Joleaud,  L.,  459,  605,  644,  683,  685,  686 

688,  690 

Jones,  F.  W,  27,  28,  30,  32,  34,  35,  37, 
38,  44,  45,  47,  50,  51,  54-56,  58, 
66,  72,  74,  75,  77,  80,  83,  90,  91, 
94,  102,  105,  109,  111,  113,  116- 
118,  206,  211 

(See  also  under  Waite,  E.  R.) 
Jones,  F.  W.,  and  Manson,  D.,  37,  107 
jonesi,  Leporillus,  78 
Jordan,  K.,  459 
Jourdan,  — — ,  119 
jubata,  Ovis,  579 

Ovis  ammon,  592 
jubatus,  Acinonyx,  274,  286 
Acinonyx  jubatus,  276 
Felis,  276 

Junker,  W.,  508,  728 
Juvenal,  231 

Kaburaki,  T.,  191.  216,  642 
"Kameel"  (Boer),  501 
kamtschadalica,  Martes  zibellina,  236, 

239 

kanei,  Mustek  erminea,  642 
Kangaroo,  Forester,  120 

Tasmanian,  120 
Kangaroos,  21,  77 
Kangurus  billardierii,  112 

eugenii,  109 

fasciatus,  96 

gaimardi,  78 

pencilktus,  102 
kansuensis,  Cervus,  450 

Cervus  elaphus,  450,  461 
Kareline  [Karelin],  G.  S.,  286,  581 
karelini,  Ovis,  584,  585,  586,  589 

Ovis  ammon,  583,  584 
Kaudern,  W.,  125,  128,  132,  133,  139, 
140,  142,  143,  145,  151-153,  157,  158, 
160,  255 

Kaufman,  D.  E.,  314 
kaufmanni,  Hippotragus  niger,  706 


830 


EXTINCT  AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 


Keller,  C.,  513,  525 

Kellogg,  R,  7 

Kelsall,  H.  J.,  311 

Kemp,  P.  R.,  436 

kennerleyi,  Ursus,  19 

Kennion,  R.  L,  307,  362,  570,  572,  573, 

626,  632 

kerkhoveni,  Arctictis  binturong,  247 
Kerr,  R.,  143 
Kershaw,  J.  A.,  71,  75,  163 

(See  also  under  Spencer,  B.) 
Kessler,  K.  T,  198,  260 
khur,  Asinus  hemionus,  13,  363 
kiboko,  Hippopotamus  amphibius,  414 
Kieffer,  A,  373,  385,  442,  519,  527,  640 
kikuyuensis,  Colobus  polykomos,  161 
Kinloch,  A.  A.  A.,  434,  539,  544 
Kinnear,  N.  B.,  261,  262,  293,  295 
Kirby,  F.  V,  298,  398,  669.    (See  also 

Vaughan-Kirby,  F.) 
Kirk,  J.,  163,  186 
kirkii,  Aegocerus  niger,  705 

Colobus,  163 

Colobus  badius,  163 

Hippotragus  niger,  705 
Kishida,  K.,  215,  244 
klamathensis,  Ursus,  20 
Klemm,  M.,  239 
Kling  and  Biittner,  668 
Klippspringer  (Ger.),  668 
Klipspringer,  Abyssinian,  672 

Angola,  671 

Cape  Colony,  668 

Marsabit,  671 

Masai,  671 

Nyasa,  671 

Somali,  672 

Transvaal,  670 

Kloss,  C.  B.,  245,  384,  386,  436,  438, 
519,  526,  527 

(See  also  under  Robinson.  H.  C.) 
knochenhaueri,    Loxodonta    africana, 

317 
Koala,  New  South  Wales,  64 

Queensland,  68 

Victorian,  70 
Koalas,  64 
koba,  Aegocerus,  704 

Hippotragus  equinus,  704 
Kolben,  P.,  298,  398,  417,  555,  722 
Komarec,  J.,  224 
Koningsberger,  J.  C.,  524 
kopschi,  Cervus,  446 

Cervus  nippon,  446 
Korsak,  W.,  271 
Kou  Prey  (Cambodian),  510 
Kowarzik,  R.,  584 
Kozlov,  P.  K.,  580,  594 
kozlovi,  Ovis,  579,  580 
Kozmian,  K.,  331 
Krefft,  G.,  29,  30,  31,  93 


Kriiger,  A.,  192,  194,  195,  197,  198,  199 

krugeri,  Leo  leo,  298 

Krumbiegel,  I.,  222,  233,  258,  266,  532, 

575 

Krynitzki,  ,  198 

Kuiper,  K.,  374 
Kulan,  353 

Transcaspian,  357 
Kulan,  transkaspischer  (Ger.),  357 
Kull,  A.,  202 
Kulon,  353 

Kuntze,  R.,  191,  198,  234,  239,  241,  595 
Kuroda,  N.,  191,  199,  214,  215,  244,  270, 

430,  474,  642 

Lacepede  and  Cuvier,  136 

Ladyjensky,  ,  358 

Lagorchestes  hirsutus,  80,  94,  95 

hirsutus  bernieri,  96 

hirsutus  dprreae,  96 

hirsutus  hirsutus,  94 

leporides,  93 
Lagostrophus  fasciatus,  96 

fasciatus  albipilis,  96 
lagotis,  Macrotis,  56 

Macrotis  lagotis,  51,  54-56 

Perameles,  51 

Peragale,  56 

Thalacomys,  54 
Lagreze,  A.,  385 
Lama,  421 

Lamang  (Siamese),  441 
Lamberti,  P.  A.,  536 
lanatus,  Lemur,  156 
lanea,  Felis,  276 
Lang,  H.,  182,  188,  343,  407,  408,  410- 

412,  507,  509,  654,  657,  661 
Langdon,  J.,  252 
langheldi,   Hippotragus,   704 

Hippotragus  equinus,  701,  704 
laniger,  Avahi  laniger,  156 

Cheiromys  madagascariensis,   158 

Lemur,  156 
Lankester,  E.  R.,  508 
laristanica,  Ovis,  564,  570 
Larsen,  C.  A.,  474 
larvatus,  Potomochoerus,  255 
Lasiorhinus  latifrons  barnardi,  76 

latifrons  gillespiei,  75 

latifrons  latifrons,  74 
lasiotis,  Dicerorhinus  sumatrensis,  13, 

qqq 

OJ7O 

Rhinoceros,  393 

Ursus,  228 

Ursus  arctos,  218,  228 
Lataste,  F.,  232,  273,  458,  643,  646,  684, 

712 
latifrons,  Lasiorhinus  latifrons,  74 

Phascolomys,  74,  75 
latipes,  Oryx  leucoryx,  693,  694 


INDEX 


831 


Lattimore,  0.,  326,  356,  424,  580 
Laufer,  B.,  473,  484 
Laurent,  P.,  274,  282 
Lavauden,  L.,  154,  171,  178,  264,  273, 
282,  289,  290,  320,  350,  401,  409,  410, 
416,  419,  484,  490,  643,  684-691,  713, 
714,  730 

Layard,  A.  H.,  369,  370 
Layard,  E.  L.,  654 
Lazdin,  V.  P.,  571 

leadbeateri,  Gymnobelideus,  10,  20.  61 
Leche,  W.,  421,  422 
lecoqi,  Felis  tigris,  304 

Panthera  tigris,  304 
Ledebour,  C.,  and  Bunge,  A.  von,  577 
Leeuw   (Boer),  297 
Legendre,  S.  J.,  362 
LeGendre,  S.   (See  under  Sanford,  G.) 
Lemur,  Black,  134 

Broad-nosed  Gentle,  130 

Brown,  136 

Collared,  137 

Coquerel's  Dwarf,  17,  125 

Crossley's  Mouse,  17,  128 

Crowned,  141 

Fork-tailed,  129 

Fulvous,  136 

Geoffrey's  Fat-tailed,  126 

Gray,  17,  131 

Hairy-eared  Mouse,  16,  19,  128 

Mayotte,  139 

Milius's  Mouse,  127 

Miller's  Dwarf,  123 

Mongoose,  140 

Olivaceous,  132 

Red-bellied,  142 

Red-fronted,  138 

Red-tailed,  145 

Ring-tailed,  132 

Ruffed,  142 

Samat's  Fat-tailed,  126 

Sanford's,  134 

Smith's  Dwarf,   124 

Tufted-eared  Mouse,  128 

Weasel,  144 

White-faced,   135 

White-fronted,  135 
Lemur  albifrons,  135 

albimanus,  140 

anjuanensis,  140 

bruneus,   136 

brunneus,  156 

catta,  132 

chrysampyx,  141 

cinereus,  131 

collaris,  137 

commersonii,  127 

coronatus,  141 

cuvieri,  140 

flaviventer,  142 

fulvus,  134,  136-138,  142 

fulvus  albifrons,  138 


Lemur  fulvus  collaris,  139 

fulvus  rufus,  137,  138,  139 

fulvus  sanfordi,  134 

furcifer,  129 

griseus,  131 

indri,  155 

lanatus,  156 

laniger,  156 

leucomystax,  134 

macaco,  134,  135,  138 

macaco  albifrons,  135 

macaco  collaris,  137 

macaco  fulvus,  136 

macaco  macaco,  134 

macaco  mayottensis,  139 

macaco  rufus,  135,  138 

macaco  sanfordi,  134 

macaco  variegatus,  142 

mayottensis,   139 

mongoz,  136,  138,  140 

mongoz  cinereiceps,  137 

mongoz  coronatus,  140,  141 

mongoz  mongoz,  140 

mongoz  nigrifrons,  141 

murinus,  123 

nigerrimus,  137 

nigrifrons,  140 

prehensilis,  123 

psilpdactylus,  158 

pusillus,  123 

ruber,  142,  143 

rubriventer,  142 

rufifrons,  138 

rufiventer,   142 

rufus,  138 

simia-sciurus,  140 

variegatus,  142 

varius,  142 
Lemuridae,  21,  123 
Lemurs,  21,  123 

lenensis,  Rangifer  tarandus,  483 
leo,  Felis,  288 

Leo  leo,  15,  20,  288 
Leo  asiaticus,  292 

leo  krugeri,  298 

leo  leo,  15,  20,  288 

leo  melanochaitus,  15,  19,  297 

leo  persicus,  12,  292 

leo  senegalensis,  289 

leo  subsp.,  13,  17,  291 

melanochaitus,  297 

spelaeus,  291 

Leon  berberisco  (Sp.),  288 
Leopard,  Indian  Hunting,  283 
Leopards,  Hunting,  274 
Lepidolemur  edwardsi,  145 

globiceps,  145 

grandidieri,   145 

leucopus,  145 

microdpn,  144 

mustelinus  rufescens,  145 


832 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Lepilemur  dorsalis,  145 

mustelinus,  144,  145 

pallidicauda,  145 

ruficaudatus,  144,  145 

ruficaudatus  dorsalis,  145 

ruficaudatus  leucopus,  145 
Leplae,  E.,  161,  175,  416,  496,  506,  509, 

703,  706 
Leporidae,  190 
leporides,  Lagorchestes,  93 

Macropus,  93 
Leporillus  jonesi,  78 
Lepri,  G.,  604 
leptoceros,  Antilope,  687 

Gazella,  16,  687 

Gazella  leptoceros,  687 
Lepus  americanus,  190 
lervia,  Ammotragus,  600 

Ammotragus  lervia,  601,  604 

Antilope,  601 

Le  Souef,  A.  S.,  47,  50,  60,  65,  68,  78, 
82,  99,  102,  103-105,  108,  112,  116, 
121,  206,  211 

Le  Souef,  A.  S.,  and  Burrell,  H.,  27-29, 
36-38,  44,  64^-66,  75,  78,  89,  91,  99, 
104,  106,  108,  113,  120 
Le  Souef,  W.  H.  D.,  44 
Lesson,  R.  P.,  233 
lesueur,  Bettongia  lesueur,  79 
lesueuri,  Bettongia,  80,  84 
Letcher,  0.,  420 
Letourneux,  M.,  231 
leucomystax,  Lemur,  134 
leucophaea,  Antilope,  698 
leucophaeus,  Hippotragus,  15,  698 
leucopus,  Lepidolemur,  145 

Lepilemur  ruficaudatus,  145 
leucoryx,  Antilope,  693 

Oryx,  648,  693 
leucura,  Macrotis  leucura,  56 

Peragale,  56 

Le  Vaillant,  F.,  503,  698,  700 
levir,  Isolobodon,  18 
Lewis,  F.,  70,  71,  106 
liberiensis,  Choeropsis,  8,  16,  419 

Hippopotamus     (Tetraprotodon) , 

419 

Lichanotus  mitratus,   155 
Lichtenstein,  H.,  336,  700 
lichtensteini,  Alcelaphus,  647 
liebrechtsi,   Okapia,   506 
Lilford,  Lord  [T.  L.  P.],  259 
Lince  (Sp.,  It.),  265 
Link,  H.  F.,  608,  609 
Lion,  Asiatic,  12,  292 

Barbary,  15,  20,  288 

Cape,  15,  19,  297 

European,  13,  17,  291 

Indian,  292 

Sabi,  298 


Lion  de  Barberie  (Fr.),  288 
Lipurus  cinereus,  64 
listai,  Grypotherium,  18 
Lister,  J.  J.,  206,  208 
Littledale,  St.  G.,  423,  578,  582,  596 
littledalei,  Ovis  ammon,  583,  585,  586, 
589 

Ovis  .sairensis,  583 
Livingstone,  D.,  318,  404,  418 
livingstonianus,  Nesotragus,  673 

Nesotragus    livingstonianus,    672, 

673 
livingstonii,  Oreas,  724 

Taurotragus  oryx,  724 
Llewelyn,  R.,  726 
Lloyd,  J.,  470 
Lloyd,  L.,  244 

Loch,  C.  W.,  381-387,  389,  390,  393,  396 
Loche,  V.,  231,  643,  684 
Loder,  E.,  688 
loderi,  Gazella,  687,  688 
longicaudata,  Sminthopsis,  31 
longicaudatus,  Indris,  156 

Manis,  187 

Pholidotus,  189 

Sminthopsis,  31 

Uromanis,  189 

longiceps,  Cephalophus,  667 
longipilis,  Panthera  tigris,  299,  303 

Tigris,  299 

longirostris,  Nesophontes,  18 
Longman,  H.  A.,  35,  58,  76-78,  91,  100, 

107 

Lonnberg,  E.,  174,  197,  205,  221,  227, 
242,  269,  270,  399,  470-472,  477,  494, 
509,  665 

Lonnberg,  E.,  and  Mjoberg,  E.,  86 
Lophiomyidae,  200 
Lophiomys,  200 

aethiopicus,  201 

bozasi,  203,  204 

ibeanus,  262,  204 

ibeanus  hindei,  204,  205 

ibeanus  ibeanus,  204 

imhausi(i),  201-204 

smithi,  201,  202 

testudo,  204 

thomasi,  203 
Lord,  C.  E.,  37,  39,  41,  49,  73,  91,  113, 

121 
Lord,  C.  E.,  and  Scott,  H.  H.,  34,  37, 

38,  40,  112,  121 
Lorenz-Liburnau,    L.    von,    140,    141, 

151,  152,  157,  339 
Louis,  J.  A.  H.,  434 
Loup  de  terre  (Fr.),250 
Loupy,  M.  J.,  386 
Loveridge,  A.,  163 
lowi,  Bibos  sondaicus,  11,  528 
Lowitz,  T.,  536 


INDEX 


833 


Loxodonta,  310,  316 

africana  africana,  8,  16,  316 
africana  knochenhaueri,  317 
africana  oxyotis,  317 
africana  zukowskyi,  316 
Luchs  (Ger.),  265 
luciae,  Megalomys,  19 
liihdorfi,  Cervus,  447 
Lumholtz,  C.,  82 
lunata,  Onychogalea,   100 
lunatus,  Macropus,  100 
lupus,  Canis,  14,  215 
Canis  lupus,  214 
lusitanica,  Capra,  608 

Capra  pyrenaica,  13,  19,  608 
luteus,  Equus  (Asinus)  hemionus,  353, 

356 

Luther,  A.,  477 
lutreola,  Mustela,  233 
lutreolus,  Rattus,  210 
Lycaon  pictus,  719 
Lydekker,   R.,  5,   34,  37,  41,  58,  65, 
93,  105,  107,  200,  210,  212,  213, 
227,  232,  241,  244,  245,  271,  272, 
274,  289,  295,  296,  310,  311,  314, 
317,  328,  330,  332,  337,  348,  352, 
358,  360,  364,  366,  368,  376,  381, 
388,  394,  410,  425,  428,  433,  436, 
438,  441,  443,  446,  447,  451,  452, 
454,  458,  460,  462-464,  467-470, 
475,  477,  485,  487,  488,  491,  495, 
497,  501,  510,  512-514,  517,  520, 
521,  523,  526-529,  531-533,  536, 
541,  543,  544,  547,  548,  550,  553, 
557,  563,  565-568,  570,  572-574, 
579,  581-583,  585,  589,  590,  593, 
595,  596,  598,  599,  614,  618,  622, 
625-627,  630,  632-634,  639,  641, 
648,  650,  679,  705,  721,  724 
(See  also  under  Flower,  W.  H.) 
Lydekker,  R.,  and  Elaine,  G.,  485,  486, 
488,  492,  493,  499,  503,  506,  510,  648- 
651,  665,  668,  672,  674,  677,  678,  693, 
699,  712,  720 
lydekkeri,  Oyis  borealis,  598,  599 

Ovis  nivicola,  598 
Lyell,  D.,  497,  665,  703,  705 
Lynx  (Fr.),  265 
Lynx,  Barbary,  16,  272 
European,  265 
Tibetan,  271 
Lynx  caracal  (Fr.),  272 
lynx,  Felis,  265 

Lynx  lynx,  265 

Lynx  lynx  isabellina,  270,  271 
lynx  lynx,  265 
lynx  wrangeli,  270 
pardellus,  266 

Lyon,  M.  W.,  Jr.,  191,  246,  247,  314, 
390 


macaco,  Lemur,  134,  135,  138 

Lemur  macaco,  134 
Maclatchy,  A.  R.,  161,  169,  183,  188, 

664 

Maclear,  J.  P.,  122,  206,  208 
macleari,  Rattus,  8,  10,  20,  123,  206 

208,  209 

Macleay,  W.,  261 
M'Neill,  M.,  446,  461 
macneilli,  Cervus,  13,  460,  465 

Cervus  elaphus,  450 
macneil(l)i,  Cervus  cashmirianus,  460 
Macneillshirsch  (Ger.),  460 
macrocerus,  Bubalus,  539,  544 

Bubalus  arna,  544 
macrodon,  Mustela,  19 
Macromerus  typicus,  146 
macromongoz,  Prosimia,  136 
Macropodidae,  21,  77 
Macropus  agilis,  110 

billardieri,  113 

brachyurus,  88 

(Thylogale)  dama,  112 

elegans,  114 

eugenii,  101,  111 

fraenatus,  98 

giganteus,  121 

giganteus  tasmaniensis,  120 

gracilis,  110 

greyi,  117 

(Halmaturus)  greyi,  116 

leporides,  93 

lunatus,  100 

(Halmaturus)   manicatus,  119 

parryi,  114,  115 

ruficollis,  121 

tasmaniensis,  120 
macrotis,  Vulpes  macrotis,  20 
Macrotis  lagotis,  56 

lagotis  cambrica,  51,  53 

lagotis  grandis,  10,  20,  51.  54 

lagotis  interjecta,  51,  54,  55 

lagotis  lagotis,  51,  54-56 
.  lagotis  nigripes,  51,  55 

lagotis  sagitta,  51,  55 

leucura  leucura,  56 

leucura  minor,  57 
macroura,  Manis,  189 
macrourus,  Dasyurus,  36 
maculata,  Viverra,  36 
maculatus,  Dasyurus,  32,  34,  36 
madagascariensis,     Daubentonia,     17, 
158 

Galago,  123 

Sciurus,  158 
magister,  Ursus,  20 
Mahnenschaf  (Ger.),  600,  604 
Maitre,  M.  H.,  396 
major,  Acratocnus,  18 

Cheirogaleus,  127 

Cheirogaleus  major,  127,  128 

Phyllonycteris,  19 


834 


EXTINCT  AND    VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Major,  C.  I.  F.,  126,  127,  208 
majori,  Propithecus,  153,  154 

Propithecus  verreauxi,  153 
Makaroff,  V.  N.,  240,  430 
Maki  a  fourche  (Fr.),  129 
Maki  a  fraise  (Fr.),  137 
Maki  a  front  blanc  (Fr.),  135 
Maki  brim  (Fr.),  136 
Malbrant,  R.,  281,  350,  410,  488,  601, 

715,  730 

Manatee,  African,  16 
mandarinus,  Cervus,  444 

Cervus  nippon,  444 
manicatus,    Macropus    (Halmaturus), 

119 

Manidae,  181 
Manis,  181 

gigantea,  181 

hessi,  189,  190 

longicaudatus,  187 

macroura,  189 

temminckii,  184 

tetradactyla,  189 

tricuspis,  186,  188 

Manning, ,  398 

Manson,  D.  (See  under  Jones,  F.  W.) 
mantchuricus,  Cervus,  445 

Cervus  nippon,  444,  445 
Maral  (Russ.),  451 
Maralhirsch  (Ger;),  451 
Marazzani,  L.,  201 
Marchand,  Col.,  508 
Marguerite,  General,  289,  290 
maritimus,  Capricornis,  640 
Markhor,  Astor,  627 

Cabul,  631 

Chialtan,  632 

Pir  Panjal,  629 

Suleman,  633 
Marl,  49 

Marmol  Carvajal,  L.  de,  645 
Marriner,  T.,  229 
Marsden,  W.,  388,  390 
Marsupialia,  25 

Marsupial  Mouse,  Freckled,  10,  20,  25 
Marsupial  Wolf,  40 
Marsupials,  25 
Marte  zibelline  (Fr.),  235 
Marten,  Black,  244 
Martens,  E.  von,  215 
Martes  martes,  235 

zibellina,  235 

zibellina  brachyura,  237 

zibellina  kamtschadalica,  236,  239 

zibellina  princeps,  236,  238,  239 

zibellina  sahalinensis,  235,  236,  239 

zibellina  sajanensis,  236,  238 

zibellina  yeniseensis,  236,  238 

zibellina  zibellina,  236,  238 
Martial,  231 
Martin,  R,  194,  222,  233,  266,  574 


Martorelli,  G.,  265 
Mason,  F.  V.,  62 
Mastacomys,  205 

fuscus,  210 

Matschie,  P.,  173,  174,  182,  184,  186- 
189,  252,  347,  357,  359,  495,  496,  599, 
664,  668 

Mattenklodt, ,  403 

maugei,  Dasyurus,  32 
Maugham,  R.  C.  F.,  278 
Maurice,  F.,  267 
"Mawas"  (Sumatra),  164 
Maydon,  H.  C.,  213,  251,  278,  279,  281, 
287,  347,  399,  401,  459,  486,  496,  498, 
602,  619,  625,  645,  658,  665,  666,  675, 
677,  683,  684,  698,  705-707,  709,  710, 
715,  717,  719,  721,  728,  730,  731 
mayottensis,  Lemur,  139 

Lemur  macaco,  139 
medius,  Cheirogaleus,  126 

Cheirogaleus  medius,  126 
megaceros,  Capra,  631 

Capra  falconeri,  630,  631,  633 
Megalomys  audreyae,  18 

desmarestii,  21 

luciae,  19 

Megalonychidae,  21 
megalotis,  Dorcatragus,  674 

Oreotragus,  674 
Megatheriidae,  18 
Melanarctos  cavifrons,  228 
melanocephala,  Prosimia,  137 
melanochaitus,  Leo,  297 

Leo  leo,  15,  19,  297 
melanotis,  Chirogale,  128 
Mendesantilope  (Ger.),  711 
mendocinensis,  Ursus,  19 
Menges,  J.,  351,  486,  674 
mengesi,  Capra  nubiana,  622,  623 
meridionalis,  Ursus  arctos,  218 
Merito,  Marquis  del,  614 
merriami,  Cervus  canadensis,  21 
Merrill,  E.  D.,  550 
Mertens,  A.,  512 
Mertens,  R.,  523 
Mesa,  P.  de,  549 
Meyer,  A.  B.,  293,  548 
mhorr,  Antilope,  689 

Gazella  dama,  16,  689 
"Mias"  (Borneo),  164 
Microcebus  coquereli,  17,  125 

minor,  125 

minor  griseorufus,  123 

murinus  murinus,  123,  124 

murinus  smithii,   124 

myoxinus,  123,  124 

rufus,  123 

smithii,  125 

microdon,  Lepidolemur,  144 
micromongoz,  Prosimia,  140 


INDEX 


835 


Microtus  oeconomicus,  239 

pennsylvanicus  nesophilus,  19 
micrus,  Nesophontes,  18 
Middendorff,  A.  T.  von,  429,  447,  597, 

599 

middendorffi,  Ovis,  596 
milii,  Cheirogaleus,  127 
Millais,  J.  G.,  192,  194,  196,  198,  199, 

219,  261,  262,  265,  470,  473,  475,  483, 

484,  574,  730 
Miller,  G.  S.,  Jr.,  192,  218,  233,  241, 

247,  257,  260,  261,  263,  265,  375,  391, 

459,  477,  478,  573 
Miller,  J.  H.,  305,  325,  355,  356,  359, 

455,  463,  484,  560,  577,  578,  582-585, 

682 

Millet,  F.,  380,  396 
Milne  Edwards,  A.,  152,  202,  431,  444, 

468 
Milne  Edwards,  A.,  and  Grandidier, 

A.,  147-153,  155,  157,  254,  255 
milne-edwardsi,  Capricornis  sumatra- 

ensis,  637,  641 
Milroy,  A.  J.  W.,  379,  382,  394,  518, 

545 

Mi-lu  (Chinese),  467 
mindorensis,  Anoa,  11,  548 

Bubalus,  548 
minima,  Prosimia,  123 
Mink,  European,  233 

Sea,  19 

minor,  Cheirogaleus,  123 
Macrotis  leucura,  57 
Microcebus,  125 
Peragale,  57 
Mioxicebus  griseus,  127 
miselius,  Thalacomys  minor,  56 
Mission     Zoologique     Franco-Anglo- 

Americaine,  123,  126,  128,  130,  131, 

13&-135,  137,  141-146,  148,  150-153, 

156,  157,  160,  249,  256 
Mitchell,  P.  C.,  538,  616 
mitratus,  Lichanotus,  155 
Mivart,  St.  G.,  212-216 
Mixocebus  caniceps,  144 
Miyoshi,  M.,  241,  270.  430 
Mjoberg,  E.,  314,  375,  391,  392,  528, 

635 

(See  also  under  Lonnberg,  E.) 
Mohr,  E.,  233,  534-536,  550 
Molina,  A.  de,  221 
Monard,  A.,  185, 188,  252,  403.  500,  652, 

709 

Moncrieff,  P.,  731 
Monestrol,  M.  de,  384 
mongolica,  Ovis  argali,  576 
Mongooses,  244 
mongoz.  Lemur.  136,  138,  140 

Lemur  mongoz,  140 
Monkeys,  Colobus.  8,  160 
leaf-eating,  160 


Monophyllus  frater,  19 

montanus,  Aphaetreus,  18 

montinus,    Capricornis    sumatraensis, 

641 
Morden,  W.  J.,  305,  325,  455,  462,  463, 

590,  591,  680,  682 
morea,  Felis  catus,  262 

Felis  silvestris,  259,  262 
Morgan,  E.  D.,  324 
morio,  Chalinolobus,  731 
Morris,  R.  C.,  284,  515 
Morse,  I.,  562 
moschatus,  Nesotragus,  672 
Moschidae,  427 
moschiferus,  Moschus,  427 

Moschus  moschiferus,  427,  431 
Moschus  aquaticus,  425 

berezovskii,  431 

chrysogaster,  433 

moschiferus,  427 

moschiferus  chrysogaster,  433 

moschiferus  moschiferus,  427,  431 

moschiferus  parvipes,  429,  430 

moschiferus  sachalinensis,  430 

moschiferus  sifanicus,  431 

parvipes,  430 

sibiricus,  427 

sifanicus,  431 
Moschustier  (Ger.),  431 
Mouflon,  Cyprian,  14,  558 

European,  573 

Sardinian,  573 
Mouflon  a  Manchettes  (Fr.),  600,  601, 

604 

Mouflon  de  Corse  (Fr.),  573 
Mouflon  de  Cypre  (Fr.),  558 
Mouflon  d'Europe  (Fr.),  573 
Mouse,  Gull  Island  Meadow,  19 

House,  9 
Mouse-deer,  425 
Mouse-Sminthopsis,  Slender,  29 
Muflone  (Ital.),  573 
Muflone  berbero  (Ital.),  600 
Muller,  S.,  523 
Muntiacus  crinifrons,  435 
Muntjac,  Hairy-fronted,  435 
Muridae,  21,  205 
murina,  Phascogale,  29 

Sminthopsis,  29,  31 

Sminthopsis  murina,  29,  31 
murinus,  Hypsiprymnus,  89 

Lemur,  123 

Microcebus  murinus,  123,  124 
Murray,  G.  W.,  602,  619 
murrayi,  Rattus,  78 
Mus,  205 

argurus,  211 

macleari,  206 

musculus,  208 

nativitatis,  208,  209 

rattus,  207 


836 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


musculus,  Mus,  208 
Musgrave,  A.,  103 
Musil,  A.,  370 
musimon,  Aegoceros,  573 

Ovis,  573 
Musk-rat,  Barbuda,  18 

Martinique,  21 

Santa  Lucia,  19 

Musk-shrew,  Christmas  Island,  122 
Mustela  brachyura,  237 

erminea  kanei,  642 

gulo,  241 

itatsi,  240 

lutreola,  233 

macrodon,  19 

zibellina,  235 
Mustelidae,  21,  232 
mustelinus.  Lepilemur,  144,  145 
mutus,  Poephagus,  528 

Poephagus  grunniens,  528 
myosura,  Perameles  myosura,  10,  49 
myosuros,  Perameles,  49 
myoxinus,  Microcebus,  123,  124 
Myrmecobiidae,  43  4 
Myrmecobius  fasciatus,  43 

fasciatus  fasciatus,  43 

fasciatus  rufus,  44,  45 

rufus,  45,  47 

Myscebus  palmarum,  123 
Mystacina  tuberculata,  731 
Mystacinidae,  731 

nanus,  Syncerus,  554 
nasomaculata,  Antilope,  711 
nasomaculatus,  Addax,  711 

Addax  nasomaculatus,  16,  715 
Nasonov,  N.  V.,  7,  558,  561-565,  567, 
570-572,  576,  577,  579-582,  586-595 
Nasonov,  N.  V.,  and  Dorogostajskij, 

V.  C.,  600 
Natalidae,  21 
Natalus  primus,  18 
Native  Bear,  64 
nativitatis,  Mus,  208,  209 

Rattus,  8,  10,  20,  123,  207,  208 
nauticus,  Isoodon,  78 
navaho,  Ursus  texensis,  19 
Nazaroff,  P.  S.,  359,  455,  464,  586,  680 
Neave,  S.  A.,  186 
neglectus,  Capra  hircus,  627 
Nehring,  A,  198,  598 
Nemorhaedus  swettenhami,  638 
Neofelis,  245 
nesophilus,   Microtus  pennsylvanicus, 

19 
Nesophontes  edithae,  18 

longirostris,  18 

micrus,  18 

paramicrus,  19 

zamicrus,  18 
Nesophontidae,  21 


Nesoryzomys  swarthi,  21 
Nesotragus  livingstonianus,  673 

livingstonianus       livingstonianus, 
672,  673 

livingstonianus  zuluensis,  672 

moschatus,  672 

Neumann,  A.  H,  390,  494,  672,  717 
Neuville,  H.    (See  under  Rothschild, 

M.  de.) 

ngorongorensis,     Acinonyx     guttatus, 
278 

Acinonyx  jubatus,  278 
niasensis,  Arctictis,  247 

Arctictis  binturong,  247 
Nicholson,  J.  W.,  541 
Niezabitowski,  E.  R.  L.  von,  243,  260, 

332,  679 
niger,  Aigocerus,  707 

Canis  niger,  20 

Ceratorhinus,  393 

Dicerorhinus  sumatrensis,  13,  393 

Hippotragus  niger,  705,  707 

Indri,  155 

Vpmbatus  hirsutus,  73 
nigerrimus,  Lemur,  137 
nigrescens,  Giraffa  reticulata,  493 
nigricans,  Giraffa  camelopardalis,  493 
nigrifrons,  Lemur,  140 

Lemur  mongoz,  141 
nigrimontana,  Ovis,  586-588 

Ovis  ammon,  586 
nigripes,  Macrotis  lagotis,  51,  55 

Thalacomys,  55 
Nikolskii,  G.  A.,  454 
nivicola,  Ovis,  13,  595,  599 

Ovis  nivicola,  595,  596 
Noack,  T.,  190,  351,  498,  674 
N0is,  D.,  482 
Nordenskiold,  A.  E.,  480 
Norz  (Ger.),  233 

notina,  Perameles  myosura,  47,  50 
Novibos  sauveli,  510 
nubiana,  Capra,  618 

Capra  nubiana,  16,  618,  622 
Numbat,  Rusty,  45 

South  Australian,  45 

West  Australian,  43 
Nyala,  16,  716 

Mountain,  16,  720 
Nyctereutes  procyonoides  orestes,  217 

procyonoides  procyonoides,  217 

procyonoides  ussuriensis,  217 

procyonoides  viverrinus,  215 

Oakley,  R.,  400,  489 

obergi,  Acinonyx  guttatus,  276 

Acinonyx  jubatus,  276 
obliquus,  Elasmodontomys,  18 
obtusa,  Phyllonycteris,   19 
occidentalis,  Avahi  laniger,  157 

Chaeropus  ecaudatus,  58,  59 


INDEX 


837 


occidentalis,  Choeropus,  59 
Pseudocheirus,  63 
Pseudochirus,  63 
ocularis,  Prosimia,  140 
Oderra,  M.,  384 
odontrigonus,  Acratocnus,  18 
oeconomicus,  Microtus,  239 
offella,  Boromys,  19 
Ogilby,  J.  D,  36,  107 
Ogilby,  W,  58,  683 
ogilbyi,  Bettongia  penicillata,  83 
Hypsiprymnus,  83 
Cephalophus,  667,  668 
Ogneff  [Ognev],  S.  I.,  7,  216,  222,  227, 
234-236,  238-240,  242,  243,  260,  263, 
269,  270,  272,  286,  299,  301,  305,  307, 
309 
Ogneff   [Ognev],  S.  I.,  and  Heptner, 

W.  G.,  573,  627 
Okapi,  16,  484,  506 
Okapia,  508 

erikssoni,  506 
jphnstoni,  16,  484,  506 
liebrechtsi,  506 
0kland,  F.,  476 
Olaus  Magnus,  244 
olivaceus,  Hapalemur,  132 

Hapalemur  griseus,  131,  132 
Omar  Khayyam,  360 
Onager,  of  Anatolia,  371 

Persian,  359 
onager,  Asinus  hemionus,  360,  364,  368, 

371 

Asinus,  368,  369 
Equus,  359,  361,  369 
Onychogalea  fraenata,  98 

lunata,  100 
Onza  (Sp.),  274 
ophion,  Ovis,  558 

Ovis  ophion,  14,  558,  566 
Opolemur  thomasi,  126 
Opossum,  Leadbeater's,  10,  20,  61 

Western  Ring-tailed,  63 
Orang-utan,  8,  11,  164 
Oreas  livingstonii,  724 
oregonus,  Bison  bison,  19 
oreotragus,  Antilope,  668 

Oreotragus   oreotragus,   668 
Oreotragus  aceratos,  671 
megalotis,  674 
oreotragus  aceratos,  671 
oreotragus  aureus,  671 
oreotragus  cunenensis,  671 
oreotragus  oreotragus,  668 
oreotragus  porteousi,  672 
oreotragus  saltatrixoides,  672 
oreotragus  schillings!,  671 
oreotragus  somalicus,  672 
oreotragus  transvaalensis,  670 
saltator  porteusi,  672 
schillings*,  671 
somalicus,  672 


orestes,  Nyctereutes  procyonoides,  217 
orientalis,  Avahis  laniger,  156 
Ovis,  565 

Ovis  musimon,  558 
Ovis  orientalis,  565 
ornata,  Ammotragus  lervia,  16,  601 

Ovis,  601 

Orso  bruno  (Ital.),  217 
oryx,  Antilope,  722 

Taurotragus    oryx,    722 
Oryx,  Arabian,  693 

Scimitar,  8,  690 

White,  16,  690 
Oryx  aschenborni,  696 

beatrix,  693 

gazella,  8 

gazella  blainei,  696 

gazella  gazella,  696 

leucoryx,  648,  693 

leucoryx  latipes,  693,  694 
Oryzomys  antillarum,   19 

galapagoensis,  19 

victus,  19 

Osgood,  W.  H.,  213,  721 
Oso  (Span.),  217 
Otto,  E.,  391 
Ours  brun  (Fr.),  217 
Oustalet,  E.,  202,  203 
Ouwens,  P.  A.,  553,  554 
Ovis  alleni,  596 

ammon,  557,  577,  599 

ammon  ammon,  576,  583,  592 

ammon  collium,  13,  581,  582 

ammon  dalai-lamae,  591 

ammon  darwini,  13,  579 

ammon  hodgsonii,  579,  580,  584, 
592 

ammon  humei,  585,  586,  588,  590 

ammon  jubata,  592 

ammon  karelini,  583,  584 

ammon  littledalei,  583,  585,  586, 
589 

ammon  nigrimontana,  586 

ammon  poli(i),  581,  583,  585,  589, 
590 

ammon  przevalskii,  576 

ammon  sairensis,  581 

ammon  severtzovi,  587 

ammon  typica,  578 

anatolica,  558 

arcar   dolgopolovi,   572 

argali,  576 

argali  altaica,  576 

argali  dauricus,  576 

argali  mongolica,  576 

arkal,  572 

arkar,  572 

blanfordi,  569 

borealis,  596,  599 

borealis  lydekkeri,  598,  599 


838 


EXTINCT  AND    VANISHING    MAMMALS 


Ovis  canadensis  auduboni,  21 
canadensis  borealis,  598 

collium,  581 

comosa,  579 

cycloceros,  565,  568,  569 

cyprius,  558 

dalai-lamae,  591 

darwini,  579 

gmelini  (i),  560,  562,  565 

gmelini  erskinei,  565,  566,  567 

gmelini(i)  gmelini(i),  562,  566 

gmelinii  isphaganica,  563 

gmelinii  urmiana,  563 

heinsii,  586 

henrii,  592 

hodgsonii,  592 

jubata,  579 

karelini,  584-586,  589 

kozlovi,  579,  580 

laristanica,  564,  570 

lervia  blainei,  601 

lervia  sahariensis,  604 

middendorffi,  596 

musimon,  573 

musimon  orientalis,  558 

nigrimontana,  586,  587,  588 

nivicola,  13,  595,  599 

nivicola  alleni,  596 

nivicola  borealis,  599 

nivicola  lydekkeri,  598 

nivicola  nivicola,  595,  596 

nivicola  potanini,  599 

ophion,  558 

ophion  anatolica,  371,  559,  563 

ophion  armeniana,  561 

ophion  ophion,  14,  558,  566 

ophion  urmiana,  563 

orientalis,  565 

orientalis  arcar,  572 

orientalis  cycloceros,  572 

orientalis  dolgopplovi,  572 
orientalis  gmelini,  560 
orientalis  isphaganica,  563 
orientalis  orientalis,  565 
ornata,  601 

poli(i),  557,  586,  588-591 
poli  adametzi,  584 
sairensis,  581,  582 
sairensis  littledalei,  583 
severtzovi,  587 
storcki,  595,  596 
vignei,  564,  567,  590 
vignei  arkal,  572 
vignei  blanfordi,  588 
vignei  bochariensis,  571 
vignei  cycloceros,  569 
vignei  punjabiensis,  568 
vignei  varenzovi,  572 
vignei  vignei,  567,  568,  571 
Owen,  R.,  159 


Ox,  Cambodian  Wild,  510 
European  Wild,  511 
Indo-Chinese  Forest,  510 

oxyotis,   Loxodonta   africana,   317 

Ozanna  roosevelti,  707 

Pademelon,  Dama,  109 

Flinders  Island,  108 

Parma,  107 

Red-necked,  106 

Rufous-bellied,  112 

Tasmanian,  112 

White-throated,  107 
Page,  R.,  522 
Pallary,  P,  686 

Pallas,  P.  S.,  198,  260,  330,  331,  333 
354,  358,  360,  361,  428,  430,  451,  478, 
678,  679 

pallidicauda,  Lepilemur,  145 
pallidior,  Proteles  cristatus,  250 
palmarum,  Myscebus,  123 
Palmer,  L.  J.   (See  under  Hadwen,  S.) 
Pan,  164 

paniscus,  180 

satyrus  paniscus,  180 

satyrus  verus,  177 

troglodytes,  8 

troglodytes    schweinfurthii,     177, 
179 

troglodytes  troglodytes,  176 

troglodytes  verus,  177 
Pangolin,  Black-bellied,  189 

Giant,  181 

Long-tailed,  189 

Pale-bellied,  186 

Pointed-scaled,    186 

South  African,  184 

Three-cusped,  186 

White-bellied,  186 
Pangolin  a  longue  queue  (Fr.),  189 
Pangolin  geant  (Fr.),  181 
Pangolin  tricuspide    (Fr.),   186 
Pangolins,  181 
paniscus,  Pan,  180 

Pan  satyrus,  180 
Panolia  platyceros,  441 
Panthera  tigris  amoyensis,  303,  304 

tigris  amurensis,  304 

tigris  balica,  310 

tigris  coreensis,  301 

tigris  lecoqi,  304 

tigris  longipilis,  299,  303 

tigris  sondaica,  309 

tigris  styani,  303,  304 

tigris  sumatrae,  310 

tigris  tigris,  304,  306 
tigris  virgata,  305  • 

Paradoxurus  albifrons,  247 
paramicrus,  Nesophontes,  19 
pardellus,  Lynx,  266 
Parkins,  S.,  337 


INDEX 


839 


parma,  Halmaturus,  107 

Thylogale,  10,  20,  107 
Parocnus  serus,  18 
parryi,  Macropus,  114,  115 
parvipes,  Moschus,  430 

Moschus  moschiferus,  429,  430 
Paterson,  W.,  298,  417,  555 
pattersonianus,  Taurotragus  oryx,  725 
Peacock,  E.  H,  372,  380,  383,  394,  395, 
439,  440,  517,  518,  520,  527,  542,  543 
Peake,  H.  J.,  328,  348 
Pearson,   H.   J.,  475 
pearsoni,  Petrogale,  78 

Rangifer  tarandus,  475 
Pease,  A.  E.,  232,  289,  291,  293,  646, 

684,  688,  712 
pencillata,  Petrogale,  104 

Petrogale  pencillata,  102 
pencillatus,  Kangurus,  102 
penicillata,  Bettongia,  82 

Bettongia  penicillata,  82,  84 
Didelphis,  26 
penicillatus,  Arctictis  binturong,  245, 

248,  249 

pennsylvanicus,  Bison  bison,  18 
Pentalagus  furnessi,  190 
Peragale  lagotis,  56 
leucura,  56 
minor,  57 
peralta,    Giraffa    camelopardalis,    16, 

487 

Perameles  ecaudatus,  58 
fasciata,  10,  20,  47 
gunnii,  47,  48 
harveyi,  80 
lagotis,  51 

myosura  myosura,  10,  20,  49 
myosura  notina,  47,  50 
myosuros,  49 
Peramelidae,  21,  47 
Percival,  A.  B.,  279,  495,  557 
Perissodactyla,  322 
Peron,  F.,  97 

Peron,  F.,  and  Freycinet,  L.,  73 
perrieri,  Propithecus,  154 
persicus,  Felis  leo,  292 

Leo  leo,  12,  292 
perturbans,  Ursus,  20 
pervagor,  Ursus,  20 
Petaurus  breviceps,  62,  63 
Peters,  W.  C.  H.,  152,  186,  706 
Petit,  G.,  124,  133,  140,  144,  145,  146, 

150,  256 

Petrogale  celeris,  105 
herberti,  104 
inornata,  104 
pearsoni,  78 
pencillata,   104 
pencillata  pencillata,  102 
xanthopus,  104,  105,  106 
xanthopus  xanthopus,  104 


Pevtzoff,  M.  V.,  577,  582,  589,  592 
Pfizenmayer,  E.  W.,  328,  329,  536,  537, 

598 

Phalangeridae,  21,  60 
Phalangers,  21,  60 
Phaner  furcifer,  125,  129 
Phascogale,  Large  Brush-tailed,  26 

Red-tailed,  28 
Phascogale  albipes,  30 

apicalis,  25 

calura,  28 

calurus,  28 

murina,  29 

tapoatafa  pirata,  27 

tapoatafa  tapoatafa,  26 
Phascolarctidae,  64 

cinereus  adustus,  64,  65,  68 

cinereus  cinereus,  64,  68,  70 

cinereus  victor,  64,  65,  70 
Phascolomys  gillespiei,  75 

latifrons,  74,  75 
Phatages,  181 

Phataginus  tricuspis,  186,  189 
phenax,  Hexolobodon,  18 
Philby,  H.  St.  J.  B.,  696 
Phillip,  A.,  36 
Phillips,  J.  C.,  1,  7,  229,  360,  364,  371, 

400,  416,  438,  469,  622,  642 
Phillips,  J.  E.  T.,  666 
phillipsi,  Damaliscus,  15,  656 
Pholidotus  longicaudatus,  189 
Phractomys  aethiopicus,  201 
phylarchus,    Rangifer    tarandus,    474, 

475,  483 
Phyllonycteris  major,  19 

obtusa,  19 
Phyllops  vetus,  18 
Phyllostomidae,  21 
Phythian-Adams,  E.  G.,  284 
pictus,  Lycaon,  719 
Pieters,  D.,  314 
Pietri,  A.  V.,  511 
Pigot,  R.,  436 

Piliocolobus  gordonorum,  162 
Pinkie,  51 

pirata,  Phascogale  tapoatafa,  27 
Pitman,  C.  R.  S.,  176,  186,  252,  497, 

498,  665,  703,  705,  720,  724 
Plagiodontia  aedium,  18 

spelaeum,  18 
Platou,  H.,  219,  220 
platyceros,  Panolia,  441 
Rucervus  eldii,  441 
platvops,  Hypsiprymnus,  88 

Potorous,  10,  20,  87,  88,  90 
platyrhynchus,    Cervus     (Tarandus), 

479 

Rangifer,  479 
Pleske,  T.  D.,  477 
Pliny,  231,  291,  371 


840 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Pocock,  R.  I.,  214,  215,  227,  228,  230, 

245,  248,  249,  256,  264,  274,  283,  284, 

287,  288,  295-298,  301,  304,  306-309, 

351,  450,  694 

Poephagus   grunniens   grunniens,   531 

grunniens  mutus,  528 

mutus,  528 
Poiret,  J.  L.  M.,  231 
Poliakof  [Poljakoff],  M.,  323,  331,  334, 

358,  680 
poli(i),  Ovis,  557,  586,  588-591 

Ovis  ammon,  581,  583,  585,  589, 

590 
Pollen,  F.  P.  L.,  143,  155,  157,  158 

(See  also  under  Schlegel,  H.) 
Pollok,  F.  T.,  379,  380,  382 
Polybius,  459 
polykomos,  Cebus,  161 

Colobus,  8,  161 
Pompey,  291 
Poncins,  E.  de,  590,  674 
Poiigidae,  164 
Pongo,  164 

pygmaeus,  8,  11,  164 

wurmbi,  164 
Pontoppidan,  E.  L.,  244 
Poole,  E.  L.,  4,  7 
porteousi,  Oreotragus  oreotragus,  672 

Oreotragus  saltator,  672 
Porter,  R.  K.,  369 
porteri,  Bos  sondaicus,  527 
portoricensis,  Isolobodon,  18 
Potamochoerus  larvatus,  255 
potanini,  Ovis  nivicola,  599 
Potoroo,  89 
Potorous,  93 

gilberti(i),  10,  18,  86-88 

platyops,  10,  20,  87,  88,  90 

tridactylus  apicalis,  91 

tridactylus  tridactylus,  89 
Potter,  H.  B.,  418,  673,  718 
Pouched  Mouse,  Brush-tailed,  26 

"Common,"  29 

Gray,  29 

Lesser  Brush-tailed,  28 

Long-snouted,  60 

Slender-tailed,  29 
Powell-Cotton,  P.  H.  G.,  347,  491,  625, 

646,  731 

prehensilis,  Lemur,  123 
Prejevalsky  [Prejvalski ;  Prschewalski ; 
Przhevalsky;  Przevalski;  Przewal- 
ski],  N.,  238,  323,  324,  334,  422,  423, 
431,  462,  465,  528,  579,  580,  583,  592, 
594 

Primates,  123 

primigenius,  Bos,  13,  17,  511,  536 
primus,  Natalus,  18 
princeps,   Martes  zibellina,  236,  238, 

239 
priscus,  Bison,  532 


Proboscidea,  310 

Proboscideans,  310 

procyonoides,     Nyctereutes     procyo- 

noides,  217 
Propithecus  bicolor,  148 

brissonianus,  140 

coquereli,  150 

coronatus,  151 

damanus,  151 

damonis,  150 

deckenii,  152 

diadema,  146,  152 

diadema  candidus,  147 

diadema  diadema,  17,  146-149 

diadema  edwardsi,  148,  149 

diadema  holomelas,  148,  149 

diadema  sericeus,  146 

edwardsi,  148 

holomelas,  148 

majori,  153,  154 

perrieri,  154 

sericeus,  147 

verreauxi,  147,  149,  154 

verreauxi  coquereli,  150,  154 

verreauxi  coronatus,  151 

verreauxi  deckeni(i),  149,  152 

verreauxi  majori,  17,  153 

verreauxi  verreauxi,  149 
Propitheque    a    diademe    (Fr.),    146 
Propitheque  couronne  (Fr.),  151 
Propitheque  de  Coquerel  (Fr.),  150 
Propitheque  de  Decken  (Fr.),  152 
Propitheque  d'Edwards  (Fr.),  148 
Propitheque  de  Verreaux  (Fr.),  149 
Propitheque  soyeux  (Fr.),  147 
Prosimia  brissonii,  140 

bugi,  140 

erythromela,  142 

flavifrons,  137,  138 

frederici,  135 

macromongoz,  136 

melanocephala,  137 

micromongoz,  140 

minima,  123 

ocularis,  140 

rufipes,  142 

xanthomystax,  137 
Proteles  cristatus,  250 

cristatus  cristatus,  250 

cristatus  harrisoni,  251,  252 

cristatus  pallidior,  250 

cristatus  septentrionalis,  251 

cristatus  termes,  251 

cristatus  trans vaalensis,  251 
Protelidae,  250 
pruinpsus,  Ursus  arctos,  218 
pryerianus,  Capricornis,  641 
przevalskii,  Ovis  ammon,  576 
Przewalski.    (See  Prjevalsky.) 
przewalskii,  Equus,  13,  322 
Pseudocheirus  occidentalis,  63 


INDEX 


841 


Pseudochirus  occidentalis,  63 
psilodactylus,  Lemur,  158 
punjabiensis,  Ovis  vignei,  568 
pusillus,  Lemus,  123 
pygarus,  Antilope,  653 
pygmaeus,  Pongo,  8,  11,  164 

Simla,  164 
pyrenaica,  Capra,  14,  606,  609 

Capra  pyrenaica,  13,  20,  606,  610 
pyrenaicus,  Ursus  arctos,  217,  218,  221 

Quagga,  8,  15,  19,  322,  334 
quagga,  Equus,  8,  334 

Hippotigris,  15,  19 
quarlesi,  Anoa,  553,  554 
"Quemi"  of  Oyiedo,  18 
Quemisia  gravis,  18 
Quoy,  J.  R.  C.,  and  Gaimard,  J.  P., 
550 

Raalten,  G.  von,  389 
Rabbit,  European,  9 
Rabbit-bandicoot,  51 

Lesser,  57 

White-tailed,  56 
Rabbits,  190 

Raccoon-dog,  Japanese,  215 
Radde,  G,  271,  299,  301,  306,  354,  429, 

448,  451,  537,  561,  579 
Radde,  G.,  and  Walter,  A.,  286,  357, 

358,  572 
raddei,  Acinonyx,  285 

Acinonyx  jubatus,  284,  285 
Raffles,  T.  S.,  245,  388,  390 
raineyi,  Acinonyx  jubatus,  278,  279 
Ramecourt,  G.  de,  170,  402,  417,  730 
Ramsay,  E.  P.,  37 
Ramsay,  W.,  477 

Rand,  A.  L.,  124,  126,  130,  132,  133, 
136,  137,  139,  142,  144,  146,  150,  153, 
156  157,  160,  250,  256 
Rangifer  angustirostris,  483 

arcticus,  472 

platyrhynchus,  479 

tarandus,  14 

tarandus  buskensis,  479,  483 

tarandus  dichotomus,  479 

tarandus  fennicus,  14,  476,  479 

tarandus  lenensis,  483 

tarandus  pearsoni,  475 

tarandus  phylarchus,  474,  475,  483 

tarandus  setoni,  474 

tarandus  silvicola,  476 

tarandus  tarandus,  469,  477-479 

tarandus  transuralensis,  483 

tarandus  sibiricus,  475,  483 

tarandus  valentinae,  483 
Rat,  Broad-toothed,  210 

"Bulldog,"  20,  208 

Captain  Maclear's,  8,  20,  206 

Chatham  Island  Rice,  19 


Rat,  Christmas  Island  Burrowing,  8, 

Goba  Maned,  203 
Hispaniolan  Spiny,  18 

Imhaus's  Crested  Bush,  202 

Imhaus's  Maned,  202 

Jackson's  Maned,  204 

Jamaican  Rice,  19 

James  Island  Rice,  21 

Larger  Cuban  Spiny,  19 

Lesser  Cuban  Spiny,  19 

Mau  Maned,  204 

St.  Vincent,  19 

South     Australian     Spiny-haired, 
205 

"Spinifex,"  94 

Sudan  Maned,  201 

Uaragess  Maned,  203 

White-tailed,  10,  20,  211 
Rat-kangaroo,  Broad-faced,  10,  20,  88 

Brush-tailed,  82 

"Common,"  89 

Dark,  89 

Desert,  91 

Gaimard's,  10,  20,  78 

Gilbert's,  10,  18,  86 

Gould's,  83 

Gray's,  79 

Harvey's,  80 

Lesueur's,  79 

Long-nosed,  89 

Ogilby's,  83 

Plain,  91 

Rufous,  84 

St.  Francis  Island,  77 
Rats,  African  Maned,  200 

giant,  21 

House,  9,  11 

Old  World,  21,  205 

spiny,  21 
rattus,  Mus,  207 

Rattus,  208,  211 
Rattus,  205 

concolor,  208 

culmorum  austrinus,  205 

culmorum  vallesius,  206 

culmorum  youngi,  206 

everetti,  206 

lutreolus,  210 

macleari,  8,  10,  20,  123,  206,  208, 
209 

murrayi,  78 

nativitatis,  8,  10,  20,  123,  207,  208 

rattus,  208,  211 

xanthourus,  206 
Ratzeburg,    J.    T.    C.      (See    under 

Brandt,  J.  F.) 
Raulin,  V.,  263 

Raven,  H.  C.,  37,  38,  170-172,  552 
Reade,  W.  W.,  725 


842 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


readei,  Bibos  gaurus,  517 

Bos  gaurus,  517 
Reese,  L.,  91,  92 
Rehn,  J.  A.  G.,  172 
Reid,  A.  R.,  41 
Reid,  C.  A.  M.,  67 
Reid,  J.,  52 
Reindeer,  14 

Eurasian,  483 

Finland,  14,  476 

Lapland,  469 

Novaya  Zemlya,  14,  475 

Sakhalin,  474 

Scandinavian,  469 

Spitsbergen,  479 
Reithronycteris  aphylla,  19 
Renne  (Fr.),  469 
Renshaw,  G.,  700 
Rentier  (Ger.),  469 
reticulata,  Giraffa  camelopardalis,  493 
rex,  Acinonyx,  274,  276,  286 

Canis  lupus,  214 
reyi,  Felis,  14,  264 
Reymond,  M.,  327 
Rhinoceros,  375 

bicornis,  396 

bicornis  somalienvsis,  397 

lasiotis,  393 

simus,  402 

simus  cottoni,  407 

sondaicus,  11,  13,  379,  381,  390,  393, 
395,  396 

sumatrensis,  383-385,  387-390,  394, 
396 

unicornis,  375,  381,  384 
Rhinoceros,  Black  or  Hook-lipped,  8, 
396 

Burchell's,    402 

Chittagong,  393 

Great  Indian,  375 

Great  One-horned,  375 

Hairy-eared  Sumatran,  393 

Javan,  11,  13,  381 

Malaccan,  393 

Nile  White,  407 

Northern  White,  16,  407 

Smaller  One-horned,  381 

Somali  Black,  397 

Southern  White,  16,  402 

Square-lipped,  402 

Square-mouthed,  402 

Sumatran,  11,  390 
Rhinoceros    blanc    du    Soudan    (Fr.), 

407 

Rhinoceros  blanc  du  Sud  (Fr.),  402 
Rhinoceros  de  la  Sonde  (Fr.),  381 
Rhinoceros  de  Sumatra  (Fr.).  390 
Rhinoceros  unicorne  (Fr.),  375 
Rhinoceroses,  12,  13,  375 
Rhinocerotidae,  375 
Richmond,  R.  D.,  514,  540 


Ridgeway,  W.,  326,  337,  338,  339,  357, 

364,  368,  369,  371 

Ridley,  H.  N,  311,  373,  386,  391,  521, 
526,  639 

Riebeck, van,  318,  397 

Riesenschuppentier    (Ger.),    181 
Ringtail,  Western,  63 
Ritchie,  A.  T.  A.,  496,  658 
Roan,  Angolan,  704 

East  African,  704 

Gambian.  704 

Nile,  704 

Shari,  704 
Roberts,  A.,   186,  251,  277,  298,  502, 

505,  655,  661,  671-673,  702,  724 
Robinson,  H.  C.,  639 
Robinson,  H.  C.,  and  Kloss,  C.  B.,  246, 

635 
robinsoni,    Capricornis    sumatraensis, 

638,  639 
Roborovsky,  V.  I.,  592,  594 

Roche, ,  304,  311,  442,  519,  527,  546 

Rockhill,  W.  W.,  529 
Rock-wallaby,  Bar-tailed,  104 

Brush-tailed,  102 

Yellow-footed,  104 
Rode,  P.   (See  under  Didier,  R.) 
Rodent,  giant  Puerto  Rican,  18 
Rodentia,  190 
Rodents,  190 

agoutilike,  18 

hamsterlike,  21,  200 
rodoni,  Capricornis  sumatraensis,  641 
Roosevelt,  K.,  302,  409 

(See  also  under  Roosevelt,  T.,  Jr.) 
Roosevelt,  T.,  305 

Roosevelt,  T.,  and  Heller,  E.,  279,  280, 
403,  408,  409,  491-493,  495,  658,  727 
Roosevelt,  T.,  Jr.,  549 
Roosevelt,  T.,  Jr.,  and  Roosevelt,  K., 

432,  455,  586,  591 
roosevelti,  Hippotragus  niger,  707 

Ozanna,  707 
Rosenhauer,  W.  G.,  612 
Rosevear,  D.  R.,  183 
Ross,  D.,  275,  399,  555,  706 
Rothschild,  M.  de,  and  Neuville,  H., 

666 
Rothschild,  W.,  154,  251,  604,  605,  729, 

730 
rothschildi,     Giraffa     camelopardalis. 

491,  495 

ruber,  Lemur,  142,  143 
rubidus,  Capricornis  sumatraensis,  641 
rubriventer,  Lemur,  142 
Rucervus    eldii   eldii,   439 

eldii  hainanus,  443 

eldii  platyceros,  441 

schomburgki,  12,  20,  436 

thamin,  439 

thamin  brucei,  439 


INDEX 


843 


Riippell.  E.,  212,  281,  485,  487,  625 
rufescens,  Aepyprymnus,  84 

Bettongia,  84 

Lepidolemur  mustelinus,  145 
ruficaudatus,  Lepilemur,  144,  145 
ruficollis,  Gazella  dama,  690 

Macropus,  121 
rufifrons,  Lemur,  138 
rufina,  Gazella,  15,  20,  685 
rufipes,  Prosimia,  142 
rufiventer,  Lemur,  142 
rufogrisea,  Wallabia  rufogrisea,  116 
rufum,  Stenoderma,  19 
rufus,  Lemur,  128 

Lemur  fulvus,  137-139 

Lemur  macaco,  135,  138 

Microcebus,  123 

Myrmecobius,  45,  47 

Myrmecobius  fasciatus,  44,  45 
Rusa  unicolor  dejeani,  465 
Russell,  T.  W.,  602,  603,  619,  620,  647, 

692,  715,  716 
Russo,  Dr.,  644 
Ruxton,  A.  E.,  and  Schwarz,  E.,  642- 

644,  647,  648 

Rytchkof  [Rytschkov;  Rytshkov],  P.. 
198,  331,  357 

Sabaneeff,  L.  P,  260 
"Sabi"  (J.  S.  Hamilton),  719 
Sable,  Bargusin,  236 

Japanese,  237 

Kamchatka,  236 

Russian,  235 

Sakhalin,  236 

Sayan,  236 

Tobolsk,  236 

Yenisei,  236 
Sable  Antelope,  Angolan,  707 

East  African,  707 

Giant,  707 

Northern  Rhodesian,  705 

South  African,  707 
Sables,  Siberian,  12 
sachalinensis,    Moschus    moschiferus, 

430 
sagitta,  Macrotis  lagotis,  51,  55 

Thalacomys,  55 
sahalinensis,  Martes  zibellina,  235,  236, 

239 
sahariensis,  Ammotragus  lervia,  604 

Ovis  lervia,  604 
Saiga,  12,  677 
Saiga  tatarica,  677 
Saing,  Burmese,  527 
St.  John,  O.,  230,  284,  293,  307,  361, 

563,  565,  566 

St.  Leger,  J.,  663,  665,  666,  667 
sairensis,  Ovis,  581,  582 

Ovis  ammon,  581 
sajanensis,  Martes  zibellina,  236,  238 


Salensky,  W.,  323-325,  327 
Salesski,  P.,  428,  453,  484,  578,  680 
Salim  Ali,  284 
saltatrix,  Antilope,  668 
saltatrixoides,  Antilope,  672 

Oreotragus  oreotragus,  672 
samati,  Cheirogaleus  medius,  126 

Chirogalus,  126 
Sambesi-Giraffe    (Ger.),  498 

Sanderson, ,  502 

Sanderson,  I.  T.,  171 
Sandwith,  H.,  159 
Sanford,  G.,  and  LeGendre,  S.,  721 
sanfordi,  Lemur  fulvus,  134 

Lemur  macaco,  134 
Sanger,  E.  B.,  102 
Sangnai  (Manipuri),  439 
Sapi  Utan  (Malayan),  525 
Sarasin,  P.,  and  F.,  551,  553,  554 
Sarcophilus  harrisii,  38 
sarda,  Felis,  14,  258,  264 

Felis  libyca,  264 

satanas,  Colobus  polykomos,  161 
Satunin,  K.  A,  199,  227,  286,  306,  561, 

679 

satyrus,  Simia,  164 
Saunders,  C.  R.,  717 
sauveli,  Bos  (Bibos),  510 

Novibos,  510 

Savage,  T.  S.,  and  Wyman,  J.,  168 
Savory,  B.  W.,  179 
Scalon,  N.  N.,  484 
Schafer,  E.,  433,  461,  464-467 
scharicus,  Egocerus  equinus,  704 

Hippotragus  equinus,  704 
Schenk,  J,  194,  225,  234,  259,  267,  575 
schillings!,  Giraffa,  495 
Oreotragus,  671 
Oreotragus  oreotragus,  671 
Schimper,  W.  P.,  612 
Schinz,  H.  R.,  607,  615,  616,  617 
Schlegel,  H.,  134,  139,  142,  143,  152 
Schlegel,  H.,  and  Pollen,  F.  P.  L.,  125, 

129,  131,  134,  139,  145,  254,  255 
schlegeli,  Hapalemur,  131 
Schlesinger,  G.,  223,  224,  234,  259,  267, 

576,  617 

Schmarda,  L.  K.,  199 
Schmitz,  E.,  229 
schmitzi,  Ursus,  229 

Ursus  syriacus,  230 
Schneider,  G.,  635 
Schomburgk,  H.,  420 
schomburgki,  Rucervus,  12,  20,  436 
Schouteden,  H.,  172,  183,  412,  491,  508, 

666 

Schreber,  J.  C.  D.  von,  249,  333,  483 
Schrenck,  L.  von,  199,  214,  244,  271, 

300,  429-431,  447,  474,  484 
Schubotz,  H.,  183 


844 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Schulman,  H.,  478 
Schulz  and  Hammer,  403 
Schuppentier,  dreizachige  (Ger.),  186 
Schuppentier,  langschwanzige   (Ger.), 

189 

Schwarz,  E.,  124^127,  129-145,  147-149, 
151,  153,  154,  15&-158,  161,  188, 
248,  249,  309,  310,  335,  338,  364, 
366,  486,  487,  489,  730 
(See  also  underRuxton,  A.  E.) 
Schweinfurth,  G.,  619,  727,  728 
schweinfurthii,  Pan  troglodytes,   177, 

179 

Troglodytes,  177 
Sciurus  madagascariensis,  158 
Sclater,  P.  L.,  339,  394,  435,  508,  617, 

658,  724,  726 

Sclater,  P.  L.,  and  Thomas,  O.,  643, 
646,  647,  649,  650,  653,  660,  663,  664, 
668,  669,  672,  674,  676,  678,  679,  683, 
686,  687,  699,  706,  712,  717,  725,  726 
Sclater,  W.  L.,  184,  248,  250,  252,  253, 
271,  276,  298,  316,  318,  334,  337,  342, 
397,  398,  403,  404,  417,  501-503,  555, 
654,  660,  661,  668,  669,  701,  702,  723 
sclateri,  Cephalophus,  663 
Scott,  H.  H.   (See  under  Lord,  C.  E.) 
scrofa,  Sus,  14 
Sea-cow,  Steller's,  18,  21 
Seladang  (Malayan),  521 
selbornei,  Alcelaphus  caama,  648,  649, 

650,  653      • 
Bubalis  caama,  650 
Selenarctos,  228 

Selous,  F.  C.,  341,  347,  349,  404-406, 
418,  484,  499,  502,  504,  505,  650,  651, 
653,  656,  658,  660,  670,  702,  705,  717, 
720,  723,  724 

selousi,  Taurotragus  oryx,  724 
selousii,  Equus  burchellii,  341 
Semenoff,  M.  W.  P.,  456,  589 
Semnocebus  avahi,  156 
senegalensis,  Leo  leo,  289 

Trichechus,    16 
septentrionalis,    Fells    (Tigris)    tigris, 

306 

Proteles  cristatus,  251 
Serebrennikov,  M.  K,  571 
sericeus,  Propithecus,  147 

Propithecus  diadema,  146 
Serow,  Japanese,  641 
Malayan,  638 
Sumatran,  11,  635 
Tonkin,  640 
White-maned,  637 
Serows,  Asiatic,  641 
serus,  Parocnus,  18 
Seton,  E.  T.,  269 
setoni,  Rangifer  tarandus,  474 
Seurat,  L.  G.,  605,  645 


Severnyi  Olenj  (Russ.),  469 
Severtzoff    [Severtzov],  N.,  286,  299, 
308,  358,  451,  452,  454-456,  531,  583, 
585,  587,  589,  599,  680 
severtzovi,  Ovis,  587 

Ovis  ammon,  587 
Shapu,  567 

Sharland,  M.  S.  R.,  42 
Sharpe,  A.,  719 
Shaw,  G.  A.,  124,  125,  127,  130,  133, 

160 

Shaw,  T.,  231 
Shaw,  W.  B.  K.,  688,  715 
Shebbeare,  E.  O.,  376,  379 
Sheep,  21,  510 

Anatolian  Red,  559 

Anatolian  Wild,  371,  559 

Armenian  Red,  561 

Asiatic  Wild,  13 

Barbary,  600 

Cyprian  Red,  558 

Cyprian  Wild,  558 

Elburz  Red,  565 

Erzerum,  562 

Ispahan,  563 

Karatau,  586 

Laristan,  564 

Marco  Polo's,  590 

Old  World  Wild,  557 

Severtzov's,  587 

Urmian  Red,  563 
Shelford,  R.  W.  C.,  391,  528,  547 
shinanensis,  Sorex,  642 
Shitkow,  B.  M.,  463 
Shoemaker,  H.  W.,  225,  259,  267,  616 
Shortridge,  G.  C.,  25,  27,  28,  31,  35, 
44,  50,  52,  60,  61,  63,  64,  79,  84,  87- 
89,  95,  96,  97,  101,  111,  112,  184,  185, 
248,  251-253,  275,  277,  298,  318,  319, 
322,  342,  345,  397,  403,  405,  415,  418, 
499,  500,  502,  503,  648,  649,  651,  653, 
657,  659,  661,  662,  669,  670,  671,  697, 
702,  703,  707,  723 

Shrew,  Christmas  Island,  8,  20,  122 
Shrews,  21,  122 
siamensis,  Cervus  eldi,  441 
sibiricus,  Moschus,  427 

Rangifer  tarandus,  475,  483 
Sibree,  J.,  124,  255 
sibreei,  Chirogale,  128 
Sidenreng,  Prince  of,  551 
Siebold,  P.  F.  von,  215 
Siedlecki,  M.,  197,  226,  234,  243,  260 

268 
Sifaka,  Black,  149 

Coquerel's,  150 

Crowned,  151 

Diademed,  17,  146 

Decken's,  152 

Major's,  17,  153 


INDEX 


845 


Sifaka,  Milne-Edwards's,  148 

Perrier's,  154 

Silky,  147 

Verreaux's,  149 
Sifakas,  146 
sifanicus,  Moschus,  431 

Moschus  moschiferus,  431 
Sika,  Manchurian,  445 

North  China,  444 

Shansi,  443 

South  China,  446 
sika,  Cervus,  445 
Sikaillus  grassianus,  443 
silvaticus,  Equus  gmelini,  332 
Silvela,  M.,  611 
silvestris,  Equus,  333 

Felis,  264,  265 

Felis  (Catus),  256 

Felis  silvestris,  14,  256,  261,  262, 

264 

silvicola,  Rangifer  tarandus,  476 
Simenia  simensis  simensis,  212 
simensis,  Canis,  212 

Simenia  simensis,  212 
Simia  (Cercopithecus)  badius,  162 

pygmaeus,  164 

satyrus,  164 

troglodytes,  176 
simia-sciurus,  Lemur,  140 
Simpson,  G.  G.,  5 

simum,  Ceratotherium  simum,  16,  402 
simus,  Hapalemur,  17,  130,  131 

Rhinoceros,  402 
Sinai-Steinbock  (Ger.),621 
sinaitica,  Capra,  621 

Capra  nubiana,  618,  621 
Sj Slander,  D.,  580 
Skottsberg,  C.  J.  F,  240,  241,  270,  314, 

374,  430,  523,  636 
Sloth,  Larger  Hispaniolan  Ground,  18 

Larger  Puerto  Rican  Ground,  18 

Patagonian  Giant  Ground,  18 

Smaller  Hispaniolan  Ground,  18 

Smaller  Puerto  Rican  Ground,  18 
Sloths,  giant  ground,  21 

ground,  21 

Sminthopsis,  Long-tailed,  31 
Sminthopsis  crassicaudata,  30 

longicaudata,  31 

longicaudatus,  31 

murina,  29,  31 

murina  albipes,  30 

murina  constricta,  31 

murina  fuliginosa,  30 

murina  murina,  29,  31 
Smirnov,  N.  A.,  227 
Smith,  A.,  185,  404,  701,  722 
Smith,  A.  D.,  202,  494 
Smith,  C.  H.,  297,  330,  361 
Smith,  G.,  39,  41 


Smith,  G.  A.,  295 
Smith,  H.,  543,  574 
Smith,  H.  M.,  313 
Smith,  H.  W.,  442 
Smith,  W.  L.,  304,  563 
smithi,  Lophiomys,  201,  202 
smithii,  Cheirogaleus,  124 

Microcebus,  125 

Microcebus  murinus,  124 
Smuts,  J.,  654 
Smutsia  gigantea,  181 

temminckii,  181,  184 
Sody,  H.  J.  V,  247 
soemmeringi,  Gazella,  676 
soemmeringii,  Acinonyx  jubatus,  280 

Cynailurus,  280 

Sokomikoff,  ,  597 

Solenodon,  Cuban,  21 
Solenodon  cubanus,  21 
Solenodons,  21 
Solenodontidae,  21 
Somali-Wildesel  (Ger.),  350 
somalicus,  Oreotragus,  672 

Oreotragus  oreotragus,  672 
somaliensis,  Asinus  taeniopus,  350 

Asinus  asinus,  16,  346,  348,  350 

Diceros  bicornis,  397 

Rhinoceros  bicornis,  397 
sondaica,  Panthera  tigris,  309 

Tigris,  309 
sondaicus,  Bibos  sondaicus,  11,  523 

Bos,  523 

Felis  tigris,  309 

Rhinoceros,  11,  13,  379,  381,  390, 

393,  395,  396 

songarica,  Cervus  maral,  454 
songaricus,  Cervus  elaphus,  447,  454 
Sonnerat,  P.,  155 
Sorex  shinanensis,  642 
Soricidae,  21,  122 

Sowerby,  A.  de  C.,  200,  216,  217,  228, 

239,  240,  244,  270,  272,  299,  300,  302- 

304,  327,  354,  429,  431,  432,  444  446, 

448,  449,  461,  467,  469,  484,  580,  638 

Span-man,  A.,  252,  298,  336,  338,  417, 

654 

Spatz,  P.,  349 
speirocerus,  Bubalus,  544 
spelaeum,  Plagiodontia,  18 
spelaeus,  Leo,  291 
Spencer,  B.,  28,  31,  32,  56-59,  74,  80 
Spencer,  B.,  and  Kershaw,  J.  A.,  72,  73 
spenserae,  Tarsipes,  60 
spetsbergensis,  Cervus  tarandus,  479 
Ssu-pu-hsiang  (Chinese),  467 
Stag,  Barbary,  16,  457 

Sardinian,  459 

Yarkand,  13,  462 
Stambecco  (Ital.),  614 
Stampfli,  F.  X.,  667,  668 


846 


EXTINCT   AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Stanley,  Capt.,  667 

Stanley,  H.  M.,  508 

Staples,  F.  H.  M.,  374 

Statham,  J.  C.  B.,  500 

Stead,  D.  G.,  66,  69 

Stechow,  E.,  533,  536 

Steere,  J.  B.,  548 

Steinbock  (Ger.),  614 

Steinbock  der  Pyrenaen    (Ger.),  606 

Steinhardt,  H.  D.,  399 

Stenoderma  rufum,  19 

Stephens,  M.,  611 

Stevenson-Hamilton,  J.,  417,  502,  651, 

652,  657,  719 

Stirling,  E.  C.,  and  Zietz,  A.,  45,  95 
Stockley,  C.  H,  296,  435,  438,  568,  569, 

571,  593,  594,  626,  629,  631,  634 
Stoliczka,  F.,  589 
Stone,  W.,  190,  191 
Storck,  G.  H.,  595 
storcki,  Ovis,  595,  596 
Strabo,  192,  231,  330,  357 
Stracker,  A.  H,  401 
Strange,  Mr.,  107,  114,  116 
Streich,  V.,  95 
Strepsiceros  buxtoni,  720 

Strohl, ,  282 

Stuhlmann,  F.  L.,  508 
Styan,  F.  W.,  435 
styani,  Panthera  tigris,  303,  304 
sumatrae,  Panthera  tigris,  310 
sumatraensis,  Antilope,  635 
Capricornis,  637 

Capricornis  sumatraensis,  11,  635 
sumatranus,  Elephas,  314 

Elephas  maximus,  11,  314 
sumatrensis,  Dicerorhinus,  384 

Dicerorhinus  sumatrensis,  11,  390 
Rhinoceros,  383-385,  387-390,  394, 

396 

Sumpf  otter  (Ger.),  233 
Suni,  Zanzibar,  672 

Zulu,  672 
Sus  scrofa,  14 

Sushkin,  P.  P.,  240,  557,  560,  561,  563- 
568,  570,  572,  576,  577,  579,  581-583, 
585,  587,  588,  590,  592,  595,  596,  598- 
600 

Sutton,  C.  S.,  64 
Sverdrup,  E.,  482 
swarthi,  Nesoryzomys,  21 
Swayne,  H.  G.  C.,  318,  401,  676 
swettenhami,  Capricornis  sumatraen- 
sis, 638 

Nemorhaedus,  638 
Swiecicki,  A.,  513 
Swinhoe,  R.,  445,  446 
swinhoii,  Capricornis,  641 
sylvicultrix,  Antilope,  663 

Cephalophus  sylvicultrix,  663,  665, 
666 


Syncerus  caffer  aequinoctialis,  554 

caffer  caffer,  8,  16,  554 

nanus,  554 
syriacus,  Ursus,  228,  230 

Ursus  arctos,  218,  228 
Szalay,  A.  B,  512 

Tachard,  G.,  397 
Tait,  A.,  608 
taivanus,  Cervus,  445 
Tamarao,  548 
tao,  Antilope,  690 
Tapir,  Malay,  372 
Tapiridae,  371 
Tapirantilope  (Ger.),  666 
Tapirella,  371 
Tapirs,  371 
Tapirus,  371 

indicus,  372 

indicus  brevetianus,  374 

roulinii,  371 
tapoatafa,  Phascogale  tapoatafa,  26 

Viverra,  26 
tarandus,  Cervus,  469 

Rangifer,  14 

Rangifer  tarandus,  469,  477-479 
Tarandus  rangifer  chukchensis,  483 

rangifer  yakutskensis,  483 
Tarpan,  Mongolian,  322 
Tarsipes  spenserae,  60 
tartessia,  Felis,  263 

Felis  silvestris,  263 
tasmaniensis,  Macropus,  120 

Macropus  giganteus,  120 

Vombatus  ursinus,  73 
tatarica,  Capra,  677 

Saiga,  677 
Taurotragus  derbianus,  726 

derbianus  cameroonensis,  729,  730 

derbianus  congolanus,  16,  729 

derbianus  derbianus,  16,  725,  730 

derbianus  gigas,  726 

oryx  billingae,  725 

oryx  livingstonii,  724 

oryx  oryx,  722 

oryx  pattersonianus,  725 

oryx   selousi,   724 
Taylor,  E.  H.,  249 
Taylor,  J.  H.,  321 
Teichman,  E.,  326,  327 
Telfair,  C,  254 
Temminck,   C.  J.,  213-215,  237,  240, 

248,  309 
temminckii,  Manis,  184 

Smutsia,  181,  184 
Tennant,  R.,  574 
Tenreiro,  A.,  695 
termes,  Proteles  cristatus,  251 
testudo,  Lophiomys,  204 
tetradactyla,   Manis,    189 


INDEX 


847 


texensis,  Ursus  texensis,  20 
Thalacomys  lagotis,  54 

minor  miselius,  56 

nigripes,  55 

sagitta,  55 
Thamin,  Burmese,  439 

Siamese,  441 
thamin,  Rucervus,  439 
thar,  Capricornis  sumatraensis,  641 
Theal,  G.  McC.,  417 
Thesiger,  W.,  350,  692,  715 
thetis,  Halmaturus,  106 
thetis,  Thylogale,  106 
Thorn,  W.  S,  520 
Thomas,  B.,  694 

Thomas,  O.,  25,  26,  28,  32,  36,  44,  48, 
50,  56,  58,  63,  68,  78,  80,  84-86, 
97,  100,  103,  105-107,  110,  112, 
114,  119,  120,  191,  204-206,  210, 
211,  214,  548,  570,  641,  667,  672, 
675,  676,  686,  708 

(See  also  under  Sclater,  P.  L.) 
Thomas,  0.,  and  Wroughton,  R.  C., 

248 

Thomas,  P.,  353 
thomasi,  Cephalophus,  663 

Lophiomys,  203 

Opolemur,  126 

Thompson,  E.,  284,  293,  366.  516 
thornicrofti,    Giraffa    camelopardalis, 

497 

Thorold,  W.  G.,  465 
thoroldi,  Cervus,  464,  465 
Thunberg,  C.  P.,  298 
Thylacine,  40 

Thylacinus  cynocephalus,  40 
Thylogale  billardierii,  112 

eugenii,  109 

eugenii  binoe,  110 

eugenii  derbiana,  110 

eugenii  eugenii,  110 

flindersi,  78,  108 

parma,  10,  20,  107 

thetis,  106 
Tiger,  Amoy,  303 

Amur,  299 

Bali,  310 

Bengal,  304,  306 

Caspian,  305 

Chinese,  303 

of  Chinese  Turkestan,  304 

Indian,  304,  306 

Javan,  309 

Korean,  301 

Manchurian,  299,  304 

Mongolian,  299 

North  China,  301 

Persian,  305 

Siberian,  299 

Sumatran,  310 

Tasmanian,  40 


Tiger-cat,  Large  Spotted-tailed,  36 

Slender  Spotted-tailed,  37 
tigrinum,  Helladotherium,  506 
tigris,  Felis,  300,  306 

Panthera  tigris,  304,  306 
Tigris  longipilis,  299 

sondaica,  309 
tippelskirchi,  Giraffa,  495 

Giraffa  camelopardalis,  495 
Toolach,  116 
Toolache,  116 
torrei,  Boromys,  19 
Touchette,  J.  I.,  645 
Toussoum,  I.,  713 
toxotis,  Elephas  africanus,  316 
trabata,  Felis  tigris,  306 
Tragelaphus  angasii,  16,  716,  720 

buxtoni,  16,  720 
Tragulidae,  425 
Tragulus,  425,  426 
Traill,  T.  S.,  515 
Transehe,  N.  von,  268,  474 
transuralensis,  Rangifer  tarandus,  483 
transvaalensis,  Oreotragus  oreotragus, 
670 

Proteles  cristatus,  251 

Tratz,  ,  223-226 

Trevor-Battye,  A.,  264 
Trichechus  senegalensis,  16 
trichotis,  Cheirogaleus,  16,  19,  128 
trichura,  Crocidura  fuliginosa,  8,  10, 

20,  122,  208 
tricuspis,  Manis,  186,  188 

Phataginus,  186,  189 
tridactyla,  Didelphis,  89 
tridactylus,   Potorous   tridactylus,   89 
Tristram,  H.  B,  229,  285,  292,  349,  350, 

367,  368,  513,  622,  647,  693,  716 
troglodytes,  Pan,  8 

Pan  troglodytes,  176 

Simia,  176 
Troglodytes  gorilla,  168 

schweinfurthii,  177 
Trouessart,  E.  L.,  194,  198,  221,  241, 

262,  266,  270,  338,  533,  616 
trouessarti,  Equus,  339 
Troughton,  E.  Le  G.,  10,  26,  27,  32,  37, 
38,  42,  44,  45,  48,  51-61,  63-65, 
68-70,  73-76,  78,  79,  82.  84,  86, 
89,  91,  93,  96,  98,  100,  102,  104- 
106,  108,  111,  112,  115,  119,  120, 
211 

(See  also  under  Iredale,  T.) 
Tsaine,  Burmese,  527 
tschadensis,  Hippopotamus  amphibius, 

415 

tuberculata,  Mystacina,  731 
tuberculatus,  Vespertilio,  731 
tularensis,  Ursus,  20 
Tunney,  J.  T.,  102 
Turner,  D.  P.,  677 


848 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Tweedie,  J.  L.  F.,  728 
Tweedie,  M.  W.  F.,  208 
typica,  Ovis  ammon,  576 
typicus,  Cheirogaleus,  127 

Equus  hemionus,  355 

Macromerus,   146 

Uchida,  S.,  216,  240,  642 

Udad,  600 

uellensis,  Gorilla,  174 

Ulmer,  F.  A.,  Jr.,  247,  375,  391 

Ungulates,  even-toed,  414 

odd-toed,  322 

imicornis,  Rhinoceros,  375,  381,  384 
Ur  (Ger.),  511 
Urbain,  A.,  510,  511 
Urial,  Afghan,  569 

Astor,  567 

Bokharan,  571 

Ladak,  567 

Panja,  571 

Punjab,  568 

Transcaspian,  572 
urmiana,  Ovis  gmelinii,  563 

Ovis  ophion,  563 
Uromanis  longicaudatus,  189 
Ursidae,  21,  217 
ursina,  Didelphis,  38,  72 
ursinus,  Vombatus  ursinus,  72 
Ursinus  harrisii,  38 
Ursus  apache,  21 

arctos,  14,  217,  229 

arctos  arctos,  218 

arctos  beringianus,  218,  228 

arctos  caucasicus,  217 

arctos  collaris,  217,  218 

arctos  isabellinus,  218 

arctos  lasiotus,  218,  228 

arctos  meridionalis,  218 

arctos  pruinosus,  218 

arctos  pyrenaicus,  217,  218,  221 

arctos  syriacus,  218,  228 

arctos  yesoensis,  228 

calif  ornicus,  19 

colosus,  19 

crowtheri,  15,  19,  230 

faidherbianus,  231 

henshawi,  21 

horriaeus,  19 

horribilis  horribilis,  19 

kennerleyi,  19 

klamathensis,  20 

lasiotus,  228 

magister,  20 

mendocinensis,  19 

perturbans,  20 

pervagor,  20 

rogersi  bisonophagus,  20 

schmitzi,  229 

syriacus,  228,  230 


Ursus  syriacus  schmitzi,  230 

texensis  navaho,  19 

texensis  texensis,  20 

tularensis,  20 

ussuriensis,  Nyctereutes  procyonoides, 
217 

Valenciennes,  A.,  574 

valentinae,  Rangifer  tarandus,  483 

vallesius,  Rattus  culmorum,  206 

van  Dam,  D.  C.,  158 

Van  den  Brink,  F.  H.,  258 

Van  der  Byl,  A.,  654 

Van  der  Byl,  P.  B.,  530,  537,  567 

Van  Dyck,  W.,  229 

varenzovi,  Ovis  vignei,  572 

Vari,  142 

Varian,  H.  F.,  665,  707-711 

variani,  Hippotragus,  16,  707 

Hippotragus  niger,  707 
variegatus,  Indris,  155 
Lemur,  142 
Lemur  macaco,  142 
varius,  Lemur,  142 
Vaughan-Kirby,    F.,    406.     (See    also 

Kirby,  F.  V.) 

velox,  Acinonyx  jubatus,  278,  279 
venatica,  Felis,  283 
venaticus,  Acinonyx  jubatus,  12,  283 

Verhulst,  ,  666 

Veraay,  A.  S.,  294-296,  378,  384,  396, 

438,  711 
verreauxi,  Propithecus,  147,  149,  154 

Propithecus  verreauxi,  149 
verus,  Pan  satyrus,  177 

Pan  troglodytes,  177 
Vespertilio  tuberculatus,  731 
Vetulani,  T.,  331,  332 
vetus,  Phyllops,  18 
Vickers,  C.,  434 
victor,  Phascolarctos  cinereus,  64,  65, 

70 
victoriae,  Capra  pyrenaica,  608,  610, 

612 

victus,  Oryzomys,  19 
Vicugna,  421 
Vielfrass  (Ger.),  241 
Vigne,  G.  T.,  567 
vignei,  Ovis,  564,  567,  590 

Ovis  vignei,  567,  568,  571 
Villa,  E.  M.  de,  385 
Villaviciosa  de  Asturias,  Marquis  de, 

221 

Vinson,  A.,  155 
virgata,  Felis,  305 

Panthera  tigris,  305 
Virgil,  231 
Vison  (Fr.),  233 

vistulanus,  Castor  fiber,  191,  198 
Vitry,  P.,  311,  385,  442,  511,  520,  527, 

546,  640 


INDEX 


849 


Vittoz,  R.,  511 
Viverra  binturong,  244 

cristata,  250 

fossa,  249 

maculata,  36 

tapoatafa,  26 
Viverridae,  244 
viverrina,  Didelphis,  32 
viverrinus,  Canis,  215 

Dasyurus,  32,  34 

Nyctereutes  procyonoides,  215 
vivyerinus  [sic],  Dasyurus,  210 
Vizios,  Capt.,  458 
Voeltzkow,  A.,  158 
Vombatidae,  72 
Vombatus  hirsutus  hirsutus,  73 

hirsutus  niger,  73 

ursinus  tasmaniensis,  73 
ursinus  ursinus,  72 
voratus,  Brotomys,  18 
Vulpes  macrotis  macrotis,  20 

wachei,  Cervus,  451 

Wadsworth,  J.,  220,  471 

Wagner,  J.  A.,  338 

Wagner,  M.,  49,  231,  273 

Wahlberg,  D.,  471 

Waite,  E.  R.,  and  Jones,  F.  W.,  34,  75, 

81 

Waldbock  (Ger.),  663 
Wali,  623 

walie,  Capra,  16,  623 
Wallabia  elegans,  114 

greyi,  10,  20,  116 

irma,   119 

rufogrisea  rufogrisea,  116 
Wallabies,  77 
Wallaby,  Banded,  96 

Black-gloved,  119 

Bridled  Nail-tailed,  98 

Crescent  Nail-tailed,  100 

Flinders  Island,  108 

Dama,  109 

Gray-face,  114 

Grey's,  116 

Pademelon,  106 

Parma,  10,  20,  107 

Parry's,   114 

Pretty-face,  114 

Rufous-bellied,  112 

Scrub,  109 

Tasmanian,  112 

Toolach,  10,  20 

Western  Brush,  119 

Whiptail,  114 

White-throated,  107 
Wallace,  A.  R,  10,  165 
Wallace,  H.  F.,  446,  450,  452,  454 
Walter,  A.,  358 

(See  also  under  Radde,  G.) 


Wapiti,  12 

Ala-shan,  449 
Altai,  451 
Arizona,  21 
Bactrian,  463 
Eastern,  19 
Kansu,  450 
Manchurian,  447 
Tian  Shan,  454 

Ward,  R.,  317,  382,  397,  408,  436,  439 
441,  447,  451,  462,  463,  465,  467,  499! 
514,  517,  523,  528,  545,  547,  548,  555, 
560,  566-568,  570,  572,  585,  589  593 
618,  625,  626,  632,  633,  637,  643,  653, 
656-658,  660,  663,  666,  668,  674,  675, 
678,  683,  687,  691,  696,  701,  705  711 
717,  720,  725,  729,  730 
wardi,  Cervus  canadensis,  460,  461 

Giraffa  camelopardalis,  501 
Warren,  E.,  252,  649 
Waterhouse,  G.  R.,  29,  30,  36,  44,  59 

80,  82-84,  90,  97,  106,  107,  116 
Watson,   W.   C.   H.,   432.     (See   also 

Haines- Watson,  W.  C.) 
Watters,  Mr.,  288 
Weasels,  21,  232 
Weber,  M.,  550,  551 
Weigold,  H.,  303 
Weisslippenhirsch  (Ger.),  464 
Welwitsch,  F.,  709 
Werth,  E.,  348,  349,  353 
West,  Prof,  229 
Wetmore,  A.,  7 
Wettstein,  O,  225,  259 
Whetham,  P.  W.,  659 
"Whistler,"  94 

Whitaker,  J.  S,  685,  688,  712 
white,  Hypsiprymnus,  78 
White,  J.  J,  492 
Whitehead,  J,  548 
whitei,  Arctictis  binturong,  249 

Arctitis  [sic],  249 
Wildcat,  British,  260 
Corsican,  264 
Cretan,  263 
European,  14,  256 
Peloponnesian,  262 
Sardinian,  264 
Spanish,  263 
Wildcats,  insular   (Cretan,  Sardinian, 

Corsican,  British),  14 
Wildebeest,  zwart  (Cape  Dutch),  659 
Wildepaard  (Boer),  341 
Wildesel,  indischer  (Ger.),  363 

nubischer  (Ger.),  345 
Wildkatze  (Ger.),  256 
Wilhelm,  J.  H.,  403,  499 
Wilkins,  G.  H,  76 
Willshire,  W,  690 
Wilson,  A.  G,  62 


850 


EXTINCT  AND   VANISHING   MAMMALS 


Wilson,  E.  H.,  271,  303,  432,  461,  465, 

594 

Wilson,  G.  F.,  559 
Winge,  H.,  196,  223,  258,  267 
Wisent  (Ger.),  531 

kaukasischer  (Ger.),  536 
Witrenoster  (Boer),  402 
Wolf,  Abyssinian,  212 

Abyssinian  Red,  212 

Arctic,  19 

European,  14 

Florida,  20 

Japanese,  12,  20,  213 

Newfoundland,  20 

Tasmanian,  40 

Yezo,  214 
Wolf,  J.,  271 

Wollebaek,  A.,  476,  479,  481,  482 
Wolverine,  241 
Wolves,  21,  211 

Wombat,  Central  Queensland  Hairy- 
nosed,    76 

Flinders  Island,  72 

Hairy-nosed,  74 

Island,  72 

Southern    Queensland    Hairy- 
nosed,  75 
Wombats,  72 

Wood,  R.  C.,  278,  399,  706,  719 
Worcester,  D.  C.,  548 
Wrangel,  C.  G.,  324,  325 
wrangeli,  Lynx  lynx,  270 
Wroughton,R.C.   (See  under  Thomas, 

0.) 

wurmbi,  Pongo,  164 
Wylde,  A.  B,  251,  619 
Wyman,  J.   (See  under  Savage,  T.  S.) 

xanthomystax,  Prosimia,  137 
xanthopus,  Petrogale,  104-106 

Petrogale  xanthopus,  104 
xanthopygus,  Cervus,  447 

Cervus  elaphus,  447 
xanthourus,  Rattus,  206 


Xenophon,  369,  537 
Xerxes,  291,  364 

Yak,  Domestic,  531 

Wild,  528 

yakutskensis,  Tarandus   rangifer,  483 
yarkandensis,  Cervus,  13,  462 

Cervus  cashmirianus,  462,  463 
yeniseensis,  Martes  zibellina,  236,  238 
Yerkes,  R.  M.,  181 
Yerkes,  R.  M,  and  Yerkes,  A.  W,  165, 

172,  176-178 

yesoensis,  Ursus  arctos,  228 
Younghusband,  F.  E.,  324,  355,  423 
youngi,  Rattus  culmorum,  206 
Yule,  A.  F.,  275,  422 

zamicrus,   Nesophontes,    18 
Zammarano,  V.  T.,  251,  280,  282,  348, 

603,  604,  688 
Zappey,  W.  R.,  431,  594 
Zarudny,  N.  A.,  286 
Zebra,  Burchell's,  8,  15,  20,  339 

Hartmann's  Mountain,  341 

Mountain,  8,  15,  341 
zebra,  Equus,  8,  341,  342 

Equus  zebra,  341 

Hippotigris  zebra,  15 
Zebras,  21,  322 
zibellina,  Martes,  235 

Martes  zibellina,  236,  238 
Zibethyane  (Ger.),  250 
Zietz,  A.    (See  under  Stirling,  E.  C.) 
Zobel  (Ger.),  235 
Zondag,  J.  L.  P.,  393 
Zubkov,  A.  I,  476 
Zubr  (Russian),  531,  536 
Zukowsky,  L.,  185,  403 
zukowskyi,  Loxodonta  africana,  316 
zuluensis,  Nesotragus  livingstonianus, 

672 

Zwart-wit-pens  (Boer),  705 
Zyzomys,  205 

argurus  argurus,  10,  20,  211 

argurus  indutus,  211