GIFT OF
Prof. W. A. Setcnell
SELECT
READILY ELIGIBLE FOR
Industrial ^ulte ar
WITH INDICATIONS OF THEIR NATIVE COUNTRIES
AND SOME OF THEIR USES;
BARON FEED. VON MUELLER,
K.C.M.G., M.D., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S., H. M.R.I. A., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.E.G.S.,
C.M.Z.S., II.M.E.H.S., H.C.M.S.A., H.F.R.B.S., U.M.G.S.F A Manch., H.M.B.S.E.,
C.M.Pliarm.Sc., H.M.Hist.S., H.M.Scot. & Brad/., N.H.S., Cnrr. Memb. Inst. France;
Foreign Memb. Acnd. Munich, Stockholm, Copenhagen, B(-ton, Goettingen, Upsala,
Lund ; Mcmb. Acad. Leop. Carol. ; Memb. Inst. Egypt and Suisse ; Hon. Memb. Acad.
San Francisco, Philadelphia, Accl. Soc' and Agric. Soc. France, Alzate Soc. Mexico,
Rural Soc. Argentina, Imp. Soc. Moscow, Germ. Bot. S^c., Dendrol. Soc., Nat. Hist. Soc*
of Ural and Braunschweig, and numerous other Science- Unions,
GOVERNMENT-BOTANIST FOE VICTORIA.
Omnia, enim in usus xuoscreata sunt." SYRACH xxxix, 21, 26.
Ninth Edition, Revised and Enlarged,
@$ Authority :
ROBT. S. BRAIN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, MELBOURNE.
1S95.
^^Y- ^r^C
^
SELECT EXTRA-TROPICAL PLANTS,
READILY ELIGIBLE FOR
industrial tynltnn or
WITH INDICATIONS OF THEIR NATIVE COUNTRIES
AND SOME OF THEIR USES;
BY
BARON FERD. VON MUELLER,
K.C.M.G., M.D., PH.D., LL.D.< F.R.S., H.M.R.I.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.G.S.,
C.M.Z.S., H.M.R.H.S., H.C.M.S.A., H.F.R.B.S., H.M.G.S.E. & Manch., H.M.B.S.E.,
C.M.Pharm.Sc., H.M.Hist.S., H.M.Scot. & Bradf., N.H.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. France;
Foreign Memb. Acad. Munich, Stockholm, Copenhagen, Boston, Goettingen, Upsala,
Lund ; Memb. Acad. Leop. Carol. ; Memb. Inst. Egypt and Suisse ; Hon. Memb. Acad.
San Francisco, Philadelphia, Accl. Soc. and Agric. Soc. France, Alzate Soc. Mexico,
Rural Soc. Argentina, Imp. Soc. Moscow, Germ. Bot. Sec., Dendrol. Soc., Nat. Hist. Soc.
of Ural and Braunschweig, and numerous other Science- Unions,
GOVERNMENT-BOTANIST FOR VICTORIA.
Omnia enim in usus suoscreata sunt." SYRACH xxxix, 21, 26.
Ninth Edition, Revised and Enlarged,
ROBT. S. BRAIN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, MELBOURNE.
..A.,
1895.
u^*
. 4,
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
IN the volumes, issued by the Victorian Acclimation-Society from
1871 to 1878, five contributions have appeared concerning such
industrial plants, as are available for culture in extra-tropical
countries or in high mountain-regions within the tropics. These
writings were mainly offered with a view of promoting the intro-
duction and diffusion of the very many kinds of utilitarian plants,
which may be extensively reared in the forests, fields, pastures and
gardens of temperate geographic latitudes. But the work thus
originated became accessible merely to the members of the Society,
while frequent calls arose for these or some similar data, not only
throughout the Australian communities, but also abroad. The whole
was therefore re-arranged and largely supplemented, first for re-issue
in Victoria and later also for publication in India, there under the
auspices of the Central Government at Calcutta. Subsequently the
work was likewise honoured by being reprinted, with numerous addi-
tions, for the use of New South Wales ; and at nearly the same time
it went through a German translation, by Dr. Goeze, in Herr Th.
Fischer's publishing establishment of Cassel. In 1884 it appeared,
revised and still further augmented, more particularly for North-
American use, through the generous interest of one of the most
enterprising scientific publishers in the United States, Mr. George
Davis of Detroit. Four Victorian editions having become exhausted,
the present one is offered now, again further enlarged by such notes,
as could be added recently. As stated in the preface to the original
essays, they did not claim completeness, either as a specific index
to or as a series of notes on the respective rural or technologic
applicability of the plants enumerated. But what these writings
may perhaps aspire to, is to bring together some condensed data in
popular language on all the principal economic plants, hitherto known
to prosper beyond the equinoctial zone. Information of this kind is
widely scattered, and often only accessible through voluminous and
iv Introductory Remarks.
costly works in various languages ; furthermore, such volumes may
apply only to countries with a climatic zone far narrower than that,
for which these pages were written. Many, but not all the books,
which it was desirable to consult, were at tlie author's command ;
thus the necessity of further successive supplements will be apparent,
even irrespective of needful references to future discoveries ; because
in the progress of geographic, rural, medical, technologic and chemical
inquiries many new plants are likely to be disclosed, and additional
uses of known plants to be eludicated. Thus, for instance, among the
trees and shrubs, or herbs and grasses, occurring in the middle and
higher altitudinal zones of Central Africa, or nearer to us of New
Guinea and the Sunda-Islands, many specific forms may be expected
to occur, which we could advantageously transfer to any extra-tropical
countries or to mountains in other equatorial regions. The work has
found its way into such notice and use, as it received, without any
ordinary advertisement. Moreover the writer would modestly hope,
that his local efforts may prove to be useful also in other parts
of the globe for extending rural pursuits ; indeed, through the
generous action of an enlightened American, Capt. Ellwood Cooper,
President of the State-Board of Horticulture of California, the
first fragmentary publications, then offered for Australian use,
were deemed worthy of re-issue in San Francisco. Gradual or
partial reprints had also previously appeared in weekly journals
of Sydney and San Francisco and in some other periodicals, some
under re-arrangement. But notwithstanding various suggestions,
offered to the writer, he has seen no reason to deviate in the slightest
from the original plan of the work ; nor seems the title of the
book assailable ; for although the number of recorded plants is large,
they still remain quite " select," inasmuch as they form only a
remarkably small percentage of the species, which constitute the
universal Flora of the world. The author feels proud, that Professor
Naudin, a great leader in scientific cultivations, has adopted this book
in a somewhat altered and enlarged French form more especially for
the use of the countries on the Mediterranean Sea (" Manuel de 1'accli-
mateur," 1887). Some ruralists have thought, that various plants,
here alluded to as promising, were not deserving of any efforts to
acquire them. In answer we may single out the instance of Vac-
ciniums. How here we also would delight in seeing naturalised all
over the Australian Alps every one indeed of the numerous species,
affording edible fruit however small all entirely new for this part
of the world, und surely some as capable of cultural improvement as
Introductory Remarks. v
strawberries and others of our most relishable table- or kitchen-fruits,
partly arisen from quite unpromising stock. Furthermore as methodic
forestry is as yet limited everywhere to indigenous kinds of trees,
except in India and at the Mediterranean Sea, where Eucalypts much
through initiating early efforts of the writer became reared on a
forestal scale, it may be presumed, that the present pages will also
aid in vastly amplifying forest-operations by transfers of peculiarly
superior kinds of sylvan trees from hemispheres to hemispheres in a
truly cosmopolitan spirit, so far as this can be carried out within
climatic scope, renewal and even originating of forests becoming
anyhow so needful in many regions of the world. Then by diversify-
ing more extensively the cultural crops, such occasional failures as of
the rice in India, potatoes in Ireland, rye in Russia, would be less felt,
and the concomitant famines could be largely averted or iCitigated.
Moreover the greater the diversities of culture, the less also the extent
of diseases arising from fungs and insects. In numerous instances the
author has preferred, to quote the statements of others on the value of
various culture-plants, than to advance opinions from his own ex-
perience, even when they were quite coinciding ; but in most cases
such notes had to be much abridged, to render the volume concise,
readily portable, quite inexpensive and quickly usable. As already
intimated, the rapid progress of tillage almost throughout all colonial
dominions and in other new States is causing a growing desire for
general and particular indications of such plants, which a colder clime
excludes from those northern countries, in which many of the colonists
spent their youth ; and it must be clear to any reflecting mind, that in
all warmer latitudes, as compared with the Middle-European regions,
is existing a vastly enlarged scope for cultural choice of plants. Thus,
indicative as these notes merely are, they may yet facilitate selection.
More extensive information can then be sought for in larger and
expensive, though less comprehensive and handy works already extant,
or likely still to be called forth by local requirements in other
countries. The writer should even not be disinclined under fair
support and encouragement, to issue collateral to the present volume
also another, exclusively devoted to the industrial plants of the hotter
zones, for the promotion of tropical culture, particularly in our
Australian continent. Considerable difficulty was experienced in
fixing the limits of such remarks, as are at all admissible into the
present pages, because certain plants may be important only under
particular climatic conditions and cultural applications, or their im-
portance may have been overrated in regard to the copiousness and
vi Introductory Remarks.
relative value of their yield. It was therefore not always easy, to
" sift the chaff from the grain," when these notes were gathered ; the
remarks, offered in this work, might indeed under less rigorous restric-
tions have been indefinitely extended; and although the author has during
more than twenty years been watching also for industrial tests the plants,
introduced by him into the Melbourne Bot. Garden, and has during
nearly as long a time of travels been scrutinising the circumstances of
the spontaneous occurrence for vast multitudes of species, he had still
to a very large extent to rely implicitly on the experience of other
observers elsewhere. It may also at once be stated here, that when
calculations of measurements and data of weights were quoted, such
always represent, if not already anyhow absolute, the maximum as far
as hitherto on record. It was not always found easy, to determine
with accuracy the geographic range of the species for this work in
brief terms, as even some of the best and newest taxologic books on
plants relate not with sufficient distinctness, what is truly indigenous
and what merely naturalised in any particular part of the globe.
Furthermore schematic indices, to facilitate general views over the
geographic distribution of plants, such as given for Australia in " a
systematic census of plants with geographic and literary annota-
tions," have not as yet been forthcoming for any of the other great
divisions of the earth with completeness, although Nyman has pub-
lished a full list of European plants with mentioning of the countries
of their nativity there. The restitution of some of the oldest specific
names has been effected from Hooker and Jackson's Index Kewensis.
To draw prominent attention to the primarily important among the
very many hundreds of plants, referred to in these pages, the leading
species have been designated with an asterisk. It has not been found
easy in numerous instances, to trace the original source of whatever
information on utilitarian plants we find recorded in the various
volumes of phytographic or rural or technologic literature ; many
original observations are however contained in the writings, accessible
here, of Bernardin, Bentham, Bentley, Boehmer, Brandis, Brockhaus,
Candolle, Chambers, Collins, Drury, Engelmann, Engler, Flueckiger,
Fraas, Goeze, Asa Gray, Grisebach, Hanbury, Hilgard, Hooker, Huse-
mann, King, Koch, Krichauff, Langethal, Lawson, Lindley, Lorentz,
Loudon, Maiden, Martius, Masters, Meehan, Meyer, Michaux, Molineux,
Naudin, Nuttall, Oliver, Pereira, Philippi, Porcher, Rosenthal, Rox-
burgh, Sargent, Seemann, Semler, Simmonds, Trimen, Watt, Wiesner,
Wilkinson, Wittstein and others, to whose names reference is cur-
sorily made in the text. The volumes of the Agricultural Department
Introductory Remarks.
VII
at Washington, the Austrian Apotheker-Verein, the Journal of
Applied Science, the Bulletin dela Societe d'Acclimatation de France,
the Gardeners' Chronicle, the Anales de la Sociedad rural Argentina,
the Revue Agricole of Mauritius, the Indian Forester, the Journal of
the Society of Arts, Therapeutic Gazette, Dyer's Kew Bulletin,
Christy's New Commercial Plants, Progress-Reports of the Victorian
Royal Commission on Vegetable Products edited by Mr. J. J. Shil-
linglaw, the Garten-Flora, the Wiener Garten-Zeitung, Capetown
Agricultural Journal, the Calcutta Agricultural Ledger, Meehan's
Monthly, Erfurt Deutsche Gaertner-Zeitung, Bulletins of the Agri-
cultural Departments of Sydney, Melbourne, South- Australia and
Western Australia and several other periodicals have likewise
afforded data, utilised for this work. ' B. D. Jackson's " Vegetable
Technology," up to 1882, is an admirable guide to the vast literature
in this direction. The six volumes by Dr. Watt on the economic
products of India, hitherto issued, have especially been consulted.
Many therapeutic notes have been obtained from the recent works of
Bartholow, Brunton, and Phillips, Special praise should be bestowed
on the great Kew-establishment for originating or sustaining the
culture of so many new plants, particularly in the British colonies.
In selecting notes from general rural literature great caution had to be
exercised, to guard against being misled by perhaps sometimes
faulty nomenclature, whether phytographic or popular. So also, in
choosing or elaborating the data for entries into this work, it had con-
stantly to be kept in view, that the information is intended for the
bread-winning portion ot communities in young colonies mainly if
not exclusively ; little beyond this is aimed at. Consummate dis-
crimination had therefore to be exercised, to circumscribe the informa-
tion offered in this plain book. Mischief may also be done by careless
introductions ; thus Madia may be singled out as an instance of a
very invasive and therefore objectionable weed avoided by pasture-
animals, although it continues to be much praised up as an oil-plant.
Indigenous plants of special local value and of even easy .restoration
are often neglected here and elsewhere, instance our incomparable
Redgum-Eucalyptus, Sheep Salt-Bushes, Kangaroo-grass. What
may another century have to say about their indiscriminate annihila-
tion ? More rotation of crops may ward off various diseases of plants
and defertilisation of fields, and this without impairment of remunera-
tiveness of harvests. Soil analysis should precede manuring in any
kinds of extensive culture, so as to render that operation always most
rational, with most of gain, least of exhaustion and remaining clearness.
M
viii Introductory Remarks.
The cost of rural production will all over the world become more
equalized, as by increased facilities of traffic through steam-communi-
cations the rate of wages will rise in countries with as yet very cheap
labour, and the reverse will take place in regions, where handicraft is
still very expensive. By this equalisation many plants will become
far more widely cultivated than hitherto proved remunerative, not to
speak of the labour-saving of more and more application of ever
improving machinery ; thus it is now possible to supply lucra-
tively fresh orchard-fruits and kitchen-vegetables from the southern tc
the northern zone and vice versa, so as to provide articles of daily
sustenance accessible at all seasons.
In grouping together at the close of this volume all the genera,
arranged according to the products, which they yield, facility is
afforded for tracing out any series of plants, regarding which special
economic or technic information may be sought, or which may at any
time prominently engage the attention of the cultivator, the manu-
facturer or the artisan. Again, by placing together in index-form
the respective industrial plants according to their geographic dis-
tribution, as has likewise been done in the concluding pages, .it is
rendered easy, to order or obtain from abroad the plants of such other
countries, with which any settlers or colonists may be in relation,
through commercial, literary or other intercourse. Lists like the
present may also help in naming particular species and their products
with scientific correctness in establishments for economic culture
or for technologic or other educational collections. If the line of
demarcation between the plants, admissible into this list, and those,
which should have been excluded, has occasionally been extended in
favour of the latter, then it must be pleaded, that the final value of
any particular species for a peculiar want, locality or treatment can-
not always be fully foretold. Doubtless, many plants of primary
importance for rural requirements, here again alluded to, have long
since been secured even for new colonies by intelligent early pioneers
of immigration, who timely strove to enrich the cultural resources of
their adopted country. In these efforts the writer, so far as his public
or private means would permit, has endeavoured for more than a third of
a century to take an honorable share. But although many such plants
may have been introduced, they are not in all instances as yet widely
diffused, nor tested in all desirable localities and for all needful
purposes ; thus for the sake of completeness even the most ordinary
cultural plants have not been passed, as the opportunity seemed yet
an apt one, to offer some cursory remarks on their respective value.
Introductory Remarks. ix
Even the geographic limitation of the work nominally to extra-tropic
regions involves a somewhat arbitrary admission or exclusion of those
intra-tropical plants, which occupy cooler mountain-regions, and those
which extend even from low lands almost within the equinoctial
zones fully to both tropical circles of geographic demarcation. An
armful of hay or straw may help many a tender seedling over the
first cool season, or a bit of brush may shelter infant-plants against
scorching in the first summer. In fact, a work like this can pass only
strictly equatorial and sub-equatorial lowland-plants, the isothermal
lines not rarely receding much from those of geographic latitude, as
for instance here in Eastern Australia. In viewing some of the
recommendations, contained in these pages, the prospect of remunera-
tiveness may seem scant ; yet it should not be forgotten, that vast
saving of labour is effected nowadays through machinery becoming
more and more ingeniously perfected quite as much for rural pur-
poses, as for application to the printing process, to paper-making,
sugar-production, sewing and many other kinds of work in technology
or even domesticity. Hence assuredly we are not to continue for ever
all the tedious manual operations in tea-manufacture, perfume-isola-
tion and other industrial operations ; indeed, the changes for ex-
pediting technic processes and for saving raw material have been
great already, more particularly so within the last few decades. Verna-
culars have been but sparingly used, being so often of duplicity or
even multiplicity in their application, and so frequently also mislead-
ing ; for instance the word " Cow-Berry," though intended for a literal
translation of Vaccinium, is so utterly devoid of any meaning, that
Wittstein argued, the latter should be altered into Baccinium.
We should strive to simplify nomenclature, and reduce popular
names to such solitary and logic expressions, as most readily can be
understood in each instance. Is it not as easy, to bear in memory
the word Casuarina as the very objectionable appellations Sheoak
and Heoak? So much botany might or should be taught henceforth
at any evening elementary school, that the Latin or Greek names of
the principal utilitarian plants of the world become universally under-
stood. But whoever likes to render himself fully acquainted with
English or any foreign provincialisms of plants, can readily refer to W.
Ulrich's and to W. Miller's special dictionaries, both of comparatively
recent date. The permission of re-issuing this work is only accorded
on an understanding, that no alterations for the mere purpose of
effecting changes of wordings or passages be made, as such would
only be apparent but not real improvement, and would destroy the
b
x Introductory Remarks,
originality, and this can best be preserved by additional notes appear-
ing in a distinct form or as an appendix to any posthumous edition.
The fact, that this work through successive editions and extensive
issues came into use over a large portion of the world, whether for
educational or rural or journalistic or touristic wants, has been most
gratifying to the writer ; but this brightness is dimmed by the cir-
cumstance, that the book has not unfrequently been used even in public
departments with perhaps unintentional evasion of all literary or any
other acknowledgment. Nor did frequently words of appreciation reach
the author from wherever rural successes were gained through even
practical exertions of his own, at all events the direct encouragement
expected for the benefit of the author's establishment was generally out
of proportion to the services hoped to be rendered.
The writer entertains a hope, that a copy of this plain volume may
find also a place in the libraries of any of our schools and mechanics'
institutes for occasional and perhaps frequent reference to its pages,
and that it may further become available on board of ships and other-
wise to travellers and emigrants, so that the varied wideness of
cultural range in mild climates as yet so imperfectly understood
may more fully and readily be recognised, particularly also for the
advantage of these southern colonies. Indeed the book, if kept at
hand for all days life, would instil information to domestic circles,
calling forth discussions conversationally, when opportunities arise,
as pleasant and impressive means for education even of the juveniles
in very practical subjects. The increased ease of communication,
which more latterly has arisen between nearly all parts of the globe,
places us here also now in a fairer position for independent efforts,
to suggest or promote introductions of new vegetable treasures from
unexplored regions, or to submit neglected plants of promising value
to unbiased original tests. It may merely be instanced, that
after the lapse of more than three centuries since the conquest of
Mexico only the most scanty information is extant on the timber of
that empire, even in reference to its numerous kinds of splendid oaks,
and that of several thousand species of tropical grasses not many
dozen have been tried as yet with rural or chemical exactitude for
pasture-purposes, not to speak of a multitude of prominently utili-
tarian trees, shrubs and herbs, restricted to temperate mountain-
regions within the tropics, but never yet carried to the lowlands of
higher latitudes. For inquiries of such kind every civilised State
strives now to afford in well planned, thoughtfully directed and
generously supported special scientific establishments the needful aid,
Introductory Remarks. xi
not merely for adding to the prosperity, comfort and enjoyment of
the present generation, but also with an anticipation of earning the
gratitude of posterity ; and this is ever done with a sensitive jealousy,
to maintain also thereby the fair fame of any country for scientific
dignity and industrial development. Friendly consideration will recog-
nise the fact, that a desire, humbly to aid in such a spirit of emulation,
has much inspired the writer, to offer these pages, he feeling assured,
that enlightened statesmanship far and wide will foster these aims,
through liberal, energetic and circumspect support.
Melbourne, July, 1895.
SELECT PLANTS,
READILY ELIGIBLE FOR INDUSTRIAL
CULTURE AND NATURALISATION
IN
EXTEA-TEOPICAL COUNTRIES.
Aberia Caflra, J. Hooker and Harvey.
The "Kei- Apple " of Natal and Kafir-aria. This tall shrub is
praised by Professor MacOwan above all others as a South African
hedge-plant. It resists severe droughts ; in California it stood a
temperature of 20 F. but succumbed at 16 according to Mr. C.
Shinn. The rather large fruits are acid, and when boiled edible, and
can also well be converted into preserves. They should suit for
drying, by which process the sourness might also become lessened.
Seeds require to be sown as soon as gathered [Sim]. Allied South-
African species are A. Zeyheri and A. tristis (Sonder). A. verrucosa
(Hochstetter) from the mountains of Abyssinia has also edible fruits.
Aberia is almost congeneric with Dovyalis.
Acacia acuminata, Bentham.
A kind of "Myall" from Western Australia, attaining a height
of 40 feet. The scent of the wood comparable to that of rasp-
berries. One ton of wood yields fully 1 Ib. of highly fragrant oil
on distillation [Capt. Noyes]. This species occurs through wide
regions in vast abundance. It is the best of West-Australian woods
for charcoal. The stems much sought for fence-posts, very lasting
for this purpose, even when selected young. Sheep will browse on
the foliage, should better feed be failing. Several phyllodineous
Acacias now render important services as forage-plants in arid regions
of North -Africa [Naudin]. A very similar tree with hard and
scented wood is A. Doratoxylon (A. Cunn.), of the dry regions of
South-Eastern Australia.
Acacia aneura, F. v. Mueller.
Arid desert-interior of extra-tropic Australia. A tree, never
more than 25 feet high. The '{principal "Mulga" tree. Mr. S.
2 " \ / '^Select PJant} for Industrial Culture and
Dixon praises it particularly as valuable for fodder of pasture-
animals ; hence it might locally serve for ensilage. Mr. W. Johnson
found in the foliage a considerable quantity of starch and gum,
rendering it nutritious. Cattle and sheep browse on the twigs of
this and some allied species, even in the presence of plentiful grass,
and are much sustained by such Acacias in seasons of protracted
drought, but it is really valuable only as an admixture to fodder,
as otherwise it leaves an undigested fibrous substance behind. Drome-
daries in Australia crave for the Mulga as food. Wood excessively
hard, dark-brown, used preferentially by the natives for boome-
rangs, sticks to lift edible roots, end-shafts of Phragmites-spears,
woomerangs, nulla-nullas and jagged spear-ends. Mr. J. H. Maiden
determined the percentage of mimosa-tannic acid in the perfectly
dry bark as 8 '62.
Acacia Arabica, Willdenow.
The " Kikar " or " Babool." Northern and Central Africa, also
in South-Western Asia, growing in dry, calcareous soil. The
Egyptian Acacia of Dioscorides, Plinius and Virgilius. This small
tree can be utilised for thorny hedges. It furnishes a good kind of
gum arabic for medicinal and technical purposes. Pasture-animals
devour the leaves. The lac-insect lives also on the foliage, and thus
in Sind the lac is mainly yielded by this tree. The stem attains
exceptionally a circumference of 10 feet. The astringent pods are
highly valuable for tanning, also the bark, which is known as
" Babool " bark, and produces leather of peculiar paleness ; the
wood is very durable if water-seasoned, extensively used for wheels,
well-curbs and many kinds of implements, also for the knees and
planks of boats. This species is of comparatively quick growth ;
A. vera and A. Nilotica are varieties of it. The import of gum
arabic into Britain during 1886 was 75,591 cwt., valued at 295,464.
A. Ehrenbergiana (Hayne) is among the species, which yield gum
arabic in North- Africa. A. latronum (Willdenow) and A. modesta
(Wallich) form thorny hedges in India according to Sir D. Brandis.
Acacia armata, R. Brown.
Extra-tropical Australia. The Kangaroo-Thorn. Much grown
for hedges, though less manageable than various other hedge-plants,
and not so fire-proof. More important for covering coast-sand with
an unapproachable prickly vegetation.
Acacia binervata, De Candolle.
Extra-tropical East-Australia. A tree attaining a height of 40
feet. The bark used by tanners, but not quite so valuable as that
of A. decurrens [W. Dovegrove], although Mr. J. H. Maiden deter-
mined the percentage of mimosa-tannic acid in perfectly dried bark
as 30-4. The wood is light-coloured, close-grained and easily
worked.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 3
Acacia Catechu, Willdenow.
India to East- Africa, up to 5,000 feet. A tree, attaining 80 feet in
height with a stem-circumference of 9 feet. Will bear some frost
[Brandis]. Wood hard, heavy, extremely durable, locally chosen for
underground-posts particularly and mill-work. The extract, prepared
from the bark and heart-wood, is one of the catechus of medicine
or cutch of tannery. Pure cutch is worth about 25 per ton ; 4 tons
of bark will produce 1 ton of cutch. The tree also yields a gum
which is superior to that of A. Arabica [Dr. G. Watt]. A. Suma
(Kurz) is closely allied. The two other principal kinds of catechu
are tropical products from Areca Catechu and Nauclea Gambir, that
of the latter being obtained from some congeners also. The import
of cutch aud gambir into the United Kingdom during 1886 was
28,352 tons, valued at 654.218.
Acacia Cavenia, Bertero.
The " Espino " of the present inhabitants of Chili, the " Cavan "
of the former population. A small tree with exceedingly hard
wood, resisting underground moisture. The plant is well adapted
for hedges. The husks contain 32 per dent, tannin [Sievers],
particularly valuable as a dye-material.
Acacia concinna, De Candolle.
India, China. Praised by Dr. Cleghorn as a valuable hedge-
shrub. The pod contains saponin.
Acacia cyclopis, Cunningham.
South- Western Australia. A tall shrub, delighting in coast-sands,
but allied to A. Melanoxylon, to which it stands almost in the same
relation as A. Sophorae to A. longifolia. According to Mr. A. W.
Heywood it has been utilised in South- Africa for fixing drift-sand on
sea-shores.
Acacia dealbata, Link.
South-Eastern Australia and Tasmania. This tree is generally
known amongst Australian colonists as Silver- Wattle. It prefers
for its habitation humid river-banks, and sometimes attains there a
height of 150 feet, supplying a clear and tough timber, used by
coopers and other artisans, but principally serving as select fuel of
great heating power. From the thinly-split wood elegant baskets
can be made. The bark of this tree is thinner and inferior in
quality to that of the Black Wattle, yielding generally much less
quantity of tannin-principle. Mr. J. H. Maiden determined the
average proportion of mimosa-tannic acid in absolutely dry bark as
21-22 against 30-08 of A. mollissima. He relies on the colour-
reaction, given by a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, as the
most valuable for roughly ascertaining the strength of tan-samples ;
that from the rich wattle barks gives rose-madder colour, and all
B 2
4 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
give shades of colour proportionate in tint to the percentage of
tannin. Bark chiefly employed for lighter leather. This tree is
distinguished from the Black Wattle by the silvery or rather ashy
hue of its young foliage ; it flowers early in spring, ripening its
seeds in about 5 months, while the Black Wattle occurs chiefly on
drier ridges, blossoms late in spring or at the beginning of summer,
and its seeds do not mature in less than about 14 months. This
hardy Acacia could doubtless, for tan purposes, be remuneratively
reared so far north as the Channel-Islands. It was cut down by frost
during an unusually severe winter in the Isle of Wight, but sprung up
again from the root [Ewbank]. It bears more cold than A.
decurrens, A. mollissima and A. pycnantha. At Abbazia in Adriatic
Austria it endured a transient temperature of 14 F. [F. Abel].
Acacia decurrens, Willdenow.
The Black or Green Wattle of New South Wales, extending to
the southern part of Queensland and North-Eastern Victoria.
Finally a middle-sized tree, closely resembling A. mollissima in
appearance as well as in usefulness, and many of the notes given
under that species apply also to this. Its leaflets are longer and further
apart and its flowering time is earlier. The wood is comparatively
light, tough, used principally for staves, also for rustic seats and
supplies an excellent fuel. The principal value of the tree consists
however in its bark, which is one of the best for tanning in the whole
world ; Mr. J. H. Maiden, the Director of the Sydney Technological
Museum obtained 48'74 per cent, of extract and 32'33 per cent, of
catechu-tannic acid from it; the Queensland Commissioners for the
Indian and Colonial Exhibition of 1886 reported the contents as:
extract 26'78 per cent., tannin 15-08 percent.; discrepancies ascribable
to different localities. The Hon. Dr. J. Cox considers it inferior to
that of A. mollissima. The tree yields gum copiously which is fit
for glueing. It is sometimes used instead of isinglass for making
jellies, also employed by tanners, with admixture of glue, for sizing
leather [J. H. Maiden].
Acacia erubescens, Welwitsch.
Western Tropical Africa. A small tree only, but affording the
best gum in Angola and the nearest regions [Dr. Welwitsch].
Tropical Acacias have proved hardy in the mild extra-tropic zones,
thus also this species might merit introduction elsewhere. Another
Acacia of Western Africa, the "Alma," particularly occurring in
Damaras, bears a profusion of reddish pods, which form a nutritious
food, not only for pasture-animals, but even for the nomadic natives.
The Ahna occasionally attains a height of 100 feet and a stem-
circumference of 30 feet. The bark yields strong tan [T. Christy].
Acacia estrophiolata, F. v. Mueller.
Central Australia. A tree, attaining a height of 30 feet and a
stem-diameter of 1 foot, enduring the extreinest of dry heat ; suitable
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 5
for cemeteries on account of its pendent branches. It flowers almost
constantly, and accommodates itself to all sorts of soil, even sand.
Wood very durable, locally much used for implements and especially
wheelwright's works [Rev. H. Kempe]. Bark rich in tannin.
Acacia excelsa, Bentham.
The Ironbark-Acacia of Queensland, extending into New South
Wales. Attains a height of 80 feet. Branches pendent. The wood
is dark-coloured, hard, heavy and durable, well adapted for furniture
and implements ; towards the centre it is of a deep pinkish colour.
The tree exudes a large quantity of clear gum [O'Shanesy], and
sprouts again from the root after the stem is cut. Also particularly
eligible for cemeteries.
Acacia falcata, Willdenow.
Extra-tropical East- Australia. A small tree. Important for its
bark in tanneries.
Acacia Farnesiana, Willdenow.
Indigenous to Southern Asia ; found eastward as far as Japan ; a
native also of the warmer parts of Australia, as far south as the
Darling-River ; found spontaneous in tropical and sub-tropical
America, but apparently not in tropical Africa. The scented flowers,
inappropriately called 6< cassie " flowers, are much sought for per-
fumery, and develop successively. 100,000 Ibs. of these flowers are
annually gathered near Grasse in France. This species may well be
utilised as a hedge- plant ; a kind of gum arabic may also be obtained
from it. The scent perhaps obtainable from the fresh and slightly
moist flowers by gentle dry distillation under mere steam heat.
Ordinarily the odorous essential oil is withdrawn from the flowers by
the enfleurage-process ; many Australian Acacias might be thus
treated for perfumery.
Acacia fasciculifera, F. v. Mueller.
South-Queensland. Tree, sometimes to 70 feet high ; branches
pendent. Desirable for culture on account of the excellence of its
easily worked dark wood. Eligible also for cemeteries.
Acacia giraffae, Willdenow.
South- Africa. The Camel-Thorn. This tree attains a great age
and a height of 40 feet. The trunk assumes a large size, and
supplies a wood of great hardness. The tree will grow on the driest
soil and in the hottest clime. It produces a portion of the Cape-Gum.
Acacia glaucescens, Willdenow.
Queensland and New South Wales, in mountain-regions up to
3,000 feet. Extreme height about 70 feet. A kind of " Myall,"
with hard, dark, elastic, prettily grained wood, which is however less
6 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
fragrant than that of some other species. The flowers have a
strong agreeable scent. The bark is locally used in a decoction to
destroy Aphis and other minute parasites on cultivated plants ; the
aborigines used it for stupefying fish [Crawford].
Acacia G-reggii, Asa Gray.
From Southern California to Arizona and Texas. A small tree,
allied to A. Wrightii (Bentham) of the Rio Grande-region. A
kind of lac is copiously obtained from this tree in the Mojave- and
Colorado-Deserts [Prof. Stilman]. This plant lives at a rainfall of
3 inches a year.
Acacia gummifera, Willdenow.
This tree yields principally the Gum Arabic of Morocco [Sir
Joseph Hooker and John Ball]. The principal collecting time
extends over six weeks in midsummer.
Acacia harpophylla, F. v. Mueller.
Southern Queensland. A tree, sometimes attaining a height of
90 feet, furnishing locally a considerable share of the mercantile
wattle-bark for tanning purposes, particularly for light leather.
Wood, according to Mr. P. O'Shanesy, brown, hard, heavy -and
elastic, somewhat of violet odor ; it splits freely and is thus also
well adapted for fancy lathe-work ; used by the natives for spears.
The tree grows naturally on sand-lands, almost to the exclusion of
other trees and shrubs. Saplings, used as stakes in vineyards,
have lasted 20 years and more. The tree yields also considerable
quantities of gum. It is one of the principal a Brigalows " in the
scrubs of that designation.
Acacia heteroclita, Meissner.
South-Western Australia. This or an allied species furnishes a
particular sort of edible gum, called by the autochthones " Quannot "
[Sir John Forrest].
Acacia homalophylla, Cunningham.
The principal " Myall," extending from the desert of South-
Australia into New South Wales. Never a tall tree. The dark-
brown wood is much sought for turners' work on account of its
solidity and fragrance ; perhaps its most extensive use is in the
manufacture of tobacco-pipes. Allied species pass under the abori-
ginal appellation " Boree/" Some or most will grow in the bleakest
and most arid localities, wherever frost is not severe.
Acacia horrida, Willdenow.
The " Doornboom " or " Karra-Doorn " of South- Africa. A for-
midable hedge-bush with thorns often 3 inches long, readily avail-
able for impenetrable hedge-rows. It exudes also a gum of good
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 7
quality, but often of amber-colour. This is the principal species used
for tanners' bark in South-Africa. In Kaffraria it is the only bark so
employed [Sim]. Leucospermum conocarpum (R. Br.) is also ex-
tensively employed for the same purpose [McGibbon], though it
imparts an unpleasant odor to the leather made with it [MacOwan].
Stirring the seeds for some few minutes in hot water stimulates their
power of germination, particularly if they are old [B. Hellier].
Acacia implexa, Bentham.
Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland. A tree of middle size,
content with poor soil. Wood firm and close, dark-brown with
yellowish stripes ; much in demand for turnery, cogwheels and other
purposes, which need tenacity and strength [Dickinson]. Bark
available for tanneries. Foliage extremely bitter. Flowers much
later in the season than most of the numerous other Australian
species, about 300 being distinguishable.
Acacia Koa, A. Gray.
Hawaii ; there one of the most valuable of timber-trees. Stem
reaching a height of 60 feet, topped by wide-spreading phyllodi-
nous foliage. Wood easy to work, particularly in a fresh state ;
formerly much used for boat-building and for building purposes
generally ; also suitable for cabinet-work. Species of Metrosideros,
some ascending to 8,000 feet, one over-topping all other trees, furnish
a large share of hard, tough and very durable timber in the Hawaian
islands. Their wood varies from a light red to a purplish hue [Hon.
Judge McCully].
Acacia leioph.ylla, Bentham.* (A. saligna, Bentham not Wendland.)
South- Western Australia, where it is the principal tree chosen for
tanners' bark. It is a wide-spreading small tree, fit for avenues ;
emitting suckers. The weeping habit fits it particularly also for
cemeteries. It conies into flower simultaneously with the Cherry-
tree, or somewhat later, and blooms profusely. The bark contains
nearly 30 per cent, of mimosa-tannin, and is extensively used by
tanners in West-Australia. Perfectly dried leaves yield from 7 to
8 per cent, mimosa- tannic acid, giving a lead-precipitate of a light
yellow colour ; the leaves contain also a considerable quantity of
sulphate of lime. The London price of fair West- Australian gum
from this species was from 46s. to 49s. per cwt. in 1879. The tree
has proved in Algeria to resist the sirocco better than most species
[Dr. Bonand]. Cultivated extensively in South- Africa also for tan-
bark. A. cyanophylla (Lindley) is a closely allied species, serving
the same purposes.
Acacia longifolia, Willdenow.
South-Eastern Australia. This tree is introduced into this list,
inasmuch as the very bushy variety, known as A. Sophorae (R.
8 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Brown), renders most important service in subduing loose coast-sand,
the lower branches striking root into the soil ; it should therefore be
disseminated on extensively bare sand-shores in regions, where no
severe frosts occur. The bark of A. longifolia is only half as good as
that of A. niollissima for tan, and used chiefly for sheep-skins. The
tree is of quick growth.
Acacia macrantha, Bentham.
From Mexico to Argentina, also in the Galapagos- Group. This
tree, usually small, provides the " Cuji-pods " for tanning [Sim-
monds] .
Acacia Melanoxylon, B. Brown.*
South-Eastern Australia. Ascends to sub-alpine country. Gene-
rally known as Blackwood-tree, passing also under the inappro-
priate name of Lightwood-tree. In irrigated glens of deep soil the
tree will attain a height of 80 feet, with a stem several feet in
diameter. The wood is most valuable for furniture, railroad-cars
and carriages, boat-building (stem and stern-post, ribs, rudder), for
tool-handles, crutches, stethoscopes, some portions of the work of
organ-builders, billiard-tables, pianofortes (for sound-boards and
actions) and numerous other purposes; it has also come into use 1 for
casks, which need however previous long soaking. Planks 12 feet
by 4 feet are occasionally obtainable for select purposes. Specific
gravity of the dry wood O664-0-777. The Victorian Railway-
Commissioners report it for railway-carriages better adapted than
almost any other timber, being handsome and durable, and not par-
ticularly expensive; wood from hilly country is also in this instance
superior to that from low and particularly wet localities. The
fine-grained wood is cut into veneers; it takes a fine polish, and is
considered almost equal to walnut. The best wood in Victoria for
bending under steam; it does not warp and twist. Local experiments
gave the strength in transverse strain of Blackwood equal to Euca-
lyptus-wood of middling strength, approaching that of the American
White Oak, and surpassing that of the Kauri. The bark contains
up to 20 per cent, mimosa-tannin. The tree has proved, with A.
mollissima and A. dealbata, hardy in the Isle of Arran [Rev. D.
Landsborough]. Mr. T. R. Sim states that it thrives well in Cape
Colony wherever it finds plenty of root-moisture, but without that
it dies out early.
Acacia microbotrya, Bentham.
South-Western Australia. The " Badjong." A comparatively
tall species, the stem attaining a diameter of 1 to 1J feet. It prefers
river-valleys, and lines brooks naturally. According to Mr. Geo.
Whitfield, a single tree may yield 50' Ibs. of gum in a season. The
aborigines store the gum in hollow trees for winter-use; it is of a
pleasant, sweetish taste.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 9
Acacia mollissima, Willdenow.*
The Black Wattle of South-Eastern Australia and Tasmania. It
seems best to re-adopt the systematic names, by which our three
principal feather-leaved wattles were distinguished during the first
half of the century. The systematic affinity of A. mollissima is
nearer to A. dealbata than to A. decurrens, the differences having
already been set forth under those two species. It is generally a
middle-sized tree, its wood being used for staves, occasionally also for
pick-handles and similar purposes, but principally serving as an
excellent fuel. A chief use of the tree would also be to afford the
first shelter in treeless localities for raising forests in regions where
no severe frosts occur. It also exudes a useful gum. By far its
greatest importance however rests upon its bark, so highly valuable
for tanning ; indeed it seems destined to stand ahead of all the other
tan-trees of the world through the facility of its culture in suitable
localities and the strength of its product. Mr. James Dickinson states
that he has seen 10 cwt. of fresh bark obtained from a single tree of
gigantic dimensions at Southport. A quarter of a ton of bark was
got from one tree at Tambo, without stripping all the branches. The
height of this tree was 60 feet, and the stem 2 feet in diameter.
The English price of the bark ranges generally from 7 to 12. In
Melbourne it averages about 5 to 10 per ton. It varies, so far
as experiments made in my laboratory have shown, in its contents
of tannic principle from 30 to 40 per cent, in bark completely dried,
but this is not all pure tannic acid. In the mercantile bark the
percentage is somewhat less, according to the state of its dryness,
it retaining abont 10 per cent, moisture. 1^ Ibs. of Black Wattle-
bark give 1 Ib. of leather, whereas 5 Ibs. of English Oak-bark are
requisite for the same results ; but the tannic principle of both is
not absolutely identical. Melbourne tanners consider a ton of
Black Wattle-bark sufficient to tan 25 to 30 hides ; it is best
adapted for sole-leather and other so-called heavy goods. The
leather is fully as durable as that tanned with oak -bark, and nearly
as good in colour. Bark, carefully stored for a season, improves in
tanning power considerably. From experiments made under the
author's direction it appears, that no appreciable difference exists
in the percentage of tannin in Wattle-bark, whether obtained in
the dry or in the wet season. The tannin of this Acacia yields a
grey precipitate with ferric and a violet colour with ferrous salts ;
it is completely precipitated from a strong aqueous solution by
means of concentrated sulphuric acid. The bark improves by age
and desiccation, and yields about 40 per cent, of catechu, rather
more than half of which is tannic acid. Bichromate of potash
added in a minute quantity to the boiling solution of mimosa-
tannin, produces a ruby-red liquid, fit for dye-purposes ; and this
solution gives with the salt of sub-oxide of iron black pigments,
and with the salts of the full oxide of iron red-brown dyes [F. v. M.
and Eummell. As far back as 1823 a fluid extract of Wattle-bark
was shipped to London, fetching then an extraordinary price,
10 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
1 ton of bark yielding 4 cwt. of extract of tar-consistence [Sim-
monds], thus saying much freight and cartage. Messrs. Borrow
and Haycroft, in South Australia, are now producing a thick fluid
extract from Wattle-bark and twigs by steam machinery, the average
percentage of mimosa-tannic acid in this extract being 38-20.
Catechu can be realized from the thick tan-liquid by mere exsicca-
tion.
Tan-extract is best obtained from the bark by hydraulic pressure
and evaporation of the strong liquid thus obtained in wide pans under
steam-heat, or better still, to avoid any decomposition of the tannic
acid, by evaporation under a strong current of cold air. For cutch
or terra japonica the infusion is carefully evaporated by gentle heat.
The estimation of tannic acid in Acacia-barks is effected most ex-
peditiously by filtering the aqueous decoction of the bark after
cooling, evaporating the solution and then re-dissolving the residue in
alcohol and determing the weight of the tannic principle obtained by
evaporating the filtered alcohol-solution to perfect dryness.
The cultivation of the Tan- Wattle is extremely easy, being
effected by sowing either broadcast or in rows. In Australia
particularly it is capable of immense extension, often on otherwise
unutilised ground, and within the grasp of the crudest of labour.
Tanners in colder countries might acquire in the nearest warmer
regions poor inexpensive land, to provide an independent supply of
this valuable bark from comparatively near shipping places. Seeds
can be obtained in Melbourne at about 5s. per lb., which contains
from 30,000 to 50,000 grains ; they are known to retain their
vitality for several years. For discrimination in mercantile trans-
actions it may be noted, that the seeds of A. mollissima are some-
what smaller, comparatively shorter, rounder and not so flat as
those of A. dealbata, while the funicular appendage does not extend
so far along the seeds, nor is the pod quite so broad ; from those of
A. pycnantha they differ in being shorter, thus more ovate than
elliptical. See in reference to this and kindred subjects also J. H.
Maiden's " The useful native plants of Australia."
Seeds should be soaked in warm water before sowing. Any bare,
sterile, unutilised place might most remuneratively be sown with
this Wattle- Acacia ; the return could be expected in from five to
ten years. Full-grown trees, which supply also the best quality,
yield as much as 1 cwt. of bark. The rate of growth of the tree
is about 1 inch in diameter of stem annually. It is content with the
poorest and driest soil, although in more fertile ground it shows
greater celerity of growth. Bark from trees, grown on very cal-
careous soil, is less strong in tan. This Acacia is perhaps the most
important of all tan-yielding trees of the warm temperate zones,
for its strength in tannic acid, its rapidity of growth, its contentedness
with almost any soil, the ease with which it can be reared and its
early yield of tanner's bark, and indeed also gum and stave-wood.
This tree is to be recommended for poor land, affected with sorrel.
It is hardier than Eucalyptus globulus, thus enduring the climate of
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 11
South-England, although unlike A. dealbata it hardly extends to
sub-alpine elevations. Pasture-animals browse on the foliage.
Tasmania exports about 40,000 worth of wattle-bark annually.
In 1880, the United Kingdom paid, according to Mr. P. L. Sim-
monds, three million pounds for tan-barks, and one and a quarter
million for other tan-substances. The wood of this Acacia, particu-
larly when the trees are in an unhealthy state, is sometimes bored by
the large larva of a moth, namely that of Eudoxyla Eucalypti, also
by beetles of the genus Phoracantha [C. French].
For fuller information the " Report on Wattle-bark," presented in
1878 to the Parliament of Victoria by a special commission, may be
referred to.
Acacia moniliformis, Grisebach.
Argentina. The " Tusca." The young pods are used for feeding
horses and cattle [Dr. Lorentz], like those of Acacia Cavenia in
South- Western America.
Acacia Nilotica, Delile.
Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia. Closely allied to A. Arabica. Wood
very hard. The growth of the tree is comparatively quick ; it
succeeds also on sandy and brackish ground [Dr. Schweinfurth].
Acacia Osswaldi, F. v. Mueller.
Widely distributed through the desert-country of Australia.
Pasture-animals browse on the foliage [Rev. J. M. Curran],
Acacia pendula, Cunningham.
New South Wales and Queensland, generally in marshy tracts of
the interior. The " Boree " or "Weeping Myall." Reaching $
feet in height. Wood violet-scented, hard, close-grained, beautifully
marked; used by cabinet-makers and turners, in high repute for
tobacco-pipes [W. Hill]. The tree is desirable for cemeteries,
leaves are eaten greedily by stock. It exudes large quantities
superior transparent gum.
Acacia penninervis, Sieber.
Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. A small tree, s
hardy as to occupy sub-alpine localities. The bark contains about
18 per cent, of tannin. Mr. A. R. Crawford found the bark of
singular tanning strength, and producing a soft and pale leather.
Acacia Pence, F. v. Mueller.
Central Australia. Wood one of the
existence; dark-coloured. Specific gravity 1-369-
12 Select Plants for Industrial Culture
Acacia polybotrya, Bentham.
New South Wales and Queensland. Attains a height of 40 feet
and yields, according to Mr. O'Shanesy, a good tan-bark.
Acacia pycnantha, Bentham.*
Victoria and South Australia. The " Golden Wattle " of the
colonists. This tree, which attains a maximum height of about 30
feet, is second only to A. mollissima in importance for its yield of
tanners' bark ; the quality of the latter is even sometimes superior to
that of the Black Wattle, but the yield is less, as the tree is smaller
and the bark thinner. It is a tree of rapid growth, content with
almost any soil, but is generally found in poor sandy ground, parti-
cularly near the sea-coast, where A. decurrens would not succeed,
and thus also important for binding rolling sand. It does not bear
severe frost. Experiments, instituted by me, have proved the abso-
lutely dried bark to contain up to 30 per cent, tanning principle, full-
grown sound trees supplying the best quality. The aqueous infusion
of the bark can be reduced by boiling to a dry extract, which in
medicinal and other respects is equal to the best Indian catechu, as
derived from Acacia Catechu and A. Surna ; it yields nearly 30 per
cent., about half of which or more is mimosa-tannic acid. This catechu
is also of great use for preserving against decay articles subject to
exposure in water, such as ropes, nets and fishing-lines. The fresh
leaves yield up to 6 per cent, and dry leaves up to 15 or 16 per
cent, of mimosa- tannin. Mr. G-oyder found the percentage of mimosa-
tannin in the stem-bark, estimated by LoewenthaFs method, to vary
from about 12 to 22 per cent. While, according to Mr. Siinmonds,
the import of the bark of oaks and hemlock-spruce into England
becomes every year less, and while the import of sumach and gambir
does not increase, the annual demand for tanning substances has
within the last twenty years been doubled. The import of tan-bark
from South-Australia into Britain during 1886 was 71,141 cwt.,
valued at 51,632. A. pycnantha is also important for its copious
yield of gum, which is in some localities advantageously collected for
home-consumption and also for export. It is used in cotton-printing
and is of particularly good gluing quality. The wood, though not of
large dimensions, is well adapted for staves, handles of various imple-
ments and articles of turnery, especially bobbins [Dickinson]. It is
pale and can be easily worked. By improved methods, the fragrant
oil of the flowers could doubtless be fixed, though its absolute isolation
might be difficult and unremunerative. The tree as a rule seeds well.
An acre planted with this tree yielded five tons of bark in the seventh
year, worth 8 a ton here.
Acacia retinodes, Schlechtendal.
South-Eastern Australia. Ascertained so early as 1846 by Dr:
Hermann Behr to yield a good tanners' bark and much gum. This
Acacia is ever-flowering, and in this respect almost exceptional. In
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 13
the South of England it needs only wall-protection [Bateman]. It
likes river-banks, but never grows beyond the height of a small tree.
A neriifolia (A. Cunningham) of New South Wales and Southern
Queensland is a closely allied species.
Acacia Senegal, Willdenow (A. Verek, Guillemin and Perrottet).
From Senegambia to Nubia. Affords the best white gum arabic of
the Nile-region, and a large quantity of this on a commercial scale. A.
Etbaica (Schweinfurth) from the same region produces also a good
mercantile gum.
Acacia Sentis, F. v. Mueller.
Interior of Australia. This shrub or small tree is suitable for
hedges. The seeds of this species and also of A. Kempeana, A.
cibaria and some others are eaten by the natives. Horses, cattle,
sheep and goats browse in Central Australia with avidity on the
foliage [Rev. H. Kempe]. This species will endure most protracted
drought and a shade-temperature of 118 F. The foliage of this and
of A. aneura and A. salicina proved a favorite food of dromedaries
[Sir Thomas Elder]. Its gum is similar to the least-coloured kinds
of gum arabic.
Acacia Seyal, Delile.
In the Libyan and Nubian deserts. This thorny tree exudes a
brownish kind of gum arabic. It is adapted for the most arid desert-
country. The foliage a prominent feed for sheep, goats and camels
in some parts of Egypt [Floyer]. In any oasis it forms a large and
shady tree. Native name " Soffar." Can be utilised for thorny
hedges.
Acacia stenocarpa, Hochstetter.
Abyssinia and Nubia. A large tree, which yields the brownish
" Suak-" or " Talha " -Gum, a kind of gum arabic [Hanbury and
Flueckiger].
Acacia Stenophylla, Cunningham.
On banks of water-courses in the interior of Australia, as far south
as the Murray-Kiver. A tree with exquisite, hard, dark wood, which
serves the same purposes as Myall-wood ; locally known as Iron-
wood. Attains a height of 60 feet and a stem-diameter of 2 feet.
Acacia subporosa, F. v. Mueller.
South-Eastern Australia. Straight stems over 50 feet long are
formed by this tree ; the wood is tough and elastic, fit for carriage-
shafts, gunstocks, various select tools [L. Morton]. ^ Australian.
Acacias were formerly the main glories of conservatories in home-
countries as the first harbingers of spring.
14 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Acacia tortilis, Hayne.
The Sahara- Acacia. North-Africa and Arabia. Eminently
suited for the hottest and driest regions. The Sahara gum arabic is
derived from this species.
Acanthophcenix rubra, H. Wendland.
Mauritius and Reunion. This palm has proved hardy in Florida,
also as far south as Sydney [C. Moore]. Height reaching 60 feet.
The upper rings of the stem are of a bright red. In gardens usually
passing as an Areca.
Acanthosicyos horrida, Welwitsch.
The " Narras." In the deserts of Angola, Benguela and Damaras.
This thorny, erect, cucurbitaceous shrub thrives even in absolute
coast-sand, and would likely prove valuable for sandy desert-country.
The tribes of Hottentots near Walfish-Bay mainly subsist, as regards
vegetable food, on the Narras for some time in the year. It bears
fruit of the size and colour of oranges, and of pleasant acidulous and
sweetish taste. The seeds are also edible, remarkably oily and of
hazel-taste [R. Marlott] ; they also serve as lab. The Missionary
Duparquet counted exceptionally as many as 200 fruits on one plant
[Prof. Naudin]. No rain occurs in the Acanthosicyos- and Welwit-
schia-region, but the mean heat does not exceed 70 F., and the soil
is kept somewhat moist through capillarity from beneath.
Acer Campbellii, J. Hooker and Thomson.
The chief Maple of the North-Eastern Himalayas up to 7,000 feet.
A large tree. Freely reproduced by seed or coppice. Wood pale, close-
grained, particularly valuable for planking [Gamble]. A. laevigatum
(Wallich) is another handsome species from the same region, the wood
of which is much used, for building and also for tea-boxes [Dr. G-.
Watt].
Acer campestre,
The British Maple. Extends from Middle- and South-Europe to
Northern Africa, also to many parts of Asia. Height reaching 40
feet, in shelter and deep soil ; the yellow and purple tints of its
foliage in autumn render the tree then particularly beautiful. Occurs
in Norway to 63 26' N. L. [Prof. Schuebeler]. The wood is com-
pact and fine-grained, and sought for choice furniture, machinery and
musical instruments. The tree can be trimmed into hedges. Com-
paratively quick in growth, and easily raised from seed. These
remarks apply to many kinds of maples.
Acer circinatum, Pursh.
The Vine-Maple of North- Western America, forming in some parts
of Oregon impenetrable forests on account of its long branches
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 15
bending to the ground and striking root ; its autumnal tint gives
quite a picture to the landscape. The stem is sometimes 40 feet
long, but slender. Found to be hardy as far north as Christiania or
even Nyborg, in lat. 70 10', where the mean annual temperature is
29 F., the highest 95 and the lowest- 40 F. [Professor Schue-
beler]. The wood is heavier and of closer grain than that of A.
macrophyllum [Dr. Gibbons] ; very tough, used for helves and many
implements [Dr. G-. Dawson"].
Acer dasycarpum, Ehrhart. (A. saccharinum, Linnd. )
The Silver-Maple of North- America. Requires a rather warmer
climate than most other American maples, but has proved hardy in
Norway as far as 59 55' N. [Schuebeler]. Height reaching 50 feet ;
stem sometimes 9 feet in diameter. Much praised for street-planting ;
growth comparatively rapid. It produces no suckers, nor is the tree
subject to disease. A most beautiful tree, with a stout stem and a
magnificent crown, growing best on the banks of rivers with limpid
water and a gravelly bed, but never in swampy ground, where the
Red Maple takes its place. Excellent trees can be raised from
cuttings of this and some other congeners. The wood is pale and
soft, of less strength and durability than that of many of its con-
geners, but makes excellent charcoal. It may be cut into extreme
thinness for wood-paperhangings [Simmonds]. The tree also yields
maple-sugar, though not in such quantity as A. nigrum. With other
maples, an early yielder of honey to bees. The specific name, given
by Linne, has priority, but does not apply to the best Sugar Maple.
Acer macrophyllum, Pursh.
Large Oregon-Maple. From British Columbia to Northern Mexico.
A fine shade-tree of quick growth ; sometimes reaching a height of
90 feet ; stem attaining 16 feet in circumference ; delights on banks
of streams. The inner bark can .be utilised for baskets, hats and
superior mats ; the hard and close wood is a substitute for hickory.
It is whitish, beautifully streaked when curled. Splendid for orna-
mental work. Maple-sugar is also manufactured from the sap of
this species [Sargent].
Acer Negundo, Linn. (Negundo aceroides, Mcench.)
The Box-elder of North- America. Hardy in Norway to 59 55'
N. [Schuebeler]. A tree, deciduous like the rest of the maples ;
may attain a height of about 50 feet ; it is rich in saccharine sap ;
according to Vasey it contains almost as much as the Sugar-maple.
In California it is used extensively as a shade-tree. Cultivated, the
stem attains about 8 inches in diameter in 8 years [BrewerJ.
wood is yellow, marked with violet and rosy streaks [ Simmonds J.
Rate of growth for stem-girth in Nebraska about 2 feet in fqurte
years [Governor Furnas].
16 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Acer nigrum, Michaux. * (A. saccharinum, Wangenheim. )
The Sugar- or Rock-Maple. Eastern North- America, extending
to Arizona. One of the largest of the genus. It is the national
emblem of Canada. In the cooler latitudes often 80 or rarely 120
feet high, with a stem 3 or 4 feet in diameter. Hardy to 59 55' N.
in Norway [Schuebeler]. Likes a deeply friable soil and cool moist
positions. The wood is strong, tough, hard, close-grained, of rosy
tinge, and when well seasoned is used for axle-trees, spokes, shafts,
poles, furniture, exterior of pianos, saddle-trees, wheelwrights' work,
wooden dishes, founders' patterns and flooring ; not apt to warp ;
preferred for shoe-lasts ; when knotty or curly it furnishes the
Bird's-eye and Curly Maple-wood. From the end of February till the
early part of April the trees, when tapped, will yield the saccharine
fluid, which is so extensively converted into Maple-sugar, each tree
affording 12 to 24 gallons of sap in a season, 3 to 6 gallons giving
1 Ib. of sugar ; but exceptionally the yield may rise to 100 and more
gallons. The tapping process commences at the age of 20 years,
and may be continued for 40 years or more without destruction of the
tree [G-. Maw]. According to Poreher, instances are on record of
33 Ibs. of sugar having been obtained from a single tree in one
season. The Sugar-Maple is rich in potash, furnishing a large pro-
portion of this article in the United States. The bark is important
for the manufacture of several American dyes. The tree is particu-
larly recommendable in Australia for sub-alpine regions. It bears a
massive head of foliage on a slender stem. The autumnal colouring
is superb. In the Eastern States of North- America the Sugar-Maple
is regarded as the best tree for shade-avenues. Numerous other
maples exist, among which may be mentioned Acer Creticum (Linne)
of South-Europe, 40 feet ; A. laevigatum, A. sterculiaceum and A.
villosum (Wallich) of Nepal, 40 feet.
Acer niveum, Blume.
Continental and Insular India, up on the forest-ranges. This is
the tallest of the maples, attaining a height of 150 feet. Several
other large maples, worthy of cultivation particularly in parks occur
on the mountains of India, A. caesium (Wallich) being one of the
best.
Acer palmatum, Thunberg.
Japan. A beautiful tree, with deeply cleft leaves ; several varie-
ties, with red- and yellow-tinged leaves occur. Unhurt by frost at
F. [G-orlie]. Should it be an aim to bring together all the kinds
of maples, which could be easily grown in appropriate spots, then
Japan alone would furnish 22 species.
Acer pictum, Thunberg.
From Persia to Japan, ascending the Himalayas to 9,000 feet.
Foliage turning yellow and red in autumn. Wood close-grained and
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 17
elastic, particularly sought for load-poles, ploughs, chairs and various
implements and utensils [Brandis] ; twigs lopped off for fodder
[Gamble] A. oblongum (Wallich), A. Hookeri (Miquel) and other
maples of Upper India furnish wood for the Assam tea-boxes [Sir
Dietrich Brandis].
Acer platanoides, Linn<$.
The Norway-Maple, extending south to Transcaucasia. Up to
80 feet high. Found hardy in Norway (cultivated) to 60 56' N. ;
attains in 59 46' a stem-diameter of 3^ feet [Schuebeler]. The pale
wood much used by cabinet-makers. Tint of the autumn-foliage
golden- yellow. The tree is of imposing appearance, and much re-
commended for ornamental gardening ; it gives a denser shade than
most of the other maples. Placed by F. Deil as one of the very best
among deciduous trees for street-planting in climes not too hot and
dry. Sap of this species also saccharine.
Acer Pseudo-platanus, Linne.
The Sycamore-Maple or Spurious Plane. Middle and Southern
Europe, Western Asia. Hardy to 67 56' N. in Norway [Schue-
beler]. The celebrated maple at Trons, under which the Grisons
swore the oath of union in 1424, exists still [Laugethal]. Attains
a height of over 100 feet. The wood is compact and firm, valuable
for various implements, instruments and cabinet-work ; thus mangles,
presses, dishes, printing and bleaching works, beetling beams, and in
foundries the patterns are often made of this wood [Simmonds] ; for
the back, neck, sides and circle of violins, for pianofortes (portion of
the mechanism) and harps it is utilised, it being free-cutting and
clean on the end grain. This like some other maples furnishes a
superior charcoal for intense and continuous heat [Hartig]. Will
admit of exposure to sea-air. The sap also saccharine.
Acer rubrum, Linne.
The Red-Maple of North-America. Hardy in Norway to 63 26'
N. [Schuebeler]. A tree, attaining over 100 feet in height, 5 feet in
stem-diameter. This species grows well with several other maples
even in dry, open localities, although the foliage may somewhat
suffer from hot winds, but thrives most luxuriantly in swampy, fertile
soil. It is valued for street- planting. The foliage turns red in
autumn, the flaming tints being indescribable [A. J. Cook]. The
wood is of handsome appearance, used in considerable quantity for
saddle-trees, yokes, turnery and various furniture ; that of old trees is
somewhat cross-grained ; knotty it furnishes a portion of the curlsd
Maple-wood, which is so beautiful and much in request for gun-
stocks and inlaying. The tree yields also Maple-sugar, but like A.
dasycarpum, only in about half the quantity obtained from A. nigrum
[Porcher], The flowers of some, if not all, maples are early fre-
quented by bees for honey.
18 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Achillea Millefolium, Linne.
Yarrow or Millfoil. Europe, Northern Asia, and North-America.
A perennial medicinal herb of considerable astringency, pervaded
with essential oil, containing also a bitter principle (achillein) and
a peculiar acid, which takes its name from the generic appellation
of the plant. It stimulates stagnant intestinal states, exercises
beneficial catamenial forces, alleviates haemorrhoidal sufferings, used
to be a domestic remedy in ague, and is not without tonic value.
Fitted for warrens and light sandy soil. Recommended by many for
sheep-pastures, but disregarded by Langethal. Maintains its hold of
the ground through a long series of years, therefore not easily dis-
lodged for other plants. Found indigenous in Norway as far as 71
10' N. [Schuebeler].
Achillea moschata, Wulfen.
Alps of Europe. The " G-enipi " or " Iva " of the Swiss. This
perennial herb ought to bear transferring to any other alpine moun-
tains. With the allied A. nana (Linne) and A. atrata (Linne) it
enters as a component into the aromatic medicinal Swiss tea. A.
fragrantissima (Reichenbach) is a shrubby species from the deserts of
Egypt, Turkey and Persia, valuable for its medicinal flowers.
Achras Sapota, Linne". (Sapota Achras, Miller.)
The " Sapodilla-Plum" of the West-Indies and Central America.
A fine evergreen tree, producing delicious fruit. Needs regions free
of frost. Yields also guttapercha. The bark possesses tonic proper-
ties. Achras Australis, R. Brown; (Sideroxylon Australe, J. Hooker),
a tree yielding also tolerably good fruit, occurs in New South Wales
and Queensland. Other sapotaceous trees, producing table-fruit,
such as the Lucuma mammosa (the Marmalade- tree), Lucuma Bon-
plandi, Chrysophyllum Cainito (the Star-Apple), all from West
India, and Lucuma Cainito of Peru, might also be subjected to trial-
culture in sub-tropical forest valleys; so furthermore many of the
trees of this order, from which guttapercha is obtained (species of Pala-
quium (Isonandra), Sideroxylon, Cacosmanthus, Illippe, Mimusops,
Imbricaria and Payenia), might prove hardy in sheltered woodlands,
as they seem to need rather an equable humid and mild climate, than
the heat of the torrid zone.
Aciphylla glacialis, F. v. Mueller.
Australian Alps. The root of this perennial herb is somewhat
aromatic, and is liked by pasture animals. It may prove of culinary
value. Would likely improve by culture.
Aconitum Napellus, Linne".
The Monk's Hood." In the colder parts of Europe and Asia,
extending to the Himalayas and also to arctic America, especially
in mountainous regions. A powerful medicinal plant of perennial
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 19
growth, but sometimes only of biennial duration, Tariable in its forms.
It was first introduced into Australia, together with a number of
other Aconites, by the writer. All the species possess more or less
modified medicinal qualities, as well in their herbage as in their
roots ; but so dangerously powerful are they, that the plants should
never be administered except as prescribed by a qualified physician.
Napellus-root contains three alkaloids ; aconitin, napellin and nar-
cotin. The foliage contains also a highly acrid volatile principle,
perhaps chemically not unlike that of many other Ranunculacese.
Aconitin, one of the most potent poisons in existence, can likewise be
obtained from the highly powerful Nepalese and Himalayan Aconitum
ferox (Wallich) and probably from several other species of the genus.
Aconite decreases pulsation, cardial force, respiration, febrile heat and
neural sensibility; it increases renal action and induces perspiration;
but it must be administered under the precaution, that bodily strength
is sufficient to overcome the depressing effect of this remedy. It can
thus be utilised in many and very varied diseases.
Acorus Calamus, Linn.
The " Sweet Flag." Europe, Middle and Northern Asia, North-
America. In Norway indigenous to 61 N., cultivated up to 63 26'
[Schuebeler]. A perennial pond- or marsh-plant. The aromatic
root is used as a stomachic and also in the preparation of confec-
tionery, in the distillation of gin and liqueurs, and in the brewing of
some kinds of beer. The flavor of the root depends mainly on a,
peculiar volatile oil. It is used also as antiseptic for mastication,
forms a good ingredient to tooth-powder, and is therapeutically
regarded as a stimulant of the nerves.
Acrocomia Mexicana, Karwinski.
Mexico, in the cooler regions up to 3,000 feet, with a mean-
temperature of 65 F. [Drude]. A prickly palm, reaching 20 feet
in height, accompanied by very splendid Chamaedora-Palms in the
shade of oak-forests.
Acrocomia Totai, Martius.
Argentina. Attains a height of 50 feet. The fruits are sweet
and wholesome.
Actsea spicata, Linne.
The " Baneberry." On wooded mountains, mainly on limestone-
soil in Europe, Northern Asia, and North- America. A perennial
medicinal herb. Its virtue depends on peculiar acrid and bitter as
well as other principles. In North- America the roots of this species
and of A. alba (Bigelow) are further praised as efficacious antidotes
against ophidian poisons. They have emetic properties and resemble
also in other medicinal respects the root of Helleborus.
C 2
20 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
4^
Aotinidia callosa, Lindley.
Japan. This climber is praised by L. Boehmer for its gooseberry-
like fruits of fig-taste, but only consumable after frost.
Actinotus Helianthi, Labillardire.
South-Eastern Australia. A perennial herb, enduring slight frost,
which might be utilised like the Edelweiss, Leontopodium alpinum
(Cassini) for unfading wreaths and other decorative designs.
Adansonia digitata, Linn&
Warm and hot regions of Africa, fully to 23 South. Quite hardy
down to the tropic of Capricorn in East Australia [Edgar]. The
Boabab or Monkey-bread tree. One of the most colossal trees of the
globe as regards stem-diameter, which reaches sometimes 30 feet,
while the branches may spread out to 150 feet. The soon drying
pulp of the fruit is of pleasant acid taste. A similar species is A.
Gregorii (F. v. M.) from North- Western Australia ; its degree of
hardiness has not yet been ascertained. Mr. Aeneas Gunn writes that
no one through hundreds of miles where this tree grows has ever seen
a dead " Goutystem-tree."
Adenostenmm nitidum, Persoon. (Gomortega nitida, Ruiz and Pavon.)
Southern Chili, where this stately tree passes by the appellations
" Queule, Nuble and Aracua." Wood durable and beautifully streaked.
Fruit edible. Gomortega is the elder genus.
Adesniia balsamica, Bertero.
The " Jarilla" of Chili. A small shrub remarkable for exuding a
fragrant balsam of some technic value [Philippi].
JEgiceras majus, Gaertner.
Southern Asia, Polynesia, Northern and Eastern Australia. This
spurious Mangrove-tree extends far south into New South Wales.
It may be employed for preventing the washing away of mud by the
tide, and for thus consolidating shores subject to inundation by sea-
floods.
JEgle marmelos, Correa.
The Bael-Tree of India, ascending to 4,000 feet. Finally 40 feet
high. Has matured its fruit near Rockhampton ; the plant is readily
propagated from root-cuttings and is otherwise of easy cultivation.
[J. Edgar]. Fruit of medicinal, particularly antidysenteric value.
The root and the leaves are also used medicinally [Dr. G. Watt].
sepiaria, De Candolle. (Citrus trlfoliata^ Linn.)
Japan. Much grown as a hedge-shrub in its native country and
in China ; also reared as stock for grafting on it the orange-plant.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 21
JEschynomene aspera, Linne.
The " Solah" of tropical Asia, Africa and Australia. A large
perennial erect or floating swamp-plant. Introduced from the Botanic
Gardens of Melbourne early into the tropical parts of Australia. Pith-
hats are made from the young stems of this plant ; this pith is also a
substitute for cork in some of its uses. The Solah is of less importance
for cultivation than for naturalisation. Mr. Strachan, of Melbourne,
makes of the pith life-waistcoats, weighing only 1J lb., as a safeguard
against drowning.
JEsculus Californica, Nuttall.
California. This beautiful tree attains a height of 50 feet, with a
stem 6 feet in diameter, the foliage spreading out exceptionally over
a width of 60 feet, the extremities of the branches touching the
ground. In full bloom it is a magnificent ornament, with its crowded
snow-white flowers, visible for a long distance. The wood is light
and porous, and used for the yokes of oxen and for various other
implements [Dr. Gibbons].
JEsculus Hippocastanum, Linne.
The " Horse - Chestnut -Tree." Indigenous to North - Greece,
Thessaly and Epirus, on high ranges [Heldreich], where it is asso-
ciated with the Walnut-tree, several Oaks and Pines, at an altitude of
3-4,000 feet, occurring likewise in Imeretia, the Caucasus [Eich-
wald], and possibly wild also in Central Asia, reared on the Hima-
layas to 10,000 feet. One of the most showy of deciduous trees,
more particularly when during spring " it has reached the meridian of
its glory, and stands forth in all the gorgeousness of leaves and
blossoms." Height reaching 60 feet, circumference of stem some-
times 16 feet. In cool climates one of the choicest of trees for street-
planting. Flowers sought by bees in preference to those of any other
northern tree except the Linden. Even in Norway, in latitude
67 56' N., a cultivated tree yet attained a height of 60 feet and a
.stem-circumference of 11 feet [Schuebeler]. It will succeed even in
sandy soil, but likes sheltered spots. The wood adapted for furniture,
also particularly for mould-patterns in casting, the slips of piano-
fortes and a variety of other purposes ; it remains free from insects.
The fruits afford saponin. The seeds yield starch copiously, and
supply also food for various domestic animals ; the bark serves as a
good tanning material. A variety is known with thornless fruits.
Three species occur in Japan and several in North- America and
South- Asia, mostly not of great height.
JEsculus Indica, Colebrooke.
In the Himalayas, from 3,500 to 9,000 feet. Height finally 70
feet ; trunk comparatively short, occasionally with a girth of 25 feet.
Never quite without leaves. Can be used like the Horse-Chestnut
as an ornamental shade-tree. Twigs lopped off for fodder in India.
Wood whitish, soft, available for various purposes, particularly liked
22 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
for water-troughs, drinking- vessels, platters [Gamble]. Other Asiatic
species are A. Punduana (Wallich), A. Chinensis (Bunge), A.
dissimilis (Blume).
JEscuhlS lutea, Wangenheim. (A. flava, Aiton.)
The " Buck-eye/' North-America. This showy tree rises occa-
sionally to a height of 80 feet. The wood is light, soft and porous,
not inclined to split or crack in drying. It is valuable for troughs,
bread-trays, wooden bowls and shuttles [Simmonds], also for ceiling
and wainscoting [Mohr].
JEsculus turbinata, Blume.
Japan. The " Tochnoki." Height to 40 feet. Valuable as a
promenade-tree for shade, some planted at Japanese pagodas spread-
ing to extraordinary width [Dr. Mene]. The seeds are there used
for human food. The hardy Chinese A. Sinensis is very closely
allied to this, and flowers later than A. Hippocastanum [Dr. Masters].
Agaricus csesareus, Schaeffer.
In the spruce-forests of Middle and Southern Europe. Trials
might be made to naturalise this long-famed and highly delicious
mushroom in our woodlands. It attains a width of nearly 1 foot, and
is of a magnificent orange-colour. Numerous other edible Agarics
could doubtless be brought into this country by the mere dispersion
of the spores in fit localities. As large or otherwise specially
eligible may here be mentioned, on the authority of Dr. Rosenthal,
who alludes to many more, A. extinctorius L., A. melleus Vahl, A.
deliciosus L., A. giganteus Sowerby, A. Cardarella Fr., A. Marzu-
olus Fr., A. Eryngii Cand., A. splendens Pers., A. odorus Bulliard,
A. auricula Cand., A. oreades Bolt., A. esculentus Wulf., A. mou-
ceron Tratt., A. socialis Cand., A. laccatus Scop., all from Europe,
besides numerous other highly valuable species from other parts of
the globe. Professor Goeppert adds as edible species, sold in Silesia
and other parts of Germany : A. decorosus Fries, A. fusipes Bull.,
A. gambosus Fries, A. procerus Scop., A. scorodonius Fries, A. sil-
vaticus Schaeff., A. virgineus Wulf., A. volemus Fries, besides the
almost cosmopolitan A. campestris Linne and A. arvensis SchaefFer.
Dr. M. C. Cooke mentions of Agarics besides as European (mostly
British) kinds, fit for the kitchen : A. rachodes Vitt., A. personatus
Fr., A. nebularis Batsch, A. dealbatus, Sow., A. geotropus Bull.,
A. salignus Tratt., A. prunulus Scop., A. mutabilis Schaeff., A.
squarrosus O. Muell., A. pudicus Viv. Dr. L. Planchon noted the
following among the French edible species additionally: A. vaginatus
Bull., A. ovoideus Bull., A. rubescens Fr., A. caligatus Viv., A.
terreus Schaeff., A. albellus Cand., A. nudus Bull., A. crassipes
Desm., A. piperatus L., A. cylindrius Cand., A. pluteus Fr., A. bom-
bycinus Schaeff. Dr. Goeze speaks particularly of A. palometus,
Thore and A. graveolens, Pers. Several of these extend spontaneously
to Australia.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 23
Agaricus campestris, Linne.
The ordinary mushroom, indigenous in almost every part of the
globe. The most important of all the edible Fungs, on account of its
abundant spontaneous occurrence as well as for its easy culture.
Mushroom beds are best made from horse-manure, mixed with one-
eighth loam, the scattering of the mushroom-fragments to be effected,
when the temperature of the hot-bed has become reduced to 85 F.,
this sowing to be made 2-3 inches deep, and 4 inches apart ; 1 inch
sifted loam over the damp bed and some hay to cover the whole.
After two months mushrooms can be gathered from the bed. The
same bed of cultivated mushrooms will continue to yield every few
days, sometimes regularly for six months [Professor Meehan].
Mushroom-beds can also be prepared in spare places of cellars, stables,
sheds and other spots, where equability of mild temperature and some
humidity can be secured. According to Mr. C. F. Heinemann, of
Erfurt, the needful hot-beds can best be made one above another,
inclined forward, generating a temperature of from 60 to 90 F., a
surface-layer of cut straw being applied subsequently, .to be removed
after about two weeks, then to be replaced by a stratum of rich loam
as a matrix for the root-like organs of the pushing fungs. In Japan
mushrooms are reared on decayed split logs, and largely consumed,
In France mushrooms are grown in caves to an enormous extent.
Puff-balls when young are also edible, and some of them delicious
[Meehan]. A. Georgii (Fries) is the only mushroom utilised by the
Kaffirs for food [Professor MacOwan]. The Chinese dry A. cam-
pestris in vast quantities even for export. About Paris are about
300 establishments for the rearing of this, the most generally used of
kitchen-fungs. Probably the most extensive of all rearing-places of
the common champignon is that of Alex. Hatschek, of Linz, in
deserted underground quarries, where the production is at a gigantic
and highly remunerative scale [Dr. E. Goeze]. The following edible
Agarics occur spontaneously in the colony of Victoria, according to
Dr. M. C. Cooke's definitions : Agaricus vaginatus, Bull., A. pro-
cerus, Scop., A. rachodes, Vitt., A. excoriatus, Schaeff., A. mastoi-
deus, Fries, A. naucinus, Fries, A. melleus, Vahl, A. nudus, Bull.,
A. cerussatus, Fries, A. infundibuliformis, Schaeff., A. expallens,
Fries, A. laccatus, Scop., A. fusipes, Bull., A. esculentus, Jacq.,
A. ostreatus, Jacq., A. salignus, Fries, A. petaloides, Bull., A. pul-
monarius, Fries, A. bombycinus, Schaeff., A. pudicus, Fries, A.
mutabilis, Schaeff., A. arvensis, Schaeff., A. campestris, Linne, A.
silvaticus, Schaeff., A. Candolleanus, Fries. Serve for ketchup also.
Agaricus flammeus, Scopoli.
Europe, Asia. In Cashmere particularly noticed as a large and
excellent edible mushroom [Dr. Atchison]. Some of the noxious
mushrooms become edible by drying. Professor Morren mentions
among edible Belgian species Agaricus laccatus Scop., Russula in-
tegra Fr. Any kind of cavern might be turned into a mushroom
field ; the spawn is spread on fermented manure, and kept moist by
24 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
water to which some saltpetre is added. They all afford a highly
nutritious nitrogenous food, but some require particular cooking.
See also the agaric-like mushrooms noticed under Cantharellus,
Coprinus, Cortinarius, Russula.
Agaricus ostreatus, Jacquin.
On trunks chiefly of deciduous trees throughout Europe. The
delicious oyster-mushroom, renowned from antiquity, hence promi-
nently on this occasion mentioned. For fuller information on fungs
for the table consult as very accessible works Badhams's "Esculent
Funguses of England," and Cooke's " British Fungi"; for systematic
characteristics see the works of Fries, Berkeley, Cooke, Saccardo
and others.
Agave Americana, Linne.
One of the gigantic Aloes of Central America, hardy even in mild
places of South-England. In the open air it comes into flower in
about ten years or later. The flowering stem may shoot up to the
extent of 10 feet in a week, and may finally rise to 40 feet. Mr.
Fred. Hickox at Clunes saw the young offshoots producing also small
floAver-bunches, while the maternal plant was in bloom. The pithy
stem can be utilised for some of the purposes, for which cork is usually
employed for instance, to form the bottoms of insect-cases. The
honey-sucking birds and bees are very fond of the flowers of this
prodigious plant. The leaves of this and some other Agaves, such
as A. Mexicana, furnish the strong Pita-fibre, which is adapted
for ropes and even for beautiful textile fabrics. The strength of
ropes of this fibre is considerably greater than that of hemp-ropes ;
they are durable as well in as out of water. The leaves contain
saponin. The mellaginous sap, which on incision flows from the
young flower-stem, can be converted into an alcoholic liquid, and thus
the " Pulque " beverage is prepared. Where space and circumstances
admit of it, impenetrable hedges may be raised in the course of some
years from Agaves ; particularly recommendable for planting along
railway lines as not igniting. Proof against ordinary pasture-animals,
so as to need no fences when planted for naturalisation. One kind
rose in Fiji also to 38 feet [Thurston]. The infusion of the leaves
can be applied as an insecticide.
Agave heteracantha, Zuccarini.
Northern Mexico and Texas. The Ixtli-fibre, now extensively used
for brushes, is much derived from this species. From Tampico alone
have lately been shipped about 35,000 tons of this fibre annually.
The average length is 24 inches [Consul Cassard]. The fibre is also
worked into ropes and mats [Dr. C. Mohr].
Agave inaequidens, K. Koch.
Mexico. Closely allied to A. Americana ; it seems to include A.
Hookeri and A. Fenzliana, Jacobi, according to Baker (in Bot. Mag.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 25
6589 and Gardeners' Chronicle 1871 p. 718). All these serve also
grandly as scenic plants. The larger Agaves are among the best of
plants to intercept bush-fires, though only available for winterless
climes ; they are much preferable to Opuntias, as they are not prone
to stray into pastoral areas.
Agave rigida, Miller.*
Southern Mexico. The Chelem, Henequen and Sacci, furnishing
the Sisal-hemp. Drs. Perrine, Scott and Engelmann indicate several
varieties of this stately plant, the fibre being therefore also variable,
both in quantity and quality. The leaves of the Sacci or Sacqui
give the largest return. The yield of fibre begins in four or five
years, and lasts for half a century or more, the plant being prevented
from flowering by cutting away its flower-stalk when very young.
The produce is from 1,000 Ibs. to 1,200 Ibs. clear fibre per acre, worth
30 to 50 per ton ; in 1889 it realized from 45 to 56 per ton in
the markets of London and Liverpool. In the Bahamas 150,000
acres were lately granted by the governor for Sisal-culture. The
fibre is straight, glossy and strong, pcirticularly well adapted for
ropes as resisting dampness. The total export of Sisal-hemp from
Yucatan had reached already some years ago in value half a million
sterling [D. Morris], it has now risen to two millions. The leaves
are from 2 to 6 feet long and 2 to 6 inches wide ; the flower-stem
attains a height of 25 feet ; the panicle of flowers is about 8 feet
long, bearing in abundance bulb-like buds. Other large species of
Agave, all fibre-yielding, are A. antillarum (Descourtil) from Hayti;
A. Parryi (Engelraann) from New Mexico ; A. Palmeri (Engelmann)
from South- Arizona, up to a cool elevation of 6,000 feet. A. Ixtli
(Karwinski) seems to belong to A. rigida. Concerning the uses of
Agaves refer also to Dr. Fr. P. Porcher's " Southern Fields and
Forests," p. 596-599 (1869), and to Consul Th. J. MacLain's report
on the Sisal industry in the Bahamas [Dyer, " Kew Bulletin," July
1890.]
Agave vivipara, Linn6.
Mexico and Honduras. This species is cultivated for hedges in
some parts of India, especially near water-courses, and has in several
districts become naturalised. Flowered at Mortala [Th. Hanbury].
Latterly a fibre obtained from this plant has been sent to the London
market as Bombay Aloe-fibre. Samples prepared by the Death's
Fibre Machine Company were found to be of excellent quality, worth
from 25 to 30 per ton. This species is of rather slow growth. Mr.
J. G. Baker defines specifically 138 species.
Agonis flexuosa, De Candolle.
The Willow-Myrtle of South-Western Australia. A tree, attain-
ing finally a height of 60 feet, with pendant branches. One of the
26 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
best of evergreen trees for cemeteries in a climate free from frost.
Exudes a kind of kino. The foliage is rich in antiseptic oil.
Agriophyllum Gobicum, Bunge.
Eastern Asia. The " Soulchir " of the Mongols. Przevalsky
says, that the seeds of this plant, wild as well as cultivated, afford a
great part of the vegetable food of the Ala-Shan nomads. Several
other annual salsolaceous herbs belong to the genus Agriophyllum,
among them A. arenarium (Bieberstein) being closely cognate to A.
Gobicum.
Agrostis alba, Linnd (A. palustris, Hudson.)
The Fiorin or White Bent-Grass. Europe, Northern and Middle
Asia-, North- Africa, North- America. Perennial, showing a predi-
lection for moisture ; can be grown on peat-soil. It yields a good
return already in the first year, but is not so well suited for mow-
ing as depasturing. It is the herd-grass of the United States, and
valuable as an admixture to many other grasses, as it becomes
available at the season, when some of them fail. Sinclair regards it
as a pasture-grass inferior to Festuca pratensis and Dactylis glome-
rata, but superior to Alopecurus pratensis. The variety with long
suckers (A stolonifera) is best adapted for sandy pastures, and helps
to bind shifting sand on sea-coasts, or broken soil on river-banks. It
luxuriates even on saline wet soil or periodically inundated places, as
well observed by Langethal. It is more a grass for cattle-runs than
for sheep-pastures, but wherever it is to grow, the soil must be
penetrable. Its turf on coast-meadows is particularly dense and
of remarkable fineness. For sowing, only one-sixth of the weight
of the seeds, as compared with those of the rye-grass, is needed.
The creeping variety is also valuable for fine and enduring lawns.
Agrostis Muelleri, Bentham.
Alps of Australia and New Zealand. Valuable there for depas-
turing, as well as some other grasses endemic to our alps.
Agrostis rubra, Linn6.
Northern Europe, Asia and America. A perennial grass, called
red-top and also herd-grass in the United States of North- America.
Professor Meehan places it for value on pasture-land among grasses
cultivated there next after Phleum pratense and Poa pratensis (the
latter there called blue-grass), and before Dactylis glomerata, the
orchard-grass of the United States.
Agrostis scabra, Willdenow.
The Hair-grass of North- America. Recently recommended as one
of the best lawn-grasses, forming a dense turf. It will grow even
on poor gravelly soil, and endure drought as well as extreme cold.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 27
Its fine roots and suckers spread rapidly, forming soon dense matted
sods [Dr. C banning]. It starts into new growth immediately after
being cut, is selected for its sweetness by pasture-animals, has proved
one of the best grasses for dairy ground, and suppresses weeds like
Hordeum secalinum. One bushel of seed to an acre suffices for
pastures ; two bushels are used for lawns. A. perennans (Tucker-
man) is an allied species of similar value.
Agrostis Solandri, F. v. Mueller.
Extra-tropical Australia and New Zealand. Produces a large
quantity of sweet fodder in damp localities [Bailey]. Valuable as
a meadow-grass [W. Hill]. In Australia it is essentially a winter-
grass, but available also in our sub-alpine regions [J. Stirling].
Highly relished by all kinds of pasture-animals [Fr. Turner].
Chemical analysis in spring gave the following results : Albumen,
4-08 ; Gluten, 8-81 ; Starch, 1-34; Gum, 2'50 ; Sugar, 975 per cent.
[F. v. Mueller and L. Rummel]. Under the name A. Forsteri
(Roemer and Schultes) only some forms of this very variable grass
are comprehended. Dr. Solander was the discoverer.
Agrostis vulgaris, Withering.
Europe, Northern Africa, Middle Asia, North- America. One of
the perennial grasses which disseminate themselves with celerity,
even over the worst of sandy soils. Though not a tall grass, it may
be destined to contribute perhaps with other? largely to the grazing
capabilities of desert-lands ; yet it will thrive also even in moist soil
and alpine regions, and is essentially a grass for sheep pastures ;
counted by Hein and many others also among valuable lawn-grasses.
Ailantus glandulosa, Linne".
South-Eastern Asia. A hardy deciduous tree, reaching 60 feet in
height, of rather rapid growth and of very imposing aspect in any
landscape. Particularly valuable on account of its leaves, which
afford food to a silkworm (Attacus Cynthia) peculiar to this tree,
Wood extremely durable, pale-yellow, of silky lustre when planed,
and therefore valued for joiners' work ; it is tougher than that of oak
or elm, easily worked, and not liable to split or warp. In Southern
Europe this tree is much planted for avenues. Valuable also for
reclaiming coast-sands, living even on somewhat saline soil, and to
this end easily propagated by suckers and fragments of roots, accord-
ing to Professor Sargent. The growth of the tree is quick even in
poor soil, but more so in somewhat calcareous bottoms. Thrives on
chalk [Vasey]. Professor Meehan states, that it checks the spread
of the rose-bug, to which the tree is destructive. In Norway hardy
to latitude 63 26' N. [Schuebeler], but suffers from frost in youth.
The bark is used in the Levant as a vermifuge medicine. G-oats will
not devour saplings of this tree.
28 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Aira caespitosa, Lume\
Widely dispersed over the globe, reaching as indigenous also Aus-
tralia. A rough fodder-grass, best utilised for laying dry any moist
meadows ; affords fair pasturage, if periodically burnt down [J.
Stirling]. Extends to 71 7' N. in Norway [Schuebeler], A. Kingii,
A. antarctica and A. Magellanica (J. Hooker) are among nutritive
congeners from extra-tropic South-America, the first particularly for
cattle, the two other more for sheep [Hieronymus].
Akebia quinata, Decaisne.
Japan. A shrubby climber. This, as well as A. lobata (Decaisne)
of the same country, bears rather large sweet fruits. The last-
mentioned species extends as an indigenous one to China. Both have
early and very fragrant flowers.
Albizzia basaltica, Bentham.
Eastern sub-tropic Australia. A small tree. The wood praised
by Mr. P. O'Shanesy for its beautiful reddish colour and silky lustre.
Cattle like the foliage. As a genus Pithecolobium differs no more
from Albizzia than Vachellia from Acacia or Cathartocarpus from
Cassia. The oldest generic name is Zygia, but no species was early
described under that name.
Albizzia bigemina, F. v. Mueller. (Pithecolobium bigeminum, Martius. )
India, up to Sikkim and Nepal, ascending in Ceylon to 4,000 feet.
Desirable for Australian forestry on account of its peculiar dark and
hard wood. Another congener, A. subcoriacea (Pithecolobium sub-
coriaceum, Thwaites), from the mountains of India, is deserving of
utilitarian cultivation with numerous other tall species.
Albizzia dulcis, F. v. Mueller. (Pithecolobium duke, Bentham.)
Mexico. Advancing in tree-growth to 50 feet. Thorny. Has
hardly a rival as a hedge-plant in frostless climes [W. Fawcett].
Particularly resisting sea-breeze. The sweet pulp of the pod is
regarded as wholesome. Ripens its fruit as far south as Moreton-
Bay [F. Turner].
Albizzia Julibrissin, Durazzini.
From the Caucasus to Japan. A favorite ornamental red-flower-
ing Shade-Acacia in Southern Europe. Naturally it seeks river-
banks.
Albizzia latisiliqua, F. v. Mueller. (Lysiloma latisiliqua, Bentham.)
Tropical America. A large spreading tree ; trunk attaining a
diameter of 3 feet; wood excellent for select cabinet-work, excelling
according to Nuttall the Mahogany in its variable shining tints,
which appear like watered satin; it is hard and close-grained.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 29
Albizzia Lebbek, Bentham.
The Siris- Acacia of Southern and Middle Asia and Northern
Africa. Available as a shade-tree. It produces also a good deal of
gum; the flowers much sought for honey by bees. In warm regions
easily naturalised from seeds. An allied species is the North-Eastern
Australian A. canescens (Bentham).
Albizzia lophantha, Bentham. (Acacia lophantha, Willdenow. )
South- Western Australia. One of the most rapidly growing plants
for copses and first temporary shelter in exposed localities, but never
attaining the size of a real tree nor very long-living. It produces
seeds abundantly, which germinate most easily and retain their
vitality for several years. For the most desolate places, especially
in desert-tracts, it is of great importance, quickly affording shade,
shelter and a copious vegetation. Cattle browse on the leaves.
The bark contains only about 8 per cent, mimosa-tannin ; but Mr.
Hummel found in the dry root about 10 per cent, of saponin, so
valuable in silk- and wool-factories. Saponin also occurs in Xylia
dolabriformis of Southern Asia. In Australia this plant is found
better even than the Broom-bush for sheltering new forest planta-
tions in open sand -lands ; in rich soil known to have grown 14 feet
in a year.
Albizzia micrantha, Boivin. (A. odoratissima, Bentham.)
India ; ascending to 5,000 feet ; growing in almost any kind of
soil; hardy in sub-tropical countries. A middle-sized tree; timber
particularly hard, dark-coloured, durable and strong ; well adapted
for naves and felloes [Drury and Brandis]. Regarded by Roxburgh
as one of the most valuable jungle-timbers.
Albizzia procera, Bentham.
South-Eastern Asia and North-Western Australia, but enduring
mild extra-tropic climes. Height to 100 feet. Growth more rapid
than that of the Siris. Among the limited numbers of trees fit to
live on saltish land.
Albizzia Saman, F. v. Mueller.* (Pithecolobium Saman, Bentham.)
The " Rain-tree " or " G-uango," extending from Mexico to Brazil
and Peru. It attains a height of 70 feet, with a trunk 6 feet in
diameter, the colossal branches expanding to 150 feet; it is of quick
growth, and in outline not unlike an oak ; it is content with light
soil, and forms a magnificent feature in a landscape. Truly splendid
for shade ; almost unapproached for rapid growth by any other tree.
In Fiji it attained a stem-circumference of 9 feet m 7 years, and a
height of about 50 feet, with some branches spreading over 40 feet
from the short trunk. It can be trimmed to form a tall stem [R. L.
Holmes]. At Port Curtis it grew 6 feet in 15 months, and it fruitf
30 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
there already at a comparatively early age [Edgar]. Near the Apsley-
River in New South Wales, it rose to 16 feet in two years sown on very
poor ground (A. R. Crawford). In India it attained in 10 years a
stem-girth of about 6 feet at 5 feet from the ground, its ramifications
by that time spreading out to 90 feet [Blechyndon]. It thrives par-
ticularly in the dry salt-pond-districts of the West-Indies, and likes
the vicinity of the sea, " its foliage possessing the power, to an
unusual extent, to attract, absorb and condense aerial humidity "
[Consul for France at Laroto]. Not ascending to above 1,000 feet
altitude in Jamaica; resisting drought, but very susceptible to frost.
The pods mature for fodder at a time, when grass and herbage on
pastures become parched. Rain and dew fall through the foliage,
which is shut up at night, thus allowing grass to grow underneath.
The tree thrives best, where the rainfall fluctuates between 30 and
60 inches a year. One of the best trees in mild climates for shade
by the roadsides. The wood is hard and ornamental; but the prin-
cipal utility of the tree lies in its pulpy pods, which are produced in
great abundance, and constitute a very fattening fodder for all kinds
of pastoral animals, which eat them with relish [Jenman, J. H.
Stephens].
Albizzia stipulata, Bentham.
Continental and insular South-Asia, extending to the Himalayas
and China, ascending to 4,000 feet. An umbrageous tree of easy
culture, for which it is not quite restricted to the tropics.
Albizzia Timbouva, F. v. Mueller. (Enterolobium Timbouva, Martius.)
La Plata States. A good-sized tree with elastic wood, well
adapted for promenades. Bark comparatively rich in mimosa-tannic
acid [Prof. Hieronymus].
Alchemilla vulgaris, C. Bauhin.
Europe, West-Asia, Arctic North-America, Alpine Australia ;
extending in Norway to 71 10' N. [Schuebeler]. This perennial
herb is important for moist dairy-pastures. The same can be said of
other congeners ; for instance, A. alpina (L.) from the coldest parts
of Europe, North-Asia and North- America ; A. Capensis (Thunberg)
and A. elongata (Ecklon and Zeyher) of South-Africa, some Abys-
sinian species, as well as A. pinnata (Ruiz and Pavon) and other
congeners of the Andes.
Aletris farinosa, Linne\
The " Colic-root " of the woodlands of Eastern North-America.
This pretty herb is of extreme bitterness, and is employed medicinally
as a tonic ; inaptly called also " Star-grass."
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 31
Aleurites cordata, R. Brown.
From Japan to Nepal, also in Reunion. This tree deserves culti-
vation for its beauty and its durable wood in warm humid districts.
The oil of the seeds serves as a varnish. Perhaps in localities quite
free from frost it would be of sufficiently quick growth extra-tropi-
cally.
Aleurites triloba, R. and G. Forster.
The " Candlenut-tree," a native of some of the tropical regions of
both hemispheres ; it furnishes a valuable dye from its fruits and
copious oil from its seeds, the yield being about one-third. I found
the tree barely able to endure the winters of Melbourne, but towards
Port Curtis, somewhat outside the tropics, heavy returns of seeds
are annually obtained [J. S. Edgar].
Alibertia edulis, A. Richard.
Guiana and Brazil, southwards to extra-tropic latitudes, widely
dispersed through the drier regions. The fruit of this shrub is
edible and known as " Marmeladinha." A. Melloana (J. Hooker) of
Southern Brazil seems to serve the same purpose.
Alkanna tinctoria, Tausch.
On sandy and calcareous places around and near the Mediterranean
Sea, extending to Hungary. Endures a very dry clime. Cultivated
in the open air to perfection up to 59 55' North by Professor
Schuebeler. This perennial herb yields the " Alkauna-root," used for
dyeing oleaginous, waxy and other substances. It might be natura-
lised. Can be grown in almost pure coast-sand.
Allium Ampeloprasum, Linn.
The British Leek. Middle and Southern Europe, Western Asia,
and North-Africa. Called in culture the Summer-Leek, a variety of
which is the Pearl-Leek. The specific name arose already from Dios-
corides' writings.
Allium Ascalonicum, Linn.
The Shallot. South- Western Asia. Specific name already used by
Theophrastos and Plinius. Ripens seeds even in Central Australia.
[Rev. H. Kempe].
Allium Canadense, Kalm.
Eastern North-America. This Garlic could be cultivated or
naturalised on moist meadows for the sake of the tops of its bulbs,
which are sought for pickles of superior flavour.
32 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Allium Cepa, Linn.*
The ordinary Onion. Wild in Turkestan [Dr. E. Regel]. Succeeds
eveo in equatorial countries [Cantley] ; it matures seeds fit to ger-
minate in the hottest desert-regions of Central Australia. As much
as 20 tons of Onions have been harvested from an acre of land in
the Bellarine-district of Port Phillip. The import into the United
Kingdom in 1889 amounted to nearly 200,000 tons. The export from
Victoria in 1892 came to 7,438 tons, valued at 26,000. One of
the staple-products of Bermuda [Sir J. Lefroy]. Among the prin-
cipal culture-plants of ancient Egypt [Dr. Schweinfurth]. At
Aschersleben and Quedlinburg alone about 130,000 Ibs. of onion-
seeds are raised annually [B. Stein]. The specific name in use
already by Plinius and Columna. Raw Onions quench excessive'
thirst. Onions moistened with alcohol are highly adapted for cleansing
gilt frames. Thrives well, even in Arnhem's Land [Jos. Bradshaw").
Allium fistulosuni, Linn4.
Central Asia. The Welsh Onion. Also used in Japan.
Allium odorum, Linn.
Siberia. Used in Japan as Garlic [C. Sprenger].
Allium Porrum, Lhm6.
The Leek. Already cultivated in Egypt at Moses' time. Regarded
by Gay and Regel as a cultural variety of A. Ampeloprasum.
Matures seeds in the hottest and driest regions of Australia.
Allium roseum, Linn<.
Countries on the Mediterranean Sea. This with A. Neapolitanum
(Cyrillo), one of its companions, yields edible bulbs, according to
Heldreich.
Allium rubellum, Bieberstein. (A. Uptophyllum, Wallich.)
The Himalayan Onion. Captain Pogson regards the bulbs as
sudorific ; they are of stronger pungency than ordinary onions ; the
leaves form a good condiment.
Allium sativum, C. Bauhin.
The Garlic. Soongarei and in the farthest N.W. of India, as
shown by Dr. von Regel ; but cultivated already in ancient Egypt
[Dr. Schweinfurth]. Nearest allied to A. Scorodoprasum. The
" Allium " of Plinius.
Allium Schcenoprasum, Linn6.
The Chives. Europe, Northern Asia and North- America. Culti-
vated in Norway to latitude 70 22' [Schuebeler]. Available for
salads and condiments. This species of Allium seems here not yet
so generally adopted in our culinary cultivation as other congeners.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 33
Allium Scorodoprasum, Linne".
The Sand-Leek. Europe and North-Africa. Resembles in some
respects Garlic, in others Shallot. The Scorodoprason of Dioscorides
according to Fraas seems A. descendens (Linne), indigenous to South-
Europe.
Allium Victoriale, Linn6.
Western and Northern Asia, ascending alpine elevations. The
bulb is eaten raw in some of its native countries.
Alnus acuminata, Hooker.
From Mexico to Chili ; particularly at sub-alpine elevations. There
among the best of timber-trees [Prof. Sodiro].
Alnus glutinosa, Gaertner.
The Common Alder. Throughout Europe and extra -tropical
Asia ; indigenous to 64 10' N. lat. in Norway [Schuebeler].
Reaches a height of 90 feet ; attaining even in lat. 61 47' a stem-
diameter of 10 feet. Easily clipped, when young, into hedges ; well
adapted for river banks ; recommended by Wessely for wet valleys
in coast-sand ; wood soft and light, turning red, furnishing one of the
best charcoals for gunpowder ; it is also durable under water, and
adapted for turners' and joiners' work ; the wood is also well suited
for pump-trees and other under-ground work, as it will harden almost
like stone. The tree is further valuable for the utilisation of bog-
land. A. cordifolia (Tenore) is a closely allied species, indigenous
to the countries at and near the Mediterranean Sea. A. incana
(Willd.) extends to North- America ; it is of smaller size but was
found to grow over 60 feet high in latitude 70 of Norway by Pro-
fessor Schuebeler. The bark of several alders is of medicinal value,
and a decoction will give to cloth saturated with lye an indelible
orange-colour [Porcher] ; it contains a peculiar tannic principle to the
extent of 36 per cent. [Muspratt]. American aider-extract has come
into use for tanning ; it renders skins particularly firm, mellow and
well-coloured [Eaton]. A. Oregana (Nuttall), of California and
Oregon, rises to a height of 80 feet ; its wood is extensively used for
bent-work [Meehan]. A. Japonica and A. firma (Siebold and Zuc-
carini), of Japan, furnish wood there for carvers and turners, and
bark for black dye [Dupont]. A. rubra (Bougard), the Red or
Tag-Alder of California and British Columbia, rises to fully 100
feet, and gets finally a stem diameter of 6 feet. The timber is
excellent for piles and bridge-bottoms, also for pumps, and proved
exceedingly durable ; it serves further for carving, turnery, furniture,
machinery [Dr. Kellogg].
Alnus Nepalensis, D. Don.
Himalayas, between 3,000 and 9,000 feet. Reaches a height of
60 feet. With another Himalayan alder, A. nitida (Endlicher), it can
be grown along streams for the sake of its wood. The bark of both
D
34 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
is used for tanning and dyeing [Dr. G. Watt]. Regel distinguishes
about 250 species, mainly European, North- African and extra-tropic
Asiatic.
Aloe dichotoma, Linn6 fil.
Damaras and Namaqua-land. This species attains a height of
30 feet, and occasionally an expanse of 40 feet. The stern is
remarkably smooth, with a girth sometimes of 12 feet. It is a yellow-
flowering species. A. Bainesii is still more gigantic than the fore-
going, it attaining exceptionally a height of 60 feet [Dyer] ; it occurs
in KafEraria and Natal, with a stem 16 feet in circumference at 3 feet
from the ground [Rev. R. Baur]. A. Barberas is identical, according
to Mr. J. Gr. Baker. A. speciosa (Baker) rises also to a height of
25 feet. All grand scenic plants.
Aloe ferox, Miller.
South- Africa. This species yields the best Cape-aloes, as observed
by Dr. Pappe. The simply inspissated juice of the leaves of various
species constitutes aloe-drug, well known as a drastic purgative. It
is best obtained by using neither heat nor pressure for extracting the
sap. By re-dissolving the aqueous part of aloes in cold water, and
reducing the liquid through boiling or other processes of exsiccation
to dryness, the extract of aloes is prepared. The bitter sap, used for
dressing wounds, keeps off flies very effectually. Deserves intro-
duction particularly in veterinary practice. All species are highly
valuable, and can be used, irrespective of their medicinal importance,
easily and inexpensively to beautify any rocky or otherwise inarable
spot.
Aloe lingniformis, Medicus.
South-Africa. According to Thunberg, the purest gum-resin is
obtained from this species.
Aloe Perry!, Baker.
Socotra. It is now known, that it was this species, which
furnished the genuine "Aloes," renowned in antiquity [Prof. B.
Balfour]. It grows best in limestone-soil, and ascends to 3,000 feet.
Flowers turning from scarlet to yellow. Closely allied to A. vulgaris.
Aloe plicatilis, Miller.
South-Africa. The drag of this species acts more mildly than that
of A. ferox.
Aloe purpurascens, Haworth.
South- Africa. Another of the plants, which furnish the Cape-
aloes of commerce. The South-African Aloe arborescens (Miller)
and A. Commelyni (Willdenow) are also utilised for aloes, according
to Baillon, Saunders and Hanbury.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 35
Aloe spicata, Linn6 fil.
South- Africa. This also furnishes Cape-aloes, and is an exceed-
ingly handsome plant.
Aloe SUCCOtrino, Lamarck. (A. vera, Miller.)
South-Africa. A purplish-flowered species, figured already by
Commelyn in 1697 [Baker]. Yields the common Socotrine-aloes
and Moka-aloes.
Aloe VUlgaris, Bauhin. (A. vera, Linne ; A. Barbadensis, Miller.)
The Yellow-flowered Aloe. Countries around the Mediterranean
Sea, also Canary-Islands, on the sandy or rocky sea-coast. Such
places could also be readily utilised elsewhere for this and allied
plants. Dr. Sibthorp has identified this species with the Aloe of
Dioscorides ; thus it is also the real Aloe of Plinius ; hence it is not
probable, that A. vulgaris is also simultaneously of American origin,
although it is long cultivated in the Antilles, and furnishes from
thence the main supply of the Barbadoes-aloes, also Curacoa-aloes ;
likewise in East-India this species seemingly only exists in a culti-
vated state. Haworth found the leaves of this and of A. striata
softer and more succulent than those of any other aloe. It is said to
be the only species with yellow flowers among those early known,
and it is also the only one, which Professors Wilkomm and Parlatore
record as truly wild in Spain and Italy.
Aloexylon Agallochum, Loureiro.
Cochinchina, on the highest mountains. The precious aloe-wood,
so famed from antiquity for its balsamic fragrance and medicinal
properties is derived from this tree.
Alopecurus bulbosus, Hudson.
Middle- and South-Europe. An perenntal rural grass for salt-
marshes.
Alopecurus geniculatus, Linne.
Europe, Asia, North-Africa. A perennial fodder-grass, valuable
for swampy ground ; easily naturalised.
Alopecurus pratensis, Linne.*
Meadow " Fox-tail " grass. Europe, Northern Africa, ^Northern
and Middle Asia. In Norway indigenous to lat. 69 11' [Schue-
beler]. One of the best of perennial pasture-grasses. It reaches
its full perfection only after a few years of growth, as noticed by
Sinclair. For this reason itf is not equal to Dactylis glomerata for
crop-rotation, but it is more nutritious than the latter, although the
D 2
36 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
annual return in Britain has proved less. Langethal places it next
to Timothy-grass for artificial pastures. Sheep thrive well on it.
Sinclair and others have found that this grass, when exclusively com-
bined with white clover, will support after the second season five
ewes and five lambs on an acre of sandy loam ; but to thrive well it
needs land not altogether dry. In all permanent artificial pastures
this Alopecurus should form one of the principal ingredients, because
it is so lasting and so nutritive, and earlier in the season than
most other grasses. Can be grown also with advantage in orchards.
It is likewise one of the best grasses for maritime or alluvial tracts
of country. In alpine regions it would also prove prolific, and might
gradually convert many places there into summer-pastures. It does
not altogether dislike shade, is early flowering and likes the presence
of lime in the soil. Yield of hay on good soil, according to Dr.
Stebler, about 80 cwt. per acre. Schuebeler lauds particularly the
variety nigricans.
Alpinia Gralanga, Willdenow. (Hellenia, Galanga, F. v. Mueller.)
China. Probably as hardy as the Ginger-plant. Yields a stimu-
lating somewhat aromatic medicinal root, more used in olden times
than now ; but this is inferior to the Galanga-root of Hellenia
onicinarum (Hance) of Southern China. By the dictates of strict
priority the generic name of Alpinia should supersede that of
Renealmia, as Plumier's and Linne's genus rests entirely on a Central
American plant, so that the genus Hellenia may be restored for w hat
later writers have mainly called Alpinias.
Alstonia constricta, F. v. Mueller.
Warmer parts of East- Australia, particularly in the dry inland-
districts. The bark of this small tree is aromatic-bitter, and regarded
as valuable in ague, also as a general tonic. It is allied to the Dita-
bark of India and North-Eastern Australia, procured from Alstonia
scholaris (R. Brown). From its bark a peculiar alkaloid, the
Porphyrin of Hesse, and some other chemical principles can be pre-
pared. The sap of all Alstonias should be tried for caoutchouc,
that of A. plumosa and another species yielding Fiji-rubber
[Hooker] .
Alstrcemeria Ligtu, Linne".
Chili. Palatable starch can be obtained from the root of this
plant, which for its loveliness alone deserves a place in any garden.
The tubers of other of the numerous Alstrosmerias can doubtless be
practically utilised in a similar manner.
Alstrcemeria spectabilis. (Bomarea spectabilis, Schenk).
Brazil. The tuberous roots when roasted are edible [Dr. Theodor
Peckolt].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 37
Althaea officinalis, Linn.
The real "Marsh-Mallow." Middle and Southern Europe, North-
ern Africa, Northern and Middle Asia. Hardy to lat. 59 55' in
Norway [Schuebeler]. A tall perennial herb, with handsome flowers.
The mucilaginous root and also the foliage are used for medicinal
purposes, the roots chiefly as expectorant internally, the leaves as
poultices externally. The plant succeeds best on damp, somewhat
saline soil.
Althaea rosea, Cavanilles.
The Hollyhock. A tall annual herb, very ornamental. On
account of the celerity of its growth it might be raised for green manure.
The flowers serve for a domestic dye.
Amarantus Blitum, Linne. (A. polygamus,
Southern Europe, Northern Africa, South-Western Asia. This
annual herb is a favorite plant amongst allied ones for spinage, but
not the only one used of this genus, as also many others quite as well
serve for culinary purposes. The dried plant contains 10 to 12 per
cent, nitrate of potash. It arrives at maturity in two or three months,
producing on favorable soil about 4 tons per acre, calculated to
contain about 400 Ibs. saltpetre. The same remark would probably
apply as an extreme result to other species, and show these
Amarants to be prominent nitrogenous manure-plants. All are
easily naturalised in apt climes and soils.
Amarantus maximus, C. Bauhin. (A. caudatits, A. paniculatus, A.
s, Linn; A. cruentus, Willdenow j A. frumentosus, Hamilton.)
America, in warm regions. An annual herb, attaining a height of
6 feet, yielding half a pound of floury nutritious seeds on a square-
yard of ground in fertile localities within three months according to
Roxburgh. The seed-increase is therefore thousand-fold. Exten-
sively grown for food grain in tropical countries, on the Himalayas
according to Sir Joseph Hooker even up to 9,000 feet. It serves
especially for an autumnal crop. The foliage utilised as a substitute
for spinage.
Amarantus tricolor, 1'Obel. (A. fristis, A. melancholicus, A. gangeticus, A.
mangostanus, Linn4; A. oleraceus, Roxburgh.)
Southern Asia. A stout annual, often of reddish hue like the
preceding species, and turned to culinary account in the same
manner, but when used as spinage any of these plants must be well
boiled and the water repeatedly changed. The seeds serve for
porridge and as poultry-feed.
Amelanchier alnifolia, Nuttall.
North- Western America. Allied to the following. The autoch-
thones store the dried fruit for winter-use. The wood is so tough
as to be used for rollers and for teeth of wheels in machinery [Dr. G.
Dawson].
38 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Amelanchier Canadensis, Medicus. (A. Botryapium, De Candolle.)
The " Grape-pear " of North-Eastern America; also called
" Shadbush." Cultivated in Norway as far north as 59 55'
[Schuebeler]. This handsome fruit-tree attains a height of 30 feet.
Wood extremely hard, heavy and tough. The purplish or almost
black fruits are small, but of pleasant subacid taste, ripen early in the
season, and are borne abundantly ; Mr. Adams, of Ohio, has calcu-
lated the yield at 300 bushels per acre annually, if the variety
oblongifolia is chosen; it is the Dwarf "June-berry" of North-
America. This bush or tree will live on sandy soil ; but it is one
of those hardy kinds particularly eligible for alpine ground ; it is
remarkably variable in its forms.
Amelanchier vulgaris, Mcench.
Countries at and near the Mediterranean Sea, ascending to sub-
alpine regions. The edible fruits of this shrub are a marketable
article in South-Europe [Naudin].
Amorphophallus Konjac, C. Koch. (A Hivierii, Durieu.)
Cochinchina, but comes to perfection also in cooler countries; thus
cultivated in Japan for its edible tubers, which sometimes reach a
foot in thickness.
Amphipogon strictus, R. Brown.
Australia, particularly in the desert-regions. A perennial drought-
resisting grass of facile dissemination. Pasture-animals take to it most
readily. Thrives on stony and sandy soil [Alfred Cotton].
Anabasis Ammodendron, C. A. Meyer. (Haloxylon Ammodendron,
Bunge. )
The " Saxaoul." From the Ural and Altai to Persia and Turkestan.
The only aborescent plant in some of the drift-sandy deserts of that
region, recommended by Dr. von. Regel for naturalisation in other
sandy or saline arid tracts. It is leafless, and attains a height of 20
feet. Endures a soil temperature of half the heat of boiling water.
Wood hard, dense and heavy. Slow of growth but reaches an
age of over 100 years. A full account is given by Grisard and
Vilbouchevitch in the Journal of the Acclimatation- Society of
France, February, 1892.
Anacylus Pyrethrum, De Candolle.
Countries near the Mediterranean Sea. The root of this perennial
herb is used medicinally, chiefly as an anodyne for mastication, in
infusion against rheumatism ; even antiparalytic properties are
ascribed to it. The plant is recognised by many pharmacopeias.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. -39
Ananas sativa, Schultes.*
South- America. The famous " Pine-apple " plant. Some varieties
ripen their fruit as far south as Port Jackson. Mr. Th. Mead re-
marks, that in Florida the plant is well sustained by merely piling a
little brush over it during the three cool months of the year. Fruits
to 10, exceptionally even 20, Ibs. weight have there been produced.
Thrives to perfection just outside the tropics of East-Australia, fruits
up to 10 Ibs. having been realized there [Edgar]. From the Baha-
mas alone about 50,000 worth are now annually exported [Sir
Ambrose Shea]. A considerable portion of the yield there is canned.
Propagation by the terminal or lateral shoots, all easily rooting. The
leaf-fibre is exceedingly fine and so strong, that a rope of 3^-inch
circumference will bear a strain of 57 cwt. A beautiful fabric can
be made from it [W. T. Dyer]. Miller distinguished already this
plant generically.
Andira vermifuga, Martins.
Brazil, to far south with A. anthelminthica (Bentham). One of
the Angelim-trees. The seed celebrated as a vermifuge.
Andropogon annulatus, Forskael.*
Intra- and sub-tropical Africa, Asia, and Australia. Recom-
mended by Mr. Walter Hill as a meadow-grass. Dr. Curl observes,
that in New Zealand it is both a summer- and autumn-grass, that
it does not grow fast in winter, but at the period of its greatest growth
sends up an abundance of foliage. In Oudh and the North- West
Provinces of India one of the best of pasture-grasses [J. S. Gamble].
Andropogon australis, Sprengel. (Sorghum plumosum, Beauvois.)
Tropical and also Eastern extra-tropic Australia as far south as
Gippsland. Brought under notice by Mr. Ch. Moore as an admirable
perennial pasture-grass. The allied A. serratus (Thunberg) of tropi-
cal Australia, Southern Asia, China and Japan, serves similar pur-
poses. General Sir H. Macpherson proved some Indian Andropogon
well adapted for Silos.
Andropogon binatus, Retzius.
From Nepal to China. The Sabe" or "Bhabar" or "Bhaib
Grass." Used for the manufacture of ropes, string-matting and otl
textile articles; approaches Esparto in the quality itofiWf
perennial; grows readily on dry soil [Dr. Hance]. Dr. W Thiselton
Dyer has shown, that a particular fibre, alluded to by Royle and some
subsequent writers as emanating from Eriophorum comosum (Wa
lich) in Upper India, is derived from this Andropogon, both plants
growing there promiscuously. A. binatus (Retzius) from Southern
Asia has been recommended for paper-material.
40 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Andropogon bombycinus, R. Brown.
Australia. This robust grass, which is generally well spoken of
by graziers, seems to like a somewhat strong soil, and is often found
among rocks on hill-sides. The bases of the stems of this species,
like those of several others of the genus, are highly aromatic [Bailey].
Will live in shifting sand, and endures the hottest desert-clime. The
Australian A. procerus (R. Br.) and the Mediterranean A. laniger
(Desf .) are closely allied congeners.
Andropogon Calamus, Royle.
Central-India. The " Sweet Cane " and " Calamus " of Scripture,
according to Calcott; it is regarded as the aromatic reed of Diosco-
rides by Royle. From this species the gingergrass-oil of Nemaur,
an article much used in perfumery, is distilled. It is the " Cusha "
of India. Gibson and Dalzell regard it identical with A. nardoides
(Nees) of South-Africa.
Andropogon cernuus, Roxburgh.* (Sorghum cemmim, Willdenow.)
One of the Guinea-corns. India, where it is much cultivated, as
in other tropical countries. It is annual according to Hackel, but
Roxburgh distinctly asserts, that " the plant is of two or more years
duration, if suffered to remain." It forms the " staff of life " of the
mountaineers beyond Bengal. It reaches a height of 15 feet, with
leaves over 3 feet long. The thick stems root at the lower joints,
and cattle are very fond of them. The grain is white. The specific
limits of the various sorghums are not well ascertained. This
belongs to the series of A. Sorghum.
Andropogon erianthoides, F. v. Mueller.
Eastern sub-tropical Australia. Mr. Bailey observes of this peren-
nial species, that " it would be difficult to find a grass superior for
fodder to this ; it produces a heavy crop of rich, sweet, succulent
foliage; it spreads freely from roots and seeds, and shoots again when
fed down." Mr. Fred. Turner states, that this grass is particularly
relished by pasture-animals.
Andropogon falcatus, Steudel. (Gremochloafalcata, Hackel.
India and Queensland. Considered by Mr. Bailey a good lawn-
grass, as it is of dwarf compact growth and of bright verdure.
Andropogon fllipendulinus, Hochstetter. (A. lachnatherus, Bentham.)
Warmer regions of Australia, also in Eastern Africa. Much liked
by pasture-animals; grows readily in poor stony ground [A. R.
Crawford]; forms very large patches.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 41
Andropogon furcatus, Muehlenberg.
South-Eastern States of North-America. Adapted for consolidating
drift-sand of coasts [Prof. Naudin], Very near A. provincialis.
Andropogon Gryllus, Linn.
In the warm temperate and the hot zone of the eastern hemisphere.
A perennial pasture-grass, of easy dissemination, with some con-
geners useful in climes too arid for more tender grasses.
Andropogon Halepensis, Brotero.* (Sorghum Haltpense, Persoon.)
Southern Europe, warmer parts of Asia, Northern Africa. Praised
already by Theophrastos more than 2,000 years ago. Attains a
height of 5 to 6 feet. Not easily repressed in moist ground. A rich
perennial grass, cultivated often under the name of Cuba-grass and
Johnson-grass. All the vernacular names, given to this grass, should
be discontinued in maintaining the very appropriate original appella-
tion "Haleppo-grass." It keeps green in the heat of summer [J. L.
Dow], and is also a winter-grass in frost-free localities; is not eaten
out by pasture-animals [Rollings worth] ; it will also grow in drift-
sand of the coast, and will keep growing during the dry season, when
most other grasses fail, but improves much on irrigation ; the roots
resist some frost ; three tons can be cut from one acre in a single
season; it yields so large a hay-crop, that it may be cut half a dozen
times in a season, should the land be rich. All kinds of stock have
a predilection for this grass. Much overlooked in its importance for
fixing loose soil on embankments. It will mat the soil with its deep
and spreading roots ; hence it should be kept from cultivated fields.
Detrimental to Lucerne on meadows [Rev. Dr. Woolls]. In Victoria
hardy up to 2,000 feet elevation.
Andropogon Ischaemum, Linn.
Southern Europe, Southern Asia, Africa. One of the fittest of
grasses for hot dry sand-regions, and of most ready spontaneous dis-
persion. Perennial. Succeeds well on lime-soil and that containing
gypsum. In its new annual upgrowth it is particularly liked by
sheep. It needs burning off in autumn.
Andropogon Ivarancusa, Roxborough.
Southern Asia and Tropical Africa. The well known root is of
aromatic taste with some bitterness. The plant is nearest allied to
A. laniger (Desfoutaines) according to Hackel.
Andropogon montanus, Roxburgh.
Southern Asia, Northern and Eastern Australia. Rapid in growth
and valuable for fodder when young ; resists fire better than many
other grasses [Holmes]. Seeds freely [F. Turner]. Perennial, like
most other species of this large genus.
42 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Andropogon muricatus, Retzius. (A. squarrosus, Linn fil.)
India. The "Vitivert" or " Kus-kus." A grass of delightful
fragrance. According to Surgeon-Major Dr. G-. King, the odorous
Indian mats are made of this grass, and according to Prof. Lindley,
awnings, tatties, covers for palanquins and screens are manufactured
from this species ; also an essence is distilled from it.
Andropogon muticus, Steudel. (Ischaemum muticum, Linn6. )
South-Asia, Polynesia, North-East Australia. A large grass,
rooting from the joints. Pronounced by Mr. H. N. Ridley as un-
questionably the best native fodder-grass of the Malay-peninsula.
He adds as also very good there : A. ciliaris (Trinius) and A.
Timorensis (Steudel.)
Andropogon Nardus, Linn6. (A. Martini, Thwaites.)
From Southern Asia to Northern Australia, also in tropical and
sub-tropical Africa, but in different varieties. Perennial. One of the
lemon-scented species. Prof. Hackel suggests, that A. Calamus may
be referable to this species. Kunth unites with this A. citriodorus
(De Caudolle), the A. citratus of many botanic gardens, while Link
referred this grass to A. Schoenanthus. It yields an essential oil for
condiment and perfumery, and is occasionally used for tea. Sim-
monds gives the export-value of this oil as from Ceylon alone- at
7,000. " Citrionella " Oil to the extent of 40,000 Ibs. annually is
in Ceylon distilled from this grass [PiesseJ. Endures the winters of
Port Phillip [S. C. Kiernander]. A. procerus (B. Brown) is the
Lemon-grass of North- Western Australia ; it attains a height of 9
feet. A. exaltatus (R. Brown) is also scented ; it acts as a sudorific
and stimulant and proved refreshing in fever.
Andropogon nutans, Linn6. (Sorghum nutans, Gray).
Eastern North America. A tall, nutritious, perennial grass, con-
tent with dry and barren soil, too poor for still better grasses.
Andropogon nutans, Linn. (Sorghum avenaceum, Willdenow.)
Northern and Central America. This tall perennial grass lives in
dry sandy soil, and should be tried for growth of fodder.
Andropogon pertusus, Willdenow.
Southern Asia, Tropical and Sub-tropical Australia. Perennial.
Mr. Nixon, of Benalla, regards it as one of the best grasses to with-
stand long droughts, while it will bear any amount of feeding. It
endures cold better than some other Andropogons of Queensland,
according to Mr. Bailey's observations. Though not so palatable to
pasture-animals as some other grasses, this one is important for the
summer-season, when many others fail in the arid interior. This
species with A. sericeus and some other congeners only of inferior
value where the best English grasses can be grown, and even apt to
strangle them.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 43
Andropogon provincialis, Lamarck.
Southern Europe. Strongly recommended by Bouche for fixing
loose maritime sand. Attains a height of 5 feet. A. furcatus (Mueh-
lenberg) is the same species, according to Hackel, seemingly immi-
grated and naturalised in the United States.
Aridropogon refractus, R. Brown.
Northern and Eastern Australia, Polynesia. Mr. Bailey observes
of this perennial grass, that it is equally excellent for pasture and
hay, and that it produces a heavy crop during summer ; the root is
fragrant. According to Mr. Holmes, it is easily inflammable, of
inferior fodder-value, hardly ever touched by cattle* on account of its
scent, but is particularly used for mattresses in Fiji.
Andropogon saccharatus, Roxburgh.* (Sorghum saccharatum, Persoon.)
Tropical Asia, or perhaps only indigenous in equatorial Africa.
The Broom-corn or Sugar-Millet; also passing as " Durra," " Dochua,"
and " Battari." Tall, usually annual. Produces of all grasses,
except the Teosinte* and maize, the heaviest of any fodder-crops in
warm climates. From the saccharine juice sugar is obtainable. A
sample of such, prepared from plants of the Melbourne Botanic
Garden, was shown already at the Exhibition of 1862. This
Sorghum furnishes also material for a well-known kind of brooms.
Mr. Simmonds relates, that as many as 150,000 doz. of these brooms
have been made in one single factory during a year. To pigs this
plant is very fattening also. Mr. F. Rosan obtained by the aid of
irrigation as much as 30 tons of cut sorghum in a season from an acre
on the Lower Murray-River. The plant can be advantageously utilised
for preparing syrup, especially for domestic use. For this purpose the
sap is expressed at the time of flowering, and simply evaporated ;
the yield is from 100-200 gallons from the acre. Already in 1860
nearly seven millions of gallons of sorghum-treacle were produced in
the United States. General Le Due, then Commissioner for Agri-
culture at Washington, stated, that Mr. Seth Kenny, of Minnesota,
obtained from the " Early Amber " variety of this Sorghum up to
250 gallons of heavy syrup per acre. Machinery for the manufacture
of Sorghum-sugar on plantations can be erected at a cost of 50 to
100. Sorghum- juice can be reduced to treacle and sugar without
the use of chemicals, beyond clearing with lime and neutralising the
lime, remaining in the juice, by sulphurous acid. Raw sorghum-
sugar is nearly white. By an improved method Mr. F. L. Stewart
obtained 10 Ibs. of sugar from a gallon of dense syrup. At the State-
University's experimental farm, in Wisconsin, Professors Swenson
;and Henry have proved, that sorghum-sugar, equal to the best cane-
sugar, can be produced as cheaply as cane- or beet-sugar. The
seeds are very valuable for stable-fodder as well as for poultry-feed,
44 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
and may even be utilised for bread and cakes. The stem can
be used as a culinary vegetable. See also the elaborate chemical
reports by Dr. P. Collier, Washington, 1880-82 ; further, the essay
by Commissioner Hon. Gr. B. Loring, 1883. In connexion with the
new and extensive irrigation-scheme of the Victorian Government,
initiated by the Honorable Alfred Deakin, the culture also of the
Sugar-Millet should assume grand dimension in regions hitherto too
dry for it.
An able report from a committee of the National Academy of
Science, submitted to the Senate of the United States on the sugar-
producing capacity of the Sorghum, gives the following conclusions :
That from about 4,500 most accurate analyses, instituted by Dr.
Collier in the Department of Agriculture in Washington, the presence
of cane-sugar in the juice of the best varieties of Sorghum (Amber,
Honduras and Orange) in such quantity is established, as to equal
the yield of that of sugar-cane, the average quantity of crystallisable
sugar in the juice being 16 per cent., the average yield of juice in
stripped stalks from plants grown at Washington being 58 per cent.,
the sugar really obtainable by ordinary process of manufacture from
the juice being 11*30 per cent. It is further demonstrated, that the
Sorghum-stalks should be cut only, when the seeds are already of a
doughy consistence or still harder, that the stalks should be worked
up immediately after cutting ; further it is shown, that the sugar
from Sorghum is not inferior to that from cane or beet, and that
excellent sugar can likewise be obtained from maize ; that Sorghum,
when advancing to maturity, will resist some frost ; that no more
than 12^ per cent, of the sugar is lost by the evaporation of the juice
to syrup, quite as great a loss taking place in the juice of sugar-cane
by defacation, skimming and inversion (change into glucose or grape-
sugars). The committee considered this new Sorghum-industry
placed already on a safe and profitable footing. Sorghum-stubbles
are of surprising value as pastoral feed. Sugar-Sorghum was intro-
duced into the United States for rural purposes only 30 years ago ;
but its culture spread with unexampled rapidity there, having only
its counterpart in the tea- and cinchona-culture of the last decennia in
India. The process of manufacture of sugar from Sorghum is not
more difficult than that of cane, and less complicated than that of beet.
Some varieties mature in 80 days, others require twice that time, the
Orange-variety becoming perennial, and is with the Amber-variety
most saccharine, while the Honduras-variety gives a very heavy crop;
the broomcorn-variety is poor in sugar. Sorghum will thrive well in
sandy loam too light for maize and in a clime too dry for that corn,
and can be grown closer. In North- Western Victoria it grew at the
rate of 5 feet in 2 months [J. P. Eckert]. The variety A. bicolor
(Roxburgh) ripens its seeds in Lower India within three or four
months of the time of sowing, the produce being often upwards of
one hundredfold, and the grain particularly wholesome for human
sustenance. Sorghum giganteum (Edgeworth) represents a form of
very tall growth.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 45
Andropogon saccharoides, Swartz. (A. argenteus, De Candolle.)
Pronounced by Leybold to be one of the best pasture-grasses of
the Cordilleras of Chili.
Andropogon Schcenanthus, Linn. (A. Martini, Roxburgh.)
Southern. Asia, extending to Japan, also in Africa. One of the
" Lemon-grasses." It will live in arid places. The medicinal Sirri-
Oil is prepared from the root. The Australian A. bombycinus
(R. Brown) approaches in affinity this species.
Andropogon scoparius, Michaux.
North- America. Takes permanent possession of sandy or other-
wise poor land, and is regarded as one of the best forage-resources of
the prairies.
Andropogon sericeiis, R. Brown.
Hotter regions of Australia, even in desert-tracts, also extending to
New Caledonia and the Philippine-Islands. A fattening perennial
pasture-grass, worthy of praise. Yields enormously during the dry
summer months [Fr. Turner]. Proved one of the best pasture-
grasses in North- Western Australia [Isaac Tyson].
Andropogon Sorghum, Brotero.* (Sorghum vulgare, Persoon.)
The large "Indian millet" or "Guinea-corn" also "Durra."
Warmer parts of Asia, but according to Alph. de Candolle perhaps
indigenous only in tropical Africa. It matures seed even at Christi-
ania in Norway [Schuebeler]. A tall annual plant. The grains
can be converted into bread, porridge, and other preparations of food.
It is a very prolific corn; Sir John Hearsay counted 12,700 seeds on
one plant ; it is particularly valuable for green fodder. The panicles
are used for carpet-brooms, the fibrous roots for velvet-brushes. The
grain of this millet is in value superior to that of A. saccharatus. A
variety (A. caffrorum, Kunth) yields the " Kaffir-corn," which sort
is particularly drought-resisting [James Henderson]. The "Imphee"
affords a superior white food-grain. Even A. saccharatus can be
only regarded as an extreme form of A. Sorghum on the high autho-
rity of Prof. Hackel. In Central Australia it ripens within three
months [Rev. H. Kempe]. Succeeds in dry regions, where Euch-
laena does not come to full development. A kind of beer, called
" Merisa/' is prepared from the seed. Many others of the numerous
species of Andropogon, from both hemispheres, deserve our attention.
Anemone Pulsatilla, Linne.
Europe and Northern Asia. On limestone-soil. This pretty peren-
nial herb is of some medicinal importance, acting in many respects
similarly to aconitum. A. pratensis and A. patens (Linne) are of like
value, the latter extending to North- America.
46 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Angophora intermedia, De Candolle.
South-Eastern Australia. This is one of the best of the Ango-
phoras, attaining a large size, and growing with the rapidity of an
Eucalyptus, but being more close and shady in its foliage. It would
be a good tree for lining public roads and for sheltering plantations.
The Rev. J. Tenison Woods states, that it is not rarely over 150
feet high, that the wood is hard and very tough, bearing dampness
well, but that the many kino-particles lessen its usefulness. Care-
fully selected, it can be employed in carpenters' and wheelwrights'
work. Pasture-animals of all kinds like to browse on the leaves, so
that it is regarded as a " stand-by " in seasons of drought [A. R.
Crawford]. Mr. Kirton observes, that a single tree of this species or
of A. lanceolata will yield as much as two gallons of liquid kino at
a time; nearly half of this consists of Kino-tannic acid; fishermen
use it to tan their nets [J. H. Maiden]. A. lanceolata (Cavanilles)
of the same geographic region is a closely allied species, but its
timber is more close-grained, particularly hard and heavy. Flowers
of all Angophoras much frequented by the honey-bee [Ch. French].
It is averred, that occasionally a watery fluid drops in dry weather
from these trees, as a sign of the copious absorption of humidity
[Edw. Martin].
Angophora subvelutina, F. v. Mueller.
Queensland and New South Wales. Attains a height of 100 feet.
The wood is light and tough, soft while green, very hard when dry ;.
used for wheel-naves, yokes, handles, and various implements; it
burns well, and contains a large proportion of potash [C. Hart-
mann]. Dr. Bancroft lauds the kino as particularly effective in
diarrhoaa.
Anona Cherimolia, Miller.*
Ecuador to Peru. One of the " Custard- Apples." This shrub or
tree might be tried in frostless forest-valleys, where humidity and
rich soil will prove favorable to its growth. It is hardy in the mild-
est coast-regions of Spain, also in Chili. In Jamaica it is cultivated
up to nearly 5,000 feet [W. Fawcett]. Grows readily from seeds.
It yields the Cherimoyer fruit. The flowers are very fragrant. A.
muricata L. (the Sour Sop), A. squamosa L. and A. sericea Dunal
(the Sweet Sop) and A. reticulata L. (the Custard-Apple), all natives
of the Antilles, can probably only under exceptionally favorable con-
ditions be grown in any extra-tropic countries, though they produce
fruit still in Florida. A. reticulata and A. squamosa produce just
outside the tropics in East-Australia still heavy crops of fruit
[Edgar], and may ripen also yet at Port Jackson [Fred. Turner].
These two are reared in Jamaica up to 3,500 feet elevations [W.
Fawcett]. In the Cape Colony A. reticulata fruits well all along the
frost-free coast- region and also in sheltered localities away from the
sea where the temperature does not fall below 27 F.; the first fruit of
the season [T. R. Sim],
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 47
Anthemis nobilis, Linne.
The true u Chamomile." Middle and Southern Europe, Northern
Africa. A well-known medicinal plant, frequently also used as
edgings for garden-plots. Flowers in their normal state are prefer-
able for medicinal use to those in which the ray florets are produced
in increased numbers. They contain a peculiar volatile oil and two
acids, similar to angelic and yalerianic acid. Hardy in Norway to
lat. 63 52' [Schuebeler]. Use of the flowers therapeutically indi-
cated in light nervous and spasmodic affections; they act also as a
diuretic, and are renowned in popular medicine variously otherwise.
Anthemis tinctoria, Linne.
Middle and Southern Europe, Orient. An annual herb. The flowers
contain a yellow dye.
Anthistiria avenacea, F. v. Mueller. (Themeda avenacea, F. v. M.)
Extra-tropical and Central Australia. A nutritious, perennial
pasture-grass. Called by Mr. Bailey " one of the most productive
grasses of Australia"; it produces a large amount of bottom-fodder,
and it has also the advantage of being a prolific seeder, while it
endures a hot, dry clime; grows to a height of over 6 feet. Mr.
C. J. Maclarland considers it for pastoral purposes superior to the
ordinary Kangaroo-grass. It is nearest allied to A. gigantea
Cavanilles (Themeda gigantea, Hackel) of tropical Asia and
Polynesia.
Anthistiria Clliata, Linne" fil. (A. australis, R. Brown; Themeda triandra,.
Forskael).
The well-known " Kangaroo-grass," not confined to Australia, but
stretching through Southern Asia also and through the whole of
Africa ; perennial, nutritious, comparatively hardy, ascending to sub-
alpine elevations. In good seasons and in fair soil it will rise to over
man's height. Chemical analysis of this grass during its spring-
growth gave the following result : Albumen, 2'05 ; gluten, 4' 67 ;
starch, 0'69 ; gum, 1'67 ; sugar, 3'06 per cent. [F. v. Mueller and
L. Hummel]. Several species of Anthistiria occur variously dis-
persed from South-Africa to Japan, deserving introduction and
naturalisation in countries of warm-temperate or tropical climates.
Anthistiria membranacea, Lindley. (Themeda membranacea, F. v.
Mueller. )
Interior of Australia. Esteemed as fattening; seeds freely
[Bailey]. Particularly fitted for dry, hot pastures, even of desert-
regions, but never tall.
Anthoxanthum odoratum, Linne.
The "Scented Vernal-grass." Europe, Northern and Middle
Asia, North- Africa. Found wild in Norway to lat. 71 7' [Schue-
beler]. Perennial ; not of great value as a fattening grass, yet
48 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
always desired for the flavor, which it imparts to hay. Perhaps for
this purpose the scented Andropogons might also serve. On deep
and moist soils it attains its greatest perfection. It is much used for
mixing among permanent grasses in pastures, where it will continue
long in season, although it is also among the very early kinds out
anywhere. Discarded as a pasture- or hay-grass by Professor
Hackel ; liked by many as an admixture to lawn-grasses. It would
live well in any alpine region. Dr. Curl observes, that in New
Zealand it grows all the winter, spring and autumn, and is a good
feeding grass. The lamellar crystalline cumarin is the principle, on
which the odor of Anthoxanthum depends, and this grass should be
the cheapest material for producing or isolating this chemical.
Perhaps even the mere powdered leaves might serve as an admixture
to snuff for the Cumarin.
Anthriscus Cerefolium, Hoffmann.
Europe and Western Asia. The " Chervil." An annual culinary
plant ; its herbage used as an aromatic condiment, but the root is
seemingly deleterious. The plant requires in hot countries a shady
situation [Vilmorin] ; the foliage forms the principal ingredient of
what in France is called " fines herbes." Can be cultivated in Norway
as far north as 70 22' [Schuebeler].
Anthyllis vulneraria, Linne.
The Kidney-vetch. All Europe, Northern Africa, Western Asia.
This perennial herb serves as sheep-fodder, and is particularly re-
commended for calcareous soils. Comparable as regards nutrition
next to Red Clover, but suitable also for sandy soil too poor for Red
or White Clover ; for pasture it lasts three or four years [Dr.
Stebler]. It would also live in any alpine region. Indigenous in
Norway as far north as lat. 70 [Schuebeler].
Apios tuberosa, Moench.
North-Eastern America. A climber with somewhat milky juice.
The mealy tubers are edible.
Apium Chilense, Hooker and Arnott.
Western extra- tropic temperate America. A stouter plant than
the ordinary celery, but of similar culinary use.
Apium graveolens, Linn6.
The " Celery." Europe, Northern Africa, Northern and Middle
Asia, North -Western America. Grows in Norway to lat. 70
[Schuebeler]. It is here merely inserted with a view of pointing
out, that it might be readily naturalised anywhere on sea-shores. The
wild plant is however by some considered unwholesome in a raw state.
Besides the ordinary variety with long thrck white leaf-stalks an-
other form with turnip-like roots is sometimes cultivated ; the latter
is called Celeriac. The plants are not grown close, their outer
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 49
leaves are periodically pulled, up-hoeing is resorted to as in potatoes
and beet, when the roots will attain a large size. The town of Kala-
mazpo, on the shores of Lake Michigan, owes its existence to the
cultivation of Celery in the swampy soil of the neighbourhood, the
annual export having a value of 50,000 [Semler]. The fruitlets are
occasionally utilised for condiment. Seed'will keep for several years
in cool climes, and it will ripen even in the hottest and driest regions
of Australia under horticultural care. Much used by the ancients
for wreaths.
Apium prostratum, La Billardiere.
The Australian Celery. Extra-tropical Australia, New Zealand,
Extra-tropical South-America. This also can be utilised as a culi-
nary vegetable, but not in a raw state.
Apocynum cannabinum, Linn.
North- America. A perennial herb. This is recorded among
plants yielding a textile fibre of silky gloss and considerable dura-
bility. A. androsgemifolium (Linne) yields medicinally the " Bitter
Root " of the United States, that of A. cannabinum being likewise
therapeutically valuable. Both plants bear the clime to 60 N. lat.
in Norway [Prof. Schuebeler]. The drug value depends on the
Apocynin, a potent diaphoretic solvent and laxative, also as an
eliminator, particularly advocated in hydrops, employed also in gout.
Aponogeton crispus, Thunberg.
From India to New South Wales. The tuberous roots of this
water-herb are amylaceous and of excellent taste, though not large.
The same remarks apply to A. monostachyos (Linne fil.) and several
other species, all from the warmer regions of the Eastern hemi-
sphere.
Aponog-eton distachyos, Thunberg.
South- Africa. This curious water-plant might be naturalised in
ditches, swamps and lakes, for the sake of its edible tubers. The
scented flowering portion of this plant affords spiuage. For a full
account see Paillieux and Bois in "Bulletin de la Societe d' Accli-
matation," 1888, pp. 782-786.
Aquilaria Agallocha, Roxburgh.
Silhet and Assam. A tree of immense size. It furnishes the
fragrant calambac- or agallochum-wood, known also as aggur or
tuggur or the aloe-wood of commerce, famed since ancient times.
The odorous portion is only partially distributed through the stem.
The best quality of the so-called Eagle-woodirregular masses found
inside the stems of old trees fetches as much as 30 a cwt. [Dr.
G. Watt].
50 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Arachis hypogsea, Linn<$.*
Peru and Brazil. The "Earth-nut, Pea-nut or Ground-nut." The
seeds of this annual herb are consumed in a roasted state, or used
for the expression of a palatable oil, which does not readily become
rancid, the percentage ranging to 45. Of all oil-plants one of the
most important and lucrative. Where an oil-mill is not accessible,
the seeds, shelled out, could be pounded and put into a cauldron of
boiling water, when the oil will rise to the surface and could easily
be skimmed off, the residue serving as a fattening food for fowls [R.
L. Holmes]. The import of this fruit into Victoria during 1887 was
2,166 centals, valued at 2,129. The plant is a very productive one,
and yields a very quick return. It ranks also as a valuable fodder-
herb ; the hay is very nutritious, much increasing the milk of cows.
A light somewhat calcareous soil is best fitted for its growth. On
such soil 50 bushels may be obtained from the acre, but Mr. Bernays
notes the return up to 120 bushels, the weight of which ranges from
from 25 to 32 Ibs. Mr. Holtze harvested at. Port Darwin 27 cwt.
from an acre, the product being saleable at 20 per ton there. In
1880 the peanut-crop in the Southern United States came to
2,820,000 bushels, representing a value of 517,000. The export
of Peanuts from India amounts to from 30,000 to 60,000 tons
annually [Probodh Chandra De]. Professor Wittmack recorded
fruits from ancient graves of Ancon in Peru. As a coffee-surrogate
not very recommendable.
Aralia COrdata, Thunberg. {A. edulis, Siebold.)
Japan. A perennial herb. The young shoots and foliage provide
an excellent culinary vegetable there.
Aralia Ginseng, Decaisne and Planchon. (Panax Ginseng, Meyer. )
China and Upper India, ascending to 12,000 feet. This herb
furnishes the celebrated Ginseng-root, so much esteemed as a stimu-
lant by the Chinese, the value of which however may be overrated.
The root, to be particularly powerful, needs probably to be obtained
from high mountain-elevations. The species is closely related to the
2sorth- American A. quinquefolia (Decaisne and Planchon).
Araucaria Bidwilli, Hooker.*
Queensland. Bunya-bunya. A tree, attaining 250 feet in height,
with a fine-grained, hard and durable wood, particularly valuable for
furniture ; it shows its beautiful streaks best when polished. The
. seeds are large and edible. Growth in height at Port Phillip 30-40
feet in 20 years, the big strobiles ripening there.
Araucaria Brasiliana, A. Richard.*
Southern Brazil. A tree to 180 feet high, producing edible seeds.
Dr. Saldanha da Gama reports, that the wood makes splendid boards,
masts and spars, and that the tree also yields a good deal of turpentine.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 51
Except a few palms (Mauritia, Attalea, Copernicia), this seems the
only tree, which in Tropical South- America forms forests by itself
[Martins],
Araucaria Cookii, R. Brown.
New Caledonia and New Hebrides. Height of tree to 200 feet.
Technical value similar to that of A. excelsa, habit more columnar.
Growth at Port Phillip not quite 30 feet in 20 years. The seeds
sometimes commence to germinate before dropping out of the cone.
Araucaria Cunningham!, Aiton.*
" Moreton-Bay Pine." Eastern Australia, between 14 and 32
south latitude, extending also to the highlands of New Guinea. The
tree attains a height of 200 feet, with a trunk 6 feet in diameter.
Growth in height at Port Phillip 30 to 40 feet in 20 years. The
timber is fine-drained, strong and durable, if not exposed to alternately
dry and wet influences ; it is susceptible of a high polish, and thus
competes with satin-wood, and in some respects with birdseye-maple.
Value in Brisbane, 2 15s. to 3 10s. per 1,000 superficial feet. The
tree grows on alluvial banks as well as on rugged mountains, over-
topping all other trees. The resin, which exudes from it, has almost
the transparency and whiteness of crystal, and is often pendent in
the shape of icicles, which are sometimes 3 feet long and 6 to 12
inches broad [W. Hill]. Araucarias should be planted by the million
in fever-regions of tropical countries for hygienic purposes, on account
of their antiseptic exhalations.
Araucaria excelsa, R. Brown.*
" Norfolk-Island Pine." A magnificent tree of unsurpassed sym-
metry, sometimes 220 feet high, with a stem attaining 10 feet in
diameter, and with regular tiers of absolutely horizontal branches,
one for each year. The timber is useful for ship-building and many
other purposes. Growth in height at Port Phillip about 40 feet in
20 years. With A. Cunninghami amenable to almost any soil, except
a saline one, and not subject to any disease. Endures also the vicis-
situdes of the clime of Lower Egypt. Resists sea-breezes to a
remarkable degree. Ceases to be hardy in the south of New Zealand.
Araucaria imbricata, Pavon.*
Chili and Patagonia. The male tree attains generally a lesser
height than the female, which reaches 1 50 feet. At Brest it attained
72 feet in 55 years [de Kersanton]. This species furnishes a hard
and durable timber, as well as an abundance of edible seeds, which
constitute a main-article of food of the natives. Eighteen good trees
will yield enough of vegetable food for a man's sustenance all the
year round. The wood is yellowish-white, full of beautiful streaks,
capable of being polished and worked with facility. It is admirably
E 2
52 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
adapted for ship-building. The resin is pale and smells like frankin-
cense [Lawson]. The tree is most frequently found on rocky
eminences almost destitute of water [J. Hoopes] . It is hardier than
any other congener, having withstood the frosts of Norway up to
latitude 61 15' [Schuebeler]. Endures also the clime in many parts
of Scotland. Grows more slowly in Australia than the native species.
Araucaria Rulei, F. v. Mueller. (A. Muelleri, Brongniart.)
New Caledonia. A magnificent tree, with large shining leaves ;
doubtless not merely of decorative but also of utilitarian value. A
Balansae and A. montana (Brongniart) come from the same island,
A. Hunsteinii (Schumann), from Northern New Guinea.
Arauja sericifira, Brotero. (^4. albens, G. Don.)
Southern Brazil. This plant proved hardy at Toulouse. The fibre
of the bast is tough and of a silky softness [Dr. Clos] .
Arbutus Menziesii, Pursh.
North -Western America. An evergreen tree, attaining a height
of 150 feet, with a stem reaching 8 feet in diameter. It is of com-
paratively quick growth [Dr. Gibbons] ; it belongs to the coast-tract
exclusively. Wood exceedingly hard, not apt to rend, splendid for
furniture. The tree requires a deep loamy soil [Bolander], and is fit
only for shady, irrigated woodlands ; likes the company of Pinus
Douglasii and of Sequoias. It would be valuable at least as a highly
ornamental garden- or park-plant, being the tallest among about a
thousand Ericeae of the world.
Archangelica officinalis, Hoffmann.
Arctic zone and mountain-regions of many parts of Europe. The
young shoots and leaf -stalks of this biennial herb are used for
Angelica-confectionery ; the roots are of medicinal use, and likewise
they are chosen as well as the fruitlets for the distillation of some
cordials. They promote digestion, and stimulate the mucous mem-
branes into increased secretions. Hardy in Norway to lat. 71 10'
[Schuebeler]. In any sub-alpine regions this plant would particularly
establish its value. The surprisingly gigantic Angelica ursina,
Hegel (Angelophyllum ursinum, Ruprecht) forms a conspicuous
feature in the landscape of Kamtschatka and Sachalin. It is deline-
ated on plate XVI. of Lindley and Moore's Treasury of Botany ; it
ought to become an important plant for annual scenic culture.
Arctostaphylos uva ursi, Adanson.
Europe, Northern Asia and North- America, in colder regions,
extending to the arctics. A medicinal small shrub, which could best
be reared in the heath-moors of alpine tracts. Long known as a
powerful diuretic. Valuable also as a honey-yielding plant [Cook].
Berries used for preserves.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 53
Arenga saccharifera, La Billardiere.
India, Cochinchina, Philippines and, according to Doederlein, also
most Southern Japan. This Palm attains a height of 40 feet. The
black fibres of the leaf-stalks are adapted for cables and ropes,
intended to resist wet very long. The juice convertible into toddy
or sugar ; the young kernels made with syrup into preserves. This
Palm dies off as soon as it has produced its fruit ; the stem then be-
comes hollow, and can be used for spouts and troughs of great
durability. The pith supplies sago, about 150 Ibs. from a tree,
according to Roxburgh. Hardier than Cocos nucifera.
Argania Sideroxylon, Roemer and Schultes.
Western Barbary, on dry hills. " The Argan-tree." Its growth
is generally slow, but it is a long-lived tree-. Though comparatively
low in stature, its foliage occasionally spreads to a circumference of
220 feet. It sends out suckers from the root. The fruit serves as
food for cattle in Morocco ; but in Australia the kernels would be
more likely to be utilised by pressing an oil from them. Height of
tree exceptionally 70 feet. Produces fruit also in the clime of Tas-
mania [Abbott]. Commences to bear fruit when about six years old
[C.* Moore], and thence bears regularly and has more or less fruits on
it throughout the year. Dryander gave already a scientific account
of this tree in the transactions of the Linnean Society, II., 225.
Argyrolobium marginatum, Bolus.
Natal, on stony hills. A low-growing half-shrub, having succulent
roots with a milky juice. The roots are eatable and pleasant to the
taste ; the natives are very fond of them. Under cultivation the
plant may perhaps prove a welcome addition to our list of vegetables
[John Medley Wood].
Aristida prodigiosa, Welwitsch.*
Angola, on the driest sand-hills. A perennial fodder-grass, of
which the discoverer speaks in glowing terms of praise. In the West-
African desert-country, in places devoid of almost all other vegetation,
the zebras, antelopes and hares resort with avidity to this grass ; it
also affords there in the dry season almost the only fodder for
domestic grazing animals. Moreover, this seems to indicate, that
the closely cognate A. plumosa, L. and A. ciliata, Deaf., of the
countries at or near the Mediterranean Sea, might likewise be encour-
aged in their natural growth or be cultivated. All feathery grasses
are among the most lovely for minor decorative purposes or designs,
and this may also be said of the Australian plumous Stipa elegantis-
sima (La Billardiere) and S. Tuckeri (F. v. M.).
Aristida pungens, Desfontaines.
Northern and Central Africa. Constitutes the principal native
fodder-grass of the Sahara, being content with sand-soil. This
perennial tall grass is lauded as one of the most nutritive and widely-
spread there [Brockhaus].
54 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Aristolochia Indica, Linne.
Tropical Asia, North-Eastern Australia and Polynesia. A peren-
nial climber; the leaves famed as an alexipharmic. Can only be
grown in places free from frost.
Aristolochia recurvilabra, Hance.
The green " Putchuck " of China. A medicinal plant, largely
obtained at Nin^po. The present value of its local export is from
20,000 to 30,000 annually.
Aristolochia serpentaria, Linne.
The " Snake-root." South-Eastern States of North- America.
The root of this trailing herb is valuable in medicine ; it contains a
peculiar volatile oil. Therapeutically the plant belongs to the
aromatic-bitter restorative agents, and is particularly a tonic excitant.
Serpentaria-root is now largely obtained from A. reticulata (Nuttall).
Several other Aristolochia} deserve culture for medicinal purposes,
for instance, Aristolochia ovalifolia (the Guaco) and A. anguicida,
from the mountains of Central America.
Aristotelia Macqui, L'Heritier.
Chili. The berries of this shrub, though small, have the pleasant
taste of bilberries, and are largely consumed in Chili [Philippi]. The
plant would thrive in mild forest-valleys. It is quite hardy in South-
Ireland.
Arnica montana, Linne.
Colder parts of Europe and Western Asia. This pretty herb is
perennial and of medicinal value. It is particularly eligible for sub-
alpine regions. Hardy in Norway to lat. 62 47' [Schuebeler]. The
active principles are arnicin, a volatile oil, caproic and caprylic acids.
Snuff can be prepared from this plant. The flowers can only in
small quantities be used, as incautious doses of this medicine produce
toxic symptoms; it stimulates the salivary glands, promotes the cir-
culation, cerebral, cutaneous and renal action. Externally applied
as an excitant.
Arracacha xanthorrhiza, Bancroft.
Mountain-regions of Central America. A perennial umbelliferous
herb. The root is nutritious and palatable. There are yellow,
purple and pale varieties, which are kept up by division of the
roots.
Artemisia Abrotanum, Linne.
Countries at the Mediterranean Sea. A very odorous shrub,
known as " Southern Wood." The foliage used in domestic medi-
cine, also as condiment. The plant is easily grown from cuttings.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. oo
Artemisia Absinthium, Linne.
Europe, North- and Middle- Asia and North-Africa. The " Worm-
wood." A perennial herb, valuable as a tonic and anthelmiuthic.
Should be avoided, where bees are kept [Muenter], although an
absinthine honey might be used medicinally. Indigenous in Norway
to lat. 63 28' north, but cultivated quite to 70 [Prof. Schuebeler].
Recommended for cultivation as a preventative of various insect-
plagues, even the Phylloxera. Several other species of Artemisia
deserve cultivation for medicinal purposes. Active principles : Ab-
sinthin, an oily substance indurating to a crystalline mass ; also a
volatile oil peculiar to the species.
Artemisia Cina, Berg.
Kurdistan. This herb furnishes 1 the genuine santonica-seeds (or
rather flowers and fruits), a vermifuge of long-established use. Some
other Asiatic species yield a similar drug, 'which should only consist
of young headlets of flowers ; the chemical principle Santonin is
obtained from them.
Artemisia Dracunculus, Linne.
Northern Asia. The " Tarragon " or "Estragon." A perennial
herb, used as a condiment. Its flavor depends on two volatile oils,
one of them peculiar to the plant. Hardy in Norway to lat. 63 52'
[Schuebeler]. Propagation by division of root. The wild plant has
but little flavor [Vilmorin].
Artemisia Mutellina, Villars.
Alps of Europe. This aromatic, somewhat woody plant deserves
to be established in any alpine region. This species and A. glacialis,
L., A. rupestris, L. and A. spicata, Wulf., comprised under the name
of " Genippi," serve for the preparation of the Extrait d' Absinthe
[Brockhaus].
Artemisia Pontica, Linne.
Middle and Southern Europe, Western Asia. More aromatic and
less bitter than the ordinary wormwood. Hardy to lat. 63 45' in
Norway [Schuebeler]. Many other species of this genus deserve
attention of the culturist.
Artocarpus communis, K. and U. Forster.* (A. incisa, Linne fil.)
South-Sea-Islands, Moluccas and Sunda-Islands.
The Tahiti " Breadfruit-tree." It stretches in the Sandwich-
Islands through cultivation almost beyond the tropics, ripening fruit
also in Florida, and ascending to 3,000 feet in Jamaica. Dies stil
down in unusually cool seasons at the tropic of Capricorn m East
Australia, when in a ypung state, unless protected during the coldest
weather According to Dr. Seemann's excellent account seedless
56 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
varieties exist, and others with entire leaves and with smooth and
variously shaped and sized fruits ; others again ripening earlier,
others later, so that ripe bread-fruit is obtainable more or less
abundantly throughout the year. The fruit is simply boiled or baked
or converted into more complicated kinds of food. Starch is obtain-
able from the bread-fruit very copiously. The very fibrous bark can be
beaten into a sort of rough cloth. The light wood serves for canoes.
The exudation, issuing from cuts, made into the stem, is in use for
closing the seams of canoes, and could be turned to technic account.
Artocarpus integrifolia, Linn fil.*
India. The famous " Jack-tree," ascending like the allied A.
Lakoocha (Roxburgh) to 4,000 feet ; only fit for places free of frost.
A large tree in full bearing is one of the grandest of objects in the
whole vegetation of the world. The fruit attains exceptionally a
weight of 80 Ibs.; it is eaten raw or variously prepared ; the seeds,
when roasted, are not inferior to chestnuts [Dr. Roxburgh]. In
East- Australia just outside the tropics this tree still produces fruits in
enormous quantity, up to a weight of 23 Ibs. [Edgar]; to a lesser
extent at Moreton-Bay [Fr. Turner]. Bears fruit as far south. as
Durban in Natal [J. M. Wood]. In Jamaica it is cultivated up to
3,000 feet [W. Fawcett]. The allied A. polyphema (Persoon) has
smaller fruits, very odorous and with sweet pulp. It is a native of
Cochinchina ; its degree of hardiness is not well ascertained yet. An
illustration of it occurs in Madame van Nooten's beautiful work on
Javanese culture-plants.
Arundinaria elegans, Kurz.
Burma, ascending to 7,000 feet elevation. Height of stems to
20 feet.
Arundinaria falcata, Nees.
Middle Himalayan zone, ceasing at elevations over 7,000 feet.
The canes are thin and weak, seldom over 6 feet high. This
bamboo does not necessarily require moisture. In reference to various
bamboos see the Gardeners' Chronicle of December, 1876, also the
Bulletin de la Soci6te d'Acclimatation de Paris, 1888. The closely
allied Jurboota-Bamboo of Nepal, which occurs only in the cold
altitudes of from 7,000 to 10,000 feet, differs in its solitary stems,
not growing in clumps. The Thamor-Kaptur-Bamboo is from a still
colder zone, at from 8,500 to 11,500 feet, only 500 feet or less below
the lower limits of perpetual glaciers [Major Madden]. The wide and
easy cultural distribution of bamboos by means of seeds has been first
urged and to some extent initiated by the writer of the present work.
Arundinaria Falconer!, Munro. (Thamnocalamus Falconeri, J. Hooker.)
Himalaya, at about 8,000 feet elevation. A tall species with a
panicle of several feet in length. Allied to the foregoing species.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 57
Arundinaria Hookeriana, Munro.
Himalaya, up to nearly 7,000 feet. Grows to a height of about
15 feet. Vernacularly known as " Yoksun " and " Praong." The
seeds are edible, and also used for a kind of beer [Sir Jos. Hooker].
Grains of most kinds of bamboos are however only produced at long
intervals, nor do they retain vitality for a long time.
Arundinaria Japonica, Siebold and Zuccarini.*
The " Metake " of Japan. Attains a height of from 6 to 15 feet.
Uninjured by even severe winters at Edinburgh, with F. [Gorlie].
The hardiest of all bamboos. Through cold and keen winds in Eng-
land it may be seen unscathed, looking fresh and green when the
spring arrives. Underground shoots come up at some distance from
the main root. Cut canes put into jars containing some water stand
particularly well as foliage for decorative purposes according to Dr.
M. T. Masters, who also bestows high praise on the frost-resisting
Japanese or Chinese A. Simoni (Riviere) of stately habit, on the A.
pygmaea (Masters) of almost turf like growth, on A. Fortunei
(Fenzi) with often variegated foliage, on A. Veitchii (N. E. Brown)
and on Bambusa tessellata (Munro).
Arundinaria macrosperma, Michaux and Richard.
Southern States of North- America, particularly on the Mississippi.
This bamboo-like reed forms there the cane-brakes. Fit for low
borders of water-courses and swamps. According to C. Mohr it
affords throughout all seasons of the year an abundance of nutritious
fodder. It requires to be replanted after flowering, in the course of
years. Height reaching 20 feet.
Arundinaria spathiflora, Trinius and Ruprecht.*
"The Ringal." Himalaya, at elevations of 8,000 to 10,000 feet,
growing among firs and oaks in a climate almost as severe as that of
England, snow being on the ground from 2 to 3 months. Stems rise
to '60 feet ; more than a hundred may in the course of a year spring
from one root ; the canes of this species are quite celebrated for water-
tubes, fishing-rods and various implements, also as material for mats
and baskets [Sir D. Brandis, in proceed. R. Soc. of New South
Wales, 1885].
Arundinaria tecta, Muehlenberg.
Southern States of North-America. A cane, growing 10 feet
high. Prefers good soil, not subject to inundations ; ripens i
large mealy seeds early in the season, throwing out subsequently
new branches with rich foliage. Fire destroys this plant readily
[C. Mohr].
58 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Arundinaria Veitchii, N. E. Brown.
Japan and even northward beyond Sachalin-Island. Concerning
this very hardy bamboo information is extant in the Gardeners'
Chronicle of 1889, p. 521. Eldest name, A. kurilensis [Rupr.].
Amndinella Nepalensis, Trinius.
Middle and Southern Africa, Southern Asia, Northern and
Eastern Australia. This grass commences its growth in the spring
weather, and continues to increase during the whole summer,
forming a dense mass of foliage, which grows as fast as it is fed off
or cut. In New Zealand it is only a summer-grass, but valuable for
its rapid growth at that season and for thriving on high dry land
[Dr. Curl].
Arundo Ampelodesmos, Cyrillo.
Southern Europe, Northern Africa. Almost as large as a
Gynerium. The tough flower-stems and leaves readily available for
tying.
Arundo Bengalensis, Retzius.
China, India. Closely allied to A. Donax. The long panicle
beautifully variegated with white and violet [Hance].
Arundo conspicua, G. Forster.
New Zealand and Chatham-Islands. Although not strictly an
industrial plant, it is mentioned here as important for scenic effect,
flowering before the still grander A. Sellowiana comes in bloom, but
not quite so hardy as that species, still bearing considerable frost.
The leaves serve for rough forage, particularly those of a more succu-
lent variety [J. Buchanan].
Arundo Donax, Linn4.*
The tall, evergreen, lasting Bamboo-reed of Southern Europe,
South- Western Asia and Northern Africa ; indigenous northwards as
far as the Danube, hence in some places called the Danubian reed.
It is one of the most important plants of its class for quickly pro-
ducing scenic effect in picturesque plantations, also for intercepting
almost at once the view of unsightly objects, and for giving early
shelter ; attains occasionally a height of 30 feet. Comparatively
hardy. The canes can be used for fishing-rods, for light props, rustic
pipes, distaffs, baskets and various utensils ; also for some musical
instruments like clarinets and oboes. Readily flowering when
strongly manured. The root is used medicinally in France. Easily
transplanted at any season. Cross-sections of the canes are very
convenient, placed closely and erect, for sowing into them seeds of
pines, eucalypts and many other trees, seedlings of which are to be
forwarded on a arge scale to long distances [J. E. Brown], in the
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 59
same manner as bamboo-joints are used in India. Rows or belts of
it intercept sewage or exsiccate stagnant drainage, and will also
arrest bush-fires. The roots can readily be carried by tourists ;
landscapes might thus far be embellished. Pasture-animals like to
browse on the young foliage. Dr. Bancroft proved this plant a
splendid " stay -by " in seasons of drought, and recommends reserve-
fields of it regularly to be kept.
Arundo Karka, Retzius.
India, China, Japan. The Durma-mats are made of the split stems
of this tall reed.
Arundo Pliniana, Turra.
On the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. A smaller plant than
A. Donax, with more slender stems and narrower leaves, but
similarly evergreen, and resembling the Donax-reed also in other
respects.
Arundo saccharoides, Poiret. (Gynerium saccharoides, Humboldt.)
The Uva-grass. Central and Northern parts of South- America.
Attaining a height of 20 feet. Like the following, it is conspicuously
magnificent, but of different aspect and less hardy. The flower-
bunches are a commercial article, being in demand for decorative
purposes, either dyed or in their natural state, like the following.
Arundo Sellowiana, Schultes.* (Arundo dioica, Sprengel non Loureiro,
Gynerium argenteum, Nees.)
The "Pampas-grass" of Uruguay, Paraguay and La Plata-States.
A grand autumnal flowering-reed, with gorgeous feathery panicles.
As an industrial plant it deserves here a place, because paper can be
prepared from its leaves, as first shown by the author.
Asimina triloba, Dunal.
South-Eastern States of North-America, extending to New York.
A small tree ; the comparatively large pulpy fruit is of pleasant odor
and of sweet taste, and when well ripened it is edible. Prof. Naudin
thinks that by selection from carefully cultivated plants the fruit
would much improve.
Asparagus acutifolius, Linn4.
In all the countries around the Mediterranean Sea, also in the
Canary-Islands. Although a shrubby Asparagus, yet the root-shoots,
according to Dr. Heldreich, are collected in- Greece, and are tender
and of excellent taste, though somewhat thinner than those of the
ordinary herbaceous species ; in Istria and Dalmatia they are con
sumed as a favorite salad. The shrub grows on stony rises, and the
shoots are obtained without cultivation. A. aphyllus, L. and A.
60 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
horridus, L., according to Dr. Reinhold, are utilised in the same
manner, and all may probably yield an improved product by regular
and careful culture.
Asparagus albus, Linn&
Countries around the Mediterranean Sea, also in the Canary
Islands. Serves for garden-hedges.
Asparagus laricinus, Burchell.
South- Africa. Dr. Pappe observes of this shrubby species, that
with some other kinds of that country it produces shoots of excellent
tenderness and aromatic taste. A. schoberioides is a native asparagus
of Japan.
Asparagus officinalis, Linn<$.*
Europe, North- Africa, West-Asia. The well-known Asparagus-
plant, which, if naturalised on any coast, would aid in binding the
sand. One of the few kitchen-plants which will thrive on somewhat
saline soil. The Asparagus-season can be prolonged by several
weeks through culture in highlands. Cultivated since ancient times.
Hardy in Norway to lat. 64 12' [Schuebeler]. The plant contains
Vanillin, the foliage inosit-sugar, the shoots yield asparagin. Sea-
weeds are a good additional material for forcing asparagus. Can for
culinary purposes even be grown in sub-tropical climes. The seeds
will keep five years or even longer. Important as a food to promote
renal secretions, also against dropsy, vesical torpidity, and even
various cutaneous affections.
Asparagus plumosus, Baker.
South Africa. This has lately become one of the most sought
plants for bouquets and vases. Much lauded by Regel.
Asparagus tenuifolius, Lamarck.
South-Europe and South- Western Asia. Foliage in great demand
for bouquets on account of its almost transparent "quivering sprays,"
which keep fresh for days.
Asperula odorata, Linnl.
The " Woodruff.-" Europe, Western, and Northern Asia, Northern
Africa, there as in Southern Europe only on mountains, always a
forest-plant. Indigenous in Norway to lat. 66 59' [Schuebeler].
A perennial herb with highly fragrant flowers ; it deserves natural-
isation in forests ; it contains much cumarin in its flowers, and serves
in Germany for preparing the "Maitrank." Therapeutically the
plant belongs to the Secretatories, and is a domestic remedy in
hydropic and some other affections.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 61
Aspidosperma Quebracho, Grisebach.
Argentina. Shrub or tree, even tall, with wood fit for xylography.
The bitter bark is astringent and febrifugal [Lorentz], being almost
as rich in tannin as that of Piptadenia Cebil. The leaves even
contain up to 27^ per cent. ; both have the advantage of producing
an almost colourless leather [Sievert]. F. Jean states that even the
Quebracho-wood contains 14 to 16 per cent, of tannic and 2 to 3 per
cent, of gallic acid.
Astartea fascicularis, De Candolle.
South-Western Australia. A tall shrub or small tree, with a pre-
dilection for swampy ground, rather remarkable for quick growth,
and evidently destined to take its place in antimalarian plantations.
The foliage is locally used for tea.
Astragalus adscendens, Boissier and Haussknecht.
Persia, in alpine elevations of 9,000 to 10,000 feet. A shrub,
attaining a height of 4 feet. Yields gum-tragacanth in abundance
[Haussknecht]. Many species of this genus, numerous in various
parts of Europe and Asia, in California and in some other parts of
the globe, deserve attention for pastoral and other agronomic pur-
poses. Tragacanth is preferentially used, to give gloss to calico, also
much in confectionery.
Astragalus arenarius, Linne*.
Europe and Western Asia. A perennial fodder-herb for any sandy
desert country.
Astragalus aristatus, L'H^ritier. (A. Cephalonicus, Fischer.)
Cephalonia. A small shrub, yielding a good tragacanth ; and so
probably also does the true A. aristatus of L'Heritier.
Astragalus brachycalyx, Fischer.
Kurdistan. A low shrub affording gum-tragacanth [Flueckiger].
Astragalus Cicer, Linne*.
Middle and Southern Europe and Middle Asia. A nutritious per-
ennial herb, much sought by grazing animals. It requires, according
to Langethal, deep friable grounds and, like most leguminous herbs,
calcareous ingredients in the soil.
Astragalus Creticus, Lamarck.
Candia and Greece. A small bush, exuding the ordinary vermi-
cular tragacanth; the pale is preferable to the brown sort.
62 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Astragalus glycypkyllos, Lhm&
Europe and Northern Asia. Succeeds on light soil, also in forest-
regions. It has been recommended as a perennial, substantial fodder-
plant, which on cow-pastures particularly increases the yield of milk.
Hardy as far as 61 24' north lat. in Norway [Schuebeler].
Astragalus gummifer, La Billardtere.
Syria and Persia. This shrub also yields a good kind of traga-
canth.
Astragalus hypoglottis, Linn. (A. Danicus, Retzius.)
Colder regions of Europe, Asia and North- America. This per-
ennial plant is regarded as a good fodder-herb on calcareous and
gravelly soil, and would likely be of importance in any alpine region.
Of the enormous number of supposed species of this genus (according
to Boissier, not less than 750 merely in Asia Minor and the adjoining
countries) many must be of value for pasture, like some of the closely-
allied Australian Swainsonas, though they also may include deleterious
species ; thus A. Hornii and A. lentiginosus (Gray) of California
and A. mollissimus (Nuttall) of Texas, are known as loco-weeds,
and are poisonous to cattle and horses, just as Swainsona lesserti-
folia (Candolle) and S. Greyana (Lindley) have shown themselves
highly injurious to pasture animals in Australia ; the active principle
of these plants may however become of importance in medicine.
Astragalus Hyrcanus, Pallas.
From the Caspian Sea to Afghanistan, in sandland. This shrub
is locally valuable for the sustenance of pasture-animals [Dr. J.
AitchisonJ .
Astragalus microcephalus, Willdenow.
From Turkey to Russian Armenia. Gum-tragacanth is collected
largely also from this species [Farnsworth] and from the nearly
allied A. pycnocladus (Boissier and Haussknecht).
Astragalus Parnassi, Boissier. (A. cylleneus, Heldreich.)
Greece. This small shrub furnishes there almost exclusively the
commercial tragacanth. It ascends to elevations of 7,000 feet,
becoming therefore alpine.
Astragalus strobiliferus, Royle.
Asiatic Turkey. A brown tragacanth is collected from this species.
Astragalus stromatodes, Bunge.
Syria. At elevations of approximately 5,000 feet. Exudes Aintab-
tragacanth, which is also obtained from A. Kurdicus (Boissier).
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries 63
Astragalus venosus, Hochstetter.
From Abyssinia to Central Africa. This perennial herb is sub-
jected to regular cultivation for fodder, known as " Hamat-Kochata "
[D. Oliver].
Astragalus verus, Olivier.
Asiatic Turkey and Persia. This shrub furnishes the Takalor- or
Smyrna-tragacanth, or it is derived from an allied species. From an
Astragalus of S.W. Asia is obtained the Sarcocolla-gum [Dr.
L)ymock.]
Astrebla pectinata, F. v. Mueller.* (Danthonia pectinata, Lindley.)
New South Wales, Queensland, Northern and Central Australia,
in arid regions, always inland. A perennial desert-grass resisting
drought ; sought with avidity by sheep, and very fattening to them
and other pasture-animals. Seeding freely.
Astrebla triticoides, F. v. Mueller.* (Danthonia triticoides, Lindley.)
The "Mitchell-grass." Of nearly the same natural distribution as
the preceding, and equalling that species in value. Both so important
as to deserve artificial rearing even in their native country. Deep-
rooted.
Atalantia glauca, J. Hooker.
New South Wales and Queensland. This desert-lemon is men-
tioned here, to draw attention to the likelihood of its improving in
culture, and to its fitness in being grown in arid climes.
Atriplex Capense, Moqum.
South-Africa. There a valuable salt-bush of pastures [Prof.
MacOwan].
Atriplex cinereum, Poiret.
From Eastern to Western Australia, along the extra-tropical coast.
A rather tall and bulky salt-bush, which supplies good fodder for
cattle, according to Mr. F. Turner. A. Halimus, L., of the shores of
the Mediterranean Sea extends northwards to the entrance of the
Loire, 47 N.
Atriplex crystallinum, J. Hooker.
South-Eastern Australia and Tasmania, on the brink of the ocean
and exposed to its spray. This herb vegetates solely in salty coast-
sands, which it helps to bind, like Cakile. In a special volume by
the author of this work, all the Australian Salsolaceae are litho-
graphically illustrated, with a view that the selected kinds may be
easily recognised for further pastoral distribution.
64 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Atriplex halimoides, Lindley.*
Gregarious over the greater part of the saline desert-interior of
Australia reaching the South- and West-coasts. One of the best
dwarf species for salt-bush pastures. More saline and thus less
agreeable to sheep, also less copiously seeding than A. nummularium
[E. Gr. Alston]. These two species will endure as much frost as
A. Halimus. All such plants are readily raised from seeds. Should
even in its native places with other valuable species be redisseminated
methodically. About 20,000 dried seeds (fruits) go to a pound. A
covering with prickly branches will effect protection to the young
seedlings against sheep and other pasture-animals. The gregarious
occurrence of A. halimoides and A. vesicarium in some wide subsaline
tracts of the Australian interior is indicative of the facility with which
these two kinds of salt-bushes get even spontaneously disseminated.
Where these plants are to be grown, permanently the soil must of
course contain a fair proportion of saline particles, especially chloride,
either naturally or artificially.
Atriplex hortense, Dodoens.
Northern and Middle Asia. The " Arroche." An annual spinage
plant. Hardy in Norway to lat. 70 [Schuebeler] . Seeds mature
well, and will keep fully six years [Vilmorin],
Atriplex leptocarpum, F. v. Mueller.
East- Australia. This is another of the perennial salt-plants,
though not a large one, which render many of our dry and sterile
tracts valuable for sheep pastures. It will bear a great amount of
drought, and if not too closely fed down, produce seeds in abundance.
Australian salsolaceous plants were first recommended by the writer
of this work for the alkaline lands of California.
Atriplex Muelleri, Bentham.
Interior of Australia, reaching the South- and West-coasts. Cattle
and especially sheep are so fond of it that they often browse it to
the root. This species approaches in its characteristics closely to A.
roseum (Linne) from Europe, North-Africa and Western" Asia ;
which thus perhaps may be of greater rural significance also, than
hitherto supposed. For specifically distinguishing all the Australian
kinds the writer's Iconography of Australia's Salsolaceous Plants
should be consulted.
Atriplex nummularium, Lindley.*
From Queensland through the desert-tracts to Victoria and South-
Australia. One of the tallest, most fattening and wholesome of Aus-
tralian pastoral salt-bushes, but not so much relished by grazing
animals as some of the smaller species. Sheep and cattle, pastured
on salt-bush country, are said to remain not only free from fluke, but
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 65
to recover from this Distoma-disease and other allied ailments. Mr.
Edward Garwood Alston, of Van Wyks Vlei estate in Carnarvon,
aided by Mr. Henry Sandford, of Graaff-Reinet, and President Reitz,
of the Orange Free State, has had immense success with A. nummu-
larium and A. halimoides in South- Africa as far as the Transvaal,
the origin of the introduction also there having been through the
writer of these pages, by the kind offices of Professor MacOwan.
Mr. Alston contrasts the advantages of these two species with those
of A. Halimus, as available there naturally. They are less saline,
hence preferred by pasture-animals. They produce seeds much more
copiously and through 9 months they afford a larger food-supply in
a given time and the ease with which they can be raised. Even pigs
and fowls are fond of these salt-bushes. The withered leaves and
seeds afford a natural mulching and they are less particular in the
choice of soil than A. Halimus.
Atriplex semibaccatum, R. Brown.
Extra-tropic Australia. A perennial herb, very much liked by
sheep [R. H. Andrews], thus considered among the best of saline
herbage of the salt-bush country. Mr. Will. Farrer pronounces
this herb as wonderful for its productiveness and its drought-resisting
power. Professor Hilgard writes that in the Tulare-district, Cali-
fornia, where the soil contains 2 per cent, alkali, this plant grew to
a height of 8 feet. He knows no other plant that does so well on the
same soil.
Atriplex spongiosum, F. v. Mueller.*
Through a great part of Central Australia, extending to the
South- and West-coast. Available, like the preceding and several
other species, for salt-bush culture of particular nutritiveness as
pasture-fodder, but herbaceous. Unquestionably some of the shrubby
extra-Australian species, particularly those of the Siberian and Cali-
fornian steppes, could also be transferred advantageously to subsaline
country elsewhere, to increase its value, particularly for sheep-
pasture.
Atriplex stipitatum, Bentham.
Interior of South-Eastern Australia. Considered a good kind
among dwarf salt-bushes for pastoral purposes [Duncan Love].
A. velutinellum (F. v. M.), of South Australia and New South Wales,
is another valuable species, according to Mr. F. Turner. Mr. W. A.
Dixon found 92 per cent, of digestible substances in the allied A.
angulatum.
Atriplex vesicarium, Howard.*
In the interior of South-Eastern and in Central Australia. One of
the most fattening and most relished of all the dwarf pastoral salt-
bushes of Australia, holding out in the utmost extremes of drought,
66 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
and not scorched even by sirocco-like blasts. Its vast abundance
over extensive salt-bush plains of the Australian interior, to the ex-
clusion of almost every other bush except A. halimoides, indicates the
facility with which this species gets disseminated of its own accord.
Splendid wool is produced in regions where A. vesicarium and A.
halimoides almost monopolize the ground for enormous stretches.
With other woody species easily multiplied from cuttings also ; but,
as remarked by Naudin, producing thousands of fruits in less than
three months after sowing, and, as stated by Millardet, has become
the marvel of the Delta of the Rhone.
Atropa Belladonna, Linne.
The "Deadly Nightshade." Southern and Middle Europe and
Western Asia ascending the Himalayas to 12,000 feet. A most
important perennial medicinal herb. The highly powerful atropin
is derived from it, besides another alkaloid, the belladonnin. The
action of belladonna is mydriatic, thus of great moment in ophthalmic
surgery. The effect in other respects is very complicated and heroic.
Speaking briefly, it is a narcotic of first rank ; amongst its uses are
those against asthma, various spasms, epilepsy ; but the whole range
of its efficacy cannot be discussed in pages like these. It is an anti-
dote to various vegetable poisons.
Audibertia polystachya, Bentham.* (Salvia mellifera, Greene.)
California. A shrub, attaining a height of 10 feet ; keeps the
bees buzzing with activity about its flowers for honey during the
whole spring [A. J. Cook], The same can be said of A. Palmeri
(Gray) and some other species of this genus.
Avena elatior, Linne*. (Arrhenatherum elatius, Beauvois.)
The tall Meadow-Oatgrass. Europe, Middle Asia, North- Africa.
Indigenous in Norway to lat. 68 IT [Schuebeler]. This grass
should not be passed altogether on this occasion, although it becomes
easily irrepressible on account of its wide-creeping roots. It should
be chosen for dry and barren tracts of country, having proved through
its deeply penetrating roots to resist occasional droughts better than
rye-grass. Hon. J. L. Dow regards it as one of the very best of
grasses for sandy soil. Yields more green feed in the Southern
States of North- America during winter than most other grasses
[Loring]. The bulk yielded by it is great ; it submits well to
depasturing, and gives two or three crops of hay annually thus, a
total up to 80 cwt. [Stebler]. It is, however, not so much relished
by animals as many other grasses, and should never be sown by itself.
Avena fatua, Linne.
Wild Oats. Europe, Northern Africa, Northern and Middle Asia,
eastward as far as Japan. The experiments of Professors Buckman
and Haussknecht indicate that our ordinary cultivated Oat (Avena
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 67
sativa L.) is descended from this plant. Cultivated in California for
fodder, as indeed it was in ancient times, but requiring early cutting
as it matures and sheds its seeds in July. For this reason it is also
hard to exterminate it in grain- fields, where it sometimes proves
quite troublesome, unless by change of crops.
A vena flavescens, Linn. (Trisetum Jlavescens, Beauvois.)
Yellowish Oat-grass. Europe, Northern Africa, Middle and
Northern Asia, eastward as far as Japan. One of the best of
perennial meadow-grasses, living on dry soil ; fitted also for alpine
regions. Lawson observes that it yields a considerable bulk of fine
foliage, and that it is eagerly sought by sheep, but that it thrives
best intermixed with other grasses. It likes particularly limestone
soil, where it forms a most valuable undergrass, but is not adapted
for poor sand, nor will it stand well the traversing of grazing
animals [Langethal]. It is richer in potash than many other
grasses [Stebler.]
Avena pratensis,
Meadow Oat-grass. Europe, Northern Asia. Indigenous in
Norway to lat. 66 40' [Schuebeler]. It thrives well .on dry clayey
soil, is well adapted also for alpine mountains, where it would readily
establish itself, even on heathy moors. It produces a sweet fodder,
but not in so great quantity as several other less nutritious grasses.
It is perennial, and recommended by Langethal for such ground as
contains some lime, being thus as valuable as Festuca ovina.
Eligible also for meadows, especially under a system of irrigation.
Avena pubescens, Linn6.
Downy Oat-grass. Europe, Northern, and Middle Asia. A sweet
perennial grass, requiring dry but good soil containing lime ; it is
nutritious and prolific, and one of the earliest kinds, but not well
resisting traffic. Several good Oat-grasses are peculiar to North-
America and other parts of the globe. The relative value for fodder
is in many cases not exactly known, nor does the limit assigned to
this volume allow of their being enumerated specially.
Avena sativa, Linn.*
The Common Oats. In Middle Europe cultivated before the
Christian era and in Switzerland already at the Bronze-age. A.
de Candolle regards it as probably indigenous to Eastern temperate
Europe, particularly the Austrian Empire, thence perhaps extending
to Siberia. Prof. Haussknecht, on linguistic researches, favours the
idea, that the A. sativa was gradually derived from A. fatua (Linne),
the Wild Oats of Europe and Northern Asia ; thus it is really also of
British origin. Annual. Important for fodder, green or as grain
F 2
68 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
for the latter indispensable. Fit for even poor or moory or recently
drained land, though not so well adapted for sandy soil as rye, nor
well available for calcareous ground ; resists wet weather better than
other cereals ; best chosen as first crop for inferior land, when newly
broken up ; middling grassy soil is particularly suited for Oats ; in
rich ground more prolific for green fodder. It succeeds in rotation
after every crop, though variously as regards yield, and best after
clover. In volcanic soil of the Victoria-colony as much as 75 bushels
of Oats have been obtained from an acre in one harvest, and in most
favorable places in New Zealand exceptionally even double that
quantity. In culture it extends not quite so far towards polar and
alpine regions as barley, on account of the longer time required for
its maturing ; yet it will ripen still at latitude 69 28' in Norway
[Schuebeler]. In tropical countries it can be grown for hay during
the cool season. Varieties with seeds, separating spontaneously
from the bracts (chaff) are : A. nuda, L. and A. Chinensis, Metzger,
the Tartarian and Chinese Oats, which are the sorts preferred for
porridge and cakes. Other varieties or closely allied species are :
A. orientalis, Schreber, which is very rich in grain, and on account
of the rigidity of its stem especially fitted for exposed mountain-
localities ; A. brevis, Roth, the short-grained Oats, which is par-
ticularly suitable for stable-fodder ; A. strigosa, Schreber, which is
a real native of Middle Europe, and deserves preference for sandy
soil. Russian quas-beer is made of Oats [Langethal, Brockhaus],
The import of Oats into Victoria during 1887 was 393,378 centals,
valued at 141,764. The average Oats-crop of the United States
in latter years has been 549,000,000 bushels.
Averrhoa Carambola, Linn6.
Probably to be regarded as a native of insular India, as there is a
Sanskrit-name for this plant. A small tree. Not hurt by slight
frost, except when very young. Sir Jos. Hooker noticed this small
tree on the Upper Indus as far as Lahore. The fruit occurs in a
sweet and acid variety ; the former is available for the table raw, the
other for preserves. That of A. Bilimbi (Linne) is of similar use,
especially for tarts. Both ripen in East- Australia as far south as
Moreton-Bay [Fred. Turner],
Avicennia officinalis, Linn4.
From the coasts of South-Asia to those of South-Africa, all
Australia, and New Zealand. It is proposed by Dr. Herm. Behr, to
plant this tree for consolidating muddy tidal shores. The copious
nectar from the flowers eagerly sought by bees.
Azima tetracantha, Lamarck.
From South-India to South-Africa. A hedge-bush, growing
freely in every kind of soil.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 69
Baccharis pilularis, De .Candolle.
California and Oregon. This evergreen bush can be grown for
hedges, used also for garlands, wrappers or flower-bouquets and
other decorative purposes, as cut branches do not wither for a con-
siderable time. It attains a height of 15 feet [Professor Bolander],
and could readily be naturalised along sandy sea-shores.
Backhousia citriodora, F. v. Mueller.
Southern Queensland. Though only a small tree, it is well worth
cultivating for the fragrance of its lemon-scented foliage, from which
also a culinary and cosmetic oil can be cheaply distilled. Mr. T.
Christy compares the oil to that from Lippia citriodora, and recom-
mends Mons. Broquet's apparatus for this and similar distillations.
Bactris Grasipses, Humboldt. (Guilielma speciosa, Martius.)
The " Peach-Palm " of the Amazon-River, ascending to the warm
temperate regions of the Andes. Stems clustered, attaining a height
of 40 feet. The fruit grows in large bunches ; Dr. Spruce describes
it as possessing a thick, firm, and mealy pericarp, and when cooked to
have a flavour between that of the potato and the chestnut, but
superior to either.
Bacularia Arfakiana, Beccari.
In Araucaria-forests of New Guinea up to 6,000 feet. A reed-like
palm, evidently desirable for decorative purposes.
Bacularia monostachya, F. v. Mueller. (Areca monostachya, Martius.)
Eastern Australia, extending to extra-tropical latitudes. One of
the best among small palms for table decoration. The stems sought
for walking-sticks.
Baloghia lucida, Endlicher. (Codiceum lucidum, J. Mueller.)
East- Australia. A middle-sized tree. The sap from the wounded
trunk forms, without any admixture, a beautiful red indelible pigment.
The wood is adapted for turnery.
Balsamodendrum Mukul, Hooker.
Scinde and Beluchistan. Yields the Bdellium-resin.
Balsamodendrum Myrrha, Nees. (Commiphora Myrrha, Engler.)
Deserts of Arabia. This tree yields the commercial " Myrrh," but
perhaps some other species may produce the same substance. This
drug is now used chiefly in dentistry only, though renowned since
Hippocrates' time. The oldest genus-name is Commiphora.
70 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Balsamodendrum Opobalsamumj Kunth. (B. Gileadense, Kunth;
Commiphora Opobalsamum, Engler.)
Deserts of Arabia, Abyssinia and Nubia. A small tree. This
species furnishes Mekka- or Gilead- Balsam. B. Capense (Sonder)
is a closely allied congener from Extra-tropical South- Africa. Some
other Balsam-shrubs deserve introduction into warm dry regions.
Bambusa Arnhemica, F. v. Mueller.
North-Western Australia. Many bamboos, not producing flowers
except at long intervals under ordinary circumstances, could probably
be forced by strong manuring into flowering and seeding.
Bambusa arundinacea, Willdenow. (Bambos arundinacea, Retzius.)
The " Thorny Bamboo " of India. It likes rich, moist soil, and
delights on river-banks ; it is of less height than Bambusa vulgaris,
also sends up from the root numerous stems, but with bending
branches, thorny at the joints. Seeds frequently. Used in con-
tinental India for hedges. According to Kurz it will thrive in a
climate too dry for B. Tulda and B. vulgaris. This Bamboo and some
allied species, supplied by the writer, have under Mr. F. Abbott's
care, stood an open-air culture in coast-valleys of Tasmania as far
south as 43. The seeds of this and some other Bamboos are useful
as food for fowls. Whenever seeds of any Bamboos can be obtained
fresh and disseminated soon, large masses of these plants could easily
be raised in suitable forest-ground of other countries ; Bamboo-seeds,
moreover, like Palm-seeds, ought to become a very remunerative
article of commercial export for horticultural purposes under practical
and experienced hands. Bamboo-seeds, before they are sent out,
particularly to any distant places, should always be tested as to their
having retained their germinating power; moreover, they should be
gathered well matured and from the plants only, not from the ground,
and during dry weather. Mr. W. Grollan states that the seeds of the
generality of Indian Bamboos will retain their vitality for six to nine
months and germinate freely. All Bamboos intercept and decompose
sewage.
Bambusa aspera, Poiret.
Indian Archipelagus. Attains a height of 120 feet. Stems very
strong and thick. This species ascends to cool elevations of 4,000
feet.
Bambusa Balcooa, Roxburgh.*
From the Plains of Bengal to Assam. Proved hardy at the Cape
of Good Hope. Height reaching 70 feet. With B. Tulda the prin-
cipal Bamboo used by the natives for constructing large huts or sheds,
but, as Roxburgh has pointed out, in order to render the material
durable, it needs long previous immersion in water. Mr. Routledge
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 71
recommends young shoots of Bamboos as paper-material. The seeds
of Bambusa Tulda have been found by me to retain their vitality for
some time and to germinate readily. Opportunities should never be
missed of sending abroad fresh seeds of any Bamboos, whenever and
wherever such may ripen.
Bambusa Blumeana, Schultes.
Insular India. This Bamboo, with its spiny buds and pendant
branchlets, is according to Kurz one of the best for cattle-proof
live-hedges among the Asiatic species. In continental India B. nana
and B. arundinacea are much used for the same purpose. Periodic
trimming is required.
Bambusa flexuosa, Munro.
China. Only 12 feet high, but very hardy, having resisted in
Southern France a temperature of 8 F. [Geoffroy St. Hilaire].
Bambusa heterocycla, Carriere.
China. One of the hardiest of all true Bambusas, with B. Cas-
tilionis.
Bambusa nana, Roxburgh.
China. This dwarf Bamboo is extensively utilized for hedges in
Southern Asia.
Bambusa Oliveriana, Gamble.
Upper India. A rather tall species which seeds freely. Likes a
moderately dry climate and a fairly open moist soil [Gamble].
Bambusa Senamensis, Franchet and Savatier.
Japan. A tall and hardy species, distinguished from all other
Japanese Bambusaceae by its large leaves. Young Bamboo-shoots
(probably of several species) constitute part of the nourishment of all
classes in Japan [Dupont].
Bambusa spinosa, Roxburgh.*
Bengal. A Bamboo attaining 100 feet in height. The central
cavity of the canes is of less diameter than in most other species ;
thus the strength for many technic purposes is increased.
Bambusa vulgaris, Schrader.*
The large unarmed Bamboo of Insular India. Height to 70 feet;
the stems may attain a length even of 40 feet in one season, though;
the growth is slower in cooler climes. It has proved to be capable of
resisting occasional night-frosts. It is the best for building bamboo-
houses. Immersion in water for some time renders the cane still
72 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
firmer. To the series of large thornless bamboos belong also Bambusa
Tulda and Bambusa Balcooa of India, and Bambusa Thouarsii from
Madagascar and Bourbon. These Bamboos are much used for various
kinds of furniture, mats, implements, fishing-rods and other articles.
Besides these, Kurz enumerates as among the best Asiatic Bamboos
for building purposes : Gigantochloa aspera, G. maxima, G-. attar ;
while Teysmann notes G. apus for the same purpose. Kurz recom-
mends further, Bambusa arundinacea, B. Balcooa, B. Brandisii, B,
polymorpha, Dendrocalamus Hamilton! and Schizostachyum Blumei.
In the Moluccas, according to Costa, Gigantochloa maxima or an allied
species produces stems thick enough to serve when slit into halves
for canoes. Bamboos are utilised for masts and spars of small vessels.
Bambusa Balcooa was found by Wallich to grow 12 feet in 23 days.
Bambusa Tulda, according to Roxburgh, has grown at first at the rate
of from 20 to 70 feet in a month. Fortune noticed the growth of
several Chinese Bamboos to be two to two and a half feet a day.
There are many other kinds of Bamboo eligible among the species
from China, Japan, India, tropical America and perhaps tropical
Africa. Two occur in Arnhem's Land, and two at least in North-
Queensland. New Guinea is sure to furnish also additional kinds of
technical importance or eminent horticultural value. Indeed one
speciesforms abelt just below the sub-alpine zone [Sir W. MacGregor],
If the summit of a young Bamboo within the last sheath is slit, a
simply forked growth may be obtained for ornamental purposes.
Baptisia tinctoria, R. Brown.
The " Wild Indigo " of Canada and the Eastern United States. A
perennial herb. It furnishes a fair pigment, when treated like the
best Indigoferas ; also used as an antiseptic in medicine.
(
Barbarea vulgaris, R Brown.
In the cooler regions of all parts of the globe, ascending to alpine
zones. Hardy to lat. 64 5' in Norway [Schuebeler]. This herb
furnishes a wholesome salad. As with other raw vegetables, particu-
larly watercress (Nasturtium aquaticum, Trag.) circumspect care is
necessary, to free such salads from possibly adherent Echinococcus-ova
or other germs of entozoa, particularly in localities where hydatids
prevail. But the Nasturtium- Watercress should culturally altogether
be avoided, as it may by quickly spreading choke irrigation-channels,
rivulets and low canals to such an extent as to involve large annual
expenditure for clearing. Barbarea is an excellent honey-plant
[MuenterJ, particularly for cold regions. Several allied species
exist.
Barosma serratifblia, Willdenow.
South Africa. This shrub supplies the medicinal Bucco-leaves.
B. crenulata, Hooker (Diosma crenulata, L.) is only a variety of
this species. Barosma betulina is also a Bucco-plant [Professo
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 73
MacOwan]. Active principles : a peculiar volatile oil, a peculiar resiu
and a crystalline substance called diosmin. Empleurum serrulatum
(Solander), a small South- African shrub, yields also Bucco-leaves as
noted by Prof. Eichler.
Basella lucida, Lhm<$.
India. Perennial. This spinage-plant has somewhat the odor
of Ocimum Basilicum. This may be regarded as a tall form of the
following. Occasionally used for trellises. It is the most approved
kind for food, being particularly succulent. Easily propagated from
cuttings [Sir Joseph Hooker]. Other species serve also for culinary
purposes. May be referred as a variety to the following.
Basella rubra, Linn4.
From Southern Asia to Japan. This annual or biennial herb
serves as a spinage of pleasant colouration, and is of quick growth, but
is not possessed of the agreeable flavor of real spinage. It yields
also a rich purple dye, not easily fixed however [Johnson]. B. alba
(Linne) is merely a variety.
Bassowia SOlanacea* Bentham. (Withtringia solanacea, L'Heritier.)
South-America. This perennial herb needs more trial-culture, on
account of its large edible tubers.
Batis maritima, Linne.
Central America and northward to Florida, also the Sandwich-
Islands. This shrub can be used advantageously to fix tidal sedi-
ments for the reclamation of harbor-lands and of 6therwise valuable
shore-ground.
Beesha elegantissima, Hasskarl.
Java, on mountains of about 4,000 feet elevation. Very fall and
exceedingly slender; the upper branches pendulous. A hardy species
of Bamboo. The genus is referable to Ochlandra.
Bells jaculifolia, Salisbury. (Gunninghamia Sinensis, R. Brown.)
Southern China. A tree, attaning 40 feet in height. Though too-
slow for timber-growth, it should not be passed in this work, as its
Araucaria-like habit entitles it to a place in any arboretum, which
is not subject to severe frost; it proved hardy at Arran [Rev. D.
Landsborough]. The tree furnisheV resin ; the timber serves build-
ing purposes well.
Benincasa cerifera, Savi.
India, Philippines, China, Japan, perhaps also North-Eastera
Australia and Polynesia. This annual plant produces a large
edible gourd, which in an unripe state forms part of the composition
74 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
of many kinds of curry. Can also be used like pumpkins. Mrs.
Soutter recommends this fruit especially for jam. Seeds will keep
for several years.
Berberis Asiatica, Roxburgh.
Himalaya. A Berberry -shrub. Hardy in Christiania [Schue-
beler]. One of the best among numerous species with edible
berries. Among these may particularly be mentioned B. Lycium
(Royle) and B. aristata (De Candolle), which also yield valuable
yellow dye-wood [Dr. Rosenthal]. All kinds of Berberry-shrubs
must be kept away from cereal fields, as they might become the
seat of the Aecidium-state of one of the principal rust-fungs, Puc-
cinia graminis. An elaborate article on Berberine has been
furnished by Dr. W. H. Perkin in the Journal of the Chemical
Society, December, 1890. Some species of Berberis will live on
brackish soil
Berberis buxifolia, Lamarck.
From Magelhaen's Straits to Chili. This bush according to Dr.
Philippj, is the best among the South-American species for berries,
which are comparatively large, black, hardly acid, but slightly
astringent. In Valdivia and Chiloe they are frequently consumed.
Berberis Darwinii, Hooker.
Chiloe and South-Chili. Considered one of the most handsome of
shrubs for garden-hedges. Hardy in England, also up to Chris-
tiania. Several other evergreen Berberry-shrubs serve the same
purpose.
Berberis Japonica, R. Brown.
Japan. Bears some frost. The acidulous berries are used for
jellies, also for colouring confectionery [Dr. K. Mueller].
Berberis Nepalensis, Sprengel.
Himalayas, at elevations between 4,000 and 8,000 feet. Hardy
to lat. 59 55' in Norway [Schuebeler]. The fruit of this evergreen
species is edible. The European B. vulgaris L. is excluded here as
harboring the Aecidium-state of the Puccinia-"Ru8t."
Bertholletia excelsa, Humboldt and Bonpland.
Countries on the Amazon- and Orinoco-Rivers. A large tree.
Fruit about a foot in diameter ; the seeds known as Brazil nuts. It
succeeds still just outside the tropics in East-Australia, as does also
Adansonia Gregorii, but the growth is there slow [J. Edgar].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 75
Beschorneria yuccoides, C. Koch.
Mexico, at rocky elevations from 8,000 to 10,000 feet [Finckl.
This handsome plant will bear slight frost. The stem attains a
height of 6 feet, and produces flowers annually like Yuccas. The
leaves yield a remarkably fine and strong fibre [T. Christy]. The
two other known species, also from Mexico, B. tubiflora (Kunth)
and B. Parmentierii (Jacobi), are probably similarly useful.
Beta vulgaris, Linn6.*
The "Beet and Mangold-Wurzel." Middle and Southern Europe,
Western and Middle Asia, Northern Africa, extending naturally to
the Canary-Islands. Hardy in Norway to lat. 70 4' [Schuebeler].
This well-known perennial or biennial herb ought to engage the
general and extensive attention of any farming population. Can
be grown for mere foliage even in sandy soil near the sea, and is
often chosen for the first crop on heath-lands in Northern Germany.
Produces still good crops in sub-tropical countries. The herbage
is most valuable as a palatable and nutritious spinage ; the root is
of importance not only as a culinary vegetable, but, as is well
known, also for containing crystal Usable sugar. The sugar of the
beet is indeed now almost exclusively consumed in Russia, Ger-
many, Austria, France, Sweden and Belgium ; and these countries
not only produce beet-sugar for home consumption, but also export
it largely to the neighbouring States. The white Sicilian Beet is
mainly used for salads, spinage, and soups. The thick-ribbed
variety serves like asparagus or sea-kale, dressed like rhubarb.
The seeds will retain the power of germination for several years ;
they mature well even in the hot desert-tracts of Central Australia,
where beet for the table can be obtained throughout the year [Rev.
H. Kempe]. Mangold-crops succeed on some sorts of freshly
reclaimed soil. Prof. Hilgard writes that on the Alkali-land of
Middle California, which is pervaded by sulphate of sodium, beet has
succeeded fairly well. Cereal-soil, particularly such as is fit for barley,
is generally adapted also for the culture of beet. The rearing of the
root and the manufacture of the sugar can be studied from mani-
fold works ; one has been compiled by Hon. N. Levi, of Melbourne.
A deeply stirred drained soil, rich in lime, brings the saccharine
variety of beet to greatest perfection. The Imperial beet yields
from 12 to 20 per cent, sugar. The Castlenauderry, the Magdeburg,
the Siberian White-rib and the Vilmorin-Beet are other varieties
rich in sugar. About 5 Ibs. of seed are required for an acre. In
rotation of crops the beet takes its place best between barley and
oats. In Middle-Europe the yield averages 14 tons of sugar-beet
to the acre, and as many hundredweight of raw sugar. The mer-
cantile value of the root, at distilleries, ranges from 10s. to 20s. per
ton. In climates not subject to frost, the beet-harvest can be
extended over a far greater portion of the year than in Middle
76 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Europe. The extraction of the sap is effected generally by hydraulic
pressure ; the juice is purified with lime and animal charcoal ; excess
of lime is removed by carbonic acid, and the purified and decolourised
juice is evaporated in vacuum-pans, with a view to prevent the
extensive conversion of the crystallisable sugar into treacle. The
production of beet-sugar needs less labour than that of cane-sugar ;
also the harvest is obtained in so short a time as eight months. The
beet has shown itself subject neither to fungus-diseases nor to exten-
sive attacks of insects. It is mostly grown in extra-tropical zones,
while the sugar-cane is confined to tropical and sub-tropical latitudes.
Beet-culture, by directly or indirectly restoring the refuse, amelio-
rates the soil to such an extent, that in some parts of Europe land so
utilised has risen to four-fold its former value. It is considered
advisable to grow beet only every sixth or eighth year. This rather
long interval is necessary, not because beet is an exhaustive crop, but
to prevent the increase of nematoid worms [South African Agricul-
turist]. The beet furthermore affords one of the most fattening
stable-fodders ; and thus again an ample supply of manure. In the
beet-districts of Middle Europe about one-sixth of the arable land is
devoted to beets, yet the produce of cereals has not been reduced,
while the rearing of fattened cattle has increased. Notwithstanding
a heavy tax on the beet-sugar-factories in Europe, the industry has
proved prosperous, and assumes greater and greater dimensions. In
Central Europe the yield of sugar-beet is from 10 to 14 tons per
acre, the average return of sugar about a ton, without the molasses
[Meyer's Lexicon]. In 1865 the sugar consumption of Europe
amounted to 1,583,825 tons, one-third of which had been locally
supplied by the beet, from over one thousand factories. Treacle
obtained from beet is distilled for alcohol. For establishing remunera-
tive factories on a large and paying scale, it has been suggested, that
farmers' companies might be formed. For ascertaining the percentage
of sugar in the beet, saccharometers are used. In Germany some
scientific periodicals are exclusively devoted to the fostering of this
industry. In 1875 the total production of beet-sugar amounted to
1,318,000 tons [Boucheraux]. In 1882 fully 38 per cent, of the
world's supply of sugar was derived from the beet. The beet-sugar
crop of 1886 in all Europe was estimated at 2,500,000 tons. During
1886 the import of unrefined beet-sugar into Britain was 333,590
tons, valued at 3,988,534, irrespective of the import of refined.
The present production of beet-sugar amounts to over 3^ million
tons. Germany produced in 1890 in about 400 factories from
9,825,039 tons of beet 1,260,950 tons of sugar.
Betula alba, Lhm.
" White Birch/' The common Birch of Europe and Extra-tropical
Asia and North- America. With some Willows approaching nearer
to the North-Pole than any other woody vegetation, but ceding in
milder regions before the Beech, when occurring mixed. It attains
a height of 80 feet, and a stem-girth of 16 feet, and would, when
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 77
cultivated, thrive best in moist glens of ranges or in the higher
regions of mountains, and it would form at the alpine zone also excel-
lent shelter-plantations. The variety B. pubescens (Ehrhart) attains
still a height of 60 feet in lat. 70 N. in Norway [Schuebeler].
Content with the poorest soil. The variety B. populifolia (Willd.)
extends to North-Eastern America, the variety B. occidentalis
(Hooker) to North- Western America, The durable bark serves for
rough roofing and watertight baskets. Wood white, turning red,
tough, adapted for spools, skates, wooden shoes, shoe-pegs and many
other minor purposes, also for some parts of the work of organ-
builders ; affords like that of other Beeches charcoal for gunpowder.
The oil of the bark is used in preparing the Russian leather. The
leaves, when boiled with the addition of alum and potash, produce a
yellow dye, which is called in Germany Schiittgelb.
Betula alnoides, Hamilton.
Himalaya, between 3,000 and 10,000 feet. Attains a height of 60
feet, and thrives along forest-streams. The wood is hard, strong and
durable. Another Himalayan Birch, B. utilis (D. Don), grows on
arid ground, and produces good timber of less hardness.
Betula lenta, Linn<5.
The " Cherry-Birch " of North- America. A tree reaching to 80
feet in height, and 2 feet in stem-diameter, liking moist ground, but
also content with dry soil. Comparatively quick in growth. North-
ward, hardy to Christiania in Norway [Schuebeler]. Wood rose-
coloured or dark, fine-grained, excellent for furniture. It is so heavy,
that when fresh it will not float in water. It is used for ships' keels,
machinery, furniture and other purposes, where strength, hardness,
and durability are required. Bark of a somewhat aromatic odor.
Several Birches occur in Japan ; these might well be tried elsewhere.
Betula lutea, Michaux.
The " Yellow or Gray Birch " of North-Eastern America. Height
sometimes 80 feet. Adapted for moist forest-land. In timber
similar to B. lenta. The wood is used for shoe-lasts and various
other purposes.
Betula nigra, Linn&
The " Red Birch " or " River-Birch " of North- America. One of
the tallest of Birches, attaining to 90 feet. Occasionally more than
3 feet in stem-diameter. If grown on the banks of streams, it will
bear intense heat. The wood is compact, of a light colour, easily
worked, excellent for turning, also in use by cabinet-makers and
carriage-builders ; well adapted to sustain shocks and friction
[Robb]. It is also used for shoe-lasts, bowls and trays, and the
saplings and branches for hoops. The bark is well adapted for rough
roofing. Twigs of the Red Birch furnish one of the best materials
for rough brooms. Hardy at Christiania [Schuebeler].
78 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Betula papyracea, Alton and Dryander.
The " Paper-Birch " of North-America. Generally a larger tree
than B. alba, with a fine-grained wood and a tough bark ; the latter
much used for portable canoes. Likes a cold situation. Hardy to
lat. 63 55' in Norway [Schuebeler]. Wood rather heavy, hard and
tough, but adapted only for indoor- work, extensively employed for
spools, shoe-lasts, pegs and various turnery.
Bixa Orellana,
Tropical America. The Arnatto-plant. This shrub or small tree
can be grown to advantage for its pigment as far south as Moreton-
Bay and probably even further southward. Lives in the open air
at Port Jackson, but does not mature its fruit there [C. Moore].
Succeeds in Jamaica up to 3,000 feet [W. Fawcett]. Culture most
easy. Fruits well in Natal [J. M. Wood]. The mercantile product
is merely the pulp of the fruit.
Boehmeria nivea, Gaudichaud.*
The " Ramee or Rhea." Southern Asia, as far east as Japan.
This bush furnishes the strong and beautiful fibre, woven into a
fabric, which inappropriately is called grass-cloth. The plant can
be raised from seeds, which should be sown on manured or other-
wise rich and friable soil, when a crop is obtained in the third year,
or it can be multiplied quickly from cuttings. Rich forest-soil
seems best adapted for the Ramee, where occasional irrigation can be
applied. According to Mr. W. H. Murray, failures of crops are un-
known in California ; replanting is not required. Professor Hilgard
says, that it is one of the few plants which will prosper on alkaline
land. In the open lands at Port Phillip it suffers from the night-
frosts, although not to such an extent as materially to injure the
plant, which sends up fresh shoots, fit for fibre, during the warm
season. The plant has been cultivated and distributed by the writer
since 1854 in the Botanic Garden of Melbourne, being also here
readily propagated from cuttings, the seeds rarely ripening with us.
Numerous shoots spring after cutting from the same root. Ordinarily
three crops can be obtained a year ; but under irrigation, according to
Professor Hilgard, the plant is cut four times annually in California.
Colonel Hannay and Dr. Forbes Watson record, that in Assam even
four to six crops are cut annually, that obtainable in the cool season
providing the strongest fibre ; the latter attains sometimes the length
of 6 feet. The produce of an acre has been estimated at two tons of
fibre, which is always best obtained from the young shoots. The bark
is softened by water or steam, and then the bast is separable into its
tender fibres ; but as in the case of many other fibre-plants, both the
so-called wet and the dry process can be applied, the latter mode pre-
ferable, particularly in a dry clime. Dr. Collyer, of Saharumpore,
boils the whole branches with soap-water [a process used here since
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 79
1866 for separating the Phormium-fibre in rope-making, L. Morton]
for the easy separation of the fibre, of which he obtained 150 Ibs.
from a ton of Ramee branches. He also perfected machinery to render
the process easy and more remunerative. Fibre further prepared by
Bonsor's process can be spun into the finest yarn. Mr. D. Martin,
of the Agricultural Department of Victoria, draws attention to the
dry method, adopted by M. Favier in G-erona, further to the several
machines lately constructed by M. Billiou, of Marseilles, by M.
Kaulek, of Paris, by M. Scheifner, of the same place, and by Don
D. Priesto, in Barcelona. M. Vial's process also deserves attention.
Superior machines have also recently been invented in the United
States ; one by Mr. W. H. Murray seems particularly recommend-
able [See Hilgard's Bulletin, January, 1891]. By Mr. Ch. Toppan's
process the fibre is now easily freed from any sticky, corticating
substances, and can be spun and carded by ordinary cotton- and wool-
machinery. A splendid resume of what has hitherto been achieved
in India with Rhea-culture is contained in Dr. G-. Watt's Dictionary,
vol. VI., 1892. The fibre is strong and durable, glossy, to some
extent with the appearance of silk. It was known in Europe to be
used in Japan for ropes and cordage since Kaempfer's time, and is
said to be three times as strong as hemp for this purpose ; it is not
easily subject to decay in water. But this fine and light fibre is also
well adapted for a variety of textile fabrics, enduring wear to an
extraordinary extent, and not particularly subject to attacks by insects.
Yarn is already made of it by the ton in Baltimore [T. Albee Smith].
The ordinary market-value of the fibre is about 40 per ton ; but
Dr. Royle mentions, that it has realized at times 120. Lately the
culture of the Raniee has assumed sufficient magnitude to bring the
fibre into competition with, or even superiority to other leading textile
material. Also the leaves are useful, as they serve as food for silk-
worms [W. T. Dyer]. Other species of Boehmeria require to be
tested, among them one, which was discovered in Lord Howe's Island,,
namely, B. calophleba (Moore and Mueller).
Boletus bovinus, Linn<$.
Europe. Besides this species Dr. Goeppert mentions also the
following, as sold for food in the market of Silesia: B. circinans,
Persoon ; B. edulis, Bulliard ; B. luteus, Linne ; B. sapidus, Harzer ;
B. scaber, Bulliard ; B. subtomentosus, Linne ; B. variegatus, Swartz.
Dr. Cooke lauds B. sestivalis, Fries, for food. Dr. L. Planchon's
list of edible f ungs of France includes from this generic group : B.
sereus, Bulliard ; B. granulatus, Linne ; B. castaneus, 'Bulliard.
Edible is also B. badius, Fries. B. luteus, Fries, and B. granulatus,
Linne, are indigenous in the colony Victoria. Among the Victorian
species one, allied to B. edulis, attains a weight of 3 Ibs., and the
pileus then is of 12 inches width. The genus is dispersed over the
globe in numerous species, many others doubtless fair esculents,
although some are known to be poisonous.
80 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
:
Bongardia Rauwolfi, C. A. Meyer.
From Greece through Turkey to the Caucasus. A perennial herb,
the leaves of which are utilised like culinary sorrel.
Borassus ^Ethiopians, Martins.
Africa, from Zanzibar to Egypt. A palm of gigantic dimensions,
its stem attaining 9 feet in diameter at the base, or 7 feet at 4
feet above the ground ; sometimes even stems have been measured
having a circumference of 37 feet. Leaves occur as much as 12 feet
across ; they serve for the manufacture of baskets, mats, ropes and
sieves. The edible portion of the fruit is yellow, stringy, of a fruity
flavor. The sap, obtained from incisions in the stem under the
leaves, yields a kind of palm-wine. In its natural home the tree
always denotes water [Colonel Grant]. Sir W. Hooker admits only
one species, and regards Africa solely as its home. Hardier than
Cocos nucifera.
Borassus flabelliformis, Linne".
The " Palmyra." From the Persian Gulf to India, extending to
30 north. This noble palm attains a height of 100 feet. The pulp
of the fruit serves as food. Enormous masses of sugar and toddy
are produced in India from the sap, which flows from incisions of the
stalk of the unexpanded flowers. This palm, wherever hardy, should
be reared for scenic plantations. It does well to the tropic of Capri-
corn in East- Australia [Edgar]. Assumed to reach, like the Date-
Palm, an age of more than 200 years. Many other palms are notable
for longevity ; thus Euterpe oleracea has been calculated to attain
130 years ; Cocos oleracea, 650 years ; Cocos nucifera, 330 years,
according to the number of their stem-rings [Langethal], of which
however perhaps more than one are formed in a year.
Boronia megastigma, Nees.
In Western Australia, on margins of swamps. This remarkable
bush is recorded here as an emblem of mourning, its externally
blackish flowers rendering it especially eligible for graves. Indus-
trially it interests us on account of its very fragrant blossoms, for
the sake of which this bush well deserves to be cultivated. The
perfume could doubtless be extracted and isolated, particularly by
absorbents in vacuum. Individual plants of this boronia will endure
in a cultivated state for very many years. B. heterophylla (F. v.
M.) from King George's Sound is of similar but not quite so strong
a scent.
Borrago officinalis, Linne.
Southern Europe, Orient. An annual herb, rich in nitrate of
potassium, occasionally used for medicinal purposes or as an admix-
ture to salad. Readily disseminating itself ; not to be overlooked as
a honey-plant.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 81
Boswellia papyrifera, Hochstetter.
Morocco Nubia and Abyssinia, forming entire forests about
Bertat on the Atlas. This tree exudes a kind of Olibanum-resin
and represents apparently one of the hardiest species of this or allied
genera.
Boswellia serrata, Roxburgh. (B. thurifera, Colebrooke.)
India. A deciduous tree, living in arid forest-regions. Yields an
aromatic resin. The real Olibanum is exuded by B. Carteri
(Birdwood) of Arabia and tropical Africa.
Boussingaultia baselloides, Humboldt.
South-America. This hardy climber is well fitted for bowers ;
the mucilaginous tubers are edible. It is not uncommonly grown
as a climber on verandahs, where no severe frosts occur. According
to Prof. Hieronymus the leaves serve in the native country of the
plant for spinage.
Bouteloua polystachya, Torrey.
New Mexico, Texas and Arizona. One of the Gramma-grasses
of the prairies, called with some other species also Muskit-grass ;
gregarious ; famed for nutritive value ; fit for arid regions. Dr.
Vasey recently enumerated fourteen kinds of Bouteloua, of which
B. foenea, B. eriopoda and B. oligostachya (Torrey) are mentioned
as those best liked by the herds ; the latter is known as the Blue
Gramma-grass ; B. curtipendula (Vasey) is the tall Gramma-grass ;
others proved excellent in Argentina.
Bouvardia longiflora, Humboldt.
Mexico, in temperate regions. This showy perennial shrub is not
without significance as a scent-plant. Cut flowers retain their odor
unusually long. One of the best of autumn-flowers. Thrives well
at Port Phillip. Referred to Houstonia now.
Brabejum stellatifolium, Linne".
South-Africa. The nuts of this usually small tree are edible,
resembling those of our Macadamia ternifolia, to which also Brabe-
jum is closely allied in foliage and flowers. The nuts are also
similar to those of the Chilian Guevina Avellana. The fruit should
be roasted, otherwise it is deleterious. Flowers sweet-scented.
Brachychiton acerifolius, F. v. Mueller.
The East- Australian Flame-tree. An evergreen shade- tree, attain-
ing a height of 60 feet, with magnificent trusses of crimson blossoms.
Like some congeners eligible for shading promenades, when rapidity
of growth is no object. The mucilaginous sap, when exuded,
indurates to a kind of Bassorin-Tragacanth, which Mr. J. H. Maiden
'dentifies with Pararabin and traces to other congeners as well as to
some Sterculias.
82 - Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Brachychiton populneus, R. Brown. (Sterculia diversifotia, G. Don. )
From Gippsland to Southern Queensland. A splendid avenue-
tree. Mr. Rudder records stems over 11 feet in circumference at 4
feet from the ground. Bast very tough ; hence one of the curri-
yongs of the Aborigines. Leaves eaten by pasture-animals. Stood
a temperature as low as 21 F. at Genoa [Professor Penzig].
Brahea dulcis, Martius.
Mexico, as far as its northern parts, and ascending to 4,500 feet.
A Brahea-Palm has also been discovered as far north as Arizona,
32 [Drude].
Brassica alba, Visiani. (Sinapis alba, Linn.)
White Mustard. Eastern Europe, Northern Africa, Northern
and Middle Asia. An annual. The seeds are less pungent than
those of the Black Mustard, but used in a similar manner. The
young leaves of both are useful as a culinary and also antiscorbutic
salad. Can be employed with great advantage as green manure
and suppresses weed simultaneously [W. Emerson Mclvor]. The
cold-pressed oil of mustard-seed serves for table-use. Dr. M. T.
Masters enumerates Brassica dichotoma, B. Pekinensis, B. ramosa,
and B. glauca among the mustards, which undergo cultivation in
various parts of Asia, either for the fixed oil of their seeds or for
their herbage. From 15 Ibs. to 20 Ibs. of seed of the White Mustard
are required for an acre. In the climate of California 1,400 Ibs. of
seed have been gathered from an acre. Can be grown in shallow
soil, even on land recently reclaimed from swamps. It prefers
argillaceous ground. The return is obtained in a few months.
The stalks and foliage after the seed-harvest serve as sheep-fodder.
In Norway the plant comes still to perfection as far north as lat.
70 [Schuebeler]. Matures seeds well even in the desert-tracts of
Central Australia [Rev. H. Kempe].
Brassica Chinensis, Linne.
China and Japan. Serves like B. oleracea for cabbage and raw
as a salad, and produced in cultivation new varieties, particularly for
use very late in the season. The seeds in Japan extensively pressed
for oil. B. Cretica (Lamarck) is a woody Mediterranean species.
Brassica juncea, Coason. (B. WilldenowH, Boissier ; Sinapis juncect,
Linne.)
From Middle Africa to China. According to Colonel Drury culti-
vated all over India for Sarepta-Mustard seed ; also extensively
raised in China for pickle [Consul Bourne] ; also a good salad-
plant.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 83
Brassica nigra, Koch. (Sinapis nigra, Linne. )
The " Black Mustard." Europe, Northern Africa, Middle Asia
An annual. Succeeds also yet in sub-tropic latitudes. The seeds
crushed and passed through a sieve constitute mustard of commerce
For medicinal purposes the seeds of this species are preferable for
sinapism and especially sinapisms. Through aqueous distillation a
volatile oil of extreme pungency is obtained from mustard-seeds
valuable against rheumatism. In rich soil this plant is very prolific
and in forest-valleys it is likely to remain free from the attacks of
aphides. Chemical constituents : a peculiar fixed oil, crystalline
sinapiu, the fatty sinapisin, myronic acid and myrosin. All mustards
can be regarded as honey-plants. Brassica-seeds of various kinds
retain their vitality for several years.
Brassica oleracea, Linne.*
An annual or biennial coast-plant, indigenous to various parts of
Europe. Mentioned here also with a view of showing, that it might
be naturalised on any rocky and sandy sea-shores. One of the best
plants for newly reclaimed wet sour lands. From the wild plant of
the coast have originated various kinds of cabbages, broccoli, cauli-
flower, Brussels-sprouts, kale, kohl-rabi, and others, the last mentioned
being a variety with a very turgid stem. Plants of Broccoli have
been known to attain 9 feet in circumference [Dr. Masters]. A
variety of cabbage exists in culture, man's height, and lasting through
several years. Some regard the fattening qualities of cabbage as
superior to those of turnips, particularly for stable-food during the
autumnal season. The gluten of cabbages on one acre has been
estimated at 1,500 Ibs. against 1,000 Ibs. of gluten obtainable from
turnips. Other races of this species are collectively represented by
Brassica Rapa, L. (B. campestris, L.), the wild Navew, yielding most
of the varieties of turnips, some handed down to us from ancient
times with other cultivated forms. Again, other varieties are com-
prehended within Brassica Napus, L., such as the Swedish and
Teltower turnips, while the Raps-seed, so important for its oil (Colza,
from the Dutch word Koolzaat), is also derived from a form of B.
Napus. The Raps-plant should be, reared extensively for agrarian
produce, giving a rapid return, wherever it remains free from aphides.
Ordinary Raps is a good admixture to summer-fodder. Valuable in
rotation of crops. Raps sown on sandy land in Victoria sustained
twenty sheep on an acre during autumn and early winter, and yet the
land was available for other crops in the next summer. Sheep, when
browsing on this plant are said to be kept free from wire-worms.
The destruction of the Rumex- Sorrel can be aided by sowing
broad-cast turnips between this obstinate weed and feeding off the
united young growth repeatedly by sheep, the Sorrel getting suffocated
and tramped out [Boyce]. Important where bees are kept. The
hardier turnips can be produced on the highest Alps, as they are grown
even within the Arctic Circle, and according to Sir J. Hooker at a
height of 15,000 feet in the Himalayan mountains; they succeed also
G2
84 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
still well in the Faroe-Islands, and yet some varieties of turnips are
also a reliable winter-crop in Central Australia. Oil-Raps and
turnips are grown as far north as 70 22' in Norway [Schuebeler].
Rhind mentions a very tall variety, introduced from the Vendee,
as cattle-provender. Within the tropics grown during the cool
season. The annual import of Raps-seeds in Britain during many
years was valued at a million pounds ; in 1884 it was one-and-a-half
millions. In the cold zone the winter-varieties of cabbage are
particularly important. Turnips succeed generally even under the
equator. Only the turnip-varieties ripen seeds for resowing in the
deserts of Central Australia [Rev. H. Kempe], though cabbage,
cauliflower, and kohl-rabi can there be grown through the whole
year ; cabbages even in the lowlands of the South-Sea-Islands.
In Britain, the kitchen-vegetables from this species are obtained
earliest from the Channel-Islands,
Briza media, Linn.
Europe, Western and Northern Asia. A perennial early but slender
grass, particularly fitted for poor soil in cool climates. Sinclair
regards its nutritive power considerable, and notes that it is readily
consumed by horses, cattle and sheep. Messrs. Sowerby and C.
Johnstone recommend it on account of the scantiness of its foliage
merely for naturalisation. Prof. Hieronymus mentions as extra-
tropic South-American sheep-grasses, B. Lamarckiana, Nees., B.
stricta, Hooker, and B. triloba, Nees, all perennial.
Bromus asper, Murray.
Europe, Northern and Middle Asia. A good perennial fodder-grass
for wood-regions, but like Festuca gigantea late in the season.
Bromus ciliatus, Linne.
North- America. A perennial fattening grass, resembling the
Prairie-grass, growing in mild temperate climes all the winter and
also during summer, if drought is not too long continued, starting
afresh after the least rain [Dr. Curl].
Bromus erectus, Hudson.
Europe, Northern Africa, Western Asia. Important as a perennial
nutritious grass for dry lime-stone regions ; much liked by cattle and
sheep. Particularly valuable for poor calcareous soil [Dr. Stebler],
Prof. Naudin regards it as superior to Lolium for lawns in hot dry
regions. B. mollis, L. is dangerous for spreading the red rust
fungus, Puccinia straminis (Uredo Rubigo), and so it would likely
be with other congeners.
Bromus inermis, Leysser.
Europe and Northern Asia. Perennial, rather tall, root creeping.
Lauded by Prof. Hilgard for Californian growth, as " Hungarian
Brome-grass."
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 85
Bromus unioloides, Humboldt.* (B. Schraderi, Kunth.)
From Central America to the sub-alpine zone of Northern Argen-
tina. In Australia called the Prairie-grass. It has spread over
many parts of the globe as naturalised. The writer saw it dis-
seminated on the mountains of St. Vincent's Gulf as early as 1847.
It is one of the richest of all grasses, grows continuously and spreads
rapidly from seeds, particularly on fertile and somewhat humid soil,
and has proved as a lasting and nutritious fodder-grass or pasture -
grass one of our best acquisitions. Very early out in the season for
fodder. Kept alive in the hottest and driest parts of Central-
Australia, where it was first introduced by the writer of this work.
When other grasses are failing in many places in winter, this
Bromus sustains in New England well the pasture-animals [R.
MacFarland]. Bears some frost. In the Cape Colony it grows freely
in winter when the indigenous grasses and Cynodon are down with
frost [T. R. Sim], In Norway it comes to perfection up to lat. 67 55'
[Schuebeler]. Chemical analysis in early spring gave : albumen,
2-80 ; gluten, 3'80 ; starch, 3'30; gum, 170; sugar, 2'30 per cent.
[F. v. Mueller and L. Rummel].
Broussonetia papyrifera, Ventenat.
The " Paper-Mulberry-tree." Islands of the Pacific Ocean, China,
Japan, perhaps only truly indigenous in the last-named country.
Attains a maximum height of 40 feet ; hardy in the milder regions
of Middle Europe. The bark can be converted into very strong
paper. It can also be used for textile fabrics ; furthermore, the
cloth made from it can be dressed with linseed-oil for waterproof
coverings. In cultivation the plant is kept like an osier. The leaves
cannot be used for silkworms. European fabrics have largely super-
seded the clothing made of this plant in the South-Sea-Islands.
Buchloe dactyloides, Engelmann.
The true Buffalo-grass of Kansas, also known as one of the
mesquite-grasses, naturally extending from Canada to Texas, form-
ing a large proportion of the food of the buffaloes on the prairies
[Engelmann]. Dioecious, creeping, only rising to half a foot or less,
but overpowering the Boutelouas. It is extremely fattening, but
apt to be suppressed by coarser grasses on ground, where these are
not trampled out or kept down by pasture-animals. One of the
best of summer-grasses, resisting also some frost.
Buddlea Asiatica, Loureiro.
Continental and insular India up to 7,000 feet, thence to China,
the Philippines and New Guinea. Shrub, attaining to 15 feet;
eligible for ornamental copses ; flowers produced in profusion, sweet-
scented. B. variabilis (Hemsley) is among the Chinese species
one of the most ornamental.
86 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Buddlea Colvillei, J. Hooker and Thomson.
Himalayan mountains, at elevations of 9,000 to 12,000 feet. One
of the hardiest of all species, attaining a height of 20 feet, but not
so quick of growth as some other kinds. Extremely handsome,
with its masses of dark crimson flowers [Gamble].
Buddlea globosa, Hope.
Andes of Chili and Peru. Withstands the winter-cold of Arran-
Flowers fragrant. The author has in this as in very few other
instances broken through the rule, adopted for this work, not to
accept into it any plant of ornamental value alone; but on the present
species almost all the praise of B. Madagascariensis can also be
bestowed, and it is really useful likewise for screening unsightly fences
quickly, and also for other kinds of hedgings. A similar species from
the same geographic region is B. connaat (Ruiz and Pavon).
Buddlea macrostachya, Bentham.
Mountains of India, from 3,000 to 7,000 feet. Shrub with fra-
grant spikes of flowers with yellowish tube, bluish lobes and orange-
coloured orifice. Highly desirable for aesthetic culture with several
congeners.
Buddlea Madagascariensis, Lamarck.
Madagascar, Reunion, and Rodiguez. Of the numerous species
of Buddlea the most eligible one for shelter-copses, on account of
its great size and always tidy appearance, as well as vigor and
celerity of growth. It is ever-flowering, highly elegant, tolerant
to many kinds of soil, bears some frost, and like most congeners is
easily propagated from cuttings in the open air. It requires hardly
any care in mild climes. First used for large hedges by the writer
of this work. Much frequented by bees.
Buddlea paniculata, Wallich. (B. crispa, Bentham.)
Himalayan mountains, at altitudes between 4,000 and 7,300 feet,
; , extending to Ava, Cabool and Beloochistan. Attaining the size of
a small tree, resisting English winters unharmed, merely protected
by a wall ; flowering there already from the beginning of February
till May, scenting the atmosphere around with fragrance [Sir Will.
Hooker]. The trusses of flowers resemble those of the Lilac in
shape and colour.
Bursera elemifera, J. Hooker.
Mexico, up to the temperate plateau, This tree furnishes the
Mexican Copal or Elemi.
Butea frondosa, J. Koenig and Roxburgh.
The " Dhak or Pulas " of India. This magnificient tree extends
to the Himalayan mountains, ascending to elevations of 4,000 feet,
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 87
and bears some few degrees of frost. Hardy in Australia as far
south as Moreton-Bay [Fred. Turner]. It is very rich in a peculiar
kind of kino, which according to Muspratt contains up to 73 per
cent, of Tannin. From the flowers a beautiful red dye is prepared
[P. L, Simmonds]. The lac-insect is also nourished by this tree ;
and the shellac from it is inferior only to that of Schleichera
trijuga ; the third quality comes from Ficus religiosa [Dr. G. Watt],
Calcutta exports generally shellac to the value of about a million
pounds annually.
Butomus umbellatus, Linn<.
The "Flowering Rush/' Europe, Northern and Middle Asia.
This elegant perennial water-plant is mentioned here more for its
value in embellishing our lakes and water-courses than for the sake
of its roots. The latter, when roasted, .are edible. The plant would
live in sub-alpine rivulets. In Norway it is hardy to lat. 59 55'
[Schuebeler].
Buxus Macowani, Oliver.
South-African Box-tree. In the valleys of the Keiskama and
Buffalo-River. Only grows in the coast-belt, where clear of frost
[T. R. Sim]. . The stems attain a maximum height of 25 feet and a
diameter of about one foot. Yields a good box-wood for engravers'
purposes [B. D. Jackson], so the Socotra-species, B. Hildebrandti
[J. B. Balfour].
BUXUS microphylla, Siebold and Zuccarini.
Japan. There used for the best of wood-engravings and turnery ;
considered as good as ordinary box-wood. Native name, Tsougne
[E. Dupont]. B. Rolfei (Tidal) represents this genus in the
Philippine-Islands.
Buxus sempervirens, Linn6.*
The Turkish Box-tree. England, Southern Europe, Northern
Africa, South- Western Asia, extending to Upper India and Japan.
Said to be introduced into Britain by the Romans. This slow-
growing tree should be planted to provide the indispensable 1
wood for wood-engravers and instrument makers, no perfect subst]
for it having been discovered as yet. It is also employed for shutt es,
rollers and various other select implements, clarionets, flutes,
flageolets. Box-wood, on account of its extreme density, can I
be used as an unit in comparative scales of the closeness of various
kinds of wood. The box-tree needs calcareous soil for its best
development. In Norway it is hardy to lat. 63 26', according to
Prof. Schuebeler, who saw a plant 11 feet high and 6 inches m etem-
diameter at lat. 58 58'. Among allied species B. Baleanca attains
a height of 80 feet. Other congeners are B. sub-columnans, B.
Cubana, B. Purdieana, B. citrifolia, B. acuminata, B. lamgata, B.
88 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Vahlii, B. gonoclada, B. retusa, B. glomerata, B. Wrightii, all from
the West Indies, B. Madagascarica, also B. longifolia from Turkey,
and B. Wallichiana from the Himalayas. It does not, however,
appear to be known how the wood of any of these, nor of the various
gpecies of the Indian genus Sarcococca or the genus Styloceras of the
Andes compares with true box-wood ; nor is it known, whether or
not they are of much more rapid growth.
Csesalpinia BondUG, Roxburgh. (Guilandina Bonduc, Linn6.)
Widely dispersed through the inter -tropical regions of both hemi-
spheres with G. Bonducella, L. These two species would be well
adapted for hedges in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. The
seeds of C. Bonducella are admitted into the Indian pharmacopoeia as
a febrifuge ; Thwaites says' that every part of the plant is used
medicinally in Ceylon [Dr. G-. Watt].
Csesalpinia brevifolia, Bent ham. (Balsamocarpon brevifolium, Clos.)
Chili, the " Algorobillo." The pods of this shrub or small tree
are extraordinarily rich in tannic acid ; Godeffroy found in the husks
67-68^ per cent. The process of tanning with these pods is accom-
plished in one-third of the time required for leather from oak-bark ;
this material is also especially valuable as giving a bloom to the
leather. According to Hartwich, noteworthy also for a yellow dye
Csesalpinia coriaria, Willdenow.
Wet sea-shores of Central America. Might be naturalized in salt-
marshes elsewhere. Prospers as far south as Natal [J. M. Wood].
Colonel Drury states, that each full-grown tree produces annually
about 100 Ibs. of pods, the husk of which, commercially known as
Divi-Divi, is regarded as the most powerful and quickly acting
tanning material in India. The mercantile price of the pods is from
8 to 13 per ton. England imports about 4,000 tons annually ;
the bark is used for tanning. Lac is also gathered from this bush
[Dr. G. Watt].
Csesalpinia crista, Linne.
West-Indies and Carolina. This shrub or tree furnishes a yellow
dye-wood.
Csesalpinia echinata, Lamarck.
Brazil. The Fernarabuc-wood or Red Brazil-wood is obtained
from this tree and allied species ; they also furnish the dye-principle
brazilin. The great Brazilian territory derived its name from the
glowing colour of this dye-product, the word being of Spanish root.
At the time of flowering the air for a considerable distance from this
tree is laden with the odor of the flowers, suggesting the agreeable
, atmosphere near Boronia megastigma when that is in flower [W. E.
. Brodway].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 89
Csesalpinia Gilliesii, Wallich. (Poinciana Gilliesii, Hooker.)
La Plata-States. This beautiful rather hardy bush can be utilised
for hedges.
Csesalpinia pulcherrima, Swartz. (Poinciana pulcherrima, Linne.)
Called "The Pride of Barbadoes," but seemingly indigenous to
tropical Asia. A large shrub or small tree. This brilliantly orna-
mental prickly plant is highly adapted for hedges in any climes free
of frost. The nesting of ants in its trunk, while the growth con-
tinues quite normally, was pointed out already by Roxburgh.
Csesalpinia Sappan, Linne.
South-Asia. The wood furnishes a red dye, which is largely
exported. This shrub can also be adopted as a hedge-plant. The
lac-insect has recently taken to it [Watt].
Csesalpinia sepiaria, Roxburgh.
Southern Asia, east to Japan. There often utilised as a hedge-
bush. It can advantageously be mixed for hedge-growth with
Pterolobium lacerans (R. Br.), according to Dr. Cleghorn. It
furnishes a red dye- wood.
Caesalpinia tinctoria, Dombey.
Chili. The bark yields a red dye.
Caesalpinia vesicaria, Linne. (C. bijuga, Swartz.)
West-Indies, on dry savannas and limestone-rocks. This tree
furnishes part of the red Fernambuc-wood of commerce, for dye-
purposes and select implements.
Cajanus Indicus, Sprengel.*
The Catjang or Dal ; in Assam called Geeloa-mah, often also
Arhar. A shrubby plant of tropical Africa and perhaps Asia, but
ascending to 6,000 feet in the extra-tropical latitudes of the Hima-
layas. One of the upland varieties will endure a few degrees of
frost [C. B. Clarke]. In Jamaica it is cultivated up to 4,000 feet
according to Mr. W. Fawcett. On the Richmond River in New
South Wales it attains a height of 6 feet. It sustains itself on dry
ground, and yields the pulse known as Dhal, Urhur and Congo-pea.
The plant lasts for about three years, attains a height of 15 feet, and
has yielded in the richest soil of Egypt 4,000 Ibs. of peas to the acre.
A crop is obtained in the first year. The seeds can be used as peas
in the green state as well as when ripe. Two varieties exist, C.
flavus, a much smaller plant, yielding less but ripening in 3 or 4
months, and C. bicolor, larger and more prolific, but requiring some-
times 9 months to ripen [Dr. G. Watt]. Has the advantage over
most other kinds of pulses in being perennial. Even more utilised
90 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
in India than Phaseolus radiatus and Cicer arietinum. Some of the
tribes of Central Africa use the stem of this shrub in friction with
reeds, to strike fire, according to Speke. Several species of Cajanus
of the Atylosia-section, partly indigenous to the warmer tracts of
Australia, might be tested for the sake of the economic value of their
seeds. The insect, active in the formation of Lac, lives extensively
on the Cajanus, according to Mr. T. D. Brewster, of Assam. Silk-
worms also live on it.
Cakile maritima, Scopoli.
Europe, North- Africa, North- and South- America, extra-tropical
Australia. Not unimportant for aiding to cover drift-sand anywhere
on low sea-shores ; not hurt by the spray. Regarded as antiscor-
butic. In Norway hardy to lat. 71 7' (Schuebeler).
Calamagrostis Canadensis, Beauvois.
North- America, extending over the greater portion of the territory
on wet ground. Tall and perennial, encouraged rather than culti-
vated as a nutritious meadow-grass. Much cut on the prairies,
yielding a heavy crop of hay [Sereno Watson].
Calamagrostis longifolia, Hooker.
North-America. Excellent for fixing drift-sand. C. Epigeios
(Roth) and C. Halleriana (De Candolle) serve the same purpose
according to Wessely.
Calamintha Nepeta, Hoffmansegg.
From England to the countries around the Mediterranean Sea ;
fond of limestone-soil. It is strongest in odor among several
species, but not of so pleasant a scent as C. incana (Boissier) and C.
grandiflora (Moench) ; closely allied to the following.
Calamintha officinalis, Mcench.
Middle and Southern Europe, Middle Asia and Northern Africa.
A perennial herb, used like Melissa as a condiment.
Calamus acanthospathos, Griffith.
Himalaya, up to 6,000 feet. A hardy climbing palm. The old
canes are leafless. The light but strong suspension-bridges, by
which the large rivers of Sikkim are crossed, are constructed of this
palm. It supplies material for the strongest ropes, to drag logs of
wood from the forest. Most durable baskets and rattan-work of
chairs are manufactured from the slit stems. Walking sticks and
riding sticks, made of this species, are exported from Sikkim in
considerable quantity. Many other Calami serve similar purposes,
but probably few or perhaps none are equally hardy. Where
climatic conditions for culture do not interfere, the famous C. Rotang
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 91
(Linne) and the very elongated C. latifolius (Roxburgh) have the
highest claims for choice of rattans. C. Scipionura (Loureiro) fur-
nishes the Malacca-rattan. Several species of Calamus supply the
best dragon's blood.
Oallitris arborea, Schrader. ( Widdringtonia juniperoides, Endlicher. )
Southern Africa, 3,000 to 4,000 feet above sea-level. A middle-
sized tree, rich in resin. Occasionally trees of comparatively vast
size occur ; thus stem girths of 36 feet have been noted, and excep-
tionally about 1,000 feet of planking were sawn from one tree [G-.
Sparling].
Callitris calcarata, R. Brown. (Frenela Endllcheri, Parlatore.)
Eastern Australia. A tree to 70 feet in height and 3 feet in stem-
diameter. Spreads readily over sterile, particularly sandy land.
Wood of local importance, strong, durable and of agreeable smell.
It is used for piles and furnishes planks for boats ; it is repugnant
to termites. The knotty portion of the stem particularly valuable
to cabinet-makers for inlaying. Market price about 5 per 1,000
feet.
Callitris columellaris, F. v. Mueller.
Eastern Australia, on barren and sandy coast-tracts. Height
reaching 100 feet. Timber durable, fine-grained, fragrant, capable
of a high polish ; used for piles of wharfs and sheeting of punts
and boats ; it resists the attacks of chelura and white ants ; the
knotty portion valued for veneers. The young stems are liked for
telegraph-poles, according to Mr. Thozet. General market value
of timber 6 per 1,000 superficial feet. [Queensland Exhibition,
1878]. This species exudes sandarac most copiously. [J. H.
Maiden].
Callitris Macleayana, F. v. Mueller. (Frenela Maclcayana, Parlatore.)
New South Wales and Queensland ; locally known as Turpentine-
Cypress. A handsome tree, of regular, pyramidal growth, attaining
a height of 70 feet ; the timber is valuable. C. actinostrobus and
C. acuminata from South-West Australia are too small for timber-
purposes, but the first-mentioned is one of the very few conifers fi
for saline soil.
Callitris Parlatorei, F. v. Mueller.
Southern Queensland and Northern New South Wales. Recom-
mended by Mr. F. M. Bailey as a shade-tree. It attains a height of
100 feet, 1\ feet in girth. The wood is esteemed by cabinet-makers.
It is remarkably durable. Bark soft and furrowed [W. Macdonald].
The tree produces sandarac of a light colour, but not m abundance
[Aug. Rudder]. Several other species of Callitris are worthy (
forest-culture.
92 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Callitris quadrivalvis, Richard.
North- Africa. A middle-sized tree, yielding the true sandarac-
resin. Tables made of the mottled butt-wood fetched fabulous prices
already at Plinius's time [J. St. Gardner].
Callitris verrilCOSa, R. Brown. (Frenelct verrucosa, A. Cunningham.)
The Murray Cypress-Pine. Through the greater part of Australia.
Stems used for telegraph-posts [C. Moore]. Wood obnoxious to the
generality of insects, hard, heavy, light -coloured, pleasantly scented,
fit for furniture and flooring. Specific gravity, about 0'691 when
dried ; weight of a cubic foot, 43 Ibs. This tree disseminates itself
with great ease in sandy soil, and will succeed in the driest clime,
sometimes overpowering most other ligneous vegetation, even to the
extent of intrusiveness. Planks 2 feet wide can be obtained.
Dromedaries, according to Giles, browse on the foliage. Seeds will
keep three years. The specific name here adopted is more distin-
guishing than the synonym C. robusta and is coetanous. Some of
the other species are also among the trees, which may be utilised for
binding the coast- and desert-sand. They all exude Sandarac.
Probably it would be more profitable to devote sandy desert land,
which could not be brought under irrigation, to the culture of the
Sandarac-cypresses than to pastoral purposes ; but boring beetles
must be kept off. Stakes and long rails from this tree are much
sought. The wood of the closely cognate C. intratropica (F. v. M.)
is almost indestructible, not even attacked by Teredo and Termites
[M. Holtze].
Calodendron Capense, Thunberg.
Eastern South-Africa. A large and handsome tree, called the
Wild Chestnut-tree by the colonists. Particularly fit for promenades.
The strong pale timber is used by waggon-builders. The tree grows
best in close damp forests [Sim]. Rate of growth in height at Port
Phillip, where it was first brought by the writer, about 1 \ foot in a
year. Fresh seeds readily germinate.
Calophyllum tomentosum, Wight.
India. Ascending in Ceylon to 5,000 feet, there called the Kina-
tree, attaining a height of 150 feet ; its timber is pale-red, light [Dr.
Trimen] ; used for bridges, masts and other select purposes ; a single
tree has been known to furnish wood to the value of 100 [Dr.
Watt]. The seeds afford an orange-coloured oil [Dr. Trirnen].
This species is singled out of many for record here, as it should
thrive even in an only moderately warm clime. Some few congeners,
but not C. inophyllum, reach naturally also comparatively cool
regions.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 93
Calotropis gigantea, R. Brown.
Continental and Insular India, up to 3,000 feet. Southern China.
Finally a small tree. Easily cultivated ; content with poor dry soil.
The fibre of the inner bark is of silky lustre and great strength,
woveu into superior fabrics, locally much used for nets and fishing
lines, as resistant to decay in water. The sap in extensive aboriginal
use against various diseases, even leprosy. Dr. Duncan employed
the root as a substitute for Ipecacuanha [Gamble, " Indian Forester,"
1894].
Calyptranthes aromatica, Saint Hilaire.
South-Brazil. The flower-buds of this spice-shrub can be used
almost like cloves, the berries like allspice. Several other aromatic
species are eligible for test-culture.
Calyptronoma Swartzii, Grisebach.
West-Indies. A palm, reaching a height of 60 feet. Ascends on
tropical mountains to over 3,000 feet elevation. It yields the " long
thatch " of Jamaica, the foliage furnishing an amber-coloured roofing
material, neater and more durable than any other used on that island,
lasting twenty years or more without requiring repairs [Jenman].
The generic name Calyptrogyne takes precedence.
Camelina sativa, Crantz.
Middle and Southern Europe, temperate Asia. An annual herb,
cultivated for the oil of its seeds. It is readily grown after cereals,
yields richly even on poor soil, and is not attacked by aphides. Mr.
W. Taylor obtained 32 bushels of seed from an acre, and from this
as much as 540 Ibs. of oil. The return is obtained within a few
months. The seeds serve also as food for many kinds of cage-birds
[Dr. RosenthalJ. Hardy in Norway to lat. 70 [Schuebeler].
Camellia Japonica,
This renowned horticultural plant attains a height of 30 feet in
Japan. It is planted there on roadsides for shelter, shade and
ornament [Christie]. Out of its elements in the hottest and coldest
climes. The wood is used for superior xylography [Dupont]. The
seeds, like those of C. Sasaqua (Thunberg), are available for pressing
oil. C. reticulata (Lindley) from China is conspicuous for its very
large flowers, attaining sometimes 20 inches in circumference. Like
C. Japonica it is hardy at Arran, flowering there far more freely [Rev.
D. Landsborough]. In England a very large plant of C. reticulata,
reared in Mr. Byam Martin's conservatory, had in October, 1848,
removed from it 2,600 flower-buds, to allow for April, 1649, about
2,000 flowers to come to perfection [Sir W. Hooker].
94 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Camellia Thea, Link.* (Thea Chinensis,
The Tea-shrub of South-Eastern Asia, said to be indigenous also to
some localities of Japan, for instance Surugo, traced as spontaneous
as far as Manchuria [Fontanier], also in Yunan, Khasya-Hills,
according to Kurz. This evergreen and ornamental bush has proved
hardy in the lowlands at Melbourne, where in exposed positions it
endures quite unharmed light night-frosts as well as the free access
of scorching summer-winds. But it is in humid valleys, with rich
alluvial soil and access to springs for irrigation, that the most pro-
ductive tea-fields can be formed. The greater the rainfall in any
region, otherwise adapted, 'the richer the yield of the Tea-plant. The
plant comes into plentiful bearing of its product as early as the Vine
and earlier than the Olive. Its culture is not difficult, and it is
singularly exempt from fungus-diseases, if planted in proper localities.
Pruning is effected in the cool season, in order to obtain a large
quantity of small tender leaves from young branches. Both the
Chinese and Assam tea are produced by varieties of a single species,
the tea-shrub being indigenous in the forest-country of Assam also.
The cross between the China and the Assam Tea-plant is particularly
prolific and much cultivated in India. Declivities are best adapted
and usually chosen for tea-culture, particularly for Congou, Pekoe
and Souchong, while Bohea is often grown in flat countries. In
J*apan the tea-cultivation extends to 43 north latitude, where the
thermometer occasionally sinks to 16 F. [Simmonds], and where in
winter-time the ground is frozen several inches deep for weeks
[General W. Gr. Le Due]. The Chinese variety has withstood the
winter of Washington in sheltered positions without protection [W.
Saunders]. The Assam-variety succumbs to frosts. For fuller
details Fortune's work, "The Tea-Districts of China," might be
consulted. The very troublesome Tea-bug of some parts of Asia is
Helopeltis theivora. Fumigation and the application of bird-lime are
among the remedies to cope with this insect. The third volume of
the Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India
is mainly occupied by Lieut.-Colonel Edw. Money's and Mr. Watson's
elaborate essays on the cultivation and manufacture of tea in India.
For more advice on the culture and preparation of tea consult also
the writer's printed lecture, delivered in 1875 at the Farmers' Club
of Ballarat, further the report of the Commissioner of Agriculture,
Washington, 1877, pp. 349-367, with illustrations ; also Bernays'
Cultural Industries for Queensland, pp. 181-190. Other Works dwell
also on tea-culture. The tea of commerce consists of the young
leaves, merely heated curled, sweated and dried. The process of
preparing the leaves can be facilitated by steam-machinery. Already
in 1866 three machines for dressing tea were patented in England-
one by Messrs. Campbell and Burgess, one by Mr. Thomson, and one
by Mr. Tayse. To give an idea of the quantity of tea which is
consumed it may be stated that from June to September, 1871, were
shipped 11,000,000 Ibs. of tea from China alone to Australia, and
that the produce of tea in India from January to June of 1872 was
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 95
18,500,000 Ibs. The imports into Britain during 1886 were
230,669,292 Ibs., valued at 11,317,418. The import into Victoria
alone came in 1887 to 14,120,051 Ibs., valued at 694,898; while
Assam-tea was obtained in India to nearly ninety million Ibs. during
that year, Ceylon uncounted [J. B. White]. In 1840 India sent its
first small sample of tea to the European market, in 1864 already
7,800,000 Ibs., but in 1877 it exported to England forty million
pounds, that is, as much as the whole English importation thirty
years ago [Burrell]. In 1892 the quantity had risen to above
111,000,000 [Gow, Wilson and Stanton]. Ceylon alone exported
already in the commercial year 1882-3 one and a half million Ibs. of
tea. According to the Journal of the Society of Arts this had risen
to 66,000,000 Ibs. in 1892. Of the tea. consumed in England in 1889,
50 per cent, came from India, 34 per cent, from China, and 16 per
cent, from Ceylon. Dr. Scherzer estimated the Chinese home-con-
sumption at 400,000,000 Ibs., others much higher. In 1873 China
exported 242,000,000 Ibs., Japan 12,000,000 Ibs. Simmonds calcu-
lates the area under tea-cultivation in China at 2,500,000 acres. In
1884 Great Britain imported 215,000,000 Ibs. of tea, valued at ten
and a half million pounds sterling ; of this quantity 66,000,000 Ibs.
came from India, after such a comparatively short time of culture.
Three hundred Ibs. of prepared tea is the average yield per acre in
India, according to Dr. G-. Watt. Seeds of the tea-bush are now
locally to be gathered in many parts of Australia from plants distri-
buted by the writer since 1859 ; and for years to come the cultivation
of the tea-bush, merely to secure local supplies of fresh seeds, ready
to germinate, will in all likelihood prove highly lucrative. Tea con-
tains an alkaloid, coffein, a peculiar essential oil and Boheic acid,
along with other substances. Calcareous manures are particularly
recommended for tea-plantations. A vast quantity of the germinable
seeds of the Chinese tea-shrub was distributed not only locally, but
also as far as Queensland, already in 1858 by the writer of this work.
In the colony of Victoria the Chinese tea can be produced to advan-
tage, but not Assam tea. It is remarkable, that the naturally nearly
inodorous tea-leaves should be almost the only kind turned in this
direction to account.
Campanula Rapunculus, Lhm<$.
The " Kampion." Middle and Southern Europe, Western Asia,
North- Africa. A biennial herb, the root and leaves of which supply
a kind of salad during the winter-months in cold climes.
Canavalia gladiata, De Candolle.
The Sword-Bean. Within the tropics of Asia, Africa, and
America. This perennial climber grows to an enormous height, and
bears an abundant crop of large edible beans, which can be used
green [Sir Walter Elliott]. It varies with red and white seeds, and
in the size of the latter, which are said to be wholesome. Mr. W.
96 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Gollan records pods over a foot long, excellent for culinary purposes
when young, and finds this vegetable available in the climate of
Saharumpore when most others are out of season. In Demerara the
young pods are used, boiled like French beans, the nearly ripe seeds
like broad beans, and the fully ripe seeds after boiling for mash
[Jenman]. C. ensiformis (D.C.) is another variety, but the wild
state (C. virosa, Wight) is apt to develop poisonous properties in its
fruit. C. obtusifolia is decidedly deleterious.
Canella alba, Murray.
West-Indies and Florida. An evergreen tree, to 50 feet high,
aromatic in all its parts ; the bark particularly used, less in medicine
than as a condiment.
Canna Achiras, Gillies.
Mendoza. One of the few extra-tropic Cannas, eligible for arro-
root culture.
Canna coccinea, Miller.
West-Indies. Yields, with some other Cannas, the particular
arroroot called Tous Les Mois.
Canna edulis, Edwards and Ker. *
The Adeira of Peru. One of the hardiest of arroroot, or rather
aru-root plants. Seeds will germinate even when many years old,
even 30 years [Lambert]. Plants, supplied at the Botanic Garden
of Melbourne, have yielded excellent starch at Melbourne, Western
Port, Lake Wellington, Ballarat, and other localities in the colony of
Victoria. The Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of the Gippsland Aboriginal
Mission-station, obtained over one ton from an acre ; the Rev. Mr.
Bulmer found this root to yield 28 per cent, of starch. The gathering
of the roots is effected there about April. The plants can be set out
in ordinary ploughed land. Starch grains remarkably large. This
Canna resembles a banana in miniature, hence it is eligible for scenic
plantations. The local production in Gippsland is already large
enough to admit of extensive sale. Readily flowering only in hot
climes. C. Warszewiczii (A. Dietrich) of Costa Rica is one of the
handsomest among smaller scenic plants, adapting itself to almost
any culture ; it is quite hardy at Port Phillip.
Canna flaccida, Roscoe.
Carolina. Probably also available for arroroot, though in the first
instance, like many congeners, chosen only for ornamental culture.
Canna glauca, Linne".
One of the West-Indian Aruroot-Cannas.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 97
Cannabis sativa, C. Bauhin.*
The Hemp-plant, seemingly indigenous to various parts of Asia, as
far west as Turkey and as far east as Japan, recorded recently by Dr. A.
v. Regel as naturally also wild in Turkestan ; A. de Candolle gives
Dahuria and Siberia as the native country. Long cultivated for its
fibre. It exudes the churras or hasheesh, a medicinal resinous substance
of narcotic properties, particularly in hot climates. Spoken of by
Herodotus already as highly stimulating, and as indigenous in Scythia.
Gets to 18 feet high [Fraas]. According to Dr. G. Watt two similar
resinous substances are obtained from the Hemp-plant in India, known
as ganza and churras, both are smoked ; bhang consists of the mature
leaves, used in the preparation of the intoxicating beverage called
hashish. The foliage also contains a volatile oil, while the seeds yield
by pressure the well-known fixed hemp-oil, for which they are exten-
sively produced, particularly in Russia. Usually the plant is pulled
for obtaining fibre in its best state immediately after flowering ; the
seeding plant is gathered for fibre at a later stage of growth. Good
soil well-drained, never absolutely dry, is needed for successful hemp-
culture. Hemp is one of the plants yielding a full and quick return
within the season, the period of vegetation being from 90 to 105 days.
The return may be from 4 cwt. to 10 cwt. per acre. The average
summer-temperatures of St. Petersburg (67 F.) and of Moscow
(62 F.) admit still of the cultivation of this plant. The Hemp-plant
serves as a protection against insects on cultivated fields, if sown
along their boundaries. The seeds are sometimes used in medicine,
and are a favorite fodder for various cage-birds. The importations
of Hemp into the United Kingdom in 1884 were 1,335,000 cwt.,
worth over two million pounds sterling. Victoria imported in 1887
about 1,000 tons. The annual production of Hemp in Russia
amounts to about 150,000 tons [Consul Crawford]. The total
annual production of Hemp is from seven to eight million cwt. The
Hemp-plant succeeds well also in the tropical coast-regions of Aus-
tralia.
Cantharellus edulis, Persoon. (G. cibarius, Fries.)
The Chantarelle. Various parts of Europe, occurring also in
South-Eastern Australia and some other parts of the globe. Dr.
Goeppert mentions this among the many mushrooms, admitted under
Government-supervision for sale in Silesia.
Capparis sepiaria, Linne.
From India to the Philippine-Islands, ascending to cool elevations
and living in arid soil. A prickly bush, excellent for edges. Dr.
Cleghorn mentions also as hedge-plants C. horrida (L. fil.), C.
aphylla (Roth), C. Roxburghii (D.C.), some of which also yield
capers.
98 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Capparis spinosa, Linne.
The Caper-Bush. Southern Europe and Northern Africa, Southern
Asia and Northern Australia. A somewhat shrubby and trailing
plant, deserving already for the sake of its handsome flowers a place
in any garden. It sustains its life even in arid deserts. Light
frosts do not destroy this plant ; the soil requisite for greatest pro-
ductiveness should be of calcareous clay. The flower-buds and
young berries, preserved in vinegar with some salt, form the capers
of commerce. Samples of capers, prepared from plants of the
Botanic Garden of Melbourne, were placed already twenty years
ago in our Industrial Museum, together with many other products,
emanating from the writer's laboratory. The Caper-plant is pro-
pagated either from seeds or suckers or cuttings ; it is well able to
withstand either heat or drought. The buds, after their first
immersion in slightly salted vinegar, are strained and afterwards
preserved in bottles with fresh vinegar. In sheltered plains of
Provence annually about 1,760,000 Ibs., worth at an average 7d.
per pound, are collected. The shrub comes into full bearing at the
fifth year, the harvests continuing well for many years afterwards
[Masters]. Chemical principle : Rutin.
Capsicum annuum, Linne.
Central America. An annual herb, which yields the Chilies, and
thus also the material for cayenne-pepper. The fruits of the large
carnulent variety are consumed like those of the egg-plant. Chemi-
cal principle: the acrid, soft-resinous capsicin. Comes to seeding in
Christiania still. The seeds will keep for several years.
Capsicum baccatum, Linne.
The Cherry-Capsicum. A perennial plant. Brought from Brazil
to tropical Africa and Asia, where other pepper-capsicums are like-
wise naturalised.
Capsicum frutescens, Linne.
Tropical South- America. The berries of this shrubby species are
likewise converted into cayenne -pepper.
Capsicum grossum, Linne".
Tropical America. This species is also occasionally cultivated.
The summers of the warm temperate zone admit of the successful
growth of at least the annual species of Capsicum in all the low-
lands. C. humile binds sand even when brackish.
Capsicum microcarpum, Cavanilles.
South- America. It is this species, which is used by preference in
Argentina. There are annual and perennial varieties.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 99
Capsicum minimum, Roxburgh. (0. fastigiatum, Blume.)
Intra-tropical America. It is this particular species which the
British pharmacopoeia requires to be used medicinally.
Carag-ana arborescens, Lamarck.
The Pea-tree of Siberia, reaching to 70 North. The seeds are of
culinary value, but particularly used for feeding fowls. The leaves
yield a blue dye [Dr. Rosenthal].
Carex arenaria, Linne.
Western Europe and Northern Asia. Hardy to lat. 62 30' in
Norway [Schuebeler]. One of the most powerful of sedges for sub-
duing rolling sand, its rigid foliage not attracting grazing animals.
Will succeed yet on somewhat saline soil [T. Kessal]. The roots
are of medicinal value.
Carex Moorcroftiana, Falconer.
The Loongmur of the Alps of Thibet. One of the best of sedges
for fixing the shifting sand by its deeply penetrating and creeping
roots. It forms an intricate net-work on the surface and beneath.
Outliving mo^t other fodder-plants at its native places, it becomes
available for cattle- and horse-food particularly in the cold of win-
ter, and is held to be singularly invigorating to pasture-animals.
Drs. Stebler and Schroeter state that C. ferruginea (Scop.) and C.
sempervirens (Yillars) are not without value as fodder-plants in the
Swiss Alps.
Carex pumila, Thunberg.
Eastern Asia and Australia, New Zealand and South America.
Helps to bind the coast-sand there.
Carica Candamarcensis, Morren.
Andes of Ecuador up to an elevation of about 9,000 feet [Prof.
Jameson]. A small slender tree. Fruit to nine inches long and
sometimes nearly as broad, edible and wholesome, of delicious scent
and grateful taste [Sir Jos. Hooker]. Other large-fruited Caricas
occur in andine regions, comprised under the vernacular name Cam-
buru [Spruce]. Their cultural rearing seems possible in frostless
regions only. Fruit used raw or cooked.
Carica Papaya, Linne.
West-Indies and Mexico to Peru. Cultivated northward still in
some parts of Florida, elsewhere to 32 N. [A. de Candolle]. The
Papaw-tree. A small often branchless tree of short vitality, only
fit for regions not subject to frost. Bears enormously in Eastern
sub-tropic Australia, producing fruits occasionally of 4 Ibs. weight
near Keppel Bay [J. S. Edgar]. Fruit generally of the size of a
H 2
100 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
small lemon ; eaten boiled or preserved in sugar or pickled in
vinegar [Sir James Smith]. Fresh seeds germinate readily. The-
acrid milky juice of the tree, much diluted with water, renders any
tough meat, washed with it, tender for cooking purposes by sepa-
rating the muscular fibres [Dr. Holder]. Merely wrapping the meat
in the Papaw-leaves will often suffice. Drs. Boucher and Wurtz
have successfully introduced the Papaya-sap or Papayin against
Diphtheria ; further the juice has been administered as a vegetable
pepsin and as an anthelmintic. Dr. Th. Belgrave has pointed out
the great importance of this plant as a galactogogue. Fruits ripen
successively.
Carissa Arduina, Lamarck.
South- Africa. A shrub with formidable thorns, well adapted for
boundary-lines of gardens, where rapidity of growth is not an object.
Stands drought. Quite hardy at Melbourne. Fruit edible. C. ferox
(E. Meyer) and C. grandiflora (A. de Cand.) are allied plants of equal
value. The fruit of the latter is largely used for jam and as such
quite wholesome [Bernays]. The East- Australian C. Brownii (F.
von Mueller) can be similarly utilised. The flowers of all are very
fragrant. C. Carandas (Linne) extends from India to China ; its
berries are edible ; it is also a strong hedge-plant.
Carlina acanthifolia, Allioni.
Countries at and near the Mediterranean Sea. A perennial herb,
which can be utilised similarly to the Scolymus- Artichoke. It will
bear some frost [Professor D. Clos].
Carludovica palmata, Ruiz and Pavon.
Central America, up to over 3,000 feet. Methodically cultivated
for the sake of its fan-like leaves, which furnish the material for
Panama-hats. Holds a cultural position as far south as Moreton-
Bay (Fr. Turner).
Carpinus Americana, Michaux.
The Water-Beech or Ironwood of North-America, thriving best
on the margins of streams. The wood is fine-grained, tough, and
compact, used for cogs of wheels and any purpose, where extreme
hardness is required, such as yokes [Robb]. It is often speckled
and somewhat curled, thus fitted for superior furniture [Simmonds].
C. Caroliniana (Walter) is the oldest name. Very closely allied to
the following.
Carpinus Betulus, Linne.
The Hornbeam. Middle and Southern Europe and Western Asia.
A tree to 80 feet high. Wood pale, of a horny toughness and hard-
ness, close-grained but not elastic. It is used for wheel-wrights'
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical' Countries. 101
work, for cogs in machinery and for turnery [Laslett], also for a
variety of implements, for wooden shoes, and particularly for hat-
blocks, also for walking-sticks. It furnishes a good coal for gun-
powder. The inner bark serves for a yellow dye. This tree would
tend to arrest the progress of bush-fires, if planted in copses or
hedges, like willows and poplars, around forest-plantations. In
Norway it is hardy to lat. 63 26' [Schuebeler]. Four species occur
in Japan : C. cordata, C. erosa, C. laxiflora and C. Japonica (Blume).
Carpinus viminea (Wallich) is a species with durable wood from the
middle regions of Nepal.
Carthamus tinctorius, Linne.
From Egypt to India. The Safflower. In Norway grown to lat.
70 22' North. A tall, annual, rather handsome herb. The florets
produce yellow, rosy, ponceau and other red shades of dye, according
to various admixtures. Pigment-principles : carthamin and cartha-
mus-yellow. For domestic purposes it yields a dye ready at hand
from any garden. In India the Carthamus is also cultivated for the
sake of the oil, which can be pressed from the seeds. Poultry fatten
on the seeds.
Cartonema philydroid.es, F. v. Mueller.
West Australia. This dwarf perennial is extolled by Mr. A. R.
Richardson as a pasture-plant liked by stock. After a bush-fire
burnt over the ground and a subsequent rainfall this bunching plant
will shoot up to 6 inches height and bear flowers within a month.
Carum Ajowan, Bentham. (C. copticum, Bentham.)
From the countries around the Mediterranean Sea to India. The
fruits of this annual herb form an excellent culinary condiment with
the flavor of thyme. Its peculiar oil is accompanied by cymol and
thymol.
Carum Bulbocastanum, Koch. (Apium Buibocastanum, Caruel ; Bulbo-
castanum Linnaei, Schur. )
Middle and South-Europe, North-Africa, Middle Asia, on lime-
stone soil, extending in Cashmere to 9,000 feet elevation. The
tuberous roots and also the leaves serve as a culinary vegetable,
the fruits as a condiment.
Carum Capense, Sender.
South-Africa, where the edible, somewhat aromatic root is called
Fenkelwortel.
Carum Carui, Linne". (Apium Carui, Crantz.)
The Caraway-Plant. Biennial in cold climes, annual in winter-
less zones. Europe, Northern and Middle Asia. Extends in Norway
102 ^ \^" JSelect* PfiaTtfg.for Industrial Culture and
to lat. 71 7'. A wholesome adjunct, if interspersed among the
herbs of sheep-pastures. Likes marly soil. It might be naturalised
even on our alps, and also along the sea-shores. The Caraway-oil is
accompanied by two chemical principles : carven and carvol. Among
the many purposes for which it is employed is that of entering into
the scents of soaps and cheap essences of perfumery [Piesse] ; still
more used in the preparation of some liqueurs. The root enlarges
through culture and becomes edible. The seeds will keep three years
[Vilmorin]. On rich soil, in Essex, as much as 20 cwt. seeds on an
acre have been produced [G-. Don]. Royle mentions two varieties
or allied plants from Upper India.
Carum ferulifolium, Boissier. (Bunium ferulifolium, Desfontaines.)
A perennial herb of the Mediterranean regions. The small
tubers are edible.
Carum Gairdneri, A. Gray.
Western North-America, particularly in the Sierra Nevada. A
biennial herb, the tuberous root of which furnishes an article of
food as well as the root of the allied Calif ornian C. Kelloggii (A.
Gray). Greyer probably had this plant in view, when he mentions
the tubers of an umbelliferous plant, which are among the dainty
dishes of the nomadic Oregon-natives. The truly delicious root
bursts on being boiled, showing its snowy white farinaceous sub-
stance, which has a sweet cream-like taste, and somewhat the
aroma of parsley-leaves [Lindley].
Carum incrassatum, Boissier. (Bulbocastanum incrassatum, Lange.)
The " Talmuda." Spain, Morocco, Algier. This herb produces
fair-sized tubers, which are tender and floury, and consumed by the
aboriginal Algerians either raw or roasted or boiled. Prof. Naudin
thinks that these tubers could be so improved by cultivation as to
become available as a table-esculent.
Carum Petroselinum, Bentham.* (Apium Petroselinum, Linn.)
The Parsley. South-Europe, North-Africa, and Orient. This
biennial, well-known culinary herb is always desirable on pastures,
also as a preventive or curative of some kidney- and liver-diseases of
sheep, horses and cattle. In Norway it is hardy to lat. 70
[Schuebeler]. The root of a particular variety is also valuable for
the table. Vilmorin mentions that the seeds (or fruitlets) will keep
fully three years. Rev. H. Kempe found the seeds to mature well
in the gardens of Central Australia. The plant was much used for
garlands and wreaths in ancient times [Dr. Schweinfurth]. The
essential oil of the fruits contains a peculiar stearopten. Mr. J. W.
Fedaro had individual plants of a very curly variety growing
uninterruptedly for nineteen years without seeding ; pieces taken
from them grow readily, continuing the variety.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 103
Carum Roxburghianum, Bentham.
Southern Asia, where it is extensively cultivated for curries,
particularly in North- Western India [Atkinson].
Carum segetum, Bentham. (Anethum segetum, Linn<$.)
Around the Mediterranean Sea, extending to Western Europe*
An aromatic annual herb, available for culinary purposes.
Carya alba, Nuttall.*
The Shagbark-Hickory and Shellbark-Hickory also. Eastern
North-America, extending to Canada and Carolina. Professor
Schuebeler found it to be hardy in Norway to lat. 63 52'. Lately
adopted among trees from abroad for forest-culture in Prussia [C.
Bolle]. A deciduous tree, reaching a height of 90 feet ; it delights
in rich forest-soil. Wood heavy, strong, elastic and tenacious, but
not very durable ; used for chairs, agricultural implements, carriages,
baskets [Sargent], whip-handles and a variety of other purposes.
Yields the main supply of hickory-nuts. All the hickories are
extensively used in North- America for hoops. Circumference of stem
2 feet above ground 30 inches after 24 years at Nebraska [Furnas].
Carya amara, Nuttall.
The Bitternut-Tree or Swamp-Hickory. Eastern North-America,
extending to Georgia and Texas. A tree, sometimes 80 feet high.
Replacing C. alba on low wet ground [B. E. Fernow]. Wood less
valuable than that of other hickories. Richest of all North- American
trees in potash, in which most hickories abound. Hardy at Chris-
tiana. The flowers of all the Caryas yield much honey [Dam-
koehler].
Carya glabra, Torrey.* (Carya porcina, Nuttall.)
The Hognut-Tree. Eastern North-America, reaching Canada
and Florida. Often to 80 feet high ; sometimes over 100, with a
circumference of 15 feet at 5 feet from the ground [Prof. Meehan].
Wood very tough ; the heart-wood reddish or dark-coloured ; much
used for axle-trees and axe-handles, and particularly for wooden
shoes. Rate of stem-growth in Nebraska, 38 inches circumference
in 24 years [Nuttall].
Carya microcarpa, Nuttall.
The Balsam-Hickory. Eastern North- America. A fine lofty tree,
attaining a height of 80 feet, with a stem 2 feet in diameter. The
wood is pale and tough, and possessed of most of the good qualities
of C. tomentosa, to which this species is also in other respects allied.
Also very closely related to C. alba. The nut is of pleasant taste,
but small [Nuttall].
104 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Carya oliviformis, Nuttall.*
The Paean or Peccannut-Tree of Eastern North- America, extend-
ing to Texas. A handsome tree, reaching 70 feet in height, with a
straight trunk. The most rapid growing of all the hickories. It
needs deep rich soil of valleys [B. E. Fernow]. Its wood is coarse-
grained, heavy and compact, possessing great tenacity ; in strength
and elasticity it surpasses even that of the White Ash [Harrison].
The nuts are usually abundant, and the most delicious of all walnuts;
they form an article of considerable commerce in the Southern States.
Texas annually exports nuts to the value of over 10,000 [Dr. C.
Mohr], The tree matures fruits as far north as Philadelphia. It
commences to bear in about ten years. The fresh nuts should be
packed in dry moss or sand into casks for distant sowings. The
kernel is extremely oily, thus the fruit does not keep so well as the
ordinary walnut. Although the wood of all the hickories is not well
adapted for building purposes, as it is subject to the attacks of insects
and soon decays if exposed to the weather, yet its great strength and
elasticity render it extremely useful for implements, articles of furni-
ture, hoops and many minor purposes, besides supplying locally the
very best of fuel. Hickories, even when very young, do not well
bear transplanting, C. amara perhaps excepted. C. alba and C. glabra
would be particularly desirable for the sake of their timber, and C.
oliviformis on account of its fruit. The bark of all the hickories con-
tains yellow dye-principles ; by the addition of copperas an olive
colour is produced j by the addition of alum, a green colour. Hickory
stems are known to attain 12 feet in girth.
Carya sulcata, Nuttall.*
The Furrowed Hickory and the Shellbark-Hickory of some dis-
tricts ; also one of the Shagbark-Hickories. North-America, in the
Eastern States. A tree, to 80 feet high in damp woods. Its rate of
growth is about 18 inches in a year, while young. Heartwood pale-
coloured. Seed of sweet pleasant taste. Wood similar to that of C.
alba, but paler. The tree is still hardy in Christiana.
Carya tomentosa, Nuttall.*
The Mockernut-Tree or White Heart-Hickory. Eastern North-
America, extending to Canada, replacing C. alba on drier and poorer
ground [B. E. Fernow]. A large tree ; likes forest-soil, not moist.
Heart-wood pale-coloured, remarkable for strength, elasticity, heavi-
ness and hardness, yet fissile ; used for axles, spokes, felloes, handles,
chairs, screws, sieves and the best of mallets ; the saplings for hoops
and wythes. Hickory is the most heat-giving amongst all .North-
American woods. Nut small, but sweet ; very oily. A variety pro-
duces nuts as large as a small apple, which are called King-Nuts.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 105
Caryota urens, Linn6.
India. One of the hardier Palms, ascending the Himalayas to an
altitude of 5,000 feet, according to Dr. Thomas Anderson, yet even
there attaining a considerable height, though the temperature sinks
in the cooler season to 40 F. Drude mentions, that species of this
genus ascend to an elevation of 7,500 feet, where the temperature
occasionally approaches the freezing point. The trunk furnishes a
sago-like starch. This palm only flowers at an advanced age, and
after having produced a succession of flowers dies away. From the
sap of the flower-stem, just as from that of the Cocos- and Borassus-
Palm % toddy and jaggeri-sugar are prepared, occasionally as much as
12 gallons of liquid being obtained from one tree in a day. The fibre
of the leaf-stalks, known as " Kitton," can be manufactured into very
strong ropes, also into baskets, brushes and brooms. It also serves
the Indian races as tinder. The outer wood of the stem answers for
turnery. Several allied species exist, one extending to North-
Eastern Australia.
Casimiroa eclulis, Llav and Levarz.
Mexico, up to the cool heights of 7,000 feet. This finally tall tree
comes into bearing in about ten years. The kernel of its fruit is dele-
terious [Hernandez], but the pulp of a delicious, melting, peach-like
taste [Garner], partaking of which is said to induce sleep. The tree
thrives well in a clime like that of Santa Barbara, California [Capt.
E. Cooper], and proved also hardy in Provence [Prof. Naudin]. The
' fruit is from 1 to 4 inches in diameter, pale yellow, of a rich subacid
taste, and most palatable when near decay [Dr. Seemann]. Efforts to
propagate it from cuttings were not successful, and seeds do not seem
to reach perfection in California ["Calif. Hortic. Magaz." 1880].
Attains a great age.
Cassia Absus, Linn<$.
Intra-tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere. The seeds are
since ancient times in Egypt used to produce a counter-inflammation
of fermentive growth in various forms of eye-diseases, particularly
pannus [Dr. Schweinfurth] .
Cassia acutifolia, Delile.
Indigenous or now spontaneous in Northern and Tropical Africa
and South- Western Asia. Perennial. The leaflets merely dried
constitute part of the Alexandria- and also Tinnevelly-senna. The
active principle of senna namely, carthartic acid occurs also in the
Coluteas and in Coronilla varia, according to C. Koch. The senna-
cassias have within Australia particularly well succeeded in the
Eastern sub-tropical coast-regions.
106 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cassia angustifolia, Vahl.
Northern and Tropical Africa and South- Western Asia, indigenous
or cultivated. Perennial. Yields Mecca-senna, also the Bombay-
and some of the Tinnevelly- senna.
Cassia artemisioides, Gaudichaud.
Sub-tropical and extra-tropical Australia. The species of this
series of the genus are shrubby, and considered valuable for arid
and sandy sheep-runs as affording feed. They brave intense heat,
and are adapted for rainless regions.
Cassia fistula, Linne.
Southern Asia. The long pods of this ornamental tree contain an
aperient pulp of pleasant taste and of medicinal value. It is also
used in the manufacture of cake-tobacco. Traced by Sir Jos.
Hooker to the slopes of the Central Himalayas.
Cassia Marilandica, Linne.
An indigneous senna-plant of the South-Eastern United States
of North America. Perennial.
Cassia obovata, Colladon.
South- Western Asia ; widely dispersed through Africa as a native
or disseminated plant. Perennial. Part of the Alexandra-senna
and also Aleppo-senna is derived from this plant ; less esteemed
and less collected than the other species. It furnishes also Italian,
Tripolis-, Senegal- and Tanacca-senna.
Castanea sativa, Miller.* (C. vulgaris, Lamarck; G. vesca, Gaertner.)
The Sweet Chestnut-tree. South-Europe and Temperate Asia
as far as Japan, where a variety with larger fruits is cultivated, a
variety with smaller fruits extending to North-America. Professor
Schuebeler records that even in Norway at latitude 58 15' a chest-
nut-tree attained a height of 33 feet with a stem 4 feet in circumfer-
ence ; in a shrubby state it holds out as far north as 63. Introduced
into Britain already by the Romans. It reaches an enormous age ;
at Mount Etna a tree occurs with a stem 204 feet in circumference.
The yet existing tree at Totworth-Court was already famous 900 years
ago ; in 1820 the stem measured at 5 feet above the base 52 feet in cir-
cumference [Masters]. In England the average growth in 60 years
is 7 feet in circumference at 3 feet above the base [Forsyth]. At
other places trees are found 10 feet in diameter, solid to the centre.
The tree does not readily admit of transplantation ; likes granitic
soil. It bears still in the low country of Southern Queensland fairly
well. The wood is light, cross-grained, strong and elastic, well
adapted for staves and wheel-cogs, ornamental carving, the young
wood for hoops and mast-rings, also for walking-sticks. Some
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 107
authorities declare the wood of no lasting value. It is comparatively
rich in tannic acid (about 4 to 6 per cent.), and hence used for pre-
paring a liquid extract ; the bark contains 12 per cent, tannin
[Wiesner], The leaves furnish food for the Bombyx Jamamai
[Dupont]. The greatest importance of the tree rests on its adapta-
bility for shade-plantations, its nutritious nuts and timber value.
The American wood is slightly lighter in colour than that of the
Red Oak, and available for shingles and rails ; chestnut rails in
North-America have lasted for half a century. The wood is
beautifully laminated [Simmonds], and largly employed for furniture,
for the inside finish of railroad-cars and steamboats [Vasey]. The
American nuts are smaller, but sweeter than the European ; they are
largely used for fattening hogs [Robb]. Rate of stem-growth in
Nebraska, 24 inches in 14 years, diametrically [Furnas], The total
production of chestnuts merely in Italy during 1886 was 391,393
tons. The produce of chestnuts in France in 1890 amounted to
4,683,000 metric hundredweights, valued at 18,000,000 [Sahut, from
Bulletin du Ministere d' Agriculture]. Bees carry off the pollen.
Castanopsis argentea, A. de Candolle.
A lofty tree in the mountains of India. Produces also edible
chestnuts. Other species of the genus Castanopsis are valuable,
thus according to the Rev. B. C. Henry the nuts of the Chinese C.
jucunda (Hance) are edible.
Castanopsis chrysophylla, A. de Candolle.
The Oak-Chestnut of California and Oregon. A tree, attaining
a height of 150 feet and 8 feet in stem-diameter. Either for beauty
or utility worthy of cultivation [Dr. Gibbons]. The leaves are
golden-yellow underneath. Wood durable, highly prized by joiners,
wheel- wrights, and even shipbulders [Dr. Kellogg].
Castanopsis Indica, A. de Candolle.
Mountains of India, at about 4,000 feet. This Oak-Chestnut pro-
duces seeds with the taste of filberts ; C. tribuloides (Kurz), also
yields small edible chestnuts.
CastiUoa elastica, Cervantes.*
Central America, but hardy and fruiting in Florida [Th. Mead].
This tree yields India-rubber of a good kind.
Casuarina Cunninghamiana, Miquel.
Eastern Australia, particularly along river-banks. Attains a
maximum height of 100 feet. Stem diameter up to 4 feet [Aug.
Rudder] Mr. A. R. Crawford found a tree with a clear stem ol 52
feet, total height 125 feet, stem-girth 12 feet. It is mainly a riparian
tree of mountain-slopes. The wood is used for yokes, tools, shingles,
}08 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
and various other purposes. A yoke was unimpaired after having
been in use for 14 years [Crawford]. The foliage is much liked by
pas ture-animals .
Casuarina Decaisneana, F. v. Mueller.
Central Australia, where it is the only species of the genus.
Traced by Lieut. Dittrich into Queensland. The tree is one of the
largest among its congeners and particularly valuable for arid sandy
regions. The wood is exceedingly hard, and resists the attacks of
termites and also decay ; the stem-wood is straight and easily fissile
[Rev. H. Kempe]. Dromedaries delight in getting the branchlets of
this tree for food [E. Giles]. It may be desirable to resort to
mechanical pollination for securing supplies of seeds well fitted to
germinate.
Casuarina distyla, Ventenat.
Extra-tropical Australia. A shrubby species, well adapted for
fixing the sand-drifts of sea-coasts. All Casuarinas can be pollarded
for cattle-fodder.
Casuarina equisetifolia, Forster. (C. litorea, Humph.)
Eastern Africa, Southern Asia, tropical and sub-tropical Australia,
Polynesia. Thrives permanently much better than Eucalyptus
globulus in Lower Egypt according to Dr. Schweinfurth. Attains
a maximum-height of 150 feet. Splendid for fuel, giving great
heat and leaving little ashes. The timber is tough, nicely marked.
The tree will live in somewhat saline soil at the edge of the sea.
Colonel Campbell-Walker estimates the yield of firewood from this
tree as four times as great as the return from any tree of the forests
of France. Known to have grown in 10 years to a height of 80 feet,
but then only with a comparatively slender stem [Blechyndon].
In India the wood is much used as fuel for railway-locomotives ; the
tree is there also extensively employed to reclaim sand-land of the
coast, it succeeding in growth down to high water-mark, throwing
often out decumbent branches, which develop roots, further to fix
the sand and to throw up independent shoots [Dr. Bidie]. It yields
a lasting wood for piles of jetties, for posts and for underground-
work, and is much used for knees of boats and for tool handles
[Wilcox] ; it is very heavy and singularly dark. The cost of rais-
ing Casuarinas in India has been from 4 to 10 per acre, and the
return, after only eight years, 13 to 32.
Casuarina Fraseriana, Miquel.
South- Western Australia. A middle-sized tree ; the wood easily
split into shingles. The best furniture-wood of South- Western
Australia, as it does not rend. This tree is adapted even for sterile
heath-land.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 109;
Oasuarina glauca, Sieber.
Widely distributed through South-Eastern Australia, even in
desert-country, but nowhere forming forest-like masses. This
species attains in favorable places a height of 80 feet. Its hard
durable wood is valuable ; used for staves, shingles and various
utensils [Woolls]. Important for its rapid growth, for its resistance
to exposure, for shelter-plantation and for speedy supply of fuel, a
remark which applies to the following species also. Much liked for
food by dromedaries [Sir Th. Elder].
Casuarina quadrivalvis, La Billiardtere.
The Coast-Sheoak of South-Eastern Australia. Not living merely
in coast-sand, but also on other barren places, reaching the inland-
hills. Attains a height of 60 feet. The foliage of this species is
drooping. The male tree is very eligible for avenues, but the female
less slightly. Cattle are fond of the foliage; indeed it is a "stay-by"
to all kinds of stock in drought, branches then being lopped from
the trees for feed. For arresting the ingress of coast-sand by belts
of timber this is one of the most important trees. It produces seed
early and copiously like other Casuarinas, and is easily raised.
Weight of a cubic foot of dry wood from 58'3 to 64'3 [Rummel].
The foliage, like that of the other species, is acidulous from a crystal-
lisable substance allied to bicitrate of lime. The chewing of it allays
thirst.
Casuarina suberosa, Willdenow.
The erect-branched Sheoak of South-Eastern Australia. Height
reaching 40 feet. A beautiful shady species. Casuarina trichodon
(Miq.) and C. Huegeliana (Miq.) are aboreous species of South-
western Australia, valuable for their wood.
Casuarina torulosa, Aiton.
New South Wales and Queensland. Attains a height of 70 feet.
The tough ornamental wood of this handsome tree is in demand for
durable shingles and furniture-work, as well as for staves and veneers ;
it is also one of the best for oven-fuel. Mr. A. R. Crawford recom-
mends the wood for rifle-stocks, but thinks it is too heavy for shot-
guns. Sawdust of this wood renders water reddish, imparts a bitter
not unpleasant taste, and produces a laxative effect.
Catalpa bignonioides, Walter.
Southern States of North- America, extending to Illinois. A tree
of rapid growth in warm humid climates, attaining a height of about
20 feet in four years. Professor Meehan observed the stem to attain
a diameter of 4 feet in twenty years, even in the latitude of New
York. Rate of growth in the clime of Nebraska, as recorded by
Governor Furnas, considerably less. In many parts of the United
110 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
States it is a favorite tree for shade-lines. When closely planted it
will grow tall and straight, with a stem fully 50 feet to the first
branch. It prefers bottom-lands, but will succeed in almost any soil
and position, according to Mr. Barney. It is hardier than most
Eucalypts, but will not stand severe frosts. According to Professor
Burrill, it is not liable to be destroyed by insects ; bears seeds when
quite young. Professor Meehan considers the wood to be as durable
as that of the best Chestnut-trees ; indeed it lasts for an almost in-
definite period. General Harrison insists, that there is nothing like it
for posts. Catalpa-pickets of the old French stockade are still sound.
Logs thrown across water-courses for crossing have lasted for three
generations ; railway-posts and platforms of this wood are almost
indestructible. Logs a century old, and posts half a century old,
were not in the least decayed [Barney]. Railway cross-ties made of
this wood are also very durable, a tree twenty years old furnishing
sufficient timber for four ties. Canoes of Catalpa-wood never crack
or decay.
Catalpa Kaempferi, Siebold and Zuccarini.
Japan. Grows in eight years to about 25 feet in height, with a
trunk of 2 feet circumference ; bunches of flowers very large and
fragrant [Ho vey]. Proved hardy at Christiania [Schuebeler]. C.
Bungei (Meyer) from North-China, or a closely allied species, can be
grown for hedges. Flowers of all Catalpas sought by bees.
Catalpa speciosa, Warder.
In the Mississippi-States. Hardier and taller than C. bignoni-
oides; blooming earlier; leaves inodorous, flowers larger, growth as
rapid and wood as durable; also only with a very thin layer of
destructible sapwood [Dr. Engelmann]. Found to have attained in
40 years a stem-circumference of 40 feet at 4 feet from the ground
[Letterman] .
Oatha edulis, Forskael.
Arabia and Eastern Africa. The leaves of this shrub, under the
designation of Kafta or Cath, are used for a tea of a very stimu-
lating effect, to some extent to be compared to that of Erythroxylon
Coca. To us the plant would be mainly valuable for medicinal
purposes.
Caulanthus procerus, Watson.
California. A stout biennial. Locally used as a substitute for
cabbage [Brewer], but here only mentioned as likely capable of
cultural amelioration.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. Ill
Ceanothus rigidus, Nuttall.
California. One of the best of hedge-shrubs, available for dry
situations. Evergreen; to 12 feet high; the branches becoming
densely intricate. In the coast-tracts it is replaced by C. thyrsiflorus
(Escholtz), which can also be used for hedges and copses, and will
live in mere coast-sand. C. prostratus (Bentham) forms natural
mats on slopes, made by roads and slides, which it gradually covers,
and with its pretty blue flowers soon decorates [Professor Bolander].
Irrespective of their beauty, the different species are worthy of
cultivation as forming excellent wind-breaks. A fair tea is made
from the leaves of C. velutinus [Dr. Gibbons]. Some species are
relied on as forage-plants.
Cedrela Australia, F. v. Mueller.*
Eastern Australia, as far south as 36. The Australian Red Cedar
or Cedrel. Foliage deciduous in cool regions. Attains a height of
200 feet and sometimes a stem-girth of 18 feet near the base. Messrs.
Danger and Name measured a tree on the Macleay-River, 48 feet in
stem-circumference at 10 feet from the ground: it yielded 80,000 feet
of sound timber. Rev. Dr. Woolls noted also in New South Wales
trees so large as to yield 30,000 feet (superficial) of timber. Market-
value in Brisbane 7 10s. to 8 10s. per 1,000 superficial feet. The
light, beautiful wood is easily worked and susceptible of high polish;
it is very much in request for furniture, for turnery including stetho-
scopes, for the manufacture of pianofortes, for boat-building, frames
of window-blinds, cigar-boxes and a variety of other joiners' work ;
thus it is highly prized for building racing boats, which weigh little
over 30 Ibs., though 30 feet long, and yet prove durable [S. Ed-
wards]. The timber from the junction of the branches with the
stem furnishes choice veneers. Altogether the wood is much less
liable to be bored by insects than most others. The bark contains a
considerable quantity of tannin, which produces a purplish leather
[Fawcett]. This tree is hardy at Melbourne, but of slow growth in
open exposed gardens and poor soil there.
Cedrela Bogotensis, Triana and Planchon.
New Granada, ascending to 8,500 feet, therefore unusually hardy.
The timber of this tree is there most extensively in use [Prof.
Sodiro]. ,
Cedrela febrifuga, Blume.*
Java, Sumatra, Timor, in cooler mountain-regions. More closely
allied to C. Australis than to C. Toona. A tree, rising finally to a
height of 200 feet. Bark of tonic property. Hasskarl further notes
from Java C. Teysmanni and C. inodora. Cedrelas occur also in New
Guinea.
112 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cedrela fissilis, Vellozo. (C. Brasiliensis, A. de Jussieu.)
From Argentina extending to Mexico. The timber is soft,
fragrant and easily worked ; it is known as Acajou-wood. The
Surinam Cedar-wood is furnished by C. Guianensis (A. de Jussieu),
the Peruvian kind by C. angustifolia (De Candolle), the Caracas sort
by C. montana (Turczaninow), the Argentine from C. Paraguensis
(Martius).
Cedrela odorata, Linne.
Mexico, Antilles, Guiana, in Jamaica up to 4,000 feet elevation
[W. Fawcett]. A comparatively tall tree, easily cultivated. It
succeeds as far south as Natal [J. M. Wood]. Wood light, of
pleasant odor, easily worked, preferentially chosen in its native
country for cigar-boxes and a variety of other articles, also furniture.
The tree exudes the aromatic Acajou-resin like C. fissilis.
Cedrela serrata, Royle.
India. Ascending to higher elevations than C. Toona, indeed to
8,000 feet. Seeds with a membranous appendage on one side only.
Cedrela Sinensis, A. de Jussieu.*
China and Japan. An elegant tree, hardy in South-Europe and
even at London and Paris. It furnishes a wood not unlike that of
the Singapore-cedar, reddish in colour, particularly sought for cigar-
boxes and similar articles. Foliage of a rosy hue in spring.
Cedrela Toona, Roxburgh.*
The Singapore-cedar. Southern India. Foliage deciduous. One
of the most important of all timber-trees for furniture-wood, which
is easily, worked, light, seasons readily, takes polish well and is
applicable for a multitude of purposes in joinery, also used for tea-
chests. It is durable and not eaten by termites. Dr. Brandis gives
the stem-girth of trees 35 years old as 7 feet, when the tree grew on
rich and moist soil ; trees with 30 feet stem-circumference are known.
Seeds with membranous appendages on both sides. C. glabra and C.
microcarpa (C. de Candolle) yield partly the Sikkim Cedar-wood.
Cedrela Velloziana, Roemer.
Brazil. A magnificent tree, with odorous wood of a red hue.
Cedronella cordata, Bentham.
Southern States of North-America. A perennial herb, fragrant
like the following.
Cedronella triphylla, Moench.
Madeira and Canary-Islands. A shrubby plant with highly
scented foliage. The volatile oil obtainable from it resembles that of
Melissa, but is somewhat camphoric.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 113
Celtis Australis, Linn.
The Lotus-tree of South-Europe, North-Africa and South-Asia,
ascending the Himalayas to 9,000 feet. Attains a height of about
50 feet. Though of rather slow growth, this tree can be used for
avenues, as its stem finally attains to 6 feet in diameter. It is
supposed, that this Celtis reaches the age of fully 1,000 years.
Berries edible. Wood hard and dense, eligible particularly for
turners' and carvers' work. Used also by instrument-makers for flutes
. and pipes. The stem-wood is fine-grained, easily cleft, and of a
splendid yellow tinge ; the branch-wood is one of the best for whip-
sticks. Largely planted for fodder in India [Dr. G-. Watt].
Celtis occidentalis, Linn6.
The Hackberry-tree. Eastern States of North- America. Height
reaching to 80 feet. Will grow tolerably well even on the poorest
soil [B. E. Fernow]. Hardy as far north as Christiania. The sweet
fruit edible. Wood rather soft, difficult to split.
Celtis Sellowiana, Miquel.
Argentina. Tree to 40 feet high. Wood strong, used chiefly for
waggons, posts, turnery. Fruit edible [Hieronymus].
Celtis Sinensis, Persoon. (C. Japonica, Planchon.)
China and Japan. The " Henoki." A tree, bearing extreme
cold. Wood useful for carpenters' and turners' work. Fruit edible
but small.
Celtis Tala, Gillies.
From Texas to the La Plata-States. A thorny shrub, or under
favorable circumstances a good-sized tree. This plant can be used
for forming impenetrable hedges, but also shade-avenues. One or
two other Argentine species serve the same purposes.
Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, Richard. ( Uragogce, Ipecacuanha, Baillon. )
Brazil, in mountain-woods, consociated with Palms and Tree-
ferns. It is not unlikely that this herb, which is perennial and yields
the important medicinal ipecacuanha-root, would live in warm extra-
tropic forest-regions. Active principles : emetin and ipecacuanha-
acid. Ipecacuanha has in some cases proved efficient also in snake-
poison. The plant is best propagated from root-cuttings.
Cephalanthus occidentalis, Linn<*.
North- America, extending to Canada and Mexico. A tree, attain-
ing a height of about 50 feet on streams, easily disseminated, flowering
profusely already in a shrubby state, more important for ornamental
than for industrial growth, admitted here however as a rich yielder of
honey from its fragrant flowers, which last through several months.
114 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
The bitter bark, particularly that of the root, used therapeutically
[Dr. Kellogg]. The plant was introduced first by the writer into
Victoria, where it thrives to perfection.
Cephalotaxus drupacea, Siebold and Zuccarini.
China and Japan. This splendid Yew attains a height of 60 feet
and is very hardy. According to Dr. Masters, the C. Fortune!
(Hooker) is merely a variety. A small congener, C. Mannii (J.
Hooker), occurs in the Khasia-Mountains.
Ceratonia Siliqua, Linn.*
The Carob-Tree, indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean regions.
It attains a height of 50 feet, and resists drought well ; succeeds
best on a calcareous subsoil. Wood pale-reddish. The saccharine
pods, Algaroba or St. John's Bread, of value for domestic animals ;
in some parts of South-Europe even used for human food. The
frequent unisexuality of the flowers accounts to some extent for the
want of productiveness in fruit of this plant, where but few plants
exist and no bees are kept, or this sterility may be traceable to
insufficiency of lime or other substance in the soil. Mr. J. S. Edgar
noticed the plant to be remarkably fruitful also at the verge of the
tropics in East-Australia ; Mr. D. Martin records the same success
from the Wimmera, while in very arid regions of Riverina the fruit
is abundantly produced even in seasons of drought. Passed through
years of severe drought in Central Australia [Rev. H. Kempe].
Instances are on record of a tree having yielded nearly half a ton of
pods in a season [Chambers]. The exportation of the pods for
cattle-food from Creta is very large. The fruit is used for a medi-
cinal syrup, an imitation of chocolate and a liqueur [Wittmack]. In
some of the Mediterranean countries horses, stable-cattle and pigs
are almost exclusively fed upon the pods. The meat of sheep and
pigs is greatly improved in flavor by this food, while its fattening
properties are twice those of oil-cake. The pods contain about 66
per cent, of sugar and gum. To horses and cattle 6 Ibs. a day are
given of the crushed pods, raw or boiled, with or without chaff. The
Spanish conquerors took this plant early to Central and South-America.
The germination of the seeds, unless taken fresh out of the pods, is
accelerated by stirring them for some few minutes in hot water. Mr.
T. R. Sim states that the seeds should be planted in situ, as the trees
do not thrive when transplanted. The seeds should by geographic
explorers be carried through the central regions of Australia, and
be sown on humid spots, particularly in the limestone formation.
Ceratopetalum apetalum, D. Don.
Extra-tropic Eastern Australia. A beautiful tree with long
cyclindrical stem. Height reaching 90 feet, diameter 3 feet. Wood
soft, light, tough, close-grained, fragrant, good for joiners' and
cabinet-makers' work, locally in request for coachbuilding and there-
fore called coach-wood by the colonists [C. Virchowii, F. v. M., allied].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 115
Cercocarpus ledifolius, Nuttall.
California. Becomes in favorable spots a tree 40 feet in height,
with a stem-diameter of 2 feet. The wood is the hardest known
in California. It is of dark colour, very dense, used for bearings in
machinery [Dr. Gibbons]. C. parvifolius is of lesser dimensions.
Cereus Eng-elmanni, Parry.
Utah. A dwarf species, with large scarlet flowers and fruits of
strawberry -flavor and refreshing taste. C. Lecomtei attains there
the size of a flour-barrel.
Cereus glganteus, Engelmann.
New Mexico and Arizona. It attains the stupendous height of
60 feet, with a proportionate columnar thickness. It yields edible
fruit. The prickles drop off when the fruit is perfectly ripe ; the
half-civilized Indians press a syrup from the fruits which they sell
to the settlers at from 2 to 5 dollars a gallon. The plant grows even
in the alkali deserts of Arizona [Semler]. Lives unprotected at
Port Phillip, withstanding the sea-air close to the shores, and
growing at the rate of nearly a foot a year. It was introduced by
the writer many years ago. C. Thurberi (Engelmann) from New
Mexico and C. Quisco (Gray) from Chili, also bear edible fruits, but
they are smaller plants. Columnar species of Cereus, rising to a
height of 40 feet, occur also in Argentina. C. repandus and C. trian-
gularis (Haworth), of the West-Indies and Mexico, together with
several other species, are available as hedge-plants in places free
from frost. C. Atakamensis (Philippi) is a rather large species,
widely scattered over the high plateau of Chili and Bolivia up to the
cold region of 13,000 feet. Nee speaks of a Mexican Cactus
(probably an Echinocactus) 5 feet in diameter by 3 feet in height.
Cereus Pringlei, Sargent.
Sonora. Next to C. giganteus, the biggest Cactus. The autoch-
thones bake the pulp of the fruit into cakes [E. Palmer, N. v. Nagi].
Cereus Quixo, Gay.
Chili. This stately Cactus attains a height of 15 feet, and is one
of the hardiest species. The charming snow-white flowers are
followed by sweetish mucilaginous fruits, available for the table
[Philippi].
Cereus Thurberi, Engelmann.
North- Western Mexico and Arizona in arid regions. Attains a
height of 20 feet ; the fruits vary in size from that of a hen's egg to
that of an orange ; they are of delicious flavor, pleasant taste and
nutritious.
I 2
116 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cerinthe major, Linne.
Countries around the Mediterranean Sea. A handsome but annual
herb, particularly alluded to by G. Don as a honey-plant of superior
value. A few congeners exist in the same regions, among which
C. minor (Bauhin) is biennial or pauciennial, and C. alpina (Kitaibel)
perennial.
Ceroxylon andicola, Humboldt.*
The Wax-palm of New Oranada, ascending the Andes to 11,000
feet. One of the most majestic and at the same time one of the
most hardy of all Palms, attaining occasionally a height of 180 feet.
The trunk exudes a kind of resinous wax, about 25 Ibs. being
obtainable at a time from each stem ; this, after the admixture of
tallow, is used for candles. There are several other andine Palms,
which could be reared in Australian forests or in sheltered positions
about our dwellings.
Ceroxylon australe, Martius. (Juania australis, Drude. )
Juan Fernandez, latitude 34 South, on the higher mountains.
Ceroxylon Klopstockia, Martius.
Venezuela. This very tall Wax-palm reaches elevations of 6,000
feet.
Cervantesia tomentosa. Ruiz and Pavon.
Forest-mountains of Peru. This tree yields edible seeds. It is
likely to prove hardy in lower forest-regions of the warmer extra-
tropic countries.
Oestrum nocturnum, Linn.
West-Indies, Southern Mexico. Praised above almost all other
plants for its fragrance in Mexico, its flowers lasting through the
summer and autumn, and their scent being particularly powerful
at night [Dr. Barroeta]. In South- Africa preferentially used for
wind-breaks, cuttings striking root with the utmost ease [Prof.
MacOwan]. Foliage poisonous.
Cetraria Islandica, Acharius.
Colder regions of Europe, Asia, and North-America. This
renowned lichen, inappropriately called " Iceland-Moss," deserves
translocation to other cold parts of the globe ; it yields, on boiling,
a nutritious jelly, pleasant after the removal of the bitter principle
[Cetrarin], the latter rendering this lichen additionally valuable in
medicine.
Naturalisation in Extra Tropical Countries. 117
Chserophyllum bulbosum, Linne".
Middle Europe and Western Asia. The Parsnip-Chervil. A
biennial herb. The root a very palatable culinary esculent, con-
siderably richer in starch than potatoes. To be kept some time
before consumed [Vilmorin].
Chserophyllum macrospermum, Fischer and Meyer.
Turkey and Persia, in the cool regions, ascending to alpine eleva-
tions. A biennial herb, the sweetish root of which serves as a
culinary vegetable.
Chamsedora elatior, Martius.
Mexico, at an elevation of 4-5,000 feet. This graceful palm
attains only a height of about 12 feet, and bears some frost. With
many of its congeners available for table-decoration. The oldest
generic names are Morenia and Nunezharia.
Chamserops excelsa, Thunberg.* (Trachycarpus excelsus, Wendland.)
Southern China, as far north as Napong, also in Japan. This
Fan-palm is highly desirable, although not so tall as the name would
indicate. The hardiest of all palms ; has stood 3 F. with only a
slight litter [Count de Saporta]. Hardy in the mild middle coast-
regions of England. Cordage prepared from the leaves does not
decay in water [Dupont]. Rate of growth while young at Melbourne
about 1 foot a year. The hairy covering of the stem of this palm
and of Livistona Chinensis is utilized for fixing lime-plaster to
buildings in Japan [Christie]. C. Fortunei [Hooker], the Chusan-
palm from North-China, is a variety or closely allied species. It
attains a height of about 30 feet, and endures considerable frost.
The leaves can be employed for plaiting palm-hats, the fibrous leaf-
sheaths for making brushes, brooms and cordage. Other hardy
palms might be naturalized and used for various purposes here,
irrespective of their ornamental features.
Chamserops humilis, Linn6.
The Dwarf Fan-Palm of South-Europe, North Africa and the
most south-western parts of Asia. Growth satisfactory up to 44 N.
Height to 20 feet. It is very ornamental for gardens and plantations,
and particularly eligible for scenic effect. Hats, mats, baskets, fans
and brushes are made from the leaves.
Chamserops Khasyana, Griffith. (Trachycarpus Khasyanus, H. Wend-
lancT)
In the Himalayas, at elevations from 4,000 to 8,000 feet, also
according to Kurz in dry pine-forests of Martaban and Ava.
118 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Chamserops Martiana, Wallich. (Trachycarpus Martianus, H. Wend-
Land.)
Ascends the mountains of Nepal to 8,000 feet. This Fan-palm
attains a -height of 50 feet, and is altogether a noble object.
Reaches higher altitudes in the Himalayas than any other species,
indeed where snow occurs or covers the soil four or five months
during the year.
Chamserops Ritchieana, Griffith. (Nannorhops Eitchicana, H. Wend-
land.)
Arid mountains of Afghanistan to 34 N. Seemingly the only
native palm there. Extensively used for cordage ; leaves also made
into baskets and mats ; fruit locally used like dates [Atkinson],
Has proved hardy even in England. Even young plants did not
suffer at a temperature of 17 F. in Florence [Dr. Beccari].
Chelidonium maJTis, Fuchs.
The Celandine. Europe and Western Asia, wild to latitude 63
N. in .Norway. A perennial herb of medicinal value. Chemical
principles : chelerythrin and chelidonin ; also a yellow pigment,
chelidoxanthin.
Chelone glabra, Linne".
North- America. The " Balmony." A perennial herb, which has
come into therapeutic use.
Chenopodium ambrosioides, Linne".
Tropical and sub-tropical America. " Mexican Tea " and " Worm-
seed." An annual medicinal herb. Chenopodium anthelminticum
seems to be a perennial variety of this species. Easily naturalised.
Chenopodium auricomum, Lindley.
Australia, from the Darling-River to Carpentaria and Arnhem's
Land. A tall perennial herb, furnishing a nutritious and palatable
spinage. Dr. Leichardt alludes to it as an Atriplex. It will live in
arid desert-regions. It is one of the "Blue Bushes" of the squatters,
who value it as a nutritive and wholesome pastoral plant. Several
other species of Chenopodium, among them the European C. bonus
Henricus (Linne) and C. Californicum (S. Watson) afford fair
spinage, but they are annual.
Chenopodium Blitum, F. v. Mueller. (Blitum virgatitm, Linne.)
From South-Europe to Middle Asia, An annual herb, in use
there as a cultivated spinage-plant. The fruits furnish a red dye.
The genus Blitum was reduced to Chenopodium by the writer in
Camel's Nuovo Giornale Botanico many years ago, and in 1864 by
Dr. Ascherson, who gave to B. virgatum the name Chenopodium
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 119
foliosum. C. capitatum (Blitum capitatum, Linne) may not be
really a distinct species. Nyman regards its nativity unascertained.
Some of this group of plants are useful to anglers, attracting fish
when thrown into rivers or lakes.
Chenopodium Botrys, Linne".
In Baluchistan the young leaves of this herb are a favorite kitchen-
vegetable [J. H. Lace].
Chenopodium nitrariaceum, F. v. Mueller.
Interior of Australia, especially in localities occasionally humid,
reaching in some places the south-coast. A somewhat woody, tall
" Salt-bush/' liked particularly by sheep. Extolled also by Mr. Fred.
Turner as cropped down so closely, to allow of recuperation only
with difficulty. Through Professor Naudin it has been widely dis-
persed and permanently established in Southern France and Northern
Africa as a pastoral salt-bush. The plant might be transferred to
the genus Rhagodia.
Chenopodium Quinoa, Willdenow.
New Granada, Peru, Chili. An annual herb. Admitted here as
a savory and wholesome spinage-plant, which can be grown so
quickly, as to become available during the short summers of even the
highest habitable alpine latitudes. In Peru the seeds are used for a
nutritious porridge [Tschudi, Markham].
Chionachne cyathopoda, F. v. Mueller.
Tropical and Eastern sub-tropical Australia. With C. barbata
(R. Brown), and C. Wightii (Munro) of India and Queensland, a
valuable fodder-grass, yielding a large return. Sclerachne punctata
(R. Brown) from Java is closely allied.
Chloris scariosa, F. v. Mueller.
Tropical Australia. Particularly recommended by Mr. Walter
Hill as a pasture-grass. Dr. Curl mentions this and C. divaricata
(R. Brown), from North and East Australia, as useful summer- and
autumn-grasses, even in the cooler clime of New Zealand.
Chloris truncata, R. Brown.
The Windmill-grass. South-Eastern Australia, as far south as
Port Phillip. This perennial and showy grass is regarded by Mr.
Walter Bissill as an excellent summer- and autumn-grass of ready
growth, relished by grazing animals ; matures seeds freely. Must
be regarded as one of our best desert-grasses, as it will remain in fresh
growth through protracted hot and rainless seasons [G. F. Murray].
C. ventricosa (R. Br.) is another valuable East- Australian species.
Several other congeners from the eastern or western world deserve
the attention of graziers, as furnishing good provender. Chemical
120 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
analysis will determine their nutritive value, though the degree of
liking of such grasses by pasture-animals can only be found out by
rural tests.
Chlorogalum pomeridianum, Kunth.
California, frequent on mountains. This lily-like plant attains a
height of 8 feet. The heavy bulb is covered with many coatings,
consisting of fibres, which are used for cushions and mattresses ;
contracts are entered into for the supply of this material on a rather
extensive scale [Professor Bolander], The inner part of the bulb
serves as a substitute for soap, and the possibility of utilizing it for
technological purposes, like the root of Saponaria, might be tested, as
it contains saponiu.
Chloroxylon Swietenia, Be Candolle.
The Satin-wood. Mountains of India. Like the allied Flindersias,
possibly this tree would prove hardy in sheltered places of milder
extra-tropic latitudes, the cognate Cedrela australis advancing in
East-Australia southward to the 36th degree. A resin, valuable for
varnishes, exudes from the stem and branches.
Choiromyces maeandrifonnis, Vittadini. (Rhizopogon magnatum, Corda.)
In Middle Europe one of the most frequent and best-tasted
truffles, sold with R. rubescens (Tulasne).
Chondrus crispus, Stockhouse.
Shores of the Northern Atlantic Ocean. "Caragaheen." This
well-known alg yields a nutritious and palatable gelatine on boiling,
and has thus become even of some therapeutic importance. The
ready steam-communication all over the world affords doubtless now
the opportunity of carrying also highly useful algs widely from
shore to shore in portable aquaria. In Australia the Eucheuma
speciosum, Gracilaria lichenoides (J. Agardh) and Gelidium glandu-
lifolium (Harvey) are marine jelly-weeds, well deserving of wide
translocation. Algs can be preserved for scientific examination by
being packed in kitchen-salt.
Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium, Boccone. (Pyrethrum dnerarifolium,
Trevisan. )
Austria. Furnishes the Dalmatian insecticidal powder. It is
superior even to the Persian powder as an insecticide ; it will keep
for years. Effectually cultivated on the lower Latrobe-River on a
large scale by Mr. P. Kisettle, the powder prepared from the Gipps-
land plant proving very powerful [J. Knight]. It is prepared from
half-opened flowers, gathered during dry weather and exsiccated
under cover. Best applied in puffs from a tube. To be used also
against aphides [W. Saunders. See further U.S. Agricultural
Report for 1881-2.] Serves to keep fresh meat for days from
decay.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 121
Chrysanthemum coecineum, Willdenow. (fioseum, Adam. Pyrethrum
roseum, Bieberstein. )
Sub-alpine South- Western Asia. This perennial herb, with C.
coronopifolium (Willdenow) yields the Persian Anti-Insect-powder.
Effective against aphides. Centipeda (Myriogyne) could doubtless
also be converted into a strong insecticidal powder.
Chrysanthemum coronarium, Linn.
Countries at and near the Mediterranean Sea. The young sprouts
of the cultivated plant are in Japan consumed either as salad or as
boiled vegetable [C. Sprenger]. C. Sinense, Sabine (C. Indicum,
Linne), of Japan only, is of the vastest importance as an autumn or
even winter flower ; keeps long in vases.
Chrysanthemum Parthenium, Bernhardi. (Pyrethrum Parthenium,
Smith.)
Middle and Southern Europe. " Feverfew." The root, foliage
and flowers of this perennial herb are in request for medicinal
purposes since ancient times ; the variety with yellow foliage serves
for edging of garden-plots, ribbon- and carpet-culture.
Chrysopsis graminifolia, Elliott.
Southern States of North- America. This herb furnishes a fibre
of soft texture and silk-like lustre [K. Mohr].
Chusquea Culeou, E. Desvaux.
Chili, Valclivia, Argentina. This bamboo does not often exceed
20 feet in height ; the autochthones on the La Plata-River use it for
lances. C. heterophylla and C. Cumingii (Nees) serve in the same
region for thatch-roofing [Hieronymus]. C. andina (Philippi) grows
in Chili near the snow-line.
Cicer arietinum, Dodoens.*
South-Europe and South- Western Asia. The Gram or Chick-
Pea. introduced into China during the 14th century [Bretschueider].
An annual herb, valuable as a pulse for stable-food, but an extensive
article also of human diet in India. Colonel Sykes counted as many
as 170 seeds on one plant. In Spain, next to wheat, the most
extensively used plant for human food [Honorable Caleb Gushing].
The plant suppresses weeds, and is of special service in the rotation
of crops. The return is in about four months. The seeds can be
converted into pea-meal, or can be used in various other ways for
culinary purposes. Among the best of plants for fodder-purposes
and for pulse in the arid interior of West Australia [Arthur
Anderson].
122 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cichorium Endivia, Linne.
South-Europe, North- Africa, Orient, Middle Asia. A biennial
plant, used already in ancient times as a culinary vegetable. In
Norway it grows to lat. 70 (Schuebeler). Boissier regards ,it as
culturally arisen from the annual C. divaricatum [Schousbye] of the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In France next to Lettuce the
most universally utilised salad-plant, and available as an open air
product from June to February. The curled and Batavian varieties
are not bitter. The inner leaves are bleached by tying the outer
leaves together [Vilmorin]. Matures seeds, fit to germinate, even in
the hottest desert regions of Central Australia.
Cichorium Intybus, Linn.
Chicory. A well-known perennial plant, indigenous to Europe,
Northern-Africa, and South- Western Asia, extending to North-
Western India, where it ascends to 11,000 feet [Dr. Aitchison].
The roots much used as a substitute for coffee ; 5,000 tons of Chicory
valued at 68,000 were imported into the United Kingdom in 1884.
This plant requires a rich deep loamy soil, but fresh manure is
detrimental to the value of the root. It is also a good fodder-plant,
especially for sheep, and can be kept growing for several years, if cut
always before flowering. The root can be dressed and boiled for
culinary purposes ; the leaves are useful for salad, particularly when
the plants are removed to dark warm places for bleaching [Kuehnel] ;
seeds will keep for several years [Vilmorin]; medicinal use can be
made also of the fresh root. Indigenous in Norway to lat. 63 30"
[Schuebeler].
Cimicifuga racemosa, Elliott.
The " Black Snake-Root " and also " Cohosh " of North- America.
A perennial herb of medicinal value, the root possessing emetic
properties.
Cinchona Calisaya, Ruiz and Pavon. *
Andes of Peru, New Granada, Brazil and Bolivia, 5,000 to 6,000
feet above the ocean. This tree attains a height of 40 feet ; it yields
the Yellow bark and also part of the Crown-bark. It is the richest
yielder of quinin, and also produces cinchonidin, but little of other
alkaloids. The most valuable species in Bengal, braving occasional
night-frost. It was introduced into Java as early as 1854. by Dr.
J. K. Hasskarl. This has flowered at Berwick (Victoria) already
ten years ago under the care of Mr. G. W. Robinson, from plants
supplied by the author, therefore as far south as Port Phillip ; there
also good seeds matured. It grows under conditions more limited
than those of C. succirubra, nor is it so easily propagated. All of its
varieties do not furnish bark of equal value. The Santa Fe variety
ascends the Andes of New Granada 10,000 feet, and produces the
highly valuable soft Columbia-bark. The variety Ledgeriana come&
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 123
from Brazil, south-east of Lake Titicaca. Its bark yielded in Java
11 to 12 per cent, of quinin. An analysis by Mr. W. E. Matthews,
made of bark from C. calisaya trees, grown" at Berwick, near Port
Phillip, gave about 6^ per cent, alkaloids, 2 -67 being quinine.
The renewed bark, obtained by covering the stem, where the bark
has been removed, with moss or matting, according to Mr. Mclvor's
method, realized double the ordinary market-price, and in C. succi-
rubra even more [Woodhouse]. Young Cinchona-plants are subject
to the attacks of Helopeltis Antonii, which insect preys also on the
Tea-bush in India.
Cinchona cordifolia, Mutis.*
Peru and New Granada, on the Andes at between 6,000 and 8,000
feet elevation, and according to Mr. Willis Weaver at Bogota (pro-
bably under the shelter of forests) up to the frosty region of 9,500
feet. Provides the hard Cartagena-bark or West Pitaya-bark, one
extremely rich in alkaloids. It is a species of robust constitution,
grows with rapidity and vigor. The thickest bark is obtained in the
highest altitudes, which are often involved in misty humidity by
passing clouds [Cross].
Cinchona micrantha, Ruiz and Pavon.
Cordilleras of Bolivia and Peru. This tree attains a height of
60 feet, and from it part of the Grey and Huanuco-bark as well as
Lima-bark are obtained. It is comparatively rich in cinchonin and
quinidin, contains however also quinin.
Cinchona nitida, Ruiz and Pavon.
Andes of Peru and Ecuador. This tree rises to 80 feet under
favorable circumstances. It also yields Grey-bark and Huanuco-
bark, besides Loxa-bark. It will probably prove one of the hardiest
species. It contains predominantly cinchonin and quinidin.
Cinchona officinalis, Linne (partly).* (Cinchona Condaminea, Humboldt).
Andes of New Granada, Ecuador and Peru at a height of 6,000 to
10,000 feet. Yields Crown or Brown Peru-bark, besides part of the
Loxa-bark. Comparatively rich in quinin and cinchonidin. The
temperature of the middle regions of the Andes, where this tree
grows, is almost the same as that of the Canary-Islands. Super-
abundance of moisture is particularly pernicious to this species. The
hardiest of all cultivated kinds. The Crispilla variety endures a
temperature occasionally as low as 27 F. Cinchona-seeds for
culture were procured by Dr. Weddell during Count Castlenau's
expedition.
Cinchona lancifolia (Mutis) is considered by Weddell a variety of
C. officinalis. This grows where the mean annual temperature
is that of Rome, with however less extremes of heat and cold.
It yields part of the Pitaya-bark.
124 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cinchona Pitayensis must also be referred to C. officinalis as a
variety. This attains a height of 60 feet and furnishes also a
portion of the Pitaya-bark. It is this particular cinchona, which
in Upper India yielded in some instances the very large quantity
of 11 per cent, alkaloids, nearly 6 per cent, quinin, the rest
quiuidin and cinchonin ; this plant is now annihilated for bark-
purposes in its native forests.
Cinchonas raised from seeds provided by the writer of this work,
have withstood the slight frosts at San Francisco [G. P. Rixford].
The Uritusinga- or Loxa-variety grows in its native forests to a
height of 60 feet and more [Pavon] and attained in Ceylon in fifteen
years a height of 28 feet, with a stem-girth of nearly 2 feet. The
price of its bark in 1879 was about 7s. per lb., and of renewed bark
lls. Mr. Mclvor obtained 6,850 cuttings from one imported plant
in twenty months ; but all Cinchonas produce seeds copiously, so that
the raising of great numbers of plants can be effected with remark-
able facility. The bark has yielded 7'4 to 10-0 per cent, sulphate of
quinin [Howard].
In Java some of the best results were obtained with Cinchona
Hasskar liana, Miq., a species seemingly as yet not critically identified.
Cinchona-seeds do not long retain their vitality; but as they are so
very light, no difficulty exists in sending them speedily even to
widely distant places.
Cinchona succirubra, Pavon.*
Middle Andine regions of Peru and Ecuador. A tree, attaining a
height of 40 feet, yielding the Red Peru-bark, rich in cinchonin and
cinchonidin. It is this species, which is predominantly cultivated on
the mountains of Bengal. In India it thrives at lower elevations
than other Cinchonas, proves of quicker growth, and there the mixed
cheap Cinchona-alkaloids forming the " Quinettum " are largely
derived from this plant [G. King, J. S. Gamble]. It has been found
hardy in Lower Gippsland and the Westernport-district of Victoria.
It grew in Madeira at an elevation of 500 feet, after having been
planted two and a half years, to a height of 20 feet, flowering^freely
also. All these Cinchonas promise to become of importance for
culture in the warmest regions of extra-tropical countries, on places
not readily accessible or eligible for cereal culture. The Peruvian
proverb, that Cinchona-trees like to be " within sight of snow/' gives
some clue to the conditions under which they thrive best. They
delight in the shelter of forests, where there is an equable tempera-
ture, no frost, some humidity at all times both in air and soil, where
the ground is deep and largely consists of the remnants of decayed
vegetable substances, and where the subsoil is open. Drippage from
shelter-trees too near will be hurtful to the plants. Closed valleys
and deep gorges, into which cold air will sink, are also not well
adapted for Cinchona-culture. The Cinchona-region may be re-
garded as inter-jacent between the coffee- and the tea-region, or
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 125
nearly coinciding with that of the Assam-tea. Cross found the
temperature of some of the best natural Cinchona-regions to fluctuate
between 35 and 60 F. We here ought to consociate the Peru-bark
plants with naturally growing fern-trees, but only in the warmest
valleys and richest soil. The best temperature for Cinchonas is from
53 to 66 F. ; but for the most part they will endure in open places
a minimum of 32 F.; in the brush-shades of the Botanic Garden of
Melbourne, where already many years ago Cinchonas were raised by
the thousands, they have even resisted uninjured a temperature of a
few degrees less, wherever the wind had no access, while under such
very slight cover the Cinchonas withstood also a heat of a few degrees
over 100 F.
The plants are most easily raised from seed, best under some cover
such as mats ; they produce seeds copiously some years after planting.
C. succirubra, first introduced into California by the writer of this
work together with the principal other species, thrives well in the
lower coast-ranges as far north as San Francisco ; better indeed than
C. Calisaya, according to Dr. Herman Behr. The quantity of alka-
loids in the bark can be much increased by artificial treatment, if the
bark is only removed to about one-third on one side of the stem and
the denuded part covered with moss or straw-matting (kept moist),
under which in one year as much bark is formed as otherwise requires
three years' growth such forced bark moreover containing the
astounding quantity of 25 per cent, alkaloids, because no loss of
these precious substances takes place by gradual disintegration
through age. The root-bark of some Cinchonas has proved to contain
as much as 8 per cent, of alkaloids (see Gardeners' Chronicle, 1877,
p. 212). The income from Java-plantations is considerably over
double the cost of the expenses of culture and transit. Mr. Howard's
opinion, that Cinchonas in lowland-plantations produce a far less
quantity of alkaloids, needs further confirmation, particularly regard-
ing the valuable quinin and cinchonidin ; probably however geologic
conditions have in all instances to be taken into account also.
Young Cinchona-plants are set out at distances of about 6 feet.
The harvest of bark begins in the fourth or fifth year. The price
varies in Europe from 2s. to 9s. per Ib. according to quality. The
limits assigned to this literary compilation do not admit of entering
further into details on this occasion ; but I may add, that in the
Darjeeling-district over three millions of Cinchona-plants were already
in cultivation during 1869 in Government-plantations. Cultivation
of Cinchona for commercial purposes was first initiated in Java
through Dr. Hasskarl in 1851 at the suggestion and under the
direction of Professor Miquel ; but 240,000 Ibs. of bark were already
exported from this island in 1880. The British harvest in the
Madras-Presidency alone amounted to 150,000 Ibs. in 1875. Brigade-
Surgeon Dr. G. King reports in 1880, that four million trees of
Cinchona succirubra are now under his control in the Sikkim-planta-
tions. This has proved the hardiest species ; it grows under a wide
range of conditions and seeds freely ; thus it is the most valuable
126 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cinchona in the elevations of Sikkim. In the Keilghemes more than
600,000 Cinchona-plants were distributed from the Government-
plantations in 1879, and 1,322 Ibs. of seed [Barlow]; from 80,000 to
250,000 seedlings being obtainable from one pound of sound seed, as
almost every grain will grow. All its varieties produce bark of great
value. The total amount of alkaloids is at an average of 4 per cent.
If the trees were cut every seven or eight years and simultaneous re-
planting should take place, Dr. King could keep up an annual supply
of 366,000 Ibs. of bark merely from the plantations under his control.
In 1883 there were as many as 128 millions of plants under cultiva-
tion in British India, of which 22 millions were two years old. The
importations of Cinchona-bark into the United Kingdom in 1884
amounted to 106,000 cwt., of the value of 907,000 ; in 1882 the
quantity was 139,000 cwt. and the cost 1,781,000. In 1886 it came
to 145,367 cwt. In 1891-2 the export of Cinchona-bark from India
came to about 14,000 cwt. [Journal Society of Arts]. Now much
bark is locally treated in India for the extraction of the alkaloids.
The total number of deaths of the Indian population from fever was
considered to approach a million and a half annually before Cinchona-
culture was introduced.
Cinna arundinacea, Linn.
North-America. There recorded as a good fodder -grass ; peren-
nial, somewhat sweet-scented. Particularly adapted for forest-
meadows. Blyttia suaveolens (Fries) is according to Dr. Asa Gray
a variety with pendent flowers.
Cinnamomum Camphora, T. Nees.
The Camphor-tree of China and Japan, north to Kinsin, attaining
a height of about 40 feet. It endures the occasional frosts of a clime
like that of Port Phillip, though the foliage will suffer. It likes light
damp soil. The wood, like all other parts of the tree, is pervaded by
camphor, hence resists the attacks of insects. The well-known cam-
phor is obtained by distilling or boiling the chopped wood or root ;
the subsequently condensed camphoric mass is subjected to a purify-
ing sublimation-process. Camphor is extensively used in the manu-
facture of smokeless powder, and also forms one of the principal
ingredients of celluloid.
Cinnamomum Cassia, Blume.
Southern China. This tree produces the Chinese cinnamon or the
so-called Cassia lignea. Hardy at Maritzburg, Natal [J. M. Wood].
Sir Joseph Hooker found on the Khasya-mountains up to 6,000 feet
three cinnamons producing similar bark namely: C. obtusifolium,
C. pauciflorum and C. Tamala (Nees), the latter species extending
to Queensland. Dr. Thwaites notes the true Cinnamon-tree (C.
Zeilanicum, Breyn) even up to 8,000 feet in Ceylon, but the most
aromatic bark comes from lower altitudes. The root gives a sort of
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 127
camphor. Mr. Ch. Ford has ascertained, that the Chinese cut
Cinnarnomum Cassia when six years old, the time chosen being from
March to May, after which season the bark loses much of its
aroma. The plant is cut to near the root. The bark on distillation
affords the Cassia-oil, 1 cwt. of bark yielding nearly 1 Ib. of oil,
which is much in use for confectionery and culinary purposes and
the preparation of scented soaps; it is one of the most persistent or
retentive in perfumery. Oil can also be obtained from the foliage.
C. Zeilanicum (Breyn), the true Cinnamon-tree of Ceylon develops
perfectly in East-Australia to rather beyond the tropic," indeed as far
south as Moreton-Ba.y.
Cinnamomum Loureiroi, Nees.
Cochin-China and nearest regions, also perhaps Japan. A middle-
sized tree. The leaves locally in use as a condiment and for per-
fumery.
Cistus Creticus. Linn.
Countries on the Mediterranean Sea, particularly the eastern. This
shrub, with C. Cyprius (Lamarck), furnishes the best ladanum-resin.
Other species yield a less fragrant produce.
Citrus Aurantium, Linn.*
The Orange-tree (in the widest sense of the word). A native of
South-Eastern Asia, A plant of longevity; thus a tree at Versailles,
known as the " Grand Bourbon," is still in existence, though planted
in 1421; and very much older still are Citrus-trees at Cordova, and
yet bearing. Even under glass at Hampton-Court are trees over 300
years old. Stems of very good Orange-trees have gained such a size,
as to require two men to clasp them. If intervening spaces exist in
orangeries, they might be used for raising herbaceous honey -plants.
Any specific differences, to distinguish C. Aurantium from C. Medica,
if they once existed, are obliterated now through hybridisation, at
least in the cultivated forms. In Central India a peculiar variety is
under culture, producing two crops a year; the blossoms of February
and March yield their ripe fruit in November and December, whereas
from the flowers of July mature fruits are obtained in March and
April. To prevent exhaustion only alternate fruiting is allowed.
Nearly 5 million bushels of oranges and lemons, representing a value
of 1,782,000, were imported into the United Kingdom during 1884.
During 1886 it was 4,388,291 bushels, valued at 1,488,341. In
1893 New South Wales produced 800,000 cases of Oranges from
9,237 acres of ground fHayter]. The seeds of Oranges, with other
easily germinating seeds, should during exploring expeditions through
mild countries be disseminated. Quick steam-navigation renders it
now possible, to provide when carefully packed for the European
and North-American market fresh Oranges and many other kinds of
orchard-fruits from Australia, South-America and South- Africa during
the unprovided season of the northern hemisphere. At Port Jackson
128 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
a tree of the Mandarin-orange bore 4,000 fruits in a season [Haldane].
It is not unusual for orange-trees to continue in full bearing for 60
or 70 years, and after that the wood is still valued for its durability,
fragrance and beauty. Should over-production anywhere take place,
a wine can be prepared from the juice of peeled oranges, which
proved of remarkable strength. The Sorrento-honey derives its
delicious perfume from orange-flowers, and it has become classical as
the best and analogous to that of Hymethus [Laura Redden]. For
detail-information on these kinds of plants should be consulted the
important recent work of Dr. Bonavia, " The Cultivated Oranges and
Lemons of India/' with an illustrative atlas. Orange-trees are in
the United States frequently attacked by the highly injurious Aus-
tralian Icerya Purchasii. Its ravages can to some extent be checked
by the Lestophanus leery ae, a parasitic fly, and fully by the Vedalia
cardinalis, known also as the Dorthesia-bug. Mr. Jaeger reports
from Honolulu that the Vidalia cleared off the Icerya in the Hawaian
Islands within six months after the introduction of this Beetle, though
the Orange- trees were loaded with that scale ; this, one of the
so-called lady-bird beetles, keeps down in New Zealand, perhaps with
allied species, the Icerya. They have therefore been introduced from
Australia into America by Mr. Koebele, an emissary of Professor
Riley of the Entomologic Department of Washington, first attention
having been drawn to this antagonism by Mr. Crawford of Adelaide.
Mr. Charles French, the Government Entomologist of Victoria, has
in his new departmental work described and illustrated these insects.
The Smut of trees of the Orange-tribe is Capuodium citri. Professor
Mac Owan remarks that the saccharine film exuded by the black
scale-insect, Lecanium hesperidum, facilitates the germination of the
Capnodium-spores, and he found in South Africa perseveringly spray-
ing paraffine emulsions particularly effective against both parasites,
also liquid of resin-soap applied by powerful pump-syringes. Some
varieties of the Orange-tree are excellent for hedges, for which they are
much used in Japan. Burnt earth is valuable as an admixture to soil
in orangeries. On the high authority of Dr. Piesse it may be stated,
that recently rather more than \\ million pounds weight of orange-
flowers were gathered annually for perfumery-purposes merely at Nice
and Cannes. As prominent varieties of C Aurantium the following
may be distinguished:
Citrus Bergamium, Ris&o. From the fruit-rind of this variety
Bergamotte-oil is obtained ; the flowers also yield oil. The
Mellarosa-variety furnishes a superior oil and exquisite con-
fitures.
Citrus Bigaradia, Duhamel. The Bitter Orange. This furnishes
from its flowers the Neroli-oil, so delicious and costly as a
perfume. It is stated, that orange-flowers to the value of 50
might be gathered from the plants of an acre within a year.
The rind of the fruit is used for candied orange-peel and mar-
malade. Bitter principle: hesperidin in the rind, liruonin in the
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 129
seeds. The Bigarade furnishes the most valuable of any stock
for orange-grafting in South- Africa, according to Prof. MacOwan.
Citrus decumana, Linne. The Shaddock or Pompelmos. The
fruit will exceptionally attain a weight of 20 pounds. The pulp
and thick rind can both be used for preserves.
Citrus dulcis, Yolkamer. The Sweet Orange, of which many
kinds occur. The St. Michael Orange has been known to bear
in the Azores on sheltered places 20,000 fruits on one tree in
a year. Navel-oranges, weighing 19 ounces, have been obtained
at Rockhampton ; other varieties have been known to reach
3 pounds [Thozet], Neroli-oil is also obtained from the flowers
of this and closely allied varieties. The oil of orange-peel
might be used as a cheap and pleasant one in the distillation of
costly odorous substances. Even in Australia already an aged
tree of the ordinary orange yielded over 12,000 fruits in a par-
ticularly favorable season. In tracts close to the coast the
trees need shelter. About four million pounds of orange-flowers
are annually treated for Neroli-oil at and in the vicinity of
Grasse, the price being about fourpence a pound (Revue agricole
de Maurice).
Citrus nobilis, Loureiro. The Mandarin-Orange. The thin peel
separates most readily from the deliciously flavoured sweet pulp.
There are large and small fruited Mandarin-oranges j the
Tangerine variety is one of them ; also a dwarf variety with
seedless fruits exists (A. Jupp).
Citrus Australasica, F. v. Mueller.
Coast-forests of extra-tropical Eastern Australia. A shrubby
species, with ellipsoid or almost cylindrical fruits of lemon-like taste,
measuring 2 to 4 inches in length. They are thus very much larger
than those of Atalantia glauca of the eastern desert-interior of tropic
Australia, but both are of similar taste. These plants are entered
on this list, together with C. Planchoni, merely to draw attention to
them as probably capable of improvement in their fruit through
culture.
Citrus Japonica, Thunberg.
The Kumquat of Japan. A shrubby Citrus with fruits of the size
of a gooseberry, from which on account of their sweet peel and acid
pulp an excellent preserve can be prepared.
Citrus Medica, Linne 1 .*
The Citron-tree (in the widest sense of the word). Indigenous to
Southern Asia.. For the sake of convenience it is placed here as
distinct from C. Aurantium. As prominent varieties of the Citrus
Medica may be distinguished:
Citrus Cedra. Gallesio. The true Citron. From the acid
vernacular fruit essential oil and citric acid can be obtained,
130 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
irrespective of the ordinary culinary use of the fruit. A large
variety with thick rind furnishes candied the citrionade or
succade. The Cedra-oil comes from a particular variety.
France produced in 1890 over 50,000 cwts. candied Orange and
Lemon Peel, valued at 60,000 (Sahut, from Bull, du Miuistere
de 1' Agriculture) ; 173,680 cwts. of Citrons were raised besides,
of the value of 73,000.
Citrus Limonium, Risso. The true Lemon. Lemon-juice is
largely pressed from the fruit of this variety, while the thin
smooth aromatic peel serves for the production of volatile oil
or for condiments. The best oil is obtained by the so-called
Ecuelle process (puncturing the rind) ; distilled oil is of inferior
quality [Watt]. The quantity of essential oil of lemon
exported from Messina alone during 1887 amounted to about
440,000 Ibs., valued at 125,000 ; while about 500,000 gallons
of lemon-juice were exported during the same period. The
juice of this fruit is particularly rich in citric acid. A large
variety is the Rosaline-Lemon. A Giant-Lemon has quite
recently been introduced into Victoria from some mountains in
Fiji by Messrs. Chaffey, through Mr. R. Sawers. It shows
immunity against fungus-blights ; its fruit may occasionally
attain a weight of 4^ Ibs., and a girth of 22^ inches ; it has a
thick peel and delicious flavor ("Mildura-Cultivator," 4th October,
1890).
Citrus Limetta, Risso. The true Lime. The best lime-juice is
obtained from this variety, of which the Perette c institutes a
form. Less hardy than most other varieties. The Lime is one
of the best and most enduring hedge-plants for warmer countries
[H. A. Wickham].
Citrus Lumia, Risso. The Sweet Lemon, including the Pear-
Lemon, with large pear-shaped fruit. Rind thick and pale ;
pulp not acid. This variety serves for particular condiments.
A Tipperah-variety, known as " Sour Pomelloe," produces richly,
the fruits abounding in exceedingly acid juice [Bartlett]. West
Indian limes are particularly well produced in sub-tropic Eastern
Australia [J. S. Edgar].
Coal-oil proved the most effectual remedy in Florida to dislodge
scale from any parts of citrus-plants ; half a pint of oil is to be
mixed with sifted wood ashes, and then with 6 gallons of water,
this fluid to be syringed over the trees. Mr. Silberbauer recom-
mends a mixture of 1 ib. genuine whaleoil-soap in 5 gallons of water
for periodic syringing to subdue the Icerya. Capnodium citri is the
ordinary Black-smut of Citrus-trees.
Citrus Planchoni, F. v. Mueller. (O. Awtralis, Planchon, partly.)
Forests near ^the coasts of sub-tropic Eastern Australia. A noble
tree, fully 40 feet high, or according to C. Hartmann even 60 feet
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 131
high, with globular fruit about the size of walunts, called in Aus-
tralia Native OraDges. The species first appeared under the above
name in the " Report on the Vegetable Products of the Intercolonial
Exhibition of 1867." Its beautiful wood takes a high polish ; hence
it is made use of for the finest cabinet-work. Through regular culture
doubtless the fruit could be enlarged and improved.
Citrus trifoliata, Linn6. (Aegle sepiaria, De Candolle.)
Japan. Hardy in England, and occasionally fruiting there as well
as in Holland, and near Philadelphia. This shrub is much grown
for hedges in its native country and in China ; it is also reared as
stock for grafting on it the orange plant.
Cladrastis tinctoria, Rafinesque.
Eastern States of North- America. Yellow- wood. The wood of
this tree produces a saffron-yellow dye.
Clausena "Wampi, Oliver. (Cookia punctata, Sonnerat; C. Wampi, Blanco.)
South-Eastern Asia. A small very odorous tree. Fruit about the
size of a gooseberry, of balsamic fragrance, thus rather a condiment
than a table-esculent. The southern cultural limit is not yet in
reference to this plant ascertained ; but Mr. Fr. Turner notes, that it
fruits freely at Port Jackson. Likes a humid clime.
Clavaria botrytis, Persoon.
Europe. This and the following are species, admitted for sale
among Silesian mushrooms, according to Dr. Goeppert : C. brevipes
(Krombholz), C. flava, C. formosa, C. grisea (Persoon), C. muscoides
(L.) C. aurea (Schseffer), C. palmata (Scop.), C. crispa (Wulfen).
Morren mentions as much consumed in Belgium C. fastigiata (L.).
Bergner and Trog illustrate C. botrytis (Persoon). Several of these
extend naturally to Australia, where also various other species exist.
The following edible species occur also in Victoria: C. flava, Schaeff.,
C. botrytes, Pers., C. fastigiata, Linne, C. coralloides, Linne, C.
cinerea, Bull., C. cristata, Fries, C. vermicularis, Scop., C. pistillaris,
Linne. The puff-balls, comprising species of Bovista, Lycoperdon
and Scleroderma, are not specifically admitted as recommendable
culinary fungs into this work, as they are only convertible into food
when very young, and many become soon noxious. All Clavarias
seem adapted for human sustenance ; their growth should therefore
be encouraged.
Claytonia patens, F. v. Mueller. (Talinum patens, Willdenow.)
From Mexico to Argentina. A perennial succulent herb, which
might easily be naturalised on coast- and river-rocks. It furnishes
the "Puchero " vegetable.
K 2
132 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Claytonia perfoliata, Bonn.
From Mexico to California and Cuba. An annual succulent herb,
serving for salad and also spinage. The genus could be reduced to
Montia.
Claytonia polyandra, F. v. Mueller. (Calandrinia polyandra, Hooker.)
This succulent perennial herb is much liked by all kinds of pasture-
animals in sub-tropic Western Australia, and also consumed there by
the aboriginals ["Isaac Tyson].
Claytonia tuberosa, F. v. Mueller. (Calandrinia tuberosa, Bentham.)
Mexico, up to cold elevations. The root of this herb is edible,
and could probably be improved as an esculent by careful culture of
the plants.
Clinostigma Mooreanum, F. v. Mueller. (Kentia Mooreana, F. v. M.)
Dwarf -Palm of Lord Howe's Island, where it occurs only on the
summits of the mountains, at about 3,000 feet elevation. Likely to
prove one of the hardiest of all palms.
Coccinia Indica, Wight and Arnott. (Cephalandra Indica, Naudin.)
Southern Asia, extending to China and Silhet. Perennial thick-
rooted. The fruit is one of the commonest vegetables eaten by the
natives of India [Dr. G. Watt].
Coccoloba uvifera, Jacquin.
Central America, northward to Florida. A tree, attaining a large
size, fit for sandy sea-shores. Sir J. Lefroy noticed in Bermuda
stems 6 feet in girth. The dark blue sweet or acidulous berries are
edible, and attain a length of nearly an inch. A kind of. kino is
obtained from the bark ; the wood yields a red dye. Dr. Rosenthal
notes as likewise producing edible fruits : C. nivea (Jacq.), C.
pubescens (L.), C. excoriata (L.), C. flavescens (Jacq.), C. diversifolia
(Jacq.), C. Leoganensis (Jacq.) is also a coast-tree ; other species
belong to forest-regions of mountains. They are all natives of the
warmer zones of America.
Cochlearia Armoracia, Linne". (Nasturtium Armoracia, Fries.)
The Horse-radish. Middle Europe and Western Asia. Perennial.
In Norway grown to latitude 70 22' N. Requires rich soil ; best
propagated from truncheons. On some soils not easily eradicated:
The foliage can also be utilised culinarily. Within the tropics this
plant thrives best in shady localities. The volatile oil of the root
allied to that of mustard.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 133
Cochlearia officinalis, Linn6.
The Scurvy-cress. Shores of Middle and Northern Europe,
Northern Asia and North-America, also on saline places iulaud even
on the Pyrenees. A biennial herb, like the allied C. Angelica and
C. Danica (Linne), valuable as an antiscorbutic, hence deserving
naturalisation. It contains a peculiar volatile oil.
Cocos australis, Martius.
From Brazil to Uruguay and the La Plata-States. One of the
hardiest of all palms, hardier than even the Date-palm, withstanding
unprotected a cold, at which oranges and almonds are injured or
destroyed. It remained perfectly uninjured at Antibes at a tem-
perature of 15 F. [Naudin]. C. pityrophylla ascends the Andes to
7,800 feet (Count de Denterghem).
Cocos flexuosa, Martius.
Brazil, extending far south. This slender and rather tall decorative
Palm belongs to the dry Cactus-region with C. coronata, C. capitata,
Astrocaryum campestre, Diplothemium campestre and Acrocomia
sclerocarpa (Martius). It becomes a stately plant in a few years, and
produces seeds most freely. Cocos coronata withstood at Hyeres a
temperature of 22 F. [Bonnet].
Cocos plumosa, Loddiges.
South-Brazil. This splendid Feather-palm attains a height of
60 feet. It is one of the hardiest of all palms, requiring no protec-
tion at Port Phillip. Quick of growth and particularly handsome in
stature. Stem comparatively slender.
COCOS regia, Liebmann.
Mexico, up to 2,500 feet. A Palm of enormous height ; almost
sure to prove hardy in the mildest extra-tropic latitudes.
Cocos Romanzoffiana, Chamisso.
Extra-tropic Brazil. This noble palm attains a height of 40 feet.
Cocos Yatay, Martius.
Rio Grande do Sul, Uruguay and Argentina. Forms distinct
forests mainly with C. australis and C. Datil (Drude). The last
mentioned bears date-like fruits, according to Dr. Lorentz. The
kernels of the nuts of C. Yatay are edible. The leaves, like those
of many other palms, serve for the manufacture of hats. The
incomparably valuable strictly tropical Cocoanut-palm, Cocos nucifera
(Linne), has fruited at the verge of the tropic in Queensland at
Rockhampton under the care of Mr. J. S. Edgar.
134 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Coffea Arabica,
The Coffee-plant. Mountains of South- Western Abyssinnia,
extending as idigenous according to Welwitsch and Peters to
Mozambique and Guinea. A shrub or small tree. The cultivation
within extra-tropical boundaries can only be tried with any prospect
of success in the warmest and at the same time moistest regions,
frost being detrimental to the Coffee-plant ; it fruits however still
occasionally, though scantily, at Port Jackson, but gives good results
already in the northern part of New South Wales, the Mocha-variety
being best adapted for the more temperate regions [Turner]. In
Ceylon the coffee-regions are between 1,000 and 5,000 feet above
the ocean ; but Dr. Thwaites observes, that the plant succeeds best
at an elevation of from 3,000 to 4,500 feet, in places where there is
a rainfall of about 100 inches a year. The temperature there hardly
ever rises above 80 F., and almost never sinks below 45 F. Coffee
requires moist weather whilst it ripens its fruit, and a season of drier
weather to form its wood. Average-yield in Ceylon 4 to 5 cwt. per
acre. An extraordinarily prolific variety of Coffee was introduced 30
years ago by the writer of this work into Fiji, where it now forms
the main-plantations. The Coffee-plant has been found hardy as far
north as Florida. For many particulars see the papers of the
Planters' Association of Kandy. Chemical principles of Coffee :
caffein, a peculiar taunic acid and quinic acid. The importations of
Coffee into the United Kingdom in 1884 amounted . to 1,134,000
cwt. (almost one-quarter being for home consumption), valued at 3f
million pounds sterling. The import of Coffee into Great Britain
during 1886 was 1,006,165 cwt., valued at 3,295,028, about a
quarter of which came from British India. The loss sustained in
1878 alone by the ravages of parasitic fungus-growth on Coffee-
plants in Ceylon amounted to 2,000,000, the total loss since 1869
from this source reaching 15,000,000 [Abbay]. The destruction
of this Coffee-leaf fungus (Hemileia vastatrix) is to some extent
effected by applying flowers of sulphur, particularly in dewy weather,
and by dressing the ground with quicklime [Morris]. Still more
powerfully acts a weak solution of sulphate of copper mixed with
lime. Dr. Bruck recommends spraying with a weak solution of
sulphate of copper to which some sugar is added, to prevent its
crystallization on the leaves. He also uses an infusion of tobacco.
The unpruned plants are less subject to the Hemileia. Mr. J. Storck,
of Rewa, Fiji, found the vapours from a 5-10 per cent, aqueous
solution of carbolic acid to be an effectual remedy against the
Hemileia, the evaporation being effected from sheltered vessels placed
somewhat above the ground. Another fungus-disease is the leaf-rot
or Candelillo, caused by Pellicularia Koleroga (Cooke). The Coffee-
plant is also liable to suffer from the attacks of several insects,
viz. : Xylotrechus. quadrupes, called the borer, the bugs Lecanium
coffeas, L. nigrum, Pseudococcus acloniurn and the larvae of the moth
Agrotis segetum [Dr. G. Watt]. See also essay by Mr. T. Dyer in
Journal of Microsc. Soc., new series, vol. xx. The Coffee-plant
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 135
succeeds well even in the low regions of New Britain [R. Parkinson].
Southward Eastern sub-tropical Australia is still adapted for the
culture of this important plant. A new prolific variety has come
into use in Brazil, the " Maragogyne " [Christy]. In America,
Coffee-plantations have suffered not only from the attacks of an
erysiphoid fungus, but also the Cemiostoma-fly. Coffee-leaves have
recently come into use as a substitute for tea.
Coffea Liberica, Bull.
Guinea. The Liberian Coffee-plant, distinguished already by
Afzelius. According to Dr. Imray this species has shown immunity
from the Cemiostoma-fly, and it is less affected by the Hemileia-
mould. It grows to the size of a real tree, is a rich bearer, and the
berries are larger than those of the ordinary Coffee-bush but the
(useless) pulp is about twice as large in proportion to the seeds. The
fruit requires a longer time to ripen (a year), but this species can be
grown in hot tropical countries down to the coast [Lietze, Regel].
This species is highly ornamental in foliage and its flowers are
deliciously scented.
Coix Lachryma, Linn<$.
South-Asia, New Guinea, Polynesia. "Job's Tears." This plant
is cultivated for food by the eastern hill-tribes of India and supplies
a staple-article of diet to the Tankhul Nagas of Manipur ; it is also
grown in Burma. The form cultivated for food has an easily break-
able deeply furrowed shell, that of the wild plant being extremely
hard and shining. Seeds require long soaking before they are sown
[Dr. Watt]. The plant likes humidity ; it comes to perfection at
Port Phillip. C. tubulosa (Hackel) is a Papuan species.
Cola fl.ryiTmirm.tfl., Schott and Endlicher. (Sterculia, acuminata, Beauvois.)
Western Africa. A small or middle-sized tree, perhaps hardy like
many of the allied Sterculias, also outside the tropics in mild regions.
In Jamaica it is cultivated up to an elevation of 3,000 feet [W.
Fawcett]. It furnishes the famed Cola-seeds, already brought under
notice by Caspar Bauhin. They have highly stimulating properties,
reminding of those of Coca, and can be made into an agreeable
unfermented beverage, against the pernicious custom of indiscrimi-
nately treating with alcoholic liquids. Prof. E. Heckel, of Marseille,
converts the nuts as " Cola-paste " into an exceedingly concentrated
nutritious product [T. Christy]. Used now also for clearing beer
[Armstrong]. Medicinally recommended in cases of chronic diarrhoea
and of inebriety ; might be tried also in diabetes. The fruits of a
second species described by Professor Max. Cornu occur intermixed
with the ordinary kind in commerce.
136 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Colchicum autumnale, Linn6.
The Meadow-Saffron. Middle and Southern Europe, Western
Asia. The seeds and roots of this pretty bulbous-tuberous herb are
important for medicinal use. The plant has been introduced into
Australia by the writer with a view to its naturalisation on moist,
meadows in our ranges. Active principle : colchicin. The plant
proves hardy in Norway to lat. 67 56' [Schuebeler].
Colens Amboinicus, Loureiro.
Southern Asia. An aromatic condiment-herb.
Coleus tuberosus, A. Richard.
Tropical- Africa. A herb producing edible tubers, but fit only for
frostless regions. To this attention has been drawn by Vilmorin,
Dyer, and others as a promising kitchen-plant.
Collinsonia Canadensis, Linn6.
Eastern North- America. A perennial herb ; the root, known
vernacularly as " Stone-root," is of medicinal importance, particularly
as a sedative. A few other species occur in North-America.
Colocasia esculenta, Schott.* (C. antiquorum, Schott.)
The Taro. This celebrated plant extends from Egypt through
Southern Asia to the South-Sea Islands, and is also indigenous in
the warmer parts of East- Australia. One of the about half-hundred
kinds of leading food-plants of the world. The stem-like, tuberous,
starchy roots lose their poisonous acridity by processes of boiling,
roasting or baking. It is the Kolkas of the Arabs and Egyptians,
and one of their most esteemed and abundant vegetables. Immense
quantities are harvested and kept during the winter. A splendid
starch is obtainable from the tubers of this and the following
species. From the juice of the leaves an indelible dark-brown ink
can be prepared ; a black ink by the addition of copper or alum [Dr.
Porcher]. The plant proves hardy as far south as Melbourne, and is
also cultivated in New Zealand. The tops of the tubers are replanted
for a new crop. Taro requires a rich, moist soil, and would grow
well on banks of rivers. For scenic culture it is a very decorative
plant. Peronospora trichotoma (Massee) has caused vast destruction
on the crops of this tuber in the Antilles.
Colocasia Indica, Kunth. ( A locasia Indica, Schott.)
South-Asia, South-Sea Islands and Eastern Australia. Cultivated
for its stem and tubers on swamps or rivulets. This stately plant
will rise in favorable localities to a height of 12 feet, the edible
trunk attaining a considerable thickness, the leaves sometimes
measuring 3 feet in length. In using the stem and root for food,
great care is needed, to expel all acridity by some heating process.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 137
Colocasia odora and C. macrorrhiza are allied to this species.
Several "other aroid plants deserve attention for test-culture on
account of their edible roots, among them Cyrtosperma edule (See-
mann) from the Fiji-Islands.
Combretum butyracemn, Caruel.
The Butter-tree of Caffraria and other parts of South-Eastern
Africa. The Caffirs call the fatty substance obtained from this
tree Chiquito. It is largely used by them as an admixture to their
food, and is also exported. It contains about one-quarter olein and
three-quarters rnargarin. This butter-like fat is extracted from the
fruit, and is of an aromatic flavour. The tree should be hardy in the
warmer and milder parts of extra-tropical countries. The exact
systemic position of this tree remains still obscure.
Comptonia asplenifolia, Solander.
The Sweet -Fern of North- America. This dwarf shrub is perhaps
quite worthy of dissemination on sterile hills, as the foliage contains
nearly 10 per cent, of tannin ; an extract of the leaves has come into
the tanning trade. The plant is also not without medicinal value.
Condalia micro'Dliylla, Cavanilles.
The Piquillin. Chili and Argentina. A bush, yielding sweet,
edible, succulent fruit.
Conium maculatum, Linn6.
The Poison-Hemlock. Europe, Northern Africa, Northern and
Western Asia. A biennial herb, important for medicinal purposes.
It should however not be allowed to stray from its plantations, as it
is apt to be confounded with culinary species of Anthriscus,
Chserophyllum and Myrrhis, and may thus cause, as a most dangerous
plant, disastrous mistakes. Active principles : coniin in the fruit,
also conhydrin. The wild or naturalised plant best for therapeutic
use.
Conopodium deimdatum, Koch.
Western Europe. The small tuberous roots of this herb, when
boiled or roasted, are available for food, and known as Earth-
Chestnuts The plant is allied to Carum Bulbocastanum.
Conospermum Stcechadis, Endlicher.
West-Australia. The question has arisen, whether this shrub,
with C. triplinervium (R. Brown), ought to be introduced into any
desert-country. All kinds of pasture-animals browse with avidity on
the long, tender and downy flower-stalks and spikes, without touching
the foliage, thus not destroying the plant by close cropping.
138 .Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Convallaria majalis, Linn.
Europe, Northern and Middle Asia to Japan. The " Lily of the
Valley." Far famed as a lovely fragrant spring-plant, desirable
for naturalisation in any temperate forest-regions ; quite a trade-
plant for bouquet-sellers; reintroduced into medicine also latterly,
particularly in the treatment of cardial affections and dropsy. Both
root and flowers have also sternutatorian properties.
Convolvulus floridus, Linn6 fil.
Canary-Islands. A shrubby species, not climbing or winding.
With C. scoparius it yields the Atlantic Rosewood from stem and
root.
Convolvulus Scammonia, Linn6.
Mediterranean regions and Asia Minor. A perennial herb. The
purgative drug, Scammonia-resin, is obtained from the root, which
will grow to 2 feet in length. Plants readily raised from seeds. To
obtain the drug, a portion of the root is laid bare, and into incisions
made some shells are inserted, to collect the juice, which is daily
removed [Maw]. From Scanderoon in Syria in 1890 were exported
350,000 Ibs. dried roots and 3,500 Ibs. of the resin; the latter can be
extracted from the dried root by alcohol.
Copernicia cerifera, Martins.*
Brazil, extending into Bolivia and Argentina. This magnificent
Fan-palm has been proved to be hardy as far south as Sydney, by
Mr. Charles Moore. It resists drought in a remarkable degree, and
prospers also on a somewhat saline soil. The stem furnishes starch;
the sap yields sugar ; the fibres of the leaf-sheets are converted into
ropes, which resist decay in water; the leaves can be used for mats,
hats, baskets and brooms, and many other articles are prepared from
them. The inner part of the leaf-stalks serves as a substitute for
cork. This palm however is mainly valued for the Carnauba-wax,
with which its young leaves are coated, and which can be detached
by shaking. This is harder than bees' wax, and is used in the manu-
facture of candles. Each tree furnishes about 4 Ibs. annually. In
1862 no less than 2,500,000 Ibs. were imported into Great Britain,
realizing about 100,000.
Coprinus comatus, Fries.
Europe, Asia, South-Eastern Australia. Included by Dr. L.
Planchon among the Champignons for French kitchens. Other
species elsewhere are probably quite as good, but they all can only
be used for food in a very young state. More important are the
deliquiescent species of Coprinus, such as C. atramentarius, C. ovatus,
C. cylindraceus (Fries), for the preparation of a black water-colour
and also ink, both indelible [Wilson's Rural Cyclop.]; the black fluid
emitted needs the addition of some antiseptic to preserve it. Various
Coprini are also common in Victoria.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 139
Corchorus acutangulus, Lamarck.
Tropical Africa, South-Asia and North- Australia. This plant is
specially mentioned by some writers as a jute-plant. A particular
machine has been constructed by Mr. Le Franc, of New Orleans, for
separating the jute-fibre. With it a ton of fibre is produced in a'day
by four men's work. This apparatus can also be used for other fibre-
plants. The seeds of the Corchorus, which drop spontaneously, will
reproduce the crop.
Corchorus capsularis, Linn<$.*
From India to Japan; also in North- West Australia. Oue of the
principal jute-plants. An annual, attaining a height of about twelve
feet, when closely grown, with almost branchless stem. A nearly
allied but lower plant, Corchorus Cunninghami (F. v. Mueller), occurs
in tropical and sub-tropical Eastern Australia. Jute can be grown,
where cotton and rice ripen, be it even in localities comparatively
cold in the winter, if the summer's warmth is long and continuous.
The fibre is separated by steeping the full-grown plant in water from
five to eight days; it is largely used for rice, wool- and cotton-bags,
carpets and other similar textile fabrics and also for ropes. In 1884
Great Britain imported 5,111,000 cwt. of jute, valued at 3,600,000.
In 1883 the quantity amounted even to 7,372,000 cwt., of the value
of 4,520,000, and a large quantity is also sent to the United States.
In late years about 60,000 people have been employed in Indian
Jute-factories, the raw material for these being annually nearly three
million cwt. ["Journal of the Society of Arts/' July, 1893], Jute is
sown on good land, well ploughed and drained, but requires no irriga-
tion, although it likes humidity. The crop is obtained in the course of
four or five months, and is ripe when the flowers are replaced by fruit-
capsules. Good paper is made from the refuse of the fibre. JutG
has been found, like hemp, to protect cotton from caterpillars, when
planted around fields [Hon. T. Watts]. In India jute often alternates
with rice and sugar-cane; as a crop it requires damp soil. It does
not require drained land, according to Mr. C. B. Clarke. Unlike
cotton, it will bear a slight frost. Under favorable circumstances
2,000 to 7,000 Ibs. may be obtained from an acre, according to quality
of soil. It is best grown on temporarily flooded ground, as otherwise^
it proves an exhaustive crop. Two hundred million pounds of jute
were woven in 1876 in Dundee, and fifty million gunny-bags were
exported from Britain in one single year, according to S. Water-
house.
Corchorus olitorius, Linn4.*
South-Asia and North-Australia. Furnishes, with the foregoing
species, the principal supply of jute-fibre. As it also is an annual r
it can be brought to perfection in the summers of the warm temperate
zone. Can even be grown on mud-banks. It is cut or pulled before
much fruit has been formed. The average yield from an acre is
140 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
1,200 Ibs., though more than double may be got under particularly
favorable circumstances. The fibre is not so strong as hemp, but
very easily prepared. It will not endure long exposure to water.
The foliage can be used as spinage. The seeds will keep for several
years. The allied Corchorus trilocularis (Linne), of Indian origin,
is likewise wild in eastern tropical and sub-tropical Australia ; its
fibre may be used for ropes.
Cordyline Banksii, J. Hooker.
New Zealand. This lax- and long-leaved Palm-Lily attains a
height of 10 feet ; its stem is usually undivided. This and the
following species have been admitted into this list for a double
reason, not only because they are by far the hardiest, quickest
growing and largest of the genus, and thus most sought in horti-
cultural trade for scenic planting, but also because their leaves
furnish a fair fibre for textile purposes. The small seeds are pro-
duced in great abundance, and germinate with extreme readiness.
The same may be said of the three following species ; their seeds
can with the greatest ease be sent to the remotest distances. These
Palm-Lilies ought to be naturalised copiously in forest-ranges by
mere dissemination.
Cordyline Baueri, J. Hooker. (G. Australis, Endlicher non J. Hooker.)
Norfolk-Island. The stem of this stately species attains a height
of 40 feet, and becomes ramified in age. It is very intimately allied
to the following.
Cordyline indivisa, Kunth.
New Zealand. The stem of this thick- and rigid-leaved palm-like
species rises to a height of 20 feet, and remains undivided. Leaves
finally 5 inches broad ; yields the toi-fibre. Aged leaves persistent
in a perfectly downward position for many years. Panicle at first
erect. Berries white. Grows without protection in Arran [Capt.
Brown].
Cordyline SUperbiens, C. Koch. (O. Australis, J. Hooker non Endlicher).
New Zealand. The stem of this noble thin-leaved plant attains
a height of 40, exceptionally even 50 feet, according to Professor T.
Kirk ; the basal stem circumference sometimes 20 feet [Colenso] ;
it is branched. Aged leaves readily seceding ; berries blue. Hardy
at Torquay [W. Wood] Power's Court, Limerickj and in others of the
milder localities of South-England and Ireland, also in the Island of
Arran, where it grows luxuriously and flowers. If in excessively
severe winters the plant gets destroyed above ground, it will break
out again from the root [Rev. D. Landsborough]. Matured seeds at
Campbelltown, Argyllshire, in the open air also in Yorkshire. As
these tall Cordylines ripen seeds so copiously, the latter might easily
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 141
be strewn out for naturalising the plants in open places of sylvan,
valleys for scenic final effect. It will stand a minimum temperature
of 20 F. [Gorlie]. When cut down will spring again from the root.
They bend before the blast, but will not break, and are securely
anchored in the soil by perpendicular descending root-stocks [Th.
Waugh]. C. Sturmii (Th. Kirk) is an allied plant.
Cordyline terminalis, Kunth.
South-Asia. Polynesia, East-Australia. The Ti-plant. The
roots are edible, when roasted. The leaves like those of other
species, can be utilised for textile fibre. The splendid decorative
Cordy lines with red or variegated foliage belong to this species.
Coriandrum sativtim, Linn6.
Orient and Middle Asia. An annual or biennial herb, its fruits
much in use for condiments. The essential oil peculiar. Ripens
seeds in Norway to lat. 68 40' [Schuebeler]. The seeds will keep
for several years ; 20 Ibs. are sufficient for one acre, returning
10-14 cwt. [G. Don].
Cormis florida, Linn.
The Dog-wood of Eastern North- America. A showy tree, some-
times 30 feet high. The wood in great demand for shuttles,
handles, harrow-teeth, horse-collars and sledge-runners. The root-
bark is of therapeutic value. The tree is hardy still at Christiania
[Schuebeler].
Corrms macrophylla, Wallich.
Himalayas, China, Japan. A tree to 40 feet high, with very
spreading branches. Recommended by Uhei Zuzuki for street plant-
ing. To this species the North-Eastern American C. alternifolia
[Linne fil.] is closely allied.
Cornus mas, Linn.
Europe, also Asia quite to Japan. This deciduous shrub or small
tree is deserving of attention, as from the fruits a very palatable
preserve can be prepared [Freyn]. It answers also for hedge-
growth.
Cornus Nuttalli, Audubon.
North- Western America. This is the largest of the genus,
attaining a height of 80 feet, with a stem 2 feet in diameter. One
of the most showy of Californian forest-trees. The wood is hard
and close-grained, similar to that of Cornus florida. The natives
use the small twigs for making baskets [Gibbons]. In the spring
the white inflorescence is visible for miles ; in autumn again the
scarlet fruit-colouration becomes an ornament to the landscape [Prof.
Bolander],
142 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cortinarius cinnamomeus, Fries.
Europe and Asia. This mushroom, together with C. violaceus
(Fries), which is also indigenous in the colony of Victoria, is mentioned
among numerous congeners by Drs. Badham and Cooke as par-
ticularly eligible for the table. Dr. Planchon recommends also C.
turbinatus (Fries).
Corylus Americana, Walter.
Eastern North-America. Not tall ; easily naturalised by dis-
semination, but fruit small and hard-shelled [A. Gray].
Corylus Avellana, Linne*.*
Europe, Northern Africa, Northern and Middle Asia. The
ordinary Hazel, so well-known for its filberts or cob-nuts, one
variety yielding the Barcelona-nut. A tree attaining a height of
30 feet ; wood elastic, particularly valuable for gunpowder-coal,
young shoots serving for hoops and walking sticks. The earliest
flowering tree in northern countries. Suitable for naturalisation
along brooks. London's account also of this tree is extensive and
excellent. Chambers says, that generally about 100,000 worth of
hazel-nuts are annually imported into Britain. About the same
quantity goes to Germany. Hazel-oil is superior to almost any other
for the table. An illustrated volume has (1887) been devoted by
F. Goeschke to the " Hazel-nuts " in its various kinds. By merely
scattering fresh nuts along forest rivulets the plant might be
naturalised.
Corylus Colurna, Linne*.* (C. Byzantina, 1'Ecluse.)
From Hungary to Greece and the Himalayas, there at from 5,500
to 10,000 feet elevation. The Constantinople-Nuttree, the tallest
of hazels, attaining 60 feet in height, of rather quick growth. Of
late especially recommended as a shady avenue tree. Nuts much
pressed for oil [Dr. K. Mueller], Hardy at Christiania in Norway
[Schuebeler] . This, as well as the Nepal-Hazel (Corylus ferox,
Wallich) and the Japan Hazel (C. heterophylla, Fischer) might be
naturalised in forest-gullies for their filberts.
Corylus maxima, Miller.* (<7. rubra, Borkhausen; C. tubulosa, Willdenow;
C. Lambertii, Loddiges).
Recorded as indigenous to Hungary and Istria by A. de Candolle,
who however places the species nearer to C. Americana. Prof.
C. Koch thinks that it may have sprung from C. Avellana. It yields
the red filbert or Lambert-nut.
Corylus Pontica, C. Koch.*
Caucasus. Taller than C. maxima. Fruit similar to the Barce-
lona-nut ; much consumed in Constantinople [C. Koch] ; called also
Pontinian nut.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 143
Corylus rostrata, Alton.
North-America, both east and west. Never tall. Nut small, but
kernel sweet. C. Mandschurica (Maximo wicz), from the Amur-
region, is a closely allied species or perhaps only a variety.
Corynocarpus Isevigata, Forster.
The Karaka of New Zealand, also the principal forest-tree of the
Chatham-Islands, attaining a height of 60 feet. The wood is light,
and used by the natives for canoes. The pulp of the fruit is edible.
Cattle browse on the foliage. In rich irrigated soil the tree can be
adopted for very shady avenues.
Corynosicyos edulis. (Cladosicyos edulis, J. Hooker.)
Guinea. An annual cucumber-like plant, with edible fruits about
1 foot long and 3 inches in diameter. Referred recently by Cogniaux
to the genus Cucumeropsis.
Cotoneaster bacillaris, Wallich.
Uplands and highlands of India. Finally a small tree. This is
declared to be the best there for walking-sticks, especially alp-sticks.
Crambe cordifolia, Steven.
From Persia and the Caucasus to Thibet and the Himalayas, up
to 14,000 feet. The root and foliage of this Kale afford an esculent.
Flower-stems reaching 10 feet in height ; the long-stalked leaves
may measure more than 2 feet in width. The root bears severe frost
[Grorlie]. C. Kotschyana (Boissier) is an allied plant.
Crambe maritima, Linne.
Sea-Kale. Sandy coasts of Europe and North- Africa, in Norway
to nearly 60 N. A perennial herb ; the young shoots used as a
wholesome and agreeable vegetable. Should be naturalised, parti-
cularly on humid tracks of country, even for pastoral purposes.
Crambe Tataria, Wulfen.
From Eastern Europe to Middle Asia. Perennial. Leaves like-
wise used for culinary purposes. According to Simmonds the large
fleshy roots also form an esculent. Can be grown still at Christiania.
CratsegUS sestivalis, Torrey and Gray.
The Apple-Haw. South-Eastern States of North- America. The
small juicy fruit of an agreeable acid taste.
Cratsegus apiifolia, Michaux.
Eastern North- America. Highly serviceable for hedges.
144 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cratsegus Azarolus, Linn.
Welsh Medlar. South-Eastern Europe and South-Western Asia.
Hardy still in Christiania, Norway [Schuebeler]. The pleasantly
acidulous fruits can be used for preserves.
atsegus coccinea, LinniS.
Eastern North- America, there called White Thorn. A valuable
hedge-plant ; also very handsome. Spines strong. It braves the
winters of Norway as far north as lat. 67 56' [Schuebeler].
Cratsegus cordata, Solander and Alton.
South-Eastern States of North- America. Also much employed
for hedges.
Cratsegus crus galli, Linn.
The Cockspur-Thorn. Eastern North-America. Regarded as
one of the best species for hedges. Spines long and stout. Hardy
to lat. 63 26' [Schuebeler]. Fruit edible.
Cratsegus Mexicana, Mocino and Sesse. (Mespilus Mexicana, C. Koch.)
A shrub, hardy in England. The fruit is of about 1 inch size and
edible.
Cratsegus oxyacantha, Linn.
The ordinary Hawthorn or White Thorn or Quick. Europe,
North-Africa, North- and West-Asia. In Norway it grows to lat.
67 56' ; Professor Schuebeler found the plant to gain still a height
of 20 feet in lat. 63 35'. Recorded here as one of the most eligible
among deciduous hedge-plants, safe against pastoral animals. The
wood is considered one of the best substitutes for boxwood by
engravers. The flowers are much frequented by bees for honey.
C. monogyna (Jacquin) is a variety.
Cratsegus parvifolia, Solander and Aiton.
Eastern North- America. For dwarf hedges. Spines long, slender,
sharp and numerous.
Cratsegus pyracantha, Medicus.
The Fire-Thorn. Southern Europe, South-Western Asia. This
species is evergreen. It is likewise adapted for hedges, though
slower in growth than the Hawthorn, but altogether not difficult to
rear. Hardy in Norway to lat. 59 55' [Schuebeler]. Referred by
Boissier to Cotoneaster. The allied C. crenulata (Roxburgh), the
Himalayan White Thorn, is a large spinescent shrub, ascending there
to an elevation of 8,000 feet.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 145
Cratsegus tomentosa, Linn&
South-Eastern States of North- America. Reaching a height of
20 feet. Fruit edible. The list of American Hawthorns is probably
not yet exhausted by the species mentioned ; all afford honey. Two
species, C. rivularis (Nuttall) and C. Douglasii (Lindley), occur in
California and Oregon.
Crepis biennis,
Europe, Western-Asia. Bosc regards this plant as useful for
winter-pastures in cool climes, it keeping well green. The flowers
afford food for bees.
Crithmum maritimum,
The real Samphire. Sea-shores of Western and Southern Europe,
North-Africa and the Orient. A perennial herb. Settlers on the
coast might readily disseminate and naturalise it. It is held to be
one of the best plants for pickles, the young leaves being selected for
that purpose.
Crocus sativus, C. Bauhin.
The Dye-Saffron. South-Eastern Europe and the Orient. The
stigmata of this particular Crocus constitute the costly dye-substance.
The best is collected from the flowers as they daily open in succes-
sion. The plant yields its product for three or four years. Spain
produces annually from 200,000 to 300,000 Ibs. of Saffron. To
produce a well-scented Saffron rich in dye the culture should be in a
very mild clime, not very wet and on deep permeable soil. For the
colouration of some kinds of eatables and table-liquids indispensable ;
also of particular medicinal value. Price at the collecting places
about 2 per pound. The article is often largely adulterated before
it is put on the market [Queenslander]. At an early stage of colo-
nization it would not be profitable to grow saffron commercially; but
as the plant is well adapted for many extra-tropical countries or for
high elevations within the tropics, it might be planted out into
various unoccupied mountain-localities with a final view to naturalise
it, and to thus render it available from native sources at a later
period. It has additional claims on account of its prettiness. Noted
as a bee-plant even by the ancients [Muenter], In Norway it is
grown as far north as lat. 67 56'. Likes calcareous light soil. C.
Pallasii (Bieberstein) is a variety.
Crocus serotinus, Salisbury. (C. odorus, Bivona.)
South-Europe. This species also produces saffron rich in pigment,
so do C. Nevadensis (Amo and Campo) in Spain at 6,000 feet, also
in Algeria, Tunis and Morocco ; C. Fleischeri (J. Gay) in Asia
Minor ; C. hiemalis (Boissier and Blanche) in Palestine and Syria ;
C. vitellinus (Wahlenberg) in Syria. Palestine, Taurus [C. Sprenger],
146 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
C. Alatavicus (Regel) is the first of the winter-flowering species
[Backhouse]. The bulbs of several are edible. See also Maw's
splendid work, specially devoted to this genus.
Crotalaria Burhia, Hamilton.
Beloochistan, Afghanistan, Scinde. This perennial herb grows in
arid places, and like the following yields Sunn-fibre.
Crotalaria juncea, Linn.*
The Sunn-Hemp. Indigenous to Southern Asia and also widely
dispersed through tropical Australia. An annual herb, rising under
favorable circumstances to a height of 10 feet. In the colony of
Victoria, Sunn can only be cvltivated in the warmest and moistest
localities. It comes to maturity in four or fi>e months. The plant
can also be grown as a fodder herb for cattle. It requires rich,
friable soil. Not an exhaustive crop. If a superior soft fibre is
desired, the plant is pulled while in flower ; if strength is the object
the plant is left standing until it has almost ripened its seeds. The
steeping process occupies about three days. For the purpose of
obtaining branchless stems it is sown closely. The fibre is employed
for canvas, sacking, ropes and cordage. Average yield 650 Ibs. per
acre. Cultivated in the Circars, according to Roxburgh, to feed
milch-cows.
Crotalaria retusa, Linn6.
Asia, America, and Australia within and near the tropics. A.
perennial herb. Its fibre resembles that of C. juncea, and is chiefly
used for ropes and canvas. Others of the multitudinous species of
Crotalaria deserve to be tested for their fibres.
Croton lacciferus, Linn.
Ceylon, up to 3,000 feet. Valuable for the warmer forest-regions
of temperate climes, on account of its peculiar exuding lac-resin.
Croton Tiglium, Linn.
Insular and Continental India, extending to China. A small tree.
The very powerful purgative Croton-oil is expressed from the seeds.
The plant bears prolifically in the northern part of N.S.W.
Crozophora tinctoria, Necker.
South-Europe, North- Africa and the Orient. An annual herb.
The turnsole-dye is prepared by exposing the juice to the air, or by
treating it with ammonia.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 147
Cryptomeria Japonica, D. Don.*
The Sugi or Japanese Cedar. Japan and Northern China. The
largest tree in Japan, the trunk attaining 35 feet in circumference
[Rein] and 120 feet in height, rising occasionally even to 200 feet.
Stem long, clear, of perfect straightness ; the plant is also grown for
hedges ; in Japan it yields the most esteemed timber, scented like
that of Cedrela [Christie]. It requires forest- valleys for successful
growth. The wood is durable, compact, soft and easy to work ; more
extensively utilised in Japan than any other. In the Azores the tree
is preferred even to the Pinus Halepensis for timber-culture, on account
of its still more rapid growth in that insular climate. Several garden
varieties exist. Lives unprotected still at Christiania. Withstands
gales. The variety compacta bears the severest winter-cold in Lower
Germany [C. H. Koehler].
Cryptotaenia Canadensis, Be Candolle.
Eastern North- America, also Japan. A perennial Pimpinella-like
herb, the root of which affords a good kitchen vegetable.
Cucumis Anguria, Linne.
Wild in tropical America, but according to Sir Jos. Hooker and
Prof. Naudin perhaps of African origin, all other species belonging
to the eastern hemisphere. Annual. The fruit serves for pickles.
Cucumis cicatrisatus, Stocks.
Scinde, where it is called " Wungee." The edible ovate fruit is
about 6 inches long. Deemed a wild form of C. Melo by Cogniaux.
Cucumis Citrullus, Springe.* (CUrullus vulgaris, Schrader.)
Indigenous probably only in Eastern- Africa. The water-melon-plant.
It is simply mentioned here, to indicate the desirability of naturalis-
ing it in any desert. In those of South-Africa it has become spon-
taneously established, and retained the characters of the cultivated
fruit. The yield is much increased by irrigation; fruits up to 70 Ibs.
were obtained on the Murray-River [ClarsonJ. Near the BellendenKer
Ranges in Northern Queensland water-melons (of the variety with
white seeds black- tipped, introduced by the writer) were raised
weighing nearly 30 Ibs., the pulp being very red and exquisitely sweet
[Mrs. Gribble]. Under irrigation at Delhi fruits over 200 Ibs. have
been obtained [Koenigj. Vilmorin found that the seeds will keep
fully six years.
Cucumis Colocynthis, Linne. (Citrullus Colocynthis, Schrader.)
From the Mediterranean regions to India. An annual or perhaps
also perennial herb. The medicinal extract of colocynth is prepared
from the small gourd of this species. Active principle: colocynthin.
Botanically allied to C. Citrullus.
L 2
148 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cucumis hirsutus, Sender.
From Mozambique to Natal. A perennial plant, from which
perhaps a new race of Melon-like fruits may yet be derived, as the
berries, although small in the wild state, are according to Zeyher
acidulous and edible. Sir Joseph Hooker draws attention to the
great affinity of C. dipsacus (Ehrenberg) indigenous in tropical
Africa, to the cultivated Melon-plant.
Cucumis Melo, Linn6.*
The Melon-plant. Originally from the country about the Caspian
Sea, but some forms indigenous to India, northern and tropical Africa
and tropical Australia, if really all the forms united by Cogniaux are
con-specific. The best varieties might also be naturalised in sand-
deserts, particularly in places where some moisture collects. Melons
are marvellously prolific on the floating islands of some of the Asiatic
lakes. According to Mr. Clarson, Rock- and Green-Melons of 40 Ibs.
weight are obtained on the irrigated lands at Mildura, Murray-River.
In seasons of drought the Muscat-Melon, introduced by the author
into Central Australia, has borne fruit there more amply than any
other variety. Yilmorin kept seeds for more than ten years germin-
able. Some of the Bokhara-varieties are remarkably luscious and large.
Through artificial pollination the yield of melon-culture becomes con-
siderably increased. Apparently remunerative results have .been
gained in Belgium from experiments, to cultivate melons for sugar and
treacle. The seeds thus obtained in quantity become available for
oil-pressing. The root contains melonemetin. The Japanese C.
Conomon (Thunberg) belongs to this species. Prof. Naudin investi-
gated extensively the variability of this and allied plants. Some
varieties of melons and pumpkins ripen in Scandinavia during the
long warm days of the almost nightless summer there in the open air
far north ; all are annual.
Cucumis Momordica, Roxburgh.
Cultivated in India. It produces cucumbers 2 feet long, bursting
slowly when ripe into several divisions. Young, the fruit is used like
cucumbers, older like melons. Referred by Cogniaux to the varieties
of C. Melo.
Cucumis sativus, Linne.*
The Cucumber-plant. North- Western India. Cultivated in
Hungary already before historic ages [De Candolle]. Indicated
here merely for completeness sake, also because gherkin-pickling
ought to become a more extended local industry. Dr. G. King
brought under notice and Indian culture the Chinese Cucumber
" Solly-Qua," which attains a length of 7 feet. It must be trained
on walls or trellises, to afford to the fruit sufficient scope for suspen-
sion. A climbing variety is also cultivated in Japan ; its fruit is
large, always free from bitter taste, richly produced and when ripe
orange-coloured outside [F. Thiel]. It has in so far an advantage
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 149
over the usual prostrate varieties that it does not suffer in wet and
cool seasons and that it has a longer period of bearing [H. Wulls].
It is less tender in culture than the ordinary cucumber, bears
abundantly, is of excellent taste, softer consistence, but may perhaps
degenerate in culture [Gartenflora 1893]. A closely allied variety
occurs in Sikkim and Nepal up to 5,000 feet, where it is extensively
used for food. Sir Joseph Hooker suggests that the African C.
metuliferus (E. Meyer) may be the wild original state of our cucum-
ber-plant. For definitions of numerous varieties of Melons, Cucum-
bers and Gourds, as well as for full notes on their cultivation, see,
irrespective of other references, G. Don's Dichlamydeous Plants III,
1-42. Seeds will retain their vitality for ten years or more
[Vilmorin]. Cucumbers and gherkins are most richly produced
under irrigation. Cucumber-leaves are used in Africa for spinage
[Paul Reichard].
Cucurbita maxima, Duchesne.
Large Gourd or Pompion-plant. Indigenous in South- Western
America. Yields some sorts of pumpkins. Instances are on record
of fruits having weighed over 2 cwt. Mr. J. P. Eckert reared in the
Wimmera-district fruits up to 52 Ibs. weight of superior taste and
good keeping quality. This species also is eligible amongst other
purposes for naturalisation in hot desert-regions. The fruit serves for
calabashes like that of Lagenaria vulgaris. The seeds will keep
about six years. Professor Wittmack obtained seeds from ancient
graves at Ancon.
Cucurbita Melopepo, Linne".*
The Squash-plant. May be regarded as a variety of C. Pepo. It
will endure storage for months. Wonderfully productive under
irrigation.
Cucurbita moschata, Duchesne.
The Musky Gourd. Warmer parts of America, where it was
much grown among Maize, prior to the advent of the Europeans
[Wittmack]. The principal species grown in Japan, the fruit
occasionally dried there [C. Sprenger]. A variety much cultivated
in Italy, produces fruit so large as occasionally to weigh 40 Ibs.
[Vilmorin].
Cucurbita Pepo, Linne".*
The Pumpkin and Vegetable Marrow, as well as the Succade-
Gourd. Both- Americas, as far north as Lake Huron, existing before
Europeans came there [A. Gray and H. Trumbull]. This or an
allied species was in 1539 found in culture by Soto, on his arrival at
the Mississippi, according to Professor Wittmack, who also obtained
Pumpkin-seeds at Ancon from graves formed prior to the Spanish
conquest. Its naturalisation in hot deserts would be a boon. The
150 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
seeds on pressure yield a fixed oil ; they are also anthelmintic. Most
of the ornamental gourds are varieties of this species. This, with
many other Cucurbitacese, yields much honey for bees. Pfister
recommends the variety with large yellow fruit particularly for mar-
malade. Professor R. A. Philippi and Johow mention the variety
C. mammeata (Molina) the " Zapallo " of the present inhabitants of
Chili and Peru, the "Penca" of the primeval autochthones as the
best of Pumpkins on account of the solidity and sweetness of its
fruits. The fruit of the perennial C. ficifolia (Bouche) is hardly
edible. Professor Naudin after long and careful study admits as
economic species only C. Pepo, C. moschata and C. maxima.
Cudrania Javanensis, Trecul. (Cudranus Amboinensis, Rumph.)
East-Australia, Southern and Eastern Asia to Japan, East-Africa.
This climbing thorny shrub can be utilised for hedges. Fruit edible,
of a pleasant taste ; the root furnishes a yellow dye.
Cudrania triloba, Hance.
China. The leaves of this shrub serve as food for silkworms
according to Mr. F. B. Forbes.
Cuminum Cyminurn, Linn.
North- Africa. The fruits of this annual herb are known as Cumin,
and used for certain condiments, as also in medicine. Cuminum
Hispanicum (Merat) is similar. Essential oil peculiar.
Cunonia Capensis, Linn6.
The Red Els of South-Africa. Occupies the upper edge of all
mountain-forests in Kaffraria, making a spreading tree 50 feet high
and 3 feet stem-diameter. Supplies a very pretty red wood used in
furniture and by waggon-makers [T. R. Sim~|.
Cupania sapida, Voigt. (Blighia, sapida, Koenig.)
The " Akee." Western tropical Africa. A tree, to 30 feet high,
if not sometimes higher. Flowers so fragrant as to be worth dis-
tilling. Succulent portion of the fruit eatable, improved by frying.
This Cupania may endure slight frost as some of its congeners. In
Jamaica it is cultivated only up to an elevation of 3,000 feet
[Fawcett]. Schumacher and Thonning gave, simultaneously with
Cambessedes' designation, the name C. edulis to this species.
Cupressus Benthami, Endlicher.
Mexico, at elevations from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. A beautiful tree,
reaching 60 feet in height. The wood is fine-grained and exceedingly
durable. Rate of growth at Port Phillip as much as 30 feet in height
within 15 years. Professor C. Koch deems it identical with C.
thurifera.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 151
Cupressus fragrans, Kellogg.
The Californian Ginger-Pine or Oregon-Cedar. A tree, reaching
150 feet in height, with a clear trunk for 70 feet and a stem-diameter
to 6 feet. Wood abounding in aromatic oil [J. Hoopes].
Cupressus funebris, Endlicher.
Thibet. The Weeping Cypress. Attains a height of 90 feet.
One of the most eligible trees for cemeteries ; can be grown from the
lowlands of India to 7,000 feet or even higher.
Cupressus glauca, Lamarck.
The Cedar of G-oa. It attains a height of 50 feet. Regarded as
a state of the Himalayan C. torulosa (D. Don) by Sir Jos. Hooker,
Oliver, Henriques and Wilkomm.
Cupressus Guadaloupensis, S. Watson.*
Guadaloupe-Island, California. A widely spreading or drooping
tree ; stem diameter to 5 feet [Palmer]. This has grown with
extraordinary quickness in the lower mountains of Gippsland [H.
Kjergaard].
Cupressus Lawsoniana, Murray. (Chamcecyparis Lawsoniana, Parlatore.)
California and Oregon. This splendid red-flowered Cypress grows
to 150 feet in height, with a stem to 6 feet in diameter, and furnishes
a valuable timber for building purposes, fragrant, clear, solid, easily
worked, free from knots, elastic and very durable [Sargent] ; it is
however to be avoided for cabinet-work on account of the soft and
colouring resin permeating it [Dr. Kellogg]. Hardy to lat. 60 15'
in Norway [Schuebeler]. Lately adopted among coniferous trees
from abroad on a large scale for the Prussian forests. Adapts itself
easily to varied soil [Schwappach].
Cupressus Lindleyi, Klotzsch.
On the mountains of Mexico. A stately Cypress, reaching a
height of 120 feet. It supplies an excellent timber. Prof. C. Koch
points out the very close affinity of this species to C. thurifera and
restores its older name C. Coulteri (Forbes), suggesting that this
Cypress may be derived from C. pendula (L'Heritier), which so long
was termed inaptly C. Lusitanica.
Cupressus macrocarpa, Hartweg.* (C. Lambertiana, Gordon.)
California, from Monterey to Noyo, in the granite- as well as
sandstone-formation ; sometimes in Sphagnum-moors. This beauti-
ful and shady tree attains to a height of 150 feet, with a stem of
9 feet in circumference, and is one of the quickest growing of all
conifers, even in poor dry soil. Dpes well also on limestone-soil
152 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
[Dr. H. Bennet]. One of the best shelter-tree's on sea-sands,
naturally following the coast-line, never extending many miles from
the shore, and occurring in localities, where the temperature does
not rise above 80 F., nor sink below the freezing point [Bolander];
nevertheless it proved even hardy in Christiania. Can be trimmed
into hedges for tall enclosure-lines. Wood remarkably scented.
Richer in its yields of tar than the Scotch Fir, according to American
' writers. Not to be planted on places, where stagnant humidity
exists underground, nor where the soil is but little penetrable. Its
nativity singularly limited.
Cupressus Nutkaensis, Lambert. (Chamcecyparis Nutkaensis, Spach ;
Thuya excelsa, Bongard.)
The Yellow Cedar or Cypress of Alaska and the neighbouring
states. Height of tree reaches 100 feet. Timber soft, pale, clear,
durable, tough and close, also scented ; worked with ease ; used for
boat-building and many other purposes ; the bast for mats and ropes.
. Can be trimmed for hedge-growth. The Cypresses of the sections
ChaniEecyparis and Retinospora are regarded by Sir Joseph Hooker
and Mr. George Bentham as species of Thuya. Prof. C. Koch
placed them, as did previously the author of this work, in the genus
Cupressus.
CupresSUS obtusa, F. v. Mueller. (Retinospora obtusa, Siebold and
Zuccarini. )
The Hinoki of Japan. Attains a maximum-height of 150 feet ;
stem to 5 feet in diameter ; a tree of longevity. It forms a great
part of the forests at Nipon. Growing naturally between 1,200 and
4,200 feet elevation on the transition of the compact alluvial clays
to eruptive granite [Dupont]. The bark is used for thatching, also
for cordage and tow. The wood is pale-streaked and compact,
assuming when planed a silky lustre. According to Mr. Christie, it
is durable, close-grained and easily worked. It is selected in Japan
for temples, further also much in use for boat-building, as it very long
resists decay in water, also for railway-sleepers and various under-
ground-work. There are varieties of this species with foliage of a
golden and of a silvery-white hue. Hardy at New York, even in
exposed localities. One of the finest of evergreen trees for the
vicinity of dwellings. It resembles C. Lawsoniana, but excels it ; it
is also hardier and of more rapid growth [Rev. H. W. Beecher].
Easily multiplied from layers of the lower branches.
Two other Japanese Cypresses deserve introduction namely
C. breviramea (Chamascyparis breviramea, Maximowicz) and C.
pendens (ChamaBcyparis pendula, Maximowicz).
OupresSUS pisifera, F. v. Mueller. (Chamcecyparis pisifera, Siebold and
Zuccarini. )
The Savara of Japan. It attains a maximum height of over 100
feet. Stem occasionally 5 feet in diameter. Very hardy like the
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 153
foregoing, bearing the frosts of Norway quite to lat. 59 55' [Schue-
beler]: stood exceptionally severe winter-cold also in Germany
quite well [H. Koehler] ; of beautiful aspect and quick growth.
There is also a variety with golden-yellow foliage. Less esteemed
than C. obtusa ; grows in about the same localities, but is content
with poorer soil, and bears more heat [Dupont]. Prefers valleys
for its location [Prof. Luerssen]. Wood principally used by coopers.
This and the foregoing species were in 1871 referred to the genus
Cupressus in an early edition of the present work.
Cupressus sempervirens, Linn.
The Common Cypress. South- Europe and South- Western Asia,
on Mount Lebanon up to 5,000 feet. It is famous for the great age
it attains, and for the durability of its timber, which is next to
imperishable. Likes limestone-soil particularly. Doors from this
wood in St. Paul's Church in Rome have lasted over 600 years. Its
two forms namely C. pyramidalis (Targioni) and C. horizontalis
(Miller) widely differ under culture. The tree attains in warm
countries occasionally a height of 100 feet and a stem-girth of 9 feet.
Hardy in England. Near Somma a cypress is still shown, which
so it is said was renowned already at Caesar's time on account of its
great size. The wood is prized for trunks and boxes, as rendering
the contents proof against most kinds of insects [Sir D. BrandisJ.
At present its wood is much sought for the manufacture of musical
instruments. Young records the stem-circumference of a Cypress at
Lago Maggiore at 54 feet, and this was known even 600 years ago
as a venerable tree, thus far one of the few most favoured trees in
the whole creation.
Cupressus thurifera, Humboldt, Bonpland and Kunth.
Mexican White-Cedar ; 3,000 to 4,500 feet above sea-level. A
handsome pyramidal tree, upwards of 40 feet high. See C. Ben-
thami.
Cupressus thuyoides, Linn. (Chamcecyparis sphceroidea, Spach ; Thuya
sphceroidalis, Cl. Richard.)
White Cedar of North- America ; in moist and swampy ground.
Height of tree reaching 80 feet ; diameter of stem 3 feet. Of com-
paratively quick growth ; endures shade well [B. E. Fernow]. The
wood is reddish, light, clear, easy to split, soft and fragrant ; it turns
red when exposed to the air. Extensively used for a great variety of
purposes for boat-building, cooperage, railway-ties, particularly also
shingles ; it is fine-grained and easily worked. Mohr says, that the
wood, when well seasoned, offers the finest material for hollow-ware.
For furniture, it admits of a high finish and has a pleasing hue. The
old wood resists the successions of dryness and moisture better than
any other American Cypress hitherto tried. Circumferential rate of
stem-growth in Nebraska 22 inches at 2 feet from the ground in 12
years [Furnas].
154 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cupressus torulosa, D. Don.
Nepal-Cypress. Northern India ; 4,500 to 8,000 feet above the
sea-level. Average ordinary height 40 feet, but much larger dimen-
sions are on record ; thus Dr. Stewart and Major Madden mention
a tree 150 feet in height, and 17 feet in stem-girth. The reddish
fragrant wood is as durable as that of the Deodar-Cedar, and highly
valued for furniture. The tree prefers limestone soil. Splendid for
wind-breaks and tall hedges. Sir D. Brandis thinks, that it may
attain an age of 1,000 years. See C. glauca.
Curcuma longa, Linne".
"Turmeric." Tropical Asia. The clime of some regions of
Japan proved warm enough for rearing this plant, which for
ornament's sake alone deserves attention. Hardy at Moreton-Bay
[Fr. Turner]. Turmeric is an ingredient of curry-powder, and is
also used for tingeing chemical test-paper; it consists of the pounded
root. It is exported to the value of 100,000 annually from India.
Curtisia faginea, Aiton.
South-Africa. A tree, attaining 40 feet in height. The wood is
heavy, tough and durable ; the Caffirs use it for their assegais. It
answers well for superior furniture, tools, and is not surpassed there
by any other wood for the construction of waggons, to be used in a
hot and dry country. (See "Indian Forester," 1885.)
Cyamopsis psoraloides, De Candolle.
Southern Asia. The " Guar." This annual is mentioned by Dr.
Forbes Watson among the plants, which furnish throughout the year
table-beans to a portion of the population of India. The plant is
however more important as a good cattle-fodder [Dr. Watt].
Cyathea medullaiis, Swartz.
Malayan Archipelagos, Islands in. the South-Pacific Ocean, South-
Eastern Australia and New Zealand, there to 47. Admitted into
this work, as an extensive export exists in root-stems of tree-ferns,
this species being one of the most hardy.
Cycas Normanbyana, F. v. Mueller.
A noble Queensland-species, deserving introduction, and capable
of being shipped to long distances in an upgrown state without
emballage. Tall stems of Cycas media, brought to conservatories
abroad, after eight years' dormancy sprouted into foliage [J. C.
Schmidt].
Cycas revoluta. Thunberg.
The Japan Pine-Palm. The trunk attains in age a height of
about 6 feet, and is rich in sago-like starch. The slow growth of
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 155
this plant renders it only valuable for scenic decorative culture ;
it endures the climate of Melbourne without protection. Cycas
media (R. Br.) may also prove hardy, and would be a noble
horticultural acquisition, as it is the most gigantic of all Cycadeas,
attaining a height of 70 feet in tropical .East-Australia. C. Siamensis
(Miquel) will endure a temperature occasionally as low as the freez-
ing paint. Like the Zamia-stems, the trunks of any Cycas admit of
translocation, even at an advanced age ; and like the stems of many
kinds of tree-ferns, they can be shipped on very long voyages packed
as dead goods in closed wood-cases, deprived of leaves and soil, for
subsequent revival in conservatories, as shown many years ago by
the writer of this work. The Macrozamias can be associated with
the hardier palms in gardens, M. spiralis advancing naturally south-
ward to the 37th degree. One genuine Zamia occurs as indigenous
in Florida, several in Mexico are extra-tropical, while Z. Chiqua
(Seemann), or a closely allied species, ascends to 7,000 feet in
Central- America. The genuine species of Encephalartos, all from
South-Africa, also endure the night-frosts of Melbourne perfectly
well.
Cymopterus glomeratus, De Candolle.
North-America, in the Missouri-region. Root edibile [Dr.
Rosenthal].
Cynara Cardunculus,
The Cardoon. At the Mediterranean Sea, extending to the
Canary-Islands. A perennial herb. The bleached leaf-stalks serve
as esculents. The foliage employed also as a substitute for rennet.
This as well as the following will come to perfection in Norway to
lat. 63 52' [Schuebele]. Readily raised from seeds. The root also
edible [Vilinorin].
Cynara Scolymus,
The Artichoke. South-Europe and North-Africa. The recep-
tacles and the base of the flower-scales well known as a vegetable.
The plant is perennial, and here chiefly mentioned as entitled to
extended culture, grouped with other stately plants. Several
other species are worthy of cultivation. In Italy Artichokes are
much grown under olive-trees, to utilise spare-ground. The plant
is greatly benefited in cultivation by a dressing with sea-weed or
any other manure containing sea-salt [G-. W. Johnson]. The
leaves serve instead of rennet. Seeds will keep for several ^ years.
To preserve good varieties, sprouts are replanted, from which all
the buds except two or three of the strongest are removed. ^ Low-
lying ground and somewhat peaty soil can be utilised for this plant
[Vilmorin].
156 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cynodon Dactylon, Cl. Richard.* (Gapriola Dactylon, Adanson.)
Widely dispersed over the warmer parts of the globe, thus as
indigenous reaching the northern parts of the colony of Victoria ;
stretching also into Middle Europe and West-England. Hardy in
Norway to lat. 63 52' [Schuebeler]. Mr. Sim, of the Cape Colony,
states that there it takes possession of closely browsed veld, stands
drought well, but becomes withered by frost. Passes under the
names of Bermuda-Grass, Indian Couch-Grass, Doab, Dub, Doorba
or Doorva and Bahama-Grass. An important grass for covering bare,
barren land, or binding drift-sand, or keeping together the soil of
abrupt declivities, or consolidating earth-banks against floods ; suffo-
cates weeds. It is not without value as a pasture-grass ; resists
extreme drought, and may become of great importance to many
desert-tracts, as it keeps alive even in the hottest and driest parts of
Central Australia ; also one of the best of all grasses in tropical
[ countries for hay [Eggers]. Placed likewise above all other grasses
for pasture and stable-value in Louisiana [Seiss]. In seasons of
dearth pastural animals will even unearth the roots of this grass,
greatly relishing them. Difficult to eradicate, but for permanent
pastures on exhausted land in mild climes not surpassed. Clings
with pertinacy to any soil it gets hold of. The dispersion is best
effected by the creeping, rooting stems cut into short pieces ; each of
these takes root readily, but it can be also disseminated, and grains
are now always in the seed-markets. In arable land this grass, when
once established, cannot easily be subdued. The stems and roots are
used in Italy for preparing the Mellago graminis. Roxburgh already
declared this grass to be by far the most common and useful for
pastures of India, particularly in the drier regions ; that it flowers all
the year, and that it forms three-fourths of the food of the cows and
horses there. Excellent also as a lawn-grass in mild climates, on
account of its dwarf and creeping growth and as enduring trampling
pertinaciously. Well fitted along with small creepers to cover
verdantly the soil as well as the margin and sides of tabs containing
palms or fern-trees or other larger plants. Chemical analysis, made
very early in spring, gave the following results : Albumen 1*60,
gluten 6*45, starch 4*00, gum 3*10, sugar 3'60 per cent. [F. v. Mueller
and L. Hummel].
Cynosurus cristatus, Linn.
The Crested Dogstail-Grass. Europe, Northern Africa, Western
Asia. A perennial grass, particularly valuable as withstanding
drought, the root penetrating to considerable depth. The stems can
also be used for bonnet-plaiting. Though inferior in value for hay,
this grass is well adapted for permanent pasture, as it forms dense
tufts without suffocating other grasses or fodder-herbs, and as being
available later in the season than many others. Recommended also
as an admixture to lawn-grasses by Hein and others. The percent-
age of nutriment in this grass is recorded as very high by Dr. Stebler.
Mr. W. F. Salmon finds this the best grass for the hilly country of
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 157
Gippsland, increasing the carrying capabilities of his land at least a
sheep per acre above other grasses tried by him. It is there relished
by pasture-animals, which is not always the case in drier localities.
Cyperus corymbosus, Rottboell.
India, North- Australia, Madagascar. This stately perennial rush
may be chosen to fringe our lakes and ponds. It is extensively used
for mats in India. The variety C. Pangorei furnishes the material
for the Tennevilly-matting [W. T. Dyer].
Cyperus esculentus, Linn.
Southern Europe, Western Asia, various parts of Africa. Produces
the " Chufa " or Ground-Almond, an edible root, which contains
about 27 per cent, of starch, 17 per cent, of oil and 12 per cent, of
saccharine substance ; other (French) analyses give 28 per cent, oil,
29 starch, 14 sugar, 7 gum, 14 cellulose. This plant does not in-
juriously spread like the C. rotundus, and can be reared on sand-land,
though in rich soil the harvest is far more plentiful. The tubers, of
which as many as 100 to 150 may be obtained from each plant, are
consumed either raw or cooked. Hogs root them up for food. The
oil surpasses in excellence of taste all other oils used for culinary
purposes. The tubers are a fair substitute for coffee, when properly
roasted ; the root-crop is available in from four to six months. The
plant may become important in the most dreary and arid desert-
countries through naturalisation. In Norway it can be grown to
lat. 67 56' [Schuebeler]. The root of the North-American C.
phymatodes (Muehlenberg) is also nutty. C. esculentus and C. exal-
tatus (Retzius) are used for mats [Dr. G. Watt].
Cyperus Papyrus,
The Nile-Papyrus, wild in various regions of Africa. Attains a
height of 16 feet. Though no longer strictly a utilitarian plant, as
in ancient times, it could scarcely be passed on this occasion, as it
ought to become valuable in the horticultural trade. Its grand aspect
recommends it as very decorative for aquatic plantations.
Cyperus Syriacus, Parlatore.
The Syrian or Sicilian Papyrus. This is the Papyrus-plant,
usual in garden-cultivation. It found its way to Australia first
through the action of the writer of this work. The plants in the
Melbourne Botanic Garden attain a height of 8 feet, but suffer some-
what from frost. Other tall decorative Cyperi deserve introduction,
for instance : C. giganteus (Rottboell) from the West Indies and
Guiana ; these kind of plants being hardier than the generality of
others of the same genus from the tropics.
158 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Cyperus tegetum, Roxburgh. (C. Malaccensis, Lamarck.)
North-Eastern Africa, India, China and North- Australia. This
Galingale-Rush might be naturalised on river-banks to obtain
material for the superior mats made of it in Bengal. The fresh
stems are slit longitudinally into three or four pieces, each of which
curls round while drying, and can then be worked into durable and
elegant mats. In China it is cultivated like rice, -but in brackish
ground only, where narrow channels will allow the water to flow in
and out with the rising and receding tide [Hance and Dilthey].
Consul W. M. Cooper reports, that in 1878 about 15 millions of
Ningpo-hats were exported, nearly as many in 1887. In making
these hats the stems are used whole.
Cyperus textilis, Thunberg. (Cyperus vaginatus, R.. Brown.)
Widely dispersed over the Australian continent, also occurring in
Southern Africa. It is restricted to swampy localities, and thus is
not likely to stray into ordinary fields. In the colony of Victoria it
is one of the best indigenous fibre-plants, and it is likewise valuable as
being with ease converted into pulp for good writing-paper, as shown
by the author many years ago. Its perennial growth allows of regular
annual cutting. The natives on the Murray-River use this as well
as Carex tereticaulis (F. v. M.) for nets.
Cytisus prolifer, Linn6 fil.
Canary-Islands. The " Tagasaste." The variety Palmensis is a
fodder-shrub for light dry soil : finally to 20 feet high, deep-rooted,
rather intolerant to frost and drought [Dyer]. Mr. Hardy, of Adelaide,
recommends it as quickly-growing for a break-wind. Requires to be
periodically cut back, as it otherwise gets too hard for fodder. Very
valuable also for apiarists, as flowering during several months, and
here during the cool season. In some places it was found that
horses and cattle dislike this plant as nutriment. It grows quickly
again when cut.
Cytisus SCOparius, Link. (Spartium scoparium, Linn. )
The Broom-Bush. Europe, North- Asia ; wild in Norway to 58
N. Of less significance as a broom-plant than as one of medicinal
value, acting as a diuretic and purgative. Can further be counted
among honey- and even fibre-plants, as shown by Yvard [See Revue
des sciences natur, appliquees 1892, p. 139-143.] It can also be used
for tanning purposes. Most valuable for arresting drift-sand. Easily
raised from seeds. A yellow dye (scoparin) is obtainable from the
flowers. The liquid alkaloid spartein is a prompt cardial tonic
[Prof. Bartholow].
Cytisus spinosus, Lamarck. (Calycotome spinosa, Link.)
Countries around the Mediterranean Sea. This bush forms a
strong prickly garden-hedge, handsome when closely clipped [W.
Elliott].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 159
Dacrydium Colensoi, Hooker.
New Zealand. A beautiful tree, growing to 50 feet in height and
producing hard and incorruptible timber. Chiefly eligible for cool
humid forest-regions.
Dacrydium cupressinum, Solander.
New Zealand. Native name, Rimu; the Red Pine of the colonists.
This stately tree attains the height of 200 feet and furnishes a hard
and straight-grained wood, fairly lasting for rails, but readily de-
caying in waterworks and underground, but for various inside work
very applicable, being easily worked and comparatively cheap ; it
needs lengthened seasoning. Professor Kirk recommends the timber
on account of its great strength for .girders and heavy beams
anywhere under cover. With other conifers of New Zealand par-
ticularly eligible for forest-valleys. A most suitable tree for ceme-
teries, on account of its pendent branches. The bark possesses fair
tan-properties.
Dacrydium Franklini, J. Hooker.
Huon-pine of Tasmania, where it is endemic ; only found in moist
forest-recesses, and thus might be planted in fern tree-gullies of
South-Eastern Australia also. Height of tree sometimes 100 feet ;
stem-circumference reaching 20 feet. The wood is light, extremely
close-grained, highly esteemed for various artisans' work. It is the
best* of Australasian woods for carving, also extensively used for the
rougher kinds of xylography, in the manufacture of pianos and best
cabinet-work, also for building select boats. The tree is not of
celerity of growth, nor resists severe frosts. Huon Pine wood will
last 50 years in the ground (Abbott).
Dacrydium Kirkii, F. v. Mueller.
New Zealand. The " Manoao." A pyramidal tree, attaining 80
feet in height ; stem-diameter to 4 feet. Timber of a reddish colour
and extreme durability [Professor Kirk]. Bears seeds abundantly.
Dactylis glomerata, Linne".*
Europe, North- Africa, Northern and Middle Asia. The cocksfoot-
grass. One of the best of perennial, tall, vigorous pasture-grasses,
adapted as well for dry as moist soil, thus even available for wet
clays ; particularly eligible for hay. Will live under the shade of
trees in forests ; fit also for coast-sands. Resist drought better than
most of the ordinary culture-grasses. Not easily attacked by grubs.
Will master and choke even the Bracken-fern and other noxious
weeds. Mr. A. R. Crawford kept an individual plant for 20 years,
and it still continued to increase. Ascends the Pyrenees to 9,000
feet [Boissier], and is indigenous in Norway to lat. 68 50' [Schue-
beler]. Its yield of foliage is rich and continuous, but its stems are
160 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
hard ; the same plants live through a long series of years, and can be
cut twice or thrice each season without application of manure. It is
generally liked by cattle, unless when by understocking or neglect it
has been allowed to become rank. Langethal observes : " What the
Timothy-grass is for the more dry sandy ground, that is the Cocksfoot-
grass for more binding soil, and no other (European) grass can be
compared to it for copiousness of yield, particularly if the soil con-
tains a fair quantity of lime. It grows quickly again after the first
cutting, and comes early on in the season. It is much grown in New
Zealand for harvesting the seeds. The nutritive power of this grass
is of first-class. The chemical analysis, made very late in spring,
gave the following results : Albumen 1'87, gluten 7*11, starch 1*05,
gum 4'47, sugar 3' 19 per cent. [Yon Mueller and Rummel].
Dactylis litoralis, Willdenow. (Aeluropus laevis, Trinius.)
From the Mediterranean Sea to Siberia. This stoloniferous grass
can be utilised for binding coast-sands ; but it is of greater importance
still in sustaining a Kermes-insect (Porphyrophora Hamelii), which
produces a beautiful purple dye [Simmonds.]
Dalbergia latifolia, Roxburgh.
India, up to cool but not cold regions. A tree with deciduous
foliage, attaining a height of 80 feet. Produces numerous suckers,
particularly on shallow soil, from which young trees arise ; this
greatly facilitates the propagation of the tree [S. H. Korders].' The
wood tough and heavy, in local request for ornamental furniture,
yokes, wheels, ploughs, knees of boats ; its colour from nut-brown to
dark-purplish, streaked and spotted with lighter hues [Brandis,
Gamble]. It has fetched as much as 13 10s. per ton in England
[Watt].
Dalbergia Melanoxylon, Guillemin and Perrottet.
Tropical Africa, extending to Southern Egypt. A small tree with
spiny branches ; the wood described variously as blackish and
purplish ; according to Colonel Grant used for arrow-tips, wooden
hammers and other select implements.
Dalbergia Miscolobium, Bentham.
Southern Brazil. This tree supplies a portion of the Jacaranda-
wood [Tschudi].
Dalbergia nigra, Allemao.
Brazil, down to the Southern Provinces. A tall tree, likely to
prove hardy in warmer extra-tropic regions. It yields a portion or
the Jacaranda- or Palisander-Wood, also Caviuna-Wood, which fof
rich furniture have come into European use. Several Brazilian
species of Machasrium afford, according to Saldanha da Gama, a
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 161
similar precious wood, also timber for waterworks and railway-
sleepers, particularly M. incorruptible (Allemao), M. legale and M.
Allemai (Bentham).
Dalbergia Sissoo, Roxburgh.*
The Indian Sissoo-tree, extending to Afghanistan, ascending to
elevations of 5,000 feet, attaining a height of 80 feet. It may be
worthy of test, whether in localities almost free of frost, particularly
along sandy river-banks, this important timber-tree could be
naturalised, the Sissoo bearing occasional frosty cold better than the
sal. Brandis found the transverse strength of the wood greater than
that of teak and sal ; it is very elastic, seasons well, does not warp
or split, is easily worked and takes a fine polish. It is also durable
as a wood for boats. The tree is easily raised from seeds or cuttings,
and is of quick growth. The seeds are produced copiously. The
supply of its wood has fallen short of the demand in India. Colonel
Campbell- Walker states, that in the Punjab artificial rearing of
Sissoo is remunerative at only 15 inches annual rainfall, with great
heat in summer and occasional sharp frosts in winter ; but irrigation
is resorted to at an annual expense there of four shillings per acre.
Sterile land is by the Sissoo-planting greatly ameliorated.
Dammara alba, Rumph. (D. orientalis, Lambert; Agathis loranthifolia,
Salisbury. )
Agath-Dammar-Pine. Indian Archipelagus and mainland, extend-
ing to the Philippine Islands. A splendid tree, up to 100 feet high,
with a stem to 8 feet in diameter, straight and branchless for two-
thirds in length. It is of great importance on account of its yield of
the transparent Dammar-resin, extensively used for varnish.
Dammara Australis, Lambert.* (Agathis australis, SteudeL)
Kauri-Pine. North-Island of New Zealand. This magnificent
tree measures, under favorable circumstances, 1 80 feet in height and
exceptionally 17 feet in diameter of stem ; the estimated but perhaps
overrated age of such a tree being 700 to 800 years. It furnishes an
excellent, remarkably durable timber, straight-grained, and much in
use for masts, boats, superior furniture, casks, rims of sieves, and is
particularly sought for decks of ships, lasting for the latter purpose
twice as long as the deal of many other pines. It is also available
for railway brake-blocks and for carriages, and regarded as one of the
most durable among timbers of the Conifers. Braces, stringers and
tie-beams of wharfs remained, according to Professor Kirk, for very
many years in good order under much traffic. In bridge-building
also the Kauri-timber gave excellent results ; it can likewise be used
advantageously for the sounding-boards of pianofortes. Kauri-wood
is also used for light handles of many implements and for various
instruments, including stethoscopes, for wool-presses, the body-work
of waggons, butter casks, brewers' vats ; further, in shipbuilding for
162 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
bulwarks, and also for the sides of boats. In strength it is consider-
ably superior to Baltic Deal. Kauri ought to be extensively
introduced into our denser forests. . Auckland alone exports about
100,000 worth of Kauri-timber annually. It is easily worked, and
takes a high polish. This tree yields besides the Kauri-resin of
commerce, which is also largely obtained from under the stems. The
greatest part is gathered by the Maoris in localities formerly covered
with Kauri-forests ; pieces weighing a ton have been found in such
places. The value of this resin, as exported from New Zealand in
1883, was 359,936, in 1885 it was 299,762, in 1888, 380,933,
the London market-price being about 50 the ton. The varnish
made of it is almost colourless. Recent vast destruction of Kauri-
forests through fire render the establishing of this tree elsewhere all
the more imperative.
Dammara macrophylla, Lindley.
Santa-Cruz Archipelagos. A beautiful tree, often 100 feet high,
resembling D. alba.
Dammara Moorei, Lindley.
New Caledonia. Height of tree about 50 feet.
Dammara obtusa, Lindley.
New Hebrides. A fine tree, resembling D. Australis, reaching
200 feet in height, with a long clear trunk.
Dammara ovata, C. Moore.
New Caledonia. This tree is rich in Dammar-resin.
Dammara robusta, C. Moore.* (Agathis rolusta, J. Hooker.)
Queensland-Kauri. A tall tree, known only from the vicinity of
Rockingham's-Bay, the mainland at Wide-Bay and FraserVIsland.
It thrives well even in open, exposed, dry localities at Melbourne.
Height up to 180 feet; largest diameter of stem 6 feet ; wood free
from knots and easily worked. Market value 3 10s. for 1,000
superficial feet of timber. As much as 12,000 feet (superficial) of
good timber have been cut from one tree, that not being the largest.
The species is closely allied to the Indian D. alba, and yields likewise
Dammar-resin. In the same region occurs Dammara (or Agathis)
Palmer stoni, F. v. M.
Dammara Vitiensis, Seemann.
In Fiji. Tree to 100 feet high ; probably identical with Lindley's
D. longifolia.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 163
Danthonia bipartita, F. v. Mueller.
From the interior of New South Wales and Queensland to West-
Australia. Available as a tender-leaved and productive perennial
grass, particularly for any desert-regions.
Danthonia Cunningham!, J. Hooker.
New Zealand. An alpine fodder-grass, with large panicles ; it
attains a height of 5 feet, and forms tussocks. Pasture-animals
relish the young foliage and the flower-masses [J. Buchanan].
Danthonia nervosa, J. Hooker. (Amphibromus Neesii, Steudel.)
Extra-tropical Australia. One of the best perennial nutritious
Swamp-grasses.
Danthonia nuda, J. Hooker. (D. Thomsoni, Buchanan. ,
New Zealand. A grass of lowlands and sub-alpine localities.
Yields a large amount of fine herbage of very nutritious quality.
Holds the ground well and thrives in dry sheltered situations [D.
Petrie].
Danthonia penicillata, F. v. Mueller.*
The Wallaby-grass. Extra-tropical Australia and New Zealand,
ascending to alpine elevations. Variable in its forms. Mr. A. N.
Grant mentions this as the most gregarious of grasses in Riverina,
though after seeding early in summer it becomes parched, until it
pushes afresh after the first autumnal rains. It is most easily dis-
seminated. Dr. Curl found this perennial grass useful for artificial
mixed pasture in New Zealand. Its principal value is in spring.
Noted as very valuable in its native localities. Deserving of methodic
rearing. Will live where cocks-foot and rye-grass succumb for want
of humidity or nourishment [Th. Mason].
Danthonia robusta, F. v. Mueller.
Australian Alps. Forms large patches of rich forage near or at
the very edge of glaciers, and may therefore possibly endure the
winters of Middle Europe. The tall D. rigida (Raoul) of New
Zealand is closely allied. Prof. Hieronymus mentions D. picta
(Nees) as a superior grass of extra-tropic South- America for sheep-
pastures.
Datisca cannabina, Linne".
From Greece to Upper India. A perennial herb ; the leaves and
roots are used in medicine, and also yield a superior yellow dye.
X2
164 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Daucus Carota, Linn.*
The Carrot. Europe, North-Africa, extra-tropical Asia, east to
Japan, north to the Shetland-Islands, but succeeds also as a culture
plant in equatorial countries [Cantley], matures seeds well even in
the desert-regions of Central Australia [Rev. H. Kempe], where it
yields a crop at any part of the season. Biennial. Admits of
naturalisation along shores. In Norway it is grown to lat. 70 22',
near the North-Cape [Schuebeler]. Beyond ordinary culinary
utilisation it serves for the distillation of alcohol and a peculiar oil.
Large-rooted varieties as well as the herb give a good admixture to
stable-fodder. The fresh root acts as an anthelmintic. Within the
tropics Carrots are a crop of the cool season. At Singapore the
Shorthorn- variety thrives best [H. N. Ridley]. Carrot-treacle can
also be prepared from the root. Requires lime in the soil for its
prolific culture. The chemical substances carotin and hydrocarotin
are derived from it. Mess. Dippe in Quedlinberg keep about 130
acres under culture merely for carrot-seeds. These will retain their
vitality for a few years ordinarily preserved.
Debregeasia edulis, Weddell.
.The Janatsi or Teon-itsigo of Japan. Berries of this bush edible ;
fibre valuable for textile fabrics. A few Indian species, with fibre
resembling that of Boehmeria, ascend the Himalaya for several
thousand feet, and may therefore be very hardy namely : D. velu-
tina, D. Wallichiana, D. hypoleuca. The latter extends to Abyssinia,
where it has been noticed at elevations of 8,000 feet. D. dichotoma
occurs on mountains in Java.
Decaisnea insignis, J. Hooker and Thomson. (SlacTcea insignis, Griffith. )
Himalaya from 6,000 to 10,000 feet elevation. This showy shrub
or miniature-tree produces fruit full of juicy pulp of pleasant sweet-
ness.
Delphinium Zalil, Aitchison and Hemsley.
Afghanistan. The yellow flowers are extensively utilised as a
dye-material. [See Dyer's Kew Bulletin, May, 1889.]
Dendrocalamus Brandisii, Munro.*
Tenasserim, Martaban and Pegu, up to elevations of 4,000 feet.
Height of stem reaching to 120 feet. Likes lime-stone soil. Locally
much used for buildings, affording posts, rafters, flooring material
and shingles; fit also for many utensils, among them buckets [SirD.
Brandis]. Internodes sometimes over a foot long.
Dendrocalamus giganteus, Munro.*
Malacca and the adjacent islands. Habit of Gigantochloa maxima;
therefore one of the mightiest of all Bamboos. It continues con-
stantly to add stems from its root, several hundred sometimes
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 165
belonging to the same tuft. Stems reach a height of 100 feet and a
circumference of 33 inches; the joints are occasionally as much as
18 inches long and the walls an inch thick [Dr. Trimen]. Locally-
much used for rural buildings, furnishing posts, rafters, flooring
material and shingles [Brandis]. Buckets and many other domestic
utensils are readily made of this Bamboo. D. criticus of Burmah
attains a height of 30 feet, and ascends to 3,000 feet [Kurz].
Dendrocalamus Hamiltoni, Nees.
Himalayas, between 2,000 and 6,000 feet. The Tama-Bamboo.
Height reaching 60 feet. The young shoots of this stately Bamboo
are edible in a boiled state [Hooker]. It endures great cold as well
as dry heat [Kurz]. D. Hookeri (Munro) is a closely allied
species.
Dendrocalamus longlspathus, Kurz.
British Burma, where with D. calostachyus (Kurz) it ascends to
about 3,500 feet; the former rises to a height of 60 feet. D. mem-
branaceus (Kurz) attains there nearly the same height.
Dendrocalamus membranaceus, Munro.
Burma. To 50 feet high. Seeds of this species, which germinate
readily, and of several other kinds of Bamboo were extensively dis-
tributed in Australia by the writer of this work. Bamboo seedlings
should have good drainage and an open soil, which should just be
kept moist but not wet; over-watering is apt to make them damp off
[Gamble].
Dendrocalamus strictus, Nees.*
India, extending to Burma. Grows on drier ground than
Bamboos generally. Its strength and solidity render it fit for many
select technic purposes. It attains a height of 100 feet, and occasion-
ally forms forests of its own. It endures great cold as well as dry
heat [Kurz]. Useful for the consolidation of embankments on
account of the network of fibrous root [Fernandez]. Readily raised
from seed. This and D. Hamiltoni are almost annually seeding
[Gamble], which is exceptional among Bambusaceae.
Desmodium acuminatum, De Candolle.
Eastern North- America. With D. nudiflorum (D.C.) mentioned
by C. Mohr as a nutritive plant for stock, and particularly adapted
for forest-soil.
Desmodium triflorum, De Candolle.*
In tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. A densely
matted perennial herb, alluded to on this occasion as recommendable
for places too hot for ordinary clover, and as representing a large
166 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
genus of plants, many of which may prove of value for pasture*
Dr. Roxburgh already stated that it helps to form the most beautiful
turf in India, and that cattle are very fond of this herb. Colonel
Drury informs us, that it springs up on all soils and situations,
supplying the place of Trifolium and Medicago there. D. Canadense
(D.C.) is also an excellent fodder-herb [Rosenthal].
Desmodmm imcinatum, DeCandolle.
" Chili-Clover." From North-Mexico to Chili and Uruguay. A
somewhat shrubby plant of easy dissemination ; valuable for forage
[Dr. W. Hillebrand].
Dicksonia Billardierii, F. v. Mueller.* (D. antarctica, La Billardiere;
Cibotium Billardierii, Kaulfuss.)
South-Eastern Australia, New Zealand. This tree-fern is men-
tioned here, as it is the very best for distant transmission, and
endures some frost. It attains a height of 30 feet. A cyclus of
fronds appears in spring and often a second in autumn. Hardy in
the Island of Arran with D. squarrosa and Cyathea medullaris [Rev.
D. Landsborough]. This species above all others should be dis-
seminated in warmer extra-tropical countries, thus with us in West-
Australia. Important also as commercial plants among fern-trees are
Cyathea medullaris, of South-Eastern Australia and New Zealand ;
Cyathea dealbata, the Silvery Tree-fern and C. Smithii, from New
Zealand only; because when upgrown their shipment is not attended
with the same difficulty as that of the tall Alsophila Australis (whica
attains exceptionally 60 feet) and numerous other tree-ferns, about
200 species of which are now known. Those mentioned are among
the hardiest of this noble kind of plants. D. Billardieri, D. squarrosa
and Alsophila Colensoi extend to 46 30' S. in New Zealand according
to Mr. T. Waugh. Professor Kirk records from Stewart-Island in
latitude 47 20' Dicksonia squarrosa, Cyathea Smithii and C. medul-
laris. The latter attains occasionally a weight of three tons according
to Mr. Dall. The vestiture of their frond-stalks serves as a styptic.
Anthelmintic properties, which may exist in these and many other
ferns, have not yet been searched for. The fresh dust-like spores
should be scattered through moist forest-valleys, to insure new sup-
plies of these superb forms of vegetation for the next century. D.
Billardierii is nowhere antarctic. Frond-fragments, as not quickly
shrivelling, in extensive demand for marketable table-bouquets. For
covering tubs in which Ferntrees are planted Saxifraga sarmentosa
is well adapted.
Digitalis purpurea, Dodoens.
The Foxglove. Western Europe. A biennial and exceedingly
beautiful herb of great medicinal value, easily raised. In Norway it
grows to lat. 63 52' [Schuebeler]. Chemical principles: digitalin,
digitaletin and three peculiar acids [Wittstein]. Bees must be kept
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 167
away from this plant. Seeds may rest underground for half-a-dozen
years without their germinating power being destroyed [Dr. W. O.
Focke].
Dimochloa Andamanica, Kurz.
Andamans. A scandent Bamboo, rising to fully 100 feet. Should
be of particular value for scenic culture. D. Tjankorreh (Buese)
extends from Java to the Philippines, ascends to 4,000 feet eleva-
tion, but is not so tall as the other species.
Dioscorea aculeata, Linn.*
The Kaawi-Yam. India, South-Sea-Islands. Stem prickly, as
the name implies, not angular. Leaves alternate, undivided. It
ripens later than the following species, and requires no reeds for
staking. It is propagated from small tubers. This yam is of a
sweetish taste, and the late Dr. Seemann regarded it as one of the finest
esculent roots of the globe. Will keep for nearly a year ; weight to
8 Ibs. A variety of a bluish hue, cultivated in Central America (for
instance at Caraccas), is of very delicious taste. The fresh tubers
contain about 15 per cent, starch [Dr. Th. Peckolt],
Dioscorea alata, Linne.*
The Uvi-Yam. India and South-Sea-Islands. The stems are
four-angled and not prickly. The tubers, of which there are many
varieties, will attain under favorable circumstances a length of 8 feot,
and the prodigious weight of 100 Ibs. This species and the preceding
are the two principal kinds cultivated in troprical countries. D. alata
is in culture supported by reeds. It is propagated from pieces of the
old root, and in warm climes comes to perfection in about seven months.
The tubers may be baked or boiled. It is this species, which has
been successfully cultivated in New Zealand and also in the Southern
States of North- America. A variety or allied species with branched
tubers is mentioned by Peckolt as Angola-Yam, containing about 24
per cent, starch. It may be only cultivated perhaps in Africa.
Dioscorea atropurpurea, Roxburgh.
Southern India. Root elongated, attaining a weight of 2 Ibs., of
very nice taste. Starch about 18 per cent. [Peckolt], sugar 7 per
cent.; thus richer in sugar than any other species.
Dioscorea Brasiliensis, Willdenow.
From Guiana to Brazil. Tuber ovate, to nearly 1 foot diameter.
Particularly lauded by Dr. Theo. Peckolt as palatable, but not so
rich in starch as some other species.
168 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Dioscorea bulbifera, Linne. (D. sotfva, Linn^ partly.)
Southern Asia, east as far as Japan, also in the South-Sea-lslands,
North- and tropical East-Australia, likewise recorded from tropical
Africa. Stem cylindrical, not prickly. The acrid root requires
soaking before boiling. The plant has proved hardy in the Southern
States of North- America. Starch is very profitably obtainable from
the tubers, as they are large.
Dioscorea divaricata, Blanco.* (D, Batatas, Decaisne.)
The Chinese Yam. Philippine Islands. The hardiest of all. Not
prickly. The root is known to attain a length of 4 feet, with a
circumference of 14 inches, and a weight of about 14 Ibs. The inner
portion of the tuber is of snowy whiteness, of a flaky consistence and
of a delicious flavor ; preferred by many to potatoes, and obtainable
in climes too hot for potato-crops. The bulblets from the axils of the
leaf-stalks, as in other Dioscoreas, serve as sets for planting, but the
tubers from them attain full size only in the second year. The upper
end of the tubers offers ready sets, but there are dormant eyes on any
pbrtion of the surface of the tubers [Sir Samuel Wilson, General
Noble]. First grown in Australia by the author in 1858. A remark-
ably hardy species ; its yam-root keeps well [Vihnorin]. Not so
easily dug up as those of some other species.
Dioscorea dodecaneura, Vellozo.
Southern Brazil. Tubers attain a weight of 3 Ibs., of excellent
taste. Starch about 18 per cent. [Peckolt].
Dioscorea fasciculata, Roxburgh.
Continental India. This species is there cultivated to a considerable
extent, not only for food, but also to make starch. The tubers are
of the size of a large potato, which they resemble in mealiness and
flavor, and are highly esteemed [Dr. G. Watt].
Dioscorea globosa, Roxburgh.
India. Roxburgh states this to be the most esteemed yam in
Bengal.
Dioscorea hastifolia, Nees.
Extra-tropical Western Australia, are far south as 32. It is
evidently one of the hardiest of the yams, and on that account deserves
particularly to be drawn into culture. The tubers are largely con-
sumed by the local aborigines for food. The only plant, on which
they bestow any kind of cultivation, crude as it is. Fit for arid
situations, but fond of lime.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 169
Dioscorea Japonica, Thunberg.
The hardy Japan-yam. Not prickly. The material here for
comparison is not complete, but seems to indicate, that D. transversa
and D. punctata (R. Br.) are both referable to D. Japonica. If
this assumption should prove correct, then we have this yam along
the coast-tracts of North- and East- Australia, as far south as latitude
33. In Australia we find the wild root of good taste and large size;
the tubers are eaten by the savages raw when young, roasted when
aged [E. Palmer].
Dioscorea nummularia, Lamarck.
The Tivoli-yam. Continental and insular India, also South- Sea-
Islands. A high-climbing prickly species, with opposite leaves.
Roots cylindrical, as thick as. a man's arm ; their taste exceedingly
good. Roxburgh's plant of this name seems quite different.
Dioscorea oppositifolia, Linne.
India and China. Not prickly. One of the edible yams.
Dioscorea pentaphylla, Linne.
Continental and insular India, also South-Sea-Islands. Likewise
a good yam. A prickly species, with alternate divided leaves.
Dioscorea piperifolia, Humboldt and Bonpland. (D. subhastata, Vellozo.)
From Panama to Peru and Brazil. The tubers keep particularly
well, and are often smoked for preservation. Starch about 26 per
cent. [Dr. Th. Peckolt]. Tubers roundish, attaining a weight of
6 Ibs.; mucilaginous.
Dioscorea purpurea, Roxburgh.
India. In Bengal considered next best to D. alata and D. globosa.
Dioscorea quinqueloba, Thunberg.
Japan, and there one of several yam-plants with edible tubers.
Among numerous congeners are mentioned as providing likewise
root-vegetables : D. esurientum (Fenzl) from Guatemala, D. tube-
rosa and D. conferta (Vellozo) from South-Brazil, D. Cayennensis
(Lamarck) from tropical South- America, D. triphylla (Linne) from
tropical Asia, D. deltoidea (Wallich) from Nepal. Of these and
many other species the relative quality of the roots and their adapta-
bility to field-cultivation require to be more fully ascertained.
Dioscorea spicata, Roth.
India. Roots used like those of other species, so those of D.
Hamiltoni, J. Hooker.
Dioscorea spinosa, Roxburgh. (D. sativa, Linn<$, partly.)
South-Asia extensively ; also cultivated elsewhere.
170 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Dioscorea tomentosa, Koenig.
Ooyala-yam. India. The nomenclature of some of the Asiatic
species requires further revision.
Dioscorea triflda, Linne fil.
Central America. One of the yams there cultivated. Various
other tuberous Dioscorese occur in tropical countries, but their
respective degrees of hardiness, taste and yield are not recorded or
ascertained. The length of the warm season in many extra-tropical
countries is probably sufficient for ripening all these yams. Prof.
Philippi records 28 species from Chili, all therefore extra-tropic.
Diospyros Ebenum, Koenig.*
Ceylon, where it furnishes the best-kind of Ebony-wood, occurring
also in southern continental India. It is not uncommon up -to an
elevation of 5,000 feet in Ceylon, according to Dr. Thwaites ;
hence I would recommend this large and valuable tree for test-
plantations in warm extra-tropical lowlands forest-regions, where
also D. qusesita and D. oppositifolia, the best Calamander-trees, and
D. melanoxylon should be tried. Many other species of Diospyros
could probably be introduced from the mountains of various tropical
regions, either for the sake of their ebony-like wood or their fruit.
Black Ebony-wood sinks in water. The price in England ranges
from 8 to 20 per ton, from 700 to 1,000 tons being imported into
Britain annually for pianoforte-keys, the string-holders of musical
instruments, the fingerboard and . tail-piece of violins, sharp note-
pieces of pianos, harmoniums and cabinet- organs, and other select
purposes. Green Ebony-wood is yielded by D. chloroxylon (Rox-
burgh). The following species, some of which may prove hardy,
yield Ebony-wood, according to Hiern : India D. Ebenum, Koert.,
D. melanoxylon, Roxb., D. silvatica, Roxb., D. Gardneri, Thw.,
D. hirsuta, L. fil., D. discolor, Willd., D. Embropteris, Thw., D.
Ebenaster, Retz., D. montana, Roxb., D. insignis, Pers., D. Tupru,
Hamilt., D. truncata, Zoll., D. ramiflora, Wall ; Africa D. Dendo,
Welw., D. mespiliformis, Hochst. ; Mauritius D. tesselaria, Poiret ;
Madagascar D. haplostylis, Boivin, D. rnicrorhombus, Hiern. C.
B. Clarke enumerates for British India alone 59 species of Diospyros.
Diospyros Kaki, Linne fil.*
The Date-plum or Persimmon of China and Japan, also Khasya,
Assam and Burma. A rather slow-growing tree, hardy at Port
Phillip ; comes into bearing when about five years old. The fruit
is yellow, orange, pink or dark-purple, variable in size, but seldom
larger than an ordinary apple ; it can readily be dried on strings.
A hard and a soft variety occur. It has ripened as far north as
Philadelphia [Saunders]. The most famed varieties are, according
to the Rev. Mr. Loorins : Ronosan, Nihon, Micado, Daimaio,
Taikoon, Yamato, the latter particularly large and saccharine, and
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 171
with the Jogen-variety mostly used for drying. In Sydney the
favorite varieties for culture are the Yernon and the Jane-Nashi
[H. A. James] ; both are also much liked in the United States.
In Japan this is thought to be the best native fruit [Christy] ;.
attains one pound in weight. There are also seedless varieties.
Dried Kaki-fruit is considered superior to figs. For drying the
fruit is peeled ; it requires a month to exsiccate. The Hyakuma-
variety when shrivelled measures as much as 4 by 3 inches [Jar-
main]. The green fruits serve as medicinal astringents [Dupont],
Hiern counts as varieties D. Schitze (Bunge) and D. costata
(Carriere).
Diospyros Lotus, Linn.
From Northern China to the Caucasus. The ordinary Date-
plum. The sweet fruits of this tree, resembling black cherries,
are edible, and also used for the preparation of syrup. The wood,
like that of D. chloroxylon, is known in some places as Green Ebony.
It resembles Mottled Ebony ; it must not however be confounded
with other kinds, such as are furnished by some species of Excoe-
caria, Nectandra and Jacaranda. This tree endures the winters of
Northern Germany [C. Koch] ; in the Crimea it rises to 40 feet
[Loudon].
Diospyros Texana, Scheele.
Mexico and Texas. Tree, reaching a height of 30 feet ; fruit
globose, black, luscious [A. Gray]. The wood serves as a substitute
for that of the Turkey box [Prof. Sargent].
Diospyros Virginiana, Linn<$.*
The North-American Ebony or Parsimon or Persimmon, indige-
nously restricted to the South-Eastern States. A tree, reaching
70 feet in height, sends suckers up from the roots. Wood heavy,
very hard, blackish or brownish, valuable for shuttles instead of
boxwood [Jos. Gardner] ; for turnery, also shoe-lasts [Sargent] ;
for shafts one of the very best [Michaux]. The stem exudes a
kind of gum. The sweet variety yields a good table-fruit. Ripens
fruit to 41 North in Illinois [Bryant]. Endures the winters of
Northern Germany [C. Koch]. Hot summers promote the early
ripening and sweetness of the fruit, the delicious taste not alone
depending on early frost, as final sweetness depends on chemical
decomposition. The flowers yield honey. The species is of very
close affinity to D. Lotus, as remarked by A. Gray, which endures
the clime of Northern Germany also.
Diplothemium campestre, Martius.
Southern Brazil. A dwarf Palm of dry regions. The sweetish
pulpy outer covering of the small fruits is edible. D. maritimum
(Martius) grows naturally on sandy sea-coasts, and can be culti-
vated in the open air as far south as Port Jackson [C. Moore],
fruiting well there.
172 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Diposis Bulbocastanum, De Candolle.
Chili. The tubers of this perennial herb are edible.
Dipsacus fullonum, Linne".
Fuller's Teasel. Middle Asia. A tall biennial herb. The thorny
fruit-heads are used for fulling in cloth-factories. The import into
England during one of the latter years was valued at 5,000. The
plant is most easily reared. The use of these Teasels has not yet
been superseded by any adequate machinery. The young leaves
can be used as food for silkworms [Thorburn]. The flowers are
rich in nectar for honey [A. J. Cook], which is of excellent quality
[Quinby]. Seeds may rest underground for half-a-dozen years
without loss of germinating power [Dr. W. O. Focke].
Dirca palnstris, Linne.
Eastern States of North-America, extending to Canada. An
ornamental forest-shrub, the tough bark of which is serviceable for
straps and whipcords.
Distichlis maritima, Rafinesque. (Festuca distichophylla, J. Hooker.)
North- and South-America, extra-tropical Australia. This dwarf
creeping grass is of great value for binding soil in arid places,
forming rough lawns, edging garden-plots and covering coast-sand.
Dolichos biflorus, Linne".*
Tropical and sub-tropical Asia, Africa and Australia. An annual
herb, the Horse-Gram of South-India, where it is extensively grown.
Colonel Sykes got over 300 seeds from a moderate- sized plant. Dr.
Stewart saw it cultivated up to 8,000 feet. Content with poor soils.
Thrives in very hot weather, with a minimum rainfall. Luxuriates
as far south as Northern New South Wales [Henry Wehl]. Pros-
pers also on saline soil. Well adapted for stable-pulse and also
useful for fodder and as green manure [Dr. G-. Watt]. D. uniflorus
(Lamarck) seems a variety. C. Sprenger mentions D. umbellatus
(Thunberg) as cultivated for kitchen-use in Japan.
Dolichos gibbosus, Thunberg.
South-Africa. This woody climber is one of the most eligible
for covering rustic buildings with a close and almost ever-flowering
vegetation.
Dolichos Lablab, Linne".*
Spontaneous in Tropical Asia and widely in Africa. Probably
from thence only spread widely through the tropics. A herb, lasting
through several years, but for culinary purposes cultivated as an
annual ; grown up to 7,000 feet in the Himalayas ; ripening its
fruit at Port Phillip. In warmer countries utilised also for bowers.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 173
The young pods, as well as the ripe seeds, of several varieties avail-
able for culinary use. It delights in rich soil, and ripens in hot
countries within three months ; its yield is about forty-fold, accord-
ing to Roxburgh. At Port Darwin its produce has been 180-fold
[M. Holtze]. The whole plant forms excellent stable-feed for
cattle,. D. cultratus (Thunberg) is a variety.
Dorema Ammoniacum, D. Don.
From Persia extending to Afghanistan and Turkestan, up to
4,000 feet. A tall perennial herb, yielding the gum-resin Am-
moniacum, which might be obtained from plants introduced,
especially as this plant will grow in dry regions. The Morocco
Ammoniacum is ascertained by Sir Joseph Hooker to be derived from
Ferula Tingitona (Linne).
Dovyalis zizyphoides, E. Meyer.
South-Africa. A thorny shrub. Berries used for a delicious
preserve [Mrs. Barber]. So also the fruits of D. celastroides
(Sonder).
Dracsena cinnabarina, B. Balfour.
Socotra. Attains 25 feet height and three feet stem-thickness.
One of the most remarkable plants extant, for scenic culture
particularly eligible, the branches short terminal and almost hori-
zontally crowded, giving the tree an umbrella-shaped outline. Pro-
duces like D. Draco, D. Ombet (Kotschy and Pryritsch) from Nubia
and D. schizantha (Baker) from Samoli red dye-resin.
Dracaena Draco, Linn.
The Dragonblood-Tree of the Canary Islands. An imposing
feature in scenic horticulture ; it yields one kind of Dragonblood-
resin. The famed Dragon-tree of Teneriffe, measured in 1831,
showed 46 feet stem-circumference, and even at the commencement
of the 15th century was celebrated for its age and large proportions.
A Dracsena is cultivated on Kilimanjaro up to 7,000 feet for hedges
[H. Johiistone].
Dracocephalum Moldavica, Lmn.
Northern and Middle Asia. An annual showy scent-herb ; also of
some medicinal value and particularly for culinary condiment.
Drimys "Winter!, R. and G. Forster.
Extra-tropical South- America. The Canelo of Chili, sacred under
the name of Boighe to the original inhabitants. Attains in river-
valleys a height of 60 feet. The wood never attacked by insects
[Dr. Philippi]. Bark used for medicinal purposes. The Australian
and New Zealand species may be equally valuable. D. aroraatica
(F. v. M.) is particularly burning-spicy, even in its foliage, and is for
this reason called Australian Pepper-tree.
174 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Duboisia Hopwoodii, F. v. Mueller.
The Pitury. Inland desert-regions from New South Wales and
Queensland to near the west-coast of Australia. This shrub deserves
medicinal cultivation on account of its highly stimulating and some-
what narcotic properties. The aborigines chew the leaves for
enabling them to endure want of water for a day or more on long
walks. The infusion of the leaves induces sleep, but can only be
administered cautiously in small quantity. The dried herb yields
about 1 to 2 per cent, of the volatile fluid alkaloid, piturin, which has
been chemically investigated by Professor Liversidge.
Duboisia Leichhardti, F. v. Mueller.
Western Queensland. The foliage of this species is the most
powerful of all, so that for cultural return this may prove the most
lucrative. Will bear some frost. Easily raised from seeds.
Duboisia myoporoides, R. Brown.
East- Australia and New Caledonia. Restricted to woody regions.
The leaves have come into use for ophthalmic surgery. The alkaloid
contained therein, duboisin, is allied to piturin, and important as a
mydriatic [Bancroft] and as an anodyne. It is held by Ladenberg
to be closely allied to Hyoscyamin in chemical constitution and
physiologic effect, but is also allied to nicotine. The tree attains
in deep forest-glens a height of 60 feet [Ralston], but flowers even
as a shrub.
Duvaua longifolia, Lindley.
La Plata-States. This shrub and the allied D. latifolia, called
Molle there, yield foliage rich in tannin (about 20 per cent.), which
as it does not give any colour to leather, is much valued for particular
currying [Dr. Lorentz],
Dypsis pinnatifrons, Martius. (Spinus dependens, Ortega. )
Madagascar. This dwarf Palm proved hardy in Sydney, together
with Copernicia cerifera [C. Moore].
Ecbalium Elaterium, Richard.
The Squirting Cucumber. Mediterranean- regions and Orient.
An annual. The powerful purgative Elaterium is prepared from
the pulp of the fruit. Chemical principles : elaterid, elaterin,
hydroelaterin.
Echinocactus Fendleri, Engelmann.
Mexico. A species attractive for its large rosy flowers, and, like
the red-flowered E. gonacanthus, E. Simpsoni, E. conoideus, E.
phoeniceus, E. viridiflorus, E. viviparus and E. paucispineus, among
the most hardy of North- American Cacteae [E. G. Loder] .
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 175
Echinops sphserocephalus, Linne".
Southern Europe and temperate Asia. This perennial tall herb
is very recommendable as a bee-plant ; its leaves have some medi-
cinal value ; may however endanger pasturage as an unwelcome
weed.
Echium candicans, Linne fil.
Madeira. This showy shrub, with the allied E. fastuosum
(Jacquin) is an exquisite honey-plant ; other species deserve in this
respect also attention.
Echium fastuosum, J. F. Jacquin. (Probably E. arboreum, Steudel. )
Canary Islands. An individual plant may attain a height of 8 feet
and a circumference of 50 feet [T. Hanbury], with fully 100 spikes.
This should prove a grand honey-plant. In all probability it would
like the Pollichia (Trichodesma) be of great value as fodder for
camels and dromedaries. E. giganteum, Linne fil., from Teneriffe is
white-flowering and attains a height of 10 feet.
Ectrosia Gulliveri, F. v. Mueller.
North-Eastern Australia. A pretty but annual grass, useful for
covering stony slopes in dry exposed localities [Bailey].
Ehrharta diplax, F. v. Mueller. (Microlcena avenacea, J. Hooker.)
New Zealand. This tall perennial grass is fond of woodlands,
and deserves introduction elsewhere. It is likely to prove an accept-
able pasture-grass in adapted localities. A few Australian species,
particularly of the section Tetrarrhena, are readily accessible, and so
indeed also the South-African Ehrhartas, all adapted for a warm
temperate clime ; the majority perennial, and several of superior
rural value. Ehrharta caudata (Munro) is indigenous to Japan.
Ehrharta gigantea, Thunberg.
South-Africa. The " Pyp-grass." Among native grasses there
the best to settle any rolling coast-sand [A. W. Hay wood].
Ehrharta longiflora, Smith.
South-Africa. Easily disseminated and, like other perennial
species from the same part of the world, fit to grow in sand-land as
a pasture-grass. Eagerly consumed by cattle [Cole].
Ehrharta stipoides, La Billardiere.*
Extra-tropical Australia, also New Zealand. Often called Weep-
ing-Grass. A perennial grass, which keeps beautifully green all
through the year. For this reason its growth for pasturage should
be encouraged, particularly as it will live on poor soil. Mr. W. H.
176 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Bacchus, of Ballarat, considered it nearly as valuable as Kangaroo-
grass, and in the cool season more so. He finds it to bear over-
stocking better than any other native grass, and to maintain a close
turf. Hence it is praised by Mr. O. Tepper as a lawn-grass. High
testimony of the value of this grass is also given by Mr. Rankin, of
Gippsland, after many years' experiments. However it does not
always seed copiously. The chemical analysis, made in spring, gave
the following results : Albumen 1*66, gluten 9'13, starch 1'64, gum
3*25, sugar 5'05 per cent. [F. v. Mueller and L. Hummel.]
Elseagnus angustifolius, Linn& (E. hortensis, Bieberstein.)
From South-Europe and North- Africa to Siberia and China,
ascending in the Himalayas up to 10,000 feet. The fruits of this
shrub, known under the name of Trebizonde-dates, are used in
Persia for dessert. Flowers highly fragrant [G-. W. Johnson]. The
fruit of E. latifolia (Linne) is also edible [Watt]. E. angustifolia
will thrive on saline soil, and attain to 30 feet.
ElseagmiS multiflora, Thunberg. (E. longipes, A. Gray.*)-
Japan. The " Goumi." The fruits of this species are edible, of
a particular and pleasant flavour, and especially adapted for con-
fectionery. This bush resists much frost as well as drought, and
bears in prodigious abundance almost throughout the year [Joseph
Clarte]. It can be struck from cuttings, and comes into bearing in
the third year. Of ornamental value. Content with almost any
soil. Flowers fragrant [Stephen Obbrich]. This or a closely allied
species passes under the name of E. edulis.
Eleeagnus umbellata, Thunberg.
From Japan to the Himalayas.^ This bush has been introduced
into North-America as a hedge-plant, and according to Professor
Meehan, promises great permanent success, as it has already achieved
a high popularity in this respect. In Norway hardy to lat. 59 55
[Schuebeler]. Several other species might well be experimented on
in the same manner.
Elaeis Guineensis, Jacquin.*
The " Oil-palm " of Western tropical Africa. Height to 40 feet ;
foliage superb, the leaves occasionally reaching 15 feet in length.
A well-developed fruit-spike may attain a weight of 40 Ibs., and on
it up to 800 fruits may be counted, each of the size of a walnut ;
the outer portion of the fruits almost of lardlike consistence ; through
boiling them the commercial oil fresh for food or for soap- and candle-
manufacture is yielded. This palm likes a coast-clime. At Port
Curtis ripens fruits [Edgar] ; how much farther outside the tropics
it will bear, remains here yet to be ascertained. For mere scenic
culture it would doubtless thus succeed in a comparatively cool clime.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 177
The import of the fat-like oil of this palm into Britain during 1886
was 1,004,419 cwt., valued at 1,050,559 ; during 1889 it was
1,031,440 cwt., valued at 1,091,922. The present price is 20
the ton.
Elegia nuda, Kunth.
South Africa. A rush, able with its long roots to bind moving
sand ; it also affords good material for thatching [Dr. Pappe]. E.
propinqua (Kunth), E. verticillaris (Kunth), Thamnochortus fruti-
cosus (Bergius), T. imbricatus (Masters), T. dichotomus-(R. Brown),
and Cannamois virgata (Steudel) provide their blossoms for decora-
tive purposes, the export from South- Africa in 1892 having been
valued at 683, weight 23 tons [MacOwan]. Many of the tall
Restiaceas of South- Africa would prove valuable for scenic effect in
gardens and conservatories, and among these may specially be men-
tioned Cannamois cephalotes (Beauvois).
Elephanthorrhiza Burchelli, Bentham.
South-Africa. The huge club-footed roots of this somewhat
shrubby plant are extraordinarily rich in tannin [Prof. MacOwan].
All grazing animals like the foliage much ; it starts from the roots
again after frost [Mrs. Barber]. An allied species is E. Burkei.
Eleusine Coracana, Gaertner.*
Southern Asia, east to Japan, ascending the Himalayas to 7,000
feet. Though annual, this grass is worthy of cultivation on account
of its height and nutritiveness. It is of rapid growth, and the
produce of foliage and seeds copious. Horses prefer the hay to any
other dry fodder in India, according to Dr. Forbes Watson. The
large grains can be used like millet, and a peculiar beer can be
brewed from it [Professor Sadebeck]. One of the staple grains of
Mysore. E. Indica (Gaertner) only differs as a variety. It extends
to tropical Australia, and is recorded also from many other tropical
countries, but thrives well even as far as Port Phillip, and luxuriates
still as far south as Gippsland during the hot season.
Eleusine stricta, Roxburgh.
India. The increase of grain of this annual grass in rich soil is
at times five-hundredfold. Made rapid growth and promises to
become a valuable fodder-plant for Northern New South Wales
[McKeown]. E. Tocusso (Fresenius) is a valuable kind from
Abyssinia, seemingly allied to E. stricta. The Arabian and Hima-
layan E. flagellifera (Nees) is perennial. Other species of Eleusine
are deserving of trial.
N
178 IS elect Plants for Industrial Culture and
Blionurus hirsutus, Munro.
This tall grass is illustrated by Mr. Duthie among the fodder-
grasses of N.W. India. It grows on poor sandy soil. The seeds
are used for food by the natives of Bikanir [Dr. Watt].
Elymus arenarius, Linne.* (Hordeum arenarium, Ascherson.)
The "Sea-Lyme" Grass. Europe and North-Asia, on sand-strands,
growing in Norway to lat. 71 7', also extending to Iceland. One
of the most important and vigorous of grasses for binding drift-sand
on the sea : shores. Endures being gradually covered with sand, but
not so completely as Psamma. The propagation is easiest from its
suckers. Undoubtedly there will be a great future in Australia for
this plant and for Psamma litoralis for conquering fugitive coast-
sands. Mr. A. W. Heywood observed that the seeds often germinate
more readily on drier sands than those of Psamma litoralis. He re-
commends dressing with street -refuse. The plant does not easily
catch fire. The North-American E. mollis (Trinius) is allied to this
species.
Elymus condensatus, Presl.*
The Bunch-Grass of British Columbia and California, extending
to lat. 58. This is favorably known as adapted for sand-land.
Prof. Bolander says, that it does excellent service in fixing soil on
steep banks. Mr. W. Gorlie noted it to bear severe frost, as much as
F. Bunches become fully a yard in diameter and bear stalks up to
10 feet high, so that in annual bulk and weight of produce it surpasses
all British pasture-grasses. It is also earlier than any of them, and its
young growth never suffers from spring-frosts ; moreover it is highly
nutritious and greedily eaten in all its stages by stock. This grass
should have some claim for adoption in scenic culture.
Elymus Virginicus, Linne.
Eastern North- America. Perennial, easily spreading, fit for river-
banks ; of some fodder value [C. Mohr].
Embothrium coccineum, R. and G. Forster.
From Chili to the Straits of Magellan. The Notra or Ciruelillo.
A tree of exquisite beauty, but seldom reaching above 30 feet in
height. The wood is utilised for furniture. E. lanceolatum is merely
a variety [Dr. Philippi]. The equally gorgeous E. emarginatum of
the Peruvian Andes and E. Wickhami (F. v. M.) from Mount Bel-
lenden-Ker of North-Queensland, deserve, with the East- Australian
allied Steuocarpus sinuatus (Endlicher), a place in any sheltered
gardens or parks of the warm temperate zone
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 179
Encephalartos Denisonii, F. v. Mueller. (Macrozamia Denisonii, Moore
and Mueller.)
New South Wales and Queensland, in the littoral forest-tracts.
This noble Pine-palm is hardy as far south as Melbourne, and with
E. spiralis, E. Preissii and the South-African species to be regarded
as a most desirable acquisition to any garden scenery in mild zones.
All admit of translocation even when of large size and when many
years old. The lifted stems, with an unusual tenacity of life, some-
times remain dormant for several years. After removal they can be
shipped in close cases as dead goods, the leaves being previously cut
away, but such shipments should not be exposed to severe frosts on
transit. Encephalartos-stems rotting from below can be saved by
cutting away the whole diseased portion and then again plunging the
stem after amputation into the soil [Dyer]. Seeds have kept gerrain-
able for 6 years [Dall]. Seeds intended for raising the plant should
be taken where staminate and pistillate specimens grow close together.
Where naturally these Pine-palms abound, an excellent starch may
profitably be got from their stems. It may be necessary to resort to
mechanical pollination to secure germination-power of the seeds. The
gathering of seeds from this noble plant in any reserved locality
should give a considerable annual return.
Engelhardtia spicata, Blume.
The spurious Walnut-tree of the mountains of Java, Burmah, and
the Himalayas up to 6,000 feet. It reaches a height of 200 feet.
Wood pale-red, hard and heavy, manufactured into the solid cart-
wheels and large troughs, which are in use throughout the Sunda-
Islands [Brandis]. The bark is rich in tan-substance [Roxburgh].
Epicampes macroura, Bentham.
Mexico. This grass, like some of its congeners, furnishes the
"Broom-root," the fibre of which is exported from Vera Cruz to the
annual value of about 60,000 [D. Morris].
Eragrostis Abyssinica, Link. (Poa Abyssinica, Jacquin.)
The Teff of Abyssinia, Nubia, Egypt, and nearest lands. The
grain of this annual grass is there extensively used for bread of an
agreeable acidulous taste. According to Professor Schweinfurth the
E. Aegyptiaca (Delile) is identical.
Eragrostis Brownii, Nees.* (Poa Brownli, Kunth.)
Tropical and Eastern extra-tropical Australia, according to Duthie
also in India. It is here mentioned as a valuable perennial species,
keeping- beautifully green in the driest Australian summer, even on
poor soil ; indeed the missionary, Pastor Kempe, pronounces it to be
the best of all grasses on the Central Australian pastures. It is quite
eaten down by sheep but readily springs up again from the root. No
180 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
drought seems to subdue it. The genus Eragrostis contains numerous
species in the hotter parts of the globe. Of these many would doubt-
less be hardy far beyond the tropics and prove of value on pastoral
land.
Eragrostis falcata, Gaudichaud.
Proved one of the best of pasture-grasses in arid tracts of sub-
tropical Western- Australia [Isaac Tyson].
Eragrostis pectinacea, Gray. (Poa pectinacea, Michaux.)
Middle and Southern States of North-America. This perennial
grass spreads rapidly over dry ground and even coast-sands. C. Mohr
regards it as valuable for pastures, and mentions as such also E.nitida
(Chapman) and E. tenuis (Gray).
Eragrostis spinosa, Nees. .
South- Africa. This almost reedy grass lives in coast-sands, helping
to fix it [A. W. Hey wood].
Eremophila longifolia, F. v. Mueller.
Desert-regions throughout Australia. Reaches a height of 30 feet
and a basal stem-diameter of 1^ feet. In the hot season this tall bush
or small tree affords food to sheep in desert-tracts, when grass and
herbage fail [A. N. Grant]. Sheep browse on many other species of
, this highly ornamental genus. All resist drought and great climatic
heat. A crude, somewhat peculiar tar is copiously and easily obtained
from the wood [Hon. Phil. King]. Hypnotic properties are ascribed
to the foliage, which opinion needs however yet confirmation.
Eremurus aurantiacus, Baker.
Baluchistan and Afghanistan, 7,000 to 9,000 feet. The leaves of
this liliaceous plant form for two months in the year almost the sole
vegetable, on which the natives of Hariab depend ; it is an agreeable
food, crisp and somewhat hard, but neither tough nor fibrous [Dr.
Aitchison]. Likely to become valuable as a spring-vegetable. The
young leaves of E. spectablis (Bieb.) are eaten, either fresh or cooked
[Dr. Stewart].
Eriachne ovata, Nees.
Western and Central Australia. Though wiry, narrow-leaved, and
not a tall grass, it is important for dreary desert regions, as it is peren-
nial, tufty, and without awns, and could likely be disseminated with
ease. Sheep, horses and cattle are fond of it. Other awnless species
would also be recommendable for hot dry regions.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 181
Erianthus fulvus, Kunth.
Interior of Australia. A sweet perennial grass, of which cattle are
so fond as to eat it closely down, and thus cause it to die out [Bailey].
Readily raised by re-dissemination.
Erianthus Japonicus, Beauvois.
Japan. Bears frosts of F. [G-orlie]. Stems woody at the base,
reaching a height of 6 feet, with spikes nearly a foot long. The
striped-leaved variety is particularly decorative.
Eriochloa polystachya, Kunth.
In tropical and sub-tropical regions around the globe. Perennial.
Endures moderate cold in South-Queensland, and affords fodder all
the year round [Bailey]. It resists drought, and is fattening and
much relished by stock [Dr. Curl]. Answers particularly well for
a hot and arid clime [H. S. Hills]. Proved one of the best
pasture-grasses in sub-tropic West-Australia [Isaac Tyson]. E.
punctata (Hamilton) and E. annulata (Kunth) are varieties.
Eruca sativa, Miller.
From Southern Europe to Central Asia, ascending the Himalayas
to 10,000 feet. An annual herb, not unimportant as an oil-plant ;
much cultivated in some parts of Siberia for its seed [Dr. A. Regel].
Also grown to a considerable extent in the Punjab for fodder [Dr.
G. Watt].
ErVTim Lens, Linn.* (Lens esculenta, Moench; Lathyrus Lens, Petermann. )
The Lentil. South-Europe, South- Western Asia. Reared up to
an elevation of 11,500 feet in Indfa. Under culture in Hungary
prior to historic ages. Annual, affording in its seeds a palatable and
very nutritious food. Appreciated since Esau's time. The variety
microspermum is especially praised by Dr. Heldreich. A calcareous
soil is essential for the prolific growth of this plant. In dry districts
of Australia to be sown immediately after the autumnal rains. The
leafy stalks, after the removal of the seeds, remain a good stable-
fodder. The variety called the Winter-Lentil is more prolific than
the Summer-Lentil. Valuable as honey -yielding for bees. Seeds
will retain their vitality for about four years [Vilmorin]. The
"Revalenta Arabica " consists mainly of lentil-flour.
Eryngium maritimum, Linne.
Europe, North-Africa, South- Western Asia. This perennial herb
deserves dissemination on sandy oceanic shores. Root of medicinal
value. Young shoots serve as a substitute for asparagus [Dr.
Rosenthal], so those of E. campestre (Linne), a plant of similar
geographic range.
182 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Eryngium pandanifolium, Chamisso.
South-Brazil, Paraguay, Misiones and Chaco. This or an allied
species, called " Caraguata," with bromeliaceous habit, yields there
textile fibre, which is long and silky [Kew Report. 1877, p. 37 ;
Gard. Chron., 1882, p. 431, E. H. Egerton].
Brythea edulis, S. Watson.* (Brahea edulis, H. Wendland.)
Solely on the Californian Guadalupe-Island. This Fan-palm is
generically allied to Copernicia [J. Hooker, H. Wendland]. Height
to 40 feet, stem slender, growth comparatively fast. Bunches of
fruit attaining six feet in length, and a weight of 50 Ibs. Individual
fruits of the size of prunes, the outer portion edible. Seeds when
fresh quickly germinating [Dr. Franceschi]. With E. armata (S.
Watson), among the comparatively few Palms for extra-tropic regions.
From the flowering to the fruiting time only four months.
Brythrina acanthocarpa, E. Meyer.
South- Africa. The root attains a length of o feet and a diameter
of 18 inches ; it is thrice lighter than cork, and Solah-hats can be
cut out of solid pieces of the root [Professor MacOwan].
Erythrina Caffra, Thunberg.
The Kafir- Boom. South- Africa. A very showy tree with de-
ciduous foliage, covered in early summer with scarlet flowers while
bare of leaves. Often attains a large size and is then a splendid
avenue-tree. Easily propagated from cuttings 6 feet long and fi-9
inches in diameter [T. R. Sim].
Erythroxylon Coca, Lamarck.*
Peru and Eastern Bolivia. This shrub is famed for the extra-
ordinary stimulating property of its leaves, which pass under the
names of Spadic and Coca. They contain two alkaloids, cocain and
hygrin ; also a peculiar tannic acid. The cocain has become of
great importance in medicine, as a topical anaesthetic, particularly
in ophthalmic surgery. In the native country of the plant its leaves
have for ages been in use for chewing, to stave off hunger, thirst,
sleep and fatigue [Capt. G-. Harrison] ; also for allaying local pain.
The are also chewed by the Peruvians for the purpose of increasing
the endurance of fatigue during long pedestrian journeys. The
leaves might also be kept available on board of ships, to sustain
strength in severe trials of sea-life. The plant is fit for dry frostless
climes. Succeeds well in Natal [J. M. Wood]. According to Mr.
G. Peppe it can be multiplied readily from cuttings. An enormous
quantity is annually collected and sold. The leaves have lately come
also into use for a liqueur. Mr. Christy mentions the use of the leaves
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 183
for counteracting the effect of opium ; they seem also to prevent sea-
sickness. Recommended recently as an antidote to snake-poison.
The moderate consumption of this plant seems to leave no ill effect.
The Peruvians mix the leaves with the forage of mules, to increase
their power of enduring fatigue. A good harvest produces about
900 Ibs. on an acre [Dr. Weddell]. The total annual production is
about 40,000,000 Ibs. valued at 2,000,000 [Dyer] all consumed in
South- America. Whether any of the many other species of
Erythroxylon possesses similar properties in the same proportion has
as yet only been partially ascertained.
Eucalyptus Abergiana, F. v. Mueller.
Northern Queensland. A stately tree, with unusually spreading
branches of dense foliage. The quality of its timber has remained
hitherto unknown, but the species will probably prove one of the
most suitable among its congeners for tropical countries.
Eucalyptus alba, Reinwardt.
Timor and North- Australia, also New Guinea. This species
proved well adapted for the lowland-clime of Ceylon, growing fast
and seeding freely [Dr. Henry Trimen].
Eucalyptus amygdalina, La Billardiere.*
South-Eastern Australia. Vernacularly known as Brown and
White Peppermint-tree, Giant-Gumtree and as one of the Swamp-
Gumtrees. The variety regnans as Victorian Blackbutt and Moun-
tain-Ash. In sheltered springy forest-glens attaining exceptionally
to a height of over 400 feet, there forming a smooth stem and broad
leaves, producing also seedlings of a foliage different from the
ordinary form of E. amygdalina, which occurs in more open country,
and has small narrow leaves and a rough brownish bark. The
former species or variety, which has been called Eucalyptus reg-
nans, represents probably the loftiest tree on the globe. Mr. J.
Hollo of Tarragon measured a tree, which was 410 feet high. Another
tree in the Cape Otway-ranges was found to be 415 feet high and
15 feet in diameter, where cut in felling, at a considerable height
above the ground. Another tree measured 69 feet in circumference
at the base of the stem ; at 12 feet from the ground it had a diameter
of 14 feet ; at 78 feet a diameter of 9 feet ; at 144 feet a diameter
of 8 feet, and at 210 feet a diameter of 5 feet. Other trees are
known with a stem-circumference of 66 feet at 5 feet from the
ground. Prof. Wilson and Colonel Ellery obtained at Mount Sabine
a measurement of 21 feet 8 inches in diameter of a stem, where cut,
the length being 380 feet. Colonel Ellery had repeatedly reports
of trees seven axe-handles in diameter, and he met a tree on Mount
Disappointment with a stem diameter of 33 feet at about 4 feet from
the ground. Similar colossal dimensions are recorded from
184 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Tasmania ; indeed Tasman's carpenter was already astonished at
the hugeness of the trees there. The wood is fissile, well adapted
for shingles, rails, staves, inner building-material and many other
purposes, but it is not a strong wood. That of the smaller rough-
barked variety has proved lasting for fence-posts. Bees draw much
honey from the flowers of Eucalypts. La Billardiere's name applies
ill to any of the forms of this species. Plants raised on rather barren
ground near Melbourne have shown nearly the same amazing rapidity
of growth as those of E. globulus ; yet, like those of E. obliqua, they
are not so easily satisfied with any soil. In the south of France this
tree grew to a height of 50 feet in eight years. It has endured the
frosts of the milder parts of England, with E. Gunnii and E. cordata.
In New Zealand it has survived the cold, where E. globulus succumbed.
E. amygdalina, E. urnigera, E. coccifera, E. rostrata and E. corymbosa
have proved more hardy than E. globulus, E. diversicolor, E. resinifera,
E. longifolia and E. melliodora at Rome, according to the Rev. M.
Gildas, E. coccifera being hardier than any other. Professor Ch.
Naudin believes, that E. amygdalina will prove hardy along the
western maritime districts of France as far north as Brittany ; the
ordinary variety proved also hardy in the mild climate of Arran [Rev.
D. Landsborough] ; also along with E. globulus at Falmouth [G. H.
Taylor], the typical rough-barked form enduring more frost than the
sylvan form E. regnans. In Gippsland it ascends to an altitude of
4,000 feet. Mons. F. de Rochemache observes, that E. amygdalina
grows nearly five times quicker in South-Europe than Pinus Laricio.
This tree and others with very oily foliage have to be specially guarded
against forest-conflagrations. The prospect of distilling the now
well known Eucalyptus-oil from different species as a new industry
was pointed out by the writer of this work already, 1853, in his
annual report to the Government, printed by order of the Victorian
Parliament then. It was first brought extensively into commerce by
Mr. Bosisto, who has the credit of having ascertained many of the
properties of this oil for technic application. Single consignments
of 2,000 Ibs. have arrived from Mr. Bosisto's establishment in London.
It is this species which yields more volatile oil than any other hitherto
tested, and which therefore is largely chosen for distillation; thus it
is also one of the best for subduing malarian effluvia in fever-regions,
although it does not grow with quite the same ease and celerity as
E. globulus. Dr. Curgenven found Eucalyptus-oil, combined with
thymol and other antiseptics, highly efficacious in the treatment of
scarlet-fever and other infectious diseases, especially as an external
application. Fresh Eucalyptus-branchlets, particularly of E. amyg-
dalina, should be daily placed into the sickroom of phthisic patients,
best under the bedstead, the effect being not only antiseptic, but
also sedative and to some extent hypnotic. Colonel Warren quotes
from scripture in reference to the medicinal value of the Eucalypts :
" The leaves of the tree shall be for the healing of the nations/'
The respective hygienic value of various Eucalypts may to some
extent be judged from the average percentage of oil in their foliage,
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries.
185
as stated below, and as ascertained by Mr. Bosisto, at the author's
instance, for the Exhibition of 1862:
E. amygdalina
E. oleosa
E. leucoxylon
E. goniocalyx
E. globulus
E. obliqua
3-313 per cent, volatile oil.
1-250
1-060
0-914
0-719
0-500
The lesser quantity of oil of E. globulus is however compensated for
by the vigor of its growth and the early copiousness of its foliage.
The proportion of oil varies also somewhat according to locality and
season. E. rostrata, though one of the poorest in oil, is nevertheless
important for malaria-regions, as it will grow well on periodically
inundated places and even in stagnant waters not saline. According
to Mr. Osborne's experiments, initiated by myself, Eucalyptus-oils
dissolve the following, among other substances, for select varnishes
and other preparations : camphor, pine-resins, mastic, elemi, sandarac,
kauri, dammar, asphalt, xanthorrhoea-resin, dragon's blood, benzoe,
copal, amber, anime, shellac, caoutchouc, also wax, but not gutta-
percha. These substances are arranged here in the order of their
f neatest solubility. The potash obtainable from the ashes of various
ucalypts varies from 5 to 27 per cent. One ton of the fresh foliage
of E. globulus yields about 8J Ibs. of pearl-ash ; a ton of the green
wood, about 2^ Ibs.; of dry wood, about 4J Ibs. The kino of E.
amygdalina is almost completely soluble, as well in alcohol as in
boiling water, and contains at an average about 58 per cent, of tannin
[Maiden]. For chemical determinations of tan-principles in bark
and kino of various Eucalypts may also be referred to Prof. Wiesner's
published early observations on material supplied by the writer of
this work. For resins, tar, acetic acid, tannin and other products
and educts of many Eucalypts, see various documents and reports
of the writer, issued from the Melbourne Botanic Garden already,
1866. Professor Ch. Naudin has published quite recently a valuable
treatise on the Eucalypts, which have been introduced into France
and Algeria.
Eucalyptus Baileyana, F. v. Mueller.
South-Queensland and Northern part of New South Wales. A
tree to about 100 feet high ; bark remarkably tenacious [Bailey].
The timber splits easily, yet is tough and durable, thus locally used
for fence-posts and similar purposes [A. Williams]. This species,
unlike most of its congeners, can be grown to advantage on sandy soil.
Branches more spreading and foliage more dense than of most other
Eucalypts.
Eucalyptus botrypides, Smith.*
From East-Gippsland to South-Queensland. Vernacular name
Bastard-Mahogany, and a variety called Bangalay, the latter
186 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
generally found on coast-sands. One of the most stately among
an extensive number of species, remarkable for its dark-green
shady foliage. It delights in river-banks, but will thrive also on
ground with stagnant moisture. Grows splendidly at the city of
Algiers [Prof. Bourlier]. Stems attain a height of 80 feet without
a branch and a diameter of 8 feet. The timber usually sound to
the centre, adapted for waterworks, waggons, particularly for
felloes, also knees of boats. Posts formed of it are very lasting, as
no decay was observed in fourteen years ; it is also well adapted for
shingles. The Rev. Dr. Woolls, Mr. Kirton and Mr. Reader all
testify to its general excellence.
Eucalyptus calophylla, R. Brown.
South- Western Australia, where it is vernacularly known as Red
Gurntree. More umbrageous than most Eucalypts and of compara-
tively rapid growth. In its native forests it has quite the aspect of
the Eastern Bloodwood-trees, E. corymbosa and its allies. It is
eligible as a shade-tree for avenues, as the leaves stand in a horizontal
position. Specially a bee-tree, as it keeps flowering late into the
autumn. It succeeds well at the city of Algiers [Dr. Bourlier], also
suited for mountainous regions of Ceylon. The wood is almost des-
titute of kino, when grown on alluvial land, but not so when produced
on stony ranges. It is preferred to that of E. marginata and E.
cornuta for rafters, spokes and fence-rails, also used for handles and
agricultural implements ; it is strong and light, but not durable
underground. The bark is valuable for tanning, as an admixture to
Acacia-bark; the seed-vessels of this and perhaps all other Eucalypts
can be used for the same purpose. The stem of this tree may occa-
sionally be observed to 10 feet in diameter ; it is the only tree in
West-Australia, which yields copiously the fluid and indurating
Eucalyptus-kino ; this is soluble in cold water to the extent of 70
to 80 per cent. Mr. W. Webb, of King George's Sound, informs us
that from a well-developed tree as much as from 100 to 150 Ibs. of
kino-sap can be tapped during a year, the boring to be done every
three months, or the same bores are re-opened, the auger-holes to be
made particularly near the butt. This kino-fluid might be used as a
protection of wood and perhaps other substances against decay. This
species will only endure a slight frost; its flowers are much frequented
by the honey-bee. The seeds are well-tasted, and large enough when
dropped to be picked by fowl.
Eucalyptus capitellata, Smith.
One of the Stringybark-trees of South-Eastern Australia, extend-
ing into the dry mallee-country, attaining occasionally a height of
200 feet. The timber is principally used for fence-rails, shingles
and rough building purposes. Kino soluble in water as well as in-
alcohol. This species might with advantage be raised on wet sandy
land. Produces seed already when quite young.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 187
Eucalyptus citriodora, Hooker.*
Queensland. Generally on sterile stony ridges. A handsome
slender tree with a smooth white bark, supplying a useful timber,
especially for piles and girders. Succeeded remarkably well at
Lucknow [Ridley], also at Zanzibar, where it grows at a tremendous
rate [Sir J. Kirk], and thrives also in Bengal and Oudh [Gamble].
It is this species, which grows so well on the hot plains of the Mag-
dalena River, attaining a height of 20 feet in two years, in regions
subject to protracted drought [Dr. Masters]. According to notes of
the late Mr. Thozet, a trunk 40 feet long and 20 inches in diameter
broke after a flexion of 17 inches, under a pressure of 49 tons. This
species combines with the ordinary qualities of many Eucalypts the
advantage of yielding from its fresh leaves a rather large supply of
volatile oil (slightly more than one per cent.) of excellent lemon-like
fragrance, in which respect it has, among other 120 species of Euca-
lypts, only one rival. This oil has come already into commerce
through Mr. Jeffries Tunbury's distillery at Port Curtis ; it contains
no Eucalyptol ; it is soluble in five parts of alcohol of 70 per cent,
strength [Schimmel]. Very retentive in perfumery. The young
plants also particularly desirable for window-culture, seedlings being
easily obtainable. Fresh foliage splendid for strewing about rooms
or placing in large vases for fragrance and sanitary purposes also.
Very closely allied to E. maculata, and perhaps only a variety.
Particularly adapted for a tropical jungle-clime. Dislikes frost.
Eucalyptus coccifera, J. Hooker.
Tasmania. Although only a subalpine form of E. amygdalina, it
may for cultural purposes be regarded as a very distinct tree. With-
stood the severest winters of Wimbledon [J. Colebrook].
Eucalyptus COrdata, La Billardiere.
Southern Tasmania. Maximum height, 50 feet ; flowering in a
shrubby state already. The variety E. urnigera (J. Hooker) is
particularly hardy, and may become of sanitary importance to colder
countries in malarian regions, the foliage being much imbued with
antiseptic oil. Greatest height of E. urnigera 150 feet ; stem-
diameter to 6 feet [Abbott].
Eucalyptus cornuta, La Billardiere.
The Yate-tree of South-Western Australia. A large tree of rapid
growth, preferring a somewhat humid soil. The wood is used for
various artisans' work, and preferred there for the strongest shafts
and frames of carts and other work requiring hardness, toughness and
elasticity, and is considered equal to ordinary ash-wood. The tree
appears to be well adapted for tropical countries, as Dr. Bonavia
reports, that it attained a height of 8 to 10 feet in the first year of its
growth at Lucknow, and that the plants did not suffer in the rainy
188 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
season like many other Eucalypts. Thrives also particularly well at
the city of Algiers [Prof. Bourlier]. The dry wood sinks in water.
E. occidentalis (Endlicher) is the flat-topped Yate, an allied and
equally valuable species of South- Western Australia. This species
along with E. amygdalina, E. eugenioides, E. globulus, E. Gunnii,
E. marginata, E. obliqua, E. rostrata, E. Stuartiana and E. viminalis
are mentioned by Bargellini to have well succeeded in Istria, where
they were first introduced by the writer of this work.
Eucalyptus corymbosa, Smith.*
The principal Bloodwood-tree of New South Wales and Queens-
land. A tree attaining large dimensions ; it has a rough furrowed
bark and a dark-reddish wood, soft when fresh, but very hard when
dry ; very durable under-ground, and therefore extensively used for
fence-posts, rails, railway-sleepers and rough building-purposes.
Fence-posts from this tree showed hardly any decay after 40 years
[R. Crawford], but it is too much traversed by kino to serve for
sawn-timber. The bark is rich in kino, which yields about 28 per
cent, of tannic acid, while the percentage of tan in completely dried
leaves is about 18 [Maiden]. The oil rich in Cineol [Schimmel].
Eucalyptus corynocalyx, F. v. Mueller.*
South-Australia, North-Western Victoria. The Sugar-Gumtree.
Profusely flowering. A timber-tree, attaining a height of 120 feet,
length of bole to 60 feet, circumference at 5 feet from the ground
reaching 17 feet. The base of the trunk often swells out in regular
tiers. The wood remarkably heavy, very dense, hard and strong,
less liable to warp than that of many other kinds of Eucalyptus-wood
[J. E. Brown]. It has come into use for fence-posts and railway-
sleepers, naves and felloes. Its durability is attested by the fact,
that posts set in the ground fifteen years, showed no sign of decay.
The tree thrives well even on dry ironstone ranges. Better than any
other species in the waterless regions of the Wimmera [Dr. Rabe].
On the western treeless plains, exposed to hot as well as to bleak
winds, this Eucalypt has grown 30 feet in five years, and is the
quickest-growing species eligible for shelter and shade, as after so
short a time the protecting fences can be removed from the young trees,
the latter affording sheltered resting places for the stock [J. Currie].
The sweetish and pleasantly odorous foliage attracts cattle, sheep
and camels, which browse on the lower branches, as well as on
saplings and seedlings. Scarcely any other Eucalypt is similarly
eaten [J. E. Brown]. It should therefore be planted on cattle and
sheep runs in arid districts, to furnish additional provender. In
ordinary culture the writer does not find this species of quick growth ;
but Mr. Brown records that it has grown 7 to 8 feet in a year at
Quorn, and that it is one of the most valuable of all trees for the dry
and arid regions of South- Australia. It prefers however humid soil
near water-courses, according to Mr. Tepper. Has withstood a tem-
perature of 18 F. in the South of France [Naudin].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 189
Eucalyptus crebra, F. v. Mueller.*
The narrow -leaved Ironbark-tree of New South Wales and
Queensland. Wood reddish, hard, heavy, elastic and durable ;
much used in the construction of bridges and for railway-sleepers,
also for waggons, piles, fence-posts. The best species in sub-tropic
East-Australia for splitting into palings, such in fences have
remained sound after 30 years [J. Edgar]. The oil, which has
become a commercial article, is rich in Eucalyptol [Schimmel]. E.
drepanophylla is a closely allied species of similar value, bearing an
enormous strain. Both exude astringent gum-resin, resembling kino
in appearance and property, to a considerable extent. They are
susceptible to frost.
Eucalyptus diversicolor, F. v. Mueller.* (E. colossea, F. v. M.)
The Karri of South- Western Australia. A colossal tree, excep-
tionally reaching the height of 400 feet, with a proportionate girth
of the stem. Mr. Muir measured stems nearly 300 feet long with-
out a branch ; widths of the timber as much as 12 feet can be
obtained. Furnishes good timber for building, even for masts,'
likewise for planks ; also valuable for shafts, spokes, felloes, fence-
rails ; it is elastic, but not so easily wrought as that of E.
marginata. Mr. G. Simson does not deem the wood very durable,
if exposed to moisture or if in contact with the ground. Its strength
in transverse strain is equal to English oak, while it is 50 per cent,
stronger in regard to vertical crushing strain, according to tests made
under the supervision of Mr. Laslett. Admirable for wood bricks
even in cold climes. It is not so liable to warp as that of many other
species. Very fair progress of growth is shown by the trees
planted even in dry exposed localities in Melbourne. The shady
foliage and quick growth of the tree promise to render it one of our
best for avenues. In its native localities it occupies fertile, rather
humid valleys and resembles there in habit the E. amygdalina var.
regnans of South-Eastern Australia. Proved well adapted for the
mountains of Ceylon, and Professor Bourlier mentions it as one of
the best at Algiers.
Eucalyptus Doratoxylon, F. v. Mueller.
The Spearwood-tree of South-Western Australia, where it occurs
in sterile districts. The stem is slender and remarkably straight,
and the wood of such firmness and elasticity that the nomadic
natives wander long distances to obtain it as a material for their
spears. It is not a large tree.
Eucalyptus eugenic-ides, Sieber.
The White Striugybark-tree of Victoria and New South Wales.
The tree is abundant in some localities, and attains considerable
dimensions. Its useful fissile wood is employed for fencing and
building purposes. Systematically the species is closely allied to
190 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
E. piperita. Rails used for 40 years could be re-used in new posts
tA. R. Crawford]. Kino soluble in water as well as in alcohol
J. H. Maiden].
Eucalyptus ficifolia, F. v. Mueller.*
South- Western Australia. Although not a tree of large dimen-
sions, this splendid species should be mentioned for the sake of its
magnificent trusses of crimson flowers, irrespective of its claims as
a shady, heat-resisting avenue-tree, not standing in need of watering.
It bears a close resemblance to E. calophylla.
Eucalyptus globulus, La Billardidre.*
The Blue Gumtree of Victoria and Tasmania ; very rare in New
South Wales, extending however naturally to New England ; famed
all over the world, and, with many other species, in most places
first introduced directly or indirectly by the writer of this work,
at the Mediterranean Sea nearly 40 years ago, there by the aid of
Mons. Prosper Ramel. The tree is, among evergreen trees, of
unparalleled rapid growth, and attains exceptionally a height of
300 feet, furnishing a first-class wood. Ship-builders can get keels
of this timber 120 feet long ; besides this they use it extensively
for planking and many other parts of the ship. Experiments on
the strength of various woods, instituted by Mr. Luehmann ari/1 the
author, proved the wood of the Blue Gumtree in average of eleven
tests to be about equal to the best English oak, American white
oak and American ash. The best samples indeed carried as great
a weight as hickory in transverse strain, the ordinary kind about
as much as that of Eucalyptus rostrata, and more than that of E.
macrorrhyncha, E. Gunnii, E. Stuartiana, and E. goniocalyx, but
did not quite come up to the strength of E. mellidora, E. polyan-
thema, E. siderophloia and E. Leucoxylon. Bluegum-wood is also
very extensively used by carpenters for all kinds of out-door work,
joists and studs of wooden houses ; also for fence-rails, telegraph-
poles, railway-sleepers (lasting nine years or more), for shafts and
spokes of drays and a variety of other purposes. Mr. W. Tait, of
Oporto, has recommended the wood for wine-casks, these requiring
no soaking. The price of this timber in Melbourne is about Is. 7d.
per cubic foot, the weight of the latter when absolutely dry being
from 43 to 46 Ibs., equal to specific gravity 0'698-0'889 [F. v. M.
and Rummel]. It has also come into use for wood-bricks, the price
of which is at present about 4 per 1,000 in London. The felling
of Eucalypts for timber should be effected towards the end of the dry
season, when the flow of the sap will be least active, whereas ring-
barking, if that is at all admissible or desirable, should be effected
during the latter part of the cool or the earlier part of the warm
season, so that by exhausting the sap largely the least new shoots or
none will be formed from the root. Regular Eucalyptus-culture
merely for fuel would be profitable even in Australia on ground not
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 191
too distant from a market, and not otherwise readily utilised. In
South-Europe the E. globulus has withstood a temperature of 19 F.,
but succumbed at 17 F. ; it perished from frost at the Black Sea and
Turkestan, when young, according to Dr. Regel. Survived severe
winters in mild sheltered places of Cornwall and Dorsetshire, also
near Hastings [J. Colebrook]. According to the Rev. D. Lands-
borough, it proved hardy in the Isle of Arran. Mr. Ch. Traill notes
it as thriving amazingly as far south as Stewart-Island. Yet
the sirocco does not destroy it. In Jamaica it attained 60 feet in
seven years, on the hills ; in California it grew 60 feet in eleven
years ; in Florida 40 feet in four years, with a stem of 1 foot in
diameter. In some parts of India its growth has been even more rapid;
at the Neilgherry-Hills it has been reared advantageously, where
E. marginata, E. obliqua, E. robusta and E. calophylla had failed.
Its growth was there found to be four times as fast as that of teak r
and the wood proved for many purposes as valuable. Trees attained
a height of 30 feet in four years ; one tree, twelve years old, was 100
feet high, and 6 feet in girth at 3 feet from the ground ; to thrive
well there it wants an elevation of not less than 4,000 feet. It has
succeeded particularly well at an elevation of from 2,500 to 7,000
feet in Central Mexico [Dr. Mariano Barcena], Up to 1894 between
six and seven million trees were planted in the Transvaal, chiefly E.
globulus. Near Pretoria Mr. Schierholz noticed this species to have
attained a stem-circumference of 9J feet in 22 years. On the Upper
Shire-River, within British Nyassa-land, some of these trees have
already attained a height of over 100 feet. Ripens germinable seeds
in Jersey, where in 1891 already a tree had attained a height of 110
feet, with a stem-circumference of 10 feet at the base [T. Shannon].
Mr. T. Waugh observed in South-Island, .New Zealand, that plants,
raised from locally-ripened seeds, proved hardier than those raised
from Australian ordinary seed. The province of Roussillon, after
its thousands of years of history, became in the aspect of its landscape
completely changed within tlie last few years through Prof. Naudin
extending thereto also copiously E. globulus. At the height of 2,500
feet on the base of the South-European Alps and in localities too
cold for olive-culture, E. globulus grew to 70 feet high in seven
years [Naudin]. In Algeria and Portugal it has furnished railway-
sleepers in eight years, and telegraph-poles in ten years [Cruikshank].
At Urana it grew 15 feet in two years, with irrigation [E. Van
Weenan]. On the mountains at Guatemala it attained, in twelve
years, a height of 120 feet and a stern-circumference of 9 feet
[Boucard]. Will grow in favorable places on somewhat humid soil
slightly over a foot a month at Port Phillip while young. The form
of its leaves is only changed in the third year. The removal of the
broad-leaved lower branches from plants two or three years old
promotes much a healthy growth of the young trees. For window-
culture in cold countries E. globulus was first recommended by Ucke ;
for culture in hospital-wards, to counteract contagia, by Mosler and
Goeze. Eucalyptus leaves generate ozone largely for the purification
192 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
of air ; the volatile oil is very antiseptic. The ail remains in high
repute ; its unpleasant-smelling and cough-producing ingredients
distil over first, and can therefore easily be separated ; thus a refined
oil of uniformity is obtained. It contains at least 60 per cent.
Eucalyptol, and is free from Phellandrene. The oil is now distilled
also in Algeria on a large scale for medicinal and technic purposes
[Schimmelj. It comes likewise into commerce from the Neilgherry-
Hills [S. G. Wallace]. The annual export of it from California has
already reached 20,000 Ibs. [J. R. Jackson]. Oil of this or any
other Eucalypt internally administered should, even in cases of
adults, not exceed some few drops in single doses. Mr. G. Downie
discovered that with decotions of Eucalyptus-leaves the scales can be
removed from boilers [J. R. Jackson]. This tree, particularly when
in an unhealthy state, is at Melbourne apt to be bored by the larvae
of a large moth [Endoxyla Eucalypti] and also by two beetles
[Hapatesus hirtus and particularly Phoracantha tricuspis], as noticed
by Mr. Ch. French. Seeds will keep for several years, admit of easy
transmission abroad, and germinate quickly ; but a tree of such
celerity in growth and of such vast final dimensions wants necessarily
soil open to great depth for full scope to its roots, to attain unimpaired
development. Regarding the comparative strength of this and various
other timbers, the result of the tests, instituted and tabulated by
the Carriage-timber Board of the Victorian Railway Department,
much under the leading of Mr. Clement Hodgkinson, may be referred
to in the Progress Reports of the Victorian Royal Commission on
Vegetable Products [p. 477-490]. Colonel Warren reports from
San Francisco, that branchlets of Eucalypts will drive mosquitoes
and other insects out of rooms. To apiarists the tree is so far of
particular importance as it flowers in the cool season. Seeds of this
momentous tree were sent to Europe by the writer of this work
already in 1853.
Eucalyptus gomphocephala, De Candolle.*
The Tooart of South-Western Australia ; attains a height of 120
feet, the clear trunk a length of 50 feet. The wood is tough, heavy
and rigid, the texture close and the grain so twisted as to make it
difficult to cleave. It shrinks but little, does not split while under-
going the process of seasoning, and is altogether remarkably free
from defects. It will bear exposure to all vicissitudes of weather
for a long time, and is particularly valuable for large scantling,
where great strength is needed ; in ship-building it is used for beams,
keelsons, stern-posts, engine-bearers, and other work below the
flotation ; recommendable also for supports of bridges, framing of
dock gates and for wheelwrights' work ; indeed it is one of the
strongest woods known, whether tried transversely or otherwise
[Laslett]. Grew in seven years to a good-sized tree in South-France,
and so did the following species, as well as E. diversicolor, E.
botryoides, E. Gunnii, E. polyanthema and E. viminalis [Naudin].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 193
This species, as well as E. odorata, E. foecunda and E. decipiens,
thrives best in limestone-soil ; it likes a coast climate. Yields a
Mellitose-Manna .
Eucalyptus goniocalyx, F. v. Mueller.*
Generally known as Bastard-Boxtree and occasionally as Spotted
Gumtree. From Cape Otway to the Southern parts of New South
Wales, rare near St. Vincent's Gulf [McEwin] and Flinders Range
[J. E. Brown]. Ascends to 4,000 feet, and attains excep-
tionally a height of 250 feet. Thrives well near the city of
Algiers [Professor Bourlier]. Should be included among those
for Eucalyptus-plantations. Its wood resembles in many respects
that of E. globulus, and is, comparatively speaking, easily worked.
For house-building, fence-rails, and similar purposes it is extensively
employed in those forest-districts, where it is abundant, and has
proved a valuable timber. It is especially esteemed for wheel-
wrights' work [Falck]. Excellent for fuel. Our local experiments
showed the strength greater than that of E. amygdalina and E.
obliqua, but less than that of E. globulus. It varies considerably,
like many other Eucalypts, according to the situation of the trees.
Mellitose is formed occasionally on this tree and also on the following
species. In this species and others the author counted more than
one annual wood-ring without clearly visible demarcation of yearly
increment.
Eucalyptus Gunnii, J. Hooker.*
Known as Swamp- Gumtree, the mountain variety as Cider-tree.
Victoria, Tasmania and New South Wales, ascending alpine eleva-
tions. In the low-land along fertile valleys it attains a considerable
size, and supplies a strong useful timber. It is this species which
survived severe frosts at Kew-Gardens. Bees obtain unusually
much honey from the flowers of this species, it flowering earlier than
E. viminalis. Cattle and sheep browse on the foliage. Timber
found to be almost equal in strength to that of E. macrorrhyncha,
E. rostrata and E. globulus. The other very hardy Eucalypts com-
prise E. pauciflora, E. alpina, E. urnigera, E. coccifera and E. verni-
cosa, which all reach heights, covered with snow for several months
in the year. Succeeded well at Arran [Capt. Brown and Rev. D.
Landsborough], though slightly injured in its younger ramifications.
The percentage of kino-tannin in the absolutely dry bark is from 9^
to 1 1 5 [ J. H. Maiden] . Any cutting down of healthy Eucalypts in
places of centres of populations, to substitute there for a zone of
evergreen vegetation the northern deciduous trees extensively, is
regrettable, as therewith the far superior hygienic value of the
Eucalypts is lost, and the aspect of the Australian landscape during
half a year rendered dismal, so far as vegetative features are con-
cerned.
194 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Eucalyptus hsemastoma, Smith.
One of the White Gumtrees of New South Wales and Southern
Queensland, abundant in many localities. This species attains a
very considerable size, but furnishes fencing and rough building
material only and fuel of inferior quality [Rev. Dr. Woolls], yet it
claims our attention particularly as fit for culture on sandy land, for
which purpose very few other Eucalypts are suited, thus affording
shelter and aiding salubrity. A variety occurs with persistent
stringy bark. Dr. Bancroft finds the yield of kino from the stem
and that of oil from the foliage considerable, and the oil of an agree-
able odor. Mr. Maiden determined the tannin in this kino to be
about 54 per cent. ; the kino is soluble as well in water as in
alcohol.
Eucalyptus hemiphloia, F. v. Mueller.*
South-Eastern Australia, particularly inland. A tree, reaching
90 feet in height and 4 feet in stem-diameter. Trunk generally not
tall ; occasionally however up to 50 feet. 1 Regarded as a timber-tree
of great excellence. It is famous for the hardness and toughness of
its timber, which is used for railway-sleepers, telegraph-poles, shafts,
spokes, mauls, plough-beams and similar utensils ; also excellent For
fuel. This passes at its places of growth as a "Boxtree" and a
variety of it as " White Boxtree." The oil of the foliage contains
much Cymin-Aldehyde, also much Cineol [Schimmel].
Eucalyptus Howittiana, F. v. Mueller.*
Littoral North-Queensland. A tree, gaining a height of fully
100 feet, with remarkably umbrageous foliage ; girth of stem towards
the base to fully 12 feet. Wood comparable to that of the so-called
" Boxtrees," but straighter in grain. This species would be par-
ticularly adapted for intra-tropical countries.
Eucalyptus incrassata, Labillardiere.
From Eastern to Western Australia, in the sterile interior. One
of the Mallee-trees, oftener a tall shrub than arborescent. It will
live in mere sand and brave the most scorching hot winds, but will
also bear some frost. The leaves supply a considerable proportion
of the mercantile Eucalyptus oil.
Eucalyptus largiflorens, F. v. Mueller.
South-Eastern Australia, principally in the inland districts. Likes
humid depressions. The " Goborro " of the aborigines, according to
the Rev. Dr. Woolls. One of the so-called Boxtrees, rising to a
height of 120 feet as a maximum. Stem-diameter to 3 feet. Wood
dark brown-red, excessively hard ; fence-posts from this wood were
found quite sound after 30 years ; the tissue of the wood much
interlocked in its particles, excellent for naves, felloes and mauls
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 195
[Walter Gill]. Bees are particularly fond of the blossoms of this
tree, and the honey gained therefrom is clear and well tasted [Miss
S. J. McLean].
Eucalyptus leptophleba, F. v. Mueller.
Queensland. Height rarely over 60 feet ; stem-diameter to 3 feet.
Timber strong, hard, very durable and variously applied, thus : for
bridge-structures, mine-props and fence-posts ; nearly always stipu-
lated in contracts, at places of growth, for buildings [Stephen John-
son]. One of the most eligible species for intra-tropic culture.
Allied to E. crebra.
Eucalyptus Leucoxylon, F. v. Mueller.* ^-A.
The ordinary Ironbark-tree of Victoria and some parts of South-
Australia and New South Wales. It attains a height of 100 feet,
and supplies a most valuable timber ; this shows great strength and
hardness, is much prized for its durability, is largely employed by
waggon-builders for wheels and poles, by ship-builders for top-sides,
tree-nails, the rudder (stock), belaying pins and other purposes ; it is
also used by turners for rough work ; it proved to be the strongest
of all the woods hitherto subjected to test by Mr. Luehmann and my-
self, bearing nearly twice the strain of American oak and ash, and
excelling even hickory by about 1 8 per cent. It is much recommended
for railway-sleepers, and extensively used in underground mining
work. The Railway-Commissioners of Victoria recently reported
sleepers, laid 24 years ago, still quite sound. It is likewise very ex-
tensively employed for the handles of axes and other implements by
Victorian manufacturers ; also for stockwhip-handles and policemen's
batons. The price of the timber in the log is about 2s. 5d. per cubic
foot in Melbourne ; the weight of such, when completely dried, vary-
ing from 63 to GS^lbs,, equal to specific gravity 1-024 1*106 [F. v.
Mueller and Rummel]. As it is for some purposes superior to that of
almost any other Eucalyptus, the regular culture of this tree over
wide areas should be fostered, especially as it can be raised on stony
ridges not readily available for ordinary husbandry. The wood is
sometimes pale, in other localities rather dark. The tree is generally
restricted to the lower Silurian sandstone- and slate-formation with
ironstone and quartz. Nevertheless, it accommodates itself to various
geologic formations, thus even to limestone-ground. The bark is
remarkably rich in kino-tannin, yielding as much as 22 per cent, in
the fresh state, but much less after drying; the fresh leaves
contain about 5 per cent, and the dried leaves 9 to 10 per cent.
This kino-tannin is not equal in value to mimosa-tannic acid from
Acacia-bark, but it is useful as a subsidiary admixture, when light-
coloured leather is not aimed at. Mr. Maiden found it to contain
42 per cent, tannin. As an astringent drug this kino is not without
importance. Wood-bricks from the timber of this tree should prove
particularly lasting. All wood-paving diminishes dust very much.
O 2
196 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
The flowers are sought by bees, even more eagerly than those of
most other Eucalypts, the resulting honey being excellent [Cole-
man]. E. Leucoxylon has, next to E. rostrata, thriven best about
Lucknow, in India, among the species tried there for forest-culture.
E. Sideroxylon is a synonym, referring particularly to the rough-
barked variety. For quickly withdrawing the sap from freshly felled
timber in Switzerland the Rieser-process was invented ; it consists
in the wood being at once steamed and then kiln-dried, losses in
timber through cracking or deterioration through warping being thus
avoided. Mr. R. A. Robertson, in Victoria, has availed himself
already of the patent. Eucalyptus- wood can in this way be used for
casks, tools and other purposes far more advantageously, and gets also
better workable, though for underground applications perhaps too
much of the preservative principle may get removed.
Eucalyptus longifolia, Link.*
Extra-tropic Eastern Australia. A tree, known as the Woolly
Butt, under favorable circumstances reaching 200 feet in height, the
stem attaining a great girth. Mr. J. Reader asserts that there is not
extant a more useful timber ; it stands well in any situation. Weight
of a cubic foot of absolutely dry wood about 68^ Ibs., equal to
specific gravity 1'107 [F. v. Mueller and Rummel]. The tree thrives
well at the city of Algiers [Prof. Bourlier],
Eucalyptus loxophleba, Bentham.*
The York-Gumtree of extra-tropic West-Australia. Found natu-
rally in fertile soil, where it is comparatively quick in growth ; it
readily shoots again from stumps [G-. F. Best]. Attains a height of
about 100 feet, the stem a diameter of 4 feet. The wood is very
tough, and preferably sought in West- Australia for naves and felloes;
even when dry it is heavier than water. This species passes almost
into the earlier known E. fcecunda (Endlicher).
Eucalyptus macrorrhyncha, F. v. Mueller.*
The common Stringybark-tree of Victoria, not extending far into
New South Walew This tree attains a height of 120 feet, and is
generally found growing on sterile ridges ; to some degree frost-
bearing. The wood, which contains a good deal of kino is used for
joists, keels of boats, fence-rails, and rough building-purposes, also
extensively for fuel. The fibrous dark-brown bark serves for roofs
of huts, and also fpr rough tying. The wood proved in our experi-
ments here nearly as strong as that of E. globulus and E. rostrata,
and considerably stronger than that of E. obliqua. The fresh bark
contains from 11 to 14 per cent, of pure kino-tannic acid [F. v. M.
and Rummel]. The kino contains about 72 per cent, of tannin. It
is soluble in water as well as in alcohol [Maiden].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 197
Eucalyptus maculata, Hooker.*
The Spotted Gumtree of New South Wales and Queensland. A
tree, reaching 150 feet in height. Grows best on stony ridges.
Content with poor soil, but more susceptible to frost than many other
congeners [Naudin]. Thrives well on the mountains of Ceylon and
also at Algiers. The kino of this species is quite resinous, so much
so, that articles varnished with it withstand the application of watery
fluids [A. R. Crawford]. The wood is principally employed in ship-
building, wheelwrights' and coopers' work. One of the woods chosen
in Sydney for street- paving since 1880. Such wood-paving lasts
much longer in dry and winterless climes than in others. The heart-
wood is as strong as that of British oak [Rev. Dr. Woolls]. Average
specific gravity, when well-seasoned, 0-942 [Clem. Hodgkinson].
Eucalyptus marginata, Donn.*
The Jarrah or Mahogany-tree of South- Western Australia, famed
for its indestructible wood, which is neither attacked by chelura, nor
teredo, nor termites, and therefore much sought for jetties and other
structures exposed to sea-water, also for any underground-work,
telegraph-poles, and largely exported for railway-sleepers. Vessels
, built of this timber have been enabled to do away with copper-plating.
For jetties the piles are used round, and they do not split when
rammed even into limestone or other hard foundations, provided the
timber is of the best hard kind [Walker and Swan]. The Govern-
ment's Clerk of Works at Perth observed that he took up piles in
1877 which were driven for a whaling jetty in 1834, and that the
timber was perfectly sound, although the place was swarming with
teredo. At the jetty in Fremantle, piles 30 years old and others one
year old could scarcely be distinguished. The durability of this timber
seems largely attributable to kino-red, allied to phlobaphen, of which
it contains about 15 to 17 per cent. Of kino-tannin it contains 4 to
5 per cent. Sir Fred. Abel traces the immunity of this timber against
boring animals to the peculiar acid principle contained in this and
some allied woods. Timber of a close grain and a slightly oily
and resinous nature ; it works well, makes a fine finish, and is by
local ship-builders considered superior to either sal,' teak, or any
other wood, except perhaps English oak or live-oak. In West-
Australia it is much used for flooring, raftef%, shingles ; also for
furniture, as it is easily worked, takes a good polish, and then looks
very beautiful. It, is not too hard, and hence is more easily worked
than E. redunca and E. loxopbleba. The wood from the hills is
darker, tougher, and heavier than that from the plains. Wood-bricks
from this tree are since several years very successfully used in
London for street-paving. Well seasoned timber weighs about 64 Ibs.
per cubic foot ; freshly cut, from 71 to 76 Ibs. It is one of the least
inflammable woods according to Captain Fawcett, and is locally
regarded as one of the best woods for charcoal. Mr. H. E. Victor,
C.E., of Perth, estimates the area, covered at present by marketable
198 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Jarrah in South- Western Australia, at nine million acres, and the
yield at an average about 500 cubic feet of good timber per acre.
The trees should be felled in autumn or towards the end of summer,
in which case the timber will not warp. The tree grows chiefly on
ironstone-ranges. It does not accommodate itself to such a variety
of climes and soils as many other Eucalypts. At Melbourne it is
not quick of growth, if compared to E. globulus or to E. obliqua,
but it is likely to grow with celerity in mountain-regions. It suc-
ceeds well on the mountains of Ceylon [Alexander]. Massed in its
native country it presents the features of the East Australian
stringy bark-forests. Stems of this tree have been measured 80 feet
to the first branch, and 32 feet in circumference at 5 feet from the
ground. Instances are even on record of the stem having attained a
girth of 60 feet at 6 feet from the ground, through the formation of
buttresses. To prevent rending of the sawn- timber, Mr. Simpson
recommends it to be covered up with saw-dust.
Eucalyptus melanophloia, F. v. Mueller.
The Silver-leaved Ironbark-tree of New South Wales and Queens-
land. A middle-sized tree with a deeply furrowed bark and mealy
whitish foliage. The timber is strong and durable, and used for
telegraph-poles and railway-sleepers ; it is however apt to rend,
when exposed to the sun, unless well seasoned. The timber of all
ironbark-trees is applicable for wood-bricks used in street-paving.
Mr. Cosmo Newbery obtained from the bark 9 to 10 per cent, tannin.
Eucalyptus melliodora, A. Cunningham.*
The Yellow Boxtree of Victoria and some parts of New South
Wales and Southern Queensland, of a spreading habit of growth,
attaining a height of about 120 feet, with a comparatively stout stem.
The wood resembles that of E. rostrata in texture, but is of a paler
colour, and not quite so durable ; it is fully as strong, though second
to that of E. Leucoxylon, E. siderophloia", E. polyanthema, and the
best E. globulus ; it is esteemed for wheelwrights' and other artisans'
work, in shipbuilding, and supplies excellent fuel. Weight of a
cubic foot of absolutely dried wood between 67 and 70 Ibs., equal to
specific gravity 1-081-M25 [F. v. M. and Hummel]. The young
trees are used for telegraph-poles. Flowers much sought by bees,
as they are particularly meliigerous.
Eucalyptus microcorys, F. v. Mueller.*
One of the Stringybark-trees of New South Wales and South
Queensland, mostly known as Tallowwood-tree by the colonists. It
attains a great size ; barrel up to 100 feet in length and to 7 feet
in diameter. The whole height is sometimes nearly 300 feet [Faw-
cett]. According to Mr. Clement Hodgkinson it is probably the
third in height among the Eucalypts, E. amygdalina and E. diversi-
color being first and second, but perhaps E. obliqua, E. Raveretiana r
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 199
E. pilularis, E. goniocalyx and particularly E. globulus get as
high, the latter reaching occasionally 330 feet as recorded by Mr.
Backhouse. The wood is yellowish, free from kino-particles, easily
worked by saw or plane ; it is of a very greasy nature, so much so
as to be quite slippery when first cut [Ch. Fawcett]. This oily
substance, very similar to viscin, of which it contains about 1 per
cent., prevents the wood from splitting and twisting, though not
from shrinking. The timber is hard, durable even underground,
and is employed for railway-sleepers, wheelwrights' work, knees and
breast-hooks in ship-building ; used with advantage and preferentially
for wood-bricks in the city of Sydney ; the young trees serve for
telegraph-poles. The foliage is remarkably rich in volatile oil. The
kino differs from that of other Stringybark-trees in being soluble
only in warm water and in hot alcohol ; it contains catechu [J.
H. Maiden]. Dr. Dymock records the astonishing fact, that in some
parts of India this tree grew 30 feet in two years [Dr. Bancroft].
This species did particularly well at George-town in British Guiana,
growing at a rate from 10 to 18 feet yearly while in a young state
[Jenman]. It proved also valuable for the mountains of Ceylon,
where it grew 64 inches in girth in eight years, and where it exceeded
any other Eucalypt in celerity of growth [Alexander]. Not fit
for dry regions. * Mr. J. H. Maiden furnished an extensive original
article on this species for the Agric. Gazette of New South Wales,
May, 1894. From well matured seeds simply scattered during the
cool season on suitable soil of openings in forests Eucalypts of almost
any kind can be established or regenerated with the utmost facility.
Eucalyptus microtheca, F. v. Mueller.
Widely dispersed over the most arid extra-tropical as well as
tropical inland regions of Australia. The "Coolibah" of the
aborigines according to the Rev. Dr. Woolls. The tree wants ferru-
ginous-gravelly soil, perfectly drained. Withstands unscorched a
frequent heat of 1 56 F. in Central Australia, yet neither affected by
exceptionally severe frosts (18 F.) in the South of France, when
many other Eucalypts suffered. The development of this species
in Southern France and Algeria has been marvellously quick [Prof.
Naudtn]. One of the best trees for desert-tracts ; in favorable
places 150 feet high. Wood brown, sometimes very dark, hard,
heavy and elastic ; it is prettily marked, hence used for cabinet-
work, but more particularly for piles, bridges and railway-sleepers
[Rev. Dr. Woolls].
Eucalyptus miniata, Cunningham.
Littoral North- Western Australia. Attains a height of 80 feet.
Likes somewhat ferruginous soil [M. Holtze]. The brilliancy of
its orange-coloured flowers can hardly be surpassed. Yields kino of a
reddish colour.
200 . Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Eucalyptus Muelleriana, Howitt.*
Gippsland, on sandy clay. Yellow Stringy bark-tree. Maxi-
mum height 170 feet, with a straight rather massive bole. The
wood is yellowish, fissile, free from kino-veins or shakes, clear in the
grain and very durable, used for splitting and sawing. Fence-
posts of this timber have lasted for more than 30 years [A. W.
Howitt]. It has been largely used by the Melbourne Harbor-Trust
for piles. Mr. C. Hodgkinson found the transverse strength to be
greater than that of any other Victorian Eucalyptus tested by him
except E. Leucoxylon, E. globulus 'and a variety of E. hemiphloia.
Regarding the various Eucalypts of Gippsland, consult Mr. Hewitt's
essay in the Transactions of Royal Society of Victoria, II., 81-120,
based on many years' local unrivalled experience.
Eucalyptus obliqua, L'H&itier.*
The ordinary Stringybark-tree of Tasmania, generally designated
Messmate-tree in Victoria, attaining a height of 300 feet, with a
stem more than 10 feet in diameter, growing mostly in mountainous
country, and content with poor dry soil. The most gregarious of all
Eucalypts from Spencer's Gulf to the southern parts of New South
Wales, and in several varieties designated by splitters and other wood-
workers by different names. Most extensively used for cheap fencing
rails, palings, shingles, and any other rough wood-work, when no
great strength or elasticity is required. It is also employed for
sleepers of fair durability on the Victorian Railways. The bulk of
wood obtained from this tree in very poor soil is perhaps larger than
that of any other kind, and thus this species can be included even in
its native country, where it is naturally common and easily re-dissemi-
nated, among the trees for new forest-plantations in barren woodless
tracts, with a view of obtaining a ready and early supply of cheap
and easily fissile wood. Main-root more straightly descending than
that of most other species. Weight of completely dry wood from
50^- to 61 J Ibs. per cubic foot, equal to specific gravity 0'808 to 0*984.
The young trees are sometimes used for telegraph-poles. The fresh
bark contains from 11 to 13 J per cent, kino-tannic acid; the dry
leaves, according to Mr. Maiden, produce about 17 per cent. This
and other Stringybark-trees, on account of their very fibrous cortical
structure, have to be specially guarded against forest fires. The bast
is available for the manufacture of packing paper.
Eucalyptus ochrophloia, F. v. Mueller.
Arid interior of sub-tropic Eastern Australia, on ground subject to
occasional floods. A tree seldom over 30 feet high. Wood tough,
serviceable for slabs, rails and rafters, but not lasting underground.
A tree recommendable for hot and dry regions.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 201
Eucalyptus odorata, Behr.
The Peppermint-tree of South Australia. Reaching 70 feet in
height, the stem 2^ feet in diameter. Timber hard, very durable,
used for sleepers, posts and piles [J. E. Brown]. The tree follows
the limestone-formation, but occurs also in clayey loam ; 1,000 Ibs. of
foliage gave 112 oz. of oil [Nitschke].
Eucalyptus oleosa, F. v. Mueller.
One of the smaller Eucalypts, known as Mallee, extending from
East- to West-Australia through the desert-regions ; it will live in
mere sand. The essential oil, in which the foliage of this species is
comparatively rich, dissolves indiarubber without heat, according to
Mr. Bosisto ; it is also one of the best solvents for amber and other
fossil resins. It is largely produced at the Wimmera by Mr. Bosisto ;
it is unusually rich in Eucalyptol and thus leadingly indicated for
antiseptic purposes ; it contains also a principle allied to Cymin-
Aldehyde ; it does not cause, through irritating particles, any cough
to patients inhaling it [Schimmel]. Has been drawn into extensive
use as a remedy against influenza. The variety longirostris attains a
height of 120 feet, with a stem of 70 feet without a branch, in West-
Australia, where it is vernacularly known as Morrell. The wood is
remarkably hard, splits freely, and is used for spars, rafters, fence-
rails, wheelwrights' work and agricultural implements. It is of a red
tinge, and sinks in water, even when dry. 1,000 Ibs. of fresh foliage
gave, in distillation, 62 oz. of oil [Nitschke]. Of other Malices E.
gracilis gave 54 oz.; E. uncinata, 69 oz.; E. incrassata, 112 oz. At
Mr. Bosisto's great factory in the mallee-scrub, where all four species
are mixedly used, 30 tons of foliage come into distillation every week
for 10 months in the year, the development of oil during autumn
considerably diminishing. The average yield is about 1 per cent.
Eucalyptus paniculata, Smith.
The Red Ironbark-tree of New South Wales. This species has
particularly well thriven in the coast tracts of Natal [ J. M. Wood] ;
it furnishes a hard durable wood, excellent for railway sleepers. It
is also much used for building and fencing, as it is lasting under-
ground. All the trees of this series are deserving of cultivation, as
their wood, though always excellent, is far from alike, and that of
each species preferred for special purposes of the artisan. A variety
from the deserts is so marked, that it received the name E. fasciculosa,
and may for xylologic distinctions be very well kept apart.
Eucalyptus patens, Bentham.
The " Black-butt" of South- Western Australia. Attains a height
of 120 feet, and a stem-diameter of 6 feet. The timber is so tough
as not to yield to ordinary splitting processes, therefore useful for
various wheelwrights' work ; it has proved also durable underground.
202 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Eucalyptus pauciflora, Sieber. (E. coriacea, A. Cunningham.)
Vernacularly known as White gumtree, Drooping gumtree or
Swamp-gumtree. New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania. A tree
of handsome appearance, with a smooth white bark and generally
drooping foliage ; it attains considerable dimensions, grows best in
moist ground, ascends to alpine elevations, and thus is one of the
hardiest of all its congeners. Even small seedlings are not injured
by the winters of Arran : grew there 20 feet in seven years [Rev. D.
Landsborough]. Can be grown as an antimalarian tree, where rather
severe frosts occur, with E. amygdalina, E. coccifera, E. urnigera.
It shows a preference for' basaltic soil. Horses, cattle and sheep
browse readily on the foliage. It is locally a " stand-by " in bad
pastoral seasons. Its timber is used for ordinary building and fenc-
ing purposes. For quickly producing fuel one of the best of trees
[A. R. Crawford]. Also a rich yielder of kino, which is soluble in
water as well as in alcohol.
Eucalyptus phcenicea, F. v. Mueller.
Carpentaria and Arnhem's Land. Of the quality of the timber
hardly anything is known, but the brilliancy of its scarlet flowers
recommends this species fora place in any park-plantation of countries
with a serene clime.
Eucalyptus pilularis, Smith.*
The Black-butt of South-Queensland, New South Wales and
Gippsland. One of the best timber-yielding trees about Sydney ; of
rather rapid growth [Rev. Dr. Woolls]. Exceptionally rising to 300
feet. At Bulli a stem expanded by buttresses to 57 feet girth at the
base ; the stem measured 40 feet in circumference at 6 feet from the
ground. More branching out when young than many other species,
and thus fitter for storm-exposed localities [H. L. Holmes]. Timber
much used for flooring-boards, also for railway-sleepers and telegraph-
poles, and for wood-bricks in street-paving in Sydney. Weight of a
cubic foot of absolutely dry wood from 50 to 56 Ibs., equal to specific
gravity 0'803-0'897 [F. v. M. and Rummel]. The kino of this tree
is soluble as well in water as in alcohol [J. H. Maiden].
Eucalyptus piperita, Smith.
New South Wales and Gippsland, often termed Peppermint Stringy-
bark-tree. It grows to a considerable height, and its stem attains a
diameter of four feet. The wood is fissile, and used for the same
purposes as that of other Striugyfeark-trees. The kino is soluble in
water as well as in alcohol. The foliage is rich in volatile oil, and
yields also, according to Mr. J. H. Maiden, a comparatively large
percentage of kino-tannin, about 12| per cent, from perfectly dried
leaves. All Eucalypts with strong-scented foliage are useful as
insecticides ; the fresh leaves also purify the air of unsalubrious
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 203
dwellings and of hospitals. Thus the foliage is also very inflam-
mable, and this has to be kept in mind when establishing Eucalyptus-
forests.
Eucalyptus Planchoniana, F. v. Mueller.
South-Queensland and Northern part of New South Wales. A
tree to about 100 feet in height, the stem reaching 3 feet in diameter.
The foliage is dense. Timber sound, heavy, hard and durable, well
adapted for sawing, but not easy to split [Bailey].
Eucalyptus platyphylla, F. v. Mueller.
Queensland. Regarded by the Rev. Julian Tenison- Woods as one
of the best of shade-trees, and seen by him to produce leaves some-
times 1-J feet long and 1 foot wide. This tree is available for open
exposed localities, where many kinds of trees from deep forest-
valleys would not thrive. It is closely allied to E, alba from Timor.
The timber is curly and durable.
Eucalyptus polyanthema, Schauer.*
South-Eastern Australia. Generally known as Red Boxtree. A
tree, attaining a height of 150 feet ; it furnishes an extremely hard
and lasting timber, in great demand for mining purposes and railway-
sleepers, also for wheelwrights' work. For fuel this wood is unsur-
passed. It is extremely strong, excelling oak and ash, surpassed
among Eucalypts in transverse strength, according to our experiments,
only by E. Leucoxylyon and E. siderophloia. The tree flowers
during the cool season, and is thus prominently important to bee-
keepers. A variety of this tree, passing as Slaty Gumtree, is much
lauded by the Rev. Dr. Woolls on account of the value of its timber.
Thrives well around the city of Algiers [Prof. Bourlier].
Eucalyptus populifolia, Hooker.
The " Bembil " or Shining-leaved Box-Eucalyptus. Dry inland-
portions of Eastern Australia. Height not above 50 feet ; but stem-
diameter to 3 feet. Likes humid underground. Leaves deciduous
for a short time in the year. The oil contains Cymin-Aldehyde and
a fair proportion of Eucalyptol (Cineol) [SchimmelJ,'the latter being
the substance on which the therapeutic value almost entirely depends.
Wood used for posts, handspikes, levers and other articles needing
toughness ; proved to be very durable [Bailey].
Eucalyptus punctata, Be Candolle.*
The Leather-jacket or Hickory -Eucalypt or Grey Gumtree of New
South Wales. A beautiful tree, attaining a height of 100 feet or
more, of rather quick growth, thriving even in poor soil. The wood
is of a light-brown colour, hard, tough and very durable ; used for
fence-posts, railway-sleepers, wheelwrights' work, also for ship-
building [Woolls].
204 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Eucalyptus Raveretiana, F. v. Mueller.*
Vernacularly known as Grey or Iron-Gumtree. Queensland. A
tree of the largest size, attaining a height of 300 feet, and a stem-
diameter of 10 feet ; delights in the immediate vicinity of rivers or
swamps. More susceptible to frost than many other species
[Naudin]. It furnishes a very hard, durable, dark -coloured wood,
valuable for piles, railway-sleepers and general building purposes
[Thozet, O'Shanesy, Bowman], From cuts into the stem an
acidulous almost colourless liquid exudes, available in considerable
quantity, like that of E. Gunnii. Mr. J. S. Edgar pronounces this
the best species for shade in Eastern subtropic-Australia. Prof.
Naudin notes it as of particularly quick growth in South France and
North America.
Eucalyptus redunca, Schauer.*
The White Gumtree of Western Australia, the Wandoo of the
aborigines. Attains very large dimensions ; stems have been found
with a diameter of 17 feet. The bark is whitish, but not shining,
imparting a white colouration when rubbed [Sir J. Forrest]. The
tree is content with cold flats of comparatively poor soil, even where
humidity stagnates during the wet season. It furnishes a pale, hard,
tough, heavy and durable wood, highly prized for all kinds of wheel-
wrights' work, and especially supplying the best felloes in West-
Australia. The seasoned timber weighs 70 Ibs. per cubic foot.
Eucalyptus resinifera, Smith.*
The Red Mahogany -Eucalypt of South-Queensland and New South
Wales. A superior timber-tree, of large size. Wood much prized
for its strength and durability [Rev. Dr. Woolls]. Used in Sydney
for wood-hricks, also particularly good for fuel. This Eucalyptus
has proved one of the best adapted for a tropical clime ; it grew
45 feet in ten years at Lucknow, but in the best soil it has attained
12 feet in two years [Dr. Bonavia]. Does well at the city of Algiers
[Prof. Bourlier]. Proved in Italy nearly as hardy as E. amygdalina
and E. viminalis, according to Prince Troubetzkoy, but is often
confounded with E. siderophloia. A large-heaved variety extends
far into the tropics. The oil is rich in Cineol [Schimmel].
Eucalyptus robusta, Smith.*
New South Wales and Southern Queensland, where it is known
as Swamp-Mahogany. It attains a height of 100 feet and a stem-
girth of 12 feet, bearing a really grand mass of foliage. Resists
cyclones better than most of its congeners. The wood is remark-
ably durable, reckoned a fairly good timber for joists, also used for
ship-building, wheelwrights' work and many implements, for instance,
such as mallets. The tree seems to thrive well in low, sour, swampy
.ground near the sea-coast, where other Eucalypts look sickly, but
E. robusta the picture of health [W. Kirton], It is this species
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 20o
which, with E. citriodora, has thriven so particularly well in the
drier parts of Mauritius [C. van Keirsbilck] ; succeeded also well
at the city of Algiers [Bourlier]. Leaves perfectly dried yielded
12 per cent, of kino-tannic acid [Maiden].
Eucalyptus rostrata, Schlechtendal.*
The Red Gumtree of Southern Australia and many river-flats in
the interior of the Australian continent, even through the tropics,
nearly always ' found on moist ground with a clayey subsoil, and
with most Eucalypts comparatively cattle- and sheep-proof. It will
thrive in ground periodically inundated for a considerable time, and
even in slightly saline places. Attains exceptionally a height of
200 feet with a comparatively slight stem, but is mostly of a more
spreading habit of growth than the majority of its tall congeners.
Prof. Tate measured a tree on Mount Lofty which showed a stem-
girth of 25 feet. Mr. R. G. Drysdale of the Riverina -district
observed that an exceptional temperature of 125 F. in the shade
did not shrivel the foliage of this tree ; it has also withstood the
severest heat in Algeria better than E. globulus ; and Dr. Bonavia
found it to thrive well in the province of Oude in places where E.
globulus, E. obliqua and E. marginata perished under the extreme
vicissitudes of the clime ; succeeds also well on the mountains of
Ceylon. Next to E. globulus the E. rostrata is the species most
extensively grown in California, much on the recommendation of the
author of this work. Its cultivation under varied circumstances is
much easier than that of E. marginata. Near Pretoria, in the
Transvaal, Mr. H. Schierholz raised over 120,000 plants from 2 Ibs.
of seeds. It does not bear cold so well as E. amygdalina, suc-
cumbing when still young at a temperature below 23 F., as
observed in Italy by Prince Troubetzkoy. In Mauritius and
Reunion it resisted the hurricanes better than any other Eucalypt ;
in the latter island the Marquis de Chateauvieux observed it to grow
65 feet in six years, and it is always of a more rapid growth than
E. marginata, but less so than E. globulus. It grew also with
remarkable rapidity in British Guiana [Jenman]. It is recom-
mended as an antiseptic tree for cemeteries in mild climes. May
be regarded as one of the " trees of the future " in regions free of
severe frosts. The timber is one of the most highly esteemed in all
Australia among that of Eucalypts, being heavy, hard, strong and
extremely durable, either above or under ground or in water. For
these reasons it is very much prized for fence-posts, piles, and
railway-sleepers. For the latter purpose it will last at least a dozen
years, but if well selected much longer. Indeed Mr. Speight reports
that sleepers were found quite sound after being 24 years in use. It
is also extensively employed by ship-builders for main-stem, stern-
post, inner-post, dead-wood, floor-timbers, futtocks, transoms, knight-
head, hawse-pieces, cant-, stern-, quarter- and fashion-timbers,
bottom-planks, breast-hooks and riders, windlass and bow rails. It
;206 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
should be steamed or carefully seasoned before -it is worked for
planking. It does not seem to have yet been fully ascertained
whether any rapid seasoning process of this or other timber by
steam affects the durability of the wood. This or any other timber
can advantageously be covered with sawdust to prevent warping and
cracking in exsiccation. In the Melbourne streets it has been used
for paving since about a dozen years, the wood-bricks being 9 inches
by 6 inches by 3 inches ; they are dipped into warm tar and placed
edgeways on cement. In Sydney and Melbourne together there
are now over half-a-million square yards of wood-paving, calculated
to last 12 to 14 years with the heaviest traffic [A. C. Mountain].
Also largely used for felloes, buffers and posts, and any parts of
structures which come in contact with the ground. It would be
quite remunerative to rear on land too poor for ordinary crops in
the mild zones this and other Eucalypts with durable timber for
wood-paving blocks, even for export to colder countries, especially
at not too remote distances. Next to the Jarrah from West-
Australia this is the best Eucalyptus- wood for resisting the attacks
of the crustaceous chelura and limnoria, the teredo-mollusk and
white ants, and it has the advantage of being considerably stronger,
proving equal in many instances to American white oak. Weight of
a cubic foot of absolutely dry wood, from 53J to 57^ Ibs., equal to
specific gravity 0-858-0-932 [F. v. M. and Rummel]. According to
experiments by Mr. Luehmann and myself, it is surpassed in resist-
ance to transverse strain by E. melliodora, E. polyanthema and
particularly E. siderophloia and E. Leucoxylon, though stronger than
the wood of many other of its congeners. Honey mainly from the
flowers of this tree proved of good quality. The kino of E. rostrata
is far less soluble in cold water than that of E. calophylla, and is
used as an important medicinal astringent. The oil of the foliage
of this species was exhibited by the writer in the Melbourne Exhibi-
tion of 1854 and the Paris Exhibition of 1855, and attention was
drawn to this resource in his report of 1853. For further details
of the uses of this and other Eucalyptus-trees, refer to the reports
of the Victorian Exhibitions of 1862 and 1867, also to the Ten
Decades of the Eucalypto-graphia. E. rostrata has become already
spontaneously disseminated in Southern France, according to Prof.
Ch. Naudin, whose important " Memoire sur les Eucalyptus 1883"
should also be consulted regarding the characteristics, development,
hardiness and uses of Eucalypts. A great number of Red Grum-
trees in Gippsland are killed by the larvae of a nocturnal lepidop-
terous insect, identified by Sir Fred. McCoy as Umbra lugens. They
eat away the epidermis of the leaves on both sides, thus asphyxiating
the tree [A. W. Howitt]. It seems that other insects affect also
injuriously various Eucalypts in a similar manner.
*' f\ A - '' 1
^Eucalyptus saligna, Smith. I
Eastern extra-tropic Australia. Stems clear up to 100 feet occur
with basal girth of 26 feet. Hardier than E. globulus. The wood,
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 207
employed for rails, will last a life-time. The curly butts, when sawn,
present a very handsome figure for furniture. The sap-wood early
perishable [A. R. Crawford]. According to the Rev. Dr. Woolls
the wood is of excellent quality, and largely used for building pur-
poses. The tree is generally found on rich soil along river-banks.
Eucalyptus salmonophloia, F. v. Mueller.
The Salmon-barked Ghimtree of South- Western Australia, attain-
ing a height of 120 feet. The timber is good for fencing, while the
foliage is available for profitable oil-distillation. The shining mixedly
whitish and purplish bark does not give off a white colouration like
that of E. redunca [Hon. Sir John Forrest]. All Eucalypts are
purifiers of air, but particularly those with foliage rich in essential
oil.
Eucalyptus salubris, F. v. Mueller.
The G-imletwood or Fluted Gumtree of Western and Central
Australia, living on poor dry soil and in the hottest desert-clime. It
is generally a slender-stemmed tree, sometimes to 100 feet high and
to 2 feet in stem-diameter, with scanty foliage. The bark is shining
with a brownish tinge, and has broad longitudinal and often twisted
impressions, or roundish blunt longitudinal ridges. The wood, Sir
John Forrest observes, is hard and tough, but worked with compara-
tive ease ; heaver than water, even when dry. It serves locally for
roof-supports, fence-posts and rails, poles and shafts. For xylography
it seems better than Pear-tree wood, and deserves attention for this
purpose. The tree exudes kino.
Eucalyptus siderophloia, Bentham.*
The Large-leaved or White or Grey Ironbark-tree of New South
Wales and South Queensland, attaining a height of 150 feet.
According to the Rev. Dr. Woolls this furnishes one of the strongest
and most durable timbers of New South Wales ; with great advan-
tage used for railway sleepers, jetty-piles, and for many building
purposes. It -is likewise highly appreciated by wheelwrights,
especially for spokes, also well adapted for tool-handles and various
implements. Found by us to be even stronger than hickory, and
only rivalled by E. Leucoxylon. It is still harder than the wood of
E. Leucoxyion, but for this reason worked with more difficulty.
Well seasoned it is slightly heavier than water. The Melbourne
price of the timber is about 2s. 6d. per cubic foot in the log. The
tree yields much kino. Mr. Newbery obtained from the bark 8 to
20 per cent, tannin. This species is often confounded with E.
resinifera in culture.
208 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Eucalyptus Sieberiana, F. v. Mueller.* (E. virgata, Bontham not Sieber.)
South-Eastern Australia. Vernacularly known as Mountain-ash in
Gippsland and New South Wales, and as Ironbark-tree or Gumtop
in Tasmania. In Gippsland it ascends to an altitude of 4,500 feet
[A. W. Howitt]. A straight-stemmed tree, quickly growing, reach-
ing 150 feet in height and 5 feet in stem-diameter. The wood is of
excellent quality, strong and elastic, hence used for ship- and boat-
building, implement-handles, staves of casks, cart-shafts, swingle-
trees, also for fencing and for general building purposes. Very
durable in mines. It splits freely and smoothly, and is easy to work.
It burns well, even when freshly cut. The kino is soluble in
water as well as in alcohol [J. H. Maiden]. Systematically the
species is very closely allied to E. hsemastoma, but much superior as
a timber-tree. Bears seeds already when quite young. Has done
well in the cool clime of the South of New Zealand [Th. Waugh].
Eucalyptus Staigeriana, F. v. Mueller.*
The Lemon-scented Ironbark-tree. North-Queensland. A rattyer
small tree, allied to E. crebra. Wood reddish, twisted, durable.
Produces readily new shoots from the root [G. Wycliffe]. Foliage
delightfully fragrant, therefore available for the distillation of a
superior cosmetic oil, reminding in odor of that of Lippia, Andro-
pogon and Bergamotte, less of Lemon ; the perfume and flavor are
so excellent as to render this oil eligible for table-condiments ; Mr.
K. Staiger found the yield from dry leaves to be 2|^ per cent. Mr.
F. M. Bailey drew first public attention to this fine tree.
Eucalyptus stellulata, Sieber.
The Sallee. South-Eastern Australia. Bears considerable frost.
Not adapted for a hot clime. Trees occur up to 60 feet high with 7
to 8 feet stem-girth. The wood is esteemed for fuel. The kino is
darker in colour than that of the allied E. pauciflora [A. R. Craw-
ford].
Eucalyptus Stuartiana, F. v. Mueller.
South-Eastern Australia. Known to the colonists as apple-scented
Gumtree. A medium-sized tree, with fibrous bark and drooping
branches ; foliage copious. Occurs on rather dry and sandy as well
as on humid soil. The wood is mostly used for fencing and for fuel.
According to our own observations here it is of nearly the same
strength as that of E. rostrata and E. globulus, and somewhat
stronger than that of E. amygdalina, and particularly E. obliqua.
This is one of the hardiest species, as first ascertained by Mr. T.
Waugh. Much liked for the frosty regions of the Transvaal [Edwin
Tidmarsh].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 209
Y * f
Eucalyptus tereticornis, Smith.*
From Eastern Queensland, where it is termed Red Gumtree, to
Gippsland, attaining a height of 160 feet. Closely allied to E.
rostrata. Will thrive on undrained ground. The timber is esteemed
for the naves and felloes of wheels. For telegraph-poles and railway-
sleepers it is inferior to some of the Ironbark-trees, lasting a shorter
time. Mr. A. R. Crawford observes, that he has never known posts
of this wood decaying from dry rot, nor saw it as round posts ever
attacked by the termites. Quite underground it remains sound much
longer [Thozet] ; but much depends, as regards its durability, on the
locality where it is obtained, and the manner of drying, a remark
which applies also to many other Eucalypts. The curly butts fur-
nish material for handsome heavy furniture [Crawford]. Shavings
of the most antiseptic kinds of Eucalyptus-woods should prove a good
packing material for fresh fruits on trans-oceanic voyages. The tree
has thriven well in Oudh and the North- West Province of India [J.
S. Gamble]. In Hoshiarpur this species attained a height of 115 feet
in sixteen years [W. Coldstream]. Has prospered remarkably in the
Punjab, attaining to a height of 60 feet in seven years [Major P. C.
Napier]. The oil of the foliage contains no Cineol [Schimmel].
Eucalyptus terminalis, F. v. Mueller.*
The Bloodwood-tree of the northern and central parts of Australia,
closely allied to E. corymbosa, attaining a considerable size, thriving
even in sandy desert-country. The wood is dark-red, hard and ex-
tremely tough, particularly fit for boards, as it does not crack. Locally
used for piles, for foundation-blocks of buildings, as one of the best
woods there [Th. Gulliver]. The tree resists the enormous desert-
heat of Central Australia, where the shade temperature ranges from
27 to 122 F., and where the annual rainfall in some years is only 2
inches, and seldom more than 10 inches. Particularly adapted for
dry tropical climes.
Eucalyptus tessellaris, F. v. Mueller.*
Central and Northern Australia and Queensland. The Moreton-
bay-Ash. This tree reaches even on dry ridges a height of 150 feet,
surpassing any other Central- Australian species in loftiness, and there
resists the severe summer-heat [Rev. H. Kempe] . Furnishes a brown,
rather elastic wood, not very hard, easily worked, of great strength
and durability, available for many kinds of artisans' work, and par-
ticularly sought for staves and flooring. The tree exudes much
astringent kino [P. O'Shanesy]. The oil does not contain Cineol
[Schimmel]. Several other species might yet be mentioned, particu-
larly from tropical Australia, but we are not yet well enough
acquainted with their technical value. All Eucalypts are eligible
for the production of tar, pitch, acetic acid, wood-spirit, paper-material,
potash and various dye-substances on a commercial scale.
210 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Eucalyptus triantha, Link.* (E. acmenoides, Schauer.)
, New South Wales and Eastern Queensland. Known as White
Mahogany. It attains a considerable height, with a stem reaching 4
feet in diameter, and is of rapid growth. The wood is used in the
same way as that of E. obliqua, but is superior to it. It is heavy,
strong, durable, of a light colour, and has been found good for palings,
rails, flooring-boards, battens, and many other purposes of house-
carpentry [Rev. Dr. Woolls].
Eucalyptus urnigera, J. Hooker.
Cooler region of Tasmania only. Seldom attaining a great height,
but in this work not to be passed, as it is one of the hardiest and
most antiseptic of all Eucalypts. Botanically to be regarded as a
highly developed state of E. cordata (La Billardiere), but horticul-
turally very distinct. Professor Balfour observes, that a tree of this
species has stood thirty years in the open air at Haddington (South
Scotland), attaining a height of 50 feet with a stem 8 feet in circum-
ference at the base. Stood the severest winters in York and Devon,
when E. siderophloia, E. rostrata, E. rudis perished, and E. botryoides
froze to the ground, but subsequently sent up strong shoots again
[Dr. Masters]. Shelter against hard cold winds is in these cases
imperative [Rev. D. Landsborough]. Grew in the south of New
Zealand to 20 feet in ten years [Th. Waugh].
Eucalyptus viminalis, La Billardiere.
South-Eastern Australia. On poor soil only a moderate-sized tree,
with a dark rough bark on the trunk, and generally known as Manna-
Gumtree ; in rich soil of the mountain-forests it attains, however,
gigantic dimensions, rising to a height of rather more than 300 feet,
with a stem occasionally to 15 feet in diameter. It has there a cream-
coloured smooth bark, and is locally known as White Gum tree. Hardy
at Arran [Capt. Brown]. Much liked in the frosty regions of the
Transvaal [Edw. Tidmarsh]. The timber is light-coloured, clear,
and though not so strong and durable as that of many other kinds of
Eucalypts, is very frequently employed for shingles, fence-rails, and
ordinary building purposes. It is stronger than that of E. amygdalina
and E. obliqua. Weight of a cubic foot of absolutely dry wood about
43 Ibs., equivalent to specific gravity 0'685. The honey-station on
Mount Sturgeon depends chiefly on the flowers of E. viminalis, E.
rostrata, and E. obliqua for its bees, the honey annually produced
being about ten tons. Sheep will feed on the foliage, even where
grass exists. The fresh bark contains about 5 per cent, kino-tannin.
The only species, which yields the crumb-like melitose-manna
copiously. The wood of this, of E. globulus, E. melliodora, and
some others is occasionally bored by the larvte of a large moth, En-
doiyla Eucalypti, and also by two beetles, Phoracantha tricuspis and
Hapatesus hirtus [C. French]. The Phascolarctus, which lives ex-
clusively on Eucalyptus leaves, feeds with predilection on this species,
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 211
particularly the young foliage. For fuller original information on
Eucalypts consult particularly Woolls' " Contribution to the Know-
ledge of the Flora of Australia," and his lectures on the " Vegetable
Kingdom," the volumes of the " Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimata-
tion de France," also the author's " Eucalyptographia decades I.-X."
For extensive information on the varied therapeutic properties of
Eucalypts, refer to an article, partly by the writer of this volume, as
contained in the " Sydney Medical Gazette of 1884," embodying
also Professor Hosier's researches. For physical and chemical
properties of many Eucalyptus-oils refer to an elaborate original essay,
by Mr. Percy Wilkinson, in the " Transactions of the Royal Society
of Victoria," December, 1893.
Euchlsena Mexicana, Schrader.*, (E. luxurlans, Ascherson; Reana, luxu*
rians, Durieu ; E. Giovannini, Brignoli.)
The Teosinte. Southern Mexico and Guatemala, up to considerable
elevations. Annual. Highly commendable as a fodder-grass for
regions free of frost. A large number of stems, sometimes as many
as 90, spring from the same root, attaining a height of 18 feet. The
leaves grow to lengths of 3 feet and form a good forage. In age the
foliage gets hard, but still continues excellent for ensilage. The
young shoots, when boiled, constitute a fair culinary esculent. Dr.
.Schweinfurth harvested at Cairo from three seeds in one year about
12,000 grains ; the plant requires about ten months to ripen seeds
from the time of sowing. Has grown 9 feet high as far south as
Cambewarra [Thos. Weir]. At Somerset, in Cape Colony, Mr.
Overman obtained a rich return at the end of January from seeds
sown in November. Best grown as green crop for stable-fodder.
This grass, particularly in its young state, is remarkably saccharine.
For scenic growth this stately plant is also re commendable. Vilmorin
estimates one plant sufficient for feeding two head of cattle during
twenty-four hours. Mons. Thozet, at Rockhampton, obtained plants
12 feet high and 12 feet wide in damp alluvial soil, each with 32
main stalks bearing nearly 100 flower bunches. Grows to a height
of 15 feet as far south as Swan-River, and ripens seeds there [W.
Dale]. On the Clarence-River it also attained a height of 15 feet,
and a plant produced 38 shoots [A. Ritter]. Thrives well in the
frostless regions of South-Gippsland [W. H. Lucas]. With some
watering it grew in the arid districts of the Murchison-River so well,
that it could be cut thrice in the season, the last cutting being still
4 feet high, and yet seeding well [Isaac Tyson]. It should therefore
prove particularly valuable on humid banks in the Australian in-
terior. It is much quicker in 'growth than Guinea-Grass, though
rather slower than Maize, but lasting longer for green fodder, and
not so hardy as Sorghum. It is essentially a summer grass. Its
growth can be continued by cutting the tufts as green fodder ; thus
tender food is continued ; it does not cause colic to horses and cattle.
As a forage-plant it is without a rival in warm climes. It can also
be readily dried for hay. It likes humid soil best, and resists intense
P 2
212 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
heat. It was first brought into notice by the Acclimatisation-
Society of Paris, and introduced into Australia and Polynesia by the
writer. In Fiji it is thriving most luxuriantly, forming, sown at 4
feet apart, impenetrable masses. Requires humidity to come to its
greatest development. In tropical countries, when cut, it will renew
its growth [R. Parkinson]. The Fiji-parrots prey on the seeds, and
horses are fond of this grass for forage [Sir John Thurston]. Easily
naturalised in tropical jungles to the particular delight of parrots,
cockatoos and many other birds. Grain greedily picked up by fowls
for food. On sugar-cane plantations of Queensland the horses pre-
ferred the Teosinte to young cane. After being cut for green feed,
it "stools heavily and ratoons fast," and may be cut every two
months for a heavy crop [Bauer]. Seeded also at the Great Bight
[Brooks]. Plants raised on the Murray and Murrumbidgee pro-
duced over a hundred flower-stems [F. Rosan] to the height of 10
feet, with leaves to 2 feet in length and 2j inches in width [W.
McGan]. It lives in sheltered places at Port Phillip, affording
green feed till the end of April. Each plant requires at least 16
square-feet of ground for its full development. Even in regions,
where the seeds will not ripen, as in Chili and Texas, this huge
grass can be sown for a prolific summer-fodder, from imported seeds.
Fit for irrigation.
Euclea Pseudebenus, E. Meyer.
Africa, down to extra-tropic regions. Yields the Orange-River
Ebony.
Euclea Tindulata, Thunberg. (E. myrtinctj Burchell.)
South- Africa. Berry black or red, edible. Other shrubby species
from the same portion of the globe also yield esculent fruits, which
under superior culture may vastly improve ; they are only small in
the wild state.
Eucryphia cordifolia, Cavanilles.
The Muermo or Ulmo of Chili. This magnificent evergreen tree
attains a height of over 100 feet, producing a stem sometimes 6 feet
in diameter. The flowers are much sought by bees. For oars and
rudders the wood is preferred in Chili to any other [Dr. Philippi].
We possess congeneric trees in Tasmania (E. Billardieri, J. Hooker)
and in Victoria and New South Wales (E. Moorei, F. v. M.). They
also are of utilitarian value.
Eugenia Australis, Wendland. (E. myrtifolia, Sims not Roxburgh.)
East-Australia. A handsome bush, the palatable fruit utilised
particularly for jam, but the seed to be removed from the pulp [Miss
Walker]. Careful special culture would probably improve all
Eugenia-fruits.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 213
Eugenia caryophyllata, Thunberg. (Caryophyllus aromaticus, Linn).
Moluccas. The Cloves-tree. Here cursorily mentioned, although
not strictly of any extra-tropic culture, but prospering as far South
with us as Moreton-Bay [Fr. Turner].
Eugenia cordata, Lawson.
South-Eastern Africa. " Water-boom." A large tree, growing
in marshy and swampy places on the coast-belt, 2,000 feet or more
above sea-level. The timber is valuable if cut at the right time ; it
becomes exceedingly hard and is very durable. Some planks which
had been used as wall-plates were, after 10 years, found to be so
hard that nails could not be driven into them. The fruit is palatable
[J. Medley Wood].
Eugenia cordifolia, Wight.
Ceylon, up to 3,000 feet elevation. Fruit edible, of 1 inch
diameter.
Eugenia Hallii, Berg.
Quito. Fruit of large size, edible.
Eugenia Jambolana, Lamarck.
Southern Asia, ascending to 5,000 feet in Kumaon, Polynesia,
probably hardy in extra-tropic latitudes. The fruit of this handsome
and finally tall tree is about cherry size, purplish-black when ripe
and edible ; it may perhaps be improved by well directed skilful
culture. Madame Von Nooten indeed in her splendid work on Java-
plants pictures fruits over 1J inches long. The seeds have come
into use as a remedy against diabetes [Christy].
Eugenia Jambos, Linne.
Continental and Insular India. A tree of middling size ; its fruits
known as Rose-Apples. Cultivated in Jamaica up to 4,000 feet
[Fawcett] ; hardy in the mildest regions of Victoria. The rosy-
odorous fruit is best used as an admixture to various other dishes.
Eugenia maboides, Wight.
Ceylon, up to 7,000 feet elevation. Fruit of the size of a small
cherry [Dr. Thwaites].
Eugenia Malaccensis, Linn4.
The large Rose- Apple. India. A tree, attaining a height of 40
feet, but fruiting already as a shrub. Although strictly a tropical
plant, it has been admitted into this list as likely adapted for warmer
forest-regions in extra-tropic zones. The leaves are often a foot
long. The large juicy fruits, of rosy odor, are wholesome and of
214 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
agreeable taste. Of others E. macrocarpa (Roxburgh), E. Javanica
(Lamarck), E. aquea (Burmann), E. amplexicanlis (Roxburgh), also
from Lower India, likewise produce edible fruit of good size, and
may perhaps endure a cool clime.
Eugenia Nhanica, Cambessedes.
South-Brazil. The berries, which are of the size of plums, are
there a table-fruit.
Eugenia pyriformis, Cambessedes.
Uvalho do Campo of South-Brazil. Fruit of pear-size and edible.
Eugenia revoluta, Wight.
Ceylon, up to heights of 6,000 feet ; berry 1 inch in diameter,
edible.
Eugenia rotundifolia, Wight.
Ceylon, up to 8,000 feet ; rejoicing therefore in a cool or even cold
climate. The fruit of this and the allied E. calophylloides (Wight),
which extends to Upper India, edible ; so that of E. Arnottiana
(Wight), which tree ascends to 7,000 feet.
Eugenia Smithii, Poiret.
From Gippsland to Queensland. A splendid large umbrageous
tree, but not of quick growth, and requiring rich soil in river-
valleys for its perfect development. The bark contains about 17 per
cent, tannin. This fact may give a clue to the recognition of the
same tan-principle in the barks of numerous other species of the
large genus Eugenia.
Eugenia suborbicularis, Bentham.
North-East Australia, in cool mountain-regions. The fruit attains
the size of a middling apple the pulp is edible, acidulous, containing
red sap, but the seeds are large.
Eugenia supra-axillaris, Spring.
The Tata of South-Brazil. Fruit large, edible.
Eugenia Tierneyana, F. v. Mueller.
North-Eastern Australia. A tall tree. The red fruit is not large,
but produced in good quantity and can be made into a palatable jam
[Dallachy].
Eugenia uniflora, Linnet (E. Michelii, Lamarck.)
From extra-tropical South- America extending to the Antilles. A
tree of beautiful habit, with edible fruit of cherry-size. Dr. Lorentz
mentions also as a sub- tropical Argentine fruit-species E. Mato
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 215
(Grisebach). Hieronymus adduces similarly E. ligustrina (Willde-
now) and E. edulis (Bentham), the fruit of the latter species being of
apple-size.
Eugenia Zeyheri, Harvey.
South-Africa, A tree attaining about 20 feet in height. The
berries are of cherry- size and edible. The relative value of the
fruits of many Asiatic, African and American species of Eugenia
remains to be ascertained ; many of them doubtless furnish also
good timber, and all more or less essential oil. All such, even tropi-
cal trees, should be tested in warm tracts of the temperate zone,
inasmuch as many of them endure a cooler clime than is generally
supposed.
Euonymus atropurpureus, Jacquin.
The "Waahoo" of Eastern North-America. A tall shrub, the
bark of which is used in medicine, and from it the euonymin, an
oleo-resin as a cholagogue is prepared. To this species is closely
allied L. occidentalis (Nuttall) from Oregon and California.
Euonymus Japonicus, Linne filius.
China and Japan. This evergreen shrub can be used for
forming hedges ; it is easily multiplied by layers and requires little
care in cultivation. The wood of several species of Euonymus
affords superior coal for gunpowder.
Eupatorium laeve, De Candolle. (E. tinctorium, Pohl. )
Paraguay. A shrub of remarkably prolific and vigorous growth
[E. H. Egerton]. Competes almost with the indigo- plant for dye.
It can be stripped of its leaves four times a year without injury to
the plant [Dr. W. Thiselton Dyer].
Eupatorium purpureum, Linne.
Eastern North-America. "Queen of the Meadows." A peren-
nial herb, easily naturalised ; has come into medicinal use as a
powerful diuretic ; so also E. perfoliatum, L., the " Thoroughwort "
or " Boneset " ; these with other species are also not unimportant
as honey-plants ; so of the same order in N. America species of
Actinomeris and Prenanthes.
Eupatorium triplinerve, Vahl. (E. Ayapana, Ventenat.)
Central America. A perennial somewhat shrubby herb, possibly
hardy in the warmer parts of extra-tropical countries. It contains
eupatorin and much essential oil peculiar to the plant. It stands
locally in renown as a remedy against ophidian poisons, and evidently
possesses important medicinal properties. A tanning extract is
prepared for the English market from this herb, containing about 20
per cent, tannic acid.
216 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Eurotia lanata, Moquin.
The " Winter-fat." From Oregon to New Mexico. A dwarf
saltbush, valued as holding out on pastures during the frosty season
[T. Watson].
Buryale ferox, Salisbury.
From tropical Asia to Japan, ascending in Cashmir to 5,000 feet,
extending northward in Amur to nearly 46 N. Though less mag-
nificent than the grand Victoria Regia, this closely allied water-lily
is much more hardy, and would live unprotected in ponds and lakes
of a temperate climate. Though not strictly an industrial plant, it is
not without utility, and undergoes some sort of cultivation in China
for its edible roots and seeds. The leaves attain a width of 3 feet.
Bustrephus Brownii, F. v. Mueller.
East- Australia as far south as G-ippsland. This climber produces
sweet though only small tubers, which however are probably capable
of enlargement through culture. Wild also in New Guinea.
Euterpe andicola, Brongniart.
Bolivia. Ascends to 9,000 feet [Martius], an altitude higher than
is reached there by any other palm unless E. Haenkeana and E.
longivaginata (Drude). E. edulis (Martius) extends as far south as
Minas Geraes in Brazil.
EuxolllS viridis, Moquin. (Amarantus viridis, Linne. )
Temperate and tropical regions of Europe, Asia and Africa.
Annual ; quickly raised. Not without value as a spinage-plant.
Easily naturalised. The genus is closely allied to Amarantus.
Excaecaria sebifera, J. Mueller. (Stillinyia sebifera, Michaux.)
The Tallow-tree of China and Japan. The fatty coating of the
seeds constitutes the vegetable tallow, which is separated by steaming.
The wood is so hard and dense as to be used for printing-blocks ;
the leaves furnish a black dye. The tree endures slight night-frosts,
though its foliage suffers. It fruits as a rule abundantly.
Exomis albicans, Moquin. (A triplex albicans, Alton.)
South- Africa. Praised there as a pastoral saltbush.
Exomis axyrioides, Fenzl.
South-Africa. A good saltbush there for pastures [MacOwan].
Fabiana imbricata, Ruiz and Pavon.
Chili. This small shrub has become valuable as a remedy in
cystitis. Other species occur there or in Bolivia or in Brazil, and
they will likely be of similar utility.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 217
Fagopyrum cymosum, Meissner.
The perennial Buck-wheat or rather Beech-wheat of the Indian
and Chinese highlands, ascending naturally to 11,000 feet [Sir
Joseph Hooker] . Can be used with other species for spinage and
grain ; also a blue dye may be obtained from its leaves.
Fagopyrum esculentum, Mcench.*
Northern and Central Asia, extending eastward to Manchuria,
growing to an elevation of 12,000 feet in the Himalayas. The
ordinary buck-wheat, called Buch-Waizen in Germany, from the
resemblance (in miniature) of the seeds to Beech-nuts ; hence also
the generic name. This annual herb succeeds on the poorest land ;
clayey soil yields more foliage, but less grain. One of the most
important of all sand-plants in an agrarian point of view. By the
vigor of its growth it conquers the worst of weeds, even Triticum
repens (Linne), called Couch-grass in Britain, and in South-Africa
Troith-grass [G. H. Merrifield]. It is one of the best forerunners
for cereal crops, if supported by some manuring. The crushed
amylaceous seeds can be converted into a palatable and wholesome
food by boiling or baking ; porridge, groats, and particularly cakes
thus obtained may be consumed even by diabetic patients without
much aggravation of their malady. The seeds contain about 77 per
cent, of amylaceous and saccharine substance [Dr. A. E. Wright] ;
other analyses gave starch about 50 per cent., gluten about 10 per
cent. Starch has also recently been prepared from the seeds as an
article of trade. Fagopyrum can be raised with advantage as an
agrarian plant for the first crop on sandy but not too dry heath-land,
newly broken up, for green manure. It gives a good green fodder,
serves as admixture to hay, and is also important as a honey-plant.
Honey thus quickly obtained could also be soon converted into
vinegar, particularly to preserve therein on poultry -farms ducks and
geese. The seeds supply an excellent poultry-feed. The period
required for the cyclus of its vegetation is extremely short ; thus it
can even be reared on alpine elevations or as an intermediate crop. In
Norway it grows to lat. 67 56' [Schuebeler]. The produce of this
grain in the United States during 1879 was 13,140,000 bushels,
valued at 1,636,000 ; in 1885 it was 12,626,000 bushels. Much
used also in distilleries. A large-grained variety is cultivated in
Japan.
Fagopyrum Tataricum, Gaertner. (Fagotriticum Sibiricum, Linne.)
Middle and Northern Asia, up to 14,000 feet [Dr. G. Watt].
Yields for the higher mountain-regions a still safer crop than the
foregoing ; otherwise the remarks offered in reference to F. escu-
lentum apply also to F. Tataricum ; but the seeds of the latter are
more thick-shelled, less amylaceous and less palatable : all sorts very
fattening to fowl. All may be sown for temporary shelter of young
tree-seedlings ["Mildura Cultivator"]. Seeds might be scattered
over our sandy deserts for naturalising this and congeneric plants.
218 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Fagus antarctica, G. Forster.
From S. Chili to Fuegia. This deciduous beech is the hardiest of
all, still being arborescent at Cape Horn [Sir 3. Hooker]. Wood
rather heavy, but somewhat brittle [Admiral King] ; with F.
betuloides the most southern of arboreus plants.
Fagus betuloides, Mirbel.
Patagonia and Fuegia down to Cape Horn. An evergreen Beech*
on the branches of which a peculiar edible fungus, Cyttaria Darwinii
(Berkeley) occurs. It seems quite feasible, that the Cyttaria-fungs
could be transferred from some beeches to others of different countries.
Cyttaria Hookeri lives on Fagus antarctica (Forster). C. Darwinii
forms for some months of the year a large share of the vegetable food
of the Fuegians [Hieronymus].
Fagus Cunningham!, Hooker.
The Victorian and Tasmanian Beech. The Myrtle-wood of local
trade. A magnificent evergreen-tree, attaining large dimensions, not
rarely to 200 feet in height, with a basal stem-girth of 40 feet, but
living only in cool, damp, rich forest-valleys, and bearing through
several months annually any periodic snow. Mr. C. French observed
a tree on the Upper Latrobe-River 46 feet in stem-circumference.
The wood resembles that of the European Beech, thus is easily
worked, much used by carpenters and other artisans, and particularly
liked for saddle-trees and for staves of casks. Recommended also
for smoking meat. Average weight of a cubic foot, when quite dry,
55 Ibs. or 0*830 specific gravity. It remains to be ascertained by
actual tests in the forests, whether the allied tall evergreen New Zealand
Beeches possess any advantage over this species for forest-culture ;
they are Fagus Menziesii, the Red Birch of the colonists ; F. fusca
and F. cliffortioides (J. Hooker), the Black Birches and F. Solandri
(Hooker) the White Birch ; they ascend to 4,000 feet in the
Northern Islands. A magnificent and peculiar beech, Fagus Moorei
(F. v. Mueller), occurs in New South Wales and Southern Queens-
land on high mountains ; it attains a stem-diameter of 7 feet
[A. Rudder]. Its timber is hard, tough and fine-grained [J. Duff].
Cyttaria Gunnii (Berkeley) is the Raspberry-fungus of the Tas-
manian and Victorian evergreen Beech ; a Cyttaria occurs also on
the New Zealand Beeches, as ascertained by the author of this work ;
it has since been described as C. Purdiei by Mr. J. Buchanan. These
fungs are edible in a raw state, and are most palatable (so far as C.
G'unnii is concerned) before approaching full ripeness [Rob. Lucas].
Many kinds of birds feed on the seeds in whatever country Beech-
forests occur.
Fagus Dombeyi, Mirbel.
The Evergreen Beech of Chili, called there the Coigue or Coihue.
Of grand dimensions. Canoes can be made out of its stem, large
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 219
enough to carry 10 tons freight. The wood is still harder than that
of Fagus obliqua, with the qualities of which it otherwise agrees
[Dr. Philippi], This species extends to the Chonos-group, and
perhaps still further south, and thus may be of value even for Middle
European forest-culture.
ferruginea, Dryander and Aiton.
North-American Beech. A large tree, with deciduous foliage*
easily raised in woodlands. Comparatively quick in growth. Will
live in calcareous regions, also in rocky and exposed situations, and
endures shade [B. E. Furnow]. Wood variable according to
localities. Well seasoned wood, according to Simmonds, is
remarkably hard and solid, hence employed for plane-stocks, shoe-
lasts, tool-handles, various implements and turneries. The yield of
its little nuts is large, and on them domestic animals quickly fatten ;
they serve also for obtaining oil.
Fagus obliqua, Mirbel.
The Roble of Chili, called Coyam by the original inhabitants.
A tall tree with a straight stem, attaining 3 to 4 feet diameter.
Wood heavy and durable, well adapted for posts, beams, girders,
rafters and joists, but not for flooring. One of the few Chilian trees
with deciduous foliage [Dr. Philippi]. Its value as compared with
that of the European Beech should be tested in forest-plantations.
Cyttaria Berteroi (Berkeley) grows on branches of this Beech.
Fagus procera, Poeppig.
Another deciduous Beech of Chili, where it passes by the name of
Reule or Rauli. Of still more colossal size than the Roble. Wood
fissile, well adapted for staves ; finer in grain than that of F. obliqua r
and much used for furniture [Dr. Philippi].
Fagus silvatica, Linne.*
The deciduous Beech of Britain, of most other parts of Europe,
and extra-tropical Asia. The trunk has been measured in height to
118 feet, the foliage to 350 feet in circumference. As far north as
lat. 60 23' in Norway Professor Schuebeler found a tree over 70 feet
high with a stem 12 feet in circumference ; smaller trees grew even
to lat. 67 56'. Known to have reached an age of 245 years [German
Forest Commission]. Apt to overpower any other kinds of trees in
its native forests. The red-leaved variety originated in the forests
" of the Tyrol and Zurich. The wood is hard, extensively used by
joiners and ship-builders in their trade and by the manufacturers
of various implements, especially for planes, shoe-lasts, t keys and
cogs of machinery, lathe-chucks, gun-stocks, staves, chairs, spoke-
shaves ; in piano-manufacture, for bridges, likewise in some portion
of the work of organ-builders ; enters also into the construction of
harmoniums (beds of notes, pallets, rest-planks); further used
220 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
for carved moulds and for wooden letters in large 'prints ; used in
preference to other kinds for butter-casks ; excellent for fuel, and
particularly valued for smoking meat ; it is of rather difficult cleavage,
great compactness and of considerable strength, and resists great
pressure. The oil pressed from the nuts is palatable and wholesome.
Beech-tar contains a considerable proportion of paraffine ; the ashes
from any portion of this tree are rich in phosphate of lime. For
trimming into copse-hedges many give preference to a purple-leaved
variety for show. An allied Beech, Fagus Sieboldii (Endlicher),
grows in Japan. In the warmer temperate zones all these could only
be grown to advantage in springy mountain-forests. How very long
some kinds of timber, when excluded from access of air, may remain
preserved, is demonstrated by the fact, that beneath the foundation of
Savoy-place, in London, piles and planks of Beech, Chestnut, Oak
and Elms were found in a state of almost perfect preservation after
650 years.
Fatsia papyrifera, Bentham. (Aralia papyrifera, Hooker.)
Island of Formosa. The rice-paper Plant, hardy in the lowlands
of Victoria, and of scenic effect in garden-plantations. Introduced
into Victoria in 1854 by the writer. The pith furnishes the
material for the so-called rice-paper, also for some sorts of solah-
hats.
Ferula alliacea, Boissier.
Persia, up to 7,000 feet. A smaller plant thftn the following
species, but yields the best quality of Assa foetida, mostly used
in India and known there as "Hing" [Watt].
Ferula foetida, Regel. (Scorodosmafoetidum, Bunge.)
Persia, Afghanistan and Turkestan. This very tall perennial
herb yields the ordinary medicinal assa foetida of European com-
merce. In India it is known as "Hingra" and considered inferior
to that from the preceding species [Dr. Gr. Watt]. F. Assa foetida,
Linne, is a species of doubtful definition. Ferula Narthex, Boissier
(Narthex Assa foetida, Falconer), furnishes a very similar drug in
Thibet. The cultivation of these plants in adequate climes seems
not surrounded by any difficulties.
Ferula galbaninua, Boissier.
Persia; on mountains 4,000 to 8,000 feet high. This tall peren-
nial herb might be transferred to other sub-alpine regions, for
obtaining locally from it the gum-resin galbanum.
Ferula longifolia, Fischer.
Southern Russia. The long aromatic roots furnish a pleasant
vegetable [Dr. Rosenthal].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 221
Ferula Sumbul, J. Hooker. (Euryangium Sumbul, Kauffmann. )
Turkestan, at elevations between 3,000 and 4,000 feet. A peren-
nial herb, attaining a height of 10 feet or perhaps more. Yields
the true Sambul-root, a powerful stimulant, with the odor of musk.
It is also a scenic-decorative plant, and proved hardy in England.
Festuca Coiron, Steudel.
Chili. A valuable perennial fodder-grass, according to the
testimony of Dr. Philippi.
Festuca dives, F. v. Mueller.*
Victoria, from West Gippsland to Dandenong, towards the
sources of rivers, ascending sub-alpine elevations. One of the most
magnificent of all sylvan grasses, often 12 and sometimes when in
rank growth on forest-brooks, fully 17 feet long. Root perennial or
perhaps of only two or three years' duration. Sometimes numerous
stems arise from one root. This rather succulent grass deserves
to be brought to any forest-tracts in mild climes, as it prospers in
shade; it assumes its grandest forms in deep soil along rivulets.
Affords in its native places of growth also feed in the cool season.
Mr. Chas. Nott writes from Gippsland that seeds might be obtained by
the bushel from the wild plant by merely shaking the grain from the
panicles into a bag. The large panicle affords nutritious forage, so
does the young foliage. Cattle and horses are particularly fond of
it [J. Pittard],
Festuca elatior, Linne".*
The Meadow-Fescue. Europe. North-Africa, Northern and
Middle Asia. A perennial grass, attaining a height of several feet.
There are several varieties of this species ; the tallest follows rivers
readily as far down as the tides reach ; the ordinary form is well
adapted for permanent pastures, has tender leaves, produces
excellent, tasty, nutritious hay, and is early out in the season.
Langethal places Meadow-Fescue above Timothy and Foxtail-grass
in value, though its copiousness is somewhat less. The seed is
readily collected. The tall variety (arundinacea) will occupy wet
land preferentially among the best of eligible fodder-grasses. It
can be mixed advantageously with F. ovina, is superior to Rye-
grass in production and improves with age. It succeeds also on
humid and even swampy ground and in forest land as well with
sandy as a calcareous subsoil; but it is not adapted for dry poor
ground ; on the contrary, it is one of the best grasses for irrigated
land. Dr. Curl observes, that this and some other Fescues grow
vigorously in New Zealand, and yield pasturage there also in the
cool season, when Rye-grass is nearly dormant. Chemical analysis,
made in spring, gave the following results : Albumen 2'47, gluten
2-75, starch 0-50, gum 2'84, sugar 2-84 per cent. [F. v. Mueller
and L. Rummel]. V. arundinacea (Schreber), F. pratensis and F.
loliacea (Hudson) are varieties of this species.
222 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Festuca flava, F. v. Mueller. (Poa flava, Gronovius ; Tricuspis sesleriodes,
Torrey ; Uralepis cuprea, Kunth. )
The tall Redtop-G-rass of the Eastern States of North- America.
A perennial sand-grass with wide panicles. F. scabrella is one of
the "Bunch-grasses" of Oregon and California.
Festuca gigantea, Villars.
Europe and Western Asia. A good perennial forest-grass.
Festuca heterophylla, Lamarck.
Europe and Western Asia. This perennial grass is best fitted for
cool forest-tracts. Recommended also among lawn-grasses. This
species is hardly distinct from F. ovina. It will bear a good deal of
drought, and thrives even on lowlying sandy clay and rnoory soil.
Suits best for intermixing with other grasses.
Festuca Hookeriana, F. v. Mueller.*
Alps of Australia and Tasmania. A tall perennial grass, evidently
nutritious, required to be tried for pasture-culture, and perhaps
destined to become a new meadow-grass of colder countries also
elsewhere. Stands mowing and depasturing well ; much liked by
cattle, horses and sheep [Th. Walton]. F. purpurascens (Banks) is
an allied species.
Festuca litoralis, La Billardiere.
Extra-tropical Australia and New Zealand. An important strong
perennial grass for binding drift-sand on sea-shores in mild zones.
Its stature is almost that of the Marram- and the Lyme-grass.
Festuca Magellanica, Lamarck.
Extra-tropic South- America. Ascending the Andes to 12,000
feet, and contributing much to the fattening pasturage there
[Hieronymus].
.Festuca ovina, Linne.
Sheep-Fescue. Europe, Northern and Middle Asia, North-
America ; found also in South- America and the Alps of Australia
and New Zealand. In Greenland it reaches to 79 N.L. This
species, like F. elatior, is obtainable with facility. F. duriuscula
and F. rubra (Linne) are varieties. A perennial grass, thriving on
widely different soils, even moory and sandy ; adapted also for alpine
and for coast-land ; but not equal in nutritive value to many other
pasture-grasses, though for poor, dry sheep-runs in cool climes one of
the best. It yields a good produce, maintains its virtue, resists
drought, and is also well adapted for lawns and swards of parks. F.
'vaginata (Willdenow) is a form particularly recommended by Wessely
for sand-soil. Chemical analysis, made very late in spring, gave
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 223
the following results : Albumen 1*86, gluten 8'16, starch 1'45, gum
2-14, sugar 5'05 per cent. [F. v. Mueller and L. Rummel]. F.
duriuscula mainly sustains millions of sheep in the upper regions of
New Zealand [D. Petrie].
Festuca purpurea, F. v. Mueller. ( Uralepis purpurea, Nuttall ; Tricuspis
purpurea, A. Gray.)
South-Eastern coast of North- America. A tufty sand-grass, but
annual.
Festuca rubra, Linne*. (F. violacea, Seringe.)
Mountains of Middle and Southern Europe and Western Asia.
A productive fodder-grass, more adapted for hay than for grazing.
F. pulchella (Schrader) is also valued as a bulky and nutritious grass
for alpine meadows [Stebler and Schroeter].
Festuca silvatica, Villars.
Middle and Southern Europe. A notable forest-grass. F. dry-
meia (Mertens and Koch), a grass with long creeping roots, is closely
allied. Both deserve test-culture. Space does not admit of entering
here into further details of the respective values of many species of
Festuca, which might advantageously be introduced from various
parts of the globe for rural purposes.
Ficus Benghalensis, Linne. (F. Indica, Linne", partly.)
The Banyan-tree of India, famed for its enormous expansion and
air-roots. Height to 100 feet. Although not strictly an utilitarian
tree, it is admitted here as one of the most shady trees, adapted for
warm and moist regions. At the age of 100 years one individual
tree will shade and occupy about one and a half acres, and rest on
150 stems or more, the mainstems often with a circumference of 50
feet, the secondary stems with a diameter of several feet. At Mel-
bourne the tree suffers somewhat from the night-frosts.
Ficus Carica, Linne".*
The ordinary Fig-tree. Alph. de Candolle speaks of it as spon-
taneous from Syria to the Canary-Islands ; Count Solms-Laubach
confines the nativity of the Fig-tree to the countries on the Persian
Gulf. A particular Fig-tree at Finisterre is considered several
hundred years old, and has attained a ramification the circumference
of which reaches fully 500 feet ; it continues in full bearing [F.
Abel]. It is one of the first of trees with deciduous leaves to burst
into vernal foliage. In warm temperate latitudes and climes a prolific
tree. The most useful and at the same time the most hardy of half a
thousand recorded species of Ficus. The extreme facility with which
it can be propagated from cuttings, the resistance to heat, the compara-
tively early yield and easy culture recommend the Fig-tree, where it is
224 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
an object to raise masses of tree-vegetation in widely treeless lands
of the warmer zones for shade and fruit. Hence the extensive plan-
tations of this tree made in formerly woodless parts of Egypt ; hence
the likelihood of choosing the Fig as one of the trees for extensive
planting through favorable portions of desert-waste, where more-
over the fruit could be dried with particular ease. Small cuttings
went quite well, chiefly by horse-post, from Port Phillip to the
central Australian Mission-stations, a distance as far as from St.
Petersburg to the Black Sea, or from Bombay to Thibet, or from Cape-
town to Lake Ngami, or from San Francisco to the Upper Missouri.
Maintained its high reputation there as a drought-resisting tree
during the worst seasons, and grew best of all fruit-trees. Fig-trees
can be grown even on sand-lands, at least as observed on the
Australian south-coast. In Greece the average yield of figs per
acre is about 1,600 Ibs. [Simmonds]. Caprification was also in this
work pronounced unnecessary or even objectionable on the strength
of researches by Professor Gasparrini and other former observers.
Nevertheless the intelligent cultivators in Anatolia, by whom the
Smyrna-Figs, the best of all dried figs, are reared, adhere to the
caprification-process, used from time immemorial ; moreover they
incur much trouble and even sometimes considerable expense for
carrying out this procedure, and they contend that without this
measure the quite unrivalled quality and extensive maturity of the
crop cannot be attained. In California hitherto vain attempts have
been made to produce fruit there comparable to the Smyrna-Fig,
even on seemingly fitting soil and in proper climatic regions.
Therefore the staminate tree was recently introduced into that
country, and efforts are made to import also the so-called caprifica-
tion-fly (Blastophaga grossorum, formerly named Cynips psenes),
as no native insect there or elsewhere seems able to carry on the
remarkable symbiosis of that Hymenopter. Possibly a stimulating
influence is exercised on the development of the whole compound
fig-fruit by this process of fecundation. It might therefore be
desirable to institute renewed experiments, unbiased by either
earliest traditions or recent discardings, to clearly recognise in the
light of progressive science the advantages and disadvantages of
the ancient custom of aided pollination also in these colonies, and
thereby to complete our insight for raising also here the almost
unique Smyrna-figs for exsiccation. Sending of special emissaries,
to study this question locally in the Levant, would lead to the
speediest and safest results. Two main-varieties may be distin-
guished : that which produces two crops a year, and that which
yields but one. The former includes the Gray or Purple Fig, which
is the best, the White Fig and the Golden Fig, the latter being the
finest in appearance, but not in quality. The main-variety, which
bears only one crop a year, supplies the greatest quantity of figs
for drying, among which the White Marseillaise and Bellonne,
Bourdissotte blanche, Coldi, Signora Blancha et Nero, D'Or de
Laura, are considered the best. What in California proved the
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 225
best variety, as well for drying as for fresh consumption, is called
there the White Adriatic, but also known as the Strawberry-Fig.
Dr. Gustav Eisen gives 360 vernacular names of the Ficus Carica.
The Barnisote and the Aubique produce delicious large fruits, but
they must be dried with fire-heat, and are usually consumed fresh.
As regards English literature, sub-varieties are enumerated and their
peculiarities recorded in Rees' Cyclopedia by Sir James Smith in
1810, in Dr. Hogg's successive editions of his Fruit-Manual and in
several other works. The small brown Malta kind is left to dry on
the tree. Noire and Precose del Spagne are among the earliest kinds.
The ordinary drying is effected in the sun. Ripens occasionally still
its fruits in the lowlands of Scotland, where wall-shelter exists
[London]. Import during 1886 into Britain, 114,253 cwt., valued
211,276. For remarks on this sind other points, concerning the
Fig, the valuable tract published by the Rev. Dr. Bleasdale should
be consulted. The first crop of figs grows on wood of the preceding
year ; the last crop however on wood of the current year. Varieties of
particular excellence are known from Genoa, Savoy, Malaga, Anda-
lusia. For some further information, see among other publications
also that of the Hon. the Commissioner of Agriculture, Washington,
1878. Seeds of carefully dried Smyrna figs are fit to germinate
[Macmahon], Dr. Eisen has published an excellent essay on Fig-
culture in California. Figs can also be subjected to fermentation
and distillation for alcohol. The black fungaceous deterioration in
dried figs of commerce is usually caused by Sterigmatocystis ficuum.
columnaris, Moore and Mueller.
The Banyan-tree of Lord Howe's Island, therefore extra-tropical.
One of the most magnificent productions in the whole empire of
plants. Mr. Fitzgerald, a visitor to the island, remarks that the
pendulous aerial roots, when they touch the ground, gradually swell
into columns of the same dimensions as the older ones, which have
already become converted into stems, so that it is not evident which
was the parent trunk ; there may be a hundred stems to the tree,
on which the huge dome of dark evergreen foliage rests ; but these
stems are all alike, and thus it is impossible to say, whence the
tree comes or whither it goes. The aerial roots are rather rapidly
formed, but the wood never attains the thickness of F. macrophylla,
which produces only a single trunk. He saw one individual tree
covering two acres. The allied F. rubiginosa of continental East-
Australia has great buttresses, but only now and then a pendulous
root, approaching in similarity the stems of Ficus columnaris. The
Lord Howe's Island Fig-tree is more like F. macrophylla than F.
rubiginosa, but F. columnaris is more rufous in foliage than either.
In humid, warm, sheltered tracts this grand vegetable living struc-
ture may be raised as an enormous bower for shade and for scenic
ornament. The nature of the sap, whether available for caoutchouc
or other industrial material, requires yet to be tested. A substance
almost identical with gutta-percha, but not like india-rubber, has
Q
226 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
been obtained by exsiccation of the sap of F. columnaris [Fitzgerald].
Thus hardened sap of this species resembles in many respects that
of F. subracemosa and F. variegata, called Getah Lahoe, but differs
apparently by its greater solubility in cold alcohol, and by the
portion insoluble in alcohol being of a pulverulent instead of a
viscid character. The mode of exsiccation affects much the proper-
ties of the product. The tree also in culture should form a mag-
nificent retreat for singing birds and for epiphytal orchids.
Ficiis Cunning'h.ami, Miquel.
Queensland, in the eastern dense forest-regions to about 28 S.
Mr. J. O^Shanesy designates this as a tree of sometimes monstrous
growth, the large spreading branches sending down roots, which
take firm hold of the ground. One tree measured was 38 feet in
circumference at 2 feet from the ground, the roots forming wall-
like abutments, some of which extended 20 feet from the tree.
Several persons could conceal themselves in the large crevices of the
trunk, while the main-branches stretched across a space of about 100
feet. A kind of caoutchouc can be obtained from this tree. A still
more gigantic Fig-tree of Queensland is F. colossea (F. v. M.), but it
may not be equally hardy, not advancing naturally to extra-tropical
latitudes. This reminds us of the great Council-tree, F. altissima,
from Java, where it grows in mountains on calcareous ground. F.
eugenioides (F. v. M.), from North- and East- Australia, attains a
height of 100 feet, and produces also columnar air-roots. It is com-
paratively hardy, reaching extra-tropic latitudes.
Ficus elastica, Roxburgh.*
Upper India, to the Chinese boundary, known as far as 28 30'
north-latitude, extending to Burmah and the Malayan Islands. A
large tree, yielding its milk-sap copiously for the kind of caoutchouc
called Assam -Rubber. Roxburgh ascertained 80 years ago, that
india-rubber could be dissolved in cajaput-oil (very similar to
eucalyptus-oil), and that the sap yielded about one-third of its weight
of caoutchouc. This tree is not of quick growth in the changeable
and often dry climate of Melbourne ; but there is every prospect,
that it would advance very rapidly in any of our mild humid forest-
gullies, and that copious plantations of it there would call forth a
new local industry. This tree has grown in Assam to 112 feet with
100 aerial roots in thirty-two years [Markham]. In moist warm
climes, according to observations there bv Mr. Gustave Mann,
branches lopped off and planted will speedily establish themselves.
. Single branches attain a length of 50 feet ; the root-crown will
attain a diameter of 200 feet exceptionally [Haeckel]. The import
of caoutchouc into the United Kingdom in 1884 amounted to
198,000 cwt., representing a value of 2,266,000, of which F.
elastica must have furnished a considerable proportion; in 1883 the
value of unworked rubber imported there was estimated at
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 227
3,500,000 [J. G-. Baker]. Markham and Collins pronounce the
caoutchouc of F. elastica not quite so valuable as that of the
Heveas and Castilloas of South- America. Heat and atmospheric
moisture greatly promote the growth of F. elastica. Like most other
Fig-trees, it is easily raised from seed. A tree of F. elastica is
tapped in Assam when twenty-five years old. After fifty years the
yield is about 40 Ibs. of caoutchouc every third year, and lasts till
the tree is over 100 years old. The milky sap, flowing from cuts in
the stem, is poured into boiling water and stirred till it gets firm ; or
the sap is poured into large bins partly filled with water ; the fluid
caoutchouc-mass after a while floats on the surface, when it is taken
out and boiled in iron-pans, after the addition of two parts of water,
the whole being stirred continuously ; after coagulation the caout-
chouc is taken out and pressed, and if necessary boiled again, then
dried, and finally washed with lime-water. The sap from cuts into the
branches is allowed to dry on the trees [J. Collins]. Dr. S. Kurz
states, that F. laccifera (Roxburgh) from Silhet is also a caoutchouc-
tree, and that both this and F. elastica yield most in a ferruginous
clay- soil on a rocky substratum ; further, that both can bear dryness,
but like shade in youth. Several other species of tropical figs,
American as well as Asiatic, are known to produce fair caoutchouc,
but it is questionable, whether any of them would prosper in extra-
tropical latitudes ; nevertheless for the conservatories of botanic
gardens all such plants should be secured with a view of promoting
public instruction. To give some idea of the vastly increasing
extent, to which "Rubber" is now required, it may be stated, that
at Wetzell's factories in Miinden and Hildesheim alone during 1884
were produced 100,000 Ibs. of surgical articles; 100,000 Ibs. valves,
buffers and washers; 150,000 Ibs. hose and belting; 200,000 Ibs.
insertion-sheets and tucks-packings; 250,000 dozens of fancy-coloured
balls, irrespective of other rubber-articles ; this factory which exists
since 1868, is employing 600 workmen and operating with machinery
equal to 300 horse-power. Caoutchouc has been recommended also
for inner-lining of war-ships [G-. A. F. Wilson]. Ficus Vogelii
(Miquel) yields in Liberia and Lagos a kind of rubber, lauded by
Messrs. Warne and Christy. The Columbian Rubber-tree is Sapium
biglandulosum (J. Mueller).
Ficus infectoria, Roxburgh.
India, ascending to 5,000 feet. Probably hardy where frosts are
only slight, and then adapted for street-planting. Brandis and
Stewart found its growth quicker than that of Siris or Albizzia
procera. F. religiosa (Linne) ascends to the same height, and is
of quick growth in moist climates. It bears well the clime of
Beloochistan. It is one of the trees on which the lac-insect exists.
The fruits of some huge Himalayan species for instance, H. virgata,
F. glomerata (Roxburgh) and F. Roxburghii (Wallich) are edible.
The curious Tikoua from Yun-Nan, introduced into France by the
228 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Abbe Delavery, is a creeping species, which ripens its edible fruits
underground [E. Groeze]. The bark of a Ficus-species is chiefly
used for tanning in Quito [Rev. Prof. Sodiro],
Ficus lucida, Dryander and Alton.
South-Asia. Recommended by Mr. D. Morris to be planted for
shelter and shade even on sea-coasts.
Ficus macrophylla, Desfontaines.*
The Moreton-Bay Fig-tree, which is indigenous through a great
part of East- Australia. Perhaps the grandest of Australian avenue-
trees, and among the very best to be planted, although in poor dry
soil its growth is slow. In the latitude of Melbourne it is quite
hardy in the lowland. The foliage may occasionally be injured by
grasshoppers. Easily Jraised from seeds, the smallness of which
admits of their very easy transmission to remote places. In the
coolest regions of the native growth or culture of this tree the seeds
do not mature so well as in the warmest. Growth in height at Port
Phillip, 30 feet in 20 years, on favorable soil.
Ficus rubiginosa, Desfontaines.
New South Wales. One of the most hardy of all Fig-trees, and
very eligible among evergreen shade-trees, particularly for prome-
nades. It is estimated that the genus Ficus comprises about 600
species, many occurring in cool mountain-regions of tropical
countries. The number of those, which would endure a temperate
clime, is probably not small. In New England, Mr. A. R. Craw-
ford noticed trees sending down air-roots 30 feet distant from the
main-stem, some nearer forming new stems, others 30 feet in height
descending along Angophora-stems, enclosing and suffocating them.
He measured a tree that was 60 feet in circumference of stem, and
had a height of 90 feet.
Ficus Sycomorus, Linne.*
The Sycomore-Figtree. Egypt, Abyssinia, Nubia. Copiously
planted along the road-sides of Egypt. The evergreen shady
foliage, on very spreading branches, extends to a width of 120 feet.
Attains an enormous age. A tree at Cairo, which legends connect
with Christ's time, still exists. Seven men with outstretched arms
could hardly encircle the stem.
Ficus Watkinsiana, F. M. Bailey.
Sub-tropical Eastern Australia. Allied to F. macrophylla, but
occupying higher elevations, and thus hardier than that species.
First brought under notice by the late Chevalier Camara in his
capacity as a collector. Ought to be tried for caoutchouc. For the
test of Ficus-trees as regards their fitness for yielding caoutchouc,
practical experts conversant with gathering and preparing the sap in
rubber-countries should be specially engaged.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 229
Fistulina hepatica, Fries.
Europe and Asia, East- Australia. This large, esculent fungui
grows generally on old oak-stems, but does accommodate itself to
other habitations also. Its introduction elsewhere is worthy of
trial.
Pitzroya Patagonica, J. Hooker.*
Chili, as far south as Chiloe. The Alerce of the Chilians.
Grows on swampy, moory places. A stately tree, sometimes to 100
feet high ; the diameter of the stem occasionally reaches the extra-
ordinary extent of 15 feet. The wood is almost reddish, easily
split, light, does not warp, stands exposure to the air for half a
century ; in Valdivia and Chiloe almost all buildings are roofed
with shingles of this tree [Dr. Philippi]. The outer bark produces
a strong fibre, used for calking ships. Like Libocedrus tetragona
this tree should be extensively planted in unutilised swampy moors
of mountains.
Placourtia Ramontchi, L'H&ritier. (F. sapida, Roxburgh.)
From Lower India up to Beloochistan. This and F. cataphracta
(Roxburgh) form thorny trees with somewhat plum-like fruits.
They can be adopted for hedge-copses with other species. Bears
at Moreton-Bay.
Flemingia tuberosa, Dalzell.
Western India. The tubers of this herb are said to be edible.
Another species, F. vestita (Bentham), is on record as cultivated,
for its small esculent tubers, in North- Western India, where it
ascends to the temperate region up to 7,000 feet. Both might be
improved by culture. F. congesta (Roxburgh) yields a dye.
Plindersia Australia, R. Brown.
New South Wales and Queensland. With Araucaria Cunning-
hami and Ficus macrophylla, the tallest of all the jungle-trees of
its localities, attaining 150 feet. Bark scaly ; stem to a diameter
of 8 feet. A noble tree for avenues. Rate of growth, according
to Mr. Ch. Fawcett, about 25 feet in eight years. Timber of
extraordinary hardness [Ch. Moore]. It is so tough as to serve for
the yokes of draught-oxen. Mr. Jennings' ingenious method of
exsiccating moist substances by the "cool dry air-press," is not
only applicable to esculent fruits, but also to any kind of timber,
which by this method can be "seasoned" in a few days without
splitting or warping.
Plindersia Oxleyana, F. v. Mueller.
The Yellow Wood of New South Wales and Queensland, called
" Bogum Bogum " by the aborigines. Its wood is used locally for
230 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
dye, also for staves as well as that of F. Australis. Tametia Argyro-
dendron, Stenocarpus salignus and Castanospermum Australe. Mr.
C. Hartmann mentions, that F. Oxleyana attains a height of 150
feet, and supplies one of the finest hard woods for choice cabinet-
work. Other species occur, among which F. Bennettiana is the
best for avenue-purposes. Among other meliaceous trees of East-
Australia are very tall : Dysoxylon Fraseri, D. Lesserti and D.
Muelleri (Bentham), all three yielding exquisite timber.
Foaniculum vulgare, Miller. {F. capillaceum, Gilbert.)
The Fennel. Mediterranean regions, particularly on limestone-
soil, extending to Central Asia ; certainly wild in Turkestan [Dr.
A. von Regel]. A perennial or biennial herb, of which primary
varieties occur, the so-called sweet variety having fruits almost
twice as large as the other. The herb and fruits are in use as
condiments and the latter also for medicine". The fruits are rich
in essential oil, containing much anethol. Vilmorin found them
to keep their vitality for about four years ; he also remarks, that
the bleached leafstalks yield Carosella-salad. A variety, F. dulce
(Bauhin), yields its young shoots for boiling as a vegetable of
sweetish taste and delicate aroma. Another variety exists with
tuberously enlarged roots, which raw or boiled are served up with
meals in Italy. Behaved admirably in Central Australia, braving, the
worst of droughts [Rev. H. Kempe]. Serves as sheep-fodder.
Fourcroya Gubensis, Ventenat.
West-Indies and continential tropical America. A smaller species
than the following, but equally utilised for fibre and impenetrable
hedges. Succeeds in Natal [J. M. Wood]. F. flavo-viridis
(Hooker), from Mexico, is still smaller.
Fourcroya gigantea, Ventenat.
Central America. In species of Yucca, Agave, Dracaena, Cordy-
line, Phormium, Doryanthes and this as well as a few other
Fourcroyas we have gigantic liliaceous and amaryllideous plants
available industrially for fibre. Frost injures the leaves of this species.
Development of flower-stalks extremely rapid, up to 30 feet high.
Fibre often 3 feet long and of considerable tenacity. The fibre,
produced in Mauritius by Messrs. Bourgignon and Fronchet, proved
stronger than hemp and resisted decay in water. Mr. Boucard
also testifies to the excellence of the fibre, which he describes as
long, silky and solid, particularly adapted for luxurious hammocks
and for cordage. This fibre is worth in London about 37 the ton.
Fourcroya longseva, Karwinski and Zuccarini.
High mountains of Guatemala and Mexico, particularly at an
elevation of about 10,000 feet. One of the most gigantic and mag-
nificent of all liliaceous or amaryllideous plants, in volume only
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. . 231
surpassed by Dracaena Draco, the Dragon-tree of the Canary-
Islands. This is the principal high-stemmed species, the trunk
attaining a height of 50 feet, and the huge panicle of flowers 40
feet more. It does not die, like allied plants, after flowering. The
species is recorded here as a fibre-plant, but should also be culti-
vated for its ornamental grandeur. It has flowered 26 feet high in
the cool climate of New Zealand.
Fragaria Californica, Chamisso and Schlechtendal.
California and Mexico. Closely allied to F. vesca. Strawberries
can be preserved by being placed successively in layers of sugar,
over which salicylic acid is strewn in the proportion of a teaspoonful
to 4 Ibs. of sugared fruit, or the salicylic acid should be added, dis-
solved in alcohol.
Fragaria Chiloensis, Duchesne.*
Chili- Strawberry In various of the colder parts both of North-
and South- America, occurring also in Juan Fernandez, and at
elevations between 4,000 and 6,000 feet in Hawaia (Dr. Hille-
brand). Almost incredible accounts have been published regarding
the yield of the Chiloen Strawberry in the neighbourhood of Brest,
far exceeding the fecundity of any other strawberry.
Fragaria collina, Ehrhart.
Hill- Strawberry. In various parts of Europe. Cultivated in
Norway to lat. 67 56' [Schuebeler] ; may be regarded as a mere
variety of F. vesca. Fruit of a somewhat musky odor.
Fragaria grandiflora, Ehrhart.*
Ananas- Strawberry. Various colder parts of America. Closely
allied to F. Chiloensis. Many of the large-fruited varieties have
been derived from this species. The rearing of Strawberries has
in California assumed lately such magnitude, that 15,000 cases
could be exported already in 1887 from that state [" Journ. Soc.
of Arts," xxxix., 78]. At Auckland, N.Z., 200 acres are planted
with Fragaria, the daily yield in the season being about 40 quarts
on an acre, worth there sixpence each [B. Dawson]. The "Veitch"
variety bears well even under the shade of orchard-trees.
Fragaria Illinoensis, Prince.
North-America. Hovey's seedling and the Boston-kind from
this plant. Is regarded by Professor Asa Gray as a variety of F.
Virginiana.
Fragaria pratensis, Duchesne. (F. elatior, Ehrhart.)
Cinnamon- Strawberry. " Hautbois." In mountain-forests of
Europe. F. moschata (Duchesne) is a variety of this species. The
lower portion of the succulent receptacle is seedless.
232 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Fragaria vesca, Linne.*
Wild Wood- Strawberry. Naturally very widely dispersed over
the temperate and colder parts of the northern hemisphere, extend-
ing northward to Lapland and Iceland, southward to the mountains
of Java, ascending the Himalayas to 13,000 feet [J. D. Hooker],
the Scottish highlands to 7,000 feet. From this typical form pro-
bably some of the other strawberries arose. Middle forms and
numerous varieties now in culture were produced by hybridization.
These plants, although already abounding in our gardens, are
mentioned here, because they should be naturalised in any ranges.
Settlers, living near some brook or rivulet, might readily set out plants,
which with others similarly adapted would gradually spread with
the current. Unlike many other plants they are not destroyed by
bush-fires. Fragarias are in the lowlands of the tropics best treated
as annuals to be productive. The minute seeds will retain their
vitality for fully three years. A highland-variety, F. alpina (Per-
soon), furnishes fruit throughout the warm season, long after the
other varieties cease bearing in gardens [Vilmorin]. Dr. Bersch
recommends for the preservation of strawberries and any other sort
of non-keeping table-fruits a solution of one drachm of salicylic
acid and J Ib. of sugar in one quart of water, into which the fruits,
without boiling, are simply immersed ; they will thus keep many
months.
Fragaria Virglniana, Duchesne.
Scarlet Strawberry. Eastern North-America, extending north-
ward to 64 [Sir J. Richardson], therefore adapted for the coldest
climates also ; yet even fruiting well in Bermuda [Sir J. Lefroy].
Fraxinus Americana, Linn.*
The White Ash. Eastern North- Am erica, extending from Florida-
to Canada. A large tree, which delights in humid forests. Trunks
have been found 75 feet long without a limb, and 6 feet in diameter
[Emerson]. It is the best of all American Ashes and of compara-
tively rapid growth. In Nebraska the stem attains to about 32
inches circumference at 2 feet from the base in 22 years [Furnas],
Resisting extreme heat better than the common Ash. Seeds of
this and some other Ashes, unless fresh sown, may lie for a whole
year in the ground before germinating. Timber largely exported ;
it assumes a red tint in age ; much valued for its toughness, light-
ness and elasticity, excellent for work subject to sudden shocks and
strains, such as the frames of machines, carriage-wheels, agricul-
tural implements, pick-handles, billiard-cues, fishing-rods, handles,
chair-rails, shafts, staves, pulley-blocks, balaying-pins and oars ;
also for furniture and musical instruments. The young branches
are utilised for mast-hoops. The author and Mr. J. G. Luehmann
found the strength greater than that of our Blackwood-tree and of
many Eucalypts, but not equal to that of E. Leucoxylon, E.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 233
siderophloia, E. polyanthema, the best E. globulus and Hickory.
Over-old wood not desirable. When once thoroughly seasoned, it
does not shrink or swell, and is therefore preferred for flooring to
any natire timber in Virginia [Robb, Simmonds]. The inner bark
furnishes a yellow dye. The Red Ash (Fraxinus pubescens, Lamarck)
and the Carolina-Ash (F. platycarpa, Michaux) are of smaller size,
but F. pubescens may sometimes also become large.
Fraxinus excelsior, C. Bauhin.*
The ordinary Ash of Europe and Western Asia, extending to the
Himalayas and Thibet, there ascending to 9,000 feet. A tree of
comparatively quick growth, known to attain an age of nearly 200
years. It is a very hardy tree, braving the winters of Norway to
lat. 69 40', though there only a shrub ; but in lat. 61 12' it attained
still a height of 100 feet and a stem-diameter of 5 feet [Schuebeler].
Rich soil on forest-rivulets or river-banks suits it best, although it
also thrives on moist sand. Wood remarkably tough and elastic,
used for agricultural and other implements, handles, ladders, drum-
hoops, carriage-work, oars, axle-trees, tackle-blocks and many other
purposes. Six peculiar kinds of Ash-trees occur in Japan, some
also in the Indian highlands ; all might be tried for industrial
culture.
Fraxinus floribunda, Wallich.
Nepal- Ash. Himalaya, between 4,000 and 11,000 feet. Attains
a height of 120 feet ; girth of stem sometimes 15 feet. Serves not
only as a timber-tree, but also as a fine avenue-tree. The wood
much sought for oars, ploughs and various implements [Stewart
and Brandis]. For forest-plantations Ashes are best mixed with
beeches and some other trees.
Fraxinus nigra, Marsh. (F. sambucifolia, Lamarck.)
Black or Water- Ash of Eastern North- America. Attains a height
of 80 feet. Requires deep loose soil and humidity, but is indifferent
to drainage [Fernow]. Wood still more tough and elastic than
that of F. Americana, but less durable when exposed ; easily split
into thin layers for basket-work ; it is also comparatively rich in
potash, like that of most of its congeners ; for oars and implements
it is inferior to that of the White Ash [Simmonds] ; much used
locally by waggon-builders [RansomeJ.
Fraxinus Greg-ana, Nuttal.
California- and Oregon-Ash. A tree, reaching 80 feet in height,
preferring low-lying alluvial lands. The wood of this fine species
is nearly white, very tough and durable, often used for oars and
handles of implements, also in carriage-building, cooperage and
manufacture of furniture. Though allied to F. nigra, this ash is
superior as a timber- tree. Ash-trees will grow readily in the shade
of other trees.
234 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Fraxinus Ornus, Linn6.
The Manna -Ash of the Mediterranean regions, extending to
Austria and Switzerland. Height about 30 feet. Hardy still at
Christiania. It yields the medicinal manna by incisions into the
bark, which are done only on one side of the stem each year. F.
Ornus is well adapted for a promenade-tree, and is earlier in foliage
than F. excelsior, F. Americana and most other Ash-trees.
Fraxinus quadrangulata, Michaux.*
The Blue Ash of North-America, indigenous from Michigan to
Tennessee. One of the tallest of the Ashes, becoming 70 feet high.
Timber excellent, better than that of any other American species
except the White Ash, hence frequently in use for flooring and
shingles and carriage-building ; it is the most durable of its kind,
when exposed to alternate dryness and moisture [B. E. Fernow],
The inner bark furnishes a blue dye. The tree requires a rather
mild clime and the most fertile soil.
Fraxinus viridis, Michaux films.
The Green Ash of Eastern North-America. Height reaching
70 feet. Less dependent on humidity than many other species.
Wood excellent, nearly as valuable as that of the White Ash, but
of less dimensions. The tree requires shady woodlands. Especially
recommended for street-planting by Dr. J. Warder. This species,
like the preceding, is hardy as far north as Christiania in Norway
[Schuebeler]. Rate of circumferential stem-growth in Nebraska
30 inches in 22 years [Furnas].
Fraxinus xanthoxyloides, Wallich. (F. Chmemis, Roxburgh. )
Himalaya. On this a peculiar wax is produced by Coccus Pela,
perhaps also on some species of Ligustrum. About 40,000 Ibs. are ex-
ported annually according to Bernardini. F. Mandschurica (Ruprecht)
attains a height of 60 feet and a stem-diameter of 4 feet.
Fuchsia racemosa, Lamarck.
Mountains of Hayti* One of the species with edible berries of
very good taste. Fuchsia splendens (Zuccarini) occurs in cold
regions of Guatemala up to 10,000 feet high, and produces tasty
wholesome berries, the latter an inch and a half long ; fit for pre-
serves [Mrs. Beal] ; it ripens its fruits at Port Phillip. F. excorti-
cata (Linne fil.) of New Zealand extends there far south, and is
perhaps as hardy as F. Magellanica (Lamarck); it rises to 30 feet, if
not' higher, and gains a stem-diameter of 3 feet ; hence a scenic plant
even for cool climes. Some of the ordinary garden Fuchsias are
quite hardy in the south of Ireland.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 235
Galega offtcinalis, Linne".
Southern Europe and South-Western Asia. A perennial herb,
though not equal in value to the best clovers [Langethal] , yet recom-
mendable as a fodder-herb on account of the large proportion of its
albuminous contents [Stebler] ; withstands drought through its deeply
penetrating roots. It will live on poor soil, provided that such is
porous ; the yield is large.
Garcinia Mestoni, F. M. Bailey.
North-Eastern Queensland. Ripens its Mangosteens up to the cool
elevation of 4,000 feet, the fruit attaining the size of ordinary
oranges [Meston].
Garcinia Travancorica, Beddome.
Madras-Presidency, up to elevations of 4,500 feet. This seems
to be the hardiest of the superior Gamboge-trees ; hence there is
some prospect of its prospering in forests of the warmer temperate
zone. G. anomala (Planchon and Triana) ascends to 6,000 feet in
Martaban, but its Gamboge is of an inferior kind. G. elliptica
(Wallich) furnishes superior Gamboge, but advances up the moun-
tains only to 4,000 feet [Kurz]. G. Cambogia (Desrousseaux),
furnishes no useful pigment.
Garcinia Xanthochynros, J. Hooker. (Xanthochymus pictorius, Rox-
burgh. )
India. A middle-sized tree, yields inferior gamboge, but in
abundance. It has flowered somewhat outside the tropics in East-
Australia [Edgar]. G. morella (Desrousseaux), the best Gamboge-
tree, ascends only to 2,000 feet. G. Hanburyana (J. Hooker) is an
allied pigment-yielding species.
Gardenia Thunbergii, Linne.
South- Africa. Tree to 30 feet high, 2 feet in diameter, the wood
used in waggon-work and farm-carpentry. Flowers 4 inches across,
pure white, very showy and as fragrant as those of G. florida ; it
flowers very profusely ; could likely be used for scent [T. R. Sim].
The fruits of the latter are in China and Japan used for dyeing
yellow.
Garuleum bipinnatum, Leasing.
South-Africa. A perennial herb of medicinal properties ; praised
like numerous other plants there and elsewhere as an alexipharmic,
but all requiring close re -investigation in this respect.
236 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Gaulthieria Myrsinites, Hooker.
Northern California, Oregon, British Columbia. The fruit of this
procumbent shrub is said to be delicious. It would prove adapted
for any of the Alps.
Gaulthieria Shallon, Pursh.
North-Western America. This handsome spreading bush would
yield its pleasant edible berries in abundance, if planted on alpine
mountains, where it would likely become naturalised. G. procum-
bens (L.) is the North-Eastern American Wintergreen, used in
medicine.
Gaylussacia frondosa, Torrey and Gray.*
The Blue Tangleberry of Eastern North- America. A bush with
deciduous foliage ; fruit very sweet.
Gaylussacia resinosa, Torrey and Gray.*
The Black Huckleberry of North-Eastern America. A dwarf
shrub, with deciduous leaves. It likes swampy woodlands, and thus
would find ample space in any forest-ranges. Berry of pleasant
taste. Perhaps some of the South- American species may also pro-
duce edible fruit.
Geissaspis cristata, Wight and Arnott.
Intra- tropical Asia. Though a native of tropic zones, yet as an
annual it would probably be reared to advantage also in temperate
climes. Mr. Charles Ford relates that this herb is used in Hongkong
for cattle-fodder, and that it will grow on swampy land. Gr. lupu-
lina (Planchon) is an African congener.
Geitonoplesium cymosum, Cunningham. (Culcoa cymosa, Salisbury.)
Through the whole East- Australian forests. It is mentioned here*
to draw attention to the likelihood that special culture may convert
this into a culinary plant, as Mr. P. O'Shanesy found the young
shoots to offer a fair substitute for Asparagus.
Gelidium corneum, Lamouroux.
On shores of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. This sea-
weed could by artificial means doubtless be still much distributed
beyond its natural locations. Under the name of " Yang-tsai " it is
a commercial article for food in China. The jelly of this serves as
a substitute for " Agar-Agar " in rearing bacteria. The " gelose "
of this plant remains solid at considerable warmth, and thus is
particularly well preservable and transmissible [Dr. Dymock] . Sea-
weeds make excellent manure for many plants and are also very good
for mulching.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 237
Gelsemium nitidura, Richard.
Southern States of North-America, also in Mexico. " Yellow
Jessamine." A twining shrubby plant, long since introduced into
Australia by the writer, with numerous other plants of industrial
or therapeutical importance. Recommended in mania, meningitis,
neuralgia, irritative coughs, asthma [Prof. Bartholomew], acts
chiefly as an anodyne and thus may induce sleep. Active principle :
gelsemin. The perfume of the flowers has also come into use for
cosmetics.
Genista monosperma, Lamarck.
Mediterranean regions. One of the best of Broom-bushes for
arresting sand-drift. G. sphaerocarpa, Lamarck, is of like use, and
also comes from the Mediterranean Sea.
Genista tinctoria, Linn6.
Europe, Northern and Western Asia. A perennial herb, of some
medicinal use. From the flowers a yellow dye may be extracted,
which with woad gives a good green, and comes well in for domestic
dyeing, particularly of wool. A kind of Schiittgelb, different from
the one prepared from Maclura tinctoria, is obtained from this Genista,
known also as factitium-yellow, and perhaps not altogether to be
superseded by picric acid or by Anilin-colours [G-. Don ; Rosenthal ;
Brockhaus].
Gentiana lutea, Linn6.
Sub-alpine tracts of Middle and Southern Europe. A beautiful
perennial herb, yielding the medicinal gentian-root. It could be easily
raised in high mountains elsewhere. Chemical principles : gentian-
bitter and gentianin. Medicinal gentian-root is also obtained from
Gr. punctata, L., G. purpurea, L. and G. Pannonica, Scop, of the
European Alps. The natives of India prize G. Kurroo (Royle), which
ascends the Himalayas to 11,000 feet [Dr. G. Watt]. Several native
species are used as substitutes in North-America, particularly G.
quinqueflora (Lamarck). Their straying into pasture-land must be
checked. Erythraea Centaurium (Linne) and its allies have not re-
ceived special recognition in this work, as these annual herbs are
common in many countries, therefore naturally available, and objec-
tionable on pastoral ground, although they afford a really valuable
domestic drug as well for external application as for internal use.
Geonoma vaga, Grisebach and Wendland.
West-Indies to Brazil. A dwarf decorative Palm, ascending
mountain-regions to 3,000 feet.
238 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Geurn urbanum, Linn 6" .
The " Avens " of Britain. Europe, North- Africa, extra-tropical
and alpine Asia, South-Eastern Australia, North-America. A per-
ennial herb; the powerful anti-dysenteric root, according to Muspratt,
contains as much as 41 per cent, of tannic acid.
Gigantochloa Abyssinica, F. v. Mueller. (Oxytenanthera Abyssinica,
Munro. )
Tropical Africa. A tall Bamboo, ascending to considerable moun-
tain-elevations.
Gigantochloa apus, Kurz. (Bambusa apus, Schultes filius.)
Indian Archipelagus, at elevations under 5,000 feet. Height of
stem reaching 60 feet. When young it is used for strings and
ropes.
Gigantochloa aspera, Kurz.
Java. Found by Zollinger to attain a maximum-height of 170
feet.
Gigantochloa ater, Kurz.*
Java, at elevations of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. Height of -stems
reaching 70 feet. One of the species much grown for rural and
industrial purposes.
Gigantochloa maxima, Kurz.* (G. verticillata; Munro.)
Java. Height sometimes 120 feet, the stems nearly a foot thick.
One of the most extensively cultivated of all Asiatic Bamboos,
ascending into mountain-regions. The Whorled Bamboo. Grows
in damp heat at the astonishing rate of 40 feet in about three
months, according to Bouche. The young shoots furnish an edible
vegetable like G-. apus and Bambusa Bitung.
Gigantochloa nigrociliata, Kurz. (Oxytenanthera nigro-citiata, Munro.)
Continental and insular India. Stems to 130 feet long.
Gigantochloa robusta, Kurz.
Mountains of Java. Height to about 100 feet. Kurz noticed the
early growth to be nearly 18 feet in a month, the principal branches
only commencing when the shoot had reached a height of about 70
feet. Some Java-bamboos are known to measure 22 inches in girth
at a height of about 120 feet.
Gigantochloa Thwaitesii, Kurz. (Oxytenanthera Thwaitetii, Munro.)
Ceylon, at cool elevations of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet. This pretty
Bamboo reaches only 12 feet in height.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 239
GinkgO biloba, Linne.* (Salisburia adiantifolia, Smith.)
Ginkgo-tree. China and Japan. A deciduous fan-leaved tree, to
100 feet high, with a straight stem to 12 feet in diameter. The wood
is pale, soft, easy to work and takes a beautiful polish. The seeds
are edible, and when pressed yield a good oil. The fruits, sold in
China under the name of " Pa-Koo," are not unlike dried almonds,
but the kernel fuller and rounder. Ginkgo-trees are estimated to attain
an age of 3,000 years. Mr. Christy observes, that the foliage turns
chrome-yellow in autumn, and that it is the grandest and most highly
esteemed of all trees in Japan ; it will grow in dry situations. In
America it is hardy as far north as Montreal, in Europe to Christiania.
Now acclimatised to the winters of Germany [H. Koehler] . Dr. M. T.
Masters recommends this specially as a promenade tree in cool coun-
tries, particularly adapted to resist the injurious effects of town
atmospheres.
Gladiolus edulis, Burchell.
Interior of South-Africa. The bulb-like roots are edible, and taste
like chestnuts when roasted.
Glaucium luteum, Scopoli. (G. flavum, Crantz.)
Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa and Western Asia.
This fast-spreading biennial herb, now also naturalised on some of the
Australian coasts, does good service in aiding to subdue drift-sand.
The plant has also some medicinal value, but may become dangerous
to pasture-animals on account of its narcotic properties.
G-leditschia triacanthos, Linn6.
The deciduous Honey-locust tree of South-Eastern States of North-
America. Height reaching 80 feet, trunk to 4 feet in diameter.
Wood hard, coarse-grained, fissile, durable, even in contact with soil,
sought principally for blocks and hubs. The tree is not without im-
portance for street-planting. Rate of circumferential stem-growth
in Nebraska, about 40 inches in 22 years at two feet from the ground
[Furnas]; growth in height at Port Phillip, about 35 feet in 20 years.
Sown closely this plant forms impenetrable, thorny, not readily com-
bustible hedges. An allied species, the G. Sinensis, Lamarck (G.
horrida, Willd.), occurs in East- Asia. The Water-Locust tree of
North- America (G. monosperma, Walt.) will grow to a height of 80
feet in swamps. The flowers of Gledits.chia exude much honey-nectar
for bees. The somewhat succulent fruit is a poor esculent, but
harmless. Ought to come in for cattle-feed.
Glycine hispida, Maximowicz.* (Soja, hispida, Mcench.)
An annual herb of India, China and Japan. The beans afford one
of the main ingredients of the condiment known as Soja ; they are
very oily, nutritious, and of pleasant taste when boiled either in a
240 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
green state or when ripe ; in the latter state they need considerable
soaking before use. They constitute a vast proportion of the people's
food in Japan. The return from the culture of this plant is ample.
The plant endures slight frost [Wittmack]. It is not subject to attacks
of insects and fungs [Vilmorin]. Oil is pressed from the seeds. It
is also an extremely valuable fodder-plant, according to Dr. Gr. Watt.
Glycine Soja, Siebold and Zuccarini, is said to be a distinct plant,
but probably serves the same purpose. Two kinds of Soja-beans
exist, one containing to 20 per cent, of oil, which sort is used for
pressing, while the less oily kind is used for sauce [James Taylor].
Glycyrrhiza echinata, Linne"
South-Europe and South- Western Asia. From the root of this
herb a portion of the Italian liquorice is prepared. The Russian
liquorice is also derived from this species. The root is thicker and
less sweet than that of the following.
Glycyrrhiza glabra, Linn<.
South-Europe, North-Africa, South- Western and Middle Asia.
The extract of the root of this herb constitutes the ordinary liquorice.
The plant grows most vigorously in adequate climes, but requires a
deep, rich and friable soil for prolific growth. Propagation best from
suckers or cuttings, but a harvest of the roots is only realized in the
third or fourth year. The return may come up to as much as 4 tons
on an acre under favorable circumstances. No watering is necessary
for this plant. Market value of the root in London now 16s. to 18s.
per cwt. [Christy]. Both this and the preceding are hardy in Norway
to lat. 59 55' [Schuebeler]. Liquorice is of some utility in medicine,
and also used in porter-breweries. Chemical principle : glycyrrhizin.
4
Glyptostrobus heterophyllus, Endlichcr. (Taxodium heterophyllum,
Brongniart.)
China. An ornamental tree, allied to Taxodium distichum in some
respects, and like that tree particularly fit for permanently wet ground.
The Chinese people plant it along the edges of canals and narrow
creeks, the buttress of the tree standing actually in moist muddy soil
[Dr. Hance].
Gmelina Leichhardtii, F. v. Mueller.
East- Australia, to 35 S.L. Height of tree to 150 feet ; stem-
diameter to 4 feet. Grown now on a commercial scale for fancy
timber-purposes in Queensland. Wood of shining paleness, not liable
to rend, particularly valued for ship-decks, flooring-boards, and
superior implements. Vitex lignum vitse (Cunningham), another
verbenaceous timber-tree of high value, is also indigenous on the
coast-ranges of Eastern Australia.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 241
Gomphrena canescens, R. Brown.
Tropical and sub-tropical Australia. Annual or of short duration.
Mr. Joseph Bradshaw singles this species out as a pasture-herb,
which horses particularly consume with predilection.
Gonioma Kamassi, E. Meyer.
South- Africa. This small tree furnishes the yellow Kamassi-wood,
much sought for carpenters' tools, planes and other select articles of
wood-work, also for wood-engraving, according to Dr. Pappe. Flowers
deliciously fragrant. The bark contains a pleasantly bitter tonic
principle [Prof. MacOwan].
Gordonia Lasianthus, Linne.
The Loblolly-Bay. South-Eastern North- America. A handsome
tree, growing to a height of 60 feet ; flowers snowy white. The wood
is extremely light, of a rosy hue and fine silky texture, but unfit for
exposure. The bark is extensively employed for tanning in the
Southern States. Available for swampy coast-lands.
Gossypitun arboreum, Linne.*
The Tree-Cotton. Upper Egypt, according to A. de Candolle,
seemingly also Abyssinia, Sennaar and thence to Upper Guinea.
A tall perennial species, but not forming a real tree, yielding cotton
in the first season. Leaves long-lobed. Bracts with few teeth.
Petals yellow, or in age pink or purple. Seeds brown, disconnected,
after the removal of the cotton-fibre greenish-velvety. The cotton
of long staple, but also a variety occurs with short staple. The
New Orleans cotton (G. sanguineum, Hasskarl) belongs to this species.
This cotton-fibre is crisp, white, opaque and not easily separable.
All Gossypiums can be regarded as honey-plants.
Gossypium Barbadense, Linne".*
Sea-Island Cotton. From Mexico to Peru and Brazil. Leaves
long-lobed. Petals yellow. Seeds disconnected, black, after the
removal of the cotton-fibre naked. The cotton of this species is very
long, easily separable, of a silky lustre and always white. This
species requires low-lying coast-tracts for attaining to perfection.
Stands drought well [T. R. Sim]. Perennial, but yielding like the rest
a crop already in the first season. Cultivated largely in the Southern
States of North-America, also in South-Europe, Central and North-
Africa, Queensland and various other countries. The cotton-harvest
of 1885 in the United States came to fully 6j million bales, at about
450 Ibs. each [J. R. Dodge] ; the area there under cotton-cultivation
in that year was 18,300,865 acres. G. Kirkii (Masters), from Dar
Salam, may be a wild state of G. Barbadeuse. Another primitive
type of this genus in tropical Africa is G. anomalum, according to
Dr. Welwitch. The " Kidney- cotton " is a variety with more
242 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
acuminate leaves. M. Delchevalerie has drawn attention to a new
plant, tall in size and exceedingly prolific in bearing, raised in Egypt,
called Bamia-cotton, which Sir Joseph Hooker regards as a variety
of Gr. Barbadense. This Bamia Cotton-bush grows 8 to 10 feet high,
ripens (at Galveston) fruit in four or five months, and produces 2,500
pounds of cotton and seed per acre. It is remarkable for its long
simple branches, heavily fruited from top to bottom. Its cotton is
pale-yellow.
Gossypium herbaceum, Linne.*
Persia, Scinde, Cabul and some other parts of tropical and sub-
tropical Asia. Much cultivated in the Mediterranean countries, also
in the United States of North- America and in Southern Japan.
Perennial. Leaves short-lobed. Petals yellow. Seeds discon-
nected, after removal of the cotton-fibre grey -velvety. Distinguished
and illustrated by Parlatore as a species, regarded by Seemann as a
variety of G-. arboreum. Staple longer than in the latter kind, white-
opaque, not easily separating. The wild type of this seems to be
G. Stocksii (Masters). Even this species, though supposed to be
herbaceous, will attain a height of 12 feet. The root of this and
some other congeners is a powerful emmenagogue. A variety with
tawny fibre furnishes the Nankin-cotton. Oil pressed from cotton-
seeds can be used for human food, but is inferior to good olive-oil
and lard in quality. It has most extensively come into use for various
processes of factories, so much so that in 1886 to a value of over
half a million sterling was exported from the United States [J. R.
Dodge]. Nearly half a million tons of seeds have lately been
crushed a year, a ton yielding about 35 gallons oil, and approximately
750 Ibs. oil-cake [Dr. Masters]. The richness of the latter in albu-
minous contents renders it of great importance for mixing with feed
poor in nitrogenous compounds, such as hay and ensilage [Prof. N.
T. Lupton]. Prof. Grulley calculated the harvest of cotton-seeds in
the United States during one of the later years at 3,000,000 tons.
Gossypium hirsutum, Linn4.*
Upland- or Short-staple Cotton. Tropical America, cultivated
most extensively in the United States, Southern Europe and many
other countries. Perennial. Seeds brownish-green, disconnected,
after the removal of the cotton-fibre greenish -velvety. Staple white,
almost of a silky lustre, not easily separable. A portion of the
Queensland-cotton is obtained from this species. It neither requires
the coast-tracts nor the highly attentive culture of Gr. Barbadense.
Gossypium. religiosum, Linn6.* (G. Peruvianum, Cavanilles.)
Tropical South-America, southward to Chili. Kidney-Cotton,
Peruvian or Brazilian Cotton. Leaves long-lobed. Petals yellow.
Seeds black, connected. The Cotton is of a very long staple, white,
somewhat silky, and easily separated from the seeds. A tawny
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 243
variety occurs. This is the tallest of all cotton-bushes, and it is
probably this species, which occurs in the valleys of the Andes as
a small tree, bearing its cotton, while frosts whiten the ground
around,
Gossypium Taitense, Parlatore. (G. religiosum, Banks and Solander.)
In several islands of the Pacific Ocean. A shrub. Petals white.
Seeds disconnected, glabrous after the removal of the fulvous cotton-
fibre, which does not separate with readiness.
Gossypium tomentosum, Nuttall. (G. Sandmcense, Parlatore. G. rel\-
giosum, A. Gray.)
Hawaia. Perennial. Petals yellow. Seeds disconnected, after
the removal of the tawny cotton-fibre fulvous-velvety, not easily
parting with their cotton. Staple very short. The roots are a
powerful remedial agent, which however should only be used in
legitimate medical practice. The barks of Hamamelis Virginiana
and Viburnum prunifolium are antidotes [Phares and Durham].
The seeds are a galactagogue.
For limitation of species and varieties Parlatore's " Specie dei
Cotoni" (Florence, 1866) and Todaro's " Osservazioni su Cotone "
may be consulted. Information on culture may be sought in Porter's
" Tropical Agriculturist " and in Mallet's work on " Cotton "
(London, 1862).
The following notes were written for the use and guidance of
Victorian colonists :
There are many parts of our colony, in which all these species of
Gossypium could be cultivated, and where a fair or even prolific
cotton-crop may be obtained. Good cotton for instance has been
produced on the Goulburn, the Loddon, the Avoca and the Murray-
Kiver, particularly in places where water could be applied. All
cultivated kinds of cotton-plants are either naturally perennials or
become such in favorable climes, although they may be treated
strictly as annuals. Some of them will indeed in particular instances
grow to the height of 20 feet. The geographical parallels, between
which cotton-culture is usually placed, stretch in various girdles
between 36 north latitude and 36 south latitude. According to
General Capron, cotton is grown in Japan to 40 north latitude, but
superior quality is not obtained north of 35.
The cotton-culture in the Southern States of North-America
utilised seven million acres before the civil war, cultivated by a
million and a half of Negroes ; India has now 14 million acres in
cotton, as much as the United States in 1879, the yield in the latter
being at an average nearly half a bale per acre, and the export
thence in 1881 in value about 260 millions of dollars [J. R. Dodge] ;
in 1883 the cotton-area of the United States was 16,777,993 acres ;
in 1882 the cotton-yield there 6,957,000 bales. Brockhaus estimates
ihe total yield of cotton in 1890-91 at 2,800,000 tons, of which the
R 2
244 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
United States supplied about three-fourths. The importations of
raw cotton into the United Kingdom in 1884 amounted to 15^ million
cwt., its value being 44,000,000 ; about two-thirds of this came
from the United States. In 1886 the import was 15,312,900 cwt.,
at a then value of 38,128,110; in 1889 it was 17,298,000 cwt.
valued at 45,642,000 ; cotton-seeds imported that year into Britain
came to 277,394 tons, valued 1,906,000. The greater part of the
cotton produced in the world is worked up in the United Kingdom,
where the annual consumption has increased from about 1,014,000
bales (of 400 Ibs. each) in the period 1836-1840 to an average of
3,117,000 bales for the period 1876-1880, and to 3,700,000 bales
since. After the United Kingdom, says the "Bulletin du Musee
commercial," comes the European Continent ; taken as whole the
consumption has there increased during the same period from 521,000
to 3,400,000 bales. The third place is held by the United States,
which surpasses all other countries in the rate of increase, as the use
for manufacture there rose from 242,000 bales in 1840 to 2,137,000
bales in 1884-85 (" Journ. of the Soc. of Arts," 1890). The primary
advantages of this important culture are : a return in a few months,
comparatively easy "field-operations, simple and not laborious process
of collecting the crop, and requirement of but little care in the use
of the gin-machine in finally preparing the raw material for the
market, the woolly covering of the seeds constituting the cotton of
commerce. The oil obtained by pressure from the seeds is useful for
various technic purposes, and the oil-cake can be utilised like most
substances of a similar kind as a very fattening stable-food. This oil
can even be used quite well in domestic cookery [Colonel 0. Nelson].
Crushed cotton-seed cake without admixture is eaten by cattle and
sheep with avidity. Of cotton seeds 212,000 tons were introduced
into Great Britain in 1884, valued at 1,580,000, mostly from
Egypt. Sea-Island cotton was raised to great perfection in the
northern parts of Victoria fully twenty-five years ago from seeds
extensively distributed by the writer ; but the want of cheap labour
has hitherto militated against the extensive cultivation of this crop,
as well as that of tea and many other industrial plants. Cotton
having been reared far away from the influence of the sea-air, it
would be worthy of attempts, to naturalise various kinds of cotton
in the oases of our deserts, irrespective of regular culture. Our
native Gossypiums of the interior produce no fibre worth collect-
ing. Cotton-plants have a predilection for gently undulating or
sloping ground, with light soil and a moderate supply of moisture.
In the most favorable climes, such as that of Fiji, cotton produces
flowers and fruit throughout the year, but the principal ripening
falls in the dry season. From two hundred to three hundred plants
or more can be placed on an acre. As many as seven hundred bolls
have been gathered from a single plant at one time, twelve to
twenty capsules yielding an ounce of mercantile cotton. Weeding
is rendered less onerous by the vigorous growth of the plants.
Cotton comes in well for rotation with other crops. Major Clarke
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 245
has ascertained, that crossing cannot be effected between the oriental
and occidental kinds of cotton. A high summer-temperature is
needed for a prolific cotton-harvest. Intense heat, under which
even maize will suffer, does not injuriously affect cotton, provided
the atmosphere is not dry in the extreme. The soil should not be
wet, but of a kind that naturally absorbs and retains humidity,
without over-saturation. In arid regions it is necessary to irrigate
the cotton-plant. Heavy rains at the ripening period are injurious,
if not destructive, to the cotton-crop. Dry years produce the best
returns, yet aqueous vapor in the air is necessary for the best yield.
In colder localities the bolls or capsules continue to ripen, after
night-frosts prevent the formation of new ones. Porous soils, rest-
ing on limestones and metamorphic rocks, are eminently adapted
for cotton-culture. The canebrake-soil of the North-American
cotton-regions absorbs ammonia to a prodigious extent.
Gourliea decorticans, Gillies.
The Chanar of Argentina and Chili. Bears sweet pleasant fruits,
and yields a tough valuable wood [Dr. Lorentz]. As an orchard-
tree hitherto insignificant, but it may improve perhaps under cultural
care.
Gracilaria lichenoides, Greville.
South-Asia, North-Eastern Australia. The "Agar-Agar." An
edible seaweed, the mucilage of which has come into preferential
use to rear bacteria for microscopic observation. Doubtless, sea-
weeds could readily in portable aquaria be transferred from one
coast to others. The alg above mentioned can be used medicinally
instead of caragaheen.
Grevillea annulifera, F. v. Mueller.
West-Australia. A tall bush or small tree, with highly orna-
mental flowers. The seeds are comparatively large, of almond-taste,
and the fruits produced copiously. The shrub will live in absolute
desert-sands, where the other Australian proteaceous Nut-tree,
Brabejum (Macdamia) ternifolium, could not exist. Well may we
plead, that enlightened statesmanship should lastingly preserve at
least on a few chosen spots also in South-Western Australia all the
splendid Grevilleas and hundreds of other gay or remarkable plants,
quite peculiar to that part of the world, where the endemism of vege-
tation is more singularly and strongly concentrated than anywhere
else on the globe, unless in South- Africa and California ; so that
future generations may also yet be able, to contemplate at least the
local remnants of a world of plants as charming as it is diversified
and peculiar, before many of its constituents succumb by aggress of
herds and flocks altogether.
246 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Grevillea robusta, Cunningham.*
A stately lawn-tree, indigenous to the sub-tropical part of East-
Australia, rising to 150 feet, of rather rapid growth, and resisting
drought in a remarkable degree ; hence one of the most eligible trees,
even for desert-culture, though naturally a silvan plant. Cultivated
trees at Melbourne yield now an ample supply of seeds. The wood
is elastic and durable, valued particularly for staves of casks, also for
furniture. The richly developed golden-yellow trusses of flowers
attract honey-sucking birds and bees through several months of the
year. The seeds are copiously produced and germinate readily.
Kate of growth in Victoria, 20-30 feet in 20 years. In Ceylon it
attained a stem -circumference of 5 feet in eight years. In India it
flourishes at elevations from 2,000 to 7,000 feet, and is chosen as a
favorite tree for lines of shady walks.
Grindelia squarrosa, Dunal.
North-America in the middle-regions, but extending also far north-
ward. A perennial balsamic herb, praised for medicinal virtues in
its native lands. Several congeners occur from California and Mexico
to Chili and Argentina. G. robusta (Nuttall) serves therapeutic pur-
poses in California, its use being particularly effective in asthma and
bronchial affections [Dr. Gibbons]. Some congeners occur as far
south as Chili and Argentina.
Ghiad.ua angnstifolia, Kunth.* (Bambusa Guadua, Humboldt and Bon-
pland.)
New Granada,, Ecuador and probably others of the Central
American States. This Bamboo attains a height of 40 feet, and
might prove hardy in sheltered places of temperate low-lands.
Holton remarks of this species, that it is, after the plantain, maize
and sugar-cane, the most indispensable plant of New Granada, and
that it might be called the lumber-tree, as it supplies nearly all the
fencing and wood-work of most of the houses, and is besides manu
factured into many kinds of utensils. Does well in culture. It is by
far the largest of the Guaduas and the loveliest Bamboo as yet grown
in British Guiana, where in alluvial ground several congeners exist,
some of which seed freely [G. S. Jenman]. Seeds of Bamboo should
be gathered in dry weather and from the plants, not from the ground,
and be early sown. The Genus Guadua comprises the stoutest of all
Bamboos.
Guadua latifolia, Kunth.* (Bambusa latifolia, Humboldt and Bonpland.)
One of the tall Bamboos of Central America, whence several other
lofty Bamboos may be obtained, among them the almost climbing
Chusqueas. This Guadua is stouter than any Indian Bamboo. In
tropical America native Bamboos are planted for hedges. G. amplexi-
folia (Presl) is an allied species, which extends from Mexico to
Venezuela and attains a height of 60 feet.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 247
Guajacum officinale, Linne.
Antilles and Venezuela. Tree, attaining middle size, but of slow
growth. Hardy in Natal, also at Moreton-Bay. Yields the heavy,
diagonally fibrous, somewhat odorous, greenish " Lignum Vitae," a
wood which is unique in its qualities and much sought for skittle-
balls, blocks, pulleys, rulers. The resin is used medicinally and for
chemic tests.
Guevina Avellana, Molina.* (Quadria heterophylla, Ruiz and Pavon.)
The evergreen Hazel-tree of Chili, extending to the Chonos-
Archipelagus. One of the most beautiful trees in existence, attain-
ing a height of 30 feet. The snowy-white flower-spikes produced
simultaneously with the ripening of the coral-red fruit. In the cooler
southern regions the tree attains considerable dimensions. The wood
is tough and elastic, and used particularly for boat-building [Dr.
Philippi]. The fruit of the allied South- African Brabejum stellati-
folium (Linne) can only be utilised with caution and in a roasted
state as an article of diet, because it is noxious or even absolutely
poisonous in a raw state.
Guizotia Abyssinica, Cassini. (G. oleifera, De Candolle.)
Tropical Africa. Rantil-oil is pressed from the seeds of this
annual herb, which yields its crop in three months. The oil is much
used like Sesamum-oil, for culinary as well as for technic purposes.
Madia sativa (Molina), a native of Western America, is purposely
excluded from a recommendatory position in this work, as it becomes
an irrepressibly troublesome weed.
Gunnera Chilensis, Lamarck.
Caraccas to Patagonia, chiefly on cliffs. A most impressive plant
for scenic groups in gardens. Darwin measured leaves 8 feet broad
and 24 feet in circumference. It thrives luxuriantly at Port Phillip,
when somewhat shaded from intense dry heat. Severe frosts affect
it in exposed situations. The acidulous leaf-stalks serve as a vege-
table ; the thick roots are used for tanning and dyeing. G. peltata
(Philippi) is another large species, restricted to Juan Fernandez,
G. macrophylla (Blume) is a native of Java and Sumatra, where it
occurs on mountains up to 6,000 feet elevation. G. manicata
(Linden) is a Brazilian species, allied to G. Chilensis and still more
robust [J. G. Baker].
Gymnocladus Canadensis, Lamarck.
The Chicot or Kentucky Coffee-tree. North-Eastern America.
A timber- and avenue-tree, attaining a height of 80 feet ; allied to
Gleditschia, but as the name implies, thornless. Delights in a rich
soil and a sheltered position. Can be raised from cuttings of the
roots. The wood is strong, tough, compact, fine-grained, and assumes
a rosy colour. The pods, preserved like those of Tamarinds, are
248 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
said to be wholesome [Simmonds]. Insects preying on the foliage
of this tree are poisoned by it. It will bear the frosts of Norway
to lat. 61 17' [Schuebeler].
Gynocardia odorata, R. Brown.
From Burma to Sikkim and Khasia, ascending to 3,000 feet. A
tree to 50 feet high. Seeds large, the oil of which has come into
medicinal use as chaulmugra-oil [Christy].
Gyrophora esculenta, Miyoshi.
The " Iwatake " of Japan. This Lichen grows there chiefly on
moist granitic rocks, and is extensively used for human nutriment,
and in this respect incomparable with any other Lichen, unless
perhaps Cetraria Islandica. The plant is sold in a dried state. It
would be worthy of naturalisation, as it does not take up any space
otherwise to be utilised ; it is not bitter nor has it any purgative
action, but is quite palatable ; contains much starchy and gelatinous
substance [Dr. Mambu Miyoshi].
Hsematoxylon Campechianum, Linn6.
From South-Mexico to Venezuela. A tree, attaining 40 feet in
height. Flourishes still at a considerable distance from the tropics,
thus for instance at Moreton-Bay. It yields the Campeche-wood or
logwood for dyes and inks, and for a chemical reagent, the latter
depending on the principle Hasraatoxylin. A good black ink is
obtained by boiling 1 Ib. of logwood in 1 gallon of water down to
gallon strained fluid, to which are to be added 3 ounces of chrome-
alum, | ounce dextrin, and 15 drops of Creosote [Berliner Apo-
theker-Zeitung, 1894, p. 134].
Hagenia Abyssinica, Willdenow. (Brayera anthelmintica, Kunth.)
Abyssinia, at elevations from 3,000 to 8,000 feet. A tall tree,
admitted in this list, because its flowers have come into medicinal
use as an anthelmintic. It is moreover quite eligible for ornamental
plantations.
Hamamelis Virginica, Linne.
Eastern States of North-America. The " Witch-Hazel." A
shrub or small tree. The leaves are renowned in the States for
medicinal properties ; the seeds are oily and edible.
Hancornia speciosa, Gomes.
Brazil, to far southern regions, on sandy plains. This small tree
may prove hardy in extra-tropic regions free of frost. The good-
sized berries are of very pleasant taste, and vernacularly known as
Mangaihas. Most valuable is the very elastic rubber of this plant.
Mr. Thomas Christie regards it as superior to Para-Rubber, and
worth at present 3s. per Ib.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 249
Hardwickia binata, Roxburgh.
India, up to elevations of nearly 4,000 feet. Maximum-height of
tree, 120 feet. Wood from red-brown to nearly black, close-grained,
exceedingly hard, heavy and durable ; valued for under-ground
work. The bark furnishes easily a valuable material for cordage.
The tree can readily be pollarded for cattle-fodder [Brandis],
Harpephyllum Caflrum, Bernhardi.
The Kaffir Plum-tree. South-Africa. A large spreading ever-
green tree, the fruit of which makes a fair preserve ; the timber is
used for furniture and waggon-work. Sometimes planted at mid-
summer as fencing poles, each of which grows and forms a shelter-
belt round fields [T. R. Sim].
Harpullia Hillii, F. v. Mueller.
The Tulip- Wood of Queensland. One of the most important of
the numerous kinds of trees indigenous there for select cabinet-work.
H. pendula (Planchon) is equally valuable.
Hedeoma pulegioides, Persoon.
The Penny-royal of Eastern North- America. An annual herb
of aromatic taste, employed in medicine. The volatile oil is also
in use.
Hedera Helix, Fuchs.
The Ivy. Europe, Northern Africa, Western Asia as far as the
Himalayas. Not to be omitted here, as it quickly forms evergreen
walls over all kinds of fences and on sides of buildings without
injuring any sound masonry ; it is also a bee-plant. Ivdividual
plants will live through several centuries. A particular Ivy at
Montpellier is now 440 years old. One of the readily available and
most effectual of plants for surrounding and concealing with its
twigs any tubs, boxes, pots and other articles at horticultural shows.
The variety with yellow-marked leaves is singularly ornamental.
Resists the smoky air of cities [Loudon]. Hederic acid is of
medicinal value. A decoction of the leaves dyes hair black.
Hedysarum coronarium, Linne.*
The Soola- or Sulla-Clover. Southern Europe, Northern Africa.
One of the best of perennial fodder-herbs, yielding a bulky return.
It is also recommendable as quite a handsome garden-plant and as a
honey-plant, the Maltese honey owing its superior flavor mainly to
this plant. The plant likes lime in the soil. Mons. Scribeaux
recommends stirring the seeds for some few minutes in hot water
before sowing, whereby the germination is much facilitated.
250 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Heleocharis sphacelata, R. Brown.
Australia, New Zealand and South-Sea Islands. This rush is
well deserving to be transferred to any swamps in warmer climes
on account of its nutritious and palatable tubers.
Heleocharis tuberosa, Roemer and Schultes.
China, where it is called Matai or Petsi. This rush can be sub-
jected to regular cultivation in ponds for the sake of its edible
wholesome tubers. For a full account see Paillieux et Bois in
Bullet, de la Soc. d'Acclimat. 1888 p. 1030-1035. H. plantaginea
(Brown) and H. fistulosa (Schultes) of tropical Asia and Madagascar
are allied plants.
Helianthus animus, Linne.*
The Sun-Flower. Peru. This tall, showy and large-flowered
annual is not without industrial importance. As much as fifty
bushels of seeds, or rather seed-like fruits, have been obtained from
an acre under very favorable circumstances, and as much as fifty
gallons of oil can be pressed from such a crop. The latter can be
used not only for machinery, but even as one of the best for the
table, also for superior toilet-soaps and for painting ; it belongs to
the series of drying oils. Otherwise the seeds afford an excellent
fodder for fowl ; they are also used for cakes, and afford a substi-
tute for coffee according to Professor Keller. The leaves serve for
fodder. The large flower-heads are important as yielding much
honey. The stalks furnish a good textile fibre, and the blossoms
yield a brilliant lasting yellow dye. For utilitarian purposes a large-
seeded variety is cultivated, particularly in Russia, where over
700,000 acres are devoted to this plant. About six pounds of seed
are required for an acre. The plant likes calcareous soil and plenty
of potash. Important also for quickly raising vegetation around
fever-morasses, the absorbing and exhaling power of this plant
being very large [Dr. v. Hamm]. A good plant, according to Lacop-
pidan, will exhale 1^ Ib. of water during a hot day. Several North-
American species may deserve rural culture. The return from a
Sunflower-field is attained within a few months. In Norway it can
be grown to lat. 70 4' [Schuebeler] ; yet it will, according to the
Rev. H. Kempe, also endure the excessive summer-heat of Central
Australia better than any other cultivated herb yet tried there. It
answers also cultural purposes quite well in the coast-regions of
Queensland [Edgar]. Even when unattended to, will yield in porous
soil crops for years. Might serve as green manure.
Helianthus tuberosus, Linn<$.*
Brazil. Sunflower- Artichoke, inappropriately passing under the
name " Jerusalem- Artichoke," instead of " Girasol- Artichoke." The
wild state, according to Professor Asa Gray, seems to be the North-
American H. doronicoides (Lamarck). The tubers are saccharine
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 251
and serve culinary purposes. As a fodder they increase the milk
of cows to an extraordinary degree. The foliage serves well also
as fodder. The plant is propagated from the smallest but undivided
tubers, placed like potatoes, but at greater distances apart. The
root is little susceptible to frost. The plant would be valuable for
alpine regions. In Norway it can be grown successfully still at lat.
68 24' [Schuebeler]. The yield is as large as that of potatoes,
with less labour, and continues from year to year in fairly treated
land uninterruptedly and spontaneously. The stem is rich in
textile fibre. The percentage of crystalline sugar is largest during
the cold season, then 5-6 per cent. During the summer the starch-
like inulin prevails. This plant can only be brought to full perfection
in a soil containing much potash.
Helichrysum elatum, Cunningham.
South-Eastern Australia. A tall shrubby species, worth special
cultivation for its everlasting flowers.
Helichrysum leucopsidium, De Candolle.
Extra-tropical Australia. Perennial. The flower-headlets, by
reason of their pale disk and shining white rays, are admirably
fitted for mourning-wreaths.
Helichrysum lucidum, Henckel. (H. bracteatum, Willdenow.)
Throughout the greater part of Australia. This herb can be
grown as a summer-plant to lat. 70 4' in Norway [Schuebeler],
and it extends indigenously also to alpine elevations. The regular
cultivation of this perennial herb would be remunerative, to supply
its "everlasting " flowers for wreaths, just as those of H. orientale
(Tournefort) from Candia are largely grown and sold in South-
Europe, to provide wreaths for graves. Some South- African species
of Helichrysum and Helipterum are also highly eligible for these
purposes of decoration ; as such may be mentioned Helichrysum
fulgidum (Willdenow), H. humile (Andrews), H. sesamoides (Thun-
berg), Helipterum canescens, H. eximium and H. speciosissimum
(De Candolle). Helichrysum apiculatum (De Candolle) affords
herbage in the worst deserts of Australia. Waitzia corymbosa is
another sheep-plant among Australian desert-everlastings.
Helichrysum vestitum, Schrank.
South-Africa. A half-shrub. The usually snowy-white flowers
sought prominently there among everlastings. Total export of all
sorts in 1892 about a quarter million Ibs., valued at 12,065 [Pro-
fessor MacOwan].
Helicia Whelanii, Bailey.
Bellenden Ker mountains, Northern Queensland. A middle sized
tree, producing nuts 2-2^ inches in diameter, which are largely
252 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
consumed by the autochthones [F. M. Bailey]/ Hicksbeachia
pinnatifolia (F. v. Mueller) is an allied small tree from Northern
New South Wales and Queensland. Culture might enhance the size
and quality of these fruits.
Heliotropium Peruvianum, Linne.
Andes of South- America. A perennial somewhat shrubby plant,
attaining a height of 6 feet. Among various species of Heliotrope
this one can best be utilised for the extraction of the scented oil.
Heliotropin obtainable from this and allied plants has been produced
synthetically also.
Helipterum incanum, Be Candolle.*
South-Eastern Australia, ascending to alpine elevations, and also
extending to the desert interior. Perennial. Worthy of special
culture even in cold regions. It displays a remarkaole variety of
colours. One variety is pleasantly odorous.
Helipterum Mangles!!, F. v. Mueller. (Rhodanthe Manglesii, Lindley.)
West- Australia. The most lovely of Australian annual everlast-
ings. Most easily raised from seed ; readily naturalised in adequate
soil and clime. Not disdained by sheep and cattle [Miss Alice
Eaton]. Headlets of flowers from a silvery to a rosy lustre. Of
leading beauty for nosegays, bouquets and wreaths ; its cultivation on
a large scale might develop an export trade in the same manner as
is the case with Helichrysum vestitum in South- Africa. Argyro-
come is the oldest generic name.
Helleborus niger, Brunfels.
Forest-mountains of Middle and Southern Europe, particularly in
sub-alpine regions. The Christmas-rose of British gardens. A
perennial handsome herb, remarkable for flowering even in cold
countries during mid-winter. The roots are used in medicine ; so
those of the still more powerful H. viridis (Linne) from the same
region. H. antiquorum (A. Braun), H. hiemalis (Linne), H. orient-
alis, and some other species are also winter-flowering plants. All
the species serve also as insecticides. Thrive best where lime prevails
in the soil.
Helvella esculenta, Persoon.
Europe. Dr. Goeppert notes among saleable Silesian mushrooms
for table-use this species as well as H. gigas (Krombholz) and H.
infula (Fries). Kohlrausch and Siegel found in H. esculenta when
dried 26 per cent, of protein, against the following other results :
in beef 39 per cent., in veal 44, wheat-bread 8, oatmeal 10, pulse 27,
potatoes 5, various mushrooms often 33 per cent. Of course starch,
sugar, inulin, pectin, gum and even fibre have to be further taken
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 253
into consideration in these calculations on value of nutriments. The
deleterious principle of H. esculenta needs to be removed by repeated
treatment with boiling water, or by keeping the dried fungus for
about a year before it is used for the kitchen. Dr. M. C. Cooke
mentions as fair English substitutes of Morels Helvella lacunosa
(Afzelius) and H. mitra (Linne). Bergner and Trog illustrate as-
edible among fungs of Switzerland H. crispa (Fries).
Hemarthria compressa, R. Brown.
Southern Asia, Southern Africa, extra-tropical Australia. This
perennial grass, though somewhat harsh, is recommendable for moist
pastures, and will retain a beautiful greenness throughout the year in
dry climes ; highly esteemed by graziers in Gippsland (Victoria) ;
it is not injured by moderate frost. H. uncinata is a mere variety,
which grows down to high-water mark on estuaries of rivers ; also
otherwise on somewhat saline ground. H. fasciculata (Knnth) occurs
around the Mediterranean Sea. The genus is also represented by
one species in the warmer littoral regions of America. Remarkably
resistant to drought.
Heracleum giganteum, Hornemann. (H. villosum, Fischer.)
Caucasus and Taurus. One of the best of herbaceous scenic
plants. Matures seeds freely.
Heracleum Sibiricum, Linne".
Colder regions of Europe and Asia. A very tall biennial herb
with leaves of enormous size. Recently recommended for sheep-
fodder in alpine regions. This plant could also be turned to account
for scenic effect in horticulture, as well as H. dulce (Fischer) of
Kamtschatka.
Heterothalamus brunioides, Leasing.
Southern Brazil and Argentina. A dwarf shrub, furnishing the
yellow Romerillo-dye from its flowers.
Hevea Guianensis, Aublet.* (Siphonia elastica, Persoon.)
Guiana and nearest countries. A tree, rising finally to about 60
feet. To what elevation it does advance into cooler mountain-
regions, and whether it will prosper in sub-tropic regions, seems as
yet not to have been ascertained. To draw attention to this subject,
the plant is admitted into this work. In the United States were
120 india-rubber factories in 1883, employing 15,000 people. The
total importation of raw material there during that year was 30,000
tons, worth about six million pounds [J. G-. Baker]. In East-
Australia the plant thrives fairly well at least as far south as the
tropic of Capricorn [J. S. Edgar],
254 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Hibiscus cannabinus, Linne. (H. radiatus, Canvanillds. )
Tropical Asia, Africa and Australia. An annual showy herb,
yielding the Ambari-Hemp. Stems to 12 feet high, without ramifi-
cation if closely sown. Rich soil on the Nile has yielded over
3,000 Ibs. of clear fibre from one acre. The bearing strength is
often found to be more than that of the Sunn-fibre. The leaves
serve as sorrel-spinage. Several other Hibisci can be utilised in
the same manner, for instance the Indian H. tetraphyllus (Roxburgh).
Good fibre is also obtained from Sida rhombifolia (Linne), but this
plant is apt to become in warm zones a most troublesome weed.
Hibiscus elatus, Swartz. (Paritium elatum, G. Don.)
West-Jndies, extending to Guiana. Grows to a tree of good size.
It furnishes the Cuba-bast, much used for tying cigars. Hardy in
Natal, where it grew in six years to 23 feet [J. M. Wood].
Hibiscus esculentus, Linne".
Tropical Africa. A tall herb. The unripe mucilaginous seed-
capsules are known as Ochro, Okra Bandakai or Gumbo, and used
as a culinary vegetable. The summers of Victoria bring them to
maturity. In Central- Australia it is also only a summer-plant. 'The
Ochro can be preserved by being dried either in the sun or by
artificial heat after previous slicing. The leaves of this and allied
species can be used as pot-herbs. The seeds retain their vitality for
about five years [Vilmorin]. In hot moist countries also multiplied
from cuttings, and there growing with amazing quickness. Dr. A.
Gibson pronounces the Ochro quite a safe food, even when exten-
sively consumed.
Hibiscus Ludwigii, Ecklon and Zeyher.
South-Africa. A tall, shrubby and highly ornamental species,
desirable also as yielding a fibre of fair strength and toughness.
Hibiscus Sabdariffa, Linne.
Tropical Asia and Africa. The Oseille de Guinee. A showy
annual plant, occasionally of more than one year's duration, admitting
of culture in the warmer temperate regions ; it is however cut down
by frost. It yields the Rosella-fibre. The acidulous calyces furnish
a delicious sorrel and rosella-jellies, particularly relished in hot
climes ; they serve also for pickles. An allied culinary species
occurs on the Senegal. H. digitalus (Cavanilles) is another cognate
species of similar utility from Brazil. H. punctatus (Dalzell and
^Gibson) is mentioned as an annual fibre-plant occurring in Sindh and
Mooltan.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 255
Hierochloa redolens, R. Brown.
South-Eastern Australia, there almost confined to the Alps ; also
in New Zealand, in the Antarctic Islands and the southern extremity
of America. A tall, perennial, blady grass, with the odor of Anthox-
anthum. It is worthy of dissemination on moist pasture-land in
cool countries. H. borealis of the colder regions of the northern
hemisphere accompanies H. redolens in the south, but is a smaller
grass. H. macrophylla (Thurber), the Vanilla-grass of California, is
a large tufted species. These grasses are to some extent valuable
for their fragrance as constituents of hay, the odorous principle, as
in Anthoxanthum, Melilotus and Asperula, being cumarin. They
are not sufficiently recognised as scent-plants for vases and other-
wise. Hierochloas are particularly appropriate for cold, wet, moory
grounds.
Hippocrepis comosa, Linne.
The Horse-shoe Vetch. Middle and Southern Europe, North-
Africa. A perennial fodder-herb, not without importance. Likes
stony ground, and delights like most leguminous herbs in limestone-
soil. The foliage is succulent and nutritious. Professor Langethal
recommends it for a change after Sainfoin-pastures fail. It fur-
nishes not quite as much but an earlier fodder.
Hippophae rhamnoides, Linne".
Europe, Western and Central Asia. One of the best of shrubs for
binding sand on sea-shores. Ascends to 15,000 feet in Thibet.
Hirneola auricula Judae, Berkeley. (Exidia auricula, Judae, Fries.)
Widely spread over the globe, extending also to Australia. Pre-
ferentially growing on Elders but also much on Elms. Of this
edible fungus the quantity exported from Tahiti to China in 1871
represented a value of 7,600 [Simmonds]. The export from New
Zealand to China in 1889 was 6,389 cwt., valued at 11,079 [Sir
James Hector]. Doubtless this useful fungus is amenable to trans-
location and subsequent naturalisation.
Holboellia latifolia, Wallich. (H. acuminata, Lindley.)
In the Himalayan Mountains at 4-9,000 feet elevation. Under
the above name H. latifolia and H. angustifolia are united, as neither
of the two appellations, given by Wallich, applies to the species as a
whole. The berries (fruitlets) of this climbing shrub are large, and
in the natural localities of the plant consumed for food. They may
on culture get ameliorated ; they remind in taste of the fruit of the
Passion-flower.
256 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Holcus lanatus, Linn6.
Velvet-grass or Meadow-Softgrass, also known as Yorkshire-fog-
grass. Europe, North-Africa, Middle Asia. Indigenous in Norway
to lat. 63 34'. A well-known and easily disseminated perennial
pasture-grass of considerable fattening property. Apt to overpower
better grasses, particularly also on lawns. For rich soil better
grasses can be chosen, but for moist, moory or sandy lands and also
for forests it is one of the most eligible pasture-grasses, yielding an
abundant and early crop ; it is however rather disliked by cattle as
well as horses. One of the best rural grasses in recently cleared
forest-ground, not like Cocksfoot-grass and particularly Rye-grass
apt to be attacked by caterpillars ; also suited for suppressing
bracken-ferns after they have been burnt down. Recommendable also
for newly drained land. Bears continued grazing off extremely well.
Also thrives according to the Rev. H. Kempe in the hottest and
driest regions of Central Australia. Mr. A. R. Crawford considers
that this grass is much under-valued and states that pasture-animals
feed on it greedily : a land-owner in New England (N. S. Wales),
who has 1,000 acres under grass-culture, prefers there this Holcus
with Dactylis glomerata to any other grass tried. Particularly dan-
gerous for the spreading of the ordinary rust-fungus, Puccinia
graminis (Uredo linearis). The chemical analysis, made in full
spring, gave the following results: Albumen, 2'20 ; gluten, 4*11 ;
starch, 0'72 ; gum, 3*08 ; sugar, 4*56 per cent. [F. v. Mueller and
L. Rummel].
Holcus mollis, Linn<.
Creeping Softgrass. Of nearly the same geographic range and
utility as the preceding species. Particularly adapted to sandy
forest-land. Grown in Norway to lat. 63 T [Schuebeler].
Holoptelea integrifolia, Planchon. (Ulmus integrifolia, Roxburgh.)
The Elm of India, extending from the lowlands to sub-alpine
regions. A large tree, with timber of good quality and yellowish-
grey colour. Foliage deciduous.
Hordeum andicola, Grisebach.
Argentina. Pronounced by Prof. Hieronymus as an excellent
pasture-grass of the Sierras.
Hordeum deficiens, Steudel.
The Red-Sea Barley. One of the two-rowed barleys, cultivated
in Arabia and Abyssinia. Allied to this is H. macrolepis (A. Braun),
a native of Abyssinia.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 257
Hordemn distichon, C. Bauhin.*
Wild from Arabia to Central Asia [A. de Candolle]/ The ordi-
nary Two-rowed Barley. Cultivated as early as the stone-age
eHeer]. To this species belong the ordinary English barley, the
hevalier, the Annat, the Dunlop, the Long-eared, the Black, the
Large, the Italian and the Golden Barley, along with other kinds.
A variety with grains free from the bracts constitutes the Siberian
and the Haliday -Barley, which however is less adapted for malt. An
unbearded variety, called the Berkeley-Barley, was recently raised
by Professor Hilgard in California ; it approaches the Nepal-Barley,
but the husk is adherent. This new sort is not so liable to the
attacks of rust-fungs as many other varieties. Dry barley-flour,
heated to the temperature of boiling water during several hours
under the exclusion of atmospheric air, constitutes Hufeland's meal
for invalids. Barley-culture can be carried on even in alpine regions.
Marly and calcareous lands are particularly fit for rearing this cereal
grass. It resists moderate spring-frosts. As much as 100 bushels
of Cape-barley have been obtained from an acre of laud in volcanic
soil of Victoria as a first harvest. Barley-culture is promoted by the
brewing of pure malt-beer ; the Customs authorities of Victoria
recognise the importance of the distinction between such and that
produced from sugar and other substances requiring to be imported.
Hordeum hexastichon, Linn6.*
Orient. The regular Six-rowed Barley. In cultivation already
during the stone-age [Heer], also already in ancient Egypt
[Schweinfurth]. This includes among other varieties the Red,
the Scotch, the Square- and the Bear-barley. Seeds less uniform
in size than those of H. distichon. The so-called skinless variety
is that in which the grain separates from the bracts. Langethal
observes, that it is most easily raised, requires less seed-grain than
ordinary barley, has firmer stems, is less subject to the rust-disease
and to bending down.
Hordeum secalinum, Schreber.* (H. nodosum, Smith; H. pratense,
Hudson. )
Europe, Northern and Middle Asia, North-America. Perennial.
Famed as the best fattening grass of many of the somewhat brackish
marsh-pastures on the North- Sea. It never fruits, when kept
down by cattle, and finally suppresses nearly all other grasses and
weeds.
Hordeum vulgare, Linne.*
Orient. The Four-rowed Barley, though rather six-rowed with
two prominent rows. Of less antiquity than H. distichon and H.
hexastichon. Had the Alexandrian Library not been burnt, the
exact origin of the various kinds of Barley, with that of many other
s
258 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
leading culture-plants, would have been on reliable record. Barley
can, by proper choice of season, even be grown in Central- Australia.
The cultivation of this cereal extends further northward and south-
ward than that of wheat, oats and rye in the northern hemisphere,
because it comes to maturity quickly enough to avoid the high
temperature and also any dryness of the hot clime, as well as the
low temperature of the autumns of the cold zone. Thus, hardy
varieties still succeed even in the Faroe-Islands. Several varieties
occur, among them : the Spring- and Winter-barley, Black barley,
the Russian, the French, the Naked and the Wheat-barley. Pearl-
barley is obtained from the winter-variety, which also surpasses
Summer-barley in rigour of stems and rich and early yield, it being
the earliest cereal in the season ; the straw is copious and nutri-
tious, and the grain is rich in gluten, hence far better adapted for
flour than for malt. Highly important also for alcoholic distillation.
Summer-barley also passes under the name of Sand-barley. It is
inferior in yield to H. distichon, but is content with a less fertile,
even sandy soil, and comes to ripeness in a month's less time. In
alpine regions it ripens with a summer of sixty or seventy days with-
out frost. In Norway it can be grown to lat. 70 [Schuebeler].
The Naked Barley is superior to many other varieties for peeled
barley, but inferior for brewing ; the grain is also apt to drop
[Langethal]. Malt is important as an antiscorbutic remedy. Chemi-
cal principles of malt : asparagin, a protein substance, diastase, an
acid and cholesterin-fat. Maltine is a therapeutic extract.
Hordeum zeocriton, Linue.*
Central Asia. A Two-rowed Barley. To this species belong the
Sprat-, the Battledore-, the Fulham- and the Putney-barley, the
Rice-barley, the Turkish barley and the Dinkel. This species might
be regarded as a variety of A. distichon. The grains do not drop
spontaneously, and this kind is securer than others against sparrows ;
requires however a superior soil and is harder in straw [Langethal].
Hovenia dulcis, Thunberg.
Himalaya /China, Japan. The pulpy fruit-stalks of this tree are
edible. The plant is hardy still at Philadelphia ; it dislikes drought.
H. insequalis (De Candolle) and H. acerba (Lindley) are mere
varieties of this species.
Humulus Lupulus, Linn.*
The Hop-plant. Temperate zone of Europe, Asia and North-
America. Very hardy, being indigenous in Norway to lat. 64 12'
and cultivated to lat. 69 40' [Schuebeler]. This twining perennial
unisexual plant is known to yield enormously on river-banks in
rich soil or on fertile slopes, where irrigation can be effected. A
pervious, especially alluvial soil, fertile through manure or other-
wise, appliances for irrigation natural or artificial, and also shelter
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 259
against storms are some of the conditions for success in hop-growth,
and under such conditions the raising of hops will prove thus far
profitable in countries and localities of very different mean-tem-
perature. A dry summer season is favorable to the ripening and
gathering of hops. On the Mitchell-River, in Gippsland, 1,500 Ibs.
have been obtained from an acre ; on the King-River, in Victoria,
even as much as 2,286 Ibs. in one particular year. In Tasmania
large crops have been realized for very many years. The plant
might be readily naturalised on river-banks and in forest-valleys.
The scaly fruit-catkins form the commercial hops, whose value
largely depends on the minute glandular granules of lupuline.
Hops impart their flavor to beer, prevent acetous fermentation, and
precipitate albuminous substances from the malt principally by
their tannic acid. Hop-pillows are recommended to overcome want
of sleep. Many of the substitutes for hops are objectionable or
deleterious. The refuse of hops of breweries possesses double the
value of stable-manure. Great Britain imported in 1884 nearly
13,000 tons of hops valued at 1,600,000 ; in 1889 about 10,000
tons of the value of 713,000. The Victorian import during 1887
was 788,968 Ibs. valued at 42,422. Active principles of hop-
leaves and fruits : a peculiar volatile and bitter acid substance.
The fibre of the stem can be made into cords and paper. The young
shoots can be used for food, dressed like asparagus. Latterly the
Red Spider (Tetranychus telarius) has attacked some of the Victorian
hop-plantations to a serious extent. Mr. French recommends that
the following remedy be applied, as suggested by the conference of
English hop-growers : Boil 6 to 8 Ibs. of Quassia-chips and mix
with 6 Ibs. of soft soap in 100 gallons of water ; apply as hot as
possible by a spray-pump. Hop-poles should be barked and the
diseased leaves raked together and burned. An American grower
has successfully used iced water against the Red Spider, according to
Professor Sorauer.
Hydnum coralloides, Scopoli.
Europe, Asia, North- and South- America. In Cashmere, where
this mushroom inhabits hollow trunks of Pinus Webbiana, called
the Koho-Khur. Common on dead wood in forests in the United
States. Cooked, of excellent taste.
Hydnum imbricatum, Linn.
In pine-forests of Europe. A wholesome mushroom of delicious
taste, which we should endeavour to naturalise in any pine-planta-
tions. Other recommendable European species are, H. erinaceum
(Persoon), H. album (Persoon),. H. diversidens (Fries), H. auriscal-
piurn (Linne), H. subsquamosum (Batsch), H. laevigatum (Swartz),
H. violascens (Albertini), H. infundibulum (Swartz), H. fuligineo-
album (Schmitz), H. graveolens (Brotero), H. Caput Medusae (Nees),
H. hystrix (Fries), H. coralloides (Scopoli). These and some other
S 2
260 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
edible fungs are given on the authority of Rosenthal's valuable work.
The Rev. M. J. Berkeley, Dr. Morren and Dr. Goeppert add Hydnum
suaveolens (Scopoli) and H. repandum (Linne), the latter also
indigenous in Tasmania.
Hydrangea Thunbergl, Siebold.
Japan. The leaves of this shrub give a peculiar tea, called the
" Tea of Heaven " locally.
Hydrastis Canadensis, Linn4.
The Yellow Puccoon or Golden Seal. Eastern North- America.
A perennial herb, utilised in medicine. The root contains two
alkaloids, berberin and hydras tin. The root-dye is of a brilliant
yellow, admitting of its use with indigo for rich green colours.
Hymeneea Courbaril, Linn.
Tropical and Southern sub-tropical America. A tree of colossal
size and remarkable longevity. Timber hard, extremely heavy,
close-grained, used for select wheel-work, treenails, beams and
planks, also in various machinery. Courbaril-wood exceeds the
British oak four times in elasticity and nearly three times in
resistance to fracture [Lapparents]. A fragrant amber-like resin,
known as West-Indian Copal, exudes from the stem. The Mexican
trade-name of the resin is Coapinole. The beans of the pod are
lodged in a mealy pulp of honey-like taste, which can be used for
food. The chance of the adaptability of this remarkable tree to
the warmer temperate zone needs to be ascertained. This is one
of the Algaroba-trees. H. verrucosa (Gaertner) and Trachylobium
Petersianum (Klotzsch) yield the best East- African and Madagascar-
Copal.
Hymenanthera Banksii, F. v. Mueller.
South-Eastern Australia, New Zealand, Norfolk-Island. A tall
spiny shrub, well adapted for close hedges, where rapid growth is
not required. It stands clipping well. Flowers profusely fragrant ;
hence this plant is among those best to be chosen for maintaining
successively a strong fragrance in gardens of serene climes.
Hyoscyamus niger, Linne\
The Henbane. Europe, North-Africa, extra-tropical Asia. In
Norway indigenous to lat. 63 35'. An important medicinal herb of
one or two years' duration. It contains a peculiar alkaloid hyoscya-
min. H. albus (Linne) is used in South-Europe as well. Oulmont
and Laurent pronounce daturin from various species of Datura as
physiologically almost identical with hyoscyamin.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 261
Hyphaene Argun, Martius.
Nubia, to 21 north-latitude. Possibly hardy anywhere on low-
lands in the warmer temperate zone.
Hyphaene coriacea, Gaertner.
Equatorial Eastern Africa ; the dichotomous Palm of the sea-coast-
regions. It attains a height of 80 feet. Deserving of cultural trials
in cooler latitudes also.
Hyphsene crinita, Gaertner. (H. Thebaica, Martius.)
The Gingerbread-Palm or Doum-Palm. Abyssinia, Nubia, Arabia
and Egypt, as far as 31 north latitude, and southward to the Zambesi,
Nyassa and Sofala. In Arabia to 28 north latitude [Schweinfurth];
up to the plateau of Abyssinia [Drude]. It is much branched, and
attains a height of about 30 feet. The mealy husk of the fruit is
edible.
Hyphaene ventricosa, Kirk.
Zambesi. Loftier than the other species. Stem turgid towards the
middle. Fruit large. Perhaps not absolutely requiring a tropical
clime.
Hypochceris apargioides, Hooker and Arnott.
Chili. A perennial herb. The root is used for culinary purposes
like that of Scorzonera Hispanica.
Hypochceris Scorzonerae, F. v. Mueller. (Achyrophorus Scorzonerce, D.C.)
Chili. Of the same use as H. apargioides. Allied species of
probably similar utility exist in Western South- America*
Hypoestes moschata, F. v. Mueller and Holtze.
Arnhem's Land. This perennial herb is pervaded by a singularly
penetrating musk-scent, so that from the foliage a powerful perfume
can be distilled, the odorous principle not being subject to chemical
decomposition through gentle heat [W. Carr-Boyd]. As a dried herb
it could well be utilised for scenting wearing apparel, paper and other
articles ; Mimulus moschatus, Aster argophyllus, A. myrsinoides,
A. moschatus, A. ilicifolius (the two latter from New Zealand), and
Moschosma polystachya might be similarly employed.
Hyssopus officinalis, Linne.
South-Europe, South- Western Asia. A perennial herb, discarded
and re-introduced in medicine. The essential oil of this herb is also
used for some perfumeries.
262 . Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Ilex Aquifolium, Linn<.
The Holly. Europe, Western Asia. In some cold regions the only
evergreen tree not coniferous. Known to have attained an age of
more than 150 years, a height of 60 feet and a stem-circumference of
8^ feet. Important as a hedge-plant. Branches well suited for con-
cealing unsightly objects, such as crude flower-pots, as the foliage
does not shrivel. It yields a wood for ornamental turnery, mathe-
matic and other instruments, remarkable for its almost whitish
paleness. A Holly-tree at Llanidlaes in Wales, supposed to be about
400 years old, is now 43 feet high, the circumference of the stem
near the root about 30 feet, having produced eight main branches
the largest of them with a circumference of nearly 12 feet; the expanse
of the foliage has a diameter of 54 feet. Inscriptions cut into the
bark can be deciphered dated about 200 years back [Colonel G.
Lloyd-Verney]. In Norway it is indigenous to lat. 63 7', and in
lat. 59 45' it attained still a height of nearly 50 feet [Professor
Schuebeler]. The berries are deleterious.
Ilex Cassine, Linn.
Southern States of North- America. Hardy in England. A tea-
bush, to which also remarkable medicinal properties are ascribed.
Dr. Loesener draws attention to the fact that the true Tea-Ilex of
North- America is not I. Cassine (Linne), but I. Dahoon (Walter).
The vernacular names of these two species are Cassena and Dahoon,
the latter being the kind used for tea. Ilex opaca (Aiton) attains
a height of over 50 feet in Alabama.
Ilex crenata, Thunberg.
Japan. The wood employed there for superior kinds of wood-cuts.
This shrub proved hardy in Holland (C. Koch).
Ilex Integra, Thunberg.
Japan. Bird-lime can be prepared from the bark of this and
several other hollies ; from this species at the rate of 10 per cent.
Ilex Paraguensis, St. Hilaire.
The Mate. Uruguay, Paraguay and Southern Brazil. This kind
of Holly-bush, which attains finally the size of a small tree, is in-
serted into this list rather as a stimulating medicinal plant than as a
substitute for the ordinary Tea-plant, although in its native countries
it is very extensively used as such. From the province of Parana
alone more than 36 million pounds were exported in 1871, besides
9 million pounds used for home-consumption ; while in Rio Grande
de Sul the local provincial consumption is nearly four times as much,
not counting large quantities consumed by the aboriginal race. It is
cheaper than coffee or tea (about 5d. per lb.), but an individual there
uses about 1 lb. per week. It has a pleasant aroma, can be taken
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 263
with milk and sugar, and is the favorite beverage in large portions
, of South-America [Dr. Macedo Scares]. The leaves destined for
the Mat6 are slightly roasted. This plant was introduced as long
ago as 1854 into the Melbourne Botanic Garden, where it thrives
fairly well. I. Dahoon (Walter) and I. dipyrena (Wallace) are used
for the same purpose, and probably other hollies may be found
occasionally fair substitutes. I. theezans (Martius) also yields in
Southern Brazil a kind of Mate, but Mr. N. E. Brown regards that
plant as well as I. sorbilis and I. domestica as mere varieties of
I. Paraguensis. Chemical principles : coSein, quina-acid and a pecu-
liar tannic acid, which latter can be converted into viridin-acid.
Ilex verticillata, Gray. (Prinos verticillatus, Linne*.)
Eastern North- America. There the bark much used for medicinal
purposes, both externally and internally.
Illicium verum, J. Hooker.
Southern-China. The Star- Anise. An evergreen shrub or small
tree. The starry fruits used in medicine and as a condiment. Their
flavor is derived from a peculiar volatile oil with anethol; this
essential oil is in use for a particular liqueur. It has only now been
placed beyond doubt, that it is this plant just specifically defined
which furnishes the Star- Anise. See Dyer's " Kew Bulletin,"
July, 1888.
Illippe butyracea, F. v. Mueller. (Bassia butyracea, Roxburgh.)
India, up to 4,500 feet. A tree, gaining a height of 50 feet. The
pulp of the fruit is edible. The seeds yield a white soft fat, of
pleasant smell, used in the making of pomades, ointments, superior
soap and candles.
Illippe latifolia, F. v. Mueller.* (Bassia latifolia, Roxburgh.)
The " Mahwa." Central India, extending to Ava, ascending to
4,000 feet [J. Hooker]. A tree to 50 feet high, content with dry,
stony ground ; enduring slight frost. Wood so tough as to be
adapted for ploughs arid various machinery [Dr. Schlich]. The
succulent corolla affords a never-failing crop of nourishing saccharine
food to the rural inhabitants. Each tree supplies 2 to 3 cwt.; each
hundredweight yields on distillation about 3 gallons of spirits ;
essential oil is also obtained from the corolla. The flowers are also
used for feeding cattle ; they will keep for a long time. The seeds
yield oil of thick consistence. I. neriifolia is an allied species, which
ascends also to 4,000 feet. I. Erskineana and I. Maclayana
(F. v. M.), as well as I. Cocco (Scheffer) furnish good edible fruits in
New Guinea, where these trees ascend to some distance in the
mountain-regions. Gras alludes to six species in his essay of 1864;
he spells the name Illipe.
264 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Imperata arundinacea, Cyrillo.
South-Europe, North- Africa, Southern and Eastern Asia, Aus-
tralia, Polynesia. The Lalang-grass of India. Structurally almost
a sugar-cane in miniature. Valuable for binding sand, especially in
wet localities. Available also for thatching and for litter of resist-
ing quality. Pretty in table-bouquets. Apt to become irrpressible
in cultivation-grounds. Browsed on by pasture-animals, though
harsh ; ought to be suitable for ensilage.
Indigofera Anil, Linn.*
Recorded as indigenous to the West-Indies, and extending spon-
taneously through continental America from Carolina to Brazil.
A shrub, several feet high. Pods sickle-shaped, short, compressed.
One of the principal indigo-plants under cultivation, both in the
eastern and the western hemisphere. Only in the warmer parts of
the temperate zone can we hope to produce indigo with remunera-
tive success. But many of the hardier species seem never yet to
have been tested for pigment. Over 100 have already been recorded
from extra-tropical Southern Africa alone. An Indigofera of
Georgia, said to be wild, perhaps I. Anil, yields an excellent
product. The pigment in all instances is obtained by maceration of
the foliage, aeration of the liquid and inspissation of the sediment.
Indigofera argentea, Linn. (/. cwruka, Roxburgh.)
Tropical and extra-tropical Northern Africa, Arabia and perhaps
India. A shrub, several feet high, closely allied to I. Anil, and
likewise a good Indigo-plant.
Indigofera tinctoria, Linn<$.*
Warmer parts of Asia, as far east as Japan ; recorded also from
tropical Africa and even Natal as wild. A shrubby plant, attaining
a height of 6 feet. Pods straight, cylindrical, many- seeded. Exten-
sively cultivated in warm zones for indigo, and probably hardy in
mild temperate regions. The plant is frequently sold fresh by the
grower to the factories. The indigo-plant requires a rich friable soil,
neither too moist nor too dry. The seeds are sown in furrows about
a foot apart, and in hot damp climes the plant can be cut in about
two months, as soon as it begins to flower ; in six or eight weeks it
yields a second crop, and under favorable circumstances as many as
four crops can be gathered in a year. The plants have to be renewed
every year, as the old ones do not yield an abundant produce.
Bright sunshine favours the development of the dye-principle, but
frequent rains cause a more luxuriant growth [Hartwig]. In 1884
Great Britain imported 104,000 cwt. of indigo, valued at 2,484,000 ;
in 1889 the import there was 90,238 cwt., valued at 1,777,000.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 265
Irmla Helenium, Linne".
The Elecampane. Middle and Southern Europe, Middle Asia
eastward to Japan. A perennial herb. The bitter and somewhat
aromatic root, for the sake of its stimulating and tonic properties,
used in medicine. It contains also the amylaceous inulin and the
crystalline helenin. With many other large herbs adaptable for
scenic effects.
Ipomoea Batatas, Poiret.* (Batatas edulis, Choisy.)
The Sweet Potato. Tropical South-America. First brought to
Europe from Brazil. It has proved well adapted also for the
southern part of Australia and for New Zealand. Thriving singularly
well even during seasons of drought in Central Australia ; weight of
tubers to 1 Ib. there not quite rare [Rev. H. Kempe.] The copious
starch from the tuber forms a good substitute for Arrow-root (or
rather Aru-root). The tuberous roots afford a palatable food, more
nutritious than ordinary potatoes ; when boiled they form an excellent
dish with fruit-jelly. Mr. W. Mussey says that sliced tubers can
easily be dried and the dried material be utilised for pies, puddings and
other dishes. The Sweet Potato has proved sufficiently productive
in the warmer regions of the colony Victoria. Varieties with red,
white and yellow roots occur. Each tuber weighs generally from 3
to 5 Ibs., but may occasionally attain to 56 Ibs. in adequate climes and
soils. Rich yield is 200 to 300 bushels from an acre. Becomes an
exhaustive crop. The total harvest of tubers in the United States
was estimated for 1886 to have been 40 million bushels, this culture
extending to 40 N. there [J. R. Dodge.] Propagation from small
tubers or stem-cuttings or tuber-buds. Professor Wittmack obtained
seeds from the ancient graves of Ancon. Queensland produced in
1893 12,640 tons from 3,000 acres [Hayter].
Ipomoea Batatilla, (4. Don.
Cooler regions of Venezuela. The tubers serve as sweet potatoes.
I. platanifolia (Roemer and Schultes), from Central America, and
I. mammosa (Choisy), from Amboina, are similarly useful.
Ipomcea Calobra, Hill and Mueller.
Eastern Central Australia. Hardy in the South of France [Prof.
Naudin]. The stems cover the ground for a radius of several yards ;
the spots become picturesque by the showy large flowers for 8 months
in the year ; the tubers are formed at 4 or 5 yards' distance along
running roots, weigh from 5 to 30 Ibs., and are a fair esculent. The
plant likes a ferruginous loam [Rev. Dr. Woolls].
Ipomcea chrysorrhiza, J. Hooker.
New Zealand, where it is called by the Maories, "Kuneara."
The tubers serve like those of I. Batatas, and several varieties are
distinguished in cultivation. It has been successfully cultivated at
266 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Mildura by Mr. T. Wilkinson, who obtained tubers up to 15 Ibs.
weight, and who states that an acre will yield from 10 to 12 tons
under proper cultivation.
Ipomcea costata, F. v. Mueller.
Central and North- Western Australia. Produces edible tubers.
Ipomcea digitata, Linne", (7. paniculata, R. Brown.)
Almost a cosmopolitan plant on tropical coasts ; it is also indigenous
to North-Australia and the warmer parts of East- Australia. The
tubers of this species also are edible. If hardy, the plant would
deserve cultivation in any mild extra-tropical countries also.
Ipomcea graminea, R. Brown.
Tropical Australia. The root, called "Mallamak," is eaten by
the natives either raw or baked [Foelsche].
grandiflora, Lamarck. (7. longiflora, R. Brown.)
Tropical Australia, Ceylon, Madagascar. The roots, according to
Mr. Edw. Bowman's notes, are eaten by the aborigines of Queens-
land.
Ipomcea megapotamica, Choisy.
Southern Brazil and Argentina. The root attains several pounds
weight, and serves as jalap. Propagation by pieces of the root or
from cuttings of the underground- stem.
Ipomcea pes caprae, Roth.
Tropical and sub-tropical sea-shores of both hemispheres. Can
be used in coast-regions free of frost, to bind drift-sand. Preferen-
tially chosen for this purpose by Colonel Worster in Madras.
Ipomcea purga, Hayne. (7. Schiedeana, Zuccarini.)
Mountains of Mexico. The true Jalap. This species yields the
medicinal jalap-root. It has recently been cultivated with apparent
success even at New York. Particularly entitled to a trial in warm
woodlands. Active principle : the resinous convolvulin. I. Oriza-
bensis (Ledanois) also yields jalap, according to Hanbury.
Ipomoea simulans, Hanbury.
Mexico. From this species the Tampico-jalap, or rather the Sierra-
Gorda-jalap, is derived. I. operculata (Martius) yields the Brazilian
jalap.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 267
Iris Florentina, Linn<$.
Countries around the Mediterranean Sea, The well-known "Orris-
root " is obtained from this species. Of the same geographic range
is Iris juncea (Poiret), the edible root of which is known by the
name of Zeloak among the Algerian natives [Symonds]. I. versi-
color (Linne) of Eastern North- America is there drawn into medicinal
use. J. Stocksii (Boissier) affords its roots as an esculent in Balu-
chistan [J. H. Lace]. I. reticulata (Bieberstein) and I. Bakeriana
(Foster) flower in midwinter, rejoicing in the frosts ; both have
fragrant flowers. I. alata (Lamarck) flowers also in midwinter and
is therefore a remarkable calendar-plant. Galanthus Elwesi (Hooker)
flowers still earlier than the ordinary snowdrop. The volatile odorous
principle of the Orris- or rather Iris-root is almost solid.
Iris pabularia, Naudin.
Central Asia. Rather extensively grown for fodder, on account
of its nutritive properties. It maintains its ground well when once
established. Probably adapted only for exceptional localities. The
active resinous principle of this is similar to that of Convolvulus
Scammonia [Spirgatis].
Isatis indigotica, Fortune.
Northern China. Perennial, almost shrubby. Its use is similar to
that of the following plant.
Isatis tinctoria,
" Dyer's Woad." From the Mediterranean regions through part of
the Orient, apparently extending as far as Japan. In Norway it is
hardy to lat. 67 16' [Schuebeler]. A tall herb of two years' dura-
tion. The blue dye is obtained from the fermented leaves. Woad
succeeds best in rich limestone-ground. Contains luteolin. Many
other species of Isatis, mostly Asiatic, may perhaps produce dye with
equal advantage. Boissier enumerates twenty-eight kinds merely as
Oriental.
Jacaranda miniosifolia, D. Don. (J. ovalifolia, R. Brown.)
Brazil. This tree, with J. Braziliana and J. obtusifolia (Hum-
boldt), furnishes a beautiful and fragrant kind of Palixander- or
Palissandre-wood, and so do probably some other tropical American
species. This wood is bluish-red, traversed by blackish streaks.
J. miniosifolia is hardy at Port Phillip, soon recovering from the
injuries of our slight nocturnal frosts, and thus may perhaps be reared
with advantage in many of the warmer and moister regions of the
temperate zone, even if it were only for its ornamental grandeur.
Among Bignoniaceous plants may here also be mentioned Tecoma
268 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Capensis as one of the most brilliant of autumnaFflowering shrubs,
though ornamental only.
Jacksonia cupulifera, Meissner.
West- Australia. It might prove an advantage, to disseminate this
small tree in arid desert-regions, as horses and cattle relish the foliage
amazingly. Several other Jacksonias share the local renown, which
this congener of theirs has acquired from its utility as a pasture-bush,
notably so the tall-shrubby J. scoparia of South-Eastern Australia ;
it would, therefore, be worth while to disseminate these kinds of
plants in apt localities.
Jasminum grandiflorum, Linn.*
From India to Japan. Flowers white. Extensively cultivated in
South-Europe. It is planted in rows 3 feet apart. Leek, tuberoses
and similar plants are used, to occupy the spare-ground for the first
year ; 1,000 plants in the second year after grafting produce 50 kilos
(about 1 cwt.) of flowers in rich soil. Ten thousand Ibs., can be
produced on a hectare (nearly 2J acres) ; these under very favorable
circumstances will realize a profit of 230 per annum. Dr. Piesse
records, that in very recent times at Grasse, Cannes and the adjoining
villages about 100,000 Ibs. of Jasmin-flowers were gathered annually
for perfumery-purposes, the price there being about Is. a Ib. Accord-
ing to the " Revue des Sciences Naturelles Appliquees " of May
1891 p. 720, the quantity seems to have risen to fully 300,000 Ibs.,
gathered from the middle of May to the end of June. The plants
must be guarded against frost and exposure to wind [Deherain] .
May sometimes be attacked by Uromyces Cunninghami (Barclay).
In France this jasmin is generally grafted on J. officinale. The
bushes are richly manured and well watered. Ordinary cleft-grafting
is practised, the stock being headed down to near the ground. A
good workman and assistant will graft about 1,000 plants in a day.
The delicate scent is withdrawn, either by fixed oil or fat through
alcohol, if not required by itself, or it may be drawn over along with
oil of orange-peel. The pecuniary yield obtainable from Jasmin-
cultivation seems vastly overrated, even if inexpensive labour could
be procured. The concrete oil is an article of commerce. Messrs.
Blogg prepare it in the following superior and expeditious manner
here : Fresh flowers without stalks are macerated for some few
minutes in deodorized methyl-chloride ; the liquid is then allowed to
run off into a closed receiver for subsequent distillation ; this macera-
tion proceeds till all scent is withdrawn by additional methyl ; the
distillation is effected at a temperature of only about 86 F.; this
volatises the methyl-chloride, which when thus regained is used for
treatment of other lots of flowers. The concrete oil, as containing
the perfuming principle in a waxy or fatty nature, remains behind
after the evaporation of the methyl, and is worth about 30 shillings
an ounce. A small quantity of this solid substance suffices for pre-
paring a good deal of the " essence " ordinarily in use.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 269
Jasminum odoratissimum, Linne.*
Madeira. Shrubby like the rest. Flowers yellow. Used like
the foregoing and following for perfumery. This may be prepared
by spreading the flowers upon wool or cotton, slightly saturated with
olive or other fixed oil, and covering them with other layers so pre-
pared. The flowers are renewed from time to time until the oil is
thoroughly pervaded by the scent, when the latter is withdrawn by
alcohol. Other modes of extracting the oil seem feasible.
Jasminum officinale, Linne.*
From the Caucasus to China. Flowers white. This is the prin-
cipal species cultivated in South-Europe for its scent. In Cannes
and Nice about 180,000 Ibs. of jasmin-flowers are produced annually
for distillation [Regel]. By Simmonnet's process the essence of
jasmin is solidified as jasminin.
Jasminum Sambac, Alton.
From India to Japan. It has the richest perfume of all. The
bush attains a height of 20 feet, and is almost climbing. The flowers
are white, and must be collected in the evening before expansion.
The relative value of many other species of jasmin, nearly all from
the warmest parts of Asia, seems in no instance to have been ascer-
tained, so far as their oils or scents are concerned. The Australian
species are also deliciously fragrant, amongst which J. lineare, Br.,
occurs in Victorian deserts ; while also J. didymum, Forst., J. race-
mosum, F. v. M., J. simplicifolium, Forst., J. calcareum, F. v. M.,
and J. suavissimum, Lindl., reach extra-tropical latitudes.
Joannesia princeps, Vellozo. (Anda Gomesii, A. de Jussieu.)
Southern Brazil. A large tree, likely hardy in any region free of
frost. The oil of the seeds serves like that of Ricinus, with the
advantage of its fceing of rather pleasant taste, and being required in
much lesser quantity [Martius]. This oil, on account of its quickly
drying, has come into use also for painting in oil-colours [Rosen-
thai].
Jubsea spectabilis, Humboldt.*
The tall and stout Coquito-Palm of Chili, extending spontaneously
to 37 South ; hardy still in Valdivia. Has endured at Montpellier
a winter-cold of 10 F. [Count Kerchove de Denterghem]. As hardy
as Pinus Halepensis, if not more so [Prof. Sahut]. The stem reaches
a height of 60 feet, and is tinged towards the middle ; the leaves arfc
sometimes 10 feet long. A kind of treacle is obtained from the sap
of this palm. A good tree will give 90 gallons of mellaginous sap
[C. Darwin]. This is condensed into a marketable Palm-honey, of
which according to a statement in the " Indian Forester," xvii., 7, 18,
in one of the warehouses of Palmas de Ocoa, 200,000 tins were
270 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
available in 1890, containing each about 2^ Ibs. of this saccharine sub-
stance. The small kernels are edible. Jubaea Torallyi ascends the
Andes to 8,500 feet. First introduced into the colony of Victoria
by the writer of this work.
Juglans cinerea, Linn.*
The Butternut-tree of Eastern North-America. Up to 75 feet
high ; stem-diameter to 4 feet. Growth of comparative celerity ;
admits of transplantation readily. Likes rocky places in rich forests,
but is also content with poor soil. Branches widely spreading, thus
well adapted for shade lines. Wood lighter in colour than that of
the black walnut, durable and free from attacks of insects. It is
particularly sought for furniture, panels of coaches, corn-shovels,
wooden dishes and similar implements, as it is not heavy nor liable to
split. Splendid for select post and rails needing durability ; it is soft
and therefore easily worked. This tree with J. nigra endures even
the severe frosts of St. Petersburg, where the Caryas can no longer
be maintained [Regel]. The kernel of the nut is more oily than that
of the ordinary walnut ; taste similar to that of Brazil-nuts. The
leaves, bark and husk are of medicinal importance, and so are those
of other species. The sap is saccharine [C. Koch]. A form of this
or a closely allied species occurs on the Upper Amazon-River
[Spruce], and on the mountains of Venezuela [Prof. Ernst ; Dr.
Dyer].
Juglans cordiformis, Maximowicz.
Japan. This species approaches in many respects J. Sieboldiana.
Juglans Mandschurica, Maximowicz.
Corea and Mandschuria. This Walnut is allied to J. cinerea of
North-America. Wood splendid for cabinet-work. The nuts avail-
able as well for the table as for oil-factories.
Juglans Californica, S. Watson.
From California to New Mexico, along the course of streams in
rich moist soil. A handsome symmetrical tree of much utility,
attaining a height of 60 feet and a stem-diameter of 3 feet [Dr.
Gibbons]. Hardy in Christiania still.
Juglans nigra,
Black Walnut-tree. Eastern North-America. Attains a height
of 150 feet ; trunk grows to 7 feet in diameter ; fond of rich forest-
land. Quicker of growth than the European Walnut-tree, but the
wood not so easily worked [Meehan]. Maximum rate of circum-
ferential stem-growth in Nebraska 4 feet at 2 feet from the ground
in 16 years [Furnas]. The tree will bear fruit after 10 years, giving
when of large size, 10 to 15 or even 20 bushels in a season, realizing
as much as 4s. per bushel. The tree is hardy still in Christiania.,
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 271
Norway. Adopted lately among trees from abroad for the Prussian
forests on a large scale. Wood most ornamental, purplish-brown,
turning dark with age, strong, tough, not liable to warp nor to split ;
not attacked by insects. Supplies three-fourths of the material for
hardwood-furniture in the United States [Sargent], and fetches-
there the highest price. Wood stored for many years is the best for
gun-stocks, and used also for musical instruments. For the sake of
its compactness, durability, and its susceptibility to high polish, it is
much sought for elegant furniture, stair-rails and other select purposes.
Seeds more oily than the European Walnut. The tree extends in a
slightly altered variety to Bolivia and Argentina [Weddell] and at
elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 feet in Peru [P. Clarke ; W. Thiselton,
Dyer]. J. insularis (Grisebach) is either a native of Cuba or a
species cultivated there [Dyer].
Juglans regia, Linn.*
The ordinary Walnut-tree of Europe, indigenous in Hungary
[Heuffel] and Greece [Heldreich], extending from the Black Sea to
. Beloochistan and Burmah, and seemingly also occurring in North-
China, preferentially in calcareous soil. It attains a height of fully
100 feet, and lives many centuries. Introduced into Britain already
by the Romans. Professor Schuebeler found it hardy in Norway to
lat. 63 35', bearing fruit occasionally ; in lat. 60 14' it attained still
a height of nearly 50 feet and a stem-circumference of 13 feet. An
aged Walnut-tree at Mentmore had a circumference of 1 2^ feet at 4
feet from the ground, its branches spreading diametrically to about 100
feet [Masters]. Wood light and tough, much sought for gun-stocks,
the exterior of pianofortes and the choicest furniture. The shells of
the nut yield a black pigment, the leaves serve also for dye-purposes,
and have come further into external medicinal use. Trees of select
quality of wood have been sold at enormous prices, being the most
valuable of Middle-Europe. To economize it, frequently it is cut up
into veneers. In some departments of France a rather large quantity
of oil is pressed from the nuts, which, besides serving as an article
of diet, is used for the preparation of fine colours. To obtain first-class
fruit, the trees are grafted in France [Michaux]. They commence
to bear already after ten years. The produce of Walnuts in France
for 1890 was estimated at over 100,000 tons, valued at more than
800,000 [Sahut, from Bull, du Ministere d' Agriculture], Bordeaux
alone exports about 65,000 cwt. of Walnuts annually. An almost
huskless variety occurs in the north of China. Nuts for distant
transmission, to arrive in a fit state for germination, are best packed
quite fresh in casks between layers of dry moss. Canalisation with
the adjuncts of elevated irrigatory reservoirs, for which Walnut-trees
afford one of the most useful and permanent surroundings, will lessen
the danger of disastrous floods. This applies as well to borings at
ledges of rocks, to effect the gradual off-flow from unnavigable reaches,
and for utilisation of the otherwise unproductive water.
272 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Juglans Sieboldiana, Maximowicz.
Throughout Japan, where it forms a large tree. To this species is
ascribed, by Mr. P. G. Bixford, a tree now much grown in California ;
the leaves are very large ; the nuts are produced early, regularly and
in abundance, from 15 to 20 often clustered together, have a shell
not so thick as that of the Black Walnut ; the kernel is in taste like
that of the Butternut, but less oily [R. J. Turnbull ; L. Burbankj.
Juglans stenocarpa, Maximowicz.
From the Amoor-territory. Allied to J. Mandschurica.
Juniperus Bermudiana, Hermann.*
The Pencil-Cedar of Bermuda and Barbadoes, occurring also in
Jamaica (there up to 6,000 feet), the Bahamas and Antigua. This
species grows sometimes to 90 feet high, and furnishes a valuable red
durable wood, used for boat-building, furniture and particularly pencils,
also for hammer-shanks of pianofortes, on account of its pleasant odor
and special fitness. It is almost the only native timber of Bermuda.
Planks of 32 inches width have been obtained [Lieut-General Sir J.
H. Lefroy]. The tree will thrive in the poorest soil, for instance,
coral-sand, and has a very great power to resist storms on account
of the deeply penetrating roots, which may reach to 30 feet. In
South- Africa it thrives well, growing twice as fast as J. Virgiiiiana
[Sim]. Parlatore unites with this the J. Barbadensis (Linne), but
Grisebach regards it as distinct. Many of the plants in gardens
called Thuya or Biotia Meldensis belong to this species.
Juniperus brevifolia, Antoine.
In the Azores, up to 4,800 feet ; a nice tree with sometimes
silvery foliage.
Juniperus Cedrus, Webb.
A tall tree of the higher mountains of the Canary-Islands.
Juniperus Chinensis, Linne.
In temperate regions of the Himalayas, up to an altitude of 15,000
feet, also in China and Japan. Hardy in Christiania [Schuebeler],
This tree, is known to rise exceptionally to about 100 feet, with a
stem-girth of 13 feet; it is of comparatively rapid growth, furnishing
a reddish, soft and fine-grained wood, suitable for pencils [Hoopes].
Probably identical with it is the Himalayan Pencil-Cedar (Juniperus
religiosa, Royle). The timber of some other tall Junipers needs
tests.
Juniperus communis, Linne.
Colder parts of Europe, Asia, North-Africa and North-America,
ascending the European Alps to 8,000 feet, the Indian mountains to
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical "Countries. 273
14,000 feet. In Norway it is indigenous to lat. 70 10', and under
60 10' it reaches still a height of 40 feet [Professor Schuebeler].
Attains to almost incredible longevity. The wood resists insects of
all kinds. Glowing wood is kept for a very long time in that state,
if covered up [Goethe]. One of the three native Coniferse of Britain.
The berry -like fruits are of medicinal value, also used in the prepara-
tion of gin, further for flavoring preserves and also smoked beef
[Dr. K. Mueller]. The famous quality of Westphalian hams is much
obtained through their being subjected to the smoke of this plant ; in
like manner much used in North-Europe. The lye from the ashes
much employed in washing. Important for fuel in the coldest
regions. Will grow on almost pure sand, also on limestone-rocks.
Juniperus drupacea, La Billardiere.
Plum- Juniper. A very handsome long -leaved species, the
" Habhel " of Syria. It attains a height of 30 feet, and produces
sweet edible fruit, highly esteemed throughout the Orient.
Juniperus excelsa, Bieberstein.
In Asia Minor, 2,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea-level. Extends
to the Himalayas, where its range of elevation is from 5,000 to
14,000 feet. A stately tree, to 90 feet high. Trunk short, but of
great girth, over 20 feet circumference being known, according to
Stewart and Brandis, who refer to this the J. Chinensis of Parlatore.
The allied J. Sabina (Linne) extends from the Caucasus through the
cooler regions of Asia to North- America, and it is also found in sub-
alpine regions of Spain. It is a powerful eminenagogue, but requires
to be used with caution. All these trees are antiseptic and therefore
of hygienic value.
Juniperus flaccida, Schlechtendal.
In Mexico, at from 5,000 to 7,000 feet altitude. A tree reaching
30 feet in height, rich in sandarac-like resin.
Juniperus fcetidissima, Willdenow.
Armenia and Tauria, also on the Balkan and in North-Greece, at
from 5,000 to 6,500 feet. A tall and beautiful tree.
Juniperus Mexicana, Schiede.
Mexico, at elevations from 7,000 to 11,000 feet. A straight tree,
sometimes to 90 feet high ; stem to 3 feet in diameter, exuding
copiously a resin similar to sandarac.
Juniperus occidentalis, Hooker.
North-California and Oregon, ascending to the sub-alpine zone.
A straight tree, to as much as 80 feet high, with a stem reaching
often 3 feet in diameter. Thrives well among rocks. Wood pale,
comparatively hard, close-grained. .
274 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Juniperus phoenicea, Linne.
South-Europe and Orient. A small tree, yielding an aromatic
resin.
Juniperus procera, Hochstetter.
In Abyssinia and Arabia. A stately tree, furnishing a hard, use-
ful timber. A species of this genus extends to Kilimanjaro [Jos.
Thomson]..
Juniperus Pseudo-Sabina, Fischer and Meyer. (/. Wallichiana, Hooker
and Thomson.)
From the Indus to Sikkim, at elevations from 9,000 to 15,000
feet. Attains a height of about 50 feet. Desirable for transfer to
any alps. Wood similar to that of J. excelsa [Stewart and
Brandis].
Juniperus recur va, Hamilton.
On the Himalayas, from 7,500 to 15,000 feet. A tree attaining
80 feet in height according to J. Hoopes.
Juniperus sphserica, Lindley.
North-China. A handsome tree, sometimes to 40 feet high.
Juniperus Virginiana,
North- American Pencil-Cedar or Red Cedar, extending to 45
N.L. eastward and 52 westward ; likes limestone-subsoil. A droop-
ing variety exists. Hardy still in Christiania. Bore exceptionally
severe frosts in Germany unhurt [H. Koehler]. A handsome tree,
rarely to 90 feet high, supplying a fragrant timber ; it is dense, fine-
grained, light and of pleasant odor ; the inner part is of a beautiful
red colour ; the outer is white ; it is much used for pencils ; one of
the best of all woods for buckets, tubs and casks. Simmonds observes,
that fence-posts of this wood last for ages. Of wonderful durability
for railway cross-ties [Barney]. The heartwood is almost imperish-
able [Vasey], nor is it bored by insects. The tree grows best near
the sea, but is rather independent of soil and locality. Rate of
growth in Nebraska according to Governor Furnas 26 inches stem
girth at 2 feet from the ground in 12 years. One cwt. of wood yields
in distillation at an average 28 ounces of fragrant oil, used for scented
soaps [Piesse, Lubin].
Justicia Adhatoda, Linne".
India ; enduring the climate of the lowlands of Victoria. This
bush possesses anti-spasmodic and febrifugal properties. It can be
utilised also as a hedge-plant.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 275
Kennedya Stirling!, Lindley.
South- Western Australia. This perennial bulky herb is highly
praised as a pasture-plant by Mr. Ch. Harper.
Kentia Baueri, Seemann. (Rhopalostylis Baueri, H. Wendland and Drude. )
The Norfolk-Island Palm. Height to 40 feet.
Kentia Beccarii, F. v. Mueller. (Nengella montana, Beccari. )
On .the mountains of New Guinea, up to 4,500 feet. This slender
palm is only a few feet high and eligible for domestic decoration.
Kentia Belmoriana, Moore and Mueller. (Howea Belmoriana, Beccari. )
The Curly Palm of Lord Howe's Island ; about 40 feet high.
With its congeners evidently designed to grace our gardens, and to
become also important for horticultural traffic abroad. K. Forsteri-
ana is a close ally, restricted to the same island. Natural hybrids
occur between these two species [W. E. Langley.]
Kentia Canterburyana, Moore and Mueller. (Hedyscepe Canterburyeina,
H. Wendland and Drude.)
Umbrella-palm of Lord Howe's Island. Likewise a tall and hardy
palm, growing at or below 2,000 feet altitude. Rate of growth about
one foot a year.
Kentia Moluccana, Beccari.
Ternate, at heights up to 3,500 feet. This noble and comparatively
hardy palm attains a height of about 90 feet.
Kentia sapida, Blume. (Rhopalostylis sapida, H. Wendland and Drude.)
The Nika-palm of New Zealand and the Chatham-Islands. It
rises to a height of about 40 feet, is one of the hardiest of all palms,
and extends to the most southern latitude attained by any palm,
being found down to 44 South. Proved hardy in Stewart's Island
[Charles Traill]. The unexpanded flower-spikes can be converted
into food as palm-cabbage.
Knightia excelsa, R. Brown.
The Rewa-Rewa of New Zealand. The wood of this tree is
recommended as valuable for ornamental work and furniture
[Campbell Walker].
Kochia eriantha, F. v. Mueller.
Proved an excellent fodder-herb for sheep on the hot and dry
pastures of Central Australia, where the temperature in summer
reaches 120 F. in the shade, and in the winter falls to 27 [Rev.
H. Kempe]. Several other Australian species of Kochia afford
excellent pasture-fodder. Prof. W. A. Dixon found 65 per cent, of
digestible substance in K. pyramidata (Bentham).
T 2
276 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Kochia pubescens, Moquin.
South-Africa ; there one of the best salt-bushes for pastures
[MacOwan].
Kochia villosa, Lindley.*
In most of the depressed and saline regions of Australia, par-
ticularly inland, also on sand-lands. Renowned amongst occupiers
of pasture-runs as the " Cotton-bush," strangely so called, on
account of downy adventitious excrescences. This rather dwarf
shrub resists the extremes of drought and heat of even the trying
Central Australian clime. The roots sometimes penetrate into the
ground to a depth of 18 feet [Lockh. Morton]. With all other
pasture-animals, especially sheep, also dromedaries like this and some
other salt-bushes particularly for food ; so also ostriches [Officer].
These kinds of plants tend to intercept bush fires ; they can be
multiplied also from cuttings.
Kceleria cristata, Persoon.
Widely dispersed over the globe. A perennial grass of fair
nutritive quality, sustaining itself on dry soil. The closely-allied
K. glauca can be sown with advantage on coast-sand. Prof.
Hieronymus mentions K. caudata (Grisebach) among good grasses
of the Southern Andes, occurring in the cold elevations from 10,000
to 12,000 feet.
Krameria triandra, Ruiz.
Chili, Peru and Bolivia, at elevations of from 3,000 to 8,000 feet.
This pretty little shrub can be grown on sandy ridges in an equable
clime. It produces the medicinal Ratanhia-root, well known also as
a dentifrice, and used further for colouring wine. The root contains
38 to 43 per cent, tannin [Muspratt]. Some other species have
similarly astringent roots, particularly K. Ixine (Loefling), from
Central America and the West-Indies. Some could be chosen to aid
in adorning and diversifying our gardens. Krameria is placed by
Eichler and also by Taubert among csesalpinous Leguminosse.
Kunzea pomulifera, F. v. Mueller.
Southern coast of Australia. This creeping or somewhat shrubby
plant is well worth naturalisation on other sandy or rocky shores
in mild climates, on account of the berries, called " Muntries " by
the aboriginals, yielding excellent jam or preserves. It occurs also
in the deserts of the interior, but is there not readily fruiting into
succulence.
Lactuca saligna, Linne.
Europe, Western Asia, Northern Africa. The slender mild Lettuce.
A herb of short duration, but of easy dissemination. Mr. Skene
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 277
observes that sheep are exceedingly fond of it, feeding it off to the
ground, whence it sprouts again. Mr. Herbert Westenhall says that
on some arid pastures of the Wimmera it is late in the summer almost
the only feed. It seems free from noxious properties.
Lactuca sativa, C. Bauhin.*
Southern Asia. The ordinary annual Lettuce, in use since remote
antiquity. It is not without value for medicinal purposes, especially
as a sedative. L. Scariola (Linne) seems to be the wild state of
the garden-lettuce, and is a native of all the countries around the
Mediterranean Sea. Messrs. Dippe in Quedlinburg devote exclu-
sively 130 acres to the culture of lettuce merely for seed. Mons.
Vilmorin notes the seeds to retain their power of germination for
about five years. L. altissima (Bieberstein) is a variety attaining
a height of 9 feet. All yield lactucarium. Succeeds also in
equinoctial latitudes, thus thriving also fairly well in the hot and
moist depressions of the Malayan Peninsula [H. N. Ridley]. It
ripens seed even in the hot desert-regions of Central Australia, but
can also be successfully grown up to the North Cape. Picridium
vulgare (Desfontaines) of the countries at the Mediterranean Sea is
there occasionally consumed as lettuce. L. pereunis (Linne) is there
a pot-herb [Naudin].
Lactuca virosa, Linn&
Middle and South-Europe, North- Africa, Middle-Asia. A biennial.
The inspissated juice particularly of this lettuce forms the sedative
lactucarium.
Lagenaria vulgaris, Seringe.
The " Bottle Gourd." Supposed to be a native of Tropical Asia
and Africa, and perhaps also Australia, but certainly indigenous in
South-America before the advent of the Spaniards. An annual
climber, rather a plant of curiosity than of utility in the rural sense
of the word, but cultivated in India for making calabashes and also
employed in medicine. A variety occurs with edible fruits, which
when cooked in an unripe state are very palatable. A particular
Lagenaria occurs as indigenous in Chili ; it has unlike L. vulgaris
always spherical fruits of enormous size, which when excavated are
used as buckets, baskets and even for supports of ferry-floats.
[Acosta, Molina, Philippi].
Lantana crocea, N. Jacquin.
Central America. One of the most graceful and ornamental
plants for low hedges, flowering all through the year, and not apt
to spread detrimentally, as do some of its tropical congeners. All
the species are of some medicinal value.
278 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Lapageria rosea, Ruiz and Pavon.
The Copigue. Chili. Almost the only plant, which can exist in
the area covered by the sulphurous smoke of the local smelting fur-
naces [Dr. R. O. Cunningham]. A half-woody climber with large
showy flowers. The berries, which attain the size of a hen's egg,
are sweet and edible. The plant bears slight frosts. Best adapted
for mild moist regions. The plant would particularly prosper in the
main Rhododendron-zone, and with us in the Waratah-country.
Lardizabala biternata, Ruiz and Pavon.
Chili. A climber with stems of enormous length. Might be
naturalised in forests for obtaining the tough fibre for cordage. In
its native country the torrified stems are used instead of ropes,
according to Dr. Philippi.
Laserpitium aQuilGgifoliuin, Murray. (Siler trilobum, Scopoli.)
Middle and Southern Europe. The stems of this perennial herb
are edible. The fruit serves as a condiment.
Lasiocorys Capensis, Bentham.
South- Africa. Professor MacOwan directs attention to the economy
of this plant, it having a singular propensity of rendering rainwater
retained in small gutters ; the Lasiocorys compacts the detritus and
impedes also soil washed onward, forming natural little catch-dams.
The plant is bitter, hence not consumed by goats and sheep in
plentifnl times.
Lathyrus Cicera, Linn6.
Countries at or near the Mediterranean Sea, also Canary-Islands.
An annual, similar in its use to L. sativus, furnishing a tender
palatable fodder on sandy soil.
Lathyrus latifolius, Linn<5.
South-Europe, South- Western Asia. A perennial herb, not with-
out importance for fodder [Prof. Wittmack]. Bees resort much to
the flowers [G-. Don],
Lathyrus macrorrhizus, Wimmer. (Orobus tuberosus, Linn.)
Europe, Western Asia. This herb would gradually establish pas-
turage in sterile forest-regions, and could with some allied species be
disseminated also in alpine elevations.
Lathyrus maritimus, Bigelow. (Pisum maritimum, Linn. )
The Beach-Pea. Northern Europe, Asia and America, extending
to the Adriatic Sea and to the arctic regions. A perennial coast-
herb, sought by herbs and flocks, particularly eligible for naturalisa-
tion on pebbly shores of the sea. The cognate L. palustris (Linne)
from Northern Europe, North-Asia and North- America is a perennial
pasture-herb, fit for wet meadows, according to Mr. A. Carlsson.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 279
Lathyrus Ochrus, De Candolle.
Countries around the Mediterranean Sea. Eecommended as a good
fodder-herb, though annual.
Lathyrus pratensis, Linn.
The Meadow-Pea. Europe, Northern and Middle Asia. Hardy
in Norway to lat. 69 40'. A good perennial pasture-herb. It can
also be utilised for forest-pastures, like L. silvestris, L. The yield
is considerable, and the herbage, though bitter, is relished by sheep.
The plant spreads easily, particularly on fresh ground. L. tuberosus,
L., can likewise be utilised as a fodder-herb ; its tubers are edible,
but very small ; the plant is easily naturalised, but may in culture-
land become an irrepressible weed.
Lathyrus sativus, Linne.
The Jarosse. Middle and Southern Europe. An annual forage-
herb. Can be grown in Norway to lat. 63 26' [Schuebeler].
Superior to vetches in quality of fodder and seed, but inferior in
yield ; according to Langethal's observations content with a lighter
soil, hence often chosen for first sowing on sand-lands ; a useful
ingredient of mixed pasturage. Lime in the soil increases the return.
In India it is grown as a cold weather crop, often on very heavy
clay-soils, which will raise no other kind of pulse [Dr. G. Watt].
The seeds can only be used with great caution and well boiled, as
their frequent or continuous use, like that of L. Cicera, induces
paralysis, not only in horses, cattle and birds, but also in the human
subject. The plant should therefore only be used for its herbage.
L. Aphaca (Linne), L. purpureus (Desf.) and L. Clymenum (L.)
are also recorded as deleterious. Similarly some species of Extra
Australian Astragalus and Australian Swainsona and perhaps also
of Goodia are very hurtful as fodder, others not. The hurtful sub-
stances in Lathyrus are Cytisin, Cathartin and Gentianin. The seeds
of L. sativus will keep about five years. Probably other species of
Lathyrus could advantageously be introduced.
Lathyrus Silvester, Linne.*
Europe, Western Asia, Northern Africa. A perennial rambling
herb, enduring alpine and arctic cold. The variety Wagneri, which
has become free of noxious principles, has been highly recommended
as a forage- and pasture-plant, and if its qualities can be permanently
maintained in cultivation, its acquisition will prove a great boon to
agriculture. As the specific came implies it is best suited for forest-
land, but will also thrive on stony and sandy declivities and will even
convert coast-sands into sheep-pastures [Professor Wagner] ; it is
not fit for any locality with underground water. It comes to full
development only in the second or third year. The roots will finally
penetrate to a depth of 20 feet, hence the plant does not flag during
protracted drought. Not easily eradicated on ground where it has
280 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
got proper hold. The tubercular excrescences of the root convey
nitrogenous ingredients to the plant, rendering it very nutritious.
Professor Stebler found the dry herb to contain 25 per cent. Protein.
The plant requires phosphatic and potassic substances in the soil for
its proper development [Prof. Wittmack]. Also a honey-plant. The
European Coronilla varia (Linne), though supplying a good sheep-
fodder in its young state, becomes deleterious in age.
Launsea pinnatifida, Cassini.
Coasts of tropical Asia and East- Africa. A perennial herb, with
creeping and rooting stems, arching from node to node [Hooker], by
which means it keeps down drift-sand [Cleghorn, Bidie]. In this
respect the plant has rendered such good services on the Indian
coasts, that its transfer to other shores in frostless zones seems
desirable, particularly as it does not stray away from the coast to
invade cultural lands.
Laurelia aromatica, Jussieu.
Southern Chili. A colossal tree, in Valdivia the principal one
used for flooring. Wood never bored by insects, and well able to
stand exposure to the open air, far superior to that of L. serrata
(Bertero), the " Vouvan or Huahuoa," which tree predominates over
L. aromatica in the far south of Chili [Dr. Philippi].
Laurus nobilis, Linn6.
South-Europe and Asia Minor. The Warrior's 'Laurel of the
ancients, generally called in Britain " Sweet Bay." Greatest height
about 60 feet, but always displaying a tendency to omit suckers
and rarely assuming a tree-like character [London]. The leaves are
in much request for various condiments, always much sought for
packing liquorice, and for their peculiar aroma these Bay-leaves
cannot be replaced by any others, unless those of Lindera Benzoin
and Machilus odoratissima. The berries are used in veterinary
medicine.
Lavandula angustifolia, C. Bauhin. (L. vera, De Candolle.)
The principal Lavender-Plant. Countries around and near the
Mediterranean Sea. Of somewhat shrubby growth ; from it, by dis-
tillation, the best oil of lavender is prepared. It lives on dry soil,
but is less hardy than the following, still it will grow in Norway to
lat. 59 55' [Schuebeler]. A thousand plants will yield about two
quarts of oil [Piesse]. The plants last only about four years for
distillation-purposes. The soil should be calcareous. The principal
places of culture in England are at Mitcham and Hitchin [Masters].
According to Mr. Slater's long experiences at Port Phillip, planting
should be effected at the commencement of the cool season, with the
prospect of oil to the extent of about 40 Ibs. from an acre becoming
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 281
available in tbe first season already, worth now about 56s. per Ib.
Mr. Edw. Hulme realized 2 10s. per Ib. for oil distilled from plants
reared on tbe Lower Ovens-River. In tropical countries tbe
Lavender likes some shade.
Lavandula latifolia, C. Bauhin. (L. Spica, De Candolle.)
South-Europe, North-Africa. This species is the richest yielder
of oil. Hardy in Norway to lat. 67 56'. The Lavenders are easily
multiplied by slips. Seeds will keep for five years. Linnaeus com-
bined this and the preceding species as varieties under the name of
L. Spica.
Lavandula Stcechas, Linne.
South-Europe, North- Africa. " Topped Lavender/' This shrub
can also be utilised for oil-distillation and other purposes, for which
the two other Lavenders are used. The quality of the oil of these
species seems to differ according to their locality of growth. Mr.
James Dickinson, of Port Arlington, Victoria, informs us, that this is
the best plant known to him for staying sand. It grows much
quicker than the Ulex : every seed which falls germinates, so that
around each bush every stroke of the spade brings up lots of seed-
lings fit for transplantation. In mild regions it is five months in full
flower annually, coming into bloom early. Bees are passionately
fond of the nectar of the flowers, as noted already by Virgilius. Mr.
Dickinson calculates, that a ton of the finest-flavored honey can be
obtained annually from an acre of this Lavender.
Lavatera arborea, Linn.
" Tree-Mallow " of the countries on the Mediterranean Sea, extend-
ing northward to England, naturally often a coast-plant. A tall
biennial, or oftener perennial plant of rapid growth. The ribbon-like
bast is produced in greater abundance and more rapidly than in most
malvaceous plants, and is recommended for paper-material. Bears
frost to 15 F. [G-orlie], The Tree-Mallow might easily be natural-
ised on sea-shores, where it would be useful as a quick shelter.
Perhaps it might also serve with allied plants for green manure.
The bulky foliage has proved valuable for fodder, and so has that of
Lavatera plebeja (Sims) of Australia. Another perennial tall species
is L. unguiculata (Desfontaines) of South-Europe. The Chinese
annual or biennial Althaea rosea (Cavanilles), the Hollyhock, might
serve the same purposes.
Lawsonia alba, Lamarck.
North- and Middle-Africa, Arabia, Persia, India and North-
Western Australia. The " Henne or Henna-bush." It may become
of use as a dye-plant in regions free from frost. The orange pigment
is obtained from the ground foliage. Mr. C. B. Clarke considers it
282 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
one of the best Ledge-plants in India, together with Dodonaea viscosa
(Linne) and Odina Wodier (Roxburgh). A fragrant essence was
distilled from the flowers already by the ancient Egyptians and
Israelites [Dr. G-. Watt].
Leersia hexandra, Swartz.
Africa, South- Asia, warmer parts of America and Australia.
Found by Mr. Bailey to be one of the most relished by cattle among
aquatic grasses of East- Australia. In the Philippines regularly cul-
tivated for fodder in the manner of rice. L. Gouini (Fournier) is a
Mexican species.
Leersia oryzoides, Solander.
Middle and South-Europe, various parts of Asia, Africa and
America. A perennial rather rough swamp-grass. Other Leersias
from both hemispheres are deserving of introduction, if even only for
the benefit of waterfowl. These plants can however become obstruc-
tive on rice-fields.
Leitneria Ploridana, Chapman.
Salt marshes of Florida. The wood of this shrub is almost as
light as cork, instead of which it can to some extent be used. Ought
to be available also for Solah-hats.
Leonotis Leonurus, R Brown.
South-Africa. The foliage of this highly ornamental bush
deserves attention for therapeutic purposes, as, according to
Professor MacOwan, the leaves, when used like tobacco, are highly
stimulative.
Leontioe th.alictroi.des, Linn. (Caulophyllum thalictroides, Michaux.)
North- America. "Blue Cohosh," or " Pappoose-root." A
perennial herb, the root of which is in medicinal use. The
resin, extracted from the root, contributes the caulophyllin as an
emnienagogu e.
Liepidium latifolium, Linne.
Europe, North-Africa, Middle- and North- Asia. A perennial
herb, of peppery acridity, used for some select sauces.
Lepidium sativum, Linn.
The " Cress." Orient. Annual. Irrespective of its culinary
value, cress is of use as one of the remedies in cases of scurvy.
Seeds will keep for several years. Active principle : a volatile oil
and the bitter lepidin. The crisp-leaved variety preferentially reared.
Seeds a substitute for those of mustard [Wittstein]. May spread
beyond control in winterless climes.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 283
Lepidosperma gladiatum, La Billardiere.
The Sword-Sedge of the sea-coast of extra-tropical Australia.
One of the most important plants for binding sea-sand, also yielding
a paper-material as good as Sparta. Mr. Th. Christy has brought
the " Cross " process for textile fabrics or paper-pulp recently into
use, which consists in treating vegetable fibrous substances under
strong pressure (15-30 Ibs. per square inch) with water containing
about 3 per cent, of Thiolyte. L. laterale, with some allied flat-
stemmed species, is utilised by Australian native tribes for bags,
baskets and mats. It indicates water near the surface.
Lepironia mucronata, Cl. Richard.
East-Australia, Malayan Archipelagus, East-Indies, South-
China, Madagascar. This rush is cultivated (like rice) in China for
textile purposes, but in poor soils the manure impairs its strength.
The plant renews itself by sprouts from its perennial root. It attains
a height of seven feet ; the stems are beaten flat, to fit them to be
woven or plaited for either bed-mats and bags, or especially for mat-
sails, the latter being the most extensively used for the junks in
China ; further, the plant is utilised for making the floor-matting,
which is exported in vast quantities to the United States, to be used
in summer for the sake of coolness, in preference to carpets [Dr.
Hance]. This rush thus furnishes the raw material for a great
manufacturing industry. The dyeing of the mats yellow is effected
with the flowers of Sophora Japonica, under addition of alum ; green
with an acanthaceous plant, the Lam-yip (Blue Leaf), alum and
sulphate of copper [Dr. Hirst].
Leptorhabdos Benthamianus, Warpers.
From Thibet to Persia, ascending to 11,000 feet. An annual
herb. One of the principal summer-fodders for sheep and goats
throughout the Juniper-forests of Beloochistan [J. H. Lace].
Leptospermum abnorme, F. v. Mueller.
East- Australia, towards the coast. A tree, gaining finally a height
of 60 feet, with a stem-diameter to two feet. Wood very hard and
heavy. A variety produces fragrant foliage.
Leptospermum Igevigatum, F. v. Mueller.* (Fabricia Icevigata, Gaertner.)
The " Sandstay." Sea-shores and sand-deserts of extra-tropical
Australia, but not extending to Western Australia. This shrub or
small tree is the most effectual of all for arresting the progress of
drift-sand in a warm clime. It is most easily raised by simply
scattering the seeds on the sand in autumn and covering them
loosely with boughs, or better still by spreading lopped-off branches
of the shrub itself, bearing ripe seeds, on the sand. '
284 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Leptospermum lanig-erum, Smith.
South-Eastern Australia. This tall shrub or small tree can be
grown in wet semi-saline soil. It exercises antimalarian influences
on such places like Melaleuca ericifolia. The somewhat aromatic
leaves of L. scoparium (Forster) were already in Captain Cook's
expedition used for an antiscorbutic tea ; hence the name " Tea-
tree " for this and some allied plants.
Lespedeza striata, Hooker and Arnott.
China and Japan. Sometimes called "Japan-Clover." An
annual herb, which in North-America has already proved of great
use. Professor Meehan states it to be identical with the " Hoop-
Koop " plant, and that it has taken possession of much waste land in
the Southern States. It grows there wonderfully on the hot dry
soil, and the cattle like it amazingly. Mr. Jackson observes, that it
spreads on spaces between forest-trees, covering the soil with a
dense permanent herbage. Dr. Carl Mohr says, that it stands
drought well, and thrives on sandy clay, but luxuriates on light
calcareous soil. Carried far about through the egesta of pasture-
animals. Forms a turf, hardly suffering from any traffic. It seizes
on all sorts of soil with equal facility ; subdues weeds. Rich in
albuminous contents [Prof. Phares]. Easily dried for hay. Has
kept up well also in the sub-tropic regions of Eastern Australia
during the summer heat ; likes best to grow on moist ground among
grasses [J. S. Edgar]. Apt to die down in summer-heat, when
most wanted [J. M. Wood]. It is impatient of frost [W. Elliott].
Leucadendron argenteum, Brown.
The Silver-tree of South-Africa is included on this occasion,
because it would add to the splendour of our woods, and thrive far
better there than in gardens within the warm temperate zone.
Moreover, with this tree, many others, equally glorious, might be
established in any mild forest-glens as a source of horticultural
wealth, were it only to obtain in future years a copious supply of
seeds. It is, however, also of some economic value, for the bark is
used for tanning, the soft pale wood for fuel, and the leaves are
exported to Europe for everlasting bouquets. Mention may be made
of the tall magnolia trees of North-America : Magnolia grandiflora
(Linne), 100 feet high ; M. umbrella (Lamarck), 40 feet ; M.
acuminata (Linne), 80 feet ; M. cordata (Michaux), 50 feet ; M.
Fraseri (Walter), 40 feet ; M. macrophylla (Michaux), 40 feet ;
M. Yulan (Desfontaines), of China, 50 feet ; M. Campbelli (J.
Hooker), of the Himalayas, 150 feet high, with flowers nearly a foot
across ; M. sphserocarpa (Roxburgh), also of the Indian highlands,
40 feet ; Stenocarpus sinuosus (Endlicher), of East-Australia (the
most brilliant of the Proteacese), the crimson and scarlet Ratas of
New Zealand, Metrosideros florida (Smith), M. lucida (Menzies),
M. robusta (Cunningham), 80 feet high ; M. tomentosa (Cunn,),
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 285
40 feet ; Fuchsia excorticata (L. fil.), also from New Zealand, stem
reaching 2 feet in diameter ; Rhododendron Falconerii (J. Hooker),
from Upper India, 50 feet high, leaves 18 inches long, not to speak
of other gorgeous trees.
Lewisia rediviva, Pursh.
North- Western America. The root of this herb is large and
starchy, was formerly extensively used by the native inhabitants, and
called by them " The Gift of the Great Spirit." The plant deserves
trial culture.
Leyssera gnaphaloides, Linne.
South-Africa. A perennial herb of aromatic scent and taste.
Much used there as a medicinal tea.
Liatris odoratlSSima, Willdenow. ( Trilisa odoratissima, Cassini. )
Southern States of North- America. A perennial herb occurring in
swampy places. The leaves are sometimes used, for the sake of their
aromatic odor, to flavor tobacco and other substances [Saunders].
L. spicata (Willdeuow) is the " Button-Snakeroot/' medicinal in the
Eastern States.
Libocedrus Chilensis, Endlicher.
In cold valleys on the Southern Andes of Chili, at from 2,000 to
5,000 feet. A fine tree, sometimes 80 feet high, furnishing a hard,
resinous wood of a yellowish colour. Libocedrus as a genus is hardly
to be distinguished from Thuya, as pointed out more particularly by
Bentham.
Libocedrus decurrens, Torrey.
White or Incense Cedar of California, growing on high mountains,
in fine groves, up to 9,000 feet, in what Hinchcliff calls the noblest
zone of Conif Brae of the globe. Attains a height of fully 200 feet,
with a stem to 25 feet in circumference. The wood is light, pale-
coloured and soft, yet strong, used for exquisite cabinet-work, but also
suitable for superior fence-rails and building purposes ; it is remark-
ably fragrant. According to Dr. Gibbons, the tree is well adapted
for wind-breaks, and can be trained into tall hedges.
Libocedrus Doniana, Endlicher.
Northern Island of New Zealand, up to 6,000 feet elevation. A
forest-tree, reaching 100 feet in height, the stem 3 feet and more in
diameter. The wood is hard and resinous, of a dark reddish colour,
fine-grained, excellent for planks and spars. L. Papuana (F. v. M.)
occurs at sub-alpine elevations in New Guinea.
286 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Libocedrus tetragona, Endlicher.
On the Andes of Chili, at an elevation of from 2,000 to 5,000 feet,
growing as far south as Magellan's Straits, especially in moist moory
localities. This species has a very straight stem, and rises to 120 feet.
The wood, though soft and light, is resinous, and will resist under-
ground decay for a century and more, like that of Fitzroya Pata-
gonica ; for railway-sleepers this timber is locally preferred to any
other [Dr. Philippi] ; it is also highly esteemed for various artisans'
work ; it is nearly white.
Ligusticum Haastii, F. v. Mueller.
New Zealand, in alpine regions. A perennial herb, important as a
forage-plant [Armstrong].
Ligustrum Japonicum, Thunberg.
The Japan-Privet. A shrub, evergreen or nearly so, promising
to become a valuable hedge-plant. Hardy still in Christiania
[Schuebeler]. It grows readily from cuttings, like the ordinary
European Privet, Ligustrum vulgare (Linnd) ; the latter was intro-
duced into Britain by the Romans already. It is a valuable and
much used hedge-shrub. Both will grow under trees, where scarcely
anything else would live [Johnson] ; also on somewhat saline -soil
[T. Kessal].
Ligustrum lucidum, Aiton.
China. This evergreen tall bush is inhabited by a wax-insect
(Flata limbata) in some parts of China [A. Hosie]. The quantity of
wax thus obtained is considerable [Dr. K. Mueller].
Limonia acidissima, Linne".
India, up to 4,000 feet ; hardy in England. This shrub or small
tree has fruit of extreme acidity, but insignificant in size, which
culture may enlarge.
Lindera Benzoin, Blume.
From Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, there called the Spice-
Laurel. An aromatic bush, one of the hardiest of the order. The
aroma of the foliage much like that of Bay-leaves. L. Neesiana
(Bentham) from the Himalaya yields a kind of Sassafras, according
to Kurz.
Linum usitatissimum, Linne.*
The Flax-Plant. Orient. Perhaps indigenous also in South-
Europe, and probably derived from L. augustifolium (Hudson), which
was cultivated in Switzerland already during the stone-age [Heer].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 287
A well-known annual, which yields linen-fibre and linseed-oil. Few
plants find a wider congeniality of soil and climate, and few give a
quicker return. Good and deep soil, also of forests, well-drained, is
best for successful flax-culture. Mr. S. Warren obtained on virgin
soil, near the Tambo-River, from 7 acres of land, 2 tons of seeds and
2^ tons of fibre, cultivating the Italian variety, the produce selling at
126. In the Goulburn- Valley the plant has grown 4 feet in 8
weeks [J. Williams]. In Norway it is cultivated as far north as
lat. 70 3' [Prof. Schuebeler]. The flax belongs to the Potash-plants.
Change of seed-grain is desirable. When flax-seeds are imported
from Eastern Europe and Western Asia great care should be taken
that they are free from the seeds of an overpowering weed, Salsola
Tragus, L. Seeds of other weeds, such as Dodder and Camelina
sativa, should also be sifted out as much as possible. Thick sowing
extends the length and flexibility of the fibre. To obtain the best
fibre, the plant must be pulled when the seeds commence to ripen. If
the seeds are allowed in part to mature, then both fibre and seeds
may be turned to account. If the seed is left to ripen completely,
the fibre is inferior. The seed yields by pressure about 22 per cent,
of oil. The residue can either be prepared as linseed-meal or be
utilised as admixture to stable-fodder. The demand for both fibre
and oil is enormous. Two principal varieties are under culture ; a tall
sort, with smaller flowers, closed capsules and dark seed ; a dwarf
sort, more branched (even if closely sown), with larger flowers and
capsules, the seed-vessels opening spontaneously and with elasticity,
while the seeds are of a pale colour. None of the perennial species
of Linum are so manageable in culture as the ordinary annual
Flax. The ordinary steeping method for separating the fibre is now
in many places superseded by the so-called dry process through
special machinery, resulting in gain of yield and strength. Again,
application of steam to the gathered plants, or the use of chemicals
have variously been introduced to free the fibre. For obtaining linseed
oil the expansive Bisulphide of Carbon can be used for driving the
last particles of oil out of the cake, as in the case of many other kinds
of oils. Great Britain imported in 1884 of Flax 80,000 tons, worth
over three million pounds sterling, and of Linseed 1,805,000 quarters,
valued at 3,832,000 ; during 1889 it was: Flax 1,587,422 cwt.,
valued at 2,837,800 ; Linseed 2,269,495 quarters, valued at
4,570,203; and yet over 130,000 acres were under home-culture
devoted to this plant. In France, during 1885, the area under this
crop was 104,715 acres, producing 442,288 cwt. of seeds and 748,028
cwt. of fibre. In Holland, where the returns are most prolific, during
1884, were realized from 26,076 acres as much as 296,252 bushels of
seeds, and 107,557 cwt. of fibre. The annual yield of Linseed in
European Russia amounts to nearly 900,000 tons, and it is estimated
that the cultivation of the Flax plant yields to that country 23 mil-
lions sterling a year. The import into Victoria during 1887 was
5,300 cwt. of Flax, valued 4,879, and Linseed-oil 290,647 gallons,
valued 34,397.
288 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Lippia citriodora, Kunth. <
Peru, Chili, La Plata- States, Brazil. An evergreen shrub, yielding
scented oil, used for condiments and for perfumery as " Verbena."
The leaves fit for flavoring tea. L. Mexicana has come into
therapeutic use, particularly as an expectorant.
Liquidambar Altingla, Blume.
At the Red Sea and on the mountains of India and New Guinea,
ascending to about 3,000 feet. The tree attains a height of 200 feet.
It yields the fragrant balsam known as Liquid Storax.
Liquidambar Formosana, Hance.
China. A silk-producing insect is reared on this tree [Hance].
Liquidambar orientalis, Miller. (L. Merbe, Aiton.)
Asia Minor. This tree also yields Liquid Storax, which is vanilla-
scented, containing much styrol and styracin, and thus used for
imparting scent to some sorts of tobacco and cigars, also for keeping
moths from clothing. Its use in medicine is more limited than in
perfumery.
Liquidambar styraciflua, Linne".
The Sweet-Gum tree. In morasses and on the springs of forests of
Eastern North- America, with a wide geographic range. Endures
severe frosts after the plant has attained considerable size. Succeeds
on a great variety of soils [B. E. Fernow]. The ramifications of the
tree attain vast dimensions ; the stem to about 100 feet in height and
to 10 feet in diameter. The wood is reddish-brown, very compact
and heavy, fine-grained, durable, easily worked, little liable to warp,
and admitting of a fine finish, with its pleasing tint, especially
adapted for furniture. The terebinthine juice hardens, on exposure,
to a resin of benzoin odor. The bark contains about 8 per cent,
tannin. Leaves fragrant, turning crimson in autumn [Asa Gray].
Liriodendron tulipifera, Linn6.
The Tulip-tree of North-America. One of the largest trees of the
United States, and one of the grandest vegetable productions of the
temperate zone. In deep fertile soil and cool valleys it sometimes
attains a height of about 140 feet, with a straight clear stem reaching
9 feet in diameter. In Norway it is hardy to lat. 61 17' [Schue-
beler]. In Berwickshire a tree still exists that was planted about
200 years ago ; at 2 feet from the ground it measures 23 feet in
circumference. The Tulip- wood is highly esteemed and very exten-
sively used, wherever this tree abounds, uniting lightness with hand-
someness. It is of a light-yellow colour, fine-grained, compact, easily
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 289
worked and takes a good polish. It is employed for house-building
inside, for bridges, cheap furniture, implements, shingles, pumps,
wooden-ware, boat-building, and a variety of other purposes. On
account of its uniformity and freedom from knots and its disinclina-
tion to warp or shrink, much used in Canada for railway-cars and
carriage-building, chiefly for the panelling [Robb]. The bark yields
about 8 per cent, tannin. As this tree is difficult to transplant,
it should be grown on the spot, where it is to remain. Professor
Meehan observes, that it is of quicker growth than the Horse-Chest-
nut tree and many Maples. In forest valleys of the colony Victoria
plants gained in a few years a height of over 20 feet [Ch. French].
The flowers yield to bees much honey ; indeed Mr. Langstroth speaks
of the Tulip-tree as one of the greatest honey-producers in the
world ; as its large flowers expand in succession, new swarms will
sometimes fill their hives from this source alone. A variety of this
seems to occur as indigenous in China.
Ldthospermum canescens, Lehmann.
North- American Alkanet. This, as the vernacular name indicates,
offers a dye-root.
Lithospermum hirtum, Lehmann.
North- American Alkanna. A showy perennial herb ; the root
yields a red dye.
Lithospermum. angustifoliiim, Michaux. (L. longiflorum, Sprengel.)
North- America. A red pigment can also be extracted from the
root of this species.
Livistona Australis, Martius.*
East- Australia. The only Palm-tree in Victoria, occurring in East-
Gippsland (in the latitude of Melbourne), and there attaining a height
of about 80 feet. It endures the winters of South-France to 40 32'
north lat. ripening germinable seeds [Naudin]. The young leaves
can be plaited as a material for cabbage-tree hats. The seeds (of
which about 200 are contained in one pound) retain their vitality far
better than those of the Australian Ptychospermas. The germinating
power of Palm-seeds will be much longer retained if they are kneaded
into a mixture of clay and cow-dung [H. Wendland]. This palm can
be transferred from its native haunts to very long distances for growth,
by previously separating the main portion of the root from the soil,
and leaving the plant for some months on the original spot, so as to
remove it finally with new rootlets, retaining much soil. Some of
the Indian Livistonas may be equally hardy ; their stems often tower
above the other forest-trees.
290 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Livistona Chinensis, R. Brown.
South-China and Japan. A very decorative Fan-palm, and one of
the hardiest of the whole order. In its native country, the hairy
stem-covering of this palm is used for fixing lime-plaster to buildings
[Christie].
Livistona Leichhardtii, F. v. Mueller.
North- Australia. Under this name might be combined L. iuermis
and L. humilis (R. Brown), neither name applying well to this finally
tall palm with thorny leaf-stalks. The author of this work as well
as Dr. Leichhardt saw it far inland in dry open not mountainous
regions also ; nevertheless it may need a moister clime than the
following species.
Livistona Mariae, F. v. Mueller.
Central Australia, barely within the tropics. This noble Fan-
palm attains 70 feet in height, according to Professor Tate, and is
likely to prove more hardy than many others. Young foliage copper-
coloured. An allied species with larger fruits, L. Alfredi (F. v. M.)
inhabits exclusively tropical West Australia.
Lolium perenne, Linne\*
Europe, North- Africa, Western Asia. The perennial Rye-grass,
one of the best known of all utilitarian grasses. In Norway it grows
to lat. 65 28' [Schuebeler], and extends naturally to Shetland [Sir
J. Hooker]. One of the most important of all pasture-grasses, also
almost universally chosen for lawn-culture. It produces an abundance
of seeds, which are readily collected and easily vegetate. It comes
early to perfection, and shoots quickly again after it has been cut.
Nevertheless the productive and nutritive powers are considerably
less than those of Dactylis glomerata, Alopecurus pratensis and
Festuca elatior, but it pushes forward earlier than the last-mentioned
grass, while the ripening of seeds is less defective than in Alopecurus.
The chemical analysis, made very early in spring, gave the following
results : Albumen, 3'36 ; gluten, 4*88 ; starch, 0-51 ; gum, 1*80;
sugar, 1*80 per cent. [F. v. Mueller and L. Rummel]. At the
London Sewerage-Depot, 60 tons of rye-grass were obtained from
one acre [Mclvor]. Rye-grass, though naturally living but a few
years, maintains its ground vrell, by the ease with which it disseminates
itself spontaneously. Several sorts, which can scarcely be called
varieties, are under cultivation, 22 kinds being distinguished in Mor-
ton's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture. Rye-grass stands the dry heat
of Australian summers fairly well. It is likely to spread gradually
over the whole of the Australian continent, and to play an important
part in pasture, except the hottest desert-tracts. Sheep should not
be continually kept on rye-grass pasture, as they may become
subject to fits similar to those produced by L. temulentum, possibly
due to the grass getting ergotised or otherwise diseased, as many
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 291
observers assert and as has been confirmed here. It is one of the best
grasses, to endure traffic on roads or paths, particularly on soil not
altogether light, and is also one of the few among important grasses,
which can be sown at any season in mild climes. The Italian
rye-grass is a large variety preferably chosen as an early tem-
porary shelter for tenderer but more lasting pasture-grasses, also
furnishing a good collateral return the first season, and will hold out
for a series of years if regularly fed down. It is also an excellent
grass for irrigation, especially on lighter soils. For permanent
pastures the proportion should not be too large, because through its
vigor it may suppress other grasses, and is apt to die out in two or
three years. The best crop is in the second year [Stebler and
Schroeter]. Ordinary rye-grass can be cut several times in a
season.
Lotus corniculatus, Linn6.
One of the "Bird's-foot-Trefoils." Europe, North-Africa, Northern
and Middle Asia, extra-tropical Australia. Indigenous in Norway
as far north as lat. 69 58' [Schuebeler]. A deep-rooting perennial
herb, readily growing on pasture-land, sandy runs and heathy places,
also on wet soil. This plant is well deserving cultivation on light
inferior soil, on which it will yield a greater bulk of herbage than
any of the other cultivated plants of the clover-tribe ; it is highly
nutritious, and is eaten with avidity by cattle and sheep. From the
great depth, to which its roots penetrate, it is not liable to be injured
by drought. It well fills out vacant places between higher fodder-
herbs on meadows ; it is always somewhat saline, and welcome in
hay. Most recommendable for mixture in pasturage. L. tenuis
(Kitaibel) is a valuable variety of the coasts. The nearly allied L.
major (Scopoli) and L. uliginosus (Schkuhr) yield a still greater
amount of herbage; they are particularly suited for bushy and moist
localities, and attain their greatest luxuriance on soils, which have
some peat in their composition [Lawson]. In Australia Lotus
corniculatus shows a decided predilection for wet meadows.
Lotus tetragonolobus, Linn6.* (Tetragonolobus purpuretis, Mcench.)
The " Nitrification Pea " or Edge-fruited Pea. Countries on the
Mediterranean Sea. Though annual, this herb is highly valued for
sheep-pastures. Requires but little moisture. Important for restor-
ing nitrogen to the exhausted soil [Professor Hilgard]. Its signifi-
cance only recognised in recent times. The green pods serve even as
a culinary vegetable. The allied L. siliquosus (Linne) is perennial,
and occurs in a succulent form on sea-coasts. The seeds will retain
their vitality for several years.
Loxopterygium Lorentzii, Grisebach. (Schinopsis Lorentzii, Engler.)
La Plata-States. The bark and wood, called Quebracho Colorado,
extensively used for tanning ; latterly much exported to Europe.
TT 2
292 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
The length of time for the tanning process with this bark is
only half that for oak-bark. The kino of this tree has come into
therapeutic use.
Luculia gratissima, Sweet.
Himalayas and Ava, at elevations of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet. A
tall shrub or small tree. Important in the series of plants destined
to maintain garden-fragrance well throughout the year, the copious
large blossoms being developed in the coolest season. The plant
hates frost and dry heat, [Gaerdt]. The flowers will likely be accept-
able for perfume-factories.
Liipinus albus, Linne".
The White Lupine. Countries on the Mediterranean Sea, also in
the Orient. An annual quick-growing herb, valuable when young
for fodder, and also for green manure. In Norway it will grow to
lat. 70 22' north [Schuebeler]. It is famed as the " Tramoso " in
Portugal, to suppress sorrel and other obstinate weeds by its close
and easy growth. The lentil-like seeds, after the bitter principle
(lupinin) has been removed through boiling or soaking in salt-water,
are edible. It would lead too far, to enumerate here many others of
the numerous species of lupines, of which unquestionably very many
are eligible for agrarian purposes, while all are acceptable as hardy,
elegant and easily grown garden-plants. One, L. perennis, L., ex-
tends in America to the Northern States of the Union and Canada ;
fourteen are recorded from South-Europe, seventeen from Brazil, and
numerous species from other parts of America, where the limits of the
genus are about Monte Video southward and about Nootka- Sound
northward. The majority of the species are perennial. The
Egyptian L. Termis (Forskael) and L. Graecus (Boissier) are closely
allied to L. albus, and of equal use; their flowers are bluish or blue.
Lupinus angustif olius,
Countries on the Mediterranean Sea. An annual blue-flowered
species, preferable to L. luteus for grain-harvest. Hardy to lat. 70
in Norway. Some if not all lupines can be counted among honey-
plants.
Lupinus arboreus, Sims.*
California. This has been used there for reclamation on sand,
on account of its long tap-roots, the latter having been traced to a
depth of 25 feet, while the stems were only 3 feet high. The ger-
mination is easy and the growth rapid on the sand-dunes. For
aiding the young lupines during the first two months, to get hold of
the sand, barley is sown with them, as the latter sprouts in a few
days and holds the sand in the second week ; the lupine subse-
quently covers the sand with a dense vegetation in less than a year.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 293
Lupinus Douglasii, Agardh.
Oregon and California. Hardy in Norway to lat. 67 56'. This
somewhat woody species can be used for binding sand with L.
Chamissonis, Escholtz (L. albifrons, Bentham) and many perennial
lupines from other countries. *
Lupinus luteus, Linn6.*
The Scented Yellow Lupine. Countries in the vicinity of the
Mediterranean Sea. Can be grown in Norway to lat. 70 [Schuebe-
ler]. This annual species is predominantly in use as green manure
through Middle Europe, to improve sandy soil ; it is the best of all
yet tested, and will do even on coast-drifts. It can also be employed
like some other lupines as a fodder-herb, green as well as for hay ;
some lupines are also very valuable as pasture-herbs. Lupin-seeds
are very fattening, when used as an addition to ordinary fodder, and
are in this respect quite equal to oil-cake, while the foliage is said to
be not inferior to that of clover and more bulky. Nevertheless some
lupines have proved poisonous to sheep. Lupin-seeds roasted have
occasionally been utilised as a substitute for Coffee. About 90 Ibs.
of seeds are required for an acre. Langethal observes : " What the
Sainfoin does for the poorest limestone or marly soil, that the Yellow
Lupine carries out for sand-land." Lupines are not adapted for wet
or moory ground, nor for limestone-formations, where most other
leguminous fodder-plants do well. Mr. Joseph Augustin speaks of
a yellow-flowering lupine, which sometimes in the Azores attains a
height of 12 feet in three months.
Lupinus varius, Linne.
The Blue Lupine. Also a Mediterranean annual, used like the
above species; but a few others are under cultivation as Blue Lupines.
Some of the American, particularly Californian species, are regarded
even as superior to the Mediterranean kinds for agrarian purposes.
Lycium Afrum, Linn6.
Africa and South- Western Asia. The " Caffir-Thorn." Can
with many other species be utilised as a hedge-bush. It is almost
evergreen, fiercely spiny, easily raised from seeds, readily trans-
planted, quick in growth, stands clipping well, seeds freely, is strong
enough to resist cattle and close enough to keep off fowls. Succeeds
famously even on coast-sands. A first-rate bee-plant [J. Bolton],
1 J Ib. of seeds at a cost of 30 shillings suffices for a mile of hedging
[Th. Lang]. Pasture-animals must be kept away from the foliage,
which is deleterious. L. Chinense (Miller) and some few other
congeners serve likewise hedge-purposes.
Lycium barbarum, Linn6.
Northern Africa and South- Western Asia. The most common
kind grown in Europe for hedges. Is content with poor soil.
294 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Lycium EuropsBum, Linne".
Countries around the Mediterranean Sea. " The Box-Thorn."
Hardy in Norway to lat. 67 56'. An excellent hedge-plant, par-
ticularly in sand-land, but emitting copious offshoots [C. BoucheJ.
An allied congener is L. flaccidum (Mcench).
Lycoperdon giganteum, Batsch.
Europe, Asia. When young this and many other kinds of puff-
balls can be converted into wholesome food. Dr. M. C. Cooke
records L. gemmatum, Batsch, among the edible Australian Fungs.
They have when ripe haemastatic properties, and are further par-
ticularly valuable for dressing the back-sores of horses ; even for
treating carcinomatous ulcers these particular fungs have proved
highly valuable.
Lycopodium dendroideum, Michaux.
Eastern North-America. This, with L. lucidulum, has become
there a great article of trade, being in request for bouquets and
wreaths ; both plants, after having been dyed of various colours, are
used as ornaments in vases [Meehan]. These club-mosses are
mentioned here, to draw attention to similar species in other
countries.
Lygeum Spartum, Linne.
Regions of the Mediterranean Sea. This perennial grass serves
'much like the ordinary Esparto-Grass, but is inferior to it.
Lyperia crocea, Ecklon.
South Africa. The flowers of this shrub produce a fine orange
dye, and are also in use for medicinal purposes.
Maba geminata, R. Brown.
One of the Ebony-trees in Queensland. Wood, according to M.
Thozet, black towards the centre, bright-red towards the bark, close-
grained, hard, heavy, elastic and tough. It takes a high polish, and
is recommended for veneers. Maba fasciculosa (F. v. M.) has the
outer wood white and pink. Several other species exist in Queens-
land, which may perhaps give good substitutes for Ebony-wood.
M. humilis (R. Brown) reaches in Eastern Australia extra-tropic
latitudes, and attains a height of 30 feet, with a stem-diameter of one
foot. The wood, according to Mrs. Biddulph, is very black.
Macadamia ternifolia, F. v. Mueller.
The Nut-tree of sub-tropical Eastern Australia, attaining a height
of 60 feet ; hardy as far south as Melbourne ; in forest-valleys pro-
bably of fair celerity of growth ; endures slight frost. In favorable
localities it bears fruit in seven years. The nuts have the taste of
hazels. Thrives well at 5,000 feet elevation in Java [Dr. Treub].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 295
Machilus odoratissima, Nees.
The " Soom-tree." From the Himalayas to Assam, Cochin-China,
Burmah, Java and Sumatra, ascending to the cool elevation of 8,000
feet. A tree of considerable size. The Muga- Silkworm feeds on the
foliage [Gamble]. The leaves are pervaded by an orange-scent
[Brandis].
Madura aurantiaca, Nuttall.*
The Osage-Orange, or North-American Bow- Wood, or Yellow
Wood. Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana. This thorny deciduous shrub
or tree can be well trained into hedges. It is unisexual, and will in
favorable localities on rich river-banks attain a height of 60 feet, with
a stem two or three feet thick, thus becoming available as a timber-
tree. It resists severe frosts. Rate of stem-growth in Nebraska
about one inch a year circumferentially [Furnas]. The saplings
furnish stakes for vines, which are very lasting. The elastic wood
serves well for bows, buggy-shafts, carriage-poles, and similar
articles. It is one of the most durable of all North- American woods,
also valuable for all purposes, where toughness and elasticity are
required [Dr. C. Mohr]. The plant is not readily subject to blight
or attacks of insects. It produces from the root a yellow dye. Mrs.
Timbrell, of Melbourne, at the suggestion of the author, has here
shown, that the foliage is as good a food for silkworms as that of the
white mulberry, and the silk produced in no way inferior to ordinary
silk. Leaves not too succulent are preferable. [Cf. also Riley, pub-
lications of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1877].
Maclura exoelsa, Planchon.
West-Africa, on mountains up to 3,000 feet elevation. Height of
tree often 150 feet. The wood is remarkably durable and tough,
beautifully dark-brown and streaked. Birds feed on the fruit.
Maclura Mora, Grisebach.
North-Argentina. A high tree. Wood greatly esteemed for its
density and toughness ; fruit edible [Dr. Lorentz].
Maclura tinctoria, D. Don.
Central and Southern America. This tree yields the Fustic-wood.
Cultivated in Jamaica up to 3,000 feet [W. Fawcett].
Magnolia hypoleuca, Siebold.
Japan. A stately tree, with very large and whorled leaves.
Trunk to a foot in diameter. Wood remarkably flexible ; used for
many kinds of utensils. Worthy of introduction as a magnificent
garden-object [Christy].
296 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Magnolia macrophylla, Michaux.
Eastern States of North- America. Although not cultivated for
any special purposes of the arts or of technics, yet this tree is
admitted into this list as one of the grandest of its kind, as well in
foliage as flowers. It attains a height of about 60 feet ; its leaves
are from 1 to 3^ feet long, while its flowers attain a diameter of
fully 1 foot. M. grandiflora, L., attains a height of 100 feet, and a
stem diameter of 3 feet on the Mississippi ; it bears the winter of
Philadelphia. Most deciduous Magnolias with M. Soulangeana
endure the severest winters of Lower Germany [H. Koehler]. M.
acuminata, L. and M. Fraseri, Walter, are also large trees. M.
acuminata is particularly adapted for street-planting, as it will live
in the smoky air of cities. The flowers of all exude much honey-
nectar for bees. They ought also to be valuable for perfumeries.
Maharanga Emodi, A. de Candolle. (Onosma Emodi, Wallich.)
Nepal. The root produces, like that of Alkanna tinctoria, a red
dye.
Malachra capitata, Linne".
Tropical America. A tall herb, annual, or of more than one year's
duration. Its fibre is obtainable to lengths of 9 feet ; it is of a silky
lustre, and equal in technical value to Jute [O'Connor] .
Mallotus Philippinensis, J. Mueller. (Rottlera tinctoria, Roxburgh.)
South-Asia, Western Polynesia, and East-Australia, in jungle-
country extending into New South Wales. A bush or tree, attaining,
according to Mr. P. O'Shanesy, a height of about 60 feet. Though not
of great importance, this plant should not be passed on this occasion,
inasmuch as the powdery substance, investing the seed-capsules,
constitutes the Kamala, which can be employed not only as an orange
or red dye, but also as an anthelmintic remedy. The Hindoo silk-
dyers produce the colour by boiling the Kamala with carbonate of
soda, and use it effectually even for silk goods.
Malva crispa, Linne.
Indigenous probably to South-Western Asia. A tall annual herb.
The curled leaves are used extensively in France for dressing
desserts, for which purpose the plant is especially grown [Vil-
morin].
Mammea Americana, Linne.
Tropical America. This tree is cultivated in Jamaica up to 3,000
feet [Fawcett]. Fruit large ; the pulp, except the most outer and
most inner, edible.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 297
Mangifera Indica, Linne.*
The Mango. South-Asia. An evergreen very shady tree, reach-
ing 70 feet in height. Can be made to bear its delicious fruit in
warm and humid forest-regions to sub-tropic zones. In the Hima-
layas its culture for fruit ascends to 3,500 feet just outside the
tropics. At Port Curtis, barely within the tropics, it bears copiously
[Edgar]. Mango-fruits are now already candied in Queensland
[Prof. Shelton], they are also made into jelly and marmalade. Mr.
W. Kelleway succeeded in fruiting the Mango even as far south as
the Richmond-River, the trees from seeds coining there into bearing
within five years. At Bangalore Mangoes up to the weight of 3 Ibs.
have been obtained. The Mango-tree is held sacred by the Hindus,
and is inextricably connected with many of their mythological
legends and folk-lore [Dr. G-. Watt]. Ceremonies are celebrated
annually.
Maoutia Puya, Weddell.
India, on mountains up to 4,000 feet. It is taller than Boehmeria
nivea, and furnishes a similar fibre, which however is not so easily
separated. This shrub belongs to a tribe of the Nettle-order not
possessing burning acridity. None of the true nettles, such as the
Girardinias, nor allied stinging plants, have been recommended in
this index, although an exquisite fibre is derived from some, as the
writer wishes to guard against the introduction of any burning species,
which might possiby become disseminated in a mischievous manner,
and then probably could not again be suppressed.
Manihot Aipi, PohL*
The Sweet Cassava. Tropical South- America, but traced as far
south as the Parana-River. The root is reddish and harmless ; it can
therefore be used as a culinary esculent, without any preparation
further than boiling, while its starch is also available for tapioca ; it
attains exceptionally a length of 2 feet. It is a somewhat woody
plant, several feet high, and too important to be left altogether
unnoticed on this occasion, although we have no evidence that it will
be productive in a temperate clime. Aipi has ligneous tough fibres,
stretching along the axis of the tubers, while generally the roots of
M. utilissima are free from this central woody substance. Both are
thriving as far south as Moreton-Bay.
Manihot Glazioui, J. Mueller.*
A native of the Ceara coast-district of Brazil, in latitude about 4,
possessing a climate arid for a considerable part of the year. This
tree is of a comparatively hardy character, and adapts itself readily
to the exigencies of culture [D. Morris] . Thrives well as far south
as Durban in Natal [J. M. Wood] and Moreton-Bay [Fred. Turner].
It produces the Ceara-Rubber. Its cultivation is not difficult, and
its growth remarkably rapid. It could only be grown in regions free
298 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
of frost. Mr. Holtze, at Port Darwin, had the first grand success
with this plant in Australia, seeds from Kew-G-ardens having been
placed by the author at his disposal ; his plants attained a height of
12 feet in little more than a year. Perhaps the plant must be re-
garded as strictly tropical, and as then not admissible within the
scope of this work. Still near Port Curtis, at the verge of the tropics,
it grows fast and matures seeds ; the trees there already are over
20 feet high [Edgar]. In Ceylon it thrives well up to 3,000 feet
elevation, content with poor dry soil [Dr. Trimen] . Easily reared
from seeds or propagated from cuttings ; the germinating is expe-
dited by filing the shell of the seeds and placing them in coir ; when'
sprouting they should be put into the soil with the germ downward.
In Ceylon the plant has grown as much as 20-30 feet in two years ;
the plants should be placed about 10 feet apart. It is best to wait
with tapping till the trees are five years old [Keir Leitch].
Manihot utilissima, Pohl.*
The Bitter Cassava or Tapioca-Plant. Eastern Brazil. Closely
allied to M. Aipi, producing varieties with roots of poisonous acridity
and with roots perfectly harmless. The tubers attain a length of
3 feet and a weight of 30 Ibs. Exceptionally 100 Ibs. of Cassava-
roots are obtained from a single stock. They can be converted into
bread or cakes, the volatile poison of the milky sap being removed
through pressing the grated root in first instance, the remaining
acridity being expelled by heat. The starch, heated in a moist state,
furnishes tapioca. Manihot is abundantly cultivated in many places,
thus at Caraccas, where the singularly uniform temperature through-
out the year is only 60 to 70 F. In Jamaica cultivated up to
4,000 feet [W. Fawcett]. Thrives well even in the vicissitudinous
clime of Central Australia. Both sorts of Cassava are also quite
suited for the sub-tropic country towards Port Curtis, where the
severest drought has very little effect on them, good tapioca being
made already in the district [Edgar]. Exceeds in productiveness
even the Sweet Potato. The roots can be left in the ground till
required, and they thus continue to grow. One-fourth of this
substance is starch, which is one of the best for cookery. It is a
very exhausting crop, and thus stands in peed of rich soil and copious
manuring. The propagation is effected by cuttings from the ligneous
part of the stem. The soil, destined for Cassava, must not be wet.
In warm countries the tubers are available in about eight months,
though they still continue to grow afterwards. The growth of the
plant upward is checked by breaking off the tops. The Bitter
Cassava is the more productive of the two. The yellowish tubers
do not become soft by boiling, like Aipi.
Maranta arundinacea, Linn6.
The True Arroroot-Plant, or more correctly " Aru-root," inasmuch
as Aru-Aru is the Brazilian word for flour, according to Martius.
West-Indies, Florida, Mexico to Brazil. The plant is introduced
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 299
into this list not without hesitation, as it seems to require a tropical
clime to attain perfection. The annual mean temperature of 65 F.
suffices for this plant [Morris]. It is cultivated up to 3,000 feet in
Jamaica according to Mr. Fawcett. It furnishes most of the West-
Indian arrowroot-starch, although other species, such as M. nobilis,
M. Allouya and M. ramosissima, are also cultivated for a similar
starch contained in their tubers. Dr. Porcher observes, that it still
flourishes as far north as Florida, producing even in the pine-lands
from 200 to 300 bushels of tubers to the acre. General Sir John
Lefroy found in Bermuda 100 Ibs. of the root to yield 15 to 20 Ibs.
starch. M. Indica (Tussac) is merely a variety.
Marliera glomerata, Bentham. (Rubachia glomerata, Berg.)
The " Cambuca " of sub-tropical Brazil. The fruits attain the size
of apricots, and are locally much used for food, [Dr. Rosen thai],
Marliera tomentosa, Cambessedes.
Extra-tropical Brazil. The " Guaparanga." The sweet berries
of this tall shrub are of the size of cherries.
Marrubium vulgare, L'Ecluse.
Middle and South-Europe, Northern Africa, Western Asia. The
" Horehound." This tall perennial odorous herb, though in many
countries quite a weed, is here also enumerated for completeness 7
sake. Its naturalisation can nowhere be unwelcome, as it does not
unduly spread, as it has important medicinal properties much de-
pendent on the crystalline Marrubin, and as the flowers through much
of the season afford to bees nectar for a pale excellent honey. The
plant accommodates itself readily to any forlorn waste land. M.
Alyssum (Linne), M. apulum (Tenore) and M. Pannoncium (1'Ecluse)
are also apiarian plants [D. Savastano].
Matricaria Chamomilla, Linne.
The annual " Chamomile." Europe, Northern and Middle Asia.
A highly useful herb in medicine. In many parts of the European
continent it is much more extensively employed than the ordinary
perennial Chamomile. The infusion of the flowers has rather a
pleasant taste without bitterness. The flowers serve as a tonic, and
especially as a sudorific, and possess a peculiar volatile oil. In
Norway this plant is grown as far north as lat 70 22' [Schuebeler].
In Portugal planted under fruit-trees for insecticidal purposes.
In California M. discoidea (De Candolle) seems to serve similarly
medicinal purposes ; it has quite the pleasant strong scent of M.
Chamomilla.
Matricaria glabrata, De Candolle.
The South-African Chamomile. This annual herb is there in
renown as an excellent substitute for the European Chamomile [Dr.
Pappe]. Several congeners exist there.
300 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Mauritia flexuosa, Linne".
From Guiana to Peru and Brazil. This noble Palm is known to
ascend up to 4,000 feet along the Essequibo. As Palms, like Bam-
boos, prove to be among the hardier of tropical plants, experiments
for naturalising M. vinifera (Martius) might also be instituted. This
attains a height of about 150 feet, has leaves sometimes 15 feet in
length, and yields from the incised stem a copious sap, which forms
a kind of wine by fermentation.
Maytenus Boaria, Molina. (Boaria Molince, De Candolle ; Mayttnu
Chilensis, De Candolle.)
Chili. An evergreen tree, assuming considerable dimensions in
the southern provinces. Wood extremely hard. Cattle and sheep
browse with predilection on the^ foliage hence the trees are cut
down, when grasses become scarce through protracted snowfalls or in
times of drought [Dr. Philippi].
Medicago arborea, Linne.
South-Europe, particularly Greece. " Tree-Lucerne." This
shrubby yellow Lucerne is of value for dairy-farmers, as it much
promotes in cows the yield of milk. Also a superior bee-plant. This
seems to have been the most favoured fodder-plant used by the ancient
Greeks and Romans [FraasJ. It was their Cytisus, alluded to by
Theophrastos, Dioscorides, Plinius, Virgilius, Cato. This genus
includes several other species valued as pasture-plants, besides the
present and those noted below.
Medicago falcata, Linne.
Europe, Western Asia. A spurious Lucerne, hardy, thriving even
on dry ridges and poor soil, but preferring calcareous ground.
Medicago glutinosa, Bieberstein.
Armenia and Caucasus, up to 7,500 feet. One of the species with
pods not prickly. Allied to M. falcata.
Medicago lupulina, Linne.
The Black Medick. Europe, North- Africa and temperate Asia.
An annual or biennial pasture-herb, easily grown, and not without
nutritive importance, though not bulky. Laugethal observes : " It
effects for argillaceous soils what the White Clover does for sandy
moist soils. It will even succeed in moory ground, provided such
contains some lime. It suits also particularly for sheep-pastures."
It will thrive where, on account of poor soil, lucerne and clover fail.
In rich land its product is very copious. In Norway it will grow to
lat. 63 26'. Though of short individual duration, it maintains its
ground by easy dissemination.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries 301
Medicago media, Persoon.
The Sand-Lucerne. This species reaches indigenously more
northern latitudes than M. sativa, to which it deserves preference on
sandy soil, but also requires some lime in it. The flowers turn from
pale-yellow to green and dark -violet. M. media of some authors is
M. sativa variety, of other authors the same as M. falcata.
MedicagO rugosa, Desrousseaux.
Eastern countries at the Mediterranean Sea. Smaller than M.
orbicularis, but also valuable as an easily naturalised annual, harm
less in having the fruit not prickly.
Medicago sativa, Morison.*
The Lucerne, Purple Medick or Alfalfa. Orient and temperate
Western Asia, now spread through Middle and Southern Europe,
North- Africa and Middle Asia. The Romans brought it 470 years
before the Christian era from Media, hence the generic name [A. de
Candolle]. Mentioned already by Theophrastos and Dioscorides. A
perennial fodder-herb of great importance, and largely utilised in
most countries with a temperate clime ; perhaps descended from the
European and North-Asiatic Medicago falcata (Linne), the Yellow
Medick, which also deserves naturalisation, especially on light or
sandy calcareous soil ; but that plant is less productive than the true
Lucerne, and does not resist occasional slight inundations so well,
enduring however a rougher climate. Lucerne keeps green and
fresh in the hottest season of the year, even in dry and comparatively
barren ground and on coast-sands, but develops itself for field-culture
with the greatest vigor on river-banks or when subjected to a judi-
cious system of irrigation, particularly in soil rich in lime. Its deeply
penetrating roots render the plant particularly fit for fixing embank-
ments or hindering the washing away of soil subject to occasional
inundations. Bonnet records a root 66 feet long. The greatest yield
is from the second to the sixth year. One of the most valuable of
green fodders, but less suited for hay, as the leaves so readily drop
off [Dr. Stebler]. Will succeed also in warm climes. The Royal
Commission for Water-Supply in New South Wales has ascertained
that ten acres of Lucerne, raised by irrigation for ensilage, would
provide for the herd of 2,000 acres pasture-land during a season of
drought. The Peruvian variety (Alfalfa) resists drought and frost
better than the original European Lucerne. Dr. Curl, of New Zea-
land, allows cattle to feed upon Alfalfa for two weeks, then takes
them off and puts sheep on for two weeks, to eat the Alfalfa close to
the ground ; he then removes them and permits the Alfalfa to grow
for a month, when he repeats the process. He allows five large
cattle or twenty sheep to the acre. Lucerne is also an important
honey-plant for bees, but the quality of the honey varies according to
the season. Much iron in the soil or stagnant water is detrimental
to lucerne-culture, while friable warm soil much promotes its growth.
302
Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Langethal records instances of Lucerne having yielded on the same
field under favorable circumstances for fifteen years four or five cuts
annually. The chemical analysis of the fresh herb, collected very
early in spring, gave the following results : Starch 1-5, gum 2*1,
unfermentable sugar 3, albumen 2'3, insoluble proteins 2'3, ash 2*3
per cent. [F. v. Mueller and L. Rummel]. To show how enormously
plants are affected in their mineral constituents by difference of soil,
Lace has analyzed the ashes of Lucerne (a) from granitic soil, (6)
chalky soil with flints, (c) clayey with chalk, (d) very chalky, and
found
a
b
c
d
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent
Per cent.
Silicic acid ...
99
41
47
58
Ferric oxide
76
1-05
29
60
Magnesium carbonate
9-89
7-15
10-11
9-05
Calcium sulphate
4-50
3-04
7-51
6-80
phosphate .
14*94
8-11
10-66
19-71
carbonate .
13-42
48-15
49-68
30-19
Potassium carbonate
48'42
29-19
20-60
26-09
and sodium chlorides
6-67
2-90
68
6-98
Medicago scutellata, J. Bauhin.*
Countries at and near the Mediterranean Sea, where this annual
herb, as well as the allied M. orbicularis (Allioni), is regarded as a
valuable fodder-plant [Camel], without the disadvantage of their
fruits adhering to fleeces like those of prickly-fruited congeners.
For this particular reason the author introduced these two plants
into Australia, where in the dry hot inland-regions they have sur-
passed most other fodder-herbs in value and resistance to drought,
and wherever these get naturalised, they become a great boon to
pasture-lands : in the moist season they afford herbage ; in the dry
season sheep and other pasture-animals will resort to the copiously
shed fruits scattered on the ground. A plant of M. scutellata culti-
vated at Port Phillip bore 370 fruits, of which 312 ripened with from
4. to 5 seeds in each, therefore about 1,400 seeds fit to germinate.
Mrs. Biddulph, of Mount Playfair, in Central Queensland, counted
390 pods on a plant of M. orbicularis. They ought to be strewn
along railway-enclosures to secure a plentiful supply of acclimatised
seeds. Both will also bear some frost, and are rurally known as kinds
of " Snail-Clovers/' What in California was so highly spoken of
under the name of M. turbinata proved here to be M. scutellata.
Melaleuca ericifolia, Smith.*
South-Eastern Australia. A tall shrub or bushy tree. It spreads
to a length of 3 feet, sometimes rising to 40 feet. It is of importance
for consolidating muddy shores ; it will live in salty ground and water,
almost like mangroves. I found it growing vigorously, where the
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 303
water contained rather more than 2 per cent, chlorides, and the wet
soil contained nearly 1 J per cent, chlorides (the contents of sea-water
being from 3 to 4 per cent, chlorides, or about 2^ per cent, chloride
of natrium). It yields also a comparatively large quantity of cajaput-
oil. It admits of easy transplantation, even when full-grown.
Myoporum insulare (R. Brown) and Leptospermum lanigerum (Aiton)
can in like manner be used in tree-plantations for the sake of shelter
on wet saline soil. The branches of M. ericifolia furnish the best
native material in South-Eastern Australia for easily worked and
lasting garlands. This species can be grown in swamps for hygienic
purposes by subduing paludal malaria or fever-provoking effluvia.
Growth to 26 feet height in nine years. The wood is tough and
useful for turnery [C. Walter],
Melaleuca genistifolia, Smith.
Northern and Eastern Australia. A tree, attaining 40 feet in
height, flowering in a shrubby state already, fond of banks of water-
courses. The copious flowers, according to Mr. C. French, attract
bees to an extraordinary degree. Bark capable of being separated
into membraneous layers.
Melaleuca Leucadendron, Linne.
The Cajaput-tree of India, North- and East- Australia as far extra-
tropical as 34 south latitude. Perhaps amenable to gradual accli-
matation in the cooler regions of Australia ; it will bear slight frost.
This tree attains a height of about 80 feet, with a stem reaching 4
feet in diameter, on tidal ground ; it can with great advantage be
utilised on such intra-tropic areas and in salt-swamps for subduing
malarian vapours, where no Eucalyptus will live. The lamellar bark
protects it against conflagrations. It is splendid for fruit-packing ;
oranges kept 4 months in it, lemons 5 months, apples 3 months.
The wood is fissile, hard and close-grained, regarded as almost im-
perishable underground, and resists the attacks of termites. It is
well adapted for posts, wharf -piles, ship-building and various artisans'
work. The foliage yields the well-known Cajaput-oil, so closely akin
to Eucalyptus-oil. Mr. K. Staiger obtained on distilling the leaves
as much as 2 per cent, of oil, which might be manufactured on a
large scale from ample material in many parts of Australia. It is
rich in Cineol. The tree should be extensively planted where yellow
fever occurs. The allied Callistemons (C. salignus, D.C., 60 feet
high, C. lanceolatus, D.C., 40 feet) produce a hard, heavy, close-
grained wood, suitable for wheelwrights' work and implements, prov-
ing very durable underground [W. Hill].
Melaleuca linarifolia, Smith.
Eastern Australia. A tree, attaining finally a considerable height,
deserving attention as eligible for wet saline land, on which it can
be raised much more easily than Myoporum insulare. M. Thozet
304 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
observes, that it occurs in places, where it is bathed by the tides ; also*
that large saplings without roots can be transplanted. Thus it may
be destined to aid, with several of its congeners and with Salicornias,
Avicennias, .ZEgiceras, Batis, Suaedas and some other plants, to
reclaim low muddy shore-lands from sea-floods. Foliage extremely
rich in volatile antiseptic oil. M. squarrosa (Smith) of South-Eastern
Australia, can be grown in fresh-water swamps, also to subdue
miasmata. It attains exceptionally the height of 60 feet, with a stem
two feet in diameter. The wood is close-grained, but requires careful
seasoning.
Melaleuca parviflora, Lindley.
Extra-tropical Australia. A tall bush or small tree. In mild
climes one of the most important plants for fixing moving coast-
sands. The wood is heavy and very durable.
Melaleuca styphelioides, Smith.
East- Australia. Height of tree reaching about 60 feet ; stem-
diameter 2^ feet. The timber is hard, close-grained, and stands well
in damp situations. It is said, that the timber has never been known
to decay [Queensland Exhibition, 1878]. Tree adapted for swamps.
The bark of this as well as of M. squarrosa and Callistemon salignus
can be used for packing fruit. This bark resists decay for a long
time even when lying on the ground.
Melanogaster variegatus, Tulasne.
The spurious Red Truffle of Bath. Various parts of Europe.
Six species of excellent taste are pointed out by Rudolph Hesse in
his special work on Truffles. [See Wittmak's "Garten Flora," 1892,
pp. 377-380.] An expert Truffle-hunter can dispense with trained
dogs and pigs, and relies for implements on a small hoe. Light rises
or small fissures in the soil may indicate Truffle-places.
Melanorrhcea usitata, Wallich.
The Varnish-tree of Burmah, Munnipore and Tenasserim.
Possibly hardy in forest- valleys free of frost, as it ascends to 3,000
feet elevation. The hardened sap is used for a highly prized black
varnish.
Melia Azadirachta, Linne. (Azadirachta Indica, Jussieu.)
From Persia to China, ascending the Himalayas to 5,000 feet.
The " JSTeem-tree " attains a height of 50 feet, much planted on
promenades. Grew in Natal 20 feet in 5 years [J. M. Wood]. The
powerful medicinal properties not unlike those of M. Azedarach.
Furniture from its wood not attacked by insects. Leaves simply
pinnate, the fresh ones issuing before the older drop.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 305
Melia Azedarach, Linne. (M. composita, Willdenow.)
Called " The Pride of India." South-Asia, North- and also East-
Australia, and there to far extra-tropical latitudes, ascending the
Himalayas to 6,000 feet. Height seldom over 40 feet ; branches
very spreading. The variety umbraculiformis is particularly shady.
As an avenue-tree not without importance, because it will success-
fully cope with dryness of clime and sterility of soil. It will grow,
while young, at the rate of 12 feet a year, if regularly watered,
against 6 feet of growth of Grevillea robusta and Schinus Molle, and
against only 2 feet of Brachychiton populneus [F. M. Mackey]. It
recommends itself also for retaining the foliage till very late in the
season without shrivelling, and for producing early an abundance of
very fragrant spring-flowers, which may perhaps be worth distilling
for essential oil. Grows from cuttings as well as seeds, the latter
abundantly maturing. All parts of the plant are bitter ; the bark
with caution can be used as a purgative and anthelmintic ; the leaves
prove insecticidal [Hieronymus]. The wood is comparatively soft,
light and considered of value for cabinet-work, also some kinds of
musical instruments. Used also for yokes [Sim]. A black-fruited
Melia seems as yet little known. Casimir De Candolle distinguishes
twelve species, their range being from India to Japan and Polynesia.
Melianthus major, Linne.
South- Africa. The leaves of this stately plant are very efficacious
as antiseptics, also in cases of scald-head, ringworm and various other
cutaneous diseases [Dr. Pappe]. Their effect of promoting granulation
is very remarkable [Dr. A. Brown]. Flowers rich in honey, as
indicated by the generic name. Will bear some frost.
Melica altissima, Linne.
Eastern Europe, Middle Asia. This perennial grass has recently
come into use for pasture.
Melica ciliata, Linne.
Europe and Middle Asia. A perennial fodder-grass, particularly
desirable for sheep. Best for dry gypsum- or lime-ground.
Melica nutans, Linne.
The Pearl-Grass. Europe, Northern and Middle Asia, enduring
an alpine exposure and living also in the shade of forests. It will
bear the clime of Norway to lat. 70 28' [Schuebeler]. It produces
suckers, and affords good foliage in woody regions ; so also does
M. uninora (Retzius). Several other species are on record from
various parts of the globe, among which M. mutica (Walter), of
North-America, seems to deserve special attention.
306 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Melica sarmentosa, Nees.
Brazil and La Plata-States. A tall grass, climbing to a height of
12 feet in forests and on river-banks. Professor Hieronymus speaks
of M. aurantiaca (Desrousseaux), M. laxiflora (Cavanilles), M.
macra (Nees), M. papilionacea (Linne), M. rigida and M. violacea
(Cavanilles) as perennial pampas-grasses, which though hard, are
nutritious, and particularly sought by asses and mules.
Melicocca bijuga, Linne.
The Jenip. Central America, on mountains. Cultivated in
Jamaica up to about 3,000 feet [W. Fawcett]. So many sapinda-
ceous trees of the Cupania-series have been shown by my own
experiments to be hardy in a climate like that of Victoria, that this
important member of the series could now also be admitted into this
list. The pulp of the fruit is of a grape-taste ; the seeds can be
used like sweet chestnuts.
Melilotus albus, Desrousseaux.
The Cabul- or Bokhara-clover. Europe, North- Africa, Middle
Asia. Indigenous in Norway to lat. 50 16' [Schuebeler], A
biennial herb. On account of its fragrance it is of some value as
admixture to hay. Pigs devour this herb with avidity [Vasey], so
also to some extent sheep and cattle, whose meat may however
become flavored by it. It is also a good bee-plant, the white flowers
lasting till late in the season. The foliage in a powdered state might
be added to snuff to impart the generally desired cumarin-odor.
Mr. C. A. Atkin uses as particularly retentive M. parviflorus with
the leaves of the Musk-tree (Aster argophyllus) as part of the in-
gredients for his scented paper. This latter species is more easily
naturalised than any other. Odorous principle : cumarin. The
species of Melilotus are regarded by Mr. W. Farrer as among the
best for green manuring.
Melilotus altissimus, Thuillier. (M. officinalis, Desrousseaux.)
Europe and Middle Asia. In Norway hardy to lat. 70 17'.
Biennial or lasting through several years, if prevented from flowering.
Contains also Cumarin. Allied species are M. macrorrhizus (Persoon)
and M. parviflorus (Desrousseaux). All serve purposes similar to
those for which M. albus is employed. Grown on the coast it
becomes less odorous. Honey from this and closely allied plants
exquisite. Imparts its scent to milk and butter disadvantageously.
Melilotus CSeruleus, Rivinus. (Trigonella ccerulea, Seringe.)
South-Europe and North-Africa. Cultivated in Norway to lat.
70 22. An annual, very odorous fodder-herb. It forms an in-
gredient of the green Swiss cheese, which owes its flavor and colour
chiefly to this plant.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 307
Melilotus dentatus, Persoon.
Middle and Southern Europe and Asia. A biennial herb, fit also
for somewhat saline ground and superior to its congeners as a pasture-
herb in being less odorous [Vilbouchevitch].
Melissa officinalis, Linne.
The Balm-Herb, Southern Europe and Western Asia. A
perennial herb, valuable for its scent, which depends on a peculiar
volatile oil. This herb is also important as a bee-plant. Readily
propagated by division of the root. Cultivated in Norway to lat.
63 26'.
Melocalamus compactiflorus, Bentham.
Martaban, ascending to 6,000 feet. This Bamboo attains a height
of 25 feet, and is somewhat scandent.
Melocanna bambusoides, Trinius.
The Berry-bearing Bamboo, from Chittagong and other moun-
tainous parts of India, as well as of the Archipelagus. Height to
70 feet [Kurz]. The fruit is of the size of a small pear, fleshy, and
contains a seed, which is said to be very pleasant eating [Masters],
It is a thornless Bamboo, growing on dry slopes of hills. Circum-
ference towards base 1 foot ; growth beautifully erect.
Mentha aquatica, Linne.
Europe, Northern Asia. A perennial herb. To a variety of this
species belongs M. citrata (Ehrhart), the lemon-scented Minth. The
spelling should not be Mint, because Hippocrates and Theophrastos
and so also subsequent Greek authors wrote the name so as to require
it to be written Minth.
Mentha arvensis, Linne.
Europe, extra-tropical Asia; indigenous in Norway to lat. 64 48'.
The variety piperascens of this perennial herb constitutes the peculiar
Japan-Peppermint. From the distilled oil of this by refrigeration
the crystalline menthol is obtained in unusually large proportion for
medicinal purposes [E. Holmes]. The plant is said to have been
used in Japan at least 2,000 years [Christy]. Mints of various kinds
could probably be reared with advantage also as antimalarian.
Mentha laxiflora, Bentham.
Victoria and the most Southern parts of New South Wales. This,
the Australian " Forest-Mint," furnishes a peculiarly pleasant oil, not
dissimilar to that of peppermint. A fair oil can also be distilled
from M. Australia (R. Brown), the common " River-Mini; " of South-
Eastern Australia.
X 2
308 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Mentha longifolia, Hudson ( M. . silvestris, Linne. )
The " Horse-Mint." Europe, Northern Africa, temperate Asia,
Perennial. One of the Crisp Mints is derived from this species.
Hardy, like the three preceding species, to lat. 59 55' in Norway
[Schuebeler],
Mentha piperita, Linne.*
The " Peppermint." Middle-Europe. This well-known perennial
herb is important for its peculiar essential oil. This distilled oil
is in considerable demand, and would be best obtained from plants
cultivated in mountain-regions or naturalised along forest-rivulets.
The annual production of oil of peppermint is estimated at 90,000
Ibs., two-thirds of which are prepared in the state of New York
[Masters]. Eminent authorities refer the Peppermint as a variety
to Mentha aquatica, L., the Water-Mint of Europe, North- America,
West- and North-Asia ; from which the true Crisp Mint (M. crispa,
Linne) is again derived, as well as the Bergamot-Miut (M. citrata,
Ehrhart). Mr. Slater's experience for years at Port Phillip has
been, that from a ton of the cut herb 5 to 7 Ibs. of oil can be dis-
tilled, worth about 35s. a Ib. ; he obtained about 3 tons of cut herb
from an acre. Peppermint-lozenges are particularly recommendable
to attendants in sick-rooms. The writing " Minth " or " Menth " is
preferable, the former in accordance with Hippocrates and Theo-
phrastos, the latter according to Plinius' writing for M. piperita.
Mentha Pulegium, Linne.
The true " Penny-royal." Europe, Western Asia, Northern Africa.
A perennial scent-herb, yielding a peculiar ethereal oil. Medicinally'
a powerful stimulant. Can even to some extent be utilised as an
insecticide. It likes moist soil. To be avoided for naturalisation on
pastures, as not readily repressed, and therefore admitted with some
hesitation. It serves as an insecticide.
Mentha rotundifolia, Hudson.
Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa, Western Asia,
Fond of wet places, which by the culture of this and other mints
may be profitably utilised. In odor this mint approaches to Melissa.
The French and Italian Crisp Mint is partly derived from this
species. Closely allied to the following, and often regarded as a
variety of M. viridis. The Crisp Mint of Greece is M. tomentosa
(D'Urville).
Mentha viridis, Linne.
The " Spearmint." Middle and Southern Europe. Perennial.
A particular sort of Crisp Mint (M. crispata, Schrader) belongs to
this species. Readily propagated like other mints by division of
the root. M. viridis is used for mint sauce.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 309
Menyanthes trifoliata Linne.
Innappropriately called the Bog-bean or Buck-bean. Europe,
Northern and Middle Asia, North- America. In springy and spongy
bogs. A perennial herb of great beauty, which could be naturalised
with facility in any cold regions. Indigenous as far north as lat. 71
10' in Norway [Prof. Schuebeler]. The root is starchy. The
whole plant is pervaded by a bitter principle, largely derived from
menyanthin. The plant is used medicinally as a tonic and febrifuge.
Meriandra Abyssinica, F. v. Mueller. (M. JSenghalensis, Bentham.)
Abyssinia, on high mountains. A shrub of penetrating odor;
utilised much like sage.
Mesembrianthemum sequilaterale, Haworth.
Australia and West-coast of America. This widely creeping
species spreads readily over saline ground, whether clayey, sandy
or rocky. Mr. J. Clode observes, that sheep are very fond of this
succulent plant, and require but little water when browsing on it ; or
in cool coast-districts they will do without any water even in summer,
while thriving well on the foliage. In the "Elder" Exploring
Expedition, led by Mr. D. Lindsay, through the great South- West
desert of Australia during a 34 days' waterless stage this plant proved
of signal benefit to the dromedaries. Fruit with a sweetish edible
pulp. This species with M. Australe (Haworth) forms on the Aus-
tralian coasts one of the most effectual first impediments to the
influx of sea-sand; both should be encouraged in their growth at
the very edge of the tide. Not less hardy than M. edule.
Mesembrianthemum Barklyi, N. Brown.
Namaqua-land. About 2 feet high, but also widely creeping.
Leaves large, replete with aqueous sap, so much so, as to allay,
when consumed by pasture-animals, their thirst [Sir Henry Barkly].
Mesembrianthemum capitatum, Haworth.
South-Africa. This perennial species, from the readiness and
quickness of its growth, and from the abundance of its seeds and
their easy dispersion, is one of the best for staying any rolling sea-
sand [Dickinson]. M. pugioniforme (Linne) and many other species
serve the same purpose.
Mesembrianthemum crystallinum, Linne.
The Ice-plant. Countries at the Mediterranean Sea and South-
Africa. Annual. Recently recommended as a spinach -plant. Can
be grown on bare sand, which it helps to cover. Eaten by sheep.
In Norway it will succeed northward to lat. 69 18'.
310 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Mesembrianthemum edule, Linne.*
The "Hottentot-fig" of South-Africa. Under the same ver-
nacular name is also comprised the distinct M. acinaciforme (Linne)
which however, as regards fruit is far inferior. Should be trans-
ferred to any of the most inhospitable desert-regions, as it affords in
the inner part of its fruit a really palatable and copious food.
Extensive naturalisation of this and other adequate plants on rocks
and bare soil would reduce the climatic temperature in hot and dry
tracts of Arabia and other countries, irrespective of affording fodder.
Recommendable for " Dead Valley " in Eastern California. It proved
hardy in Southern England.
Mesembrianthemum floribundum, Haworth.
South-Africa. This succulent perennial with many allied species
from the same part of the globe is a far more important plant than
might be assumed, because " a good stretch of this is worth as
much as a dam [Professor MacOwan]." Succulent plants like these
would live in sandy deserts, where storage of water may be
impracticable.
Metrosideros tomentosa, Cunningham.
Northern Island of New Zealand. Could be grown for timber
on rocky sea-shores. Height reaching about 80 feet ; trunk stout,
but comparatively short. The timber, according to Professor Kirk
deserves attention, as one of the most durable for the frame- work
in ship-building, for jetties, docks, sills. Other species with dense
wood, occurring in New Zealand, are M. lucida (Menzies) and M.
robusta (Cunn.), both ornamental trees with crimson flowers, called
Ratas by the Maories.
Metrosideros polymorpha, Gaudichaud.
Hawaian Islands to 6,000 feet altitude, Society- and Fiji-Islands,
Howe's Island. In Hawaia the most widely distributed tree. A
large tree, furnishing a hard, tough and very durable timber [Dr.
Hillebrand].
Michelia excelsa, Blume.
In the Himalayas and other Indian mountains, up to 8,000 feet.
It grows to a large size, supplying boards to 3 feet in width, and
is one of the best timber-trees there. Foliage deciduous ; flowers
large, white ; wood yellowish. M. lanuginosa (Wallich) ascends
there also to temperate regions with M. Kisopa (Hamilton), M.
Cathcartii (Hooker and Thomson), M. Champaca (Linne), M.
Punduana (H. & Th.) and M. Nilagirica (Zenker), all being tall
trees.
Micromeria Douglasii, Bentham.
The " Yerba Buena." Western North-America. A perennial
herb of medicinal, particularly anthelminthic, properties.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 311
Microseris Porsteri, J. Hooker.
The Native Scorzonera of extra-tropical Australia and New
Zealand. A perennial herb, deserving attention, as its root would
probably enlarge and improve through culture. On alpine mountains
the plant develops most luxuriantly during summer. The Australian
aborigines use the root for food. The plant would prove hardy in
Middle Europe. In West-America about 20 species exist.
Milium effusum, Linne.
English Millet-grass. Europe, North- and Middle-Asia, North-
America. Perennial, suited for damp forest-land particularly, the
pastoral capabilities of which it enhances. On river-banks it
attains a height of 6 feet. It is relished by cattle. The seeds can
be used like millet, the stems for the manufacture of superior
straw-hats. It is a great favorite with pheasants and many other
birds for the sake of its seeds, which ripen early in the season.
Indigenous in Norway as far north as lat. 71 7' [Schuebeler],
Nutritious hay to the extent of 3 tons on an acre obtainable from
this grass [Coleman].
Mimosa rubicaulis, Lamarck.
All India, extending to Afghanistan, ascending to 5,000 feet. A
hedge-bush, almost inapproachable, growing finally to tree-height.
It has proved hardy at Melbourne, enduring some frost.
Mimusops Caffra, E. Meyer.
Red Milkwood. South-Africa. A small tree on coast-dunes,
larger in inland forests. Wood hard, red, durable and much used in
waggon-work and farm-carpentry. M. obovata (Sonder) serves for
similar purposes [T. R. Sim].
Mimusops globosa, Gaertner.
Central America. Tree, reaching a height of about 120 feet,
perhaps fit like many other Sapotacese for frostless extra-tropic
regions. The milky juice from cuts into the stem when exsiccated
forms the Balata of commerce, a substance in its qualities allied both
to Gutta-percha and India-rubber [Jenman]. Wood very dense and
also elastic.
Mimusops Sieberi, A. de Candolle.
West-Indies and Florida. Tree reaching 30 feet in height.
Fruit of agreeable taste [Sargent].
Monarda didyma, Linne.
Eastern North- America. Hardy to lat. 59 55' in Norway. A
perennial odorous herb, producing the medicinal Oswego- or
Beebalm-Tea. M. fistulosa, L., and several others are also of very
strong scent.*' Their volatile oil contains thymol.
312 , Select Plants for Industrial (Julture and
Monarda punctata, Linne.
Eastern North- America, where it is called "Native Horse-mint."
Bees extract an astonishing quantity of honey from this plant.
M. citriodora (Cervantes) is an allied lemon-scented species,
extending from the South-Western States to Mexico.
Monodora Angolensis, Welwitsch.
Tropical West-Africa, up to the comparatively cool elevation of
3,500 feet. A tree attaining 30 feet in height. The pleasantly
aromatic seeds come into the market, like those of the following
species ; they measure about half-an-inch in diameter and are pro-
duced in good numbers.
Monodora Myristica, Dunal.
The Calabash-Nutmeg. West-Africa, within the tropics, ascend-
ing to 2,500 feet. A tree attaining as a maximum 60 feet in height
[Dr. Welwitsch]. Leaves occasionally 2 feet long and 8 inches
broad ; foliage thus grand. Hardy at Port Jackson, according to
Mr. Ch. Moore. The seeds serve as nutmegs.
MoilSOnia OVata, Cavanilles.
South- Africa. To this perennial herb or somewhat shrubby plant
anti-dysenteric and even anti-ophidian properties are attributed
[MacOwan ; A. Fischer].
Montia fontana, Linne.
In many of the cooler regions of the world. A very small annual
herb. Consumed in Thuringia and in the adjoining countries much
as salad [Prof. Noerdlinger]. Easily naturalised on springy
ground.
Monstera deliciosa, Liebmann.
Mexico and Guatemala, in the mountainous region. One of the
grandest of ardid plants, climbing to a height of 12 feet or
occasionally more ; leaf-stalks often 3 feet long. The fruit is
edible, and of a luscious ananas-flavor [Dr. Masters]. In Australia
it ripens as far south as Port Jackson, in Europe as for north as Nice.
The plant is important also for scenic culture. Succeeds as far
south as Durban in Natal [J. M. Wood].
Morchella conica, Persoon.
Europe, Asia, Northern and Central America, northward to lat.
70 in Norway. With M. semilibera this Morel has been found in
Victoria and New South Wales ; its spread should be encouraged
by artificial means, as it is a wholesome esculent when cooked.
Kohlrausch and Siegel found 29 to 35 per cent, of protein in Morels
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 313
when dried. European superior species, probably admitting of
introduction, are: M. esculenta, M. Gigas, Pers., M.'rimosipes, D.C.,
M. Bohemica, Krombh., M. deliciosa, Fries (which extends to Java),
M. Patula, Pers. and M. Smithiana, the Bell-Morel ; but several
others occur in other parts of the globe. Though these fungs show
a predilection for pine-forests, they are not dependent upon them ;
thus the writer found M. conica (Persoon) in Eucalyptus-forests, and
this late in the autumn. Dr. M. C. Cooke records as edible Victorian
species : M. esculenta, Linne, M. conica, Pers., M. deliciosa, Fries,
M. semilibera, De Candolle. M. esculenta is an early spring-species.
M. Smithiana is over a foot high. They can all be dried and preserved
for culinary purposes. Morels contain some poison-principle, called
Helvella-acid, which needs removal by boiling them in water ; this
acid is volatile or readily decomposed, so that dried Morels are
nearly free of it [Boehm and Kuelz].
Moringa pterygosperma, Gaertner.
The Horseradish-Tree of India, abundant as far as the middle
regions of the mountains. Height to about 20 feet, but thick-
stemmed. Fruits in Eastern sub-tropic Australia copiously. The
plant is reared readily. The long pods are of culinary use ; the
seeds are somewhat almond-like and rich in oil, which has no per-
ceptible smell, and is esteemed by watchmakers particularly. Gum
exudes from the stem. M. aptera (Gaertner) occurs from Abyssinia
and from Egypt to Arabia and Syria. M. Concanensis (Nimmo) is an
allied species from the drier regions of North- Western India.
Morns alba, Linne.*
The White Mulberry-tree. Upper India and Western China.
This tree in several varieties provides the food for the ordinary
Chinese silk-insect (Bombyx Mori). Silk was produced in Italy
700 years ago, and this branch of industry has nourished there ever
since. In China silk has been reeled for 4,500 years ; this may
demonstrate the permanency of an industry, which we wish to
establish extensively anywhere under a similar sky. "One pound
of silk is worth its weight in silver, and this pound may be pro-
duced (so far as the food of the Bombyx is concerned) from thirty
pounds of mulberry-leaves or from a single tree, which may thus
be brought to yield annually the material for 16 yards of Gros de
Naples" [R. Thompson]. The White Mulberry-tree is of extremely
easy growth from cuttings, also readily raised from well-matured
seeds. Will live even on somewhat saline soil [Th. Kessal]. It is
usually unisexual, and finally attains a very large size. It can
still be grown in climes, where olives will no longer thrive. In
Norway the tree bore seeds still in latitude 59 55' [Schuebeler],
It passed through years of severe drought in Central Australia [Rev.
H. Kempe]. Spots for Mulberry-culture must not be over moist,
when the leaves are to be utilised for the Bombyx. In 1870,
314 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
according to the " British Trade-Journal," the produce of cocoons
amounted in Europe to 16,588,000; in Asia to 28,112,000; in
Africa to 44,000 ; in the South-Sea Islands to 24,000 ; in America
to 20,000 thus giving a general total of 44,788,000. In 1875
the yield of raw silk in the district of Rajshahye (British India) was
estimated at 400,000, employing about 12,000 people, the planta-
tions extending approximately over 150 square miles [Dr. S. Forbes
Watson]. In that district alone a quarter of a million people derive
their support from the trade and other branches of the silk-industries.
Great Britain imported in 1884 4,519,000 Ibs. of raw silk, to a value
of 3,341,000 ; of thrown silk, husks and waste to the value of
907,000, irrespective of manufactured silk-goods, the cost of which
amounted to nearly eleven million pounds sterling. In 1889 the imports
came to 3,123,000 Ibs. of raw silk of a declared value of 2,192,000,
607,000 Ibs. of thrown silk worth 511,000, husks and waste to the
amount of about 900,000, and manufactured to the value of
11,790,000. The French Government fostered in 1890 the silk-
production within its own territory by a subsidy of 140,000.
Superior varieties of mulberry can be grafted with ease on ordinary
stock. M. Indica, L., M. macrophylla, Moretti, M. Morettiana,
Jacq., M. Chinensis, Bertol., M. latifolia, Poir., M. Italica, Poir., M.
Japonica, Nois., M. Byzaatina, Sieb., M. nervosa, Del., M. pumila,
Nois, M. tortuosa, Audib., as well as M. Constantinopolitana,
Lamarck, which according to Professor C. Koch is identical with M.
multicaulis of Perrottet, are merely forms of M. alba, to which
probably also M. Tatarica, L. and M. pabularia, Jacquin, belong.
The variety, known as M. Indica, produces black fruits. The raising
of Mulberry -trees has recently assumed enormous dimensions in
California, where between seven and eight millions were planted
since 1870. The process of rearing the silk-insect is simple, and
involves no laborious exertions. The cocoons, after they have been
properly steamed, dried and pressed, readily find purchasers in
Europe, the price ranging according to quality from 3s. to 6s. per Ib.
The eggs of the silk-moth sell at a price from 16s. to 2 per ounce ;
in 1870, Japan had to provide two millions of ounces of silk-ova for
Europe, where the worms had extensively fallen victims to disease.
As an example of the profit to be realized, a Californian fact may be
cited, according to which 700 were the clear gain from 3J acres,
the working expenses having been 93. The Commissioner of
Agriculture of the United States has estimated, that under ordinary
circumstances an acre should support from 700 to 1,000 mulberry-
trees, producing, when four years old, 5,000 Ibs. of leaves fit for food.
On this quantity of leaves can be reared 140,000 worms, from which
ova at a net-profit, ranging from 80 to 240 per acre, will be
obtained by the work of one person. The produce of mulberry
leaves in France for 1890 was estimated at over 200,000 tons, valued
at about 400,000 [Sahut, from "Bull, du Ministere de 1' Agricul-
ture."] Mr. C. Brady, of Sydney, thinks the probable proceeds of silk-
culture to be from 60 to 150 for the acre. The discrepancies in
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 315
calculations of this kind are explained by differences in clime, soil,
attention, treatment and also rate of labour.
A very palatable fruit is obtained from a variety cultivated in
Beloochistan and Afghanistan. The white-fruited tree was found
apparently wild by Dr. A. v. Regel, at Taschkend and Tutkaul ; the
stems there were 7 feet thick.
The results of Mr. Brady's experience on the varieties of Morus
alba are as follows : In the normal form the fruits are white with a
purplish tinge more or less deep ; the bark is pale ; the leaf is also
of a pale hue, not very early, nor very tender, nor very abundant.
It may be grown on moist ground, so long as such is drained, or it
will live even on poor, loose, gravelly soil, bordering on running
water. The Cevennes-variety is a free grower, affords a large
quantity of leaves, though of rather thick consistence ; all varieties
of the Morus-Bombyx like these leaves, whether young or old ; it is
also called the Rose-leaved variety ; the silk, which it yields, is sub-
stantial in quantity and also good in quality ; does best on rich dry
slopes. The bushy Indian variety has a fine leaf of a beautiful green,
which, though light in weight, is abundantly produced ; it can be
cut back to the stem three or four times a year ; the leaves are flat,
long and pointed, possess a fine aroma, and are relished by every
variety of the ordinary silk-insect, though all do not thrive equally
well on it ; the silk derived from this variety is excellent, but not
always so heavy in quantity as that produced from the rosy variety ;
it prefers rich, low-lying bottoms, is a greedy feeder, but may thus be
made to cover an extraordinary breadth of alluvial or manured land
in a marvellously short space of time. At Sydney Mr. Brady can
provide leaves from this Indian variety all through the year by the
removal of cuttings, which will strike their roots almost at any
season ; it also ripens seeds readily, and should be kept at bush-size ;
it requires naturally less space than the other kinds. A fourth
variety comes from North-China ; it has heart-shaped, flat, thickish
leaves, which form very good food for the silk-worm. Mr. Brady, as
well as Mr. Martelli, recommend very particularly the variety passing
under the name of Morus multicaulis for the worms in their earliest
stages. The former recommends the Cape-variety also ; the latter
wishes likewise the variety called Morus Morettiana to be used on
account of its succulent nutritious foliage, so well adapted for the
insect, while yet very young, and also on account of producing the
largest amount of food within the shortest time. This Manilla-
variety, above mentioned as Morus multicaulis, comes into bearing
several weeks earlier than most other sorts, and should therefore be
at hand for early hatched worms. An excellent phytological exposi-
tion of the numerous varieties of the White Mulberry-tree is given in
De Candolle's prodromus XVII. 238-245 (1873), by Bureau.
The Muscardine-disease is produced by Botrytis Bassiana, while
the still more terrible Pebrine-disease is caused by the minute
Nosema bombycis (Naegeli). On the Pebrine Pasteur's researches
since 1865 have shed much light. The silk-worm may become
316 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
affected by three other diseases. Countries like ours, happily free
from these pests, can thus rear healthy silk-ova at a high premium
for exportation.
The White Mulberry-tree, with others, offering food to the silk-
worms, such as the osage-orange, should be planted copiously every-
where for hedges or copses. A very soft textile fibre is obtained
from the bark of the Chinese Mulberry-tree. A variety of the
White Mulberry-tree (M. laevigata, Wallich) furnishes in Assam,
where it is called the " Bola," almost exclusively the wood for paddles
and oars [W. R. Fisher].
Morus celtidifolia, Humboldt.
From Peru to Mexico, ascending to 8,000 feet. The fruit of this
Mulberry-tree is edible. Rev. Prof. Sodiro, of Quito, praises par-
ticularly the wood of this tree for building purposes. M. insignis
(Planchon), from New Granada, is a similar species ; it reaches
elevations of 11,000 feet, is therefore a plant fit also for the cold
temperate zone, and deserves thus general cultural attention.
Morus nigra, Linne.*
The Black Mulberry-tree. South- Western Russia and Persia.
Attains a height of about 60 feet. Highly valuable for its pleasant
refreshing fruits. It is a tree of longevity, instances being on record
of its having lived through several centuries ; thus a tree at Dublin
is about 350 years old [Professor Percival Wright]. It is also very
hardy, enduring the winter-cold of Norway to latitude 61 15' ; at
Christiania it bore fruit [Schuebeler]. Mr. John Hodgkins regards
it as a superior tree for sandy coast-ridges. Mr. T. Kessal also notes
that it will live on somewhat saline soil. It was introduced into
Britain already by the Romans. Best propagated by layers. The
leaves of this species also afford food for the ordinary silk-moth, and
are almost exclusively used for this purpose in the Canary-Islands,
although the produce therefrom is not always so good as that from
M. alba. The tree occurs usually as unisexual. M. atropurpurea
(Roxburgh), from Cochin-China, is an allied tree. The cylindrical
fruit-spike attains a length of 2 inches. A palatable, somewhat
vinous beverage can be obtained by fermentation from Mulberries.
Morus rubra, Linne.*
The Red Mulberry-tree. Eastern North- America, North-Mexico.
The largest of the genus, attaining a height of about 70 feet ; it
produces a strong and compact timber, of wonderful endurance
underground ; hence in demand for posts and railway-ties [General
Harrison], also for knees of small vessels [Dr. C. Mohr], and a
variety of other purposes. Fruit edible, sweet, large. The tree is
still hardy in Christiania [Schuebeler]. It requires a deep rich soil
and endures shade [Fernow]. Rate of circumferential stem-growth
in Nebraska 43 inches in eighteen years [Furuas].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 317
Mucuna Cochinchinensis, Bentham. (Macranthus Cochinchinensis,
Loureiro. )
A climbing annual, which can be reared in the open air in Eng-
land. Pods, cooked as a vegetable, taste like those of kidney-beans
[Johnson] .
Muehlenbeckia Cunningham!, F. v. Mueller.
Australia, particularly in the inland regions ; always in swamps.
A tall intricately-branched but almost leafless shrub, quick in growth.
Cattle are very fond of the soft ramifications for feed [M. Rapp].
One of the stay-byes in seasons of drought.
Muehlenbergia Schreberi, J. F. Gmelin. (M. diffusa, Willdenow.)
Southern States of North- America. Perennial. Recorded among
the good native fodder-grasses of Alabama by C. Mohr, thriving as
well on dry hills as in low damp forest-ground. Prof. Killebrew
mentions that this grass in Tennessee carpets the soil in forests with
a living green. M. glomerata (Trinius) is in the same region a
pasture- and hay -grass, available on wet meadows [Dr. Vasey].
Muehlenbergia Mexicana, Trinius.
Southern parts of North-America. A perennial good fodder-
grass, particularly fit for low humid ground, also for forests. Root
creeping ; stem much branched, bending down.
Murraya exotica, Koenig.
South- Asia, Polynesia, East-and North-Australia. This shrub or
small tree is one of the best among the odoriferous plants in India
[C. B. Clarke]. M. Koenigii (Sprengel) ascends the Himalayas to
5,000 feet ; its leaves are in frequent use as an ingredient of curries.
Musa Basjoo, Siebold and Zuccarini.
Riu-Kiu Islands, therefore entirely extra- tropic. This species has
the stately habit of M. paradisiaca, but is much more hardy. It
requires but slight protection in the mildest part of England. In an
utilitarian aspect it is a fibre-plant, and is thus frequently cultivated
in Southern Japan [J. G. Baker].
Musa Cavendish.il, Lambert.* (Musa regia y Rumph ; Musa Chinensis,
Sweet ; Musa nana, Loureiro.)
The Chinese Banana. A comparatively dwarf species, the stem
attaining a height of only about 5 or 6 feet. Its robust and dwarf
habit render it particularly fit for exposed localities, and this is one
of the reasons why it is so extensively cultivated in the South-Sea
Islands. It is also less liable to disease than the other cultivated
318 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
species, and keeps better in transit. The yield of fruit is profuse
(even as much as 200 to 300 fruits in a spike), and the flavor
excellent. Mr. J. S. Edgar states, that bunches of this banana with
thirty dozen fruits are no rarity at Keppel-Bay. General Sir John
Lefroy saw bunches of 80 Ibs. weight produced in Bermuda, where
the plant bears fruits all the year round. This, as well as M.
sapientum and M. paradisiaca, still ripens its fruits in Madeira, Florida
and at Port Jackson, where it can be reared more profitably than M.
paradisiaca. Introduced about 50 years ago by the Duke of Devon-
shire through the Rev. J. S. Williams to the South-Sea Islands,
and by the Earl of Derby, through Mr. Mills, to Australia. The
specific name, given by M. Loureiro, is entitled to preference. All
Musas are grand honey -plants.
Musa corniculata, Rumph.*
Insular India. Fruits as large as a good-sized cucumber ; skin
thick ; pulp reddish-white, firm, dry, sweet ; an excellent fruit for
cooking [Kurz]. The Lubang- variety is of enormous size.
Musa Ensete, J. F. Gmelin.
Bruce's Banana. From Sofala to Abyssinia in mountain-regions.
This magnificent plant attains a height of about 30 feet, the leaves
occasionally reaching the length of fully 20 feet, with a width of
3 feet, being perhaps the largest in the whole empire of plants,
exceeding those of Strelitzia and Ravenala, and surpassing even in
quadrate-measurement those of the grand water-plant Victoria
Regia, while also excelling in comparative circumference the largest
compound frond of Angiopteris evecta, or the divided leaf of God-
winia Gigas, though the leaves of some palms are still larger in
circumference. The inner part of the stem and the young spike of
the Ensete can be boiled, to serve as a table-esculent, but the fruit is
pulpless. This plant produces no suckers, and requires several years
to come into flower and seed, when it dies off like the Sago-Palm,
the Caryota-Palm and others, which flower but once, without repro-
duction from the root. It is probably the hardiest of all species,
enduring slight frosts. Of similar stature and therefore scenic effect
is M. Livingstoniana (Kirk), from the mountains of equatorial Africa.
Two other gigantic species, indigenous to Tropical Africa, are M.
Buchanani (Baker), from the Shire-River, and M. proboscidea
(Oliver) with an inflorescence of extraordinary length, but also with
no edible fruit in its natural state.
Musa Livingstoniana, Kirk.
Mountains of Sofala, Mozambique and the Niger-regions. Similar
to M. Ensete ; seeds much smaller. This superb plant requires no
protection in favorable places in warm temperate climes, as it
advances in its native country to elevations of 7,000 feet. This
and a Musa of Angola, like M. Ensete, form no suckers
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 319
Musa paradisiaca, Linne.* (M. sapientum, Linne.)
The ordinary Plantain or Pisang and the Banana. Continental and
Insular India. Among the most prolific of plants, requiring the least
care in climes adapted for its growth. Stem not spotted. Bracts purple
inside. In this as well as M. Cavendishii and M. simiarum, new shoots
are produced from the root, to replace annually the fruit-bearing stem.
The fruit of this is often prepared by some cooking process. Very
many varieties are distinguished, and they seem to have sprung from
the wild state of M. sapientum. The writer did not wish to pass this and
the allied plants unnoticed, as they will endure the clime in warmer
localities of the temperate zone, where under careful attention
they are likely to mature their fruit with regularity. They require
rich and humid soil. All kinds demand when in continued culture
heavy manuring, to come to the best development. Plantain-meal
is prepared by simply reducing the dried pulp to powder ; it is
palatable, digestible and nourishing. Boiled bananas constitute
quite a good dish, serving as a substitute for potatoes. M. sapien-
tum, L., the ordinary Banana or Sweet Plantain is a variety. In
Java the Pisang-variety is grown up to 4,000 feet elevation [Dr.
Treub]. It is one of the most important plants among those yield-
ing nutritious delicious fruits. The stem is. spotted ; bracts green
inside. The leaves and particularly the stalks and the stems of
this and other species of Musa can be utilised for producing a fibre
similar to Manilla-hemp, though not so strong. The fruit of this
species is used chiefly unprepared ; it is generally of a yellow
colour. Numerous varieties are distinguished. Under favorable
circumstances as much as a hundredweight of fruit is obtained
from a plant annually in tropical climes. At Caraccas, where the
temperature is seldom much above or below 70 F., the plantain-
and banana-plants are very productive, being loaded with fruits
12 to 15 inches long, on mountains up to 5,000 feet. In the dry
Murray -regions of South-Eastern Australia the winter-temperature
seems too low for the successful development of the plants except
on sheltered spots ; but bananas will ripen under the shelter of
limestone-cliffs as far south as Swan-River in West-Australia.
Just able to exist as far south as Port Phillip in the open air,
therefore to some extent there still available for decorative garden-
ing, but not maturing any fruit. The plant matures its fruit
yet in the Canary-Islands. The fibre of any kind of Musa can
be turned to some account, though the value is various. The
banana requires infinitely less care within its geographic latitudes
than the potato ; contains along with much starch amply protein-
compounds. The preparation of starch from bananas is lucrative,
as the yield is copious. Many Indian populations live very exten-
sively or almost exclusively on this fruit. In hot countries the
tall Musa s are sometimes reared as nurse-plants. Jamaica alone
exported during 1885 bananas to the value of 130,000, this culture
still increasing there [Dr. Masters]. The import merely from Fiji
into Port Jackson has been 30-40,000 bunches in a fortnight [M.
320 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Macgillivray]. The American " fruit-drier " can advantageously be
employed also for the exsiccating of bananas. Mr. W. Reynolds,
of Daintree-River, Northern Queensland, has of late years success-
fully started banana-drying for export to the European markets.
It is the small-fruited variety, which is especially eligible for this
purpose ; thus prepared it rivals dried figs, raisins and dates on the
dessert-table. Bananas are sure in future to enter largely into the
general food-supply also of colder zones through increased celerity
and cheapness of steam communication. As a staple food the
plantain is in the hotter zones even more important than the
banana. An admirable essay on the various species of Musa, 35
in number, is contained in Dyer's " Kew Bulletin" for August, 1894,
partly from the writings of Mr. J. G-. Baker.
Musa. simiarum, Humph.* (M. corniculata, Humph ; M. acuminata, Colla).
From Malacca to the Sunda-Islands. About half-a-hundred
marked varieties of this species, called mainly Pisangs in India, are
under cultivation there, especially on the Archipelagus, while M.
sapientum occurs wild more frequently on the mainland. Though
the latter is principally cultivated on the Indian continent, yet it
never equals in delicacy the cultivated forms of M. simiarum, the
fruit of which sometimes attains a length of 2 feet [Kurz].
Musa textilis, Nee.* (M. Mindanensis, Humph.)
Philippine-Islands. This species furnishes the widely utilised
Manilla-rope fibre ; the plant was introduced first into Australia
by the author, and may thrive in sub-tropic regions. It likes
volcanic forest-land. Much of the fibre is exported to America for
paper. About 1 Ib. of fibre is annually obtained from each plant
[Simmonds]].
Musa troglodytarum, Linne". (M. uranoscopos, Rumph.) 4
India, perhaps indigenous also in the Fiji- and other islands of
the Pacific Ocean. The fruit-stalk of this species stands upright ;
the edible fruits are small, reddish or orange-coloured ; pulp gamboge-
yellow, mawkish-sweet [Kurz]. M. Fehi (Bertero) from Polynesia
is an allied species. The Chinese M. coccinea (Aiton), a dwarf
ornamental species, has also the fruit-spike erect.
Mutisia viciifolia, Cavanilles.
From Chili to Bolivia. This shrubby climber has, through Dr.
Sacc, come recently into medicinal use for treatment of phthisis
[Prof. Naudin].
Myoporum insulare, R. Brown.
Extra-tropical Australia. A tree, up to 40 feet high. Mr. J. P.
Eckert remarks that it can be used as a hedge-plant, can be propa-
gated from cuttings, which attain a height of 10 feet in two years.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 321
Cattle like to browse on the foliage. The tree will grow on the
coast down to high-water mark, and is one of the few trees that will
grow in wet saline ground. The wood is close-grained, useful for
cabinetwork [C. Walter].
Myoporum Isetmn, Forster.
New Zealand, where it is called Ngaio by the aborigines, also in
the Chatham-Islands. As a shelter-tree it is equal to the Australian
M. insulare for the most exposed parts of the coast. It is excellent
for shade, and its wood takes a fine polish. It can be raised on the
beach from cuttings. Uprooted it will produce new roots, if
covered in near the sea. Sheep, cattle and horses browse on the
foliage.
Myrica Californica, Chamisso and Schlechtendal.
Californian Sweetgale-tree, attaining 40 feet in height and a stem-
diameter of 3 feet. The leaves, pervaded by a balsamic resinous-
oily principle, are of medicinal value [Dr. Kellogg]. The root-bark
of several Myricas is also turned to therapeutic account.
Myrica cerifera, Linn&
The Wax-Myrtle or "Bay-Berry." Sandy sea-coast of Eastern
North- America. This shrub helps to mind the rolling sand ; it has
fragrant leaves ; the fruits are boiled, and the floating wax, which
can be converted into candles, is skimmed off, In Patagonia,
Argentina and Chili the scrophularinous Mont tea aphylla, Bentham
(Oxycladus aphyllus, Miers), yields vegetable wax from its branches
[Lorentz].
Myrica cordifolia, Linn<.
South- Africa. This bushy plant arrests the influx of the sea-
sand ; it also yields wax from its fruits in remunerative quantity.
Mr. A. W. Heywood mentions as South-African sandcoast-plants
also : Lotononis gracilis (Bentham), attaining a circumference of 45
feet ; Microstephium niveum (Lessing), Othonna cylindrica (De
Candolle), Caroxylon Salsola (Thunberg), with long creeping roots.
Myrica Faya, Dryander and Alton.
Madeira, Azores and Canary-Islands. A small tree. The
drupaceous fruits are used for preserves.
Myrica quercifolia, Linn.
South-Africa. This is one of the principal wax-bushes there.
Many other species from different parts of the globe are available for
trial-culture, but none have as yet been discovered in Australia.
322 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Myrica rubra, Siebold and Zuccarini. (M. sapida, Wallich.)
Continental India, up to 7,000 feet, China, Japan, Borneo. A
shady evergreen tree. The fruit is one of the best of North-Western
India, is of vinous sweetish taste, and is there eaten by all classes
[Edwin Atkinson]. The bark serves for a brown-dye.
Myrica serrata, Lamarck.
South- Africa. Shrub, only about 3 feet high. Also wax-yielding.
The Myrica-wax is heavier, harder and more brittle than bees' wax,
but melts more easily ; it is got from the fruits throughout the cool
season. The sowing of seeds is done after the first -rain of the cool
months has steadied the loose sand ; the plant can also be multiplied
from cuttings. The subterraneous trunk is creeping, and in age of
considerable length [Dr. Pappe].
Myrrhis odorata, Scopoli.
The Sweet Chervil or Cicely. Mountains of Middle and Southern
Europe and Asia Minor, particularly in forests. A perennial
aromatic herb, used for salad and culinary condiments. It could be
naturalised in forests, and would endure an alpine climate ; a second
species, M. occidentalis (Bentham), occurs in Oregon and Utah.
Asa Gray keeps this with two additional Californian congeners in
the genus Glycosma.
Myrtus acmenoides, F. v. Mueller.
Queensland. The fragrant leaves of this and of M. fragrantissima
used locally for flavoring tea, according to Mr. P. O'Shanesy.
Myrtus Cisplatensis, F. v. Mueller.
La Plata-States. A middle-sized tree. Berries edible [Prof.
Hieronymus].
Myrtus communis, Linne.
Countries around the Mediterranean Sea. The Bridal Myrtle.
Blooms in Arran [Rev. D. Landsborough]. Available as a Cal-
endar plant. This bush of ancient renown should not be passed ; it
is industriously in requisition ,for myrtle- wreaths. Hippocrates
already used the leaves in medicine.
Myrtus edulis, F. v. Mueller. (Myrcianthes edulis, Berg.)
Uruguay. A tree, attaining a height of about 25 feet. Berries of
1^ inch diameter, of pleasant taste.
Myrtus incana, Berg.
La Plata-States. A dwarf shrub. The berries can be eaten raw,
and are also made into a sweet rich jelly. M. sericea (Cambessedes)
is an allied species from the same region.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 323
Myrtus Luma, Berneoud.
South-Chili. A tree, to fully 100 feet high in the virgin-forests.
Wood very hard and heavy, much sought for press-screws, wheel-
spokes, and select implements [Dr. Philippi].
Myrtus Meli, Philippi.
South-Chili. Of the same use as the foregoing species, and in
this manner most favorably contrasting with the numerous other
myrtaceous trees of Chili.
Myrtus mucronata, Cambessedes.
La Plata- States. A low shrub. The leaves serve locally as a
substitute for tea. The berries, which are of the size of muscatel-
grapes, are of pleasant taste, and therefore consumed by the native
inhabitants [Hieronymus].
Myrtus nummularia, Poiret.
The Cranberry-Myrtle. From Chili to Fuegia, also in the
Falkland-Islands. This trailing little plant might be transferred to
the turfy moors of any alpine mountains. Sir J. Hooker describes
the berries as fleshy, sweet, and of agreeable flavour. Allied species
occur in the cold zone of the Peruvian Andes. For other species of
Myrtle bearing edible fruits see Rosenthal's " Synopsis plantarum
diaphoricarum ."
Myrtus Ugni, Molina.*
The Chilian Guava. A comparatively hardy shrub, freely bearing
its small but pleasantly aromatic berries. Much cultivated already.
Nageia (Podocarpus) amara, Blume.
Java, on high volcanic mountains. A large tree, sometimes to
200 feet high. Timber valuable. The genus founded on Gaertner's
description of the fruit of his Nageia Japonica and its figure.
Nageia (Podocarpus) andina, Poeppig. (Prumnopithys elegans, Philippi. )
The " Lleuque " of Chili, extending to Ecuador. A stately tree,
with clusters of edible cherry-like fruits. As might be expected
from its native place, it will bear severe frost -0 F. [Gorlie]. The
wood is yellowish and fine-grained, and is chosen for elegant
furniture-work. Specially praised by Prof. Sodiro, of Quito.
Nageia (Podocarpus) bracteata, Kurz.
Burmah, Borneo, Java, up to 3,000 feet. Generally reaching about
80 feet in height, with a straight trunk and horizontal branches.
The close-grained wood is highly prized. The allied N. neriifolia
from the Himalayas has proved hardy at Melbourne.
y 2
324 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Nageia (Podocarpus) Chilina, Richard.
The " Mauniu and Lahaul " of Chili and Peru, ascending to sub-
alpine elevations. Height reaching 100 feet, with corresponding
thickness of stem. Wood white, of excellent quality.
Nageia (Podocarpus) coriacea, Richard.
West-Indies. This tree attains a height of 50 feet, and advances
to elevations of 8,000 feet. Other species of both hemispheres
should be tested, beyond those here now mentioned.
Nageia (Podocarpus) cupressina, R. Brown.
Java and Philippine-Islands. Height of tree to 180 feet ; furnishes
a highly valuable timber.
Nageia (Podocarpus) dacrydioides, A. Richard.
In swampy ground of New Zealand ; the " Kahikatea " of the
Maories, called White Pine by the colonists. Height to about 150
feet ; diameter of stem often 4 feet. The white sweet fruit (fruit-
stalklet) is eaten by the natives ; the wood is pale, close-grained,
heavy ; it will not stand exposure to wet, but is one of the best for
flooring-boards. The strength is equal to that of " Rimu ; " but it
is more readily attacked by boring insects. Refer for further infor-
mation on this and other N.Z. timber-trees to Kirk's " Illustrated
Forest-Flora of New Zealand," issued 1889.
Nageia (Podocarpus) elata, R. Brown.
East-Australia to 35 S. A fine timber-tree, attaining a height of
about 80 feet, with a stem 2 feet in diameter. The timber is soft,
close-grained, free from knots, much used for joiners' work, also for
spars. Market price in Brisbane 3 5s. to 3 10s. per 1,000 super-
ficial feet [Queensland Exhibition, 1867].
Nageia elongata, F. v. Mueller. (Podocarpus elongata, L'Heritier. )
South- Africa. Perhaps the tallest of all South- African trees, attain-
ing a height of over 100 feet, and a stem-diameter of over 5 feet, with
a clean trunk of equal girth up to 60 feet, surmounted by the umbrella-
shaped mass of foliage. The timber is known as yellow wood; it is
deal-like, but closer and tougher, and not resinous. Used more than
any other South- African wood, mostly for planks or quartering in
house-building, also for furniture, carts, barrows and other utensils,
and preferred for mining props, as it shows for some time before collapse,
when the strain becomes too great. Not durable as posts in the ground,
but usually jointed on to a Ptaeroxylon. 100,000 creosoted sleepers,
- mostly Yellow-wood, are annually manufactured in the Kuysna
sleeper-factory. The trees grow best along river-sides, in districts
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 325
where only a few degrees of frost are experienced, or in the moist
mountain-forests [T. R. Sim] . The stems can be used for top-masts
and yards of ships.
Nageia ferruginea, F. v. Mueller. (Podocarpus fsrruginea, G. Bennett.)
Northern parts of New Zealand. The " Black Pine " of the colo-
nists ; native name " Miro." Height reaching about 80 feet ; it
produces a dark-red resin of a bitter taste. The wood is of a reddish
colour, very hard; the strongest among those of New Zealand conifers;
will stand exposure to sea-water ; not durable when in contact with
the ground. [Kirk, " Forest-Flora of New Zealand."] Fruit solitary.
Nageia Japonica, Gaertner.
Japan. A tree, attaining a height of 90 feet. As it occurs as far
north as Nangasaki, in lat. 32 43', it must be able to bear some
frost. Casimir de Candolle (Prodromus xvii., 32A) alludes to the
genus Nageia, implying its validity.
Nageia Lamberti, F. v. Mueller. (Podocarpus Lamberti, Klotzsch.)
Ecuador to Brazil up to 10,000 feet. A stately tree, yielding
valuable timber, specially praised by Prof. Sodiro, of Quito.
Nageia macrophylla, F. v. Mueller. (Podocarpus macrophylla, D. Don.)
The " Inou-maki " of Japan. A tree attaining about 50 feet in
height. The nut-stalklets used for food there. The wood is white
and compact, employed for carpenters' and joiners' work ; the bark
for thatching [Dupont].
Nageia nubigena, F. v. Mueller. (Podocarpus nubigena, Lindley.)
Southern Chili, generally a companion of N. Chilina, with which
it agrees in its dimensions and the utility of its timber.
Nageia Purdieana, F. v. Mueller. (Podocarpus Purdieana, Hooker. )
Jamaica, at 2,500 to 3,500 feet. This quick-growing tree attains
a height of 100 feet.
Nageia spicata, F. v. Mueller. (Podocarpus spicata, R. Brown.)
Black Pine or " Matai " of New Zealand. Fruit spicate. Tree
sometimes to 80 feet high ; wood pale or reddish, soft, close and
durable ; used advantageously for piles, machinery, stringers, braces,
mill-wrights' work, house-blocks, railway-sleepers, also weather-
boards and flooring-boards. Mr. Buchanan gives an account of a
Matai, which was found prostrate in the forest and over which three
Griselinia-trees had grown, enfolding it in their roots ; on felling
these trees it was found that they were over 300 years old, but the
Matai-wood was perfectly sound [Kirk, "Forest-Flora of New
Zealand"].
326 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Nageia Thunbergi, F. v. Mueller. (Podocarpus Thunbergi, Hooker.)
South- Africa. Superior to N. pruinosa (E. Meyer) and even N.
elongata in the quality of its wood ; it is bright-yellow, fine-grained,
and very handsome when polished [Dr. Pappe]. Always a smaller
tree than N. elongata according to Mr. Will. Tuck.
Nageia Totara, F. v. Mueller.* (Podocarpus Totara, G. Bennett.)
New Zealand. A fine tree, to 120 feet high, with a stem reaching
20 feet in circumference ; it is called Mahogany -pine by the colonists.
The reddish, close-grained and durable wood is easily worked, valu-
able both for building and for furniture, and also extensively used for
telegraph posts ; indeed it is considered one of the most valuable
timbers of New Zealand, though it is somewhat brittle. Chosen for
piles of bridges, wharfs and jetties and in other naval architecture ;
the heart-wood resists decay and the attacks of the Teredo for a long
time, according to Professor Kirk. It ranks below Kauri in strength,
but equals it in durability. It is one of the most lasting woods for
railway-sleepers, but the sap-wood should be taken off. When used
for piles, the bark should not be removed from the timber. It is the
most easily cultivated of all New Zealand conifers at Port Phillip.
Many other tall timber-trees of the genus Podocarpus or Nageia occur
in various parts of Asia, Africa and America, doubtless all desirable;
but the quality of their timber is not well known, though likely in
many cases excellent. Nageia is by far the oldest published name of
the genus.
Nardostachys Jatamansi, De Candolle.
Mountains from Bengal to Nepal, at elevations from 11,000 to
17,000 feet [J. Hooker]. " The Spikenard/' A perennial herb,
famous in ancient times as a medicinal plant. The root contains an
ethereal oil and bitter principle.
Nastus Borbonicus, J. F. Gmelin.
Reunion, where it forms a belt all round the mountains of the island,
in a zone of 3-4,000 feet. This beautiful bamboo grows to a height
of about 50 feet [General Munro]. A second species, namely, N.
capitatus (Kunth), occurs in Madagascar.
Nelumbo lutea, Caspary.* (NelumUum luteum, Willdenow.)
The Water-Chinquepin. In Eastern North- America, northward
to 44 ; also in Jamaica. This magnificent perennial water-plant
carries with it the type of Nelumbo nucifera, but seems more hardy,
and thus better adapted for extra-tropical latitudes, the Pythagorean
Bean not descending in Australia naturally beyond 23", although
this species also may perhaps be able to live in the warmer parts
of the temperate zone. The tuberous roots of both species resemble
somewhat the Sweet Potato and are starchy ; the seeds are of par-
ticularly pleasant taste. The plants would be of great value as
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 327
ornamental aquatics. The leaves of N. lutea are from 1 to 2 feet
in diameter. The flower measures J to 1 foot across. The capsular
fruit contains from 20 to 40 nut-like seeds. The plant in congenial
spots displaces nearly all other water-vegetation by the vigor of its
growth.
Nelumbo nucifera, Gaertner.* (Nelumbium speciosum, Willdenow.)
The Pythagorean Bean or Sacred Lotus of the ancients. Egypt,
on the Caspian and Aral Seas (46 N.) ; Persia ; through India,
where in Cashmere it occurs up to 5,000 feet elevation ; China ;
Amur (46 N.) ; Japan, Philippine- and Sunda-Islands ; New Guinea;
tropical Australia as far south as 23. Has one of the largest
flowers in the world, with Victoria Regia, Nymphsea gigantea, some
Magnolias, Paeonia, Liriodendron, Stapelea gigantea, some Aristo-
lochias and Rafflesia Arnoldi. Petals all red or all white, or mixedly
red and white, seldom partially yellow. The occurrence of this
grand plant at the Ima, at Pekin and at Astracban proves sufficiently,
that we can naturalise it in moderately cool climes, as has been done
already by Marquis G-inoi at Doccia, near Florence. The plant lux-
uriates even in New Jersey, where when once established Mr.
Sturtevant saw it retaining its vitality while dormant through suc-
cessive winters underneath ice 6 inches thick. The Nelumbo requires
deep water with a muddy bottom for luxuriant development, but may
also be grown on swampy ground. The large white or rosy flowers
are very fragrant. The seeds retain their vitality for several years.
According to the ancient Egyptian method, they are placed in balls of
muddy clay and chaff, and then sunk into the water. Not only the
very palatable seeds serve for food, but also the stalks, which are
used as a vegetable. According to Moorcroft this plant contributes
much to the sustenance of some thousands of people in Cashmere for
eight months in the year.
Nepeta Cataria, Linn&
Europe, Western Asia. The " Catmint." This somewhat aro-
matic herb is valued in domestic medicine. In France used as a
condiment [Vilmorin]. Apiarists praise it also, Quinby stating that
if there was any plant which he should cultivate especially it would
be this.
Nepeta Grlechoma, Bentham. (Glechoma hederacea, Linn.)
"The Ground-Ivy." Europe, Western Asia. This herb is still in
great estimation as a pectoral medicine in many parts of Europe. It
is also a honey -plant. Perennial like most cogeners.
Nepeta raphanorrhiza, Bentham.
Cashmere and Afghanistan. The roots of this herb furnish a
delicious vegetable [Dr. Aitchison] ; they have the taste of fresh
almonds ; large quantities are consumed by the inhabitants of the
native countries of this plant.
328 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Nephelium excelsum, F. v. Mueller. (Alectryon excelsum, Forster.)
New Zealand. This evergreen tree is so exceptionally beautiful,
especially when in fruit, that it has received a place in this work as
recommendable for shade-lines.
Nephelium lappaceum,
South-India and Malay-Islands. This rather tall tree furnishes
the Rambutan- or Rampostan-fruit, similar to the Litchi- and
Longan-fruit. As one species of Nephelium is indigenous as far
south as Gippsland (Victoria), and as all the species seem to require
rather a moist mild forest-clime than great atmospheric heat, we may
hope to bring this tree also to perfect bearing in favorable spots of a
temperate clime.
Nephelium Litchi, Cambessedes.
Southern China, Cochin-China and the Philippine-Islands. An
evergreen middle-sized tree, producing the Litchi-f ruit. Fruits fairly
well in sub-tropic Eastern Australia, also in favorable places as far
south as Port Jackson. The pulpy arilius is of extremely pleasant
taste, though not large.
Nephelium Long-anum, Cambessedes.
India and Southern China. Height of tree to about 40 feet. The
Longan-fruit is obtained from this tree ; it is smaller than that of the
Litchi-tree and less palatable. The tree prospers at Port Jackson
[C.Moore].
Nephelium pinnatum, Cambessedes. (Pometia pinnate, Forster.)
Fiji and other Western South- Sea Islands. The " Darva." Hopes
are held out that the fruits of this tree, similar to those of the Litchi,
may improve by cultivation [Home]. Referable to Schmidelia.
Neptunia gracilis, Bentham.
Australia, in its warmer regions, extending southward far beyond
the tropic of Capricorn. A somewhat shrubby swamp-plant, seldom
1 over 2 feet high. Pasture-animals are exceedingly fond of the
; i foliage [Jos. Bradshaw]. The roots have small spherical tuberous
swellings.
Neurachne alopecuroides, R. Brown.
Australia, in hot and dry regions. Though coarse it is yet a wel-
come fodder for stock in summer, as the young leaves push out as
long as there is some moisture within reach of the roots [Tepper].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 329
Neurachne Mitchelliana, Nees.
The Mulga-grass. In the arid interior of Eastern and South-
Eastern Australia. With its companion, N. Munroi (F. v. M.)
eligible as a perennial fodder-grass for naturalisation in sandy or dry
sterile land. It endures any extent of drought, but requires heavy
rain to start anew [R. S. Moore],
Nicotiaria quadrivalvis, Pursh.
The native Tobacco of the regions on the Columbia- and Missouri-
River. An annual. This can be utilised for some inferior kinds of
tobacco.
Nicotiana repanda, Willdenow.
Cuba, Mexico, Texas. Annual. It is utilised for some of the
Havanna-tobaccoes.
Niootiana rustica, Linne.
Tropical America. Annual. Some exceptional sorts of East-
Indian tobacco, of Manilla-tobacco and of Turkey-tobacco are
derived from this particular species.
Nicotiana Tabacum, Linn.*
The ordinary Tobacco-plant of Central America. Annual. The
tobacco-plant delights in rich forest-soil, particularly where lime-
stone prevails, on account also of the potassium-compounds which
abound in soils of woodlands, and also because in forest-clearings
that atmospheric humidity prevails, which is needed for the best
development of the finest kinds of tobacco. Various districts, with
various soils, produce very different sorts of tobacco, particularly as
far as flavor is concerned ; and again various climatic conditions
will greatly affect the tobacco-plant in this respect. We can there-
fore not hope to produce, for instance, Manilla- or Havanna-tobacco
in cooler latitudes ; but we may expect to produce good sorts also
far south in Australia,. more or less peculiar ; or we may aspire to
producing in our rich and frostless forest- valleys a tobacco similar to
that of Kentucky, Maryland, Connecticut and Virginia. Frost is
detrimental to the tobacco-plant ; not only, particularly when young,
must it be guarded against it, but frost will also injure the ripe crop.
The scarcity of dew in some of the districts of Australia militates
against the production of the best kinds, otherwise the yield as a rule
is large, and the soil in many places well adapted for this culture.
Leaves of large size are frequently obtained, but the final preparation
of the leaf for the manufacturer must be effected by experienced
skill. The cruder kinds are obtained with ease. In 1893, the
colony of Victoria produced 8,952 cwt. of tobacco, New South
Wales 10,858, Queensland 4,577 [Hayter]. Virgin soil, with rich
loam, is the best for tobacco -culture, and such soil should also
330 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
contain a fair proportion of lime and potash, or should be enriched
with a calcareous manure and ashes, or with well decomposed stable-
manure. According to Simmonds the average yield in Greece, where
the clime is similar to ours, is about 800 pounds of tobacco per acre.
In Norway Tobacco has been grown as far north as 70 22' [Schue-
beler]. The equable mild clime of Northern New Zealand proved
particularly well suited for producing superior tobacco. For Queens-
land experiences refer to S. Lamb's remarks in the " Bulletin of the
Departure for Agriculture," Brisbane, No. 6 (1890). With us in
Victoria the lowlands of Eastern G-ippsland would be sure to contain
all the natural conditions for successful tobacco-culture. Nicotiana-
seeds may rest underground for half-a-dozen years without impair-
ment of their germination power [Dr. W. O. Fooke.] The seedlings,
two months or less old, are transplanted. When the plants are coming
into flower, the leading top-shoots are nipped off, and the lateral
shoots must also be broken off. A few weeks afterwards the leaves
will turn to a greenish yellow, which is a sign that the plants are fit
to be cut, or that the ripe leaves can gradually be pulled. In the
former case the stems are split ; the drying is then effected in barns
by suspension from sticks across beams. The drying process occupies
four or five weeks, and may need to be assisted by artificial heat.
Stripped of the stalks, the leaf-blades are tied into bundles, to
undergo sweating or a kind of slight fermentation. It does not
answer to continue tobacco-culture beyond two years on the same soil
uninterruptedly. The Shiraz-tobacco is a variety cultivated in Persia
[Sir Jos. Hooker; see also Dyer's "Kew-Bulletin," April, 1891].
This can be brought to perfection only in cool mountain-regions. The
mode of culture is somewhat different from that of the ordinary
tobacco. Moderate irrigation is favorable. The plants, when ripe,
are cut off and stuck into the ground again until they become yellow ;
they are then heaped together for a few days in the drying-house ;
they are afterwards stacked into thin strata, and placed into bags for
pressure and daily turning. Another prominent variety is Nicotiana
latissima (Miller), or N. macrophylla (Lehmann), yielding largely
the Chinese, the Orinoco- and the Maryland-tobacco. Latakia-
tobacco, according to Dyer, is prepared by. submitting the leaves for
several months to fumigation from fir-wood. Substances containing
cumarin, particularly the Tonca-Bean (Dipterix odorata), are used to
flavor tobacco and snuff. The dangerously powerful nicotin (a
volatile acrid alkaline oily liquid) and nicotianin (a bitter aromatic
lamellar substance) are both derived from tobacco in all its parts, and
are therapeutic agents requiring to be used with the utmost caution ;
nicotine is also largely contained in the fluid remaining in pipes. It
is well known also as a powerful insecticide. Nicotine from the
Australian N. suaveolens has a gradually and permanently blinding
effect on horses feeding on this plant [Kendall], The total quantity
of tobacco, manufactured and unmanufactured, imported into the
United Kingdom in 1889 amounted to about 79,000,000 Ibs., valued
at 3,890,000, yielding a Customs revenue of 8,858,000. The
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 331
total quantity of tobacco raised in the United States during 1885
was 562,736,000 Ibs. from 752,520 acres, valued at 9,013,666 [J.
R. Dodge]. In India 641,000 acres were planted with tobacco. In
Hungary during the same year 140,516 acres were devoted to tobacco-
culture, the produce being 1,225,400 cwts. The Victorian import
during 1887 was 2,488,410 Ibs., valued at 252,426 (raw and manu-
factured).
Niemeyera prunifera, F. v. Mueller. (Lucuma prunifera, Bentham. )
The Australian Cainito. An evergreen tree, sparingly dispersed
from the north of New South Wales through the coast-forests of
Queensland. The fruit is of a plum-like appearance and edible.
Culture is likely to improve its quality.
Nuphar multisepalum, Engelmann.
Western North-America. This Water-Lily produces nutritious
seeds, which taste like Broom-Corn, and are used locally for food,
but are more particularly valuable for waterfowl. Various species of
Nymphasa might be utilised in the same manner, irrespective of their
value as decorative lake- or pond-plants. The author naturalised the
British Water-Lily, Nymphasa alba (Camerarius), in Victoria long
ago. The very decorative N. gigantea (Hooker) extends naturally
in Eastern Australia to 30 S.
Nyctanthes arbor tristis, Linne.
India, up to Assam. This arborescent shrub or small tree (to 30
feet) may be grown in almost any moist regions, free from frost, for
the exquisite fragrance of its flowers, from which essence of jasmin
can be obtained.
Nyssa aquatica, Linne.
The Tupelo or Pepperidge. Eastern North-America. This large
tree can be grown in pools and deep swamps, and is thus well adapted
for aquatic scenery, though the foliage is deciduous. The spongy
roots serve as a substitute for cork and the floats of nets.
Nyssa Silvatica, Marshall. (N. multiflora, Wangenheim.)
Eastern States of North- America, where it is called the Forest-
Tupelo or Black Gum-tree [Dr. Asa Gray]; also called Sour Gum-
tree. Attains a height of about 50 feet. Suited for forest-soil ;
has horizontal branches and a " light, flat spray, like the Beech."
Can be propagated from cuttings. The wood is very hard, but light,
and almost unwedgable ; it serves for hubs of wheels, pumps, side-
boards of carts, trays, bowls, dippers, mortars, wooden shoes,
hatters' blocks and various turners' work. The foliage turns bright
crimson in autumn. The fruits are pleasantly acidulous, like those of
N. capitata (Walter) and of some other species, and often used for
preserves.
332 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Nyssa uniflora, Wangenheim. <
Eastern States of North-America. The Swamp-Tupelo. Wood
soft, whitish; particularly adapted for trays, bowls and carving [C.
Mohr], that of the roots very light and spongy, hence used for corks
[Dr. Asa Gray]. A shrub or small tree. The mucilaginous fruits
are edible.
Ochrocarpos longifolius, Bentham and Hooker.
Western peninsula of India. A middle-sized tree. Fruit rather
small, but edible ; -ripens with Mangosteens still at Mysore, up to
3,000 feet, where the annual rainfall is only about 36 inches [J.
Cameron].
Ocimum Basilicum, Linne.
The, " Basil." Warmer parts of Asia and Africa. Will grow in
Norway to lat. 63 26' [Schuebeler]. An annual herb, valuable for
condiments and perfumery. Several varieties exist, differing con-
siderably in their scent. A crystalline substance is also obtained
from this and similar species. O. Canum (Sims) is closely allied.
Valuable, like many other aromatic Labiatze, for bees. Seeds will
keep for fully eight years.
Ocimum gratissimum, Linne.
Recorded from India, the South- Sea Islands and Brazil as indi-
genous. Somewhat shrubby. This is also a scent-plant, like the
following, and is one of the best of the genus. O. viride (Willde-
now), from tropical Africa, seems a variety. There an infusion of it
is administered as a febrifuge.
Ocimum sanctum, Linne.
Arabia, India, tropical Australia. A perennial herb. The odor
of the variety, occurring in North-Australia, reminds of anise ; the
smell of the variety, growing in East- Australia, resembles that of
cloves. O. tenuiflorum, L., seems to be another variety. Probably
other species, cis- as well as trans-atlantic, can be used like Basil.
Ocimum suave, Willdenow.
East-Africa. A shrubby species. Very near 0. gratissimum.
Ocotea bullata, E. Meyer. (Oreodaphne bullata, Nees.)
South- Africa, in humid districts, where it is next to Nageia elata
one of the largest timber-trees. Planks 20 feet long and 15 inches
wide are occasionally obtained. The wood, called Laurelwood, has
such great strength, that it is preferentially used for the heavy
waggons of South- Africa; also employed for very durable furniture,
especially chairs [W. Tuck].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 333
Octaviana asterosperma, Vittadini.
South-Europe. A Truffle of very good taste. See Rudolph
Hesse's work on Truffles, issued in Halle.
CEnanthe Phellandrium, Lamarck.
Europe, Western and Northern Asia. A perennial swamp-plant,
the fruitlets of which are of considerable medicinal value.
CEnanthe stolonifera, Wallich.
Japan, China, India, where this swamp-herb is used for spinage.
For particulars refer to Paillieux et Bois in "Bull. Soc. d'Acclimat."
1888, p. 1106-1108.
Olea Europsea, Lmn.*
The Olive-tree. South- Western Asia; naturalised in the coun-
tries on the Mediterranean Sea. Generally not of great height,
but of many centuries' duration and of unabating fecundity. Pro-
fessor Bentley speaks of Olive-trees 800 years old. In Corfu
however it grows sometimes to a height of 60 feet, and forms
beautiful forests. The well-known olive-oil is obtained from the
fruit. Certain varieties of the fruit, preserved in vinegar or salt-
liquid before perfectly ripe, are also much used for the table. For
this purpose the fruit is generally macerated previously in water
containing potash and lime. The gum-resin of the olive-tree serves
as incense ; it contains the crystalline olivil. The oil of the drupa-
ceous fruit is a most important product of countries with a warm
temperate climate. Its chemical constituents are : 30 per cent,
crystalline palmitin ; 70 per cent, olein, for which reason olive-oil
belongs to those kinds, which are not drying. In pressing, the
kernels must not be crushed, as then a disagreeable taste will be
imparted to the oil. Exceptionally, 2,000 gallons have been ob-
tained in California from an acre [Geo. Chaffey]. In Creta (double
the size of Kangaroo-Island) alone the value of olive-oil produced
annually amounts at an average to nearly half a million sterling
[Dr. Masters]. The wild variety of the olive-tree usually has
short blunt leaves and thorny branches. Long-continued droughts,
so detrimental to most plants, will affect the olive but slightly. It
thrives best on a free, loamy, calcareous soil, even should it be
strong and sandy, but it dislikes stiff clay. Proximity to the sea is
favorable to it, and hill-sides are more eligible for its culture than
plains. The ground must be deeply trenched. Manuring with
well-decayed substances is requisite annually or every second or third
year, according to circumstances. Irrigation will add to the produc-
tiveness of the plant. The "Black Scale ; ' of olive-trees is the
Lecanium oleae ; it extends also to many kinds of ordinary orchard-
trees. Captain Ellwood Cooper, of Santa Barbara, Southern
334 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
California, obtained from orchards 10 years old sufficient fruit for 700
gallons of olire-oil to the acre, one-fourth of the produce paying for
the expenses of preparing the soil, gathering the crop, pressing the oil
and conveying it to market. He considers olives one of the most
profitable crops for Southern California ; he has now 80 acres planted
with this tree in bearing, from which he annually obtains about
25,000 bottles of oil. Mons. Riordet distinguishes three main
varieties, of which he recommends two : 1. The Cayon, a small-
sized tree, which comes into bearing after three or four years, but
bears fullv only every second year ; its oil is fine with some aroma.
2. The Pendulier, a larger tree, with long drooping branches, yield-
ing an oil of first-rate quality. Mons. Reynaud, " Culture de 1'Olivier,"
separates twelve varieties, as cultivated in France, and recommends
among them : 1. The Courniau or Courniale, also called Plant de
Salon, bearing most prolifically a small fruit and producing an excel-
lent oil. 2. Picholine, which by pruning its top-branches is led to
spread over eight yards square or more ; it is of weeping habit,
yields a good oil in fair quantity, and resists the attacks of insects
well. 3. The Mouraou or Mourette, a large tree also furnishing oil
of a very fine quality. Professor Naudin's opinion of some of the
French varieties is as follows : 1. Laurine, one of the hardiest
kinds, much cultivated in Languedoc ; the oil is good, but not first-
class ; the fruit is preserved in some districts. 2. Saurine or
Picholine; very fertile; fruit of medium size. 3. Aglandeau, Cayanne
or Cayon ; fruit small, but yielding an excellent oil ; the tree is
small, yet productive, and bears early. 4. Amellone or Plant d'Aix,
one of the most frequently cultivated kinds in Provence, giving a
first-class oil ; the fruit is also preserved. 5. Baralingue or Ampoul-
leau, one of the good French varieties ; the fruit is roundish. 6.
Negrette or Mourette, an early variety with very dark fruit ; several
sub-varieties are cultivated. 7. Saverne, gives an oil of first-rate
quality, especially in gravelly and calcareous soil ; it does not stand
frost so well as most others. 8. Turquoise, produces elongated
fruits ; one of the best kinds for preserving. 9. Espagnole, one of
the largest-fruited Olives of Provence and among the best for pre-
serves ; the oil is inferior. 10. Rougette or Ponchude, has fruits
pointed at both ends, not getting red till ripe ; yields one of the best
oils of the country. 11. Penduliere, so named from its drooping
nabit, renowned for the excellence of its oil. 12. Courniole, Cour-
niau or Plant de Salon, is very productive and yields an excellent
oil, but the fruits are too small for preserving. Olive-trees require
judicious pruning immediately after the fruit is gathered, when the
sap is comparatively at rest. They may be multiplied from seeds,
cuttings, layers, suckers, truncheons and old stumps, the latter to be
split. They can also be propagated from protuberances at the base
of the stem, which can be sent long distances. The germination of
the seeds is promoted by soaking the nutlets in a solution of lime
and wood-ash. The seedlings can be budded or grafted after a few
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 335
years. Truncheons or estacas may be from one to many feet long
and from one to many inches thick ; they are placed in the ground
horizontally. Some Olive-plantations at Grasse are worth from 200
to 250 per acre. For many details the tract on the " Culture of
Olive and its Utilisation," issued in Melbourne by the Rev. Dr.
Bleasdale, should be consulted, as it rests largely on its author's
observations during a long stay in Portugal ; also the essay of. Sir
Samuel Davenport in Adelaide, the treatise issued by Capt. Ellwood
Cooper in San Francisco, the remarks by Prof. Hilgard in the
Bulletin No. 85 and 92 of the Agricultural Experimental Station,
Berkeley, California, February, 1890, and March, 1891, further the
notes by Mr. J. L. Thompson, of the Dookie Agricultural College,
in the "Leader/' June, 1890, as well as Mr. B. M. Lelong's observa-
tions in the "Victorian Farmers' Gazette/' February and April, 1889.
The olive will resist considerable frost (5 F.) for a short time, pro-
vided that the thawing takes place under fogs or mild rain (or
perhaps under a dense smoke). It requires about one-third more
annual warmth than the vine for ripening its fruit. The Olive-zones of
South-Europe and North- Africa are between 18 and 44 north
latitude. An elevation of about 550 feet corresponds in Spain, as far
as this culture is concerned, to one degree further north. Mr. Thozet
reared already good varieties many years ago in the lowlands just
within the tropics of Eastern Australia, where they bear freely and
produce an excellent oil. Olives do not grow well on granitic soil,
nor bear well on light soil. The fruit produced on limestone-forma-
tions is of the best quality. Gypsum promotes the growth of the
tree. An equable temperature serves best ; hence exposure to pre-
vailing strong winds is to be avoided. The winter-temperature should
not fall below 19 F. The quantity of oil in the fruit varies from 10
to 20 per cent.; sometimes it even exceeds the latter proportion. In
Provence on an average 24 Ibs. of olive-oil are consumed by each
individual of the population annually ; in Andalusia, about 30 Ibs.
G. Don mentions an aged tree near Gerecomio to have provided olives
for 240 quarts of oil in one year. For obtaining the largest quantity
of oil the fruit must be completely ripe. Hand-picked olives give the
purest oil. Knocking the fruit from the branches with sticks injures
the tree and lessens its productiveness the next year. No heat
should be used in the extracting and purifying of the oil. To
preserve the oil well, it should not be exposed to light. Spain alone
produces about 250,000,000 Ibs. of olive-oil a year. The quantity of
olives raised in France during 1890 was estimated at 134,000 tons,
valued at 1,080,000 [Sahut,from "Bull, du Minist^re d 'Agriculture"].
Tunis possesses about 10,000,000 Olive-trees, supposed to yield a pro-
duce worth 1,000,000 sterling. The yield of the crop in Spain is
estimated at 9,000,000 sterling annually ; that of Italy 8,000,000.
The imports of olive-oil into the United Kingdom in 1884 amounted
to 17,000 tons, valued at 715,000 ; in 1889 the quantity was 22,882
tons, valued at 817,000. The import into Victoria during 1887 was
estimated at 10,919.
336 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
The following notes are derived from the important " Tratado del
Cultivo del Olivo en Espana," by the Chev. Capt. Jose de Hidalgo-
Tablada (second edition, Madrid, 1870).
SPANISH VARIETIES.
y\ Varieties of early maturation, for colder localities :
1. Var. Pomiformis, Clem.
Manzanillo. (French : Ampoulleau.) Fruit above an inch in
diameter, spherical, shining black. Putamen broad and truncate.
2. Var. Regalis, Clem.
Sevillano. (French : Pruneau de Catignac.) Fruit about an inch
in diameter, ovate-spherical, blunt, bluish-black.
3. Var. Bellotudo or Villotuda.
Fruit about an inch long, egg-shaped ; pericarp outside dark -red,
inside violet.
4. Var. Redondillo.
Fruit ovate-spherical, nearly an inch long. Pericarp outside bluish-
black, inside whitish. A rich yielder.
5. Var. Ovalis,Clem.
Lechin, Picholin, Acquillo. (French : Saurine.) Fruit broad-
oval, two-thirds of an inch long. A copious yielder.
6. Var. Argentata, Clem.
Nevadillo bianco ; Doncel ; Zorzalena ; Moradillo ; Ojiblanco ;
Olivo lucio. Fruit broad-ovate, an inch long, very blunt, not
oblique. Quality and quantity of oil excellent.
7. Var. Varal bianco.
(French : Blanquette.) Fruit ovate-globular, three-fourths of an
inch long, neither pointed nor oblique, outside blackish-red.
8. Var. Empeltre.
Fruit ovate, an inch long, equable. Rich in oil of excellent
quality; also one of the best sorts for pickles. Pericarp outside
violet, inside whitish.
9. Var. Racimal.
(French : Bouteillan, Boutiniene, Ribien, Rapugette.) Fruit
violet-coloured, globose, ovate, about an inch long, neither
pointed nor oblique. Bears regularly also on less fertile soil,
and is one of the earliest to ripen.
10. Var. Varal negro.
Alameno. (French : Cay on, Nasies.) Fruit violet-black, spotted,
globose-ovate, nearly an inch long, somewhat pointed. Bears
richly.
11. Var. Colchonuaa.
Fruit spherical, outside red, inside whitish, an inch in diameter,
slightly pointed. Produces a large quantity of good oil.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 337
12. Var. Ojillo de Liebre.
Ojo de Liebre. Fruit nearly spherical, outside violet-black,
about one inch long, somewhat oblique. One of the less early
varieties.
13. Var. Carrasguena.
(French : Redouan de Cotignat.) Fruit black-red, almost spherical,
about an inch long. Valuable both for oil and preserves, but
liable to be attacked by various insects.
14. Var. Hispalensis, Clem.
Gordal ; Ocal ; Olivo real. Fruit black-grey, nearly spherical,
slightly oblique, measuring about an inch. Rather large and
quick-growing tree. Fruit used in the green state for preserves,
not used for table-oil.
15. Var. Verdego.
Verdial. (French : Verdal, Verdan.) Fruit black-violet, oblique,
spheric, pointed, about one inch long. Furnishes good oil and
resists the cold best of all.
. Varieties of late maturation, for warmer localities :
16. Var. Maxima, Clem.
Madrileno ; Olivo morcal. Fruit over an inch long, cordate-
globose, strongly pointed. Less valuable for oil than for
preserves.
17. Var. Rostrata, Clem.
Cornicabra. (French : Cournaud, Corniaud, Courgnale, Plant de
Salon; PI. de la Fane; Cay on Rapunier, Grasse.) Strong and
tall, less tender; fruit blackish-red, over an inch long, oval, much
pointed, good for oil.
18. Var. Ceratocarpa, Clem.
Cornezuelo. (French : Odorant, Luquoise, Luques.) Fruit fully
an inch long, oval, pointed.
19. Var. Javaluno.
Fruit black-grey, over an inch long, egg-shaped, somewhat oblique,
gradually pointed. Rich in good oil; can also be chosen for
preserves; much subject to attacks of insects.
20. Var. Picudo.
Fetudilla. Fruit fully an inch long, egg-shaped, blunt at the base,
pointed at the apex, with black-grey pulp. Pericarp easily
separable. Employed both for oil and preserves.
21. Var. Nevadillo negro.
Fruit egg-shaped, fully an inch long, with turned pointed apex.
One of the richest of all varieties in yield. Endures consider-
able cold, and is not late in ripening.
All these Spanish varieties show rather long, lanceolate leaves of
more or less width.
338 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
FRENCH VARIETIES.
(Some verging into the Spanish kinds.)
22. Var. Angulosa, Gouan.
Galliningue, Laurine. For preserves.
23. Var. Rouget.
Marvailletta. Produces a fine oil.
24. Var. Atrorubens, Gouan.
Salierne, Saverne. Fruit dusted- white. Furnishes one of the
best of oils.
25. Var Variegata, Gouan.
Marbree, Pigale, Pigau. Fruit purple, with white spots.
26. Var. Le Palma.
Oil very sweet, but not largely produced.
27. Var. Atrovirens, Ros.
Pointue, Punchuda. Fruit large, with good oil.
28. Var. Rubicans, Ros.
Rougette. Putamen small. Yield annual and large.
29. Var. Alba, Ros.
Olive blanche, Blancane, Vierge. This, with many others omitted
on this occasion, is an inferior variety.
30. Var. Caillet Rouge.
Figanier. Small tree. Fruit large, red. Oil good and produced
in quantity.
31. Var. Caillet blanc.
Fruit almost white, produced annually and copiously, yielding a
rather superior oil.
32. Var. Raymet.
Fruit large, reddish. Oil copious and fine. This variety prefers
flat country.
33. Var. Colignac.
Pardigniere. Fruit middle-sized, blunt. Oil obtained in quantity
and of excellent quality. This requires much pruning.
34. Var. Bermillaon.
Vermillaon. Yields table-oil and resists cold well.
This list was several years ago without permission copied into an
official publication in another part of the globe, and without any
allusion to Capt. Hidalgo-Tablada or the translator.
Many other apparently desirable varieties occur, among which the
Italian Oliva d'Ogni Mese may be mentioned, which ripens fruit
several times in the year, and furnishes a pleasant oil and also fruit
for preserves.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 339
Oncosperma fasciculatum, Thwaites.
Ceylon. This Palm ascends there to 5,000 feet. The very slender
but prickly stem attains a height of 50 feet. Desirable for scenic
culture.
Onobrychis viciifolia, Scopoli. (0. sativa, Lamarck.)*
The " Sainfoin, Esparsette or Cock's Head " Plant. Southern
and Middle Europe, South- Western and Middle Asia. Hardy in
Norway to lat. 63 26' [Schuebeler]. A deep-rooting 'perennial
fodder-herb, fond of marly soil, and living in dry localities. It
prepares dry calcareous soil for cereal culture. Stagnant under-
ground-humidity is fatal to this plant. It prospers where Red Clover
and Lucerne no longer succeed, and is richer in nutritive constituents
than either, as shown already by Sir Humphrey Davy. The yield
is at its maximum in the third year; cannot well be cut repeatedly
in the season [Dr. Stebler]. Sheep cannot be turned out so well on
young Sainfoin-fields as cattle. The hay is superior even to that of
Lucerne and Clover. The plant will hold out from five to seven years
[Langethal]. It yields much honey for bees. O. montaua (De
Candolle) is a dwarfer sub-alpine variety of limestone regions. 0.
vicisefolia (Scopoli), is the earliest name for this species.
Onosma Emodi, Wallich. (Maharanga Emodi, A. de Candolle. )
Nepal. The root, like that of the Alkanua tinctoria, produces a
red dye.
Ophiopogon Japonicus, Ker. (Flueggea Japonica, Richard.)
The mucilaginous tubers can be used for food, a remark which
applies to many other as yet disregarded allied plants.
Opuntia coccinellifera, Miller.
Mexico and West-Indies. The Cochineal Cactus. On this and
O. Tuna, O. Hernandezii and perhaps a few others subsists the
Coccus, which affords the costly cochineal-dye. Three gatherings
can be effected in the year. About 1,200 tons used to be imported
annually into Britain alone, and a good deal to other countries, valued
at about 400 per ton. The precious carmin-pigment is prepared
from cochineal. Different Cochineal-Opuntias occur in Argentina
also. Some species of Opuntia will endure a temperature of 14 F. ;
one even advances to 50 north latitude in Canada. Mr. Dickinson
observes, that many species are hardy at Port Phillip, growing even
in sand, overtopping by 10 feet the Leptospermum laevigatum, and
breaking it down by their great weight within a few yards of the sea.
Mr. R. Gr. Ely, of Keilor, draws attention to the fodder-value of
Opuntias, after freeing them by an easy method of his own from
prickles and hairlets. Mr. A. N. Pearson shows a fair proportion of
Z 2
340 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
nutritive substance to be contained in these kinds of plants. They
would best serve in almost rainless regions, remaining sappy at all
times.
Opuntia Dillenii, Haworth.
Central America. A Tuna-like Cactus, serving for uninflammable
hedges, and perhaps also for the rearing of the Coccus Cacti. It is
particularly eligible for barren land, but apt to stray beyond bounds
in hot countries.
Opuntia elatior, Miller.
Central America. A hedge-plant with formidable thorns.
Opuntia Pious Indica, Miller.
Called inaptly, with other congeners, Indian Fig. Central America,
north as far as Florida. Serves for big hedges. Pulp of fruit edible.
Exudes a gum, somewhat like Tragacanth.
Opuntia Hernandezii, De Candolle.
Mexico. Also affords food for the Coccus Cacti.
Opuntia Missouriensis, De Candolle.
From Nebraska to New Mexico. Very hardy. Professor Meehan
found this Cactus covered with the Cochineal-Coccus, and points to
the fact, that this insect will live through the intense cold, which
characterizes the rocky mountains of the Colorado-regions.
Opuntia Rafinesquii, Engelmann.
A prickly Pear of North America. The most northern of all
species, extending to Lake Michigan. It resists severe frosts, as do
also O. brachyantha, O. Comanchica, O. humilis [Mayer], O.
Whipplei, O. oplocarpa, O. arborescens and Mammillaiia Missouriensis
[Locler, Meehan].
Opuntia spinosissima, Miller.
Mexico and West-Indies. Stem columnar, with pendent branches.
Also a good hedge-plant. Harding recommends for hedges, besides
these species, 0. maxima (Miller) as the most repellent.
Opuntia Tuna, Miller.
West-Indies, Ecuador, New Granada, Mexico. Irrespective of its
value as a principal cochineal-plant, this cactus is also of use for
hedges. It will attain a height of 20 feet. The pulp of the fruit is
edible. With many other species hardy anywhere in Australia down
to the south-coast. Of Cochineal Great Britain imported in 1884
14,100 cwt., value 80,000.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 341
Opuntia vulgaris, Miller,
The ordinary " Prickly Pear." Central America, northward to
Georgia, southward to Peru. Very hardy. Adapted for big hedges,
and like the rest not inflammable, hence particularly valuable along
railway -lines. It must, however, be prevented that these kinds of
plants obtain extensive hold of pasture-grounds. The fruit almost
smooth, eatable. A dye can also be prepared from its pulp and
that of allied species. Numerous other species are industrially
eligible for hedging purposes, but sometimes spreading much be-
yond control, particularly in warm climes. Don F. de la Camera
states, that in rocky ground at Malaga, the fruits on fermentation and
distillation give about 6 per cent, alcohol. During seasons of drought
the fruits are sought for aiding in the feeding of cattle. Dr. Porcher
found, that through picky pears the tallow for candlemaking can be
more hardened. See also notes in Dyer's "Kew Bulletin," 1888,
pp. 170-171, on various uses of Opuntias. In Texas, Caeteas of many
sorts are thoroughly scorched, and then cut up for dairy -feed, given
along with other sustenance. The thornless kinds recommendable
for naturalisation in the worst desert-countries to afford sustenance
to pasture-animals.
Oreodoxa frigida, Humboldt.
Central America, ascending the Andes to 8,500 feet. This dwarf
slender Palm may be chosen for domestic decoration.
Oreodoxa oleracea, Martius.
West-Indies, up to nearly 5,000 feet elevation. One of the most
rapid growing of all Palms, rising to a height of 120 feet. In highly
manured moist ground the Palm-Cabbage, which in this species is of
exqusite nut-flavor, can be obtained in two yeari [Imray, Jenman],
should ever such a culture become desirable. Hardy in Florida
[B. Smith].
Oreodoxa regia, Humboldt.
West-Indies. This noble Palm attains a height of 60 feet. It
,has proved hardy in Southern Brazil. The stem is thickened at the
middle, and from it, as from that of O. oleracea, starch can be
obtained. Found to be of easy growth and drought-resisting in
South-Queensland.
Origanum Dictamnus, Linn.
Candia. Like the following, a scent-plant of somewhat shrubby
growth. With O. vulgare in medicinal use since Hippocrates' time.
Origanum Majorana, Linne.
South-Europe, North- Africa, Middle-Asia, Arabia. Sweet Mar-
joram. A perennial herb, used for condiments, also for the distilla-
tion of its essential oil, much employed in French factories of scented
342 Select Plants for Industrial Culture
soap [Dr. Piesse]; also a valuable plant for edging flower beds. In
Norway it will grow to lat. 70 22' [Schuebeler] .
Origanum Maru, Linne.
Palestine. Perennial and very odorous.
Origanum Onites, Linne".
Countries at and near the Mediterranean Sea. Somewhat shrubby
and strongly scented.
Origanum vulgare, Linne*.
The ordinary Marjoram. All Europe, North-Africa, Northern
and Middle Asia. In Norway it is indigenous to lat. 66 16'
[Schuebeler]. A scented herb of perennial growth, containing a
pleasant volatile oil. It prefers limestone-soil. Of importance also
as a honey-plant. O. hirtum (Link), O. virens (Hoffmannsegg) and
O. normale (D. Don), are closely allied plants of similar use. Several
other Marjorams, chiefly Mediterranean, are of value. Their seeds
maintain vitality for a few years.
Ornithopus sativus, Brotero.
South-Europe and North- Africa. " The Seratelia or Serradella."
An annual herb, larger than the ordinary Birds' foot-herb, 0. perpus-
illus, L. It is valuable as a fodder-plant on sterile particularly moist
and sandy soil. It requires no lime, but improves in growth on such
especially gypsum-land. Particularly rich in digestible protein. Dr.
Goessmann found in Pennsylvania the total of two cuts to be in a
season 11^ tons green fodder, equal to nearly 3 tons dry on an acre.
One of the best plants for green manure [Revd. Dr. Muecke]. A
good honey-plant. It matures seeds near Christiania [Schuebeler].
Has done particularly well in Hawaia.
Oryza latifolia, Desvaux.
Wild in Central America, but perhaps of Asiatic origin. This
species is said to be perennial and to attain a height of 18 feet. It
deserves trial culture, and may prove a good fodder-grass on wet
land in warm localities. O. perennis, (Moench) seems closely allied.
Bentham and J. Hooker are not inclined to admit more than one
species of Oryza. The present one is however maintained by
Grisebach.
Oryza sativa, Linne.*
The Rice-plant. South-Asia and North-Australia. Annual like
most cereals. Many rivulets in ranges afford ample opportunities
for irrigating rice-fields ; but these can be formed with full advan-
tage only in the warmer parts of extra-tropic countries, where rice
will ripen as well as in Italy, China, or the Southern States of the
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 343
American Union. In Persia it grows up to 8,000 feet. Among the
numerous varieties of Indian rice may be noted as prominent sorts :
The Early Rice (O. prsecox, Loureiro), which ripens in four months
and is not injured by saline inundations ; the hardier Mountain-Rice
(O. montana, Loureiro), which can be raised on comparatively dry
ground, and which actually perishes under lengthened inundation,
but which is less productive ; the Glutinous Rice (0. glutinosa,
Loureiro) which succeeds as well in wet as in almost dry places, and
produces black or reddish grains. Mr. H. A. Wickham recommends
the Brazilian and the Carolina varieties for Australia, as most prolific,
and as least troublesome in their culture. In the rich plains of Loin-
bardy, irrigated from the Alps, the average crop is estimated at 48
bushels for the acre annually. According to General Capron the
average yield in Japan is 50 bushels per acre, while on the Man-
ning River, in N.S.W., 60 bushels were obtained. The spirit,
distilled from rice and its molasses, is known as arrack. Rice-beer
known as " Sake," is extensively brewed in Japan, and is the
principal fermented beverage used by the inhabitants ; thus, according
to the "Journal of the Society of Arts," about 150 million gallons
are consumed annually. Rice starch is now consumed in enormous
quantities, particularly in Britain. Nearly 330,000 tons of rice to the
value of 2,690,000 were imported into the United Kingdom in
in 1889. Australia imports about 20,000 tons of rice annually,
valued at about 250,000. Only a few hundred acres are as yet
under this crop in North-Queensland, the yield there being from
| to 1 ton per acre [Essay on Rice growing by R. W. McCulloch
in " Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture of Queensland/' 1894].
The export from India during 1886 was estimated to have been about
9,000,000 [Dr. G. Watt]. Rice-sugar, called "Ame" in Japan,
constitutes there a kind of confectionery. For sanitary reasons it is
preferable to cultivate the mountain-rice, when that is possible.
Oryzopsis cuspidata, Bentham.
South-Western parts of North-America. A perennial grass of
easy dissemination. Tufts dense, hence one of the Bunch-grasses ;
thrives on soil too sandy and too dry for more valuable grasses [Dr.
Yasey].
Oryzopsis multiflora, Bentham. (Milium muttiflarum, Cayanilles ; Pipta-
therum multiflorum, Beauvois j Urachne parviflora, Trinius. )
Countries around the Mediterranean Sea, thence to Middle^Asia,
also Madeira and Canary -Islands, northwards to Tyrol. This tall
perennial grass grows naturally in the driest of localities [Prof.
Caruel]. No other grass at St. Vincent's Gulf grows so luxuriantly
with so little water and exposed to so great a heat [Hon. R. A.
Tarlton]. Succeeded well in the hot dry Wimmera-country [F.
Reader].
344 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Oryzopsis panicoides, Bentham. (Piptochcetium panicoictes, E. Desvaux.)
Extra-tropical South- America. This with some congeners affords
good pasturage in Chili and the La Plata-States [Hieronymus].
Osmanthus fragrans, Loureiro.
China and Japan. The flowers of this bush serve for oil-distilla-
tion like those of the Jasmine. The scent of one plant will perfume
a whole conservatory [G-. W. Johnson].
Osmitopsis asteriscoides, Cassini.
South- Africa. A camphor- scented shrub, much in use there for
medicinal purposes [Dr. Pappe].
Ostrya carpinifolia, Scopoli.
" The Hop-Hornbeam/' South-Europe and Orient. A deciduous
tree, reaching 60 feet in height. Uses much like those of the fol-
lowing.
Ostrya Virginica, Willdenow.
" Lever-wood " Tree of Eastern States of North- America, also
Mexico. Occasionally called Iron-wood ; to 40 feet high, in rich
woodlands. Wood singularly hard, close-grained and heavy, in use
for levers, mill-cogs, wheels, mallets, wedges and other implements.
Cattle browse on the foliage. The growth of the tree is very slow.
Osyris compressa, A. de Candolle. (Colpoon compressum, Bergins.)
South- Africa. One of the most valuable tans for finer leathers is
provided there by the leaves and young twigs of this shrub or small
tree. The bloom obtained from this tan is much like that imparted
by Sumach.
Owenia venosa, F. v. Mueller.
Queensland ; called locally Sour-Plum. A tree, approaching finally
40 feet in height, furnishing a wood of great strength. O. acidula,
F. v. M., the " Rancouran," is a handsome tree, 50 feet high, with
close-grained, nicely-marked wood. Culture might improve the
fruits.
Oxalis crassicaulis, Zuccarini.
Peru. This seems one of the best of those Wood-Sorrels, which
yield a tuberous edible root. Amongst others, O. tuberosa (Molina)
and O. succulenta (Barneaud) from Chili, as well as O. carnosa
(Molina) and O. conorrhiza (Jacquin) from Paraguay, might be tried
for their tubers.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 345
Oxalis crenata, Jacquin.
Peru and Bolivia. There the tubers largely consumed ; they lose
their acidity by being exposed to the sun, becoming sweet, and con-
tain a good deal of starch [Vilmorin] .
Oxalis Deppei, Loddiges.
Mexico. The tubers of this Wood-Sorrel resemble small parsnips,
;md are not at all acid. The plant undergoes regular cultivation in
some parts of its native country, and succeeds well in the south of
England [Chambers]. In Prof. Meehan's " Gardener's Monthly,"
August, 1884, an Oxalis is mentioned as cultivated in California
which produced from one original root as much as 150 tubers in a
season, their form being pear-like.
Oxalis esculenta, Otto and Dietrich.
" Spurious Aracacha." Mexico, there, with the preceding species
and O. tetraphylla (Cavanilles), O. violacea (Linne) and several
others, producing tuberous, starchy, wholesome roots ; the first men-
tioned gives the largest yield. Propagated by subdivision of the
root-stock or bulbilles. It requires a deep, rich, moist soil. In
Norway it can be grown to lat. 70 [Schuebeler]. As similarly
useful may be noted, among many others, O. enneaphylla (Cavanilles)
from the Falkland-Islands and Magelhaen's Straits,
Oxytropis pilosa, De Candolle. (Astragalus ptfosus, Linne.)
Europe, West-Asia. This perennial plant furnishes fair pasture-
herbage ; it is deep-rooted and content with almost absolute sand ;
the numerous other species 24 alone enumerated as Oriental by
Boissier should be tested. All these plants might be classed as
Astragals. They as a rule are satisfied with poor soil.
Pachyma Cocos, Fries.
The Tuckahoe-Truffle or Indian Bread. North-America and
East-Asia.
Pachyma Hcelen, Fries.
China. This large truffle occurs particularly in the province of
Souchong. Flavor most agreeable. Naturalisation elsewhere to be
tried.
\
Pachyrrhizus angulatus, Richard.* (Dolichos bulbosus, Lamarck.)
From Central America rendered spontaneous in many tropical
countries. A climber, the horizontal starchy roots of which attain a
length of 8 feet and a thickness of many inches. Dr. Peckolt records
tubers of 70 Ibs. weight. They keep in dry ground, growing for five
years, but such are then available only for starch, whereas annual
346 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
tubers are the most palatable and yield 6 or 7 per cent, of starch.
From the stems a tough fibre is obtained. The plant proved hardy
at Sydney \ it requires rich soil.
Pachyrrhizus tuberosus, Sprengel. (Dolichos tuberosus, Lamarck.)
The Yam-bean or Ahipa of Venezuela and other parts of South-
America up to elevated country. Climbing to a height of 20 feet.
Pods much larger than those of P. angulatus, in a young state
serving like French beans, when boiled tender and sweetish, but
deleterious when raw [Trimen, Dyer]. They are free from fibrous
strings at the hedge. Seeds variable in colour. The tubers of three
plants may fill a bushel-basket [Macfadyen] ; they mature within
some few months. These edible tubers may attain a weight of
60 Ibs. [Naudin].
Palaquiuni Ghltta, Baillon and Burck.* (Dichopsis Gutta, Bentham ; Iso-
nandra Gutta, Hooker.)
The " Gutta-Percha " or the " Gutta-Taban " Tree. Malayan
Peninsula and Sunda-Islands. Attains a height of 150 feet. It
seems not altogether hopeless to render this highly important tree
a denizen of the mildest wood-regions in temperate climes, Murton
having traced it to elevations of 3,500 feet. Indeed, the plant will
live in the clime of Port Phillip without protection. The milky sap,
obtained by ringing the bark at 5 to 15 inches interstices, is heated
for an hour before gradual exsiccation, otherwise its product becomes
brittle ; 5 to 20 catties yielded by one tree. Genuine Gutta-percha
is only got from plants of the sapotaceous order, as far as hitherto
known. Besides Palaquium Gutta, which yields the best red Gutta-
percha of Borneo, but is slow of growth and does not produce much
till it has attained an age of 30 years, the following are actually
drawn into use for obtaining this gum-resin : Imbricaria coriacea, A.
de Candolle ; Mimusops Elengi, L.; M. Manilkara, G. Don ; Sider-
oxylon attenuatum, D. C., Illippe (Bassia) sericea, Blume ; Payenia
macrophylla, P. Leeri (which affords the Sundek-Gutta in brackish
coast-lands, as shown by Trimen) and Dichopsis Maingayi, Cl.;
Palaquium obovatum, P. polyanthemum, P. Krantzianum, Burck ;
Cocosmanthus macrophyllus, Hassk., all from tropical Asia ;
Chrysophyllum Africanum, A. de Candolle, from tropical Africa ;
Achras sapota, L., Mimusops globosa, Gaertner, from Central
America ; but many of these at often cool elevations. Possibly
other sapotaceous trees, including some Australian, could be worked
for Gutta-percha. For the search of new kinds of Gutta-Percha-
trees in unexplored regions practical experts, conversant with the
gathering and preparing the sap, should be specially engaged. The
Gutta-Percha-trees require more than any other plant at the present
day to be reared for the world's supply of a most important industrial
article, for which there is no substitute. Of this article 62,000 cwt.
were introduced into Great Britain in 1884, valued at 462,000, in
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 347
1892 the import amounted to fully 4,000 tons at a value of about
860,000, of which quantity this Palaquium must have supplied a
large proportion. According to a recent article in the "Revue des
Eaux et Forets " Gutta-percha can also be obtained from the foliage
of the trees by a simple and not very costly process to the extent of
9 per cent. Pierre, after the indications of Bentham, adopts the
generic name Palaquium, and adds as Gutta-Percha yielding : Pala-
quium Malaccense, P. Oxleyanum, P. formosum, P. princeps and P.
Borneense, all previously undescribed species, either from Malacca or
Sumatra or Borneo (see " Bulletin mens. de la Soc. Lin. de Paris,"
Juin, 1885). Dr. Burck admits among Sunda-Island Gutta-Percha
trees as really valuable only Palaquium oblongifolium (the most
frequent and the best), P. Borneense, P. Treubei, the original P.
Gutta being as a native plant almost annihilated. P. ellipticum
(Bassia elliptica, Dalzell) ascends to the almost temperate elevations
of 4,000 feet, and is tapped for Pala, a substance allied to Gutta-
Percha [General Cullen]. Besides for the isolation of electric
currents, Gutta-Percha is used for water-pipes, fire-buckets, shoe-
soles, driving belts in machinery, surgical instruments, knife-handles,
picture-frames, also for the multiplication of woodcuts, by dentists for
filling hollow teeth, for covering rollers of presses, for statues, for
varnish to cover documents ; for waterproof cloth one part of Gutta-
Percha is added to ten parts of linseed-oil. The substance was first
made known by Dr. Montgomery in India (1842) and in London by
Jose d'Almeida (1843).
Paliurus ramosissimus, Poiret. (P. Aubletia, Schultes.)
China and Japan. A thorny tree, which could be utilised for
hedging.
Paliurus Spina Ctiristi, Miller. (P. aculeaius, Lambert.)
The Christ-Thorn. From the Mediterranean Sea to Nepal. A
deciduous bush or finally tree, which can be trimmed into hedges.
Panax fruticosa, Linne".
Southern Asia, New Guinea, Polynesia. This odorous shrub is
used in some countries like Parsley and Celery [Miquel].
Pandanus furcatus, Roxburgh.
This Screw-Pine occurs in India, up to heights of 4,000 feet,
according to Dr. S. Kurz ; hence it will be likely to bear a temperate
clime, and give a stately plant for scenic group-planting. P. pedun-
culatus, R. Br., occurs in East-Australia as far south as 32, and an
allied tall species (P. Forsteri, Moore and Mueller) luxuriates in
Howe's Island.
348 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Panicum agrostoides, Muehlenberg.
North- America. One of the hardiest species, bearing the winter-
cold of New York. Can be utilised for muddy baaks and undrained
marshy meadows. Easily disseminated, forming large tall clumps,
flowering as well from the joints as tops ; yields abundance of hay,
but must be cut while young [Dr. Vasey].
Panicum altissimum, G. Meyer. (P. elatius, Kunth.)
From Mexico to Brazil. An almost woody species of arborescent
habit, attaining a height of 30 feet. Panicles sometimes a foot and a
half long. Evidently desirable for naturalisation.
Panicum amarum, Elliot.
Eastern North- America. A perennial species, fit to be grown on
drifting coast- sand.
Panicum antidotale, Retzius.
Southern Asia, Northern Australia. Height to 8 feet. Affords
the most copious natural fodder in some parts of Baluchistan [J. H.
Lace] .
Panicum atrovirens, Trinius. (Isachne Australis, R. Brown.)
South-Asia, East- Australia and New Zealand. A perennial grass,
not large, but of tender nutritive blade, particularly fitted for moist
valleys and woodlands, liked by pasture-animals.
Panicum brizanthum, Hochstetter.
From Abyssinia to Nepal. A large-grained perennial Millet-
Grass.
Panicum coenicolum, F. v. Mueller.
Extra-tropic Australia. Valuable as an enduring grass for moist
meadows. By the copiousness or scantiness or absence of Panicums
may the climate of various countries to some extent be recognised.
Panicum colonum, Linne".
South-Europe, North-Africa, South-Asia, North-America, Aus-
tralia. Annual. Considered one of the best fodder-grasses in India.
It is greedily eaten by cattle, the abundant crop of grain adding to
its nutritive value. In Northern India the grain serves the inhabit-
ants for food [Dr. G. Watt].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 349
Panicum compositum, Linn<$. (Oplismenus compositus, Beauvois.)
South-Asia, East-Australia, Polynesia, New Zealand. The
growth of this soft-bladed and prolific grass should be encouraged
in forest-ground.
Panicum Crus G-alli, Linne.*
The " Barnyard- or Cockshin-Grass." Occurring now in all warm
countries, but probably of far oriental origin, as it seems not recorded
in our ancient classic literature. A rich grass of ready spontaneous
dispersion, particularly along sandy river-banks, also around stagnant
water. Annual in cool climes and nowhere of long duration. P.
Crus Corvi, L. is a variety of it. Regarded by R. Brown as indige-
nous in Eastern and Northern Australia, where many other excellent
fodder-species occur, some perennial. It will succeed also on some-
what saline soil, particularly on brackish water-courses, likewise on
moor-land. For rural rearing the short-awned variety should be
chosen. On the Lower Mississippi it has furnished as much as four
or even five tons of hay from one acre. Noticed in Japan already by
the early European travellers. Had the Alexandrian Library not
been burnt, some clue as to the real place of the origination of this
grass and many other plants might have been obtained. Cows and
horses are very fond of this grass whether fresh or dry [Professor
Phares]. Mr. J. R. Walpole writes : It is a prolific seed-bearer,
throwing up a number of thick and succulent stems, up to 4 feet length.
On gravelly river-flats it particularly luxuriates ; even when placed
on dry banks it will resist heat well. Very little moisture causes the
seed to germinate and to start the plant into growth rapidly. It will
stand close feeding. The grains serve well for feeding small cage-
birds. P. hispidulum, Retzius, which accords with the Cockshin-
Grass in prolific growth and nutritiveness, prefers moist situations,
but will also stand considerable dryness.
Panicum decompositum, R. Brown. (P. loevinode, Lindley.)*
The Australian Millet. One of the most spacious of Australian
nutritious grasses. The aborigines convert the small millet-like
grains into cakes. It is the only grain stored by the nomads of
Central Australia. This grass will thrive on poor soil with Eleusine
cruciata (Lam.), coming to maturity after rains in one month in the
torrid regions of Central Australia [Rev. H. Kempe]. Hardly dif-
ferent from the North-American P. capillare, L., except in perennial
roots. The allied P. trachyrrhachis (Bentham) from North- and
East-Australia also constitutes a very good pasture-grass. Of
similar value the exclusively Australian P. effusum, R. Br. They
are among the few nutritious grasses fit for hot and arid desert-
tracts. Known to have grown after summer rains, within 5 weeks, to
3 feet and to flower,
350 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Panicum distachyum, Linn.
From Southern Asia to Eastern and Central Australia. The
Twofinger-Grass. A perennial grass, rooting at the nodes, yielding
a large quantity of fodder and much grown for hay. Dr. Bancroft
states that horses will not leave this grass and that it is also most
useful for freshwater-marshes and for consolidating river-banks.
Panicum divaricatissimum, R. Brown.
Australia, particularly in the warmer inland-regions. A good
perennial grass, of easy growth on poor soil.
Panicum divaricatum, Linne.
Central and Southern America. A grass of scandent hahit,
ascending high up in trees ; desirable for naturalisation in forests.
Panicum enneaneurum, Grisebach.
La Plata-States. Prof. Hieronymus mentions this along with P.
grumosum (Nees), P. laxum (Swartz), P. oblongatum (Grisebach)
and P. rivulare (Trinius) as rendering the Pampas-pastures so nutri-
tive.
* ,
Panicum flavidum, Retzius.
Southern Asia, tropical and Eastern sub-tropical Australia. A
prolific seed-bearer, often prostrated by the weight of the seeds.
Panicum fluitans, Retzius.
Tropical A sia and Africa. This perennial grass, like P. spinescens
(R. Brown) of East- Australia, ought to be naturalised along lakes,
lagoons and rivers, particularly for the benefit of waterfowl.
Panicum foliosum, R. Brown.
India, East- Australia. Perennial. Mr. Bailey finds this to be one
of the best grasses for river-banks. Refer for further information on
this and other Queensland grasses to his and Staiger's illustrated
monography.
Panicum frumentaceum, Roxburgh.*
The " Shamalo- or Deccan-Grass." Probably introduced from
tropical Africa into South-Asia. A hardy summer-grass, having
matured seeds even at Christiania [Schuebeler]. It serves as a
fodder-grass and produces also a kind of millet. In warm moist
, climes it ripens grains in 1 J months from the time of sowing. The
grain much recommended by Mr. C. B. Taylor for culinary purposes.
The seed is sown in the silt deposited by the overflow of the rivers
in India [Dr. G. Watt]. Perhaps only a variety of P. colonum.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 351
Panicum gracile, R Brown.
Perennial. Proved one of the best of pasture-grasses in arid tracts
of sub-tropic West-Australia [Isaac Tyson].
Indicum, Llnn. (P. myurus, Lamarck.)
Tropical Asia and America, North-Eastern Australia. A per-
ennial aquatic grass, with broad-bladed foliage, fit for ditches and
swamps. Regarded by Mr. Bailey as very palatable and nutritious
to stock.
Panicum Italicum, Linne.* (Setaria Italica, Beauvois. )
This grass, notwithstanding its name, is also of Asiatic origin,
ascending the Himalayas to 6,500 feet, extending to China and
Japan. It even ripens in cold climes, its seeds coming to perfection
as far north as Christiania [Schuebeler]. Reared in Switzerland
since pre-historic ages ; one of the five kinds of plants, sown cere-
moniously each year by the Emperor of China, according to an
Imperial custom initiated 2,700 years before the Christian era [A.
de Candolle] . It is annual, attaining a height of 5 feet, and is par-
ticularly worthy of cultivation as a tender green fodder. In warm
climes it can be had all through the year, according to the time of
sowing ; preferentially grown in many parts of East- Australia for
stable-animals, producing in the littoral regions there very heavy
crops. It keeps weeds down, and is one of the most valuable of
soiling plants; withstands drought well; yields early in the season a
heavy crop of excellent hay, which dries easily [C. Mohr]. The
abundantly produced grain is not only one of the best for poultry,
but that of some varieties can be utilised as millet ; considered by
many a delicious grain for cakes and porridge. The Brahmins
hold it in higher esteem than any other grain [Dr. Ainslie]; called
Mohar-Millet or Hungarian Millet. P. Germanicum (Roth) is a form
of this species. Allied are also the West-Indian Panicum (Setaria)
magnum (Grisebach), which attains a height of 10 feet on margins
of lagoons, and Panicum macrostachyum (Nees) of East- Australia,
South- Asia and tropical America, the latter species highly praised
by Mr. R. L. Holmes in Fiji and by Prof. Hieronymus in Argen-
tina. The genuine plant may yield thousandfold.
Panicum Javanicum, Poiret. (P. Koenigii, Sprengel; P. ffelopus, Trinius.)
Tropical and sub-tropical Africa, Asia and Australia. A good
fodder-grass, broad-bladed, in N. W. India especially lauded by
Duthie, along with P. antidotale (Retzius).
Panicum latissimum, Mikan.
Brazil. A highly ornamental grass. Leaves extremely broad, but
hard; panicle very rich.
352 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Panicum maximum, Jacquin.* (P. jumentorum, PersoQn.)
The Guinea-grass. Tropical Africa ; elsewhere not indigenous.
This perennial grass attains a height of 10 feet. It is highly
nutritious, and quite adapted for the warmer temperate zone, being
hardy as far south as Buenos Ayres. In Jamaica it is the principal
fodder-grass up to elevations of 5,000 feet, springing up over wide
tracts of country almost to the exclusion of everything else. It
forms large bunches, which when cut young supply a particularly
sweet and tender hay ; throws out numerous stolons ; can be mown
every six weeks ; the roots can be protected in the ground against
light frosts by a thin covering with soil. A favorite grass in tropical
countries for stall-fodder. The best fodder-grass raised on the plains
of India. Will exceptionally grow 6 inches in a day. It is neces-
sary to guard against over-feeding with this grass solely. Succeeds
even on poor clay-soil and on sea-sand. Although this grass seeds
freely it is best propagated by cuttings [Dr. Watt]. P. bulbosum
(Kunth) is a more hardy grass of the southern parts of North-
America, regarded as a variety by General Munro, but remarkable
for its thickly enlarged roots.
Panicum melananthum, F.'' ^Mueller.
Eastern Australia. A valuable perennial grass for pastoral pur-
poses [Bailey]. Adapted also for shady localities. Eligible for
irrigation-ground.
Panicum miliaceum, Linne.* (P. miliare, Lamarck.)
The true "Millet." South-Europe, North-Africa, .South- Asia,
ascending the Himalayas to 1 1,000 feet, North- Australia. Cultivated
in Southern Europe as early as the time of 'Hippocrates (who con-
sidered it a good dietetic) and Theophrast^s, in Egypt prior to
historic records and in Switzerland during the st'one-age. Annual,
attaining a height of four. feet. Very eligible for green fodder.
Several varieties occur, one with black grains. They all need a rich
and friable soil, also humidity. Maturation very quick. It is one of
the best of all grains for poultry, but furnishes also a palatable and
nutritious table-food. A syrup is prepared from the seeds in' Siberia
[A. Regel]. It ripens even in Christiania [Sehuebeler]. In : the
Wimmera-country it is grown as easily as Avheat [Reader]. In mild
countries as many as 70 bushels of seeds have been harvested from
an acre of land, well cultivated with this grass [Ch. Flint]. The
yield may be thousandfold.
Panicum molle, Swartz.* (P. barbinode, Trinius. )
Warmer parts of America, Africa and Asia. One of the Para-
grasses. A perennial, very fattening pasture-grass, of luxuriant
growth, attaining a height of 6 feet [Grisebach]. It is hardy at the
Cape of Good Hope and other far extra-tropic regions. Passes also
as Para-grass.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 353
PaniCTim nigrirostre, Nees. (Setaria nigrirostris, F. v. Mueller.)
South-Africa. Though annual, this species is valued as a nutri-
tious meadow-grass, readily spreading of its own accord.
Panicum obtusum, Humboldt.*
The Mosquito- or Mezquite-grass of Mexico. Perennial, nutri-
tious ; has strong running stems, which at distances of two or three
feet take root, and send up leafy bunches. Dr. Vasey thinks that
this grass will show great endurance in droughty seasons.
Panicum parviflorum, JR.. Brown.
East- Australia. . On dry hills a fine pasture-grass. P. bicolor and
P. marginatum, R. Br., are likewise enumerated by Mr. Bailey among
the nutritious grasses of East- Australia.
Panicum plicatum, Lamarck.
Southern- Asia, Madagascar. This spacious broad-leaved grass
proved hardy as far south .as Port Phillip. Pasture-animals, par-
ticularly horses, are fond of it [J. Dixon].
Panicum proliferum, Lamarck.*
Southern parts of North-America. Recorded by Steudel as per-
ennial, by Chapman and others as annual. Evidently one of the
hardier species, particularly eligible for wet brackish ground [Prof.
A. Gray] . Vegetates luxuriantly in the hottest part of the summer,
the stems lengthening sometimes to 7 feet, soon bending and then
rooting from the lower joints, throwing out numerous shoots from
them, which grow rapidly, allowing of repeated cutting ; stems thick,
succulent, sweetish, panicles to 2 feet long. Through all stages of
its growth this grass is much relished by horses and cattle [Dr. C.
Mohr]. Several congeners reach an unusually high geographic lati-
tude in North- America.
Panicum prolutum, F. v. Mueller.
South-Eastern Australia. Flourishes in the hottest weather ; bears
a large panicle of seed.
Panicum prostratum, Lamarck. (P. seligerum, Retzius.)
Egypt, South-Asia, North-Australia, perhaps also indigenous to
tropical America. Perennial. Recommendable for pastures.
Panicum pygmseum, R. Brown.
East-Australia. Forms a soft, thick, carpet-like vendure in forest-
shade [Bailey], thus seemingly eligible as a lawn-grass.
2 A
354 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Panicum repens, Linne. 4
Near the Mediterranean Sea, also in South- Asia and North-Aus-
tralia. Regarded by the Cingalese as a good fodder-grass. It is
perennial and well suited for naturalisation on moist soil, river-banks
and swamps. P. coloratum, L., seems a variety of purplish colour,
and is therefore used ornamentally in vases.
Panicum roseum, Steudel.* (Tricholcena rosea, Nees.)
South-Africa. This perennial pretty grass promises to become
with others of the section Tricholaena valuable for meadows in mild
climes. It gets about 2 feet high. Mr. Danger counted nearly 300
stems on one plant in Gippsland ; grows there most vigorously,
densely covering meadow-ground, much relished by stock. Also
much lauded by Mr. Holtze as a pasture-grass in extra-tropic South-
Australia. Well calculated to increase the national provender on
runs. In Fiji it reaches a height of 4 feet ; it rises most readily from
seed, even if the latter is merely blown about [R. L. Holmes]. It
will not bear frost ; the stems take root where they touch the
ground ; an acre has been calculated to yield 30 tons green feed in
the rich valleys of the Macleay-River. Quite suitable for bouquets
[A. R, Crawford].
Panicum sanguinale, Linn.
From Middle and South-Europe, Northern Africa and Southern
Asia, spread through all countries with a warm climate, and appa-
rently also indigenous in North- and East-Australia. The " Finger-
grass," called " Crab-grass " in the United States, where according to
Mr. Hagenauer it is recognised as one of the most useful of all
pasture-grasses ; in Fiji it is also considered the best grass for pas-
tures according to Mr. Holmes. It accommodates itself to swampy
and shady places, readily gets disseminated on barren ground, and it
is likely to add to the value of desert-pastures at least in oases, but
in cold countries it is annual. P. ciliare (Linne") and P. glabrum
(Gaudin) are allied. Colonel Howard of Georgia says of the Crab-
grass and Bermuda-grass, that they will live in spite of neglect, but
when petted will make such grateful returns as to astonish their
benefactor. The Finger-grass spreads readily from seeds as well as
joints. Valuable also for binding coast-sand and fixing soil along
water-courses ; but in warm regions it may become intrusive on agri-
cultural land. Shy to frost. It will spread out to 4 feet width in a
year, emitting hundreds of fascicles of florets [W. Read]. Growth
after summer-rains very quick. Thrives splendidly on the sandhills
of the hot Australian interior also ; grows there most vigorously.
Mr. John Clayton also bestows great praise on it for its splendid
growth on the lower Swan-river. In the southern states of North-
America much valued for midsummer-pasture, though for nay the
yield also there proved but light [Sereno Watson].
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 355
Panicum semialatum, R. Brown.
Warmer regions of Asia, Africa and Australia. A superior tall
pasture-grass, of easy dispersion in warm humid localities.
Panicum spectabile, Nees.*
The " Coapim " of Angola, called also " Wonder-Grass " after its
incomparable display of incalculable value. From West- Africa
transferred to many other tropical countries. A rather succulent, very
fattening grass, famed not only in its native land, but also long since
in Brazil, as already mentioned in Lindley's " Vegetable Kingdom/'
p. 113 (1847), from Nees von Esenbeck's even earlier publication on
this subject. This grass, which was with the invoked help of the
great Kew-establishment first obtained by the author for Australia
and Polynesia, is according to Mr. R. L. Holmes " the wonder of all
beholders in Fiji, strangling by its running roots almost everything
in its course ; at its original starting point forming a mass of the
richest green foliage, over 6 feet high, gradually lowering to the
outer border, where a network of shoots or runners covers the
ground ; it roots at the joints, and sends up then a mass of the
softest and most luscious nutritive fodder." In Fiji it runs over the
soil at the rate of 10 feet in three months. From Port Darwin largely
distributed by the Messrs. Holtze. Readily propagated by pieces of
the procumbent stem, which roots freely at each joint. Spoken of
also in high praise on account of its astonishing growth by Mr.
Edgar, of Rockhampton Botanic Garden, Queensland, who mentions
that it still succeeds well in Western Queensland, 500 miles inland
from Rockhampton. It also thrives on the Upper Murchison River
in West Australia [Isaac Tyson]. It has flowered at Port Phillip.
Destined to play a grand role in the pasturage -of Australia. Like
other luxuriant grasses when grown in low wet ground, this grass
can also become hurtful, particularly to sheep, and it may therefore
be needful to occasionally shift flocks and herds from pastures of this
grass, should they become over-rich. In tropical countries it must be
kept away from agricultural land. Has also done well in Riverina
[Dr. Mem]. Spreads wonderfully as far south as Geographe-Bay in
West Australia [Pries]. Requires to be well fed down. It may be
assumed, that at present about 300 well-defined species of Pauicum
are known, chiefly tropical and sub- tropical ; very few extending
naturally to Europe or the United States of North- America, Japan
or the southern part of Australia. Though mostly from the hot
zones, these grasses endure a cooler clime in many instances, and some
of them would prove great acquisitions, particularly the perennial
species. Numerous good kinds occur spontaneously in Queensland
and North- Australia. Panicum is the genus richest in species among
grasses.
Panicum striatum, Lamarck. (P. gibbum, Elliott.)
Southern States of North-America, West-Indies and Guiana. A
perennial grass for swampy localities, valuable for pastoral purposes,
2A2
356 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
according to C. Mohr, who mentions also P. anceps (L.) and P. Mans
(Elliott) as good fodder-grasses.
Panicum tenuiflorum, R. Brown. (Paspalum brevifolium, Fluegge.)
South-Asia and East-Australia. It has a running stem and forms
a good bottom as a pasture-grass [Bailey].
Panicum Texanum, Buckley.
Texas. The " Colorado Bottom-grass," also called " Green River-
grass." One of the best of forage-grasses for horses, cattle and sheep ;
yields a sure crop, and produces 2 to 3 tons per acre [Vasey]. The
hay from this grass is of a superior kind ; it can be cut twice in the
season [Carrington]. This grass is however annual, but very leafy
and becomes decumbent and widely spreading ; growth rapid, many
stalks proceeding from the same root. Mr. P. Lea of Texas con-
siders it is the best native grass for hay there, and notes that all kinds
of pasture-animals like it preferentially, that the hay from this proved
also exceedingly nutritious, and that it subdues weeds readily. Mr.
Ravenel of Carolina found it there to come up spontaneously, much
better and larger than most other grasses. Height to 6 feet.
Panicum turgidum, Forskael.
Egypt, where this millet yields a bread-grain.
Panicum virgatum, Linn.
North-America. A tall perennial species, with a wide, nutritious
panicle. Easily disseminated. Content with sandy soil, but likes
some humidity. The foliage good for fodder when young. Frequent
on the prairies, but it will grow even also on sandy sea-coasts. It
passes in some places as Switch-grass.
Panicum virlde, Linn. (Setaria viridis, Beauvois.)
Widely spread over many parts of the old world. Though annual,
this grass is of value for the first vegetation on bare sand-land, over
which, as well as over calcareous soil, it spreads with remarkable
facility. The same may be said of Panicum glaucum and a few
other related species.
Papaver somniferum, Linn6.*
The Opium-Poppy. Countries on the Mediterranean Sea. The
capsules of this tall annual, so showy for its flowers, are used for
medicinal purposes. From the minute, but exceedingly numerous seeds,
oil of a harmless and most palatable kind can be pressed remunera-
tively. India exports of these seeds 25,000 tons annually [Dr. Gr.
Watt]. But the still more important use of this plant is for the pre-
paration of opium. Both the black- and pale-seeded varieties can be
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 357
used for the production of this drug. The return of poppy-culture,
whether for opium or for oil, is obtained within a few months. In
Hesse Cassel it has recently been proved, that the Poppy-stubbles
can well be utilised for sheep-fodder. Mild and somewhat humid
open forest-tracts proved most productive for obtaining opium from
this plant ; but it can also be reared in colder localities, good opium
rich in morphia having even been obtained in Middle Europe and the
Northern United States, the summers there being sufficiently long to
ripen the poppy with a well-elaborated sap. Indeed the plant matures
its seeds as far north as lat 69 18' in Norway [Schuebeler]. Within
the tropics it can also be raised, but best during the cool season.
The morphia-contents in opium from Gippsland were on an average
somewhat over 1 per cent. The extraction of morphine is not diffi-
cult. Opium was prepared in the Melbourne Botanic Gardens for
the Exhibition of 1866 ; but Mr. J. Bosisto and Mr. J. Hood have
given first commercial dimensions to this branch of rural industry in
Australia. The Smyrna-variety is particularly desirable for
opium ; it enables the cultivator to get from 40 Ibs. to 75 Ibs. of
opium from an acre, generally worth 30s. to 35s. per pound. The
ground for poppy-culture must be naturally rich or otherwise be well
manured ; dressing with ashes increases the fecundity of the plant.
The seeds, about 9 Ibs. to the acre, are generally sown broadcast
mixed with sand. Seeds underground have been known to retain
their vitality for half-a-dozen years [Dr. W. 0. Focke]. In the most
favorable places as many as three crops are obtained during a season.
The collecting of the opium, which consists merely of the indurating
sap of the seed-vessels, is commenced a few days after the lapse of
the petals. Superficial incisions, horizontal or diagonal, are made into
the capsules as they successively advance to maturity. This opera-
tion is best performed in the afternoon and evening, and requires no
laborious toil. The milky opium-sap, thus directed outwards, is
scraped off next morning into a shallow cup, and allowed to dry in a
place away from sunlight ; it may also be placed on poppy leaves.
From one to six successive incisions are made to exhaust the sap,
according to season, particular locality or the knife-like instrument
employed. In the Department of Somme (France) alone opium to
the value of 70,000 annually is produced and poppy-seed to the
value of 170,000. Australian seasons as a rule are favorable for
collecting opium, and therefore this culture is rendered less pre-
carious here than in many other countries. Our opium proved often
as good as the best Smyrna-kind. The petals are dried for packing
the opium. The main-value of opium depends on its contents of
morphia, for which the genus Papaver, as far as hitherto known,
remains the sole source; but not less than fourteen (according to some
authorities even twenty-one) alkaloids have been detected in opium by
the progressive strides of organic chemistry : codein, metamorphin,
morphia or morphin, narcein, narcotin, opianin, papaverin, porphy-
roxin, xanthopin, meconidin, codamin, laudanin, pseudo-morphin and
thebain. It contains besides an indifferent bitter principle, meconin
358 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
and meconic acid (vide " Wittstein's Chemische Analyse von
Pflanzentheilen," or my English edit. p. 163). The best Turkish
opium contains 13 to 13 J per cent, morphin. Various species of
Papaver produce more or less opium and morphia. Great Britain in
1889 imported 492,000 Ibs. of opium, valued at 298,000. P.
setigerum (De Candolle), supposed to be the wild state of P. somni-
ferum, was cultivated, evidently for the sake of the seeds, by the
lacustrine people of Switzerland prior to historic ages [Heer].
Pappea Capensis, Ecklon and Zeyher.
South-Africa. The fruit of this tree is of the size of a cherry,
savory and edible. The seeds furnish an oil similar to castor-oil in
its effects [Prof. MacOwan].
Pappophorum commune, F. v. Mueller.
Widely dispersed over the continent of Australia, occurring also in
some parts of Asia and Africa. Perennial ; regarded as a very
fattening pasture-grass, and available for arid localities and almost
rainless zones. It proved one of the best pasture-grasses in the arid
tracts of sub-tropic Western Australia [Isaac Tyson],
Parinarium Nonda, F. v. Mueller.
The " Nonda-tree " of "North-Eastern Australia. Attains a
height of 60 feet ; its wood soft, close-grained, easily worked
[W. Hill]. May prove hardy in mild temperate climes, and may
perhaps live in the dry and hot air of deserts, where it deserves
trial-culture for the sake of its edible, mealy, plum-shaped fruit.
A few other species with esculent drupes occur in different tropical
countries.
Paritium tiliaceum, St. Hilaire. (Hibiscus tiliaceus, Linne. )
Tropical and sub-tropical countries, especially on sea-shores,
extending to Australia, in Hawaii up to 2,000 feet. A small tree.
The copiously obtainable bast supplies material for tough and pliable
ropes ; the wood is light and serves for outriggers of canoes [Dr.
Hillebrand]. Desirable for naturalisation.
Parkinsonia aculeata, Linne".
From California to Uruguay. A thorny shrub, clearly adapted
for the warmer regions of the temperate zone, where it might be
utilised with the following plant for evergreen hedges. Became
naturalised in the milder tracts of Eastern Australia. Quite hardy
at Port Phillip. The flowers are handsome. Six other species occur
in various parts of America.
Parkinsonia Africana, Sender.
South- Africa. A tall hedge-bush.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries: 359
Parrotia Jacquemontiana, Decaisne.
North- Western Himalayas, from about 3,000 to 8,500 feet eleva-
tion. This deciduous-leaved small tree merits attention. Its tough
and pliable twigs are used for basket-work and preferred for twig-
bridges, the latter sometimes 300 feet long ; hence this tree could
be used for a variety of economic purposes [Stewart and Brandis].
One of the best woods for walking-sticks and particularly Alp-sticks.
P. Persica (C. A. Meyer) occurs on the Caspian Sea.
Parthenium integrifolium, Linne.
Eastern North-America. The flowering tops of this perennial
bitter herb have come into use as a febrifuge [Houlton"].
Paspalum ciliatum, Humboldt.
Tropical South- America. A perennial and lauded cereal grass.
Paspalum conjugatum, Bergius.
South- America. Considered in India to be a good fodder-grass
[H. N. Ridley].
Paspalum dilatatum, Poiret. (P. ovatum, Trinius.)
North- and South- America into extra-tropical latitudes. Perennial ;
of excellent quality for fodder ; keeps green during the hottest
summer-time. Mr. Bacchus found it hardy up to a height of 2,000
feet in Victoria. It grew 4J feet in little more than two months in
New South Wales, after drought was followed by heavy rains. It is
closely allied to the Mexican P. virgatum, L. Introduced into Aus-
tralia by the writer with many other fodder-grasses. Reported to
have extraordinary drought-resistance [W. Farrer].
Paspalum distichum, Linn4.*
The " Silt-Grass." North- and South- America, except the colder
regions ; elsewhere probably introduced, though now widely natural-
ised also in the warmer coast-tracts of the eastern hemisphere.
Possibly indigenous to Australia also. Endures some frost. Will
submit to temporary inundation ; will grow half emerging in shallow
pools or on wet meadows, and proves quickly fattening to cattle
[A. R. Crawford]. A creeping bank- or swamp-grasss, forming
extensive cushions. It keeps beautifully green throughout the year,
affords a sufficiently tender blade for feed, and is exquisitely adapted
to cover silt or bare slopes on banks of ponds or rivers, where it
grows grandly ; moderate submersion does not destroy it, but frost
injures it ; it thrives well also on salt-marshes. Excellent for fern-
tree-tubs to produce a green sward and some overdrooping foliage.
The chemical analysis made in spring gave the following results :
Albumen 2'20, gluten I'll, starch T56, gum 1'64, sugar o'OO (F. v.
Mueller and L. Rummel).
360 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Paspahim Iseve, Michaux.
Southern States of North- America. Perennial. Prof. Phares
states, that for successive years two tons of hay of this meadow-
grass can be mown from an acre, it almost never seeding when
regularly cut.
Paspalum lentiginosum, Presl.
Southern States of North-America and Mexico. Spreads by
runners and forms a close turf [Dr. Vasey] . P. Floridanum
(Michaux) of the same region is a tall species of vigorous growth.
P. purpurascens (Elliott) is leafy and succulent, and roots at the
lower joints.
Paspalum notatum, Fluegge.*
From Virginia to Argentina. This is one of the best of fodder-
grasses there, forming a dense, soft, carpet-like sward on meadows,
and becoming particularly luxuriant and nutritious on somewhat saline
soil [Lorentz]. Closely cognate to P. distichum. P. ovatum
(Torrey) is probably a variety of P. notatum. It is known as
Alabama-grass. Hardy, perennial, relished by stock. Highly spoken
of in the Southern States of North America on account of its drought-
resisting property [Hon. J. L. Dow]. Dr. Vasey recommends it
as one of the very best pasture-grasses of Alabama, Louisiana and
Texas.
Paspalum platycaule, Poiret. (P. compressum, Presl.)
Warmer regions of North- and South- America, extending north-
ward to Alabama. A nutritive pasture-grass, particularly eligible
for sandy coast-lands [C. Mohr]. The creeping stems become
closely matted [Dr. Vasey].
Paspalum scrobiculatum, Linne.
Through the tropics of the eastern hemisphere widely dispersed,
extending to South-Eastern Australia, New Zealand and Polynesia
also. A valuable pasture-grass of several years' duration, which will
grow on poor land, also on swampy ground. A superior variety is
cultivated in India for a grain-crop. This grass furnishes a good
ingredient for hay. Its stem sometimes attains a height of 8 feet.
Rosenthal pronounces it pernicious, perhaps when long and exclusive
use is made of this grass, or possibly when diseased through fungus-
growth. In hot climes it can become a troublesome intruder on
plantations.
Paspalum stoloniferum, Bosc. (P. purpureum, Ruiz et Pavon.)
Central America. A fodder-grass of considerable value. Noticed
by Mr. T. Ball in the Andes up to 9,000 feet. Specially mentioned
as a good pasture-grass in Peru, by Professor Dr. J. A. de los Rios.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 361
Paspalum undulatum, Poiret.
North- and South- America. Noticed by C. Mohr as valuable for
fodder. A. Gray records it as annual.
Passiflora alata, Aiton.
Peru and Brazil. This Passion-flower and all the following (pro-
bably with some other species) furnish Granadilla-fruits. All the
species here recorded are perennial, some woody and widely climbing'.
Passiflora coccinea, Aublet.
From Guiana to the La Plata-States. The fruits are eaten raw or
boiled [Hieronymus]. This plant with probably many others of the
genus contains a chemical principle of hypnotic value.
Passiflora coerulea, Linne.
South-Brazil and Uruguay. One of the hardiest of all Passion-
flowers, and with many others well adapted for covering bowers,
rockeries and similar structures. Matures its fruit in the open air
even at London [Masters]. The Brazilian P. actinia (Hooker) is
hardy in Provence [Naudin]. Many of the equatorial species come
from mountainous regions, and may thus endure mild temperate
climates.
Passiflora edulis, Sims.
Southern Brazil. Frost-shy. With P. quadrangularis preferen-
tially grown in sub-tropic Eastern Australia. Fruit purple.
Passiflora filamentosa, Cavanilles.
Southern Brazil.
Passiflora incarnata, Linne".
North- America, from Virginia and Kentucky southward. The
fruits are called May-pops.
Passiflora laurifolia, Linne. (P. tinifolia, Jussieu.)
The Water-Lemon. From the West-Indies to Brazil.
Passiflora lingularis, Jussieu.
From Mexico to Bolivia. Professor Ernst of Caraccas says, that
its fruit is one of the finest anywhere in existence.
Passiflora lutea, Linne".
North- America, from Pennsylvania and Illinois southward. With
P. coerulea and P. incarnata among the hardiest of the genus.
Berries small.
362 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Passiflora macrocarpa, Masters.
Brazil and Peru. Mr. Walter Hill reported, to have obtained
fruits of 8 Ibs. weight at the Brisbane Botanic Garden. This species
is not SB prolific bearer [Edgar].
Passiflora maliformis, Linne.
From the West-Indies to Brazil.
Passiflora mucronata, Lamarck.
Brazil, extending far south. Fruit edible [Dr. Roseuthal].
Passiflora pedata, Linne.
From the West-Indies to Guiana. This is among the species,
mentioned by Dr. Rosenthal as yielding edible fruits.
Passiflora quadrangularis, Linne.
Brazil. One of the most commonly cultivated Granadillas. The
fruits attain a large size, and are of the finest taste. Cultivated in
Jamaica up to 3,000 feet [W. Fawcett]. Trained against a wall
the plant bears well near Port Jackson, if there are plenty of bees
about ; in the absence of these insects artificial fertilization may be
necessary to obtain a crop [Fred. Turner].
Passiflora serrata, Linne.
From the West-Indies to Brazil.
Passiflora SUberosa, Linne. (P. pallida, Linne.)
From Florida to Brazil. A careful investigator, Dr. Maxw.
Masters, has recently defined about 200 species of Passion-flowers.
Passiflora tiliifolia, Cavanilles.
Peru. Fruit edible, according to Dr. Rosenthal.
Paulinia CUpana, Humboldt. (P. sorbilis, Martins.)
Brazil. A climbing shrub, possibly hardy in the warm temperate
zones, where many tropical Cupania3 and other sapindaceous trees
endure the clime. The hard Guarana-paste of chocolate-colour is
prepared from the seeds by trituration in a heated mortar with
admixture of a little water, kneading into a dough and then drying.
This paste, very rich in caffeine, serves for a pleasant beverage, and
is also used medicinally.
Paulownia imperialis, Siebold.
Japan. A tree, hardier than Cercis Siliquastrum, of value for
scenic effects. It will endure the climate of Norway to lat. 59 58'
[Professor Schuebeler], Rises in 10 years to 30-40 feet.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 363
Peireskia aculeata, Miller.
The Barbadoes-Gooseberry. West-Indies. A tall shrub, adapted
for hedges in localities free of frost. The cochineal-insect can be
reared on this plant also. The berries are edible ; the leaves available
for salad. The flowers frequented by bees. Several other species
exist in tropical America, among which P. Bleo, Humb., is particu-
larly handsome ; but they may not all be sufficiently hardy for
utilitarian purposes in an extra-tropical clime.
Peireskia portulacifolia, Haworth.
West-Indies. This attains the size of a fair tree.
Pelargonium odoratissimum, Alton.*
South-Africa. A perennial trailing herb, from the leaves of which
a fragrant oil can be distilled. Pelargonium-oil is extensively pro-
duced in Algeria as a cheap substitute for attar of roses. There the
rate of annual production of the " essence of geranium " is about
12,000 Ibs. One ton weight of fresh leaves will yield about 2 Ibs.
volatile oil [Piesse]. The same remark applies to the shrubby P.
radula (Alton) and P. capitatum (Aiton). The Kaffirs assert that
these plants keep off snakes. Easily multiplied from cuttings. Water
in which the leaves have been simply steeped without heat may serve
for flavoring beverages and dishes. On this occasion may be pleaded
also for the hundreds of distinct kinds of Pelargonium, many seemingly
doomed to utter annihilation in South- Africa, unless indeed some states-
man there by legislation will see these lovely plants protected at least
on a few pristine spots within permanently reserved small areas, for the
joy also of future generations ; so also the hundreds of charming species
of Erica, only there to be found, claim immunity for erer against herds
and flocks ; and thus likewise might, under enlightened foresight, yet
timely be saved and sheltered the numerous and gay Polygaleae, poda-
lyrious Leguminosas, Phylicse, Crassulaa, Mesembrianthema, Pro-
teacese, Gnidia and the incomparable Irideas and Liliaceas of the
South- African Flora, so far, at least, as not to be swept away alto-
gether from the face of the globe.
Pelargonium peltatum, Aiton.
South- Africa. A climber, grateful to culture in mild climes ;
flowering yearly through about nine months ; well adapted for
bowers, for large garden-edgings, and for covering fences and minor
unsightly buildings, also bare branches of shrubs and small trees.
Peltophorum Linnaei, Bentham. (Ccesalplma Brasiliensis, Linne.)
West-India. A small tree. Provides the orange-coloured Brasiletto-
wood. This species likes dry calcareous soil [Grisebach]. Endures
the climate of Carolina.
364 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Pennisetum Arnhemicum, F. v. Mueller.
North- Australia and Queensland. This grass remains strong and
green through the hottest months, forming compact tussocks. All
kinds of pasture-animals are very fond of it [Molineux].
Pennisetum cenchroides, Richard.
Africa and South-Western Asia. Perennial. The Unjum or
Dhaman or Anjam. At Allahabad this is regarded as a first-rate
fodder -grass [Dr. Stewart]. Well adapted for silos [General Sir
H. Macpherson]. It is a spreading grass adapted also for desert-
regions. In its own countries one of the best of grasses for green
fodder and hay ; so nutritious as to have led to the native saving :
" What Ghi (or Ghee, t. <?., clarified butter) is to man, that the
Dhaman is to a horse " [Prof. Robert Wallace].
Pennisetum latifolium, Sprengel.
Extra-tropical South- America. A tall perennial nutritious grass,
forming large tufts, easily spreading from the roots or seeds. It is
of quick growth.
Pennisetum typhoideum, Richard.* (Penitillaria spicata, Willdenow;
Panicum cceruleum, Miller.)
The Bajree or Pearl-Millet or Bulrush-Millet. Tropical Asia,
Nubia and Egypt. An annual, requiring only about three months to
ripen its millet-crop in warm countries. The stems are thick and
reach a height of 6-10 feet, several being produced from one root,
and each again forming lateral branches ; the maximum-length of a
spike is about a foot and a half ; Colonel Sykes saw exceptionally
15 spikes on one plant and occasionally 2,000 seeds in one spike.
Together with sorghum this is the principal cereal, except rice, grown
in India by the native races. This grass requires a rich and loose
soil, and on such it will yield upwards of a hundred-fold. It furnishes
hay of good quality, though not very easily dried, and is also valuable
as green fodder. In the United States 'cultivated as far north as
Pennsylvania, and it matures seeds even as far north as Christiania
in Norway [Schuebeler]. Thrives fairly well at Port Phillip. Not
much affected as a summer-plant by great heat nor drought in the
interior of Australia. Its fast growth prevents weeds from obtaining
a footing. In very exceptional cases and under most favorable cir-
cumstances as regards soil and manure, the first cutting is in six or
seven weeks, the stems up to seven feet high, giving at the rate of
30 tons green feed, or 6J tons of hay per acre ; in six or seven weeks
more a second cutting is obtained, reaching 55 tons per acre of green
feed, the grass being nine feet high ; a third cut is got in the same
season. Farm-stock eat it greedily. One plant of pearl-millet " is
worth three of maize for f odder. " Some of the many other species
of Pennisetum are doubtless of rural value. A plant allied to P.
typhoideum occurs in China, namely P. cereale (Trinius). This also
affords millet or corn for cakes.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 365
Pennisetum villosum, R. Brown.
Abyssinia. A grass of decorative beauty, forming ample tufts ;
it is recommended by Dr. Curl for permanent pasture in New Zealand.
With numerous other grasses it was introduced into Australia by the
writer of this work. Proves fruitful in Norway to lat. 67 56'
[Schuebeler] .
Pentzia virgata, Lessing.
South-Africa. A small cushion-like bush, recommended for estab-
lishment in deserts for sheep-fodder. It has the peculiarity, that
whenever a branch touches the ground, it strikes roots and forms a
new plant ; this enables the species to cover ground rapidly [Sir
Samuel Wilson]. Valuable also for fixing drift-sand in water-rills,
by readily bending over and rooting, thus forming natural little catch-
dams to retain water [MacOwan]. Mutton from sheep depasturing
on this plant proves particularly palatable. Several other species
occur in South- Africa. Systematically these plants are allied to the
Tansy.
Periandra dulcis, Martius.
Sub-tropical Brazil. The sweet root of this shrub yields a kind
of liquorice.
Perilla arguta, Bentham.
Japan. An annual herb. An infusion of this plant is used for
imparting a deep-red colour to table-vegetables and other substances.
In Japan the seeds are pressed for oil. P. ocimoides, L., of Upper
India, probably serves similar purposes. Some species of Perilla are
suitable for ribbon-culture. P. Nankinensis affords its aromatic
flowers as a condiment in China and Japan.
Persea gratissima, Gaertner.
The Avocado -Pear or rather "Agtiacate," called in Peru "Palta."
From Mexico to Peru and Brazil in forest-tracts near the coast ; but
its real nativity, according to A. de Candolle, restricted to Mexico.
A noble evergreen spreading tree. Adverse to drought ; likes humid
soil. Suggestively mentioned here as probably available for mild
localities outside the tropics, inasmuch as it has become naturalised in
Madeira, the Azores and Canary Islands. The fruit attains some-
times a weight of 2 Ibs., and is generally sliced for salad, and of
delicious taste and flavor. Its pulp contains about 8 per cent, of
greenish oil. In Jamaica it is cultivated up to 4,000 feet [W. Faw-
cett]. It matured in littoral Eastern Australia, somewhat outside the
tropics [Edgar]. It also ripened its fruit abundantly near Moreton-
Bay. Lives unprotected as far south as Port Jackson [C. Moore].
The seeds have come into medicinal use at the instance of Dr.
Froehling, particularly through the efforts of Messrs Parke and
and Davis, to whom we mainly owe the recent introduction of many
other valuable new drugs into medicine.
366 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Persea Teneriffse, F. v. Mueller. (P. Indica, Sprengel.) ,.
Madeira, Azores, and Canary Islands. This magnificent tree
produces a beautiful, hard, mahogany-like wood, especially sought
for superior furniture and turners' work. One of the most hardy
trees of the large order of Laurinae.
Peucedanum graveolens, Bentham. (Anethum graveolens, Linne.)
The "Dill." South-Europe, North- Africa, Orient. Annual.
The well-known aromatic fruitlets used as a condiment. In India
known as Sowa. Distilled dill-oil is in use also for scented soaps.
Peucedanum officinale, Linne.
The Sulphur-Root. Middle and Southern Europe, Northern
Africa, Middle Asia. Perennial. The root is used in veterinary
medicine ; it contains, like that of the following species, the
crystalline peucedanin.
Peucedanum Ostruthium, Koch. (Imperatoria Ostruthium, Linne.)
Mountains of Middle Europe. A perennial herb, which could be
grown in alpine regions. The acrid aromatic root is used in medicine,
particularly in veterinary practice; required also for the preparation
of some kinds of Swiss Cheese. P. Cervaria (Cusson) and. P.
Oreoselinum (Moench) are also occasionally drawn into medicinal
use.
Peucedanum sativum, Bentham.* (Pastmaca sativa, Linne.)
The " Parsnip." Europe, North and Middle Asia. Biennial.
The root palatable and nutritious. The wild root is somewhat
acrid, and poisonous effects have occasionally resulted from its use.
In a raw state it is deleterious even to a fatal extent, according to
Professor Meehan. A variety is cultivated in the Channel-Islands,
with roots 3 or 4 feet long [Chambers]. A somewhat calcareous
soil is favorable to the best development of this plant. It is very
hardy, having been grown in Norway to lat. 70 22'; it matured
seeds as far north as lat. 67 56' [Schuebeler]. Ripens it seeds well,
even in the hot and dry Central-Australian regions [H. Kempe],
where the Parsnip yields crops throughout the year. The culture
is that of the carrot; for fodder the root surpasses that of the latter
in augmenting milk [Langethal]. A decoction of parsnip-roots
ferments with sugar and yeast into a sparkling beverage, but requires
casking for about a year [Baudinet].
Peucedanum Sekakul, F. v. Mueller. (Pastmaca Sekakul, Russell;
Malabaila pumila, Boissier ; Malabaila Sekakul, Boissier.)
From Greece to Persia and Egypt. The root of this perennial
herb was brought already under medical notice by Dr. Rauwolf ;
in a boiled state it affords a palatable esculent.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 367
Peuxnus Boldus, Molina.
The Boldo of Chili. A 'small ornamental evergreen tree, with
exceedingly hard wood, which is utilised for many kinds of imple-
ments. The bark furnishes dye-material. The fruits are of aromatic
and sweet taste [Dr. Philippi].
Peziza macropus, Persoon.
Europe. Mentioned by Prof. Goeppert among the edible mush-
rooms, sold in Silesia along with P. repanda (Wahlenberg). Dr.
M. C. Cooke enumerates the following Victorian species as edible :
P. vesiculosa, Bull. P. aurantia, Pers., P. venosa, Pers., P. cochleata,
Linne.
Phacelia tanacetifolia, Bentham.
California, Texas. Annual. A superior bee-plant of easy rear-
ing, successfully grown in Germany. Allied species and some other
hydrophyllaceous plants, all elegant and easily raised from seed, may
perhaps answer the same purpose.
Phalaris aquatica, Linne.
Southern Europe and Northern Africa. Important as a perennial
fodder-grass, fit for wet ground.
Phalaris arundinacea, Linne.
Temperate and colder regions of Europe, Asia and America ;
indigenous in Norway to lat. 70 30'. Not without some importance
as a reedy grass of bulky yield on wet meadows or in swampy
places. A variety with white-striped leaves is a favorite as a ribbon-
plant for garden-plots.
Phalaris Canariensis, Linne.
The Canary-grass. An annual grass from the Canary-Islands,
now widely dispersed as a spontaneous plant over the warmer zones
of the globe. Thus it has also become naturalised in Australia. It
will endure the climate of Norway to lat. 70 22', bearing seed to
lat. 63 26' [Prof. Schuebeler]. It is grown for its seeds, which
form one of the best kinds of food for many sorts of small cage-
birds. The flour is utilised in certain processes of cotton-manufac-
ture, and liked even for some kinds of cakes. The soil for culture
of the Canary-grass must be friable and not too poor, and the crop
must be kept out of the reach of grain-feeding birds, so that it is advis-
able to grow it only on widely cleared ground. One-third bushel of
seeds suffices for an acre. It is an exhaustive crop. 'Chemical consti-
tuents here (in November) : Albumen 1'59, gluten 6' 14, starch T03,
gum 6 '64, sugar 2'86 per cent. (F. v. Mueller and L. Rummel); another
analysis in the same month gave : Albumen 1*06, gluten 5*64, starch
0'98, gum 3-22, sugar 4*20 per cent. Import of seeds during 1887
368 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
into Victoria, 2,981 centals, valued at 1,738. As allied species of
similar use, but mostly of less yield, may be enumerated : P.
brachystachys (Link) from Italy, P. minor (Retzius) and P. trun-
cata (Gussone) from various countries on the Mediterranean Sea, the
last-mentioned being perennial. Other species, including some from
Asia, are deserving of trial. P. minor is recommended by Dr. Curl for
permanent pastures, as it supplies a large quantity of fine, sweet,
fattening foliage, relished by stock. It keeps green far into the
winter in the climate of New Zealand.
Pharnaceum acidum, J. Hooker.
St. Helena. A dwarf perennial succulent plant, which might
advantageously be naturalised on sea-shores, to yield an acid salad,
perhaps superior to that of Portulaca oleracea.
Phaseolus aconitifolius, Jacquin.
India, up to 4,000 feet. " Moth-bean." A dwarf annual species.
Dr. Forbes Watson admits it among the culinary beans of India. It
will bear on arid soil. If the plant has once got a good start no
amount of dry weather will hurt it ; besides serving as human food
it is also excellent for green fodder [Dr. GJ-. Watt]. P. trilobus
(Aiton), the Simbi-bean, is a still hardier variety, which becomes
perennial.
Phaseolus adenanthus, G. Meyer. (P. Truxillensis, Humboldt ; P. ros-
tratus, Wallich. )
Almost cosmopolitan within the tropics, where, irrespective of
navigation and other traffic, it becomes dispersed by migrating birds ;
truly spontaneous also in tropical Australia. A perennial herb with
large flowers, resembling those of Vigna vexillata (Bentham).
Cultivated for its seeds, which are rather small, but copiously pro-
duced. A variety with edible roots occurs.
Phaseolus COCCineus, Kniphof.* (P. multiflorus, Willdenow.)
The Scarlet Runner. Tropical South-America. A twining
showy perennial, as useful as the ordinary French bean. Suits for
rougher, cooler and more exposed localities than P. vulgaris [Dr. G.
Beck]. Its seeds usually larger than those of that plant, purple with
black dots, but sometimes also pure-blue and again quite white.
The flowers occur sometimes white. The root contains a narcotic
poison.
Phaseolus derasus, Schranck.*
Brazil. There, next to maize, the most important and extensively
used plant for human food, chiefly of the negro population [Dr.
Peckolt]. Sprengel refers this to P. inamasnus (Linne), a variety of
the following species.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries, 369
Phaseolus lunatus, Linne.*
The "Lima-bean," or "Almond-bean." Perennial. Tropical
South- America. A. de Candolle restricts the real nativity to that
part of the globe. Witt-mack identifies beans from ancient graves in
Peru as belonging to this species. The root is deleterious. Biennial
according to Roxburgh. Much cultivated in the warm zone for its
edible beans, which are purple or white. A favorite particularly in
Western America. P. inamsenus (Linne) is hardly specifically
distinct, but grows taller and produces larger fruits ; it is known as
a Lima-bean, but also as the Madagascar-bean, and has proved hardy
and productive in Victoria. P. perennis (Walter) from the United
State* of North -America is another allied plant ; also P. Pallar
(Molina) of Peru, the latter perennial, with a comparatively thick
stem [Wittmack].
Phaseolus radiatus, Linne.* (P. M ungo, Linne ; P.Max, Linne.)
The " Green Gram." South-Asia and tropical Australia. An
annual, very hairy plant, not much climbing. Frequently reared in
India, when rice fails or where that crop cannot be produced, yielding
the earliest pulse crop in the season. According to Sir Walter
Elliot one of the most esteemed of Indian pulses. " It fetches the
highest price, and is more than any other in request among the richer
classes, entering largely into delicate dishes and cake.' ? Cultivated
up to 6,000 feet [Forbes Watson]. Col. Sykes counted 62 pods on
one plant with from seven to fourteen seeds in each. Praised by
Professor von Heldreich particularly as an exquisite culinary plant
from cultural experiences in Greece, although the seeds are so small.
It is also a favorite esculent in Japan. Mr. Henry Wehl records
that it has done splendidly in the northern part of New South Wales,
enduring much dry heat. It came to maturity in the climate of
Paris. The herb is not available for fodder. Seems well adapted
for green manure [McKeown]. This plant requires no irrigation, and
ripens in two and a half to three months. Pailleux records, that the
young sprouts serve as a delicate vegetable, irrespective of the seeds.
This plant has received from phyto-systematists other names still.
Thus P. minimus (Rumphius), P. bicolor (Retzius), P. aureus (Hamil-
ton), P. viridissimus (Tenore), according to varieties in colour of seeds
chiefly. The last-named variety is also known as the " Mash " of
Mesopotamia. [See notes by Jules Cloquet in the "Revue des
sciences naturelles appliquees," Oct. 1892, p. 334.]
Phaseolus vulgaris, 1'Obel.*
The ordinary Kidney bean or French bean or Haricot. Native
country Western South- America, inasmuch as Professor Wittmack
has recently identified beans from ancient graves at Lima as belonging
to P. vulgaris, and records them also from places of interment in
Arizona, together with Maize, Prosopis, and Phaseolus Pallar
(Molino). Found also already in culture at the St. Lorenz River,
2 B
370 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
when that stream was discovered by Cartier, together with Pumpkins
or Gourds. Beans were much cultivated in the Antilles, Florida
and Mexico, prior to the arrival of Europeans, according to Acosta,
Oviedo and Vaca. Professor Wittmack refers the black beans,
widely known as " Feijdospretos " through South- America and there
extensively used for human food, to P. vulgaris as a variety. Though
this common and important culinary annual is so well known, it has
been deemed desirable to refer to it here, with a view of reminding
our readers, that the kidney-bean is nearly twice as nutritious as
wheat ; it is, among culinary vegetables, the richest in nitrogenous
compounds. The meal from beans might also find far-augmented
use. As constituents of the beans should be mentioned a large
proportion of starch (nearly half), then much legumin, also some
phaseolin (which, like amygdalin, can be converted into an essential
oil) and inosit- sugar. The tall variety also well suited for moist
equatorial regions. A variety called Cardinal's Bean (P. sphaericus)
has globular red seeds. Lentils contain more legumin but less starch,
while peas and beans are almost alike in respect to the proportion
of these two nourishing substances. The kidney-bean can still be
cultivated in cold latitudes and at sub-alpine elevations, if the
uninterrupted summer- warmth last for four months ; otherwise it is
more tender than the pea. With our present rapid steam communi-
cation supplies are now available to us from either warmer or colder
zones, according to season. The soil should be friable, somewhat
limy and not sandy for field culture. Phaseolus nanus, L. (the
dwarf bean) and P. tumidus, Savi (the sugar-bean, sword-bean or
egg-bean) are varieties of P. vulgaris. Several other species of
Phaseolus seem worthy of culinary culture. Haricot-Beans contain
very decided deobstruent properties, which however are generally
destroyed by too much boiling. To obviate this, they should be
soaked for 24 hours in cold water, to which salt has been added, and
then gently boiled for not more than 30 or 40 minutes in very little
water [W. B. Booth]. The seeds will retain their vitality fully
three years. This plant matures under horticultural care even in the
dry hot desert-regions of Central Australia.
Phleum alpinum, Linne.
Europe, Asia, North- and South-America, on high mountains,
extending to Arctic regions. According to Drs. Stebler and
Schroeter, this is a good productive fodder-grass on strong but not
too wet soil.
Phleum Michelii, Allioni.
Mountains of Middle and Southern Europe. A tall, productive,
valuable fodder-grass, naturally confined to limestone-formation,
generally on dry, stony soil in sunny situation [Drs. Stebler and
Schroeter]. Better suited for mowing than grazing.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 371
Phleum pratense, Linne.*
The Timothy or Cats tail-grass. Europe, North- Africa, Northern
and Middle Asia ; ascends to 10,000 feet in Spain. One of the
most valuable and most cultivated of all perennial fodder-grasses.
Its production of early spring-foliage is superior to that of the
Cocksfoot-grass. It should enter largely into any mixture of grasses
for permanent pasturage. It will live also on moist and cold clay-
ground. This grass, and perhaps yet more the allied Phleum
alpinum, L., are deserving of an extensive transfer to moory drained
regions. It is very hardy, having been found indigenous in Norway
to lat. 70 [Professor Schuebeler]. For hay it requires mowing in
a young stage. The seed is copiously yielded and well retained.
The greatest advantage from this grass arises, according to Langethal,
when it is grown along with clovers. It thrives even better on
sandy meadows than on calcareous soil ; it will prosper on poorer
ground than Alopecurus pratensis ; the latter furnishes its full
yield only in the fourth year, whereas the Phleum does so in the
second. The- Timothy-grass dries more quickly for hay and the
seeds are gathered more easily, but it vegetates later, is of harder
consistence, and yields less in the season after the first cut. Dr.
Curl, of New Zealand, observes, that while many grasses and
clovers, if eaten in their spring-growth, may cause diarrhoea in sheep,
the Timothy-grass, when young, does not affect them injuriously.
Well adapted for irrigation-ground ; the yield of hay varies from 40
to 120 cwt. on an acre. Occasionally attacked by fungus -disease,
particularly from Epichloe typhina, when sheep should be put on
the affected fields [Stebler].
Phoenix Canariensis, Naudin. (P. Jubae, Webb.)
Canary-Islands. A superb palm for scenic culture, hardier than
even the Date-palm. Fruit not edible.
Phoenix dactylifera, Linne.*
The Date-Palm. North-Africa, particularly inland ; Arabia,
Persia. This noble palm attains finally a height of about 80
feet, exceptionally 120 feet. "Trees of from 100 to 200 years old
continue to produce their annual crop of dates," though gradually at
very advanced age in lesser quantity. Should be raised in the oases
of the Australian desert million-fold. Bears fruits in sub-tropic
Eastern Australia in particular abundance. Though sugar or palm-
wine can be obtained from the sap, and hats, mats and similar
articles can be manufactured from the leaves, we would utilise this
palm beyond scenic garden-ornamentation only for its fruits. The
date-palm would afford in time to come a real boon in the oases of
desert-tracts, swept by burning winds, although it might be grown
also in the valleys of mountains and in any part of lowlands free of
severe frost. Several bunches of flowers are formed in a season, each
producing often as many as 200 dates. Staminate and pistillate
2B2
372 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
flowers rarely on the same plant. In Egypt as many as 4 cwt. of
dates have been harvested in one season from a single date-palm.
Many varieties of dates exist, differing in shape, size and colour of
the fruit ; those of Gomera are large and contain no seed. The best
Algerian variety is known as " Deglet nour." Select trees are
recorded as having borne a crop worth 2, but the average may be
put down at four shillings per tree annually, common kinds less than
one shilling. A good date-tree is sometimes exchanged for a camel
in North- Africa. 80 trees to an acre is considered the most suitable
number. The neighbourhood of the sea is unfavorable to the pro-
duction of good dates [M. G. Holland, Hon. G. W. Cotton]. The
unexpanded flower-bunches can be used for palm-cabbage and the
fibre of the leaf stalks for cordage. The town Elche, in Spain, is
surrounded by a planted forest of about 80,000 date-palms, and the
sale of leaves for decorative purposes produces a considerable income
to the town irrespective of the value of the date-fruits ; and so it is
at Alicante. As far north as the Gulf of Genoa also a date-forest
exists. The ease with which this palm grows from seeds affords
facilities in adapted climes to imitate these examples, and we certainly
ought to follow them in all parts of Australia and in similar climes.
Young plants might readily be taken by tourists to forest-glens for
naturalisation. The date-palm bears well in Southern California and
Arizona [Prof. Hilgard]. Dates, as a nourishing, wholesome and
readily preserved kind of fruit, should be in the commissariat of
exploring expeditions, particularly through mild or hot countries, as
the seeds could be sown, for thus early raising this important palm
in new regions. Dr. Bonavia is the principal champion for
extensive date-culture in India ; he states that in Arabia the Date-
Palm grows even in soil strongly impregnated with salt. See also
the author's remarks in the Transact. Viet. Inst. ii, 95 (1857). The
best dates are grown in oases, where fresh water gushes from the
ground in abundance and spreads over light soil of deserts subject to
burning winds. The variety " Datheres-sifia " ripens its fruits early
in the season [Naudin]. It is propagated from suckers. The
Zadie-variety produces the heaviest crop, averaging 300 Ibs. to the
tree ; superior varieties can only be continued from offshoots of the
root ; these will commence to bear in five years and be in full bearing
in ten years ; one male tree is considered sufficient for half a hundred
females. The pollen-dust is sparingly applied by artificial means.
The pulpy part of the fruit contains about 58 per cent, of saccharine
matter. It is estimated, that in Egypt alone four millions of date-
palms exist, the produce of which is to a large extent consumed
locally. The date-groves of Turkey produce annually 40,000 to
60,000 tons of dates in ordinarily good seasons [Le Due]. The
date-palm will luxuriate even in saltish soil, and the water for its
irrigation may be slightly brackish [Surgeon-Major Colvill]. The
artesian water of the Oued Rir district in Algeria contains from
0'57 ounces to 1*07 ounces dry salt in a gallon [Holland]. The
date-palm is the staple plant on the new oases created by artesian
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 373
borings in the interior of the Sahara, where the temperature in some
places ranges from 14 to 104 F. The importation of dates during
1885 into Britain was 5,000 tons. Northern limit of the date 35
north latitude. Into Central Australia the date-palm was first intro-
duced by the writer of this work, where it commenced to bear fruit
at the age of 8 years, and passed unhurt through years of tremendous
drought and with the scantiest supply of bad water [Rev. H. Kempe].
It grows amazingly near the Gulf of Carpentaria [Joseph O'Reilley].
The culture extends in Asia northward to Beluchistan. Its pungent
rigidity protects this palm from encroachment of pasture- animals;
hence it can be left without hedging. Professor Naudin has shown
that fertile hybrids between the date-palm and some other species of
Phoenix can be produced.
Phoenix humilis, Royle.
India, China. This palm was buried for ten days under three
feet of snow in the south of France without injury [Naudin].
Phoenix paludosa, Roxburgh.
India. A stout species, not very tall. Of value at least for
decorative culture. Many kinds of palms are getting already
naturalised in the humid forestal tracts of tropical Eastern Queens-
land through birds carrying and dispersing the seeds [ J. Edgar] .
Phoenix pusilla, Gaertner.
India and South-China. A dwarf species, which bears the clime
of the south of France without protection [Kerchove de Denterghem],
P. farinifera (Roxburgh) appears to be identical. It is adapted for
sandy and otherwise dry and barren land, but prefers the vicinity of
the sea. Berry shining-black, with a sweet mealy pulp.
Phoenix reclinata, Jacquin.
South-Africa, in the eastern districts. A hardy species, but not
tall, often reclining. It is adapted for ornamentation. In warm
climes the seeds will grow just where they dropped.
Phoenix silvestris, Roxburgh.
India, almost on any soil or in any situation, down even to the
edge of drift-sand on the coast. It has proved a very hardy species
at Melbourne. Its greatest height is about 40 feet. Berries
yellowish or reddish, larger than in P. pusilla. Where this palm
abounds, much sugar is obtained from it by evaporation of the sap,
which flows from incisions into the upper part of the trunk a pro-
cess not sacrificing the plant, as for 50 years the sap can thus be
withdrawn. This palm-sugar consists almost entirely of cane-sugar.
It might like the palm-honey of the Chilian Jubaea be rendered
marketable in a semi-fluid state. A kind of arrack is obtained by
374 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
fermentation and distillation of this sap, and also "from the young
spikes. Each plant furnishes the juice for about 8 Ibs. of date-sugar
annually, but in some instances much more. About 50,000 tons of
sugar a year are produced in Bengal alone from this and some other
palms. The leaves are used for mats. The tree lives in drier regions
than other Indian palms. Mr. Fr. Turner fertilized this species with
the pollen of P. dactylifera ; the result was a much finer fruit.
Dr. Trimen distinguishes the closely allied wild Ceylon-species as
P. Zeilanica.
Phoenix spinosa, Thonning.
Tropical Africa, ascending mountain-tracts, thus perhaps hardy in
milder extra-tropic regions. Sir John Kirk found, that the green
bunches, if immersed in water for half a day, suddenly assume a
scarlet hue, when the astringent pulp becomes edible. Near P.
reclinata.
Phormiu.ni tenax, J. R. and G. Forster.*
The Flax-Lily of New Zealand, where it grows as far south as
46 30', and up to an elevation of 4,000 feet, occurring also in the
Chatham-Islands and Norfolk-Island, though not on Lord Howe's
Island ; it is also found in the Auckland Islands, nearly 51 south
[Schur]. Height to 15 feet [D. Crombie]. It flowered in several
places in England in exposed positions, and was not affected by
severe frost [Masters]. It perfected seeds even in the most northern
of the Orkney-Islands [Traill] and will bear unhurt a temperature of
15 F.; the tops of the leaves become injured at 9 F. [G-orlie]. It
is desirable, that this valuable plant should be brought universally
under culture, particularly on any inferior spare-ground, along rail-
way-lines or on sea-beaches or rocky declivities, where it may be
left to itself unprotected, as no grazing animal will touch it ; yielding
for ever returns ; thriving also well in shade. Can be even grown
on ground pervaded by the off-flow of soap-factories. It is evident,
that the natural growth will soon be inadequate to the demand for
the plant. It is adapted for staying bush-fires, when planted in
hedgerows. Important also as a honey-plant. Merely torn into
shreds, the leaves serve at once in gardens and vineyards as cordage,
and for this purpose, irrespective of its showy aspect, the Phor-
mium has been distributed from the Botanic Garden of Melbourne
during many years by the writer. From the divided roots any
plantation can gradually be increased, or this can be done more
extensively still by sowing the seeds. In all likelihood the plant
would thrive and become naturalised in Kerguelen's Land, the
Falkland-Islands, the Faroe- and Shetland-Islands and many conti-
nental places of both hemispheres far into cold latitudes. Among
varieties three are better characterized than the rest : the Tehore-,
the Swamp-, and the Hill-variety. The first and the last men-
tioned produce a fibre fine and soft, yet strong, and the plant attains
a height of only about 5 feet, whereas the Swamp-variety grows
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 375
to double that height, producing a larger yield of a coarser fibre,
which is chiefly used for rope- or paper-making. One of the most
dwarf varieties is P. Colensoi (J. Hooker), a lax variety is P.
Hookeri (Gunn). As might be expected, the richer the soil, the
more vigorous the growth of the plant. Flooding now and then
with fresh or brackish water is beneficial, but the plant will not
live, if this be permanent. In swampy ground trenches should be
dug, to divert the surplus of humidity. Fibre free from gum-resin,
properly dressed, withstands moisture as well as the best Manilla-
rope. Carefully prepared, the fibre can be spun into various textile
durable fabrics, either by itself or mixed with cotton, wool or flax.
Elegant articles are woven from it by the Maories. In October, 1872,
the sale of Phormium-fibre in London was 11,500 bales, ranging in
price from 19 to 31. In 1888 the value of Phormium-fibre
exported from New Zealand amounted to 90,000. The tow can be
converted into paper, distinguished for its strength and whiteness.
The London price of Phormium-fibre for this purpose is from 10 to
20 per ton. Messrs. Christy, Cross and Bevan employ a freezing
process in separating all kinds of fibres from stalks or foliage, and this
method proved particularly advantageous in treating Phormium. A
strong decoction of the root and leaf -basis used in surgery for dressing
wounds with a view of producing ready and healthy granulation [F.
A. Monkton]. For further details on the utilisation of this plant, the
elaborate report of the New Zealand Commission for Phormium should
be consulted, also Sir James Hector's special publication.
Photinia eriobotrya, J. Hooker.* (P. Japonica, Franchet and Savatier ;
Eriobotrya Japonica, Lindley. )
The " Loquat." China and Japan. This beautiful evergreen
shrub or small tree, remarkable for its refreshing fruit, is easily
raised from seed ; or superior varieties can, according to G. W.
Johnson, be grafted not only on its own stock, but also on the White-
thorn, or better still on the Quince. It is also a grand bush for
scenic ornamental effects, and lifts well. Growth of celerity, but
needs to be well sustained by humidity to bear copiously. In Sou-
thern Australia flowering during midwinter ; the flowers are intensely
fragrant, and do not suffer from a few degrees of frost ; hence this
plant is of particular horticultural importance, to contribute amply
to garden- fragrance in winter-time. About Trieste the Loquat is
the earliest fruit of the season [Baron von Thuemen], bearing also
copiously there. In Greece the fruits ripen already during May.
Hemsley mentions this plant among the shrubs and trees, hardy in
England, where however it seldom matures its fruits. Seeds must be
sown soon after they are ripe. They contain much hydrocyanic acid
and are therefore only fit for medicinal use. Most important as a
honey-plant, flowering so early [Prof. Savastano]. P. villosa, D.C.,
also yields edible native fruit to the Japanese. Bore profusely in
Wicklow [G. Donaldson].
376 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Phyllanthus Cheremila, Roxburgh. (Gicca disticha, Lirine.)
Insular India. A small tree. Hardy in Florida to 27 30', where
Mr. Reasmer finds it to be a desirable fruit-tree. The berries
are small and acid, serving for jam. Mr. L. A. Bernays admits
this plant among those recommended in his work on " Cultural
Industries for Queensland," 1883, having tested it as far south as
Moreton-Bay.
Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, Cl. Richard.
Celery-Pine of Tasmania. A stately tree, often to 60 feet high,
with a stem 2 to 6 feet in diameter. The timber is particularly valu-
able for the masts and spars of ships. It will only grow to advantage
i in deep forest- valleys. Dwarfed in alpine elevations.
Phyllocladus trichomanoides, D. Bon.
Celery-pine of New Zealand ; Maori-name, " Tanehaha." This
tree attains a height of 70 feet, with a straight stem reaching 3 feet
in diameter, and furnishes a pale close-grained timber, strong, heavy
and durable, according . to Professor Kirk, greatly valued for mine-
props, struts, caps, sleepers, water-tanks, bridge-planks and piles, also
spars ; the Maoris employ the bark for dyeing red and black and
yellow, according to admixtures. It contains from 23 to 28 per cent,
tannin and is therefore valued by the tanner, fetching a high price
[Prof. Kirk]. This species also ascends in a diminutive form to
alpine elevations.
Phyllostachys bambusoides, Siebold.
Himalayas, China and Japan. A comparatively dwarf Bamboo,
but very hardy ; the yellowish canes available for excellent walking-
sticks [Griffith].
Phyllostachys mitis, Riviere. (Bambusa mitis, Poiret.)
China. A handsome hardy Bamboo, much cultivated already in
Southern France, where it attains a height of about 20 feet
[Naudin] .
Phyllostachys nigra, Munro.* (Bambusa nigra, Loddiges.)
China and Japan. Whangee-Bamboo, reaching 25 feet in height.
The stems nearly solid and becoming black. Has withstood severe
frost in the south of France and at Vienna. Known to have grown
16 feet in six weeks. Bamboo-chairs and various utensils made of
this species. As many as 600,000 walking-sticks of this plant have
lately been imported into England in one year. The total of Bam-
boo-sticks exported from China and Japan in one year has latterly
amounted to 5 millions. A Japanese species of this bambusaceous
genus proved hardy in Scotland. P. viridi-glaucescens and P. aurea
are perfectly hardy in England [Munro] ; the latter withstood the
severest winters of Edinburgh, with F. [Gorlie] .
Naturalisation in Extra- Tropical Countries. 377
Phymaspermum parvifolium, Bentham. (Adenachcena parvifolia, De
Candolle. )
South- Africa. A dwarf, somewhat shrubby plant, fit to be natu-
ralised on mere sandy ground. Praised by Professor MacOwan as
equal in value to Pentzia virgata for sheep-pastures*
Physalis Alkekengi, Linne.
The Strawberry-Tomato or Winter-Cherry. Middle and South-
Europe, North- Africa, Middle Asia, extending to Japan ; said to
have come originally from Persia. Ripening in Norway to lat. 63
26' [Schuebeler] . A perennial herb. The berry, which is red and
of a not unpleasant taste, has some medicinal value. The leaves
contain a bitter principle physalin.
Physalis angulata, Linn6.
In many tropical countries, extending as a native plant to the
northern parts of the United States and to Japan. An annual herb.
The berries yellowish, edible. P. minima, L. (P. parviflora, R. Br.),
is closely allied, and extends into tropical Australia.
Physalis Peruviana, Linn.*
Temperate and tropical America, widely naturalised in many
countries of the warmer zones. With double inaptness called the
Cape-Gooseberry. A perennial herb ; but for producing its fruit
well it requires early renovation. The acidulous berries can be used
as well for table-fruit as for preserves. The dried fruit acts as a
substitute for yeast. Doubtless several other kinds of Physalis can
be utilised in the same manner. In colder countries the P. Peruviana
becomes annual. Seeds will keep for eight years [Vilmorin] .
Physalis pubescens, Linn<$.
Warmer regions of North- and South- America. Though annual,
worth cultivation on account of its acidulous fruits, called the Goose-
berry-Tomato or inaptly Barbadoes-Gooseberry, under which name
also the very similar P. Barbadensis (Jacquin) is comprised.
Physorrhynchos Brahuicus, Hooker.
Persia, Scinde, Afghanistan, Punjab. A perennial herb, fond of
somewhat saline soil. On careful cultivation it may form a new sort
of kitchen-vegetable, as Dr. J. E. Stocks found the leaves, when
boiled, a fair substitute for cabbage.
Phytolacca Americana, Lhm.
Warmer parts of North- and South- America. This tall perennial
herb has received a place in this work, as it is in its native country
a medicinal plant. It has recently also come into use by its leaves
being smoked as a domestic remedy in asthma [Dr. J. L. Cobb],
The berries serve for dyes.
378 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Pilocarpus pennatifolius, Lemaire.*
The Jaborandi-plant of Paraguay. The leaves and bark of this
shrub, which contain essential oil and a peculiar alkaloid, are famed
as an agreeable, powerful and quickly acting sudorific ; recommended
as a specific in diphtheria, as well as typhoid fever, and supposed to
be also reliable in hydrophobia [Continho, Baillon, Hardy, Guebler].
This bush is likely to endure the clime of milder temperate forest-
regions. Like P. simplex, also an active sialagogue. Pilocarpin
contracts the pupil. P. Sellowianus has similar properties. The
genus reaches the Antilles, The Rio Janeiro-Jaborandi is obtained
from P. Sellowianus (Engler), the Pernambuco-drug from P. Jabo-
randi (Holmes). Other Jaborandi-plants, all from Southern Brazil,
are Piper Jaborandi (Vellozo), Bramia Monniera, B. gratioloides,
B. colubrina, also Monniera trifoliata.
Pimenta officinalis, Lindley.
The Allspice. West Indies. A middle-sized tree. Flowers freely
at Port Jackson, but does not ripen its fruit readily there [C. Moore]] .
In Ceylon it can be grown to about 3,000 feet elevation advanta-
geously [Dr. Trimen]. Cultivated in Jamaica up to 4,000 feet [W.
Fawcett]. Succeeds in Natal [J. M. Wood]. For the stick- and
umbrella-trade large lots of the young saplings are exported [J. R
Jackson]. Requires soil rich in lime.
Pimpinella Anisum, Linn.
The Anise-plant. Greece, Egypt, Persia. An annual. The seed-
like fruits enter into various medicines and condiments, and are
required for the distillation of oil, rich in anethol. The herbage left
after obtaining the seeds serves for fodder. Not unwelcome among
other plants on pastures. The plant will bear seeds in Norway up to
lat. 68 40' [Schuebeler]. The seeds retain their power of germina-
tion for three years [ Vilmorin] .
Pimpinella saxifraga, Linn6.
Europe, Northern and Middle Asia. A perennial herb ; its root
used in medicine ; a peculiar volatile oil can be distilled from the
root. P. magna, L., is a closely allied species, and P. nigra, W, is a
variety. The root of the last is particularly powerful.
Pimpinella Sisarum, Bentham. (Sium Sisarum, Linn. )
Middle and Eastern Asia, extending to Persia [Maximowicz],
Volhynia and Podolia [Rostafinski]. A perennial herb. The bunches
of small tubers afford an excellent culinary vegetable. The taste is
sweet and somewhat celery-like. The roots endure frost. The plant
is cultivated up to lat. 63 26' in Norway [Schuebeler]
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 379
PimiS Abies, Du Roi.* (Pinuspicea, Linn^ ; Abies pectinate, De Candolle.)
Silver-Fir, Tanne. Middle and South-Europe, extending to the
Caucasian mountains, ascending the Pyrenees to 6,000 feet. Planted
in Britain already by the Romans. The lowest altitude at which the
Silver-Fir can advantageously be cultivated in Northern France is
about 700 feet, in the Pyrenees 3,000 feet [C. Brolliard]. It will
endure the climate of Norway to lat. 67 66' [Schuebeler]. A fine
tree, already the charm of the ancients, attaining about 200 feet in
height and 20 feet in circumference of stem, reaching an age of fully
400 years. A variety with pendent branches exists. It furnishes
a most valuable timber for building as well as furniture, and in
respect to lightness, toughness and elasticity it is even more esteemed
tlran the Norway- Spruce, but it is not so good for fuel or charcoal ;
it is pale, light, not very resinous, and is mostly employed for the
finer works of joiners and cabinetmakers, for sounding boards of
musical instruments, largely for toys, also for lucifer-matches, for
coopers' and turners' work, and for masts and spars. It is largely
this species the wood of which now mainly supplies the material
for the paper-mills in Germany. It also yields a fine white resin
and the Strasburg-turpentine, similar to the Venetian. Besides the
above normal form the following two main varieties occur: P.
Abies var. Cephalonica, Parlatore (P. Cephalonica, Endlicher),
Greece, 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea. A tree, 60 feet high,
with a stem-circumference of 10 feet. The wood is very hard and
durable, and much esteemed for building. General Napier mentions,
that in pulling down some houses at Argostoli, which had been built
150 to 300 years, all the woodwork of this fir was found as hard as
oak and perfectly sound. The very resinous wood probably of a
variety of this or an allied species was used by Stradivari and his
sons for making the famous Italian violins in the last century. P.
Abies var. Nordmanniana, Parlatore (P. Nordmanniana, Steven),
Crimea and Circassia, to 6,000 feet above the sea. Can be grown in
Norway to lat. 61 15'. This is one of the most imposing firs,
attaining a height of about 100 feet, with a perfectly straight stem.
It furnishes a valuable building-timber. The Silver-Fir is desirable
for mountain-forests. It will grow on sand, but only half as fast
as P. Pinaster. In Britain the upward growth is about 50 feet in
30 years. If the genera Abies, Picea, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga, Cedrus
and Larix are to be maintained in the phytographic system and
nomenclature, then Wellingtonia might also again be separated from
Sequoia.
Pinus alba, Alton. (Picea alba, Link.)
White Spruce. From Canada to Carolina, up to the highest
mountains. It resembles P. picea, but is smaller, at most 50 feet
high. Exudes a superior resin. It bears the shears well, when
trained for hedges, which are strong, enduring and compact [J.
Hicks]. The bark richer in tannin than that of the Hemlock-
Spruce. The timber well adapted for deal-boards, spars and many
380 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
other purposes, but on the whole inferior to that of tne Black Spruce.
The tree grows in damp situations or swampy ground. Eligible
for alpine regions. Hardy in Norway to lat. 70 56'. P. Engel-
manni (Parry) is closely akin ; it occurs in British Columbia ; stem
to 3 feet in diameter ; wood excellent and durable [Dr. Gr.
Dawson].
PinilS albicaulis, Engelmann.
British Columbia and California, ascending to 9,000 feet. Height
to 60 feet. Extremely hardy, resisting the most boisterous weather,
but never exceeding 40 feet in height [Sir Jos. Hooker]. Wood
light, soft, rather brittle, but close-grained [Prof. Sargent]. Fruit-
strobiles nearly globular, purplish, with short and thick scales. Bark
whitish, scaly. This species has been referred by S. Watson to P.
flexilis (James) as a variety. Seeds large, edible.
Pinus Alcoquiana, Parlatore.
Japan, at an elevation of 6,000 to 7,000 feet. A fine spruce, often
to 120 feet high, with very small blue-green leaves ; the wood is
used for light household-furniture. Buds purplish. P. tsuga and
P. polita ascend there to the same height [Rein].
Pinus amabilis, Douglas.
Californian Silver-Fir. Northern California, Oregon, British
Columbia, at elevations of from 4,000 to 7,000 or even 10,000 feet.
A handsome fir, to 200 feet high ; circumference of stem to 24 feet ;
the stem is branchless up to 100 feet. The tree passes under the
name of the "Queen of the Forests" [Lemmon]. The wood is
elastic, strong and hard, fit for masts and spars ; it has a peculiar
red colour ; spikes, nails and bolts hold firm and never corrode in it
[Dufour], but according to a* late account of " Canadian timbers "
much less praiseworthy, perhaps according to differences in situa-
tions, soil and clime. Very closely allied to P. nobilis and also to
' P. grandis. Hemsley records as distinct from this P. lasiocarpa
(Hooker), which gains a height of fully 250 feet and has branchlets
with yellowish bark.
Pinus aristata, Engelmann.
California, at elevations of 8-12,000 feet in the Sierras. A pine,
attaining about 75 feet in height, the stem three feet in diameter ;
leaves extremely short [Gibbons]. Fit for any alpine country.
Referred by S. Watson as a variety to P. Balfouriana (Jeffrey).
Pinus Arizonica, Engelmann.
Arizona, California. This pine differs from P. ponderosa in
glaucous branchlets, thinner leaves, constantly in fives and of
different structure, and in thicker and shorter fruit-cones, with
greater prominences on the scales [Engelmann, Sargent, Perry],
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 381
Finns australis, Michaux.*
Southern Pine, also called Hard Pine, Georgian, Yellow Pitch-
Pine, Long-leaved Yellow or Broom-Pine. Southern States of
North- America. On sandy soil, constituting the main tree-vegetation
on the "Pine-Barrens." The tree attains a height of about 100 feet,
requires soil open to a great depth, and follows the " stratified drifts,"
consisting of gravel, sand and clay [Prof. Mohr]. Requires a long
period of growth for full development [Farlow] . One of the least
shade-enduring of all pines. It furnishes a superior timber for
furniture and building, also for naval architecture, railway-ties and
flooring, particularly eligible also for very tall flagstaffs ; thus yields
the principal yellow pine-wood of the lumber-trade. The wood is
compact, straight-grained, very durable, of delicate shades of yellow
and brown [C. Mohr], and has only a slight layer of sapwood. The
tree is not so quick of growth as many other pines. According to
Dr. Little, the tree produces 30,000 feet of first-class timber per acre.
It is this species, which yields largely the American turpentine, as
well as resin, pitch and tar. Great Britain in 1884 imported 23,000
tons oil of turpentine, value 560,000, and 73,500 tons resin, value
376,000 ; in 1889 the quantity was 20,200 tons oil of turpentine,
value 663,000, and 66,800 tons of resin, value 291,000; by far
the greatest portion of these two articles came from the United
States, where P. australis would yield a large share. The resin is
fragrant. A solution of the oil, distilled from the turpentine in
alcohol, is known as camphin. The turpentine is obtained by
removing in spring and summer strips of bark, by chipping and
collecting the effluence into appropriate boxes particularly applied.
The first yield is the best ; in the fourth year the tree becomes
exhausted [Prof. C. Mohr]. The average annual yield during this
time is 20 Ibs. Porcher observes, that the tree shoots up devoid of
branches for sometimes as much as 60 feet, and he calls it " one of
the greatest gifts of God to man/' The tree prevails, according to
C. Mohr, where the silicons constituents of the drift-soil mingle with
the outcrops of tertiary strata, and he observes, that forests of this
pine cause grateful showers with wonderful regularity through all
seasons. The emanations from pines, particularly the very resinous
species, are antimalarian and antiseptic, as proved by residences near
pine-forests, and by the use of hospital-buildings constructed of pine-
wood. The leaves are very rich in oil. The sanitary significance
of these pines is nowhere yet sufficiently recognised. The so-called
pine-wool, much prepared from the leaves of this species, has recently
came into use for select mats [J. R. Jackson] ; also for covering
cotton-bales and for dressing wounds. P. palustris (Miller) is by far
the oldest name, but quite inappropriate.
Pinus Ayacahuite, Ehrenberg. (P. Loudoniana, Gordon.)
In Mexico, at an elevation of 8,000 to 12,000 feet. An excellent
. pine, to 150 feet high, with a stem diameter of three to four feet.
382 , Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
It has the habit of P. excelsa, and is equal to it in its own line of
beauty [Beecher] and in hardiness, yielding a much-esteemed white
or reddish timber. Its cones are among the very largest, measuring
as much as 15 j inches in length [Sir J. Hooker]. Furnishes a
fragrant balsamic turpentine and resin, the latter used as incense
[O. Finck].
Pinus Balfouriana, Jeffrey.
The " Foxtail- " or " Hickory -Pine." California to Colorado, up
to 12,000 feet elevation. Height reaching 100 feet ; trunk-diameter
to 5 feet. Wood close-grained, tough, very strong [Sargent].
Pinus balsam ea, Linn. (Abies balsamea, Miller.)
"Balsam-Fir," "Balm of Gilead-Fir." Canada, Nova Scotia*
south to New England, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. An elegant
tree, to 40 feet high, which with Pinus Fraseri yields Canada-balsam
(Balsam of Firs), the well-known oleo-resin. The timber is light,
pale, soft and useful for furniture and implements. The wood is
also of very particular value for superior violins [Dr. R. Tannasch].
Rate of circumferential stem-growth in Nebraska 26 inches at
2 feet from the ground in 12 years [Governor Furnas]. The tree
does not attain a very great age. Sends a pleasant odor through
the forest, regarded as salubrious, especially to phthisic patients, a
remark which applies to many other pines. It thrives best in cold
swampy places. Eligible for alpine regions ; in Norway it is hardy
to lat. 63 26' [Schuebeler]. Bears the severest winters of Northern
Germany [H. Koehler].
Pinus bracteata, D. Don. (Abies bracteata, Hooker and Arnott.)
Southern California up to 6,000 feet. A very handsome fir,
attaining about 150 feet in height, forming a slender, perfectly
straight stem, not more than two feet in diameter. A somewhat
older name is P. venusta (Douglas). The resin is used for incense.
The young shoots, according to Hemsley, injured by spring-frosts in
Britain.
Pinus Brunoniana, Wallich. (P. dumosa, D. Don.)
Himalaya, descending to 8,000 and ascending to 10,500 feet.
This fir attains a height of about 120 feet, and the stem a circum-
ference of 28 feet [Sir J. D. Hooker]. Particularly eligible for
alpine tracts. The timber is pale and soft ; it does not stand
exposure well.
Pinus Canadensis, Linn&* (Abies Ccmadensis, Michaux.)
" Hemlock-Spruce/' In Canada and over a great part of the
United States, on high mountains, as well as on undulating land.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 383
A very ornamental fir, to about 100 feet high, with a pale coarse-
grained wood, remarkably durable when used for submerged water-
works ; also employed for railway-ties. According to A. Gray it
is one of the most graceful of spruces, with a light and spreading
spray. Schacht saw aged stems on which 440 wood-rings could be
counted. Can be kept trimmed for hedges. Next to P. Strobus it
is the highest pine of the Eastern States of North-America. The
tree is extremely valuable on account of its bark, which is much
used as a tanning material, containing 9 to 14 per cent, tannin.
Ramspacher's analyses have given a still higher result. Bark is
much liked as an admixture to oak-bark for particular leathers of
great toughness, wearing strength and resistance to water. The
extract of the bark for tanning fetches in the London market from
16 to 18 a ton, and is imported to the extent of 6,000 tons a
year ; the bark is stripped off during the summer months ; it is of
medicinal value also. The supply of tan-bark from this tree is
gradually falling short of the demand and cannot be quickly increased
by special culture. The young shoots are used in making spruce-
beer. P. Caroliniensis is the Hemlock-spruce of Carolina.
Firms Canariensis, C. Smith.*
Canary-Pine. Canary-Islands, forming large forests at an eleva-
tion of 5,000 to 6,000 feet. A tree, reaching a height of 80 feet,
with a resinous, durable, very heavy wood, not readily attacked by
insects. It thrives well in Victoria, and shows celerity of growth.
Will endure an occasional shade-temperature of 118 F. [W. I. Win-
ter]. Growth in height at Port Phillip 45-50 feet in 20 years.
Has grown at a much greater rate on the Campaspe-River, viz., at
an average of 4J feet annually [W. Napier].
Firms Cedrus, Linn.* (Cedrus Libani, Barrelier.)
Cedar of Lebanon. Together with the Atlas-variety on the moun-
tains of Lebanon and Taurus, also in North- Africa and Cyprus ; the
var. C. Atlantica at elevations of a few or several thousand feet.
The tree grows to a height of about 100 feet, with a heavy trunk
sometimes 46 feet in circumference [Booth] and attains a very great
age. Goeppert and Russegger allot to Lebanon-Cedars an age
reaching to the commencement of the Christian era. The wood is of
a light reddish colour, soft, almost inodorous, easy to work, and
much-esteemed for its durability.
Firms Cedms, var. Deodara.* (Cedrus Deodara, Loudon.)
Deodar-Cedar. On the north-western Himalaya-Mountains, also
in Afghanistan, 3,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea-level. A majestic
tree, reaching a height of more than 300 feet, and sometimes over
40 feet in circumference of stem. The wood is of a light-yellow colour,
very close-grained and resinous, strongly and agreeably scented, light,
extremely durable, well resisting the vicissitudes of a changeable
384 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
clime, and furnishes one of the best building-timbers known. Pillars
of Kashmir-mosques, made of this wood, found sound after 400 years,
and bridges of still greater antiquity are in existence. White ants
hardly ever attack the heartwood. Boats built of this wood have
lasted about 40 years. It is also extensively used for canal-edges and
for railways. Mr. J. S. Gamble's experience shows that in India
Deodar railway-sleepers withstood decay considerably longer than
those of Sal and very much longer than those of Teak. The trees
should not be felled too young. It yields a good deal of resin and
turpentine. A humid clime very much accelerates the growth of
this pine, which would come best and quickest to its development in
forest-ranges. Deodars will endure, when not too young, an excep-
tional temperature of 118 F. in the shade [W. I. Winter], yet the
tree also bears the cold of Southern Norway. Rate of growth at
Port Phillip, 40 to 50 feet height in 20 years.
Pinus Cembra, Linn**.*
The Zirbel-Pine. On the European Alps, also in Siberia and
Tartary, extending to Kamtschatka, the Kuriles and Arctic America;
reaches to 7,000 feet in the Swiss Alps, yet less hardy than P. Laricio,
although from high Alps ; it grows still to a height of 60 feet at
Christiania [Schuebeler]. Attains a height of about 120 feet, the
stem gets fully 4 feet in diameter, but the growth is slow. It -likes
humus-soil. The wood is of a yellow colour, soft and resinous, of an
extremely fine texture, and is extensively used for carving and
cabinet-work. The seeds are edible, and when pressed yield a great
quantity of oil, as much as 47 per cent., according to Schuppe. A
particular turpentine is also obtained from this pine, called Carpathian
balsam. From the cambium-sap of pines Vanillin can be obtained in
spring, which serves as a substitute for Vanilla, its aroma being much
stronger but not so lasting as that of Vanilla.
Pinus cembroides,, Zuccarini.* (P. Llaveana, Schiede and Deppe.)
Mexican Swamp-Pine. A small tree, to 30 feet high, growing at
elevations from 8,000 to 10,000 feet. The timber is not of much use,
but the seeds are edible and wholesome, and have a very agreeable
taste.
Pinus Cilicica, Antoine and Kotschy. v
Cilician Silver-Fir. Asia-Minor. 4,000 to 6,000 feet above sea-
level. A handsome tree of pyramidal growth, to 160 feet high.
Quite hardy in climes like that of Vienna. The wood is very soft,
and used extensively for the roofs of houses, as it does not warp.
Pinus concolor, Engelmann. (Abies concolor, Lindley.)
The great White Silver-Fir. North-Western America to Arizona
and New Mexico, at elevations of 8,000 to 9,000 feet, therefore almost
Naturalisation in Extra- Tropical Countries. 385
alpine. Nearest allied to P. grandis. A fir, reaching 150 feet in
height ; trunk to 4 feet in diameter. The wood is tough, eligible for
building-purposes and other substantial work [Vasey]. It does not
warp, shrinks hardly at all, makes choice ceilings, and needs less
paint than most other timber [Kellogg]. Leaves whitish on both
sides from abundant stomata.
Pinus COntorta, Douglas.* (P. Murrayana, Balfour ; P. Bolanderi, Parla-
tore. )
On high damp ranges in California, Oregon and British North-
Western America ; also abundant on the mountains of Colorado ;
very eligible for clothing rocky hill-sides [Meehan]. In California
this pine forms dense thickets along the coast, and is in this respect
as valuable as P. Laricio, P. Pinaster and P. Halepensis in Europe,
as a shelter-tree in stormy localities. Dr. Gibbons remarks of this
pine, which vernacularly is called Tamarak or Hack-me-tack, that
its size has generally been underrated. At the foot of the Sierra
and on mountains 8,000 feet high he saw it in great numbers, forming
one of the most stately of forest-pines, not rarely attaining a height
of 150 feet and 4 feet in stem-diameter. The timber is pale, straight-
grained and very light ; there considered the best and most durable
material for dams and for general building purposes. It furnishes
sea-ports with piles and masts ; yields also railway-ties. Its value
is beyond calculation. Dr. G. Dawson notes, that the cambium-layer
is so saccharine, as to afford food to the autochthones.
Pinus Coulteri, D. Don.*
California, on the eastern slope of the coast-range, at elevations
from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. A pine of quick growth, attaining a
height of about 100 feet, with a trunk about 4 feet in diameter ; with
P. Ayacahuite, P. Montezumae, P. Lambertiana, P. Sabineana and
P. excelsa it has the largest cones of all pines, comparable in size
and form to sugar-loaves. The nuts are nutritious. Wood brittle.
Pinus Cubensis, Grisebach.* (P. Elliottii, Engelmann.)
Swamp-Pine, Slash- or Bastard-Pine. Higher mountains of Cuba,
also in the Southern States of Eastern North-America. Allied to
P. Taeda. Likes moist, sandy, flat lands. Height of tree to 120 feet,
of clear stem to 70 feet ; growth comparatively quick, overpowering
P. australis. Yields some turpentine and resin [Prof. C. Mohr].
Wood heavy, exceedingly hard, very strong, tough and durable,
hardly inferior to that of P. australis [Colman]. P. Bahamensis
[Grisebach] is a closely cognate Pine, restricted to the Bahamas.
Pinus densiflora, Siebold and Zuccarini.
The " Akamatsu-Pine " of Japan, where it forms along with P.
Thunbergi extensive forest at 1,000 to 2,000 feet above sea-level.
It is hardy at Christiania. Attains an age of several centuries
2 c
386 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
[Rein]. Height to. about 100 feet; stem finally Very stout. The
timber is excellent for building ; it is less resinous than that of
P. Thunbergi [Dupont].
Pinus Douglasii, Sabine.* (Abies Douglasii, Lindley ; Picea Douglasii, Link.)
Oregon-Pine or Fir, called also the yellow Pine or Fir of Puget-
Sound, where it yields the principal timber for export, and is there-
fore of great commercial value in the lumber-trade. It extends from
Vancouver's Island and the Columbia-River through California to
Northern Mexico from the coast up the mountains to 9,000 feet
altitude. The maximum-height known is nearly 300 feet ; the
greatest diameter of the stem 14 feet. The largest trees to be found
in the coast-region. Locally of quicker growth than most other
pines there. Can be grown very closely, when the stems will attain,
according to Drs. Kellogg and Newberry, a height of over 200 feet
without a branch. A densely wooded forest will contain about 36
full-grown trees to an acre. The timber is fine and clear-grained,
heavy, strong, soft, and hence easily worked, yet firm and solid,
splendid for masts and spars, ships' planks and piles ; also valuable
for flooring, being for that purpose regarded as the best of California
[Bolander]. It will bear a tension of 3 to 1 as compared with the
Sequoias. It is the strongest wood among conifers on the North-
Pacific coast, both in resisting horizontal strain and perpendicular
pressure. Sub-alpine localities should be extensively planted with
this famous tree. It requires deep and rich soil, and likes shelter ;
its growth is as rapid as that of the larch ; it passes in various
localities as Black and Red Spruce. Both in clayey and light soil
it attains 50 feet in about eighteen years ; it requires however a moist
forest-clime for rapid growth. Within late years preferentially chosen
among Pines from abroad for the Prussian forests on an extensive
scale [Schwappach]. Among all the conifers introduced there this
appears destined to take the first place, it being praised wherever
grown. The success with this species has been complete even in the
north-eastern provinces where the winter-cold is extreme. It thrives
everywhere except on peaty swampy soil and in moving sands [C.
Bolle]. Was found to grow more quickly than P. Abies. It will
also live in the Australian deserts, but is not of rapid growth there.
The bark is employed for tanning.
Pinus echinata, Miller.* (P. mitis, Michaux.)
Yellow Pine of Eastern North-America, extending to Missouri
and Texas, called also Short-leaved Pine, in contrast to P. australis.
In dry sandy and more particularly somewhat clayey soil attaining
a height of about 90 feet ; eligible for rocky ridges. Wood yellowish,
compact, hard, durable, fine-grained, moderately resinous, valuable
for flooring, cabinet-work and ship-building, and even for railway-
sleepers. Much exported from Florida [G. Damkoehler]. According
to Dr. Vasey it commands a higher price even than that of P. Strobus.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 387
The seeds are smaller than those of other North-East American true
pines, hence easier of transit in quantity [Meehan]. All points
taken together probably with P. Cubensis the best pine for future
forestry in the Southern States of North- America [Hon. J. Cole-
man], an opinion of which advantage should be taken in the Victorian
clime.
Pinus edulis, Engelmann.*
New Mexico. A pine, not tall, very resinous. Wood easily split.
One of the best for fuel [Meehan]. It yields the " Pino"-nuts, which
are produced in immense quantities, and are of very pleasant flavor
[Sargent]. So closely cognate to P. monophylla that Dr. Newberry
and Prof. Meehan regard it as a mere variety.
Pinus excelsa, Lambert and Wallich.
The Lofty or Bhotan-Pine. Himalaya, forming large forests, at
from 5,000 to 12,500 feet elevation ; also in Macedonia and Monte-
negro. A fine tree, at length about 150 feet high, furnishing a
valuable, close-grained, soft and easily workable wood, which ranks
among Himalayan pine-woods for durability next to Deodar-timber
[Stewart and Brandis] ; the wood is highly recommended for patterns
in foundries, further for levelling-staves and cot-planks [Watson].
This pine also furnishes a good quantity of turpentine. Under culti-
vation it shrinks before a fierce summer-sun [Beecher], but will bear
the winter of Christiania [Schuebeler]. Endures the clime of the
Murray-desert, but does not grow^quickly there [Henry King], Cones
often 15 inches long [Sir J. Hooker]. This tree produces seeds
early and copiously ; gets disseminated easily even on steep bare
declivities [Brandis]. The wood is called by Mr. Aikin the most
. compact of any of the whole tribe.
Pinus firma, Antoine. (Abies Jlrma, Siebold and Zuccarini.)
Japan, at 2,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea-level in humid valleys.
A lofty tree of the habit of the Silver-Fir. Attains an age of 200
to 300 years, without any decay of the stem. The best timber
comes from the colder regions [Prof. Luerssen]. The wood is pale,
soft and fine-grained, employed particularly by local coopers and
upholsterers.
Pinus flexilis, James.
The White Pine of the Rocky Mountains, also known as the
Bull-Pine. From New Mexico to British Columbia, ascending to
13,000 feet, therefore to alpine elevations. Prefers the limestone-
formation. A valuable fir for cold regions. It attains a height of
150 feet, according to Dr. Gibbons, but Mr. J. Hoops states, that it
is of slow growth. Stem to 5 feet thick (Sereno Watson). Wood
pale, soft and compact, of fine texture, according to Prof. Sargent
intermediate between that of P. Strobus and P. Lambertiana. Dr.
G. Dawson noted, that the seeds afford food to the autochthones.
2C2
388 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Pinus Fortune!, Parlatore. (Abies Jezoensis, Lindley.)
China, in the neighbourhood of Foo-Chow-Foo. A splendid fir,
to 70 feet high, somewhat similar in habit to P. Cedrus.
Pinus Fraseri, Pursh. (Abies Fraserl, Lindley.)
Double Balsam-Fir. On high mountains of Carolina and Penn-
sylvania. This tree, which grows to a height of about 20 feet only,
yields with P. balsamea the well-known Canada-balsam. Not sur-
passed in endurance of low temperature by any Pine, and perhaps
by no other tree, as it survived in Finland a cold of 35 F., at which
the hardiest sorts of trees succumbed [E. Adrian, L. Moeller].
Pinus Gerardiana, Wallich.
Nepal Nut-Pine. In the north-eastern parts of the Himalayas
at an elevation of 10,000 to 12,000 feet, extending to Afghanistan.
With P. Deodara, P. excelsa, P. Webbiana, P. Smithiana, and Juni-
perus excelsa reaching the highest regions of pine-forests in
Southern Asia. The tree attains a height of 60 feet, with a com-
paratively short stem, exceptionally 10 feet in girth, and produces
very sweet edible seeds nearly an inch long, also turpentine. Hoopes
refers to it as remarkable for the copiousness of its resin. In
reference to the nut-seeds the proverb prevails at Kunawar, " One
tree a man's life in winter."
Pinus glabra, Walter.
From Florida to the Mississippi, particularly in low hummocks
CDr. Chapman]. Allied to P. mitis. It attains, according to Prof.
. Mohr, a height of about 80 feet, stem-diameter to 3 feet. Requires
good moist soil ; growth comparatively quick ; shade enduring.
Wood light, soft, easily worked, not resinous, fit as regards building
purposes only for inside work [Hon. J. Colman]. Wood comparable
to that of P. Strobus [Dr. Porcher].
Pinus grandis, Douglas. (Abies grandis, Lindley.)
From California to British Columbia. Great Silver-Fir, also
known as the Yellow Fir. A splendid quick-growing fir, to 200
feet high and upwards, growing best in moist valleys of high ranges.
The stem occasionally attains a diameter of 7 feet at 130 feet from
the ground, and of 6 feet at 200 ; concentric wood-growth of stem
as much as 1 inch in a year ; height reached by the tree in Wales 75
feet in 33 years [A. D. Webster]. Trees occur of 15 feet stem-
diameter and 320 feet high. The wood is pale and soft, too light
and brittle, according to Dr. Vasey, for general purposes ; while
Prof. Brewer asserts, that it is employed for boards, boxes, cooperage,
and even much sought for ship-building, but it seems fit only for
inside work ; it is of pleasant scent. Rate of upward growth in
favorable places about 2i feet in a year. P. subalpina (Engelmann)
is closely cognate.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 389
Firms Griffithii, Parlatore. (Larix Griffithii, J. Hooker and Thompson. )
The Himalayan Larch. Descends to 8,000 feet and ascends to
12,000 feet. Timber pale, soft, without distinct heartwood, one of
, the most durable of all pine-timbers [Stewart and Brandis]. P.
Ledebourii (Endlicher) is the Siberian Larch.
Pinus Halepensis, Miller.* (P. maritima, Lambert.)
Aleppo-Pine. South-Europe and North-Africa, South- Western
Asia. This well-known pine attains a height of 80 feet, with a stem
to 5 feet in diameter. The timber of young trees is pale, of older
trees dark-coloured ; it is principally esteemed for ship-building, but
also used for furniture. The tree yields a peculiar kind of turpentine,
as well as a valuable tar. Although ascending mountains in South-
Europe to the height of 4,000 feet, it thrives best in sandy coast-
lands, where in ten years it will measure 25 feet, and finally will
become a larger tree than on firmer lands. M. Boitel has published a
special work on the importance of this pine for converting poor sand-
land into productive areas, referring also to P. silvestris and P. Laricio
for the same purpose. According to the Hon. W. Winter-Irving
it will resist an occasional heat of 118 F. in the shade. We find the
Aleppo-Fir one of the best of evergreen avenue-trees in Victoria, as
first proved by the writer. It is content with the poorest and driest
localities, and also here comparatively rapid in growth. Does also
particularly well on limestone soil, its roots penetrating far into the
crevices of the rocks [Dr. Henry Bennett].
Pinus Hartwegii, Lindley.
Mexico, 9,000 to 14,000 feet above sea-level. A pine, reaching
150 feet in height, with a very durable wood of a reddish colour ; it
yields a large quantity of resin.
Pinus Hookeriana, McNab. (Abies Hoolceriana,, Murray.)
California, at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. A fir, allied to P.
Pattoniana, but distinct [Dr. McNab]. Height of tree to about
300 feet. Stem perfectly straight. Wood hard, of a reddish colour,
with handsome streaks. Not a resinous tree. Hardy in Middle
Europe.
Pinus Hudsonica, Poiret. (P. Baiiksiana, Lambert. )
Grey Pine. Colder parts of North- America, both eastern and
western, up to 64 north-latitude. Height of tree to as much as
100 feet ; in the cold north only a shrub. Its wood is light, tough,
resinous and easily worked ; locally used for railway-ties. Extends
further north than any other pine in America [Dawson and Macoun].
Should prove valuable for alpine forests.
390 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Pinus inops, Solander.
Eastern North- America. The Jersey-Pine. A tree, content with
harren soil, attaining a height of 40 feet, available for fixing drift-
sand on coasts. Easily disseminated. Remarkably rich in resin,
hence to be classed with pines most desirable for sanitary planta-
tions. Wood reddish -yellow. P. Virginiana (Miller) is by far the
eldest name.
Pinus insignis, Douglas.* (P. radiata, D. Don.)
California. A splendid dark-green pine, fully to 100 feet high,
with a straight stem, occasionally 8 feet in diameter. It is the
quickest-growing of all pines, a seedling one year old being strong
enough for final transplantation ; it has been noticed to grow fully
5 feet annually in light soil near Melbourne. Mr. J. Dickinson
found it to attain a height of 70 feet, with a stem-girth of 5 feet,
in 13 years at Port Phillip. The variety radiata, with branches
arising only towards the summit and therefore supplying long clear
trunks, has grown near Ballarat in some instances in ordinary soil up
to 100 feet in 25 years [Lowe andLaidlaw]. Although Cupressus
macrocarpa grows nearly as fast, that tree is not so indifferent to soil
as P. insignis, which will brave even stagnant humidity in stiff soil.
Preferable in mild climes for street-planting to trees with annually
deciduous leaves, as the small yearly fall of foliage does not choke
gutters and drains, nor becomes so offensive in moist decay ; thus
even of sanitary effect. Most extensively distributed through the
colony of Victoria and also some other parts of Australia since 1859
by the author of this work, not so much as a timber-tree, "but to
impart quickly and uninterruptedly a magnificent verdure to towns and
landscapes, and to afford early shelter. Needs shelter against gales.
According to the Hon. Winter-Irving it will endure exceptional
exposure to 118 F. in the shade. Even more apt to catch fire than
most pines. In the United Kingdom it suffers greatly from the attacks
of the Pine-Beetle, Hylurgus piniperda [Lawson]. The wood is of
inferior technic value ; but this tree can be utilised for obtaining tar
and pitch. It bears exposure to the sea at the very edge of the coast.
- Produces fruit-cones only at somewhat advanced age. Mr. J. Kruse,
on the author's suggestion, subjected the foliage to distillation,
obtaining oil in 0-01 quantity of 0'845 specific gravity, of 293 F.
boiling point, and of a pleasant penetrating odor, reminding of
Geneva-gin. Prof. Don having named and described this tree under
two names simultaneously, the later name, given by Douglas, may
remain adopted, although not the oldest.
Pinus Jeffrey! , Murray.
California. A pine, to 150 feet in height; stem-diameter to 4
feet. Hardy at Christiania, Norway. Recommended particularly
for rearing on slopes of higher mountains, as it suffers from any
drought. The wood serves in the trade as coarse lumber. The
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 391
glaucous branchlets of aromatic fragrance with thinner and greyish
leaves, the greater size of the fruit-cones with thin and recurved
spines to the scales, the larger nutlets and more numerous cotyledons
separate this pine from P. ponderosa [Engelmann, Sargent, Perry].
Pinus Ksempferi, Lambert.
Chinese Larch, also called Golden Pine. North-Eastern China.
This is the handsomest of all the larches ; it forms a transit to the
cedars. Resists severe frost. It is of quick growth and attains a
height of 150 feet. The leaves, which are of a vivid green during
spring and summer, turn to a golden-yellow in autumn. The wood
is very hard and durable.
Pinus Kasya, Royle.
Kasya and also Burmah, from 2,000 to 7,000 feet. Closely
related to P. longifolia. Attains a height of 200 feet. Wood very
resinous, somewhat fibrous, rather close-grained, pale brown with
darker waving [Kurz]. The resin an article of commerce [Sir
Jos. Hooker].
Pinus KoraiensiS, Siebold and Zuccarini.
Kamtschatka, China and, Japan. A handsome pine, often to 40
feet high, producing edible seeds.
Pinus Lambertiana, Douglas.*
Shake-, Giant- or Sugar-Pine. British Columbia and California,
mostly at great altitudes. A lofty tree, of rapid growth, upwards
of 300 feet high, with a straight stem attaining 60 feet in circum-
ference. It holds in most places pre-eminence in beauty and size,
over accompanying pines, and reaches an age of 600 years [Dr.
Yasey]. It thrives best in sandy soil, and produces a soft, pale,
straight-grained wood, which for inside work is esteemed above
any other pine-wood in California, and obtained in large quantities ;
it is especially used for shingles, flooring, and for finishing purposes
by joiners and carpenters. The tree yields an abundance of
remarkably clear and pure resin, which from trees partially burnt
is of sweet taste, and eaten by the natives. The cones may be 19
inches long ; the seeds are edible. This pine would come to per-
fection best in the humid regions of higher mountains. P. reflexa
(Engelmann) is an allied large species with smaller fruit, occurring
in Arizona.
Pinus Laricio, Poiret * (P. maritima, Miller.)
Corsican Pine. South-Europe, ascending to about 6,000 feet.
It attains a height of 150 feet. A splendid shelter-tree, particularly
for the coldest regions. One of the best pines to thrive in the southern
part of the Middle Island of New Zealand [Waugh]. It is also culti-
vated at Christiania. It will succeed on stiff clay as well as on sandy
392 , Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
soil, even on sea-sand. Will succeed still on someVhat saline soil,
at all events the Taurian variety [Th. Kessall], The wood is pale,
towards the. centre dark, very resinous, coarse-grained, elastic and
durable, and much esteemed for building, especially for waterworks ;
valuable also for its permanency underground. There are three
main-varieties of this pine, namely, P. L. Poiretiana in Italy, P. L.
Austriaca in Austria, P. L. Pallasiana on the borders of the Black
Sea. Another variety or closely allied species is P. leucodermis
(Antoine), which is suitable for very high elevations. The tree
grows best in calcareous soil, but also in poor sandy ground, where
however the timber does not get so large nor so good. It yields all the
products of P. silvestris, but in greater quantities, being perhaps the
most resinous of all pines. Assumed to attain an age of 500 years
[Langethal]. The Austriaca variety attained a stem-girth of nearly
2 feet in 10 years, when cultivated in Nebraska [Governor Furnas].
It is this Austrian variety which is still better adapted than the
typical P. Laricio for planting on rolling sea-sands in very exposed
places. This species is regarded by some as even preferable for
timber-rearing to P. silvestris and P. Larix. Rate of upward growth
1-2 feet in a ear.
!PinilS Larix, Linn.* (Larix Uuropcea, De Candolle.)
Common Larch. On the European Alps, up to 7,000 feet. A
tree of quick growth in cool localities ; adapted to poor soil, its
foliage as in all larches deciduous. It attains often a height of 100
feet, sometimes rising even to 160 feet, and produces a valuable
timber of great durability, which is used for land- and water-
buildings, and much prized for ship- and boat-building ; for staves
of wine-casks almost indestructible, not allowing the evaporation
of the spirituous contents [Simmonds], also much employed for
pumps. The Brian^on-Manna exudes from the stem. Larch-trees,
cut in Bohemia, have shown over 500 annual rings in their wood
[Langethal] ; the age of one particular tree is now 580 years [Prof.
Bentley]. Rate of growth in Britain about 60 feet in 40 years.
Larch-timber lasts three times longer than that of the Norway-Spruce,
and although buoyant and elastic it is tougher and more compact ; it
is proof against decaying effect of water, not readily igniting, and
heavier and harder than any deal [Stauffer]. The Venetian houses,
constructed of larch-wood, showed for almost indefinite periods no
symptoms of decay. This wood is also selected for the most lasting
panels of paintings. The bark is used for tanning and dyeing. The
tree is also of great importance for its yield of Venetian turpentine,
which is obtained by boring holes into the stem in spring ; these fill
during the summer, supplying from half to three-quarters of a pint
of turpentine. In Piedmont, where they tap the tree in different
spots, and let the liquid continually run, it is said, that from seven to
eight pints may be obtained in a year ; but the wood suffers through
this operation. The larch is grown in Norway to lat. 66 5'; in
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 393
63 26' a tree still attained a height of over 70 feet [Professor
Schuebeler] . P. L. var. Rossica, the Russian Larch, grows princi-
pally on the Altai-Mountains, from 2,500 to 5,500 feet above sea-level.
The species would be important for uplands, particularly alpine country,
even for peatbogs.
PillUS leiophylla, Schiede and Deppe.
At elevations of from 7,000 to 11,000 feet on the mountains of
Mexico. A pine, to as much as 90 feet high. A very resinous
species, according to Mr. Hugo Finck. The wood is excessively
hard.
Firms leptolepis, Endlicher. (Larix leptolepis, Gordon. )
The Karamatsou or Japan-Larch. In Japan, between 35 and
48 north-latitude, up to an elevation of 9,000 feet. Never a very
tall tree, still occasionally rising to" 100 feet, with a stem-diameter to
4 feet. Thrives best in a cool dry climate. The timber is heavy and
durable, pale-yellowish with reddish-brown centre, used for ship-
and house-building as well as for utensils, but especially sought for
underground-work [Prof. Luerssen].
Firms longifolia, Roxburgh.*
Emodi-Pine or Cheer-Pine. On the Himalayan mountains, from
2,000 to 9,000 feet. A handsome tree, with a branchless stem for
50 feet, the whole tree attaining a maximum-height of somewhat
over 100 feet, the girth of the stem 12 feet. Does not like much
shade. Growth in height at Port Phillip about 40 feet in 20 years.
The wood is resinous, and the red variety useful for building ; it
yields a good quantity of tar and turpentine. The branches are used
for torches by the rural population of its native country [Dr. Brandis].
The bark is used for tanning and contains also valuable dye-properties
[Dr. Gr. Watt]. The tree stands exposure and heat well. The
Honorable Winter-Irving found that it endures an occasional shade-
temperature of 118 F.
Firms Massoniana, Lambert and D. Don.
China. A good-sized pine, with widely spreading ramifications.
The wood is durable, and, when well-seasoned, is much employed as
material for tea-boxes. The tree endures the winter-cold of Southern
Norway [Schuebeler]. Prof. C. Koch regards P. Sinensis (Lambert)
as a distinct species.
Pinus Merkusii, Junghuhn.
Burmah, Borneo, Sumatra and Philippine Islands, there with P.
insularis, chiefly at elevations of from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. A tall
. pine. The only species of Pinus which extends south of the equator.
Closely related to P. Massoniana. W^ood exceedingly resinous
394 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
[Brandis]; stems valuable for masts and spars, according to Mr.
Gamble. Weight of wood about 50 Ibs. per cubic foot. The resin
of this pine resembles Dammar [Wiesner] .
Pinus Mertensiana, Bongard. (Abies Mertensiana, Lindley ; Picea Merten-
siana, Gordon.)
Western Hemlock-Spruce. North-Western America. Of un-
usually quick growth, even on poor soil in the cool climes congenial
to this tree. The wood is pale, tough and very soft, but is often
used for building. This fir gains a height of about 200 feet, with a
stem 4 to 6 feet in diameter ; the bark is in great repute for tanning ;
the roots yield strong fibre, even for seines and nets; the tender
sprigs are the characteristic ingredient required for making spruce-
beer locally; the tree yields also much resin [Dr. Kellogg]. Though
naturally so tall a tree, it can young be trained and trimmed to the
best of garden-hedges of a lovely green [Prof. Bolander].
Pinus monophylla, Torrey.
Stone- or Nut-Pine of California, on the Sierra Nevada and Cas-
cade-Mountains, up to 6,500 feet. Never very tall. It thrives best
on dry limestone- soil. The large seeds are edible, of almond-like
taste, and consumed in quantity by the natives. Height of tree
generally about 35 feet, but occasionally as much as 80 feet ; stem
not of great thickness. This species is not of quick growth. Wood
pale, soft, very resinous, much used for charcoal.
Pinus montana, Du Hoi. (P. pumilio, Hsenke. )
On the Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians, also in Greece, up to the
highest point of woody vegetation, covering large tracts, and thriving
on the poorest soil. In Norway it will live to lat. 70 4' [Schuebeler].
This pine grows to about 25 feet high, but in favorable localities
to 50 ; it yields much oil of turpentine. The wood is used largely
for carving^ Only available to advantage for highlands. The oil,
distilled from the foliage of this and many other pines, is a safe
anthelmintic [Dr. H. Pinkney].
Pinus Montezumse, Lambert. (P. Devoniana, Lindley; P. Grenvillece,
Gordon. )
Mexico. A handsome pine, to 80 feet high ; wood pale, soft and
resinous. Thrives well in Southern Tasmania [F. Abbott]. Cone
attaining a length of 15 inches [Dr. Masters].
Pinus monticola, Douglas.
From British Columbia to California, at an elevation of 7,000-
10,000 feet. This pine thrives best in poor soil of granite formation,
and attains a height of about 200 feet, with a stem often 7 feet thick.
The wood is pale, close-grained, similar to that of P. Strobus.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 395
Dr. Gibbons observes, that this species is less than half the size of
P. Lambertiana, but in all other respects resembles it. Woodmen are
very pronounced in their statement, that there are two kinds of sugar-
pine, both growing in close proximity to each other. Mr. J. Hoopes
states, that the wood is similar to that of the White Pine, therefore
pale and soft, but tougher. Dr. G-. Dawson says, that the aborigines
use also the seeds of this pine for food.
Firms muricata, D. Don.
Bishop's Pine. California, in the coast-region, up to 2,000 feet.
This hardy pine grows ordinarily to about 40 feet, but reaches 120
feet under favorable circumstances. It might be utilised for wind-
breaks [Dr. Gibbons]. Endures the clime of Middle Europe. Rate
of growth near Melbourne about 30 feet in ten years [C. French].
Did particularly well in the south of New Zealand [Th. Waugh],
The fruit-cones persist for many years [Sereno Watson].
PillUS nigra, Alton. (Picea nigra, Link ; Abies rubra, Michaux.)
Black Spruce. Eastern America, occurring extensively between
44 and 53 north latitude. In Norway it will grow to lat. 63 45'
[Schuebeler]. This tree, which is termed Double Spruce by the
Canadians, likes humid sheltered localities, attains a height of about
70 feet, and furnishes a light elastic timber of pale colour, excellent
for yards of ships ; largely sawn into boards and quarterings ; has
also come extensively into use for paper-pulp. The spruce-lumber
of the eastern markets in the United States is chiefly furnished by
this species [Sargent]. The young shoots are used for making
spruce-beer, and the small roots serve as cords. The tree prefers
poor and rocky soil, but a humid cool clime, and is best available
for mountainous localities inaccessible to culture. Mr. Cecil Clay
estimates, that 20,000 cubic feet of timber can be obtained from this
tree on one acre of ground.
Pinus nobilis, Douglas. (Abies nobilis, Lindley.)
Noble White Fir ; but also known as Red Fir. Oregon and its
vicinity ; forms there extensive forests at 6,000 to 8,000 feet. A
majestic tree, attaining a height of 320 feet [Brewer, Gardner], with
regular horizontal branches. Timber splendid. P. magnifica (Murray)
is a variety. Hardy in Middle Europe.
Pinus Nllttallii, Parlatore. (Larix occidentalis, Nuttall. )
The Oregon-Larch, at elevations of from 3,000 to 6,000 feet.
According to Dr. Gibbons, one of the most graceful trees. Stem
straight, frequently 200 feet to the first limb. Timber readily fissile,
very strong and durable [Dufur], tough, light and elastic ; it can
also be employed in water-work [Dr. Kellogg]. Tree only available
for cool mountain-regions, to serve commercial final purposes.
396 . Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
4.
PillUS obovata, Antoine. (P. Schrenkiana, Antoine ; Picea obovata, Lede-
bour. )
North-Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. Somewhat like the
Nor way- Spruce. Wood soft and pale, locally used for furniture and
household-implements, also for packing boxes of great durability
[Regel].
Pinus orientalis, Linn. (Picea orientalis, Carriere.)
Sapindus-Spruce. Asia Minor, ascending to 6,600 feet, thus be-
coming alpine. Hardy in Christiania. The tree rises to about 80
feet, and somewhat resembles the Norway-Spruce. The wood is
exceedingly tough and durable. Some conifers ward off locusts.
Pinus Parryana, Engelmann. (P. Llaveana, Torrey.)
California. One of the pines with edible nuts. Allied to P.
monophylla.
Pinus parviflora, Siebold and Zuccarini.
The " Imekomatsou." Kuriles and Japan. A middle-sized pine
of longevity ; ascends to Alpine heights. Much used as an avenue-
tree. Wood valuable for furniture and boat-building. It is harder
than that of P. Thunbergi and P. densiflora [Dupont].
Pinus Pattoniana, McNab.
California, restricted to elevations above 5,000 feet, advancing
thence to the glacier-region of 10,000 feet in a gradually dwarfed
state. This fir rises to a. maximum-height of 150 feet, the stem en-
larging sometimes at the base to a diameter of 13 feet [Jeffrey ;
Lemmon]. Staminal spikes lilac, copiously produced [Dr. M. T.
Masters]. Closely allied to P. Mertensiana.
Pinus patula, Schiede and Deppe.
Mexico, at elevations of from 6,000 to 12,000 feet. A graceful
pine, becoming 80 feet high.
Pinus pendula, Solander. (P. microcarpa, Lambert ; Larix Americana,
Michaux.)
Small-coned American Larch, Black Larch or Tamarack. From
Labrador and Canada to Virginia, delighting in swampy ground. A
pine of pyramidal growth, to 100 feet high. The timber is pale,
heavy, resinous, and as highly valued as that of the common larch ;
it is close-grained, well-adapted for underground-work ; it combines
lightness, strength and durability ; much sought by ship-builders ;
as for knees, bends and ship-garlands it cannot be surpassed [Robb] ;
much iu use also for railway-ties. Kate of circumferential stem-
growth in Nebraska two feet in ten years [Furnas]. P. laricina [Du
Koi] is by far the oldest name for this larch, as pointed out by Prof
C. Koch.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 397
Pinus picea, Du Roi.* (P. Abies, Linn; Picea excelsa, Link.)
Norway-Spruce, Fichte. Middle and Northern Europe and North-
ern Asia, rising from the plains to an elevation of 4,500 feet, and
forming extensive forests. It exceeds even the ordinary birch in
endurance of cold. Indigenous in Norway to latitude 69 30' [Schue-
beler]. Quicker of growth in its native country than P. silvestris,
but needs a somewhat better and more humid soil. The tree attains
a height of 150 feet or even more, and furnishes an excellent timber,
commonly known under the name of White Deal, for building, furni-
ture, flooring, masts, spars, ladders and oars. Stems of 6 feet dia-
meter are on record with more than 200 wood-rings. It also produces
the Burgundy-pitch in quantity, while the bark is used for tanning.
Though enduring dry summers, this spruce would here have to be re-
stricted for timber-purposes to damp mountains. Can be reared into
a splendid shelter-hedge. A variety with pendant branches occurs.
Hemsley mentions other forms of this spruce, and indeed many
varieties of other species of Pinus. Britain alone imported in recent
. time pinewood to the value of nine millions sterling annually, of which
P. picea must have furnished a considerable portion. The import of
dealwood into Victoria from Europe and America during 1887 came
in value to about half a million. In recent times the wood of this and
some other pines has come into extensive use for paper-making. The
quantity of wood-pulp exported from Norwegian ports (partly
Swedish produce) in 1893 was 230,000 tons and in 1892 it came to
215,000 tons, the price realized for wet pulp being 3 Is. per ton and
5 11s. for dry pulp.
Pinus Pinaster, Solander.* (P. maritima, Poiret and De Candolle.)
Cluster-Pine. From the shores to the mountains of the countries
on the Mediterranean Sea. The tree rises to about 60 feet in
height. The wood is soft and resinous ; it yields largely the French
turpentine. Among the best of plants for consolidating sandy coasts,
and for converting rolling sands into pastoral and agricultural land.
For ease of rearing and rapidity of growth one of the most impor-
tant of all pines. Average-growth at Port Phillip 40 feet in 20
years. On the testimony of Mr. J. Hoopes, it does not thrive well
on calcareous soil. Hon. Winter-Irving observed P. Pinaster and
the allied P. Pinea to withstand an occasional shade-temperature of
118 F. A tree, 60 to 70 years old, heavily tapped, yields 12 to 16
Ibs. of turpentine, equal to 4 Ibs. of resin, the rest being oil of tur-
pentine [Simmonds]. The tree comes into full flow of turpentine
at about 25 years, and the tapping process, if only a slight one, is
endured by this tree for an enormous length of time. Thus the
annual production of resin from a good tree fluctuates between 5 and
8 Ibs. The quantity of resin gathered in France during 1874 was
about sixty million pounds [Crouzetter-Desnoyers]. The felling of
up-grown pines, planted with wise foresight for antimalarian and
. other hygienic purposes at places of centres of population, can but
be regarded as most reprehensible, when the simple reason of such
398 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
destruction consists in replacing the pines by otlier perhaps more
fashionable but less sanitary trees. Under the shelter of a wooden
palisade near high-water mark on coast-sands the seeds of the Cluster-
Pine are sown along with those of the Lyme, Marram, Furze and
Broom-plant, the ground thus sown being covered with brush-wood,
to prevent the sand from moving. In France, north of the Loire,
the P. Pinaster is not reared, as there it will no longer yield a rich
supply of turpentine [Colonel Bailey, in " Indian Forester " XIII.,
450].
Firms Pinceana, Gordon.
Mexico, up to 9,000 feet above the sea-level. A very remarkable
pine, frequently to 60 feet high, having drooping branches like the
Weeping Willow. Most desirable for cemeteries.
Pinus Pindrow, Royle.
Himalayan Mountains, 7,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea-level.
A fine, straight-stemmed fir, becoming 190 feet high ; cones purple.
Considered by Stewart and Brandis a variety of P. Webbiana.
Pinus Pinea, Linn4.*
Stone-Pine. Countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea ;
extends to the Canary-Islands. Height of tree 80 feet ; top rather
flat. The wood is whitish, light, but full of resin, and much used
for furniture, naval architecture and general building purposes. The
seeds are edible, but of a resinous though not disagreeable taste ;
they should be left in the cones until they are about to be used, as
otherwise they speedily become rancid, unless they are kept in a very
cool place, when they will retain their power of germination for
some few years ; they only ripen in their third year. This pine
grows as easily and almost as quickly as the Cluster-Pine. The bark
contains much tan-principle.
PinUS Pinsapo, Boissier. (Abies Pinsapo, Boissier.)
Spanish Fir. Spain and North-Africa, at from 3,000 to 6,000 feet
elevation. A tree to 70 feet high, with branches from the ground.
The timber is similar to that of the Silver-Fir and resinous. Thrives
best on calcareous soil [Dr. Masters]. Proved the quickest growing
of European Firs in Tasmania [F. Abbott]. A closely cognate
tree is the Algerian Fir, P. Numidica (Lannoy), which occurs
intermixed with the Atlas-Cedar at elevations from 4,000-6,000
feet.
Pinus polita, Antoine. (Picea polita, Carri6re.)
Japan and Kurile-Islands. A tall superb spruce, forming large
forests on the mountain-ranges [A. Murray]. Resists severe frost.
Allied to P. Smithiana. Wood much like that of P. Alcockiana.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 399
PimiS ponderosa, Douglas.* (P. Benthamiana, Hartweg.)
Yellow Pitch-Pine or Trucker-Pine. North- Western America.
Height of tree often 225 occasionally to 300 feet, with a stem reach-
ing 24 feet in circumference. Growth comparatively quick. Thrives
best in deep loamy sand, but grows also on dry rocky ridges [Farlow].
Varies in degree of hardiness according to the locality, in which the
seeds were obtained [Prof. Th. Meehan]. The wood is yellowish,
hard, strong, heavy and durable ; for general purposes it is locally
preferred to that of other pines ; also largely used in mining opera-
tions. There are fine groves of this tree up to 5,000 feet elevation
in California, but the variety P. Engelmanni (Parry) ascends to
12,000 feet, therefore to alpine elevations, growing on dry gravelly
slopes ; the wood of this variety is light and soft. The bark contains
a considerable quantity of tanning substance. Wood pale and soft,
neither knotty nor resinous, much esteemed for cabinet-work
[Hoopes]; it is of great strength, and used for floors, joists and
much other work in carpentry. Gibbons relates, that the wood, with
the bark adherent, exposed to the weather, will decay within a year,
but that when stripped and covered with soil it is readily persistent.
Dr. Kellogg, who aptly calls this tree herculean, saw logs, which had
been in the ground twelve years, quite sound. Sapwood very thick.
This pine has proved well adapted even for rather dry localities in
Victoria, but is there slow of growth. P. latifolia (Sargent) and P.
Anacheca (Lemmon) are allied species of Southern Arizona.
Pinus Pseude-Strobus, Lindley.
Mexico, up to 10,000 feet. This pine is superior in appearance
to any other Mexican pine ; height to about 80 feet.
Pinus pungens, Michaux.
South-Eastern States of North-America. Although seldom over
50 feet high, this pine has the recommendation of being of remark-
ably quick growth, especially in early life. This species is very
resinous, also powerfully and pleasantly odorous [Prof. Buckhout] ;
should prove of great value. Flower-spikes red; cones large and
early formed [Prof. Meehan]. It is not only one of the most
beautiful but also one of the hardiest of all Pines. In Finland it
bore unscathed a temperature of - 35 F., at which even the hardiest
sorts of Apple- and Pear-trees perished [E. Adrian, in " Moeller's
Erfurt Gaertner-Zeitung"]. cvaro^
Pinus Pyrenaica, Lapey rouse. (P. Brutia, Tenore.)
In the countries at the Mediterranean Sea, ascending to 5,000 feet.
A pine of quick growth, to 80 feet in height ; the wood is pale and
dry, almost free from resin, and of considerable value. The tree com-
mences to bear fruits in about a dozen years already.
400 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Pinus reflexa, Engelmann.
California. Allied to P. flexilis, belonging to the Strobus section,
but wkh comparatively large inappendiculated nuts.
Pinus religiosa, Humboldt. (Abies religiosa, Lindley.)
Oyamel-Fir. Mexico, from 4,000 to 11,500 feet above the sea-
level, thus reaching the limits of arboreous vegetation. A magnificent
tree with somewhat silvery leaves, growing to a height of 150 feet,
stem reaching 6 feet in diameter. The wood is particularly well
fitted for shingles and laths. This species endures the winters of
Middle Europe.
Pinus resinosa, Solander.
Red Pine. North- America, principally Canada and Nova Scotia,
but extending to Pennsylvania. It attains a height of 150 feet, the
stem a diameter of 3 feet. It is of rapid growth, and on account of
the reddish-barked stem ornamental [Sargent] ; delights in sandy soil,
naturally drained, and on such produces the best quality of timber
[Fernow] ; the wood is hard, fine-grained, strong, elastic, heavy and
durable, to various extent resinous, and useful for ship-building and
structures of various kinds. A search should be instituted after
least odorous essential oils, some of which perhaps yielded by parti-
cular pines, to effect the fixing of delicate scents, which could not'be
isolated by distillation or other methods.
Pinus rigida. Miller.*
American Pitch-Pine. From New England to Virginia. It grows
to a height of 80 feet. Timber from gravelly or rocky soil heavy
and resinous, from damp alluvial soil light and soft ; used for build-
ing. But the tree is principally important for its yield of turpentine,
resin, pitch and tar. It is suitable for sea-shores; it will also grow
in the driest localities, as well as in swamps. Prof. Meehan mentions
this as the most rapid grower among North-East American pines.
Dr. M. T. Masters remarks that this species is particularly apt to form
adventitious shoots from the trunk, so that by cutting away the top
a bushy ramification will be produced. With P. Tseda among the
most oleous and resinous pines, to be disseminated million-fold in such
extensive malarial regions, as cannot be readily or profitably drained,
to subdue miasmata by the copious evolution of the double oxyde of
hydrogen and ozone. The first trees in Australia were reared by the
writer of this work.
Pinus Sabineana, Douglas.*
Californian Nut-Pine or White Pine. From California to the
Rocky Mountains. Height to 150 feet; stem frequently 5 feet in
diameter. Leaves unusually long. The wood is pale and soft ;
according to Dr. Gibbons it is hard and durable when seasoned,
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 401
with close and twisted grain, and contains much resin ; for fuel,
when well-distributed heat is requisite, far surpassing all other
Californian woods in value ; yields an abundant supply of excellent
turpentine, and thence again by distillation a superior oil [Dr.
Kellogg]. The clustered heavy cones attain a length of one foot.
The seeds are edible ; they are produced in great profusion, and
constituted formerly a large portion of the winter-food of the native
tribes. Proves even in dry localities of Victoria to be of quick
growth.
Pinna selenolepis, Parlatore. (Abies Veitchii, Lindley.)
Japan, up to elevations of 7,000 feet. This fir rises to a height of
about 150 feet. It is known also as Veitch's Fir.
Pinus serotina, Michaux.
Pond-Pine. Southern States of Eastern North- America, in
morassy soil, principally near the sea-coast. It gets about 50 feet
high. The wood is soft. Of importance as antimalarian for fever-
swamps. Regarded by Prof. Meehan as an extreme form of P.
rigida.
Pinus Sibirica, Turczaninow. (P.Pichta, Fischer; Abies Sibirica, Ledebour.)
Siberian Pitch-Fir. Russia, westward to the Volga, eastward to
Kamtschatka, ascending the Altai-mountains to 5,000 feet. This
pine reaches a height of about 50 feet.
Pinus silvestris, C. Bauhin.*
Scotch Pine, Foehre, Kiefer. Europe, Northern and Western
Asia, reaching to 70 north-latitude, ascending the Alps to 6,000
feet, extending south-eastward to the Black Sea, thriving best in
sandy soil. Of all trees the one which needs the least of mineral
aliment from the soil ; hence adapted for pure sand, where it forms
twice as much humus within the same time as Robinia Pseudacacia
or poplars, while its wood is much more valuable. More easily
transplanted than any other European species [Wessely] . A very
valuable tree, becoming fully 100 feet high, usually growing to an
age of about 120 years, but sometimes getting much older; thus a
venerable tree at Schandau, blown down by a storm, showed 463
annual rings. It is important for masts and spars. The Red
Baltic, Norway- or Riga-deals are obtained from this pine, as well as
a large portion of the European pine-tar and pitch. The wood is
now also largely turned to account in Europe for cellulose, the pure
wood-substance for paper-making. It is also like some other pine-
woods worked up into wood-fibre for bedding and packing material
of elasticity and antiseptic quality. Also used for making lamp-
black. A kind of vanillin is prepared from the cambium-sap of this
pine. Its cones have come into use for tanning in France. Proves
adapted even for the drier parts of Victoria, but here in the lowlands
2D
402 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
apt to take blight. Maximum rate of growth in Nebraska, accord-
ing to Governor Furnas (in Prof. MeehanV "Gardeners' Monthly"),
3 feet stem-circumference at 2 feet from the ground in 10 years. The
leaves of pines can be well converted into material for pillows and
mattresses, with the great recommendation of healthfulness for such
a purpose. All fir-forests are antimiasmatic and for hectic patients
salubrious, in consequence of the di-oxyde of hydrogen evolved
from their terebinthine emanations. The annual importation of tar
and resin from coniferse into Britain approached recently one million
sterling in value, of which P. silvestris must have contributed a
large share. Consult also on various coniferous trees London's
classic "Arboretum."
Pinus Sitkensis, Bongard.* (P. Menziesii, Douglas; Picea Sitkensis,
Trautvetter. )
North-Western America, extending also to Kamtschatka, Amur
and Japan. Has grown in the south of New Zealand to 30 feet in
15 years [Th. Waugh]. Has there done best among the spruces.
The Blue Spruce of California, also called Tideland-Spruce, ascend-
ing to elevations of 9,000 feet ; of rapid growth in congenial soil.
A very handsome tree, which furnishes soft, light, pale and fine-
grained timber, used largely for piles [Dr. Gibbons]. It thrives
best in moist ground. According to Prof. Brewer, instances are on
record of trees having attained a height of over 300 feet, and a
stem of 7 feet in diameter at 100 feet from the base. From an
exceptionally large tree 100,000 shingles were obtained, besides 58
cords of wood. This tree has latterly been chosen among Pines from
abroad for the Prussian forests on a large scale. Schwappach
regards it as almost equal in value among American Pines planted in
Germany to P. Douglasii, but it is not quite so quick in growth ; fit
however also for peaty soil, where P. Douglasii refuses to grow
[C. Bolle].
PinUS Smithiana, Lambert. (P. Khutrow, Royle ; Abies Smithiana,
Forbes ; Picea Morinda, Link.)
Himalaya-mountains, at elevations from 6,000 to 11,000 feet,
extending to Afghanistan and to China. This spruce, known
vernacularly also as Kutro- or Morinda- Spruce, attains a height of
150 feet, and the stem a girth of 21 feet. The wood is pale, even
and straight-grained, but only durable under shelter ; for inside-
work greatly in use. Hardy in Middle Europe.
Pinus Strobus, Linne.*
Weymouth-Pine or American White Pine. North-Eastern America,
growing on any soil, but particularly adapted for deep, rich ground
in mountain-valleys ; known to reach a height of 270 feet, with a
stem as much as 8 feet in diameter. It is the principal pine of the
lumber-trade of the Eastern States. One of the finest among
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 403
- ornamental conifers. Of comparatively quick growth, but with little
tolerance to drought [Hon. N. J. Colman]. The wood is soft,
whitish or yellowish, light, free from knots, almost without resin,
easy to work, very durable, and much esteemed for masts, bridges,
frames of buildings, windows, ceilings, flooring, oars, cabinet-work
and organ-pipes, also much used for matches. Indeed, its use is far
more diversified than that of any other tree in North-America
[Dawson]. The tree yields American turpentine and galipot. Mr.
Cecil Clay cut exceptionally 40,000 feet of its timber on an acre of
ground in the Virginian mountains. The sap-wood is remarkably
thin. The tree endures the climate of Norway to lat. 61 15' [Prof.
Schuebeler]. Maximum-rate of circumferential stem-growth in
Nebraska 1\ feet in 12 years [Governor Furnas]. The wood can
advantageously be converted into paper-material as an admixture to
other substances ; in Europe the wood of P. picea and P. Abies is
preferentially used for this purpose. About 20,000 daily or weekly
journals exist now in the United States, which use paper either
wholly or largely made of wood ["Paper-makers' Monthly Journal"
August 1893]. See also in reference to this and other N. Amer.
Pines, Michaux and Nuttall's Sylva.
Pinus Tseda, Linn6.
Frankincense- or Loblolly-Pine. Florida, Carolina and Virginia*
westward to Texas, in moist loamy-sandy soil, attaining a height of
about 120 feet. Adapted to a wide range of sites ; light-needing
[Farlow]. The timber is liked for pumps, but liable to warp and
decay in buildings on exposure [Sargent]. Stems sought for masts.
The tree yields turpentine in good quantity, though of inferior
quality, and exudes much resin ; it likes regions near the coast ;
hence can be well utilised for raising fir-forests on shore-lands,
especially as this pine takes readily possession of cleared forest-
g round, and by quick growth overpowers other young trees [Prof.
. Mohr].
Pinus tenuifolia, Bentham.
Mexico, at an elevation of about 5,000 feet, forming dense forests.
Height of this pine to nearly 100 feet ; stem to 5 feet in diameter.
Pinus Teocote, Chamisso and Schlechtendal.
Okote- or Torch-Pine. Mexico, from 5,000 to 11,000 feet- above
the sea-level. Tree often to 150 feet high ; stem to 4 feet in
diameter. It yields the Brea -turpentine, from which locally resin
and oil of turpentine are obtained ; the wood is remarkably durable.
Pinus Thunbergii, Parlatore.
Japan. A tall pine with wide ramifications. Closely cognate to
P. Massoniana. The most common of all trees in Japan, called
2D2
404 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
there the " Matsu " or " Kouromatsou." It attains a stem-diameter
of 6 feet, a height of 100 feet, and reaches an age of several centuries.
An individual tree in Nipon was celebrated for its size already 800
years ago and is thought to be 1,200 years old ; it still exists by
many supports. The stem-diameter at 2 feet above ground is 16
feet ; the ramifications have spread diametrically to 240 feet
[Professor Wittmack]. It prefers sandy soil. Splendid for avenues
[Rein]. It supplies a resinous, tough and durable wood, used for
buildings and furniture, but suitable only for indoor-work [Veitch].
The roots, when burned with the oil of Brassica orientalis, furnish
the Chinese lamp-black.
Pinus Torreyana, Parry.
California. A small coastal Pine, buffeted by the sea-breeze
[Prof. Sereno Watson]. Leaves very stout. An average cone of
this pine will contain about 130 seeds, weighing 3 ounces ; they are
edible [Meehan].
!PinuS Tsuga, Antoine. {Abies Tsuga, Siebold and Zuccarini.)
Northern provinces of Japan, 3,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea.
This very hardy spruce-fir grows to a height of over 100 feet. Its
timber is durable, tough and dense, used for masts and spars, also for
shingles, which will last 30 to 40 years [Matzuno] ; highly esteemed
for superior furniture, especially by turners. It is of a yellowish-
brown colour. P. Araragi (Siebold) is the oldest name for this
species, as pointed out by Prof. C. Koch.
Pinus Veitchii, McNab. (Abies Veitchii, Carriers : Picea Veitchii, Lindley.)
One of the largest trees of Japan, rising to 1 30 feet or more ;
reminding of P. nobilis and P. Nordmanniana. It is very little
known yet in Europe [Prof. Naudin],
Pinus ^Webbiana, Wallich. (Abies Webbiana, Lindley.)
King-Fir, Dye-Fir. Himalaya-mountains, at an elevation of from
7,000 to 13,000 feet, extending to Afghanistan. A splendid fir,
reaching a height of 150 feet, the stem a circumference of 30 feet.
Will bear a good deal of shade [Dr. Brandis]. The wood is pale, soft,
cross-grained and very resinous, on the testimony of Mr. Webb some-
what similar in texture and odour to that of the Bermuda-Cedar.
.The natives extract a splendid violet dye from the cones. The
oldest name for this species is P. spectabilis (D. Don) according to
Prof. C. Koch.
PinUS ^Vlllianisonii, Newberry. (Abies Williamsonii, Newberry.)
California and Oregon, up to 12,000 feet. Height of tree reaching
150 feet. Timber very valuable [Yasey]. Many other pines, eastern
as well as western, not alluded to on this occasion, are worthy of
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 405
especial utilitarian inquiries. Pines are the leading trees for impart-
ing that permanent green into landscapes, derivable almost solely
from Conifers in cold climes, and all the more appreciated by refined
taste for mass-planting with wider scope in zones of evergreen
vegetation, where most kinds of trees with deciduous foliage, how-
ever eligible for street-planting, are out of their element, and look
only for about two months lovely, for two passable, for two unsightly
and without winterly surroundings for six months dead, and that
during the very time of the most beautiful general verdure. For
many synonyms of pines see Dr. Masters' essay in the " Journal of the
Linnean Society," 1881.
Piptadenia Cebil, Grisebach. (Acacia Cebil, Grisebach.)
La Plata-States. A tree, attaining 60 feet in height, there
furnishing a tan-bark of fair strength [Hieronymus~|.
Piptadenia rigida, Bentham.
Sub-tropical and extra-tropical South-America. This acacia-like
tree furnishes the angico-gum, similar to gum arabic. The wood,
according to Saldana da Gama, serves for naval constructions.
Pipturus propinquus, Weddell.
Insular India, South-Sea Islands and warmer parts of East-
Australia. This bush is higher and rather more hardy than Boeh-
meria nivea ; in fibre it is similar to that plant. P. velutinus (Wedd.)
is closely allied. The few other species serve probably as well for
fibre.
Pircunia dioica, Moquin. (Phytolacca dioica, Linn. )
Southern Brazil and La Plata-States. The Ombu. A deciduous
tree for shady avenues, grown in South-Europe as well as in many
other mild countries ; shown by the writer of this work to be hardy
in the lowlands of Victoria. It attains a height of about 60 feet,
and is comparatively quick of growth. Apt to be snapped off, when
exposed to any gales [Prof. MacOwan]. The plant is also of some
medicinal value, like the allied Phytolacca decandra (Linne) ; the
use of the berries of the latter for colouring wine is objectionable, as
they are deleterious.
Piscidia erythrina, Linn.
West-Indies and Florida. "Jamaica-Dogwood/' A tree, reach-
ing a height of about 30 feet. The bark has come into medicinal
use, particularly as an hypnotic.
Pisonia aculeata, Linn.
Tropical and sub-tropical countries of both hemispheres, extending
as a native plant into New South Wales. This rambling prickly
bush can be chosen for hedge-copses.
406 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
<
Pistacia Atlantica, Desfontaines.
North-Africa. As the experienced explorer, Dr. E. Cosson,
recommends this tree for raising forests on the high Algerian
plateaux, it should also be very acceptable in other similar regions ;
yields mastic also.
Pistacia Lentiscus, Lhm<$.
The Mastic-Tree. Mediterranean regions. A tall evergreen bush,
exuding the mastic-resin, mostly through incisions into its bark. In
Morocco the plant is extensively used for hedges also.
Pistacia Terebinthus, Linn6.
Countries around the Mediterranean Sea, thence to Afghanistan
and Baluchistan. A tall bush or small tree with deciduous foliage.
The fragrant Cyprian or Chio-turpentine exudes from the stem of
this species ; it was used already by Hippocrates medicinally.
Recently it has here been employed with advantage by Dr. Astles in
carcinomatous affections. In Upper India the seeds are pressed for
oil [Brigade-Surgeon Aitchison].
Pistacia vera, Lmn.*
Syria, Persia, Afghanistan. A deciduous tree, sometimes to 30
feet high, yielding the Pistacio-nuts of commerce, remarkable for
their green almond-tasted kernels. The galls from this tree are of
technic value. Dr. Bancroft adopted the ingenious plan of insert-
ing Pistacia-seeds into dry figs, to secure their power of germina-
tion during transmission to remote places. Artificial pollination
increases the fecundity. Can be grafted on P. Terebinthus [Parla-
tore, Dyer],
Pisum arvense, Linn.
Eastern countries at the Mediterranean Sea. A good forage-
plant, though annual ; thriving in any soil ; best cut for stable-
fodder [Naudin]. Hardier and more drought-resisting than the
ordinary pea, of which it may nevertheless be the origin [A. de
Candolle]. Alefeld, Koernicke and Wittmack, as leading scientific
agronomists, regard P. sativum as a garden-variety of this plant.
Pisum sativum, Linn<5.*
The common Pea. South-Western Asia. Cultivated already by
the ancient Greeks and Trojans [Virchow, Wittmack], during the
stone-age in Hungary [A. de Candolle]. Matures, under horticul-
tural care, seeds even in the hot desert-regions of Central Australia
[Rev. H. Kempe], where it is a winter-plant like in tropical regions 5
on the other hand it comes to perfection as far north as 70 22' in
Norway [Schuebeler]. This annual of daily' use could hardly be
left unnoticed on this occasion. Suffice it to say, that the herbage
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 407
as a nutritious fodder deserves more attention than it receives. The
tops serve as a substitute for spinage [Dr. M. T. Masters]. It is
also important for green manure, particularly when nitrogenous
aliment is needed for culture-plants. The green fruit contains
inosit-sugar and cholestrin-fat. For field-culture a sandy-calcareous
loam should be chosen for this plant, to insure rich and safe harvests.
Peas retained their vitality after four years' exposure to the extreme
frosts of Polaris-Bay. P. Aucheri (eTaubert and Spach), which is
perennial, occurs in alpine elevations on the Taurus.
Pittosporum bicolor, Hooker.
Tasmania and Victoria, ascending to 4-5,000 feet. This tree will
resist considerable frost.
Pittosporum phillyroides, De Candolle.
Continental Australia, in desert-regions. A small tree with
weeping branches, therefore adapted for planting at groves in
countries without severe winters. Pervaded by a medicinal very
bitter principle. Flowers very fragrant.
Pittosporum tenuifolium, Banks and Solander.
New Zealand. This with P. eugenioides (Cunningham) has
proved very suitable for tall garden-hedges, for which these and
several other species were first brought into practical notice by the
writer ; they are always clean-looking ; the foliage is well suited
for the surrounding part of table-bouquets. Unhurt by a cold of
9 F. [Gorlie]. Hardy at Campbelltown, Argyleshire. Better
resisting the frosts in the most southern parts of New Zealand than
any other indigenous species [T. Waugh], thus fit for shelterless
culture in South-England. P. Ralphii (Kirk), also from New
Zealand, endures the winters of Arran. Seeds of any Pittosporum
hardly ever fail to germinate ; they also keep well.
Pittosporum undulatum, Ventenat.
South-Eastern Australia. This tree produces a wood well adapted
for turners' purposes ; to some extent it serves also as a substitute
for boxwood. The flowers furnish a highly fragrant volatile oil on
distillation. The tree under very favorable circumstances attains a
height of 80 feet ; it is largely pervaded by a bitter peculiar principle,
which occurs also in other species. Quite fit for shade-lines where
celerity of growth is not an object.
Planera aquatica, Gmelin.
South-Eastern States of North America. An elm-like tree,
which can be chosen for plantations in wet localities. The wood
is hard and strong.
408 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Plantago lanceolata,
Europe, Western Asia, Northern Africa. The Rib-herb or Plan-
tain-herb. This perennial weed gets disseminated readily, and is
recommended by some ruralists, though neither by Langethal nor
Morton, as valuable on very poor pasture-land. The allied P. media
(L.) is of similar use, and so perhaps P. major (Camerarius), all of
equal geographic range ; the seeds are much liked by cage-birds.
Plantago Psyllium, Linn.
Countries around the Mediterranean Sea, extending to Austria
and Persia. An annual herb. The seeds render water very mucil-
aginous, and come thus into requisition for the preparation of silk-
ware, for imparting gloss to coloured paper and for cotton-printing,
irrespective of some medicinal utility [Wiesner]. The same may be
said of P. Cynops (Linne), P. ovata (Forskael), and P. arenaria
(Waldstein and Kitaibel). These species could be easily naturalised
ii on sandy coast-land.
Platanus occidentalis, Catesbye.*
The true Plane-Tree of Eastern North- America ; also known as
Buttonwood. More elegible as an avenue-tree than as a timber-tree.
Height reaching usually about 100 feet, but instances are on record
of a height of 160 feet having been attained, with a stem-circum-
ference of 48 feet at 4 feet from the ground, according to Mr. Rob.
Ridgway and Prof. T. Meehan ; diameter of stem at times to 14 feet.
Wood dull-red, light, not readily attacked by insects ; used in the
manufacture of pianofortes and harps ; cuts into very good screws,
also presses, dairy-utensils, windlasses, wheels and blocks. The
young wood is silky- whitish and often handsomely mottled [Robb].
The tree likes alluvial river-banks, and has been successfully planted
in morassy places, absorbing miasmatic effluvia.
Platanus orientalis, Linn6.*
The genuine Plane-Tree, extending from South-Europe to Middle
Asia. Hardy in Norway to lat. 58 8' [Schuebeler]. One of the
grandest trees for lining roads and for street-planting, deciduous
like most other planes, rather quick of growth. Attains a height
of 90 feet and a stem-circumference of occasionally 70 feet, reaching
an age of over 800 years. It resists the smoke in large towns, such
as London, better than any other tree, growing vigorously even
under such disadvantage. The wood is well adapted for furniture
and other kinds of cabinet-work. Propagation from seeds or
cuttings. Growth in height at Port Phillip 30-40 feet in 20 years.
An evergreen plane was mentioned already by Plinius as occurring
in Candia [Sir J. Hooker], and has lately been re-discovered.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 409
Platanus racemosa, Nuttall.
The Californian Plane-Tree. A good promenade-tree, which
according to Prof. Bolander grows more rapidly and more compact
than P. occidentalis. Wood harder and therefore more durable, also
less liable to warp. According to Dr. Gibbons, the tree attains a
height of about 100 feet and a stem-diameter of 8 feet. The wood
is brittle ; in use however by turners.
Plectocomia Himalaiana, Griffiths.
Sikkim, up to 7,000 feet, extending to 27 north latitude. This
Rattan-Palm requires moist forest-land. Its canes are not durable ;
but the plant is an object worthy of scenic horticulture, and would
prove the hardiest among its congeners. P. elongata (Blume)
ascends, according to Drude, to 4,500 feet.
Plectocomia macrostachya, Kurz.
Tenasserim, at about 3,000 feet elevation, therefore most likely
hardy in temperate lowlands.
Plectranthus esculentus, N. E. Brown.
Natal. A low underscrub, the tubers of which are eaten by the
natives and to a limited extent cultivated by them [J. M. Wood].
These kinds of plants may become much improved under careful
cultivation.
Plectranthus Madagascariensis, Bentham.
Madagascar. This herb produces nutritious tubers [Mingard and
Daruty] .
Plectronia ventosa, Linn&
South- Africa. A hedge-bush, like P. ciliata (Sender) and P. spi-
nosa (Klotzsch).
Plumbago Capensis, Thunberg.
South- Africa. Quite a hedge-plant for small gardens, with the
particular value of bearing handsome blue flowers in autumn. P.
tristis (W. T. Aiton) is an allied species.
Plumiera acutifolia, Poiret.
Tropical America. A small, thick-branched tree, hardy at some
distance beyond the tropics. It is of such easy cultivation, that it
may become important, like many other as yet neglected apocynaceous
plants, for the scent of its large and copious flowers.
Poa airoides, Koeler. (Catdbrosa aquatica, Beauvois.)
The Water Whorl-grass. Europe, North-Africa, Northern and
Middle Asia, North- America. A creeping grass, suitable for pas-
tures subject to inundation ; hence fit also for irrigation.
410 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Poa alpina,
Alpine and Arctic Europe, Asia and North- America. Deserves to
be transferred to other higher mountains as a nutritious perennial
pasture-grass. P. Sudetica (Haenke) and P. hybrida (Gaudin) are
mentioned also as excellent alpine grasses.
Poa aquatica, Linn. (Glyceria aquatica, Smith.)
Europe, Northern and Middle Asia, North- America. This con-
spicuous water-grass attains a height of about 6 feet. It is perennial,
and deserves naturalisation in our swamps. It produces a large bulk
of foliage, and may be disseminated for fodder-purposes. On the
testimony of Dr. Curl, this is one of the best feeding grasses in New
Zealand.
Poa arachnifera, Torrey.*
The Blue Grass of Texas. Prairies of Louisiana and Texas.
Perennial, with creeping roots. It spreads rapidly, surpasses in size
the Kentucky Blue Grass (Poa pratensis), and is known to have
grown 10 inches in ten days. Stock of all kinds have a predilection
for it. The winters of Texas do not even nip it, but it dies down
during summer ; it is never quite tramped out [G. Hogan]. It bears
heavy pasturing, and can also be utilised for lawns and as a forest-
grass [S. Tally]. For permanent pasture, this promises to be one of
the very best grasses yet brought to the attention of the Southern
States [Dr. Vasey].
Poa Bergii, Hieronymus.
La Plata-States. Supplies excellent fodder there, with some
species of the section Eragrostis.
Poa Billardieri, Steudel.
Extra- tropical Australia. A perennial rigid grass, of some value
for saline meadows.
Poa bulbosa, Linn
Europe, North-Africa, extra-tropic Asia. A perennial species.
Dr. J. Aitchison singles it out for laudation as a profuse pasture-
and hay-grass in Afghanistan. Closely allied to it is P. alpina, L.
Poa csespitosa, G. Forster.
Extra-tropical Australia and New Zealand, ascending alpine
elevations. A tufty extremely variable grass, available throughout
the year for pasture-feed, when young or when offering flowering or
seeding-stalks, or when presenting tender varieties ; the rougher
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries.^ 411
varieties utilised by the aborigines for nets and cordage. Resisting
drought. Well worthy of being naturalised in other parts of the
globe. Refer for further information on this and other N.Z. grasses
to J. Buchanan's special work, in which P. anceps (Forster) is also
mentioned as important.
Poa Canadensis, Beauvois. (Briza Canadensis, Michaux.)
The Rattlesnake-grass of South-Eastern America. A valuable
swamp-grass.
Poa Chinensis, Koenig. (Leptochloa Chinensis, Nees.)
Southern and Eastern Asia, East-Australia. Recommended by
Mr. F. M. Bailey as a valuable pasture-grass, perhaps on account of
its tender panicles.
Poa Colensoi, J. Hooker.
New Zealand, up to 5,000 feet. This tufty grass is greedily
devoured by sheep, which thrive well on it. Holds its ground well,
being of great vitality [D. Petrie].
Poa compressa, Linn.
Europe, North- and West- Asia. A perennial grass, valuable for
pastures. Will grow in pure sand. Has withstood prolonged and
severe drought [Edw. Quin]. Also a very eligible lawn-grass.
Poa digitata, B. Brown.
South-Eastern and Central Australia. Valuable for fixing wet
river-banks and slopes. It forms large stools. Cattle and horses
relish the young shoots.
Poa distans, Linn6.
Europe, North- Africa, Middle and Northern Asia, North-America.
Perennial. It is one of the limited number of tender grasses
suited for moist saline soil, and thus affords pasturage on coast-
marshes.
Poa fluitans, Scopoli. (Feslucafluitans. Linn4 ; Glyceria fluitans, R. Brovrn.)
The Manna-grass. Europe, North- Africa, Middle and Northern
Asia, North- America, East- Australia, New Zealand. Perennial.
Excellent for stagnant water and slow-flowing streams. Waterfowl
are very fond of it. The foliage is tender. The seeds are sweet
and palatable, and in many countries are used for porridge. This
grass is indigenous in Norway northward to lat. 69 9' [Schuebeler].
412 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
4
Poa foliosa, J. Hooker.
Auckland- and Campbell-Island, as well as Southern New Zealand,
reaching almost to the glacier-region. Perennial, forming large
mounds. Prof. Kirk calls it a noble species, producing an immense
yield of foliage. Mr. Buchanan also speaks of the fattening food,
afforded to horses and cattle by this grass. Blade of leaves broad ;
panicle soft and ample. Horses have a great partiality for it.
Unlike most other grasses it readily adapts itself to peaty or newly-
drained soil, and is in this respect unsurpassed.
Poa Forsteri, Steudel. (Dactylis ccespitosa, Forster.)
The Tussock-grass. Fuegia, Falkland-Islands, South-Patagonia.
Introduced by Sir Joseph Hooker into the Hebrides, and by Mr.
Traill into the Orkney-Islands. Extending to the island South-
Georgia, 54 S. [Dr. Wild]. Delights, according to Mr. Ingram, in
deep, boggy and mossy land, even when exposed to sea-spray.
Cultivated plants might be dressed with some salt. Thrives in
cold countries near the sea in pure sand, at the edge of peat-bogs.
It would probably prosper on alpine moors. It is perennial, and
reaches a height of 9 feet. It is very nutritious, and much sought
by herds. The base of the stem is nutty and edible. An allied
species is P. Cookii (J. Hooker), from Kerguelen's Island.
Poa maritima, Hudson.
Europe, North-Africa, Northern Asia, North-America. Roots long
and creeping. This grass can also be depastured and grown on
brackish meadows.
Poa nemoralis, Linn.
Europe, Northern and Middle Asia, North-America. This
perennial grass can be raised on shady forest-land, as the name
implies ; but it accommodates itself also to open places, and will
grow even among dry rocks. It endures alpine winters. According
to Lawson, no better grass exists for displacing weeds on pleasure-
lawns ; the same may be said of Poa compressa (L.).
Poa nervata, Willdenow.
Southern States of North-America. Called in Alabama the
Manna-grass. Perennial. Valuable for pastures in low forest-
land [C. Mohr].
Poa nodosa, Nees.
Extra-tropic Australia. This perennial grass grows in almost
pure sand, and produces tuberous enlargements at the roots. It is
tender and nutritious, but neither tall nor bulky.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 413
Poa pratensis, Linne".*
The ordinary English Meadow-grass. Widely distributed as
indigenous through the extra-tropic regions of the northern hemi-
spere, in Greenland to 81 N. A perennial species, with creeping
roots, thus pertinaciously maintaining its hold of the soil ; fit for
any even very dry meadows, thriving early, and able to live also in
alpine localities. Better adapted for pasture than hay. It is suitable
also for moor-land, when such is laid dry ; although it flowers only
once during the season, it offers a nutritious fodder, even on com-
paratively poor soil ; it resists drought, forms an excellent sward, and
can be used with advantage for intermixing with other pasture-
grasses. Foliage particularly tender. Preferentially grown on the
veldts of South- Africa, where it keeps green also during the cool
season [F. F. Glass]. In the United States it is known as the
Kentucky Blue Grass or Pennsylvania Green Grass, and is considered
one of the best for lawns by Professor Meehan. as it will crowd out
all weeds in time.
Poa serotina, Ehrhart.
Europe, Northern Asia, North-America. A perennial grass,
allied to P. nemoralis, excellent for moist meadows and river-banks,
it will even prosper on saline ground. Its foliage is tender, tasty
and nourishing. In mixtures of grasses it keeps up the growth
until late into the autumn. P. fertilis (Host) is a mere variety of
this species.
Poa trivialis, Linne".*
Europe, North- Africa, Middle and Northern Asia. Also a good
perennial grass for mixture on pasture-land. One of the best grasses
for sowing on ground recently laid dry. Recommendable also as a
lawn-grass. Sinclair regarded the produce of this Poa as superior
to many other kinds, and noticed the marked partiality, which
horses, oxen and sheep evince towards it. To thrive well, it wants
rather moist and rich soil and sheltered places. It is a later grass
than P. pratensis, well adapted for hay, and gives good after-growth
[Langethal]. Well suited for irrigation-culture.
These few species of Poa have been singled out as recommendable,
because they are well tested. Future experiments beyond Europe
will add others to lists of recommendations like this.
Podacheenium alatum, Bentham. (Ferdinanda eminens, Lagasca.)
Central America, up to a height of about 8,000 feet. A tall
shrub ; on account of the grandeur of its foliage in requisition for
scenic effects.
Podolepis rhytidochlamys, F. v. Mueller.
Desert regions of Australia. Affords there with P. Lessoni
(Bentham), and some few other congeners, feed for sheep.
414 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Podophyllum peltatum, Linne".*
Eastern North-America, where it is known as the Mandrake.
Hardy in Christiania. A perennial forest-herb of importance for
medicinal purposes. The root contains the bitter resinous podo-
phyllin. American physicians recommend it as a drastic purgative,
cholagogue and hepatic stimulant. Podophyllum Emodi (Wallich),
occurring in the Indian mountains at heights of from 6,000 to
14,000 feet, can probably be used like the American species. The
berries of both are edible, though the root and leaves are poisonous.
A third species, P. pleianthum, has been described by Dr. Hance,
from Formosa.
Pogostemon Patchouli, Pelletier.
Mountains of South-Eastern Asia. A perennial herb, famed for
its powerful scent, arising from a volatile oil. The perfume is
obtained from the variety suavis according to Dr. Gr. Watt. P.
parviflorus and P. Heyneanus (Bentham) belong to this species. One
cwt. of the herb yields about 28 ounces oil [Piesse] ; but the
essence is chiefly obtained by enfleurage.
Polianthes tuberosa, Linne*.
Mexico. The Tuberose. Valuable for perfume. Available late
in the season ; thus one of the plants most required, to maintain
garden-fragrance in serene climes through the course of the year.
The gathering of flowers of " Tubereuses " at Grasse, Cannes and
adjacent villages alone comes annually to about 20,000 Ibs. [Piesse].
The price is about Is. per Ib. [Daruty]. The scent is best extracted
by Blogg's methyl-process, mentioned under Jasminum grandi-
florum. The double-flowering state of this plant preferable for
distillation.
Pollichia Zeilanica, F. v. Mueller. (Trichodesma Zeilanicum, Brown.)
From Abyssinia and Southern Asia to extra-tropical Australia.
An annual herb, perhaps available for green manure. Dromedaries
show an extraordinary predilection for this herb [E. Giles] . Several
other species deserve trial for fodder-growth.
Polygala crotalarioid.es, Hamilton.
Temperate Himalaya and Khasia. Praised as an ophidian alexi-
pharmic. To several other species both of the eastern and western
hemisphere similar properties are ascribed ; but we are almost
entirely without any reliable medical testimony on these and many
other supposed vegetable antidotes against snake-poison. Doubtless
this small perennial herb possesses therapeutic virtues like many of
its congeners.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 415
Polygala Senega, Linn6.
The Senega Snake-Root. Eastern North- America. A perennial
herb. Senega-root is of medicinal value, and about 100,000 Ibs. of
it are required annually.
Polygaster Sampadarius, Fries.
South-Eastern Asia. One of the most palatable of all truffles.
PolygfOimm CUSpidatum, Siebold and Zuccarini.
Japan. A large perennial herb, easily mistaken for P. Sacha-
linense, but not of the same fodder-value. It serves for binding loose
sand and solidifying embankments [K. Weigelt in Erfurt Gaertner
Zeitung, 1894, p. 187]. It differs from the following species in
having shorter leaves, which are neither heart-shaped at the base nor
bluish-green beneath [Engelhardt],
Polygonum Sachalinense, Fr. Schmidt.
Islands of Sachalin and Yesso. Giant Knot- weed ; in Bengal known
as " Machute," according to the Indian Agriculturist. This spacious
perennial herb has latterly been recommended as a fodder-plant,
particularly by M. Doumet Adanson and Professor Duchartre. In
the first year one or two cuts are obtained, in the second year three or
four cuts. It may reach a height of 10 feet in three weeks [Louis
Haase]. Numerous annual shoots arise from one root-stock. The
leaves attain 1 foot in length and 9 inches in width. The edible
root-stock gets finally as thick as a man's arm, sustaining the plant
in its green freshness during the driest season. It will live in a
temperature from 22 F. to + 104 F. Horses are particularly
fond of the foliage, which also serves for packing and displaying
fruit. The plant is eligible for scenic culture, and is further a good
bee-plant, flowering at the end of the summer. Commissioner
Marsden says that the points in its favour are : " Once planted, stands
for ever. Water will not drown it ; fire will not destroy it. Endures
severest drought with impunity. Roots penetrate deep into the soil.
Requires no ploughing before planting. Needs no cultivation.
Grows where no other forage plant will exist. Grows in poorest soils.
Is more nutritious than clover or alfalfa. Affords shade to cattle in
hot climates. Stem and leaves, green or dry, greatly relished by
cattle." Birds feed on the seeds of any Polygonums.
Polygonum tinctorium, Aiton.
China and Japan. An annual herb, deserving attention and
local trials, as yielding a kind of indigo ; one of the most important
dye-plants of Japan. It can be cultivated in cold climes, being
hardy still at Christiania. Likes marshy land [Vilmorin]. Its
growth would be vigorous. Various Polygonums contain tannin,
P. amphibium (Linne) as much as 11 \ per cent. [Masters.]
416 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Polyporus giganteus, Fries.
Europe. Dr. Goeppert records this and also the following species
as allowed to be sold for food in Silesia : P. frondosus, Fr., P.
ovinus, Fr., P. tuberaster, Fr., P. citrinus, Pers. Dr. Atkinson
mentions as edible among the fungs of Cashmere P. squamosus
(Fries). Bergner and Frog illustrate P. confluens (Fries) among
the esculent fungs of Switzerland ; near relatives of all these occur
in Australia also. The P. portentosus (Berkeley) of Australia has
been recommended as material for trusses and for other articles
requiring lightness and some elasticity ; the almost cosmopolitan
P. iginarius (Fries) may perhaps serve similar purposes and as
Solah-pith.
Pomaderris apetala, Labillardiere.
South-Eastern Australia. A tree attaining a height occasionally
of 60 feet, but mostly smaller. The foliage is devoured with avidity
by pasture-animals, often in preference to ordinary good feed. The
genus contains several other large-leaved species.
Populus alba, Dodoens.
The Abele or white Poplar, indigenous to South-Eastern Europe,
North- Africa and Northern and Middle Asia, extending to North-
China, growing on the Himalayas up to 10,000 feet, ceasing at
4,000 feet. In Norway it is hardy to lat. 67 56' [Prof. Schuebeler].
Height reaching 90 feet. Emits suckers. It has proved an
excellent avenue-tree, even in comparatively waterless situations,
and the partial whiteness of its foliage gives a pleasing effect in
any plantation. Indicates to some extent the state of the weather,
as known already to the ancients [Fraas]. A Silver-Poplar at
Slowitz attained a basal stem-diameter of 20 feet, indicating accord-
ing to Pannewitz an age of probably 400 years. The wood is pale,
with a reddish tinge, brown near the centre, soft and light. It can
be used for flooring ; it is particularly sought for trays, bowls,
bellows and shoe-soles ; also, according to Porcher, for wooden
structures under water. " Sparterie " for plaiting is obtained from
the wood-shavings. The wood of this and some other poplars is
easily converted into paper-pulp, which is cheaply bleached. Lines
of poplars along forest- streams prevent or impede the progress of
wood-conflagrations. The roots of poplars spread widely. P.
canescens (Smith), the Grey Poplar, is either a variety of the Abele
or its hybrid with the Aspen, and yields a better timber for
carpenters and millwrights.
Populus angulata, Aiton.
Eastern North- America. The " Water-Poplar " or Carolina-
Poplar. Acquires a height of about 70 feet ; branches very spread-
ing ; hence this species well adapted as a promenade-tree.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 417
Populus balsamifera, Linn6.
The Tacamahac- or Balsam-Poplar of the colder, but not the
coldest parts of North- America ; also in Siberia and on the Hima-
layan Mountains, where it ranges from 8,000 to 14,000 feet, called
by Dr. Kellog " the balmiest of all trees." It will endure the
winters of Norway to lat. 69 40' [Schuebeler]. It attains a height
of 80 feet. The tree may be lopped for cattle-fodder [Stewart and
Brandis]. Prof. Meehan says, that it will grow near the ocean's
brink. Its variety is P. candicans (Aiton), acknowledged as a dis-
tinct species by Wesmael.
Populus Canadensis, Mcench. (P. monilifera, Aiton.)
The Cottonwood-tree of North-America, extending to New
Mexico. Height to 150 feet ; stem to 8 feet in diameter. Not of
longevity ; needs full light ; adapted to a variety of soils, but
preferring such as is strong and humid [B. E. Fernow]. One of
the best poplars for the production of timber, which is soft, light,
very easy to work, suited for carving and turnery; it is durable if
kept dry, and does not readily take fire ; nevertheless it supplies a
fair fuel. The wooden polishing-wheels of glass-grinders are made
of horizontal sections of the whole stem, about one inch thick, as
from its softness the wood readily imbibes the polishing material.
It is useful for rails and boards, and has also come extensively into
use for paper-pulp. Judge Whitning says, that it has no rival in
quickness of growth among deciduous trees. Governor Furnas
found the stem-girth in Nebraska reaching to 93 inches in eleven
years at 2 feet above ground. Recommended by Wessely, together
with P. alba and P. nigra, for fixing drift-sand, on which these
poplars never become suffocated. It is advisable, to obtain cuttings
from male trees only, for planting along streets or near dwellings,
as the minute downy see^ls of the female trees are copiously wafted
through the air, and may have irritant effects on the respiratory
organs of the frequenting people. P. angustifolia (James) is
regarded by Wesmael as a mere variety of this species.
Populus ciliata, Wallich.
Himalaya, from 4,000 to 10,000 feet. Height as much as 70 feet,
with a straight trunk, which attains 10 feet in girth.
Populus Euphratica, Olivier.
From Algeria dispersed to the Himalayas and Songaria, up to
13,500 feet. Height to 50 feet. Dr. J. Aitchison measured
exceptionally big trees, their stems showing at 6 feet from the
ground a circumference of 9^ feet. Wood harder than that of
most poplars, the inner wood turning blackish in old trees. It is
used for planking and boat-building [Stewart and Brandis], also
for beams, rafters, boxes, panelling, turnery, but particularly on
account of its lightness for rafts. Cattle will browse on the leaves.
This is the Willow of the 137th Psalm [C. Koch].
418 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
PODU.IUS Fremontii, S. Watson.
California and adjoining States, on river-banks. Tree, attaining
about 150 feet in height and 4| feet in stem-diameter ; leaves large.
Much lauded for shading road-sides and promenades, for which
however the staminate trees should only be selected. Wood less
white than that of P. tremuloides, excellent for dry goods, fruit-
butter- and salt-boxes, trays, bowls and other articles ; outer bark
a fair substitute for cork. The foliage brightens splendidly in
autumn. Wood convertible into paper-pulp. [Dr. Kellogg.]
Populus grandidentata, Michaux.
The Soft Aspen. Eastern North -Am erica. To 80 feet high.
Wood whitish, soft, very light ; can be ground into pulp for paper.
The oldest name seems P. deltoides, Marsh.
Populus heterophylla, Linn<$.
The Downy Poplar of North- America, passing also by the name
of Cottonwood. Height often 60 feet. The wood is very pale, soft
and fissile. All poplars, like willows, are very important to eliminate
miasma by absorbing humidity to an enormous extent from stagnant
swampy localities ; they are likewise good scavengers of back-yards.
Populus nigra, C. Bauhin.
The European Black Poplar, extending spontaneously to China ;
in the Himalayas up to 12,500 feet. With P. Canadensis and P.
balsam if era very fitted for smoky places in manufacturing towns
[J. Udale] ; the spreading variety is one of the best of trees for
lining roads. The species includes P. dilatata (Aiton), and as a
contracted variety P. fastigiata (Desfontaines), the Lombardy-
Poplar. Among trees the latter is one of the most eligible to plant
near houses for serving as a lightning conductor. Greatest height
150 feet. Growth rapid, like that of all other poplars, or even
more so. At Bensberg a Black Poplar formed in 80 years a stem
19 feet in circumference ; at Wippach a hollow stem showed a
girth of 48 feet. In warm zones the growth is still more rapid
than in Middle Europe, as is the case with the majority of trees.
Northward hardy to Christiania. Wood soft, light and of loose
texture, used for joiners', coopers' and turners' work ; also for
matches ; in Upper India for light boxes to serve in the transit of
fruits ; furnishing furthermore superior charcoal for gunpowder.
Bark employed in tanning, producing a fragrant leather ; it is
however not rich in tannic acid. The tree requires damp soil. It
retains its foliage longer than most poplars through the season.
Already Hippocrates used it medicinally.
Populus tremula, C. Bauhin.
The Aspen. Europe, North-Africa, Northern Asia to Japan.
Height reaching to about 100 feet, stem-circumference to about 12
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 419
feet ; age 200 years or more. Emits suckers ; content with sandy
soil, if not too dry. The aspen is very hardy ; at lat. 70 in Norway
a tree still attained a height of 60 feet [Schuebeler]. Snowdrifts
from embankments and other places along railways are best inter-
cepted by Aspens. The aspenwood is whitish and tender, and in
use by coopers and joiners. Like the wood of other poplars much
sought for paper-mills as an admixture to the pulp. In Japan it is
used for engraving rough works and posters. In Sweden largely
employed for matches, also for wooden shoes. A variety of this tree
with pendent branches occurs.
Populus trenmloides, Michaux.
The North- American Aspen. Ascends to alpine elevations of
about 10,000 feet ; easily disseminated. Height to as much as 50
feet. The wood is whitish, soft, readily worked, and can be con-
verted into paper-pulp ; also of this a weeping variety occurs ; the
tree extends westward to California. All poplars might be planted
in gullies like willows, to intercept forest-fires ; also generally on
river-banks. They are also valuable honey-yielders [Prof. Cook].
All can easily be propagated from cuttings, and are of quick
growth.
Populus trichocarpa, Torrey and Gray.
From British Columbia to California. One of the " Cottonwood-
trees." The stem attains a diameter of 5 feet, and is used by the
autochthones for canoes [Dr. Gr. DawsonJ.
Porphyra vulgaris, Agardh.
Temperate and cold oceans. This largely cosmopolitan seaweed
is mentioned here, because in Japan it undergoes regular cultiva-
tion. For this purpose branches of Quercus serrata are placed in
shallow bays, where Porphyra occurs, during spring, and the crop
is obtained from October to March, the seaweed being consumed in
its young state. It grows best where fresh water enters the sea.
Porphyra contains about 26 per cent, of nitrogenous substances and
about 5 per cent, of phosphate of potash. In Japan, according to
the catalogue of the International Exhibitions of Sydney and Mel-
bourne, the following Algae are also consumed for food : Gloiopeltis
intricata, Gr. capillaris, Laminaria saccharifera, two species of Phyl-
loderma, Phyllitis debilis, Kallhymeriia dentata, Capea elongata,
Alaria pinnatifolia, Gracilaria lichenoides, GT. confervoides, Entero-
morpha compressa, species of Cystoseira and Halochloa, Codium
tomentosum, Mesogloia decipiens and G-elidium corneum. The
importance of " Seaweeds" or oceanic Algs as manure for particular
crops is not sufficiently recognised, and perhaps a trade in the dried
and pressed articles seems quite feasible as a new industry in places
where the material is abundantly and easily obtainable.
2E2
420 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
Portulaca oleracea, Linne.
Warmer regions of the globe, certainly indigenous in the easitern
hemisphere, as it is already recorded by Theophrastos and Dioscorides.
The sowing of this plant on pastures would raise a vegetation fit to
impede grass-fires. A bright-red flowering variety was discovered in
Central Australia by the writer. Even P. grandiflora, when natural-
ised, would not only be an ornament but might on sheep-runs prove
an additional provender, particularly in desert-tracts.
Portulacaria Afra, Jaquin.*
South- Africa. A shrub, rising to 12 feet, called " Spekboom."
Affords locally the principal food for elephants ; excellent also for
sheep-pasture, according to Professor MacOwan ; hence this succu-
lent shrub may deserve naturalisation on stony ridges and in sandy
desert-land, not readily otherwise utilised. Would likely prove
acceptable to camels also. Mr. T. R. Sim states that all kinds of
pasture-animals eat it readily and when grass is scarce nearly live on
it. Grows on hot rocky slopes. Easily struck from cuttings and
even solitary leaves. Likes particularly doleritic soil. Displays an
extraordinary recouperative power, when broken by browsing animals
or when injured from other causes. The trunk will attain one foot
in diameter [MacOwan]. Cultivated by the author already in Vic-
toria 40 years ago.
Potamophila parviflora, R. Brown.
East Australia. A tall aquatic grass, forming bunches.
Pouzolzia tuberosa, Wight.
India. The turnip-shaped root of this herb is edible. The plant
may prove hardy in extra-tropic frostless regions, and its root may
improve in culture.
Prangos pabularia, Lindley.
Plateaux of Afghanistan, Mongolia and Thibet. A perennial
fodder-herb, much relished by sheep, eligible for cold and arid
localities, and deserving naturalisation on alpine pasture-grounds.
Other perennial species exist near the Mediterranean Sea, on the
Atlas, the Caucasus and the Indian highlands. P. pabularia is
regarded by some as the Silphium of Arrianus.
Prestoa pubigera, J. Hooker. (Hyospathe pubigera, Grisebach. )
Trinidad. At an elevation of about 3,000 feet [Krueger]. The
stem of this plant attains only about 12 feet in height. Valuable
among the dwarf palms, now so much sought for table and window-
decoration.
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 421
Pringlea antiscorbutica, W. Anderson and R. Brown.
The Cabbage or Horse -radish of Kerguelen's Island. Also on
Possession-Island of the Crozets, on Prince Edward Group and
Heard-Island. The perennial long roots taste some\#iat like horse-
radish. The leaves in never-ceasing growth are crowded cabbage-
like into heads, beneath which the annual flower-stalks arise. The
plant ascends mountains in its desolate native islands to the height
of 1,400 feet, but luxuriates most on the sea-border. To arctic
and other antarctic countries it would be a boon. Probably it would
live on our Alps. Whalers might bring us the roots and seeds of
this remarkable plant, which seems never to have entered into
culture yet. The plant was used as cabbage by the celebrated
Captain Cook and all subsequent navigators, touching at yonder
remote spot, and it proved to possess powerful properties against
scurvy. Sir Joseph Hooker observes, that Pringlea can sectionally be
referred to Cochlearia. The whole plant is rich in a pungent volatile
oil. Through culture important new culinary varieties may probably
be raised from this plant. This vegetable in its natural growth
tastes like mustard and cress ; but when boiled it proved a wholesome
and agreeable substitute for the ordinary cabbage.
Pritchardia Gaudichaudi, H. Wendland.
Lowlands of Hawaia. Stem to 20 feet high, stout, Leaves large.
Fruit small.
Pritchardia Martii, H. Wendland.
Hawaia. A rather dwarf palm, but with comparatively large fruits,
perhaps hardier than P. pacifica (Seemann) of the more equatorial
parts of Polynesia.
Pritchardia Thurstoni, F. v. Mueller and Drude.
Fiji. This palm occurs only on low bare coral islets of the
eastern group [Sir John Thurston].
Priva Isevis, Jussieu.
Chili, Argentina. A perennial herb, the small tubers of which
can be used for food [Philippi].
Prosopis alba, Grisebach.
La Plata States. A tree, rising finally to about 40 feet, with a
stem-diameter to 3 feet. The fruit, known as Algaroba blanca, is
considered wholesome and nutritious. The tree yields also tan-bark.
P. nigra (Hieronymus) serves in Argentina similar purposes.
Prosopis dulcis, Kunth.
From California and Texas to the southern parts of the La Plata-
States. Vernacularly known as the Cashaw-, Mesquite- or Algaroba-
tree. A thorny shrub, growing finally to a tree of 60 feet high,
422 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
with a stem 2^ feet in diameter ; adapted for live fences. Thrives
in damp saltish air and at a sea-level [J. W. Button]. May send
its roots to great depth, exceptionally to 60 feet, in order to reach
underground water [Professor Sargent] ; the same may occur with
P. spicigera [Sir D. Brandis]. The wood is durable and of extra-
ordinary strength and excessive hardness, fit for select furniture
particularly, assuming when polished the appearance of mahogany.
Drawn into use also for knees of boats locally. This is one of the
species yielding the sweetish Algaroba-pods for cattle-fodder, and
utilised even in some instances for human food. The pods of the
various kinds of Prosopis are adapted only for such animals as chew
the cud, and thus get rid of distending gases [R. Russell]. Argen-
tina Algaroba-pods contain, according to Sievert, 25 to 28 per cent,
of grape-sugar, 11 to 17 per cent, starch, 7 to 11 per cent, protein,
14 to 24 per cent, of organic acids, pectin, and other non-nitrogenous
nutritive substances. They are also comparatively rich in potash,
lime and phosphoric acid. A sparkling drink called Aloja is made
of the fruits. This and some allied species yield the Algarobylla-
bark for tanning ; the leaves contain, according to Sievert, 21 per
cent, tannin. The pods also of several species are rich in tannic
acid. Mere varieties, according to Bentham, are : P. horrida, P.
juliflora, P. siliquastrum, P. glandulosa. Particularly the latter
variety exudes a gum not unlike gum-arabic, and this is obtained at
times so copiously, that children could earn two or three dollars a
day in Texas, while gathering it, latterly about 40,000 Ibs. being
bought by druggists there. A short communication on the American
Algaroba-trees was presented to the Parliament of Victoria by the
writer in 1871. Pods of some Prosopis, used as fodder, have caused
the death of horses in Jamaica by overfeeding. P. juliflora has not
found favour in India. In some places these kinds of plants are
subjects to the attacks of boring insects.
Prosopis pubescens, Bentham.
The Tornillo or Screw-bean. Texas, California, Mexico. The
pods ripen at all seasons and contain much saccharine nutritive sub-
stance [J. S. Gamble]. Likely available for hedges with other
species of other countries. Seeds can be converted into food [Sar-
gent]. Not resisting climatic vicissitudes so well as P. dulcis. Mr.
Edw. Alston, cultivating this plant in South- Africa, finds that in soil
strongly pervaded by soda- and magnesia-salts it will still succeed,
where few or hardly any other utilitarian plants can be reared.
Prosopis spicigera, Linn.
India, extending to Afghanistan and Persia, in dry regions. A
thorny tree, also producing edible pods and enduring some frost. It
attains a height of 60 feet, but is of slow growth [Brandis]. Serves
for hedge-lines. It can be chosen for desert-land [Kurz]. The tap-
- root has been known to attain a length of 86 feet and to penetrate to
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 423
a depth of 64 feet vertically. The pods are eaten by the natives and
serve also as a good fodder for camels, cattle, and goats, the leaves
being of the same utility [Dr. Gr. Watt].
Prosopis Stephaniana, Kunth.
Syria, Persia, Afghanistan. A shrubby species of hedge- growth.
Galls, common on the pods, are collected for dye- and tan-purposes.
[Dr. Aitchison],
Prostanthera lasiantha, Labillardiere.
South-Eastern Australia and Tasmania. Confined to the banks of
forest-streams. The only one among more than 2,500 Labiatse,
which becomes a good-sized tree, reaching a height of fully 60 feet.
Wood used for many technologic purposes. The leaves of this
and its many congeners afford, on distillation, aromatic oils. Most
of the species of this Australian genus are pleasantly and strongly
odorous ; among them particularly so the tall, shrubby P. rotundi-
folia (R. Brown), P. melissifolia (F. v. M.), P. cuneata (Bentham),
the latter hardy alpine, so that an aromatic oil can be distilled
payably from them. These plants should prove valuable on Apiary-
grounds also.
Protea mellifera, Thunberg.
South- Africa. This tall bush is deserving a place among the
plants of this work, not only in view of its gaudy ornamental aspect,
but also on account of the richness of honey-nectar in its large
inflorescence.
Primus Americana, Marshall. (P. nigra, Aiton.)
Canada, Eastern United States of America. A thorny tree,
furnishing the Yellow and Red Plum of North- America. Hardy in
Norway northward to lat. 65 [Schuebeler]. The fruit is roundish
and rather small, but of pleasant taste. All kinds of Prunus are
important to the apiary.
Prunus Amygdalus, Stokes.* (Amygdalus communis, Linne".)
The Almond-tree. Countries around the Mediterranean Sea and
South- Western Asia ; really indigenous on the Anti-Lebanon, in"
Kurdestan, Turkestan and perhaps on the Caucasus [Stewart]. Both
the sweet and bitter almond are derived from this species. The cost
of gathering the crop in South-Europe is about 20 per cent, of its
market-value. Their uses and the value of the highly palatable oil,
obtained by pressure from them, are well known. This oil can well
be chosen as a means of providing a pleasant substitute for milk
during sea-voyages, by mixing with it, when required, half its weight
of powdered gum-arabic, and adding then successively, while quickly
agitating in a stone-mortar, about double the quantity of water ; thus
424 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
a palatable and wholesome sort of cream for tea or coffee is obtained
at any moment. Baked remnants of Almonds, left after they have
been used at the oil-mill afford one of the best kinds of food for
diabetic sufferers. There exist hard- and soft-shelled varieties of
botli the sweet and bitter almond. The Almond-tree is subject to
two fungus-diseases, caused by Cercospora circumscissa and Spori-
desmium Amygdalearum [Frank]. In Victoria it often suffers
greatly from the attacks of the Red Spider ; Mr. C. French recom-
mends spraying with a strong kerosene-emulsion after pruning, and
again with a weaker solution when the leaves begin to appear.
Almonds can even be grown on sea-shores. The tree bears still the
climate of Christiania in Norway [Professor Schuebeler], and it has
been successfully reared by the Moravian missionaries iu the most
arid regions of Central Australia, but it does not thrive so well there
as the Peach-tree. The crystalline amygdalin can best be prepared
from bitter almonds, through removing the oil by pressure, then sub-
jecting them to distillation with alcohol, and finally precipitating
with ether. The volatile bitter almond-oil a very dangerous liquid
is obtained by aqueous distillation. Dissolved in alcohol it forms
the essence of almonds. This can also be prepared from peach-
kernels. The almond-tree is one of the aptest, to be chosen as a
standard ot comparison with other kinds of trees (as well as other
plants) for records of synchronous flowering time. It is the harbin-
ger of spring among ordinary orchard- trees. The flowers afford to
bees, early in the season, nectar and pollen. With the European
Walnut-tree and the Olive-tree cultivated on a vast commercial scale
at Santa-Barbara by Captain Ellwood Cooper, the President of the
State-board for horticulture in California. France produced in 1890
about 800,000 bushels of dried almonds, (Sahut, from "Bulletin du
Ministere de 1' Agriculture"), import of almonds into Victoria during
1887, 140,591 Ibs., valued at 5,942. Britain imported 130,000 cwt.
valued at 412,000, in 1889.
Prunus Armeniaca, Linne.* (Armeniaca vulgaris, Lamarck.)
The Apricot-tree. China, as already indicated by Roxburgh, riot
indigenous in Armenia. Cultivated up to 10,000 feet in the Hima-
layas. Professor C. Koch points to the alliance of this tree to P.
Sibirica (Linne), and he considers P. dasycarpa (Ehrhart) to be a
hybrid between the apricot- and plum-tree. A variety of apricot
occurs with a sweet kernel. Cold-pressed apricot-seeds yield an oil
much like that of almonds. Muspratt found as much as 24 per cent,
tannin in the bark. With the almond-, quince- and fig-tree one of
the earliest of orchard-trees to come into spring-foliage. The " Flor
Ziram" is a black-fruited apricot from Persia. It came only recently
into European culture ; it fruits at an early age and bears consider-
able frost [St. Olbrich and V. H. Brown in Moeller's "Gaertner-
, Zeitung," 1895]. The Chinese P. Mume (Sieb. and Zucc.), is a pecu-
liar apricot-tree. Dried apricots and peaches (the stone removed)
Naturalisation in Extra-Tropical Countries. 425
have become an article of extensive trade, particularly so in Upper
India. In 1887 there were 175,500 cases of Apricots sent from
California, also 3 million pounds of the evaporated fruit [" Journal
Society of Arts"]. Dried Apricots are extensively exported from
Mildura (Victoria) to the London market, as well as to different parts
of Australia. Apricots, Peaches, Plums and Cherries can additionally
be preserved as syrupid fruit by heating for a | or \ an hour in a
water-bath the fresh fruit, placed with sugar in glass bottles, by
strewing on the surface of the contents salicylic acid in the proportion
of a teaspoonful to 4 Ibs., and by finally closing the vessels with
salicylic paper. The Black Scale of Olive-trees, Lecanium Oleae.
extends also to the Apricot-tree and to many other kinds of orchard
trees. Against the so-called Shot-hole fungus Mr. C. French re-
commends spraying with strong Bordeaux-mixture directly after
pruning, with a weaker solution after the leaves appear. Many kinds
of insects, attacking orchard-fruits, can be much subdued by placing
loose grass around the trees, and burning it, while the insects largely
harbor under it at day-dawn. Where water-pressure is available,
insects can be destroyed by the mechanic force of spray, with
avoidance of dangerous admixtures.
Prunus Capuli, Cavanilles.
Mexico. The fruits are locally sold in the markets under the name
of Capulirios.
Prunus Caroliniana, Aiton.
South-Eastern States of North-America. Porcher regards it as
one of the most beautiful and manageable evergreens of the States.
It can be cut into any shape, and is much employed for quick and
dense hedges. It can be grown on coast-land.
Prunus cerasifera, Ehrhart. (P. Myrobalanus, Desfontaines. )
The Cherry -Plum tree. Countries at and near the Caspian Sea. Of
rather tall growth. The fruits called also Mirabelles (which name is
given to some varieties of P. domestica as well), whence long ago
the objectionable designation Myrobalane-Cherry-Plum arose. Among
all kindred species it is this one which flowers earliest, indeed before
the development of its leaves, hence its claims for decorative horti-
culture. Splendid for hedges ; grows vigorously in the poorest soil ;
ramification impenetrably dense ; bears almost any extent of clipping ;
not hurt by exposure to sea-air [Daniels]. The fruit-yield is some-
times astonishingly large. On this and some other cultivated species,
see also "Koch's Dendrologie," 1869.
Prunus Cerasus, Linn4.*
The Cherry-tree. Orient, especially in the countries near the
Caspian Sea. The name applies strictly only to the species, dis-
tinguished by never assuming large dimensions, by emitting suckers,
426 Select Plants for Industrial Culture and
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by smoothness of leaves and austerity and acidity of fruit. P. avitim
(Linne), the sweet-fruited Cherry-tree, seems naturally to extend as
far as Middle Europe, and attains a high age, when the stem may
acquire a diameter of 4 feet, produces no suckers and has, downy
more wrinkled leaves, irrespective of some few other discrepancies.
It afforded its fruit already to the ancient inhabitants of Switzerland
in pre-historic times [Heer, Mortillet], and the tree was cultivated
by the early Greeks also, according to historic records [A. de Can-
dolle]. Superior varieties were cultivated in Europe first at Lucullus'
time. As an orchard-tree introduced into Britain already by the
Romans. It is hardy in Norway in lat. 66 30' [Schuebeler], bears
fruit in lat. 63 30'. In the Himalayas it is cultivated up to 12,000
feet. In the colony of Victoria it will bear fruit at an elevation of
5,000 feet. In the zone of evergreen vegetation leafless for about
five months, like most other northern orchard-trees. Correspond-
ingly the annual growth becomes accelerated in winterless climes.
The tree enjoys everywhere a comparative immunity from insect-
attacks, but leaves and fruits were lately attacked severely by a
fungus, namely Gnomonia erythrostoma (Fuckel). According to
researches of Prof. A. B. Frank, the infested leaves do not drop, and
must be mechanically removed in winter and immediately be burned.
Cherry-trees have however sometimes also suffered seriously near
Melbourne from the attacks of the Cherry-borer, Maroga gigantella ;
the larvae of this insect infest occasionally also other species of
Prunus ; spraying with kerosene-emulsion or other insecticidal
mixtures while the trees are dormant, also probing holes with wire
dipped in carbolic acid, is recommended by Mr. French in his "Hand-
book of Destructive Insects." Against Selandria Cerasi, the so-called
Pear-slug, he recommends spraying with a decotion of Veratrum
album. On the whole the
