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JICTS FOR FARMERS;
ALSO FOR
THE FAMILY CIRCLE.
A COMPOST OF RICH MATERIALS FOR ALL LAND-OWNERS,
ABOUT
D03IESTIC ANIMALS AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY;
FARM BUILDINGS;
FAIIM Cr.OPS, TOOLS. FEIfCES, FERTILIZATION, DRALMNG, AND IRRIGATION.
Illustnitcli toitlT .steel ingtuiiiiigs.
EDITED BY
SOLOIST ROBINSOIS^,
AGRIUCLTL-RAL BDITOK Of TiUi NEW TORK "TRIBUNE," AND AUTHOK OP SEVERAL POPULAR WORKS.
VOLUME I,
NEW YORK:
JOHNSON AND WARD, PUBLISHERS,
No. 113 FULTON STREET.
1805.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in tlie year 1803, by
A. J. JOHNSON,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of tlie United States for the Southern
District of New York.
DAVIES & KENT,
1S8 William Strtet, JV. 1'.
PLATE I.
(The Fko.nti9pieok.)
This is the genial face of a fanner, engaged in a work of love for
his calling. It is placed here in opposition to the wishes of the
author. He has been persuaded to allow his face to be seen by
those who purchase this collection of things useful to a very
numerous class through the solicitation of the publisher, who
knows that it will be a satisfaction to them to see how their old
friend looks at the age of sixty. An old friend he will seem to
those who read his earnest appeals for agricultural impi'ovement
twenty or thirty years ago. As a writer and lecturer upon agri-
culture, and extensive traveler to observe its condition in the United
States, few men are better knovtrii than the original of this portrait.
Therefore this likeness will be, the publisher believes, highly appre-
ciated as well by those who look upon a familiar face as those who
see it here for the first time.
The author was born a farmer, and will probably end his days
where he now lives (a few miles out of the busy hum of the city),
in the peaceful quiet of his "home in the country," where this
volume of fiicts for farmers has been prepared as a last legacy of his
good-will to the brotherhood.
Like other farmers' sons of New England, he learned to follow
the plow there, though in early life he became a Western pioneer, and
while a prairie farmer, became widely known as a writer advocating
agricultural improvement, and more widely, in 1841, as the origin-
ator of the National Agricultural Society, and ea'-nest advocate of
State and County societies. His connection with the New York
Tribune since 1850 wiU make this picture interesting to all its
readers. It is for these reasons that the publisher has incurred the
expense of its production. ••
^m^y
PREFACE.
THE AUTHOR TO HIS READERS.
"Facts for Farmers?" "What facts?" "What new theories
have we here in a jionderous volume ? Is it iilled with dry dis-
sertations about what farmers should or should not do?" "What
does this author know about farming ?"
The author answers — the last question first. Nothing. Who
does? He does not advance new theories. He only collects old
ones. He has made a ponderous volume, not of dry dissertations,
but of short, ci-isp facts. The book is full of little things ; glean-
ings from many fields ; from all the agricultural papers ; from con-
versations of farmers ; from talks at farmers' clubs ; from books a
little ; from personal experience much ; — from the memory of a long-
life devoted to the practice and study of agriculture, this volume is
born. It is the fruit of years of labor in a great and good field.
It certainly contains much that will be useful to all classes who
till the earth, or live in farmers' houses. It should be in every
rural home, as a work of reference. It is arranged in the most con-
venient form for this purpose. Each chapter comprises one general
subject. Each section embraces a separate branch. Each num-
bered paragraph is complete in itself, and conveys an item of infor-
mation. Each subject is completely indexed. As a whole, though
containing much, it is not an encylopedia of agriculture. It does
not pretend to teach all that a farmer should know. That must be
learned by daily perusal of agricultural papers and books.
PREFACE.
Tliougli not perfect, farmers will find this book a useful one. If
not invaluable, I hope it is one that they can not afford to do with-
out. In its compilation, the author has enjoyed many facilities
and much experience : he has also labored under many difficulties,
while daily engaged as an agricultui'al editor of a great daily and
weekly paper. You will find here stored up for future use many
of the valuable little items that you have read approvingly in the
Tribune, and many from other sources, useful to every farmer's
family, and worthy of preservation.
Usefulness instead of elegance has been aimed at. I have given
more facts than theories. I have often given the opinions of several
upon the same subject, and, as some of these vaiy, I leave the
reader to adjust differences.
In trying to avoid diffuseness, I have left much for inference, and
purposely treated subjects iu such a manner as to induce readers to
make further research. A word of explanation. At thq end of
the volume you will find a list of agricultural papers, which the
author had read for years previous to the commencement of this
compilation. Also a list of individuals, some of whom are eminent
authority in agricultural knowledge. From all these he has drawn
matter, sometimes with, and sometimes without, credit to individ-
uals, when facts have been condensed from their articles. Con-
ciseness has been a study ; else, how could twelve hundred subjects
be crowded into a thousand pages ? Those whose articles I have
used, must not complain that I have pruned too closely, or failed to
give credit in all cases where credit is due. I freely acknowledge
my obligations to all.
This book is one that may be opened at any page, profitably,
to occupy five minutes' leisure. It is printed in such large, clear
type that it can be easily read. The author and publisher hope that
it will be. Then it is illustrated as no agricultural book published
iu America ever has been. Look at the many large, handsome.
PREFACE.
steel engravings ! These alone are worth the cost of the whole
volume.
Farmers ! you ai'o earnestly invited to read, if nothing more, the
titles and contents of chapters, and their subdivisions of sections.
If you do that, and find nothing that promises instruction, lay the
volume aside. If so far it is promising, turn over its pages, glanc-
ing at the black-letter titles of paragraphs. Of one thing be as-
sured ; lengthy as the volume appears, it is not made so by extreme
dilution ; the last chapter is better than any that precedes it.
Throughout, no subject is lengthily treated ; no subject is treated
that does not contain something useful to some one ; something that
you can not always remember, but which you should always have
at hand, convenient for frequent consultation.
To those who know the name of the author — and the number is
large — I hope this book will be a welcome bequest. I hope it
will be the means througli which that name may live in love and
honor with your children and children's children around many an
American hearthstone.
Of the author's portrait, a word. It is the publisher, and not the
author, who inserts it. It represents him correctly, as he is at the
age of nearly sixty.
In conclusion, I earnestly hope these Facts will be an acceptable
offering to a very large number of those whose prosperity I would
promote, for I am one of the Buotheriiood of American Farmers.
To them it is commended, with the love and respect of their old
friend,
SOLON ROBINSON.
New York, May 1, 1863.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
13
19
31
51
5G
60
81
97
123
157
176
203
218
275
CHAPTER I.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Section I.— INTRODUCTION TO FACTS ABOUT STOCK
Sec. II.— swine
Tliis section embraces facts about the best breeds, and best mode of feeding, gross and
net weight, etc.
Sec. III. — COWS : What is a good cow, and how to choose one; food necessary; health;
Sec. IV. —BEEVES : Eeeord of the largest known, and their weights
Sec. v.— STATISTICS OF THE NEW YORK CATTLE MARKET, and Improvements in
Sec. VI.— FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM STOCK : Selecting calves ; shelter ;
training ; kindness ; value of kinds of feed ; use of salt ; watering ; diseases of cattle. . . .
Sec. VII.— sheep HUSBANDRY : Breeds of sheep ; care and management ; weight of hay
Sec. VIII.— HORSES AND MULES : History of the horse ; varieties ; how to use ; proper
tize ; color ; diseases ; treatment of colts ; how to shoe horses ; breeding horses and
Sec. IX. — POULTRY ; Full description of all kinds of poultry, and proper treatment
CHAPTER H.
SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS.
Sec. X. — BEES : Their history, use, and value, management, and reasons for keeping
Sec. XL— BIRDS : Reasons for preserving ; their food ; and laws for protecting
Sec. XII. — ENTOMOLOGICAL : Wliat are insect.^, and what kinds mfest and injure various
crops, and how to detect friends from foes, and various remedies
Sec. Xin.— wild AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FARM : Dogs, cats, rats, mice, moles,
rabbits, squirrels, gophers, skunks, toads, goats, camels, and breeding fish for family use .
CHAPTER HI.
TUE FAEMERY.
TUE BUILDINGS, TAEDS, WELLS, CISTEENS, AQUEDDOTS, AND STIJUCTUEES NECESSAET TC
CAEET ON THE BUSINESS OF THE FARM, BEIKFLY DESCEIBED.
Sec. XIV.— farm-houses : They should be convenient, roomy, light, ventilated ; their in-
.
viii CONTENTS.
Sec. XV.— cellars, CHIMNEYS, AND ICE-HOUSES ; How to Imihl them, and their
Sec. XVI.— the BAKN AND ITS Al'PURTENANCES : Location, size, and use of barns ;
Sec. XVII.— WA'IT.R FOR THE KAKMERY : Cisterns, size, cost, and how to build ; ,ique-
ducts and wells, how to construct ; hydraulic rams 308
Sec. XVIII. -STACKING AND STORING GRAIN ; CORN CRIRS, PIGGERIES, AND
PIG FEEDING ; SMOKE-HOUSE, AND CURING BACON ; FRUIT-DRYING HOUSE. 318
Sej. XIX.- ECONOMICU. FARM RUILDINGS : Balloon frames, concrete walls, and other
cheap styles of building ; how to make balloon frames, and their cost 32-5
Sec. XX.— ROOFS AND ROOFING : Paints and whitew.i.«h for farm buildings ; nails ; mor-
tar ; farm gates ; sawed shingles, their value, and hciw to preserve shingles 332
Stc. XXI. -LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS: Protection of farm buildings from fire ; windroills
and their use "... 842
CHAPTER IV.
DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
Sec. XXII.— the FOOD QUESTION: Quantity, quality, variety, adaptation, adulteration.
changes produced hy cooking, water for cooking, and effect on health 3-')l
Pec. XXIII -^THE BRE,\.D QUESTION : Varieties ; quality ; how to make bread and yeast,
Sec. XXIV.— SUBSTITUTES FOR BREAD, in green corn, dried corn, pop-corn, hominy, and
Sec. XXV.-EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES : Economy of
lights; use of tea, coffee, and sugar; preserving fruits, pork, hams, and beef; remedies
Sec XXVI.- DOME?!TIC WINES, CIDER, AND PRESERVES : Rules of wine-making
from various fruits, and cider and vinegar making 419
Sec. XXVII.— HYGIENIC : Prep.aratiiin of food for the sick ; remedies for poisons, bites,
Sec. XXVIII.— ITIE DAIRY : Butter and cheese making ; how much milk for a pound of
CHAPTER V.
THE gaehen and its fkuits.
Skc. XXIX. -pleasure and PROFIT OF GARDENING : Origin and history of veg-
Sec. XXX.— GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES: Protection from insects; value of va-
rious things for food ; chiccory culture ; what should be grown in the garden ; number of
Skc. XXXI. —THE IXOWEK GARDEN: Varieties and cultivation of flowers ; suitable soil
and pi eparatifin ; lists of choice flowers ; flowers grown as a crop ^>00
_
CONTESTTS. ix
PAQK
Sec. XXXII. — LAWNS : How to make and how to keep them ; trees and plant.s suitable for
Sec. XXXni.— HOT-BEDS : Cold frames plant protectors ; how to make and use hot-beds . 62i
Sec. XXXIV.— small FRUITS OF THE GARDEN : Currants, varieties and cultivation ;
strawberries, variety and growth ; raspberries ; blackberries ; quinces 030
CnAPTER YI.
THE OKCHARD.
Sec. XXXV.— propagation, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION OF TREES : Time to
Sec. XXXVI.— the AET OF PRUNING, GRAFTING, AND BUDDING : How and when
to prune ; how and when to bud and graft ; how to make wax 570
Sec. XXXVII.— APPLE AND PEACH TREES: Their general management; select list of
apples, and descriptions ; peach-trees, how to grow ; how to treat an old orchard 579
Sec. XXXVIII. — CHERRIES : Best varieties ; soil, situation, and cultivation ; history, use.
Sec XXXIX.— PEARS : Soil, situation, cultivation, and varieties ; select list of sorts; when
to gather and how to ripen ; is the cultivation profitable 601
Sec XL.— plums, NECTARINES, APRICOTS, MULBERRIES, AND OTHER FRUIT :
How to transplant fruit ; choice selection of plums 012
Sec. XLI.— MISCELLANEOUS M.ATTERS ABOUT FRUIT CULTURE : Cranberries as a
crop ; how to grow them ; best varieties ; cider-making 021
CHAPTER VII.
THE VINEYARD.
Sec XLH.— HOW TO PLANT AND CULTIVATE VINES : What sorts to plant ; history of
varieties ; profits of culture ; grape-growing in California 030
Sec. XLIII. - CULTURE OF GRAPES FOR WINE : Rules for wine-making ; wine from
various kinds of grapes ; rules of a French wine-maker ; rules of American wine-makers 657
CHAPTER VIII.
C E R E A I, I A .
Sec. XLIV.— wheat, RYE, OATS, BARLEY, MILLET, BUCKWHEAT : Preparation of
soil and fertilization ; quantity of aeed ; harvesting, stacking, and storing ; thrashing and
cleaning ; profits of wheat culture ; oats, how and when to sow ; cultivation of barley ;
buckwheat ; millet 067
Sec. XLV. — INDIAN CORN: Its history; product; profit as a crop; when to plant, and
how to cultivate ; great yield per acre. North and South ; how to store corn, and how to
_
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IX.
THE GKASSES, THEIR CULTIVATION AND USE.
p
Seo. XLVI.— mowing and pasture lands : Seeding land ; varieties of grass ; what
is grass ; what kinds arc rgcommcuded for culUvation ; clover, its cultivation ; harvc-st-
ing seed
Sec. XLVIL— haying AND HAYING JLVCHINES : Hay caps ; stacking ; how much hay
land should produce, and how much it is necessary to provide ; how to measure hay in
bulk
CHAPTER X.
EOOT CKOP8 AND SUGAE CROPS.
Sec XLVIII.— potatoes, TURNIPS, BEETS, CARROTS, PARSNEPS, ONIONS : How to
plant and cultivate, and how much thuy should produce ; Iiistory of the potato ; charac-
ter of varieties ; importance of the crop ; what seed should be used, and how planted ;
suhstitutL'S for the potato ; sweet potato culture ; turnip culture ; carrots as a crop, and
sowing and cultivation ; onions as a crop, how grown, and profits 78j
Sec. XLIX.— CHINESE SUGAR-CANE, AND SORGO-SUGAR MAKING : Preparation and
time of planting cano; soil and situation; harvesting; manufacturing, and yield and
profits as a crop ^"'--
Sec. L.— MAPLE-SUG^VR M^VKING : Tapping trees ; spouts, buckets, and boilers ; process of
manufactuj'c ; cost, yield, aud profit of maple-sugar 8C5
CHAPTER XL
FORESTS AND FENCES.
Sec. LI.— trees AND TREE PLANTING ; WOOD OR COAL FOR FUEL : What trees to
phrnt, and how and where ; descriptive list of trees; value of various trees ; how to make
timber durable ; how to season fuel 845
Sec. LII. — FENCES : Their cost ; kinds most economical ; laws regulating ; how to make
hedges, stone walls, wire fence, and farm gates ; how to kyauize fence posts ; waste of land
aiound fences ; portable fence, its use 801
CHAPTER XH.
FERTILIZATION.
Sec. LIII.— THE ART, USE, AND ECONOMY OF MAKING, SAVING, AND APPLYING
MANURES AND FERTILIZING FARM CROPS : Color, fineness, and moisture of ma-
nure affects its value ; nitrates, muriates, sulphates, lime, plaster, and bones, how to
apply ; guano, its history and use ; muck, its value ; sea-weed and other matters ; value
of salt ; special manures for various crops ; soiling to save manure ; manuring with
clover ; water, its value as a fertilizer 877
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER Xm.
IRRIGATION. DRAINING. PLOWING. FARMING TOOLS.
PAQR
Sec. LIV.— irrigation AND TILE DRAINING : Value of irrigation ; its practice in Italy
and otlier countries ; what lands are most benefited ; tile draining, its importance, cost,
practice, and pi-ofit ; how and what land should be drained ; the mole-draining plow. . . . 904
Sec. LV.— plows AND PLOWING : History of cast-iron plows ; subsoil plows, and their
use and value ; steel plows and steam plows ; other farming tools ; labor saved by using
farm machinery , 917
CHAPTEE XIY.
SOUTHERN STAPLE CROPS COTTON, CANE, RICE, TOBACCO.
Sec. LVI.— mSTORY, GROWTH, AND MANUFACTURE OF COTTON : History of the
cotton gin ; upland cotton ; sea island cotton ; how cotton is grown, picked, and pre-
pared for market ; profit of the culture ; flax cotton 928
Sec LVn.— sugar cane CULTIVATION: Statistics of its culture in Louisiana ; yield of
sugar per acre ; cost of making, and how it is made 943
Sec. LVllI. — RICE : Its cultivation, production, and preparation for market ; yield per acre ;
value and profit ; statistics of rice plantations ; upland rice 948
Sec LIX. — ^TOBACCO : Its history, cultivation, production, and profits ; exports and con-
sumption of tobacco ; eifect of cultivation upon the soil ; its culture in New York and
Connecticut ; rules for cultivation, curing, and packing 953
Sec. LX.— CULTIVATION OF HEMP, FLAX, AND OTHER FIBROUS PLANT'S : Hemp ;
soil and climate ; how it is sown, harvested, and yield per acre ; cost and profit ; effect
upon the soil ; flax cultivation ; how to prepare the soil, sow the seed, and quantity per
acre 965
CHAPTER XY.
GLEANINGS OF THE FIELD.
Sec LXL— MISCELLANEOUS TTEMS OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE TO FARMERS : This
last chapter embraces many things not classed under other titles, such as temperature for
seeds to germinate and grow ; nutriment in food substances ; weights and measure of
grain ; measuring land ; proverbs and maxims for young and old farmers, farmers' wives
and children ; maxims of health ; things to be thought about ; how to dress skins, fix
pumps, mend pipes, and prognosticate the weather ; farmers' clubs ; farm laborers ; farm
accounts ; farm economy, and finis 971-1010
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
Plait. I. — Likeness of the Author - Frontispiece.
Platk II.— Frontispiece of Chap. I. , illustratrating the subject of Domestic Animals Page Vi
Plate in. — Frontispiece of Sec. III. This Plate Is intended to answer the question, " What
is a ETOod Cow ?" It also exhibits different breeds of Cattle 31
Platk IV. — Different Breeds of Cattle — Durham, Devon, Hereford, .\yrs!iire, Dutcli, and AI-
demey Bulls and Cows H
Plate V. — The Milk Jlirror, showing how to select a good Cow, and form of Teetli at dif-
ferent Ages 48
Plate VI. — Breeds of Sheep and Swine 81 and 10
1'i.ATi; VII. — Frontispiece of Sec. VIII. — Portraits of celebrated Horses, and Illustrations of
different Breeds 07
Pirates VIII. and IX. — Illustrations of the Teeth of Horses at all Ages, showing how to
judge the Age from One to Eighteen Years lOG
Plate X. — Frontispiece to Poultry, Sec. IX 123
Plate XI. — Turlteys, Ducks, Oeese, Swans, and Pea Fowls 140
Plate XII. The Bee-Keeper at his Work 15"
Plate XIII. — ^Tlic Farmery of Fanner Snug and Farmer Slack— Frontispiece of Chap. III. . 275
Platk XIV.^Frontispiece of the Garden and its Fruits, Chap. V 461
Plate XV. — Frontispiece to the Flower Garden, Sec. XXXI 500
Plate X.V1. — Frontispiece to the Orcliard, Cluap. VL — A Dessert fit for a Fiirmer — .V Rural
Scene and rich collection of Fruit 555
Pl.\te XVII. — Frontispiece to Chap. VIII.— Ccrealia, representing Insects injurious to Wheat ;
also Grapevine Pests 007
Plate XVIII. — Frontispiece to Sec. XLV. — Illustrations of Insects wliicli are injurious to
Farmers, and others which are l>cncficial 709
Plate XIX. — Frontispiece to Chap. IX. — The Grasses 748
Plate XX. — Frontispiece to Chup. XIV. — The Cotton Plant and Cotton Field- Gathering
the Crop 928
Plate XXI.— Insects injurious to Cotton and Corn 912
Plate XXII. — Frontispiece of Sec. LIX. — Tobacco in all stages of Growth .and Curing for
Market 953
PLATE II.
(Page 13.)
Every American farmer will look upon this picture with pride.
It is a fitting illusti'ation of a chapter upon Domestic Animals. It
contains representatives of a well-stocked farm, assembled in the
farm-yard on the south side of one of the farmery buildings in one
of the sunny days of spring, which are so well calculated to make
such a collection of well-fed animals feel, as these look, full of
gladness. There is no danger that such liogs as these will destroy
young lambs and poultry. Here we sec the sheep and lambs, goats
and kids — goats that yield valuable fleeces, which are described in
this chapter — the work-horses and brood-mare and colt — the mules
and their progenitor, who is in an attitude of war Avith a well-fed
heifer that is absorbed in admiration of the peacocks on the roof
of the poultry-house. How surlily the bull looks upon the white-
faced cow, which is deeply interested in contemplating the two hens
that the cock has just called to enjoy a few grains of corn ! By tlie
earnest looking of one cow and two horses, we judge that they see
their good friend and master approaching. Geese, ducks, turkeys,
rabbits, and pigeons, and a boat on the water, enhven the scene,
which, altogether, is one of tranquil beauty. It is a scene to con-
template and admire. It teaches a lesson. ' It will stimulate many
a young man to a determination to become the owner of such a' one,
or something equally worthy of the artist who desires to represent
American farm life. It will stimulate all, we hope, who look upon
this pictorial index of this chapter to read it carefully.
FACTS FOR FARMERS.
CHAPTER I.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
SECTION. I— INTllODUCTION TO FiVCTS ABOUT STOCK.
HE very foundation of all farm improvement is the
domestic animals which consume the coarse products
of the farm, such as are not fit for human food, or
grown ill greater abundance than is needed for
that purpose, which, being so fed, are converted
into milk, butter, cheese, beef, pork, mutton, wool,
leather, and the many other valuable animal products.
But above all are animals valuable to the farmer, because
they convert the coarse products of the farm into manure,
without which the owner can not produce food for his own
sustenance.
Viewing, then, as I do, successful farming as based upon
stock, it seems to me very fitting that I should make the
treatise of it the leading chapter of the volume. And as swine are more
univereally kept by all classes of Americans, and the flesh more universally
used every week in the year, it will be very proper to make this branch
of farm-stock the leading subject.
I am not going to give learned dissertations upon stock-breeding, nor, in
fact, long essays upon this or any other subject, but such little fugitive facts
as come to hand, in short paragraphs, consecutively numbered for reference,
with black-letter titles to each subject, to attract attention, and so arranged
that facts may be gathered at a glance, and valuable information obtained
during leisure moments which might otherwise be lost.
Many of the statements given are not only for the purpose of giving
interesting information — such, for instance, as the weights of the largest
animals ever slaughtered — but as an incentive to others to try to produce
the like. It is not to be expected that a man who never saw a bullock of
over 12 cwt. should attempt to make one of 36 cwt. ; nor will lie be likely
to make the attempt before he learns the important fact, that the particular
breed which he has kept all his life never attain tliat weight.
It is for the purpose of inciting improvement that I give some statistics
Li brary
^N' estate College
14 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Coap. I.
of the New York livestock market, which I have been familiar with for
many years. Farmers slioiild knuw that there is a certain market for all
the meat-giving animals they can produce, and what they realize, as well as
what varieties sell best.
I have purposely adopted a dcsnltory method, because I tliiuk it will be
more satisfactory to my readers, whom I do not expect to read the work in
consecutive order, and because I find it more convenient to pick up the
fugitive facts and jot them down in a sort of mosaic-work, something as
nature does its autumn tints, which are now glowing before my window in
the full eifulgence of an October sun.
And here, too, as I look abroad upon my neighbors' fields, and at their
cattle gnawing the short pasture, and running after every chance apple
dropping from the trees, and then stretcliing up their necks, looking for
more, and browsing off the lower limbs of tlic trees, I am forcibly reminded
that this is not a profitable method of keeping larm-stock. Day by day the
milch cows fail to give the supply that good pasture will always give in this
good butter-making month of October ; and day by day the flesh of all the
animals is wasting, so that, by-and-by, when the cold and storms of November
force their owner to bring them into winter quarters, they are not in such
a condition that he may carry thcui economically through. There is a great
error in farming, that the scene before me forcibly reminds me of — it is the
error of keeping any kind of iarm-stoek upon short pasture, and most
jjarticularly in autumn, so that they come to winter quarters falling off in
flesh, rather than gaining, which is tlio condition tliat all animals should be
in when brought from the pasture to the stable or feeding lot.
Some of the farmers of the Eastern States of the kind just alluded to,
who keep their stock upon the shortest possible pasture, and consequently
generally have scrubby animals, and always meet with great difficulty in
wintering those, would learn a useful lesson if they would visit the blue-
grass pastures of Kentucky, and see in what luxuriant feed the sleek
Durhams of that region are kept. They would there learn one of the
secrets of value of that breed, and why they attain at three years old a size
and weight of beef never equaled at six years old by tlie scrub breed
common in Virginia and in the liilly regions of Oliio and Indiana, which are
sometimes designated in the New York market as " pony cattle," or " old
stjdc," and averaging, when fat, about six hundred pounds in the beef. A
similar scrub breed is known in Kentucky as " mountain cattle,'' and the same
style is very common in North Carolina, Georgia, and other Southern States,
wlicrc I liave often seen full grown steers, and fat, killed ibr beef at four
years old, that would not average four liundred pounds of beef. These
cattle were treated, too, all their lives, just like too many of the same class
in all the New England and Middle States — like those now before me, eking
out their existence upon the scanty herbage of autumn, in a closely-cropped
summer pasture, and never fed with forage prepared for winter, until the
owner is driven to it by an early winter storm.
Sec. 1.] CATTLE OX A MISSISSIPPI STEAMBOAT. 15
Such is not the right way to keep stock ; but so long as men will keep it
thus, it is not of much advantage to try to improve the breed.
Tliere is a great want of information, not only upon the subject of
improvements in the kinds of stock, but in the modes of keej^ing it. It is
not my intention, in this chapter upon domestic animals, to attempt to give
all this information, but only a few brief hints, which may lead to reflection
and improvement.
Above all things that will tend to improvement, are annual visits to great
cattle-shows, where the varieties in the bi'eeds of cattle may be studied, and
judged as to which -would be the most profitable, or whether either would
be more so than the old-style breed at home.
It would be of great importance, too, to all farmers to travel more. How
strange it would seem, at first sight, to a Yankee farmer, who had occupied
a forty-acre farm all his life, to see a thousand hogs, and half as many
bullocks, all turned into a grand-prairie corn-field, of a size large enough to
cover his entire farm and that of twenty or thirty of his ueighboi-s! His
first exclamation would probably be, " Oh, what a waste !"• His subsequent
opinion would be about like this : " "Well, after all, I begin to believe that
is not so bad a way of harvesting corn as I thought it was."
And this is not the only curious thing that he might see in relation to
farm-stock in traveling through the West. He would see the same bad
management as at home, about bringing the stock into winter quarters, for
they are too often allowed to run in a corn-field, after the grain has all been
harvested, living upon the dry stalks until after tlie first snows of winter.
He might also see some very amusing, as well as instructive things, in
connection with cattle.
Shipping cattle o?i a Mississippi stcamhoat, as I once witnessed, afibrded
infinite amusement; and I am disposed to giv^e a photograph of it, before I
take up the more practical details of farm-stock.
Engagements for boats to stop and take cattle on board at various
landings are frequently made before leaving port, and it often happens that
the boat reaches these points in the night ; and tlien a scene occurs which
might employ a more graphic pen than mine to describe, or which would
have been a fit subject for Hogarth to paint.
I will try to give my readers some idea of such a scene, although one so
common on the Mississippi it rarely meets a passing notice ; yet it is full
of interest.
The steamer left St. Louis about sundown of a dark day, during the latter
part of which the rain came down in torrents, corresponding to tlie size of
the great river they were destined to fill. Of course mud was a component
part of all the little tributary streams ; but it did not discolor the great
river — that is always muddy.
At ten o'clock we saw a light on the right bank, and run in for it.
Tliougli the rain had ceased, the night was dark — one which gave tlie pilot
but little chance to see any but the most prominent landmarks.
16 DOMESTIC AKIMALS. [Chap. I.
"Whose place is this?" sung out tlie captain, wlien he had approached as
near the light as lie thought safe — for in time of "a fresh," the master of a
boat always approaches shore with great care.
" Why, dis is my massa's place ; what boat dat ? If you is de Heniy
Clay, den dis nigger mighty glad, 'cause, gorra, cap'en, hab been watching
all dis two free nights for de old Clay."
" Have you got your cattle there ?"
"All in do lot— gorra brcss you, den you is de Henry Clay, sure — right
here by do light."
" Is the water good in shore ?"
" Why, spec him is good for the steamboat, but not very good to drink."
" IIow deep is it near the bank ?"
" Oil, Lord, massa, dat mor'n dis nigger knows for sartin, 'cause him
mighty deep."
"That will do. Forward there. Get your lines ready. Light them
torches — let's see where we are. Call all hands ; hero is a hundred head of
cattle to be got aboard."
In a few minutes the lights flashed a bright glare over the boat and
shore, bringing to view a scene worth a long journey to behold. The
torches are composed of " light wood," which is the concentrated pitch of
old pine trees, of the long-leaf variety — the richest of all the family in
turpentine. This wood is split in small pieces and put in an iron frame,
with a staft" not unlike the common hod used to carry mortar, so it can be
carried about or stuck in the ground, where by a little replenishing it will
burn for hours, giving a light unequaled by any other portable contiivance
I ever saw. In the present case, it disclosed more mud than anything else.
The whole bank was alluvial claj' loam. The face was steep, and sixty or
eighty feet high. The boat, made fast to stakes driven into the soft earth,
lay within twenty feet of the shore, between which and the guards was a
gangway made of long planks lashed together, about six or eiglit feet wide,
without side-railing, or anything to prevent springing down in the center.
The cattle were in a yard on the top of the bank, where, around the watch-
lire, huddled about a dozen sleeiiy negroes, amongst which the anxious
face of massa soon made its appeiirance, having been awakened at his house,
two miles distant, by the tremendous noise wliicli is made by one of these
river steamers, by the pulls of her high-pressure engine.
" Ilalloo, Captain Smith, is that you ? I might have known it, though, for
no other fool would come hero in the night for such a job as this. What
are you going to do — hold on till morning T'
"Hold the !"
"Well, I might just as well as hold you. I do believe, if the Clay's
engine should break going up stream, the boat would not stop — there is
steam enough in the captain to keep her going."
Evidently pleased with this compliment, he jumped ashore, with that
most encouraging of all words, " Come, boys," and floundered up the muddy
Sso. 1.] HANDLING A AVILD STEER. 17
road, to greet his planter friend with one of those hearty shakos of the hand
which alone is equal to a whole volume on the man's character.
"Well, captain, you see how it is. I am all ready ; the cattle are here,
wet, wild, and muddy, and the bank awful. I couldn't help it. It would
I'aiu, and the river is on the fall. I doubt whether your men can stand on
the slippery bank. My boys will take down some of the gentle ones, but
Lord help you M'ith two or three ; we had to bring them in with the dogs."
" So much the better, then, tliat the road is wet — they will slide tlie easier.
Hopes and men will bring them down ; don't you fret, colonel."
" Well, well, I'll leave it to you ; I'll risk the cattle, if you will your neeks.
Better wait for daylight, thougii — what say?"
" Never ! what should I do with that surplus steam you say I carry ? Wait
— no ; I intend to have them all aboard, and win half of them playing poker
with you before morning; and at daylight 1 am going to take in Tom
Kilgc'-e's, at Rocky Landing. So bear a hand, boys. Stir up your lights,
and rouse 'em out, one at a time, and often."
In a few minutes tliere was a line of men and bullocks from the top of the
bank to the boat. The first dozen or two came down very orderly to the
end of the gangway, where, if they hesitated, a rope was tlirown over so as
to encircle them behind, and two or three stout fellows at each end gave
them material aid about coming on board. Tiie owner said Ave should see
fun directly, but not caring to participate in it personally, he took care to
make himself one of the spectators, in a safe, comlbrtable position on board
the boat. Upward of half were brought down without giving us a taste of
the promised amusement, though the whole scene was exceedingly interesting.
At length they got hold of one of the animals, which the colonel said was
wilder than forty deer, and vicious as an old buck in running time ; and then
there was fun. lie was a great, long-legged, five-year-old steer, of the mouse
color, long taper-horned Spanisli cattle, who had never before felt the weiglit
and strength of a man's hand upon his heretofore unrestrained wild-woods
liberty. Round and round the yard he went, carrying or dragging through
the mud as many negroes, sailors, and firemen as could find horn, car, nose,
or tail to hold to. Finally they got a rope round his horns and drew liini up to
a stake at the edge of the bank, to wait till others were caught to lead down
first, thitdving that he would better follow than take the front rank. He did
follow. When about a dozen or fifteen head were on the way down, the
wild one was cast off from his moorings and led np to the edge of the bauk„
wlien just at that moment the engineer blowed off steam, at wliich the
frightened animal leaped forward on to the slippery path, Inst his foothold,
and down be went against the ne.xt, and the next, and so on ; like a row of
bricks, one tumbled or slid against another, upsetting men and beast, till the
whole came down like an avalanche upon the end of the platform with such
force that the strain upon the mooring line of the bow drew out the stake,
when the strong current almost instantly swung her off shore so far, before
the men could get hold of the line and make fast again, that the platform
18 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
dropped off into the water, and with it eight or ten men and steei-s, among
which was the one that caused all the mischief. I must say the fun was not
80 great as the fright, for a minute, as it did not take much longer to finish
off the greatest feat of " slidhig down hill" which I have witnessed since
tlie halcyon days of hand-sleds and boyhood upon the snow-clad, wintry hills
of my native land. Tiiat all were got out safe was owing to the instant
thought and action of the mate, who sprang ashore with a polo which he
placed in the wheel, so as to prevent the cattle from floating down past the
stern, where it would have been impossible for them to get up the soft,
tilijjliery bank. As it was, some of them were in the water over an hour;
the catamount, as the colonel called him, being purposely left until the last,
and severely threatened with being towed to New Orleans. But when he
was at length taken out, tliere was not a more docile animal in the herd ; he
had been completely subdued. The whole affair, though fraught with danger
at first, afforded all hands a scene of most uproarious mirth. Even at the
time when it looked as though half a score of men might be killed in the
grand tumble, it was almost impossible to avoid laughing, the whole thing
was so extremely ludicrous.
One big negro fellow, finding himself hard pressed b}' tlie bullock he was
leading and half a dozen more behind him, either for sport or to save his
shins, jumped upon the animal's back and came down witli a surge into the
water ; but he never let go till he had him safe ashore again, where he met
some of the most hearty, though rude congratulations of his companions, for
his skillful feat of horsenuinship on an ox.
Finally, in spite of mud and peril, the grand entertainment of shipping
cattle on the Mississippi was concluded, and the boat was ofl' before daylight
for the next landing, where the operation was to be repeated. Owing to
better ground and a difterent plan adopted, this was not quite so entertaining.
The cattle were yarded in a lo:ig, narrow pen, M'hich came near the shore.
A rope being passed over the horns of the forwartl steer, with the other end
through a snatch-block on the boat, a dozen or fifteen men would lay hold
of it, while two men by the tail to steer, and one on each side to keep him
on the gangway, would have the fellow out of the pen and eliding up the
planks before he knew what he was bellowing for.
As in all cases where science and skill direct human efforts, the labor
was lessened and business expedited.
And so in all cases where science and skill are exercised in regard to all
kinds of domestic animals, success may be looked for.
And now, after this little incidental digression from the main intent of
this chapter, in the exhibition of a life-like scene on the Mississippi, we will
begin to arrange our facts in order and shape for useful reference, always
aiming more at the practical than ornamental.
As we shall arrange each subject under its separate and proper head, we
will begin the chapter upon domestic animals with that kind in most universal
use.
Sec. 2.]
SWINE.
19
SECTION IL-SWINE.
eeding Pigs and Faiting Pork. — Next to procuring
a good breed of swine — that is, a breed suitable
to the purposes for which it is required — the
best way to feed the stock liogs, and the cheapest and
best way to fatten them, is the most important master
for a farmer to consider. No man can say, " My breed
is the best of all," unless he specifies for wliat purpose it
is best for. A good grazing breed would be best for
some situations ; quite the contrary for some others. Tiie
Berkshire, Essex, and Suffolk have each been denomi-
nated " the gentleman's jjig," because well fitted for
keeping up in close pens, one or two to a family ; while a
much larger breed is required bj'' the great corn-growere
of the "West. And this brings us to the next most
important question.
3. Corn and Pork— Uow much Pork will a Bnsliel of torn make?— This
is one of the most important questions that can be asked by every man
who raises a bushel of corn or feeds one to a liog. Yet it is a question that
not one in ten can answer. To see the ignorance of mankind upon subjects
of most importance to them, makes us ready to exclaim, Does anybody know
anything about anything? In conversation with many farmers, we have
not yet found a man who could say how much corn it i-equired to make a
hundred pounds of pork, and consequently could not fix upon any relative
price of one or the other, at which it would be profitable to feed corn to
hogs. In some experiments made by Henry L. Ellsworth, at Lafayette, Ind.,
in warm weather, with thrifty young porkers in a pen, fed with corn in the
ear, if we remember aright, he gained 12 lbs. of pork per bushel of corn.
Samuel II. Clay, of Kentucky, gained 17^ lbs. per bushel, feeding the corn
in the form of cooked meal. As a general thing, we should like to know
if corn, fed as it usually is in the "West, averages six pounds of pork to the
bushel of shelled corn.
We have received several answers to this question, but they only proxi-
mately settle the point. Leroy Buckingham, of Cadiz, Cattaraugus Co.,
N. Y., says, a pig that weighed 52 lbs. when commenced with, fed on the
spare milk from one cow and 800 lbs. of raw coin-meal, weighed 364 lbs. (live
or dead not stated) when killed at seven and a half months old. He thinks
each bushel of corn made about 20 lbs. of pork.
The two following letters we print entire, and commend them to the careful
attention of all farmers, although they do not contain all that is necessary to
be known upon the subject :
20 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. 1.
"Glenn's Falls, N. Y., Oct. 23, 1858.
"Sir: You think it important that farmers should know how much pork a
harrol of corn will make. It is an important question, and I am sorry to say
I think there are ten lawyei's and mechanics to one farmer that can answer
the (question correctly. I once made a very accurate exj^eriment in Kew
York; the first day of September I weighed into the pen two hogs, a year
and a lialf old, and three pigs, six months old. I measured old corn
accurately, and had it ground. At night I wet with boiling water (to a
consistency that would run freely) meal sufficient for the next day's feed.
The hogs had no slo])s from the house — nothing but the meal and water. I
killed them the first of December, deducted five cents per pound for what
they weighed the fii-st of September, and found, at six cents per pound for
the pork, they had paid ninety-eight cents per bushel for the eoni, which
would give about sixteen and one third pounds of j)()rk to the bushel. One
year gincc I fatted fifteen old liogs and tliirty five pigs on India wheat ai;d
potatoes. I measured the feed accurately, steamed the potatoes, and mixed
the meal in while hot, twelve hours before feeding. At five cents per ]>oi:i,d
for the ]>ork, they paid firty-two cents per bushel for the India wheal, and
fifteen cents for the potatoes. Of course the relative value of the wheat and
potatoes is guessed at in that experiment. I "worked" tlie hogs in ihe
manure business, carting in muck, weeds, etc. I got 15 cords of manure
although less pork' — I suppose for the working the hogs. I would like much
to know if any one (especially in the Western States) has made tlic exj>eri-
ment of turning hogs into the corn-field, with free access to watei', and let
them help themselves.
"If any otiier class of business 7ncn knew as few facts in rcgai'd to their
business as farmers do, they would all fail every year. New Mausu."
A. G. Perry, of Newark (State not named), weighed a thrifty pig, five
nionlhs old, 15011)s., and then fed it 50 lbs. corn meal, mixed with hot water,
thin enough to answer ibr victuals and driidv. This was eaten in six and
a half days, and the gain was 18 lbs.
A correspoiulent writes from Norlh Cliatham, Columbia Co., N. Y. :
"Tlie 2-ith of August I put up a sow to fatten — a large proportion Suffolk
— lier weight, 235 lbs. Price on foot, 4 cents per pound. For food from
August 24th to October 4th, gave her 309 lbs. rye bran. Rye bran is Avorlh
here $1 12| per 100 lbs. October 4th her weight was 295 lbs., making CO
lbs. increase from the bran. From October 4th until November 17th I fed
her 10 bushels, by weight 560 lbs., of marketable corn. Killed her Nov.
17tli. Her live weight, just before killing, was 413 His. Increase from the
10 bushels corn (or 5(50 lbs.), being 118 lbs. pork — it taking a fraction more
than A\ lbs. corn for 1 11). pork — and is a fraction less than 12 lbs. ]>ork fi-om
1 bushel of corn, making the increase per day a little less than 23 lbs. The
present ])rice of corn here is 70 cents jier busliel, and the pork 7 cents
per pound, being barely a paying business."
Ssa 2.]
SWINE— PROFIT OF FEEDING.
21
J. J. Carter, of Ilornville, Chester Co., Pa., says that B. P. Kirk kept a
debt and credit account with his pig. He fed 49^'j bushels of corn, at GO
cents a bushel, and added the tirst cost of the pig, at two months old, $5,
making a total of $31 46. At 17 months old the animal weighed 649 lbs.,
and sold for 71 cents a pound, making §18 67, giving a profit of $11 21. A
little bran was fed, but that was reduced to the equivalent of corn, and
coimted as above. The breed of hogs common in Chester County is one of
the best in the world. The hogs arc of a white color, medium-sized, easily
tatted to weigh 300 to 100 lbs. at 10 to 15 months old, and have small
bones, fine-grained flesh, large hams, well marbled, and large leaves of
kidney fat. It is a distinct American breed, and one of the best for farmers
who desire to graze their hogs in part, and then fatten them easil}^ upon
honsa-slops, apples, potatoes, and coarse grain. Even for large fnrmers, and
for making pork upon a large scale, there are not many, if any, breeds of
swine iu this country superior to that known as "Westchester, or Chester County
(Pa.) hogs. And as I consider it an important fact that farmers should
know where to get a real good breed without paying fancy i^rices, I am glad
of the ojiportunity to make this breed better known.
D. C. Nye, of Lexington, Mass., iu reply to an inquirer in the Genesee
Farmer^ writes that —
"The Chester County hogs are distinguished for their early maturity,
great facility for fattening, and are very quiet and docile. They are well
covered with bristles, and, unlike the Suft'olks, can endure the heat and cold.
The Chesters will jirobably make as much pork (and of a sujierior quality)
on a given amount of food as any other breed — some of them, when well
fed, having attained the weight of six or seven hundred pounds."
Another correspondent of the same pajier says, in addition, that the
thorough-bred Chester hogs are always white, and that "they are peculiar in
being fit for slaughtering at any time."
But to proceed with the subject of feeding hogs. The second letter is
very much to the point. It says :
*' In answer to your question, ' How much pork will a bushel of corn
make?' I send you the result of two experiments, made some years ago,
while occupying a farm in the northern part of Chester County, Pa.
" My first experiment was with five very ordinary pigs that I bought of a
neighbor; weighed, October, 1851, 219 lbs ; fed on corn and cob meal, boiled
into mush, of which they consumed in 30 days 279 lbs., and gained 87 lbs.
live weight
"In the next 32 days tliey consumed 375|lbs., and gained 75 lbs. live
weight, making a gain of 157 lbs. in 62 days, having consumed 651| lbs. of
corn and cob meal, which is equal to about 9i bushels pure meal; or one
bushel pure meal cooked made 16.8 lbs. live weight.
"My second experiment was with a lot of five very superior pigs, of the
Chester breed; they weighed, Feb. 7, 1S53, COoIbs; consumed in 9 days
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
252 lbs. corn and cob meal, scalded, and gained 78 lbs. In the next £
days they consumed 1:^5 lbs. whole corn, boiled, and 128 lbs. of corn-cob
meal, scalded, and gained 57 lbs.
"In the next t) days they consnmed 278 lbs. corn-cob meal, scalded, and
gaisied 70 lbs., making a gain in 27 days of 205 lbs. on a consumption
of C5Slbs. corn-cob meal, and 125 lbs. wliole corn. Assuming that 70 lbs.
of the cob-mcal contains 5G lbs., or one bushel jinre meal, ■we have 9|
busliels of pure meal and 2} bushels whole corn, making a consumption of
11 J bushels nearly, and a gain of 205 lbs. flesh; or 5Glbs. of pure meal,
scalded, made 17.41 lbs. of live weight.
"The above surprising gain for food consumed was the result of very
careful feeding, clean and warm bedding, and a tight house.
" RicHAKD TuATCHEE, Darby, Pa."
Thomas Iloag, of Somhanock, N. Y., lias sent us a detailed statement of
the feeding of ten pigs, out of a litter of twelve from a native-breed yearling
sow, taken from her at seven weeks old, and fed till slaughtered, at forty
weeks old, with the following substances, with estimates of expense added :
Pasture $3 00
Wood used in boiling food 2 00
Extras 2 CO
Value of pigs at seven weeks old 80 00
2121 bushels of com, at 75 cents $1.59 38
G;! bushels of oats, at 45 cents 28 35
r^iiil for crrinding 14 79
1:! busliels of small potatoes, 12i cents. 1 63
(i loads of pumpkins, at $1 6 00
20a lbs. of carrots 1 00 Total $2-18 15
These hogs weighed, dressed, 4,066 pounds, and sold,
(in 1853), at Lansingburg, N. Y., at $7 50 per cwt $304 95
Kough fat, 175 lbs •. 17 50
Total $322 45
Total cost 248 15
Balance S74 30
This is the amount of profit, or, rather, pay for labor, and tli,e spare milk
of four ordinary cows fed to tlieni, and not estimated as above.
At six cents a pound the result would have been
4,000 llw., at G cents $243 90
Eough fat 17 60
Total $261 46
Cost 248 15
Profit $13 31
This certainly docs not give a very flattering picture of the probable profits
of pork-making in this section of the country, where every kind of feed is
salable at high prices.
Other letters were subsequently received, from one of which we gather
the following information : Wm. Renick, of Circleville, Ohio, a large farmer,
and long engaged in the raising of cattle and hogs, writes more extensively
than we can tiiul I'oom tor. Mr. Renick thinks that farmers are not ignorant
of the fact " Imw luiu-h ])ork v»-ill a bushel of corn make," and says:
Seo. 2.] SWINE— GAIN IN FEEDING. 23
" Probably nine tenths of our best practical farmers could, without lie?ita
tiou, give you an approximate answer in general terms."
This is exactly what we supposed, and that they would give nothing but
an approximate answer in general terms, because there is a general lack of
positive information upon this and many otlier important matters connected
with the farming interest. Mr. Renick gives the gain upon five liogs fed by
himself in the common rough method of the West — tliat is, turned into the
corn-field, 200 head together. Three of these hogs weighed, at seven months
old, liOlbs. each, and two older ones weighed 125 lbs. each. After feeding
120 days, the three weighed 280 lbs. net average, and the two 185 lbs.
" Now, say that hogs on an average will eat 20 bushels of corn per hundred
head per day for the first 60 days, 16 bushels for the next 30 days, and 12
bushels per hundred head per day for the last 30 days, and we have 21
bushels per head for the whole time of 120 days (though this is under rather
than over the mark), and we have a production in the case of the three hogs
of 101 lbs. of gross pork for a bushel of corn, and but a small fraction over
5 lbs. per bushel for the two hogs."
Now, this is exactly in jiroof of what we originally stated. It is all guess-
work. Mr. Renick further says :
"The large feeders of hogs and cattle are oftentimes greatly mistaken in
their calculations in regard to the quantity of stock their corn will feed,
sometimes largely overrunning, and again falling largely short of their
calculations."
Tills is not to be wondered at, when it is considered that no one pretends
to have any settled rule of action, but buys as many leau cattle or hogs as
he guesses he can fatten. Mr. Renick thinks the most common answer to
the question M"ould be something like this :
"That hogs fed in the ordinary way will gain from one pound to one and
a half pounds per day, and tliey will consume some twenty bushels or more of
corn in three and a half or four months ; that it all depends upon the quality
of the hogs, quality of the corn, weather, and other contingencies."
The gain varies from five to twelve pounds gross per bushel. So he says:
" AVe will compromise the matter by guessing that, all things favorable, one
bushel of corn, fed in the ordinary way, will make seven pounds gross weight."
It is, after all, then, nothing but guessing. And we guess that feeding corn,
where it is worth a dollar a bushel, as it frequently is in and about New
York, won't pay while dressed hogs are sold from the hooks, as they gener-
ally are, at seven or. eight cents a pound, and the average price of live hogs
is less than six cents a pound. With our arithmetic we can not figure up any
profit for a farmer hereabouts to keep a single hog more than he wants to
eat up the milk and house-slops, and a little waste grain ; and probably that
could be more profitably fed to poultry.
The greatest advantage from feeding grain to make pork in all the New
England States must be looked for more in the manure than in the meat.
Where manure must be purchased, it may be profitable to purchase corn-
24 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Ciiap. I.
meal to convert into manure through the pig-pen manufactory. The next
jiaragrapli is to the point in this connection, of feeding pigs to make manure.
4. Working Pigs. — "We once recommended farmers to make their pigs
working animals. To this a writer in an agricultural paper objected ; l)c-
cause, as he alleges, the same amount of food consumed by an idle Img will-
nuike 12 pounds of jiork as easily as it will make S pounds if the animal is
allowed to exercise his natural propensity to root. In this we entirely agree,
and iiavc often contended that when a Iiog is shut up to fatten, if lie was
coiiiined in a slip so narrow that he could not turn round, having one side
of his narrow prison nuide so as to be moved out as he increased in bulk, lie
v.otild fatten faster than in any other position. Kow, will the writer, who
thinks that we differ from him in opinion, read over again the article that ho
criticises, and see that it is the pig-pen, and not the fatting-hog pen, that
we were talking about. Our facts are not intended to be elaborated into
proofs and arguments for farmers, but rather as texts for thinking men to
think over and reason upon with themselves and neighbors. Our opinion is,
tiiat all the swine family should be kept imprisoned, if not in close pens,
certainly in strongly fenced lots ; and in all the Eastern States, where manure
is so valuable, it is very doubtful wliether a farmer can ali'ord to let any of
the family out of the pen — which, as we before hinted, should be a great
manure manufactory — except, perhaps, for a sliort season to eat clover, peas,
or glean a stnbble-lield. If there is a greater neighborhood nuisance tlian
hogs in the highway, we have j'ct to liud it out; and as we would always
keep "Mr. Pig" in tlie pen, we recommended to make him woi-k in the
manuiactory, furnishing a part of the mateiials to be worked, and tlie farmer
the remainder. In his immediate preparation for death we don't care how
idly he spends the last of his days. As long as farmere will pei-sist in
making tlie flesh of swine their leading article of food, we shall contend
that the flesh of an animal that has worked liis way up to a mature age, and
is then fattened ready for slaughter, Avill make more healthy food than tlie
oily fatness of one always kept in a state of obcsitj- and idleness from his
birth to death. It is this great physiological fact that causes the flesh of the
wild hog to be sought after and eaten with gusto. "We fully agree with the
orthodoxy of E. M. Brewster, a model farmer of Griswold, Conn., who says
if he was to fatten a half-dozen liogs upon a flat rock, he would be sure to
have two rings in each nose. The latitude that we desire our readei-s to
give to our suggestions is just this : to make a distinction between working
and fattening animals, and make tlie pig a useful one.
" Keeping pigs eighteen months to fatten tlieni the last tliroc is not a
paying business. Feed a decent pig loell from weaning until eight months
old, and you M'ill get 250 lbs. to 300 lbs. of pork, and you do not usually get
50 lbs. more for those ten months older. There can be no question but an
animal can consume much more to produce in eighteen months about the
same quantity of meat which is made by another in half that length of
feeding. If the object of raising a hog is to malce pork, that end should be
N. C. State College
Seo. 2.] COOKING FOOD FOR SWINE. 25
kept steadily in view — his swiueship should see it, and cat for it." This is
our view exactly. Winter none but autumn pigs, keep tliein in pens, and
always growing. "To kesp a pig growing, one must keep liiin ealing, and
eating about all the lime. To do this, there is nothing, like ' change and
variety' — now a little corn, then a little milk, a few boiled potatoes, a few
raw a'pples — now a pudding, then a dish of greens — anything to keep them
eating and stuffing when awake, even if it does rer^uire a little extra atteu-
tion."
5. Cooking Food for Swinei — Circumstances must govern the feeder. If
corn is worth but twenty-live cents per bushel, it is plain that it will not pay
to expend much money either for cooking or crushing it ; bnt where food is
iiigh, a small c[uantity saved pays for considerable labor, etc. It will hardly
pay to expend dear labor upon cooking cheap roots to make low-priced poik.
It has been proved that crushed barley, soaked in cold water 4G hours, gave
more increase of weight to sheep than when not soaked ; but crushed malt
did not. The figures are: Four sheep in 10 weeks ate 2S01bs. of crushed
barley not steeped^ and 3,867 lbs. of mangel-wurzel, and increased in live
weight SI lbs.; while four sheep, with barley crushed and steeped, ate 280
lbs. and 5,321 lbs. mangel-wurzel, increasing lOlJ- lbs. Four sheep, with
crushed malt, not steeped, ate in 10 M-eeks 22X5 lbs., ^"^ 3,755 lbs. mangel-
wurzel, and increased 8i lbs. ; wdiile lour sheep, with malt crushed and
steeped, ate 226ilbs. malt and 4,458 lbs. mangel-wurzel, and gained only
78 lbs. In the above experiment, the question is, Did the additional 20ilbs.
pay the extra trouble and extra feed of roots?
An experiment in Ii-eland, lately made, proves that hogs gained more
upon raw than cooked vegetables. Eight hogs were selected and divided
into two lots, as evenly as could be, and put in to fatten, on the 27t!i of
November. Each lot was fed regularly three times a day, having each 12
lbs. of bran and barley meal, the only diiference being that one lot had
steamed )-utabagas, and ihe other pulped or rasped ruta bagas. The experi-
ment was continued 39 days ; the lot having cooked food ate 408 lbs. bran,
etc., and 10,920 lbs. ruta bagas, and increased 103 lbs. ; while the lot having
u7icooJced food ate 468 lbs. bran, etc., and only 5,460 lbs. ruta bagas, and
gained 110 lbs.
Sanniel II Clay, of Bourbon, Ky., has been experimenting in feeding several
lots of hogs, changing them from raw to cooked, and from ground to
unground foo J, with the following results : One bushel of dry corn made
5 lbs. 10 oz. of live pork ; one bushel of boiled corn made 14 lbs. 7oz. of
pork; one bushel of ground corn, boiled, made in one instance 16 lbs. 7oz.,
in another nearly 18 lbs. of pork. To get the value of corn, estimate the
])ork at 8 cents a pound ; we have as the result of one bushel of dry corn,
45 cents' worth of pork ; of one bushel of boiled corn, 115 cents' worth of
pork ; and of one bushel of ground corn, 136 cents' worth of pork.
6. Pig Feed— Roiled Weeds. — A widow, who was short of feed for her pig,
said, in presence of her little boys, that she thought she would have to sell
2G DOMESTIC AXIMALS. [Chap. I.
it, for she had so little to feed it with, and could not afford to buy feed
One of tlie little fellows promptly answered tliat he knew what would be
good to feed piggy with, and of which they had plenty.
" What is it, my son ?"
" Greens, mother — boiled greens. Tiiey are good for us, why not for
pigs? And we can gather tlieui, and pick up wood and boil them in llie
big kettle out doors, and it will be real fun."
So it was settled that pig should cat greens — all sorts of weeds boiled ;
and cat them he did, and liked them, and fatted on them, with the small
addition that could be made of bran and house-slops, mixing the slops and
greens together.
This is a hint worth remembering and acting upon. Tlie weeds were
destroyed, the boys employed, the pig kept growing, and the boys had the
satisfaction of feeling tliat they had been usefully employed.
7. Hog PastMffSi — It being generally understood that hogs live by " special
providences" until it is time to fat them, there is little attention }Kiid to
tl'.e most economical way of growing them up. Certain it is that a good,
casv-keeping variety will make commendable ]irogro3S on grasx.
It may be safe to calculate that a good-sized, thrifty pig will gain in six
months, on grass, 100 lbs. or more. If an acre of grass would keep three
hogs and add 100 lbs. to the weight of each, that would be $12 for the acre
of pasture, reckoning the 300 lbs. gain at four cents a pound, live weight.
Instead of being forced to bite twice at a short, dirty, dried, and battered
spear of June grass by the roadside before getiing any off, imagine a clean
and comely Suffolk in a fresh, green pasture of clover, four inches high, filling
himself with evident relish.
8. The Pig-Pen aud its VaiUf< — As a manure-maker, there is no animal
ecpial to the hog, provided he is furnished with sui able facilities. The
caiing and sleeping apartments of Mr. Pig shoulil always be a good frame
building, with a ])lank floor and shingle roof, and it will in many places be
found economical to give him an iron eating trough. His house should
be cleaned out every day, and washed as often as necessary to keep it clean.
All the washings and cleanings should go into an adjoining ])en, which may
as well be made of fence rails, on account of cheapness and convenience of
removal, into which the tenants of the hog-house nnist be invited by a little
corn, scattered in every da}', to induce them to mix up a compost of tlieir
own oil'al with sods, mold, leaves, weeds, and all sorts of trasli. This pen
should be equal to ten feet square for every two hogs, and so long as it is
worked every daj^ it will not much injure by exposure to the weather; but
it should afterward be covered, and it should always have stuff enough i)ut
in it to keep the hogs from getting into a very muddy condition. If you
have not mold enough to entirely absorb the ammonia, you must use plaster
or charcoal dust. It must be kept sweet, or you will lose much of its value ;
and whore manure is valnalile. if yon neglect to use your swine for the
purpose of increasing it, you will lose about all the profit of making your
Sko. 2.] SWIKE— FEEDING TIIE^ UONEY. 27
own pork. There is another Avay in which you can make the pig-pen
valuable. If you have a spot of ground that you want to euricli and work
deeply and thoroughly for fruit-trees or for garden vegetables, plant it with
Jerusalem artichokes, and tlieu ya:-d your hogs upon ir, taking care to give
them room enougli, so as not to necessitate tliem to make a quagmire.
Ao-ain, you may use these animals to advantage if you have a piece of grass
laud infested with grubs. Fence off a piece, and shut your swine in upon
it for a few days without feed, and if they leave a sod unturned or grub
uneaten it will be a wonder. It is the best preparation of such a spot for a
hoed crop, or for sowing again in grass, that can be given. There is no good
reason why the pig should be always kept in idleness or miscliief. Let him
be trained to be useful in his life as well as at his death.
9. Ilay Seed for HogSi — \con-esY>ondijntoi the Coimf/'t/ Genile?nan vfvltas:
In addition to the grain and meal given to growing hogs in the sty, they
should have a daily allowance of green clover, or in winter, when this is not
available, a liberal allowance of hay-seed from the barn, mixed with their
slop, which they will eat with avidity. He knows of no mode by which so
great an amount of growth and weight can be induced, with equal cost of
food, in the winter season, as by this liaying system.
10. Cinders for Pigs.— J. J. Meelii, of Tiptreo Hall, England, says, in
publishing his experience in fattening swine, that among other things, he
has learned the fact " that pigs are very fond of coal-aslies or cinders, and
that you can hardly fat pigs properly on boarded floors witliout giving tliem
a moderate supply daily, or occasionally." lie says : " In the absence of
coal-ashes, burned clay or brick-dust is a good substitute. If you do not
supply ashes, they will gnaw or eat the brick walls of their sheds. I leave
to science to explain the cause of this want. It is notorious that coal-
dealers, whose pigs have access to the coals, are generally successful pig
feeders. Those who find that their pigs, when shut up, do not progress
favorably, will do well to try this plan. A neighbor of mine found that a
score of fat pigs consume quite a basket of burned clay ashes daily. We
know that there is an abundance of alkali in ashes."
11. Parched f orn and Honey for Hogs. — A correspondent of the IlujJiland
Democrat, published at Peekskili, N. Y., furnishes that paper with the fol-
lowing communication :
A few years ago I chanced in Albany to meet a farmer who is noted for
raising unusually heavy hogs. The year before he had brought to market
one tliat weighed over 700 lbs., and said that year that he should have one
of 900 lbs., or near that mark. As tliere always ceems to be a cause for every
effect, I was anxious to know the course lie pursued.
''Well," said he, ''you must first select the riglit kind of a critter. Get
the right breed, and then pick out the good-natured ones from the litter ; I
can't afford to feed a cross critter ; I sell them when they are pigs." " How
can yoii judge ?" said I. "Well, if you watch them when they are feeding,
you will find tliat some pigs are allers fighting about their victuals, and
28 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
souse go in for eating. Tliere is as mucli difference in pigs as there is in
folks."
" "Well, when you have selected the right kind of a pig, what next is
important ?"
" Well, then you must have a nice place for the critters to live iu, and
feed thcin on the right kind of victuals."
" What kind of food ?"
" Well, the best and cheapest kind of food I have found, when it comes
time to put on the fat, is j>arc/u'd corn. I generally manage to buy a barrel
ov two of Southern honey, if it is cheap, which I mix with the parched corn,
f..r my fatting h.)gs."
12. Feeding Standing foru to Hots— iu the Field— or Gathered, Ground,
a;!d Cooked— Comparative Advantages of these Methods. — The method often
[iriicticed by large farmers of turning fattening hogs into the fields of
s'aiiding corn, if properly conducted, has its advantages over that of
gathering the corn and feeding it dry to the hogs in the jien.
The earlier in the season the process of fattening swine is begun the
better, after the grain has reached a certain period of maturity, whether it
be rye, oats, or corn, because all farm animals, and hogs in particular, will
fa'.ten much faster in warm than in cold weather. And the grain between
the periods of its doughy state and full maturity, or rather, before it becomes
dry, is more easily digested, and assimilated, and converted into flesh and
fat than when it has passed into its dry state. It is clear, then, that the
sooner the hogs are turned into the field after the grains of corn are fully
formed, and while yet in the milk, the more speedily they will fatten ; for
if the weather be dry, the coi-n hardens very rapidlv.
A very interesting experiment in feeding hogs is detailed by Mr. James
Buckingham in the Prairie Farmer. On the Ctli day of September (in
ordinary seasons corn, at this date, is too far advanced to commence feeding
to the best advantage), the hogs, 1S9 in number, were weighed, and footed
up in the aggregate 19,600 lbs. A movable fence "was used, confining the
hogs to an area sufficient to aflbrd feed for two or three days. The entire
field, thus fed, contained 40 acres, with an estimated average of 40 bushels
])er acre. The consumption of this corn gave- a gain of 10,740 lbs. The
hogs, when turned into the corn, cost three cents per pound, equal to §588 ;
worth, when fed, four cents per ])ound, or §1,213 CO — giving a return for
each acre of corn consumed of $15 G4. Adding to this $1 per acre for the
improvement of the land by feeding the corn on the field, making the
actual gain per acre $16 6i, equal to 40 cents per bushel, standing in the
field. The whole cost of corn per acre, exclusive of interest on the land, is
set down at $3 65.
By way of comparing the advantages of ground and cooked food over
that which was merely ground, and that which was nnground, Mr. B. put
up three hogs into separate pens. To one he fed two and a half bushels of
corn in the ear, during a period of nine days, feeding all he would eat ; this
Sec. 2.] SWINE— EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 29
gave a gain of 19 lbs. ; anotlier ate in the same time one and three qxiarter
bushels of corn, ground, and gained also 19 lbs. ; and to the third he fed
one bushel of cnm, ground and hailed, which gave a gain of 22 lbs. Bj' tliis
it will be s;'eii tliat one and three quarter bii^iliels of corn, when ground, will
give a gain oi Ik'sh equal to two and a half busliels of iinground corn, and
that one biishtd, wlien ground and cool-ed, gave a gain greater tlian either.
Tlio comparative results of these tliree methods of feeding may thus bo
set down : one busliel of corn, ground and cooked, is equal to nearly tliree
bushels when fed dry and unground ; and one and three quarter bushels
when ground and uncooked is equal to two and a half bushels wlien fed
whole.
Or it may be seated thus : one bushel of dry corn in the ear makes Si
lbs. of pork, which at four cents per pound is equal to 33 cents per busliel
for the corn ; while one bushel of corn, ground and boiled, makes 22 lbs.
of pork at four cents per pound, and is equal to 88 cents per bushel for tlie
corn. This I'esult about sustains our calculations made upon the experiments
by Mr. Samuel II. Clay, of Kentucky, as appears in ^ 5.
It is worth}' of remark for those who wish to feed corn in the field, that
had the hogs been turned into the field when the corn was in the milk,
it would liave given a result more nearly like that of the hog fed ni)oa
ground and cooked food.
The obstacles which seem to be in t!ie way of adopting an improved
method of fattening hogs result from the imperfect apparatus used for
])rcparing the food. Sending corn a long distance to mill to be ground, and
then to coo.k .he meal in an ordinary kettle, even if it holds a barrel, will
])rove an expensive operation, as all have found who have undertaken it.
But to realize the full advantages of feeding prepared food, a complete
grinding and steaming apparatus must bo erected on a large scale, with the
view to perform the grinding, cooking, and feeding with the greatest facility
and at the least possible cost. This may be done to advantage by employing
steam for grinding, using the same boiler to furnish steam for cooking the
meal.
13. Ori?ia of t!ic Chester foanty Hogs,— It is stated that Captain James
Jefleris, a eea-ca])fain, somewhere about 1820,, or a little later, in one of his
voyages from England, brought over a pair of ]iigs of the Bedfordshire
breed, which he sent to his fai'm on the Brandywine, whence the breed has
been disseminated, and lost its original name. Some of the characteristics
of the Chester County liog are, large size, remarkably symmetrical form,
easy keeping, comparatively little offal, great depth and length of carcass,
and producing large quantities of lard. Spring pigs are often put in market
at nine or ten mon'hs old, and weighing at that age from 200 to 250 lbs.
This weight is of course produced liy good feeding and proper attention.
14-. To frevcut Sows KiHing their PIgSi— A correspondent of the Muiuf.
Farmer speaks of several cases of sow.-: destroying their ju'gs — which, indeed,
is not unusual — and conimcnds as an c.isy and su''e ])revention, " to give
30 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
tlie sow .nboiit half a pint of good ruiu or gin, which soon produces intoxica-
liiin, and the drunken mother becomes entirely harndess toward her young,
and will ever accommodate her poiitiou to the be^^t advantage of the pig-^,
ntaining this disposition ever afterward." The editor eonlirms tliis statement
fiom cases witiiin his own knowledge.
15. Pift-Brcfdiu,!^". — Notwithstanding the fact that more people are iiHerested
in the breeding tif pigs than of any otlier class of domestic animals, the atten-
tion paid to improvement of the stock is very small. How few farmers know
that the sow should always be larger than tlie male, and that he should
always be of the most perfettt form; of good color, and perfectly sound and
liealtliy, because almost invariably the pigs take the qualities of the sire in-
stead of the mother ; that is, his good or bad points will preponderate largely
over those of the sow. Farmers, please think of this fact, and profit by it.
16. Large UogSi — Isaac Harrison, of Burlington County, N. J., fatted, ki
1858, 32 hogs that averaged 5G9 lbs. each; and William Taylor, of Ocean
County, fatted 30 that averaged 537 lbs. each. Tliomas Hood, of Ocean
County, fatted 41 that averaged 533 lbs. each. So says C. W. Hartsliorn,
iif Burlington County, who sends us a list of weights, among which are very
few under 500 lbs. ; the lightest that we notice weighs 428 lbs.
17. Gross and Net Weight of Swiue. — The rule of ascertaining the net
weight of fat hogs is to deduct one fifth of the gross weight. It is an easy
way to make the calculation, or reduction of gross to net weight, by using
tiie decimal 8-10 as a multiplier, cutting off one right-hand figure of the
l)roduct, to show the net sum. Thus: 10 hogs Aveigh 2,729 lbs. ; multiply
by. 8, which will make net 2,183.2 lbs.
K you have the gross weight of a drove of hogs at home, which you may
liave taken to market and sold at net weight, and wish to ascertain how the
net and gross compare, take your sum of the net weight, say 2,183.2. Divide
by 8-10, and j'ou will find the quotient 2,729.
This will be found a very convenient and useful rule. Sometimes a person
may be offered one sum as a gross price, and another as a net price of the
same lot, and would like to know at once which otler is the best. This is
(juickly done. You have simply to apply the same rule of division by eight
tentlis to the price, instead of weight. For instance suppose the offer is —
as it sometimes is in New York — $5 25 per cwt. gross, or $G 50 net. Divide
§5 25 by 8-10, the quotient will be $6 56.2, showing that it will be six cents
and two mills per cwt. gross to the owner's advantage to sell at $5 25 gross.
18. Salting Meat Marm. — C. Eovie, of Gnllprairie, Michigan, asks : " "Will
pork cin-e, if packed before tlie animal heat is all out of it ?" He then
answers : " Last year I killed my hogs and packed them while warm. I
have some of the pork now, and I never ate any sweeter pork than this is.
Tlie most of farmers think pork salted, while warm, will not keej)."
We have tried the experiment repeatedly of salting pork as soon as we
could cut it up after dressing, and certainly prefer it, as it will, when dry-
salted, cure much quicker.
PLATE III.
(Page 31.)
This plate is intended to answer the question : ' ' What is a good
cow ?" It shows a model cow, without regard to breed, as described
in ^ 45, and a portrait of the " Oaks Cow," which was one of the
most remarkable of the early age of stock improvement as a great
butter producer. She gave 467 pounds from May 15 to December
20, 181G. Another portrait gives the side view of what is taken
as a model of a good dairy cow. The Dutch dairy cow is also con-
sidered a model, not only of that breed, but of a form that shows
a good cow for milk. The Hereford cow and bull, and Devon cow
and bull, also give good studies, and make up a picture no where
else to be found in such compact form and such beauty of execu-
tion.
in
A Good Diity Cawr A Good Milrii r<rw
1»1KKKHK>T llUKKDS •.r l'ATTI.K.rT»«1'XlTKl> STATKS .
Seo. 3.}
COWS.
31
19. Species of Auimals. — ^Tlie Bevue Horticole, of Paris, gives a very inter-
esting iiccount of a discussion in the Academie upon the species of animals.
The primitive source of animals is lost ; tlie fossil bones of the horse are
identical with those of the present day. There is no account of anything
new in animal life since the Mosaic account of creation.
20. Animal Strncture. — " Tiie bony frame-work of the animal owes its so-
lidity to phoiiphate of lime, and this substance must be furnished by the
food. A perfect food must supply the animal with these three classes of
bodies, and in proper proportions. What proportions are the proper ones
we have at present no means of knowing with accuracy. Tlie ordinary
kinds of food for cattle contain a large quantity of vegetable fiber or woody
matter, which is more or less indigestible, but which is indispensable to the
welfare of herbaceous animals, as their digestive organs are adapted to a
bulky and rough food. The addition of a small quantity of feed rich in oil
and albuminous substances to the ordinary kinds of food, has been found
highly advantageous in practice. Neither hay alone, nor concentrated food
alone, gives the best result. A certain combination of the two presents the
most advantages."
The above is the view of an eminent professor of agi-icultural chemistry'
(S. "W. Johnson), and it contains a great fact that should be adopted into the
every-day practice of every farmer, and not only for his stock, but his own
iionsehold. Every animal of a higher organization than a worm needs a
diversity of food to make up a healthy animal structure.
SECTION III.-COWS.
\ HAT is a Good Cow ? — This is a question that many
owners of cows can not answer, because there is no
standard. Every one has his own, and one person
may recommend a cow on sale as positively good,
that is not half as valuable as one that comes only
up to the standard of another person's idea of good-
ness. Besides, one cow may be good for producing
milk for sale by the quart ; another good for making
butter, where that alone is the object ; a third one
may be good for a cheese dairy and very poor for
butter; and a fourth not good for either purpose,
and should at once be turned out for beef. Farmers
do not experiment enough with their cows to ascer-
Jp tain these facts. We have known one cow discarded
from a butter dairy because she gave less milk than another, when one was
to be sold, without any other proof that the rejected one was not equally
32 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Chap. J.
good. For butter-making, vre think a cow which gives 14 quarts of milk a
day, when fresh, and 14 lbs. of butter a week, a good cow, and that tliat
might be adopted into use as tiie meaning of a good butter-dairy cow. A
good many cows, it is true, go above tlmt, but they should be ranked as
extra good. A cow that gives 12 or 14 quarts of milk a day, and 10 lbs. of
butter a week, might be called a fair medium cow ; and one tliat gives 8 to
12 quarts a day and 6 or 7 lbs. of butter a week, should be called com-
mon, and all below that inferior, as in fact they are ; and so is a cow
that gives 15 or 16 quarts of milk a day that yields only a pound of butter,
and there are many of this description. Tlie lowest rate we ever lieard was
3 (piarts of milk for 1 lb. of butter ; but that is very rare, the average being
over 12 quarts.
It would be an excellent ]ilan for some leading agricultural society to
establish a standard for a good cow. We think a cow that comes up to the
standard of that owned by Otis Hunt, of Eaton Village, N. Y., will pass for
a good one. He gives the following statement of the amount of butter
made from her: "Amount made from April 8 to July 8, 191 lbs. ; amount
made during the month of June, 74 lbs. ; amount made during the year,
516 lbs., besides furnishing all the milk and cream used in a family of four
persons (and occasional visitors) all the time."
The breed of this good cow is given as " native," and the quality of milk
and butter excellent.
22. Garget in fOMS. — A letter from Fort Independence, Castle IslaVid,
Boston Harbor, Mass., says:
"Within the last two years I have pureha-^ed at dliFerent times three
cows, say about one every six months. After they are on the island a few
months they becou'ie ' gargety ;' therefore I should think the complaint is
brought on from eating some weed peculiar to this island, which is limited
in extent, say about thirty acres."
No, sir ; it is because they have not eaten some weed — a weed called poke
or scoke, producing the " scoke-berries" that robins and school-children are
both fond of gathering in the fall. This scoke is the natural cure for garget.
It is said that the diseastc never atiocts cows th;it run in ])astures where it
grows. We have known the dried roots sell for $2 a lb in Vermont to feed
cows, and to make little plugs to insert in the teats to cure the garget. It is
there known by the name of gaPL'ct root. {jiJnjtolacci dtcan<lra).
23. How to Increase the Value of a Cow.— Every one who owns a cow
can see at a glance that it would be profitable to increase the value of her,
but every one can not see how to do it. We can, and we think that wc can
make it equally palpable to our readers. If a cow is kejU for butter, it cer-
tainly would add to her value if the butter-making projwrtios of her milk
should be improved. In summer or winter this can be done, just as the yield
of a cultivated crop can be impr ned by wh;>.t is fed to each, and it is simply
a question of, will it pay, in manni ing one or feeding the other. Indian corn
will add to the quantity and quality of the butter to a very sensible degree.
Sec. 3.] COWS, AKD THEIR FOOD. 33
and it is simply a question of easy solution, by experiment, whether it will
add to the profit of the Luttcr-maker to buy corn at one or two cents a pound,
and convert a portion of it into butter at 25 cents a pound, or whatever llie
market price of corn and butter may be, and another portion of it into fat,
and another portion of it into manure, for that is the natural result of the
chemical change produced in the laboratory of the cow's stomach. The same
result will follow any otiicr kind of feeding. Good jjasture will produce an
abundance of milk, often as much as the cow can carry ; but does it follow
that even then it will not be profitable to feed her Avitli some more oleagi-
nous food to increase the quantity of butter, just as it sometimes ^^roves
profitable to feed bees, to enable them to store more honey ? It certainly
does appear to us that the value of a cow feeding xipon ordinary winter
food may be almost doubled by making that food suitable for the purpose
of increasing the quantity of milk, if that is the object, or the quantity of
butter, if that is the purpose for which the cow is kept. Farmers generally
understand that they can convert corn into beef, pork, and lard, and some
of them know exactly at what price per bushel it will pay to convert it into
these substances ; but does any one know at what rate it will pay to convert
corn or any other grain into butter, or any other kind of feed into any of the
dairy products ? Is the whole business a hap-hazard one ? We fear so.
Some persons know that they can increase the salable value of butter by
adding the coloring matter of carrots to it. Does any person know the
value of a bushel of carrots fed to a cow to increase her value as a butter- /
producing laboratory? Experimental proof upon this point would be far'
more worthy of agricultural prizes than it is to see who can show the largest-
sized roots ; for by a few carefully-conducted experiments we should be able
to increase the value of a cow almost at pleasure.
21. Pasture — How many t'ows to aa Acre. — In Cheshire, England, which
is a great grazing county, the land that has been under-drained and top-
dressed with ground bones, will carry one cow to each acre througli the
summer, but the land not thus treated will only carry one cow to two acres.
The dressing of bones upon pasture land is 12 to 15 cwt. per acre once in
seven years. But even if not repeated at that time, it still continues better
than it was before the bones were applied.
Now, how many acres of pasture, on the average, does it require in this
country to the cow? "Would it not be economy to improve our pasture
lands up to the Cheshire standard ?
25. Food Consumed by a Cow. — It is generally estimated that a cow needs
each day three per cent, of her M'cight in hay. Tliat is, if she weighs 8 cwt.,
which a fair-sized cow will do, in working order, she will require 24 lbs., or
its equivalent, of hay. For five months' feeding — 150 days — you will require
3, GOO lbs. In the New England States the feeding period averages nearer
six than five months, and therefore two tuns of liay should be allowed for
each cow.
26. Feed, Exercise, and Shelter have a powerful influence upon the health
34 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
and comfort of all doincstic animals, and upon none is it more marked tlian
upon the most valualjle of all, the cow. Every judicious farmer, who has
an eye only to his purse, will see that his cows are bountifully supplied with
proper food to produce the largest flow of milk, and rich in cream, and that
his meadows and jiastui-es are free from noxious weeds, that will impart a
disagreeable taste to the milk and butter. A mixture of timothy and white
clover is the most desirable pasture for the dairy ; and the best and sweetest
butter is generally produced in May and June ; for then kind Kature sends
up a spontaneous supply of rich, juicy food, and the air is cool and pure,
and all things combine to render the dairyman's task easy and delightful.
But when the sun has scorclied the vegetation and imi)aired its nutritive
properties, and the temperature of the atmosphere is like an oven, then there
is need of skill to counteract the opposing influences of nature; and the task,
though diflicult, can be accomplished, and a cool atmosphere created in the
milk-room, and proper food supplied, as the reward of well-directed labor.
Every farmer should jiractice, at least on a small scale, growing extra feed
for his cows, when pasture fails. One of the easiest things grown for fall
feed is cabbage. It gives an immense amount of food per acre.
27. Feedillg Cows for Butter-iflakiag. — A writer in the Farmer and Gar-
dener (Phila.) says: "The use of corn and cob-meal in my practice has
produced more fat tlian butter. The best feed I have tried is two bushels of
ship-stuiF to one bushel of ground corn. In the use of corn fodder, I have
foimd great advantage in not only cutting, but steaming it. Many cows
will not eat it witiiout its being steamed. ' Turnips are good enough, if the
taste they impart to the butter is not objectionable. Pumpkins add largely
to the quantity of milk, but the cream, in churning, is always frothy, and
requires a longer time to be converted into butter.
" My plan of feeding is as follows : I always let my cows go dry about
the first of the new year, giving them, by this plan, a rest of some two
months. During this period of rest I feed them on hay, corn fodder, and
straw. As soon as they begin to spring, I add four quarts of meal to eacli
cow, which, after being mixed with the long straw and fodder, is steamed,
and fed a litde ivarn^. Until tlie calves are separated from the cows, this
amount of food is given once a day, after which time I feed them three times
a day."
28. Health of Cows. — A sickly cow not only yields a diminished profit,
but she yields sickly milk, and sickly in a higher degree than her flesh.
If a cow eats anything that has a strong or disagreeable odor, it appears
in her milk.
If she eats anythijig medicinal, it comes out in her milk.
If she is feverish, her milk shows it.
If she lias sores about her, pus may be found in her milk.
If she is fed upon decayed or diseased food, her milk, since it is derived
from her food, will be unhealthy. It is as impossible to make good milk
from bad food, as to make a good building from rotten timber.
Seo. 3.] COWS— DIRECTIONS FOR SPAYING. 35
If there is anything wrong about her, it will appear in the milk, as that is
an effective source of casting it froni her organism.
These facts should at all times be well impressed upon the minds of dairy-
men, but more especially in the cold season of the year. Closely confined in
tlieir narrow stalls tlirough the long winter, where tlie air is not always
fresh and pure, nor water and exercise always had when desired, nor their
food always free from foul medicinal weeds, as thistles, daisies, white top,
etc., cows are very likely to vary from a perfectly healthy condition ; spring
cheese will be faulty enough, do the best we can — that every dairyman
knows. The health of the cows should not, at any rate, be allowed to
become a cause of deterioration. Green food should now, if it has not been
before, alternated as often as possible with the dry ; for this purpose, beets,
carrots, turnips, potatoes, cabbages, parsneps, and apples are valuable.
Ventilation and Avatering should be promptly attended to, and salt and
meal, made by pulverizing burned bones, should be kept where daily access
can be had to them, if desired, nor should their strength and flesh be allowed
to fail for the want of a sufKciently nutritious diet. The best flavored butter
and cheese can not be made from cows that are badly fed, or ailing, or poor.
As bad health in parents transmits a tendency to disease in the offspring,
it is important that every kind of animal we desire to continue on our farms
should be kept vigorous and healthy.
As an unhealthy animal can not consume food to as good advantage as a
well one, it is again economical to avoid disease.
29. The Amount of Hay required for Cows— The Cost of Milk.— Otis Brig-
ham, of "Westborough, Mass., after seventy years' experience in farming,
says, in the New England Farmer, that good cows will eat, on an average,
20 lbs. of hay per day when giving milk, and 15 lbs. when dry — not by
guess-work, but tested by actual weighing, for months at a time. Then it
is easy to calculate the cost of milk. In the neigliborhood of New York,
the average value of hay is one cent a pound, and the quantity of milk hot
over six quarts. At three and a half cents a quart, it will pay the hay bill,
and one cent a day over. If other feed is given, the increase of milk must
pay for that. The manure will be worth at least the cost of attendance and
milking. If the milk is worth more than three and a half cents, it gives a
profit; and if less, a loss.
30. For Ktckitig Cows. — ^Take a short strap, and fasten the ends together.
Next prepare a pin of some soft wood, about six or eight inclies long, one
and a half inches in diameter. Take the cow by the off fore-leg, and double
it at the knee-joint close ; pass the strap or loop over the knee, pressing it
back until you can insert the pin between that and the knee-joint, and she
can not kick.
31. Directions for Spaying Cows. — Dr. Dadd, veterinary surgeon, in the
American Stock Joiti'nal, says that the milk of spayed cows gives more cream
than ordinary milk, and that tlie butter made from it is more delicious in
taste. The milk is also invaluable for nursing infants. He thinks there is
36
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
[Chap. I.
no danger in performing tlio operation, if slcillfully clone, and the animal
init tukIlt the inflnencc of sulphuric ether.
Dr. Riggs, a veterinary surgeon, does not approve of giving chloroform to
cows. He says: "It is no easy task to give ether or chloroform to animals
generally, and it is usually quite as distressing to them as so slightly painful
an operation as spaying. Tlie operation of casting is a very awkward one,
and needless, and interferes with tlie case, if not the certainty, of the opera-
tion. The ovaries are attached near the back-bone ; hence, -when a cow
stands up, the pauncli and intestines fall away from them, and leave clear
working space ; but when she is thrown upon her side, the case is different,
and wlien the cow is in good flesh, there is none too jnucli space anj' way."
Dr. liiggs allows the cow to stand up, her head tied short, and an assistant
hold.s her by the nose with clasps; a rope is tied loosely about her hind legs,
to keep her from kicking ; an assistant pushes her uj) against a partition or
wall, and another aids in the first part of the operation. Thus, the cow is
not at all alarmed or uncomfortable.
The skin is folded so that the hair can be shaved off where the cut is to
be, and thus a straight line, three quarters of an inch wide and five inches
long, is laid bare. The skin is then drawn up in a fold, at right angles, to
this line and in the middle of it. The operator grasps this fold on one side
of the shaved line, in his left hand, and his assistant grasps it on the otlier
side ; then, with a single, well-directed stroke, with a sharp knife, he severs
the two thicknesses of hide exactly in the shaved line, letting go at the
same time ; a straight, clean cut through the skin is seen, and the cow suffers
almost no pain at all — not so much as that produced by the blow from a
whip. If the cut is made slowly, it is the most painful part of the operation.
There is little feeling in the tissues forming the walls of the cavity of the
abdomen, and when these are cut tlirough, the hand may be easily introduced.
The cow winces a little when the edges of the skin are rubbed, but shows no
signs of pain.
The removal of the ovaries appears very casj', but it is not. If the opera-
tor has a strong, sharp thumb-nail, he can work or cut them loose; but if
not, or if the ovary is strongly attached, the operator is obliged to do as the
books say — "in short, ^m// them away" — and in this is the great danger to
the cow ; internal hemorrhage or inflammation is apt to ensue. Dr. Riggs
avoids all this by the use of the " steel thumb-nail." This is simply a sharp
knife, shaped like and bound upon the thumb-nail of the right hand. Tliere
is no danger of cutting in the wrong place. A clean cut does not produce
bleeding, as was feared at first, and it greatly simplifies and shortens the
operation. Dr. Riggs has never operated upon a cow with this instrument
when she struggled or attempted to get down, but once, and then she was a
little nervous, and came down upon her knees, but soon got up again.
Usually there is no struggling throughout the operation.
32. Calomel for Cows. — A correspondent of the yl7H('/vV«« J^armcr writes :
"I wish you wo\ild say to your readers that calomel, in one ounce doses, Avill
Sec. 3.] COWS— DAIRY STOCK. 37
cure a cow of almost any disease. At least, let me give my experience. I
have two fine, valuable cows ; they have had, it seems to me, some of the
worst diseases tliat prevail — hlack-tongue, murrain, dry murrain, c;c. — and
when I saw they were dying, I mixed one ounce of calomel in dry corn-nieal,
which they would lick up, and it has never failed to cure."
33. Keep fows GentlCi— If you milk out doors, with the cow loose, provide
good stools for each milker. See that they are never used to pound the cow
with ; and never allow man or woman to kick or pound a cow in the stable
or milking yard. If gentle means will not make a cow gentle, harsh means
never will. It may be necessary to reduce a cow to obedience by a little
punishment — to teach her, as you would a horse or ox, that you are master;
but to accomplish this, never use anything but a light lash or smart switch,
and never use that in anger. An angry man is a fool, compared with a
sensible cow.
34. Ayrshire Cows. — In Massachusetts, the improvement of dairy stock by
the introduction of Ayrshire blood has become so apparent, that no argu-
ment could induce those acquainted with their value to return to the hazards
(vf native breeding. We could point to farmers in Essex, Middlesex, and
Vcircester counties, who, under the most prudent management, avail tliem-
sclv^es of every opportunity to introduce Ayrshire blood into their herds, and
our own observation teaches us that the importations of the Massachusetts
Society for Promoting Agriculture, of Capt. Randall, of New Bedford, and
(ithers, have been vastly beneficial to our dairy stock. The bulls of this
broed can be traced wherever they have been, by the good stock they have
left behind them. One of them was kept upon a secluded farm in Essex
County, and rendered it famous for its fine dairy cows. Another gave
superior character to the herd of one of our well-known farmers, and to all
the dairies in his ncighboi-hood. An imported Ayrshire cov/, not far from
us, has produced, through a variety of mixtures and pure breeding, a little
herd of cows and heifers of tiie highest uniformity of excellence.
35. Poor Butter Cows. — Tlie Ft'i!</'/?irt7'/rt« gives a remedy for this difficulty
with cows that arc well kept, and whose milk has been previously rich in
butter. It is to tlicse that the remedy is principally directed. The remedy
consists in giving the animal two ounces of the sulphuret of antimony, with
three ounces of coriander seeds, powdered and well mixed. This is to be
given as a soft bolus, and followed bj' a draught composed of half a pint of
vinegar, a pint of water, and a handful of common salt, for three successive
mornings, on an empty stomach.
This remedy, according to the author, rarely fails, and the milk produced
some days after its exhibition is found to be richer in cream. The first
churning yields a larger quantity of butter, but the second and third are
still more satisfactory in their results.
A letter from a farmer states that he had fourteen cows in full milk, from
which he obtained very little butter, and that of a bad quality. Guided by
the statements of M. Deiieubourg, which had apjieared in the An'nalesVet-
38 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
en'jiauvs, he had separately tested the milk of his cows, and found that tlie
bad quality of it was owing to one cow only, and that the milk of the others
yielded good and abundant butter. It was, therefore, clearly established that
the loss he liad so long sustained was to be attributed to this cow only. lie
at once administered the remedy recommended by M. Deneubourg, which
effected a cure.
36. W'iiiter Feed of Oraage County Dairy Cows. — Mr. C. Edward Brooks,
one of the best dairymen in tlie county, claims that rye makes more milk
than corn or oats, or other meal. Brewei-s' grains were formerly bo\ight so
as to cost 6 cents delivered at the farm, but now, at 12 cents, they are
not so profitable as rye feed at 75 cents per bushel. Oats he esteems
the i:)00rest kind of grain for ujilk. lie thinks that by currying a cow, and
keeping her and her stable scrupulously clean, she will give lier full quantity
of milk on half the feed required if she is neglected. Ilis daily allowance
to each cow is five pounds of meal, either corn, corn and oats, or buckwheat
or wheat bran, changing the kind frequently — for practice approves what
theory teaches, that animals thrive best on a frequent change of diet. The
animals are fed and milked at regular hours — generally at four o'clock in
the afternoon and six in the morning; in winter, somewhat earlier in the
afternoon and later in the morning. Care is taken to observe great punctu-
ality as to time of milking, for the animals give much less trouble and thrive
better. Mr. Brooks chati's his hay, steeps it in warm Avater to soften it, and
sprinkles the meal over it, mixing it thoroughly. Throughout the day as
much long hay is fed as the cows will eat. The feed is mixed in a long box,
shaped like an ordinary bath-tub, which" runs on small iron truck-wheels,
one at either end, and two at the sides, half way between. This is a very
convenient method for carrying the whole mess along the passage between
the stalls, and with a wooden scoop giving to each cow her share as her stall
is passed. The water to steep the hay is heated in a caldron, in a small
outbuilding, and conducted to the cow-stable through a small tin pipe.
Mr. Seeley C. Roe, near Chester, a large dairyman and an intelligent
farmer, thinks that half-clover hay, Avell made, and half grain, is better for
milk production than twice as much timothy with grain. He does not cut
and steep his hay, but dampens it with cold water, and adds meal, as usual.
He finds it an excellent plan to feed buckwheat whole, and prepares it by
boiling the grain with the hulls on, and M-hcn it lias become lliorouglily
soaked, puts it into the feed-box at the rate of two quarts to cacli cow. He
adds to this two quarts of dry meal, and the heat and steam of the cooked
buckwheat cooks the meal. Four quarts of this mixture are allowed to
each cow — two in the morning and two at night — and the animals arc kept
on this feed until turned out to grass.
Mr. Gregory has an eight-horse power engine for cutting hay, threshing,
grinding, etc., and uses the waste steam for steaming his hay. He lias
constructed a large chamber, capable of holding one himdred bushels of
cut hay, which, before being steamed, is dampened. The steam-pipe from
Seo. 3.] COWS— FEEDING ROOia 39
the engine empties into the chamber, and the hay is steamed for about <i
quarter of an hour, and then fud to the stock unmixed with meal — that is,
given in the form of a warm mash.
37. SHgar-Caue for Cows. — If the Chinese sngar-cane does not prove to
be a profitable sugar-making plant, we think it will be a profitable one for
forage. The Homestead says that Deacon Edward Ilayden, of East Hartford,
Conn., has raised the Chinese sugar-cane for two years, and has used it for
feeding milch cows with great success. The first year the stalks were left
in the field, scattered about, we believe, and occasionally in dry weather
brought to the barn to the cows, which ate them up clean, stalks and all. This
was merely a sort of accidental experiment, as no especial value was set upon
the canes. The past year he raised more, shocked in the field, and left it
there. It cured well, and the cows ate it with great avidity, and Mr. Hay-
den esteems it as a great milk-producing diet.
38. FceJliag Hoots. — I have a word to say on winter feed for stock. It is
more by way of query, and for feeders to think of, than by way of instruc-
tion. My experience in feeding domestic animals is not sufficient to warrant
nie in giving instruction. I have served my time in too rough a school for
that. I have fed a good deal of hay, worth from $1 50 to $5 a tun ; and
corn from 10 to 25 cents a bushel, and other grain in proportion, and
straw absolutely valueless. While living in such a district, I have often
been asked the question, "Why I did not raise more roots for my cattle? I
answered : Simply because it would not jiiay. I did buy a lot of ruta bagas
one autumn, delivered at my house at six cents a bushel, and the use of them
taught me that they were dear food. I would now, if living in such a dis-
trict, feed roots to stock just so far as I thought necessary to keep the animals
in good health, and no more ; not if I could buy at the same price, which
was one fourth the price of sound corn ; and I question the economy of feed-
ing any kind of roots at the same rate of value to any greater extent than is
required for health. Tiiat roots, particularly white turnijis, are too largely
fed in cold weather to young cattle, I have no doubt. They are so full of
water that too much of it is taken into the stomach with the food. If roots,
or any other watery food, are too largely fed to milch cows before and after
calving, you will be sure to have a mean calf. If we will think, and take
reason for a guide, as to what man requires for healthy food, we shall not go
far wrong with domestic animals. Man likes roots occasionally, and so ho
does soup, or other sloppy food ; but what wotild he be good for if fed week
after week upon such watery stuff as turnips, or such porridge as some people
compel their cattle to eat ? After all, this question of winter feeding is a
question of values ; and it is not alone the value, counted by first cost, but
the value of results. Now, what is the use of giving my opinion that this or
that kind of food is the best, or most economical, when I can not say of a
single thing, •! know. I don't know, and don't know anybody who does.
It is all guess-work, and at the present price of cattle-food, it is e.xpensive
guessing.
40 DOMESTIC ANIM^VLS. [Chap. I.
39. Wintering Cows. — The method of feeding cows in winter is not so im-
portant as it is to make the change from grass to hay and from hay ta grass
witliout producing any deterioration in their condition. It is liigldy import-
ant, if yonr cows are giving milk ii{)on autumn pasture, that you do not
allow them to fall ofl' in milk or flesh for want of a little extra feed. I have
never found anything quite equal to corn-meal for cow-feed, particularly
when you are making butter. It may not be necessary nor economical to
feed cows meal in autumn, even if pasture does fail, if you have green corn-
stalks, pumpkins, turnips, cabbage, etc., which must be consumed, because
not good to keep through winter. But in spring, when cows are flrst turned
to grass, they are very apt to fall away, and then it will be found to be good
economy to feed meal every night in the yard, and so it will before the cows
are turned out, if not in first-rate condition.
I see the calculation of one writer that corn-meal, thus fed, Avas worth $3
a bushel, fed at the rate of one quart a day to a cow, for twenty or thirty
days. He says :
" I have also found, by other experiments, that there is a great difference
in the manner of getting animals to grass. When turned out early, with
little or no other feed, tliej' fall away greatly; on the coqirary, if fed all the
good hay they will eat, night and morning, with a judicious feeding of meal
of some kind (and I prefer mixed feed — that is, mixing the difl'erent grains
together before tliey are ground— to any one variety), they will soon begin
to gain finely by such a course, and carry their extra weights through the
season. In an experiment now being conducted, I have a cow that has, since
the first of December last, been quietly laying on her two pounds per day
(or nearly so), and her feed has been only moderate, as I am no advocate for
forcing, but simply good fair keeping and care ; then, with good animals, we
are sure of a fair remuneration for care and feeding.
"I would that what I have already written could reach the eye of every
farmer in these United States, and that each one would set liimself about
making at least one experiment in the care of farm-stock."
40. Cows Badly Wintered arc ruprofltable.— A farmer can not afford to
winter any stock poorly, and least of all, milch cows, or those which are to
produce calves in the spring. Look at the following statement, and see if the
Western Reserve farmers can aft'ord thus to winter cows.
A letter from Warren, Trumbull County, Ohio, written in April, ISCO,
says : "The present times are the worst we have ever known in this country.
Cows and cattle are dying by the hundred ; six hundred liead have died
within the three adjoining counties this winter for want of food. Tlie
weather is still dry and cold."
This is only one, among many illustrations, of the folly and wrong com-
mitted by Western farmers in keeping more stock than can be housed and
fed. This is the case all through the Western country. Travel over any
portion of it, and you will see scores of cattle shivering in the cold storms
of winter, without shelter, and so poorly fed that if they live through the
Seo. 3.] CO^VS— HOW TO CHOOSE A GOOD OWR. 41
severe season it is more by cliance thaii for any care whicli they receive. On
the prairies, cattle can be kept so easily in summer that every one is tempted
to overstock himself to such a degree, while the grass is green, that a portion
must die in winter. Now we would say to the fanners, you can not afford
this. Every one of these six hundred cattle which perished in Ohio could
have been sold at a low price by the owners, who were short of feed, to
others who would have carried them through the winter. And how infinitely
better this would have been than to allow such an amount of stock to die
of starvation !
It is not only in Trumbull County that cattle have perished in winter ;
the entire West has suffered equally in this respect with Ohio. On the
Illinois prairies, where there is no limit to the amount of hay that might be
cut, cattle have died in large numbers for the want of a quarter more hay
'than they had eaten during the winter. And yet the farmers of those dis-
tricts persevere in their criminal folly, although the result of each year's
experience ought to be sufficient to open their eyes to a proper realization
of the truth. No farmer can afford to keep more cows or horned cattle than
he can provide hay for at the rate of two tuns per head ; he should never
attempt to keep moi'e cattle than he can house warmly, unless lie has hay to
waste, and is willing to sacrifice at least one fourth of the stock.
It is one of the most painful sights to be met with in traveling through the
West, while passing the little cabins of the new settlers, to see cows and
calves, oxen and young stock, all huddling together, without any shelter from
the cold winter storm. Is it any wonder that one half of these liimished,
neglected things should perish before spring? Farmers, you must learn
wisdom from the calamities of severe winters. Keep fewer cattle, and
keep them better, and you will make more mone3-. We might give hundreds
of extracts from country papers to convince you that feed is scarce every
year, but it would be superfluous. The richest corn country of Indiana
has suffered quite as much as its sister States during many hard winters •
and this is because it is a rich corn country, and rich in nothing else. Large
farms without grass ; cattle without food, dying by thousands ; farmers
losing all their stock, " because it is a late spring," or, rather, because they
undertook to winter an unreasonable number. Will the fiirmers of our
country never take advantage of the experience of the past, and learn that
they can not afford these wasteful and ruinous sacrifices ?
il. To €hoosc a Good MiEch Cow, — Select from a good breed. We ]irefcr
the Devons^bright bay red. The Durhams are roan, red, M-hite, and mix-
tures of these colors. Ayrshire cows arc generally red and M-hite spotted.
Ilerefords, red or darker colored, with white faces. Alderncys, pale red and
mixed with white. These are the principal colors of the several breeds of
whicli the Durhams are the largest and Alderneys the smallest. Different
individuals will contend for eacli breed being the best and only one that
should be selected for their milking qualities. But animals of each breed
and of crosses of them, often prove remarkable milkers, and so do some of the
42 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
native stock of the country. Two families of cows — one owned by Colonel
Jaques, of Ten Hills Fann, near Charlcstown, Mass., and one owned liy
Major John Jones, of Wheatland Farm, near Middletown, Del. — were called
native breed, yet were the most remarkable butter-makers we have overseen.
We have seen Col. Jaques produce good butter in throe minutes, by simply
stirring the cream in a bowl. If we were about selecting a milch cow, we
would endeavor to get one out of such a herd of good milkers ; one with a
soft, velvety-feeling skin, slim neck, fine legs, broad stern, with what is
called a large escutcheon — that is, the hair of the stern pointing inward ; a
large udder, slim teats, and large veins, commonly called milk veins, on the
belly. Above all things, select your cow of a gentle, pleasant countenance,
because a lirst-rate milker may be so vicious as to be worthless. Do not look
for flesh, as the best cows are seldom fat ; their hip-bones are often vcr}-
prominent, and they have the appearance of being low in flesh. A beefy
cow is seldom a good milker.
The next thing is, what is a good milker? That is, how mucli milk must
she yield per day ? A cow that will average 5 quarts of milk a day through
the year, making 1,825 quarts, is an extraordinary good cow. One that will
yield 5 quarts a day for 10 months is a good cow, and one that will average
4 quarts during that time is more than an average qualitj'. That woultl
make 1,200 quarts a year, which, at three cents a quart, is $36. We believe
the Orange County milk dairies average about $40 per cow, and the quality
of the cows is considerably above the average of the country.
It is as important to keep a cow good as it is to get her good. This can
never be done by a careless, lazy milker. Always milk yoiir cow quick and
perfectly clean, and never try to counteract nature by taking away her calf.
Let it suck, and don't be afraid "it will butt her to death." It will distend
the udder, and make room for the secretion of milk. Ee ge-ntle with your
cow, and you will have a gentle cow. Select well, feed M'ell, house M'ell,
milk well, and your cow will yield well.
42. The Different Breeds of fowsi — We advise you to examine, in this
connection, the diflereiit breeds of cows, so that the general appearance, so
far as outline of form is concerned, may be very well understood. Good
and full descriptions may be found in a standard work upon " Jlilcli Cows
and Dairy Farming," edited by Charlcj L. Flint, secretary of the Massaclui-
setts State Board of Agri.?nlture, and we give a few short extracts from that
work, upon each breed, as follows :
43. Ayrshire Cows Described! — " The Ayrshires are justly celebrated
throughout Great Britain and this country for their excellent dairy qualities.
Though the most recent in their origin, they are pretty distinct from the
other Scotch and English races. In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally
red and white, spotted or mottled — not roan, like many of the short-horns,
but often presenting a bright contrast of colors. They are sometimes,
thougli rarely, nearly or quite all red, and sometimes black and white ; but
the favorite color is red and white brightly contrasted, and by some, straw-
Seo. 3.] COWS— BREEDS COMPARED. 43
berry color is preferred. The head is small, fine, and clean ; the face long,
and narrow at the muzzle, with a sprightly, j'et generally mild, expression ;
eye small, smart, and lively ; the horns short, fine, and slightly twisted
upward, set wide apart at the roots ; the neck thin ; body enlarging from
fore to hind quarters ; the back straight and narrow, but broad across the
loin; joints rather -loose and open; ribs rather flat; hind quarters rather
thin ; bone fine ; tail long, fine, and bushy at the end ; hair generally thin
and soft ; udder light color and capacious, extending well forward under the
belly ; teals of the cow of medium size, generally set regularly and wide
apart ; milk-veins prominent and well developed. The carcass of the pure-
bred Ayrshire is light, particularly the fore quarters, which is considered by
good judges as an index of great milking qualities; but the pelvis is capa-
cious and wide over the hips.
" On tlie whole, the Ayrshire is good-looking, but wants some of the sym-
metry and aptitude to fatten which characterize the short-horn, which is
supposed to have contributed to build up this valuable breed on the basis
of the original stock of the county of Ayr."
44. Yield of Miik of Ayrshire Cowso — " Youatt estimates the daily yield of
an Ayrshire cow, for the first two or three months after calving, at five
gallons a day, on an average ; for the next three months, at three gallons ;
and for the next four months, at one gallon and a half. This would be 850
gallons as the annual average of a cow; but, allowing for some unproductive
cows, he estimates the average of a dairy at 600 gallons per annum for each
cow. Three gallons and a half of tlie Ayrshire cow's milk Avill yield one
and a half pounds of butter. lie therefore reckons 257 lbs. of butter, or
514 lbs. of cheese, at the rate of 24 lbs. to 28 gallons of milk, as the yield
of every cow, at a fair and perhaps rather low average, in an Ayrshire
dairy, during the year. Alton sets the yield much higher, saying that
" thousands of the best Ayrshire dairy-cows, when in prime condition and
well fed, produce 1,000 gallons of milk per annum; that in general three
and three-quarters to four gallons of their milk will yield a pound and a
half of butter ; and that 27 j gallons of their milk will make 21 lbs. of full-
milk cheese." Mr. Eankin puts it lower — at about 650 to 700 gallons to
each cow ; on his own farm of inferior soil, his dairy produced an average
of 550 gallons only."
45. ¥ie!d of Milk of Breeds Compared. — " In a series of experiments on the
Earl of Chesterfield's dairy farm, at Bradley Hall, interesting as giving
positive data on which to form a judgment as to the yield, it was found that,
in the height of the season, the Holderness cows gave seven gallons and one
quart per diem ; the long-horns and Alderneys, four gallons and three
quarts; the Devons, four gallons and one quart; and that, when made into
butter, the above quantities gave, res2:)ectively, 3Si ounces, 28 ounces, and
25 ounces.
" The Ayrshire, a cow fiir smaller than the Holderness, at five gallons of
milk and 34 ounces of butter per day, gives a fair average as to yield of
44 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
milk, and an enormous production of butter, giving witiiin four and a half
ounces as much from her five gallons ns the Holderness from her seven gal-
lons and one quart ; her rate being nearly seven ounces to the gallon, while
tliat of the Holderness is considerably under six ounces.
" According to Mr. Ilarley, the most approved shape and marks of a good
dairy cow are as follows: Head small, long, and narrowtoward the muzzle;
horns small, clear, bent, and placed at considerable distance from each other ;
eyes not large, but brisk and lively ; neck slender and long, tapering toward
the head, with a little loose skin below; shoulders and fore quartei-s light
and thin ; hind quarters large and broad ; back straight, and joints slack
and open ; carcass deep in the rib ; tail small and long, reaching to the heels ;
legs small and short, with firm joints ; udder square, but a little oblong, .
stretching forward, thin-skinned, and capacious, but not low hung; teats or
paps small, pointing outwai-d, and at a considerable distance from each other ;
milk-veins capacious and prominent ; skin loose, thin, and s<ift, like a glove ;
hair short, soft, and woolly; general figure, when in flesh, handsome and
well proportioned."
46. The Ayrshires for the Dairy — Their Value Considered.— Upon this
point Mr. Flint quotes and indorses the following opinion :
"For purely dairy purposes, the Ayrshire cow deserves the first place.
In consequence of her small, symmetrical, and compact body, combined with
a well-formed chest and a capacious s'omach, there is little waste, compara-
tivel}'^ speaking, through the respirator}' system; while, at the same time,
tiiere is very complete assimilation of the food, and thus she converts a large
proportion of her food into milk. So remarkable is this fact, that all dairy
farmei-s who have any experience on the point, agree in stating that an
Ayrshire cow generally gives a larger return of milk for the food consumed
than a cow of any other hreed. Tlie absolute quantity may not be so great,
but it is obtained at a less cost ; and this is the point upon which the question
of profit depends."
47. The Jersey or Alderaey fow. — Tliere is a great diversity of opinion
about the value of this breed of cows. It is our opinion that they are the
most Valuable of all, where only one or two are to be kept, and when butter
is the main object. The milk of an Alderney cow is the richest of all for
household consumption, and makes the most and best butter; and the cow
is generally very docile, and in her native country is frequently kept upon
very much such food as we keep a pig upon in this country. Tlie greatest
olijection that we have heard urged upon them is their small size and lack
of beauty, as compared with the symmetrical forms of Durhams, Devons,
Ayrshires, and some of our natives. It is objected, too, that butter and
cheese made from Alderney cows' milk will not keep, because it is " too rich."
If it is mixed with other milk, it improves both, for then the butter and
cheese are rich, and have no hu-k of keeping qualities.
48. Ori.Tin and Description of Jersey Cows. — " The Jersey race is supposed
to have been derived originally from Kormandy, in the northern part of
IV
ImportGtL Datcii Cow luiported DiLtch BiilL
PLATE IV.
(Page 44.)
This picture is a stud}- of four of the improved breeds of cattle
which are briefly described in Chapter I., pages 31 to 51 ; and with
the other two upon Plate III., the reader has, as it were, at one
view, representatives of the Durham, Devon, Hereford, Ayrshire,
Jersey or Alderney, and the improved Dutch — six of the most im-
portant breeds of imported cattle. These beautiful pictures, with
what we have said of the animals, will give those who have no op-
portunity of studying them alive, a very good insight of their varied
form and character. For this they should be highly valued, as they
are true representations from life.
Seo. 3.] COWS— BREEDS COMPAKED. 45
France. The cows have been long celebrated for the production of very
rich milk and cream, but till within a quarter of a century they were com-
paratively coarse, ugly, and ill-shaped. Improvements have been very
marked, but the form of the animal is still far from satisfying the eye. The
head of the pure Jersey is fine and tapering, the cheek small, the throat
clean, the muzzle fine and encircled with a light stripe, the nostril high and
open ; the horns smooth, crumpled, not very thick at the base, tapering, and
tipped with black ; ears small and thin, deep orange color inside ; eyes full
and placid ; neck straight and fine ; chest broad and deep ; barrel hooped,
broad and deep, well ribbed up ; back straight from the withers to the hip,
and from the top of the hip to the setting on of the tail ; tail fine, at right
angles with the back, and hanging down to the hocks ; skin thin, light color,
and mellow, covered with fine, soft hair; fore legs short, straight, and fine
below the knee; arm swelling and full above ; hind quarters long and well
filled; hind legs short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine,
squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; udder full in size,
in line with the belly, extending Avell np behind ; teats of medium size,
squarely placed, and wide apart, and milk-veins very prominent. The color
is generally cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less white, and the fine
head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-like appearance, and make
them objects of attraction in the park ; but the hind quarters are often too
narrow to look well, particularly to those who judge animals from the
amount of fat they carry."
49. Fattening Properties of a Jtrsey €ow. — " It is asserted by Colonel Le
Couteur, of the island of Jersey, that, contrary to the general opinion here,
the Jersey cow, when old and no longer wanted as a milker, will, when dry
and fed, fatten rapidly, and produce a good quantity and excellent quality
of butchers' meat. An old cow, he says, was put up to fatten in October,
1850, weighing 1,125 lbs., and when killed, the 6th of January, 1851, she
weighed 1,330 lbs., having gained 205 lbs. in 98 days, on 20 lbs. of hay, a
little wheat-straw, and 30 lbs. of roots — consisting of carrots, Swedes, and
mangel-wurzel — a day."
50. The Short-ljorn Durham €ow. — There is no room for dispute about the
Durhams being good for beet'. For butter or for general dairy purposes, I
shoidd not choose them. Mr. Flint says:
"In sections where the climate is moist and the food abundant and rich,
some fiimilies of the short-horns may be valuable for the dairy ; but they
are most frequently bred exclusively for beef in this country, and in sections
where they have attained the highest perfection of form and beauty, so litle
is thought of their- milking qualities, that they are often not milked at all,
the calf being allowed to run with the dam."
Crosses, however, of this breed upon other breeds have produced excellent
milkers. In Westchester County, N. Y., there is a valuable strain of daiiy
stock known as " Dutch and Durham."
51. The Dutch Cow. — The old Holland stock shows a very symmet-
4G DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Ciiap. I.
rical, handsome form, but not quite as much so as the Durham, which ■was
made uji, it is generall}' su])posed, by a cross of the Dutch breed upon the
Teeawater stock. The Dutch cow is not as heavy an animal as the improved
Durham, but she is more highly esteemed for dairy purposes.
52. The Hfreford f ow. — '• Tiie Hereford cattle derive their name from a
county in the western part of England. Tiieir general characteristics are a
white face, sometimes mottled; white throat, the white generally extending
back on the neck, and sometimes, though rarely, still farther along on the
back. The color of the rest of the body is red, generally dark, but some-
times light. Eighty years ago the best Hereford cattle were mottled or
roan all over; and some of the best herds, down to a comparatively recent
period, were either all mottled, or had the mottled or speckled face. The
exi)ression of the face is mild and lively ; tlie forehead open, broad, and
large ; the eyes bright and full of vivacity ; the horns glossy, slender, and
spreading ; the head small, though larger and not quite so clean as that of
the Devons; the lower jaw iinc; neck long and slender; chest deep; breast-
bone large, prominent, and very muscular; the shoulder-blade light ; shoulder
full and soft ; brisket and loins large ; hips well developed, and on a level
with the chine ; hind quarters long and well filled in ; buttocks on a level
with the back, neither falling olf nor raised above the hind quarters; tail
slender, well set on ; hair fine and soft ; body round and full ; carcass deep
and well formed, or cylindrical ; bone small ; thigh short and well made ;
legs short and straight, and slender below the knee ; as handlers very excel-
lent, especially mellow to the touch on the back, the shoulder, and along the
sides, the skin being soft, flexible, of medium thickness, rolling on the neck
and the hips ; hair bright ; face almost bare, whicii is characteristic of pure-
bred Ilercfords. They belong to the middle-horned division of the cattle
of Great Britain, to which tliey are indigenous."
Tliere are individual good milkers among the Ilerefords, as there are
among the Durhams, but like them, we must say they are better for beef
than milk. "We certainly never should select the Ilereford breed for dairy
purposes. The form of the cow, as represented among the specimens we
have seen of the best herds in this countiy, is that of a beef-producing ani-
mal, or a breed for good working oxen, for which it is noted.
53. The Devon Cow. — "This beautiful race of cattle dates farther back
than any well-established breed among us. It goes generally under the
simple name of Devon ; but the cattle of the southern part of the county,
from which the race derives its name, differ somewhat from those of the
northern, having a larger and coarser frame, and far less tendency to fatten,
though their dairy qualities are superior.
" The Korth Devons are remarkable for hardihood, symmetry, and beauty,
and are generally bred for work and for beef rather than for the dairy.
The head is fine and well set on ; the horns of medium lengtli, generally
curved ; color usually bright blood-red, but sometimes inclining to yellow ;
skin thin and orange-yellow ; hair of medium length, soft, and silky, making
Seo. 3.] COWS— BEEEDS COMPARED. 47
the animals remarkable fine handlers ; muzzle of the nose white; eyes full
and mild ; ears yellowish, or orange-color inside, of moderate size ; neck
rather long, with little dewlap ; shoulders oblique ; legs small and straight,
and feet in proportion ; chest of good width ; ribs round and expanded ;
loins of first-rate quality, long, wide, and fleshy ; hips round, of medium
width ; rumj) level ; tail full near the setting on, tapering to the tip ; thighs
of the bull and ox muscular and full, and high in the flank, though in the
cow sometimes thought to be too'light; the size medium, generally called
small.
" As milkers, they do not excel, perhaps they may be said not to equal,
the other breeds, and they have a reputation of being decidedly below the
average. In their native country the general average of a dairy is one
pound of butter per day during the summer.
" Tliey are bred for beef and for work, and not for the dairy, and their
yield of milk is small, though of a rich quality.
" On the whole, whatever may be our judgment of this breed, the faults
of the North Devon cow can hardly be overlooked from our present point
of view. The rotundity of form and compactness of frame, though they
contribute to her remarkable beauty, constitute an objection to her as a dairy
cow, since it is generally thought that the peculiarity of form which disposes
an animal to take on fat is somewhat incompatible with good milking quali-
ties, and hence Youatt says: 'For the dairy, the North Devons must be
acknowledged to be inferior to several other breeds. The milk is good, and
yields more than the average proportion of cream and butter; but it is
deficient in quantity.' He also maintains that the value of this breed for
milk could not be improved without probable or certain detriment to its
grazing qualities.
"But the fairest test of its fitness for the dairy is to be found in the
estimation in which distinguished Devon breeders themselves have held it
in this respect. A scale of points of excellence in this breed was established
some time ago by the best judges in England ; and it has since been adopted,
with but slight changes, in this country. These judges, naturally prejudiced
in favor of the breed, if prejudiced at all, made this scale to embrace one
hundred points, no animal to be regarded as perfect unless it excelled in all
of them. Each part of the body was assigned its real value in the scale: a
faultless head, for instance, was estimated at four ; a deep, round chest at
fifteen, etc. If the animal was defective in any part, the number of i)oints
which represented the value of that part in the scale was to be deducted ^ro
rata from the hundred, in determining its merits. But in this scale the cow
is so lightly esteemed for the dairy, that the udder, the size and shape of
which is of the utmost consequence in determining the capacity of the milch
cow, is set down as worth only one point, while, in the same scale, the horns
and ears are valued at two points each, and the color of the nose and the
expression of the eye are valued at four points each. Supposing, therefore,
that each of these points was valued at one dollar, and a perfect North
48 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
Devon co^v was valued at one luindred dollars; then anotlier cow of the
same blood, and equal to the first in every respect, except in her udder,
which is such as to make it certain that she can never be capable of giving
milk enough to nourish her calf, must be worth, according to tiie estimation
of the best Devon breeders, jiinet\--nine dollars ! It is safe, therefore, to say
that an animal whose udder and lacteal glands are regarded, by those who
best know her capacities and her merits, as of only one quarter part as much
consequence as the color of her nose, or half as much as the shape and size
of her horns, can not be recommended for the dairy. The improved Xor.h
Devon cow may be classed, in this respect, with the Hereford, neither of
which have well-developed milk-vessels — a point of the utmost consequence
to the practical dairyman."
5i. The 3Iilk-5Iirrori — Tliis is a term given in the Guenon method of
selecting good cows, to the escutcheon formed by the change of direction in
the hair on the rear part of the udder and parts adjacent. If this n'.irror is
large, it is supposed to indicate a good milker. For the better understanding
of it, we recommend a careful study of the " milk-mirror," and see how it
is generally developed upon all real good milkers — that is, good for quantity
rather than quality.
"Milk-mirrors vary in position, extent, and the figure they represent.
They may be divided, according to their position, into mirroi-s or escutcheons,
jiroperly so called, or into lower and upper tufts, or escutcheons. The latter
are very small in comparison with the former, and are situated in close
]>roximity to the vulva, as seen in difierent breeds of cows. They are very
common on cows of bad milking races, but are verj- rarely seen on the best
milch cows. They consist of one or two ovals, or small bands of up-growing
hair, and serve to indicate the continuance of the flow of milk. The period
is short in proportion as the tufts are large. They must not be confounded
with the escutcheon proper, which is often extended up to the vulva. They
arc separated from it by bands of hair, more or less large, as you will find
from careful examination."
It requires some skill to determine the exact size of a milk-mirror, since it
is not equally m'cII defined in all cows, being at first sight apparently large
in some, which, upon close examination, will show faults — that is, that tlie
escutcheon of out-growing hairs is broken by tufts of down-growing hairs.
Mr. Flint says:
" We often find cows whose milk-mirror at first sight appears very large,
but which arc only medium milkers ; and it will usually be found that lateral
indentations greatly diminish the surface of up-growing hair. Many errors ■
are committed in estimating the value of such cows, from a want of attention
to the real extent of the milk-mirror.
" All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution
of the quantity of milk, with the exception, however, of small oval or
elliptical plates, which are found in the mirror, on the back part of the
udders of the best cows.
PLATE V.
(Page 48.)
Tins is a very instructive picture to every young farmer, and there
are a good many old ones who may make of it a vahiable study.
Many persons are not aware that the age of a suckling calf, week by
week, can be told by examining the teeth. Look at these drawings
and see how easy it is to learn the art — an art which every farmer's
boy should undei'stand. So the age of a cow, as well as a horse,
can be told from year to year, by looking at the teeth, more cer-
tainly than by the horns. For this purpose this plate possesses
great value ; but it has a greater one in the illustration of what is
now well known as the "milk mirror," which is described at ^ 54,
and much more fully in Guenon's work, from which the theory is
derived. In this plate the mirror is represented by coloring the pic-
ture so as to show the field of upturned hair around the udder in its
most fully developed form upon No. 1, and quite defective in No. 4.
By studying these, and comparing them with living cows, something
of the theory may be learned. It is very fully illustrated in Flint's
work upon milch cows and dairy farming. It is .a subject worthy
of the attention of all farmers.
Sko. 8.] COWS— THE MILK-MIRROR. 49
In a fat cow, with an inflated udder, the mirror would appear larger
than it really is ; while in a lean cow, with a loose and wrinkled udder, it
.appears smaller. Fat will cover faults ; this is a fact to be kept in mind in
selecting a cow ; because good fatting qualities are not the qualities which
the purchaser is desirous of obtaining.
" These marks, though often seen on many good cows, should be considered
as certain only when the veins of the perineum form, under the skin, a kind
of net-work, which, without being very apparent, may be felt by a pressure
on them, when the milk-veins on the belly are well developed, though less
knotted and less prominent than in cows of the first class ; in fine, when tlie
udder is well developed, and presents veins which are sufficiently numerous,
though not very large.
" There are cases where a knowledge and careful examination of the form
and size of the mirror becomes of the greatest importance. It is well known
that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed only as the
capacities of tlie animal herself are fully and completely developed by age.
The milk-veins, for instance, are never so large and prominent in heifers and
young cows as in old ones, and the same may be said of the udder, and the
veins of the udder and perineum, all of which it is of great importance to
observe in the selection of milch cows. Those signs, then, which in cows
arrived at maturity are almost sufiicient in themselves to warrant a conclu-
sion as to their merits as milkers, are, to a great extent, wanting in younger
animals, and altogether in calves, of which there is often doubt whether they
shall be raised ; and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is'^f
immense advantage, since it gives, at the outset, and before any expense is
incurred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking
capacities of the animal, or, if a male, of the probability of his transmitting
milking qualities to his oflFspring."
55. What Kind of Cows to Buy.-^' In buying dairy stock, tlie farmer gen-
erally finds it for his interest to select young heifers. Tliey give the promise
of longer usefulness. But it is often the case that older cows are selected,
with the design of using them for the dairy for a limited period, and then
feeding them for the butcher. In either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to
choose animals in low or medium condition. The farmer can not ordinarily
afibrd to buy fat; it is more properly his business to make it and to have it
to sell. Good and well-marked cows, in poor condition, will rapidly gain in
all flesli products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping, and
they cost less in the original purchase."
56. General Conclusions. — We have now devoted all the space that we can
afibrd to the subject of cows. We have given them a large share of our
attention, because we consider them of more importance than any other
single branch of our domestic animals.- They not only furnish a great
amount of food, in milk, cream, butter, cheese, and meat, when done fur-
nishing milk, but they are the foundation of prosperity in American farming.
" A good cow may produce a bad calf," but it is only a may-be — it does not
50 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
hold as a rule. It is therefore very important to select good cows, and keep
none but good cows — certainly never breed from a poor one.
We shall now give some important facts relative to other branches of neat
stock. And first we refer the reader to the following facts concerning bulls
of various breeds.
57. The Ayrshire Bull. — In comparing this with those of other breeds, it
should be borne in mind that the Ayrshircs are not bred for beef, in their
own country, as much as they are for dairy purposes. For working oxen,
they are of fair quality, but not the best. For feeding purposes, they should
be crossed with Durhams.
" It is the opinion of good breeders, that a high-bred short-horn bull and
a large-sized Ayrshire cow will produce a calf which will come to maturity
earlier, and attain greater weight, and sell for more money, than a pure-bred
Ayrshire. This cross, with feeding from tlie start, may be sold fat at two or
three years old, the improvement being especially seen in the earlier matu-
rity and the size."
58. The Jersey Bull. — So far as beauty is concerned in the sexes, the
males of the Jersey or Alderney stock have the largest share. It is a
somewhat curious physiological fact, that the Alderney cows in this country
produce two or three times as many bulls as heifers, so that bulls can gener-
ally be purchased at lower prices than cows.
"The bulls are usually very different iu character and disposition from
the cows, and are much inclined to become restive and cross at the age of
tmee or four years, unless their treatment is uniformly gentle and firm. In
all portraits of Jersey bulls, they are represented as handsomer animals
than they are generally considered by American farmers.
59. Short-horn or Durham Bull. — Tliis breed has been more largely
imported and bred from in the United States than any, in fact all, othere.
It is the great beef-producing breed o^ the West, particularly in Ohio and
Kentucky.
" The desirable characteristics of the short-horn bull may be summed up,
according to the judgment of the best breeders, as follows: He should have
a short but fine head, very broad across the eyes, tapering to the nose, with
a nostril full and prominent; the nose itself should be of a rich flesh-color;
eyes bright and mild ; ears somewhat large and thin ; horns slightly curved
and rather flat, well set on a long, broad, muscular neck ; chest wide, deep,
and projecting; shoulders fine, oblique, well formed into the chine; fore
legs short, with upper arm large and powerful ; barrel round, deep, well
ribbed liome ; hips wide and level ; back straight from the withers to the
setting on of the tail, but short from hip to chine ; skin soft and velvety to
the touch ; moderately thick hair, plentiful, soft, and mossy."
This picture gives only a fair impression of the fine form of the best
animals of this breed.
CO. The Dutch Bull. — The form of Dutch and Durham bulls is not unlike.
W. W. Chenery, of Watertown, Mass., whose name has since become famous
Seo. 4.]
BEEVES.
51
as being identified with the alarming cattle disease prevailing iu Massachu-
setts in the summer of 1860, is one of the largest importers of the valuable
stock known as the Dutch breed.
61, The Hereford Bull.— This always fairly represents this good breed of
cattle. Good, at least, for beef, and excellent for working oxen. Their
beef rates highest of all in the London market, and the few grades which
have been brought to New York have been higlily esteemed. The objection
to them is, that they do not come so early to maturity, or, rather, to a salable
condition, as the Durhams. The breeders of Herefords contend that the
keeping that will starve Durhams will keep the Herefords in a thriving
condition.
62. The Devon Bull. — In color and form a Devon bull is perfect ; always
of a pure bay-red color, of medium size, and progenitor of the handsomest
working oxen in America. The deficiency in size of the pure Devons, for
working oxen, is made up by crossing upon larger animals. These grade
oxen make as fine beef as any brought to the New York market.
SECTION IV.-BEEVES. \
ross and Net Weight of Beef Cattle. — ^The ordinary
rule of ascertaining the net weight of beef cattle
from the live weight on the scales varies, accord-
ing to quality, size, and age, and after all, is no rule
at all, because it is entirely a matter of agreement
between the parties at the time.
It also depends upon the locality. In New York,
the net weight of the beef in the quartere only is
wanted. In Boston, the hide and fat are included,
counting those products equal to one quarter of the
beef, or, rather, calling the whole five quarters. Tliere
the net weight of a fat bullock is estimated at 60 to
68 lbs. of each 100 of live weight. In extra fine
animals the per-centage is higher.
In New York, where the hide and fat are left out of the calculation, the
bullocks are estimated at 55 to 60 lbs. net to each 100 lbs. gross; and if the
animal is very fine, the estimate runs from 61 to 61 lbs. net to each 100 lbs.
gross. Extraordinary animals sometimes dress 65 or 66 lbs., and even higher,
and ordinary and lean stock run from 55 down to 47 lbs., though not often
below 50 lbs., or one half the live weight at home. The common practice
at the "West is, to weigh fatted cattle some hours after feeding and a little
exercise, and calculate the net weight at 55 lbs. per 100 of the live weight.
52 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
64. The Lai^est Bollock— The Great Massachnsetts Steer.— The question
of " what is the greatest weiglit of any bullock ?" we definitely answer and
place on record in the following notices. The heaviest alive and dead was
sold by John Sanderson, of Bernardstown, Mass., in February, 1S62, to
Bryan Lawrence, butcher, Centre Market, New York, by whom he was
publicly exhibited, killed, and weighed. His live weight "at home was 36
cwt. Here, when very empty, 33 cwt. His dead weight was, fore quarters,
743, 732—1,475 lbs. Hind quarters, 496, 502—993 lbs. Total, 2,473
lbs., after shrinking a week. This is within 2 lbs. of 75 per cent, of live
weight. This steer liad been kept in a small yard and stable, eating meal
and hay two years ; was eight years old ; a cross of Durham and native
Vermont stock. He girted back of shoulders, 10 ft. 8 in. ; forward of liips,
11 ft. 8 in. ; hight, 6 ft. 3 in. ; length from horns to tail, 9 ft. 8 in. ; breadth
across hips, 3 ft. 6 in. Tliis is the largest bullock of which we have any
certain record. TVe also place upon record the weights of several other
remarkable large bullocks. All stories of bullocks of 40 cwt. we disbelieve.
65. The Washington Ox. — Tlie ox George "Washington was 5 years, 9
months, and 14 days old when slaughtered, in the year 1840.
His live weight was 3,204 lbs.
Weight of one fore quarter 612 "
Weight of the other fore quarter 698 "
Weight of one hind quarter 487 "
Weight of the other hind quarter 477 "
2,174 lbs. of beef — 70 llis. per cwt. of lire weight.
Measurement from button to root of tail 9 fl. 7 in.
Girth 10 " 4 "
Hight 5 " 9 "
From hip to hip 2 '• 9 "
The ox Red Jacket, killed March 5, 1851,
Weighed alive 3,080 lbs.
Weight of meat '. 2,114 "
Lota, 31 per cent.
The OX John Hancock, killed the same time,
Weighed alive 2,910n«.
Weight of meat 1,946J "
Loss, 33 per cent.
Robert L. Pell's two-year-old heifer, fatted at Pellham Farm, 30 miles up
the Hudson,
Weighed alive 2,000 lbs.
Weight of beef 1,380 "
Loss, 31 per cent.
66. A Big Ox in Olden Time. — "We print, as we find it, the following
extract from " Thacher's Military Journal of the Revolution," under date of
June 24, 1779:
" I have just had the satisfaction, with a number of gentlemen, of viewing
a remarkably large /"at ox, which has been presented by some gentlemen in
Connecticut to his Excellenc_v, Gen. "Washington. He is 6 ff. 7 in. high, and
weighs on tlie hoof 3,500 lbs., the largest animal T ever beheld."
67. The Ox Leopard. — ^An ox called "Leopard," raised and fed by Dr.
1 !
Sbo. 4.] BEEVES OF GREAT WEIGHT. 53
"Win. Elmer, of Bridgton, N. J., was slaughtered, Feb. 24, 1832, at the age
of 6 years and 8 months. His live weight was 3,360 lbs. Size — length from
nose to rump, 10 ft. 6 in. ; from nose to end of tail, 15 ft. ; girth behind fore
shoulders, 9 ft. 8 in. ; around the body, 10 ft. 9 in. ; around the brisket, 10 ft.
3 in. ; length from shoulder to rump, 7 ft. ; along the back from liorns, 9 ft. ;
width across the hip, 2 ft. lOi in. ; hight of fore shoulder, 5 ft. 6 in. ; behind,
5 ft. 8 in. ; circumference of leg below the knee, 1 foot.
68. Two Big Oxen in Pennsylvania. — We have a letter from James Stewart,
Pennsylvania, and another from Andrew M. Frantz, giving the weight of
two bullocks heavier than the Washington. One known as the " Lancaster
County Ox," Mr. Stewart writes, " was owned and fed by Emanuel Landis,
near this city ; was a lialf-bred Durham, deep red, large fore quarters, long,
fine horns, and was over seven years old. Wm. F. Miller, of Lancaster,
purdiased him for $800, and slaughtered him on the 22d of February, 1858.
This ox weighed :
Live weight 3,387 lbs.
Net weight 2,409 "
Weight of one fore quarter 747 lbs.
Weight of the other fore quarter 760 "
Weight of one hind quarter 469 "
Weight of the other hind quarter 442 "
2,418 lbs.
Deduct weight of hooks for weighing 9
Total net weight 2,409 lbs.
" The Berks Ckiunty ox, that was butchered some years ago in Philadelpliia,
weighed as follows :
live weight. 3,350 lbs.
Net weight ,... 2,388 "
Weight of one fore quarter 7321bB.
Weight of the other fore quarter 728 "
Weight of one hind quarter 464 "
Weight of the other hind quurter 464 "
Total net weight 2,338 lbs.
"There has long been a generous rivalry between the farmers of Berks
and Lancaster counties in regard to which could grow the fattest and largest
oxen. As it now stands, Lancaster is ahead, but we may look out for some-
thing ere long greater still from Old JSerJcs, for the resources of that county
are astonishing, as even politicians can testify.
"There was another steer butchered in this city, in February, 1856, by
David Killinger, owned and fed by Abram Landis, of Manheim township,
that netted 2,108 lbs., but that weight, and greater, has been frequently
attained in this State, and even in this county. The first two (whose weights
I liave given) I will not say are the largest cattle ever slaughtered, even in
Pennsylvania, but they are the largest that have ever come under my obser-
vation, and in regard to whose weight there was no dispute. I, however,
entirely concur with the writer in the Tribune, that there never was an ox
fed to the weight of 4,000 lbs. gross. An animal that will weigh 613 lbs.
more than the one butchered in this city in February last, has certainly never
been yet produced."
54 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
Mr. Frantz sajs the Berks County ox was fed by a man named Soetz,
and was slaughtered, he thinks, in 18i6. If so, his weight should have been
known here and remembered, but it was not by one of the butchers and
others that we thought likely to know, of the many of whom we sought
information. We liavo often heard of heavier bullocks, but lack the proof,
as in the case below. The above figures are now matters of record, where
they can be referred to in future.
69. The Saratoi^a Bis Bullock» — Since writing the above, we see the fol-
lowing in the Country Gentlcvian of May 27, 1860 :
" The Saratoga County Fres& says that J. M. Cole, of Saratoga Springs,
slaughtered an ox, in 1817, whose live weight was 3,520 lbs. ; dressed,
2,567 lbs."
Let Mr. Cole give us the vouchers. If he has made an ox of that
weight, he has probably beaten the world, and shoidd give the world the
proof. It wants to know certaiidy the weight of tlie heaviest bullock.
70. Weights of the Crystal Palace Show Cattle.— The following are the net
weights of the nine head of fat bullocks, exhibited as a show at the Crystal
Palace. Some of them were full-blood Kontuck}' and Ohio Durhams, and
others, grades of that bloofl. They were bought by Jim Irving, of Washing-
ton Market, and fairly weiglied as follows:
Tlie best pair weighed — one, 2,178 lbs. — and his quarters, 60-1 and 612 lbs.
for the fore quarters, and 480 and 482 lbs. for the hind quarters. Tlie other
weighed 2,066 lbs.— the fore quarters 570 and 568 lbs., and the hind ones
470 and 458 lbs.
Another pair weighed together 3,680 lbs. The old cow, which was
excessively fat, weighed 1,460 lbs., dressing, it is said, 73 lbs. per cwt. Tlie
best steer dressed 72ilb6. per cwt. The other four head weighed 2,024,
2,003, 1,930, and 1,860 lbs.
Forty head of Illinois grade Durhams, five and six years old, sold in 1858,
in the New York market, averaged 22 cwt. each alive, and one hundred
head averaged over 20 cwt. each.
71. The liaxtun Steei". — The Ilaxtun steer was raised by E. Ilaxtun, in
Beekman Township, Dntcliess Co., N. Y. lie was out of a cow bought from
a drove that came from near Cleveland, Oliio, which was probably three
fourths Durham, and a full-bred short-horn bull, of Mr. Sheaf's (Dutchess
County) importation. The steer was called jfths Durham, part of the blood
appearing to indicate a descent from the long-horn of the old Kentucky
importation. Ilis color was nearly all red, having some whitish roan spots,
and he was, notwithstanding his great size and fatness, one of the liaud-
somest-formed fat bullocks we have ever seen, and as firm on his legs almost
as he ever was, and was in appearance as fresh and healthy as ever, taking his
rations regularly. His feed was 14 quarts a day of meal, made of two parts
Indian corn and one part oats, and as much hay as he would eat. His feeding
commenced in the fall, after he was four yeai-s old, and he was seven years
old the spring before he was killed. Ilis weight at home, Dec. 1, 1859, was
Seo. 4.] BEEVES OF GREAT WEIGHT. 55
3,472 lbs. He was probably weighed full at that time ; bnt after a railroad
passage of 75 miles, he was weighed here, Jan. 9, 1860, before he was filled up
with food and water, and his fair, honest weight, as given by David Allerton,
who weigiicd him, was 3,452 lbs. Three days afterward, weighed upon the
same scales, by the same man, with scales carefully balanced, he weighed
3.418 lbs. Afterward, upon two other scales, his weight was 3,419. He was
sold Jan. 10, 1860, to Wm. Lalor, of Centre Market, for $850 ; and was
slaughtered and dressed at Pattei'son's slaughter-house, Jan. 19, by the same
man who dressed the Washington, and hung until Jan. 26, when the quarters
were weighed, under the careful supervision of Barney Bartram, John Harris,
John M. Seaman, and James L. Stewart, and in the presence of a large
company of lookers-on, many of whom were considerably interested, having
invested largely in the way of bets upon the net weight.
The following was the result: fore quarters, 700 and 668 lbs. — 1, 368 lbs. ;
the hind quarters, 482 and 469 lbs.— 951 lbs. ; total, 2,319 lbs. This was 2|
lbs. over 67j lbs. per cwt. of the last live weight. The shrinkage was esti-
mated at 50 lbs. ; but he was hung just the same length of time as the
Washington, and, like him, has had his hide stuffed and form preserved,
being, up to that time, the largest bullock ever brought to New York. The
fatting of this steer has been one of the most perfectly successful experiments
to produce a monstrous animal, so evenly formed and faultlessly shaped,
that no one could say where he could be improved.
72. Other Large Bullocks.— A pair of oxen, called the " Cayuga Prize
Oxen," was also sold in the New York market, the same week, for $700, wliicli
was considered remarkable ; their live weight, however, was 2,865 lbs. each ;
they were six years old.
The Michigan Farmer of Jan. 20, 1860, says : " We lately gave an account
of several fat cattle which were killed in tliis city on the week before the
New Year. The pair weiglied 6,437 lbs., or 3,218 lbs. each. The net weiglit
was estimated at 68 lbs. per cwt." Of some others the Farmer said: "The
actual yield of the cattle killed by William Smith, in this market, was &Q lbs.
to the 100 lbs. of live weight, or 2,150 lbs. from 3,218 lbs. It will be seen
by this, therefore, how those great oxen killed in the Detroit market
approximated to what is considered the largest and fattest animal ever killed
in the United States."
We have a letter before us from Isaac Hubbard, of Claremont, N. H.,
who is ninety years old, but not too old to read with interest the accounts
of these fat bullocks. He says that, seeing an account of the Haxtun
steer, which interested him very much, induced him to give the history of
a fat bullock fed by him twenty odd years ago.
The calf was dropped Jan. 4, 1833, and was then estimated to weigh 100
lbs.; Jan. 4, 1833, he weighed 874 lbs. ; Dec. 3, 1833, 1,280 lbs. ; Jan. 5,
1835, 1,800 lbs. ; Dec. 26, 1835, 2,350 lbs.; Feb. 15, 1837, 2,910 lbs.
In Oct., 1838, Mr. H. sold him, and he was conveyed to Hartford, Conn.,
and weighed 3,370 lbs. This steer was bought by Paran Stevens, since of
56
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
[Chap. I.
great hotel notoriety, and was extensively exhibited in this country ae " the
largest ox ever seen." Perhaps some persons in this State may remember
the exhibition of this mammoth ox.
In 1840, this great show animal was sent to England for exhibition there,
and, it is said, attracted much attention. From there he was taken to
France and Belgium, and exhibited as the great bullock of the world. He
was brought back to England and slaughtered, but his weight at the time,
either alive or dead, was not published, but it was less in this country than
tiiat of several whose \reights we have published. This is one of the great
6liow bullocks which have been exhibited and advertised as weighing over
4,000 lbs., a weight that never has, so far as we have any satisfactory records,
yet been attained ; and although we believe that 4,000 lbs. is above the
limit that can be attained by one of the bovine race, we would not discourage
the efforts of those who have made noble attempts to improve this class of
livestock, both in form and quality, and who will not be content until the
utmost possible limit of weight is accomplished.
The name of Mr. Hubbard's steer was " Olympus," in this country, but in
Europe he was exhibited imder the name of " Brother Jonathan." He was
of the " native stock," common in New Hampshire ; his color a dapple-bay
or red, a little changeable in the sun, with white spots on the face and legs.
It is not, however, generally profitable to feed such great bullqcks as we
liave noticed ; but, to see what has been done, it will always be an interest-
ing matter of reference. So will be the matter we shall give in the next
section.
SECTION V-STATISTICS OF THE NEW YORK CATTLE JilARKET,
umbers of Bntchers' Animals Annually Sold in New
Torkt — Farmers are very justly accused of a
neglect of statistical information in relation to the
business upon which all their prosperity depends.
In the very important matter of furnishing the
cities with bullocks, the producers had no means
of forming estimates of the needed supply, until we
instituted reports of the cattle markets of all the prin-
cipal cities, and particularly the city of New York,
wliich is an enormous consumer of fresh beef. To this
market we have devoted many years, attending almost
every weekly market, and have given tiie farmers statis-
tical tables of immense value to tliem. We now
embody some of this useful statistical information,
can stand as a table of permanent reference; and we earnestly
it to all who are engaged in agricultural pursuits.
where it
commend
Seo. 5.] STATISTICS OF THE NEW YORK CATTLE MARKET. 57
ANNUAL RECEIPTS FOR TEN TEARS — 1854-1863.
Tears. Beeves. tows. Calves. Sheep. Bwine. Ann. Totals.
18.54 169 864.... 13,131.... 68,584.... 555,479.... 252,328.... 1,059,386
1855 185564.... 12,110... 47,969.... 588,741.... 318,107.... 1,152,491
1856 187 057 . 12,857.... 43,081.... 462,739.... 345,911.... 1,051,645
1857 162,243 ... 12,840.... 34,218.... 444,036.... 288,984.... 942,321
1858 . 191874.... 10,128.... 37,675.... 447,445.... 551,479.... 1,238,601
1859 . 205,272.... 9,492.... 48,769.... 404,894.... 399,665.... 1,068,092
1860 226,933.... 7,144.... 39,436.... 518,750.... 323,918.... l,llli,181
1861 222,835.... 5,749... 32,868.... 512,366.... 559,421.... 1,333,239
1862 239,486.... 5,378... 30,465.... 484,342. ... 1,148,209. .. . 1,907,880
1863 264,091.... 6,470.... 35,709.... 519,316. ... 1,101,617. .. . 1,927,203
Total 2,055,219. . . . 95,299. . . . 418,774. . . . 4,938,108. . . . 5,289,639. . . . 12,797,039
Av. pr. year . . . 205,522.... 9,530.... 41,877.... 493,811.... 528,964.... 1,279,704
WEEKLY AVERAGE OF ALL ANIMALS FOR TE.N TEARS — 1854-1863.
Tears. Beeves. Cows. Calves. Sheep. Swine. Totai.
1854 3,257 253 1,315 10,682 4,852 20,369
1855 3,565 233 922 11,322 6,117 22,069
1856 3,597 247 828 8,898 6,650 20,224
1857 3,120 245 658 8,539 6,557 18,119
1858 3,680 195 724 8,604 10,605 28,809
1859 3,947 182 841 9,709 7,686 22,365
1860 4,364 139 758 9,976 7,229 21,465
1861 4,285 no 632 9,853 10,758 25,637
1862 4,518 101 574 9,138 21,664 36,000
1863 5,079 125 687 9,987 21,185 37,062
The increase of bullocks in this decade is 55 per cent. Cows have
fallen off more than half, and calves nearly the same. The supply of sheep
remains nearly stationary, but swine have increased enormously. The fol-
lowing is the estimated number of pounds of meat, derived from slaughtered
animals in 1863, and the wholesale value. In the estimate, cows are added
to the bullocks, because tlie most of them, eventually, go to the butcher.
Beeves— 270,561, av. 700 lbs. uet 189,392,700 lbs. at 9jc. per lb. net S17,513,821 75
Veal— 35,709 calves at 75 lbs 2,678,176 " at 10c. per lb. net 267,817 50
Sheep and lambs— 519,316, at 42 lbs.... 21,811,272 " atlOc.perlb.net 2,181,127 20
Swine— 1,101,617, at 150 lbs 105,242,550 " at 6^c. per lb. net 10,740,765 75
Total 379,124,697 lbs $30,708,535 20
It is also very important for farmers to know where the supply comes
from. Of 210,384 bullocks sold in 1803, the si.x following States furnished
the respective numbers, viz. : Illinois, 118,692 ; New York, 28,985 ; Ohio,
19,269; Indiana, 1-1,232; Michigan, 9,074; Kentucky, 0,782. As the same
proportion holds good for all the cattle received in New York, it will be soen
that Illinois furnishes 56i per cent. True, a good many credited to that
State come from Iowa, Missouri, and other States.
The proportion of hogs from Illinois is probably greater than upon beef
cattle. The great bulk of pork from the hogs slaughtered here is packed
and sent to other places for consumi:)iion ; large quantities of it to Eurojic.
A small portion of the beef is packed and sent abroad. The great bulk of
it, and all the veal and nearly all of the sheep, and a vast quantity besides
that comes in ready dressed from the country, goes to furnish fresh meat to
the cities of New York and Brooklyn, three small cities in New Jersey, and
several towns within fifty miles, ships in port, and most of our armed ships
and forts and soldiers on the coast between Hampton Roads and Key West.
58 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
Estimated average price of beef cattle per net pound each year, 185-1—63 :
1854, 0 cents full; 1855, 10 cents; 1S56, 9i cents nearly; 1857, lOi cents
nearly; 1858, Si cents nearly; 1859, 9 cents; 1860, 8 cents full ; 1861, 7 J
cents; 1862, 7§ cents ; 1863, 9i cents. Up to March, 186-1, prices liave ranged
troiii 9 to 16 cents a pound net, which was higher than before since 1857.
During 1863, the live-weight price of corn-fed hogs ranged from -1 to 7
cents per pound. In February, 1864, it reached 8^ and 9 cents per pound,
which was tlie highest price for "Western stock ever attained.
That all who read this page may see what an immense interest is involved
in the live-stock trade of the country with New York city, we add the fol-
lowing calculation of number of pounds of meat and estimated value:
cossrjm-iox or ten teah-s — 1854-1863,
Beeves— 2,160.518 hc.^ av. 700 lbs. net. ..1,505.302,600 lbs. at 9 cents per lb. net. . $135,482,034
Calves— 418,7(4 head av. 75 lbs. net 3I,40K,050 " atlOcentspcrlb.net.. 3.140,8(15
SbeepandlanibB-^,938,108hea(lav.421bs. 207,390,530 '■ atlOcentspcrlb.net.. 20,73y,li:):i
Swine— 5,289,0.39 head av. 125 lbs 001,204,800 " at Ccentsperlb.net.. 39,672,2«8
Total 2,400,305,980 lbs $199,034,7|;0
Average per annum for the ten years 240,530,598 " 19,903, 173
Farmers, look at these figures. They teach you an important lesson ; one
well worthy of being placed upon this permanent record, to remind you and
your children of the great importance of the live-stock interest of the country.
You sec by the tables the rapid increase of the trade, and the enormous sum
that it amounts to in ten years. Lest you should be confused by the sum in
numerical figures, let us repeat it in words. Two billions four hundred and
five millions three hundred and sixty-five thousand nine hundred and
eighty-six pounds of meat, amounting to one hundred and ninety-nine
millions thirty-four thousand seven hundred and eighty dollars. This is
the sum that New York city has disbursed to the farming interest for fen
years' supply of meat, derived frojn the slaughter of twelve millions seven
hundred and ninety-seven thousand and thirty-nine animals.
These statistics enable us to realize the vast resources of America. T!ie
country is now feeding a million of men in the army, fighting for freedom,
full rations of meat, and sending nearly two millions a year of animals to
the city shambles of New York, for which the city is sending back to the
country twentj^ millions of dollars.
This is the greatest meat-eating country in the world ; it produces all that
it consumes and a great surplus to send abroad.
74. Cattle Transportation.— Nearly all the stock sold in the New York
market is transported upon railway cars. "We assume that the beeves for
ten years' supply have paid a tariff of $10 a head average to railroads,
making the sum of $21,505,180; calves at fifty cents a head, $209,387;
sheep at seventy-five cents, $3,703,681 ; hogs at $1 25 each, $6,612,048.
Total $32,030,296, as the estimated amount paid for the transportation of
animals butchered in New York for ten years.
Improvement is needed in transportation. Animals arc forced to stand
without food or water two or three days, or as long as their tired legs will
Seo. 5.]
STATISTICS OF THE WEW YORK CATTLE MARKET.
59
sustain them, and when they fail, as sometimes they do, the fainting creature
falls and is trampled to death.
We must have an improvement in cattle-cars. It certainly would not be
difficult to construct them so that cattle should stand with heads to one side,
where water could be given them in a trough by means of hose ; and if this
can not be done, it must be made a criminal oifense to keep the animals on
a car more than 30 hours without water. In fact, it would be better for all
parties if the number were limited that a car should contain, and that in no
case should the stock remain on the cars over 30 hours, without being
unloaded, rested, fed, and watered. Tlie present practice is a loss to owners
and an injury to consumers, by making the beasts feverish and unhealthy,
besides being an outrageous act of cruelty to animals. The whole commu-
nity is interested, and should cry out against the wicked practice, which is
enough to make humanity shudder.
75. Comparative Measurements of CattlCi — Inquiries are often made in
regard to the relative size of diiferent breeds of cattle. It is not easy to give
a very definite answer to questions of this kind ; but as several of the leading
breeds of this country were derived from England, where they are bred in
greater numbers than they are here, an idea of their comparative size may
be had from certain measurements taken of prize animals at the English
shows. We give the following tables in reference to Short-horns, Herefords,
and Devons, which toolj prizes at the shows ,of the Royal Agricultural
Society, in 1858 and 1859. The first was prepared for the Society by Mr.
Robert Smith.
CLASS. Avel
Short HORKa. j rs
Aged bulls 4
Yearling bulls 1
Bull calves
Cows 3
Two-year-old heifeiB.2
Yearlings 1
Heretobds.
Aged bulls 4
Yearling bulls 1
Bull calves
10
^
5i
CLASS. Averi
Hehefoeds. yra-
Cows 7
Two-year-old heifers. 2
Yearlings 1
Average Girth.
Devons.
Aged bulls 3 6 7 5
YearUng bulls 1 -6^ 6 2
Bull calves 8| 5 2
5 8 3 Cows 6 2i 6 Dj
104 7 0} Two-year-old heifers. 2 6 € 10
lOJ 5 ll| Yearlings 1 7} 6 1
The next table was furnished by Mr. Thos. Duckhara, the editor of the
"Herd-Book of Hereford Cattle." As far as it goes, it comprises measure-
ments of Short-horns and Herefords, which received prizes at the Warwick
show that year, the rank of the awards having been according to the order
observed in the table.
CLASS. Averi
Shoet-hokss. ys-
Aged bulls 4
4
Yearling bulls.
Bull calves
Cows 4
Average Girth.
CLASS. Averag
Herefof.ds. }■"•
AgedbuUs 2
" 4«
4
9i
lOJ
0'
Yearling buUs .
Bull calves . . . ,
Cows.
Average Girth.
60
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
[Chap. I.
76. The Improvement in Breeds and Weig^hts or Cattle. — What has raised
the average weight of beef cattle from 500 to 800 lbs., and some individuals
up to 3,600lbs. ? "What has raised the crops of corn to double their former
yield, and in several instances produced over 190 bushels of corn to>the acre
— that was in Kentucky ; but in the State of !New York whole lields have
averaged 100 bushels. In Connecticut, 13i bushels of ears of corn have been
I)roduced upon half an acre, at an expense for culture and harvest of less
than $3. What lias induced men to root up old orchards of natural fruit,
" five to the pint," and plant pippins, bald wins, greenings, russets, etc., some
of which have been sold from $8 to $20 a barrel, and retailed at a guinea
a dozen? What has induced ingenious men to devote the best energies of
their minds to inventing plows, harrows, drills, reaping-machines, and every
other implement of husbandry, while every class of domestic animals has
also been improved — neat cattle probably the most of all?
The answer is, the publication of just such facts as we are now giving,
which tend to show what has been done by some men, and may be done by
others. This encourasres us to continue our labor.
SECTION VI.-FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK.
electing Calves for Rearing. — Use judgment in
selecting such heifer calves as are to be reared.
Select only those whose mothers are good milkers,
and whose sires have come from good milking
stock ; at the same time, the calf itself should have
characteristics that indicate an aptitude to develop
good milking qualities, viz. : small, fine head, ratlier long
in the muzzle; bright eyes; tliin, tapering neck; small,
well-shaped legs ; long body ; large hind quarters, set wide
behind ; soft skin ; tine hair — the color of which is immate-
rial ; and, above all, the milk-mirror or udder veins should
be large and well developed.
The raising of bull calves for breeders had better be left
to those who have time and means to devote their attention
to it, who procure the best animals to begin with. It would be no loss to
the country, were the numerous specimens of scrub bulls, too often seen,
condemned to perpetual exile.
But there is no reason why a portion of the male calves, at least, should
not be reared as bullocks, either for the team or the butcher; and it is
important that such as are reserved for this purpose should possess certain
points indicative of future excellence, viz.: well-shaped head; small cars;
short, thick neck; deep brisket; broad chest and shoulders; fine bone; long
Sec. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. 61
body, well rounded behind the shoulders ; straight back ; wide loins ; full
quarters ; tail thin and tapering ; skin soft, and not too thin.
It is too often the case that animals are selected for rearing from being of
pretty color — that takes the fancy of some member of the family — or the
calf of some pet cow of the dairy-maid, without attention being paid to its
promise of excellences. Not unfreqnently valuable calves are fattened for
veal, simply because their color is unpleasing to the eye.
This is about the most important branch of the stock-raiser's business.
Too many persons pursue the careless mode of the person who wrote the
following item :
" In the spring of 1858 my two cows had bull calves, which I determined
to raise for sale, and so gave them a good chance to grow, adding an extra
in the shape of a handful of barley meal, with their feeds of milk. They
grew finely, or rather Bobby did, for Billy, taking a sudden dislike to sour
milk, had rather slim rations for the last six weeks befoi-e weaning. I told
him he might starve if he liked, and took no special pains to humor his
fancies. In September I had an offer of $6 for Bobby, and concluded to
let him go, but the buyer was behind time about two Aveeks, and thought
the additional keeping worth nothing, so I did not turn him off. So, of
course, Bobby was kept, and grew up to propagate the race of Bob calves."
78. Calves — Give them Sheltert — It is almost impossible to winter calves
without shelter ; if they survive the winter, they are mere skeletons, and
have to be lifted up before spring, and never make anything but poor, raw-
boned, unprofitable stock. Sheep are many times allowed to pick up what
they can get for half the winter; but the dead lambs, and probably dead
sheep, that lie scattered over the fields, tell the profit of such a course.
When protected, all food not required to maintain the natural waste of the
system goes toward increasing the growth of the animal. To obtain perfect
form, animals should be kept continually growing until they arrive at
maturity. They are often turned out in the spring so poor that it requires
half the summer to make them as good as they were the fall before — a loss
of three quarfeis of the year iii the growth of the animal. A grazier lately
said to us, in speaking of such a lot of cattle that he bought, "It took the
whole summer to soak their hides loose, so that they could begin to grow.
They seemed as hard and dry as a pair of old boots, and in some spots as
destitute of hair."
79. Training SteerSi — At the Maine State Fair, a boy of fifteen years,
from the town of Woodstock, had a pair of three-year-old steers, whicli
obeyed him as an obedient boy will his parents. By a motion of his hand
they would go forward, halt, and return, go to the right or left, kneel down,
and perform other things, much to the surprise of some older farmers, who
are in the habit of putting the brad through the hide. At a New York
State Fair there was a perfect Barey of an ox-tanier, wlio practices breaking
steers for farmers, and as he never treats them inhumanly, he soon has them
under perfect control, and as bidable as well- trained children.
62 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
80. Unruly AnimalSi — As a general rule, our domestic animals arc never
unruly, cxcej)! wlicn taught to be so. For instance, some persons, in turning
stock from one Held to another, only let down a few of tlie top rails or bars,
and force the animals to jump over. Too lazy to put up as well as to let
down, they leave the gap lialf closed, as a temptation to the stock to jump
back again. A few practical lessons of this kind make stock unruly. Care-
lessness in regard to putting up fences when thrown down, or in repairing
weak spots, confirms the habit. A writer says his practice has always been
to teach his cows, calves, sheep, and hogs to go through or under, rather
tlian over, the bars or fences, always leaving a rail or bar up at the top.
Taught this way, they never think of jumping, and he has never been
troubled with unruly animals, even when his fences were low.
81. Kindness to Brutcsi — No man can afford to be unkind to his domestic
animals, because animals which are treated tlie most kindly arc the most
gentle and obedient, and also thrive the best; hence, no one can afford to
use them unkindly. By kindness, mingled with firmness, the most ferocious
animals are subdued, and it is vain to suppose that the same means would
not be eflectnal in training domestic animals. Surel}', no one should degrade
himself by continuing a practice wliich is both unprofitable and inhuman —
a practice that makes man the brute instead of the quadruped. There is no
economy in half starving any stock through the winter, and causing them to
take all the storms without any shelter ; but, on the contrary, it is a clear
waste and loss to the owner.
82. Shelter for Cattlet — Next to the necessity of an adequate supply of
food for stock, comes the iinjwrtance of shelter. It needs no argument to
prove the truism that animals can not live without food; and it is just as
certain that our domestic stock, artificially susceptible to the storms and
changes of our Northern climate, can not thrive without proper shelter. It
seems now to be well settled, that a due degree of warmth is equivalent, in
a measure, to food ; and Ave all know that an entire abandoii to ease and
comfort, while in a state of rest — a perfect freedom from apprehension of
any kind, which may arise from a lack of food, or from exposure, or any
other cause — is neccssarj' to the maximum of thrift or usefulness.
On old, improved, rich lands, it would be policy in the farmer to stable or
yard his cattle and horses during the whole year ; but I should prefer yarding
in the summer season, as more air and room for exercise would be allowed,
both of which would be conducive to the health of the animals.
One acre of land, in good condition, sown to corn, and cut and fed from
the time it begins to tassel iintil it begins to glaze, will keep six head of
cattle during the time, and perhaps more — say two montiis — while it would
have taken six acres of pasture to keep them the same length of time.
On farms where the pasture is generally the roughest, poorest part of the
farm, and that whicii could not be applied as profitably to other purposes —
on such lands the cattle must be allowed to get their own living in summer.
Tlic above are excerpta from several excellent essays in the Genesee
Sec. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. 63
Fanner, and might have been much more extended, only that we have a
great many other good things to glean from other sources.
83. Straw for Cattlei — Mr. Johnson says, in a letter to the Genesee
Farmer : " You say that I put straw in my boxes for my cows. This is not so.
No man ever saw me feed straw to cattle, at least for the last twenty -five years.
K they choose, they can eat the straw spread out for litter, but I never
compel them to eat straw. I know cattle can be fatted on grain and straw,
but I don't think so profitably as part grain and part hay, or part oil-cake
and part hay. Grass is the natural food of sheep and cattle ; and hay made
from grass, if properly made, puts on fat, even if very little else is fed. I
am satisfied that either cows or fatting cattle do much better in yards, with
auijile sheds and plenty of straw for clean, dry beds. I can not feed any
kind of stock profitably unless they have such beds."
84. Wintering Cattle. — There is yet a good deal of wisdom to be learned
upon this subject, even by those whose talk is of bullocks, and particularly
in wintering calves. The one great error is in neglecting them in autumn,
after the frost has destroyed the 'sweetness of the grass, and allowing them
to commence getting poor before winter feeding is commenced. Tliere is no
error more fatal to success than such neglect. It is often the foundation of
disease that the animal never recovers from. Tliere is no condition so good
for an animal going into winter quarters as a thriving fatness; and if that
can be kept up till mid-winter, the danger of starvation upon very light
feed in the spring is greath' diminished. It is one of the worst things in all
farm economy to neglect feeding stock in the fall, because it is not yet time
to begin to fodder. You had better begin in July, if your pasture fails,
so that your animals begin to lose flesh. All that is saved of fodder in the
fall, iipon the plea that "caltle can shift a wliile longer," exactly verifies the
old saw about " saving at the spigot and wasting at the bung."
85. Feeding Pumpkinst — A subscriber sends a long communication against
feeding pumpkins to cows. The writer's reasoning is not entirely sound, and
does not agree with our own experience and observation. As a general rule,
we are quite sure that pumpkins increase rather than diminish the quantity
of milk ; and instead of making neat stock grow poor, we have fattened
large numbers of cattle on pumpkins alone. There is one suggestion in our
correspondent's letter, however, which may be worthy of attention. He
refers to the fact that the seeds of pumpkins have a decided diuretic (urine-
producing) eflect upon the human organs, and that if they have the same
eflect upon cows, the excessive flow of urine must necessarily reduce the
flow of the milky fluid. He advises that when pumpkins are fed, the seeds
should be taken out. The idea is plausible, and worth being acted on.
86. Keeping Stocli Warm, and Variety of Food. — Man craves a variety of
food ; that is, a variety of substances, either one of which would sustain life,
but would not be satisfactory. Nature demands the variation, and the mix-
ing together tlie several substafices. Why ? Simply because no one will
give all the elements that go to make up the animal economy. One article
64 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
furnishes phosphate for bones, which another article is destitute of, yet it
may contain matter tliat will clothe the bones with muscle. Food that con-
tains neither fat nor sugar will be found sufficient to keep up the animal
heat. Food that contained all the elements of bone, muscle, fiber, fat, and
heat-producing qualities, might be so concentrated as to be unhealthy.
A man fed upon pemmican, would have a disposition to eat straw, husks,
and twigs, or gnaw the bark from trees, to get something to distend the
stomach and enable it to perform its functions healthily. Let this be thought
of in feeding domestic animals. It will furnish an easy rule for your
guidance. Judge them by yourself, and act accordingly ; you will find it
an easy and sure road to success. We do not for animals, quadruped or
biped, recommend a variety of food at the same meal — only a change from
time to time, so as to give variety, and consequently all the elements neces-
sary to produce growth.
Never neglect to give your cattle water until you learn to do without it
yourself, and never ofier them drink where you would vomit if compelled
to slake your own tliiret.
Never leave a horse, a cow, a sheep, out in a cold winter storm, until you
arrive at that condition of unfeelingness that you could endure it yourcelf.
When you think 3-ou could find comfortable shelter under a common rail
fence, you may leave your cattle there. No domestic animal can ever reach
the highest state of perfection its nature is capable of unless always kept in
a healthy, growing condition, in an equable climate, or in warm shelter if
the inhabitant of a cold one.
Farmers do not i)ay sufficient attention to the warmth of their stock, but
Buflor them to roam about in the open air, exposed to the inclement weather.
The amount of exercise is another most important point to attend to. The
more an animal moves about, the quicker it will breathe, and the more
starch, gum, sugar, fat, and other respiratory elements it must have in its
food ; and if au additional quantity of these substances be not given to
supplj' the increased demand, the fat and other parts of the bodv will be
drawn upon, and the animal will become thiimer ; also, as before observed,
every motion of the body produces a corre-sponding destruction of the mus-
cles which produce that motion. It is therefore quite evident that the more
the animal moves about, the more of the heat-producing and flesh-forming
principle it must receive in its food. Ilence we sec the propriety of keepino'
our cattle in sheds and yards, and not suffering those (particularly which
wc intend to fatten) to rove about, consuming more food, and wasting away
more rapidly the various tissues of the body already formed, and making it
more expensive and difficult to fatten them.
87. Fattrnin;; Cattle upon Hay. — Speaking upon this subject, a committee
of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, of which John Brooks and Paoli
Lathrop are members, remark :
" Fattening cattle in winter upon hay alone is a resort of many farmer?,
and where hay is plenty and distant from market, the practice is not iucon-
Seo. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FABM-STOCK. 65
sistent with economy. If well attended, good animals consuming four per
cent, of their live weight of good hay daily, will gain daily two pounds of
flesh. Suppose the flesh gained to be worth 16 cents, it will be equal to $8
a ton for the haJ^ The better practice, however, is to give only three per
cent, of the live weight of the animal in hay daily, and an equivalent for
the other one per cent, in Indian meal or roots. The gam would be greater
for the same cost of food."
Another remark worth quoting is the following :
"The best age for feeding cattle for beef is from four to eight years.
Young growing cattle may be fattened, but it will require more food in pro-
portion, and longer time."
88. How to Feed Roots. — There seems to be much diversity of opinion as
to the value of turnips, carrots, etc., for feeding. One man feeds his hogs a
great amount of them, but neglects to provide a bed secure from the intru-
sion of cold winds and snow, and then wonders they do not grow ; or feeds
a cow four bushels per day, and wonders she does not fat. How could she ?
She is almost physicked to death, and her urinary organs are injured by
over-exertion ; and although she is thoroughly littered with straw, still her
feet are in the water ; and when she lies down, her side is wet.
After many trials in a similar way, many have come to the conclusion
that root feeding is an unprofitable business in our climate. If hogs must
sleep in snow-banks, give thetn corn by all means, and give them plenty of
it. If cattle can not be stabled, or kept so sheltered that they may be dry,
then roots will not give one half the return they would under a judicious
system of management.
After many trials of fattening sheep and horned cattle, and feeding store
stock of all kinds with roots, I came to the conclusion that they are all valu-
able when properly fed witli liay and grain, but that their relative value to
grain is often overrated in tliis country of cheap corn. Roots, unless cooked,
aie not economical food for swine.
The great error in relation to feeding roots is, that they are too much fed
to the exclusion of grain. A farmer lias shoats to winter, or horned cattle
to fatten ; he first feeds his turnips, carrots, beets, small potatoes ; next his
corn or meal. This is wrong. The corn should be fed from the first. A
dozen shoats of 100 lbs. eacli would profitably receive a bushel per day of
roots, if cooked with corn. A fattening ox should have one busliel, or not
over two, per day, with six or eiglit quarts of meal. Cows should have one
half bushel per day, whether being milked or not. That amount will bring
them out, iu the spring, fat and ready to do good service at the pail, provided,
of course, that they have hay and stalks in due proportion. Calves and
yearlings should always have one fourth bushel per day, with a very small
allowance of grain.
The above is partly from the Stoeh Joui'nal, and the following from the
Workijig Farmer j both of wliich are good authority.
We beg again to remind our readers, particularly those who are engaged
66 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Ciiap. I.
in dairy and etock farming, to appropriate a full aniouiit of land to root-
growing. Carrots, beets, turnips, parsneps, may all be raised witli protit
wherever stock is to he fed. For horses, carrots arc invaluable. For milch
cows, tliey not only furnish a milk of superior flavor, butter of fine color and
odor, but, when used as a portion of tlieir food, they guarantee a healthful
condition. Tlie power of the pectic acid of the carrot to gelatinize all veg-
etable matter held in solution in the stomach, puts its contents in such a
condition that the peristaltic motion of the intestines can manage it. Flat-
ulence is prevented, and thorough digestion secured. The dung of the
horse fed partly on carrots, never contains tlie undecomposed shell of the
oat, nor large amounts of starch unappropriated ; and it is for this reason
tliat a bushel of oats and a bushel of carrots will do more for the horse than
two bushels of oats ; and not because the carrot contains as much flesh-
making material as the oat, but because it causes all the flesh-making ma-
terial of the oat to be appropriated, instead of being voided witii the excretia.
For cows and oxen, otiier roots may occasionally be substituted with profit,
as variety to all animals is pleasing in tlieir food ; and no one root should
be so continuously used. Since the introduction of pulping machines, pulped
roots mixed with cut hay, cut straw, and other cheap material, add much to
the economy of the f;irm as well as to tlie licalth of the cattle.
89. Feeding Linseed and fotton-seed Oil-fake. — Never having had per-
sonal experience enough in feeding oil-cake, having always preferred corn-
meal, to give an opinion which we would ask others to rely upon, we select
the following from a lecture by Prof. Yoelcker, before the meeting of the
council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in June, 1S60. It is
worthy of attention from all cattle-feeders. lie says :
" It is not my object, in giving a practical turn to the lecture to-day, to
record any experiments of my own, or in any way to presume to teach the
feeder of stock in what way he may best expend his money in the puichase
of food, but I shall endeavor simply to give to the practical man some indi-
cations whereby I hope he will be enabled to form for himself a trustworthy
opinion respecting the relative value of dilferent cakes, and likewise what is
perhaps of more iin})ortance to him, to introduce some remarks which will
enable Iiim to distinguish a good from a bad cake ; and in conclusion, shall
allude briefly to the various substances with which oil-cakes are at the pres-
ent time often largely adulterated.
90. Fat iu Food< — "Let me first point out to you some peculiarities in
the composition of oil-cakes. A reference to their composition is necessary
to the understanding tlie remarks which will follow. I would then observe,
that what ciiaracterizes oil-cakes, distinguishing them from all other articles
of food ])re-eminently, is the large amount of oil that is left in the cakes,
obtained by expression of the oil-seeds. If you glance at the diagram (see
table on page 71), you Avill find that they contain a considerable quantity of
oil — from C to 12 per cent. ; and in some instances, as in the decorticated
cotton-cake, even 16 per cent, of oil. I may observe at once that the value
Sec. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. 67
of oil-cake in a very great measure depends upon the amount of oil which is
left in the cake. And I may further say, that the tendency of the manufac-
turer at the present day is to produce an inferior description of cake, inas
much as improved machinery enables him to sr^ueeze out more oil than
formerly, and thus to render the refuse less fattening, less valuable to the
feeder of stock. I am very much inclined to believe that the oil is by far
the most valuable constituent of all oil-cakes. I am aware that it was the
fashion, not many years ago, to measure the feeding properties and even the
fattening qualities of articles of food by the amount of nitrogenous or flesh-
forming matters ; but these views are not supported by any practical
experiments, nor, indeed, by the every-day experience that we liavc respect-
ing not only human, but cattle food. We pay more for food rich in starch,
mucilage, and matters capable of producing fat, than we pay for food which,
like bean-meal, is extremely rich in nitrogenous matter, but which does not
produce so much butcliers' meat. It is a matter of much importance to the
farmer to know how much he gets back for the money he expends in the
purchase of food. I have no hesitation in saying that more money is made
by the purchase of food rich in oil, starch, or sugar, than in the purchase
of food which contains an excess of nitrogenous matters.
91. Flesh hi Food. — "Still, we ought not to leave unnoticed that the
flesh-forming matters are very important indeed, and that oil-cakes are
peculiarly rich in them. In one sense they are perhaps most essential — per-
haps even more essentially necessary than the other constituents of food
which produce fat, or are employed in the animal economy to keep up the
animal heat. They are more important in this sense ; whereas the animal or-
ganization has the power to make fat from gum, sugar, nmcilage, and even
from young cellulose or young vegetable fiber, it has not the power of making
a particle of flesh. Unless, therefore, food is given to animals which contains
ready-made flesh, an animal can not grow, and the other constituents of food
remain unavailable. It is in this sense that the nitrogenous matters of food
are extremely valuable ; but in a purely practical sense they are not so val-
uable as the oil, starch, or sugar of food, because by spending a certain amount
of money in food, we do not get so great a return in the shape of butchers'
meat by purchasing these flesh-forming matters as by purchasing feeding
substances rich in oil or starch. However, in speaking of the relative value
of the various constituents, especially tlie oily and the flesh-forming constit-
uenis, we are not to overlook that the quantity of nitrogenous matter which
is not applied for tlie formation of flesh, passes through the animal, and is
ol)tained again in the dung, with the exception of a small quantity tliat
escapes by evaporation through the skin or through the lungs. A certain
quantity of nitrogenous food evaporates through the skin, or with the per-
spiration ; but by far the largest proportion, according to some experiments,
nineteen twentieths, of the flesh-forming or nitrogenous matters of food are
found again in the dung ; according to otliers the amount is seven eighths.
But, speaking in round numbers, I think we are not far wrong iii saying that
68 . DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
we may fairly expect tliree fourtlis of tlie nitiogcuized matters of oil-cake back
again in the mamire ; .iiid periiaps we are safe, likewise, in asserting tliat
fully one lialf of tlie money valne of rape and the best cotton cakes is ob-
tained back again in tlie manure. So we must not put down these constit-
uents, which arc called nitrogenous, as useless, because they alone do not
produce much butchers' meat ; nor must we estimate the value of oil-cake
entirely by tlie increase in the live weight of cattle fed upon the cake, but
also, and chieflv, I believe, by the increased value of the manure which is
l)r()duced througli the instrumentality of oil-cake.
92. Bone in Foodi — " I will now direct attention to the inorganic matters
or ash of oil-cakes. These inorganic matters may be called bone material ;
for the ash of oil-cakes is particularly rich in i)hosi>hates of lime, or the ma-
terial of which the greater \>a.i-t of the bone is composed. Now, the large
proijortion of oil ; next, the large pri-yjtortion of flesh-forming matters; and
third, a considerable proportion of bone material are characteristics that
confer a i)articular value upon oil-cake, either directly as food, or indirectly
as useful material for increasing the value of farm-yard manure. For let me
observe, that oily matters and substances tliat make butchers' meat arc the
most valuable constituents in all feeding materials, and therefore also in an
oil-cake. On the other hand, the flcsh-forining constituents and the bone-
forming materials — in other words, the nitrogen and the phosphates of tlie
cake — are the two most valuable fertilizing constituents. "\Vc have thus in
oil-cakes, in a concentrated state, materials that produce butchers' meat,
and, at tlie same time, yield the most valuable fertilizing constituents. There
is no other description of food which unites these useful properties.
93. LiilSfFll-fakei — " You are all aware we disiinguisii chieily the follow-
ing kii\(ls of linseed-cake : English cake, American cake, and foreign cakes.
Among foreign cakes there are various descriptions. There is the Baltic,
the Marseilles, the Naples cake, and various others. We have here an ex-
cellent specimen of good English cake. The English cake is made now of
two qualities, thick and thin cake ; the latter is made in imitation of the
American barrel cake, of which specimens are before you. You observe
how closely the tliin English cake resembles the American bari'el cake. The
latter has gained much favor, and therefore the manufacturers in England
liave found it to their advantage to imitate the form in which it is sold. In
the first place, notice that the American cake occasionally is as bad as
English and foreign cakes. It is not every description of American cake
which is good, but generally speaking, as it comes into the market, espe-
cially the barrel cake, it is of a very superior character. But the question
whether it is generally superior to the English cake or not, is one which is
not very readily decided ; you may get English cake quite as good, if "not
be' tor, than tlie American cake.
'• Soiue years ago it was the fashion to buy the English cake in preference
to any oilier, but it is now the fashion to buy the American barrel cake. I
can only account for this by the fact that the English cake, being produced
Seo. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. 69
in good quality, was rapidly consumed; the American cake was usually
scut in a very damaged condition to this country, coming as it did in bat^s •
our sharp American friends very soon found that they must send their cake
here in a good condition. They dried it previously to sending it over and
imported it in barrels, and this improved condition of the American cake
greatly increased its reputation, which has been kept up ; so that at the pres
out time in most markets, American cake, especially the barrel cake, fetches
a iiigher price than the English. But a reference to the diagram will show
you tliat there is no essential diiFerence between good English cake and
good American ; indeed, if anything, the advantage is in favor of the speci-
mens of English cake. The difference is extremely small. There is the
same quantity of oil in both cases. The proportion of flesh-forming matters
is rather larger in the English than in the American. There is the same
amount of ash in both. Tlie proportion of sand hardly amounts to one pey
cent, in tlie English cake, and in the American it is only a half per cent.
Tliese differences are extremely small and unimportant, so that you may
get, and often do get, as good English cake as American. And occasion-
ally, also, you get bad American cakes ; but on the whole, the exporters
of American cake are very jealous as to the kind of article they send to this
country, especially if they go to the expense of packing it in barrels.
94-. Cotton-CakCi — " We distinguish now principally two kinds of this cake
• — the one made of the whole seed, and the otlier of the shelled seed. The
difference in the two qualities of cake will at once become intelligible by
an examination of tlie seeds, or the raw materials from which the cakes are
made. The decorticated or shelled cake is made of the kernel of the cotton
seed ; the whole cake, in which we recognize an abundance of the husk, is
made of the entire seed ; and inasmuch as the cotton seed contains full half
its weight, and some descriptions contain as mucli as 60 per cent, of the hard
husk, we must not expect that the cake made of tlie whole seed should be
60 valuable as the decorticated cake. There are several specimens of cotton-
cake on the table. There is very little value in the husk itself; tlie difference
in the two kinds of cotton-cake, then, arises from the different mode in which
they are made. The one, the decorticated cake, is made from the kernel ;
the other kind is made from the whole seed. The difference in the compo-
sition of the two kinds of cake is very great. The decorticated cotton-cake
contains 16 per cent, of oil (more than any other description of cake), while
the whole-seed cake contains only 6 per cent. The proportion of albuminous
or flesh-forming matters in the decorticated cake amounts to 41 per cent. •
in the whole-seed cake it is only 23 per cent, or just one half. So with
respect to the other constituents, the proportion of woody fiber is very much
larger in the whole-seed cake than in the other. The husk in the whole-
seed cake for a long time was a great impediment to the general use to
which cotton-cake is now applied in this country. I remember when tlie
first cargoes of cotton-cake came into England, before the decorticated
cotton-cake was known; trials were made of it, which proved quite unsuc-
70 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
cessfiil. People (lid not like it at all, and I believe the cotton-cake would
never have been extensively used if it had not been for the invention of a
very useful machine, ])atented in America, by means of which the hard
husks can be removed from tlie kernel. The use of this machine gives us a
superior oil and a superior cake. The cot;on-seed oil made from the kernel
alone is a very useful anicle, and so is the cake, whereas tlie oil expressed
from the whole seed is dark brown in color, and can not be used except for
the commonest piirjioscs for which oil is employed. The difference in the
value of the two descriptions of cake is so great, that I almost think two
tuns of the oil<'ake, made of the whole seed, do not go further than one tun
of the best decorticated cotton-seed cake. Moreover, there is a certain
danger in using the whole-seed cake. Several cases of so-called poisoning
have been brought under my notice within the last year or two. Animals
that have freely partaken of tlie whole-seed cake have died suddenly, and
people have imagined that there was something injurious in the husk; but
examination has shown that the effect produced is very much like that which
is occasionally produced in the case of boys who die from inflammation of
the bowels in countries where cherries are very abundant. Being very
greedy, and eating the cheri-ies with the stones, they get a stoppage of the
bowels, and so die from inflammation. There is nothing poisonous in the
husk of the cotton-seed, and when given judiciously, no injury will result;
but if aninuils are supplied with an unlimited quantity of dry food with the
whole seed, ihere is indeed a danger. The hard husk is indigestible, and
may roll togetlier in sucii large masses that inflammation of the bowels will
ensue. There is no such danger, however, in the use of decorticated cotton-
cake. The decorticated cake occurs of various degrees of qualify. And
allow me to observe, with respect to all kinds of cake, that not only the
composition, but, even in a higher degree, the condition of the cake, deter-
mines in a great measure its value. I have here a specimen which you
would hardly recognize as of the same description as another specimen also
on the table, of a very beautiful character; it is the same kind of cake, only
it is in a bad condition. I say, then, the condition of a cake determines
everything.
95. Condition of f ake> — "Some time ago I was very much gratified in
finding what great care Mr. Stratton, of Eroad Ilinton, a celebrated sliort-
horn breeder, takes in selecting the very best of American barrel cake for
his stock. "We often forget that animals have appetites as we have, and that
they like food in a good condition better than food in a bad one. The com-
position of two samples of the same food may not vary much, yet the prac-
tical effect produced by them may vary exceedingly. There is nothing
remarkable in this, for we know that if we get good, wholesome bread, which
is one or two days old, we do well upon it ; but if it remains in a damp
cellar and gets moldy, stale, and moist, it loses its fine flavor, and in this
condition may do us harm. So it is with stale, Tuoldy cakes. Animals
never do well on very old cakes. In examining, therefore, the different
Sec. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. 71
cakes, we ought to examine particularly their condition. I allude especially
to tlie examination of cotton-cake, because every pierson has the means of
examining its condition with very little trouble. It is not so easy to examine
the condition of linseed ; it presupposes an extensive acquaintance with
various descriptions of linseed-cake. You must have seen a great many
samples of cake before you can give a trustworthy opinion. Not so with
decorticated cotton-cake. In this the color affords an excellent criterion as
to its freshness. The freshest cotton-cake is as yellow as mustard. I hold a
piece of cake in my hand, the exterior of which is brown ; but if I cat away
a portion, you will observe that the interior is bright yellow — very different
from the part that has been exposed to the air. This was an excellent cake
when we first got it for feeding purposes, and we are feeding it extensively
on our farm at Cirencester. When we lirst had it, it was of a bright yellow
color ; but you observe how it has since changed. From this we may learn
a very useful lesson, that we may take the color as a guide to the condition
and age of the cakes. If we are . presented with a cake which is as brown
as the specimen before me, and if you find on cutting it that the brown color
has penetrated deep into the interior, we may at once conclude that it is a
stale old cake. The deeper it has penetrated, the older the cake, and the
more it lias suffered by bad keeping. If it is kept in a damp place, its color
and condition are rapidly deteriorated,
COMPOSreiON OF LINSEED AND OF OIL CAKES.
lin«,.pH. Mi.««r,i Cotion-secd cake Poppy-
Linseed. ^'^^^I^' Eape-eake. M";^» ^ made of .eJ
whole seed. cake.
Water 7.50 12.44 10.68 11.90 11.19 11. G3
Oil 34.00 12.79 11.10 6.69 9.08... . 6.75
FleBh-forming matters 24.44 27.69 29.53 23.48 25.16 31.46
Heat-giving constituents 30'73 40.95 40.90 62.14 48.93 38.18
Inorganic matters (ash) 3.33 6.13 7.79 6.79 6.64 12.98
100.00 100.00 100.00 100 00 100.00 100.00
9G. Salt for Stock. — A great deal has been written upon the use of salt
for animals, and much reasoning employed to prove various positions ; but
very few accurate experiments have been made. Loose and general observ-
ations have been the basis for most of the opinions formed. A certain
quantity of salt is unquestionably useful ; an excess is as certainly hurtful.
The proper amount is what we want to have determined. All ordinary food
of animals contains more or less salt — as, for example, a tun of barley or
oats straw, and of some kinds of hay, contains six pounds of salt ; a tun of
carrots contains four pounds. We can not, therefore, speak of animals eating
no salt — they all partake of it, but we wish to know the right quantity.
The Genesee Farmei\ from which we have frequently extracted useful
facts, and to which we are indebted for the next half dozen, says of salt for
cattle feeding for the shambles :
" We have had our doubfs whether it was good economy to allow animals
feeding for the lutcher the free use of salt. Salt is doubtless conducive to
health, favoring the formation of bile, and aiding in carrying effete matter
72 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
from the system ; but there is no reason to suppose that it favors the accu-
mulation of fat. Liebig, indeed, asserts that ' the absence of common salt is
favorable to the fonnation of fat, ^ and that the ' fattening of an animal is
rendered impossible, when we add to its food an excess of salt, although
short of the quantity required to produce a purgative effect.' Ilecently,
however, in allusion to experiments made since tlie publication of the work
in wliich the above sentences occur, Liebig says: 'Salt does not act as a
producer of flesh ; but it neutralizes the injurious actions of the conditions
which must be united in the unnatural state of animals fed or fattened in
order to produce flesh ; and the advantages attending its use can hardly be
estimated too highly.'
" Boussingault is also in favor of salt. Two lots of steers were fed tliirteen
months, one with and one without salt. The average weiglit per head of
the salted lot, at the commencement of the experiment, was 995 lbs. ; at the
end of thirteen months, 2,090 lbs. Increase, 1,135 lbs. They consumed per
Iiead 15,972 lbs. of hay. One tun of hay, therefore, produced 14:3 lbs. of
increase of animal.
"The second lot, which received no salt, averaged at the commencement
of the experiment 896 lbs. ; at the end of thirteen months, 1,890 lbs.
Increase, 994 lbs. They consumed per head 14,553 lbs. of hay, or one tun
of hay produced 137 lbs. of increase of animal.
"The steers receiving salt produced six pounds more increase for each tun
of hay consumed than those which were not allowed salt. This may be
considered only a slight advantage, and in France did not pay the cost of
the salt ; in this country, liowever, where salt is much cheaper, its use will
doubtless be profitable. Boussingault remarks : 'The salt exercises no con-
siderable influence on the growth, yet it appears to exert a beneficial effect
on the appearance and condition of the animal.' Up to the first fourteen
days no perceptible dift'erence was observed between the two lots ; but in the
course of the month following, the difierence was visible, even to the
impracticed eye."
With such good authority, it is presumed feeders will continue the use of
salt; but let us give them this one word of caution — do not give it in excess.
If you can not get rock-salt, or if that is too expensive, mix fine salt with
soft clay,^and dry that in large cakes, and lay them under cover for the cattle
to lick.
97. Ilock-Salt. — We reiterate that rock-salt is not only the most econom-
ical, but the most convenient for the farmer to salt his cattle, since it can be
placed where they can lick it at their leisure, and there it will remain, sum-
mer and winter ; the rains have very little effect upon it while in a lump,
as it comes from the quarry, it being really what its name indicates, a piece
of rock. When broken fine it dissolves easily, but not before.
A farmer who has the least idea of economy should learn how much he
can save in a year, or a lifetime, by the simple operation of substituting rock-
salt in place of that in ordinary use for farm-Stock. A lump of rock-salt
Sec. G.] feeding CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. 73
may be placed in any out-door situation, wliere cattle can go and lick if
whenever their appetite inclines them to do so, and it will not waste by
exposure to dew or rain, because it is not hygrometric, as is the manufactured
salt in common use. Another thing in its favor is this — your stock, with
salt always before them, will never eat too much. Neither will they eat it
too fast, as they almost always do Avhen salted with tine salt ; nor waste it
by scattering it in the dirt, or leaving, it to dissolve and sink into the earth.
Another difSculty is obviated by the use of rock-salt constantly within reach
of stock, and that is, the hooking and punching of the weaker animals by
the strong ones, ih fighting their way to the once-a-week, or perhaps once-
a-month, salting-place.
Rock-salt is a mineral as much as marble, and almost as solid and hard,
and is quarried out of mines, like coal or other mineral substances. The
most extensive salt mines are at Ci'acow, in Poland, where there are regular
cartways, streets, and villages of miners' huts, where men, women, and
children, and domestic animals live deep down in the earth. Our principal
supply of rock-salt comes from Cheshire, England, where there are extensive
mines. In its mineral state, the salt is of a slightly reddish color, and dingy
white, and some of it needs to be melted and purified for culinary pnrposes.
The purest portion may be reduced at once to powder by breaking and
grinding, and is then quite white. The salt known here as Liverpool salt is
refined rock-salt from the Cheshire mines.
A lump of rock-salt as big as a man's head may be fixed by pins npon a
rock or block, where the water will not stand around it, and it will remain
until all licked away by the cattle's tongues. In case of stock in stables, a
lump may be placed in each manger.
98. Bones for Animais. — A good deal has been lately said abont feeding
animals with bone-meal. We give several opinions upon the subject :
E. C. "Wright, of Gallatin County, 111., states, on the authority of the Eev.
John Crawford, of Crawford, in that county, that the bones of swine dying
with what is called hog cholera, decay as rapidly as the flesh, and that portions
of the skin outlast the bones. He wants scientific men to give attention to
this strange consumption of the solids, and thinks that it may bo the means
of suggesting a remedy for the disease so fatal and so pecuniarily distressing
to a vast number of farmers in the West. Now, as we know that feeding
bone-meal to animals and phosphate of lime to plants that need it, has
proved beneficial, is it impossible or improbable that feeding it to swine
suflerlng from a disease that produces the effect described, may not be the
means of curing or preventing the disease?
Dr. Waterbury says : " There are some new theories in relation to feeding
phosphates to animals. It is possible that this may have some effect. There
is an idea prevailing that feeding material that makes bones will increase
their size. It is a subject well M'ortliy of more attention."
Prof. Mapes states that, when a calf is deficient in bone, that is, too weak
to stand, feeding bone-meal to the cow that suckles the calf will furnish it
74 DOMESTIC AlOMALS. [Chap. I.
with the necessary material. Tliis fact is well known to many farmers, and
that cows eat old bones with great avidity. "We also know that physicians
are using a solution of phosphate of lime in their practice, and there is no
doubt it may be administered to domestic animals with equally good ctiect;
and whether, in the case named, it worked a cure or not, it is well worth
trying. Many things much more simple have produced wonderful results.
99. Water for Stock. — See that your stock have an abundance of clear,
good water in hot weather. If it is pnmped from wells, it should always be
standing in boxes or troughs, so that stock can have access to it. Select, for
hot days, fields with plenty of shade trees in them, to protect stock from the
burning sun. Pastures should always contain shade trees, and they should
be planted, if not there.
Mr. Strawn, the great Illinois farmer, has successfully tried this method
of keeping water on a stock farm :
Dig a basin five or ten rods square, and ten feet deep, upon a high knoll ;
feed corn in the basin to your hogs and cattle, until it is well puddled by
the tramping of their feet, which will make it almost wafer-tight. Mr.
Strawn says the rains of a single winter sufficed to accommodate several
hundred head of stock, and that it had been dry but once in twelve years.
For watering at the barn, in all situations where digging wells is expen-
sive, cisterns should be provided, if running water from some brook or
spring can not be brouglit in pipes, or sent iip by a water-ram.
100. rhaffing Food for Stock. — Tliere is no disputing the fact that chafling
food, particularly all coaree foi'age, will pay well, where it is as dear as it is
in the vicinity of New York. At the State Fair Farmers' Club, at Elmira,
October, 1860, the following opinions were given upon the subject :
A. B. Dickenson said : " On good hay you can fat cattle, but you can not
upon corn-stalks, but they are better than poor hay. I can not make an
acre of corn-stalks as good as an acre of grass. If you want to raise a big
crop of corn, put on barn-yard manure year after year on grass, and afie:-
ward plow it in and make it mellow and rich, sixteen inches deep, and then
corn will never exhaust the soil. Corn-stalks must always be chaflfed to
obtain their full value."
Col. Butterfield, of Utica, said: "Up to two or three years ago, I thought
l)ut little of corn-fodder. I then cut the top stalks; now I cut up by the
ground, and my cattle do first-rate on corn-stalks till March. To get the
greatest benefit from corn-stalks, they must be chaff'cd and steamed."
Hon. T. C. Peters, of Darien, N. Y., said : " I grow corn for fodder as well
as grain, and cut up from the ground, and chaS" the stalks for feeding. Tliere
is no other feed for milch cows in Avinter equally valuable if it is well cured
and flien chaffed ; and if steamed, it is still better."
Mr. Lyman Barnard, of Steuben County, said : " I cut up my corn from
the ground, and cut the stalks up fine in a stalk-cutter, and mix with cut
straw, and I find my cattle and horses do as well, or better, than tipon good
timothy hay."
Seo. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CAKE OF FARM-STOCK. 75
Mr. Plumb, of Onondaga County, said : " We don't raise any crop as val-
uable as corn, and we do raise good wheat. I foddered 150 sheep and 12
cows till March upon ten acres of corn-stalks, allowing the stock to run at a
straw-stack besides. I raise the large eight-rowed yellow corn with a small
oob, and like it better than Dutton corn. It yields better than any white
corn."
It is the opinion of some really scientific men we have conversed with
upon the subject, that in all places where hay usually sells as high as $20 a
tun, and power is not unusually expensive, that it would pay, not only to
chaff all hay, stalks, straw, etc., but actually to grind these substances into
meal — not very fine, to be sure, but so that none of the particles would be
more than an eighth of an inch in length. We saw, a few years ago, the
model of a newly-invented mill that was most admirably well calculated for
doing such work as reducing hay and straw to meal. It was the invention
of Mr. Blanchard, of Boston.
Flint, in his " Dairy Farming," in speaking of feeding milch cows, says :
" One of the best courses is, to feed in the morning, either at the time of
milking — which I prefer — or immediately after, with cut feed, consisting
of hay, oats, millet, or corn-stalks, mixed with shorts, and Indian, linseed,
or cotton-seed meal, thoroughly moistened with water. If in winter, hot
or warm water is far better than cold. If given at milking-time, the cows
will generally give down the milk more readily. The stalls and mangers
ought always to be well cleaned out first."
101. Nutritive Value of Various Kinds of Fodder.— The following tables
will be useful, as showing the relative value of various substances :
, — rer centage of Nitrogen ,
Net. equivalent. Dried. Undried.
-1. Meadow hay 100 1.34 \Ab
2. Red clover hay 75 1.70 1.54
3. Rye-straw 479 0.30 0.24
4. Oat-straw 383 0.36 0.30
5. Wheat-straw 426 0.36 0.27
6. Barley-straw 460 0.30 0.25
7. Pea-straw 64 1.45 1.79
The following is the composition of these several substances, in which
their relative value will more distinctly appear :
Water. Woody fiber. ^tafgCh^ Gum, 6J»'en.Al; Fatty matter. Saline matter.
14 30 40 '. 7.1 2to5 5tol0
14 26 40 9.3 3 to 6 9
12 to 15 45 38 1.3 ....... — 4
12 45 ....... 35 1.3 0.8 6
12 to 15 50 30 1.3 2 to 3 5
12 to 15 50 30 1.3 — 5
10 to 15 25 45 12.3 1.5 4 to 6
From these tables it will be seen that, taking good English or meadow
hay as the standard of comparison, and calling that one, 4.79 times the
weight of rye-straw, or 3.83 times the weight of oat-straw, contains the same
amount of nutritive matter ; that is, it would take 4.79 times as much rye-
straw to produce the same result as good meadow hay.
76
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Chap. I.
NUTRmVE EQUIVALENTS. (PttACriCAL aot Tueorbticai..)
AST1CLE3 OF POOD.
THEOKtTiCAL VALUES.
English hay.
K<'»I clover hay
K--ti clover (green) . ..
Hj— ilraw
<)a'.-3traw
C trrol-leavea (tops). . .
tiwediah turnips
M.ingel-wurzcl
Willie siliciaa beet . ..
(Carrots
rolalocs
Potatoes kept in pita..
Beans
Peas
IniHan corn
i;u.kwbcat
Harhv
Oaia.'.
Rye
Wheat.
01-cake (linseed)
70.9
8.94
91.0
1.S3
M.fi
1.4-3
87. «
2.40
7.1.9
1.50
7(1 «
1.18
7.9
5.50
8.6
4.20
i,s.n
2.00
la.-i
2.40
13.2
2.02
12.4
2.22
11. ■)
2.27
in..-i
2..S3
13.4
6.00
AOLT.
Pbuk.
g?
i
il4-
■3
i *
^ tz
•^
1= =5
'■
'■
I.IU
100
•_
l.-SS
88
l.M
75
] to 6.03
.64
811
.24
479
1 to 24.40
.80
«,'<.■{
1 to 12.50
.S5
185
—
.17
(!76
—
—
1 to 7.20
.18
669
.80
8~2
1 to 7.R4
.86
819
1 lu 9.'0
.80
li<f
6.11
28
1 to 2.8
8.84
27
I to 2.14
1.64
70
1 to e..^
2.10
,V)
1 to 6.05
1.76
65
1 to 4.25
1.92
60
1 to 4.' S
2.00
.5S
1 to 4.43
2.09
65
1 to 2.42
6.20
22
—
PrecUcd TftluM, «■ obula«il l>j cxpertmenu
f««dlus, acconllut to
84 5-12
&1J
58 1112 89}
6S 1-16 I ""
38 5-6 1
300 ' — 800 250 j 201 1 _
40) : 250 4I-.0 250 t S.'.3 ! SCCf
Oats in the bundle, well cut up, straw and all, make excellent, cheap feed
for horses or other stock ; in many cases it is much better than threshing
them. For heavy teams hard at work, a little sound corn-meal mixed wet
with them, makes a feed that can not well be beaten. It is a highly econ-
omical and satisfactory way of feeding, both to man and beast, M-here oats
sell at a low price by the bushel.
103. A Treatise ou Feeding. — A valuable treatise on feeding, wliich miglit
be studied with profit by all farmers, has been made by Mr. Ilorsefall, an
English farmer, and published in the journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society, which may be found complete as an appendix to Flint's " Dairy
Farming."
103. Soiling Cattle* — Soiling is a term ajiplied to the practice of confining
animals to the stable, and growing a green crop, such as sowed corn, sorgo,
wheat, rye, or oats, clover, etc., which is cut up as needed, and carried to the
animals, instead of allowing them to have the range of the pastures. Mr.
Pliilo Gregory, of Gliester, Orange Co., N. Y., sowed a patch of half an
acre, with corn for fodder, making the rows thirty inches apart. With the
product he kept tiocntij-fivc cows for six uvcks without other food.
The most extensive and successful system of soiling is ])ursued by Hon.
Josiah Quincy, Jr., of Boston, who has published a small volume giving
details of his practice. One of the great advantages of soiling is the saving
of manure, the quantity being largely increased over that made by an equal
number of cattle at pasture, or fed in the ordinary way. "We recommend
any one disposed to attempt the soiling system to road Mr. Quincy's book.
101. Diseases of Tattle. — We shall not attempt to give a treatise upon the
Sbo. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. Y7
diseases of cattle and the remedies ; for this, we must refer the reader to
Dr. Dadd, veterinary surgeon, Boston, and his valuable writings, as well as
several other good publications, not forgetting the Stoch Journal, New
York. We will give, however, the following sensible remarks upon one
of the most common diseases, or symptoms of disease, from Thos. E. Hatch,
Keene, JST. H.
105. The Horn Ail. — Mr. Hatch says: "'Horn Ail,' or 'Hollow Horn,'
is an absurd misnomer for an imaginary disease in many cases, and for a
symptom of fever in others. Many a farmer has reluctantly ' cut off one
inch,' or more, from the tail of a beautiful animal, when it was turned out
to pasture, under the erroneous impression that it would do better, ' for the
hair hung in curls,' although the animal was in perfect liealth and good
condition, and needed no remedy of any kind. In fever, the degree of
arterial excitement is estimated in part by the heat at the base of the horn,
which is very thin, and covers the most Avascular bone in the animal, thereby
displaying symptoms of great value to those capable of appreciating them.
" But even in fever there can never be the slightest occasion for ' cutting
off one inch of the tail,' nor for pouring hoiling water upon the horns of a
suffering animal until he ' dodges.'' A cathartic of epsom or glauber salts,
sulphur or linseed-oil, combined with ginger, red pepper, or any stimulant
aromatic, will do all the good, and much more, than the slight bleeding from
the cut can do, and not leave the animal to thump its sides the remainder
of its life with a mutilated stump, a living monument that all the darkness
of the dark ages has not yet passed away.
"The hope tliat I may be the means, in a single case, of preserving intact
one of the beauties of the bovine race, to the unfortunate animal suffering
from 'Horn Ail' or 'Tail Sickness,' is the only apology that I can offer for
this communication. I would as soon knock off the horn, or slit the ears of
a favorite animal, as to ' cut off one inch of the tail,' and should have as
good physiological reasons for so doing. Tlie disfigurement in either case
would be about equal, but the inconvenience which the animal would suffer
from the loss of the long, silky brush so kindly furnished by nature, espe-
cially in 'fly time,' would be immeasurably greater."
The Ohio Kercuma, an ounce to a dose, given in wliisky a few times to
a cow with this disease, is recommended as a valuable cure. In our opinion,
good feed and warm stables as a preventive are worth more than all the cures.
106. Cure of Scours in Cattle. — An English farmer recommends the use
of acorn-meal as a sure cure of diarrhea in horned cattle, sheep, and lanib«,
and young stock generally. He says :
" I sent the dried acorns to the mill to be ground into flour, and when I
found symptoms of scour or diarrhea in my cattle, I ordered two handfiils
to be mixed in a bran mash, and given warm immediately, and to continue
it once a day, until the disease disappeared. This proved a never-failing
cure — insomuch that I never had any trouble from the disease afterward ;
and my neighbors, seeing this, had recoui-se to me for a little of my acorn
78 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
flour, when the disease appeared in their cattle, which, of course, I was glad
to give thcin, the result being the same as in my own case."
107. To Cure Lice on Cattle. — Some farmers have great faith in the
efficacy of onions for ridding cows or oxen of lice. Mr. Roe, of Orange
County, N. Y., claims to have found them an infallible remedy in his prac-
tice. They also give a tone to the stomach, and are especially valuable in
hot weather, when working cattle will lie in the shade at noon-time, and
refuse to eat. Mr. Roe uses the " scullions," or small, unsalable onions, and
those which become soft or sprouted toward spring. He gives a feed of half
a peck once a day, at noon, and says that two feeds are sufficient to extirpate
any number of vermin.
A correspondent recommends the following remedy for lice or ticks : " One
tablespoonful of sulphur to one pint of salt, mi.K thoroughly together, and
feed to cattle or sheep once a week, in quantities, as wc usually feed cattle,
for two months in succession, and there will be no ticks or lice on them."
108. Cattle Poisoned with BrinCi— Many farmers have learned to their
sorrow that old brine, placed within the reach of hogs, cattle, and perhaps
other farm stock, will cause death ; and as there are others who may not have
learned this fact, we now place it on record for their benefit. We will also
give the results of certain investigations made at the Veterinary School, at
Ayort, France, by M. Reynal, which throw additional light upon the subject.
It is ascertained that the poisonous projjcrties of brine are not immediately
acquired ; but it assumes this condition only after it has been in contact for
several months with the meat, when, if mixed with the food of stock, even
in small quantities, it will produce death ; but when hogs and other stock can
get to it, unmixed with food, its effects are still more speedily fatal. The
poison acts as a local irritant, exciting violent intestinal congestion and
inflammation. It likewise increases the secretion of the skin and kidneys,
and exerts a direct effect upon the nervous system, giving rise to trembling,
loss of sensation, convulsions, etc.
The salt of the worst brine may be saved in a pure state by boiling the
brine and carefully skimming off all the scum. The remainder may then be
used as brine, or reduced to salt by still more boiling.
109. Cattic Poisoaed by Wild Cherry Leaves. — It is not an unusual thing
for cattle to be poisoned with the leaves of the common wild cherry-tree,
which are almost sure death if eaten in a wilted state, unless a remedy is
immediately administered. Tlie most convenient, read3' remedy which a
farmer can use is hog's lard and molasses, mixed in about equal quanti-
ties, by melting the lard and warming the molasses. It should be given in
doses of a pint or a quart, by means of a black bottle, pouring it well down
the animal's throat.
110. Overstockine; the Farm. — Tliis is about the worst practice in farming,
as regards stock, either in summer or winter. It is not only unprofitable to
keep useless animals, such as liorses or oxen, but if you are overstocked, the
whole must deteriorate. There is nothinff about a farm that has a more
Sko. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FABM-STOCK. 79
distressed appearance than half-starved animals, and there is nothing about
farming that is more unprofitable. Even the manure accumulated from
such stock is far less valuable than that saved from -well-fed animals.
The most important tiling in farm-stock is a good team, and that should
be the first consideration. Have a team or teams sufficient to do all your
work, except some particular things, such as threshing, and for such extra
work have a standing arrangement, if possible, with a neighbor to exchange
team work. You can not afford to keep any extra team. You may be
overstocked in any other kind of animals with less damage than working
ones, but you can in no way afford to do without enough of them, and the
better they are, the better it will be for you. Farm-stock must be adapted
to circumstances to be profitable. "When milk sells at two cents a quart, at
or near the farm, milch cows are profitable stock, because if one average five
quarts a day, her milk will bring $36 50 a year, and some of the milch dairy
cows near New York double that. The average we have heard estimated
at $45 for all the cows kept on a farm. We have known the profit of
grazing a herd of fatting bullocks through the season often to range from
§38 to $40 a head, but we could not recommend every one to go into the
business, because it requires skill in buying, keeping, and soiling that all do
not and are not likely to possess. In all cases farm-stock should be adapted
to circumstances, and there is certainly a want of judgment in this respect
that is amazing. Men in Mississippi have tried to raise fine-wool sheep
suited to Vermont, and men in "Vermont have tried to use mules for farm-
work, instead of their own hardy breed of horses, because they had read
that they were much the most economical for fiirm-work in all the Southern
States. The pastures of New England are noted for their sweet grass and
excellent red cattle ; and tlie blue-grass fields and fat Durhams of Kentucky
are equally noted, and all should know that it would not serve either section
to advantage to exchange breeds of cattle. The adaptability of stock to the
farm is a subject that we do not wish to dictate upon, but we ask reasonable
men to take counsel with reason, and apply that ni all cases to their own
circumstances.
111. Imported vs. Native Stock. — Eobert Purvis, of Byberry, Penn., has
a farm in a high state of cultivation, one of the best in Pennsylvania, and
cojisequently, in our opinion, his ideas are entitled to a share of our respect.
He says :
"For many years I have made it my business, as it has been my pleasure,
to do what I could to promote the improvements of farm-stock. My chief
attention has been given to cows, hogs, and fowls, though I have not been
unmindful to other varieties. Of cows, I have raised the Durham, Ayr-
shire, and the Devonshire ; of hogs, the Berkshire and tlie Suffolk ; and of
fowls, a great variety. I have confined my attention chiefly to those of for-
eign growth or origin. That I have succeeded as well as others, may be
inferred from the fact that at the various shows I have taken a fair share of
the premiums. Nevertheless, my success, though encouraging, has not been
80 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
altogether satisfactory ; that is, it has not proved to me that any of these
foreign breeds, whether of cows, hogs, or fowls, are the best that we can
liave in this country, or are just the thing we want. On the contrary, it has
demonstrated to me quite the opposite, viz. : That before we can attain the
desii-ed success in this field of experiment, we must give more attention than
wc are now giving to animals which are the growth of our oicn soil. .Kot
tliat I would nndervalue the advantages of importing the best varieties of
foreign breeds, for too- much praise can not be rendered those public-spirited
men who spend their money liberally in bringing to our shores the best
specimens tliey can obtain of European animals ; but, at the same time, too
little credit may be given to others who are doing what they can to improve
our native breeds.
" I don't know how it may be with others, but according to my experience
and observation, there is an tcnvari/iiig U-^ulency in all imported stock to
deterioration. Whether it is owing to the climate, or soil, or whaf, I
don't pretend to eay ; but this tendency to dep;enerate in all foreign animals,
whatever pains may have been taken with them, has been, according to my
knowledge, witliout an exception. Now, assuming this to be true, wliicli,
nnderstand me, I do not aver, the- question arises : "Would it not be better for
US, in trying to impi'ove onr stock, to make our selections for the purpose
without regard to the animal's origin ? In milch cows, for instance, ought
we not to choose the finest-looking animal and best milker we can find,
whether native, imported, or mixed? and ought we not to see that the oflP-
spring are the product of a sire chosen on the same principle? Is it not
likely, and does not experience, so far as it has been made, show that the
tendency of this sort of breeding is to a continual improvement in the stock?
I would ask the same questions in regard to hogs, fowls, horses, sheep, and
al! other kinds of animals. In otlier words, ought we not to make more ac-
count of our native breeds, and seek, by judicious crossing and care in other
respects, to attain tlie ei^ which we have not yet reached in the matter of
stock-raising ?"
Do farmers generally sufficiently ajipreciato the reason why imported or
liigh-bred cattle look so much better than the natives? Is it not because
one class is high-fed as avcU as high-bred, and treated with the greatest pos-
sible care, while many of the poor natives are treated with the greatest
possible neglect — exposed to storms, summer and winter, and kept upon
sliort pasture while it is possil)le for the animals to get a living, and then
grudgingly fed coarse herbage to carry them alive through the winter.
With such treatment, the poor natives have no fair chance to compete with
the pampered stock lately imported ; yet, witli equally good treatment and
constant care in breeding, we believe as good cattle may be raised up out
of some of the natives as can be found among tliose imported and maintained
at such great extra expense. At least, we believe that if as much care had
been bestowed on our native stock as lias been on tlic imported breeds for the
last thirty years, the natives would now be nearly equal to the imported.
PLATE VI.
(Page 81.)
The subject of feeding swine is treated of in Section II., but to
enable readers to understand the style of the different breeds, fed
to a condition for show, we have preferred to direct his attention to
this picture rather than to a written description. Upon the left
hand he will see representatives of the Berkshire, black and white.
In the center are the beautiful white, thin-haired SufiFolk, and on
the right the black, thin-haired Essex, a favorite breed in England,
lately introduced into this country. Indeed, all three of these
named are favorite English breeds. On the right, in the rear, an
American breed, the Chester County, is represented. All that is
known of the history of this breed is Ijriefly told in ^ 13. Tliis
picture of four families of swine is equal to any other ever printed.
It is worthy of careful attention.
Above the swine, as they always should be, in the estimation of
farmers, are the sheep, showing good representatives of the three
great ftimiUes of long wool, fine wool, and medium. On the right,
the long-wool variety, luider the name of Cotswold, are well repre-
sented. In the center, the pair of merinos stand as fair types of
the fine avooI, and are handsome portraits of the large-sized sheep
of this variety. The noble South Downs on the left show what this
breed looks like. Their black faces and legs and round, full bodies
are characteristics of the family. Altogether, these four families of
swine and three of sheep make a pictui-e that is not to be passed
lightly over.
Seo. 7.]
SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
81
Wliy should we import hogs ? All the improved English breeds arc
made up. And why we can not just as well make a breed here that shall
suit our circumstances, and need no acclimathig, we can not imagine. Tlie
fecundity of pigs gives the breeder a greater facility in improving his hogs
than he possesses with any other large domestic animal. Let hiin have an
object in view and steadily pursue it for a few years, and success and great
profit are certain.
SECTION VII.-SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
reeds of English Sheep.— At a recent meeting of
the Central Farmers' Club at London, Mr. Charles
Howard delivered an address on the tubject of
"The Merits of Pure-Bred and Cross-Bred Sheep."
'•^~s In this address he gave the origin and mei-its of
several of the " established" breeds. We condense as
follows :
I. SoTTTHDOWNS. — " Tlie South, or Sussex Downs, are de-
scended from small, gray, and dark-faced sheep which
were found on the hilly and mountainous districts through-
out England. John Ellman was the original improver.
He was followed and surpassed by Jonas Webb, who has
made the Southdown perfect. Tlie peculiarity of this sheep is its supe-
rior quality of mutton and wool. Average weight, from thirteen to fifteen
months, is 126 lbs. ; weight of fleece, 6 lbs. The ewes are capital breedeis,
and generally produce one third twins. They are best adapted to elevated
situtUious and bare pasturage. Among the nobility and fancy farmers they
arc regarded as tlie elite of sheep.
II. Hampshire Dcwns.-^" This valuable sheep has been established from
various crosses, commencing with the century. Tliey present as great a
uniformity in wool, color, and general appearance as their smaller but hand
somer cousins, the Southdowns. Tiiey have risen into favor rapidly. They
arc very liardy, and of good constitutions, and good wool-bearers, the aver-
age fleece being 6 to 7 lbs., of early maturity, and have plenty of lean as
well as fat meat, and will graze to almost any weight you may choose to
make them. The ewes are good breeders and sucklers.
HI. Leicesters. — "Tliese originated with Bakewell. To this breed all
other long-wooled sheep are indebted for their improved shape and greater
disposition to fatten. Their chief characteristics are, great aptitude to fatten
with a comparatively small consumption of food, and early maturity; fleece,
7 lbs. ; carcass, at fourteen or fifteen months, 140 lbs. They are not very
good breeders, and it is a rare thing to have more lambs than ewes.
IV. The Cotbwold. — "This is one of the oldest of the established breeds.
82 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
They were originally heavy, eoai-se animals, with a thick, heavy fleece, well
adapted to the bleak, iininclosed Cotswold hills. Tiiey are now very hardy,
and will succeed well in almost any situation, and produce a great amount
of wool and mutton at an early age. They sometimes reach 86 lbs. to the
quarter. The average weight of an ordinary flock when tit for the butcher, •
at fourteen or tifteen montlis old, is about ISO lbs., and the weight of wool
of the whole flock would be about 7i lbs. each. Many of these sheep are
now being exported to Australia to produce mutton for tlie miners.
V. LiNcoLNsniuES. — " As the western part of Great Britain is famous for
its Cotswolds, so is the northeastern esteemed for the heavy-woolcd and
large-framed Lincolns, to which district they especially belong, and where
for many years they held their own. They, like the Cotswolds, have been
improved by an admixture of Leicester blood. Tlie present improved Lin-
coln sheep partakes largely of the pecnliariiios of the Cotswold and Leices-
ter, having the expansive frame and nobility of appearance of the one, with
the quality of flesh, compactness of form, beauty of countenance, and pro-
pensity to fatten of the other ; but they far exceed either in weight of fleece.
Three-year olds sometimes weigh OOj lbs. to the quarter, and yearlings 71
lbs. The weight of wool of an entire flock, under fair average management,
is about 8|lbs. each; weight of carcass at twenty-eight months, 100 lbs.
Tlie Lincoln breeders consider the mutton excellent, having less fat and a
greater proportion of fine-grained, lean flesh than the Leicesters. The ewes
are good breeders, but, like the Cotswolds and Leicesters, they are not good
sucklers.
VL SiiKOPsmEES. — "These are crosses. Their merit consists in their su-
periority over any other breed in their own country. Tlicy possess h.irdincs.s
of constitution, excellent quality of mutton, and are prolific bi-eeders ; but
they are not equal to other breeds.
VIL OxFOKDSiiiRE Downs. — "Tliis breed of sheep was produced twenty,
seven years ago by crossing the Hampshire, and in some instances South-
down cAves, with Cotswold rams, and then putting the crosses together.
They drop their lambs in February, and at thirteen or fourteen months old
they are ready for market, weighing, on an average, 140 lbs. each, with a
fleece varying from 7 to 10 lbs. The ewes are good mothers, and produce a
great proportion of twins."
We might add here, as these last two breeds are crosses, that Mr. IToward
stated, at the conclusion of his experience and address, " that from a judicious
pairing of cross-bred animals, it is practicable to establish a new breed alto-
gether," and for some locations better fitted than most of the existing breeds.
113. Production of Sexes among Sheep. — The Journal (T Agriculture Pra-
tique has a paper giving a variety of facts on this subject — from which the
deduction is made, that the sex depends on the greater or less vigor of the
individuals coupled. This has long been known and acted upon. It is fur-
ther stated, as shown by careful observation and experiment, that more
males are born among the first and last births in a flock reared by a single
Sko. 7.] SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 83
rain, than among the lamljs bom in the intervening i)eriod, when the male
is weakened by excessive exerlion; and that the ewes wliicii prodnce males
are on an average lighter tlian thoie which produce females, and lose more
weight than the latter during the nursing period. Thus vigor in the male
tends to produce males, but more from tlie weaker than tlie stronger ewes ;
and the opposite fact in regard to females tends to keep up the equilibrium,
and secure the perfection and preservation of the species, by confining the
reproduction of either sex to the most perfect type of each respectively.
114. First Importation of Meriuos.— The first importation of Spanish sheep
into the United States took place in 1801. Four were sliipped by Mr. Dides-
sert, a banker of Paris, three of which perished on the passage. In 1802 a
large importation was made by Col. Humphreys ; and in 1809, '10, and '11,
tlie Hon. "Wm. Jarvis, the American consul at Lisbon, sent home large and
valuable flocks to his farna in Weathersfield, Vt.
115. General Care and Management of Sheep. — Tliere are not many men in
this country more capable of giving information upon this subject than T. S.
(4old, of Cornwall, Connecticut. In the series of Yale College lectures, in
the winter of 1859, '60, Mr. Gold gave a lecture upon sheep husbandry, in
which he made tlie following points, wortliy of note by all sheep farmers :
" Thrift. — It should always be the object of the flock-master to keep his
sheep in a thriving condition. The quality of the wool, as well as its quan-
tity, and the general productiveness of the flock, demand this system.
" Shelter is the first necessity in providing for wintering sheep success-
fully. The Southdowns will bear exposure better than any other class, of
sheep. Tlie open fleece of the long-wooled parts on the back wlien wet, and
admits the water, which completely drenches the animal, so that his abund-
ant fleece is no longer a protection from cold.
" Economy in feeding demands shelter for all sheep, as not only less food
is required, but also it is better preserved from waste. Water-soaked hay,
or that whicli is in any way soiled, is always rejected. The improvement
in the qualify of the vxcmure forms another argument in favor of shelter.
That this is not only healthful but grateful to the sheep at all seasons of the
year, we see in the fact tliat even in summer they will seek their winter
sheds at the approach of a storm if tliey are within their reach.
" Ventilation is of jjaramonnt importance as connected with shelter; and
to insure this, sheds open to the south are to be preferred. A stable with
an open window will answer for a small number, but the crowding of a
large flock in such a place aficcts the organs of respiration, and may result
in serious disease, and sliould never be tolerated.
"The best form of rack has posts three feet high in the corners, a bottom
of boards, the sides and ends of two boards each, and the lower one the
widest, with narrow perpendicular strips nailed on to keep the stronger
sheep from crowding the weaker. The spaces are larger in their perpen-
dicular than their horizontal opening. The size of these, as well as the
width of the rack, must be in proportion to the size of the sheep. Not more
84 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [CniP. I.
than one Inindred of the fiiic-wooled sheep should be confined in the same
yard, wliile tlie long-wooled will not thrive with more than twenty-live. A
hofipital, enug and comforfahle, should receive any slieep that may be weak
fnim ago or disease, until, by careful feeding and nursing, they can be re-
turned to the fl<ick.
" It is the worst possible practice to allow the sheep to fall away in flesh,
as the grass fails in autumn. The increasing wool conceals the shrinking
carcass, much to the disappointment of the careless flock-masters. Better
conline them in the yard than allow them to ramble about in search of some
field of winter grain, which furnishes a little green food, but too light to be
of any real value.
" Winter fodder should embrace, in addition to the dry food, a duo pro-
portion of that which is green and succulent. Fine early-cut clover hay,
well cured — tliat from old meadows, consisting of a variety of grasses —
forms the best dry fodder. Economy demands that the quality should be
good, else much waste ensues ; yet the sheep is very fond of variety, and al-
most all of the so-called weeds become a choice morsel. The botanist knows
full well that a sheep-range will be most barren of the objects of his search.
The immortal Linnreus tested the plants most indigenous to Sweden by
off"ering them, fresh gathered, to the various domesticated animals. Horses
ate 202 species, and refused 212; cattle ate 276 species, and refused 218;
while sheep took readily 385, and refused only 141 species. For fattening,
add to the hay, roots, grain, or linseed, or cotton-seed meal. The English
system of winter feeding on turnijis in the field is here prevented by ex
cessive cold. Use them in the yards in moderate weather. Sudden changes
from green to dry food, and the reverse, should be avoided. Regularity in
the hours of feeding is very important.
" The amount of fodder varies with the kind of sheep, though it is not
directly proportioned to the live weight. Ten small, fine wooled sheep will
eat as much as a cow, the larger ones requiring more. Two to two and a
half, or even three and one third per cent, of the Jive weight in hay value is
estimated by ditl'erent authors as daily required.
" No other animals except calves should lie in the yards with sheep. The
losses from the horns of steers and the heels of colts more than balance an}-
supposed gain. As the brcalhiiig of the sheep on the hay does not of itself
render it distasteful to cattle, it may be gathered from the racks and fe<l in
another inclosure.
" It is estimated that 300 lbs. of good hay will winter a small sheep, while
larger ones may take three times the amount.
" Water is absolutely necessary to the thrift of the sheep in the winter. It
is best brought into the yards, as the steep banks of streams prove dangoi--
ous to the sheep.
'■'■Salt may be provided in winter by a moderate salting of the hay —
two to four quarts a tun ; but excessive sailing must be avoided, for with it
neither sheep nor cattle will thrive.
I i
! I
Seo. 7.] SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 85
" As the lambing season approaches, snug quarters must be provided for
the breeding ewes, where they can be clean, warm, and dry."
116. Graia for Sbcep. — Major Wm. Lee, one of the most successful wool-
growers of western Pennsylvania, manages his sheep as follows, according to
the Ohio Farmer : " They are not confined to sheds ; they are only provided
wiili a dry place for shelter and rest. After they rise of their own accord, in
the morning, he feeds again, two thirds corn, and one third barley or oats. Af-
terwards he feeds hay, and also at three o'clock again, so that the sheep have
finished eating before nightfall. He considers that corn will make more
wool than oats, and general opinion favors out-door feeding. Sheep housed
will not eat as much, nor will they shear as much wool."
Another sheep-farmer says : " I am willing to make afiidavit that with
me, in many years' experience carefully tested, sheep of the same kind, weigh-
ing from 110 to 130 lbs., will put on more fat and gain a great deal more
weight on 1 or 1 j lbs. of grain or oil-cake per day, in three or four months,
icith only straw fur fodder, than those weighing 80 to 90 lbs. ; and I value
a sheep weighing 125 to 130 lbs. as worth half a cent more per pound of live
weight, for me to feed fat than one weigliing 90 or 100 lbs. Now, no man
will suppose that the straw will put on any fat, or make sheep gain in weight.
If you feed sheep straw only, they would lose weight, and that greatly ; but
with a pound of meal or grain daily, they will gain daily. I can prove all I
have said by neighbors who have been feeding for a few years past, and who
will now only buy the largest sheep of their class, or the largest cattle of
their age."
117. Weight of Hay for Sheep. — The question. How much hay do sheep
or cattle require per day ? is thus answered by Alexander Speck von Stern-
berg, of Lutzchena, Saxony, to the Hon. Joseph A. Wright, American min-
ister at Berlin. He says : " One thirtieth part of the weight of the live
animal, in good hay, is considered necessary per day for its sustenance.
According to the quality of the fodder, and its abundance or scarcity, this
may be increased to one twentietli part ; but less than one thirtieth part
ought not to be given. Taking good meadow hay as the fodder standard, a
ram should receive about 2>\ lbs. per day, a ewe about 2 J lbs., yearlings,
etc., in that proportion — taking the average of a full-grown ram at 110 lbs.,
of a ewe at 73 lbs., the weight of each varying, according to age, size, and
condition, between 105 and 125 lbs. as regards the full-sized rams, and from
70 to 85 lbs. as regards the full-grown ewes. The weight of a wether varies
between 80 lbs. in lean condition, and 110 to 115 lbs., if strong and fat for
t!ie butcher. One pound of good meadow hay is considered equivalent to
1| lbs. of oat, pea, wheat, or barley straw, libs, of turnips, or 2 lbs. of grains
in die wet state, as delivered from the brewery in winter. When the time
for stabling for Avinter arrives, the sheep-master has his supplies of straw,
hay, and turnips allotted to him on the basis of the above calculation, and
he is bound to make them serve out the proper time, under-feeding being as
much guarded against as over-feeding and waste."
86 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
Another writer says: "The usual rate of the consumption of food is at
the rate of Si lbs. of hay daily for every 100 lbs. of live weight. If we take
the average of Hocks, the live weiglit of lUO common sheep would be about
7 500 lbs., or from tliat up to 8,000 lbs. It is rare that a M-hole flock of
fine-wooled sheep will average more than 70 lbs. for each head, though it may
be that tliis weiglit is exceeded in some instances. At the rate mentioned,
a flock of 100 sheep should use up or consume 280 lbs. of hay per day, or a
total of 25 tuns in the winter season tliat lasted 180 days. This would also
equal 504 lbs. to each single sheep ; or it may be stated as a general rule,
that a full-grown Merino sheep, averaging in live weight from 75 to 100 lbs.,
will consume during the winter season a quarter of a tun of hay, or its equiv-
alent, if comfortably kept. If grain forms a part of the ration, of course
some of the hay may be saved ; but if the animal is to be kept growing
wool, it will need is full ratio of hay, and a little grain, too."
lis. Changiu? Pasl?irCi — Some shet'p-farmcrs arc very particular about
changing pastures. This is right, if llie inclosures are small. If there is a
wide range, it is of no particular advantage 1o confine slieep to one portion
of it, and then shift them to another.
119. Feedius Sheep vsi Beeves. — 'Mechi, wlio is a highly cnliglitened and
practical Englisli ngricullnrist, says lie is convinced that beef must sell at
20 per cent, higher than mutton to make tliem pay alike. He also remarks,
that lie agrees with a friend of his, who says, that he who keeps many bul-
locks will never need to make a will.
Our observation in relation to the comparative profits in this country
coincides with Mr. Mechi.
Thos. Ikdl, of Monmouth County, N. J., makes the following statement in
regar<l to the profits of feeding sheep :
"I usually keep about 100 sheep, and renew my flock every year. J[y
neighbors and myself agree with a drover to lake certain numliers, and he
goes up the Delaware into the State of New York, where he obtains a large
strain of common f-heep. 1 buy the best ones in the flock, paying the high-
est market price, which this year was $'i 50 a head, while my neighbors prefer
to take tlie lower-priced sheep, graduating down to $3 50 or $2 25 a head. I
get my new flock in about the 1st of October, and immediately put the ewes to
full-blood Southdown bucks, so as to have the lambs dropped early in April.
I have good autumn pasture, so as to keep the flock in good condition to go
inio winter (puirters, where I keep them in yards with open sheds, fifty shec>p
in a pen, with feeding-racks, and freedom to lay under cover or out in the
open weather. Their own instinct governs them about seeking shelter when
it storms. I feed the flock once a day upon hay, and once a day upon wliolc
stalks of Indian corn cut from the ground as soon as it is hard enough to
ripen in the shock, when the shocks are well cured, and afterward the corn
is husked and stalks stored for winter. T!ic sheep trim them of leaves,
and the dry stalks nuike good bedding for them. I watcli my ewes and take
them out of the flock as the time aiqiroaches to drop their lambs, and put
Sec. 7.] SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
tlieiii in other yards, wliere they are fed on grain and good hay, and I sel-
dom lose a lamb. I graze my tlock upon less than eighteen acres of good
pasture, which has been made to produce sweet grass by the apjjlication of
greon sand marl, by which I have renovated a worn-out farm. By the end
of July I have my lambs, which are largo and fat, and M-ell marked with the
Southdown characteristics, all off to the butcher — this year at $4 75 eacli,
selling the whole lot to one man. I could have sold them in small lots so as
to average $5 a liead. The ewes, after the lambs are taken off, become fat
upon grass alone, so as to bring the best market price of tliat class of sheep
in September. I have just sold all off, and find tliat the 100 liead which 1
purchased at $3 50 one year ago, have yielded me in wool. Iambs, and old
shccj) $7 50 a head over the cost of the stock. Last year I realized $7 a
head profit, or rather, I got that for keei>ing 100 head of sheep one year, and
I think that sum may be safely calculated upon every year. And besides
this ]:!ofi?, I find my sheep are enriching my land and are more advan
tagcoi;s in every way than any otlier kind of stock. Every farmer keeping
sheep should have a lot of movable fence, and inclose small plots — say half
an acre at a time — of the poorest parts of tlie farm, such as gravelly knolls,
upon which to yard tlie flock nights. The only drawback to keeping sheep
upon hundreds of farms near New York is the worthless cur dogs. In New
Jersey we have a good law which gives out of the general tax $5 a head for
all sheep killed by dogs. Tliat insures every common sheep, but does not
warrant me in keeping full-blood Southdown or other valuable breeds. The
State of New York needs a stringent law against dogs to protect the interest
of farmers who keep sheep, particularly in the coimties near the city."
The above statement of Mr. Bell is a very encouraging one, and would
doubtless encourage many of the farmers convenient to the city market to
adopt the same course if the State Legislature would protect tliem against
dogs. Tlie question resolves itself into this simple form : Is it of more gen-
eral advantage to the State to grow wool and mutton than it is to grow dogs
— dogs, too, of the most worthless sorts ? It is one of the rarest things in tlie
world that a sheiaherd dog or a good house watch-dog ever kills sheep. It
is only the meanest, prowling, thieving, worthless curs, of no value to their
owners, that destroy sheep. Let ns have a law to annihilate them, and then
eveiy man can keep sheep with the same results as Mr. Bell.
Mr. Carpenter, of Elmira, said : " A neighbor of mine makes just about
the same average upon his flock of grade Southdowns. He shears six pounds
of wool per head, and he sells his lambs at $4."
Samuel Tliorne, of Dutchess County, N. Y., pursues the same course,
with the same results, as Mr. Bell.
Mr. Wade, of Canada "West, says : " Tliat he prefers the long-wool sorts,
because they are more hardy. The mutton sells readily, and the wool,
though not worth so much a pound as the fine-wool sorts, weighs so'
much more that the value of the fleece is equal. We don't grow much
corn, but we feed a great many roots, and feed well. It is foolish to try to
88 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
keep any animal upon low diet. We feed anything that sheep eat best, and
I fatten principally upon turnips and hay, with a little meal. The long-wool
Bliuep are better adapted to Canada ^tlian the line-wool. "We shear eight
pounds of clean wool per head. The Coiswold variety are preferred ; they
liave stronger constitutions than the Leicester sheep."
Gen. Harmon, of Monroe County, s;iys : " I commenced with fine-wool
sheep, forty years ago. I then tried Leicosterehire, and then came back to
Merino. I have less than 200 acres, and grow 30 or 40 acres of wheat every
year ; the land improves by sheep. My average weight of fleece is five pounds.
I keep 330 head, and get over S700 a year for wool and increase. I stable
50 sheep in a room 14 by 40 feet, without change in the winter. I wash my
sheep clean and let them run six or eight days, and then shear. I don't
breed from gummy sheep. I iced in board-racks, -with straight sticks, so
the sheep can put in their heads. Tliure are about 25 acres of reclaimed land
on my farm that will keep sheep alive, but -won't fat them. My farm is
limestone, and I prefer fine-wool sheep to any other for profit ; and I con-
sider sheep twice as profitable as cattle upon any grain farm. I never
breed from ewes less than three years old. I don't like the cross of Lei-
cester bucks upon fine ewes. I have sold of wool and sheep over $'J00 a
year."
Lewis F. Allen, of Black Eock, says : " I have kejit sheep twenty-five
yeare upon a clay loam, natural to sweet grasses, limestone formation, on the
Niagara River. There is no general rule as to the profit of keeping sheep.
All depends upon circumstances. In Canada I have seen the best long-wool
sheep I ever saw, but these sheep arc too fat for eating. You might as well
dine ofl" a cake of tallow as such meat. Such sheep may be profitable in
Canada. With me those sheep require good shelter. They are not kept
warm by their long fleeces. My sheep sheared five to eight pounds of wool.
I don't approve of feeding many roots except to breeding ewes. Tiiey are
likely to scour sheep ; at least they do mine.
" On some soils it may be best to plow in clover ; on other soils it is not.
As to mutlon sheep, I have fed Southdowns, and the cheapest way that I
can make mutton is upon gi'ass, and wethers of 150 lbs. bring five cenis a
pound gross at Buffalo. I would keep mutton sheep if I had a good farm on
a railroad. I can always sell my lambs at $2. Jfy Southdown fleeces bring
§1 50 average. Southdown mutton is the best we have, and the sheep
always sell well for mutton. The fine-wool sheep mutton is apt to taste of
the greasy wool. Tlie iferino shee]-) are a hardy race of sheep, but they are
not a good breed to feed for mutton."
Mr. Bowen, of Orleans Count}', says: "I have bred both coarse and fine
sheep. I have raised coarse-wooled sheep that weighed 150 lbs. each at one
year old. I find the coarse-wool breed the most ]irofitab]e. My sheep
average six pounds of wool, that sells at 31 cents a lb. My sheep are a
cross of Cotswold, and are closc-wooled and hardy. I live on a gravelly
loam, wheat soil, and 1 think it desirable to increase the stock of sheep in
Sec. r.] SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
this State. A field of clover fed off by eheep will yield more wheat than
if not fed ofF."
Mr. Pettibone, of Vermont, says : " If a man keeps but few sheep he
should keep a mutton hreed. If he keeps a large flock, or say 200 or 300,
he should keep line-wool sorts. The trouble in sheep-breeding is in letting
them run down in October. I winter 300 head, and 100 ewes will give lUO
lambs. I use 400 acres, but many of them are on the mountain, and valued
at only $7 an acre. I do not let all my ewes breed. I keep my sheep in
very close winter quarters on hay. I feed breeding ewes one peck of corn a
day to 100 head. In eleven years I have not had a lamb die, and ewes are
kept without grain, but always with water and salt by tbem. There is a
material diflereuce in the value of the fleece, according to the way sheep
are kept. I prefer always to have my sheep fixt. In January I select my
ewes, and never sell the choice ones. I have a ewe tluit has produced
eighteen lambs and shears four pounds of good wool. I do not select the
most gummy sheep for my use ; they arc much more tender tlian those less
gummy. Still, you must have greasy wool if you have fine wool. I feed
generally twice a day— sometimes only once. The sales of my wool last
year produced over $2 a head for my flock, and the average for fifteen years
has been four and three quarter pounds, such as sold this year at 50 cents
a pound. My land is limestone clay loam. I have picked out and sold
twenty wether lambs to a neighbor Avho sheared eiglit pounds a liead, and
sold two sheep for mutton at $3 50 a head. A flock of 300 head of sheep
ought to average five pounds of clean wool. I select in the fall eight or ten
wethers, and feed them with meal through the winter, and give them good
grazing in summer, and kill through the summer, and the tallow averages
10 or 12 lbs. and the meat 10 or 15 lbs. per quarter. The pelts sell at 75
cents. A three-year old wether, pure Merino breed, often weighs 75 lbs.
I have sheared 14 lbs. of wool per head from bucks, which sold for 50 cents
a lb., and 8 lbs. of wool from ewes."
A. B. Dickinson says : " I have sheared 11,000 sheep in a year, and know
something of them. The man who raises sheep for mutton had better raise
the largest kind, for they produce the most money, though they may not make
the best kind of mutton. For wool, I would keep none but the line-wooled
variety of sheep, but I would not keep the gummy sort, because the clean
wool will always produce the most money. Li washing sheep, I am sure
that the wool can always be made cleaner when the sheep are washed in a
vat than in a stream. If 20 sheep will weigh 20 cwt., they M'ill eat just
about as much as two bnllocks of tliat weight — that is, if they are ma-
ture sheep. Young sheep eat more, according to live Aveight, than old
ones."
Mr. Johnston bought thirty Lcicesters one fall, put them in his yards, fed
them each twelve ounces of oil-meal with wheat straw, and Jio /^ay, all
winter. In spring he sheared from them five pounds of wool each, pastured
them all summer, kept them over until the following February, and sold
90 DOMESTIC AKIMALS. [Chap. I.
tliein for nine iloUars and ticcnty cents each. Tliey cost him two dollais.
Blieep fed with oil-cake meal or grain eat but little salt, make richer maiuirp,
more wool, and more carcass. He gives usiialK' one pound of oil-meal when
feeding with straw, and half a pound with hay. ]f there should be any
signs of foot-rot in the fldck, he pares the hoof, and rubs into the s<Ti;s a
salve of blue vitriol and lard. In very hot weather he mixes tar with the
salve, to make it adhere. Sheep are never let out of the yards in winier,
but to the yard they have free access at all times from the low, open siicl*,
and every part of the shedc and yard are deeply bedded with clean s:ra\'.\
Tlie shepherd, instead of wading through a slough worse than that described
by Eunyan, walks on a soft bed of straw, so clean at any time as cot to scil
the white fleece of the cleanest Leicester.
"Wm. II. Ladd, of Ohio, says: " My practice is to turn the lambs in with
their mothers, after they have been separated some twelve hours, and assoim
as they nurse, separate them again; then, after twenty-four hours, allov.'
them to nurse once more. Since I have adopted this plan, I have never Imd
a ewe's udder injured. Lambs should have a very little salt frequently,
when first weaned, as the herbage lacks the large projiortion of salt which
the mother's milk contains. But great care should be used not to give them
much salt at once, or it will set them to purging; and if a lamb commences
to purge soon after being taken from the mother, it seldom, if ever, recovers
from it.
" Lambs that come early arc invariably the largest, strongest, and most
healthy ; consequently they^ are the best breeders. Tlie ewe that has Iut
lamb early has sufficient time to get in good order before winter, and after
the lamb is weaned, she is not subject to weakness and disease, as those of
late weaning, and is consequently a better breeder the next season. Poor,
late feeble lambs and ewes should never be permitted to breed, for if such
are, it invariably follows that the flock will degenerate. Generating or
breeding ewes should be carefully selected. Ewes sometimes continue strong
and productive until twelve or flfteen years of age ; this depends on their
general health and constitution."
120. Age of Slipcp for Muttou. — A late English writer says: "A sheep, to
be in high order for the palate of the epicure, should not be killed earlier
than five years old, at which age the mutton will be rich and succulent, of a
dark color, and full of the richest gravy— -whereas, if only two years old, it
is flabby, pale, and flavorless."
121. Grub ill Sheep. — Take one quart of whisky and two ounces of yellow
snuflT, mix, and warm to blood-heat. Let one man hold the sheep, and
another take a small syringe, and discharge about a teaspoonful of the mix-
ture into each nostril. It is said to be a certain cure.
122. Gross aud Net Weisbt of Sheep.— The usual estimate of gross and net
weight of sheep is, that the dressed carcass will weigh one half as much rs
the gross weight, and therefore, when the sheep are sold at, say five cents a
pound alive, the price is equivalent to ten cents a pound for the meat, sinking
Seo. 7.] SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 91
the pelt and all tlie offal, so. that the butcher, if he could sell tlio carcass at
cost, would still have the pelt, rough fat, head, etc., for a proiit. Ilenee it
will be seen how it is that mutton in the carcass is often quo'ed in market
reports at less than it appears by livestock reports to have aetuallj cost.
123. Western Mutton. — It is one of the iucompreliensible things in "Western
agriculture that so little attention is paid to the business of fattening sheep.
With a vast country, as well adapted to making mutton as pork, and in many
respects even better, it is one of the rarest things to see a farm devoted to
the raising of sheep for their meat alone, while it is equally rare to find a
farmer who does not raise hogs and fatten them for their pork.
"We are aware that the "West is full of sheep, and that the business is not
considered very profitable. There are some good flocks — in fact, some large
flock-masters, whose principal business is to raise sheep — but it is for their
fleece alone. Very few farmers. East or West, have ever made a business of
making mutton. The sheep are almost entirely bred for wool, not for meat.
And besides this, more than one half of all the sheep in the United States
are not bred distinctly for meat or wool, but simply because they are sJieej),
and will answer in some sort for both purposes ; but their fleece is often of
a coai'se, unprofitable kind, and their bodies lean and liglit. Such slieep are
natui-ally slow to acquire fat, when fed for that pnr]iose, just as their fleece
is naturally of light weight or coarse fiber. Such sheep are not profitable,
although so common all over the country'.
Of all varieties of domestic animals, the flesh of sheep is least used, except
in cities, in proportion to the quantity that is, or rather might be, profitably
consumed. We esteem mutton almost the very best kind of meat provided
for a civilized people. That its production would be found among the most
profitable we have no doubt, provided a good breed of sheep were selected,
especially for their meat-producing qualities. For this purpose we esteem
the Southdown variety the very best. We have known flocks of fat slieep
of this sort sold here for $25 per head. Certainly this is a paying price.
We have several times reported sales of sheep in New York, of the long-wooled
kind, at $12 to $20 per head, which was equal to 12 to 16 cents a pound
for the meat. Is this a profitable price for the fiirmer, particularly the
farmer of the West, the greatest country in the world for the production of
pork ?
All the long-woolod varieties of sheep, known as Bakewell, Leicester,
Cotswold, New Oxfordshire, etc., are fat-producing animals ; that is, they
are as naturally inclined to acquire fat as other animals are to produce only
lean meat. In England, such mutton is much esteemed. In this country
the lean kinds are preferred. In Ohio and other Western States there is a
grade of sheep called common, that are as well fitted for the purposes of the
Western farmer as any he could obtain in this country (except the South-
downs) to breed for mutton, if careful selections were made, and some care
exercised in breeding and feeding. It is true they are a mongrel breed,
made up of crosses of all the varieties ever imported, but they are strong
92 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
and hardy and long-legged, M-liicli are valuable qiialitic3 for the drover.
Tlicir bodies, when well fatted, at two or three years old, will weigh fioni
fifty to sixty-five pounds, and the meat is just fat enough to suit the Ameri-
can taste. The heavier carcasses of the long-wuoled variety are generally
too fat, thougli we think the taste for fat mutton is an acquired one, like that
for fat i)0rk.
But, fat or lean, mutton will always find ready sale in this city at remu-
nerating prices. Western farmers sliould turn their attention more earnestly
lo the subject of raising sheep, not for wool, but meat for the supply of all
the Eastern cities. We profess to be tolerably well acquainted with the
great prairies of the West, and fully believe that there is no branch of agri-
culture 60 certain to produce sure and profitable returns as that of raising
sheep of the kind we have indicated. We know of no other pursuit that
the new settlers in Kansas could adopt at all to compare with this. Such a
tiiwn, for instance, as Lawrence, might own a hundred thousaiid sheep, all
of which should be kept out on the broad prairies in summer, under the care
of shepherds and their dogs, to guard them night and day from their greatest
enemy, the prairie wolf In M'inter they could be provided for on a hundred
farms, under cheap shelter, with earth walls and grass roofs. They winter
well upon well-cured wild hay, without grain, except for those in hospital,
if fed occasionally upon any" kind of roots, such as can be grown in great
abundance in that soil. In the fall or latter part of summer, select the best
animals for market, and start them eastward across Iowa and Illinois, feeding
them on cheai) grain when the grass fails on the great prairie pasture.
The raising of cattle must be the business of Kansas settlers, and we
believe the best of all will be mutton sheep. The new settlors, too, must for
a time make meat their principal diet — in fact, it is the national diet of that
region, just as vegetables are in China. We do not know of a greater act
of folly, or a greater humbug, than inducing people to go to Kansas to
practice the peculiar, not to say stupid, doctrine of A'egetarianism.
What the people of the West want — -what all who grow meat and all wlio
consume it want — is to have the great sea of prairie grass converted into
meat — cheap meat. This should be the leading object of all emigrants to
the West. The business of grain-growing naturally belongs to a pastoral
people, upon old farms, rather than to new settlers. It is a subject to be
thought of both by emigrants and old settlers, M-hich is the most profitable,
stock or grain, and if stock, which particular kind.
124. Sheep in Texas.— There is, or has been, a sort of mania about slieep in
Texas. The start made a few 3'ears ago by (t. W. Kendall, and his success,
after going through all the phases of ill luck, losses, and discouragements,
which perseverance overcame, has induced many others to establish great
sheep-farms in that State. j\Iajor AVm. Leland, one of the proprie;ors of
the Metropolitan Hotel in this cit)', is one of the number who has followed
the lead of Mr. Kendall, with every prospect of success. There is, besides
the fine wool-flocks established in Texas, a constant and large importation
Sec. r.] SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 93
of the coarse-wool slieep of Mexico. It is estimated that a fourth of a
million of Mexican slieep have crossed the line into Texas since the first of
1859, and the number is constantly increasing. These Mexican sheep are
crossed with Nortliern stock, and make a valuable progeny, both for wool
and mutton. We shall expect before many years more to see Texas mutton
sheep in the New York market more frequently than we now see Texas
beef-cattle, and tliat they will be much better liked, both by butchers and
mutton-eaters, than the bullocks are.
A Massachusetts correspondent wants to know more than we do about
sheep-farming in Texas. We commend liim to Wm. AVilkinson, Comal
Ranche, near New Braunfels, Texas.
We don't know " what part of the State is most suitable for sheep
husbandry," but we do know that part of it is, as above indicated, for there
George W. Kendall and others have succeeded.
"What breeds of shee}) are to be chosen?" We can answer: All breeds
that have succeeded in the Northern States have succeeded in Texas.
" What are the pecuniary advantages?" This question we can answer by
stating that the first cost of land for a location is very small compared with
the cost in Massachusetts, while there is a boundless range of open country
upon which great flocks can be grazed, in charge of the shepherd and his
dogs ; and as for winter feeding, that is not worth mentioning, and the rudest
shelters — mere earth walls — to break the force of tlie wind, will answer at
first in place of costly barns. Subsistence, too, for hirelings, is also quite
inexpensive, and, taken altogether, Texas certainly appears to have many
advantages for slieep husbandry.
There are, to bo sure, some drawbacks. It is a long way from the great
center of commereo to which wool must be transported, and so far as we can
see, it is so far away from mutton-eating communities, that the meat is nearly
valueless. We very well remember, however, when the same thing was
true of Ohio, wliere thousands of sheep have been slaughtered for the pelts
and fat, and the meat fed to the pigs. Now, sheep are worth in Ohio within
a dollar wliat tliey are in New York. Time may work a similar change for
Texas, and then it will rival all other States as a sheep-producer, for that is
a business that can and will be conducted without slave labor.
125. ProiiHCin'^ TwhiSc— A large sheep-breeder has declared "that sheep
highly fed wiih meal or otlicr good provender, about the time the buck is
with them in the fall, will almost invariably have two lambs apiece, and that
these may nearly all be raised by proper attention to the mothers. The
great mistake in regard to sheep is in not keeping them well enough. If
you Avisli them to be prolific or profitable, give them plenty of the best hay
through the winter, and meal daily, and for shelter a warm barn-cellar,
wherein is an open tank of pure water. No kind of grain need be ground for
feeding sheep — the hardest is thoroughly masticated and digested by them.
The importance of good feeding is unquestionable."
It is by no means an unheard-of thing for all the ewes of a flock to average
91 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
twins. An average of 130 per cent, to 150 per cent, is quite usual, and with
so:no breeds a much greater increase is tlie general rule. The sheep ofteis
her owner more sources of protit than any other animal. First^ her natural
increase ; second, her wool ; third, her flesh ; and this is the most imjiorlant
of all tiic cousidcraiions connected with sheep husbandry, because a greatly
increased consumption of the flesh of sheep will greatly promote healtli.
Sheep " come in play" wonderfully in well-managed farms, especially such
as are pushed to their utmost capacity, as a means of increasing fertility in
varfous ways, feeding off green crops, such as clover or rye, previous to
plowing tliem under, securing thus the advantage of passing the crop through
the animal system without moving it fronr the fleld, scattering the manure
very eveidy previous to plowing, and giving what remains of the green crop
when plowed in the advantage of undergoing its decomposition in contact
with animal excrements. Tiie sheep possesses other and greater advantages
over other kinds of stock, which reconnnend it for general culture. Among
tliese is its great fecundity.
126. IVuinbering Sheep. — W. D. Dickinson, of Victor, Ontario Co., X. Y.,
gives, in the Stock Journal, the following plan of numbering sheep:
"About twelve years since I commenced numbering, classifying, and
registering my flock, which has been of great advantage to me, enabling me
to select at all times for sale (which I invariably do myself) such as arc of
the least value, whether with regard to age, weight of fleece, quality of
wool, or value as breeders.
"My method of numbering is by notches in the ear, as follows: A notch
in tiie fore part of the left ear stands fur 1, one in the back part of the same
for 3. With these I number up to 10 ; thus, two notches in the fore part, 2 ;
two in the back part, C ; two in each, 8, etc. A notch in the fore part of
the right car stands for 10, one in the back part of the same, 30. With
these I number to 100. Tliis is as far as I have occasion to go in my flock,
as I seldom have over 300, and consequently never have as many as 100
lambs of each sex in one j-car. Tliis might be carried much farther by
cutling oft" the end of the left ear for 100, and of the riglit for 200; a notch
might then be made in the end of the left ear for 400, and in the end of the
right for 800.
"The age of my sheep is known by the hohs through the ears. A, hole
through the left oar stands for 1 — tliat is, the year 1841, '51, or '01, showing
tile year in which the sheep was born ; one in the right ear for 3, so that a
sheep born in the year '5(3 would have two holes through the right ear; if in
'j7, two holes tlirougli the right and one through the left ; for '58 would re-
quire two through each, instead of which I si'nply make a notch in the end
of the left ear; and for '59, one in the end of the right. The years '40, '50,
'00, etc., the ears are left without anj' holes — thus connnencing anew every
ten years, by which time those of that age are usually gone. I number my
iambs as they are dropped, commencing each year with No. 1, both buck
and ewe lambs.
seo. r.]
SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
95
" My book is kept in tl
le following manner :
No. of
Ewes.
Year
born.
Class.
Live
weight
Weight of
Fleece.
Buck U3«d.
Yeaned.
April.
Sheared.
June.
liUolv
Lambs.
Ewe
Lambs.
E em ark 3.
7
15
'51
•54
3
1
2
84
93
83
6-1
4-1
4
34-53
39-53
51-53
12
13
13
11
24
1
2
1
"In the iirst column is the number of the ewe; in the second, the year in
which she was born ; in the third, the class denoting the quality of the wool,
which is regulated by the number of curves to the incli ; the first containing
24 and upward ; the second, 22 to 24 ; the third, 20 to 22 ; the fourth,- 18 to
20. The fourth column gives the weight of the sheep when sheared ; the
fifth, the weight of fleece ; the sixth, the number of buck used and the year
in wliicli he was born ; the seventh, the month and day the lamb was
dropped; the eighth, the time when the ewe was sheared; the ninth and
tenth, the number of the buck and ewe lambs. My flock now numbers 267,
principally breeding ewes and yearlings. My average weight of fleeces,
wlicn well washed, is usually about 4i lbs., the quality of wool equal to me-
dium Saxon, numbering from 20 to 28 curves to the inch, averaging about 24."
Another plan is given as follows, for numbering sheep, which, though not
quite as permanent as the method detailed above, may be preferred by some
persons on the score of humanity,
" We were handed a sheet of paper upon which was noted the weight of
fleece of each sheep in the flock ; opposite was set the number of the sheep,
a corresponding number having been brandetl upon the animal itself at the
time of talcing its last clip, by applying a mixture of lampblack and tar with
cast-iron figures. This course had been pursued for some years, and its
I'csults were apparent in a wool crop brought up from an average of four
poiinds to over five, and a corresponding increase in the size and quality of
sheep. The practice had been to slaiaghter and otherwise dispose of all ani-
mals ranking lowest in weight of fleece and to imjirove upon the quality of
the remainder by judicious crossing."
127. Shearing Slieep« — An old sheep-shearer, who can clip a sheep hand-
somely in three minutes, or shear and tie np the fleece in four minutes, wlio
has often clipped 100 sheep a day, wants us to give our readers the benefit
of his plan of doing it. First, have two pairs of good shears; one pair to
trim with, and the other to do the principal work, and never use dull shears.
A good oil-stone is the best sharpener. What is termed a down-set shear,
with blades five inches long, he considers best. In using them, never draw
the shears backward while making the clip, but rather push forward and
keep the shears level and close, and never clip twice in one spot, as that cuts
tlie wool.
To hold the sheep, have a bench as high as the lower part of the knee-
cap ; or if the shci'p is large, it may be lower. Lay the sheep back to yon,
with head to your right hand. Put your right knee gently on the sheep's
neck, with its right fore leg in the bend of yours as you kneel, having tlie
sheep close to the edge of tlie Ijench, with its back braced against jour left
96 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
leg. Rest your left arm on the sheep's left flank, while j'ou hold its right
iiind leg in that hand, stretched out to the edge of the bench, and holding to
it if you wish, if the sheep is disposed to struggle.
Commence shearing at the opening on the left side of the breast, and trim
off all tlie wool on the belly and inside of the hind legs, and remove it to
one side till the fleece is oflf, when the trimmings of clean wool are to be
wrapped in it.
To shear the body, place your left leg on the bench astride of the sheep,
taking the jaws in your left hand, and clipping tiie foretop and right side
of the neck, and down on the left breast. Jiieu you change position, step-
ping back a little and raising the sheep on its hips, by catching hold of the
left hind leg with your right hand without laying down the shears. Pull
the sheep close to the edge of the bench and ylace your right leg between
ils hind legs, with its neck and shoulders on your left knee, as it rests on the
bench. Now clip over the point of the shoulder, and then straighten the
neck with your left hand, without stopping the shears, and finish off the
brisket and the neck, and then clip on down the side, and over the hip and
back, letting the sheep down gradually, so as always to have the skin you
arc clipping free of wrinkles. Now take your loft, knee ofl" the neck, and
hold it wi:h your left hand while you remove your right leg and place the
left one in its place, so that you can bring the right knee upon the bench,
keeping the shears going all the time with the right hand. Then lift the
head with the left hand, and clip that side over the point of the shoulder,
and, raising the sheep gently, bring its head between your legs, while you
finibh clipping. Take care that the sheep does not struggle, and when done,
lift it clear of the fleece, so as not to tear it. Pold the fleece with all the loose
wool that is clean inside and roll it very snug, with the cut end of the wool
out, and tie with cotton twine, so as to look neat and bear handling without
getting loose and ragged.
Following the above directions, you will need to stop but twice for a mo-
ment to turn the sheep, so that the shears are almost incessantly clipping
from the time you begin till you have finished.
128. Tag^ngi — One of the cares of sheep most important for their health
and comfort is tagging, and this is most often neglected. Probably the
only attention ever given to this matter is at shearing-time, and we have
seen, even then, sheep sent off" out of the shearer's hands with the tag-locks
untonched. If there is anything in farming more slovenly than this, we
don't know what it is.
129. To Cleanse Fine Wool. — There are a few old-fashioned houses from
which the spinning-wheel is not yet entirely abandoned. The inmates of
such do not always know how to cleanse the gum out of Merino wool before
sending it to the carding-machine. Let them be sure to remember this
direction, by which we have cleaned many a hundred-weight, some of which
was almost as black as my hat, with dirt and gum, characteristic of all fine-
wool sheep.
PLATE VII.
(Pase 9T )
Ix this plate we present to the reader such a collection of excellent
portraits of the most celebrated horses in America as can nowhere
else be procm-ed. The four upper figures will be at once recognized
as correct likenesses of animals that have won a name that makes
them famous in equine history. That of the Justin Morgan horse
will be found in this chapter. He is the ja-ogenitor of a fomily that
has won the hearts of the people. Flying Childers stands as the
representative of the race-course. Patchen and Flora Temple are
the most noted of the great family of American fast trotters. The
Arabian here represented is a portrait of one of the noted horses
presented to Hon. William H. Sev/ard, and by him to the Xew York
State Agricultural Society, and this picture gives one a good idea
of the spirited appearance of that breed. The Cleveland Bay is the
representative of a class of noble carriage horses which has given
character to many of the same class in this country, particularly in
Central Xew York.
The Norman horse, as we see him here, gives a good idea of the
appearance of the heavy diligence and common work-horses of France,
having a thick neck, short, strong legs, and round, compact body,
capable of sustaining great burdens, and pulling immense loads at
a slow gait, as compared with some of our American fast horses.
This breed was made quite notorious in this country by tlie import-
ation of the late Edward Harris, of New Jersey, about twenty years
ago. The portrait of the Canadian horse is a line representative
of his class, which was formed by a mixture of the Xorman horses
of the early French settlers of Canada witli some smaller breed,
which, by neglect and exposure, and carelessness of improvement in
breeding, has produced a race of small, hardy horses, known as
Canadian, which are sometimes, though erroneously, called ponies.
A careful study of these portraits will be useful to all farmers, as
well as many other persons.
UH'KjBHK.VT aiuuuiH <Hf HOKNK.S
Seo. 8.]
HORSES AND MULES.
97
For 100 lbs. of wool, take four gallous of urine and eight gallons of rain-
water; mix and heat a little above blood-heat, until the scum rises, whicli
skim off. Keep it at the same heat in a kettle on coals or a little fire out of
doors. Put in what wool the kettle will conveniently hold, and let it remain
about five minutes ; take it oiit on a board that will drain the liquid back
into the kettle, or else put it in a basket over a tub, so as not waste the liquid,
for it will be equally good for the last batch as the first. When it is drained,
put the basket under a stream of water running on it if convenient, or in a
running stream if you can, or else with plenty of clear water in a large tub ;
it will wash very easily, and be as " white as wool."
Don't forget to sprinkle the dirty liquid upon the poorest spot in the gar-
den, for it is a powerful manure.
The same kind of liquid is the best thing known to take the dirt and
grease out of any kind of foul woolen clothes or yarn.
SECTION VIII.-HORSES AND MULES,
GENERAL history of the horse and his uses, and
how to use liim, will not be looked for in a work
that only professes to give little items of informa-
tion upon a great many things. It would occupy
a volume larger than this one to give a tolerably
full history of the equine race, since it has been sub-
octed to the use of man.
mqnusis the generic name of the quadrupeds which
ive a single digit and hoof upon each foot, as has
the horse, ass, zebra. The horse has been a domestic
well as a wild animal from a very early time. He
is mentioned in Genesis as being in harness when
Joseph transferred the remains of his father from
Egypt to Canaan.
Horses e.xist in a wild state in various parts of the
globe. Tliey were once quite numerous in the tenntory embraced in some
of our most western States. Domestication works material change, the most
marked of which is an increase in the size of the trunk. Then follows an
increased size of all parts, and a loss of the fleetness natural to the horse in
his wild state.
The Arabian horse, though domesticated by a semi-savage race, still re-
tains some of his wild characteristics, one of which is fleetness and long
endurance. Tlie Arab tradition in regard to the horse is, " that he was
created out of the wind, as Adam was out of the earth." Hence, " fleet as
the wind," is often applied to the horse. The tradition is, that the male of
the horse was created first, as the more noble of the two, and that the horse
98 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
was created before man, and after be was created he was told to choose the
most beautiful of all auimals, and he chose the horse ; upon which God said
to Adam : " You have cliosen that which is a glory to you, and will be to
vour children." The Arabs profess to know the pure Arabian horse, the
descendant of Zad-tl-IiaJcS, which Solomon presented to their tribe, by the
firmness of his lips and cartilage of the lower part of the nose ; by the dilata-
tion of his nostrils ; by the leanness of the flesh about the veins of his head ;
br the cleu'anee of the neck and shoulders ; by the softness of his hair, mane,
and skin; by the fullness of his breast ; by the large size of his joints; and by
the dryness of his extremities ; and also by his moral indications, for a noble
horse has no malice in him. lie loves his master, and frequently will suffer
no other to mount him. lie refrains from doing what nature prompts as
necessary while his master is on Ids back. lie will not eat food left by
another horse. He loves to splash limpid water whenever he meets it. His
instinct, smell, sight, hearing, intelligence, and address are all used for his
master; and he will iight for him. Hence the Arab's love of his horse. It
will be well for us all to remember some of the traditions of the Arab, for
they describe valuable points in a horse.
130. Thorougb-Bredt — This term does not appear to have any very def-
inite meaning in this country. It is generally supposed to trace back to
something in the way of pure blood, of a better stock than the common one
of the coimtry ; but what that stock is, perhaps not one in ten who owns
horses can tell. A writer in the (English) Fanner''s JIagazinc says :
" The term thorough-bred is an expression not clearly defined as regards
any of our domestic animals, but it would be very desirable to liave some
rule established. It may be accepted as a principle that breeding from ani-
mals endowed with certain properties and perfections through several gen-
erations, constitutes the claim to distiuction ; hut there is no adopteJ riJe to
determine how many generations arc sujfieunt to e-'iteiVlish the title.''
Yet, according to our understanding of tiie term, a " thorough-bred" horse
must trace back, free from contamination of baser blood, to the pure Arabian
stock. The original of that stock in England, S'> far as pedigrees are at-
tempted to be trucLHl. was the " Darley Arabian," brought from " Araby the
blest" by a Mr. Darley. That horse was the sire of Flying Childers, and
grandsire of Eclipse, one of the most remarkable horses ever on the Knglish
race-course. He was not what would be considered a handsome horse, by a
breeder of Morgan stock, but his fleetness and endurance were beyond com-
petition, and his stock have followed in his footsteps. He died at the age
of twenty -five years, after having begotten a greater number of prize-wiu-
ning colts than any other horse that ever lived.
If a horse can trace back to old Eclipse, or any of his famous colts, there
is no mistake about his being " thorough-bred." So he would be if he
traces back to the "Godolphin Arabian," a Barb that was introduced into
England at a later jierio 1 than the D.irlev Arabian.
There should be some definite rule established amonij horse-breeders and
Sec. 8.] HORSES— ENGLISH BREEDS. 99
our several State agricultural societies as to how far back and to what stock
the pedigree of a horse should go to make him eligible to a prize as a '' thor-
ough-bred."
131. Eng^lish Hunters. — Tliis is a term given to a breed of English horses
which are higli up in thorough-bred blood, with a strain of other blood
possessing great powers of endurance. Tlie head of a hunter of perfect form
is small ; his neck thin, particularly below ; a firm and arched crest ; jaws
wide, and very ligiit on the bit.
132. An Englisb Coach-Horse. — The type of this variety is the " Cleveland
Bay," some of which have been imported into this country, and have left
their mark upon the finest coach-horses we have iu the United States — such
as are to be found more abundantly in Central New York, than in any other
locality.
133. Eng^Hsh Roadsters. — ^Tlie term more common for this class in En-
gland is "Hackney" — a term seldom heard in this country, and if heard,
would be more likely to be understood as meaning a " hack-horse." The
nearest type of a hackney that we have, as a distinct breed, is the Morgan horse.
Youatt says : " A hackney is a hunler in miniature. His bight should
rarely exceed fifteen hands and an incli. He will be sufficiently strong and
more pleasant for general work below that standard. He should be of a
more compact form than the hunter, of more bulk according to his hight.
It is of essential consequence that the bones beneath the knee should be
deep and flat, and the tendon not tied in. The pastern should be short, and
less oblique or slanting than that of the hunter or race-horse. Tlie foot
should be of a size corresponding with the bulk of the animal — neither too
hollow nor too flat, and open at the heels. The forelegs should be jierfectly
straight; for a horse with his knees bent will, from a slight cause, and espe-
cially if overweighted, come down. The back should be straight and short,
yet sufiiciently long to leave comfortable room for the saddle between the
shoulders and the luck without pressing upon either. Some persons prefer
a hollow-backed horse. It is generally an easy one to go. It will canter
well with a lady, but it will not carry a heavy weight, or stand much hard
work. Tlie road-horse should be high in the forehead, round in the barrel,
and deep in the chest."
13-i. The English Dray-Horse. — Tliere is a variety of horses known as the
dray-horse, or more generally in this country as the English cart-horse ; a
very heavy, strong, slow-gaited horse, originated by a cross of the Flanders
or ISTorman horse Mith the Suffolk Punch, a sorrel horse of fifteen or sixteen
hands high, with low, rounded shoulders ; thick on the top ; low back ;
deep, round chest ; long back ; high croup ; large, strong quarters ; full
flanks ; round legs, and short pasterns. This is a good description of a
strong work-horse. We have something like it, though rather increased in
size, in the Pennsylvania wagon-horse.
135. Morgan Horses. — Tlie most distinct strain of American horses — in
fact, the only one which assumes the character of a race — is that now widely
100 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
known as the Morgan. Tlie origin of this race is given in the following ex-
tracts from letters written by a son and a relative of the original owner of the
old Morgan horse:
TLo following is an extract from a letter of Justin Morgan, originally
furnished for the Cultivator (vol. ix., p. 99), dated Stockbridge, Yt., March
1, 1843. After stating that his father owned the horse from which the race
of Morgan horses sprung, he says :
" I will now relate the facts relative to said Morgan horse as I recollect
them. My father, Justin Morgan, brought said horse, or rather said colt,
into Randolph, Vt., in the summer or autumn of 1795. Said colt was only
two yc;ii-s old when my lather brought him to Randolph, and had never
been handled in any way, not even to be led by a halter. My father went
to Spriiigtield, Mass., the place of his nativity, and the place from which he
removed lo Randolph, in the spring or summer of 1795, after money that
was due to him at that place, as he said ; and instead of getting money, as
he expected, he got two colts — one, a three-year-old gelding colt, which he
led ; the other, a two-year-old stallion colt, which followed all the way from
Springfield to Randolph ; having been, as my father said, always kept with
and much attached to the colt he led. Said two-year-old colt was the same
that has since been known all over New England by the name of the Morgan
horse. My father broke said colt himself, and, as I have before remarkuJ,
owned and kept him to tlie time of his decease, which took place in March,
179S, and said horse was five years old the spring my father died ; and, as
before stated, soon after my father's decease, he passed from my father's
estate into the possession of Wm. Rice, of Woodstock, Vt. I can not state
positively that my father purchased said colt in Springfield, Mass., but I am
very confident that he purchased him in that town or in the immediate
vicinity, on Connecticut River."
"We next ofler an extract from a letter of John Morgan (see Cultivator,
vol. ix., p. 110), in which it will be seen that the material points set forth
by Justin Morgan are confirmed, and some further light given in regard to
the blood of the first Morgan horse. John Morgan resides at Lima, New-
York, and is, we believe, a relative of Justin Morgan, Sr., and was a near
neighbor of the latter previous to his removal from Springfield to Vermont.
In reference to the colt above desciibed by Justin Morgan (2d), John Mor-
gan says : " lie was sired by a horse owned by Sealy Norton, of East Hart-
ford, Conn., called the 'True Briton, or Beautiful Bay.' lie was kept at
Springfield one season by the said Justin Morgan [Sr.], and two years after, I
kept him two seasons. This horse was said to have been raised by General
Delancy, commander of the refugee troops on Long Island, and rode by him
in the Revolution. It was said that one Smith stole the horse from the
General at King's Bridge, while the General was in the tavern ; ran him
across the bridge and took him to the American army, near AVhite Plains,
and sold him to Joseph Ward, of Hartford, Conn., for $300. It was also
said at that time that he was sired by the imported horse called ' Traveler,'
Sko. 8.] nORSES— THE MORGAK BREED. 101
said to have been kept in Kew Jersey. Ward was a mts-chant, and kept tlie
liorse three or four years for a saddle and carriage horse, and then traded
him off to Norton, and Norton kept him for marcs wliile he lived. The
description of the Morgan breed given by Mr. G. Barnard {Cultivuior, vol.
ix., p. 33), answers well to the stock of ' True Briton.' I have always under-
stood that Morgan kept the colt for a stallion at Randolph, and was very
celebrated for his stock."
The above statements of Justin and John Morgan comprise, as we believe,
the true history, so far as it is known, of the origin of tlie far-famed Morgan
horses. From tlie position of the Messrs. Morgan, they have had the best
jjossible facilities for obtaining correct information on this subject, and we
are not aware of anything which should hinder their statement from receiv-
ing full credence.
" Of the old Morgan's progeny, three became famous as stallions, viz., the
Slierman Morgan, the Woodbury or Burbank, and the Chelsea. Of these
the Sherman Morgan was greatly the most distinguished. I have ascer-
tained to a certainty that he died in the winter of 1835. Black Hawk was
sired by him."
130. Black-Hawk MorganSi — Fifteen years ago, S. W. Jewett, of Vermont,
wrote of these as follows :
" I believe the Morgan blood to be the best tliat was ever infused into the
'Xorthern horse.' They are well known, and are esteemed for activity",
iiardiness, gentleness, and docility throngliout the New England States ;
well adapted for all work; good in every spot, except for racers on the turf.
They are lively and spirited, loftj' and elegant in their action, carrying them-
selves gracefully in the harness. They have size in proportion to hight ;
bone clean; sinewy legs; compactness; short, strong backs ; powerful lungs;
strength and endurance. A mixture of the Morgan blood, tliough small,
may be easily known from any other stock in the country. There is a re-
markable similarity prevailing in all of this race. They are known by their
short, lean heads, wide across the face at the eyes ; eyes lively and prom-
inent ; open and wide in the under jaws, large windpipe, deep brisket,
heavy and round in the body, broad in the back, short limbs in proportion
to size, broad quarters; a lively, quick action; indomitable spirit; move
true and easy in a good round trot ; fast on the walk. Color : dark bay,
chestnut, brown or black, with dark flowing wavy mane and tail ; head u]), and
move without a whip ; about fifteen hands high ; action powerful and spirited.
'•They are highly celebrated for general usefulness, make the best of
roadsters, and live to a great age. In fact, they are the perfect ' Yankee
harness horse.'
" The Morgans are very like the noble Arab, with similar eyes, upright
ears, high withers, powerful quarters, hocks well placed under their weight,
vigorous arms and flat legs, short from the knee to the pastern, close jointed,
possessing immense power for their size, with great fire and courage. But
a few of the Morgans, however, evince extraordinary speed.
102 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
" It is eaid that the best stock of horses in the New England States are
found among tlie progeny and descendants of the Sherman Morgan, wliicli
was owned hy Mr. Bellows, of Vermont.
" Tlie figure given on another page is a portrait of Black Hawk, ' a colt
of the Sherman Morgan, which was got by the old Justin Morgan horse.
The dam of Black Hawk was a three-quarter-blooded English mare, raised
in the province of New Brunswick. She could trot a mile in less than three
minutes, and weighed 1,025 lbs., and was in every respect a most perfect
aninial.'
" Black Hawk was bred by Mr. Mattliews, of Durham, N. II. lie is a
jet-black color; weighs, in good flesh, 1,01011)3.; his hight is fifteen liands
and one inch. A line drawn from the hip even with the ham, just below
the setting on of the tail, is four inches longer than the back, or the distance
from the hip to the withers. A line dropped perpendicular from the nock,
parallel with the fore leg, is nineteen inches forward of the junction of the
withers. The distance between the hip and the ribs is only one and a half
inches. He has a broad and vigorous arm, fat and clean leg, large mnsclcs,
short from the knee to the pastern, large windpipe and nostril, well open
when under motion. He is one of the best i)roportioned and most elegant
moving horses that can be produced. He is perfectly sound, a close-jointed,
clean-limbed animal, and carries a beautiful waving head, mane, and tail.
His legs are flat and hard, clean from long hairs on the fetlock ; his eyes
stand out prominent ; his disposition kind aud playful. He keeps fat with
very little feed of oats and bran, three quarts of each daily, and five or six
pounds of timothy each day.
" No fault can be found with the horse, nnlcss it be in his size ; however,
his stock are suflicicntly large for roadsters and for general usefulness in
this State."
137. The Faults of the Morgan HorsCi — Of the Morgan horses as they
were at the lime Mr. Jewett wrote, particularly the Black Hawk strain of
the blood, we have no fault to find — we rather indorse his statement. But
fifteen years have wrought a change. As a general thing, Morgan horses
have been bred too much in-and-in, and without regard to size. They are
no longer " lofty" in proportion to the weight, but, on the cotitrary, arc
" squatty," and to the eye of a good judge of horses, far less attractive than
they were formerly. What is needed, is an infusion of blood of a taller race
— such as gave character to the Black Hawks. Wherever they have been
crossed with Messenger stock, Cleveland Bay, or othei'S of similar form, the
improvement has been marked, and some of the very finest roadsters and
carriage-horses have resulted. The Morgans, crossed upon other good
breeds, do not improve those as much as it improves theirs. It is still a
favorite breed of horses in New England, but not as much so as it was some
years ago. The uniform color of the family has been a great recommenda-
tion, and there has been also a greater degree of general beauty in the Mor-
gan family of horses than in any other ever extensively bred in this country.
Sbo. 8.] HORSES— SIZE OF ROADSTERS. 103
We shall now give a few useful items for owners of horses of whatever
breed, mongrel or thorough-bred.
138. Driving — The Start. — The first mile is the most important of the jour-
ney. More horses are injured in the start than in the balance of the whole
<iay. You should carefully avoid rapid driving immediately after a horse
has been full fed. Many old travelers feed over-night all the grain they
intend the horse to eat in the twenty four hours. Others feed at night and
at noon, and then give time after the horse has eaten hia mess before start-
ing, or else drive very slowly for an hour, making up time as night
approaches. In all cases when a horse has been fed and watered an hour or
two before starting upon a jonrney or di-ive of several miles, it is proper to
drive slowly for the first mile or two ; but when the feeding and watering
have been more recent, the propriety of going along at a jog or easy pace
is still more urgent. Colic, founder, broken wind, have all of them resulted
from too rapid driving when a horse was full. A friend of ours, a pliysi-
cian, who had occasion sometimes to violate this dictate of good manage-
ment in his haste to reach some case of great urgency, once informed us
that when he drove at a rapid rate immediately after feeding, his horse
would scour almost invariably, and seem to suffer considerably.
Even in such cases where a horse must be driven upon a full stomach, it
is better to divide the distance into equal parts — say ten miles, which you
intend to drive in an hour, and give forty minutes to the first half, and do
the other five in twenty minutes. In that case be careful, when j'ou stop,
not to leave the horse to cool suddenly. If the weather is hot, and you have
driven hard, don't mind trying to get your horse in a cool shade. The sun
won't hurt him.
There is another great error in driving which has often been suggested to
us. It is that of constantly urging a horse to exert himself beyond what is
natural to him. For instance, if a horse is urged to perfbi-ni in t^^'t) hours
a distance that he would, at his natural pace, require three hours to do, it
will injure him more than four hours' driving at his regular pace; and if
this urging is continued all daj', he will break down, just as a man would, if
urged to double his speed in walking.
139. Size of Roadsters. — A road horse should be about fifteen hands high
(a hand being four inches), measured from the top of the shoulder or withers
to the ground, when the horse stands naturally ; his weiglit should be about
1,000 lbs. ; for such weight in an animal fifteen hands high, in moderate
flesh, indicates compactness and power somewhere. Experience has proved
tliat horses of this size carry their weight better on long journeys, injure
their feet less on the pavements and hard roads, and are apt to be more fleet
than those of a larger class ; for while greater length and hight will give an
increased stride, either running or trotting, the power to gather rapidly, and
especially for long distances, requires much greater muscular exertion in
large than in small horses, from the greater weight to be propelled. Our
fastest trotters have generally been from this class.
104 DOMESTIC AKIMALS. [Chap. I.
140. talking Horses. — Tlie best gait a horse ever had for everj-day use
is a good walk. It is a gait that not one in ten possesses. Colts are not
trained to walk in all the Eastern States. Young America wants more speed.
Kentiickj has more good walking horses than any other State, for there hoi-se-
back traveling has long been in fashion fur men and women over a country
where muddy roatls, at some seasons, rendered afiy other gait impossible, and
60 horses have been bred for the saddle and trained to a walking gait. This
is also the case in all the "Western States, and perhaps might have been so in
Kew England, when our grandmothers rode to meeting on a pillion behind our
grandfathers. But one-horse wagons have put horseback riding out of fashion,
and now a good walking horse is more rare than one that can trot a mile in 2.40.
At the Springfield (Mass.) horse show of ISCO, the writer was one of a
committee to award prizes to the two best walking horses. Out of seven-
teen entered, the committee found but one which was considered a first-rate
walker. This was a Morrill mare, which walked live miles an liour with ease.
Two others were fair walkers, and the others knew no gait that could be
called walking. At the New York State Fair the same state of facts was
agiin developed. A letter from Wisconsin says : " I think horses trained to
walk fast would be a greater benefit to farmers in general than fast trotters,
as almost ail of his work has to be done with a walk. I once knew a man
in Massachusetts who, before the railroads were built, kept from two to four
teams at work on the road, and never allowed them to trot at all, and made
the distance in quicker time than his neighbors, who made their horses tvot
at every convenient place. He said that when a horse commenced to walk
after a trot, he walked much slower than his common gait if kept on a walk,
and thereby lost more than he gained." "Will farmers think of this, and pay
more attention to walking horses ?
141. lustrumeiiCs of Torture Used by Horsemen. — Tlie following sensible
remarks are from the Irii^h J^urnwr^s Gazette. They are quite applicable
here:
" Tlie good old English roadstei-'s style of walk, trot, or canter is too steady
for your fast young man ; he thinks it far beneath him to speak a kindly
word to his horse, or to control him by an easy signal ; and however quiet
the horse may be, he is rarely seen on his back without at leastyoio' uuncc-
esT^ary instrinnents of torture — namely, two spure with sharp rowels, one
whip, and a severe curb bridle. Why should it be the universal custom in
this country for men armed with these cruel instruments of torture to ride
quiet, docile horses, and often punish them for a fanciful fault which they
themselves bring about by their own want of experience and knowledge of
the horse's nature ?
" If a man has not the ability to handle a horse lightly, and at the same
time keep his balance in the saddle, he lias no business to ride one of value
and high courage. It would be better for the horse and safer for the man
to keep his feet on terra firnia.
"Tlie more a horse's mouth is used to a severe bit, the less he will care
Sko. 8.] HORSES AND HORSE STABLES. ' 105
for it, as be will soon learn to neutralize its effects hy pulling and keepinc
the reins in a state of tension, and thereby pievent the rider from cheeking
or wriggling the bit — to punish him. The dead, steady pull is far less pain-
ful to him tlian the jaw-breaking the rider would be able to inliict upon him
if allowed to keep his reins slack and ready for a jerk.
" One of the many causes which makes pulling horses is the unsteady seat
of their riders. Many men can not ride a light-mouthed horse, but they can
sit a puller with ease, because the firm hold this horse allows them to have
on the reins is the main thing upon which they depend to keep their balance.
"I have seen the most inveterate pullers in some people's hands ridden in
bits invented by their owners, regular jaw-breaking or choking power, and
still pulling so hard as to tear the skin of their rider's hands. And I have
no hesitation in saying — having frequently proved my assertions by prac-
tice— that if one of these tear-away pullers changed hands, and his new
owner would bridle him with an easy snaffle, and let him stand in the stable
— to feel the difference— an hour before he was mounted he would forget his
old habit."
142. Saddle-IIorses.— One of the meanest things ever taught a saddle-
horse is to cavort and curve, and go dancing and prancing about as though
trying to keep within a circle ju?t large enough to hold his four feet closely
drawn together. If you are selecting a saddle-horse, see that he does not
stand square upon his forward feet. They should reach avcII forward, and
then there will be such an easy spring that you may ride at a smart trot
without feeling as though you are struck with a sledge at every step, as you
may upon some horses Mdiose hoofs are square under the legs, and appear to
have about the same degree of spring that you would have upon wooden
pins stepping along, and brought down at every step like a pavier's rammer.
Never select a very round-backed horse for the saddle. It does not hold
its place well upon such a back. A good saddle-horse must possess good
sense as well as a good gait and gentleness.
143. Color Indicative of Gentleness. — It is asserted that the reason why
circus managers select parti-colored horses is not their fancy color, but be-
cause it indicates gentleness and tractability, and that the animals will
submit to training better than horses of one color. A little thought and
observation upon this subject will enable any farmer to settle the question
in his own mind. Perhaps there is more than appears at first view in the
common expression, " a fiery black horse." Is it not because black indi-
cates a fiery temper ? Independent of color, we would look in the counte-
nance of a horse to see whether he would bear training. In some animals
there is a general appearance of an ugly disposition. A face broad and full
between the eyes indicates good sense, which is one of the most important
things in a horse.
144. Horse Stables should be light, roomy, and well ventilated. Never
put a horse in a cellar. Build your stables high ; that is, high between
floors. M(jst stables are built low " because they are warmer." But such
106 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
people forget tliat warmtli is obtained at a sacrifice of pure air and the
liealtli of the animal. Shut . man up in a tight, small bo.x ; the air may
be warm, but it will soon lay him out dead and cold if hs continues to
breathe it. If stables arc tiglit, they should have high ceilings; if they
are not tight, but o^jcu to admit cold currents of air from all directions, they
are equally faulty.
Slatted floors are getting into vogue. My own stable is built with a tight
floor nine feet long and four and a half feet wide for each stall, with a pitch
of two inches. At the end of the plank there is a slatted portion, four feet
wide, two inches lower than the plank. Through these sluts all the urine
runs into the manure pile in the cellar, and so leaves the beds of the horses dry.
145. Sand for Horses' Beds. — Mr. Small, of Dundalk, Scotland, a veteri-
nary surgeon of considerable experience, states that sand is not only an ex-
cellent substitute for straw for horses' beds, but superior to straw, as the
sand does not heat, and saves the hoofs of the horses. lie states that sand is
exclusively used for horses' beds in liis repository.
I-IG. To Remove Horses from a Building on Fire. — Tlie great difliculty of
getting horses from a stable, where surrounding buildings are in a state of
conflagration, is well known. Wilkes' Spirit of the Times says, a gentleman
whose horses had been in great peril from such a cause, having in vain tried
to save them, hit upon the experiment of having them harnessed, when, to
his astonishment, they were led from the stable Avithout difliculty. Throw-
ing a blanket over a horse's head will often answer, also, and may be easily
tried before harnessing.
147. Proportion of Horses lo Men. — The following curious account is given
in Appleton's Encyclopedia, of the number of horses in the various parts of the
world : " The general estimate has been eight to ten horses in Europe for every
hundred inhabitants. Denmark has 45 horses to every hundred inhabitants,
which is more than any other European country. Great Uritain and Ire-
land have 2,500,000 horses ; France, 3,000,000 ; Austrian Empire, exclusive
of Italy, 2,500,000 ; Russia, 3,500,000. The United States have 5,000,000,
which is more than any European country. The horses of the whole v/orld
arc estimated at 57,420,000."
14S. M'hat Constitutes Legal Unsoundness in Horsesi — A Knee-fiprung horse
can hardly be said to be unsound. lie may be a very fast horse, and can
endure with ease the labor of anj' common, ordinary horse, although there
is an alteration of structure which unfits him for the race-course. Tliis
would not be likely to produce disease or lameness ; he would be more
likely to grow better than worse, if used for common puq^oses. But if so
bad as to produce stumbling and falling, he would be unsound, and a wai--
ranty should be taken against such defects.
Capped Iloeks can not be considered unsoundness, if produced by an un-
even stable floor or by kicking ; but if produced by a sprain, and a perma-
nent thickening and enlargement of the membranes, there would be unsound-
ness. A sj^ecial warranty should be required in such cases.
"vm
HOKSJKS 'I'WT.TH AT BiPFBllKWT AgBS.
It <i KM I'^.s ^I'lKF.TH .vi' <,Hy ywnwyr Af'.K.s .
PLATES VIIT., TX.
(Pages 106, 107.)
These plates need no description ; they require study. As they
contain all that could be said to fully understand the subject illus-
trated, we have written nothing about the art of "telling the age
of horses by examining their teeth." Whoever studies these plates
will learn that art. Observe the steady change, year by year, as
it is mapped out before you. Open the mouth of your horse, and
compare its appearance with the illustration of the year correspond-
ing to his known age, and so on of all others. Thus you will learn
the art and the value of these engraved representations.
Seo. 8.] HORSES— WEEK UNSOUND. 107
Contraction of the Hoof is a considerable deviation from the natural form
of the foot, but does not necessarily constitute unsoundness. It requires,
liowever, a most careful examina'jon by the purchaser to ascertain that there
is no fever or ossification of the cartiLige ; that the frog is not diseased ; that
the animal is not tender-footed or lame. Unless some of these symptoms
are indicated, he must not be pronounced unsound. A special warranty
should be required where the feet are contracted.
Co7'ns manifestly constitute unsoundness. Although few men lay much
stress on this malady, still much iuconvenience, and many times serious
difficulties, must be encountered by them, as they are seldom thoroughly
cured. Many horses are almost constantly lame with corns, through a scrof-
ulous habit of the system. A warranty against such animals would be safe.
TremWmg Knees. — This can not be considered unsoundness, yet it is a
precursory symptom of Icnec-sprung. Trembling of the knees, after a smart
exercise, indicates weakness, and should be regarded as objectionable.
A Cough constitutes unsoundness, however slight or of short standing.
If a horse is noticed to cough before the purchase, or immediately after-
ward, he is diseased ; but if warranted sound, and the cough is not discov-
ered till one or two days afterward, he is not returnable; for a few hours arc
sufficient to contract a cough, by taking cold while standing in a damp,
musty stable, or by eating different feed, musty hay, etc.
Roaring, Wheezing, or Whistling is unsoundness, being the result of alter-
ation of structure or disease in the air-passages. Although there have been
decisions to the contrary, courts and jurors are often at a loss for the want
of intelligent witnesses ; and if a veterinary surgeon is called to the stand,
not having seen the animal, he is liable to be mistaken from misrepresenta-
tion. Broken Wind is still more decidedly unsoundness.
Crii Biting. — A difference of opinion exists as to this being unsoundness,
and courts have given opposite decisions in respect to it. There are cribbers
that can scarcely be said to be unsound, as they are not perceptibly injured,
and it does not interfere M'ith their condition or endurance. Others inhale
and swallow a great amount of wind ; they bloat and are subject to colic,
which interferes with their health and strength ; this would constitute un-
sinindness. A warranty should always be taken against injury from crib-
bing ; then if he breaks his teeth or injures himself, recompense may be had.
Curh constitutes unsoundness as long as it lasts, and perhaps while the
swelling remains, although no inflammation exists ; for a horse that has once
tlirown out a curb, is liable to do so again on the slightest exertion. A
horse, however, should not be returned if he s])ring a curb five minutes after
purchase, for it is done in a moment, and does not indicate any previous
unsotmdness.
l-i9. Soiling Horses. — TVe commend the following statement of J. C. Ad-
ams, of Seymour, X. Y., to the attention of all owners of small farms, like
the little one where we practice the same course :
"I have in close proximity to my barn a patch of ground, 7^ rods by 16
108 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
(three quarters of an acre), seeded to clover, from which I kept one span of
horses in thriving condition from the first day oi June last to tlie last day
of August, besides cutting 900 lbs. of good hay, which I put into the barn,
and harvested of the second mowing seed sufficient to stock an acre or two
of ground. This may, and undoubtedly will, seem to many like a big barn
well stretched. In fact, I should doubt the reality of such a story myself, had
not my eyes seen and my hands felt the truth of such a statement. By the
time I had mowed two thirds of this little patch, the remainder was fit to be
made into hay, which I accordingl}- did up after the most approved fashion.
And that part mowed first was sufficiently large to mow again. I fed them
three times a day all they could eat. They smelt not, touched not, tasted
not one particle of grain during the three months ; used them more or less
every day, and at the end there was a perceptible gain in flesh. Kever,
since I could say 7)}i/ team, have I summered a team so cheaply. Tlie great-
est cost is cutting and putting it before the horses. I offered them Avater,
but they did not drink to exceed a pailful a week.
" I am of the opinion that if they had been turned loose npon this piece
of ground, ten days would have been sufficient time to eat up and trample
into the earth everything green upon it. As five acres of good pasture is
little enough to summer a span of horses when allowed to run, there is almost
an incalculable saving in soiling them."
150. Brecdiug for Loilgovlty. — We have had a few instances of horses liv-
ing to the age of thirty years, but they are so rare, that such an old horse is
Tooked upon as a curiosity. Lewis B. Brown, of Westchester County, N. Y.,
has a team of four, the aggregate age of which is lOS years, the oldest being
over 30 years, and all in such vigor of constitution that but few teams can
hold their own with this upon the road. The exhibition of this old team at
t!ie Springfield show, in 1860, attracted universal attention. This sIkiws that
such old horses are rare, and it proves that old horses are not worthless. It
also induces the question, whether we can not breed with a special reference
to longevity. If selections were made npon both sides, of stock which hail
ancestors noted for longevity, and this course continued througli several
generations, with mares and stallions which have arrived at mature age, still
re:aining a vigor like that exhibited in Mr. Brown's team, who can say that
we should not obtain a breed noted for longevity, and that horses forty or
fifty years old would then be no rarity ? This is a subject worth thinking
about.
151. Trealmcnt of foMs, — AVhcn fii-st foaled, if parturition is at maturity,
the colt should have eight front teeth, four in each jaw ; but it sometimes
happens that these are not all cut through, and the gums are inflamed and
so tender that the colt can not suck well. Tiiis should always be looked to,
and the gums cut with a sharp knife, and, if need be, the colt fed until it can
suck freelj'.
Colts as well as calves are sometimes aflPected by lice ; these may be got rid
of in various ways. Take white-oak bark, boil it in water, making a strong
Sec. 8.] HORSES AND THEIR DISEASES. 109
decoction ; wash tlie animals on the bade and on the sides. In twenty-four
hours the lice will be completely tanned. Tanner's oil is also first-rate. So
is snuff or a decoction of tobacco ; and we have heard of Peruvian guano
being used and answering the same pur2)ose as snuff.
152. Remedies for Some of ihe most Commoa Diseases of Horsesi — There
are a great many little simple complaints that can be cured without sending
for a veterinary surgeon. "We can afford room for only a few, because every
farmer should take an agricultural paper, and such papers are stored with
valuable remedies such as the following :
153. To Cure ScratcheSo — When the horse comes in at night, his legs
should be washed clean and rubbed as dry as may be ; then apply good
vinegar, rubbing it Avell to the skin. Two applications a day are sufficient.
1 have always found it a sure preventive and a certain cure. If the legs
have become cracked and sore, apply the vinegar freely and add a piece of
copperas the size of a common hickory nut to a quart of vinegar.
Another excellent remedy, which we have used a great many times, is
beef brine. If the dirt is carefully washed off with warm soap-suds, and then
the legs well bathed with the brine, it will require but two or three applica-
tions to cure a very bad case of scratches.
The Maine Farmer gives another remedy. It says : " Take fresh slaked
lime, and dust the affected parts well with it twice a day. It will not cause
the horse any uneasiness, and will be sure to effect a cure in a ic:\Y days.
15-1. For Heaves in liorses. — Take smart-weed, steep it in boiling water till
the strength is all out ; give one quart every day for eight or ten days. Or mix
it with bran or shorts. Give him green or cut-up feed, wet up with water,
during the operation, and it will cure.
155. ChaGag Uader the Collar. — A gentleman who has tried the plan suc-
cessfully for five years, communicates the annexed method of preventing
horses from chafing under the collar. He says he gets a piece of leather, and
has what he terms a false collar made, which is simply cutting the leather
in such a shape as to lie singly between the shoulders of the horse and the
coUai". This fends off all the friction, as the collar slips and moves on the
leather, and not on the shoulders of the horse. Chafing is caused hj fric-
tion, hence, you see, the thing is entirely feasible. Some persons put pads
or sheep-skins under the collar ; thCse, they say, do as mucli hurt as good,
for they augment the heat. A single piece of leather, like that composing
the outside of a collar, without any lining or stuffing, is better than anv-
thing else.
156. For Fistula. — Salt, one tablespoonful ; soft soap, one tablespoonful ;
whisky, one tablespoonful ; turpentine, one tablespoonful. Mix in a tin
cup ; place on the horse's nose a twitch, to prevent his moving ; have your
mixture placed on a little fire, and as soon as it boils up, pour immediately
upon the diseased part ; repeat the operation every ten or twelve days, till ap-
plied three or four times, if necessary. It will not take off the hair or leave
any scar.
110 DOMESTIC AinSTALS. [Chap. I.
Tliis is not more eifectual tlian the following: much simpler remedy, which
we have proved for bo'th fistula and poll-evil. Take a lump of potash
or saleratus, as big as you can crowd into the pipe of the fistula, and it
causes it to discharge more freely for a day or two, and then it begins to
heal. In one case of poll-evil, a large mare would not allow any one to
touch her head to apply the reuiedy, or in fact to be bridled. For this case
we took about two ounces of saleratus and tied it in a cloth, in the form of a
pad, inside the strap of a halter, where it crossed the top of the head, and by dint
of perseverance succeeded at length in getting it on and firmly secured, when
we bid her go and live or die, as she liked — we would do no more for her.
A shower fell soon after, and the next time we saw our patient she was par-
tially healed : the caustic had taken the liair off, and it had also affected the
disease. A fortnight later we caught her, and found she did not object to
being handled. The disease was cured, and (he mare was worth a hundred
dollars. When tui'ned out, she could not have been sold for a hundred
cunts, and the cure had not cost five cents.
Here is another remedy which may be tried, if it is preferred to the other.
Tiic following is sent us as a valuable prescription for several of the ills that
horse-flesh is heir to, such as fistula, poll-evil, ring-bone, big head, etc. :
12 oz. of alcohol, 1 oz. of spirits of turpentine, 1 oz. of corrosive sublimate,
1 oz. of camphor gum, 1 oz. of oil of spike, 1 oz. of castile soap, 1 oz. of aqua-
fortis— mixed and dissolved, and applied with a swab for a day or two, and
then intermixed, and apply again. Take care only to touch the jiart af-
fected; and, to prevent injury to the hair or hoof adjacent, rub it well with
grease.
157. White Lead, its Value on Sores. — W/iiie lead in oil, as an external
application or remedy, has no equal. In abrasions, or galls from the sad-
dle or collar, or from any other cause, it will speedily aid the part in healing.
Applied to the leg of a horse — the outer coating of hair and skin of which
was torn off — with a painter's brush, caused it to heal and leave no scar. It
is good for scratches and all sores upon horses or other animals, and equally
good for men. It forms an air-tight coating, and soothes pain. Every farmer
should keep a pot and brush ready for use, and he should not fail to apply it
to all abraded spots on tools, as well as stock. White lead is the carbonate
of the metal, and, when pure, is very white. That having a grayish tint is
impure, being generally adulterated. For use as a paint, a lead color is
produced by adding lampblack, and a drab or stone color, by adding burnt
umber.
158. Liniment for Sweeney in Horses.— One oz. of oil of spike, 1 oz. of oil
of amber, 1 oz. of Venice turpentine, and a small quantity of rock-oil.
159. Blind Staggers. — This disease is more common in the Southern than
it is in the Northern States. The Cotton Planter newspaper gives the fol-
lowing remedy : " Take 1 gal. of green hickory wood ashes, 1 half pint of
spirits of turpentine, 1 oz. of gum camphor, and a sufficiency of lye to make
a thin mush. Fill a horn with this mush, while boiling hot, and with a thin
Sbo. 8.] HORSES— IMPERFECT VISION". Ill
cloth stretched over the end of the horn, apply it four times upon or over
the region of the brain, each time filling the liorn with the boiling mnsh,
which will blister the skin. In connection with this, it is necessary to burn
rags wet with spirits of turpentine imder the horse's nose until you produce
a free discharge. You should also bleed freely from the neck, and give one
pint of linseed-oilas a purge.
160. How to Detect Imperfect Vision or Blindness in Horses.— Tou may
have good grounds for suspicion of imperfect vision when the horse moves
liis ears in a constant and rapid motion, directing them in quick succession
to every quarter from whence the least sound proceeds. Also if his action is
lofty and faltering, and he lifts up his feet and replaces them on the ground
as if stepping over some obstacle, when there is actually nothing to impede
his free progression, notwithstanding these symptoms would be sufiicicnt to
create suspicion, there are other causes by which similar symptoms Avould
appear in horses. If a horse with perfect eyes were led from a dark stable
i:ilo the sunshine, the sudden contraction of the pupil of his eye would
render it impossible, for a few moments, for him to see but very indistinctly ;
hence symptoms of uncertainty in his movements, until the pupil becomes
steady after the sudden contraction. The dilating and contracting of the
pu]iil furnish means of ascertaining whether blindness exists in one eye or
both, as this pupil varies in size according to the degree of light which is
brought to bear upon it. In a dark stable the pupil is expanded, so that a
greater portion of light falls upon the cornea ; but if the horse is led to the
door of the stable, the pupil will contract bo as to exclude more light than
could be endured, and if suddenly exposed to the sun, the aperture will be
all but closed; therefore carefully notice the eyes, whether they contract or
expand equally by the increase and decrease of the light. If the horse
should be examined in the open air, notice whether both pupils are of ex-
actly the same size. After this, carefully place the hand, so as not to alarm
the horse, over each eye, to shade off tlie light, and hold it there for a short
time, noticing the extent to which the pupil dilates ; then pass the hand
over the other eye, and ascertain whether it also dilates to the same extent,
and if still it be uncertain, place both hands in the positions of shades over
both the eyes of the horse, and you will at once perceive whether they are
perfect, and if not, which of the two is imperfect.
Nothing tends more to injure the eyes of a horse than dark or badly venti-
lated stables. Attention to the lighting, draining, and ventilation of horse
stables is an imperative duty. There are thousands of stables in which the
door is the only aperture for the ingress or egress of pure air, and even this
is in most instances closed, both when the horse is at rest, or at work or ex-
ercise; thus he has, while in the stable, to constantly breathe vitiated air.
161. Remedy for GaHs on Horses. — Use whisky, saturated with alum,
to wash the parts liable to chafe, which tends to harden the skin and pre-
vents its rubbing off. For galls already formed, the following receipt for a
salve is good ; so it is for human flesh-sores.
112 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
" Take of Iioiiey, twelve ounces ; yellow beeswax, four ounces ; compound
galbannm plaster, six ounces ; sweet oil, half a pint. Put the lioney into a
jar by the fire, then melt the other ingredients and mix them together ;
spread very thin on linen, and apply twice every day."
162. Horse-Shoeing. — It is wonderful how little the mass of smiths who
shoe horses know of the anatomy of a horse's foot ; of its delicate organiza-
tion, and susceptibility to injury by improper paring of the hoof, formation
of the shoes, and attachment of the same! Horses are peculiarly sensitive
to lameness, and it is obvious that great care in the particulars mentioned
should be observed, in order that a firm, positive, and comfortable tread
sliould be given the feet, so as to make them capal)le of exerting the won-
derful degree of muscular strength of which they are possessed without
injury to the exquisitely constructed parts which are brought into play. In
one of the numbers of the Dnhlin Agricultural Review we find a long article,
written by William Miles, extracted from the Journal of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of London. We heartily commend this able production to
the perusal of those of our readers interested in this important subject. It
commences as follows :
" If I were asked to account for my horses' legs and feet being in better
order than those of my neighbors, I should attribute it to the four following
circumstances : First, that they arc all shod with few nails, so placed in the
slioe as to permit the foot to expand every time they move; secondly, that
they all live in boxes instead of stalls, and can move wlienever they please ;
thirdly, that they have two hours' daily walking exercise when they are not
at work; and fourthly, that I have not a head-stall or rack-chain in niy
stable. These four circumstances comprehend the whole mystery of keeping
horses' legs fine, and their feet in sound working condition np to a good old age.
" All that is really required is, to take one anatomical and one phys-
iological fact on trust, and believe that the horse's hoof is lined by a very
sensitive membrane which must on no account ever be wounded, and that
the hoof itself is elastic, and expands when the weight of the horse is thrown
on the foot, and con'racts when it is taken off again ; all the rest is jjurely
mechanical, and merely calls for the exercise of a little thought and patience
to understand the principle and apply it.
"Tlie result of the numberless experiments I have made at various times
on all sorts of horses doing evcrj- kind of work is, that tliere is but one priii-
ci})le to be observed in horse-shoeing which will admit of no variation or
compromise : the shoe must fit the foot, whatever the shape of the foot may
haj)pen to be, and it must be nailed to the hoof in such a manner as will
]iermit the foot to expand to the weight of the horse; this latter condition
will be best complied with by placing three nails in the outer limb of the
shoe, and two in the inner limb between the foe and the commencement of
the inner quarter ; a larger number than five nails can never be required in
any shoe of any size, or under any circumstances, excepting for the sole pur-
pose of counteracting defective and clumsy fitting.
Seo. 8.] HORSES AND HOESE-SHOEING. 113
" No horse should have more than one foot bared at a time ; however
strong his feet may happen to be, he is sure to stand quieter on a shod foot
than he can on a bare one, and it will prevent his breaking the crust. A
horse with weak flat feet is in positive misery when forced to sustain his
whole weight on a bare foot, while the of)posite foot is held up.
" A strong foot with an arched sole, when the roads are in good order,
will require to have the toe shortened, the quarters and heels lowered, and
the sole pared, until it will yield in some slight degree to very hard pressure
from the thumb ; but on no account should it ever be pared thin enough to
yield to moderate pressure ; the angles formed by the crust and the bars at
tlio heels must be cleared out, and all the dead horn removed therefrom, and
the bars should be lowered nearly to a level with the sole.
" A weak flat foot, on the contrary, will bear no shortening of the toe, and
very little paring or lowering anywhere ; the heels of such feet are sure to be
too low already, and the sole too thin ; in fact, the less that is done to them the
better beyond clearing out the dead horn from the angles at the heels, and
making the crust bear evenly on the shoe ; but the hollow between the bars
and the frog, or the frog itself, must never be touched by a knife in any foot,
whether it be a weak one or a strong one ; and as these latter directions
difl^er materially from the usual practice of smiths, I may, perhaps, be ex-
pected to state my reasons for wishing to enforce them in opposition to what
they no doubt consider a time-honored custom ; I mean the inveterate hkbit
they all have of trimming the frog, and opening out the heels at every
shoeing ; but I think I shall be able to show that ' it is a custom more hon-
ored in the breach than in the observance.'
" The shoe should be neither too light nor too narrow in the web ; light
shoes are apt to bend before they are half worn out, and narrow-webbed
shoes expose the sole and frog to imnecessary injury from stones in the road.
Every fore-shoe should be more or less seated on the foot-surface, to prevent
it pressing on and bruising the sole ; but a perfectly flat surface should be
preserved around the edge of the foot-surface of the shoe, from heel to heel,
for the crust to rest upon. The amount of seating to be employed must be
determined by the description of foot to be shod ; for instance, a broad foot,
with a flat sole and weak horn, will require a wide web, considerably seated,
to prevent it coming in contact with the sole and bruising it ; but a narrow
foot, with an arched sole and strong horn, will require less width of web
and less seating, otherwise the dirt and grit of the road would become im-
pacted between the shoe and the sole, and cause as much pressure and injury
as tiie iron would have done."
Many men who own and use horses seem to be indiflferent as to the man-
ner in which they are shod, so much so that they take them to any one who
can drive a nail, leave everything to him, and take it for granted that if the
hoi'se has got four good stout shoes on his feet that will stay on as long as
they last, it is all right. This is a great mistake, and will often lead to the
discomfort and ultimate ruin of the horse.
114 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, [Chap. I.
No horse that is badly shod can travel easily, safely, or well ; and many
Avho use horses that cut their legs or trip, suppose that the fault is in the
horse, while in fact no one is in fault but the shoer. There are hardly two
horses that require precisely Uie same shaped shoe, or that it be put on in
precisely the same way ; hence to shoe cveiy horse so as not to pinch, and
consequently injure the feet, and at the same time so that he can perform
his work easily and well, requires considerable exjiericnce and more thaii
common skill and intelligence on the part of hoi-se-shoers.
One of the objects in applying the shoe is to preserve the natural con-
cavity of the sole of the foot. A horse in his natural state, and, indeed, up
to the period of his iirst introduction within the precincts of the " smithy,"
has generally a concave sole ; and wisely is it so ordained. Were it other-
wise, the animal would be unable to secure foothold ; as it is, the inferior edge
of the hoof — that is, the ground surface — projecting beyond the sole, may be
compared to the point of a cat's claw or the nails of a man ; they grasp, as it
were, bodies with which they come in contact, and thus secure a point of
resistance which aids in advancing limb or body over a smooth surface.
Now, in order to preserve the natural mechanical functions of the horn and
sole, the ground surface of the shoe must correspond to the ground surface
of the foot ; that is to say, the ground surface of the shoe must be beveled
cup fashion ; its outer edge being prominent, takes the jjlace of the hoof; its
inner surface being concave, corresponds to the natural concavity of the foot.
It is a custom among some blacksmiths to reverse the above procedure, and
place the concave surface next the foot, and often the ground .surface appears
to be more convex than concave. An iron shoe tacked on to a horse's foot
is one of the unavoidable evils of domestication, yet, when properly ajiplied,
is not so great an evil as some persons might suppose.
R. Jennings, veterinary surgeon, Philadelphia, gives his views as follows
upon this subject :
163. Contraction of the Feet of Horses— The Cause and Remedy,—" The
tendency of a horse's feet, in a healthy condition, is to expand whenever
the weight of the body is thrown upon them. Being a very complicated
piece of mechanism, they arc very easily disarranged, and, once out of order,
are difficidt of repair; hence the necessity of preserving them in a sound
condition.
" Contraction is caused, 1st, by cutting away the bars of the feet, which
are the main stays for the support of the quarters ; 2d, by (opening tiie
heels, as the smith calls it) cutting away a portion of the frog, in consc-
(juence of which the moisture of the frog becomes absorbed, losing its elas-
ticity and destroying its function, thus exposing the feet to injury by
concussion ; 3d, by standing upon plank floors ; 4th, by improper shoeing.
" An ordinary observer will, upon an examination of the common shoe,
notice that it inclines from without inward at the heels, thus forming a con-
cavity for the feet to rest in ; the consequence is a lateral resistance to the
expansion of the hoofs when the weight of the animal is thrown upon them.
Sko. 8.] HORSES AND MULES. 115
The effects of this resistance are to force the heels together, creating pressure
upon the sensitive parts within the horny case ; establishing fever, by which
the moisture of the hoofs is rapidly absorbed, rendering the hoofs hard,
brittle, and liable to crack, and frequently causing corns, navicular joint
lameness, bony deposits to be thrown out from the lateral wings or processes
of the coffin bones, rendering the animal permanently lame or unsound.
These are but few of the bad effects arising from contraction — enough, how-
ever, to serve our purpose at present.
" Remedy. — Preserve a level bearing by making the shoes perfectly flat
on the quarters, so as not to interfere with the expansion of the feet.
Should contraction already exist to considerable extent, bevel the shoes
slightly outward at the heels, in order to facilitate expansion. Care should
be used not to bevel too much, or bulging of the lower part of the hoofs at
the quarters will be the result. The shoes should in all cases be forged, and
not twisted, as is sometimes done to save trouble by the bungling smith.
Proper applications, to soften the homy parts and promote elasticity, should
also be used. Such preparations are put up in the form of hoof ointments."
164. MnleSi — Few of the farmers of this country are aware what a debt of
gratitude they owe George "Washington for the introduction of mules into
general use for farm purposes.
Previous to 1783 there were but very few, and those of such an inferior
order as to prejudice farmers against them as unfit to compete with horses in
work upon the road or farm. Consequently there were no good jacks, and
no disposition to increase the stock ; but Washington became convinced that
the introduction of mules generally among Southern planters would pi'ove
to them a great blessing, as they are less liable to disease, and longer lived,
and work upon shorter feed, and are much less liable to be injured by care-
less servants than horses.
As soon as it became known abroad that the illustrious Washington de-
sired to stock his Mount Vernon estate with mules, the King of Spain sent
him a jack and two jennies from the royal stables, and Lafayette sent another
jack and jennies from the island of Malta.
Tlie first was of a gray color, sixteen hands high, heavily made, and of a
sluggish nature. Ke was named the Koyal Gift. The other was called the
Knight of Malta ; he was about as high, but lighter made, bl.-iek color, and
lithe and fiery, even to ferocity.
The two different sets of animals gave him the most favorable opportunity
of making improvements by cross-breeding, the result of which was a favor-
ite jack which lie called Compound, because he partook of the best points in
botli of the original jacks. The General bred his blooded mares to these
jacks, even taking those from his family coach for that purpose, and pro-
duced such superb mules that the country was all agog to breed some of the
same sort, and they soon became quite common. This was the origin of
improved mules in the United States; though over seventy years since, there
is no doubt there are now some of the third and fourth generations of
116 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
Knight of Malta and Royal Gift to be found in Virginia, and tlic great ben-
efits arising from tiieir introduction to the country are to be seen upon ahnost
every cultivated acre in the Southern States. Notwithstanding tlie enor-
mous increase of late years, arising from a systematic course of breeding in
tiie Northern States for the Southern market, mules were never more valua-
ble than at present, or more ready of sale at high prices.
165. Lou^evity of MuleSi — We have numerous reports of mules attaining
the age of forty, fifty, or sixty years, and Col. Middleton, of South Carolina,
stated some years ago that he had one at work on his plantation eighty years
old ; and we have seen an account of a mule in Ireland certified to have been
at work since 1707, making him over 150 years old. This is, of course, a
very nncommon age, but we are satisfied that, with proper usage, mules
would commonly attain to about forty years, being serviceable to the last,
and this should be counted as one of their elements of value.
1C6. The Largest Mule in the World.— If the following statement is cor-
rectly given, it tells of the largest mule, probably, ever produced. We
found it in the Commercial^ of Cincinnati, in 18C0. It says :
" The largest mule ever produced in the world is now in this city. It is a
mare mule, nineteen and a half hands high, and weighs eightee7i h^tndred
< nd thirty-two 2)ounds. This extraordinary animal is the property of Charles
Frost, of AVayne County, Ind., recently purchased near Lexington, Ky."
107. Mules, Horses, OxeUi — We read in almost every agricultural paper,
' we hear in most agricultural addresses, and wc often hear in conversation,
that one or the other of these animals is the one, and the only one, tliat
fanners should use, yet we have never seen a farmer who could say, " I
know." One who has always done liis farm-work with oxen is sure that
they are the best in all respects ; while fifty miles away he would search a
hundred farms to find as many yoke of oxen, and where he did find them he
would probably be told they were only fit for drudgery — that horses only
are suitable for farm-work, and their owners are ready with loads of reasons
to substantiate their theory. But take another day's journey, and the theory
is upset with mules — mules liere, there, everywhere ; nothing but mules,
and nothing fit for a farm but mules, because the}^ are so strong and liardy
they never tire, and live upon almost nothing for their daily rations, and are
the very personification of life everlasting.
Now, while the advocates of each class of animals disagree so widely, how
are the seekers after truth to satisfy themselves? Do they look to us for an
opinion ? We can give it ; here it is. All are best, and upon a large farm
all would bo found economical to keep for diflerent classes of work ; and it
is our opinion that no man who farms a hundred acres can afiTord to do with-
out oxen, mules, and at least one horse. If his oxen are well trained, they
will travel as fast before the plow and wagon as mules ; but the latter are so
much more enduring in hot weather, at all sorts of hard work, that their
services are then particularly valuable. Tliey are better, too, to go off upon
the road, or to carry produce to market, because they may be, though nat-
Seo. 8.] HORSES AND MULES. 117
urall}' about as slow as oxen, trained to travel homeward without a load at
a round trot. For working singly in the cultivation of crops, mules are far
superior to horses, and of course can do a great deal of work that could not
be done by oxen. We have seen mules that were fair substitutes for saddle-
horses, having one good quality, that of sure-footedness. Tliere is one ob-
jectitjn to mules on a fariYi where the stock is generally pastured : there is
nothing short of a Mississippi fence that will hold them — that is, twelve rails
high, and stake-and-ridered ; and we have heard planters declare that they
hud often known the brutes to climb over such a fence as that. In advising
a l^orthern farmer to keep mules, we therefore advise him to make his cal-
culation to keep them in a stable all the time they are out of harness.
168. Breeding of Uorses and Mules. — Tliere are certain universal laws of
breeding which can not be ignored, except at the sacrifice of all success. In
Kentucky and Tennessee, a very large strain of mules liave been obtained
by using jacks of immense size. We recollect seeing one at R. Cockrill's,
near Nashville, over eighteen hands high. We have seen several mules of
that hight, and numerous ones of sixteen and seventeen hands high. It is
still a question whether such large mules are as economical as the smaller
sizes, which cost less at first and cost less for sustenance ; and some persons
contend that at ordinary labor the small mule will do as much and last
longer.
In breeding either horses or mules, a writer upon the subject says : " If we
would have sound stock, we mmt have coJistitutional soundne.is in both dam
and sire. There are hundreds, ay, thousands, who will scour the country and
compare the merits of a dozen horses — will give time and money to secure
the services of a good stallion — and all with the expectation of procuring a
fine colt from a miserable, puny, ill-shaped, broken-winded, spavined old
mare. How often do we hear it said, ' Oli, she M-ill do to raise a colt
from ;' or — after hard service and cruel uaage l^ave left a mere wreck of
what, away back in the farmer's memory, was once a beast of powei", activ-
ity, excellent temper, and noble bearing — 'we must now turn the old mare
out to breed from.' The start is wrong, the foundation is defective — what
wonder should the structure tumble to the earth ?
" In the mare we need size and symmetry ; if there be blood, all the bet-
ter— it will tell. Witliout the first two, however— even though all the
blood that has flowed through thorough-breds, from the days of Godolpliin
to the present, were in her veins— she is utterly unfit for a breeder. Many
animals possess some favorable peculiarity which owners wish to transmit,
and though there may be a structural deficiency in some other part, the
mare is brought to the breeding paddock in tbe hope that the desirable
features will be prominent in the colt, even if it be at the expense of other
points of strength and action. The breeder here commits an error. It
would be better to let the mare go, for in the very large majority of cases
the deficiencies will be transmitted while the excellences will not.
" In choosing a mare for breeding purposes, she should be so formed in
118 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
frame, as to be capable of carrying and well nourishing her offspring ; that
is, she should be what is called " roomy." There is a formation of the hips
which is particularly unfit for breeding purposes, and yet which is some-
times carefully selected, because it is considered elegant ; this is the level
and straight hip, in which the tail is set on very high, and the end of the
haunch bone is nearly on a level with the projection of the hip bono.
Nearly the opposite form is the more desirable, Avhere, on examining the
pelvis, it Avill be seen that the haunch bone forms a considerable angle with
the sacrum, and that there is, as a consequence, plenty of room, not only for
carrying tlie foal, but for allowing it to pass into the world. Both of these
points are important, the former evidently so, and the latter no less so on
consideration ; because, if the foal is injured in the birth, cither of necessity
or from ignorance, it will often fail to recover its powers and will remain
permanently injured. Tlie pelvis, then, should be wide and deeii — that is to
say, large and roomy, and there should also be a little more than the average
length from hip to the shoulder, so as to give plenty of bed for the foal, as
well as a good depth of back ribs, which are necessary to give the strength
to support this increased length. Beyond this roomy frame, necessary as
the egg-shell of the foal, the mare only requires such a shape and make as
is well adapted for the purpose she is intended for — that is to say, for pro-
ducing colts of the style and form she is intended to produce. We Avill add,
that she must have four good legs under her, and those legs standing on a
foundation of good, well-shaped, large feet, open heeled, and by no means
flat-soled.'
" ' In healtli,' says the same writer, ' the brood mare should be as near
perfection as the artificial state of the animal will allow ; at all events, it is
the most important point of all, and in every case the marc should be very
carefully examined with a view to discover what deviations from a natural
state have been entailed upon her by her own labors, and what she has in-
herited from her ancestors. All accidental defects, sucli as broken knees,
dislocated hijis, etc., may be passed over; the latter, however, only when
the stock from which the mare is descended are famous for standing their
work without this frailty of sinew and ligament. Spavins, ring-bones, large
splents, side-bones, and, in fact, all bony enlargements, are constitutional
defects, and will be almost sure to be perpetuated, more or less, according to
the degree in which they exist in the particular case.'
" Having said thus much upon the requisites on the side of the dam, let
us see what should be sought for in a sire. It is maintained by all writers
upon this subject, that hlood should be possessed by a stallion in an eminent
degree ; that the essential on the part of the sire is the greatest amount of
pure blood compatible with size, weight, and power according to the pur-
poses for which we intend to breed. Our best veterinarians argue that tlie
degree of strength in the bone, sinew, and frame of a blooded horse is, in
proportion to extent, vastly superior to that contained by his coarser and
more mammoth brother, the English cart-horse. The difference in the form
Sec. 8.] HORSES AND MULES— BREEDING. 119
and texture of the muscular system, and in the lesser tendency to form
flabby, useless flesh, is also in favor of blood. In addition to all this, the
general constitution of the animal is calculated to furnish him -with greater
vitality, recuperative energy, and physical power— in proportion to size and
weight — and, as a consequence, quicker movement, greater courage, and
better powers of endurance.
"Herbert, in his 'Hints to Horse-Keepers,' gives his views upon this
branch of our subject so concisely and clearly, that we can not refrain from
quoting a paragraph, as follows : ' To breed from a small horse with the hope
of getting a large colt ; from a long-backed, leggy horse, with the hope of
getting a short, compact, powerful one ; from a broken-winded, or blind, or
flat-footed, or spavined, or ring-boned, or navicular-joint diseased horse, with
the hope of getting a sound one ; from a vicious horse, a cowardly horse —
what is technically called a dunghill — with the hope of getting a kind-tem-
pered and brave one ; all or any of these would be the hight of folly. The
blood sire (and the blood should always be on the sire's side) should be, for
the farmer-breeder's purposes, of medium hight, say 15i hands high, short-
backed, well ribbed up, short in the saddle-place, long below. He should
have high withers, broad loins, broad chest, a straight rump, the converse of
what is often seen in trotters, and known as the goose-rump ; a high and
muscular, but not beefy crest ; a lean, bony, Avell-set-on head ; a clear, bright,
smallish, well-placed eye ; broad nostrils and small ears. His fore legs
should be as long and as muscular as possible above the knee, and his hind
legs above the hock ; and as lean, short, and bony as possible below those
joints. The bones can not by any means be too flat, too clear of excres-
cences, or too large. The sinews should be clear, straight, firm, and hard to
the touch. From such a horse, -where the breeder can find one, and from a
well-chosen mare (she may be a little larger, more bony, more roomy, and
in every way coarser than the horse, to the advantage of the stock), sound,
healthy, and well-limbed, he may be certain, accidents and contingences set
aside, of raising an animal that will be creditable to lain as a scientific stock-
breeder, and profitable to him in a pecuniary sense."
With these general remarks upon what we require in breeding, we think
we may close the section upon horses. "We hope what we have given in re-
lation to breeding horses will be carefully studied and breeds compared, and
that what we have said will be just sufficient to awaken an interest that will
tend to the improvement of this most faithful beast in the service of man.
If we have not got the right breed, let us inquire where is the deficiency,
and amend it. Above all, let us think what purpose we are breeding for,
and not attempt to get an animal suitable for a lady's saddle from an English
cart-horse or the Norman diligence.
^ 169. Horse-Gearing.— If a is'ew Mexican, or even a full-blood North Caro-
lina mountaineer, should appear in the city of New York with his horse
harnessed, as we have have often seen, it would attract much attention, as
the whole gearing might not have a particle of leather or iron in its compo-
120 DOMESTIC AKIMALS. [Chap. I.
sition, tlie collar being made of braided corn-shucks, the hames of natural
crooked sticks, the traces of raw hide, fastened to the hames by a hole and
a knot, and to the wiiitHetree by a loop around the end. Rude as this gear-
ing is, it answers a good purpose, and does not gall or sweat the horse like
tlie great English collars, or like those known in our boyhood as the '' old
Dutch collar," whicli was so much like the breeching of the same harness
that it was rather difficult to tell which belonged forward and wiiich behind.
The old English collar, specimens of which may be seen occasionally in
this country, was a most cumbersome piece of horse-gearing which a sensible
man will not be likely to copy. It is made like our American collars, only
very much heavier, and has attached to its upper end as an ornament two
pieces of stiff sole leather as big as the skirts of a saddle, with a great deal
of ornamental stitching around its edge. Some of these collars weigh 12 to
15 lbs., and the hames are furnished with two brass horns that stick up sev-
eral inches above the flap.
The Scotch collars are also made with a great superfluity of leather, and
are very heavy, though differing in form from the English collars.
The weight of a Scotch plow harness is given in Stephens' book of "Tlie
Farm" at 38 lbs. "We have often seen a horse equally well harnessed to a
plow in this country when the whole gearing would not weigh half as much,
nor cost half as much, as an English collar. These English collars are often
ornamented with red worsted fringe and tassels, and give a six-horse team,
wearing bells, a very formidable appearance.
We recommend as an improvement upon our own light, easy, and, we
think, handsome collars — handsome, because fitting for their purpose — that
they should be made open at the bottom. "We drove one pair of horses from
Chicago to Xew Orleans, and from New Orleans to Kew York, making
many detours, and in all driving some five thousand miles in one journey,
with a pair of collars open at the bottom ; and although out in all sorts of
weather, never had a sore shoulder or even chafed oft' the hair. ?f either did
we use breeching in all tliat journey, yet we traveled over some very rough
and mountainous roads. AVe are satisfied that a horse will hold back a light
carriage witii a good strong padded girt as well as M'ith breeching. Our plan
of a harness is exactly the contrast of an English one. Theirs is, to use up
all the leather and labor possible, and oui*s to use just as little as possible.
We do not believe in blinders, check-reins, breeching, nor heavy collars.
The harness should be made as light as it can be and be strong. Strength is
an important particular. For a farm-wagon or plow harness we recommend
ehort leather tugs and chains as preferable to long tugs or long chains.
170. Working Three Horses Abreast.— In the north part of this country it
is not very common to see three horses worked abreast. It is quite common
in Louisiana, particularly in working horses to carts. It is much practiced
in England, and perhaps would be more so here if farmers had proper gear-
ing. We have seen it practiced sometimes by hitching the middle horse to
the center of the swing-bar. Tiiis gives no chance of equalizing the draft
Sko. 8.] HORSES AND HARNDSS. 121
between the three horses. The English have what are called compensating
bars between the swing-bar (which we call the double-tree), and the three
single-trees, so that eacli horse maj be seen to pull equal to the others.
These bars should be made of iron, one and a half inches wide and three
eighths of an inch thick. Two of the bars are each 27 inches long, and these
are attached, as the single-tree usually is, to the ends of the swing-bar, by a
fulcrum just one third of the length from the outer end. Then a center
bar, 20 inches long, is attached by working joints to the ends of these out-
side bars, and tlie single-tree of the center liorse is attached to the center
of this bar, and the single-trees of the outside horses are attached to the
ends of the other bars. This equalizes the stra.in upon all the horses, for it
is impossible for one to start ahead without imparting motion backward to
both of the other liorses.
The irons of a single or double-tree should always be made so as to clasp
the wood, which should never have a hole bored tlirough it to pull by.
171. Dimensions of Double and Singlc-TreeSt — Perhaps every farmer knows
how to gear a horse, and what are the proper dimensions of a set of double
or single-trees. But there are many persons who take to farming in after-
life, and others who may have occasion to make this part of a set of horse-
gearing, and these will be glad to have the following directions to refer to.
The bar of a double-tree should be three feet nine inches long and three
and a half inches wide at the center, and one and a quarter inches thick, .and
it should be made of the strongest kind of wood that can be procured, and
straight grained and free from knots. The best wood we have for tliis pur-
pose is second growth white ash, such as all of our best hoe and shovel
handles ai'e made of in the United States.
A single-tree should be three feet three inches long, two and a half inches
wide, and one and a quarter inches thick. The irons of double and single-
trees may be all made of the same form and strength ; that is, a piece of the
very best flat bar iron, one and three quarter inches wide and one fourth
of an inch thick, is bent so as to clasp around the back part, and the ends
come about two thirds of the width toward the front edge, with half-inch
holes through the end and through the' wood. In this hole a piece of half-
inch iron is to be inserted by tapering the ends so that they will go through
the hole from each way and clinch fast on the flat iron, leaving the bend
forward so as to form a loop in which to put the hook of the single-tree, or
the chain, or a loose ring, as may be required. Tliese irons can not come
off, even if they should get loose, and the wood is not likely to break, be-
cause there is no strain upon it. The strain is all npon the irons, and when
the loop wears out, a new one is easily inserted in its place. The center irons
of tlie double or single-treos are put on after the same fashion, the loop of tlie
round iron being back, instead of forward, and both the flat and round irons
for the center may be a little stronger than the ends.
This plan is far better than making the irons to drive on like a ring, fast-
ening them by a few stub-nails driven in the end of the single-tree. Acci-
122 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [CnAP. I.
dents often occur from the irons of single-trees, put on like rings, getting
loose and working off. Such things seem always to happen at the most un-
propitious times. We knew one man well, who lost his life in consequence
of just such an accident. lie was crossing one of the AVcstern prairies upon
a cold, stormy night, when the accident occurred, by which he was unable
to proceed, and, as was sui)posed, while getting his horses loose, that he
might ride to the nearest house, some miles distant, lie became so chilled as
to be unable to mount on horseback, and before morning his horses left him
alone to perish — all in consequence of having bad gearing.
We have ourselves had some very impleasant experience in our prairie
traveling, arising from broken swing-trees, and therefore warn you to make
them very strong — no matter about the looks. Utility is everything.
Plowing with four horses, though not much practiced in this country, is
sometimes necessary, and, for want of practice, but few know how to attach
four horses to a jilow so as to work in the easiest manner.
The common way is to hitch the double-tree of the leading pair to a hook
in the center of the double-tree of the rear pair. Tliis gives a dead pull to
the leaders without affecting the other pair. To obviate this, and give a
compensating balance to both pair, the following plan has been adopted :
Attached to the hook of the plow-beam is an iron pulley, about six inches
diameter. The chain from the first set of double-trees, instead of being
hooked to the plow-beam, is rove through this pulley, and the end carried
forward and hooked to the forward double-trees. The working of this is,
that neither pair can give a dead pull independent of the other pair. If you
touch up the hind pair so that they start suddenly forward, the pull does
not give the plow a jerk, because the chain yields around the pulley and
soon draws back upon the leaders, giving them a hint to press forward, and
thus keep the strain even. To prevent either pair from drawing too much
of the chain through the pulley, you can insert an open ring into a link at a
suitable distance on either side.
There is no other plan that we have ever seen in operation, so simple as
this is, to give a perfect equilibrium and balance the forces of each pair of
horses. In f\ict, the whole four, by the aid of the swing-trees and pulley, are
all kept in equilibrium.
It will be w^ell for the hind pair of horses to wear a common wagon neck-
yoke, and pass the chain that extends to the double-trees of the forward
horses through the ring, or if that is too high, through a loop attached to
the ring. The chain is sometimes supported by a strap swinging between
the rear horses, each end attached to a back band on to the hames.
PLATE X.
(Pase 1123.)
This picture speaks for itself, and does credit to the artist. It is
one that will interest moi-e persons than any other. The descrip-
tions of these fowls will be found in Section IX., ^ 180, 181, 182,
together with several other kinds. Those here illustrated comprise
most of the best improved varieties, and quite as many as any farmer
will care to possess. By comparing the descriptions with the pic-
tures, it will enable any one to make a suitable selection. The de-
scription of poultry fails to give satisfaction without pictorial aid.
it is here complete. We may well feel proud of this picture.
n 1
Sbo. 9.]
POULTRY.
123
SECTION IX.-POULTRY.
axims for Poultry Keepers,— Tliose who expect to
be Buccessful in raising or managing poultry, or
hope to make it a paying part of farm business,
sliould observe a few simple rules wliich will
save them from much disappointment and trouble.
1. It is not advisable to keep large numbers of hens
together, or go into the poultry business on a large scale.
It is found impracticable and unprofitable ; besides, they
can not be kept in so healthy a condition as where but
few are together.
2. It is impossible to keep hens to advantage without
having a properly arranged house for their accommoda-
tion. This is as necessary as that a farmer should have
a stable for his cattle or a dwelling for his family.
3. In connection with the house, a poultry-yard should be provided, wliich
should contain a grass-plot, gravel, some quantities of slacked lime, and dry
ashes.
4. Tlie inside of the poultry-house should be whitewashed twice a year, or
'oftener, which will serve to keep it free from vermin, and the hens will be
kept in better condition.
5. Pure water, in sufiicient quantities, must be provided several times a
day, in winter and in summer.
6. Feed should be given at regular periods. To fatten fowls, they must
not be allowed to run at large.
These rules are subject to variation imder certain circumstances. A new
settler in the woods would not consider them applicable. It would be more
profitable to let his poultry run at large. So it is upon all farms at some
seasons, but there are but few farmers who would not sometimes find it prof-
itable to shut up all his poultry, the gallinaceous portion of it particularly.
For this purpose a poultry-yard will be found always a great convenience,
if not a great profit. It should be so constructed that its first cost will not
be money unprofitably spent. Many persons have found it profitable to
have a tolerably large inclosure for poultry, and plant that with plum-trees.
It is asserted that curculio insects never disturb plums upon such trees. It
is our opinion that it would be found very profitable to have a portable
poultry house and yard, which could be conveniently moved from place to
place, keeping it upon one spot one year, and upon another the next. By
this means some bad brier-patches would be subdued, and some poor spots
cheaply enriched.
If poultry are kept in a yard, the ground should be often dug up. If the
yard is large enough, it may be plowed. It is a good way to have a large
124 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
yard in two parts, and plow and eow grain in one, and when it gets large
enough for the hens to eat, turn them in and plow and sow the other.
Ileus that run at large arc often very troublesome, sometimes doing
''more mischief than their necks are worth." The following device is for
such mischievous pests.
173. Shoeing UenSi — " Ve observe a recent notice, in some paper, of the
practice of making woolen shoes (or rather boots), to jjrevent hens from
scratching. A flock of fifty fowls, like our own, would require considerable
labor in the manufacture of a hmidred woolen boots, which might be worn
through in a short time and need renewing. It is much better, we think, to
procure a breed that will not scratch. There is another point of import-
ance— that is, to keep the animals well fed during the season when scratch-
ing is most feared."
One man says: "I keep from thirty to fifty of the white Shanghae — a
very quiet, well-behaved, and profitable fowl — and adopt the most econom-
ical mode, namely, regular feeding with grain ; and although there is no
barrier between their ordinary range and the kitchen garden, they do not
scratch yearly enough to do twenty-five cents' damage."
174. Number of Hens to Keep, and Time to Sell. — A correspondent of the
Illinois Prairie Farmer says: "We have kept as many as 150 fowls, and
fed them three pecks of shelled corn daily. But our experience has been,
tliat we could get more than half as many eggs from twenty-five fowls as
we could from one hundred. "\Ve have carried chicks the size of quails to'
market and found them ready sale at twenty-five cents each. We might
have kept them four months longer, and found them dull sale at a dime
apiece."
175. Feeding Hens Meat. — We have been advised to feed plenty of meat to
our hens, if we wanted them to lay steadily. Now there is a time to feed
meat and a time not to feed it. When the temperature is low and the
ground is frozen, feed meat, but when the weather is warm, or even mod-
crate, if the chickens can scratch the ground and find worms and insects,
Ihoy need no meat. The insects and worms furnish meat sufficient, and too
much in many cases, causing them to lay eggs without any shell. They
should then have plenty of lime or old mortar, gravel, etc.
Young chickens generally do best in coops, raised some inches from the
ground, until they arc six or eight weeks old ; if they droop after this, the
next hour of warm sunshine will bring them up again. A. correspondent
says, the last time he tried to raise them on the ground, he lost 59 out of
60. He has often raised 60 or 70 at a tiine since without losing one, simply
by cooping them away from the ground until six weeks old.
A writer in the English Agricultural Gazette recommends that a piece of
iron be kept constantly in the water to which fowls have access. Iron rust,
he says, is an excellent tonic. A roll of brimstone is also recommended to
be kept in the water.
17G. How to Keep Hens Shut up. — It is one of the most important matters
Sec. 9.] POULTRY. 125
abont poultry keeping, particularly to small farinei-s and villagers, to know
how to keep liens in confinement. It is very convenient for many persons
who could not allow them to run at lai'ge to annoy themselves and neigh-
bors, to keep enough to supply the family witli fresh eggs, and pe.haps a
few chickens.
As conlinement is an unnatural condition for fowls, it is often an un-
healthy condition. The question is, can they be kept shut up in close quar-
ters and keep healthy? If large numbers are together, they are very apt to
get a disease which makes them lose their feathers. Sometimes they pull
them off of one another. Great attention should bo paid to cleanliness,
where fowls are shut up. Lime for the hens to oat — limo scattered over the
floor — lime used as whitewash, should never be neglected. The following
rules are very good :
1st. Do not keep more than ten hens confined in one small yard. They
will be more profitable than fifty. If you wish to keep a large number, have
several places for tliem.
2d. Do not confine them in a damp or shaded place, but in a dry one,
Avhere they can have both shade and sunshine. The latter is very important.
3d. As they can not remove from the filth that accumulates, it should be
removed from them. There is no permanent success in keeping fowls in
confinement without the utmost neatness. Their droppings should be d lily
removed from the roosting-place, and the yard should be well littered with
fresh straw, tan, or other material, as often as is necessary.
4th. The hen is omnivorous — that is, she eats almost everything ; insects,
flesh, grain, and fruit are taken with avidity. All attempts, therefore, to
confine hens to a single article of diet will fail. Give them a good su])ply
of grain and butchers' scraps, boiled potatoes, sour milk, and the refuse of
the kitchen, and during the summer months an occasional taste of fruit, and,
in addition, egg-shells and 03'ster-shells crushed ; or, if you can not get
these, pound up the bone's that always collect about 3'ards. It is wonderful
with Avhat avidity fowls, especially M-hen confined, will eat broken bones.
5tli. Pleniy of clean water is always necessary. Stagnant or filthy wa*er
will not do. It alone is sufiicieut to cause disease. Running water is be:rt,
but clean, fresh water will answer.
6th. Exercise is quite an important part of the plan. Turn them out an
hour before sunset to pick up insects, gravel, and other substances, and it
will quicken their circulation and add much to their powers of resisting dis-
ease. We have heard a poultry keeper say, who followed these rules, that
with him the balance-sheet gave a large profit.
Although the above remarks are applicable principally to residents of
towns or villages, yet wc would like to add a word for the benefit of farmeis.
How few of them keep poultry at a profit ! Indeed, as generally kept about
the farm, with free range of the barn, grain, and often ])ortions of the house,
they are of no profit, and very often arc an almost intolerable nuisance.
177. The Food of Fowls. — This is a very important question. A great
126 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
many expedients have been resorted to in order to cheapen the food of fowls.
Cliiindlers' greaves arc hargely used by parties in the vicinity of New York
to fatten poultry for market. These are good for an occasional feeding, I)ut
for exclusive food we have our doubts, and think others will, after reading
the following extract:
178. Arc Fowls Wholesome which are Fed on Putrid Meat?— Such is tlie
question considered by Dr. Uuchosnc in the January number of the A7inal€s
d- Hygiene PuhUquc.
It is well known that man can not indulge in putrid meat with impunity,
and numerous cases are on record where accidents have occurred from this
kind of food. Little is known, however, of the cflects produced by the flesh
of animals otherwise in good health, but nourished with flesli in a state of
j)utrefaction. Certain animals can undoubtedly be nourished on such putrid
nuittcrs ; but it is important, in a hygienic point of view, to determine the
modifications wliicli the exclusive use of putrid viands may produce in the
quality and the preservability of fowls destined for the market.
On the occasion of a complaint against a farmer in the neighborhood of
Paris, Dr. Duchesne visited liis establishment on a warm day in July, and
toward the afternoon. The food of the poultry he found to consist of flesh
in a state of putrid decomposition, which had been obtained from the
slaughter-houses of Paris. The fat is first removed by cooking, and bran is
added; and this mixture is given morning and evening to the fowls, who
iiglit for it with avidity. A very fetid odor came from the barrels in M-hich
llio food was contained, from the vessels where it was supplied to the fowls,
and also from the ground round about them. The fowls, however, appeared
to be in perfect health. Dr. Duchesne supplied himself with three eggs laid
tiiat day, and also with a fowl and duck of a year old, which were killed
before him. In three hours' time the poultry gave out a very strong odor,
and the intestines were so offensive that they had to be removed to a dis-
tance. Decomposition rapidly set in. Tiic fowl, at the end of twenty hours
after being cooked, had an unpleasant, strong taste, and the duck, at the end
of twenty-four hours, was in such a state that it could not be eaten. Next
da}', when the flesh was cold, and the smell abated, portions of the duck
were partaken of by the servants. The eggs, too, were found, if kept a rea-
sonable time, to become very unpalatable. In fine, it was shown that
though fowls nourished in this way were apparently healthy, and could be
eaten at a pinch without great inconvenience, yet that it was most probable
that the continued use of such articles of diet would be attended with danger.
The Council of Health at once interdicted the sale of fowls fed in this ob-
jectionable manner.
Dr. Duchesne continued his inquiries at the great knackery of Aubcrvil-
liers, where pigs and fowls are fed in great numbers on flesh, raw and
cooked, and where similar animals arc reared on a mixed food, consisting of
flesh and grain. The results of his observations arc embodied in the follow-
ing conclusions:
Sko. 9.] POULTRY. 127
1. Fowls and pigs may be fed on sound flesh, raw and cooked ; on flesh,
raw and cooked, of animals affected with contagious diseases, as glanders,
malignant pustule, hydrophobia, etc. ; and even on flesh, raw or cooked, in
a very advanced state of putrefaction, without any alteration in their health.
2. Cliickens are feared with difficulty if their food be restricted to flesh,
raw or cooked, even when sound ; and a larger number of them perish than
when fed on ordinary kinds of food.
3. The eggs of fowls thus nourished are as palatable as the eggs of fowls
nourished in the common way. The shell, however, is thinner and more
easily broken.
4. The flesh of fowls and pigs nourished on flesh raw or cooked, is softer,
more diflicult to preserve, and the fat is yello-iv and more diffluent.
5. The doctor has still doubts as to the absolute wholesomeness of fowls
and pigs fed on animals dying of glanders, etc., and recommends that the
use of the flesh of such animals should be prohibited for the rearing of fowls
and pigs.
6. The use of flesh in a state of putrefaction, for similar purposes, should
be absolutely prohibited as unwholesome.
7. Fowls should not be fed too long or too abundantly' on worms, cater-
pillars, beetles, etc., as such food communicates a strong taste to the flesh.
8. The continued use of flesh, otherwise healthy, and either raw or cooked,
ultimately injures the growth of the fowls and the quality of their flesh.
9. The best method of rearing undoubtedly is, to give flesh but once a
day, and to finish with a meal of grain.
10. For market use, the use of flesh should be stopped, and the fowls re-
stricted for some time to the use of a vegetalde diet.
179. (Iioice of a CocU. — In breeding, the choice of a cock is a very import-
ant matter. The following arc some of the " points" insisted upon by
poultry fanciers :
It is accounted that he has every requisite quality, when he is of good
size, carries his head high, has a quick and animated look, a strong, shrill
voice, the bill thick and short, the comb a fine red, and in a manner var-
nished ; a membraneous wattle of a large size, and colored the same as the
comb, the breast broad, the wings strong, the thighs very muscular, the legs
thick, the claws with nails rather bent, and with a very keen point ; when
he is free in his motions, crows often, and scratches the earth with vigor and
is constantly in search of worms— not so much for himself as his mates—
when he is spirited, ardent, and clever in caressing them, quick in defending
them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together in the
day, and assembling them at night.
There are some cocks, which, by being too high mettled, are snappish and
quarrelsome. The way to quiet the turbulent ones is plain : their foot must
be put through a leather, in a round shape ; they become as quiet as men
who are fettered at their hands, feet, and neck.
180. The Varieties of Common Fowls.— As to the variety to be chosen, that
128 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. L
must be left to the fancy of those who arc to raise the fowls. In a farmer's
family, this will generally be the female portion of it, and the gudcwife or
children who take the fowls under their charge, should be consulted. At
least the different varieties should be made known to them, by placing in
their hands some good treatise upon poultry. Several volumes have been
published, with portraits and full descriptions, and how to conduct the
business of poultry raising on a large or small scale. "We can not give this
information in full ; we will only name the several sorts which are to be
found among poultry fanciers in this country, with short descriptions, and re-
fer readers, for comparison of size and form, to the beautiful engraved illus-
trations of varieties, found in standard English works on Domestic Poultry.
181. The Shan^hae and China Breed. — A few years ago a good many
people in this country, afflicted with the " hen fever," went into ecstasies over
tlie Shanghae, or China, breed of fowls, some of which are enormously large.
Cocks are spoken of as being twenty-eight inches high. The wings are
short, and placed high upon the body. The tail is short, with a thick clump
of feathers over the root of tlie tail feathers. The cocks have large combs
aiul wattles ; the hens are seldom large. The legs are feathered. The eggs
are not large in proportion over the size of eggs of our old-style fowls ; the
color is nankeen, and the ends rather blunt.
Those who breed Shanghae fowls consider the flesh very good, and the
full-grown bodies of cocks weigh eight or ten pounds, and pullets si.x or
eiglit pounds. There are varieties of colors aniong the Shanghaes — some
ht'ing pure white ; others, a reddish brown, etc.
The variety known as Cochin-China fowls differ very much in quality,
habits, and general appearance from the Shanghaes, to whicli they are closely
relaied. Their eggs are nearly the same shape, size, and color. Tlie main
difference is in the somewhat deeper and fuller breast, aild being generally
smooth-legged. They also have the same liollow, harsh voice, when crow-
ing, in their peculiar sonorous tone, long drawn out, and very unlike the
shrill ringing clarion of our old-style barn-door cock.
The Malay, or Chittagong, is another name of one of the varieties of the
China breed of fowls, which are supposed to be larger than the Cochins ;
the size, by weight, accorded to some of them seems enormous.
We believe the variety called Malay fowls are considered identical with
the variety called Chittagong. Tiie full-grown Malay cock is said to weigh
12 lbs., and the hens 8 to 10 lbs. They are of all shades of color, and have
small, thick combs and small wattles, and no top-knot ; tlie legs not feath-
ered. Their eggs are larger than those of the other large varieties. The
crow of the Malay cock is loud and harsh, but terminates abruptly.
182. Ornamental Varieties of Fowls> — As the China breed, which we have
described, can not be said to be ornamental around a genteel farm-hous© or
rural residence, we will name some which are so, and at the same time are,
at least some of them, very valuable for all domestic purposes. The general
appearance of the various sorts may be judged from reading the short notes
Sec. 9.] POULTRY. 129
wliicli we append. The most oraamental thing about a yard full of fowls
is to have them all of one variety ; for instance, Dominiques, all looking so
much alike that individuals would be hardly distinguishable.
The Pheasant-Malay is the name given to a variety of imported fowls,
wliich are esteemed by some as quite desirable, particularly as ornamental
stock. They are called good layers, good sitters, and good mothers. The
cocks have black tails, and black on the neck and wings. Full-sized eggs
v\-eigh two ounces each. The newly hatched chicks are yellow, with a black
mark down the back. Some of the hens are described as of a pheasant
color, with long velvety black necks.
Gudderland fowls is the name of another variety ; they are jet black in
the plumage, without combs, and small wattles ; bodies short and plump ;
legs long and feathered ; eggs large, white, oval-shaped, and rich. The
hens are not esteemed good layers nor sitters. This variety comes from the
north of Holland.
The Dorlcings. — This, in our opinion, is one of, if not the, best varieties we
have in this country for the every-day purposes of farmers. It is the sort
mostly used for caponizing in England. There are white, gray, and brown
Dorkings. The legs are white or flesh-colored, smooth, and terminate in
Jive toes. They feed well, to a good size, and the flesh is considered partic-
ularly delicate. The cock's comb is large and erect, and deep serrated, free
from top-knot ; wattles, large. They are noted for hardiness ; are prolific,
and chickens easily raised. The eggs are large, pure white, very round, and
nearly equal in size at the ends. The chicks are brownish yellow, with a
broad stripe down the middle of the back, and a narrower one on each side ;
feet and legs yellow.
Black Spajiisk is the name of a variety of very ornamental as well as
useful fowls. The plumage is glossy black ; the combs of both cocks and
hens large and red ; and their general appearance spirited and handsome.
They have a singular mark, which distinguishes the variety — it is a white
mark on each cheek, not of feathers, but a fleshy substance, which in the
cocks is very conspicuous. The hens are great layers, but not inclined to
sit. Tlie eggs are large and white, and so is their skin and flesh, which is
tender and juicy. The chicks are black, with a white spot on the breast,
and are long in getting feathered ; so none but early spring chickens should
be attempted, and these must be obtained by setting hens of another variety
upon the Spanish eggs.
Game Fowls. — There are several distinctly marked sorts of game fowls — ■
black, white, gray, and brown, all having the same general cliaracteristies,
the most marked of which is pugnaciousness. The general size is 3^ to 5i
lbs. Tiie eggs are smaller than the eggs of the most common fowls, uni-
formly shaped, and cook rich and delicate. In form the game fowl is tlio
handsomest of the race. The head is thin and long ; eyes large and full ;
beak stout and crooked ; long neck ; body compact, short, and round in the
breast ; thighs thick, stout, handsome, taper-sliaped ; legs long and thick
9
130 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
and colored like the beak; feet thin, broad, strong, with very long claws.
Tlie cock walks with a proud, defiant courage, and appears always ready for
a fight. It is a good variety to breed from for domestic purposes, if care is
taken not to allow cocks of any other sort upon the premises, and not to
allow cocks ever to be pitted against each other.
The Mexicans appear to have a variety of game fowls quite distinct from
the English varieties. It was first introduced into the United States in 1S44,
by General "Waddy Thompson, of South Carolina. The cocks and hens have
but few marks to distinguish one from the other. The original stock are
pheasant-colored, and in some of those bred iu South Carolina, black tail
feathei-s, and a tendency to gray or light j-ellow j^lumage. This variety are
great fighters ; they have strong, muscular frames, and are quick and firm
in action. The cocks have large lustrous eyes and strong bills and upright
combs. The hens are good layers and sitters, and good nurses. This is the
breed of game-cocks patronized by General Santa Anna, who was the great-
est cock-fighter iu Mexico.
The Java fowl is a very large variety, of black color, said to be found,
though probably not pure, on Long Island, and around Philadelphia. They
are sometimes called Saddle-backs, on account of being so bi'oad across the
rump.
The Jersey Blue is the name of a variety quite common in New Jersey,
the excellence of which is so great, that anything particularly good is figura-
tively spoken of as " one of the old blue hen's chickens." The color is light
blue, sometimes approaching a dun ; legs generally dark, and sometimes
lightly feathered. Cocks weigli 7 to 9 lbs. ; and hens, 6 to 8 lbs.
The Poland foivh take their name, not from Poland, but from a resem-
blance to the tuft of white feathers worn by Polish soldiei-s. They are
glossy black, except the top-knot, which resembles a full, white rose. Like
the Black Spanish, the Polauds are great layers and bad sitters. The skin
and flesh are wliite, and good for the table. The cocks weigh 4 to 4} lbs., and
hens, 3 to 3i lbs. Their form is plump, and legs not very long, being well-
proportioned and liandsonic-shajjed, and they are ])articularly ornamental
to a country seat. The eggs are of good size^ and white, but though abun-
dant, are not as rich as some others.
Another variety of the so-called Poland fowls arc white, with black top-
knots ; and another sort are gold-spangled. These are exceedingly orna-
mental ; the crest being large, golden, and brown ; legs, light blue, and
toes partially webbed.
The Silver Polands are spangled with silver instead of gold, and the hens
are the most ornamental. Even the chicks of this variety are pretty.
The Poland variety of fowls are only fit for neat places, where they can
run upon grassy yards or lawns. In dirty pens the crest becomes loaded
with dirt, and blinds the jjoor birds. Where they can run at large around
the house, even if the hens were not, as they are, such good layers, they
might well be kept for ornament alone.
Sko. 9.] POULTRY. 131
The Spangled Haniburg fowls are another ornamental variety, witli top-
knots and beautiful plumage, both gold and silver spangled. The weight
of male birds is about 4i or 5 lbs., aud the hens, 3 or Sj lbs. The cock
stands twenty inches high, and heu eighteen inches.
The Bolton Gray is another ornamental variety, and also a very useful
one, the heus being excellent layers. They are said to have come from
Holland to Bolton, England. Tlio color is remarkable ; the ground work
pure white, delicately penciled with black over the body. The neck is
white, and heads surmounted with large, red, serrated combs. The weight
of cocks may be 4 to 4i lbs., and hens, 3 to 3j lbs. They belong to the
small-sized varieties, but are the most perfect patterns of neatness and sym-
metrical beauty of the domestic fowl family. The chicks are white, except
a dark streak on the head and back of the neck, which seems curious, as,
when grown, the necks are white and bodie? marked with black. The
cliicks are rather hard to raise. The eggs are small, tapering at one end,
and pure white.
The Sill-y fowls are also classed among the ornamental, and comprise sev-
eral varieties, originating in India. Some have white plumage, with dark
skin and bones. The combs of some are black, with black plumage and
black bones ; and the feathers are so unlike feathers, the hens get.tlie name
of silky. They are not considered a valuable bird.
The Frizzled fowls is another variety, but not one that we can recommend
any one to cultivate. This sort may be known by the description given to
us when wc first saw any of the kind in our boyhood, and asked the reason
of their singular appearance, and were told that the chickens got turned in
the shell in an earthquake, which upset things generally and turned the
chickens' fcvitliers wrong end foremost. That is the appearance of the pure
breed. Every feather looks as though it had been curled and turned wrong
end foremost with a pair of sucli curling-tongs as the girls used to frizzle
their hair with in olden time. To onr mind, the Frizzles are ugly beasts,
not worth raising on account of any good qualities, and only to be indulged
in by those who can afford to keep curiosities.
The Cuclioofowl is a variety found in some English farm-yards, and per-
haps in this countiy. It has a barred plumage, somewhat resembling the
breast of a cuckoo. The general color is a slate blue, tinged with white ; the
comb is small ; the iris of tlie eyes, bright orange ; feet and legs, light flesh
color; so that it will be seen that the breed is rather an ornamental one.
The birds grow to a large size ; the eggs are very white, smooth, and about
two ounces weight.
The Blue Dun fowls originated in Dorsetshire, England, and are rather an
ornamental variety, under size, slender made, with higli, deeply serrated,
single combs. Sometimes the Blue Dun cock is gold or scarlet spangled,
and very pretty. The hens are good layers, and make good pets. The
cocks are rather gamy. The hens are good mothers, and the chicks are real
little curiosities. This variety is esteemed for the table.
132
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
[Chap. I.
The Large-Crested fowl is another old Eiif^lish ornamental variety, tlic crest
boin£; larj^er than the Polands, and the fowls of various colors, some of them
very brilliant white — more dazzling than the white Guinea fowl, which gives
them and the homestead where they are kept a very lively appearance.
When dressed for market, their ajjpearance is very clean and attractive.
Tlicir general good fjiialities make them favorites upon many a farm in
England.
The BantamH are also rated among the ornamental fowls. Some of them
arc really so. The Sebrights have beautiful plumage of a delicate speckled
dark and golden color. There are also black, white, and nankeen colored
bantams. Tlieir model is perfect and plumage beautiful, and of only about
a pound average M-eight for the hens, and one and a quarter to one and a
half pounds for cocks. They are great pets with many persons in England,
and are held at fabidous prices. The bantams are good layers, and good
sitters, and good mothers. Some of the cocks are very gamy. We de-
cidedly approve of keeping bantams as ornaments of the farm-yard. And
we recommend that the feather-legged variety be avoided, as they are not
60 neat in muddy weather in their appearance as the naked-legged sort.
The color is a mere matter of taste.
Tiie Dominique fowl is not only an ornament.al variety, but a veiy good
one for evcry-day purposes on the farm. The true color is a peculiar ar-
rangement of white and blue, that gives a sort of greenish tint to the
plumage. The combs are double ; the wattles small ; tlie legs white or yel-
low. The Dominiques are hardy ; above medium size ; very domestic ; and
the hens are good layers, and most excellent sitters and mothers ; the eggs
good size and quality, and the birds excellent for the table.
There are many other sorts of ornamental fowls not entirely worthy of
recommendation for domestication in this country — among which is the
Bankiva cock, from the East Indies, of the bantam order, but twice as large
as the common bantams.
The Forlccd-Tail cock is another India variety, something like the Bankiva
cock. This is a wild sort in Java.
Sonerat''s wild code is also an Indian variety, which lias been attempt-
ed to be domesticated on account of its beautiful plumage, whicli is a deep
gray, tinged with lighter gray on the edges, with deep green tails ; beak,
legs, and feet yellow.
183. Chicken CoopSt — " Anybody knows how to make a chicken coop." No
he don't. Not one farmer in ten can make a decent chicken coop. Conse-
quently, old barrels and boxes are substituted. They may be "good enough ;"
they are not ornamental, and for ornamental poultry you should have orna-
mental coops. To make a convenient, light coop, take half or three-eighth-
inch boards, six inches wide, and nail them upon posts exactly like siding
on a house, if that is the way your house and farm buildings arc sided, so as
to have a uniformity. If buildings are boarded up and down with battens,
make coops in the same way. Board three sideA-lose, and the other side fix
Seo. 9.] POULTRY. 133
■with slats two inclics wide and two inclies apart, with extra slats that can be
shoved in between, being held in place by a bar in front at top, and one at
bottom. One of the other slats should also be made movable, so it can
be raised to allow the hen to go in and out. If the coop id double, which we
prefer, make a movable slat for each room. The dimensions of a double
coop may be two feet long, one and a half feet wide, one and a half feet
high on the back, and two feet in front, with a close partition in the middle.
Make the roof of live pieces of boards — one at each end and one in the mid-
dle, nailed fast, and two others hinged and buttoned down on the others, so
as to make openings about six inches wide into the coops. One room is for
the nest 'and one for the brood. If two liens are very docile, they may oc-
cupy one coop. Outside of the front slats nail a little trough, one foot long,
to serve both rooms for water, which will be comeatable outside and in.
These are the dimensions of a coop of the smallest size, which will be so
light that a child can move it from place to place. It should have a floor ;
and if rats are troublesome, it can be set up from the ground, particularly at
night. The dimensions in length may be increased as much as desired. Set
it face to the sun, and in case of storm, or in cold nights, close all the slats,
leaving open a hole in each end, high up, about two inches square or round,
for ventilation. If you wish to raise your chickens without a mother, line
one room of the coop with old carpet, and put a board, covered with woolly
sheep-skin, about six or eight inches square, in one corner, just high enough
for tiie chicks to creep under, and look well to them for a few days, and they
will do better than with a bad mother. As they grow large enough to go
out of doors, let them in a.small yard, in front of the coop, to scratch and
bask in the sun. The best fence for such a yard is wove-wire, one and a
half or two feet high. With nice, warm, dry coops, early chickens can be
raised almost as sure as late ones, and where grown for sale, will generally
sell for as much when half grown as late ones will full grown.
Stoves in Chicken- Houses. — It has been found profitable, in raising early
chickens, to use artificial warmth. A small, Avarm room, warmed in cold
weather by a stove, so as to keep the temperature at about 55 degrees,
will allow you to set your hens in January or February, and get chickens
which will sell, when the size of quails (say 75 cents a pair), for as much as
old fowls. These warm-house chickens must not be allowed to run out in
the cold or wet grass, but will be benefited by allowing them to run out in
the sun. If we made a business of raising poultry for market, we would set
hens in a stove-room all winter. A tun of coal, costing say six dollars,
would wami a room all winter, large enough to raise two or three hundred
chickens, which would sell in the city markets, certainly at twenty-five cents
apiece, when the size of quails.
18i. Set Hens Earlyt — It is a great object to set bene as early as possible
in spring, as early chickens will begin to lay in October, and give eggs in
November and December. Be careful to give your early sitters a warm,
dry nest. After the hen has been sitting ten days, examine the eggs to see
134
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
[CnAP. I.
if all are gooJ, and throw out the bad ones. To tell wliich are good, hold
an egg up to a hole or crevice of a dark room, and look at it, and if all below
the vacuum in the butt is dark-colored opaque, it is in a fair wa}' to liatch.
If it is light-colored and yellowish, so that the sunlight can be seen through
it, you may throw it out at once ; and if all are so, you can dismiss the old
hen with your thanks for her good intentions.
" Double eggs" rarely hatch, and when they do, arc just as likely to pro-
duce two distinct chickens as a Siamese one.
Nests should be made shallow. If boxes are used, not over live inches
deep.
185. Periods of Incubation. — A common fowl hen sits 20 days ; a Guinea
fowl lieu, 251 days; a duck, 26 days; a turkey hen, 27 days; a goose, 29
days ; a musk duck, 32 or 33 days ; a pea-hen, 27 to 29 days.
To hatch healthy chicks in these periods, tlie birds must have good warm
nests in a sheltered situation. Chickens have been hatched in nineteen
days, and the period has been prolonged to twenty-seven days.
180. Weights of Various Breeds of Fowls aad other Poultry:
Lbs. Oz.
Black Polish cock, three years old 5
" hen, " " " 3
" piiUet 2
Golden Polish cock 5
" hen 3
Another hen 3
Golden Polish pullet 2
Malay hen 3
Creole (Silver Hamburgh) hen 3
Black Nondescript hen 4
Globe-crested Polish hen 3
Silver Polish hen 3
Garae-cock 4
" hen 3
Young Blue Dun cock 3
Blue Dun hen 3
Large Dun Hybrid hen 3
Pheasant-Malay cocks, two years old,
average each 7
" cockerel, five months old 7
" hen 5
" pullet, seventeen months old 5
" (crossed with Dorking hen), four
years old 5 8
Speckled Surrey hen, two years old 5 12
Spanish hen 5 0
Two Dorking cocks, each 7 0
" hens 6 8
" " 6 12
Cock turkey, two years and a half old. . 17 12
Hen " one year and a half old ... . 10 0
Turkey cock, sixteen months old IG
" hen, three or four ye.ir8 old .... 8
Mu.sk dr.ikc (molting) 9
White China gander, si.x years old .... 12
White China goose 11
Common China goose, Cynoides, she
years old 10
Cochin-China cock, about sixteen months
old, molting 0
Cochin-China hen, " " "..4
Malay cock, about sixteen months old . 6
" hen, " " " " . . 4
Pheasant-jVIaftvy cock 5
" " hen, molting 3
Game-cockerel, about five months old . 4
Golden Hamburgh cockerel, just arrived
from a long journey, about five
months old 3
" pullet, " " " 2
Cochin-China cockerel, six months old. 4
Another, " " " . 4
Silver Hamburgh cockerel, after travel-
ing, .about live months old 3
" pullet, " " " " 2
Black Polish hen, molting 3
Golden Hamburgh, " 2
Andalusian cockerel, four months old . 3
pullet, " " " .. 2
Black Spanish cockerel " " . . 2
" pullet, " " " . . 2
Silver Polish cockerel, four months and
a half old
Golden Poland pullet, about five months
old
White-crested Golden Poland pullet, "
8
4
14
3 0
2 3
3 8
2 Gi
2 11
2 11
2 Mi
187. Capons and Po.ulardeSi — These are terms applied to emasculated cocks
and pullets. Every person who makes a business of poultry raising to
supply a city market, sliould learn the art of making capons and poulardcs,
because they will always sell for nearly twice as much as other fowls.
Seo. 9.] POULTRY. 135
The instnuiients used to perform the operation are few and simple, and
inexpensive, and tlie art easily learned.
A set of first-class caponizing instruments is included in tlie following
list : a scalpel, 62^^ cents ; silver retractor, $1 50 ; spring forceps, 874 cents ;
spoon, with hook, 75 cents ; double silver canula, §1 75 ; total, $5 50.
A nnich cheaper set of instruments would answer all practical purposes.
The proper age for caponizing chickens is from one to three months. The
cock is confined upon a table by weights upon the M-ings and legs, with the
right side up ; the feathers are then plucked off a spot on the right side near
the hip joint, about an inch across, where the incision is to be made, by
which the parts are exposed that are to be removed. The operation takes
but a few minutes for a skillful operator.
18S. Pea-Fow!s. — Of all the ornamental poultry ever kept on a place, the
pea-fowls take the lead, and well they miglit, for they are the most useless,
and a very expensive luxury. They will not bear confinement ; will not
even roost in a liouse, but occupy the tops of the highest buildings or tall
trees. And for mischief, from which they can not be restrained, they excel
all the feathered tribe. They are cunning beyond belief. They will watch
opportunities to visit the garden and steal fruit, and be out before they are
suspected. Driving them out with all possible marks of ill-treatment has
no effect upon them, as it does upon other poultry. The pea-fowls will bear
a repetition of abuse every day, and every day return to their thieving. So
no one who has a garden and lawn in one inclosure should attempt to keep
pea-fowl ; nor where there is any chance for them to get into mischief.
A gardenless mansion may, and should have numbers of pea-fowls. A
single pair makes but little show, while a flock makes a most dazzling,
splendid appearance. Peahens are two or three years in coming to maturity.
They then lay four to seven eggs, whicli require twenty-seven to twenty-nine
days' incubation. Peahens always steal their nests, and their eggs must
never be touched, if you wish the hen to incubate them. Tliey may be taken
and incubated under a common f )wl, or, better, under a turkey, and then the
peahen may find another sly place and lay again. The peacock has the .
reputation of being a bad father, and killing his own progeny. Therefore
the hen hides from him as well as from men.
189. Turkeys. — Every farmer can and should keep turkeys, and as there
arc several varieties, he should get the best and keep no other.
Turkeys are less mischievOTis than most other poultry, and in some cases
tlicy are of great assistance to the farmer in destroying insects. The tobacco
planters keep turkeys purposely to assist them in ridding the plants of the
destructive worms.
The turkey is a much more recent introduction to the poultry^-yard than
the other varieties. It is said that the black sort was carried from its na-
tive wilds of America to England, and that the American stock has been
all drawn from the M'oods, and that the difi'erent sorls have come from a
Southern and Northern race. We think, though, that it has come from
136 DOMESTIC A^^MALS. [Chap. I.
mixing the black wild variety with a white or party-colored one imported
from the other side of the Atlantic. We prefer the pure black breed, for it
gives us the largest and hardiest birds, and we think, also, the handsomest.
The pure whi;e turkey, it is true, is quite ornamental, but it is not as hardy
a sort as the black. As for yellow or party-colored turkeys, we would not
have them on a place a moment longer than necessary to fatten, kill, and
eat them.
The wild hen turkey is wild in the extreme, while the tame one is so do-
mestic that you may rob her secret nest every day of the new-laid egg, yet
she will return again and again until she has finished her season, and then
commence her period of incubation upon the empty nest. Now, if you have
a nest prepared under cover, with the eggs in it, you may bring home the
hen and put her gently upon her eggs, and she will manifest great satisfac-
tion, and after carefully examining and placing them all right, will sit upon
them as though the nest was all her own. Thirteen eggs are enough for an
ordinary-sized turkey, and if she has a good nest she will cover that number,
60 as to give all a fair chance to hatch. It is not necessary to turn the eggs,
as some persons do — the hen attends to that — nor look at them until about
the time the four weeks are up, when it will be well to remove the chicks as
they come out, or else take out all the shells and rotten eggs, if there are
any, to give the chicks room, for they generally are better oft' in a good nest
than out of it. Shut the hen in a coop, where the chicks can bask in the
sun, and not get in the wet grass. You need not feed much the first day ; a
few bread crumbs will answer. Tlien give all they will cat of hard-boiled
egg, chopped fine ; chopped meat, fat and lean ; curds, boiled rice or hom-
iny, with cress, lettuce, and green onions. Don't stuff them with pepper-
corns. The idea that that is necessary is all stufi". Liver, boiled and chopped
up, is good food ; so is barley meal and suet. Melt the suet and pour over
the meal and mix, and then crumb up when cold. Many green things may
be chopped up and mixed with milk and water and meal. Don't try to cut
up feed very fine. The young turkeys, you will find, can swallow big
lumps. After ten days you may let the hen run, if the weather is fine. In
bad weather they arc apt to take cold, and cramp, and die. Care and high
feeding arc all that are needed to raise turkeys.
We knew a woman in Louisiana who raised fifteen hundred out of sixteen
hundred hatched. She had an old negro woman and a boy to attend to the
Avants of the turkeys, and in wet, chilly weather the young broods were all
gathered into a log-cabin, warmed by a generous wood fire.
We have also before us another example of successful turkey raising by a
woman, that is worthy of attention by some other fiirmcrs' wives, who may
go and do likewise. Lydia Eldridge, of Andover, Mass., writes her expe-
rience in raising turkeys, under date of Dec. 25, 1858 :
" Last spring my husband jnirchased a farm in this town, and I obtained
one turkey, and she laid 2-1 eggs, liatched them all out at one litter, and I
raised them all. Yesterday we dressed the last of them. The united weight
Sko. 9.] POULTRY. 137
of the whole, when dressed, was 212i lbs. ; 198 lbs. were sold for a shilling
a pound, New England currency, amounting in the aggregate to $33. The
whole number at that price would have amounted to $3.5 41. Now I think
that is doing quite well, and if anybody among your army of readers can do
better than that, I think they deserve a premium ; but until that is done, I
think I can claim the palm."
And, in our ojjinion, she is fairly entitled to it. We hope, however, that
some other woman will try to win it from her by fair conapetition in this ap-
propriate field of woman's labor.
And here is another of the same sort, which should tend to encourage
other women to attempt the same plan to make a little " pin [feather]
money." It is to encourage others that we collect and publish these
facts.
" J. E. Alton, of Quinsigamond, Mass., writes us that Mrs. M. Bennett, of
Auburn, Mass., had a three-fourths wild turkey, of very large size, which
laid 11 eggs, all of which she hatched and raised. At six months old the
united weight of the eleven was 220 lbs. Some of the male birds weighed
34 lbs., and the lightest hens 17 lbs. One male sold for $7, and the whole
for §55."
These, however, are fancy prices ; but at the steady market prices of
dressed turkeys, which will average 10 cents a pound wholesale, in New
York, and considerably more for choice birds, the raising and fatting of
turkeys is a profitable branch of farming.
It is true that young turkeys, from the time they are old enough to turn
out to range for themselves, are voracious eaters, and would desti-oy some
crops, and so would swine, if permitted to run at large. The farmer finds it
profitable to keep a lot for swine, and so would he to devote a whole field to
turkeys ; and if he will do that, where they can forage for themselves, they
will need very little attention, and will not be likely to get into much mis-
chief. If rightly managed, a flock of turkeys will do more good than harni
on a farm, for they are great destroyers of insects. It will be found profit-
able to plant cabbages, turnips, bagas, peas, oats, wheat, and clover pur-
posely for the turkeys to feed upon. This can be managed on a small scale
to advantage by using a movable fence. We have no doubt about the fact
that a turkey farm would be as profitable as a sheep farm, or a milk farm,
or a beef or pork-making farm. In all new sections of country, where mast
is abundant, turkeys will fatten upon it entirely ; and in all sections where
field feeding is practiced, there is no better stock to run in a corn-field than
turkeys. Even where corn is worth a dollar a bushel, it has been found
profitable to feed it to turkeys to fetten them for market. One considerable
item in the account in all the old States would be the value of the manure
made from such feeding.
The most important fact in turkey raising is not to overstock yourself, for
then your flock of turkeys will become pests to yourself and neighbors — a
set of marauding, piratical thieves.
138 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. 1.
A writer in the Germantown Telegraj)h furnishes that journal with the fol-
lowing statement :
" Much has been published of late in our agricultural journals respecting
the alimentary j)roperties of charcoal. It has been repeatedly asserted that
domestic fowls may be fattened on it without any other food, and that, to-,
in a shorter time tlian on the most nutritive grain. I made an experiment,
and must say that the result surprised rae, as I had always been rather
skeptical. Four turkeys were confined in a pen, and fed on meal, boiled po-
tatoes, and oats. Four others of the same breed were at the same time con-
lined in another pen and fed with tlie same articles, but with one pint of
tinely pidverized charcoal mixed daily with their meal and potatoes. Tliey
also had a plentiful supply of broken charcoal in their pen. Tlie eight were
killed on the same day, and there was a difierence of one and a half pounds
each in favor of the fowls that had been supplied with charcoal, they being
much the fattest, and their meat greatly superior in point of tenderness and
flavor."
Ii. II. Avery, of TVampsville, Madison County, X. Y., is entitled to the
first prize of honor for improvement in the breed of turkeys. From a cross
of the American wild turkey, made fourteen years ago npon the best domes-
ticated birds of pure black color that could be obtained, and by careful at-
tention to breeding since that time, he has suceeodod in producing a male
bird of superlative beauty, of glossy black plumage, which, at two and a
half years old, weighed 3i lbs. alive ; and a female bird, two years old,
weighing 20i lbs. alive ; and a female bird, one year old, dressed ready f >r
the spit, 15i lbs. weight ; and as the stock has been continuously improving
both in size, beauty of form, and plumage for years, it is impossible to
determine any limit. lie has lately procured a pair of pure wild birds from
Canada for the purpose of infusing a new strain of wild blood into his stock
whenever he sees a chance to improve. The ordinary weight of male tur-
keys, two years old, as they are ])repared for the market, will not exceed 15
lbs., and a female of 8 lbs. is accounted a very good one.
Just after the election of Mr. Buchanan, a cock turkey from Mr. Avery's
farm, that weighed 35 lbs., was bouglit at $1 a pound, and sent to the Pres-
ident to serve as one of the members of his (kitchen) cabinet ; and another
of still larger size was presented to President Lincoln.
Turkeys grow big in Illinois, according to a correspondent who writes
from Stebbinsville, who says that 28 to 36 lbs. is not an nncommon weight
for a wild turkey, and one old gobbler that he shot weighed 41 lbs., and spread
a tail over nine feet around the circle. He thinks some of the brag " im-
provers of the breed" had better send for some of the Illinois M'ild stock for
a cross upon the biggest in all Yaiikeedom.
B. F. Langworthy, of Alfred Center, objects to our directions to scald tur-
keys. He says :
" Scalded turkeys and chickens sell about two cents a pound less in Bos-
ton than those picked dry — do not look as well, and certainly will not keep
Seo. 9.] POULTRY. 139
as long, nor jjlease the customer as mucli ; while the advance price will
amply pay for the difference of time in dressing."
On the contrary, in Kew York, dry-picked poultry does not sell as well as
that wliicli is scalded.
190. The Guinea-Fowl. — A union of two breeds of fowls is seen in some
measure unite 1 in the Guinea-fowl. It appears to have some of the charac-
teristics of tlie turkey and the pheasant. Its head is bare like the turkey ;
its body and plumage, and general form and appearance, somewhat like the
pheasant. Tiie plumage of the most common sort in this country is of a
bluish ground, delicately spotted with white. The wing feathers are nearly
white. There are also fowls of this family entirely white. The greatest ob-
jection to the Guinea-fowl is the almost continual noise they make, which to
some is intolerable. It is about as musical as the sharp squeak of a grind-
stone or old cart. The noise is, however, tolerated for their good cpialities,
which are not a few. Their noise tends to keep off hawks and other pests
of the poultry-yard. They are very ornamental, and give a place a lively,
pleasant appearance. Their flesh is pretty good for the table ; they are
good layers, and their eggs are large, and rich, and good for cookery, but
not so good as common hens' eggs for the table.
The young chicks are hardy, and very pretty. There is no prettier sight
in connection with poultry than a fine Guinea-hen with her brood. The
lien sits a month, and nine eggs are enough for her to cover. The eggs may
be hatched under a common hen, but a good sitter must be selected, because
the time is longer than her own. Hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, bread
crumbs, chopped meat or suet, are good food for young chicks. Some per-
sons procure maggots on purpose to feed chicks. Any kind of small worms
are devoured greedily by the young Guineas, which are real cormorants.
They will eat a dozen times a-day, and a full supply of food is one of the
great secrets of success in raising these as well as turkeys.
There is no domestic hen that gives such a bountiful supply of eggs all the
year round as a Guinea-hen ; consequently they are not good sitters, and
other hens have to be used when it is desired to increase the stock rapidly.
191. DuekSi — Wherever suitable conveniences exist for keeping ducks,
they are not only ornamental to the farm, but profitable. Some of the vari-
eties are particularly ornamental — the little "Wood duck the most so of all.
The Pintail duck is a very neat-looking bird. The Aylesbury sort are pure
white. The plumage of the drakes of some of tlie wild sorts which have
been domesticated, is very beautiful. A few ornamental ducks might be
kept upon almost every farm, and furnished with artificial water. "We
would never raise but a single brood or two a year, except we had natural
water. A drake and pair of ducks, with their progeny, would cost but
little, and the amount of good they would do is incalculable. They are
great destroyers of slugs, snails, worms, and all larvae ; and if you should
see an old duck pitch into a nest of young mice, you would learn what good
she can do in that way of ridding the farm of pests.
14:0 DOMESTIC ANIMAI^. [Chap. I.
Ducks' eggs are not esteemed for the table, but are ia cookery. The birds
when well fatted are always salable, or good for liome consumption, and
pay as well for the com they eat as anything in the poultry-yard.
In selecting a variety of ducks, the purposes for which they are to be bred
must be considered. If for ornament, select the prettiest. If for scaven-
gers, we would use the common gray duck and drake with green head.
The best white duck is the Aylesbury. It has yellow legs and feet and
flesh-colored bill. White ducks should never be kept except where water
and grass are both abundant. In the water or on a lawn they are pretty.
In a muddy yard they are not so.
There is a great variety of colors, but we recommend you to confine yous
to ii single color, whether -white, black, gray, blue, or slate. Tlie featheis
of ducks are as good as geese featliers, and some housewives pluck them in
the same way.
The duck sits thirty days ; and the hen should be confined an equal length
of time, where the ducklets can go out, and into natural ov artificial water.
You can not feed them too much, and they are no way dainty. Wiicn
large enough, give them a wide range, bringing them home at night. The
best food for grown ducks is Indian corn, and tlie best ducks for the table
are domesticated wild ones, fatted on corn, or wild ones that have had a
full range in corn-fields. Beech-mast also makes the flesh of wild ducks
excellent.
192. GecsCi — As geese are generally kept by farmers, they are neither
profitable nor ornamental, but, on the contrary, an unmitigated nuisance,
Ijcfouling grass and water, door-yards and roadsides, and always poking
their heads through holes into mischief
Geese never slionld be kept upon or about any f;xrm, except in a lot
appropriated to their particular use. A man who would turn out a flock of
geese upon the public highway to pirate their living, we would not trust
about our hen-roost of a dark night.
If geese are kept on a large scale, where water is good, and pastured like
any other stock, and finally fatted for market, upon the same principle that
pigs are fed and fatted, we will insure the largest profit from tlie geese,
particularly if the best breeds are selected.
Tiie Chinese or IIong-Kong geese and the Bremen geese arc much larger
varieties tlian tlie brocd common in this country. The Bremen geese have
pure wliite plumage, witli clean yellow legs and bills. They attain to
great weight and age — twenty or thirty years, and as many pounds. The
flesh of a young, fat Bremen goose is esteemed above all the domesticated
ti'ibe, and the feathers are salable at the very highest rates.
This breed is very prolific, laying twelve or fifteen eggs a year, and tlie
goose are good sitters and nurses. Tliey are somewhat inclined to commence
laying too early in the season. To prevent this, shut the whole flock in a
dark room, about the twentieth of February, and feed and water once a day,
and allow them an hour out once a week to wash and have a rim. In a few
PLATE Xr*
(Page 140.)
Here is another picture, more beautiful, if possible, than ISlo. X.
It comprises some of the most ornamental, and some of the most
substantially useful birds that help to adorn our landscape. Many
who read this book will have no opportunity to see the graceful
swans that adorn the ponds in Central Park, New York. Let them
study these hfe-pictures. The peacock is more common, yet many
will get their first idea of its appearance from this picture. The
Hong-Kong goose is also rare, and so are some of the ducks, and in
many places the Guinea fowls arc unknown. The turltey is com-
mon, still his likeness adds to the beauty of this scene.
Seo. 9.] POULTRY. 141
days after they are let out of jail, tlic geese will make nests and begin their
Avork.
The e"ggs should be removed carefully every day, and deposited in cotton
in a dry, temperate room. Tlien when all your flock are ready to sit, which
they will be about the same day, have capacious nests filled with chaffed
straw, in which place twelve eggs for each goose. Where a good many
geese are kept, it will pay to have an attendant, who should be careful to
allow only one sitter to leave tlie nest at one time. When one comes off,
sliut the doors of the other boxes till she returns. Tiiis will prevent con-
fusion of getting on the wrong nests. By attention, nearly all the goslings
of a large flock may be brought out in one day.
Goslings should be left in the nest twenty-four hours after the}' hatch, par-
ticularly if the weather is rough ; and as they are tender animals, they should
be carefully nursed for a month, allowing them a small pool of water to
bathe in, and plenty of green grass. The whole anscr family belong to the
graziers. It is not necessary to feed goslings on much grain.
The white China goose is as pure white as the Bremen, and should not
be mistaken for that — -the Bremen is preferable.
Tiie Brent and Sandwich Island goose are both very small varieties, well
suited to situations on the salt water.
Tlie Berwick goose is said to be a great weed-eater.
The Canadian or wild goose variety are quite ornamental upon a well-
watered location. This breed are greater worm and insect eaters tiian any
other variety of the anser family. The hens do not lay until two years old
in their domesticated state.
193. SwanSi — This variety of ornamental birds has been but little culti-
vated in this country. Tiio greatest collection is at the New York Central
Park. This bird, of all others, puts the finishing stroke to the landscape
inclosing a still lake oi- pond.
There are white and black swans ; both are magnificent, but the white
ones are the most showy on the water, where they float by the hour as still
as the water beneath them. Although domestic and tame, swans are apt to
go astray— to prevent which the last joint of one wing is skillfully dissee el.
They are weed-feeders, but in places wliere they are generally kept they re-
quire feeding. Their feed is most abundant in foul, shallow water, and they
are often seen abroad at night in pursuit of food. Besides vegetables, they
eat minute insects found in the water, and probably fish-spawn.
The hen birds are very curious about their nests, and will select them, if
possible, in some low bushy islet or headland, and under favorable circum-
stances will liatch eight or nine young cygnets — the name which young swans
are known by. The male birds allow no intruders about tlie nests or young.
A man would find a terrible antagonist if attacked by a swan while swimming.
The cygnets, when fixt, are esteemed a great delicacy upon the table,
stuflPed with the lean part of a round of beef, seasoned merely with cayenne
pepper and salt, and served with ricli gravy and currant jelly.
j 142 DOiTESTIO AimiALS. [Chap. I.
{ 19A. The Pleasures of Poultry Raising.— Besides the profit of a wcU-con-
I i ducted i)oultrv business, there is an actual pleasure attending it over that
of keeping any other kind of domeslic animals. Although the aim' appears
always to be profit, we think if those wlio can keep poultry would look at it
in another point of view, they would be better satisfied if it did not always
putj. One advocates having u lawn and a flower garden attached to his
house, saying that it will give new life and beauty to all around, and
exert a beautiful and ennobling influence upon every member of the house-
hold, and even visitors and passers-by will catch from it a sweet spirit of
love and good-will ; but the cpiestion with the calculating and careful farmer
is, 'Will it pay f So with every improvement upon his house and around
his farm ; if lie does not see a prospect ahead of a return in hard money for
his outlay of time and his work, the close-calculating man sots it down as
being a thing that won't pay, and consequently abandons it entirely.
It is just so in regard to poultry. Nothing is kept for ornament ; yet we
have already shown that several varieties are not only ornamental, but prof-
itable. But setting all other considerations aside, we would keep poultry
just for the pleasure attending the sight of the birds, particularly the dear
little chicks. Quoting from a sensible writer npou this subject, wc adopt
his words :
" One of my neighbors says it will pay to keep just as many hens as will
get their living around the barn througli the winter ; but he tliinks it will not
pay to keep them if they have to be fed. I will own that I have a few notions
in common M-ith all poultry fanciers ; I look somewluit to the profit, but make
it a i">oint of secondary importance. Farmers, in general, who keep hens, are
more troubled with them than with any other one thing upon their farms,
considering tlie amount of work which they do. They are always scratch-
ing in the garden, digging up corn, or committing other depredations which
keep the farmer and his girls running to keep them out of mischief."
Of course they arc, because they must scratch for a living. If you don't
want hens in mischief, feed them ; and at times M-hen it is really necessary,
shut them in a poultrj'-yard and feed them, and adopt this simple ride for
feeding fowls, known to most housewives in tlie countr}' who have charge
of the poultry, but it may be useful to amateurs, and as it is very short, wc
print it. Here it is: Don't feed too much. That is all ; though we may
add that food should never be given to fowls unless they are hungry enough
to "run crazy"' after it ; and just as soon as they stop running crazy, you
stop throwing feed, and never — no, never — leave feed lying by your fowls
" for them to eat at leisure." This same rule does pretty well for all other
domestic animals — children included.
If you don't feed your hens, and let them run in the garden, and they
scratch, don't swear. It is natural for them to scratch, and altliough they do
mischief, they also do good. Then, don't set the dog ujion them ; it only
makes matters worse. There is a cure for your trouble : build a yard in
which to shut the hens when they are troublesome in the garden, and train
Seo. 9.] POULTRY. 143
them 60 that thej will follow you like a dog, and then just at niglit take
them out on a walk and see what an immense number of hurtful insects
they will destroy. Your hens are the most profitable stock you have if you
treat them rightly. Don't swear at them ; keep your temper and build a
poultry -yard, but don't keep it always closed. It is better for you, and the
hens too, to let them run at lai-ge at all times when" they are not liable to
do mischief.
We know of nothing around a country residence which gives the whole
such a delightful and pleasant aspect as all kinds of poultry. IIow Down-
ing loved them when he wrote : " With proper conveniences for managing
them, they are among the most agreeable, profitable, and useful objects in
country life. To children especially, fowls are objects of exceeding interest,
and form an almost necessary part of the means of developing the moral and
industrial energies of a country household." Oh, who would be without
them? What country resident would neglect to have a noble collection of
hens, ducks, and turkeys — with right modes to keep and manage them — to
give a lively aspect to the scenery of his home, and impart beauty to the
whole i^lace ? The merry cackle of the " old yellow hen" in the beautiful
spring-time ; the love and kind protection manifested for her brood of youno',
and then to see them huddle together under her wing ! The shrill sound of
the cock as he proclaims the dawn of morning! Oh, who would not keep
poultry, even if it dithit pay ? We would not keep
Shaiifjhaes. — These Chinese monstrosities, on the contrary, we recommend
every one to get rid of as soon as possible. Tiiey have had their day, and
in spite of their crowing, Barnum's showing, and their owners' blowing, they
are about blown out. It begins to be found out that 10 lbs. of meat can be
produced upon two pairs of legs just as cheaply, and of much better quality,
than upon one pair. No Shanghae, Cochiu-China, Chittagong, or any other
imported breed of fowls has ever been, or will ever be, more esteemed on
all accounts than the old yellow-legged Dominique, a domestic, handsome,
and good-sized fowl.
A particular friend, candid and intelligent, said to us lately : " I have
tried almost all varieties of hens, and have settled upon the Black Spanish,
or crosses of them upon the old stock, such as I can pick ujj in market at
fifty cents a pair. I have also tried the experiment of keeping hens in the
city and the cost of eggs. I keep them in a house at the back of the yard,
letting them out for exercise just before roosting time, feeding them on
scraps from the kitchen, potatoes, meat, etc., and corn, and find my eco-s
cost just three cents a dozen on an average through the year."
Another one, alluding to the fact of feeding poultry upon dead horses at a
great poultry establishment near Paris, said : " The less hens I keep, I think
the better for me. I have fed dead horses and all sorts of food, but I can't
make it profitable to myself, or neighbors either." Of course not. Tlie last
words tell the reason ; he lets them run at large, Jialf fed.
195. Uen-Roosts and Poultry Vermiu.— The poles or ladders should be
141 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
such that tliey can be whitewashed thoroughly every June, and the whole
licn-liouse slmuld undergo the same operation. Poultry that are lonsy
ehouUl have wood-ashes to wallow in, and a few handfuls of flour of sulphur
etirred in among them makes them much more efficient. Good ashes will
effect a cure, however. The fowls should have also dry earth or a dusty
road, for it will be found that they will \isually alternate from one to the
other. The best means for supplying lime to hens is to crack up fresh
oyster-shells with a hammer or a sledge. Nests never should be made or
allowed in the room where fowls roost. Keep it clean of all trash, straw,
or nest-boxes. Have them in another apartment.
A poulti-y raiser asks us to tell him how to get rid of the great nui-
sance of lice u])on poultry. lie says he feeds well, and gives the hens the
range of a grass lot, and has used turpentine sprinkled in the nests, and
applied blue vitriol mixed with grease to their bodies, and anointed tlicm
with lamp oil, and yet they are infested. The breed is that called Black
Spanish, but t])at, we think, has nothing to do with the difficulty, which is
so great that he is ready, if there is no remedy, to sacrifice his hens and buy
his eggs and chickens. In a case like this, we should endeavor to purify
the roost of ever^'thing that could give shelter to an insect, and perhai^s
abandon the old roost altogether, and take care that the hens had a wallow-
ing-box, well supplied with dry wood-ashes, renewed by a little addition
every day or two, and feed sulphur occasionally in the food, and have a
constant supply of lime for the hens, and keep them fat; and if all these
would not preserve them free of lice, we would abandon the business.
We have received several letters upon the important subject noticed under
this head, giving "infallible" remedies to rid poultry of lice. The following
looks as if it might be a " dead shot :"
" I have had the care of a poultry -yard for a number of years. During
that time a continual war of extermination was waged, and many expedients
were resorted to, but never did anything, in a single instance, prove a safe-
guard until tobacco was tried. This weed, in my case, has never failed in
answering all practical purposes ; and this fact goes far to show that it was
intended to act out higher and nobler ones than are commonly assigned to it.
Tlie fine-cut is the best kind, and in using it spread it thickly over the sur-
face of the nests, scatter it upon the floor, and suspend large leaves about the
different parts of the house. This, used in connection with your directions,
will put the enemy to flight, and with it will disappear all the annoyances
your subscriber complains of."
Another letter says : " Sprinkle Scotch snufl" plentifully on the fowls, so
it will reach the sk!n, and I'll warrant that the vermin will be more scarce
than even money in these 'tight times.' As you say, 'the roost must be
kept clean ;' also lime must be sprinkled on it to destroy the efi"ect of the
ammonia arising from their manure."
Another says : " All the remedies named are not equal to onions, chopped
fine and mixed with their food every day for a week. This will exterminate
Sec. 9.] POULTRY. 145
tlicin entirely from the hens ; and if tlie roosts and pea he washed witli onion
water, they will trouble your hens no more."
Another writer says, hens that roost upon sassafras poles are never
troubled with lice.
Now all these facts are worth knowing, as the vermin some years are un-
commonly numerous, and will eat more poultry than the people will, unless
we can head them oif with some of the remedies named.
196. Water your Door-Yard Fowls.— Fill a bottle with water and place it
bottom up through a hole in a board, so that its nose shall be inserted into a
saucer, or any shallow, open vessel. As the fowls exhaust the water from
the shallow vessel, the bottle will pay out new supplies.
197. Mode of Killing Fowls. — A favorite mode of killing fowls with some
persons is sticking an awl in the neck. They say that the blood adds to the
good looks and value of all sorts of poultry.
198. Corn-Fed Geese — Value of Corn. — The following detail of an experi-
ment in feeding corn to geese, by Rufus Brown, of Chelsea, Orange County,
Vt., is well worthy the attention of all farmers, and goes to prove that corn
may be as profitably fed to poultry as pigs. Mr. Brown writes :
" In answer to your question, ' Does anybody know anything about any-
thing ?' I answer. Yes. I know how much ten quarts of corn is worth. On
the 22d of November I shut up a flock of goslings, which, allowing the
usual shrinkage for dressing, would not have dressed over six pounds per
head, and would have been called scalawags, and sold accordingly at six to
seven cents per pound. Taking the maximum (seven cents), they would
have brought 42 cents each, dressed, at the time mentioned. They were put
in a warm, well-littered stable, allowing three to four square feet of room for
each, and kept constantly furnished Avith corn in the kernel and plenty of
water; this constituted their entire feed. They M-ere thus kept till Dec. 9 ;
they had then consumed 10 quarts each ; when, after allowing them one day
of fasting, they were dressed according to the custom practiced from boyhood,
and Avhich I respectfully recommend to others, viz. : after life had become
extinct they were carefully scalded by immersing head first in boiling water,
and allowed to remain about one minute, and then taken out head first and
allowed to drain, and then covered in a thick woolen blanket and allowed
to remain about five minutes; then carefully picked clean; then the intes-
tines were drawn, their legs tied together and laid upon their backs on
boards in a cool place, with their necks turned imder and laid close to-
gether to keep the wings close to their sides. They were then considered
choice, and sold readily to the dealer at lOi cents per lb., and averaged
10 lbs., amounting to $1 05 each. Deduct 42 cents, and tiiis leaves 63 cents
for the 10 quarts of corn, the market-price of which, at the time of feeding,
was 75 cents a bushel.
199. Prices of Poultry. — At the time of the great " poultry show" at Bar-
num's Museum, in 1857, there was an auction sale, and the following prices
were realized, and although fancy birds brought fancy prices upon the more
146 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
common sort there was a dead loss upon the cost in England of about an
average of 7 per cent. Tlie following are decidedly among the fancies :
1 pair of white swans, $100 ; 1 white female swan, $50 ; 1 black female
swan, $60 ; 1 pair of black swans, $99 ; 1 pair of Japanese peacocks, $100 ;
1 pair of Barnacle geese, $40 ; 3 lioop-bill ducks, $75 ; 1 pair of golden
plieasants, $18 ; 4 pair of English pheasants, at $10, $11, and $15 per pair ;
3 male golden pheasants, at $5, $8 50, and $12 50 oacii ; 3 male silver
plieasants, at $10, $10 50, and $16 each ; 1 pair of Call ducks, $15 ; 1 shel-
drake duck, $10 ; 3 spoon-bill ducks, $15 ; 1 pair of pin-tail ducks, $19 ;
1 pair of widgeon ducks, $12 ; 1 pair of widgeon ducks, $7; 3 widgeon
ducks, $9.
But the climax of fanc}' prices was reached in the sale of one pair of Man-
darin ducks for $150. This was a beautiful pair of very rare birds, and we
hope will remain rare — that is, that no more will ever be imported at that
price. It was said that they cost 75 guineas in England. Mr. Barnum
ofl'ered $35 advance upon the purcliaser's bargain. They are about the size
of our common wood duck, and of just about equal beauty. It is certainly
somewhat extraordinary that, with money "tight" with most people, any
one can find loose change enough to buy ducks at $150 a pair.
Tlie sales of Slianghaes, and birds in tliat line, went off at what the o\^Tier
called "sickly prices." The following indicate the prevailing rates :
1 pair of gray Dorkings, $10 ; 3 gray Dorkings, $15 ; 6 Sebright bantams,
in two lots, $5 each ; 2 Sebright bantams, hens, $2 each ; 3 Golden bantams,
$1 67 each ; 3 English bantams, $1 25 each ; 3 English bantams, $2 37
each ; 4 Bramahpootras, 1 cock and 3 hens, $2 50 each ; 1 Poland hen,
$1 25 ; 1 Bolton Gray hen, $1 25 ; 1 pair of Golden Ilamburghs, $2 25 ; 1
pair of black Spanish fowls, $10 ; 1 pair of black Spanish fowls, $5 50 ; 2
black Shanghae hens, $3.
Turkeys. — 1 pair of beautiful white turkeys, $5.
Geese. — 2 pair of Barnacle geese, $12 and $14; 2 pair of Egyptian geese,
$10 and $16.
200. Consumption of Poultry in New York. — To give some idea of the
quantity of poultry consumed in New York, we give the following extracts
from an article published about Christmas, 1857 :
" On Dec. 23d the American Express Company had three car-loads to
deliver from their depot in Duane Street, and about 11 tuns received from
Albany by the steamer. On Dec. 24th their receipts are stated in round
numbers at 40 tuns, making about 80 tuns received in two days by only one
transportation line.
" This Company's freight was nearly all from this State and Vermont,
with a little from western Pennsylvania, and a very small portion from
Ohio. A large quantity also came from the river counties by steamers and
barges on the Hudson, as the mildness of the winter has enabled them to
keep running. Western New York also sent in great quantities by the Erie
Railroad, while every New Jersey railroad and numerous wagons brought
Seo. 9.] POULTRY. 147
vast quantities from tliat State, and some from Pennsylvania. A great deal
also came from Long Island, and considerable from Connecticut.
*' Tlie Messrs. Beatt^', who make a business of feeding poultry, had on sale
at once by a commission-house, two days before Christmas, four tuns, all pre-
pared upon their own premises, and some of the turkeys were as handsome
birds as we ever saw, and sold for $3 and $3 50 each."
Mr. White, of Chautauqua County, another great poultry feeder and packer,
had as much more. It is really a blessing, both to producer and consumer,
to have such men as those engaged in the business. The farmer particu-
larly reaps a decided advantage, because euch skillful poulterers can and do
give them more for their birds than they would get if killed by themselves
and sent to market in the rough condition that much of the poultry comes
into this market. For instance, we noticed, while one commission-house was
selling well-prepared geese at 13 cents, a lot of geese, side by side of these,
were offered and refused at 6i cents, the fault being that they were not well
fatted, and were picked dry and roughly packed.
Another lot of well-fatted poultry, well packed, and received in good con-
dition from Vermont, the owner was fully convinced would have netted him
from one to two cents a pound more if he had followed the directions given
in No. 201, for killing and preparing poultry for market.
Relative to the effect of the weather upon the business of fatting poultry
and some other facts, we are indebted to the Messrs. Beatty for the follow-
ing. They say :
'• Owing to the lateness of the season, turkeys did not grow sufficiently to
fat well for the early market. It is unprofitable to feed these birds to fatten
them until they get their growtli ; and in such warm weather as we have
had this season they do not fatten well, being inclined to wander. To fat
turkeys well and cheaply we must have cold weatlier. It is owing to this,
and having to feed a longer time, tliat we have not been as successful as last
year ; and it was so warm when our Christmas lot was dressed, consisting
of four tuns, that with all our appliances it required not only experienced
skill, but great care to preserve the wliole in good order till ready for ship-
ment. The fault with that lot [alluding to one then unpacking] is, that the
birds were packed before all tiie animal heat was out of them. Tliis must
be carefully guarded against in sucli weather as we have liad this season.
"It has been very difficult for farmers to raise turkeys the past summer
on account of cold and wet, so that the stock in the country is probably not
more tiian half as large as it was last year, and that is the only reason that
the price, notwithstanding the monc}' pressure, has kept up so well. We
/lave fed this year 1,000 turkeys in one lot together, having had in all 1,300,
and between 200 and 300 geese, with other poultry in proportion. We use,
and recommend to others, to feed good, sound Indian corn, and with it a lib-
eral supply of charcoal, which we consider indispensable. It promotes health
and improves the quality of the flesh."
Will all poultry-raisers remember this important fact, which alone is
148 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. 1.
worth more to them than all we shall ever receive for preparing this volume
of valuable information ?
201. Preparing Poultry for Market. — "We have repeatedly published di-
rections for preparing poultry for market, and we can not make a more
valuable finish to this section upon poultry than by giving in brief such
directions as all must rigidly follow, who send such farm produce to the
great market of New York. The professional poultry feeders and packers
need no instructions, but many farmers do. Many of them have already
saved a handsome pcr-centagc on the value of their poultry by giving it a
proper preparation, and others may.
As a preliminary rule, and make it unalterable, never kill a bird unless
it is fat. Kever cut ofl" the head of a turkey or goose, but hang them by the
heels where they can not bruise themselves in the death-struggle, and stick
them with a small knife and bleed them to death. Ducks and common
fowls, if decapitated, should be held or tied and hung up to bleed to death.
Never kill your birds until quite fat; you will lose in price, in reputation,
and in weight. Never strangle them, so as to leave the blood in. Tlic hot
plan is to tie all kinds of birds to a line drawn from post to post or tree to
tree, and stick them just in the forward end of the neck, either with a broad-
bladed awl or a penknife. It is imdoubtedly the best mode of killing. If
the head is cut off, the skin recedes, and the neck-bone looks repulsive. To
obtain the best prices, the birds must look good as well as be good.
There is an exception, however, to the <ibove recommendation about stick-
ing, for some dealers prefer the birds with heads on, and some do not. In
some towns it is always customary to cut off all the heads. When this is to
be done, draw the skin back from the head as far as possible, so that when
you cut off the head, which should be done close to it, there will be somo
loose skin to draw over the end of the neck bone, where it should be tied
close. We doubt whether it is not worth while to pay freight upon heads.
It is worth while to pay freight on the intestines, because the meat can not
be kept sweet long after they are drawn and the air admitted inside of the
body. Therefore, never draw a bird.
It is a practice of some of the best poultrymen, while the birds are bleed-
ing, to hold them firmly by one hand, and pliick the feathers with the other,
as they come out easily while the fowls are warm. This treatment is only
for turkeys and common fowls. Tiiey are then ready for scalding. Take
hold of the legs, and i)lnnge the bi)dy in quick succession, two or three
times, in boiling water. This should be done in a warm room, and the birds
hung upon a line to pick clean, taking care not to tear the skin. Geese and
ducks are plunged two or three times in boiling water, drawing them out by
the head, and then wrapped in a woolen blanket to steam ten minutes.
Take them on your lap to pick. Do not scald the legs, nor heat the bodies
of birds against the sides of the kettle. After the birds are neatly picked,
they^are put throngli the plnn)j)ing process. This gives them a finish, and
increases their value in market.
Seo. 9.] POULTRY. 149
The rule for " plumping" is to dip the birds about two seconds into water
nearly or quite boiling hot, and then at once into cold water about the same
length of time. Some think the hot plunge sufficient witliout the cold. Tlie
neatest poultry-dressers use both the hot and cold plunge. The poultry
should be entirely cold, but not frozen before being packed. If poultry
reaches market sound, without freezing, it will sell all the better.
After plumping, hang or lay the birds where they will dry, and then
remove them to the cooling-room, laying the bodies nicely arranged upon
clean boards in a cold room till perfectly cool, but not frozen, and then pack
in bo.xes, with clean rye straw, about 300 or 400 lbs. in a box, filled full ;
mark the contents on a paper inside, and on the lid outside, and direct it to
your commission-merchant plainly, and send it by express, and one invoice
by mail, and place another in one of the boxes, if there is more than one,
and mark on that, invoice, and then it will be opened first, and the merchant
knows whence it comes, and what the consignment consists of. It is also a
good plan to mark the contents of each box outside, thus: In box
iVo. 1—12 turkeys, 1-14 lbs. ; 20 geese, 160 lbs. ; 50 spring chickens, 125 lbs.
JVo. 2—100 fowls, 300 lbs. ; 24 ducks, 96 lbs.
This lot will pack in two square dry-goods boxes. If clean hand-threshed
rye straw can not be had, wheat or oat s'raw will answer, if clean and free
from dust. Place a layer of straw at the bottom of the box, then alternate
layere of poultry and straw — taking care to stow snugly, backs upward,
filling vacancies with straw, and filling the package so that tlie cover will
draw down snugly upon the contents. Couimon dry-goods boxes, holding
not over 300 lbs., are the best packages.
Never kill your birds on a damp day, nor pack them, if you can avoid it,
except in a clear, cold, dry atmosphere ; and try to avoid night-work, when
you are tired and your help sleepy, and all of you careless.
No matter how light j-our boxes are, they must look clean, or your poultry
will not sell at first prices. In packing, press the wings close, and ^ress
the bird down hard on the breast, the legs extending back, and fill each
course full, and then lay on straw and another course of birds. Nail tight,
but don't let a nail project inward to tear the birds.
Give your name and residence in full on the bill in the box and on the
invoice by mail. Don't think because you know in what State you live, that
everybody else will know it if you name the town.
Never pack in barrels if you can get good dry-goods boxes, as the rolling
of barrels injures the poultry, where it is likely to be much handled, unless
very closely packed. Besides, it does not pack to as good advantage to the
shape of the birds as it does in boxes. Small lots may be packed in "shoe
or hat boxes," but they must be carefully hooped, and so should be all boxes.
Don't use a rough, black board for a cover ; you had better spend an hour
to plane it. Don't acknoM^lodge, by sending unplaned boards, that you
don't own a plane. It is bad economy to use heavy packages, or have any
waste room, because freight is charged by the pound, and for long distances
150 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
the express charges may amount to four or five cents a pound, and all the
weight of tliebox counts ctiusilly with the contents.
It is a practice with some — and a very foolish practice it is— to stuff fowls
just before tliey are killed, thinking to sell corn at the price of meat. Better
give no food for twenty-four hours previous to killing. Food in the crop is
liable to sour, and always injures the sale, for it looks to purchasers as though
there was a design to cheat.
You may pick turkeys and fowls dry if you will not tear the skin, and
then scald them afterward by dipping them suddenly in and out of boiling
water. Geese and ducks must always be scalded. Do not scald tlie legs too
much, whether you pick iirst or afterward. Be careful of that. You must
pick them clean, and the after-scalding makes them look plump and good.
"Well-packed boxes of well prepared birds will keep sweet a long time in
cool weather, and may be transported by express from Ohio for three cents
a pound ; from Chicago and most of Illinois for five cents ; from Iowa for
six or six and a half cents, and arriving in good order, will be sold at good
prices, and your money remitted to you, less 10 per cent. Now, following
these directions, and getting these prices, if it is better for you Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Michigan farmers to send j'our poultry East-
ward for sale, you know how to do it ; and if it opens to you a new and im-
proved market, it will bo worth more to you than the whole cost of this
volume upon every box of poultry sold. In fact, these directions, given in
part heretofore to the public, have been the means of saving great sums of
money to the poultry producers.
After boxes are packed, if there is any chance of not getting them imme-
diately into market, or if a change in prices makes it desirable to liold back,
it will be a good plan to place them v>-here the contents will freeze solid ;
then they will stand a long spell of warm weather, such as makes badly-
packed poultry slimy. If you could be sure of cold Aveather, so that the
birdi would lemain frozen, very little straw would be requisite in packing;
but as a general thing, a liberal allowance of straw will more than pay its
cost of transportation in keeping the birds in good order.
When packages are frozen before shipment, it will be well to advise con-
signees of the fact, as we have known a thaw to come on gradually, until
very warm, and have then seen packages opened in perfect order that were
frozen up two or three montlis before. In fact, we knew one such that got
mislaid and covered with empty boxes in a cellar, that kept sweet till it was
accidentally discovered in May.
Water for scalding any kind of poultry should be as near to the boiling
point as possible, without actually boiling; the bird being held by the legs,
sliould be immersed and lifted up and down in the water tln-ee limes ; the
motion helps the hot water to penetrate the plumage and take proper cfteet
upon the skin. Continue to hold the bird by the legs with one hand while
])lucking the feathers with the other without a moment's delay after taking
it out ; if skillfully handled in this way, the feathers and pin-feathers may all
Sec. 9] POULTRY. 151
be removed witliout breaking tlie skin. A torn or broicen skin greatly
injures tlie appearance, and tlie price will be lo\v in proportion.
Do not send the birds with tail and wing feathers in, unless it may be
occasionally in a very handsome turkey.
Geese always sell best the week before Christmas, and they should always
bo stall-fed. Christmas prices are usually for Avell-fed geese, such as will
warrant their iucreased production, since it is contended by persons whose
opinion is entitled to great respect, that with proper care and skill, upon a
farm well fitted for the business, a tun of geese can be made at the same
cost as a tun of beef, leaving the feathers as an excess of profit.
Now let all who read, remember that common-sense attention to these
rules, in regard to preparing poultry, will often insure 25 per cent, higher
prices than poultry of the same value originally will bring, if slovenly dressed
and packed, and carelessly directed and stupidly forwarded, as often hap-
pens. To bring the highest market-prices, poultry must be good and well
bandied.
202. Preparing Game for Markets — Wild turkeys, wild ducks, and the
smaller birds should be packed in the natural state. In cold weather they
may be packed snugly, backs up, with or without clean straw, taking care
to keep the plumage as smooth as possible. If the weather becomes warm
daring the transit, straw between the layers acts beneficially as an absorbent
of moisture. Birds should never be drawn, and if mutilated by gun-shot,
the market value will be much reduced.
Woodcock, quails, and other small birds are in cool weather sometimes
each wrapped in paper, and packed in dry sawdust. In hot weather tliey
may be packed without the paper in coarse sawdust and ice. They seldom
arrive in good order if more tlian twenty-fours on the way in hot weather.
In venison it is best to send only the hind part of the carcass, including,
say, two or three ribs Avith tlie saddle. The skin should be stripped from
the fore part and carefully M'rapped about the saddle, thus keeping it clean
and in good order.
By the " game laws" of the State of Now York, the killing of any wild
deer, partridge, quail, woodcock, or snipe during the months of February,
March, April, May, June, and July is prohibited under penalty of $25 for
each offense.
Common carriers or their agents may, in the discharge of their legitimate
business, transport deer or game during the inhibited period without viola-
tion of the law; and commission merciiants and dealers are protected if they
can show, to the satisfaction of the court, that the game in question came
from any other State, or foreign country, or that it was not killed during the
inhibited period.
The taking of speckled or brook trout is prohibited between the 15th day
of September and the loth day of February, under the same penalties and
provisions as in the case of game; but the Cayuga, Seneca, Crooked, and
Otsego lakes are excepted from this prohibition.
152 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
203. Eggs— How to Produce Ihem in Winter. — Pork scraps or greaves, fed
in moderate quantity, arc found to have a marvelous effect in tiic produc-
tion of winter eggs. Give liens also sand, and gravel, and lime, and see
that they have water. Egg-shells should never he fed whole, hut thcj' may
be mashed up fine and mixed with feed to good advantage. Some hens
are much more productive of eggs than others. Eighty hens, hclonging to
Capt. Thos. A. Norton, of Yarmouth, Mass., have laid during one year 637
dozen eggs. At the average price of eggs, that would be about $1 25 for
each hen.
20i. How to Detect the Sex in Domestic Fowls' Eggs. — A person who has
paid attention to the subject declares that he can tell the sex of eggs in the
following manner. lie says :
"I began examining eggs, classing them according to the difference I
found in the formation of each, marking each class, and putting them under
hens as soon as opportunity offered ; when, iu less than twelve months, I
was fully convinced that I had discovered either a method or the method
of foretelling the sex in the egg, which was proved by ocular demonstration
in the chickens produced.
" At the large end of the egg there is a circular space or cavity containing
air, which country folks call the ' crown' of the egg ; its proper name I know
not. When you examine the egg, hold it, the large end uppermost, before
a candle or gaslight, and in looking through it you will observe a dark cir-
cular mark, something similar to the moon when partially eclipsed. This
dark circular mark is the space filled with air or ' the crown' of the egg, and
when in the center it indicates that the egg will produce a male.
" My method of examining the egg is as follows : I make use of the thumb
and forefinger of my left hand as two points, placing the small end of the
egg on my thumb, my forefinger covering the large end of it, and as near
the center of the end as possible. I then place the egg in this position
steadily before a candle and gently turn it around ; if the crown be in the
center it will be scarcely visible, the forefinger nearly covering it. On the
contrary, if the crown be on the side you will only see it on one side of the
egg as you turn it around."' There is a little contrivance, called the ooni-
scope, to detect bad eggs. The egg is placed iu a hole of a box, and the
light reflects on a mirror inside and tells unerringly the true condition of
the egg. A little practice enables any one to discover whether eggs are
fresh or not.
205. Vitality of Egss AlTected by Transportation. — It has been stated upon
good authority that railroad transportalion injures the vitality of eggs. That
pack them as you will, if they are carried any considerable distance, say 100
miles, the continued shaking will shake the life out of them. Traveling on
the Harlem Road one day, we met an acquaintance carefully carrying a
small basket in his hands. AVe remarked that he handled his basket as
carefully as though he was carrying eggs. "And so I am," he replied ; " I am
taking them about a hundred miles to a friend, and will insure every one to
Sec. 9.] POULTRY. 153
Iiatcli out a chicken, so far as transportation may aifect them. But I learned
this by experience. I had a lot sent up the road only twenty-five miles, in
the ordinary way, and did not get one chicken to fifty eggs, while out of
another lot, carried in my hands in this way, not one missed," He said : " As
a general rule, it niay be set down for fact, that eggs that have been trans-
ported by railroad will never bring forth chickens." This is important in-
formation, and should be well remembered. So, too, let it he remembered
that eggs intended for incubation can not be too carefully handled in taking
them from the nests and keeping them about the house till the hen is ready
to take them in charge.
206. Selling Eggs by Weight. — "We have frequently recommended that eggs
should always be sold by weight, instead of by count. We recommended it
because m'c thought it more fair both for producer and consumer ; but really,
with the present system of trade, we do not see much to encourage the change,
and nothing to encourage the production of eggs of a large size while small
ones sell at the same price as the largest, per dozen or hundred, and consumers
are guilty of the great foil}' of making no distinction. Do they ever think of
the difference in weight ? Do they know how niany eggs there should be
to the pound ? The largest-sized eggs of the common barn-door fowl weigh
three ounces each, but the average is about ten to tlie pound. We inquired
once of a retail groceryman, " Have you any fresh eggs?" " Yes ; there is a
lot of fine ones, just in, all of this State, in good order." " At what price ?"
" Twelve cents a dozen." " May I pick them out at that ?" " Oh, yes, cer-
tainly ; they are all alike, good." Of this we had no doubt as to the good ;
but that they were otherwise alike, we intended to prove that he was mis-
taken. So we picked out a dozen and laid them in the scales, with a 1| lb.
weight opposite, thinking they were just the size that takes eight to the
pound, for that is just what good, fair-sized hen's-eggs always will average.
These were a little heavier, and we added two more, and balanced two
pounds — seven eggs to the pound. Then we picked out of the same cask
thirteen more, and these weighed just one pound, not quite 100 per cent,
dift'erence whether you buy large or small eggs. Now, if f;xrmers and fools
meet, is it right that the one should take advantage of the other in this way ?
or is it right that one man should keep a brood of small hens, the keeping
of which costs less than half that of larger ones, and get the same price for
the eggs ? If honesty is the best policy in all of our dealings, then it is the
best policy to sell eggs by the pound, and not by the dozen.
207. To Preserve Eggs. — We can not vouch for the following. If it is as
stated, it is much more simple and convenient than packing in lime, salt,
etc. " Provide a small cupboard, safe, or tier of shelves ; bore these shelves
full of holes one and a quarter inches in diameter, and place the eggs in
them, point downward. They will keep sound for several months. Other
modes, such as packing in salt, etc., depend for their success simply on
placing the points down ; the shelves are more convenient and accessible."
208. Eggs Consumed in England. — In the statistics of British commerce,
154 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
the lionie production is put down at 75,000 tuns annuully, which are valued
at $;15,000,000. The iniportatiou of eggs for eight years, ending with 18i7,
ranged from 96,000,000 in 18iO, to 77,500,000 in 18i7, and the importa-
tions of the succeeding years are given in the following table :
Number.
1848 .• 88.012,58.5
1849 97,745.849
1850 105,689,060
NambCT.
1852 108,281.253
1853 133,450,678
1854 121,966,226
1851 115,526,246 i 1855 100,005,200
Tlie first six months of 1856, 68,062,600. This was nearly 14,000,000 in
excess of the number received in the first six months of 1855, but not so
large as in 1854. The imports of eggs in 1854 were, from
Nnmber. 1 Unmber.
Belgium 10,415,517 Spain 5,983,161
France 104,126,918 Channel Islands 794.400
Portugal 419,866 | Other parts 226,424
Up to the 8th of August, 1854, eggs were entered by number, but since
that they have been entered by cubic feet, internal measurement. In order
to reduce the whole to a uniform standard, 200 eggs are estimated to be
packed in one cubic foot. The duty charged is 8d. per cubic foot of eggs
from foreign countries, and half that duty from British possessions. In
the metropolis the egg trade is a very important branch of commerce, giving
employment to sixty egg merchants and salesmen on a large scale, exclusive
of the number of shopkeepers who sell eggs. Tliese salesmen distribute the
boxes of eggs over the various consuming localities in light carts.
The principal importation is from France and Belgium. Quantities of
Portuguese eggs are occasionally imported into England by the Peninsular
Mall steamers. The eggs of the Spanish fowls being very large, are much
esteemed, and valued at Id. to l^d. each. Spain imports a certain quantity
from the French province of Oran, in Algeri;i. Tiio eggs of the Bedouin
fowls are sold in the European markets at 5d. to 6d. the dozen.
The supplies of eggs sent from Ireland to Liverpool, and thence into the
manufacturing districts, are enormous, frequently exceeding 1,000,000 a
day. They are packed with straw in crates, boxes, or hampers. The crates
contain from 6,(i00 to 8,000 eggs, the boxes about 2,500. Sometimes largo
boxes contain 13,000 or more eggs.
In 1852, 9,260 tuns of Irish eggs were imported into Liverpool, and it is
estimated that that is not more than one fifth of the product of that island
209. Eg^s in France. — M. Legrand, a French statistical writer, estimated
the consuniption of eggs in 1835 in Paris at 138 per head of all the inhab-
itants, and in the provinces at double that ratio. '• The consumption of
eggs for the whole kingdom," he observes, "is estimated at 7,231,160,000;
add to this number those exported and those necessary for reproduction, and
it will result that 7,380,925,000 were laid in France during the year 1835."
Since that time the production has largely increased. M. Armand IIus-
son, in his interesting book on the " Consommation" of Paris, just pub-
Number. Av. pr. per 1,000.
1851 129,732,299 42f. 69 centimes.
18-52 160,000,000 41f. 35 centimes.
J653 175,000,000
Sec. 9.] POULTRY. 155
lislied, returns the number of eggs consumed in the French metropolis at
175,000,000, or 175 to each head of the population, worth about $1 35.
The value of the eggs consumed in Paris one year would be also about
£300,000 ; but probably three quarters of a million sterling would be a
nearer estimate of tlie poultry and eggs consumed annually in Paris.
The consumption and prices may be judged of from the following figures:
Number. Av.pr. per 1,000.
1847 120,940,724 57 francs.
1848 100,747,222 48f. 40 centimes.
1849 ll:?,687,732 4Gf. 70 centimes.
1850 124,597,150 43f. 93 centimes.
A number of GalignanPs Ifessenger says that, in 1815, the number of
eggs exported from France was 1,700,000 ; in 1816 it rose to 8,000,000.
six years later, in 1822, the number was 55,000,000 ; and 99,500,000 in
1824. In 1830 the number declined to 55,000,000 ; then gradually increased
until 1815, when it was 88,200,000, for which an export duty of 114,000
francs was paid. Nearly all these eggs go to England. The yearly consump-
tion of eggs in Paris is estimated at 165,000,000, and the total consumption
of all France at 9,000,000,000 ; so that, reckoning eggs at a sou, this single
article represents 465,000,000 francs.
210. The Egg Trade in this Country. — Steamboats and railways have done
much to increase and improve the trade in poultry and eggs, in butter and
milk, as well as in carcass meat and fish of all kinds, for tlie supply of large
cities and dense populations in Europe and America, situate far from the
chief seats of production or fishing. The poultry dealers of New York
made their ajipearance on the shores of the great American lakes within a
few days after the regular trains M'ere in motion on the Erie Railroad.
Poultry and eggs M'ere swept away by them at an advance of 25 to 30 per
cent, on their ordinary value, and a decided stimulus has been given to the
production of poultry and eggs.
The British American provinces are now supplying the United States
towns with eggs, Avhich are imported duty free under the Eeciprocity Treaty.
1,260 dozen eggs from Nova Scotia were entered very recently at the Cus-
tom-house, Boston, in one day. In the season of 1852, about 8,000 barrels
of eggs, containing 84 dozen per barrel, were shipped from the port of Mon-
treal to the United States, and sold at about 16c. the dozen.
One merchant in Marion County, Ohio, has shipped in one season 124,950
dozen of eggs, in 1,785 barrels, costing, at 7 cents a dozen, $8,746 50.
211. Packing Eggs for Market. — There is probably in no one article of the
same relative value so much depreciation and loss from injudicious manage-
ment and unskillful packing as in eggs. This is best illustrated in the
"Western trade, especially during the wann season, when the average price
of AVestern eggs rules, say, three to five cents per dozen below those from this
State ; but at the same time we have some Western marks that bring nearly
or quite as much as the best State, showing conclusively that it is entirely
practicable to forward them in prime order from the far West. If the fol-
156 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.
lowing directions are intelligently carried out, there will be very little doubt
of success.
Be sure (especially in tbe summer season) that your eggs arc not only
sound, but recently laid. Eggs may be "candled" or examined by the
" ooniscope," and repacked at the West ; but if they are stale, though still
apparently sound, they will be sure to reach this nuirket in bad order, or
will so rapidly change, on being opened, that dealers will be sure to lose
money on them. The motion of the cars over such long distances so mud-
dles all eggs, not entirely fresh, that they appear cloudy and stale, and will
soon spoil, if indeed they are not already unsalable.
Use very strong, stiff barrels, put a little soft straw or hay evenly over
the bottom with a stiff paper on the toj) of the straw, then oats or cut straw,
say, two to three inches, then a layer of eggs, laid snugly together upon the
sides, evenly imbedded in the oats, with the ends toward but about one inch
from the staves. Cover the layer with oats and shake down gently but thor-
oughly, leaving, say, one inch of oats upon the layer of eggs ; tlius continue
shaking down thoroughly with each layer until the barrel is full. Place
about three inches of oats over the last layer, then a stiff paper and a
little soft hay or straw next the head, filling so high that the head must be
pressed to its place by a lever or other mechanical power, that the contents
may be held so firmly that they can never shift or loosen in the barrels. In
the winter, to guard against frost, use more packing, leaving the eggs farther
from the sides of the barrels. Use clean, bright oats; they are salable at
all seasons, though of late merchants seem to ]irefercut straw. Mark plainly
I lie number of dozen and the quantity of oats in each barrel. Be very ]iar-
ticular to have the count right. A good reputation for accuracy is very
valuable.
One person says: "I use a board some six or eight inches square, with a
loop or staple in the center for pressing each layer of oats firmly down.
Tlici'e will be something gained by lifting and dropping the barrel square on
the end, but not by shaking, as it disturbs the layers. When it gets too
heavy to lift, use a board three fourths as large as the head, and get on it,
increasing your weight with a spring, and on the head driving it in. The
secret lies all in packing the oats. Oats are better worth sending to market
than hay, and just as safe. I have sent ten barrels at a time without losing
a single egg. You must pack tight. Remember that."
PLATE XTT.
This picture is intended to be botli suggestive and instructive.
First, it suggests to any one who may chance to open the book at
this page, the study of bee-culture, and the propriety of addhig this
kind of farm-stock to tlic larger animals already owned. It is placed
here for that purpose. It is to attract attention to the subject, and
induce readers to turn over a few pages and read just enough to
whet the appetite for more knowledge. It is instructive, as it
shows the ditTerent form and size of the three classes of bees, so
that any one, after studying this picture, need make no mistake.
It shows how a swai'm issues from a hive and settles upon a limb
of a neighboring tree, and how fearlessly the bee-keej^er approaches
the swarm and puts it in the hive, which he will cover up and carry
to its place on the stand. The author has frequently climbed to the
top of a tree as high as this appears, and sawed oil' the limb upon
which the swarm had alighted, and brought it down a long ladder
to the hive, with no protection to face or hands. This picture,
therefore, is intended to induce you to keep bees, and as a hint that
you can easily learn all the art of bee-keeping.
TllK AlMAur, TUB JJCiK^UK.m'KU A'C M.lfS "-Uttlv.
CHAPTER II.
SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS.
SECTION X-BEES, AND THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.
i^^UR opening chapter was devnteil to a general sur-
^^ vey of farm-stock. This will be tlevotod to observ-
ations upon bees, birds, bugs, insects, and worms ;
gs, cats, rabbits, rats, mice, moles ; camels as beasts
burden ; goats of Cashmere, their value as farm-
tock ; fish-breeding, for domestic use or market ; ani-
s yielding fur, and alpacas, and other small stock of the
In the leading article of this chapter we shall notice what
may very appropriately be ranked as proiitable stock upon
a farm, for the product of the liive often aftbrds a consid-
erable income, and it is nearly all clear profit. Eirds,
although they do not produce a direct income, are among
the greatest helps to that end, for they are great destroyers
of those pests, the bugs, insects, and worms, which we shall also introduce
into this chapter. Dogs, as an adjunct of the farm, and when only kept in
very limited numbers, are not, perhaps, unprofitable stock ; but as they at
present exist, they are pests of the very worst kinds. Cats are a necessity,
for without them we should be over-run with rats and mice, and so we give
each a small space in this chapter. Eabbits, too, though small, must have a
place ; and camels, though large enough to fill a chapter, like the rabbit,
must be contented with a paragraph. And the Cashmere goat, the only one
of any value to farmers, is as yet so little diffused among them, that we can
only aftbrd space to give it a passing notice ; and the alpaca, an equally im-
portant domestic animal, we must treat in the same short-hand way.
Fish-breeding is of vast importance to every farmer who has the facility
for making a fish-pond, and therefore we have added it to this second chapter
of animals, domestic or wild, upon the farm. And finally, we add fur ani-
mals, merely to call the attention of those who own suitable locations, to the
fact that it is possible that such animals may be bred for their skins, to say
nothing of the value of their fiesh.
So much by way of introduction. Now let us take up our subjects, item
by item, each under its appropriate head.
212. Bees. — History of their Introduction. — It is not quite certain whether
the honey-bee is indigenous to America or not. Our opinion is that it is.
158^ SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. • [Chap. IL
beciiuse several varieties now exist upon the continent, and certainly those
in (.\iitral America appear to be natives, s> far as it is possible to trace their
history. It is possible that the early immigrants, not finding bees in the
di^t^icts first occupied by them, cither in New England or Virginia, did
import them, though this supposition a}>pears doubtful when we consider
th- length of voyages in that age of ocean navigation. And it is still further
aga'nst the theory of importation, to know that as early as 16-tS — forty years
only after Captain John Smith's advent — George Pelton, of Yii-ginia, was in
possession of a good stock of honey-bees ; and tliey were noticed by Beverly
as a common thing among the Virginia planters j^revious to 1720.
In 1755, beeswax was an article of export from Savannah, Georgia. It is
■impossible to state the quantity, because it is combined with myrtle-berry
wax, and both are set down at 9G9 lbs. Five years later the quantity of both
is given at 3,910 lbs., and in 1770 at 4,058 lbs.
In 1767, the export tables show 35 barrels of beeswax, sent from the port
of Philadelphia ; and only four years later the quantity is given as 29,261 lbs.
The history of Cuba credits Florida with bees imported from there in 1764.
The above facts prove that if there were no honey-bees in this part of the
continent when our forefathers came to it, their importations were very suc-
cessful, and the original stock was widely disseminated, and multiplied with
great rapidity, for the census of 1850 gives the annual product of honey and
wax at 14,853,790 lbs : and that at a time when the bee-moth epidemic had
greatly lessened the stock in the country, and consequently the production
was not as great as it had been.
It is a fact, too, that the immigrants of the Northwestern Territory found
wild bees scattered all through the forests of what is now Ohio, Indiana, and
Illinois.
As an ofi"sct to this, it is a fact that the first American settlers of California
found no honey-bees in that State, notwithstanding the fact of its early occu-
pancy by the Spanish ; and the first bees ever seen in that State have been
carried there from Xcw York, by sea, since 1850, and already the stock of
bees has multiplied to an extent which would populate the State to as great or
greater extent than the Atlantic States have been with both wild and domes-
tic stocks, in a far less time than has elapsed since the landing at Jamestown
or Plymouth rock, of tiiose who may have introduced the bee from Europe.
Bee-culture in California has already assumed such an importance that
associations of apiarists have been formed there, and the exhibition of bees is
quite a feature at the State fair. Bees have become so numerous in the
neighborhood of Sacramento, that they have been charged with extensive
depredations upon the vineyards, by sucking the sweets out of the ripe
grapes. Mr. Harbison, a large bee-keeper, who went from Pennsylvania
with a large shipment of them, two or three years ago, however, denies the
charge of bee^ injuring the fruit, and asserts that he lias proved by actual
experiment that they will only attack the grapes after the skin has bui-st by
the pressure of the interior growth. Still, there arc many persons who are
Sko. 10.] BEES, AND THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF HONEY. 159
deeply interested in grape-growing in that State, who think tliis business
and bee-keeping never can flourish together. It is a matter that will prob-
ably be investigated, since it involves two so great interests, particularly in
California, where both branches flourish in so remarkable a degree of health-
iness. Certainly, in no part of the United States has bee-keeping given such
a promise of success.
Bees, although they appear to thrive best, or at least with but little care,
in warm latitudes, are not confined to those regions. An article now before
us gives an account of the successful introduction of bees into Aroostook
County, Maine, where the thermometer sometimes freezes, and afterward
the discovery of a wild swarm in a hollow tree, which was removed to a
hive and wintered in a dark, dry cellar, where they consumed very little
honey. This is a very good way to winter bees in all cold regions ; for one
of the greatest difficulties attending bee-culture in the most northern local-
ities where they are found, is winter killing, not by freezing up in the hive,
though that sometimes occurs, but by the bees being aroused from tlicir
torpid state by a few sunny days, till tliey come out of the hive and are
overcome by cold before they can return again, and thus perish. We have
sometimes lost great quantities in this way, no farther north than lat. 41°.
Notwithstanding bees appear to possess a considerable degree of reason,
and the power of ratiocination (a power that many men do not possess),
they are, like men and women, very apt to be caught by outside appear-
ances, and venture forth from their warm homes iipon sunny wings, to meet
the chilling blast of the outside world, and perish.
Certainly, many acts of the honey-bee seem to be results of a reasoning
faculty ; or is it that undeflned something that mankind call instinct ? It
is indeed wonderful that so tiny an insect should possess a faculty scarcely
possessed by man, of constructing its domicile, or rather store-house, so as
not to waste an iota of material or space ; for that is a fact, in relation to
the honey-bee's comb. And all their interior liousehold arrangements, the
order of their work, family government, and perfect order and harmony, are
such as should make mankind blush at their own inefficiency. Many of
them should blush to think such an insect is so much more industrious and
frugal than themselves, and so much more careful to lay up winter stores.
One of the marks of reason, judgment, or instinct in the bee is manifested
in their never leaving the hive, although ready to swarm, in a stormy day,
nor when a storm or very high wind is approaching, which would be likely
to blow away one portion of the swarm from the other.
"When the swarm does come forth it seems to be all by a given signal, and
the movement is sudden and simultaneous, guided by the call of their queen.
If by any accident or mistake the queen gets separated, or fails to cluster
with the swarm, it is idle to try to hive them. They will not take a new
abode without a queen. Is it reason that teaches them that they must re-
turn to the old hive, where they can make a new queen out of the young
larvaB in the cells of the old brood-comb ?
160
SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS.
[Chap. IL
213. Bee-IliveSi — Tlie best hive is one with movable supports for each
slieet of comb. Although hives of tliis kind may have been patented, the
patent is not good for anything, nor should it bar any one from tlie use of
such a hive, because the invention is not new. Bevan, an English writer
upon bees, described such a liive many years ago, as in use by him, and
recommended it to others. More than twenty years ago, I described a hive
for movable frames to sustain the separate sheets of comb, in the Albany
Cultivator, and although the plan might have been patentable, it wa^s dis-
tinctly stated that it was not, nor would be patented, and any one who liked
it was recommended to use it. The form of the hive there recommended
was to hang the frames by hook-and-eye hinges to the back of the liive, so
that all would swing like the leaves of a book standing on its end. The
front, or cover to tlie edge of the leaves, being opened, by turning it around
to the left hand, leaf after leaf could be swung around to the riglit, and a
sheet of comb cut out of any one, or the frame could be lifted oft' its liinges
and taken away, and a new one put in its place. We thought the plan a
more convenient one than lifting the frames out at the top of the hive.
There is an objection to all movable frame hives, that they furnish har-
boring-places for moths. They also, on the other hand, afford facilities for
searching after them, and removing any infested comb.
Bees are like any other wild insect or animal that has been doiucsticatod.
By good treatment they can be made very domestic, so that their keeper can
handle tliem about as easily as any other jiets.
The next best form of hive is a square box, made of planed boards one-
and-a-han or full one-and-a-quarter inch stuft', well seasoned, and tongued,
and grooved, and firmly nailed together, so as to be watei'-tight, and nearly
air-tight, and well painted. A box fifteen inches deep, and twelve inches
across each Avay, contains 2,1G0 cubic inches — ten in excess of a bushel.
Tills is a good size and form for a hive. It will add much to the conveni-
ence of the liive to insert a pane of glass in the side opposite to the open-
ings where the bees enter, which should be six (hiee-eighth-inch holes, an
inch above the bottom. The glass should have a tight-fitting shutter ; and
the bottom should be screwed on, or hinged and fastened with a hook so
that it could be opened. If it is screwed on, make an opening two inches
across in the center of the bottom board, with a close-fitting shutter that you
can take out occasionally to allow the bees to sweep out their room. Open
this only in the morning, and close it before night. There will then be no
entrance for tlie moth except through the bee holes, and these the sentinels
will guard. Bore four inch holes in the top, and fit corks in them. Have
a cap fitted on top to cover four boxes, five or six inches square, made with
one glass side. When the lower part is filled, which you can tell by observ-
alion at the glass in the back, or by weighing, then open the top holes, and
put on the boxes, open side down, and shut the cap over them, and the bees
will soon find that they have extra stoi-e-room, and go to work and fill it
with new comb, and fresh honey, free of bee-bread or biood-eomb. As soon
Sec. 10.] BEES, AND THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF HONEY. 161
as a box is full, take it off, and put an empty one in its place. A stock of fifty
swarms in the spring will produce two thousand pounds of surplus honey,
and increase to a hundred swarms in the autumn. Counting all labor be-
stowed in tlie care of a stock of bees, and all expense of hives, etc., and the
cost of honey is estimated at only three to six cents a pound ; varying with
locations, and favorable or unfavorable seasons. But if it always costs ten
cents a pound, tlie bee-keeper would find sale for it at a profit.
214. Straw UiveSt — There are a few bee-keepers who still adhere to the
opinion that straw hives are the best that can be used. We can not think
so. Their greatest advantage is, that they maintain a more even tempera-
ture than board hives, and are inexpensive. They can be manufactured by
tlie winter fireside, and packed away for future use in a small space, one
within another. WJien wanted for use, a couple of cross-sticks must be put
in to support the comb, as the hive is in the shape of an inverted bowl, and
not as good to support comb as a straight-sided box. It is a good plan,
however, to use the supports in all hives. They should be so arranged that
they can be easily taken out, as it would greatly facilitate the removal of
comb. If straw hives are used, they should be made to hold a bushel, of
clean rye straw, tied very tightly together, so as to make the walls full an
inch and a half thick, and smooth outside and in. Never use them after tliey
got old, and never place them whei-e they will get wet. If kept dry, the
bees winter in straw hives better than board ones.
It lias been i-ecommended to make cases for board hives, to set over them
in winter as protection from the changes in the weather. If this is done, the
cases should be taken oif as soon as possible in the spring to prevent moths
making harbors in tiiem.
215. Patent Hives. — We have never seen a patent for a bee-hive, nor " bee-
palace," that we would give a dime for. They are no better than any handy
man with tools can make himself. As to " bee-palaces," where bees are to
live in community, the thing is preposterous. It is founded upon wrong
principles.
Bee-houses, whore collections of swarms in separate hives are to be kept,
we have tried as well as the community system, and repudiate both.
Movable comb-hives may be made without buying a patent, by making a
chest of the capacity to hold a bushel, besides the frames, or say 15 inches
square inside, and make 10 frames of strips of boards an inch and a half
wide, nailed together flatwise at the ends so as to form sashes that will set
in the box and just fill it. Bore holes for the entrance of the bees, through
the sides of the box and frames. Tlie lid of the chest shuts tight, and may
be locked. When you want to draw a frame, insert a common wood-screw
or two to pull it out by. You can tell as soon as you lift it a little, whether
it is full or not, and if not, try another.
"We have tried several patent hives, and if choosing between any one of
them and a " bee gum," would take the latter for all practical purposes ;
not that we would recommend farmers always to use hollow logs, though
162 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. U.
we certainly have seen some most successful bee-keeping where the swarms
were kept only in tliat rough way.
216. iVherc to Keep Hives. — Tlie location and mode of support arc im-
portant matters in placing bee hives. And here again, the most " rough
and ready" way has always appeared to be the best. We have frequently
seen the hives standing about here and there, without any regard to order ;
some directly on the ground, and some on a flat stone or board ; notwith-
standing such apparent disregard to all care, the bees were doing better than
others where every attention was paid to them. We do not advocate quite
so much negligence, but we do believe the best situation for hives is in an
open field, set a rod or two apart, or, rather, suspended to stakes. An
orchard, where the trees are somewhat scattering, and the grass short, or kept
short by n)o\ving or pasturage of some geese, turkeys, or sheep, is a good
place for bee-hives, one under each tree. A hive may be fastened to a tree
or post by two hooks and staples, care being taken to fix it so it will be firm,
and not liable to be shaken by wind. It may also be fixed upon two stakes
set in the ground just wide enough apart for the hive to slip in between
them and rest upon a block nailed upon each side of the hive, notched on
the lower edge so as to clasp the top of the s'ake to prevent slipping side-
wise. Hives placed about in the open ground should have a board laid
over the top, wide enough to give some shade to the hive. Lay this board
on four pebbles, or four nails driven in to keep it half an inch or an inch
from the top. This shade-board may be held in its place by a screw or nail,
or a stone. The hive need not be placed more than six inches from the
ground. A little strip, an inch wide, should be nailed on level with the
entrance holes, for the bees to alight upon.
If hives are placed under a shady tree, they will need no other protection.
If placed close together, a rough shed may be built over a row of hives, so
placed that it will shade them from nine till four o'clock in the day. A hive
should be painted white, because that color does not absorb the rays of heat
as much as a dark color. Sometimes a hive becomes heated so as to soften
the cement, and let the comb fall to the bottom.
217. Swarming. — The location of bee-hives should be convenient to low
bushes, such as lilacs, althcas, or small jieach or phun trees, for them to
light upon when swarming. We have heard of clustering bees upon a large
woolen stocking, stretched over the end of a pole, and held up in the midst
of the swarm as they collected after leaving the liive. When all have been
gathered in the cluster, it is gently laid upon the table and the pole with-
drawn, and a hive set over the bees. ^Vl"ter they go up into the liive, the
stocking is taken away.
Swarming is just as natural for bees as calving for cows. It increases
the stock. The process can not be interfered with advantageously, either to
retard or increase the operation.
The owner of bees should make them as well acquainted with his person
as his horse or dog is, and then lie can handle them as easily.
Seo. 10.] BEES, AND THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF HONEY. 163
It is true there are some persons with whom the bees never will become
friendly, or allow of any familiarity. Such persons should never try to
handle bees. Others (the writer is one) can handle them with impunity.
I have often had them light upon my face, and head, and hands, and remain
as long as they liked, and then go away again.
When a swarm comes out, go immediately right into the midst of it, and
do not be alarmed if it should cluster upon your hat. Such things have been,
and no harm come of it. You must show no excitement ; be moderate and
calm in your movements, as if surrounded by a flock of wild birds which
j-ou were afraid of scaring away. An excitable man will be very apt to
alarm the bees, and an angry one will be sure to make them angry and
drive him from the field.
It sometimes happens that bees leave the hive pre-determined to fly away.
In such eases it is difiicult to stop them. If it is a dusty time, and they are
gathering for flight so low that you can throw handful after liandful of dust
among them, you may succeed in confusing them until the}' will alight.
Swarms have been stopped on the wing by firing a musket directly forward
of them, so that both noise and smoke would confuse them. It is idle to
fire after them, and shot sent into the swarm may kill the queen ; wlien the
bees must be returned to the hive, or put into one witli a piece of brood-comb.
Some people make a great noise, beating drums, tin kettles, barrels, or
blowing horns, when a swarm comes out. The philosophy of this is, that
the noise may drown the voice of the queen, and thus confuse the bees,
when they may alight ; but, as a general thing, noise will have no more
effect toward stopping runaway bees than runaway horses.
The very best thing that we can recommend to a new bee-keeper is : Be
gentle, and keep yourself on familiar terms with your bees. Make them
familiar with your presence and personal appearance, and always go among
them, as near as possible, in the same garb ; and never in a filthy garb,
right from the manure-yard, perhaps ; and never in your shirt-sleeves, reek-
ing with perspiration. There is nothing more offensive to bees ; for they
are as neat as they are industrious, and never sweat anything out of their
little bodies but clean white wax, of which they build their cells.
Thoroughly domesticated bees seldom offer to fly away when they swarm,
if j-ou have conveniences for them to cluster ; and such bees are always
easily handled, so that they can be hived without difiiculty, even by the
(/udewifii or «hildren, if the gudiirnan is awa'.
If you are afraid of stings, put on gloves and tie your sleeves down ; tuck
your pants in your boot-tops ; put on a broad-brimmed hat, with a piece of
mosquito-netting over it, tucked in close around your neck, and thus jiro-
tected, the most timid may go among his own, or strange bees, which always
are the most dangerous.
If you happen to go near bees, and one comes at you, do not fight, run,
nor scream. "Walk away gently, and aim to get behind a bush, tree, fence,
or buildinw.
i I
164 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
Place your hive in the place where it is to stand, as soon as possible after
the swarm is in ; because tlie workers commence comb-building immediately,
and moving disturbs them, and if only a day or two at work, moving may
break down the comb.
218. What a Swarm Consists of. — A swarm of bees in working order con-
sists of one queen, two or three hundred drones, and from ten to fifty
thousand workei-s. The queen would more properly be called a mother, as
she is so, in fact, of all the colony. The drones are the males ; they never
work nor fight — they are stingless. The workers are imperfectly developed
females. According to T. B. Miner, author of a bee manual, the swarm in
the spring consists of tlie queen and about two or three thousand workers,
and these increase as soon as food can be provided in spring, enough to make
a new swarm, which goes off, led by the old queen, while a new one is pro-
A'idcd for the old colony, which also goes oft' sometimes, with another swarm ;
and occasionally a third one is sent off, and finally, the swarm remaining con-
sists of about 20,000 bees, and all but two or three thousand die off before
spring ; the life of a bee being calculated at only about nine months.
A queen-bee is so distinguished from other bees by lier shape, size, and
color, that when you have once learned how, you can always distinguish
her. So you can by the noise she makes. A queen is larger than a worker,
but not as largo around as a drone, though longer ; and the rings of lier
abdomen are less fully developed, and consequently not so plainly distin-
guishable. In short, a queen is more wasp-like in her form than a drone ;
and is of a darker color, particularly upon the back part of the abdomen ;
while on its under side it is of a yellowish hue. The wings of the queen, in
proportion to her body, as compared to either of the others, are wider, i j
stouter, and shorter. She is seldom on the wing ; only at swarming time, ' ;
and when she cohabits with the males. It is supposed that she is always : ■
impregnated during her flight, and that impregnation in the fall, before the ' ■
drones are destroyed, serves for the eggs she will lay in the spring. Those
Avho have made observations upon them, declare that a queen-bee is capable
of laying hundreds, perhaps thousands, of eggs a day. i
Drones are idle fellows ; their only service being attendance upon the >
queen. Their life is a very short one ; generally from April to August ; say j :
four months. None are allowed to live over winter. You must not mis- i '
take the slaughter of the drones for war with other bees, which sometimes
occurs. I
Tlie workers are always busy whenever it is possible for them to carry on j
their labors. They often l)egin the very hour they enter a new hive to | ■
build comb, and the second day the honey and pollen gatherers begin to j I
bring in their stores. To work to advantage they must have a good house, j I
SoiiK'tinies when a swarm goes into a hollow tree, the labor is immense, to i |
clear out and fit the room for use. So it is when put into a mean, dirty hive. |
It rctjuires a great deal of labor sometimes for the bees to stop up the cracks :
of an oil] liivi! with bee-glue — ;>, substance gathered in the forest, and not i
1 i
Sec. 10.] BEES, AND THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF HONEY. 165
made by the bees. It is Iiarder and stiffer when dry than wax, and entirely
unlike it.
219. Weight of a Swarm. — It is estimated that a full swarm of bees should
weigh 11 to 12 lbs. Hence all excess over that is honey and comb, so that
the quantity can be ascertained by weighing the hive, if the weight of that
is known, as it always should be, and marked upon it when new.
Hives should always be constructed with some conveniences for weighing,
such as a staple in the top, if that is a fixed one, or one in each side, and
then have a movable bail to hook in, to attach to the hook of the weighing
balance.
220. Bee-Pasture and Bee-Feeding. — It has been a question for a long time,
whether a country could be overstocked with bees so that their pasturage
would be short. In a conversation with Mr. Quinby, one of the greatest
apiarists in the country, we learned his opinion was that it was next to
impossible to overstock any section with bees. We find from the " Bee
Journal," published in C4ermany, that the same opinion prevails there. Mr.
Dzierzon, president of a convention of apiarists at Munich, says :
'• I have numerous accounts of apiaries, in close proximity, of from 200 to
300 hives each. Ehrenfels had 1,000 in three separate establishments, but
so close that he could visit all in half an hour's ride. In Kussia and Hun-
gary, apiaries numbering from 2,000 to 5,000 are not nnfrequent ; and we
know that as many as 4,000 colonies are often congregated together on the
lieaths of Germany. Hence I think that we need not fear that any district
of this country, so distinguished for abundant natural vegetation and divers-
ified culture, will very speedily become overstocked, particularly after the
importance of having stocks populous early in the spring comes to be under-
stood and appreciated. Mr. Kaden, one of the oldest contributors to the
'Bee Journal,' says that a district of country can not be overstocked with
bees, and that however numerous the colonies, all can procure sufticient sus
tenance, if the surrounding country contain honey-yielding plants in the
usual degree ; where utter barrenness prevails, the case is different, of course,
as well as rare.
" According to statistical tables, there are 600,000 colonies in the province
of Lunenburg, or 111 to the square mile. The number of square miles in
^ this country stocked even to this extent are, I suspect, 'few and far be-
tween.'
" A German writer alleges that the bees of Lunenburg pay all their taxes,
and leave a surplus besides. The importance attached to bee-culture accounts
in part for the fact, that the people of this district (so barren that it has been
c lUcd the ' Arabia of Germany') are almost without an exception in easy
circumstances.
" In the province of Attica, Greece, containing 45 square miles, 20,000
colonies are kept, or one colony to each inhabitant, producing annually 30
II IS. of honey and two of wax each. East Friesland (Holland), containing
1,200 square miles, has an average of 2,000 colonies to the square mile. In
J
166 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IT.
1857, the yield of lioncy and wax, in the Empire of Austria, was estimated
to be worth over seven millions of dollai-s ! !"
Could not still more favorable results be obtained in this country, under
a rational system of manajrement availinj:; itself of the aid of science, art, and
skill ? The island of Corsica produces about 800 lbs. of honey to the square
mile, per annum.
There is no probability that any section of this country will reach such a
state of productiveness in this generation. Yet we hope all who read these
extracts will think what an immense loss is sustained annually by our neg-
lect to employ harvesters to gather the great crop of sweets that might be
saved if our bee population were large enough to gather it all.
Upon the subject of bee-pasturage, and those plants from which bees draw
their stores of honey, we tind some useful hints in Harbison's work on Bees
and Bee-keeping. He says :
" The best kinds of early pasturage are the alders, hazel, and willows, some
of which yield honey and others pollen ; most species of flowers yield both.
My observations lead me to believe that the male flower yields pollen, and
the female honey ; I have frequently seen bees gathering both honey and
pollen from the same kind of flowers at the same time. It can be tested by
examining both the honey-sack and the baskets on the thigh. These trees
arc the first to aftord the bees provision in the spring ; where these abound,
the bees advance earlier than elsewhere. The soft maple {acer ruhrum)
yields a considerable quantity of honey very early, if the weather is fine ;
the golden or yellow willow also yields supplies quite early ; peach, cherry,
and pear trees put forth early ; gooseberries, currants, strawberries, etc., all
afford rich supplies. To close this list of early flowers, the dandelion and
apple come forth in rich profusion, all of which arc of the utmost importance
for the prosperity of the bees during the season. If this early pasturage
fails, or if the weather should be so unfavorable as to prevent the bees from
gathering a supply of provisions, they will fail to rear a sufficient quantity
of brood to swarm early or to harvest the clover honey to advantage.
" It is but seldom, if ever, that a sufficient quantity of hoiu^y is gathered
from these early flowei-s to cause the bees to store it in surplus boxes, yet
enough is frequently obtained to fill up a large portion of the combs from
which the honey has been consumed during the winter, and serves to supply _
their immediate wants until clover blooms.
" The next pasturage comes from turnips, cabbage, and the hard maple
{accr saccharinum), which yield a considerable quantity of honey, but lafer
than the soft maple. Turnips produce a very copious supply of both honey
and ])ollen, and if left standing in the ground over winter, they bloom just
at a time to fill the interval between the fruit-tree flowers and the clover.
This is also the case with the cabbage family, all of which yield large quan-
tities of honey. A field of either turnips or cabbage at this early season is
of greater value to the bees than the same quantity of either clover or buck-
wheat.
Sec. 10.] BEES, AND THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.
167
" I would here impress upon the minds of all bee-keepers the importance
of cultivating a field in turnips each year. In the fall gather in all the large,
fine ones, either for marketing or for feeding sheep and cattle during the
winter, for which they are very valuable, and will well repay the expense of
raising them ; enough small ones will be left standing in the ground over
winter to make a rich field of pasturage for the bees in the spring, leaving
the ground in fine condition for a crop of buckwheat, or to sow down in wheat
in autumn, or to again put down in turnips.
" The various kinds of blackberries, and the wild or bird cherry {cerasus
serotina), yield honey, and serve to supply to some extent the interval above
referred to. We have also a species of kale, or wild turnip, which if sowed
very early in the spring will commence to bloom toward the latter part of
May, and is very valuable.
" Kaspberries of all kinds yield an immense amount of honey, and con-
tinue blooming, giving a succession of fresh flowers, for about three weeks.
But few if any flowers produce such quantities of honey as the raspberry, in
proportion to the number of flowers.
" Catnip, mother-wort, hoarhound, honey-suckles, and various other kinds
of flowers, put forth about the same time ; each would be of great value, if
in sufficient quantities.
" Then come other early summer flowers. At the head of this list pre-em-
inently stands white clo\'er {trifolium repens), which is found along the road-
sides, in meadows, grain-fields, gardens, pasture-fields, in fac^, it may be seen
everywhere. The seeds, which are very abundant and very small, are
driven in every direction by the winds ; this has been overlooked by previous
writers. The heads, which contain the seed, are quite small and very light ;
the stalks stand erect until winter sets in and the ground is frozen, by which
time the stalk of it has become brittle, and every wind breaks off and rolls
along the ground a portion of these little seed-pods, until they meet some
obstruction ; here they will germinate. Thus they are scattered in every
direction. I have frequently seen them driven furiously on the crust of a
shallow snow, through wliich the heads would project. The value of this
clover is entirely underrated as a pasture for cattle or horses, as well as bees ;
it is always selected by stock in preference to the red clover. The honey
gathered from it is of the highest excellence, both in beauty and flavor ; and
I believe in good seasons, all the bees, in any neighborhood where it
abounds, could not gather the fourth part, so great is the quantity produced.
"The tulip-tree {linodendroii), or poplar, as it is called by some, by others
white wood, is a great producer of honey. Nothing of the tree kind that I
have ever seen exceeds it ; the flowers expand in succession, are of a bell-
like shape, mouth upward. In dry, warm weather I have seen a teaspoonful
of pure honey or saccharine matter in a single cup or flower. Bees work
upon it with the same vigor they manifest when carrying honey from some
other hive, or when it is fed to them.
"The yellow and black locust trees yield large quantities of honey.
168 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. H.
"The linden, or bass-wood {tilia Amcricanu), produces honey to a large
amount. All of these varieties of trees should be extensively cultivated,
both as shade and ornamental trees, as well as for their timber and the vast
(juantities of honey they yield. Sumach also produces honey bountifully ;
the difficulty, however, is, tliat there are but few places where these are
found in suflicieiit quantities to be of importance. I trust they will be
extensively cultivated.
'• The common black mustard is one of the most valuable plants to culti-
vate as a pasture for bees ; it is easily raised, by simply sowing it on ground
when well plowed and pulverized by liarrowiiig smooth, and then brashing
it in witii a light brush or very light harrow. It should be sown early in
the spring, on good ground.
" Those interested in bee-keeping should give the cultivation of mustard
some attention. As a bee-pasture it has few superiors, yielding both pollen
and honey in great abundance ; it begins to open its flowers wiien quite
young and continues as the l)usli expands, until it becomes very large ; each
day brings forth new blossoms. A field of mustard in full bloom is a most
magnificent sight ; it is like a vast pile of golden flowers ; tlie plants are
completely enveloped with flowers, from the ground up as high as a man's
head. There is no other plant that I ever noticed that produces so many
flowers to any given quantity of ground, nor yields so much honey.
" In almost any of the Atlantic States it serves to fill the Interval tliat occurs
between tlie closing of the white clover and the opening of the buckwheat
flowers, a period of about four weeks, wliich is the very best part of the year
for gathering honey, as the weather is generally warm and calm ; hence tlie
propriety of raising this crop to employ the bees profitably.
" The lionoj' produced from it resembles that yielded from the linden, both
in color and taste.
" Mignonette, a modest, unpresuming little flower, found in all well-
assorted collections, is one of the greatest value as a bee-pasture, if grown in
sufticient quantities to be an object. It is low growing and spreading in its
habits, similar to white clover, and yields both honey and pollen ; it will
bloom continually, from the middle of June until killed by frosts in the fall.
It is easily raised in large quantities if the ground is clear of weed seed,
])lowed, and well pulverized by harrowing before sowing. Sow thinly and
brush it in with a light brush ; all that is required after this is to pull out
any large-growing weeds that may chance to make their appearance before
the mignonette spreads over the ground ; where it takes possession of the
ground, it needs no further care. A bed of these flowers will perfume the air
for quite a distance around, so rich is it. Bees will work on it from daylight
until dark ; two or three may be seen at once on a single head or flower.
"The cephalanthus Canadensis, or butter-hush, which grows in swamps,
and low, wet, marshy grounds in almost every part of the United States,
preserving the same appearance wherever found, produces honey of the
highest excellence. The honey gathered from this shrub is of a very light
Sbo. 10.] BEES, AND THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF HONEY. 169
straw color, of a thick, heavy body, and very excellent flavor. Bees thrive
and store honey very rapidly when they have access to large quantities of
these flowers. The time of blooming varies with different localities, but it
generally begins to put forth flowers about the first of July, and continues
for three or four weeks.
" In all places where buckwheat is raised, it becomes an important acces-
sion to bee-pasturagc. A field of buckwheat yields an incredible quantity
of honey, which perfumes the air for a considerable distance around. When
the weather is favorable, the bees store honey from it very rapidly, faster at
times than they can build combs to receive it. I have seen them fill pieces
of old combs laid close to the entrance of the hive, with honey, and have
known colonies to fill four boxes of honey, or about 50 lbs., during the con-
tinuance of buck\Vheat. This is by no means an uncommon occurrence, and
goes to show that this honey harvest is one of great importance to the bee-
keeper. Buckwheat may be sown about a month earlier than usual, to fur-
nish pasturage to come in about the close of clover, to great advantage."
In relation to artificial feeding there are many opinions. There is prob-
ably no better food for bees than brown sugar, moistened with honey, such
as can be bought at a low price by the barrel or gallon in any town. Add
just enough honey to the sugar to make it into a dough by kneading. Put
this feed in a shallow tray, with a few straws on toj), and let the bees take
their own way and time with it. It is well to give a little salt to bees, if
they can not get it conveniently. The best way is to place a lump of rock-
salt near the hives, and there let it remain year after year.
A practical bee-keeper says : " If the season has been nnpropitious, the
liives should be carefully looked after. If any contain less than 20 lbs. of
honey, the swarm will need to be fed either with honey alone or mixed with
sugar diluted to the consistence of honey, poured on to pieces of empty
comb, and placed in the hive in such a manner that bees from other hives
will not find it. Perhaps the best method is to introduce the feed into the
boxes directly over the bees ; but should it be a common box hive, it may
be placed on the top of the hive, where there is a communication through
the top, and {^lacing a cap over the whole ; and then gently raj^ping on the
top of the hive, the bees will press up through and find the feed. The feed-
ing should be done during warna weather."
221. New Food for BefS.— The fact has been discovered in France, that
bees will feed upon the oil-cake (soaked in water) that is made in the manu-
facture of oil from the Seaaimu/i Orlentalc, known here as the bene plant, so
that they can be much easier wintered ; and it is said the increase of stocks
is wonderful in comparison with those not thus fed.
The Flore dcs Serres, from which we borrow this, assures us that the results
have been astonishing, not only in a large increase of honey-comb, but in
enabling the bees to multiply beyond all belief; nearly ten times the quantity
being bred in consequence of the facility aftbrded of obtaining abundant
and, as it would seem, excellent nourishment from this unexpected source.
170 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
Tlie experiment could be tried in this country by apiarians planting the
bene seed, and bruising and soaking the seed of the crop, and feeding it to
the swarms after the natural food fails.
One of tlic greatest troubles in bee-lcceping appears to be the want of suit-
able food early in the spring to enable the swarm to prejjare for a new col-
ony that may go out early enough in the season to lay up, not only their
own stores for winter, but a surplus for their owner. Many swarms that
have an abundance of honey for their own use and to spare in the spring,
are inactive for weeks after the spring has become wa,rm enough for them to
work, because they have nothing to work upon. The first business is not to
gather honey, but pollen, to make bread for the young bees. So, although
tlie weather is warm enough, and the bees lively enough, until the buds
afford pollen, they have nothing to work upon to enable them to be in season
with the new brood, to produce early swarms. This is a serious drawback
in late seasons, and in situations where pollen-producing plants are not
plenty.
Mr. E. T. Sturtevant, of Cleveland, Ohio, claims that he has discovered a
remedy for this difficulty, and that he can bring forward his bees some two
months earlier, and get good swarms the first of May. His plan is to feed
his bees with unbolted rye-meal, strewn upon boards convenient to the hive,
the bees pitching into it at once and working diligently, and in such an earn-
est way as fairly to scramble over one another. It is a liiiit worthy tlie
attention of all bee-keepers.
A few years ago, a bee-keeper in Wurtembcrg discovered that bees ex-
tracted food from carrots which had been rasped and cooked for stock, and
thereupon he boiled some to a jelly and placed it near the hives, at a time
when the fields afforded no food, and he found that they worked upon it as
though the gaccliarnm it contained was particularly agreeable.
We suggest an experiment with carrots cooked in this way, by bee-keepers
in this country. We would also try parsneps ; and, where they are grown
abundantly, sweet potatoes. And since we know that bees are so fond of
sweet apples in summer, why not keep them to feed swarms when needing
artificial feeding in winter. It may add as much to the health of bees to
feed green food, as it does to health of other farm-stock. Let the exiieriment
be tried.
222. Vfntilation of HivcSi — A great deal has been said about the necessity,
on account of ventilation, of making hives open at the bottom. In rejily to
this, let men think that bees in a wild state ]>rosper M-ell in the hollow of a
tree wliere there is but one small hole for entrance of the bees or venlilaiion,
and that open-end liives, standing on a bench, are often cemented fast to it,
and sometimes lioles left, for ventilation, are sealed up as closely as though
air was poison to the inmates of tlie hive.
If you wish to ventilate, bore a two-inch hole into the upper part of the
large box, and cover it on the inside of the box and on the outside of the case
with wire gauze, fine enough to keep out ants and other insects, for a venti-
Seo. 10.] BEES, AND THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION" OF HONEY. ITl
lator. Bore incli holes through into both of tiie upper boxe^, and cover in
the same way.
Mr. Quinby says tliat he regards •proper ventilation as very important,
and jQt proper ventilation is very inipertbcily understood. He also says :
" Any way to get I'id of the moisture." Tlie presumption is, that he would
not freeze the bees at the outset as one of the ways, for that would surely
prevent moisture ; and if the mochts operandi of some who give directions
how to ventilate should be put in practice in very cold situations, the bees
are just as surely frozen.
Moisture accumulating on the inside walls of the hive has caused the de-
struction of more strong colonies of bees than any one other casualty, except
the fatal way of some bee-keepers to get rid of the moisture by opening wide
the apertures in the top and also in the bottom of the hive, and thus causing
a current of external air to pass up through the interior — precisely the
method to cool a hive in hot weathei* — and also thus rendering the bees more
exposed and liable to be frozen than they would be situated on the exterior
of the hive. Proper ventilation is simply to give free vent for the air at the
top of tiie hive, and not admitting any or but very little air through the
bottom. Under all circumstances it is requisite to regulate the openings in
the bottom with those in the top, which amounts to about the same thing
without the drawbacks of inverting llie hive.
There is a new form of bets-hives, used by J. L. Scribner, of Montpelier,
Vt., a successful producer of lioney, so much so that he carries off all prizes
at the county fair.
Tliis hive, being made of straw, serves admirably for ventilation. It is
made of a frame of square sticks, say one inch diameter, and in capacity 12 by
13 inches, and 13 inches in hight, with a flat board roof projecting two inches
each way. The frame is nailed together ; the lower girts are placed i inch
above the bottom of the posts. The frame is covered with straw sewed
together, just as it is in straw hives, with a hoop at the bottom, made of
strips of boards one inch thick and two inches wide nailed together. In this
hoop a notch 2i inches long, i inch deep, is cut for the bees. Plane all the
wood, and use none but clean rye straw. On the roof, over suitable holes,
the boxes for storing honey are placed. It is thus described by Mr. Scribner:
"The advantages of this hive over all others that I have used are very
material in my view. It is generally conceded that straw hives are the best
to winter bees in ; not altogether because they are so much warme'r, but
because they will ' keej) dry,' and the frost does not accumulate as in board
hives. Every experienced apiarian knows that in wooden hives there is a
continual dampness, arising in part from the breath and effluvia of the bees.
Not so in straw hives. Straw being of a dry and absorbing nature, the
moisture is taken up. Now, I have learned that straw hives are as much
better in summer as in winter, especially in the season of breeding, when we
are subject to frequent and sudden changes of the weather, such as damp,
chilly nights and hot days. The temperature of a straw hive is more even ;
172
SMAIX ANIMALS AJfD INSECTS.
[Chap. II.
it does not heat excessively in hot weather nor cool suddenly, as do hoard
hives. The natural warmth of the bees is retained, which is particularly
conducive to their health and prosperity. Hence there should he no uiuue-
cssari/ ventilation by leaving an 'open space,' as has been recommended by
some, 'all around the bottom of the hive.' Especially in damp, chilly
weather, bees will breed faster and gather more honey in straw hives than
in board hives, according to my experience. One reason for their gathering
more honey, probably, is because the young brood comes to maturity faster,
consequently there are more ' laborers in the field' in the early honey sea-
son. This hive combines all the real advantages of every patent hive that
has come to my knowledge, while it obviates all the objections and retains all
the good qualities of ' the old-fashioned straw hives.'
" The less a fanner bothers himself with patent hives and bee-palaces, and
the less he tries to counteract nature, the better he will be oflf. I am heartily
sick of 'patent bee-hive?,' and it is time to abandon them."
223. Taking Honey, and How to Keep the Bees from Stin.ging.— When bees
are alarmed for the safety of their stores, they immediately rush to the cells
and fill their sacks with honey, apparently to provide against any contingency
that might arise. When in this condition, tliey are perfectly harmless, never
volunteer an attack; consequently, to tame bees, or render them docile and
easily driven or handled, sinq^ly take advantage of this peculiar instinct. To
confine them closely to their hive, rap repeatedly on its sides for a few min-
utes; this alarms them, and they will gorge themselves with honey, when
tliev can be handled and controlled at pleasure. But we have adopted the
following plan, which we find best adapted to our use, and recommend it to
others, with the assurance that it will give satisfaction: Take clean cotton or
linen rags, sucli as are used in the manufacture of paper ; make a nice roll of
these, about an inch in diameter, and from six to twelve inches lung; wrap
this pretty tight, either with narrow sti'ips or shreds torn from clotli, or, what
is more convenient, use wrapping yarn of some kind ; prepare a number of
such rolls, and keep on hand in some box, or any dry place, near the apiary,
together with some matches. When yon wish to open a hive or perform any
operation, set fire to one end of a roll of rags; it makes quite a smoke, with-
out any blaze. Upon opening the hive, blow the smoke vigoi-ously among
the bees for a minute or two, which terrifies them, M-ithout doing any perma-
nent injury; they immediately rush to the cells and rill tlieir sacks with
honey, when you can proceed to lift out one comb after another, and perform
any operation with perfect impunity, v>-ithout any fear of being stung, unless
by those from other hives near at hand. Should there be some, liowever,
that would show signs of battle, blow a little more smoke upon them, and
repeat it from time to time until the close of the operation. Toward the
close of the honey season, when they are rich and increased in stores, they
are harder to control than at any other season of the year; when this occuis,
put a small portion of tobacco or a few grains of sulphur in your roll of
rags; this reudei-s the smoke more pungent, and will easily subdue the
Sec. 10.] BEES, AND THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF HONEY 173
bees. Dried puff-ball makes a smoke that subdues bees without injury to
them.
224. Bee Moths,and How toProtectBecs from Them. — ISTumcrous patents have
been taken out to sell bee-keepers, to keep the moths out of the hives. All of
these contrivances fail in their object, or else have objections to them which
have prevented their general introduction. One now before us consists of a
set of swinging doors, just such as we have often seen at cat-lioles, hung at
the top so as to fiiU into place as soon as pussy gets through. For the bees,
a small tin, about the size of a dime, is hung in the entrance hole, which the
bee can push open, but tlie moth can not — that is, so says the patentee.
Where open-end hives stand upon a bench, we have seen moths prevented
from injuring the swarm by raising the hive, during the moth season, about
half an inch from the bench. The theory of tliis plan is, that the moth in-
serts her eggs between the bottom of the hive and bench, where they hatch,
and the bees can not get at the worms ; but if it is raised up, there is no op-
portunity for the moth to deposit her eggs where they will be safe.
A cheap, good moth-trap is made in the following manner: Take a piece
of thin pine board, or a shingle, a few inches square, and with your pocket-
knife cut three-cornered grooves on one side, and lay it, grooved side down,
on the bench under the hive. The moths will find a secure place from the
bees, and deposit their eggs, wliich you will find, or the worms, and destroy,
by looking at your traps every few days.
Mr. Qiiinby recommends the following mixture as a moth-trap : Sugar or
molasses and a little vinegar and water, making the "contrast" agreeable —
the sweet and the sour. Put this in shallow dishes, saucers, or tin baking
dishes, and set them among the bees at evening. Next morning, moths of
all kinds will be found in the liquid, and may then be strained out and de-
stroyed, and the mixture used the following evening.
225. Introduction of Bees into falifornia.— The honey-bee is not a native of
California. The credit of introducing them is due to a man by the name of
Shelton, who, after doing mucii for the interest of agricultural improvements
in that State, lost his life, while still a very young man, by the explosion of
a steamboat boiler on the Sacramento Eiver. He imported, in March, 1853,
the first bees into California. He left New York with twelve stands, or
hives, and arrived with but one ; from this one about one lumdred and fifty
swarms were credited in 1858, and, of course, have largely multiplied since
that time. There have also been very large exportations made by steamer
from New York. The Messrs. Harbison, of Pennsylvania, have been very
successful in shipping and selling swarms, and have also established an ex-
tensive apiary at Sacramento. The common price of some of the first stocks
sent to or produced in California has been fifty to one hundred dollars a hive.
The Harbisons made their first shipment, we believe, in 1858-9.
It has been thought singular that our people found no bees in California,
when they were so abundant in Mexico and Central America. Since the
introduction of bees from New York, a California jiaper states that several
174 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
attempts to import bees from Mexico have failed. Captain Macondray had
one or more Mexican swarms, but tbey soon dwindled away. In 1S59, Mrs.
Sutter, daughter-in-law to General Sutter, had forty-four hives packed on the
backs of Indians to Acapulco, and brought on the steamer to San Francisco;
two or three weeks after their arrival, there remained but two hives contain-
ing bees; they were taken to San Jose, but in a short time they also died.
It also says, and so does every one we have conversed with on the subject,
that California is admirably adapted to the houcy-bcc, as the experience of five
years fully demonstrates. In San Jose Valley, Sacramento Valley, Shasta,
liidwell's, Stockton, Columbia, and Napa they multiply rapidly and store
abundance of honey. The willow affords the first material for pollen. The
bees commence gathering it by the 1st of January ; about the l.">fh of Janu-
ary it is in bloom, and affords considerable honey, though slightly bitter.
The bees gather pollen and honey from the willow till March. The wild
mustard aftbrds an inexhaustible supply of honey from the 1st of April to
tlie middle of June. Later in the season, honey is obtained from buckwheat
and honey-dew.
Ilouey made from mustard blossom, from which most of the honey is
gathered in San Jose Valley, is excellent, and has sold in San Francisco at
from $1 25 to $1 50 per pound. New swarms issue as early as the 15th of
April, and the swarming season continues to the 16th of June.
226. StinglfSS BeeSt — There is a good deal said of late about going to Brazil
after " stingless bees.'' What is the utility- ? We have a better sort liere,
and their stings are in no manner objectionable. In fact, they arc advan-
tageous to the apiarian. They guard the store from thieves of all sorts, and
tiic}^ arc much better honej'-makers than the South American variety, which
has no sting, all of M"liich are of a much smaller size than our common
hone3'-bee, and some of them make honey that is sour, and others give it a
bitter flavor. This may bo owing to the flowers it is extracted from, as we
have known bees here to make uneatable honey.
Wells, in his cxjilorations of Honduras, gives the names of fourteen varie-
ties of honey-bees. Honey is very abundant and low priced. He was
charged but ten cents a quart for it. He says: "The bees are diminutive,
and mostly stingless. Swarms of them may be seen every daj', M-hen travel-
ing in the open country, hovering around some decayed tree, and but little
trouble is necessary to bear the whole establishment to the nearest hacienda.
One of the proprietors said he had sold enough, since owning the estate, to
bu}' all the drilling, 7)ianios, and articles of that description, required at the
hacienda."
The most curious thing about most of these bees is that they do not store
Iioney like our bc-js, in combs of hexagonal cells, but in little sacs, two inches
long, arranged in rows along the sides of the hive. The cells for the young
are placed in tlie center.
227. Italian Bees. — During the year 1860, a good deal has been said about
the advantage to be derived from the introduction of Italian bees into the
Seo. 10.] BEES, AND THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF HONEY. 175
United States, and importations have been made for that purpose. The plan
is to breed queens, wliich, after being impregnated, are introduced into com-
mon hives, after removing the old queen.
A writer in tlie Country Gentleman newspaper gives the following as the
history of the introduction of Italian bees into this country. He says:
" Mr. P. J. Malum, of Pliiladelpliia, is mentioned ' as being the first to
land this new variety on our shores.' As a matter of history, I would state
that this is not so. For several years past the attempt has been made yearly
by Mr. Richard Colvin, of Baltimore, Samuel Wagoner, of York, Pa., and
Rev. L. L. Laiigstroth. These attempts were unsuccessful, owing to bad
packing and mismanagement in transportation, until the autumn of 1859,
when Mr. Colvin received some Italian stocks, and hoped to have queens
from them for sale the past season, but these stocks, unfortunately, did not
survive the winter. Next in order of date is Mr. Mahan's importation from
Germany, which was successful on account of his personal supervision.
Sliortly after Mr. Mahan's importation, Mr. S. B. Parsons, of Flushing, Long
Island, succeeded in getting a few swarms alive from Italy. From them he
has succeeded, aided bj' several skillful' apiarians, in raising a large number
of queens, which have been sent to nearly every State in the Union, includ-
ing California, under the supervision of Mr. Bigelow, a successful apiarian.
"The last successful importation was by Messrs. Colvin and Wagoner.
All the above named are exerting themselves to multiply their stocks of
Italian bees, and they will doubtless have a demand for all the queens and
stocks they can supply next season, as the interest in this new bee is deserv-
edly increasing. The question will naturally arise. Of whom shall I pur-
chase ? Are these importations equally reliable, and if so, have all taken
the same pains and been equally successful in keeping the breed pure ? I
Avould here remark that some situations are more t\ivorable for maintaining
purity than others. Tlie Italian bees now in this country are from three
ditferent sources, and every one should decide for himself to which stock he
should give the preference, and if the most reliable man and the most reli-
able bee can be found working together.
"Two of the importations are from Germany, and one from Italy. Of the
importation from Italy there can be no reason to question its purity. Tlie
two importations from Germany are from ditferent breeders. One of the
importations fiom Germany I have the fullest confidence in from personal
inspection ; and if the other be equally good, we are in a fiiir position to
have the country m'cU supplied with pure stock in a few years, provided
sutficient interest is taken to maintain purity."
228. Reasons for Keeping Bees. — -In this section we have only aimed to say
just enough to encourage every reader to keep bees, Avho has anything like
fair facilities for them to obtain a supply of honey from gardens and fields,
which they will do if within a mile, and some bee-keepers say if within two
miles. But it is not profitable to allow bees to go so far, when the bee-keeper
has land upon which he can grow bee-food just as well as he can grow food
176
SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS.
[Chap. IL
for any other farm-stock. The fact that bees obtain a great deal of food
from fruit-trees should encourage farmers to cultivate both together. And
if he plants along the roadside long rows of willows, maples, lindens, pop-
lars, iic will not only have the advantage of them for shade and ornament,
but his bees, if he has them — and if not, let him be encouraged to get them —
M-ill find a great field up in the branches, that they can use as pasture.
The strongest reason tliat can be given for keeping bees is this simple fact:
Tlicy afford more clear profit than any other stock ever kept on the farm,
and, generally speaking, the more labor is bestowed upon them in providing
good liives and pasture, the better they pay.
SECTION XL-BIRDS.
eason and Reli^^ion in Preserving Birds. — "We don't
know how much we have written, said, and sung
to induce farmers not to destroy the birds, nor
allow them to be destroyed, because we look upon
them as part and parcel of the farm-stock, and of
more importance to the farmer than some animals lio
icps, at much more expense than his stock of birtl?.
We say his stock, because we consider the birds on tlie
trees just as much the property of him who owns tlio
trees as the trees themselves ; and he who would steal
one would steal the other. A man who would come upon
my farm and shoot my birds, without my permission, is
not one of the noblest works of God. No man who takes
reason for a guide, who owns a farm in any of the old
States, can consent to have his birds destroyed. He certainly will not de-
stroy them himself, after he has taken time to think upon the subject. It is
our object to induce him to think, and the best place to do so is to go out
among them in a bright spring morning, and hear their music.
Go out among the trees in the orchard or through the grove, or look into
the hedge-rows or peep under the old bridge down the lane, or go to tlic
barn ; go anywhere, everywhere, where you will, and at this season — that is,
lovely May season — you will find the birds — busy, merry, singing birds;
hard at work they are, too, building their houses — cradles, rather — and all tlic
time keeping up a concert of sweet music. Various too are their tastes in
selecting their sites for their nesting-places, some hiding away from man,
some coming up to his very door, or, like the martin and swallow, under his
roof and protection. Robin-red-breast almost invariably comes into the
orchard, sometimes on the trees, sometimes on the fence, sometimes, where
kindly treated, under the shed by the barn or house.
?J^
Seo. 11.] BreDS. ■ , 177
Tlie woodpecker — the same one that -was tapping " the hollow beech-tree"
— makes holes in the old apple-trees, into which for years afterward the
pretty bluebird creeps and rears its annual brood.
The blackbird, the most numerous of the family of small birds, mostly
nests in the swamp ; except one variety, imitating the crow, that goes into
the highest trees, such as the spruce, with a dark, thick top, where boys nor
small sliot can not come.
In the meadow we find tlie sly nest of the quail and lark and several
small birds ; and in the thickest bushes, the home of the brown thrush. He
is a natural musician, a sweet bird full of glee and cheerfulness ; but the
merriest and most amusing of the whole family is the noisy little bobolink.
We look upon birds as among the essentials of a landscape, and would as
soon think of chopping down tlie orchard, shooting the turkeys, and wring-
ing the necks oif of the barn-yard fowls, or making mutton of the sheep or
giving the lambs to the dogs, as to think of destroying the birds or driving
them from the premises.
" Going a gunning," with the murderous intent to kill such birds, ought to
consign a man to the infamy that we are apt to attach to a savage or a brute
who wantonly kills the finest of God's creation.
Without birds, a country is desolate ; with them, it is always cheerful.
Their songs would enliven the heart of a stone, or make a miser for the
moment forget his money.
The association of children with birds, when taught to love them and not
destroy their nests, has as direct and certain a tendency to improve their
natures as the church or family fireside. Teach a child that birds are among
the good gifts of God to man, and it is hardly possible that the child will
grow up to manhood without being possessed of some of the attributes of the
sweet songsters of the grove.
And yet there are parents who allo'w their children to wage incessant war
upon the birds, never thinking of the injury they are doing their young
minds, or how many destructive enemies they are entailing upon the crops in
the shape of countless caterpillars, grubs, and worms.
We do not know of a higher Christian duty for a minister to engage in
than an effort to preserve the birds in his parish.
We would impress upon the mind of every child tliat the command, " thou
shalt not kill," meant these dear little birds as well as things of a higher
degree. Tliou shalt not wantonly kill a single thing of all creation that is
not necessary for man's sustenance, or that is not detrimental to his interest.
Children should be taught not only to love the music of birds, but to look
upon them as models of beauty and affection to their mates and to their
young. Instead of driving them away from the house, encourage them to
come and perch upon the window-sill and build their nests under the eaves.
Do not tell us tliey destroy the small fruit. Plant enough for birds and
men. If they do eat fruit, tliey also eat worms, and you can well afford to
give them a few cherries and currants for what they have done for .you.
178 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Cnxp. H.
Around the city there is a diflBcnlty in preserving the birds, because all
tlic groves arc infested with an abominable nuisance in the shape of big boys
and prowling loafere " out for a day's shooting."
Tliey ought to be out for a day's shooting, and that should be at their own
idle carcasses, with tine salt and pepper-corns, and every owner of laud
should be allowed by law thus to salt and pepper any of these idle vagabonds
who come upon his grounds without leave to doom the birds to destruction.
Farmers ! let your motto be — and impress it upon all your family — Never
kill a bird !
In the early settlement of this country, there was such an abundance of
birds that the people who were striving to raise grain enough for the support
of their families, looked upon them as their enemies, because they were nat-
urally disposed to come in for a share of the crop, and some of them, such
as the crow and the large blackbird, sometimes depredated upon the seed,
by which the crop was effectually cut off.
So a war of extermination was declared without discrimination against all
birds, and it was carried to such a bitter end that the children of the liret
settlers grew up with a fixed opinion that they were doing a Christian duty
whenever an opportunity offered, in destroying birds and birds' nests, and
they entailed the same disposition \ipon their children and their children's
children ; and so the poor birds have been almost exterminated from the face
of the earth M'ith scarcely a thought why or wherefore, except that they were
birds, and birds must be destroyed — " father says so." Upon that ipse dixit
some of the best friends of the farmer, instead of his worst enemies, have
been almost annihilated, while others have come to regard him as a being
to be so avoided that they make their abodes in deep forests, and hide their j j
nests and young from man as carefully as man would hide his young from I i
a tiger. _ _ ! !
Experience teacheth wisdom ; and after two hundred years of teaching, I j
the American farmer is just beginning to learn that birds are his best friends, j
He shot them upon his plum and cherry trees because tlicy took a share of
the fruit, and then came the insects that the birds used to prey upon, and the
days of plum-growing were over. So of many other insects, real pests of the
farmer, everywhere multiplying as the birds decrease.
Not one at' the species upon which man has made such unceasing war, but
has its use. Even the owl, although it will cat chickens, is a great mouse-
destroyer ; and the hated hawk is sometimes shot with a snake in its bill.
Crows should be treated with as much care about a farm as domestic fowls.
Do they pull up your sprouting corn sesd ? Feed them and they will not.
Sow corn broadcast through the field and they will not touch that which
yon have planted. Birds of all descriptions should be taught that man is a
friend and not an enemy, and tlay will return the friendship.
Some lover of birds — and he who is not such is "fit for treasons, strata-
gems, and spoils" — may demur to our assertion, that they arc less influenced
by gratitude than their four-footed fellows. If our assertion is incorrect, »ve
Seo. 11.] BIRDS. 179
shall be happy to be set right, but we believe that facts are against tlie birds ;
yet if this be so, the circunistanee is not to their discredit. Tliey are the
humorists, the musicians, the conversationists of the animal world ; so fully
occupied in talking, singing, joking, eating, and reai-ing their families, that
they have little time to devote to those immense beings, pantalooned or
hooped, whom they undoubtedly regard from their airy hights with a sort
of contempt, as they behold them slowly plodding along, confined to the dull
earth and unable to take a flight even equal to that of one of their newly-
fledged oifspring ; and if they condescend to pick up a few crumbs scattered
by some gentle hand, they feel as little of the emotion of gratitude to their
benefactor, as the squirrel to the chestnut-tree which rains upon him his
winter's supply. A certain degree of brain development is necessary for the
existence of this emotion, and birds, in this respect, are inferior to most of
the quadrupeds with which we are familiar.
Birds do not seem to be as susceptible as quadrupeds to kind treatment,
and those species which have been domesticated appear to have lost what-
ever " smartness" they may originally have possessed. The whole tribe df
domestic fowls — cocks, hens, ducks, geese, guinea-fowls, turkeys, pea-fowls —
are unmitigatedly stupid — acute in nothing but picking up corn and devas-
tating gardens.
The crow is one of the birds that unthinking men destroy, because they
pull up a little corn in the spring. Will you think what else he does ?
He consumes in the year vast quantities of grubs, worms, and noxious
vermin ; he is a valuable scavenger, and clears the land of offensive masses
of deceased animal substances ; he hunts the grain fields, and pulls out and
devours the underground caterpillars, whenever he perceives the signs of
their operations, as evinced by the wilted stalks ; he destroys mice, young
rats, lizards, and small snakes ; lastly, he is a volunteer sentinel about the
farm, and drives tlie hawk from its inclosure, thus preventing greater mis-
chief than that of which he himself is guilty. It is chiefly during seed-time
and harvest that the depredations of the crow are committed ; during the
remainder of the year we witness only his services, which are so appreciated
by those who have written of birds, that I can not name an ornithologist
who does not plead in his behalf.
Frighten the crows, but do not kill them, except one to use to keep his
fellows otf your corn. Pick oft' part of his feathers and scatter them on some
spot in the field easily seen, and near by lay the carcass' of the dead crow
and you will see his late companion sailing over the field and looking down
upon what has been done, but very careful not to light where he too might
fall a victim. If you can not kill a crow, you may make a veiy good show
of a dead one with a black hen. Crows are too valuable as vermin-destroy-
ers on a fiirm to be wantonly destroyed because they pull up a little corn.
A writer at Eaton, N. Y., sends us the following item in favor of the per-
secuted crow, which makes him out not quite so black as he looks — that is,
when seen by the eyes of some of his enemies. He says :
180 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. 11
" For the interest of the fanning portion of this country, I eominunicato
the following: Mr. Alpha Brown, an enterprising farmer of this town,
informed me that, having acted this year upon the somewhat late suggestion
of yours, of sowing corn broadcast over the planted ground, he experienced
a new result. Upon four acres, where heretofore his crop had been greatly
injured by the devastations of the "white grub" and "gray corn-worm," he
sowed broadcast, after planting, a half bushel of corn. This, of course,
attracted the crows, which, coming to the ground in the cooler part of the
afternoon and morning, found the worms on their usual visit to the surface,
and, preferring tlie latter to the corn, devoured tliem instead. The result is,
that out of the whole field he has not lost to exceed five hills."
230. The Reverse of the f row Question. — Having given our opinion in favor
of the crow, in the preceding paragraph, we feel that it is due to a fair in-
vestigation of the question not to make it an arbitrary opinion, and rest
there, but to give the opinions of others also. It is facts, not theories, tliat
we wish to give farmers.
One who signs himself a " Farmer's Boy," writes from Ridgefield, Conn.,
about crows, as follows :
" Having lately read your article upon the subject of crows and others
of the feathered tribe, I can not hold still my rnsty old steel any longer. I
agree with you very well until you advocate the protection of crows ; there I
think you miss your mark. There is but one thing you name that is in their
favor — the digging of grubs. Tlioy are the enemies of all our small birds,
which you advocate preserving. They commence with the eggs, and con-
tinue their depredations until the young are nearly grown. They arc never
found destroying insects of any kind that could not be of more use than the
crow, and even the grub can be made a source of income to the farmer. An
intelligent farmer told me, some years ago, he made 1,000 pounds of pork by
letting his hogs feed on them in his meadows, which damaged liis grass but
little the first year, and thought it better the second by having the surface
stirred. You speak of their devouring carrion. Now, in my opinion, no
farmer that is a good economist will allow any dead animal to lie and rot in
the sun to make food for the crows. I consider tlie carcass of a liorse, a cow,
or an ox worth from tliree to five dollars to any farmer. If so, it is quite
too dear food for crows. Some say crows catch grasshoppers and crickets.
I prefer a nice brood of turkeys, that Avill not look bad on the table when
they have performed their work on the farm.
" You see I am a friend to almost everything but a crow. If there is any-
thing made in vain, it is the crow. They destroy our little warblers; tliey
catch our chickens, ducks, turkeys, and goslings; they dig our potatoes, pull
our corn and beans, from the time they appear above ground until they grow
out of their way. Then, as soon as the grain is formed on the ear; tiiey
commence their work again. Now, if such a pest as this is to be protected,
it must be by some one who has a heart softer than I have ; a creature that
but one thing can be said in its favor, and the rest must go against it. 1
Skc. 11.] BIRDS. 181
have not tlie least doubt but our town was taxed $500 last year to feed
crows."
Upon this we simply remark: If " Farmer's Boy" lias a breed of crows
about him that really catch turkeys, goslings, etc., and dig potatoes, he is
welcome to be their enemy. Our crows are of another sort. But is our
"boy" sure that he "can tell a hawk from a hernshaw?" Because the
raven, though one of the corvus family, is not a crow, as we understand the
word ; and it is just possible that the bird that catches turkeys and other
birds is a raven.
We have another opinion, coming from a citizen of Montgomery County,
Pcnn. He says :
"Leaving your crows imder your protection, to enjoy their excellent repu-
tations, we desire to say a word on tlie character of ours. Ti:at we have
real, veritable crows that catch young chickens, is a ' fixed fact,' well estab-
lished. Tii'e present season, notwithstanding our care, we lost by them, I
suppose, from ten to fifteen, and avoided the loss of othei's only by the use
of gunpowder. Our experience on this subject, I may add, is that of many
others. This thing, then, our 'breed' of crows do, and also carry off spoiled
eg^^ that may be thrown awaj', birds' eggs, etc. In reference to ducks and
goslings, I am unable to speak, but have no reason to believe that they are
distasteful, or that they do not catch th^n.
" They love, it appears, a variety. A near and reliable neighbor informs
mo that quite recently he saw one of our tribe in hot pursuit of a rabbit,
whieli, after sundry dodgings, secreted itself under the fence. So you see
New York crows differ from ours, and, I incline to think, from most other
crows."
Here is another opinion. This comes from Theron Wales, AVindham,
Portage County, Ohio. He says, in relation to our remarks upon the state-
ment of " Farmer's Boy :"
"I conclude you received it as doubtful. I can add testimony in part to
the same effect. I have seen the crow alight into the nest of the robin and
carry away the j'oung birds to feed their own young. They are pa5sionately
fond of the eggs of other birds, and I have caught tliem in traps with egg-
shells. Hunters of tlie wild tiirkey can testify to the hatred between tlie
crow and the gobblers. From the frequent presence of the crow over the
gobbling turkey, it appears they watch for their nests. At least every cry
of the crow is answered defiantly by the turkey, and thus I have often been
led to approach the turkey and shoot him. Wiiile we were living upon the
Berkshire Hills, in Massachusetts, it was not unfrequent that our neighbors'
and our own young lambs had their eyes picked out by the early returning
crows in the spring. But I do not say these things for the sake of engaging
in an exterminating war upon them. All things were created for some wise
purpose. Every creature has in nature its enemy and destroyer, and every
attempt on the part of man to give preponderance to one part of the wild
creation over another, will fail. Civilization will of necessity drive away
1
182 SMALL ANIMAI.S AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
the beaver, otter, deer, and a host of forest birds, and their places will be
rapidly supplied by the wren, the roliin, tlie bluebird, the honey-bee, etc.
"The raven is more carnivorous tiian the crow. I once saw one alight
into a kingbird's nest and carry away the young, in spite of the cries and
efforts of tlie old ones.''
The crowning charge against the crows comes from Freeport, Me., in a
letter written by E. Pratt, Jr., wlio says :
"Now Avhat ^ your crows' are, or what tliey eat, or how tliey get their liv-
ing, I know not ; but the crows in Maine both dig and cat potatoes, incredu-
lous as it may apjjear.
" In some seasons I have known many acres, j-ylanted on light soils, in
exposed situations, devaslatcd by these miscreants, and that in my own
neighborhood.
"Tlieir manner is, when the plant first breaks ground, to dig and pull it
up with the tubers attached, though it appears by the partially eaten ones
left here and there on the field, that they do not eat them with much
avidity.
"I know that popular writers think the crow a great blessing to farmers,
but I am yet to be convinced of this, and can only wish that those who think
their company so desirable should have the benefit of my share."
There is but little doubt in our mind tliat most of these bad birds were
ravens, and not crows, particularly as Mr. Wales acknowledges the presence
of the raven, and says that he is a carnivorous bird.
Now, having said our say, and allowed others to say theirs, about crows,
we will drop down to wrens, by way of contrast.
231. Wrciis. — We waked one morning — one of those May mornings —
when our domicile was a city one, with delightful sounds coming in at the
window. They were the notes of sweet singing birds. What lovely music!
It was the first of the season that had come to our ears, and it struck a chord
that called to mind scenes of youth, long, long ago. We hastened to the
Avindow and looked out. " Ila ! ha ! my old friends," we cried, " and so you
have come back again." It was the wrens, the same ones undoubtedly that
we built a nesting-place for last year. There was one pair then, now two
pair — the progeny, wo suppose, of those that sung for us last year. "And
80," we said, " you have both come for a nesting-place, have you ? AVell,
there is the old one — -but you must have another. An increasing family
needs more room. You shall have it." Notwithstanding the morning was
a rainy one, we feared our pets might feel neglected, and so down we went
to provide for their necessities. IIow amply were we repaid the little labor !
for all the time we were engaged, they were hopping about the peach limbs,
picking off the insects, and singing all the while most merrily. Who would
not cultivate such society as this? Who would not like to have their trees
protected from insects that destroy foliage and fruit? Every one, surely.
Then protect the wrens. Build nesting-i)laces for them, and they will come
every spring and send their sweet notes into your open window, some pleas-
Seo. 11.] BIRDS. 183
ant May morning, to waken you to see the beauty of sunrise, or lull you
into dreams of the old farm-house, orchards, and singing birds.
A paper from Prof Nash says he has domesticated the common wren in
this city, by building them a suitable house, very much to the amusement
and pleasure of the family. One pair hatched and reared ten young ones in
one season, and they acted as perfect scavengers of bugs and worms in the
neighborhood. Mr. Nash says two hundred wren-housesnvere built last year
about Union Square, which were not only occupied by wrens, but several
other kinds of birds, and these served to keep the park and neighborhood
almost free of insects.
A writer in Uoveys Magazine recommended the use of wrens to drive
other birds away from the cherry-trees. He says :
" I have seen the experiment of placing a wren-box on a cherry-tree, tried
in several instances witli apparent success. The best thing for this purpose
is an olive jar. A hole should previously be drilled into the side of the jar,
which should be fixed upon the tree, by thrusting the stump of an amputated
branch, the more upright the better, into the mouth of the inverted jar, of
just sufficient size to admit a wren, but too small to allow a bluebird to en-
ter ; since, if it were otherwise, the latter would be sure to get possession of
it. The wren being a very jealous and pugnacious bird, is diligent in driv-
ing all birds from the tree in which his nest is built, and does not hesitate
to attack birds as large as the robin. It is doubtful, however, whether the
wren would persevere in his attacks, when the robins had become very numer-
ous, but the expedient might be iised with some advantage in all cases."
232. Protecting Trees from Birds. — Some persons advise throwing a net
over the trees, during the few days while the fruit is becoming mature. This
may be done in some cases, if there are but few trees to be protected, and
the owner can afford to undertake a job that must be both troublesome and
expensive. Such an expedient M'ould be hardly advisable except in extra-
ordinary cases. Some fix a little windmill in the tree ; but as the wheel is
constantly turning, the birds soon become accustomed to it, and- cease to
regard it with suspicion. If anything of this kind is to be used, it should be
kept motionless, until tlie birds fly into the tree, and then put suddenly into
action by some person M-ho is watching it. Something like a watchman's
rattle elevated on a pole, and fastened firmly to each of the trees, with a cord
to be pulled when the machine is to be set in motion, might answer a good
purpose. A boy might be hired in this case to watch the trees, and to pull
upon the cords as the birds arrived. Cherries require so short a time to
rijien, that no tree would need to be watclied more than one week.
As birds always give the greatest oflfense, by their depredations upon fruit,
to those who own but few trees, our argument is, that the best protection is
to plant trees enough to serve you and the birds too, M'ith all that all of you
can eat. You would then not only have the satisfaction of having what
cherries you wanted, but tiie pleasure of seeing the birds. From experience
every season, we are satisfied that the robins save us more cherries than
184 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Ohap. H.
they eat. Our trees were infested with the same kind of yellowish bugs that
ate the roses, and are commonly called rose-bugs. We have seen half a
dozen of them eating upon a single cherry, attacking them before they were
ripe, and before the birds did. When at length the robins came iu goodly
numbers, the bugs decreased, and if the robins ate cherries, they also ate
bugs, and we believe more than they did cherries. At any rate we had
more cherries than the birds and all the family could dispose of, and some
for our friends. So we did not begrudge the dear little birds their share.
As there are some who can not aftbrd to share their cherries with the
birds, and others who are unwilling, we give a way of keeping them oflF,
which we find in the Gardener's Chronicle, London.
" The following is a plan I once saw succeed very well for some time, but
the birds at last got familiar with it ; still I think it might answer for two
months or so. An old gardener being greatly troubled with birds, applied
to his master for nets to cover his fruit with ; but no, they would be too
expensive. He therefore got a hawk stuffed in what he called a hovering
position, put it on the end of a long wire, attached the wire to the top of a
tree, and thus had the hawk suspended in the air as if it had been alive. lie
had, however, another hawk which really was alive put into a cage, and had
the cage put into the same tree where the dead hawk was. The gentleman
in the cage was by no means mute, and I may add that I scarcely ever after-
ward saw birds in that garden, except perhaps a few sparrows."
Another plan that has succeeded very well at times is to suspend small
looking-glasses, or bits of a broken mirror, to the limbs of the tree. "Where
tlie sun shines, and the wind blows a little, this device answers a good pur-
pose. It is of no use at other times, except that having previously frightened
the birds, and pi-evented them from getting a haunt in the tree, they will not
be so likely to come when the mirror is still.
233. The Food of Birds.— A few facts to show what the food of birds really
is, will do something, we hope, to dispel the prejudice which lias made man
their bitter enemy.
"Wilson, the great ornithologist, computes that a red-winged blackbird
destroys, on an average, 50 grubs a day through the summer. Many other
birds are equally useful to the farmer. No gold would buy the services per-
formed by the birds. One often may be seen following the plowman hour
after hour.
Then look at the eternal labor of the birds in fall, winter, and spring, pick-
ing up the seeds of weeds, and upon these they live until grain ripens, before
it is possible for them to harm the farmer.
"We therefore urge farmers to spare the birds. They pay more rent than
the worth of all they eat. Robins have been thoroughly proved to be insect-
eaters, and great destroyers of noxious pests to the farmers, by a committee
of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.
This Society has done a deed worthy of commendation by all the lovers of
birds. A resolution was moved to get the Society to ask the Legislature to
Seo. 11.] BIRDS. 185
repeal the law for protection of robins, iipo!i the ground that these birds
were noxious to the tarnier ; it being contended that their food being veg-
etable, they were great destroyers of valuable fruits. Upon this. Prof.
Jenks (Prof, of Zoology) suggested that the Society should first learn the
habits of the robin, and a committee, consisting of Prof Jenks, C. M. Ilovey,
and E. S. Rand, Jr., were appointed, and have reported the following facts :
" Plan Adopted for the Investiyation. — 1. To obtain birds at daybreak, mid-
day, and sunset. 2. To obtain birds from both the village and the country.
3. To preserve in alcohol the contents of each gizzard.
Results in Procuring Specimens. — Beginning with the first week in March,
ISoS, specimens have been examined at least weekly, and most of the time
daily, to December, and during the winter months, at least semi-monthly to
the date of the report, in the spring.
Results of Investigation. — 1. Early in March, numbers of this bird made
their appearance in this vicinity (Boston) ; but, until the second week in
April, only the male birds.
2. The gizzards of those killed in the morning were, as a riile, either
entirely empty, or but partiall}"^ distended with food, well macerated ; while
those killed in the latter part of the day were as nniformly filled with food
freshly taken.
3. From the almost daily examination of their gizzards from the early part
of March to the first of May, not a particle of vegetable matter was found in
the gizzard of a single bird. On the contrary, insects in great variety, both
as to number and kind, as well as in every variety of condition as to growth
and development, were the sole food.
But nine tenths of the aggregate mass of food thus collected during this
period consisted of one kind of larviB, which, through the aid of Baron Osten-
s:icken, secretary of the Russian legation at Washington, I was enabled to
identify as the Bihio albipcnnis {Say), and whose history an(T habits, by the
aid of Dr. Asa Fitch, entomologist of the New York State Agricultural
Society, I was enabled to make out quite satisfactorily.
From one to two hundred of these larvte were frequently taken from a
single gizzard, all in afresh, unmacerated condition; and usually, when these
larvos were found, tliey were the only food in the stomach.
To quote from a communication received from Dr. Fitch, he says : ' My
attention was first directed to this fly some twelve years ago, when I was
occupied in investigating the wheat midge. I observed it to be so very
common in fields of growing wheat that I suspected it of living at the expense
of that grain crop ; but on looking around I found it was equally as common
everywhere else — resting upon the grass, leaves, and flowere in my yard and
garden, as well as in meadows, pastures, and forests. ***** It
comes abroad about the 20th of May, and continues about a fortnight. You
will readily recognize it by its commonness, and its white transparent wings ;
its body being black, clothed with soft, white hairs. It is very sluggish,
moving around but little, and is easily picked up by the fingers. * * *
186 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
Oil page 7Gt of tlie London Gard^ner^s Chronicle of the year 184i, is a val-
uable article of liuricola, (J. O. Westwood), giving a full history of the
Bihlo Marci, the European analogue of the one in riuestion. 'It appears
these insects (unlike most others of the family Tipulidie to which they per-
tain) arc niost pernicious, the larvaj feeding upon the roots of plants, some-
times to such an extent as to cause them to wither and die. liuricola state?
that the larv£e of the Merci, and other allied species of Bihio, are frequently
sent to him by gai-deners, who find them to be mischievous in their straw-
berry beds, vine borders, flower pots, and other situations M'here the soil
remains undisturbed during the autumn and spring.' And another writer,
Bouche, says ' that his bed of ranunculuses was completely demolished, ibr
several successive years, by these worms eating the roots.' From these facts
every one will perceive that the robin, consuming, as you found it to do,
from one to two hundred of these Bibio larvse daily, during the months of
March and April, has probably been ridding our gardens of these vermin
every j'car hitherto ; thus rendering us an important service, of which wa
have been wholly unaware. * " "* The larvae are gregarious ; living
together in swarms, and perforating the ground so that it resembles a honey-
comb.
' This is probably caused by the parent fly depositing her whole stock of
eggs in one spot, she being too lazy and slothful to wander about and dis-
tribute them in difl'erent places. Hence the robin, on finding one of these
worms, knows that there is a host of others at the same place, and thus re-
pairs to that spot, day after day, and gluts himself with them till the whole
colony is exterminated.'
To this extract I may be allowed to add, that my own observations, during
the past year, confirm the conclusions of Dr. Fitch respecting this larva in
every particular, having found its colonies in November, and observed the
fly in early summer. I may also here introduce .an extract froin a comnni-
nication of a lady friend, under date of Oct. 7, 1S58. She says : " On speak-
ing of your remarks concerning the food of the i-obiu, at the Teachers' Asso-
ciation at Bridgewater, in June last, to my father, he told mo of a little
circumstance which I thought just proved your statement. It was formerly
the custom to have a shooting match on election day in M.ay. On such an
occasion in Korth Bridgewater, about the year 18'2(>, a great many birds
were killed, so many that a man bought thorn by the cart-load for the i)ur-
pose of enriching his land. In consequence, there was a great scarcity of
birds in that vicinity, and a great amount of grass land seemed to be injured,
but from what cause no one knew. The grass withered and turned dark-
colored, as though it had been burnt, commencing in small tufts and spread-
ing in large circles." It would seem that the insect under consideration
would, growing undisturbed, produce precisely this result.
4. During the month of May, the Bibio larvai entirely disappeared from
the gizzards, but up to the 21st of June, was replaced by a variety of insects
or worms only, including spiders, caterpillars, and beetles of the family
I I
Sko. 11.] BIRDS. 187
Elateridse, the parents of the well-known wire-worms, so desLructive to corn
and various other seeds when committed to the ground.
The earth-worm I found to be a favorite food for tlie young bird, but
sjjaringly e.nployed by the adult for its own use.
5. From tlie date of June 21, I began to find strawberries, cheri-ics, and
pulpy fruit generally, but in a majority of the examinations intermingled
with insects, which led mo to conclude that they were not fond of an exclu-
sively vegetable diet, but rather adopted it as a dessert, and from the ease
of procuring it, particularly during the enervating season of molting. At
this season of the year, I discovered a marked difference in the food of the
bii-ds killed near or in the village, and those killed in the country at a dis-
tance from gardens and fruit-trees, the latter having less stone fruit and more
insects iu their gizzards, which led me to conclude that the robin is not an
extensive forager.
6. The mixed diet of the robin seems to continue from the ripening of the
strawberries and cherries to October, the vegetable portion consisting, during
August and September, in great part of elderberries (Samhucas canadensis)
and pokeberries {Phytolacca decandra).
7. During the month of October the vegetable diet is wliolly discarded,
and its place supplied by grasshoppers and orthopterous insects generally.
8. Early in November— the robin migrates southward — tlie few remaining
eking out a miserable existence, during the winter months, on bayberries
{Myrica cerifera), privet berries {Ligustrum viilgare), and juniper berries
{.Ju7iij)erus comnuinis). "
Here is something further upon the food of robins : In the report of the
proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History in September, 1858,
we find an instructive paper from Prof. Treadwell, of Cambridge, giving a
detailed account of the feeding and growth of two American robins {Tardus
migt-atorius, Linn.), during a period of 32 days, commencing from the 5th of
June.
" When caught, the two were quite young, their tail feathers being less
than an inch long, and the weight of each about 25 pennyweights — less than
half the weight of the full-grown bird. Both were plump and vigorous, and
had evidently been very recently turned out of the nest. He began feeding
them with earth-worms, giving three to each bird that night ; the second
day, he gave them ten worms each, which they ate ravenously ; thinking
this beyond what their parents could naturally supply theiu with, he- limited
them to this allowance. On the third day, he gave them eight worms each
in the forenoon ; but in the afternoon, he found one becoming feeble, and it
soon lost its strength, refused food, and died. On opening it, he found the
crop, gizzard, and intestines entirely empty, and concluded, tlierefore, that it
had died fi-om want of sufiicient food, the effect of hunger being perhaps
increased by cold, as the thermometer was about 60°. The other bird, still
vigorous, he put in a warmer place and increased its food, giving it the third
day 15 worms, on the fourth day 24, on the fifth 25, on the sixth 30, and on
188 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Ciiap. IL
the seventh 31 worms. They seemed insufficient, and the bird appeared to
be lojiiig plumpness and weight, lie began then to weigh butli the bird
and its food, and the results were given in a tabular form. On tlie fifteenth
day, he tried a small quantity of raw meat, and finding it readily eaten, in-
creased it gradually, to the exclusion of worms ; with it the bird ate a large
quantity of earth and gravel, and drank freely after eating. By the table,
it appears that though the food was increased to iO worms, weighing 20 dwt.
0 1 the eleventh day the weight rather fell oft"; and it was ni>t until the
fourteenth day, when he ate 68 worms, or 34 dwt., that he began to increase.
On this day the weight of the bird was 21 dwt. ; he therefore ate 11 per cent,
more than his own weiglit in twelve liours, weighing after it 29 dwt., or 1.5
per cent, less than the food he had eaten in that time. The lengih of these
worms, if laid end to end, Avonld be about fourteen feet, or ten times the
length of the intestines. To meet the objection that the earth-worm contains
but a small amount of nutritious matter, on tiie twenty-seventh day he was
fed exclusively on clear beef, in quantity 23 dwt. ; at niglit, the bird weighed
62 dwt. — but little more than twice the amount of flesh consumed during the
day, not taking into account the water and earth swallowed."
A man eating in the same proportion would consume 70 lbs. of flesh and
five gallons of water. Four young robins would require, according to the
consumption of this bird, 250 worms, or their equivalent in insects or other
food, daily. After the thirty-second day the bird was fed for eighteen days
on an average of 15 dwt. of meat, two or three earth-worms, and a small
quantity of bread each day; the whole being equal to 18 dwt. of beef, or
36 dwt. of earth-worms ; and it has continued to eat this amount to the
present time. Tiie food was never passed undigested ; the excretions were
made up of gravel and dirt, and a small quantity of white semi-solid urine.
Every admirer of trees may derive from these facts a lesson, showing the
immense power of birds to destroy the insects by wliich our trees, cs])ecially
our apples, elms, and lindens, are every few years stripped of their foliage,
and often many of them killed. The food of the robin, while with us, con-
sists principally of earth-worms, various insects, their larvos and eggs, and
a few cherries ; of worms and cherries they can procure but few, and those
during but a short period, and they arc obliged therefore to subsist princi-
pally upon the great destroyers of leaves, canker-worms, and some other
kinds of caterpillars and bugs. If each robin, old and young, requires for
its support an amount of these equal to the weight consumed by this bird, it
is easy to see what a prodigious havoc a few hundreds of these must make
upon the insects of an orchard or a park. Is it not, then, to our advantage,
to purchase the service of the robins at the price of a few cherries ?
Speaking upon this paper, the editor of the Newark (N. J.) Advertiser
says :
" There is so little knowledge of the habits of birds, and their ways and
means of gaining a living in the world, that anything which promises to
produce better acquaintance with them ought to bo generally made known.
Skc. 11.] BIRDS. 189
"It will be seen by this account, that quite a young robin died from
starvation, because it was allowed but eight or ten earth-worms a day. The
survivor was afterward treated more generously, and his fare was increased
from day to day, till lie liad tor his dinner 68 worms, or 34 dwt., though tlie
robin himself weighed only 24 dwt., thus consuming in twelve hours 41 per
cent, more than his own weight.
" After the bird was fully grown, he continued to cat one third of his own
weight in clear flesh daily ! A man with such voracity (inferior, however,
we have seen to that of the young bird while growing) would have some
difficulty in finding board in any of our cities. But natui'e is not obliged to
go to market to sustain her children with comfortable food. This same
robin, if permitted to, be free to satiate his prodigious appetite, not chiefly
on cherries or other fruits valued by man, but npon man's enemies, would
range himself on the side of man, and slaughter the numberless insects of
every variety wliich are destructive to his crops. Here we have reason to
be grateful for the prodigious appetite of the robin, and thank him for his
extraordinary gormandism. Tliis guest at tlie table of nature is addressed
in very different language from guests generally. She says to him. Will you
take something further ? pray don't spare, but help yourself to the spider, the
canker-worm, the measurer, the caterpillar, grub, slug, and bug, and help
yourself also to a score or two of curculio's eggs. Thus, ' more the merrier'
is the sentiment of nature's feast. How the insect tribe, ixnd all the wicked
fry who infest our fruits and cereal crops, fall before the all-devouring robin !
Even the ugly bug that is said to infest and feed upon the tubers and tops
of the potatoes, producing thereby the blight or rot, might be exterminated,
if the robin and other birds were Jiot destroyed or frightened away by boys,
or men as stupid or mischievous as boys.
" For what had been remarked of the voracity of the robin, is probably
true with I'espect to other birds. Men have but recently come to the knowl-
edge that they are tlie most effectual protectors they can have of their fruits
and crops ; but nobody till now has been aware of the full extent of the
obligation they are under to even a few birds in consequence of their being
such enormous eaters. If their board costs them anything, they never could
be able to stand it. But it does not — only now and then a life or two among
them, taken by some rascal or vagabond, who should be their true benefac-
tors, for they are busy in the service of man."
This bird, the robin, is probably known to nearly every one wlio will
read this volume ; but we will add the following short description :
The robin measures nine inches and a half in length. His bill, which is
about an inch long, is strong, yellow, and dusky near the tip ; the head, back
of the neck, and tail are black ; tlie back and rumj>, ash color ; the throat
and upper part of the breast arc black, the fortner streaked with white ; tlie
wliole of the rest of the breast down as far as the tliiglis is of a dark orange ;
belly and vent, white ; legs, dark brown ; claws, black and strong.
It builds a large nest, often on an apple-tree, whicli it plasters on the
190 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
inside wiih mud, and lines witii hay or fine grass. The eggs are from four
to six, bluish green, unsijotted. They feed on worms, insects, fruit, and
berries, c-pecially those of the sour gum-tree {N'l/ssa sylvatica). When
fat, tlie robin is in considerable esteem for the table.
Tiiesc birds are among our earliest songsters. Even in March, while the
snow yet mantles the fields and woodlands, he will mount a post or leafless
tree, and make an attempt at a song.
They are ornamental to every farm, and should be encouraged to build
their nests in every garden.
234. Birds Destroying Grasshoppers and WormSi— Last year, in the neigh-
borhood of Philadelphia, there was a swarming pest of grasshoppers. By-
and-by, when every one was at his wits' end to know what to do to get rid
of this scourge, there was a sudden appearance of immense flocks of plover,
which spread themselves over the fields, and devoured with avidity the
grasshoppers. Some of them have been shot to test the matter, and their
crops have been found full of grasshoppers. Tlie ravages of the latter soon
cease wherever the flocks of j^lover appear, as the great number and voracity
of the birds render them more than a match for the insects. Up to this
visit of plover, the only relief from this calamity was the eagerness with which
the fowls devoured the grasshoppers. Turkeys, the most efficieut adversaries
of tiicse insects — because the largest and most active— have thriven wonder-
fully upon them. So have the ducks, geese, and chickens. If farmers pre-
fer to be annually eaten up by insects, they will continne their insane war-
fare upon birds. On the contrary, let them be protected, and encouraged to
build their nests in the very windows of our dwellings, and see what myriads
of pests they will destroy !
In one of the years that I lived on the Western prairies, there was an
iri'uption of greedy devourers of farm crops, known as the army worm,
coming from no one knows Avhere, nor wlien to look for its march. It is
easy to trace it, however, after it has marched over a country, for it con-
sumes every leaf of grass and grain, wherever the army spreads itself.
Farmers sometimes plow a deep furrow around a field as the army
approaches, and this furrow will soon fill up with worms, which are crushed
by a log drawn over them ; repeating the operation every day. This is
troublesome, and not always efieetive. In the year alluded to, the army
approached just at the time it wonld be destructive to the wheat crop, and
the owners of the most exposed farms were in sore trouble at the prospect
before them. For two days tliey looked on in dread. " One more day," they
said, " and we shall be swept." One more daycame, and with it one of man's
best friends, 'the worm-eating birds. Looking out southward where the
worms were at work on the prairie grass, a black cloud was seen hovering
close to the ground. It was a cloud of blackbirds, coming np from their
great nesting-place in the Kankakee marshes, to feed on the worms. They
saved the wheat crop. It is true that tliis variety of birds, Avhen they come
in great flocks into the grain-fields, arc pests, but not half as bad as worms
Seo. 11.] BIRDS. 191
and bugs would be if not destroyed. Besides, birds can be watched and
driv'en away from fields, where no efforts of man wouhi serve to drive away
an army of worms, marching to destroy, nor prevent liis farm from being
devastated by such a fliglit of grasshoppers as swept every green thing from
a portion of Minnesota a few years ago. Birds, then, in countless numbers,
will be found to be man's best friends.
235. T!i8 Sap-SuckerSi — The name of " sap-sucker" has been given to a
very useful class of birds, under the erroneous impression that they sucked
the sap from the fruit-trees, where they are often seen, hour after hour,
clinging to tlie bole of an apple-tree, patiently drilling, drilling, drilling
their little bills through the bark, leaving it, sometimes, as full of Iioles as a
honey-comb. It is a slander upon these beautiful, busy little birds to snp-
pose their object is to suck out the sap, and thus destroy the trees. To say
that the " sap-sucker" girdles apple-trees and destroys them, or taps the
Austrian and Scotch pines so as to cause them to bleed to death, we must
have stronger proof than slipshod statements.
In argument against the birds, it has been stated that they have been shot
wliile in the very act of
" Tapping the hollow beech-tree,"
and their craws examined without finding a worm, and notliing but pieces
of bark, thus proving their object to be eating the bark, if not sucking the
sap, and that they were therefore very injurious to trees. These microscopic
examinations only prove what we have long believed, that tlie bird can not
always tell where the worm is that he wants, and so. has to bore until he
finds him. It is not likely that he goes far amiss, and probably hits him
oftener with the first hole than he fails. It is thought by many jJersons that
that troublesome litile destroyer of fruit, the curculio, deposits its eggs in
the bark of trees, and that that is what the sap-sucker is after. It is certain
tiiat when sap-suckers abounded in our orchards, there was no complaint of
curculio. In our opinion, a perfectly healthy tree, free from insects, is never
attacked by any of the nut-hatch family — vulgarly called " sap-suckers."
We believe that, on the contrary, they ai"e of essential service to man ; and
that it was one of the admirable provisions of nature, where, everything
works on an even balance, until one scale is ovei-loaded by man, that the
nut-hatch should stand sentinel over the fruit-trees, and keep the pestiferous
insects from getting the balance of power.
236. Do Birds Eat Bees ? — It has long been a mooted question whether the
birds known as "kingbirds" (the Musciccipa tyranmis) destroy bees?
Tins bird has obtained his name from a spirit of boldness in attacking and
driving away birds of mucli larger size and power, enough to kill him at a
single stroke. He has obtained the name of a destroyer of honey-bees, and
war to the death has been declared against him, on the evidence of his bad
name, and, as we think, without anything like a fair trial.
A few years ago we elicited a great deal of testimony upon this question.
One witness, Mr. IS^athaniel M. Tobey, of Tompkins County, says he is an
192 SMALL ANIMALS AKD INSECTS. [Chap. H.
old farmer, has kept bees ten years, and always encouraged birds to make
their homes upon iiis premises. One season, observing two kingbirds about
his hives, he was curious to know what they wei-e after, a!id ascertained to
liis satisfaction tliat tliey caught bees on their return to the hive, not to cat
them bodily, but to disembowel them and despoil them of the " honey-sack."
He attributed the non-swarming of the bees to this pair of kingbirds, but
says his bees have never been molested since.
That the kingljirds caught Mr. Tobey's bees wc have no doubt, since he
says he saw the disemboweled carcasses under the trees where they alighted,
but that one single one of them was a worker we do doubt, and that a single
pair of kingbirds were the cause of the non-swarming of several hives of
bees, we have no doubt upon the subject — we know it was not the case — it
would be a preposterous absurdity to believe such a wild tale. We do not
believe that all the kingbirds in the world ever destroyed a hive of working-
bees, and a man who will kill the innocent birds witliout better proof of
their guilt, than all that we have heard, is at heart a — bird murderer.
Other persons declared that they had often seen kingbirds catch bees, on
the wing, near the hive. This we do not doubt, because others have seen
the same thing, and have killed and dissected them and found bees in their
craws. But in every case where they were examined by persons competent
lo decide, tliey have declared that none but drones were ever found. Upon
lliis point the instinct or observation of the bird is perfect; and this ma}'
iiave been one of nature's provisions, that these birds should bo assistants
of the workers, and not their destroyers. Certainly, until we have some
better evidence against the birds, we shall advocate their protection. Surely,
if they eat bees, they also cat other flies, and if permitted to live and multi-
ply around our dwellings, might keep us free of a great many pestiferous
insects. If a bird can eat a stinging-bee with impunity, it can also eat a
wasp or hornet, and so destroy that family.
237. Swallows, Swifls, aud Martins.— In our boyhood, swallows were looked
upon as pests of the farm, or rather the barn, and war was often waged upon
them by the boys, with tlie countenance of those who should have been well
enough informed to teach them better. We hope the day is past when any
one would wantonly destroy these beautiful birds.
Ilirundo is the gcnoric term applied to the class of birds comprised in the
several species of barn swallows, bank swallows, chimney swallows, and a
large, strong sort known as swifts, and the common martin, for which many
New England people are careful to provide boxes, whicli are often attached
to the dwellings. Their first appearance in spring is hailed with delight,
and the time of their coming f)ften noted, so as to compare one year with
another. Although " one swallow does not make it spring," people have
learned to think that many never come until spring is fairly opened.
The Ilirinido family are all birds of passage. They go far south to win-
ter, and return with great regularity to their old haunts, to build their nests,
rear their young, and catch flies, till autumn approaches, and then they are
Sec. 11.] BIRDS. 193
off. They cross the parallel of 40°, on their northern journey, about the
first of May.
The barn is often tenaiitless at night, and alive with the twitter of swal-
lows the next morning. To talk about their hybernating in the mud, or in
hollow trees, is simply ridiculous. You might just as well expect wild geese
to go down into the mud to winter, as for the swallows to do so.
Tiie following description of some of the rare varieties of the Hirundo we
found in the Country Gentleman newspaper, and thought it interesting:
"The Cliff, or Republican Swallow, Hirundo lunifrous, or Il.fulva, is a
well-known swallow among farmers. Its crown and back are of steel blue,
belly Avhite, length five inches, plus, and the stretch of the wings twelve
inches, plus. They formerly occupied the cliffs of the Eocky Mountains and
the fur countries. One of the first records of their appearance in the States
was at Henderson, and Newport, Ky., on the banks of the Ohio, in 1815.
In 1817 they were observed at "Whitehall, N. Y., near Lake Champlain.
These birds are of social habits, building their nests in clusters, or near each
other. Vieillot observed one at sea, off Nova Scotia, long before this. They
have long been known in that province. In 1818, it is stated that they began
to build at Crawford's, near the base of the White Mountains. General
Dearborn saw their nest at Winthrop, Me., in 1830; also in Gardiner.
The writer first saw them in Worcester County, Mass., about 1838. Their
nests arc arranged frequently along under the eaves of a barn, in the form
of a projecting retort, constructed of pellets of earth, with an internal lining
of dried grass, in which are laid four eggs. Their note is not a twitter, but,
according to Audubon, resembles in sound the rubbing of a moistened cork
in the neck of a glass bottle. AVithin a quarter of a century they have be-
come the favorites of many New England farmers.
" The Violet-green Swallow, Hirundo thalassina, tail acutely emarginafe;
back a soft, velvety green, shaded with purplish violet; length five inches,
and the stretch of the wings twelve inches; is common in the Rocky Mount-
ain region. They are the associates of the cliff swallow, just described,
their note being more like that of the barn swallow. Their nests resemble
those of the cliff swallow, wanting, however, the pendulous neck. They
sometimes occupy the deserted nests of their associate species. They are not
common east of the Mississippi River.
" The White-bellied Swallow, Hirundo hicolor, is of a glossy, metallic green
above, and white below ; hence its common name. Its length is six inches,
and the stretch of the wings is twelve and a half inches. It is not as com-
mon as the barn swallow, and is allied somewhat fo the purple martin.
Their note is a shrill, lively, warbling twitter. They are usually the first
swallows that appear in the spring. They breed in some deserted house or
hollow tree. They use no mud in building their nests, which are lined with
feathers.
"The Rough-winged Swallow, Hirundo serripcjinis of Audubon, and Cotyle
serripennis of Bonaparte ; color above a light, sooty brown, and beneath
194 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
a wliitisli gray ; Icngtli live and a half inclies, and the stretch of tlie wings
twels-e iuclies.
"The Chimney Swift or Swallow, nirundo pelasgia of Linnreus, and Chw-
turapdiwjia of Stephens; color a sooty brown; length five inches; the stretch
of wino-s twelve inches ; the tail is short and niueronatc. They build their
nests freqnently in chimneys, sometimes in hollow trees. They are small and
shallow, and are attached to the side of the chimney or tree by an adhesive
gum or mucilage secreted in the stomach of the architect. They feed their
young tin-ough the greater part of the night, as the writer has frequently ob-
served. The noise they make in passing down and up the chinniey resembles
distant thunder.
" Vaux's Chimney Swift, or the Oregon Swift, resembles the one described
above; length three and a half to four and a half inches; stretch of the
wings ten inches, plus. This species is not rare on the Western coast.
"The swallow tribe arc remarkable for their social habits, living generally
in colonies, constructing their nests together ; and when the season for mi-
gration arrives, they leave in large flocks. They usually rear two broods or
more per pair during the sunmier. They frequent watery places or swampy
lands, ponds, etc., in pursuit of winged insects, which they take on the wing.
In fair weather they usually fly high in the air. As the air becomes less
dense, the insects fly nearer the earth, and the swallows skim near the sur-
face of the earth or water, which prognosticates rain at hand. The number
of flies, gnats, etc., annually consumed by swallows exceeds all calculation.
Hence the truth of the observation of a farmer, mIioso barn-eaves had be-
neath them one connected line of cliff swallows' nests: 'I am very glad to
have these birds here, for my cows and milkers are much less troubled with
gnats and flies than before these swallows came in such numbers.'
"Some farmers try, unwisely, to exclude swallows from their promi.-;cs,
because, say they, ' these birds make dirty work.' Granted, but it is far less
troublesome and annoying than the insects of the kinds named, which greatly
multiply in the absence of the swallows, swifts, and martins."
Barn swallows and martins arc too widely known to make a description
of them interesting in this })lace. Children, however, should always have
an opportunity of seeing their portraits and reading their history in Audu-
bon or Wilson, as well as that of every other bird, and, by learning ihcir
habits, judge M'hich is and which is not beneficial to the farmer. Swallows
and martins would certainly not then be doomed to destruction. D. W. War-
ner, of Sharon Springs, N. Y., says :
"My father repeatedly attempted wheat-growing, but as often failed, the
weevil taking the whole crop, until a large colony of martins cstahlisiicd
themselves under the eaves of the barn, since which time he has raised good
crops of spring wheat. The wheat has been grown within one hundred rods
of the barn. Quci-y — Had the martins anything to do in preventing the
appearance of the weevil ?"
238. Skylarks and Imported BirdSi — Several attempts have been made to
Sec. 11.] BIRDS. 195
introduce skylarks into this country. In February, 1853, Jolin Gorgas, of
Wilmington, Del., received a lot of twenty, wliicli were kept confined until
the 19th of March, when they were set at liberty. Another lot of twenty-
two arrived April 18th, and were set at liberty the next day. This was
oidy twenty-two days from the time they were trapped in England. These
birds propagated in the neighborhood that season, and strong hopes were
entertained that the English skylark had been introduced permanently
into this country ; but these hopes have not been realized. A letter
from Mr. Gorgas, in the summer of 1860, indicates that the birds liave all
disappeared. •»
Tliere was also another lot of skylarks imported, and liberated in Green-
wood Cemetery, on Long Island, in the spring of 1853, and still another lot
were set free in "Washington city, at a later period ; but, so far as we can
learn, all of these birds have disappeared. This is greatly to be regretted ;
for besides the interest of their curious flight and song, they are great insect
dostroyers. Their home is in the grass and grain fields, and their food in
summer is entirely composed of insects and worms that are pests to the
farmer. In Europe they inhabit a wide range of latitude, feeding in winter
upon seeds of grass and weeds, and, if located too far north, making a short
migration to a milder clime. It can not be owing to the cold that they do
not succeed here ; but it is not improbable that the cold has prompted them
to move southward, and they have not felt disposed to return. "We still hope
the skylark will have its home with us, as common as in England, where it
is so noted as a song-bird. Its flight skyward is also very curious. It as-
cends perpendicular!}^, as though it screwed itself through the air, until
quite out of sight, and after a little descends in the same way. The skylark
in Europe is a fine table luxury, notwithstanding they afiord but half an
ounce each of meat to the epicure. Vast numbers of just as diminutive
birds are sacrificed upon the epicurean tables of all our large cities in the
United States.
To those who may take an interest in the importation of birds, the follow-
ing account will be useful, as given by Mr. "W. Brodie, of his successful
transportation of English pheasants, gold pheasants, and partridges from
England to New Zealand. He says :
" I left the St. Katherine's Dock with thii'ty-six pheasants and partridges
on board, and after a long and most disagreeable voyage of 2G1 daj's, landed
in Auckland, Kew Zealand, with the same number as I had left England
with. It is a pastime to cabin passengers going a long voyage to have some
occupation to break the monotony of shipboard imprisonment. I therelbie
looked after my own birds, cleaned them out every morning, gave them
fresh red gravel (coarse) every other day, supplied them bountifully with
fresh water (not M-ater caught on deck aflcr a heavy rain, as there is a cer-
tain quantity of tar in it), never allowed thetn a fresh-water bath, fed them
with buckwheat, wheat, canary-seed, and hemp-seed alternately, week and
week about, kept them in wicker cages made on purpose, three feet long,
196 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Cuap. II.
two feet wide, and one foot liigli, and padded the top inside the lids of the
cages, to protect theirlieads.
"These birds were kept on deck the whole of the voyage, with a painted
canvas cover to protect them from the salt water in bad weather. Hence
my success. The increase of my birds has amounted to tens of thousands.
In the northern part of New Zealand they breed twice a year, and they have
stocked the province of Auckland, 200 miles distant from the point where
they were first sent adrift, M'hich was upon one of my estates, near the North
Cape o^New Zealand. In the early part of 1S59 I sent out 400 house and
liedge sjjarrows and yellow-hammers to Auckland ; and I hope in September
to send out 400 singing birds to the same port gratuitously. Birds should
not be sent out between March and September; those sent in April or ^lay
are sure to pine away and die, it being their pairing season."
By pursuing the course adopted by Mr. Brodie, we might have some of
the most rare birds of California brought to the Atlantic States, with un-
doubted profit to the importer.
239. Laws for the Protectiou of Birds. — Tlie State of New York has had
what is called a "game law" for a good many years; but it was a law for
the protection of a class of men and boys who, without any claim to the
title, called themselves "sportsmen" — such sportsmen as would shoot a
robin-red-breast on her nest, or an imported skylark in the midst of his song.
The law was only incidentally beneficial to farmers, so tar as it protecte*!
game birds, the most of which are great insect-eaters. There is not a farmer
in all the old States that can afford to have a quail killed upon his farm, if
he was paid a dollar a head. This species of wild bird would be semi
domesticated, if man would allow it to be so. We have seen them so gentle
that they often came around the barn for food in winter, and only walked
slowly away at the approach of man. At such a time we would not kill one
for ten times its value as food. All the past summer we had the delight of
knowing that a pair of these beautiful birds were safely rearing their young
only a few rods from our home. Often, as we walked about the little farm,
they were seen dodging along some jiath, or between the corn-rows, or into
the shelter of the grass or shrubbery. Then, with what sweet satisfaction
we listened to " Bob White," sitting upon the wall, telling us almost uner-
ringly of the approach of " more wet !"'
An Illinois farmer declares that a flock of quails made him a crop of corn,
having voluntarily taken upon themselves to rid the field of cut-worms. " I
never," says he, " can again consent to the destruction of these valuable
birds. I used to shoot and trap them, but I was ignorant of their value on
the farm.
A neighbor of ours, a true sportsman, said to us, the other day: "I have
done shooting quails. I used to think it real sport to wing these beautiful
birds; and tlie temptation to do so was enhanced l)y the delicious food tliey
aft'ord. I really think that I never shall shoot another quail iu my life."
Li answer to our " Why ?" he said :
Sec. 11.] BIKDS. 197
"I had never studied their liistorj, and the nature of their habits, and
character of their food, until this season. I was incited to do this from
meeting with a pair of the birds ev^ery time I walked over a certain jjortion
of the farm. They were ahnost as gentle as the fowls in the door-yard, and
frequently I noticed them so busily engaged picking up worms in the corn-
field, that it led me into a train of thought and study that has taught me
not to kill quails. A few days ago I saw my pets — for such I had come to
regard them — with sixteen young ones, each nearly as large as its parent.
If I could guard that flock from the depredation of idle boys, no money
would buy them. Why, what useful as well as interesting birds they are !
TVe want stringent laws, well enforced, to protect quails."
Yes, but, most of all, we want information for farmers of their value.
The following are the penalties of the New York Game Law, passed April
14, 1860:
It is $25 fine to kill a deer in the first seven months of the year.
It is $2 fine to kill a v\-oodcock between January 1 and July -1 ; or a par-
tridge (ruffled grouse) between January 15 and September 1 ; or a quail be-
tween January 1 and October 15; or any wild duck between February 1
and August 1.
It is $10 fine to kill a prairie fowl, or pinnated grouse, at any time within
five years.
It is $10 fine to trap or snare quail or grouse.
It is 50 cents fine to kill, trap, or snare a nightingale, night-hawk, blue-
bird, yellow-bird, oriole, finch, thrush, lark, sparrow, wren, martin, swallow,
woodpecker, or any other harmless bird, at any time ; and bobolinks and
robins only between February 1 and October 1.
It is $5 fine to catch brook or lake trout, or muscalonge, between Septem-
ber 1 and March 1 ; and it is $2 fine to catch them in any way but by a hook
and line.
It is $5 fine for any pei-son to enter the premises of another with fire-arms,
or other hunting or fishing implements, with the intent of using tliem ; and
if he entei-3 upon a cultivated field, orchard, or garden, or where crops are
growing, in jjursiil, of game, without the consent of the owner, he is finable
$10 for each oflTense.
Such is the law now in force in this State. Let all who are interested see
that it is made effectual. Tlie difficulty in the way of its enforcement is a
very lax state of morals among the people, many of whom consider birds
free plunder; and they have so long enjoyed the privilege of rambling over
everybody's land, as freely as though they owned it, that it is hard to con-
vince them that they do not. The contrary can never be taught in courts,
nor by fines and prisons ; it must be taught in our common schools and
around the farmer's fireside.
Xew Jersey has a good law upon her statute book for the protection of
small birds. It is diSicult of enforcement, because the mass of people have
been educated to look upon all birds as noxious, or elae worthy of destruc-
198
SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS.
[Chap. IL
tion for food, and of no otiier value. They do not even look upon poultry
in any other light. Yet the truth is, poultry is worth ten times as much to
tlie fanner for the work of destruction it docs upon his pests, as it is for the
food it affords him. It is just so with game birds ; and if the owners of land
well situated for game preserves were able t(5" preserve the birds, the culti-
vated portions might be benefited, and the owners could make the keeping
of wild birds as profitable as tame ones.
From time to time laws have been devised and statutes enacted for the
preservation of game; but until recently such legislation has been originated
by the wealthy men of cities, the men of the educated and leisure classes of llie
community, the consumers and killers, not the feeders and jjossessoi^, of the
game or the owners of the acres. This has generally given to these statutes
tiie appearance, though in no degree the reality, of partaking of the odious
character of class legislation ; of being enacted for the benefit of the rich
against the poor, the proud against the humble, the men of leisure against
the men of labor. The formers, who knew little and cared less for the game
which ran wild in their woods, fluttered in their tangled swamps, or screamed
over their boggy morasses, did not conceive how it could have any real value
in the eyes of any rational being ; regarded all legislation forbidding its
slaughter, except at stated periods, as a device cunningly framed for depriv-
ing them of their own natural and indefeasible rights, and for giving amuse-
ment and gratification to finely-dressed, flashy strangers from the towns,
wiio came periodically into country places to break down fences, trample
under foot growing crops, and kill the game reared on the farmer's land,
which was, in its very nature, and from tiie mode of killing it, useless to the
farmer himself. In a word, they looked upon the Game Laws as an oftensive,
aristocratic, unrepublican, European invention ; a sort of scheme for making
the rich richer, and the poor poorer — an idea sedulously encouraged by all
the brawling foreigners and pot-house village loafers, who, too lazy to work,
found their own profit in poaching a few starveling parent birds on the
ncsis, or half-grown fledgeling young fry on otlier men's lands, which they
might traflic or truck away to railway conductors and stage-coach drivers,
for transmission to the eating-houses of the cities.
Gradually, however, they — the farmers, mo mean — have come to open
tlieir eyes on this cpiestion. The fearful increase of insect life, the prodigious
deterioration of the crops of all kinds, the threatened utter extinction of
some of the most valuable American staples in the very localities of which
they were formerly the pride and boast — as, for instance, the wheat crop of
the famous Genesee Valley, where it is already questionable, from the yearly
aggravated ravages of the Hessian-fly and the weevil, whether it is any
longer profitable, or perhaps prudent, to sow wheat — have forced them to
perceive that this growth and superabundance, daily and hourly aggravated
and exaggerated, of insect pests is to be attributed wholly to the unprece-
dented destruction of small birds. At the samo time, the vast and honrly-
incicasing demand /or game in the large cities, the immense freights and
Sko. 11.] BIEDS. . 199
cargoes of wild animals sent down yearly, so soon as cold weather allows its
safe transportation by express companies and railroad cars — immense, yet
still inadequate to meet the call of the markets, although the illimitable
West is fast suffering depletion, and is in some States legislating against ex-
portation— have quickened the perception of agriculturists to the fact, that
if game be worth as much money in the market as poultry, or more, and can
be raised at no cost and less than no trouble, it is better to have the woods,
which they necessarily keep up as timber lots, the hill-sides, which are too
craggy and sterile of soil to rear anything but brambles and ferns, and the
morasses, which it would be too costly to drain, swarming with profitable
Avild animals, than waste and unprofitable ; and to the other fact, that if
money is to be made by killing game on their lands, it is as well at least, if
not better, to make it themselves, and to go on making it, year after year,
by maintaining a sufiicient breeding stock, as to suffer it to be made out of
their pockets by every landless, shiftless vagabond who chooses to stampede
every head of game out of every farm, and who lias no earthly reason or
inducements why he should not kill as speedily as possible the goose which
lays the golden eggs — seeing that the goose, if slain by himself, is clearly
his, while the eggs, infuturo, may fall to the lot of any other Tom, Dick, or
Harry of his own reputable or disreputable order.
The farmers and land-owners being thus convinced of the loss directly
attributable to the killing of small birds at all, at any season, and of the great
gain certainly attainable by the protection of the game during the breeding
seasons, have of late, in many States and counties of States, procured statutes
to be passed for the preservation, absolutely and at all times, of certain
innoxious and useful small birds. But all these statutes have defects, besides
the one alluded to — the lack of proper instruction to the children.
It is a defect in our State law that no penalty is provided sufiicient to
prevent hunting all the public highways, or other public grounds, and the
penalty for entering your premises is quite inadequate to their protection,
because you can not afford to procure testimony, and hire attorneys to pros-
eculu a fellow who will verify the adage of " sue a beggar and catch a louse."
The statutes in question are not asked or enacted for the defense of private
rights of private individuals, though they may defend them incidentally,
but for that of the community at large, to M'hich the safety of crops and the
greatest possible supply of food of all kinds in the market, at the lowest i^os-
sible rates, are incontestably benefits. Therefore the community has not
only a right, but it is its especial duty to enforce the same protection and
preservation of the same animals on its own possessions — that is to say, on
the highways, wastes, commons, and all other unoccupied lands or waters of
which the public are the guardians and occupants — -as it commands on the
private lands of individuals from trespassers.
So convinced are the scientific agriculturists of Franco of the importance
of raising all those species of wild animals which are natural, indigenous,
or capable of being acclimated and naturalized to the waste lands, of which
200 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
tliere are many hundreds of thousands of acres, utterly unsuited to any other
sort of culture or stocking, that there is an important department in the
National Agricultural Society of that great and enlightened nation, tl>e sole
duty of wliich ii to superintend the reproduction ou the waste lands and
waters of France of the native 6j)ecies of game which have gradually become
extinct ; to promote the introthiction ou the same lands of such foreign wild
animals, valuable for food, as may appear to be suited, by their habits and
the character of the climates to which they originally belonged, for naturaliza-
tion in France ; and, lastly, to encourage and enforce, by means of premiums
for success and stringent protective legislation, the maintenance of such
stocks of game, both quadruped and winged, as shall realize to the propri-
etors and to the state an abundant return of nutriti'Mis and cheap food from
lands until lable, uniitted for pasturage, and in fact worthless for any purpose
but that of raising game.
At the same time we, in America, are suffering our infinitely larger
number of unreclaimed — if not irreclaimable — acres, which formerly swarmed
with animal life, and aiforded supplies, a few years ago supposed to be
inexhaustible, of the choicest varieties of game, to be stripped of the last fin,
the last hoof or pad, the last feather of the wild tribes, unequaled elsewhere,
both in quality and quantity', which at the time of its discovery rendered
America the paradise of Nimrods ; so that the woods, the fens, the waters
are indeed fast becoming utterly barren, useless, and unprofitable wastes.
It is certain that the fact of any farm being well stocked with game is not,
in any possilile point of view, a disadvantage, even if their value, whether
as an article of food or as an object of pleasurable and healthful pursuit be
entirely set aside, since the actual profit consequent on their subsistence is
greater than the loss from the grain which a few of the varieties consume.
Besides the insects, many of the game birds are great consumers of weed
seeds. The prairie-liens, where they exist in large numbers, do depredate
upon corn-fields and stacks of grain ; but even there, it is not a very severe tax
to feed them ; and we think that farmers could make the preservation of
birds profitable.
It may be assumed, as a reasonable average, that every fiirmer who owns
and cultivates a hundred acres of arable land, with from fifty to a hundred
of meadow land and pasture, and an equal quantity of woodland, if he
choose to protect and preserve them, especially if he takes the trouble to
erect a few little shelter huts of brushwood and fern in his woodskirts, and
to bait them in hard weather with a few bushels of buckwlieat, in a good
game district where the winters are not too severe, may winter from ten to
twenty brace of quail, which may he expected to raise from fifteen to thirty
bevies of birds. Each bevy will probably average fifteen birds, which gives
a yield of from seventy-five to one hundred brace of quail, to be killed and
sent to market in the late autumn or early winter, with the butter, buck-
wheat, fat turke_vs, and other produce of tlic farm. Tiiese birds will average
twenty five cents a brace iu ordinary seasons, and when game is scarce or
Seo. 11.] BIRDS. 201
for any reason there is an unusual demand, an increased price. To this may
be added, if it be a ruffed grouse country, two or three broods of these
hardy, bokl, and delicate birds, which rarely jM-oduce fewer than twelve and
thence upward to sixteen poults, so that the landholder may reckon on his
iifteen to twenty brace of ruffed grouse at seventy-five cents a brace, and on
his thirty or forty rabbits, at a dime a head. Here is a profit of perhaps
fifty dollars per annum, arising from no expenditure, from no investment of
capital, and involving as a consequence, several days or hours of pleasant
exercise and amusement in lieu of labor, for the purpose of rendering it
marketable. On snipe grounds and countries adapted to woodcock, the
profits are yet more enormous.
The number of woodcock to be killed annually on any given piece of
ground is never so great as that of snipe, since the birds killed in the early
part of the season consist of those bred on the ground itself on which they
are shot, which is of course a limited number, although tiie autumnal flights,
which come in successively, are those bred in the uncultivated wastes far to
the northward. Yet even of these, there are numerous localities, especially
in parts of the States of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware,
Michigan, and other Western States, which might be counted on as sure to
furnish ten woodcock to the acre in each season, at twenty-five cents the bird.
■ It can hardly be doubted that by the system of game protecting, without
expending a dollar, every owner farming from 100 to 200 acres of land in a
country well adapted for game — and there is but little country in any of the
Northern, Western, or Middle States which is not adapted to it — can add
from $50 to $200, and in some instances a much larger sum to his annual
income. If he have trout-streams, and the facility of making a chain of
small trout-ponds, as may be easily done in every deep glen watered by a
rapid brook, instead of suflering them to be weired and netted by all the
vagabonds of the country side, he might make thousands more easily than
by his poulti-y-yard or sheep-fold, and at far less cost.
With these facts before them, it is for the farmers "themselves to consider
whether game-laws are the obnoxious things that demagogues have taught
them to believe. Is it not rather worth their while to insist upon the
enactment, and strict observance of such laws as will protect their own
interests, and afford them such additions to their income as we have briefly
hinted at.
240. Scndiuj Wild Pigeons to Market.— The Eagle^ newspaper, printed at
Grand Rapids, Michigan, published an article in the spring of 1860, about
the pigeon trade. There had been at that time shipped from that village
588 barrels of wild pigeons — equal to 108,555 lbs. The express freight on
this quantity at three cents a pound, would be $3,256 65. If sold at twenty
cents a pound, they would bring $21,711. It was estimated that the west
part of Jlichigan had sent two millions of wild pigeons to market in one
season. This great number can easily be understood by those who are
acquainted with the manner in which these birds flock together. To one
202 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
who has never seen a pigeon-roost or a nesting-place, the truth will seem
almost as fabulous as the tales of Sinbad the sailor. Yet it is far within the
bounds of truth to saj that we have seen many millions of wild piijeons at
once, or at least as soon as we could direct our eyes upon them. We iiave
seen them on their evening flight toward tlie roosting-place, in one unbroken
flock, two miles wide, and two hours' continuance. We have ridden two
hours in a straight line through a pigeon-roost at least seven miles wide.
We have seen upon a single beech-tree many wagon-loads. At one time a
little section of the main flock got belated in reaching the roosting-placc,
and settled in a heavy beech wood near our house in Indiana, and the nois(!
they made resembled a terrific tornado ; and they piled on to the trees in
such numbers that all the weak limbs were broken off, and hundreds of
large trees, such as stood leaning, and were weak at the roots, were entirely
broken down. We spent hours of the evening in that temporary roost,
witnessing thtir operations, and trying to imagine the vastness of the mul-
titude. There is great danger in visiting such a roost, from the falling
timber. In one long occupied, all that is liable to break has been prostrated,
and there is less danger, so there is less commotion. Tiiey often sit so low,
and remain so quiet, that you may approach near enough to kill half a score
at a blow. A charge of shot sent into a full tree brings down a great
number. When they alight upon a tree that breaks mider the mass, they
fly and light upon the backs of others already loading a tree all it can beai-,
and so the additional weight perhaps produces a second crash, and sometimes
crash after crash, almost without cessation. That was the case upon tlie
evening mentioned. The breaking commenced at dusk, when they began
alighting, and continued until we left at midnight. In the morning about
two hundred acres were literally covered with broken timber.
A pigeon nesting-place is a still greater curiosity than a pigeon-roost. It
covers hundreds of acres of dense forest, and every tree is covered with nes's
almost as closely as the birds can build them, by laying a few loose twigj
together among the branches. It is an easy matter to load a wagon with
squabs. Often they fall out of the frail nests, and fall a prey to wild aninuils
and wood hogs. Audubon gives a very truthful picture of the immense
numbers of wild pigeons in the great West. To ns it is the more interest-
ing, because we know it to be true.
Those who have read Audubon, or others who have written accounts of
pigeon-roosts, and can believe the trutli, will be able to realize the extent of
tiic trade we have spoken of.
Having now, we hope, said enough about birds to create an interest in
their behalf, and induce a study of their character, and their value to the
farmer, we shall leave the subject for another, which, though about snuill
things, is of great importance to all our readers.
Sec. 12.]
ENTOMOLOGICAL.
203
SECTION XII.-ENTOMOLOGICAL.
'isg«^A=ff:.^ hat arc Insects? — The term is iipplied to all, or nearly
all, the family of bugs, worms, flies, wasps, moths,
millers, and small creeping things that infest a farm,
and all are generally ranked as pests, though erro-
neously, as M'e will show hy-and-by, some of tliem
being highly beneiicial.
The word insect comes from two Latin words,
signifying cut into, or notched ; and the body of a
perfect insect, as a wasp, is cut into and divided into
three distinct segments — the head, thorax, and abdo-
men, with two or three pairs of legs, and one or two
pairs of wings, and it breathes through holes in the
sides of the body. Insects commence life in eggs,
which hatch into worms or larvae, such as maggots
or catei-pillars, and these, after doing immense mis-
chief, as in that state they are voracious gormandizers, undergo transforma-
tion to the pupa or chrysalis state, and from that to the bug or butterfly
form, during which the eggs are laid in such vast numbers, that the species
are propagated so rapidly that the art of man seems insufficient to stay their
ravages, if of a ravaging breed, and hence he must look to natural aids. It
is for this that we have advocated protection to birds, because they are great
insect destroyers. Pestiferous insects also liave several other natural ene-
mies, which must be studied and protected by farmers.
Besides what are considered and treated of in natural history as perfect
insects, there are a great many sorts that come under the general name of
insect that do not answer the above definition, sucli as some of the aphis, or
plant-lice family, the striped and other bugs, and various worms. Some of
the latter — for instance, the earth-worm, or angler's worm — are thought to
be beneficial to soil. "We think, rather, it could be made more beneficial in
its death than in its life. Anything, such as salt, lime, potash, ammonia,
that would kill all the earth-worms, would add all the animal matter of their
body to the soil's fertility.
We can not go into a general examination of entomology, though we do
earnestly advise a study of the science by all farmers, who are, above all
other classes of the community, most in want of knowledge of insects, and
how to distinguish between those that are pests and those that are harmless,
or, perhaps, actual destroyers of those that are devastating our orchards, gar-
dens, and grain-fields. Of a few of these we shall give correct pictures,
with brief hints about their character, depredations, and such preventives as
have been tried and proved valuable or useless.
The great difficulty with the management of the greatest pests is their
204 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
diminutive size. Tlie great destroyers of wlieat, the midge, TIcssian-fl_v, and
joint--n-orm, are so minute tliat a microscope is needed for their examination.
It is the same with the aphis tribe, and what is called the " scale insect,"
which cover the limbs of fruit-trees like a second bark, until millions of
mouths, although very diminutive, suck away the life of the tree. Neither
man nor bird notices these minute destroyers until it is too lute to stop their
ravages.
Now let us look at what some of these insect pests do to the farmer's
crops. As cotton is considered the great American staple, and as America
i>, above all competition, the land of insects, we will first enumerate the cot-
ton destroyers found upon that plant by tliat indefatigable student of ento-
mology, Townend Glover, who was employed by the Patent Office to collect
infiirmation upon the subject.
242. Insects Infesting the Coltosi-P!anti — A species of cantharidcs, similar
to the striped potato fly, feeds upon the nectar or pollen, and sometimes eats
the petals of the flowers. Tliese are injurious, and several others found in
the flowers did not appear to be so.
A leaf beetle eats holes in the petals, and, some say, injures the bolls. A
large, green, thorny, poisonous caterpillar damages the foliage in August
aiul September. It also attacks Indian corn. If handled incautiously, its
spines inflict painful wounds. This large worm is in strong contrast with the
diminutive cotton-louse, which destroys the young plant in w-et seasons.
The boll-worm, however, is the great destroyer. Their presence in a cot-
ton-field is indicated by the great number of young bolls fallen to the ground,
after the inside has been eaten out. Before it falls, the worm crawls out and
attacks others, which in turn fall ; and if the worms are numerous, all the
bolls may be destroyed, just as all the plums of a tree are destroyed by
curculio.
A small green caterpillar feeds upon and rolls itself in the leaves of the
cotton 2)lant; and a solitary hairy caterpillar, of a yellowish color, eats the
leaves; and a green, smooth-skinned one feeds upon the blossoms ; and also
several very slender, brownish span-worms. A small beetle, of a greenish,
metallic color, barred with dirty cream-color, often seen in the holes made
by boll-worms, is not thought a destroyer. It only follows in the path of
insects that do destroy.
Various other small insects are found on the plant, but it is not certain
that they arc destructive, while several are well ascertained to be highly
beneficial to tlie cotton-planter. Among these we enumerate the lady-bird
{Coccinella), which, both in the larva and perfect state, devours myriads of
cotton-lice.
The planter and overseer should learn to distinguish these from noxious
insects, and instruct their hands to protect them.
The larva of the bee-winged fly also destroys lice, and ichneumon flies de-
posit eggs in their bodies.
Tiger beetles {Clcimlella) are also destroyers of the noxious insects. Ants
Sec. 12.J ENTOMOLOGICAL. 205
climb the cotton-stalks to feed iipon aphis, and not upon the plant. Spiders,
too, catch moths in their nets, and also seize and devour otlier insects. The
great aim should be to learn whicli of all the insects found in the cotton-field
are friends, and which foes.
The boll-worm, and the one which is some seasons so destructive to Indian
corn in the milk, are declared by some, upon pretty good authority, to be
identical. The chrysalis is of a bright chestnut brown ; the moths, a tawny
yellow color. The upper wings yellowish, shaded with green or red, in some,
with a dark band, and crescent-shaped mark near the center of the wing.
Tlie under wings are lighter colored, bordered with black.
To prevent depredations from the boll-worm, it is recommended to light
fires around the field at night, to attract the moths when they begin to make
their appeai'auce. Doubtless many will be attracted to the light and de-
stroyed. Tliey have also been destroyed by placing plates upon stakes set
among the cotton, in which about half a gill of vinegar and molasses is
placed, mixed, four of vinegar to one of molasses. This attracts the moth,
which perishes in the mixture. This kind of moth-trap requires a good d-eal
of labor, for the plates must be visited every evening and replenished, while
the moths last. The same plan will be found a good one to catch other
moths tlian those which infest cotton.
243. Insects Destructive to Indian Corn and Wheat. — ^The insect which eats
into the grains of Indian corn is not only a destructive one, but when it in-
fests the ears that are wanted for cooking in their green state, it is trouble-
some and disgustingly otiensive. It only feeds while the corn is in the
"roasting car" condition. At first it is so small as to be almost impercept-
ible, and doubtless man}' a one gets between the teeth of the eater of early
green corn, even in this city, for here we have seen a great many marks of
their ravages. It is, however, mucli worse at the South. Slieltered under
the husk, it eats voraciously, and increases in size rapidly, until about an
inch long. Some are brown, some green, some striped. In fact, there is no
uniformity in color. Tlie body is sparingly clothed with short hairs, rising
from black spots or warts. The worm leaves the ear and goes into the
ground to undergo its transformation.
If farmers, particularly JSTorthern ones, would watch the first appearance
of these insects, and try to destroy the moths, they might save themselves
much loss in the iuture, for all insects of tliis kind are wonderfully prolific.
There is an ichneumon fly which preys upon this insect, and the habits of
that fly should be studied, and, if possible, tlie family increased. Birds, too,
are fond of this species of worms ; probably because the food it fattens upon
makes sweet morsels for their palates.
The destruction of tire grains of corn eaten by this worm is only a part of
the damage that ensues. The grains eaten are upon tlie small end of the ear,
and here grows a fungus, which often destroys the ear. It also oftentimes
affords a secure harbor for otlier insects, which destroy wliat tlie worms have
left. The corn-worm does more damage in dry seasons than wet ones, owiiif
•20G SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
fo the fact that tlie silk grows irregularly, or continues longer green, and the
worms often cat ofi" the silk before the kernel is fructified.
Another insect infesting Indian corn at the South is called Sylvanits
quadricollis—xi diminutive beetle, which hides between the grains, and
loosens them from the cob, devouring the germ first, and then the white
starchy part of the kernel. These insects sometimes exist in vast nutnbers,
and arc then very destructive. Sometimes they destroy the germ in such a
way that its absence is imperceptible, and that causes disappointment when
it is planted as seed. Kiln-drying is recommended when the corn is to be
nsed for food, but not for seed. Quick-lime is recommended, strewed among
tlie ears of corn in the crib. If put up with husks on, salt has proved
beneficial.
There is another insect that troubles corn in the Southern States — the
corn-borer. Tiiis is called a bill-bug, or corn-borer. It bores into the stalk
just at the surface of the earth, and deposits its eggs. The grub eats the sub-
stance of the stalk, and the transformation takes place in the cavity eaten
out, where the pupa remains till spring, and then comes forth a beetle, in its
tarn to deposit eggs in the young corn.
These insects have been very destructive in Alabama and several other
Southern States, and, like many other pests, may gradually become acclimated
faither and farther north, till all the corn-growing region is infested. Farmers
should be on the look-out for these " borers," and also bear in mind that the
best remedy yet found is to pull up all corn-stalks, after harvest, and pile
and burn them. These insects are usually most troublesome in swamp lands.
The larva of the angoumas moth is very destructive to corn, as -well ns
wheat and other cereals, when stored ; and in the South, in the open field.
The grub is one fourth inch long in corn, and less iu wheat. It spins a
cocoon in the cavity eaten out when it goes into the pupa state. From a
small round hole previously made, it emerges a moth, with long, narrow
wings, of a yellowish gray color, of satin-like luster, fringed with long hairs.
The insects grown in maize are larger, though identical with the wheat in-
t-ects. Tliis insect is not confined to M-arm latitudes, but is more troublesome
there than farther north. We have seen the moths swarming in myriads
about corn-houses and around wheat-stacks. The female lays from sixty to
ninety eggs, which hatch into minute white worms in four to six days, each
one of which makes a lodgment in a grain of corn, where it eats, and ma-
tures in three weeks; so that two sets mature in one season, the pupa of the
second growth remaining in the grain till spring.
It is said that this insect was first observed in North Carolina, about forty
years ago. They will fly into a candle sometimes, in a granary, in such
numbers as fo extinguish the light, and doubtless could be destroyed by fire
to a great extent. Smear a cask with one head, on the inside, with tar or
molasses, and place a light in it, and you will catch quantities of the moths.
Where they abound, it is advisable to store corn unhusked ; and salt is
also useful, sprinkled iu as the corn is put in the crib, just as hay is salted.
Sec. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 20T
"We know places where this insect is so trouhlesome to farmers, that it is only
by great care that they can keep corn or wheat over from one crop to an-
other. In west Tennessee and northwest Mississippi they are excessively
annoying.
Several remedies have been tried, with success in some cases and failure
in others, imder apparently the same circumstances. We will name some
of them. After the grain is thoroughly cleaned, spread it upon white sheets,
or boards, or a tin roof, or, if convenient, a flat rock is better than either,
and some use a clay floor, and let it lie in the sun until it gets hot, and then
put it np in tight casks. Kiln-drying at 176° kills the insect and the germi-
nating power of the corn at the same time. If grain is placed in tight casks,
and the gas arising from burning charcoal conveyed to it by a tube, which
nuiy be iron next the fire, and flexible tube next the cask, for convenience, so
as to fumigate the grain, the insect is destroyed without injury to the germ.
An infusion of the fumes of chloroform will kill these or any other insects
iu a close vessel. Even a few drops jjut in a bottle with insects, corked up,
deprives them of life directly. It will not, however, destroy eggs, as the
heating of the corn does. Heating it, by piling it up damp, has been prac-
ticed ; but cai'e must be taken, if this is practiced, that it does not overheat
and get musty. If it does, it should be washed before grinding.
Lime has been effectively tried, entirely preventing the ravages of the
insect, by storing the grain, ready prepared for the mill, in tight casks or
bins, and covering by sifting over the top an inch or two deep of finely-
powdered lime. Whenever the grain is v\-anted for the mill, run it through
the winnowing machine, and blow out the lime. A trifle will adhere to the
furze of the kernels, but it does uo harm — it is rather beneficial to the flour
or meal.
244. The Rice Weevil. — This is another pestiferous insect, which not only
destroys rice, but attacks other grain upon the upland portion of a rice
plantation. This weevil {Calandra orysos) resembles the one whose ravages
we have noticed in 243, which is the Calandra granaria. All true weevils
are beetles, with long snouts, and only depredate upon dry grain.
Many of us consumers of rice have seen the rice weevil, which has
hatched out of eggs deposited by the female parent, one in each grain,
where it hatches, and the young larva eats out all the substance, making
food of its habitation. By-and-by the weevil comes out, and the sexes meet,
and the female deposits its eggs iu sound grains, and so on until all are
destroyed.
When very plenty in rice, it makes anything but a savory dish. It is the
same with wheat. We have eaten bread that tasted as though we had about
an even mixture of bread and meat. " Weevilly flour," we have heard said,
was not unwholesome. Perhaps not ; to us it is most decidedly unpalatable,
and no art of cooking wheat or rice will hide the weevil flavor. It looks
and tastes of weevil, even in the buttermilk and saleratus biscuit of the most
liberal user of that salt.
208 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
Tlie rice weevil has often been found in rice inipoitod from China, and it
may have been introduced into tiiis country from thence. It differs, both in
appearance and habits, a little from the grain weevil. It is said to attack
rice in the field as well as after it is stored. It also attacks Indian corn in
the field, if left out till late in the fall, or until it becomes cjuite dry, in tiiose
States at the South where this insect most abounds.
The same remedies that will answer for oije variety of weevil will answer
for all. Wc give a few more remedies.
245. To Destroy Weevil. — Grain subject to depredations from the weevil,
which develops and matures in the heart of the seeds, and which imparts
considerable heat to the bulk of the pile, equal to or above blood-heat, is
easily detected on thrusting the hand into the body of the grain, by means
of the great heat of the mass.
In France, large quantities of grain are stored up against time of scarcity ;
and in order to protect it from the depredations of the insects that prey upon
it, commissioners have been appointed to examine into the means of destroy-
ing them, -who have reported that a small quantity of chloroform or sulphuret
of carbon put into the interior of the grain pit (which is usually in the
ground), and then hermetically sealed up, will destroy all the pests. Abn^it
seventy-five grains of sulphuret of carbon arc sufficient for about four bnsliels.
Grain put up in rail pens, as is the custom in the West, may be treated with
equal success with this agent, by covering the heap with a tarpaulin or close
woven cloth.
A successful farmer in Broome Co., N. Y., recommends cutting wheat while
in the milk, and the straw green, and salting it in the mow or stack. He says :
" About fourteen years ago the weevil appeared upon this farm, and quite
seriously affected the wheat crop. We commenced also about that time
cutting our wheat very green, as soon as it was out of the milk, no matter
how green the straw or heads ; and in order to preserve it the better in the
mow or stack, always applied salt liberally. For many years I liave salicd
my grain mows and stacks, but put none upon my hay. I am now cutting
my wheat as green as usual.
" From my own experience, I am satisfied that if the wheat is thus treated,
and not thrashed until after it has been some time piled up, the insect will
be destroyed in some of its transformations. At any rate, whoever tries tiie
experiment will be well surprised in the value of his wheat and straw.
Where straw is fed to stock — and all mine goes that way — it is sought Ibr
with keener relish, and makes better manure, while the wheat is much
heavier and plumper than when not so treated.
"I ought to say, perhaps, that the weevil has not troubled the farm since
that year, although wheat has been grown every year. Almost any year a
few may be ibund, but none to do any damage. My soil is a slaty, gravelly
loam, and my seeding is usually all done from the 1st to the 10th of Septem-
ber, and the best variety of wheat thus far has been the Uuc-stem, a beauti-
ful variety of white wheat."
Seo. 12.] KNTOMOLOGIOAL. 209
Another Broome County farmer, who thought the yellow-birds destroyed
his wheat, wished a neighbor " would get a gun and kill some yellow-birds,
which farmers generally suppose destroy the wheat. Mr. R. declined, as he
does not like to kill birds of any kind. Out of curiosity, however, he killed
one of the birds and opened the crop, when he found that the bird, instead
of eating the wheat, ate the weevil — the great destroyer of the wheat. He
found as many as two hundred weevil in the bird's crop, and hut fori?' grains
of wheat, and these had the weevil in them. This is a very important dis-
covery, and should be generally known. The bird resembles the canary,
and sings beautifully."
246. Wheat Insect vs. Weevil. — ^Tliere is a confusion of tongues in relation
to the M'cevil that we have described (244, 245), and the one that attacks the
wheat in the milk.
The insect that has injured the wheat crop so extensively in New York,
Pennsylvania, and Ohio, is not the one generally known as the weevil. This
insect, called " red weevil," " wheat-midge," " the insect," etc., differs very
much from the Calandra granaria, as that only injures the ripened kernel
of wheat or com after it is stacked or housed, or even after it is in the bin
of the granary or grist-mill. The weevil exhibits in swarms around the
barn, the female laying her eggs on the grain, and the grubs as soon as
hatched work into the kernel, consuming all but the bran, without breaking
that, so as to show tliat all is rottenness within. The ravages of this insect,
as we have already stated, are so destructive at the South, that it is difficult
to keep wheat and corn. The latter is generally put up with the shucks on,
which is damp or else heavily salted. "Wheat is kc]:)! in close casks or tight
bins by covering with flour of lime an inch deep over the surface.
"The insect that has destroyed so much grain in past seasons is a
yellow fly (with blue wings), about one tenth of an inch in length ; it
deposits its eggs, while the wheat is in blossom, within the chaffy scales of
the flower, during the evening twilight and dark stormy days, in numbers
from two to forty, which hatch in ten days and completely destroy the germ
of the berry. The maggot is reddish yellow, about one sixteenth of an inch
long, or perhaps an eighth when full-grown."
" It is supposed that it leaves the wheat and winters in the ground. That is
the time to kill them. Salt is undoubtedly the remedy. Tiie fly is hardly
ever seen ; they never fly in the sunshine. The weevil fill the air like mus-
ketoes in a swamp. Tliis insect hides on the stems and leaves, shaded from
the heat of tlio sun. This is a northern insect; the weevil is a southern one."
" Tiiis insect M-as first seen in America about the year 1828, in the nortliern
part of Vermont and borders of Lower Canada. It first made its appearance
in nortliern Ohio in the year 1843, and its ravages have rapidly increased
from year to year."
Dr. Harris recommends brimstone fumigation of the plants. That would
be impossible, almost, on whole counties. Flour of lime sown on wet wheat
has appeared to prevent the work of destruction. Deep plowing the stubble,
210 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. U.
and not sowing any grain upon it next year, might eradicate the insect, if
all who arc affected would unite in that course, as all must in any other that
sliould be adopted.
The remedy recommended by our correspondent m Broome Co., of salting
the cut wheat in the mow or stack, would not answer, for the maggots already
burrowed in the ground for winter, but the salt must be applied to the land
in liberal quantities — say five to ten bushels per acre. We cut up the cut-
worms effectually upon our corn ground this season with a handful of salt to
a hill. The corn fired a little at first, but it is growing beautifully now.
Every bug or worm can be killed in the soil, with salt, and we have no
doubt that will be found the most sure way of ridding the country of this
terrible pest of wheat-growers. The Cccidomyia tritici of Kirby is what we
take to be the insect called the " red weevil."
A " close observer" of the habits of the midge, says of one who had
written of the insect's wintering in the ground :
" The writer is mistaken in some of his facts as to the habits of the insect,
as he can very easily satisfy himself by getting a few heads of wheat in the
proper season that are afiected and putting them in a small glass jar. He
will see that the worm does not go into the earth, but corner outside of the
head after desti-oying the grain of wheat it hatched in, and weaves itself up
into a snug little cocoon on the under side of the outside chafi". If he exam-
ine that cocoon after a time, he Avill find the worm has changed into a new
shape, and will ultimately come out a winged insect. I have never yet
been able to find the worm seeking shelter in the earth. It is this knowl-
edge of the habit of the insect that induces the belief that liberal salting of
the grain in mow or stack is fatal to it."
Townend Glover, who is pretty good authority, says of this pest :
" The parent fly deposits her eggs in the beginning of July, and' in the
opening flowers of the grain, or when the wheat is still in the milky state.
The eggs hatch in about eight days, when the little yellow maggots, or
worms, maybe found within the chafty scales of the grain. The seed scales
of grass also sometimes serve as a shelter for these depredators. The worms,
which are of a bright yellow or orange color, do not exceed an eighth of an
inch in length, and are ofren much smaller. I have seen as many as twelve
within the chafl" of one single grain, sent to the Patent Oftice from Ohio.
Tliese maggots prey upon the wheat wl^en only in a milky state. "When
they begin their depredations, soon after the blossoming of the plant, they
do the greatest injury, as the grains never fill out. Toward the last of July
or beginning of August the full-grown maggots cease eating, and become
sluggish and torpid, jireparatory to shedding their skins, which takes place in
the following manner : Tlie body of the maggot gradually shrinks in length
within its skin, and becomes more flattened and less pointed, as readily may
be seen through its delicate transj^arency. Tiiis torpid state lasts only a few
days, after which the insect casts its skin, leaving the latter entire, except a
little rent at one end of it. These empty cases, or skins, may be found in
Sec. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 211
great abundance in the wheat-ears, after the molting process is completed.
Mr. J. W. Dawson, of Pictou, Nova Scotia, says that sometimes the maggot
descends from the plants and molts on the surface of the ground. After
shedding the skin, it recovers its activity, and writhes about at first, but
takes no food. It is shorter, somewhat flattened, and more obtuse than
before, and is of a deeper yellow color, with an oblong greenish spot in the
middle of the body. Within two or three days after molting, the maggots
either descend of their own accord or are shaken out of the ears by the wind,
and fall to the ground. They do not let themselves down by threads, as
has been supposed by some, for they are not able to spin. Nearly all of
them disappear before the middle of August, and they are rarely found in
the grain at the time of harvest. Hon. "William D. Lindsley, of Sandusky
City, Ohio, however, sent me several specimens of wheat with this insect in
it as late as the beginning of August. From observations and remarks made
by intelligent farmers, it appears that the descent of these insects is facilitated
by falling rain and heavy dews. Having reached the ground, the maggots
soon burrow under the surface, sometimes to the depth of an inch, those
which have not molted casting their skins before entering tlie earth. Here
they remain witliout further change through the following winter. It is not
usually before June that they are transformed to pupae, this change being
effected witliout another molting of the skin. This pupa state lasts but a
short time, a week or two at most, and in many cases only a few days.
Under the most favorable circumstances, the pupa works its way to tlie
surface, before liberating the included fly, and when the insect has taken
wing, the empty pupa shell, or skin, will be seen protruding from the ground.
In other cases, the fly issues from its pupa skin in the earth, and comes to
the suiface with flabby wings, which soon expand and dry on exposure to
the air. Tliis last change occurs mostly in the months of June and July,
when great numbers of the flies have been seen apparently coming from the
ground in fields wlierc grain was raised the year before.
"The wheat-midge, or fly, 'is a small orange-colored gnat, with long,
slender, pale-yellow legs, and two transparent wings reflecting the tints of
the rainbow, and fringed with delicate hairs. Its eyes are black and prom-
inent ; its face and feelers, yellow ;. its antennje, long and blackish. Tliose
of the male are twice as long as the body, and consist of only twelve joints,
which, except at the base, an oblong-oval, somewhat narrowed in the middle,
are surrounded by two whorls of hairs. These insects vary much in size.
The largest females do not exceed one tenth of an inch in length, and many
are found toward the end of the season less than half this length. The males
are usually smaller than the females, and somewhat paler in color.' Mr.
Lindsley sent several of these insects to tlie Patent Office in August, 1855,
and stated that they have been extremely destructive in several parts of his
district last year (1854), and that in some places the cattle were turned into
the field in order to eat the straw and what little was left of the grain, the
main crop not being worth harvesting. These flies are likewise said to be
212 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
much more numerous and destructive on the edges of fields than in the
center, and in some cases when the edges were completely worthless, the
center bore comparatively a good crop.
" Fumigation with sulpliur, and burning weeds on tlie windward side of
the field, when the grain is in blossom, have been recoinmended. Air-slacked
lime or wood-ashes, strewn over the grain wlicn in blossom, in the proportion
of one bushel of lime or ashes per acre, to be scatlered over the field when
the jjlants are wet with dew or rain. Two or three applications have some-
times been found necessary. Plowing up the ground, also, to destroy the
maggots ; and the dust-chaff, or refuse straw, if found to contain any of these
insects, should be immediately burned. In those parts of New England
where these insects have done the greatest injury, according to Dr. Harris,
the cultivation of fall-sown or winter grain has been given up, and this for
some years to come will bo the safest course."
247. The Joint-Worm. — One of the greatest pests that Virginia farmere
have had to contend with in M-hcat-growing is the joint-worm. It has been
more destructive than the weevil, and in some cases as great a pest in that
State as the midge has in New York.
Tlio following is Glover's description of this insect :
" The joint-worm (Artr//^o/»rt hardt i), ^v\nch has committed such ravages
in tlic wheat-fields of Virginia, comes from a small, black, four-winged fly,
about an eighth of an inch in length. Tiie female lays several eggs in the
outer sheath of the stalk above the joints. After they hatch, the worms
commence feeding within the sheath, and the constant irritation produced
by I hem forms a woody gall, or rather succession of galls, in the cavity of
each of wiiich lies a small, footless maggot, about the seventh or eighth of
an inch in length, having a body wnth thirteen segments, and of a pale,
glossy, yellowish color. The number of worms in each cluster of galls varies
from four to ten, or even more. The substance of the stalk attached becomes
brittle, and either partially or entirely fills its central cavity, and frequently
distorts it into various irregular shapes. I have often observed young root-
lets ])utting out immediately below a joint so affected. Tiie worms on the
stalks of wheat, when examined in Febrnar}', were yet in the larva, but
early in March several had assumed the pupa state. The}' were about an
eighth of an inch in letigth, of a pale yellow color, which as the pupa3 were
near coming out, became afterward nearly black. These pupa3 had the
rudiments of wings, legs, and antemiaj as in the perfect fly, but were motion-
less. Late in April and the beginning of May tlie flies made their appear-
ance through holes gnawed through the tough., woody covering of the gall-
like excrescence in which they had passed the winter. Tiiis transformation,
however, took place in a warm room. Tliese flies are about an eighth of an
inch in length, of a black color, the knees, joints, and feet being tinged
with yellow. The males, according to Dr. Harris, vary from the females by
being smaller, and in having no ])iercers. The joints of the antemia; are
likewise longer, and surrounded with whorls of little hairs. The hind body
! I
Sec. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 213
is shorter, less pointed at the extremity, and is connected with the thorax
bj a longer stem. He also says, that among fifteen females only one male
was found. This corresponds with what I have observed, as out of sixty to
eighty joint-worm flies, produced from diseased stalks of wheat, I only pro-
cured one. male answering to his description, and eiglit parasites, not quite
a tenth of an inch in length, of a dark metallic shade, with yellow legs, and
the antennae much thicker at the end. These flies were furnished with four
transparent, dotted wings. It is somewhat incomprehensible how it happens
that so many females appear at the same time without more males.
" Another four-winged fly also made its appearance from the same stalks,
of about an eighth of an inch in length, with an abdomen and legs of a
briglit yellow. The head and tliorax were of a dark color, and somewhat
metallic luster. Tiie wings were transparent, dotted, and fringed with short
hairs, and the piercer reached to the middle of the under part of the abdo-
men. Di". Han-is states tliat it has been found in Massachusetts, that plow-
ing in the stubble lias no cfi'ect upon the insects, which remain alive and
uninjured under tlie slight covering of earth, and easily make tlieir way to
tlie surface, when tlicy have completed their transformation. A free use of
manure and thorough tillage, by promoting a rapid and vigorous growth of
the plant, may render it less liable to suffer from the attacks of the insect.
It lias been stated that t'.iis fly, like the wheat-midge, does more injury on
the edges of fields than in the middle.
" At the Joint-Worm Convention, held at Warrentown, Virginia, in 185i,
the following was recommended : Prepare well the land intended for wheat,
and sow it in the beginning of autumn witli the earliest and most tlirifty
and hardy varieties, and do nothing to retard the ripening of the crop by
grazing or otherwise. Use guano or some other fertilizer liberally, partic-
ularly when seeding corn-land or stubble. Burn the stubble on every field
of corn, rye, or oats, and all thickets or other harbors of vegetable growth
contiguous to the crop. Sow the wheat in as large bodies and in as compact
forms as practicable ; and if possible, neighbors should arrange among them-
selves to sow adjoining fields the same year. Feed all the wheat, or other
straw, which may be infected, in racks or pens, or on confined spots ; and
on or before the first of May carefully burn all the straw which has not been
fed. The refuse of wheat, such as screenings, etc., should also be destroyed,
as the pupa ease is hard and not easily softened by dampness or wet."
We can add nothing to this preventive, except a recommendation to com-
post the refuse of the cattle, instead of burning it. Make a heap that will
undergo a heating fermentation, and the eggs will be destroyed, and the
manure will be more valuable than the ashes.
248. The Hessian-Fly. — ^This is thp common name of an insect that at one
time threatened to put a stop to wheat-growing in all the Northern and
Middle States. This insect {Cecidomyia destructor) obtained its name from
the fact of its (supposed) importation with the Hessian soldiers of the Revo-
lution, though this fact has been strongly disputed. It might have been in
214 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
the country before, and it might also have been imported. It was first pub-
licly noticed in 1776, at Flatbiish (L. I.), and on Staten Island, in the vicinity
of Sir William Howe's debarkation of those mercenaries of King George,
and it was quite in keeping with the feelings of the people that they should
readily credit the charge, that they had brought this among the other evils
of war. At any rate, it multiplied and spread rapidly, and was for a time
looked upon as a scourge almost as great as tire and sword. Of late years,
liowever, it appears to be dying out. It is subject to the attack of parasites,
which have done more than all the arts and strength of man to rid his land
of this pest.
Tlie greatest destroyer of the Ilessian-fly is a shining black four-winged
fly, about the tenth of an inch in lengtii. Do not mistake this friend for
your foe, and compass its destruction. Many sensible men have made this
mistake, and very aptly, too ; for, as they will tell you, they have actually
seen the fellow come out of the dried skin of the Hessian. So they did ; but
not until the destroyer of wheat had been destroyed by an insect that fed
upon his vitals.
The parasite of the Cccldomyia destructor is the Ceraphron destructor of
Say, and it is a question of vast consequence to wheat-growers what they
can do to promote th.e growth of this insect, which has already been of such
vast benefit to tliem.
"We have no doubt that the parasite of the wheat-midge will do the same
kind of service, and perhaps exterminate that pest.
The Hessian-fly is a very small two-winged gnat. The female deposits
her eggs soon after the wheat begins to grow, say in October, for lat. 39^,
40°, 41°, in tlie cavities between the little ridges of the blades. In from
four to fifteen days the eggs hatch, and the diminutive maggots M-ork down
into the leaf-sheath and there spend the winter. The fly works from August
to January, according to latitude and climate influences, so that what would
be a remedy in one place would not be in another. In fiict, it is asserted that
the fly sometimes works upon Avheat in the spring ; so the following recom-
mendation would not be eflectual. That is :
About the middle of August sow a strip of wheat adjoining where you
intend to put your cyo\> — say one or two acres. About the middle of Sep-
tember sow your field. When that lias come up and shows cleverly, plow
under the first sown ; turn it under well. Your fly is headed and your crop
is safe.
In the particular locality of the man who says " that remedy wont fail,"
perhaps it will not.
The maggots within the leaf-sheath lie dormant through the winter, and
do not stop the growth of the wheat until just before it is ready to blossom,
when if there are several on a stalk, it withers and dies. The worms do not
eat the stalk, but suck up the sap and poison it. A full-sized maggot is
three twentieths of an inch lon^', with a hard skin, of a bright chestnut color,
and looks as much like a flax-seed as anything it can be compared to. This
Seo. 12] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 215
appearance remahis, but the outside is a dried skin inclosing the pupa, whicli
advances to perfection in April or May, and it is these early tlies that lay
eggs upon spring wiieat. It is asserted that there are three broods in a year.
Tlie fly is about tlie tenth of an inch long ; the head, antennae, and thorax,
black ; the iiind body tawny, the wings tawny at the base, and black and
hairy at the ends, expanding about a quarter of an inch. The legs are pale,
red, or brown, and feet black. The antennse are jointed, and surrounded
with whorls of short hairs.
With the above short description and microscope in hand, it will not be
difficult for any observing person to determine the character of an insect
found upon his wheat, so as to decide whether it is the Ilessian-fly or the
Ilessian-fly destroyer.
249. Insects Injurious to Fruits. — Probably of all the tribe of pests that
infest fruit-trees, that known as curculio, or plum weevil {Rhijnchmnus
?ienuphar), does the most damage. It has nearly driven the plum-trees
away from every farm, and has in some seasons destroyed the peaches, and
done incalculable damage to the apple crop. In fact, for many years pre-
vious to 1860, there was not a good apple crop in all the Eastern States,
owing, in a great measure, to the curculio. Small as this pest is, it is capable
of doing great mischief to all the fruits, and its sting is death to plums,
apricots, and nectarines, and very injurious to cherries and pears. The finer
the fruit, the greater the injury. A very hardy plum or cherry may survive
a sting from this insect, which leaves a peculiar, crescent-shaped wound, and
makes an ugly scar and a hard gnarl in the fairest fruit.
Tliis insect is found in nearly all the States of the Union ; it is worst in
the Middle ones, or between latitudes 39^ and 41°.
By the following minute description by Glover, the little villain may be
known by any one, though not previously acquainted with him :
"The perfect curculio is about two tenths of an inch in length, of a dark
brown color, with a spot of yellowish white on the hind part of each M'ing-
case. The head is furnished with a long, curved snout, or bill, with which
it is enabled to bore into the unripe fruit by means of jaws placed at the
end of the bill. Tlie wing-cases, which are rigid, uneven, and humped,
cover two transparent wings, by which the perfect weevil is enabled to fly
from tree to tree ; but when these wing-cases are closed, the back appears
v.'ithout any suture, or division, which has led to the very eiToneous idea
among farmers that the insect can not fly. When disturbed, or shaken from
the tree, it is so similar in appearance to a dried bud, that it can scarcely be
distinguished, especially when feigning death, which it always does when
alarmed. As soon as the plums are of the size of peas, the weevil com-
mences the work of destruction by maling a semi-circular cut through the
skin with her long, curved snout, in the apex of which she deposits a single
egg. She then goes to another plum, which is treated in a similar manner,
until she has exhausted her whole stock of eggs. The grubs, which are
hatched by the heat of the sun, immediately eat their way to the stone in an
216 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. XL
oblique direction, where they remain, gnawing the interior, until the fruit is
wealvoned and diseased, and by this treatment falls from the tree. Tiic
grub, which is a small, yellowish, footless, white maggot, then leaves the
fiillcn fruit, enters the earth, changes into a pupa, and in the first brood
comes to the surface again, in about three weeks, as a perfect weevil, to
propagate its species and destroy more fruit. It has not yet been decided
whether the latest generation of the w^eevil remains in the ground all winter
in the grub or in the pupa state. Dr. E. Sanborn, of Andover, Mass., asserts,
however, that the grubs, after having entered the earth, return to the surface
in about six weeks as perfect weevils, which must remain hidden in crevices
until spring. The most popular opinion is that they remain in the larva or
pupa state in the earth during the winter, and only reappear in the spring
in the perfect state. The worm, or grub, is often found in the knots or ex-
crescences which disfiguie and destroy plum-trees, and has been wrongfully
accused of being the cause of these swellings; but it is highly probable that
the weevil, finding in the young knots an acid somewhat similar to that of
the unripe fruit, merely deposits its eggs therein, as the nearest substitute
for the real plum.
" Some of the remedies recommended for preventing the ravages of these
insects are actually absurd, such as tying cotton round the trees in order to
prevent tliem from ascending, when it is known that they are furnished with
wings, and fly from tree to tree with perfect ease. Among the remedies at
present in use, one is to cover the fruit with a coating of whitewash mixed
with a little glue, applied by means of a syringe. Another is to spread a
sheet upon the ground under the tree, and then jar the principal branches
suddenly with a mallet covered with cloth, so as not to bruise tlie bark,
when the perfect insects will fall into the sheet and feign death, and may be
gathered and dcstroj-ed. Hogs are sometimes turned into plum orchards,
where, by eating the fallen and diseased fruit, they materially lessen the evil.
Coops of chickens, placed under the trees, have also been recommended.
Then shake the trees often, and the chickens will catch and devour the
insects. All fallen fruit should be gathered up several times in the course
of the season, and burnt, or given to hogs, or destroyed in some other way."
We shall now give, besides the above remedies, a few more, "infallible,"
of course, that float annually through the newspai)ers.
250, Ciirculio Remedies. — To one pound of whale-oil soap add four ounces
of flour of sulphur. Mix thoroughly, and dissolve in twelve gallons of
water. To one half peek of quick-lime add four gallons of water, and stir well
together. When fulh' settled, pour oft' the transjiarent lime-water, and add
to the soap-and-sulphur mixture. Add to tiie same, also, say four gallons
of tolerably strong tobacco-water. Apply tliis mixture, when thus incor-
porated, with a garden-syringe, to your plum or other fruit trees, .so that the
foliage shall be well drenched. If no rains succeed for three weeks, one
application will be sufficient. Sliould frequent rains occur, the mixture
should be again applied until the stone of tlie fruit becomes hardened.
Seo. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 217
The person who used and recommended tliis remedy says : " The trees tliat
received the apijlication rijiened an abundant crop of as perfect and beautiful
plums as ever grew, while not a single plum was ripened on those trees to
which the wash was not applied."
He also recommends a little salt to be added to the mixture.
It lias been stated as an important fact, that plum-trees planted in such a
position that the fruit will hang over water, Avill never be stung by curculio;
so that nothing is more easy than growing this delicious fruit wherever the
trees can be so planted. Dr. Underhill, of Croton Point Vineyard notoriety,
spates that he is never troubled, not having seen an insect upon one of 150
trees in six years. lie formed an artificial pond, with banks constructed on
purpose to set the trees slanting over the water. He gathers the fruit in a
boat. He has many of the best varieties of plums so planted, and never
saw finer fruit than he thus produces. It is an experiment that should be
tried by every man who has the necessary conveniences. The ravages of
the curculio have been so great for many years that we have had but few
plums, and those inferior and high priced, in this market.
We have the following account from James Taylor, of St. Catherine's,
C. W., a few miles from Niagara Falls, of a pretty effectual remedy for the
great pest of the plum-grower — the curculio. Ho says :
" Our locality being much infested with the curculio, and observing in one
paper issue, last spring, what had been pronounced by a Mr. Jos. H.
Matlier, of Goshen, twenty miles southeast of the place where the writer
resided, an effectual remedy against its ravages, allow me, for the benefit of
your readers, to state 7ni/ exjyerience of its efficacy. The proposed remedy
was a mixture of sulphur, lard, and Scotch snuff, to be rubbed freely on the
trunk and branches. This I applied according to the directions, and it is
true that I had a splendid crop of plums, some of the clioicest varieties,
always most subject to the a^tacks of this insect, viz., the Bolmar, Huling's
Superb, etc., being perfectly loaded ; lut marJc the result. On examining
my trees last fall, I found all that T had ajypUed the mixture to in a dying
state, and I have lost them all, with the exception of one or two young trees.
The operation being rather a troublesome one, I did not apply it to as many
as I should otherwise have done, or I should have lost more. So much for
quack nostrums. The remedy proved worse than the disease. Perhaps my
experience will be useful to others."
R. G. Pardee gives the following remedy fur the curculio, which has been
successfully practiced by a person of his acquaintance. Take fresh cow-
droppings, and a little wood-ashes, some lime, and a little sulphur, and make
all into a thin decoction, and throw it over the trees with a hand-basin.
Tliis lasts until it rains ; it is then put on again. A half pound of sulphur
to a half barrel is sufficient, and of the other substances it is not very im-
portant as to the proportions.
"VVe think the labor of this application would be too great.
Dr. Trimble, of New Jersey, says that he has tried all sorts of offensive
218 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
odors to keep off curculio, without effect. " I liave found no remedy equal
to that of manual labor in catching and destroying the insect. It is a fact
that some plum-trees are not infested by the curculio."
The fullowiiig is a conversation of some experienced fruit-growers upon
curculio remedies, and the character of the insect :
IIenky Steele, a New Jersey nurseryman, said that he had prevented
curculio by the use of black soap from the tallow-chandler's, dissolved in
water and much diluted, with which the trees are syringed directly after the
blossoms fall, after a rain, and repeated, if necessary, in consequence of being
washed off.
R. G. Pardee — A person present assures me that a neighbor of his
yarded his hogs around his plum-trees, and that saved them from the curcu-
lio. Mr. Pardee said that he thought that fresh cow or pig manure, dis-
solved, and the water sprinkled over plum-trees, would prevent curculio.
They dislike any sh-ong-smelling substances.
"Wm. Lawton — You may apply cow or pig manure raw to all fruits and
berries, but not horse manure ; that never should be used fresh — make it first
iijto compost.
Dr. Trimble — Tlie curculio has already commenced its ravages this spring.
I am also satisfied that the curculio stings the bark of plum-trees and pro-
duces the disease known as the black knot. I have made a great many
experiments to prove the insect identical with that wliich destroys all of our
smooth-skinned fruit. Tlie jarring of trees to shake off the curculio is effect-
ual, but it is an immense labor, as it must be attended to every day, and
some sunny days several times a day. I think that, unless some remedy
for this insect can be discovered, we shall be unable to raise any fine fruit.
It is the curculio that causes the disease in apples known as gnarly. Wo
get no good apples in Jersey, and it is out of the question to raise plums,
apricots, or fine peaches. We import prunes from Germany cheaper than
we can make boxes to pack them in — the plums grow to such perfection in
that country.
Wm. Lawton — I have removed bushels of black knots from my cherry-trees
and burned them. I found in all these knots a living worm. I destroy tlic
common caterpillar by collecting them in the nests and destroying them.
Mr. O. W. Brewster, of Freeport, 111., gave a statement of his success in
repelling the attacks of the curculio on his plums. Early in spring he scat-
tered lime, which had been mixed for whitewashing, under his plum-trees
once a week, until the curculio quitted tlie field. He also scattered soap-suds
and cliamber-lye under them in liberal quantity. He said, I have twice tried
the same remedy, with complete success. I once applied it to a small tree,
which matured its whole crop ; several other trees near it, which set full of
fruit, did not ripen a specimen. If plum-trees succeeded with us well, I
should have no fears of the curculio.
P. II. Perry, of Collins Center, N. Y., says :
" A gentleman lately informed me that he had raised a good crop of plums
Seo. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 219
simply by spreading a heavy coat of fresh horse manure on the ground under
his trees. He said it entirely prevented the ravages of the curcnlio, when
0 1 their account he had not been able to gather a crop of plums for years
before."
Solon Eobixson read the following letter from Dobbs' Ferry. The man
certainly can read, at least he says so, but we wonder how he can own a tree
liable to the attacks of the curculio, and know so little about it. He says :
'■ I have been much interested in the doings and sayings of the Farmers'
Club, but in the various debates before that body, I have seen no statement
advanced concerning the habits of the curculio. I have also read several
articles concerning its depredations, but I have yet to learn whether it is a
flying insect, or simj^ly crawls up the body of trees. 1 have several cherry-
trees in my garden of choice varieties, and I can safely say that every cherry
was punctured by the curculio this spring.
"The trees are growing and have just commenced bearing.
" The soil is sandy.
" My neighbor, less than a hundred feet from me, has escaped its ravages.
" Does it fly or crawl ?
" Would a barrel or trough similar to those used on tlie elms of New
Haven be of any service in staying its ravages ?
" Are the worms in the common black cherry, which is universally
inhabited, produced by the curculio ?
" Is there any remedy for this pest ?"
That question — " Is there any remedy for this pest ?" — has been answered
in every agricultural paper in the world, and so it has been stated that the
insect has wings, and yet the writer of this letter has not read of it.
Let me ask another question : " How is it possible to enlighten people
who will not read ? or, reading, will not understand ?"
Dr. Trimble — I am now trying several experiments to prove that the
same insect that stings the fruit makes the knots on the limbs. No attach-
ment to the bole of a tree can be any protection against a flying insect like
the curculio. The excrescence on the limb is no more remarkable than the
insect that produces the balls upon oak-trees. Dr. T. showed specimens
of the curculio of plums, that he had hatched out in earth covered to pre-
vent escape, to show that the insect becomes perfect from the first laying of
6ggs in young plums, and, as he thinks, these perfect insects lie dormant till
spring. The question is, "Where do they hide themselves until the young
fruit is ready for them to deposit their eggs ?
Prof. Mapes said that a preparation called Persian Powder is said to be
very effectual in destroying insects.
"VVm. S. Caepentek thought that no bug-powder would rid a farm of cater-
pillars. Something else must be done.
Wm. Lawton said that he had cleared his farm of tent caterpillars by
pulling down the nests by hand, with all the worms in them, when they are
easily destroyed.
220 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
Dr. Tkimble gave a history of the cockchafer, which remains in the ground,
nice tlie locust, four years, and then comes forth in immense numbers, but
in the flying state. They do not feed, and consequently do no damage to
plants.
In our opinion, the best remedy for curculio is pigs, poultry, and birds.
We have seen fine crops of plums grown in a curculio neighborhood, in a
season when these pests were active, in a small lot occupied as a poultry -yard,
in which several pigs run at large. The hens scratclicd, and the pigs rooted
the ground, and the dove-cot also had something to do with the matter. At
any rate, the barn was inhabited by swallows, and they catch flies, and per-
haps curculios.
251. — Apple and Peach WormSi — Tlie codliu moth, or apple moth {Carpo-
capm jwmaiicUa), is the name of an injurious insect which deposits its eggs,
in June or July evenings, in the calyx of the young apples, where they soon
hatch, and the little worms eat their way to the heart of the fruit, where
they continue till ready to change into the chrysalis state. " Wormy apples"
generally ripen prematurely and f;dl. The worm is of a reddish color when
fully grown, and ready to leave the fruit and creep into crevices of the bark
to spin a semi-transparent cocoon, where it changes into a small chestnut-
brown chrysalid, and that produces a moth in a few days, measuring
seven tenths of an inch across the wings, which are of a brownish-gray color,
crossed by many dark-colored lines, with a dark, oval spot on each wing.
The under wings are lighter colored, shaded near the margin. As a remedy
against this pest, it has been recommended to wrap cloths loosely around
the forks of the trees, for a shelter for the worms to form cocoons, and then
destroy them. We fancy that this remedy will cure but a very small part
of the evil. Picking nji and putting all wind falls where the worms can
never see daylight will kill more of them.
Perhaps the best remedy for this, and many other little pests, is the Scrip-
tural one — " Dig about the tree and dung it." That is, give it greater vigor
of growth ; make it more productive, so that a portion of the fruit will come
to maturity in spite of all insects. It is a well-known fact that the most
vigorous-growing, thrifty trees exactly correspond with thrit'ty farmers — the
more they have, the more they gain. Insects mostly attack the most
neglected trees.
252. Peach-Tree Borcrsi — Tlie peach-tree borer {^i^eria exitiosa) is one
of the greatest pests of the farm, because it has almost blotted out of exist-
ence this most valuable fruit in large districts of the country. It is believed
by most careful observers to be the cause of nearly all the diseases which
afiect the peach-trees, the most visible of which is *• the yellows," where the
leaves gradually take on a yellow, sickly appearance in midsunimer, and
frequently at the age of three or four years show scarcely a green leaf, when
they should be clothed in the richest green, and finally wither and gradually
perish. Tlie epitaph of tens of thousands of peach-trees all over New En-
gland, Xew York, New Jersey, and Delaware, Maryland, and Pennsylvania,
LJ
I I
I 1
Sec. 13.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 221
would be, "Died joiiiig — attacked by boreis — tbe disease exhibited in yel-
low leaves — speedy death followed."
This boi'ing worm is produced from eggs deposited at the foot of the tree
by a wasp-shaped moth, of a steel-blue color, with an orange ring about the
abdomen. Sometimes the eggs are placed in wounds, or between forks, bi.t
generally in the bark, close to the ground, where the worms can easily pene-
trate into and devour the inner bark and wood just below the surface.
Sometimes a vigorous tree will retain life year after year, with these worms
gnawing at its vitals. Sometimes the tree is girdled and destroyed in a single
summer. There appears to be a succession of broods in a single season. In
the latitude of New York city, the moths come out in June and July. Nec-
tarines and apricots are also attacked by the same insect. The plum wood
appears too hard, and peaches engrafted on plum stocks sometimes succeed
where, if upon their natural roots, they would never bear fruit. Tliese
borers, when full-grown, are about an inch long, colored yellowish white,
with an amber-brawn head. The chrysalis is brown ; it is formed in a case
made of the gnawings of the worm, which it glues together around its body.
The moth expands wings an inch across, transparent and veined, and bor-
dered blue in the male, and dark blue upon the female's upper wings, and
her body is belted with orange.
The remedies, as preventives or cures of the peach-tree borer, are numer-
ous. Dr. Harris, the great American entomologist, says :
" Remove the earth around the base of the tree, crush and destroy the
cocoons and borers which may be found in it and under the bark, cover the
wounded parts with the common clay composition, and surround the trunk
with a strip of sheathing-paper nine or ten inches wide, whicli should extend
two inches below the level of the soil, and be secured by strings of matting
above. Fresh mortar should then be placed around the root, so as to con-
fine the paper, and prevent access beneath it; and the remaining cavity may
be filled with new or unexhausted loam. The operation shoidd be performed
in the spring, or daring the month of June, In the winter the strings may
be removed, and in the following spring the trees should again be examined
for any borers that may have escaped search before, and the protecting ap-
plications should be renewed. The ashe& of anthracite coal have also been
recommended to be put into the cavities made when the earth has been re-
moved from around the trunks when searching for the worm ; and if the
trunks are thoroughly searched three or four times a year, especially in the
earth near the roots, and the grubs and chrysalids dug out and destroyed,
these insects would soon cease to be as injurious as they are at present."
The following conversation in the Farmers' Club conveys some useful in-
formation upon this important subject:
Solon Robinson read a letter from the Rev. J. S. Weishampel, Sen., Bal-
timore, Md., upon the use of hot water to kill insects upon trees. He alludes
to a letter read here some weeks since, about scalding wheat, and then sa3"s:
" This scalding process destroys the egg of the fly, and the same process
222 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. , [Chap. II.
has been knowu to destroy tlie eggs as well as the grubs themselves, that injure
the i)oach, plain, and other trees so greatly. Scald the stem of the tree well,
letting the hot water get M-ell into the ground around the tree, where the
grubs do the most harm, and a destruction of botii eggs and grub follows ;
and, in addition to this, the scalding appears to add to the vigor of the
trees.
"An old lady in Berks County, Pa., had a plum-tree that for many years
bloomed and brought forth crops of fruit till half ripe, and then shed them.
Siie often besought her husband to remove the tree, but he still pleaded,
' Let it stand another year.' At length, one spring, after she had boiled lier
soap, she heated the kettle full of the refuse lye to a boiling degree, and
poured it all down the stem of the tree, intending to ' scald it to death,' as
she said. It soon blossomed most abundantl}-, and bore a profuse crop of
plums, which it brought to the greatest perfection, which greatly pleased the
old lady.
" This same principle could be applied to the destruction of every
kind of destructive insect upon the various choice fruit-trees, either by pour-
ing boiling water upon the limbs and stems, or by conducting a stream
of steam through a liose or pipe, from a movable boiler, to kill both eggs
and insects.
" Chestnuts, too, are very liable to be worm-eaten. If they were subject-
ed to a momentary heating (wet or dry heat), to a sufficient degree to scald,
it would kill the germ of the worm that destroys that sweet nut. And the
same principle would also prevent all wood used in building and machin-
ery from becoming worm-eaten."
Prof. Mapes — I have used it on peach-trees, until I have satisfied myself
that a peach-tree can not be injured by hot water.
Mr. Caepentek said that lime was the best thing he ever tried around
peach-trees.
Mr. "\YuEELER said that lime will not kill the grubs in the wood,
Mr. Smith, of Connecticut — I have found no remedy except manual labor,
thougli wood-ashes arc valuable, and so is lime. I have an orchard in full
bearing that is fourteen years old.
Prof. Mapks — I have never found any remedy equal to hot Avater. It
cooks the worms.
A letter from East Wilson, Niagara County, N. Y., says :
"A large and interested community, comprising at least Jive thousand
peach-growers in this county, ask for light. What can be done to stay the
ravages of the red-Iieaded pcach-gruhf To dig him out and kill him will
oidy insure an armistice for about ten days. Fresh wood-ashes applied to the
trees only seem to sharpen his appetite for destruction. Hundreds of orchards
and thousands of trees are dying from his operations. Tliere are half a
million of peach-trees in this vicinity suffering from this pest. Will tar pre-
vent ills operations? and will it injure the tree? Can you or any of your
numerous readers or correspondents tell us of any specific which will kill
Seo. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 223
the grub without iiijurhig the tree? If you can do so, you will confer a
substantial favor upon many hundreds of your readers."
Andrew S. Fullle — The best remedy is to preserve the birds — the natu-
ral insect destroyers. It is their" decrease that has increased destructive
insects.
Wm. Lawton stated that he had taken great pains to preserve birds around
his place, and was now reaping the benefit. As to any outward application
to kill the peach-worm, he did not know of anything that would destroy it
without destroying the trees. If the worms are dug out, and a plaster of
soft cow-manure is applied, the tree may recover. It is a very tedious
operation.
Wrc72S. — ^The Secretary advocated the cultivation, or rather protection, of
wrens and insect destroyers.
Mr. FcLLEE said that the wren was a mischievous bird, and destroyed the
eggs of other birds.
A letter from P. M. Goodwin, Kingston, Luzerne County, Pa., says :
"I observe in the transactions of the Club of July 2, it is thought that if
a discussion of the topic of the peach-grub would elicit a remedy, it would
be universally entertaining. My conclusion is, that trying to cure the peach-
grub, unless where the soil is light and but few are found, is a humbug. I
have a preventive, which I will give cheerfully :
" When I purchased my little place on Kose Hill, overlooking a portion
of ' Wyoming Valley,' there wei"e one hundred neglected peach-trees thereon
— budded, and of excellent varieties — -whicli were full of grubs. Early in
April I commenced operations by carefullj'' clearing away the grubs by
means of the knife and wire. I then made a funnel-shaped hole around the
base of each tree, which would hold three or four quarts of water. I filled
the holes with boiling water, which effectually destroyed the progeny. I
then filled the holes with a tenacious clay, and tamped it hard, leaving the
surface around the tree cone-shaped and hard compacted. I have examined
these trees at various times during the intervening five years, and have found
but one tree afiected, and that with but two grubs. This mode, with me,
has acted as a perfect preventive, and, I have no doubt, will with all who
adopt it and exercise the same care.
"These trees were three or four years old, and, at the time the experiment
was made, much inferior to some from the same lot growing elsewhere,
which were regularly examined and carefully cleared of grubs in the usual
way. My trees are sound in wood, and look well, while the others have dis-
appeared.
" In planting peach-trees now, I would cut away the tap (not top) root
close under where the horizontal roots put out. Having driven a stake firmly
for each tree, I would plant it so shallow that after the lieavy rain the upper
side of the roots will become exposed. In this way the trees are not so liable
to become infested with the grub. I planted some trees so a year ago, and
find the non-appearance of the grub satisfactory."
224 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IT.
R. G. Paedek — I have tried the hot water very often, and have ahva^'S
found it effectual ; and I tliought that by this time everybody liad lieard of
it, but if they have not, I hope this letter will be read and remembered.
Instead of clay I used leached ashes, as they were more convenient, and they
answered a good purpose.
The Cliairnian presented a new pest of the peach — a dark-colored worm,
about an inch long, that fixes itself in the foot-stalks of the leaves and destroys
them.
Wm. S. Caepentek — This insect discussion is one of great importance to
farmers. These little, insignificant things are great -destroyers of our crops.
What if we could discover a remedy for the bugs that eat up the potato vines,
or a remedy for the effect of cold upon fruit-trees ; for I have noticed, within
a day or two, that the northerly sides of the pear-trees are blasted and turned
dark by the cold wind. The cold of a day or two in spring often destroys
many tender vegetables.
It was observed that cold nights sometimes have a beneficial effect upon
fruits, by destroying some of the insects that usually prey upon them. It did
in the spring of 1860. That season proved the most productive of fruit of
any year in the memory of most young people. Of the hot-water remedy
for the peach-grub, we speak from experience, that it is the best of all mc
ever knew. Lime, too, has been tried with good results. Hon. John M.
Clayton, of Delaware, assured us once, at his house, that the peach-trees we
were then looking at, which M'cre so vigorous, had been treated with half a
bushel of lime, placed in contact with the body and upjier roots, and he be-
lieved it would continue to be a preventive of the peach-grub.
253. Insect RemedieSt — We give the following various remedies for insects,
all of which are vouched for by good men ; some believing one infallible,
and some another.
The following wash is recommended for all sorts of trees, as a preventive
remedy against caterpillars, etc. : Potash, 20 lbs. ; air-slacked lime, half a
bushel ; sifted wood-ashes, half a bushel ; fresh cow dung, half a bushel,
^lix in water enough to be of the consistence of whitewash. Scrape off the
rough bark, and rub the wash in well with a brush.
Caustic soda loash is one of the best things we ever saw applied to a fruit-
tree. It will make the bark as smooth as if wax-polished. It leaves no
harbor for insects nnder pieces of dead bark. It is made by heating tiio
common sal-soda red hot in any old iron vessel, and then making a lye of it
— say about one pound of the salts to a gallon of water — and washing tlie
trees with a brush. It is best to put it on in the spring. A piece of old
stove-pipe, battered up at one end, and stuck into one of the stove-holes,
answers very well to heat the soda in. The wash should be too caustic to
put your hands in, and, while putting it on, it will not be worth while to
wear a fine broadcloth coat.
The Liijuid Brimstone Rcincdij. — M. Letellier states in the Journal of the
Paris Horticultural Society, that a liquid formed by boiling 63 grains of red
Sko. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 225
American potash, and the same quantity each of flour of sulphur and soap,
in 13 pints of water, is most excellent and efficacious in destroying insects.
If it requires to be stronger, the quantity of potash and sulphiir may be
doubled, but the soap must remain the same. Upon immersion, the insects
— ants, caterpillars, cockchafers, grubs, etc. — are instantly killed, while the
solution occasions no injury to plants. The liquid will destroy ants and
grubs when poured into their places of resort.
Preventive of Canker- Worins from Apple-Trees. — A letter from Maiden,
Mass., gives a most sensible plan for a cheap preventive of canker-worms,
which climb the boles of apple-trees :
" Take pine boards of suitable width for four to box a tree. Cut them in
pieces two feet long on one edge, and four feet long on the other edge. Nail
them together in a box around the tree, with four sharp points up. This box
is to be adjusted about the tree before the grubs come from the ground, and
a peck of powdered lime or ashes thrown between the trunk of the tree and
the inside of the box. The caustic lime or ashes will destroy the grubs near
the tree, and the boxes will invite all the grubs near them to ascend and de-
posit their eggs. I found the pinnacles covered with grubs and eggs, and
the insects apparently contented with this highest point as a safe place, and
tliere the eggs were deposited. 1 then removed the boxes to a considerable
distance from the trees, and heard no more from canker-worms ; they all died
for want of proper food."
Anotlier plan, lately patented, to prevent worms climbing trees, looks as
though it would be efiectual. A tin trough is made in two parts, large
enough to encircle the tree and leave a space four or five inches between the
trough and bole of the tree. From the outside edge of the trough a strip
of cloth extends all around, wide enough to have its upper edge tacked to
the tree, by which the trough filled with oil is sheltered from rain and sus-
tained in its place, so that worms creeping upward come first in contact with
the cloth, and if they crawl down that to get around the edge and so up the
tree, they are caught in the oil, which, being sheltered, remains in good con-
dition longer than when exposed. Now it is au experiment worth trying,
and for which there is no patent, whether a strip of cloth nailed around the
tree at one edge, and having the other extended six inches from the bole by
a wire or limber rod, would not answer the purpose without the oil-trough.
The under side of the cloth could be coated M-ith some kind of pitch that
would not harden soon, being protected from sun and rain, which would
etiectually prevent the ascension of insects — certainly much more so than
the belt of tar as it is usually applied.
Dr. Trimble, in answer to the question, what remedy to apply to this pest,
said that the only remedy is the ichneumon parasites. These, in their proper
time, will attack the worms and destroy them. In the mean time, while
one section of the country is ravaged, another is extraordinarily fruitful.
He introduced specimens of the caterpillar that preys upon the grapevine,
to show that it has its parasite, one of which had just emerged from the
226 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. H.
body of the caterpillar. This, he hoped, M'ould prove a sufficient check to
the ravages of this particular pest.
254. Another Couvcrsatiou at the Club about insects. — "Wm. S. Caepentee—
All classes of insects have tlicir favorite plants, but if these favorite plants
fail, the insects will take to others. Last year I saw ailanthus trees iu this
city completely covered with a worm known iu the country as the canker-
worm. The trees were wholly stripped of foliage. We are continually im-
porting insects iu various ways. I am told that every banana stem contains
a worm, and some of the same sort of worms have been discovered preying
upon the quince.
The rose-slug is easily killed by hand in the after part of the day, by an
application of quassia decoction, sprinkled upon the leaves, as the slugs are
then on the upper surface.
Extra cultivation, by which the plants grow rapidly, is the best remedy
for squash bugs.
Mr. Pakdee said that the best remedy is to expose the soil dug from
a deep hole several days to the sun, and then put it back in the hole,
patting it down solid, and then putting in the seed, and covering it lightly,
and then spreading fine charcoal over the hill.
Mr. Fuller— I tried this charcoal remed}', last year, most thoroughly,
without deriving a particle of benefit.
Mr. Pakdee — I have used charcoal, and was not troubled with bugs.
Now it is possible that, without it, the plants would not have been troubled.
So, after all, it is uncertain whether the charcoal was the preventive, or
whether there were no bugs to be eradicated.
Mr. Gakvet — I^have tried a great many remedies, and have never found
anything so good as careful watering, and hand killing the bugs.
E. G. Pardee — I wish every man would try the solution of aloes — two
ounces to the gallon of water. It is such a bitter vegetable that it is
offensive to all insects. It may be used just as strong as it can be made —
from one fourth to a whole pound to the gallon.
Mr. Caepextee — The canker-worm, iu the northern part of Connec-
ticut, is now ravaging the orchards to an extent that is destructive
to all prospects of fruit. On some large orchards there are no apples —
in fact, nearly all the foliage of the trees has been destroyed. Can this be
prevented ?
Was/ling Insects from Fruit-Trcts. — Mr. Pardee read a letter from Charles
Lincoln, of North Bridgewater, Mass., which stated tliat he succeeded in saving
his plum-trees, last spring, from insects, by washing them fi-equently with
clear cold water, using for the purpose a little hand instrument called the
" hydropnlt."
Dr. Trimble contended that all the rot in plums is caused by the sting of
the curculio.
Mr. Pardee thought that this statement was incorrect ; that plums fre-
quently rot where there are no curculio. He said, thirty years ago, at Seneca
Seo. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 227
Falls, there was no curculio to disturb the plum, and we grew great crops,
and sometimes nearly all on a tree rotted, almost all at once.
Geisharsfs Comjwund for Insects. — P. B. Mead (editor of the Horticul-
turist) said that he has tried the above compound upon several kinds of in-
sects, and found it sure death to all he had applied it upon. The objection
to it is its liigli price — too high for common use ; if it would rid us of the
curculio, it would make the j)lums too costly.
John G. Beegen — It is a fact that we have a prospect this year of a larger
crop of plums than we have had in many years, and therefore persons
should be careful of their liasty conclusions about this or that nostrum
driving them off.
Mr. Mead — ^Tlie preparation I mentioned, dissolved in water and used as
a syringe upon plum-trees, had the effect to drive off the curculio, even upon
one side of a tree, while the other was still infested.
Remedy for Bose-Shtgs. — Geo. H. Hite — I have found an effectual rem-
edy against the depredations of these pests, in sifting dry dust upon the
bushes. It is just as good as snuff, or any other bug-powder. Of course, it
wants frequent renewal.
Bark-Lice. — Andrew S. Fuller — If a tree is properly cultivated, it will
grow so vigorously that it will outgrow all bad effects from attacks of plant-
lice.
Worms Destroying Gooseberry Bushes. — R. Dixie, of Painesville, Ohio,
inquires for a remedy for a pest upon his gooseberry and currant bushes.
He says " they have been stripped of their leaves entirely, in one summer, by
hosts of green caterpillars or worms about an inch in length — a number
of broods during the season. What shall we do to get rid of the pests? I
have used lime in powder, and dry unleached ashes, without any apparent
beneficial effect."
Solon Roeinson — I would try the new preparation of " attenuated coal-
tar," which we have had exhibited here in the form of a dry powder. So
for as I have been able to try it, I have found it particularly offensive to
all insects.
A. B. Dickinson — If soft soap is placed in the crotch of a tree, and left to
work down by the rain, it will keep off all insects, even the curculio. Many
insects are kept away by offensive smells, which do not kill them. Smoke,
for instance, keeps off many insects.
iVsfe of Grapevines arni other PJemts. — Dr. Trimble — Here is a specimen
of tlio insect that curls the grape-leaf Spring is the time to look after them,
and i)!ck them off by hand and destroy them, or they will destroy the vines.
Here is another curious insect that infests the currant bushes. It is what we
call lice, and these lice furnish food for a colony of ants, by their exudation
of a sort of sweet substance. Here is the worm that curls the currant-leaf;
and here is another curious insect that binds itself up in a web and a leaf,
and what is remarkable, this insect is itself full of other insects— parasites
that live upon, and in a great measure destroy it. I wish that some para-
1 \
228 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
site could be found to destroy the curculio. Perhaps it may be destroyed in
time, as the Ilcssian-fly has been.
T/ie Measuring Worm. — Solox Robinson — If any one desires to extirpate
the worms that infest the trees in our parks, now is the time to do it by de-
stroying the eggs. Scraping and washing with potash is the best protection
of the boles of the trees. If we had plenty of birds we should_get rid of the
worms. It is only in cities, where there are so few birds, that these pests
are so troublesome. Insects are the natural food of all birds. Even the
domestic ones that we keep about our homestead destroy untold quantities
of pestiferous insects that could not be got rid of in any other way. The
greatest profit in keej>ing poultry is the good the animals do in theu- inces-
sant pursuit of bugs and worms, which, if not destroyed, would in their turn
destroy the food-plants that we cultivate. I know of no contrivance of man
that will protect him from insects.
Mr. Pardee — In New Haven, trees have been protected by zinc troughs,
filled with oil, around the boles.
Destroying Trees to Get Bid of Woi^ms. — Andrew S. Fuller stated that
the worms in Brooklyn were so bad that the city councils were talking of
cutting down all the trees in that citj', to get rid of the worms.
Solon Eoblnson — They had better cut down the boys who destroy the
birds.
More than forty years ago, the " canker-worms" were terribly destrnctive,
for several years, of apple-trees in Connecticut, and attempts Avere made to
prevent their ravages by making a band of tar, two or tliree inches wide,
around the bole of the tree. It proved cftectual while the tar was soft ; but,
unless renewed every day, and sometimes twice a day, the surface dried so
that the worms crawled over; and I have seen them so thick that they
crawled into the tar and stuck, and then others went over them, and so oa
until they formed a bridge, and thus defeated tlieir strong ojiponent.
Dr. Trimble — ^The lindens of Xew Jersey, in former yeai-s, have been very
much affected, but tliis year tiiey have not been injured. I believe the in-
sect has been dctitrovcd by parasites, and I hope it will be in Brooklyn. 1
hope that no one will think of cutting down trees to get rid of the worms.
Origin of " Bug-Poicdtr."' — Tlie Secretary stated that Lyon, the great
bug-powder man, has gone home to Europe, worth an immense sum, and it
is now published tliat tlie ])owder is made of a common French tield-plant
of a species of the (;hamomile.
All the eflective insect powders now offered for sale owe their eflBciency
to red chamomile. It is sold by some of tlie druggists. Hub it to a fine dust,
mix it with some cheap divisor, and it is the best insect powder known.
"When dusted into the cracks and corners of ceilings, etc., out walk the
cockroaches and all other intruders without fail. Dust the affected plants,
and you may keep them clear of insects.
Mons. P'ldiguet states to the Society of Agricnltnre, Paris, that the p[ant
known as " Whiteflower Margaret" (Chrysanthemuvi cuanthemum), used as
Sec. 12] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 229
a decoration, is very destructive to insect life. Tliis plant is not a native of
tliis country, but is cultivated here, iind can be easily multiplied.
Disease of the CoJf\e-Trcc. — Dr. Montague stated, at a meeting of tlie
Society, that a disease has attacked the cofl'ee-trees of Ceylon, similar to the
oidiuiii of the grapevines. The same disease has been observed in the West
Indies. Olives and mulberries are attacked ; insects are observed upon
them, something like the cochineal insect. There is also an exudation of a
sweet gum that attracts insects. Milk of lime and purin — an extract of
manure — are used as a preventive.
Ailanthus, as a food for silk-worms, has been used in France with success.
Kerosene Oil for Insects. — Wm. G. Le Due, of Hastings, sends us a rem-
edy for caterpillars and other insects, easily applied. It is kerosene oil.
lie says :
"Finding some large nests of caterpillars on my plum-trees, I took a can
of illuminating oil, as it is called, and applying a few drops (sufficient to
f aturatc the web of the nest), found that it worked like a charm. It is in-
stant death to the vermin. Cai-e should be taken not to apply it to the
leaves of the plant or tree, as they will be scalded at once. I have but little
doubt that, in the hands of your careful experimentalists, it will prove of
value. The coarser oils of coal will no doubt be equally efficacious in many
instances. I may as well mention here, also, that I have found kerosene oW
a most excellent diluent of printers' ink, which I use in mj flouring-mill for
stencil-plate marking. It would be a thorough cleanser of tj'pe, though, per-
haps, not so cheap as potash."
Coal-Tar for Insects. — Prof. Mapes — "We are very free of destructive tree
insects, this year (1S60), in New Jersey, but have a tair show of other pests of
the farm and garden, and wo are obliged to resort to some remedy. We can
not grow early turnips witlioiit using something to keep the insects off, and
I am glad that the necessity stimulates invention to assist farmers in the de-
struction of these pests. I have lately tried one called " attenuated coal-
tar," and find it effectual. It is likely to be a very valuable aid to fruit-
growere and gardeners. It is in the fiu'm of powder, and wherever sprinkled
upon insect-infested plants, tlio insects leave at once. It is coal-tar mixed
with some substance so as to reiaiu all its odor, and yet remain in the form
of a dry powder.
Mr. Lawton — The Black Tartarian is a good sort of cherry, but I prefer
the Black Eagle ; it is a very hardy variety, and very productive. The En-
glish Morello is an acid cherry, and the tree very free from insects. We
have not had a rose-bug with us this year.
Solon Kobinson stated that, only five miles from Mr. Lawton, the rose-
bugs infested his cherry-trees by myriads, destroying more than half the
fruit. Mr. R. inquired of Mr. Lawton what it was that ate his cherry-leaves,
if it was not rose-bugs, as they were evidently eaten by some insect, and if
coal-tar or anything else will prevent their ravages, it should be extensively
known.
230 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
Whishjfor Ants. — Win. Davis, of ilarengo, Morrow County, Ohio, otfers
the following plan for i)rotL"cting fniit-trees from ants, which, lie says, have
killed many trees for him. It is the same plan pursued in this city to make
loafers, and then get rid of them — that is, feed them with whisky and make
them drunk, and then wipe them out. He says :
" Mix wiiisky, molasses, and water, in equal parts, and fill a tumbler about
two thirds full, and set it partly in the ground at the foot of the tree infested
by auts. Wlicn it gets full of the drunkards, scoop them out and kill them."
We suggest feeding them to fowls.
Do Worms liain Down? — A person at Angola, Ind., who notices that the
Club talks about all sorts of miscellaneous matters, wants us, in the absence
of more important questions, to talk about this : " Do fish, worms, and small
toads, such as are often seen after a shower, in places where it appears they
must have fallen with the rain, actually come from the clouds?"
Dr. Watehbuky replied — They do not ; it is one of the popular erroi-s
which are so hard to eradicate.
The Locust Question. — A long discussion ensued upon the locust question
between Professor Mapes, Professor Nash, Wm. Lawto'n, Wn;. E. Prince,
Dr. Trimble, and Andrew S. Fuller, about the habits of the seventeen-year
locust, which appeared in great numbers in the summer of 1800, in the vicin-
ity of New York. Every schoolboy of any pretension should read all about
these locusts, and study tlicir natural history. Wherever they appear, try to
learn their habits, and wliether they do injury to plants, either above or be-
low the surfiice of the earth.
Prof. Mapes exhibited the effects upon branches punctured by the females
to lay their eggs, he still thought without permanent injury to the trees.
Wm. R. Pkince declared the whole theory of the seventeen-year locusts a
humbug.
Prof. Nash thought they return in some localities in thirteen years, and
inquired if the nature of the soil had any eflect upon their maturity.
Varieties of the Locust. — ^Anduew S. Fulleu^AVc have maiiy varieties
of what are called locusts, among which arc the Cicada Sejytemdeeiin, Cicada
Canicidaris, Cicada liimosct, Cicada Marginata, Cicada Suj>erba, Cicada
liobertsonia, and perhaps several others. The habits of these are well
known, and have been for many years. The seventeen-year locust has ap-
peared regularly every seventeen years for more than a hundred years, as is
well attested by numerous Mn-iters upon natural history.
Dr. Tkimblk, of New Jersey, gave a lengthy lecture upon the locust, show-
ing how the insect deposits its eggs in the limbs of almost every variety of
trees. A great number of these twigs were distributed among the company,
to show the curious manner in which these eggs are deposited.
This peculiar insect appears once in seventeen years ; but the year of its
appearance differs in every part of the country. In 1S55 it infested south-
ern Illinois. In 1800, 1817, and 1834 the trees of Delaware and Maryland
were literally covered by them ; and in 1843 many of the river counties on
Sec. 12.]
ENTOMOLOGICAL.
2ai
the Hudson were infested with the CieadaB. Tlie male insect has a pair of
drums on each side of the head, and, when infesting an orchard or woods,
the noise is frequently so great that no conversation can be heard in the
vicinity. The insect appears about the 25th of May, and remains six weeks.
The female is armed with an ovi_positor, with which she inserts her eggs in
the smaller portions of limbs of fruit-trees, oaks, chestnuts, etc., always
selecting new growth, of an eighth to a qxiarter of an inch in diameter.
Tlie incisions, about twelve in number, are made at an angle of forty to fifty
degrees, with an egg in each, and sometimes the twig is girdled near the
eggs, so that when the end of the twig dies it falls to the ground, and the
eggs ai'e carried in by dews and rains. Miss Morris, of Germantown, Pa., a
Avell-known entomologist of close observation, claims that she found them
attached to the roots of pear-trees.
" While plowing at our place, May 10, these insects were thrown out in
large quantities. Tlie holes through which they ascend in the soil may be
traced to a depth of four feet or more. This locust is not to be dreaded, as
they do but little liarm ; are not known to feed, and the shortening-in of
limbs by the depositing of their eggs may give a useful hint to those who
do not understand the benefits of the shortening-in process."
He also gave an account of a maple-tree in Newark, which appears to
have a sort of bohun upas eflect upon flies ; they lay dead by tiiousands under
this tree. *
Prof. Mapes stated that, in plowing upon his farm near Newark, in
May, the seventeen-year locusts were turned up in vast quantities.
Dr. TEnnjLE stated that this insect does not consume vegetation. They
are within a few inches of the surface, waiting for the right condition of the
temperature to issue forth. Seventeen years ago these insects came forth on
the 25th of May, and immediately commenced their musical notes. They
remain about six weeks above ground, eating nothing. The injury they do
vegetation is by puncturing the limbs to deposit their eggs. This kills the
ends of the branches. The apple-tree and elm-trees are favorite trees with
these seventeen-year locusts. The time of their appearance varies in differ-
ent localities. This is tlie year for all this vicinity and up the Hudson River.
My opinion is that the life of the insect is sustained under-ground by attach-
ing to the roots of plants. Tlie limb selected for puncture is always small.
Tlie Secretary stated that the size of the limb punctured is not usually over
an eighth of an inch.
Mr. Dodge stated tliat the locusts were very plentiful on Long Island five
years ago, and that he has seen them every year in this city.
Prof. Mapes thought that these fellows would be a little too much for
" insect powder." Still, he had received great benefit from one called the
" Persian Powder." That will enable me to grow early turnips, and it will
kill caterpillars.
Mr. Gale — In 1809, in Orange County, the locusts were plentiful enough
to allow me to gather bushels of them, and the apple-trees were covered.
233 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. U.
The only injury was to the small twigs. Wheat-fields were covered, but not
inj ured.
Andrew S. Fuller — In 1855 (lie locusts were very abundant in Illinois,
and came forth out of heavy clay land, from more than four feet in depth,
in oak forests. They appeared to prefer the oak-trees.
The Chairman stated that he had observed their preference for oak in some
instances, but upon the whole, he thought they had very little care for any
particular sort of trees.
Dr. Triiible thought the chestnut was their favorite. I found, yesterday,
the eggs of the locust are beginning to hatch, and the young insect is as
perfect in shape as the old ones, of a pure white color, and no larger than
one of the eggs.
Habits of Grasshoppers. — A Goliad correspondent of the Colorado (Texas)
Citizen gives some curious facts in relation to the grasshoppers which have
recently swarmed in that region. He says :
"They have an especial fondness for wheat and cotton, but don't take so
kindly to corn. The only vegetable they spare is the pumpkin. Tlie most
deadly poisons have had no effect upon them ; fumes of suljihur they rather
like than otherwise ; musketo-nets they devour greedily ; clothes hung out
to dry they esteem a rarity ; blankets and gunny-bags they don't appear to
fancy. Tliey swim the broadest creeks in safety, sun themselves a while,
and then go on. T!ie whole mass appear to start and move at the same
time, traveling for an hour or two, devouring everything in their way, and
then suddenly cease, not moving perhaps for a week, during which time no
feeding is noticed ; and finally, they carefully avoid the sea-coast."
Grosshopptr Parasites. — Solon Kobinson — I have a letter from L. B.
Rice, Middlebury, Vt., inclosing sj^ecimens of grasshoppers, showing a para-
site that is preying upon them, wliich, it is to be hoped, will help to annihilate
this pest. This parasite is a small red insect, which attaches itself to the
grasshopper just under the wing.
255. Cankf r-Worm Preventives.— The following letter to the autlior, from a
Kew York city friend, is worthy of attention by all whose trees are eaten by
worms :
" Sir : Your recent discussions upon the canker-worm, which is so seriously
devastating the foliage of the city, stir me up to lay before your readers the
information which some years of careful observation have enabled me to
gain respecting this pest of our neighborhood. I do this the more because I
notice some suggestions in your conversations whicli look to the adoption
of remedies ; and before any remedy is tried, it is essential that we have
some assurance that it will be effectual.
" I was a student in New llavcn at the time when the ravages of the in-
sect were so severe in that city, and witnessed the e.xtreme desolation which
the creature produced. The magnificent elms wliich are the glory of that
beautiful city, stood bare and wintry at the end of June, with every vestige
of their foliage utterly consumed. I noticed, and have since repeatedly ob-
Sec. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 233
served, how perfect a protection is afforded by tlie metallic girdle winch you
describe. Whether the plan of a Mr. Taylor, spoken of in the papers, is
an improvement, I am not able to say.
"The whole merit of the plan, however, consists in its adaptation to the
habits of the insect. Tiie female — which deposits its eggs upon the body
and brandies of the tree before the opening of the spring — is wingless,
apterous, as we say in Entomology ; and being incapable of flying, is
effecliially arrested by the barrier which is presented by such an open tube
encircling the tree. The protection is complete, the application is easy, and
the remedy is effectual.
" One fact, however, is to be taken into view, which effectually alters the
case with us. After familiar study of our New York insect, for several
years past, I am convinced that it is a7i entirely different species, of different
habits in many respects ; and, above all, different in the one particular which
gives all its value to the ^e\w Haven remedy ; our species fulli/ possesses the
power of flight. Its progress, therefore, to the body and limbs of the tree
for the purpose of depositing its eggs can never be in the least arrested by
any such measure as your correspondent proposes to adopt. Protection against
the worm in our city can be obtained only by the same method by which
New Haven derived hers, viz., the thorough and careful study of the habits
of our own species of insect.
" The very positive assurance of your correspondent, Mr. Webb, that ' it
is a law of nature that all the millers which produce the measuring worm
have no wings by which they can fly one inch,' is in the main true, though
perhaps rather strongly stated ; but it applies only to the canker-worm of
New England. Our species may be seen flying abundantly, botli males and
females, ascending above the tops of our highest trees, and reaching the
large branches with absolute ease. After having observed the whole process
very carefully, I am in a position to speak confidently about it ; and I beg
to assure your readers that any attempt blindly to imitate the New Haven
method will only prove a mistaken and unprofitable, because ignorant,
attempt. In order to ascertain with greater certainty the truth upon this
point, I transmitted specimens of our New York miller, last suujmer, to Mr.
E. C. Herrick, the accomplished librarian of Yale College, whose investiga-
tions of the New Haven canker-worm were published at length, some years
ago, in the American Journal of Science, smd received from him the assur-
ance that my impression that the two species were entirely distinct was no
doubt correct. Mr. II. also concurred with me in thinking that the power
of flight possessed by the New York moth would require entirely different
methods for the prevention of its ravages.
" The one method which ray observation has suggested as effectual, con-
sists in thoroughly scraping the tree after the eggs of the moth have been
deposited upon it. The worm with us does not, as in New Haven, go into
the ground and remain there till tlie winter, but goes through its changes in
a very brief period. After coming down from the tree, it lays itself up in a
234 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. H.
cocoon, formed of a few thin fibers of silk, in the crevices of the bark of ihj
trees which it frequents, or upon posts and fences near the tree. There the
insect may then be found, undergoing its change. After about a fortnight,
it comes forth in the shape of a white moth, soincwliat less than an inch
long. At that period our parks and public squares are alive with these
millers; the grass is studded, the paths covered, the air filled with them.
Any one may easily satisfy himself of their power of flight by a careful ob-
servation of them. The antenure, or feelers, projecting from the head, are in'
the males feathered, or, entomologically, pectinated ; a row of fine fibers,
like the teeth of a comb, lines each antenna upon one side; the females have
the antenna plain and straight ; and they may also be distinguished by the
larger size of the abdomen, which is distended by eggs. No diflerence,
however, in the power of flight will be observed between the two sexes. On
coming out from the cocoon the sexes meet, and the impregnated eggs are at
once laid upon the bark of the tree. They may be seen in patches, varying
from a dozen to fifty, or even more — minute, green globules, which soon change
to a dusky gray or brown, scarcely distinguishable in tint from the bark.
They adhere by a glutinous secretion very firmly to the tree, and remain
through the year until the warmth of another spring hatches them into life.
" At any time after the eggs are laid in the beginning of July, and before
they are hatched in the beginning of the following May, a careful scraping
of the tree will remove most of them, and so prevent their ravages for the
next summer.
" Having frequent occasion to pass through "Washington Parade Ground,
I have pointed out the eggs upon the bark to the persons intrusted with the
care of that spot, and the trees have been sometimes scraped in the spring,
with very good results. This year it was omitted, and the deserted shells
of the eggs of last year may now be seen on the trunks of the trees so seri-
ously injured by them this summer. No other method than this afi"ords the
least security ; but this, if faithfully carried out under any competent super-
vision, can be made entirely effectual. The eggs remain for nearly a year
before they are hatched, quite obvious, and tolerably accessible. A couple
of men would in two or three days clean any one of our parks of this de-
stroying agent for the next summer ; and careful attention for a few years
throughout the city would nearly exterminate the pest."
256. Garden and Field Crop Pests.— The amount of damage done to farmers
every year by bugs and worms, if it could be exhibited in figures represent-
ing dollars and cents, would exceed the whole value of the wheat crop, or
corn crop, or cotton crop, and it would not surprise me if it exceeded the
value of all of them. If we could give certain preventives of the ravages
of any one of the pests, we could afford to devote much more space than we
shall allot to this head. But we will urge farmers to give the subject more
attention. Buy the best works upon entomology, and devote many a winter
evening to the careful study of the appearance, character, and habits of all
Ssc. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 235
the insects that consume your crops. Give, we pray you, good attention to
wliat we have.already said and shall say in this section. You can not fail
to find sometiiing that will repay you well. You certainly will find valuahle
information in the following paragraph, written by A. S. Ilall, of Maiden,
Mass., in May, 1860 :
257. Salt for the Onion Slaggot. — ^Much has been said and written about
the onion maggot, and I don't know that there is any cure for him ; but I
will tell you how I treated mine last year, and with good success for once,
and shall try it again this year, and will tell it to you and the farmers free
of charge, for I don't think I could get " $60,000" for it if 1 should ask it.
I sowed last year in my garden, on good soil, three rows, about thirty feet
long each, to onion seeds. I expected the maggots, and watched diligently
their progress. When they were first up about one or two inches high, I
put some strong salt and water on about three feet of one row, to see if it
would kill the onions, and, in case it did not, perhaps it might kill the mag-
gots, if they came. The young onions stood it well, and it did not hurt
them.
After the onions had got about as large as a pail-bail wire, there came
a spell of warm, wet weather, and my onions began to be affected. I
watched them several days, and they grew worse, and were fast dying out,
for about one in every eight or ten were wilting and dying, and I found a
maggot at the roots of every one that appeared wilting, and sometimes the
maggot was nearly as large as the little stock itself, and had eaten the bot-
tom all away, and was making its way up the stem ; at the rate of havoc
they were making, it appeared there would not be one onion left in the bed
at the end of four weeks more. I took a pailful of strong pickle from my
pork-barrel, and, with a watering-pot, put it all on to the three rows, as
though I were watering them ; the onions never faltered or changed. The
salt killed all the grass, young clover, and weeds, except purslane, which
came up later, and the maggots were entirely killed, and I never saw any
after, though the flies continued to lay their eggs down the side of the little
plant, and between it and the dirt, just as flies will blow apiece of fresh
meat ; biit the salt prevented their maturing or hatching, and I raised a
good crop of fair-sized onions. I think they did not ripen as well as usual,
but I am not convinced that the salt prevented them, for I have often seen
patches remain as green as mine were at harvest-time.
I put on two or three slighter sprinklings of brine after the first, during
the summer.
258. Essay on the Cat-Worm,— Head before the Chicago Gardener'' s Soci-
ety^ August Qth, 1860, It/ Jno. Periam. — I acknowledge my inability to do
justice to this subject, from not having given it my attention, except in a
general way. It is, nevertheless, one which interests agriculturists, and par-
ticularly horticulturists, as much, perhaps, as any other entomological sub-
ject with which they have to do. The farmers, working on a more extended
scale, using larger fields, and planting fewer varieties of hoed crops, do not
236 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. K.
notice, nor perhaps suffer as much from the ravages of these families of tho
Lepidoptera as the horticulturist proper. And the great order of iii.sects to
which tliis class belongs are, jierhaps, the greatest scourge with which the
worker in the soilTias to contend. According to Dr. Fitch, the most of this
species belong to the genus Agrotis, of the family Noctuidffi, or Owlet-moths.
In England, the insects of this genus arc named Dart-moths, from a peculiar
spot or streak which many of them have near the base of their fore wings,
resembling the point of a dart or spear, and he says that niucli the most
common species of this genus in the State of New York can be nothing else
tiian the Gothic dart, Agrotis suhgofhica of the British entomologists. They
are the same which flit about the lights in summer evenings, and are found
hid by day within crevices and shutters. To show still further the im[)oi-t-
ance of this class of insects, I will quote from Dr. Harris, showing some of
tlie families. He has divided them into three sections, called IJutterflies,
Ilawk-moths, and moths corresponding to the genera Papilio, Sphinx, and
riiala^na of Linnseus.
To the first of these orders belong the caterpillars of our common butter-
flies, many of which are very destructive to vegetation. To the second be-
longs that class of caterpillars which infect the potato, the grapevine, etc. ;
the Algerians, or, as they are commonly called, Borers, which latter name,
however, is equally applicable to the larvaj of insects of many other orders.
The third great section includes a vast number of insects, sometimes called
Millers, from their dusty covering, or Night Butterflies, but more frequently
Moths. Among these are the Cut-worm, the Bee-moth, and all other insects
belonging to the order Lepidoptera which can not be arranged among the
butterflies and hawk-moths.
The most common of the Cut-worm tribe which have come under my ob-
servation the present season, are the Stri^jed Cut-worm, the lied-headed
Cut-worm, and the Black "Worm.
The first is of a dirty whitish color, inclining to brown, with darker
stripes. Tliis worm works upon the surface of the ground, and may be found
at any hour of the day, if damp and cloudy. Tiie red-headed cut-worm
has, as its name implies, a red head, and is of a uniform pale brown color,
and has this season been particularly destructive; and as it worlvs under
gionnd, it is death to whatever it attacks.
The Black, or (as it is sometimes called) Tiger worm may easily be known
when seen by its dark, dull brown color and black head. It works under
ground, just below the surface, drawing the stems and leaves after it into
its hole.
There arc a number of others, among which are the fiiintly-lined cut-
worm and the white cut-worm. Of the latter, I have not found a single
specimen this season, though last j'ear I found several. They are rare, and
consequently do but little damage. In this day of patent discoveries, any
one who has plenty of monc}' and ample time to spend may furnish himself
with a thousandrand-one nostrums which arc said to be effectual extermi-
Sso. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 237
natom. Snuff, strong liquid manure, powder, charcoal dust, etc., will pro-
feet, pi-ovided they can find plenty to eat elsewhere ; if not, they care about
as much for them as I should about wetting my feet in wading a brook for
my dinner, if I could not get it by any other means. I am satisfied that
they might be, in a great measure, exterminated by neighbors joining, dur-
ing the prevalence of the moths, and setting toi"ches or building fires for
them to fly into. I saved my tomato crop, the present season, by having my
men go over the ground in the morning, soon after daylight, and pick up the
worms by hand. The first morning we secured over two thousand by count,
and the next morning we gathered over a half peck of them on about an acre
and a half. After that they began to diminish, and in a few days scarcely
one could be found. I protect dahlias, and other choice plants, by wrapping
paper about the stems ; vines, by planting plenty of seed, and killing the
worms ; vine shields, if set two or three inches below the surface, will gen-
erally protect. I have never succeeded in trapping them in holes, because,
if they fall into them, they can dig out, if they can not crawl out. The best
way to protect against their ravages is to plant plenty of seed, protect the
birds, and then help them kill the worms.
The London Gardeners Chronicle says there is a prospect of a total de-
struction of the grass in the London parks, by the grub of an insect known
as " Daddy Longlegs," which eats the roots of the turf and totally destroys
it. " Various remedies have been tried without success." Have any of
those remedies been a heavy dressing of salt ? If not, it should be tried at
once. And besides that, we should like to know what this "Daddy Long-
legs" is. It can not be our cut-worm, that sometimes destroys the turf in
old meadows ; and certainly it can not be the " Daddy Longlegs" of our ac-
quaintance, for that, so far as our youthful entomological researches went,
was a very harmless Daddy, which had very long, slim, crooked legs, attached
to a round body, the size of a small pea.
259. Wire Worms.— "A Young. Farmer" wants to know what he shall do
to get rid of wire worms. He says :
" An old gentleman not far from me says ; ' Soak the seed over night in
copperas water, and the wire worm will not trouble it.' Who knows whether
this is so or not ?"
Ah! who knows? Does anybody Z,7iow anything?
Another says soaking seed in a solution of niter will prevent destruction.
If so, how easily practiced ! Again, who knows ?
Probably the best remedy against wire worms is not to grow them. Keep
no old meadows. Break them up. Plow all your sod and stubble land in
the fall. Either bury your worm seed too deep to get out in time in the
spring, or else freeze it to death in the winter. There is probably no remedy
equal to deep plowing in the fall of the year.
Perhaps we might all learn useful lessons from nature if we would more
carefully read her printed pages. For instance, one who does try to read
Buch lessons says :
238 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. n.
"So far as my observation goes, the wire-worm is most troublesome in
seasons after a mild winter, or when tliere has been a heavy coat of snow on
lh(? ground during winter, thus preventing the frost jjenetrating the eartii to
any considerable depth. Consequently, the worms remain near the surface,
and are not frozen to death or driven so far below the surface that they must
starve before they can return. Two successive crops of buckwheat will
generally rid any soil of wire-worms."
And we add, so will ten bushels of salt per acre, and every worm that is
killed by it will fertilize a whole handful of grass. Salt, alone, is an e.xcel-
lent manure ; salt and lime still better, prepared according to the formula
under the head of " salt and lime mixture." Thirty bushels of lime, in
powder, sown broadcast, will destroy the worms in many a field that has been
almost barren, and make it productive of fine crops of wheat, clover, corn.
" How to get rid of the worms," is one of the most important questions
that a farmer can ask, and the want of a knowledge how, is not confined to
voung farmers. Hence, all we say upon the subject is worth treasuring up
in the great store-house of knowledge, the human mind.
260. Worm-KillerSi — A reliable South Carolina acquaintance, Col. A. G.
Summer, of Pomaria, declares that China berries applied like manure to soil
will expel all grubs and worms. "China trees" are as common all over the
South as locust or ailanthus here, and they are very fruitful, the berries resera-
hling small cherries in size, and pulp surrounding a hard seed. Only a few years
ago, the fact v»'as discovered, rather accidentally, that the wood of this tree
would bear a high polish, and that furniture made of it was as strong and
handsome as that of some of our most expensive imported woods, and that
its natural pleasant odor, like that of cedar or camphor wood, remains, and
is a great preventive of moths. The botanical name of the " China tree" is
Mdia azedaraeh', sometimes called the great Indian lilac. It is a hot-
house shrub here ; at Charleston, it grows fifty feet high, and is a beautiful
shade-tree, its greatest objection being its abundance of berries falling upon
the ground, notwithstanding which it is a great fixvorite in all the most
Southern States, and its berries, if of any value, could be had here at a small
price.
261. Tobacco-WormSi — These destructive pests of the tobacco-planter, it
is well known, can be subdued with a flock of turkeys better than in any
other way. As both turkeys and worms are large, the operation can be seen
and appreciated ; yet we have no doubt that a flock of wrens do just as
much toward the destruction of some other family of worms, and really
eflect as much good to the farmer. And so of every other class of birds.
Cultivators of other crops ought to take lessons from the tobacco-growers.
The first glut of worms, in July, is easily subdued by the turkeys, while
tobacco is small, and the worms are doing but little damage. The trouble
comes in August, but the destruction of the worms a month sooner may save
the crop.
Mr. Wm. Sheppard, of Ann Arundel Co., Md., has been very successful
Seo. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 239
iu jjoisoning the moth that produces the tobacco-worm, by the use of cobalt
— a quarter of a pound to a half pint of water. This is made quite sweet
witii refined sugar, and the mixture is put into a small bottle, with a quill in
the cork, and two or three drops through the quill deposited in the blossom
of the Jamestown weed, or in the blossom of the tobacco-plants. The horn-
blower will suck the jjoison till he dies.
The trumpet blossoms of the Jamestown weed are favorite resorts of the
moth, and arc gathered fresh, and fastened to the tobacco plants, or upon sticks
set through the field. It may be worth while to grow the weed on purpose
for traps.
The cobalt is the same black powder often sold by druggists as "fly
poison." It should be reduced in a mortar to a fine powder before using.
It is worth while to try it for other insects, placing it upon plates in their
haunts.
Mr. Sheppard thinks any planter may protect himself against the tobacco-
worm with this poison.
John G. Bergen, of Long Island, stated to us, in the spring of 1860, that
he had been obliged to send all his laborers into his tomaio-field to kill
worms that are destroying the plants and young fruit. He thinks it identical
with the tobacco-worm, having grown tobacco a few years ago and been
troubled with the same kind of M-ornis. One of Mr. B.'s neighbors told us
afterward that the worms were not only very troublesome on the tomato-
vines, but were eating the potato-vines ravenously.
Tlie New Haven Courier said the potato-vines in that State were being
eaten by worms, so as to destroy the prospect of a crop, and these worms,
we judge, are the same kind as those on Long Island.
In this city, worms have been for years destroying the trees ; none but
the ailanthus escapes them.
Is it not worth while to try to poison the insects while on the wing, in the
way indicated above, or some other way ?
The Jamestown weed mentioned above, we take to be the same weed that
grows along many New England waysides, called " Jimson weed," or " stink-
weed." It is the Datura stramonium.
262. Bug Remedies. — Here is a good one ! "We haven't a doubt as to its
efficacy — not one ! try it. A correspondent says : " I have seen many plans
recommended for removing and keeping bugs and other insects from vines,
and among them, snuff, soap, mustard, etc., all or any of which articles
must, in my opinion, more or less injure the plant. I have found this the
case from experience ; and I have also found, by the same means, that the
best preparation for this purpose is a cold and very strong decoction made
with water and manure from the henroost and cow-yard, and applied morn-
ing and evening. The insects do not relish this preparation, while the plants
to which it is applied do."
Another one sa^-s : " I preserved my vines last year from the ravages of
the striped bugs by placing little wads of cotton, saturated with spirits of
2i0 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
turpentine among the vines ne;ir the roots, using care to have them not touch
the vines. The turpentine should be renewed from to time."
Another says: "These pests of the vines may be easily got rid of by
building a fire of light wood that will blaze freely in the evening. All
insects fly into a blaze, and are thus destroyed in myriads."
It is recommended by J. M. Dlmond, of Eaton Co., Mich., to plant in the
s:imG hill with summer squashes or melons, etc., some seeds of the winter
scpiash, such as have the largest succulent leaves. He says the bugs will not
molest the smaller vines under such circumstances. When danger from
bugs has ceased, then the plants can be removed.
Another one gives the following as a sure specific for bugs on vines:
" Having seen by your paper that many truckers in your section are anxious
to ascertain a simple and sure remedy to destroy bugs on squashes, cucum-
bers, and the like, I will give you one which is almost a specific, and within
the reach of every one, especially those living on the sea-board.
" Procure fresh fish — of any kind whatever, the commonest and cheapest
just as good — a sufficient quantity according to circumstances, say one peck
to a barrel of water. Let them stand therein a day or two, in order to com-
mence decomposition and emit their 7iecessarily unpleasant odor; then
dampen the leaves with the liquid.
" In addition to driving away the bugs, your plants will become green and
healthy, and soon grow beyond the reach of any future swarm of depreda-
tors. It may be necessary to use the water two or three times in the course
of two weeks, but remember that every application is equivalent to a dress-
ing of manure, which will amply repay for the labor, which is very trifling.
Fresh fisli offal is of equal value with the fish."'
263. Potato Bugs* — It is quite as useful to i-eport failure as success in
farming. AVe are therefore obliged to Horatio J. Cox, of Zanesville, Ohio,
for telling us that he tried powdered lime, and also ashes, sifted upon his
potato vines to prevent them from being eaten by the potato bugs, but ho
found them at work as usual, with their backs white with lime. His con-
clusion, therefore, is, that that is no remedy against the depredations of these
pests. He remarks that " there arc two kinds working in concert, but, from
my observation, keeping up separate breeds — the black shell and the striped
shell ; the latter is more active than the other, and not quite so plump."
A French paper gives an opinion that nearly all the diseases of plants,
including potato-rot, are occasioned by insects. The insects, in many cases,
are microscopic. The little aucaris, for instance, although so very minute,
is a great destroyer. It causes little scabby pustules upon fruits, particularly
fine pears.
Whether the potato bug always found on the diseased vines is the cause
or eflfect of the disease, is a mooted question.
Although Mr. Cox did not stop tlieir depredations, we still recommend
liberal dressings of ashes and plaster, and if these do not kill the bugs, they
will give the vines a vigorous growth. So with lime and salt.
Seo. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 241
204. Protection of Tlirnips. — Tlie following, from an English newspaper, is
equally wortliy of attentiou in America :
"In the list of patents lor wliich provisional protection has been taken
out is a machine of a novel and somewliat curious character. The speciiica-
tion, as taken from the list, describes tlie machine as a 'blast drill,' the
object of which is to protect tiie turnip crop from the ravages of the fly and
the slug, and its other numerous enemies, and secure, as far as human inge-
nuity can accomplish it, this most valuable of all bulbous I'oots. The com-
mon practice of protecting the turnip from the fly is by dusting the row with
lime during the night and while the dew is upon the plant. Tliis operation
is difhcult, and imperfecily performed. Besides the slow process of doing
tliis by liand, the ditficulty of dusting the under side of the plant as well as
the top side ofi'ers an insuperable objection to tliis mode of ajtplying lime,
soot, or any otlicr compost, to the young turnip-plant. This difficulty is now
overcome, and the lime (a mixture of one sixth of soot with it is recom-
mended) is thrown, by means of a l)last fan, upon every part of the plant,
both on the upjjer and under side. The fan is put in niotion by tlie travel-
ing wheels of the drill, and receives its velocity in the usual manner by
gearing wheels. Tlie blast tlius created by the fan is brought to bear upon
tlie plant, which, yielding to its action, bends fiom the current, and as it
acts upon a falling stream of lime or other composition, the plant becomes
completely covered with the jjowder. But this is not the only object the blast
drill will accomplish. The fly, disturbed by a simple contrivance, liops
away, but is at that moment caught by a current of air entering the blast
fan and instantly destroyed, and thrown out again with violence from tlie
vortex into wliich it had been drawn. This operation is simple, and the pro-
cess of annihilation is similar to that of a mouse or rat going down a thrash-
ing-machine. The fly and the lime are so completely mixed and incorpo-
rated that the mischievous yet delicate insects are destroyed by the atmo-
spheric pressure thrown upon them, and the plant is also secured, by the
dusting of compost, from all future attacks of the enemy. All farmers can
not fail to know something about the insect which does so much annual mis-
chief to the turnip crops. Sometimes a fallow, -which in tillage and labor
has cost £5 or £6 an acre in preparing it for a crop of Swedes, has had all
the labor and capital expended made vain by the fly. Can this evil be i-em-
edic-d i It seems possible ; and if this invention of a blast drill should be the
means of securing a turnip crop, or even improving it, by the application of
a top-dressing of soot or guano, or any other soluble manure, a great good
has been accomplished, not to farmers only, but to the community at large."'
2Go. Pea-Weevil — How Destroyed. — One of the greatest pests that growers
of peas have to contend with is the pea-weevil, Bruchus pisi, which some-
times attacks every pod, and leaves an egg to liatch into a disgusting insect
in every pea, so that, if intended for food, when dry, we shall find a modi-
cum of meat ready mixed in our pea-soup. If intended for seed, when we
are ready to plant in the spring, we find the life of our peas eaten out.
242 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [CnAP. n.
Although several birds, of whicli the crow and Baltimore oriole aic the chief,
feed upon the pea-weevil, they are very fiir from destroying it, and the evil
is annually increasing. IIow can this insect he destroyed, is a question
worth solving. We think it can be, if farmers and gardeners would make a
united cflbrt, totally annihilated from the country. The remedy is very
simple. It is to steam all the seed peas. This can be done in a small way
in families by taking the seed, so soon as gathered, shelled, and dried, and
placing it iu a cullender, covered vith a cloth or plate, and placed over a
kettle of boiling water until the steam is thoroughly passed through the peas,
■when they are to be dried in the sun and put away in paper bags. Upon a
large scale, the peas may be steamed in bags or barrels, by inserting a steam-
pipe from a boiler at so low a pressure that it will not cook the peas, but it
will the pupae of the pea-weevil. Let it be remembered that steam, prop-
erly applied, will totally eradicate the pea-weevil from the land And if
from peas, why not from wheat, corn, and rice, easier and better than by
kiln-drying ? It would be very easy to dry the steamed grain. Passing it
through a fanning-miil would probably be sufficient; or pouring it out of a
basket, where it would fall fifteen or twenty feet through the air.
266. Preserving InsectSi — Insect collectors will find the following method
of killing the insects they wish to preserve one of the most convenient of
any they have ever tried. Dissolve cyanide of potassa in M-ater to satura-
tion, and keep it tightly corked in a small vial, and it will always remain
in good order for use. When you catch a fly, moth, insect of any kind,
or a beautiful butterfly that would be injured in fluttering, dip a needle-
poiut in the solution, and prick your captive just under the wing, and
see how quick and calmly they will lie down and die. Some large or
hard-to-kill insects may require more than one stab to make them die- peace-
ably. This solution is used by scientific entomologists in making their
collections.
267. Household InsectSi — UalVs Medical Jownal states that household
vermin may be got rid of as follows : Half an ounce of soap boiled in a pint
of water, and put on with a brush while boiling hot, infallibly destroys the
bugs and their eggs. Flies are driven out of a room by hanging up a bunch
of common plantain (fleawort) after it has been dipped in milk. Kats and
mice speedily disappear by mixing equal quantities of strong cheese and
powdered squills. They devour this mixture with greediness, while it is in-
nocent to man. When it is remembered how many persons have lost their
lives by swallowing mixtures of strychnine, etc., it becomes a marter of hu-
manity 1o publish these items.
^]ni Si-'untific Airiivkan says: " Common red wafers scattered abont the
haunts of cockroaches will often drive away if not destroy them." These
wafers, like candies, are (olored red by oxyd of lead, a most deadly poison ;
and 60 is the acetate of lead, or sugar of lead, as it is sometimes called, on
visiting cards, which, being a little sweetish, l>as been known to destroy
young children, to whom they were handed to be amused M-ith. Fashion
Sec. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 243
for once acts sensibly in discarding glazed cards, using instead Bristol board,
more pliant, less cumbersome, and really more delicate.
Wc have found that bugs can not stand hot alum water. Take two pounds
of alum, bruise and reduce nearly to powder, and dissolve in three quarts
of boiling water, letting it lemain in a warm place till the alum is dissolved.
Tlie alum M'atcr is to be applied hot, by means of a brush, to every joint and
crevice. Brush the crevices in the floor of the skirting-board, if they arc
suspected places. "Whitewash the ceiling, put in plenty of alum, and there
Mill be an end to their dropping from thence.
To kill moths in carpets, spread a wet cloth on the carpet, and iron witli a
liot flat-iron round the edges and places where you suspect them to be. Do
this a few times in the course of the summer, and you will save your carpet
from the moths.
SiIk-tco)-j)is have been induced to work in France by electricity. M.
Sauvageon reports to the Academy his experience in the matter. Finding
tlie little things torpid and unwilling to work, the idea struck him to stir
tlieni up by electricity. The results, as he gives them, are really marvelous.
He took fifty-three worms at random from among thousands belonging to a
neighbor, put them every day on a sheet-iron plate, through which a current
of electricity was passed, kept them each time as long as they could stand it,
and now has fiftj^-three beautiful cocoons, an amount which his neighbors
will not obtain, to all appearances, from several thousand ungalvanized
worms. If these results may be relied on, he has made a very valuable
discovery.
208. Moth ProtcctorSt — Camjyhor is one of the most useful moth protectors
about the household. A trunk full of furs, with an ounce of cam])hor gum
scattered through tliem, will be safe from moths. Furs or woolens packed
in a chest made of camphor-wood or cedar will generally be safe. Some
housewives pack in a linen sheet, or bag of close texture. Others use to-
bacco. Others keep their furs or woolens in drawers or trunks where they
will be often exposed to the light, and where they can frequently take them
out to the air and sun, and beat them, which will eflfectually prevent the
ravages of the moth. A very good preventive is to carefully kill the miller
that makes the worm which is so destructive to woolens and furs. It is not
a hard matter to do so in a house not already overrun with them. They
may be attracted to a light blaze ; and they may be caught in plates with a
little s\veetened water and vinegar ; or a piece of an old blanket may be
used as a trap ; or they all may be caught and destroyed by hand, by de-
voting half an hour to the work each evening, in the proper season.
269. Anls in the HousCi— These troublesome pests may be overcome by
various remedies. Perhaps one of the best things for the red ants is to mix
a few grains of corrosive sublimate in a spoonful of lard, with a little sugar,
and then draw rough strings of cotton or woolen yarn through the mixture,
and lay them in the cracks where the ants harbor, or in the corners of closet
shelves. They may also be poisoned with cobalt, pulverized fine and mixed
244 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
with something sweet that they like to feed upon. Tliese and otlier insects
can be poisoned by arsenic. Tliey may be kcjit from tlie sngar-bowl by
setting it in a plate covered with powdered chalk. The whisky remedy
recolnmended in No. 254, to protect trees from ants, may be adopted in the
house. The bug-powder mentioned in the same number, made of red chamo-
mile, can also be used in the house for ants and other pests. For the large
black ant, the best vehicle for poison is old cheese. Dip a piece of it in a
poisonous solution, or moisten it if dry, and dust it with corrosive sublimate
or arsenic.
Be very careful, in the use of poisons, not to get them mixed with food.
There is no more danger, with proper care, than there is in keeping gun-
powder in the house.
270. Insects Bene flcial to Farmers. — It is not to be inferred that because an
animal is called an insect, it is pestiferous. The contrary should be taught
in all schools, as well as in home lessons. The false idea is prevalent tliat
all sorts of insects, bees excepted, are mischievous, hurtful, and hateful ; so
that evei'Y worm, bug, fly, moth, miller, or little crawling, creeping, flying
thing is looked upon by almost everj' one witli a feeling of desire to crush
it. A contrary feeling must be cultivated. Children must be taught to dis-
criminate between good and evil insects, as well as between good and evil
deeds. A cloud of moths might be seen hovering around the wheat, and
the farmer, under the supposition that they had come to destroy the grain,
might destroy them, and afterward find that he had killed his best friends —
the parasites of the wheat destructors. Before we declare a war of annihila-
tion, as many have against the birds, ujwn any class of animals, let us first
inquire which are and which are not noxious. "We will here briefly point
out a few.
The common angle-worm, instead of being detrimental to the farmer, is
actually a co-laborer, and often a better one than the biped owner of the soil.
A scientific writer on Zoology says :
"The burrowing of earth-worms is a process exceedingly useful to the
gardener and agriculturist ; and these animals are far more useful to man in
this way, than they arc injurious by destroying vegetables. Tliey give a
kind of under tillage to the land, performing the same below the ground
that the spade docs above for the garden, and the plow for arable land,
loosening the earth so as to render it jiermeable to air and water. It has
lately been shown that they will even add to the depth of soil ; covering
barren tracts with a layer of productive mold. Tiius, in fields that have been
overspread with lime, burnt marl, or cinders, these sidjstanccs are in time
covered with finely divided soil, well adapted to the support of vegetation.
"That this result — which is most commonly attributed by farmers to the
' working down' of the material in (picstion — is really due to the action of
the earth-worm, appears from the fact that in the soil thus formed, large
numbers of ' worm-casts' niay be distinguished. These are produced by the
digestive process of the worms, which take into their intestinal canal a large
Seo. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 245
quantity of the soil through wliich they burrow, extract from it a great part of
(lie decaying vegetable matter it may contain, and eject the rest in a finely
divided state. In this manner a field manured with marl has become
covered, in the course of 80 years, with a bed of earth averaging 13 inches
in thickness."
White, in his " Natural History of Selborne," says :
'' Worms seem to be great promoters of vegetation, which would proceed
but slowly without them, by boring, perforating, and loosening the soil and
rendering it pervious to rains and fibers of plants, by drawing straws and
stalks of leaves and twigs into it, and most of all, by throwing up such
infinite numbers of lumps of earth, called worm-casts, which, being their
excrement, is a fine manure for grain and grass."
It is a part of the system of comminution spoken of under another head ;
and if all the earth could be eaten by worms, it would serve as a manure for
crops, simply because it had been pulverized, and thereby fitted for their
use.
Some time since, in company with several gentlemen, we listened to a
conversation with reference to the value of the earth-worm, one gentleman
claiming that they were a nuisance in the garden, and others asserting that
tliey were a great blessing, as mole drainers, and always an index of the
fertility of the soil. Here is a paragraph from the EncydojpcRdia Britan-
nicii, right to the point :
" The common earth-worm, though apt to be despised and trodden on, is
really a useful creature in its way. Mr. Knapp describes it as the natural
manurer of the soil, consuming on the surface the softer part of decayed
vegetable matter, and conveying downward the more woody fibers, which
there molder and fertilize."
271. Plant-Lice Destroyers. — ^There is an ichneumon fly, a very small
blackish insect with yellowish legs and abdomen, not quite the twentieth of
an inch long, which destroys myriads of aphides. The female lays an egg in
each louse, and the grub from that devours its nest, leaving only the skin
attached to the leaf, serving for a shelter for the larva in its pupa state. The
fly comes out of a hole in the louse's back, and repeats the ojieration.
Careful examination will disclose a great many of these perforated empty
aphis skins upon plants that would be entirely destroyed hy a long-continued
multiplication of their consumers, but for this little parasite.
The Syrphus is the name of another destroyer of the aphis that abounds
upon cotton-plants. This is not a parasite ; the eggs being laid on the leaf
among the aphis, the maggot, wliich is, when full grown, about one fifth of
an inch long, makes its food of the lice. Tlie pupa is formed on the leaf, in
a case made by the worm of a glutinous secretion— the juices it has sucked
out of the lice it fed upon. The fly is seven tenths of an inch across the
wings, which are double ; the body appearing like a diminutive wasp, banded
witli brown, black, and j-ellow. It hovers much on the wing, without much
motion, unless disturbed, when it shows its power of swift flight. This
246 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
louse destroyer does not confine its operations to the aphis of cotton-plants,
tiiough it seems to prefer them. It is of immense service to Southern
farmers.
The Lady-linl (Coccinella) is another valuable assistant to the cotton-
planter, in particular. "Where the lice most abound, there will be found the
lady-bird doing its work. Yet there are numerous planters who, seeing this
insect hovei'ing over the cotton, suppose it the parent of the pest they stand
60 much in fear of, and direct the negroes to destroy all they can. It was a
negro who first discovered that the worms hatched from their eggs, which
are deposited on the leaf near the aphis, actually consume them, instead of
the cotton-plant. The worms are a quarter of an inch long, bluish-black,
and voracious as an alligator, to which they bear some slight resemblance.
They seize and cat the lice alive, until all upon tlie leaf are consumed, when
the grub fastens itself by the tail to the leaf to await its change. The insect
while on the wing is also a louse-eater. A disagreeable odor emitted by tins
insect will serve to identify it. ,
The larva of the Jace-wwgfl)j is another cotton-aphis cater. These wonns
are hatched from filaments of eggs, which the fly attaches to the under
side of the leaf near an aphis colony. This larva is not quite one fifth of an
inch long. It may be known by the way it holds by the tail, while sti-eteh-
ing out full length looking for its favorite food. It spins a little cocoon, out
of which, in due time, comes a bright green fly, with brilliant eyes, and
four transparent greenish wings, delicately netted like fine lace — hence the
name. This insect also belongs to the fetid-odor family.
272. Other Insect Destroyers. — The Carolina tlgcr-heetle is a beantiful insect,
seven tenths of an inch long, of metallic blue, violet, and green color, and
savage propensities toward all other insects.
The Ilarpalus is another insect-consuming beetle, with very strong
hooked jaws adapted to a predatory Hfe. If it can not find living food, it
will consume dead, putrescent substances.
The Mantis, an insect known in Maryland as the " rear horse," is a
voracious consumer of insects. In fact, it is said that they will sometimes
consume one another. Tlie largest are over two inches in length, of a very
awkward-looking form. The eggs attached to a limb look like an excres-
cence, and are often attacked by an ichneumon fly, as a place of deposit for
its eggs. Tlie young mantis conies out in June, at first without wings, but
with a strong appetite for aphides and other insects. It stands upon four hind
legs, with body elevated and forward feet closed, and head constantly
moving. It walks, or jumps, when alarmed, but is capable of domestication
so as to come and take food out of the hand, and is perfectly harmless cxce])t
to things obnoxious to man, and for that it should be preserved. Its color
is brownish gray to light green, and its form will be remembered from a
picture of it, or after being once seen or known.
The licduvius novenarius measures an inch and a quarter in length, and
destroys multitudes of insects in all their stages of transformation. The
Sko. 12.] ENTOMOLOGICAL. 247
eggs deposited in autunm hatch in May or June; the young worms are
marked with a bh\ck head and thorax, and bi-ight red abdomen, and black
spots on the back. They afterward appear of a grayish color, with rudi-
ments of wings, which at length enable them to fly with strength. It
approaches its prey cautiously, and makes a dart, and pierces it to death, and
then Bucks out the substance. It cats the common tree-caterpillar voraciously,
and it sometimes wounds a person handling it incautiously with its sharp
piercer.
There are numerous other parasites of noxious insects, and insects like
those named, which prey upon others, which are really beneficial to the
farmer, as are many quadrupeds and other animals that are natural insect-
eaters, such as toads, moles, skunks, etc. The most important of all, perhaps,
we mention in the next jiaragraph.
273. The Wheat niidge Parasite. — The only hope of relief from the blasting
eflects of the wheat-midge (323), with those who have thought upon the sub-
ject, has been a parasite that would work its destruction. That hope, we
trust, is about to be realized. A correspondent of the Canadian Agricul-
turist, writing to that paper in the autumn of 1860, says :
"I am rejoiced that this week I can announce the arrival of a deadly
enemy to the wheat midge or fly. In the neighborhood of Sparta, township
of Yarmouth, the farmers have discovered some species of ichneumons which
deposit their eggs on the larva. One of these is very small, black, and
shining ; the other is also black, with red feet and a blunt tail. These are
often mistaken for the wheat-fly ; but as it has only two wings, and they
have four, the distinction is obvious. To observe the proceedings of the
ichneumons, place a number of the maggots or larvre of the wheat-fly on a
sheet of paper, apd set a female ichneumon in the midst of them ; she soon
pounces upon her victim, and, intensely vibrating her antennfe, bending her-
self obliquely, plunges her ovipositor into the body of the larva, depositing
in it a single egg. She will then pass to the second, and so on, depositing a
single egg in each. You will observe the maggot writhing in seeming
agony, when sometimes the fly stings them three times. These ichneumons
appear in myriads on the outside of the ear, but, as if impatient of bright
light, sheltering themselves from the sun's rays among the husks."
The same thing has been noticed in other sections ; and Dr. Fitch, the
entomologist of the New York State Agricultural Society, is so much en-
couraged that a remedy has come at last, that he writes confidently, in
iSTovember of that year: "The days of the wheat-midge pest are numbered.
I fully believe that farmers may again sow wheat without fear of its destruc-
tion by the Ceddomyia trUici^''
248
SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS.
[Chap. II.
SECTION XIII.-MISCELLANEOUS-AVILD AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE
FAIIM-DOMESTIC FISH-BREEDING, ETC.
'olcs. — Wo liavo for four years (1S59-1862) occu-
/^ pied our little farm in AVestchestor County —
one of the many sadly-abused pieces of land,_
some of that in mowing, not planted for thirty
years or more — and in this land we found the moles
as thick as we ever saw them anywhere in our life,
and therefore have a right to speak of them from expe-
rience. In some respects we have sufiercd severely by
them. Tliey have killed many choice things that we
have planted, including several valuable grapevines ; but
we are not yet willing to destroy the moles. We do not
look upon them as pests, although they have pestered us.
They xmdermine the plants, but do not eat them What
for? It is not for sport, nor merely accidental in boring
their subterranean galleries. It is in pursuit of food. And as that food consists
of insects noxious to the farmer, this paragraph upon moles comes in coui-se
very well after the section devoted to insects. In fact, we believe that tlie
mole is one of man's best friends, and that it never occupies land that is not
already so preoccupied with destructive worms as to render it unfit for culli-
vation. So impressed with this belief are some European people — all
Prussia, we believe — that they have enacted laws to prohibit the killing of
moles. As with the crow, opinions vary in this country whether the mole is
beneficial or injurious to farmers. For our own part, we must say that we
never see an account of a "new mole-trap" without Avishing the inventor
might get his own fingers caught in it. It is a great pity that farmers can
not learn that moles are one of the good things that Providence has bestowed
upon them — that they do not destro}^ seeds and plants, but the insects that
are great pests to the farm and garden. In this opinion we shall continue
until better informed upon this question. In the mean time we give some
opinions of others. Tiie following is the sketch of a report of a convcrsafion
at the New York Farmers' Club about moles :
Solon Hobinson read a letter upon the subject of moles, which elicited a
lengthy discussion. Tlie following portion of the letter we print :
" This animal, as you probably know, has a very small apology for eyes,
which can not be discovered till the skin is removed, and it can not be ascer-
tained that they are of any practical use. His sense of hearing and of smell
is very acute, and he is enabled to elude observation, and to avoid anything
unusual that may be placed in his track. No device, however, with whicli
I am acquainted will force him to abandon a well-cultivated track, abound-
ing with earth-worms, whicli are his chief attraction. He will pass from hill
Seo. 13.] WILD AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FAKM. 249
to hill, severing the corn, melon, or other seeds from the tender plant, thus
greatly impeding its progress, and in many instances wholly destroying it.
In a scarcity of earth-worms he will prey upon beets, potatoes, and other
roots with voracity ; still the damage he thus does is of little account com-
pared with that produced by his relentless plowing or rooting. Where
the soil is fertile and not too wet, this intruder will be found undermining all
vegetation, and is a source of discomfort to the agriculturist, which must be
realized to be appreciated.
" Failures in field and garden, which are often attributed to drouth or in-
sects, are many times produced in a great measure by moles. At morning,
noon, and evening the mole goes forth on his depredations, making the most
rapid movements (for an underground performance), and in less than twenty
minutes finishes his repast, and returns again to his hiding-place deep in the
earth, beyond the reach of all intruders.
'• The Yankee mole is too shrewd for the English trap, or, indeed, for any,
with a single exception. I have examined several traps, beautiful in theory,
but they are splendid practical failures."
Wm. S. Carpenter — I am satisfied about the injury of moles to the farmer^
being much more than all liis benefit in eating worms. I had a bed of
tulips destroyed by moles. I traced them by their paths from root to root.
Prof. Mapes — I have tried careful experiments with moles in confinement,
and have never succeeded in getting them to eat any kind of vegetable
matter.
Mr. Moody, of New Jersey — 1 have found that moles do cut off the stems
of thorns in my hedge. I can not say that they eat thorns. I am satisfied,
too, that they will eat potatoes.
Pruf Mapes — I find that potatoes are eaten in the vicinity of moles, but I
am satisfied that they are eaten by grubs that the moles feed upon.
Dr. Trimble— The potato is eaten by the grub of the cockchafer, and not
by the mole.
Mr. Fuller — I have known moles to gnaw potatoes, but not for food.
The Chairman, Egbert L. Pell, made the following remarks upon this
subject :
Ifolc-U/Ils.— In rich alluvial soils, mole-hills are thrown up in immense
numbers, because such soils usually abound with the food that these subter-
raneous creatures seek for. They destroy the roots of grass immediately
contiguous to their mounds, besides often impeding the free action of tho
scythe, for these reasons. Some think it well to exterminate them ; still they
no doubt do a vast deal of good by destroying obnoxious worms and grubs.
In the spring of the year it is an easy matter to spread out these mounds
over the surrounding ground, as they are dry and powdery, and act to a
certain extent as an enriching top-dressing.
The mole can not bear access to the atmosphere, being wholly subterra-
neous by nature ; they never drink, but live entirely upon worms, insects,
and the roots of grass, and are never foundHn gravelly or clay soils.
SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
They breed in April and May, and generally ])roduce four at a birth.
Tlie tunnels that tliej' make are invariably parallel to the surtace of the
ground, and about six inches deep, unless they become alarmed, when tlay
inimediately sink to the deptli of fourteen inches, rarely deeper. They have
cities under ground, wliicli consist of houses, or nests, where tliey feed and
nurse their young ; communicaiing with these are wider and more frequented
streets, made by tiie perpetual journeys of the female and male parents, us
well as many other less frequented streets, with diverging branches, whicli
they extend daily to collect food for theniselves and Ainiilies.
Moles arc exceedingly active in April and May, during the pairing
season, when the tunnels become very numerous, for the purpose of meeting
each other. I do not believe tliat they are blind, from the fact that I have
never observed that the mole-hills increase except in the day-time, showing
that they do not work by night, whicli they would probably do if deprived
of sight. They commence very early in the morning, when you may oiten
see the mold or grass moving over them ; you may then readily cut olf
their retreat by thrusting in the ground a spade directly behind thcjn, when
they may be dug out very easily and killed by the attendant terrier. By
placing your car on a newly-raised hill you may hear tliem scratching at a
considerable distance, and thus be able to find them. You may always dis-
cover the locality of their young by observing the hills, which are larger
and the color difl'erent, a portion of the subsoil being thrown upon top. If
you desire to set traps in their tumiels, it will be necessary to discover which
are the frequented streets and which the by-roads.
This may be accomplislicd by pressing the foot lightly on the hill, and if
the mole passes that way he will nearly obliterate the mark. You may then
set a subterranean trap, and he will be caught. These may be made from a
piece of wood, in a hollow, semi-cylinder form, with grooved rings at each
end, in which are placed the nooses of horse-hair, one at each end, fastened
\>y a peg in the center, and stretched above-ground by a bent stick ; wb.en
the mole has passed through one of the nooses, and removed the central jieg,
the bent stick, by its elasticity, rises and strangles the animal. Tlie structure
of this quadruped adapts it admirably to the underground life that it leads.
Its head is very long, conical in shape, and tapers to the snout, M'hich is
much strengthened by a bone, gristle, and very powerful muscles. The
body is cylindrical, very thick on the back of the head, from which it dimin-
ishes to the tail. It does not appear to have any neck, but where it should
be, there is a mass of muscles, all of which appear to act upon the fore legs
and head. These are the instruments with which he excavates the ground ;
they are harder, shorter, and stronger, in proportion to the size of the animal,
than in any other of the niammiferous class. I have never destroyed one of
these little animals, because I consider the damage they do to a few roots of
grass is entirely counterbalanced by their immense destruction of wire- worms,
slugs, etc., besides aerifying, disintegrating, and lightening the soil, and thus
fitting it admirably for the purposes of top-dressing.
Sko. 13.]
WILD AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FARM.
251
I never permit the common crow to be destroyed, because he preserves
my corn-fields from numerous enemies, keeps off liawks, destroys shio-s,
snails, grubs, and eats carrion. Nor tlie black snake, whose constant
employment seems to be the destruction of field-mice, and other enemies to
the orchard. Nor the cherry bird, because he is always on hand ready to
eat the first cherries that ripen prematurely, which invariably contain the
worm. Nor the king-bird, wren, or robin, all of which are employed from
dawn to dusk in relieving me from my enemies.
275. An English Opinion about Moles.— The Eoyal Agricultural Society's
Transactions contains the following opinion about moles. The report affirms
that "in one year, and every year, 60,000 bushels of seed-wheat, worth
£30,000, are destroyed by wire-worms ! This prevents 720,000 bushels from
being grown, worth £300,000. If our farmers and others, instead of killing
moles, partridges, and pheasants, ^^• onld jyroiect them-, 720,000 bushels more
wheat would go every year into the English market. But the creature designed
by a kind Providence to perform the chief part of this immense good is the
mole/ Some years since I had two fields, one of which was full of wire-
worms, the other perhaps a third full. My crops failed on these fields for
the first two or three years, but afterward improved rapidly, for I bought all
the live moles I could find at three shillings a dozen, and then two shillings
a dozen, and turned them into these fields. I had eight quarters of barley
per acre and seven of wheat where the moles were at work all summer,
making the ground like a honey-comb. Next year, the wire-worms, being all
cleared out, my innocent little workmen, who had performed for me a service
beyond the powers of all the men in my parish, emigrated to my neighbor's
lands to perform the same service, but of course they met death wherever
they moved, so that my little colony was wholly destroyed. Now I will
receive all the moles that the farmers will give me, and turn them into my
glebe." "- •'
276. An American Opinion about Bloles.— An American writer undertakes
to criticise what is said above, and says : " This I know from every-day
observation to be very erroneous. I do not know that moles eat insects ; be
that as it may, I have no doubt their living is principally seeds, and roots, and
other vegetables. In the winter time, when snow is deep and the ground
not frozen, I have known them to destroy whole nurseries of apple-trees,
and even young orchards that have commenced bearing."
Now this man don't know what he is talking about." He has confounded
mice and moles together. It is the mice, and not the moles, that have been
running about in this man's orchard eating his trees. But he believes it is
moles, and has a fi.xed prejudice in his mind against them, which no argument
perhaps can remove. We beg of farmers to learn facts about things in
which they are so much interested.
277. Mice and their Mischief.— Mice, we willingly concede, are mischievous
— m young orchards excessively so. Wet seasons are favorable to the rai^d
increase of field mice, and when followed by snowy winters and unfrozen
252 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
turf, so they can have access to the clover root*, thcj' become a scourge.
The hitc dry summers nearly exterminated both rats and mice — probably more
from thirst than hunger.
The variety of mice that does most damage to trees is known as the
''meadow mouse," which always works under cover, girdling the trees most
wlieii the snow lies deepest, particularly if it lies lightly or is held up by
weeds and grass, so as to allow the vermin easily to make their paths from
tree to tree, or from the tree to their resting-place.
2TS. Remedies for Mice Ealing Trees. — Tramping the snow down around
the trees is a pretty sure remedy, and where tlie orchard or nursery is not
extensive, will answer to be put in practice, but it would be troublesome on
a large scale, as it may have to be repeated several times in the winter.
Some persons have found it a good plan to tramp down the snow and wet it.
It then forms ice, that often remains nearly all winter, keeping the ground
warm, as well as keeping the mice off.
Downing, in his " Fruits and Fruit-Trees," says: "The following mixture
will be found to be an effectual prevention. Take one spadeful of hot-
slacked lime ; one spadeful of clean cows'-dung ; half spadeful of soot ; one
handful of flour of sulpluu- — mix the whole together with the addition of
sufficient water to bring it to the consistency of thick paint. At the
approach of winter, paint the trunks of the trees sufficiently high to be
beyond the reach of these vermin. Experience lias jn-oved that it does no
injury to the tree. A dry day should be chosen for the application."
Coal-tar has been recommended, but we advise great caution in its use,
since many persons have destroyed their trees by it. "We would sooner try
a coating of strong alkaline soup ; that, at Jeast, would not injure the
trees.
279. Mice aud Osage-orange. — J. D. Cattell, of Salem, Columbiana Co.,
Ohio, says the iield-mice are eating up all the roots of Osage-orange hedges
in that region, so that they are utterly destroyed, and their cultivation must
be abandoned unless somebody can give a remedy. He says :
" It has been my understanding, heretofore, that one of the greatest excel-
lences of this plant for fencing was its freedom from all animal destroyers.
If no remedy against the ravages of the mice can be found, it will be folly
to set a plant of the kind in this part of the country. One of my neighliors
has already given np half of his for lost, and grubbed out the balance. No
doubt others are troubled in the same way. I have tried traps, terrier dogs,
and poison, but all in vain. "What shall I do?"
"Who can tell?
"We heard one nurseryman siy t'lat he should dig up an Osage-orange
hedge, because it attracted mice, and also because it entirely exhausted the
soil of a wide space, so that he lost the growth of one row of trees.
280. RatSi— This species of tiie genus mm is an almost intolerable nuisance
in some portions of the United States. In fact, we do not know of any
portion now exempt. They follow man into the wilderness. "When we
Sec. 13.] WILD AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FARM. 253
located on the prairie, in-183-i, about 1.5 miles from neighbors, and 40 miles
out from what has since grown to be the city of Chicago, there was not a
rat to seen or heard of. For several years we were exempt from this pest.
There came abundance of shipping to Chicago, and with it abundance of
rats, and they soon spread over the whole land, multiplying and devastating.
Xow they are great pests in the barns and stacks of prairie farmers.
Our common breed is called " Norway rats," from the supposition that they
originated in that country. British naturalists, however, assert that they
were introduced into the British Islands from India. If they are tropical
animals, all we have to say is, that they easily adapt themselves to a rigoi'-
ous climate, where they multiply at a most prolific rate. What we are yet
to do Avith them is a problem not easily so';ved. All the receipts to cure the
nuisance are only preventive, not eradicative.
2S1. Rat AntidoteSi — A correspondent of the Ga)'dener''s Montldy says :
" I tried the effect of introducing ioto the entrance of their numerous holes,
runs, or hiding-places, small portions of chloride of lime, or bleaching pow-
der, wrapped in calico, and stuffed into the entrance holes, and thrown loose
by spoonfuls into the drain from the house. This drove the rats away for a
twelvemonth, when they returned to it. They were again treated in the same
manner, with like effect. The cure was most complete. I presume it was
the chlorine gas, which did not agree with their olfactories."
Another correspondent writes: "Some four or five years since, my cellar
became musty, to overcome which my wife sprinkled a solution of copperas
(pretty strong) over. the bottom. Since that time we have seen no sign of
rats about the house, notwithstanding there have been plenty of them about
the barn and other buildings on the premises."
Arsenic is considered, by some who have tried it, a failure, when used for
the purpose of clearing premises of rats, because they are too cunning to
partake of it after witnessing the death of two or three of the family. It is
effectual, if the vermin will take the bait.
Strychnine we consider far preferable, and although so much more costly,
it requires but a few cents' worth to do the work of death upon a hundred
rats. It is also the very best thing to use upon a troublesome dog or cat
that comes prowling about your premises. One grain for a dose is sufficient.
We have killed numerous wolves by inserting one grain of strychnine in the
center of a piece of fresh meat, just large enougli for a mouthful for a wolf.
As rats do not bolt their food, it is a little more diflicult to get them to take
strychnine, it is so intensely bitter. If it is mixed with corn-meal, and a few
drops of oil of anise are added, it will attract the rats.
Tarring and feathering rats, and then letting them run, has been practiced,
to give the tribe a hint that it would be well for them to leave. One rather
smart individual, not having tar, used spirits of turpentine. He was going
to drive the rats out of his house cellar. He was entirely successful ; for
when he let the rat loose in his kitchen, with a " Shoo !" to it to go down the
cellar stairs, it took the kitchen fire in its course, and then a pile of fla.x thi.t
254 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. H.
lay in the cellar way. lu two hours there was not a rat in the house, unless
it might be a roasted one.
Planter of I'aris has proved a successful poison for rats; audit has the
advantage of being quite harmless to have about the house. A tablcspoon-
ful of the flour of plaster, mixed in a cup of Indian meal, and slightly sweet-
ened, will be eaten by rats, and kill them. A little grated cheese makes the
food more attractive. Oil of anise M'ould be still more so. In fact, by the
use of it, rats may be coaxed out of a house to eat poison, and die where
their dead bodies would not be a nuisance.
Phosphorus, powdered and mixed with meal, a few grains to a teacupful,
has been often used successfully as a rat poison.
Powdered jwtash, strewn in the paths frequented by rats, has been known
to drive them away from a house. The theory is, that it gives them very sore
feet, and disgusts them witli the place.
282. English Rat-fatchers. — In England, rat-catching is a profession, sons
often following it as the business of their fathers. The rat-catcher visits a
farmer, and contracts with him at so much a head for all tiie rats he destroys.
His XvA\> is a large bag, which is set with the mouth open, baited with a
piece of bread scented with oil of anise and oil of rhodium, the scent of
which attracts the rats, and thus he bags enough to fill the contract. He
does not desire to rid the premises, as that would •' sjwil business." A rat-
destroyer would not be tolerated by the honorable company of rat-catchers.
283. Rat-Traps. — ^Among the many devices for trapping rats, we will
mention a few of the best. A large M'ire cage-trap, where the second rat
will go in because he sees the first in there, often proves successful. A large
brass kettle, half full of water, with a small stone island in the center, just
big enough for one rat to rest upon, the top of the kettle being covered with
parchment, similar to that of a drum-head, having a cross cnt in the center,
is a first-rate trap. Fasten a small bait upon the points of the cut, and the
rat jumps down from a board arranged for tlic purpose, and through he
goes into the water. He scrambles on the island and squeals fur help. An-
other hears him, and comes looking around, sees the bait, jumps for it, takes
the plunge, and goes down upon the other fellow's head. Then comes a
scramble for place, the strongest pushing the weakest oft' to take his chance
in the water. This muss, as with men, attracts others, and in they go. We
have heard of twenty in a night thus inveigled to destruction.
A barrel, one third full of water, with an island, the surface covered with
chaflf, and a bait suspended over it, avo have been told, is an excellent trap.
Ferrets and weasels have been highly recommended to be kept about the
burn, to drive away rats. The objection to tiiem is, that they drive away the
poultry also. Ferrets have been trained so as to be obedient to the call of
their master, and used not only to hunt rats, but to drive rabbits out of their
burrows.
2S4. Domestic Cats. — Perhaps the best thing for a farmer to do, who is
troubled with rats, is to multiply his stock of cats. We knew one farmer
Seo. 13.] WILD AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FARM. . 255
who kept fourteen eats, keeping np th.at number for more tlian a year, by
which means he got rid of all annoyance from rats, and they also hunted the
rabbits out of an adjoining grove.
Tlie variety of the fdis tribe known as the domestic cat, once wild, easily
gets wild again if neglected by man, and is tlien as great a pest as the rats,
and is given to the very bad habit of eating eggs and chickens, and catch-
ing pigeons and other birds.
To 2)>'eveni cats killing chiclicns, Harriet Martineaii gives the following as
a sure preventive both against the killing of chickens and birds b}' the cats :
"When a cat is seen to catch a chicken, tie it round her neck, and make her
wear it for two or thi-ee days. Fasten it securely, for she will make incred-
ible efforts to get rid of it. Be firm for that time, and the cat is cured — she
will never again desire to touch a bird. This is what m'o do with our own
cats, and what we recommend to our neighbors ; and when they try the ex-
jjoriment, they and their pets are secure from reproach and danger hence-
forth. Wild, homeless, hungry, ragged, savage cats are more difficult to
catch ; but they are outlaws, and may be shot, with the certainty that all the
neighbors will be thankful."
The abundance of food and shelter obtained by the domestic cat makes
ilicm much more prolific than in a wild state. She is generally, though veiy
tame and gentle, much more attached to the house than to its inmates, which
is quite the reverse with the dog. There are some remarkable singularities
about cats. Gentle as they appear, they are very nervous, and easily
startled, and act for a moment as wildly as tJiough never tamed. They are
also accused of being very treacherous. Their affection for their own spe-
cies or ours is certainly doubtful. Their conduct at times, when a member
(f the family dies, is singular. Their anxiety also to get at a corpse has
led to curious superstitions. In the opinion of the sujierstitious, the black
cat has ever been attendant upon witchcraft. It is our opinion that a portion
of this black-cat superstition originated from the fact that the hairs of a
black cat exhibit sparks of electricity to a remai-kablc degree, when the
atmosphere is in the right condition. To see this, take such a cat into a dark
room, upon a clear, cold November night, and stroke the fur the wrong way,
and if you never have seen it before, you will be surprised at the effect.
Cats, particularly females, are generally very cleanly animals to keep as
house pets. They are fond of warm quarters and soft beds, and their song
of satisfaction, called purring, is very pleasant to all who have a fondness for
cats. We have known this fondness become a cat mania.
We look upon cats as a necessary part of farm stock, and they should be
properly treated as much as any other kind of animals.
285. DogSi — If there is any more unmitigated nuisance in a farming com-
munity than dogs, such dogs as farmers generally keep, we are imable to
name it. In the country where we live, there are some hundreds of farms
better fitted for sheep husbandry than any other purpose, but upon which
no sheep are kept, because the country is so full of worthless dogs. The
256 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
country might l)c a hundred thousand dollars a year riclier, if the people
could stock tlieir farms with sheep. A man who keeps a worthless cur to
prowl through a neighborhood, is neither a good Christian, moral man, nor
good neighbor. He does not do as he would be done by. A well-trained
terrier is the only kind of a dog that is useful to farmers in general. Of
these there are several varieties ; the best is the wire-haired terrier, an ugly-
looking brute, but a ferocious enemy to rats. The black-and-tan terrier is a
handsome and more agreeable-looking dog to have about a place, and a
good ratter, when trained, but does not have such an apparent natural pro-
pensity to destroy i-ats as the wire-haired one. He is also, for his size, a very
strong dog, and knows nothing about fear of anything, and is therefore a
very good house watch-dog. But we do not believe a farmer ever should
keei) a dog for his services alone, as a watch or guard of his premises. A
dog to be worthy of a home upon a fivrm should have several good qualities
combined. No conscientious man can keep a dog when he knows that the
keeping of such dog.s, whether his par'.ieular one or not, has a tendency to
prevent the keeping of sheep ; for sheep, of all animals, have greater adapt-
ation to the pnrposo of furnishing the poor with cheap food than any
other domestic animal in use in this country, and they are capable of con-
verting the coarsest herbage of the farm into the most healtliful meat of the
shambles.
286. Shepherd's Do^S. — Wlienever sheep are kept in sucli numbers as to
constitute a considerable flock, the owner can well afford to keep a good
shepherd's dog. One who has never seen a well-trained shepherd's dog can
form no idea of their extraordinary sagacity and usefulness. Wo have
ridden leisurely across a wide prairie in a wagon, accompanied by a Scotch
coUey, half-breed slut, driving five hundred slieuji better than three men
could have done without a dog.
If there M-ere none but such dogs in the country, there would be ten times
as many sheep kept. One man would be entirely competent to manage a
thousand. He should have two dogs, so tliat they would be company for
each other, and so that, in case of accident to one, the other would remain
serviceable.
The Scotch colley very much resembles a prairie-wolf, having a broad
forehead and pointed nose. The ears are short and upright, the fleece
shaggy and slightly curly, Avith a bushy tail. These dogs are very intelli-
gent, docile, and faithful, and possess an instinctive sagacity in everything
that relates to the care of sheep. In a pleasant little book called " Anccilotes
of Dogs," some wonderful evidences of the sagacity of Scottish shepliLr 1
dogs are to be found, and they should be read by all farmers' boys.
The English shepherd dogs vary considerably in appearance from the
Scotch. The hair is smoother, and they do not appear so distinct a breed as
the other. Both are of medium size, jierhaps about fifteen inches high.
Tlie Irish shepherd dog is larger and more ferocious; some of them would
tcai- a man sadly, if he interfered with the flock at night while in charge of
Seo. 13.] WILD AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FARM. 257
the dog. The Scotcli clog is always gentle, and generally very afFectionate.
In France, the shepherd dogs are somewhat like the Scotch, but smaller.
The Spanish shepherds have a breed of dogs peculiar to that country. They
are the size of a full-grown wolf, with large head, thick neck, mastifl-lookin"-,
fierce and strong, and are often armed with a spiked collar, to make them
more formidable to dogs, wolves, and bears, if they should attack the flock.
Their color is generally black and white — their daily rations two pounds of
black bread, with milk and meat when it can be had. In Spain, the f-pcat
flocks of the country, always in charge of shepherds and dogs, make lone
migrations every year from their lowland home to the mountain pastures,
two or three hundred miles distant, feeding all the way in the roads and
commons.
Sheep arc the wealth of Spain, and without the aid of shepherd dogs, that
wealth, under the present system of management, could not be produced.
287. Do? LawSi — In New Jersey there is a dog law which siiould be
entitled, " An act to encourage the keeping of the most ordinary breeds of
sheep, and no others, and to induce owners to have them killed by doo-s."
This act provides that all sheep killed by dogs shall be paid for out of the
public funds, at five dollars a head. To improve your flock, if you get a
buck worth a hundred dollars, and the dogs kill him, you get five dollars.
If your neighbor has one killed that you would not have on your farm, if
paid five dollars for taking him, he gets five dollars. It is not a law to
encourage improvement in sheep-breeding.
The number of sheep annually killed by dogs in Ohio has been ascertained
by the assessors. The number and value are astounding.
Tiiereupon a correspondent of the Ohio Farmer says : " Shall we have a
dog law, or must we give up keeping sheep? That is the real question.
There would be kept fifty per cent, more sheep in this country, but for dogs ;
not that quite that amount are dogged, but most farmers lose some, and this,
with other risks, discourages them, and compels them to abandon the business.
Now lot every fixrmer make this a test question in the elections this fall.
Let it be sheep vs. dogs, and let all Republicans and Democrats see to it that
every man put in nomination for the Legislature is sound on dogs. Let the
candidate choose whom he will serve — sheep or dogs. I am in earnest, Mr.
Editor. The sight of a few fine Leicesters, each worth more than all the dor^s
in Ohio, mangled and torn by worthless curs, who are only kept because
their owners are too lazy to kill them, has made me in dead earnest ; and
wo to the Ohio legislator, if he depends on my vote, whose fear of doo-
constituents shall induce him to oppose or dodge a severe dog law ! Now is
the time, wool-growers of Ohio, to look to this matter, and see that anti-dog
men are put in nomination by your respective parties."
Tiiere is no use in talking about taxing dogs. Tlie dogs that really do the
miscliief are the dogs of gentlemen of elegant leisure, who are too lazy to
hunt M'ith them, and of the democratic loafer, who don't like to work, but
glories in the luxury of a house full of children and a dozen do^-s. Honest
258 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
working people, who earn their bread, don't keep wortliless dogs about them ;
it' they keep a dog, they feed liiin, and train liini up properly ; but your
roaming worthless vagabond will keep a score, and expect tlieni to take care
of tiieniselves. But these fellows have votes, my dear sir; it will never do
to tax their dogs. They would kick up such a dust about our ears that wc
could never find our way into the State-house again.
28S. \ Trap for (ate hiug Shcep-killiag DojSi — Make a pen of fence rails,
begiuuing with four, so as to have it square, and as you build it, draw in
cucli rail as you ■would the sticks of a partridge-trap, until your pen is of
sufficient height, say five feet. In this way you Avill construct a pen that,
Mhen finished, will peiniit a dog to enter at the top at pleasure, but out of
which he will find it difficult to csca^jc, should he have the agility of an
antelope. All that you have to do to catch the dog that has killed your
sliecp, is to construct the trap where the dead sheep is left, as directed, as
soon as possible after an attack has been made on your flock ; put a part or
the whole of a sheep that has been killed in it, and remove the balance to
some other field. In a majority of cases the rogue and murderer will return
the succeding night, or perhaps the next, and you will have the gratification
next morning of finding him securely imprisoned. Some may object to the
plan, perhajis, on the ground that you might catch an innocent dog. If he
is so, he can content hrmself with not trying it.
289. A Serniou OU Dogs. — Tiie Texas Christian Advocate gets off the fol-
lowing short sermon upon dogs, from a text to be found in Philiiipians iv. 2 —
" Beware of dogs !" Upon this the preacher sa3's :
"The Apostle well knew the mischievous and meddlesome spirit of dogs.
Ilonce his caution against them.
I. Dogs in general are a nuisance.
Because :
1. They excite fears of hydrophobia.
2. Tiiey wwry and destroy sheep.
3. They disturb our slumber. — HoM'ling in horrid concert under our win-
dow, simultaneously baying at tlie moon.
4. They frighten us when out at night. — A snap or growl at a neighbor's
gate, or when turning down a dark alley, has a wonderfully nervous tendency.
5. They are too lamiliar. — "Will sleep on the front gallery, scatter fleas,
come into the dining-room and parlor, and go to church on Sunday mornings.
From these and other considerations I observe :
II. All dogs should be watched.
1. To prevent their depredations. — Killing neighbors' cats, tearing pants,
scaring children, and going mad.
2. To correct their bad maimers. — Teach them they are only dogs, and not
quite equal to " white folks."
3. Keep them in their places. — "Wherever else they belong, I question as
to the propriety of their getting between the sheets with gentlemen, or using
the church as a dog-kennel.
Seo. 13.] WILD AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FARM. 259
Application. — Have you a dog? Tlien keep him in a dog's place, and
watcli liim. If you admit him to undue ftimiliarity, don't forget that other
folks will still think him to be but a dog. If he has a shaggy coat and turn-
up nose, these will not entitle him to the privilege of following you to
church and disturbing the worship of the entire congregation.
Though he may be as nice and sensible as his fond master or foolisli mis-
tress, it is not very probable the preaching will do him any good. The intel-
ligent fellow might be allowed the pleasure of trotting across the floor, and
barking his approbation at the occasional flights of the preachei-'s eloquence,
were a dog's gratification more important than the people's edification.
Hence, in conclusion, I would say. Beware of dogs! and what I say to one
I say to all. Beware of dogs !
Finally, to the sexton, or that good brother who raises the tunes, I would
say with emphasis. Beware of dogs! and if those canine interlopers persist
in coming to the place of worship, just take them out and cut oflF their tails
close to the ears."
290. Rabbits — To Prevent Gnawing Trees. — Tiie American Hare, commonly
called Rabbit, is common to all the Atlantic States and Canada. It is used
for food by most people, but abhorred by others. Although clothed in a
thick coat of soft, whitish-gray fur, the skin is not valuable, because it is too
tender to be serviceable, and the fur is not much, if any, better than cotton,
for such purposes as fur, separated from the skin, is used for. These animals
are prolific, and generally prefer to live in and about farms that have been
suflcred to grow up badly to bushes. They do the most of their feeding at
night, and farmers general!}' do not feel any dread of their mischief.
Nurserymen do ; and so do those who plant young orchards near where rab-
bits abound. When hunger presses them 'n winter, they will gnaw apple-
trees with tender bark so as to destroy them. Young nursery trees are often
cut off by rabbits so smoothly that one not knowing how it was done would
suppose it was by a knife.
To prevent the depredations of rabbits, English nurserymen dip rags into
melted brimstone, and fasten them about among the trees. The remedy
mentioned in 278, to prevent mice, is recommended to keep the rabbits
away. Some persons have daubed their trees with grease scented with some
oftensive odor, and found that rabbits would not touch them. Some have
plastered them with fresh cow-dung. A very good remedy is to ofl'er a
bounty for every rabbit killed in the neighborhood.
Where trees have been injured, it is a good plan to bind up the wound
with a plaster of clay and cow-dung, made plastic enough to adhere well ;
this, when firmly bound on, will often save a valuable tree.
Domesticated rabbits, if suflcred to run at large, are very ornamental, par-
ticularly if of the finest fancy sorts, but they are sometimes unpleasantly
mischievous. Where they can bo conveniently kept under restraint, we
have no doubt they can be made as profitable as poultry or other small farm
stock. In England, rabbit-breeding is quite a business, and men of wealth
2G0 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
and good stai^ing^ engage in it, and form rabbit clubs, and exhibit tlicir
stock for prizes. Some of the 6pecimens imported from London, that we
have seen, were very beautiful. Some years ago, Francis Rotch, of Butter-
nuts, Otsego County, N. Y., imported some of the best we have ever seen,
and bred them to a considerable extent, finding ready sale for all he chose
to dispose of in that way.
We do not know of any large establishment in this country where rabbits
are bred for sale in market for food. The common American wild rabbit is
often seen in the New York market.
Rabbits may be kept in very inexpensive hutches, and in tolerably close
confinement. Their feed in summer is clover and various green things. In
winter they will eat grain, sweet apples, parsneps, and other roots, cabbage,
and a little sweet hay. A full-sized rabbit wants about a gill of oats night
and morning, with a piece of rutabaga or parsncp, or its equivalent, say a
quarter of a pound a day, and a little handful of hay. A doe, while suck-
ling her young, which is most of the time, should be fed high, say three gills
of oats a day, or wheat shorts, or pea meal, and roots and hay. Or in sum-
mer, upon almost anything that grows green, if given fresh.
A dozen or fifteen years ago, we remember having seen in "The Boy's
Own Book" an elaborate treatise upon rabbit-breeding, and to that Ave refer
the boy who reads this and desires to go into the business. They will also
find frequent hints in agricultural papers, and in several books devoted io
fancy poultry breeding. From what wc have said of the food which rabbits
consume, it will be easy to calculate whether keeping them will be profitable.
Newspapers bound around trees, it is declared in an article before us, will
wholly prevent depredations of rabbits, and also keep off' the borers, and a
wrapper well tied on will last for months. The writer says :
" I find no other remedy necessary for either rabbit or borer. The wrap-
pers, if properly put on, keep whole through all the changes of our variable
winters. The trees are thus secure from damage by the rabbit. In the latter
part of spring and early part of summer, when the beetles of the Sapcrda
and the Biijyrcsiis are about, a few eggs will be deposited in the axils of ihc
lower branches of trees, and at the tops of the paper wrappers. Even these
jioints of attack, however, can in general be successfully guarded, by simply
depositing a small piece of brown soap in the main axils, after the season's
growth is well started, to be dissolved and washed down the stem by subse-
quent raiiis.
" But I do not find it necessary to resort to this precaution ; for if eggs are
deposited at those points, I am certain to find the fact out, and make all
right the latter part of August and first i>art of September, when I go among
my young trees with a bucket of strong soap-suds and a hard scrubbing-
brush, for the purpose of giving them a good hard wash, such as would make
some people open their eyes with astonishment, and cutting out snckcrs or
small shoots that may have pushed through the papers, and renewing the
wrappers."
Sec. 13.] WILD AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FARM. 261
291. Squirrels and GopherSi — All of our Eastern and Nortliern readers will
understand about squirrels, and how much mischief the smallest of the
family does in the corn-field ; but they know nothing of gophers — they belong
to the "West. In California they are almost intolerable, and it is about as
Iiard to demise a plan to get rid of them as it is here to get rid of the '' chip-
mucks" {Tamias tysteri). In our opinion, tlie best way to prevent them
from digging up the seed-corn is to give them plenty to eat on the surface.
Wliat is half a bushel of corn sown broadcast for the squirrels to pick up ?
It would save the seed of a large field harmless. "We would willingly give
that every year to see the dear little things around a farm. It is worlli that
to see the old dog chase them, and " bark at the hole" where one ran through
a stone wall. We have concluded never to kill a chipmuck. If others w'ish
to do it, they may perform the work by poisoning corn, or they may prevent
them from eating it by coating the seed with tar, which is done by mixing a
pint of tar in a pail of warm water, and putting the corn in it ; then, to make
it pleasant to handle, roll it in dry plaster. If a little flour sulphur is sprinkled
on the wet seed, it will adhere and give it an odor that all little pests dislike.
At tlie AVest, in woody districts, gray, black, and fox squirrels, particularly
the first named, are sometimes very destructive to the corn-fields in autumn.
The gray and black squirrels increase so rapidly after one or two seasons of
an abundant supply of beech-nuts, that the rcguhir squirrel-hunts do not
appear to diminish their numbers. They are to some extent migratory, as
tlieir supplies change, from beech to oak lands. At such times tlie strong
and healtiiy will swim large rivers, and uniformly take one direction, leaving
the young and feeble at home.
In Ohio, about the year 1835, squirrels became so numerous over the
whole country as to threaten the entire destruction of corn-fields while in the
milk. The following year they were all starved. In the winter they ran
desperately over the fields, indifferent of danger, sometimes feeding npon
tiie bark of the beech.
The red and striped or ground squirrel are not liable to sufler from these
vicissitudes, as they lay up a store for winter. I think the flying squirrel
docs also, but this is a nocturnal creature, and less is known about it.
There are also several kinds of winter birds which deposit seeds in knots
and loose bark of trees for winter use.
Tlie fox squirrel is the largest of the American species. It is of a reddish-
gray color, and inhabits the prairie groves of northern Indiana, Michigan,
Illinois, Wisconsin, and other States. It is very shy of man, is hard to get a
hight of, and difticult to kill.
202. Striped Gophers {SjKnnophilus tndecemlineahis). — Perhaps, when
you see the name given to this animal by natural-history writers, you may
imagine it is as big as its name. But it is not half as formidable to look at.
We give the scientific name for identification, because the word " Gopher,"
in Florida, means a small land-turtle. In Wisconsin it means a squirrel
somewhat like a chipmuck. In California it represents a different animal.
2G-2 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
The striped gopher abounds in tlio Xorthwcstern prairie region. In tbe first
scttlcnieut of the country a liundrod miles around Chicago, it inhabited all
the prairie groves and dry ravines. The following is its description : The
ears are short and rounded ; the tail slender and liairy, about lialf tlie Icng'.h
of the body ; the body is of a dark browu above, longitudinally marked with
altcruale rows and si)ots of a light fawn-color, which correspond nearly with
the belly and sides. The lighter lines on the npper part may be distinguished
by the brown intervals between, wliich arc occupied by the single rows of
li<»ht spots, which are generally indistinct on the anterior half of the body.
Although these animals are considered grain-eaters, and called mischiev-
ous, we believe they are among the many real friends of the farmer. Like
the weasel, which occasionally cats a chicken for lack of more favorite food,
the gopher sometimes eats the farmer's seed-corn, but lie should not be con-
demned as an enemy for that act, without a fair hearing.
There may be some of the gopher family that are destructive of farm
crops. The evidence is very strong to that effect against tbe Californian
gopher, which lives in holes all through the cultivated fields, and does not
seem to be very particular wluxt it eats, whether corn, wheat, potatoes, beets,
melons, pumpkins, so that it is somctliiug which the farmer has grown for
his own use.
It is not so with the small striped gopher. This beautiful little animal
should be carefully preserved npnn all farms where it now exists, and we
have no doubt it would prove a valuable addition to the stock of any farm
where it is not found in a natural condition. It is a-grcat destroyer of field-
mice, and in our opinion a whole troop of gophers do less damage in one
season than the mice which one of them would kill in a single day. For
they are real epicures, eating nothing but the blood and brains, when the
supply is abundant. These animals have such an appetite for flesh, that
if deprived of it, a mother will cat her young. Such carnivorous animals
must be better hunters than cats, and should be carefully preserved, and not
" drowned out," as they often are, wlien their homes are discovered by the
boys, just for the " sport" (cruelty) of killing them. Tiicsa animals seem to
have a natural instinct that man is their common enemy. We liave seen them
often in situations where they could never have had any acquaintance with
man, at least civilized ones, who are the only ones who ever kill such small
game for "sport," and we found tliem wild in the extreme. They utter a
cry when discovered, and dart away into some shelter with great rapidity.
In this respect, quite unlike the chipmuck, which will play around a dog or
man in tbe most tantalizing manner.
The striped gopher never gna^vs trees, roots, fruiis, nor green vegetable^,
and in fiict does the farmer no damage except to eat a little seed-corn. For
all that they eat in the harvest field, they save twice as much in driving
away mice and squirrels. Chipmucks, red squirrels, and mice can not
inhabit the same locality with gophers; and yet there are'))erson5 Avho liave
offered bounties to have them destroyed. Let such learn this fact from this
Seo. 13.] WILD AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FARM. 263
Yolume, if they learn no other, tliat the striped gopher is worth its weiglit
in gold upon any farm where field-mice are so abundant that they destroy
fruit-trees.
293. SknskSi — "We don't know tliat we can afford to stem the current of
popular opinion so far as to recommend the protection instead of destruction
of skunks [Mephitis Americana). AYe are aware that these animals are
troublesome visitors to the poultry-yard, and on that account they are hunted
and killed without mercy, and without a thouglit about what they live upon
all the time that they do not eat chickens. As they are flesh-eaters, they must
find somelhing of the flesh kind to eat, and that something is the very thinp
that the farmer is most anxious to get rid of — it is mice, and worms, and
bugs. The quantity of these pesls destroyed by a single skunk is enormous.
It is very rare that they come about a house, tliougli we have known tliem
to live for weeks in cellars, or store-rooms, or under a crib, without producing
any nuisance. They never emit their fetid odor iinless attacked by man or
dog; and it has been contended tliat if was practicable to domesticate a
skunk so that he would be quite a harmless pet. We can not recommend
making }>ets of these animals, but we do recommend farmers to learn the
important fact, that if they do him a little damage occasionally, they also do
liim an incalculable amount of good. Generally speaking, there is not a
farmer in all tl;e region inhabited by t\\c. Ilephitis who could not Avell afford
to exchange dogs for skunks, and pay ten dollars each for tlie bargain.
There is one other thing tliat skunks are good for. As an article of food we
don't think there is any wild animal that makes a more dainty dish, and we
liold that we are tolerably well qualified to judge. A fat skunk, nicely
dressed and roasted, hung by a string before an old-fashioned wood fire
till beautifully browned, and then served upon a platter flanked with boiled
mealy potatoes, covered with the brown gravy made of the fat driji, is
beyond dispute " a dish fit to set before the king."
204. Toads.— Although not among the quadrupeds, of which this chapter
treats, toads are among the friends of the farmer, and as sueii sliould have a
place in this connection. Every man wlio owns or cultivates a garden or
field, who knows anything about tlie natural history of the toad, will never
allow one to be destroyed. Tliere is no animal more harmless, and few that
do the fanner more good than toads. Their whole food is of insects injuri-
ous to the farmer. The prejudice against "the ugly things" is a foolish one,
and should be done away with. We once had a toad in the garden wliich,
by some particular mark, was known to the children, who called it "fiither's
pet toad," because it really ajipeared as though it knew that we were its
friend and protector. Tiiis toad cauio year ai'icr year to lend us its valua' i -
aid in exterminating the insect pests of the garden. We liad anotiier that
made the milk-room its summer home, where it v/as constantly engaged in
catching flies and bugs. Toads and bats should both be protected from harm,
and children taught to encourage them to come about the house. Bats are
great insect-eaters, and never visit the house of an evening for any other
264: SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
purpose tliau eatcliiug insects for food. It is charged against them, that they
sustain bed-bugs as parasites.
295. ("amels— Their lutroduction into the Tnited States.— It is a great jump
from the back of a toad to that of a camel, but not so great as politicians
sometimes make. As we have to make the leap somewhere, it may as well
be done here as anywliere, and after a very short ride we will jump down
again upon the back of a goat. We have introduced camels, because we
want all, particularly the farmers' boys who read this book, to learn the
fact that camels have already been introduced into the United States, and
put to service as beasts of burden. The fii*st imported were in 1S57, we
believe, under the auspices of the general government, since which time
they have been in active government service, principally in Texas, and have
made one or more trips to the Pacific with army otficers.
The Galveston jVews gives the following account of the strength of one
of the camels. It says :
"There were near a dozen on the wharf, of all ages. The camel loaded
was one of the largest. On the word of command being given, the camel
lay down, ready to receive liis load, which consisted of five bales of hay,
weighing in the aggregate over 1,400 pounds, which was firmly bound to the
pannier placed upon tiie animal's hump. Upon the utterance of command
by the native keeper, the huge animal arose, Avithout any apparent effort, to
his feet, and walked off in a statel}' manner along the wharf and through
the city. We were informed that the same camel had 1,600 ponnds placed
upon him, with which enormous weight he arose. Tlie animals arc all ex-
ceedingly tractable, and seem to possess much afi'ection for any one who
treats them kindly, as an example of which Mrs. W. informs us that one of
them, a pretty white one, which she had petted, would always kiss her when
she vcas within kissing distance, which fact, we really thought, certainly
proved the animal to possess an excellent taste as well as an affectionate dis-
position. In thein native country the average load for a full-grown camel is
some 800 pounds, with which the}' perform their long journeys over deserts,
with but little food or water."
It is to be hoped that camels will become one of the ordinary beasts of
burden in this country, where there are such vast arid plains, as in northern
Texas, Xew Mexico, M-estern Kansas, and Utah, that no other animals can
traverse them.
It is stated that the Emperor of Brazil is about to introduce dromedaries
into that country. This animal can go long journeys without water, and
therefore will be found valuable upon some of the deserts and plains of th.at
country. A common load of an ordinary dromedary is 500 pounds. One
of the camels in Texas has carried two bales of cotton, of 500 pounds each.
One of the best kinds of dromedaries for riding can travel 400 miles with-
out stopping to eat, drink, or rest.
At the Xorth, where horses, mules, and oxen are in such common use, we
do not think that camels will ever supersede them.
Sec. 13.] WILD AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FARM. 265
296. Goats.— lutroductioa of the Cashmere Goats into the Uuited States.—
About the most unprofitable of all varieties of I'arm-stock is the common
goat. It is known in some parts of the country as the Irish goat, probably
because the people from Ireland iu this country, particularly in cities, keep
more goats than all the rest of the inhabitants. These are of all colors, as
much so as the common breed of horned cattle, and about t,he size of com-
mon sheep. The she-goats give a small quantity of milk, and the kids
afford some flesh food, at a small cost to the owners, as they forage their
living, and frequently do more mischief in a neighborhood or upon a farm
than their necks are worth. The hair of the common goat is worth nothing
for manufacturing purposes. It is quite the reverse with the Cashmere
goat. The fleece of this variety is eight times as valuable as fine wool ; and,
fortunately, it has been found that a cross upon the common goat, even in
the first progeny, produces a fleece about half as valuable as the full blood,
so that the breeding of goats in this country for the fleece is likely soon to
become quite common, and a profitable branch of husbandry, particularly
in some of the I'oughest districts of country.
To Dr. James B. Davis, of South Carolina, the country is indebted for the
introduction of the pure Cashmere goats, which are now to be found iu
various parts of the United States; and to lion. Richard Peters, of Atlanta,
Ga., it is equally indebted for the interest he took at an early day in the
propagation of the original stock, which he purchased of Dr. Davis, Mr.
Peters, being a wealthy, public-spirited gentleman, spared no pains, even
when success was doubtful, in getting this breed established upon a firm
basis, and proving that its crosses upon the common breed would be profit-
able, as well as upon several other varieties of fine-wooled goats.
We had the pleasure of an acquaintance with Dr. Davis and his stock at
Charleston, in 1S19, shortly after his return from several yeai-s' residence at
Constantinople, He brought with him seven females and two males of the
Cashmere goats, besides several other curious sjiecimens of the livestock of
the East. He stated his belief to be that the Cashmere, Persian, Angora,
and Circassian goats are all of one breed, and that they have been slightly
changed by locality, principally by altitude. These fine goats usually breed
two kids in the spring, and, unfortunately, where rapid propagation is an
object, the males preponderate.
The progeny of these goats is now to be found in all the States from N"ew
York to Texas. Li the latter State they have been established pretty exten-
sively. We saw a letter written by John R. McCall, at Austin, in August,
1S60, which estimated that two lumdred head, principally bucks, had been
i'.itroduced into Texas.
Tlie demand for the fleece of Cashmere goats may be calculated from the
fact that it is stated that 4,000 looms and 12,000 people are employed in the
city of Lyons, France, in the manufacture of the fleeces of Cashmere goats, and
that they are worth from four to eight dollars a pound. As soon as the supply
is large enough, we shall have manufactories in operation in this country.
266 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
Casliiiicrc slunvls were exhibited at tlie Crystal Palace, New York, vahieil
at one tlioiisand dollars cacli. These were all made by the needle. Fabrics
m;ide of Caslunere goat's fleece, it is supposed, will outwear those made of any
libroiis material yet discovered.
The Thibet goat, one of which we saw at Dr. Davis's, differs from the
Caslimere materially. Tiie outward appearance is that of a very coarse-
huired animal ; but there is an uuder-coat of long, white, silky wool, which
weighs about a pound wlien combed out. Dr. Davis thought this like the
wild goat of the Rocky Mountains. "Who knows if thc?y are identical?
Dr. Davis imported, also, the Scinde goat, which comes from Scinde, at
tlic mouth of the Indus. Tliis was a renuu-kably largo goat, witli monstrous
pendulous cars.
A goat used in Malta is the best milker of the family. A good ewe givcA
a gallon a day. Goats' milk, in all Eastern countries, particularly in mala-
rious districts, is considered more healthy than the milk of cows; aiul some
learned physicians in tliis country declare that cows' milk, in malarious dis-
tricts, is tlie moving cause of many attacks of bilious fever. In this view of
t!ie subject, it may be well to inquire wliethcr it would not be to the advant-
;!ge of the people, in a sanitary as well as pecuniary point of view, to intro-
duce the improved breeds of goats into all sections reputed subject to mala-
rious diseases.
297. Brcediag- Fish for Foo«l on t!i8 Farta.— Wc do Tiot iVel willing totloso
the chapter upon animals on the farm, without calling attention to the sul)-
ject heading this paragraph.
Fish are the least cosily food that man can obtain ; yet. owing to the
scarcity, the labor of taking them out of the Avater — which is all the expense
a tending their i)roduction — has become so great, that fish arc sold in our
market at nearly as high a price per pound as meat. Salnuin arc really
higher than choice cuts of cither beef or mutton. And yet salmon can be
grown at very trifling expense.
We have long been producing oysters by artificial means, without wliich
our market coidd not be supj)lied ; and yet, with tliat fact before our eyes,
very few attempt to produce fish b}^ an equrlly easy jirocess. One fact of
importance, in proof of the benefit of simply protecting fish from being
taken in the spawning season, is tlie following:
"In the river Foyle, in the nor;h of Iiehmd, by a steady perseveranee in
a proper system of proteelion, the amount of salmon taken was raided from
an average of 43 tuns annually, in 1823, to that of 30U tuns in 1812; while
in the small river of Ncwjiort, in the co-mty of Mayo, in M"hieli the salmon
w;is Ibiinerly uiipio!<.etccl 1)_\ !,;>.. ;iii,i . oascqiicnJy ti.'.en at all periods of
tlie year, within three years after tlie introduction of parliamentary regula-
tions enforcing tlieir protection during the breeding sea^on, the annual take
was increased from half a tui\ of fish to eiglit tnns of salmon and three tuns
of white trout, with a certainty of a still higher increase.
"In view of the great augmentation in the price of all the articles of food
Sec. 13.] DOMESTIC FISH-BREEDING. 26T
and necessaries of life in this country, llie small probability of any consiJer-
able reduction, and the actual Sufferings of many of the laboring class from
Avant of sufficient food, it appears to me that this subject is worthy of the
closest consideration, and that any one who can suggest and effect the means
of furnishing a new and ample supply of cheap, nutritions food, has some
small claim'to be thought of as not an entirely useless member of the com-
munity."
There is a liitlo book, published by the Applctons, that gives in detail all
the French plans for artificial fish-breeding, and any one who reads that
voUimc can go to work and stock Isis own waters with any kind of fish he
desires. That our natural supply has failed, there is not a shadow of doubt,
and that it never will be replenished, except by arlifieial breeding, is eqrtally
indisputable. That a re-stocking of our waters with fish, so as to make them
as plentiful as formerly, would prove one of the cheapest modes of lessening
the price of human food, is just as certain.
In the "West Indies, fish and turtle are constantly kept and stall-fed. At
free running they never become fat, any more than our land stock. The
j)ond3 are construcled of stones, of irregular figure in wall, so as to retain
three or four feet of water at the lowest tides, Tlie water of the rising tide
flows freely in. These ponds have a deck of plank over them, laid about tvro
inches apart, for admission of air and light. A hatchway in the middle of
the floor is opened to throw in their food, which usually consists of fry, or
small fish, taken by cast-nets in any required cpiantity. When this is scat-
tered among them, the excessive eagerness of the fish is an interesfing sight
— their bright eyes, fiae teeth, and sparkling colors showing beautifully, as
they leap out of water to catch the falling bait.
Tlie housekeepers send for a suitable fish for dinner shortly before the time
to cook it. The person has a strong line and hook, with or without bait ; he
lets it down, and the fish rush toward it, and he must be expert to let it dro2>
to the mouth of the grouper, hamlet, snapper, Avhite or blue band porgie,
etc., which he wants. Such a fish never appears on the tables of the North-
ern States, and yet every town on our sea-coast ought to have them. As it
is now, when the poor fisherman has caught more than he can sell, the over-
jjIus is a dead loss.
There is nothing more simple than the artificial breeding of fish. The
entire mystery consists in taking the female during her time, and by run.ning
the thumb vv-ith a gentle steady pressure down her back, force out her ova
in a jar of pure fresh water. The male is then taken in the same way, and
m'^de to yield a few dro'is of the spermatic fluid in the same vessel, tlie two
aiu li.en ;-i.;rcd togv.h.i flu" a, few mcicnls, and the contact of .the fluid oi'
the male has the effect to vitalize the eggs at once. The eggs are then laid
down in shallow tanks with gravel bottoms, arranged in a series of steps so
that running water can continually pass over them. Tlie whole trouble of
the breeder is then to keep the eggs free from any sediment or muddy deposit,
and in due time each e^'g becomes a fish. Thus almost every egg in an
268 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
innumerable ova can be turned to account for the benefit of man. Tlicrc
is, liowcver, something to ilo after the eggs have become fish, and that is, to
confine them M'ithin certain limits by a dam, until they are old enough to be
able to take care of themselves, and make fight against the larger fish which
would eat them up. There are now three or four establishments in the
country for the artificial breeding of fish, and we sec no reason why every
lake and river may not be filled M'ith life and food, and made to make an
ample return for all investments.
The cultivation of fish in France and some other countries of Europe has
become as much of a trade as any other occupation, and the results in supply-
ing food and aflbrdiug a handsome recompense to the owner have been equal
to the most sanguine expectations. It is surprising that, more attention is
not paid to it in this country where the facilities are unsurpassed. Occasion-
ally an individual makes a trial, but little however has yet been done in this
line compared with what might be accomplished. A writer in a South
Carolina paper gives a description of a domestic fish-pond on the plantation
of Mr. Freeman Hoyt, Sumterville. Mr. Iloyt had a small stream of water
which ran through a low place in such a form as to enable him, by a dam of
some 50 yards long, to construct a pond of some 700 feet in length by 150 in
width, with a depth varying from the shores to 12 or 15 feet in the center.
This gave him a pond of over two and a half acres, where he could raise
nothing. He deposited in the pond eight good-sized trout, and about 300,000
eggs, with a larger amount of smaller fish for the trout to feed upon, and in
(uie year the water was literally swarming with the finny tribes. His trout
one year old are some seven inches in length. The water running from the
dam passes through a sieve, so that the fish can not escape from the pond.
The necessary apparatus for cultivating, feeding, and taking care of the fish
costs but a small sum, and the proceeds of the pond will be a source of much
pleasure and profit. And this is but one instance in thousands which might
with equal facility be turned into a source of revenue.
lu many sections of the country numerous springs and streams abound,
confined within narrow valleys, that may be converted into permanent ponds
and thus be made to yield a profit in fish far beyond the capacity of the
same area of the best of land devoted to the most profitable farm crops.
Tiiesc streams when supplied with living springs may be converted into
nurseries of trout — the best of all fresh-water fish. Tlie streams or ponds
more sluggish in their nature may be made equally productive in a supply
of still-water fish. This suliject has been brought into extensive practice in
France and other portions of Europe, and more recently a number of suc-
cessful trials have been made in the United States to'multiply domestic fishes,
wliicli may be as much at the command of the owner as the fowls in his
barn-yard, affording an equal luxury and at a much less cost.
or artificial propagation of fish in Scotland and Ireland, a late number of
the Manchester (England) Guardian said : " As several reports have been
circulated in the newspapers to the cft'ect that the attempt to propagate
Seo. 13.] DOMESTIC FISH-BKEEDING. 269
salmon by artificial means in Ireland and elsewhere had extensively failed,
we think it right to state that we have obtained some information from the
very best sources, which convinces us that these reports are wholly unfounded.
On the contrary, we are glad to say the success attendmg the iirst attempt
at propagation on an extensive scale in the country has surj^assed our most
sanguine expectations. It is reported from Perth, where about 350,000 ova
are nearly hatched, that everytliing has progressed most satisfactorily ; the
whole of the ova, M'ith a trifling exception, seem in a lively state. The only
difficulty appears to be that of providing sufiicient ponds for such a multitude
of fishes, when they are able to swim, as the feeding-ponds already provided
will not contain one tenth of them ; and such is the number, that there
appears no other way, after having hatched and protected them for twenty
weeks, but that of committing them to the river to take their chance. At
Galway about 260,000 ova are in a similar prosperous condition. Propagation
on a smaller scale has also been carried into eflPect on the rivers Tweed, Lou-
chard, the Foyle, Bush Mills, the Blackwater, the Moy, the Dee, near Chester,
and other places. By tiie use of spring water the spawn has been entirely
protected from injury by frost, during the past severe winter; and of 2,500
eggs which were sent from Galway to Basle, a distance of nearly 1,000
miles, M. Lex states that a considerable portion are good, and in a state likely
to live."
Eobert L. Pell, of Ulster County, N. Y., has done a good deal to establish^
fish-ponds upon his farm; he says " that he is trying to grow the moss-bunker
for manure, and hopes for success in growing them, but thinks the use of
this fish the cause of disease in the districts where used. As many as 86,000
moss-bunkers have been taken in a seine at one haul upon our coast. Mr.
Pell also has in his ponds the black bass of the lakes — a fish that grows as
large as shad. Another fish from the lakes very much resembles the black
bass, and flourishes in artiflcial water. Both do well, and are easily caught
with a hook. The dace is a good fish for ponds, as he prefers still water.
The rock bass is a common fish in Lake Champlain, and is much esteemed,
and can be cultivated without difficulty. The muscalonge, from the lakes,
is an excellent fish, and appears well calculated for artificial water if puiw
This fish grows large, and somewhat resembles the pickerel or pike of the
lakes. Mr. Pell has the stickleback, that curious little fish that builds a nest
something like a bird. Haddock he has tried, but failed of success, not-
withstanding he salted the pond. The haddock is much inferior to the cod-
fish, although frequently salted and sold as cod. He also gave accounts of
experiments with several other varieties, and how to transport fish alive
safely. Mr. Pell thinks it is possible to stock all the streams in tlio country
with fish, and thereby increase the food of the people to a very great extent,
without any expense."
A writer in The Ilomestead says :
" Three years ago I constructed, in a ravine, a fish-pond covering a surface
of about three fourths of an acre. It is fed by four small springs, and ic
270 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. IL
ceivcs a large amount of surface-water from the slopes around. It is fifteen
feet deep at tlie greatest depth, and lias shallow bays and inlets, wliere the
ruiall lish may breed and find proleetion from larger ones. It contains a
small island, and the shores are embellislied with flags (Iris), water-lilies
(XymphcB odorata), and olher water-plants. It was stocked 'witli yellow
bass, Oswego bass, white perch, and every variety of sun-fish and minnows,
also a dozen gold-fish {Cypr'nius aiiraiua). And now, at the end of three
years, it is astonishing to note the vast in'crease in my scaly family. They
have multiplied by hundreds, and grown in size beyond all my calculations.
Tiie gold-fish number several hundred, some of them over a foot in lengtli,
and a few of them are beautifully niarked with silvery sides and red fins,
iiead, and tail ; otliers witli golden sides and black fins and tail. I had no
idea that they would thus sport in colors, but certainly the}' are very beauti-
ful. The other fisli have grown so much that I intend to commence usitig
them for.tlie table in autumn. I have not fed these fish, except for amuse-
ment and to tame them, wlien a few crumbs of bread are tiirown in from a
small bridge connecting the island with the shore, and the fish called up like
cliickens. The sun-fish, gold-fish, and smaller fry soon learned to cnme at
my call, and to follow me in great numbers, from one end of the bridge to
the other, for their morning or evening meal.
" Tiie young bass (tlie old ones hold l)ack) and the sun-fish dart to the
surface for their food, and have a livelj' scramble fcr it; the gold-fish ]uclc
i.p wluii sinks to the bottom. Their habits in this way are very much like a
llock of chickens, for some of the smaller fisu take their pofiiion imme-
diately under my feet, to pick up the small crumbs that fall, in breaking the
larger ones to throw out. Some persons ri;-'^ a £n-i:iM bell to 1 -irT tlioir fish
up, but I prefer calling mine. They do not appear to come from a greator
distance than about forty feet to any one spot. I feed them in several i)laces,
to note the varieties and their growth. Now, as to the utility of this pond,
it furnishes ice for my own use and three or four of my neighbors who have
ice-houses; it also affords excellent stock water, and will doubtless liercafter
supply my table with fish. A small skiff on its surlacc gives many a pleas-
ant hour of recreation to the young who are fond of rowing.
"The construction of this pond was very simple. The earth was excavated
across the ravine four feet deep and five feet wide for a foundation ; then
stiff clay filled in and well pounded, to prevent leakage at the bottom. Tlio
earth from the bottom and sides of the ravine was thrown on the top of this
foundation, to raise the embankment to the proper hight. A waste weir at
one side, paved with flag-stones, and two feet lower tlian the top of the dam,
suflicicntl}- large to carry off the heaviest flow of water in very heavy rains,
guarded by a wire screen to prevent the cscopc of the fish, completed the
construction. It is now sodded over, and jilanted with willows at the foot,
and is considered safe. The exjiense of making such a pond is small, and it
adds much to the value of a farm.''
298. Trout Streams— Reasons for the Disappearance of Trout.— One of the
Sec. 13.] DOMESTIC FISH-BREEDING. 271
very best authoi'ities in the country — Geo. Dawson, a great lover of pisca-
torial sports — gives, in the Albany Eoeninrj Journal, the following reasons
for the disappearance of tron.t from streams where they were abundant.
He says :
"Every one who has lived a score of years in the neighborhood of mountain
or spring brooks remembers when, in such and such a stream, trout were
abundant, where scarcely one is now ever taken. 'What has become of
them V is a question which every one has been asked, or has asked himself,
a thousand times. One says, 'They have been driven out by sawdust from
mills erected upon the stream.' Another, who lives where tanneries have
been erected, thinks ' the tan bark has killed or disgusted them.' Another
says, ' Since the alders which used to border the creek have been cut down,
and the forest cleared away, they have sought greater solitude.' Others
say, 'They have gone because trout will not stay where there is a great deal
of passing to and fro, as there necessarily is in a thickly populated locality ;'
and others still insist that ' they have all been fished out.' Now, in my
opinion, not one of these reasons is real. ISTeither sawdust, nor tan bark, nor
clearings, nor dense population, nor excessive fishing, is the cause of depopu-
lation. Some of the very best trout streams that I know of are full of saw-
dust and tan bark. The bottom of Caledonia Creek is not only a bed of
sawdus^, but the creek lies in the midst of a dense population, and has been
fished, niglit and day, for thirty year?. I^everthelcss, in its cold, crystal-like
watei", trout are more plenty to-day, and more are taken, than ten years
since. I have been more lliau once surfeited with success in a stream in
Canada where the sawdust was so thick that it formed a compact covering
MDon its surface ; and cverv venr T take trout from a little brook in Connecti-
cut which has been clearea and fished for almost a ctuitury. There are three
great causes for the depopulation of trout streams : First, the erection of
establishments upon them in which lime is largely used ; second, the intro-
duction into the streams of jjike or pickerel, whose voracity is, sooner or
later, fatal to all competitors ; and thirdly, and principally, the gradual
cliange of the temperature of the water. Trout will not live long in water
whicli is not, at all seasons, of a temperature which may not, in comparison
with other water, be characterized as cold. Other causes besides those I
have named sometimes operate; but, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred,
the changed temperature of the water is the cause of the absence of trout
from streams where they were once abundant."
He does not give the reason of this change of temperature, but we do : it
is just the difference between a cool forest shade and a broad expanse of hot
sunshine. Where these mountain streams once were shaded from the first
gushing spring to their mouths at some large river, the}' are now exposed to
the full force of the noonday sun, until the water is heated to a degree as fatal
to the brook trout as ice would be to a tropical plant. Tlie streams that still
retain trout are those which are so hirgely supplied with cold spring water
that the temperature is kept at a healthy jjoint, notwithstanding the denuded
272 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. [Chap. II.
State of flic land. Sawdust has no more effect upon tlic fish than rotting
leaves and M-ood in the forest streams. The washing of cultivated fields, by
which the water is made impure, has more effect upon fish of all sorts than
sawdust, or, in our ojjinion, lime, in such quantities as result from any manu-
facturing establishment. This fact must be kept always in view in establish-
ing artificial ponds for fish-breeding. Make them where the water will not
be roiled by every shower.
299. Eel Streams and Eel-Fishing. — In all parts of the country where eels
abound, they may be made an essential part of the food of the family in the
autumn months, if the streams are such as easily admit the construction of
weirs and placing traps or eel-pots. In some parts of the country the eel
business affords no mean item of income to farmers who have riparian rights,
the work not interfering materially with ordinary farm labor.
We find the following interesting account of the eel fishery on the Susque-
hanna in the Lancaster (Penn.) Herald :
" About the middle of August the water of the stream becomes very low,
and usually by September that in the channel is only a few feet deep, leav-
ing the stony bottom, for a wide space on either side, in some places nearly
bare, with occasional deeper furrows which pass along it. At this stage of
water, the instinct which governs the fish to descend the rivers previous to
the advent of cold weather becomes the means of their destruction. For
many miles of the river's length, therefore, north and south of us, the people
owning tiie shore adjoining erect their fisli-dams and gins, by deepening the
cliannel somewhat, and building an elongated Y-sliaped wall, at the lower
])oint of which is fixed a box, from M-hich the fisii, when once caught, can
not extricate themselves. Obeying this instinct in their descent of the
stream, they find themselves borne pleasantly in this channel, and, wriggling
themselves cheerily, they let the current, pent in by t!jc walls, carry them
along until they tumble plump into the box at the termination of the V.
The fish taken in this manner are for tiie most part eels, of which almost
incredible quantities are captured during the fall season. Their ' run' only
takes place during the night. In daytime they j-emain quiet in the compar-
atively deep pools of the river. The work of catching them, liowever, is no
sinecure, not so much on account of the labor as of the wakefulness and ex-
posure which it involves. In some of the dark and showery nights of the
season the game will come into the box so fast that the watcher, who is often
stationed there with a boat, can scarcely remove them into it with sufficient
celerity. At other times there will be scarcely spoil enough in the boxes to
repay the trouble in watching them. It is only the larger apparatus and
dams, however, that arc thus cared for, the smaller being rarely filled to
overflowing. Fishermen secure and salt down some five or ten barrels of
eels during the season, besides living entirely upon them during the catch.
The larger operators make the business pay, as a single man alone can
perform all the labor required in taking and salting the fish. We have
seen various illustratiocs of digital dexterity, and also Ole Bull's manipu-
Seo. 13.]
DOMESTIC FISn-BREEDlNG.
273
latiou of the violin, but could any rapid manipulator once behold the
marvelous rapidity with wliicli some of tlie fishermen divest the eels of their
slippery epidermis or integuments, they would stand abashed, and, like the
sable individual in the song, ' Lay down the fiddle and the hoe' forever
af urv,-ard. We are at a loss to see how it is possible for any fish whatever
to descend to the mouth of the river, excepting it be a few belated ones,
who delay their return until a rise in the river gives them security from the
low-water traps. From Marietta to a point perhaps 100 miles up, excepting
in a few jilaces, these eel-gins are so numerous that they must entirely emj)ty
the river of eels, the run bontinuing constantly until frost, and the fishing
being terminated only, as we have already said, by the fall rains. "When
these occur, the boxes are taken up. The walls which remain under tiie
water are very seldom disturbed, and the next year, with very little repairs,
are just as good as ever. The eels are packed in full-sized barrels, and many
are sent to Baltimore. Quantities are purchased by sea-going vessels, whose
skippers are aware of the delicious flavor of this rather anomalous article
of provision. "
The kind alluded to in this extract is the " silver eel," which is also taken
all along the sea-coast by hooks and spears, and sold in great abundance m
all the city markets, at as high a price per pound as beef or mutton.
Now will farmers please to think that eels can be artificially bred as well
as any other fish, and that there are a great many streams and ponds, par-
ticularly in the West, where there are no eels, which might be made to fur-
nish a vast amount of food, as well for home use as for sale.
There is another kind of eels called lamprey, or lamper-eels, much esteemed
in some places. This kind have no gills, but have sucker mouths, and
breathing holes upon each side of the neck. These are found sometimes iu
great abundance in the streams of the Eastern States, in the spring of the
year, and are easily caught by hand, by wading the shallows of the stream,
where they are found clinging by their mouths to the rocks or large pebble
stones.
Tiie silver eels are also caught by wading streams at night, with torches
and spears, during low water, after harvest. This used to be accounted
great sport for the boys, when we were counted one. Many a good meal
we furnished the family, also, by sitting an hour or two of a summer even-
ing by the side of the mill-pond, with a hook baited with a small fish. This
we mention to encourage farmers to take steps toward re-stocking their
streams and ])onds, as well as making artificial ones.
300. Aucient Fish-Brcedingi — Lest our readers should suppose artificial
breeding of fish is a " new-fangled notion," we state that it has been prac-
ticed in China many centuries ; and it is probably a century since the mat-
ter attracted attention in Germany.
In that country fish-bveeding has now become an extensive and profitable
business. In France, also, there are many establishments, in some of which
it has been demonstrated that salmon can be successfully bred in fresh-water
274 SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTa [Chap. U.
ponds, from eggs obtained from salmon that come from the sea into fresh-
water streams to deposit tlieir eggs at the spawning season, -without allow-
ing the fish ever to swim in sea-water. And these young fish, it is found,
will reproduce their species.
If what we have written should incite any one to undertake to make arti-
ficial ponds, or stock the natural waters of his farm with that kind of living
animals wliich will give him the cheapest animal food that can be produced,
he should first procure and carefully study the books already published upon
this question, and, if possible, visit those who have had experience, such as
Dr. Garlick, of Cleveland, Ohio, Eobert L. Pell, of Ulster Co., N. Y., Messrs.
Treat & Son, Eastport, Maine, E. C. Kellogg, Hartford, Conn., and many
others.
As an article of diet, there is no mistaking the fact, gained by reading
and observation, that it is conducive to health, and particularly that those
who use fish as their principal food are exetnpt from scrofulous and tu])crcu-
lous diseases. This alone should prompt artificial breeding of fish in this
c<iuntry.
PLATE XIII.
(Page 275.)
This picture in its two parts is allegorical, though drawn from an
original. It is intended to teach. It should be studied with that
object. Then it will convey its own lesson. If the residence of
fiirraer Snug is most attractive, let every farmer strive to make his
so, and keep it in that order. If the residence of farmer Slack is
repulsive, let it be a lesson to every f\xrmer's son.
After looking at this picture, placed as a frontispiece to Chapter
III. — The Farmery — let him carefully read that chapter. It is full
of instruction. This picture is not designed as an index to the con-
tents of that chapter, but to tell its own story — a stor}' of good and
bad management. As you read, you will see how such a residence
as this dilapidated one produces a debasing influence upon the mind/
of children, and what inducements you have to beautify home.
TlIE S.VMK rXJLVK VirnVM FAltMBK SlA»'KS» MaJCAjAMRST.
CHAPTER III.
THE FAEMEEY,
DESCnrBING THE BUILDINGS, TAKD8, WELLS, CISTERNS, AQUEDUCTS AND STEUC-
TUEES NECESSAEY FOE CARKYING ON THE BUSINESS OF THE FARM.
SECTION XIV.-FARM-HOUSES.
""li tins section, the size, form and construction of
farm-liouses, and adaptation to the purpose for which
they are designed, will be treated, and reasons given why
they should be convenient, light, well-ventilated, airy in
: Summer, warm in "Winter, and handsome, both in the inte-
rior and exterior. Here, too, all who need the information,
will be able to learn how to build their dwellings so as to
make them, without great cost, all that wo have indicated.
301. Influence of the Dwelling upon Character. — "I Avill
tell you the character of the man, if you will show me the
house he lives in." This quotation embodies a volume of
truth, and the fact should be impressed upon the minds of all
farmers' children, as well those who live in such a house as
that of Farmer Thrifty, as those in the tumble-down mansion
of Farmer Slack. If they were bom in one like the former, it is to be hoped
that they received influences at the breast, that will always keep them out
of one like the latter. If they were so unfortunate as to belong to the nume-
rous family of Slacks, let it be impressed upon their minds that the cliaracter
of a man is known by the appearance of the house he lives in. None but a
" Slack farmer " ever lived through a lifetime in such a miserable dwelling
place as some of our American farm-houses.
There is a debasing influence about a mean house upon the minds of
children ; while a good one, that has many points of beauty about it, makes
them not only love to call it " home," but it always has an influence upon
their minds to attract them away from places that might injuriously affect
their morals, for it is a home that they love. Such a home also attracts
proper associates for your children, to come and spend a pleasant winter
evening, or a leisure day, under the parental influence, and will make
them good men and women ; and all because you provided for your family
such a home as all American farmers' families should enjoy.
302. Inducements to Beautify Home. — One of the strongest and one of the
most common inducements for the sons and daughters of farmers to leave the
country for a city life, is the neglect of parents to beautify home, and teach
276 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
cliildren to love it Lecause eventliin^ around it is more clieerful, more beau-
tiful, more pleasant, more enticing than any other spot known to them.
Instead of this, it is certainly true that a very large portion of our farm-
honses are, in almost every respect, exactly such places as children of intclli-
"cnce, who chance to see or read of the attractions of other places, are most
anxious to leave. Ho prevent the exodus of your children, the moment they
"•et old enough to liave ideas of their own, let it be one of the life studies of
every parent to make the children sensible that their home is equal, if not
superior, in all that serves to make life worth living for, to that of any other
family in the same station of life. K your house is small, it is all the more
easily painted, and made to wear an attractive outward appearance, and it is
no good reason, because it is small, that its interior should be most incon-
venient, uncomfortable and unattractive. Study to make your house such
in every respect that your visitors will say, " "What a lovely place," and you
will make your children contented and yourself happy, and all will exclaim,
" There is no place like home."
" More than building showy mansion,
More than dress or fine array,
More than domes or lofty steeples.
More than station, power and sway.
Make your home botli neat and tasteful,
Bright and pleasant, always fair.
Where each heart shall rest contented,
Grateful for each beauty there."
Is there any one tliought likely to be called up in after years so pleasing as
the reminiscences of a happy childhood's home, when, like the freshness of a
gunny May morning, we can call up the panorama of the wrens chirping on
the peach trees under our windows, and the call of robin redbreast to his
mate in the orchard, where the lambs are playing bopeep around the trees?
Then there is the garden with its Spring and early Summer beauties, the
breakfast table covered with a snowy cloth, and garnished with clean white
ware, and provided with such bread and butter — ornamented, perhaps,
with a fragrant bouquet, with the dew still glistening among the leaves,
j;ist gathered by a lovely sister, with a thousand other nameless attractions
that will float before the mind's eye, to remind it of the pleasures of home.
AVe look upon a love of home as one of the virtues, that, as a people, the
American farmers arc entirely too much neglecting. In fact, a dislike of
home is much more common than the contrary, and an old homestead is
parted from with as little reluctance as an old shoe, and very often for the
same reason — because it is down at the heel.
" Seek to make your home most lovely,
Home should be a sniilin,;; spot ;
, Such a home makes man the better
In lofty mansion or a cot."
As one of the easy means of beautifying your house, make it light ;
"misery dwelleth in darkness."
Seo. 14.] FARM-HOUSES. 277
303. Reasons why a Dwelling should be Light. — ^There is a inania for dark
rooms. People do not appear to be aware of the fact, tliat dark rooms are
deleterious to health. Hear what Florence Nightingale says upon this sub-
ject:
" A dark house is almost always an imhealthy house, always an ill-aired
house, always a dirty house. Want of light stops gfowth, and promotes
scrofula, rickets, etc., among the children. People lose their health in a
dark house, and if they get ill, they cannot get well again in it. Three, out
of many ' negligences and ignorances ' in managing the health of houses
generally, I will here mention as specimens. First, that the female in
charge of any buildiug does not think it necessary to visit every hole and
corner of it every day. IIow can she expect those who are under her to be
more careful to maintain her house in a healthy condition than she who is
in charge of it ? Second, that it is not considered essential to air, to sun,
and to clean rooms Avhile uninhabited ; which is simply ignoring the first
elementary notion of sanitary things, and laying the ground ready for all
kinds of disease. Third, that the window, and one window is considered
enough to air a room. Don't imagine that if you are in charge, and don't
look to all these things yourself, those under you will be more careful than
you are. It appears as if the part of the mistress was to complain of her
servants, and to accept their excuse — not to show them how there need be
neither complaints nor excuses."
We beg of all who build houses, as well as those who keep them, to
become aware of the fact, that there is a generous abundance of sunlight ii'
the countr}', yet the observer is often convinced that a majority of country
houses are but scantily provided with this first requisite of health and
comfort.
In reference to admitting light freely into our houses, the words of a writer
on the subject are pertinent. He says: "From several years' observations
in rooms of various sizes, used as manufacturing rooms, and occupied by
females for twelve hours each day, I found that the workers who occupied
those rooms which had large windows, with large panes of glass, in the four
sides of the room, so that the rays of the run penetrated through the whole
room during the whole day, were much more healthy than those who occu-
pied rooms lighted from one side only, or rooms lighted through very small
panes of glass." Notwithstanding the cheapness and facility with which
glass can be obtained, there is a deficiency of windows even in what is
usually considered the better class of American dwellings. Sitting rooms,
cheerless enough in having one or two small windows, almost extinguished
beneath heavy drapery of paper and cloth, are exceedingly common. For
ordinary rooms, white cotton cloth fastened on rollers, as paper is usually
lumg for window shades, is sufiicient for the purpose of screen — admitting
at tlio same time a difi'used and softened light.
Dark colors upon the walls, absorbing more or less of the prismatic rays,
are also unfavorable in their effects. The writer just quoted found that in
278 THE FARMERY. [Chap. Ill
rooms of eqiiiil ventilation, light and drainage, sonic of which had white
walls, and others yellow or buff-colored, the occuiuere were not equally
cheerful and healthy. The workers in rooms with colored walls were all
inclined to melancholy, and complained of pains in the forehead and eyes,
and were often ill and unable to work. By having the color removed and
replaced by wliitewash, uniform healtli and cheerfulness were ever after
secured. In architecture, a course of progress is distinctly marked from the
cave, the wigwam and hut of the savage, who rudely supplies his few Avants;
from the tent and mosque of the Arab ; from the cots beneath the castle and
beside the palace ; from the negro quarters to the mansion-house ; and we
wish M'c could say, progressing upward to comfortable, light, cheerful, ele-
gant homes for every American farmer.
Let them learn that they cannot live rightly in dark dwellings. Tlic
mother who, in the fulfillment of her office, preeminently receives and
appropriates from all the life sustaining elements, suffers a twofold wrong, in
the injury to herself and oflspring, by dwelling in darksome apartments ; and
childhood in such homes is pale and puny — often worse — is squalid and most
pitiably diseased. Tlie predominance of the chemical rays in Spring-time
is undoubtedly one of the adaptations of this season to the young of animals
w'hich then begin their existence, and it also exerts a decided influence upon
our own physical health. The invalid desires the return of Spring, for he
instinctively feels that nature without will then come to the aid of nature
within ; and who, after the cold and lifeless Winter, does not love to seek the
wind-sheltered nook, there to drink in the warm sunlight, and to receive upon
the brow its life-giving blessing? Who has not felt the glorious influence of
"bathing in the sunshine?" Then, we conjure you, let the sunshine into
your house, and do not be afraid of letting in the air, day or night.
An extraordinary fallacy is the dread of night air. What but night air
can we breathe at night? The choice is between pure night air from
without and foul night air from within. Most people prefer the latter. An
unaccountable choice. What will they say, if it is proved to be true, that
fully one-half of all the disease we sufier fi-om, is occasioned by people
sleepmg with their windows shut ? An open window, most nights in the
year, can never hurt any one. In sickness, air and light are both necessary
for recovery-. In great cities, night air is often the best and purest air to be
had in the twenty-four hours. I could better understand shutting the
windows in towns, during the day, than during tlie night, for tlie sake of the
sick. Tlie absence of smoke, the quiet, all tend to make night the best time
for airing the patient. One of our highest medical authorities on consump-
tion and climate, has declared that the air in London is never so good as after
ten o'clock at night. Always air your room, then, from the outside air, if
possible. Windows arc made to open, doors are made to shut — a truth
which seems extremely difficult of application.
304. The Location of a Farm-house. — Adaptability is the word that farm-
ers should study, above all others, when about to build a house. It is the
Sec. 14.] FARM-HOUSES. 279
word that they study least, if we may judge from what may he seen in a
majority of the farm-houses where we have travelled — that is, from Quebec
to New Orleans, and from Florida to Mackinaw. E\-ery\vhere is seen the
lack of adaptability to the purpose, either in size, form or location. Not one
farm-house in ten is located upon the farm as well as it could have been. In
all the eastern, western and northern States, the farmery is found, nine times
out often, upon some public road, without reference to the convenience of
farming operations ; and frequently, in all respects, is very inconvenient.
The location of the farm-house, and tlie arrangement of all the buildings
connected with the farmery, require the exercise of good judgment, fine
taste, carefully exercised skill, all combined, more than any other single
operation of a wliole lifetime, because it is not only for the lifetime of the
builder, but succeeding generations.
In tlie first place, the top of the hill, or highest point of a hilly farm, never
sliould be selected for the dwelling of the farmer ; such a site is only fit for
tlie residence of the lord of the manor, who intends to carry on farming by
a tenant, or hired farmer, who will occupy the house of the formery proper.
His residence is not the farm-house; it is the mansion of the proprietor,
and may be built to suit the owner's taste, if he has any. Our remarks are
intended to apply to farm-houses — the dwellings of that numerous class in
x\.nierica who own the soil they till, partly with their own hands, and partly
with those of hirelings.
305. Size and Form of a Farm-house. — It is not size that makes a dwell-
ing-house attractive, beautiful, or convenient. It is adaptability to the
purpose for which it was desigued. Indeed, a house often has an impleasant
appearance on account of its size, because it gives the mind an impression
that it is iinnecessarily large for the purpose for which it is designed.
It is necessary that some farm-houses should be large — that is, afford a
great deal of room ; but they never should appear large, for if they do they
almost inevitably appear uncouth.
Make just as much of the room as possible, on the same level. A farm-
house with twelve rooms, should have eight of them on the lower floor.
Never have a basement kitchen.
No woman, during the years of child-bearing, who docs much of her own
work, or oversees it when done by servants, should be compelled to go iip
and down stairs every hour of the day. Ilcr sitting, or fiimily-room, bed-
room, dining-room, kitchen, wash-room, wood-room, well and cistern, shoidd
all be on the same level, or with a variation of not more than two or three
steps. You cannot be a good man if you compel your wife to run up and
down stairs to do her every-day housework. You are not a good man, nor a
man of taste and good judgment, if you build your house unnecessarily large,
because it will cause your wife many weary, extra steps to keep it tidy and
always swept and garnished as you should be proud to have it appear to
strangers. You are unworthy the name of man if you keep your wife toil-
ing in a house entirely too small for the necessities of your family, or in one
2S0 TIIE FARMERY. [Chap. HI.
wretchedly ill-adapted to their wants, one single year after you are ahlc to
jirovide a better one.
306. What constitutes a fonvrnifiit Farin-house> — We can only speak in
general terms of the plans of farm-houses, hccause every plan is modified Ly
location and the wants of the proprietor ; but we can give an opinion that
will be some guide to the new beginner in farm life, or one about to construct
a farm-house.
We will suppose a farm of one or two hundred acres, and a family of four
adults and four children, besides the necessary hirelings, which in most of
the Northern States, are domiciled in the family dwejling. It should, there-
fore, have a family-room located in the most pleasant part of the house,
where the evenings, and all other leisure Incurs, are, or should be, spent;
where the young mother devotes many days and nights of toil to her
children; where all the family feel "at home," more than in any other
room.
Adjoining this room there should be a large family bed-room, with conve-
niences for warming it, so that it can be used as a sick-room when necessary.
There should also be a parlor, or spare-room ; for it is not always desirable
to introduce company into the family-room. Tliere should be a dining-room,
large enough not only to accommodate the family, but, if necessary, a dozen
guests. This room should be so arranged that upon occasion, particularly in
Winter, it can be used for a part of the cooking. This would often save the
necessity of kindling a fire in the kitchen in a cold Winter morning, to get
an early breakfast. The farm-house kitchen, where so much of woman's
work must be done, should be a large, cheerful, light apartment, with all the
conveniences that modern ingenuity has made to facilitate labor. It should
also, above all other considerations, be so ventilated that there would be no
necessity for opening a door or window to let out tiie smoke of a broiling
steak, or that of the buckwheat cake griddle. Tlie best cooking apparatus is
a good range, permanently set in the chimney. One of suitable size for such
a family as we have indicated, will cost about thirty dollars without cook-
ing utensils. The two ovens of a range obviate the necessity of a brick oven
in the kitchen chimney. It will be convenient to have such an oven in the
wash-room, which should be attached to every farm-house kitchen. This
should have an open fire-place, a kettle set in an arch, a brick floor, a large
sink, and a pump which draws soft water from the well or cistern. Divided
off from this wash-room, there should be a large store-room, for such coarse
things as barrels of flour, fruit, fresh meat, and articles of kitchen furniture
not in every-day use. Beyond the wash-room, there should be a room for
fuel ; and the best of all, when it can be had at a moderate cost, is anthracite
coal. Opening out of the kitchen there should be a pantry, large enough,
and with conveniences to store all the groceries aiul food in every-day use.
In this, or some other convenient place, be sure to have a refrigerator; and
adjoining the kitchen, there should be a milk and butter room, where nothing
else is ever kept. If cheese is nuule, it must have a separate room. Butter
Sio. 14.] FAKM-HOUSES. 281
and cheese must not be stored togetlier. The way to the ceUar should ojjen
out of the kitchen. We do not advocate large cellars under the house,
because they are apt to become the storehouses of a vast amount of stuff tha
would be more fittingly stored in some out-building, or an out-cellar. Cellars
are generally kept in a way that seriously endangers the health of the family.
If the house is set as it should be, well up from the ground, and ventilated
under the floor, it is better calculated to promote health than a cellar.
If the nature of the soil is very dry, the space under the wash-room may
be used for a store-room, or even milk-room, properly ventilated. Every
kitchen should have one or more closets, upon the shelves of which the many
little things can be kept, each in its place, and all in order. In the dining-
room there should be two closets : one for dishes in overy-day use, and one
in which anything not always, but occasionally, wanted upon the table, and
anything desirable to be locked iip, can be safely stored.
There should be a large closet for the use of the sitting-room ; and there
must be such a one in the fixmily bed-room. In fact, this should be a double
room, a smaller one attached to the larger for the small children ; and tiiis
should have its closet, or clothes-press, that children might be early taught to
put every article of clothing in its proper place.
The larger children, and other adults, should have large, airy bed-rooms
up stairs ; and no farm-house will be complete without two, at least, " spare
bed-rooms."
307. How to Build a Convenient House. — A pleasant-looking, unostenta-
tious farm-house, to contain the rooms indicated, may bo of the following
dimensions. A two-story portion, 34 by 24 feet, would give half of the
parlor 16 by 16 feet, and a spare bed-room 10 by 10 feet, and a hall 6 by 16
feet ; a stairway 3^ by 10 feet ; a space for pantry, or closets, 2~ by 10 feet ;
a family, or sitting-room, 13 by 18 feet, and two bed-rooms, 10 by 11 and
8 by 11 feet. This building may be roofed to pitch either way. The other
half of the parlor, not comprised in this space, is to be gained by an attach-
ment, 8 by 16 feet, one story high, attached to that side to balance the
piazza, giving the house more of a cottage look, as well as being less expen-
sive, -and making better rooms on the second floor.
Attached to the main building, a wing or L part, a story and a half high,
will give a dining-room 12 by 18 feet, a kitchen 16 by 18 feet, a wash-room
12 by 12 feet, a store-room 6 by 12 feet, a pantry 6 Ijy 8 feet, a milk-room
6 by 6 feet, and passage and stairway to the half story, which will make good
lodging-rooms for hirelings.
The fuel-room may be a separate building, and although used for such a
purpose, may be made M'ith a finish to correspond with the house, and set
forward flush with the piazza, which is to extend along the front of this wing,
and will form a good termination to the walk, besides being convenient and
ajiproachable from all parts of the house under cover. Tliis piazza, which is
6 by 46 feet, and one 8 by 16 feet adjoining, should, if possible, have a south-
eastern exposure, which will make it pleasant to all the rooms most used.
282 TUE FAKMERY. [Chap. JII.
We do not give this as a superlatively excellent plan of a farni-lionse
but one that would be convenient, comfortable, inexpensive, and capable of
being erected in two or three parts, if necessary, at different periods, and
upon the cheap plan described in No. 350.
The advantage that we claim for this over some other plans is, that if
built in parts, at different periods, according to the circumstances of the
proprietor, each portion may be inade to appear, and serve the purpose of, a
complete house. Thus, the part 24 by 3-i feet, with the little wings, one
forming half tlie parlor, and the other the piazza, will be a neat looking
house, and a comfortable one for a small family ; using the sitting-room as a
kitchen, and one bed-room as a pantry. Then the dining-room, kitchen,
wash-room, etc., might be added, one at a time, as ability or necessity
prompts. Or, the part containing the kitchen, could be built first, and
M'ould make a tolerable house by itself.
Another advantage of the plan is, that the rooms are all liglit and airy ;
every room, except one small bedroom, has windows upon two or more sides,
and the whole house will appear to every passer-by, as though built for use,
rather than show. It is a great convenience to have a house so constructed
that strangers can find some other than the front door entrance.
The space in front of the piazza should be a plat of shrubbery, which
would form a partial screen, and in front of that the flower garden. There
may be a door out of the dining-room into a garden upon that side.
In arranging the plan of this house, the object has been to place the least
used rooms in the house, the parlor and spare bod-rooms, upon the right and
left-hand side of the hall, as you enter the front door from the portico. At
the other end of the hall is the family room, and large and small bed-room.
The stairway is situated, not for show in the hall, but convenient to all parts
of the house, running up at a right angle from the hall, between the sitting-
room and spare bed-room. The sitting-room is situated in the centre of the
house, convenient to all the rooms, warm in winter, airy in summer, and
easy of approach. If the ground suits, you may drop the L floor two feet
below the main part, and set projecting beyond that part six feet, it allows a
window there, and breaks the force of the wind upon that end of the sitting-
room, and also gives room at the other end for a window and glass door ont
upon the large piazza. The common entrance to the house will be upon that
piazza, and from that into the sitting-room, dining-room, or kitclicn.
There was a plan, published by G. C. Uouse, of Lowville, N. Y., in the
Country Gentleman, so novel in its form, and apparently so convenient,
that we consider it Avorthy a notice in this connection. The following is
•what he says of his plan.
" In the plan submitted, we flatter ourselves that some improvements
have been reached, when we take into consideration convenience, space,
accessibility, the ease with which the hot air passages from the furnace can
be aiTanged for so many rooms, all within a few feet of the body of the fur-
nace ; and each door within a few steps of the main stair-case. From the
Sec. 14.] FARM-HOUSES. 283
peculiar form the centre of the house is at once reached on entering the front
door. The second story is quite similar to the first, closets occupj'ing the
spaces over the library and pantry, and a fine balcony over the veranda,
reached through glass doors.
" To meet the full requirements which were had in view, in this arrange-
ment, a site should be selected having a southern or eastern exposure if in
the countiy, and the building set with both full fronts to the street, so that
the veranda or front door will have a direct front aspect. If, however, the
location be in city or village, it would be desirable to procure a lot having
two fronts, if possible looking easterly and southerly, and place the building
with a front to each road, the front door looking toward the angle of tlie
street."
308. Ventilation of DweIIings> — In whatever form, or upon whatever plan
you build, do not forget the necessity of ventilation. Our dwellings are often
charnel houses. The very first necessity of every human being — pure air- — ■
is rarely regarded in their constructiou. Tlie air actually inhaled steals in
at crevices and crannies, felon-like, because it cannot be shut out. Only the
defects of our architecture prevent our dying of a vitiated, poisoned, mephitic
atmosphere, from which the vital element has been exhausted. Most men,
including architects, seem ignorant of the fact that the atmosphere is a com-
bination of different gases, only one of which is wholesome and life-giving,
and that this is consumed in the lungs upon inhalation, leaving the residue
to be expelled as a poison. The church, lecture-room or other structure,
with doors and windows closed, with no provision for ventilation, soon
becomes a slaughter-pen, and ought to be closed by the public authorities.
Our manufactories and school-houses are nearly all disgraceful to their
owners and architects in regard to ventilation. They arc often divided into
rooms less than ten feet high, each thickly stowed with human beings, who
breathe and work and sweat in an atmospjiere overheated and filled with
grease, wool or cotton waste, leather or cloth, and the poisonous refuse
■ expelled from human lungs, Avhich together are enough to incite a plague,
and are, in fact, the primary cause of nearly all the fevers, dysenteries, con-
sumptions, etc., by which so many graves are peopled, x^o factory should
be permitted to commence operations, nor school opened, imtil it shall
have been inspected by some competent public officer^ and certified to be
thoroughly provided with ventilators — not windows, which raay be opened,
but iu a cold or stormy day very certainly will not be — but apertures for
the ingress of fresh air, and others for the egress of vitiated air, both out of
the reach of ignorance and defying the eftbrts of confirmed depravity of the
senses to close them.
Our bed-rooms are generally fit only to die in. The best are those of a few
of the intelligent and affluent, which are carefully ventilated ; next to these
come those of the cabins and rudest fiirm-liouses, with an inch or two of
vacancy between the chimney and the roof, and with cracks on every side,
through which the stars may be seen. The ceiled and j)lastered bed-rooms,
28-t THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
wliorc too many of the middle c-las.s :iro lodged, with no apertures for the
ingress or egress of air but the door and whidows, are horrible. Kine-tentlis
of their occupants rarely open a window unless compelled by cxceBsivc heat,
and very few are careful even to leave the door ajar. To bleep in a tight
six-by-ten bed-room, with no aperture admitting air, is to court the ravages
of pestilence and speedy death.
Our railroad cars and steamboat berths are atrociously devoid of ventila-
tion. A journey is taken with far less fatigue, and more expeditiously now
than it was thirty years ago, but with far greater risk and harm to health.
Tliere are probably ten thousand passenger cars now running in the United
States, whereof not more than one hundred are decently supplied with fresh
air. Most of tliese, wherein forty or fifty persons are expected to sit all day
and dose all niglit, ought to be indicted as nuisances — they are fit only for
coffins. Tlie men M'ho make them probably know no better ; but those who
buy and run them have not even that poor excuse. Tiiey know that they are
undermining constitutions and destroying lives ; they know that ample means
of arresting these frightful woes are at command; yet they will not adoj)t
them because they cost something.
If people only knew how many thousands of lives are annually sacrificing,
how many hundreds of thousands are now suftering from fevers and other
maladies which have their origin in the inhaling of noxious air, the excite-
ment and alarm on this subject would work a revolution in our style of
building.
When we lived in old-style houses, with large open fire-places, like tlic one
mentioned in the next paragraph, there was no need of being careful to build
air-passages in the walls of the liouse for ventilation, fur the " fire-place, big
enough to roast an ox," gave the most complete kind of ventilation.
It is of the utmost importance, particularly in malarious districts, tliat
houses should be so constructed that a free circulation of air can be had
through all the rooms. In the plan described in 305 this fact has been kept
in view. With slight modifications, the plan will answer for a liouso either
at the north or the south. At the south tiie rooms would be made larger, and
the fuel-room would probably be substituted for the kitchen. Frequently,
the kitchen of a planter's house is placed several rods distant, without any
covered way between.
309. An Old-Style Farm-house Kitchen in New Kn.«laH4l. — A picture of
one of tliese scenes of comfort has lately fallen under my observation.
What can be more cheerful and pleasant than the view of a farmer's kitchen,
taken during the evening meal of a cold Autumn day ? It is a picture of tlie
calm happiness of rural life.
The kitclien of the old-style farm-house of New England is not the scullery,
or mere cooking-place of some modern house — a dirty hole or comfortless
out-rooin or sort of human bake-oven, where the cook is almost as much
cooked as the food. No, it is a room perliaps 24 feet long and IG wide, well
lighted, warm, neat, and cvery-way comfortable. Upon one side there is a
Sbo. 14.] FARM-HOUSES. 285
fire-place large enougli to roast a whole ox, iu wliicli a great fire of logs sends
up a cbeerful blaze, lighting up the whole room so its brightness might be
seen through its great uncurtained M'indows, like a beacon light to the
traveller as he comes down tlie slope of yonder hill two miles away, and
makes him involuntarily thank God, in anticipation, for the good things
spread out upon the great table standing between the window and the fire.
Let us take note of tlie old-fashioned meal. At tlie head of the table sits
a matron of some sixty summers — though in appearance tliere is nothing of
llie winter of old age about her. Iler dress is a gown of home-spun worsted,
well fortified Nvith flannels from the same manufactory, that bid defiance to
the Autumn winds of a rigorous climate. The small, neat cap of white gauze,
and the shoes and stockings of this woman, were made iu pursuance of the
best medical recipe ever written : " Keep the head cool, and the feet dry and
warm ;" for the stockings are the product of busy fingers at moments idle
with many housewives, and the shoes of stout leather were made for service,
and the cap is a mere ornament — a snow-wreath among raven locks — and
her face is the indication of health and happiness.
Upon her right hand sits the farmer, dressed in a butternut-colored coat,
blue pants, buff vest, white linen shirt — every article home made — stout
boots and black silk cravat — for he has been to town, and this is his holiday
suit. Below him sit Jedediah, Ebenezer, Abram, and Solomon, all economi-
cal names, for they can be shortened in common use to Jed, Eb, Ab, and Sol.
Two of these wear the check woollen winter frocks of New England farmers
— the others are in round jackets; they are schoolboys. Upon the left sit
Mary, Adeline, and Mehitable, pictures of real beauty and health. The
eldest is " dressed up ;" she has been to town with her ijxther ; she has a
gown of " bough ten stuff;" around her neck is a bow of colored lamb's wool,
knitted by her own hands, fastened in the thfoat by grandmotlier's silver
brooch. The other two are in check woolen, winch was spun, woven, and
colored, and made up under the same roof.
Further down the table are three athletic young men, day laborers on the
farm — sons of ncigliboring farmers — one of whom is eyeing the charms of
sweet Mary witli an expression easily read by a good physiognomist. The
gi-oup is completed by the schoolmaster, a young man with a glowing eye
w'lich speaks of intellect tliat will tell upon the world some day with as
much force as though he had not been obliged to obtain liis education by
summer labor and winter teaching. lie is one of New England's rising
sons.
Tlio meal is for men who toil. At one end of the table stands a pot, of
:unple dimensions, smoking from the oven flanking the fire-place, of the most
excellent of New England cookeries, " a dish of baked beans," crowned with
a great square piece of salt fat pork, crisped and rich. Lower down a broad
pewter platter holds the remains of the " boiled victuals" tliat formed the
dinner — beef, pork, potatoes, cabbage, beets, and turnips — a pile that might
rival a small hay-cock in size and shape — a plate of rye and indian bread,
280 TUE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
cold, and another made of rye flour are untouched, for a great loaf, just
drawn from the oven, nicely browned and hot, is ofTerod in great broken
pieces to tempt the appetite to one of tlie richest repasts ever given to an
epicure. By the side of tlic old lady stands a black carthem teapot, the
contents of which are freely oflered, l)ut only accepted by two of the men.
as the rich ncM' milk, or the hearty old cider is preferred as a beverage,
morning, noon and night, by those old-fashioned, hearty laborers. "We .
must not forget the never-failing accompaniment of the evening meal at
this season of the year in New England, for it is New England's proudest
dish, the golden pumpkin, sweetest pie.
God being thauked for his great bounties after the close of the happy meal,
all are drawn into a circle around the great iire-place. Father is finishing ofl'
an axehelve ; Jed is mending a pair of boots ; and one of the hired men,
upon the other side of the same bench, is repairing a wagon harness — both
using the same tools. The other two are employed, one shelling corn and
the other helping Mary to peel pumpkins, which arc cut in slices and hung
upon poles overliead. This is Mary's accepted lover. Happy hearts and
blessed industry ! Ab and Sol are engaged with the schoolmaster around the
big table, lighted by a home-made candle ; they are studying geography,
writing, spelling, and arithmetic— fitting themselves for future statesmen.
Mother is making a new coat for one of the boys, Ada is ironing at a side-
table, and Hetty is washing the supper dishes at another. There are two
other members of this family group — the eat occupies the top of the blue
dye-tub which stands in one corner of the fire-place, and old Bose sleeps
quietly under the table.
Directl V, and before any sound is audible to human ear, Bose^ gets up,
walks out into the long entry, and gives a loud, sharp bark at the outside
door, and stands waiting the approaching step. Soon satisfied that the new
comer is a friend, he retires again to his repose, and three or four boys, who
look as though they might be brothers to those already described, so much
are tiicy dressed alike, enter and draw around the table with the others and
the school in aster. These are from a neighboring farm, sons of a widow, who
have till now been so mucli engaged with the labors of the farm that they
have been unable to attend the school in the daytime, but are determined to
lose none of the evening opportunities to keep along with the class. They
will make honest, intelligent, industrious fanners.
Tlie oM folks welcome them heartil}-, and tlie young ones are all rejoiced
at their arrival. The old lady inquires why in the world their mother did
not come along; and Mary, the kind-hearted Mary, is so sorry to Uear that
it is because Sarah is not so well, and mother is very busy getting tlieir new
clothes done so that they can go to school as soon as they finish picking
apples. " John," says she, " let us hurry and get through our stent and we
will go over to the widow's; and I will help her with her sewing; yon will
read for the amusement of poor Sarah, for an hour or two." " If that is tlie
case," says father, laying down his axe handle, " my good children, you shall
Sec. U.] farm-houses. 287
go DOW ; I will finish your work." " And Mary, my dear girl, don't go
empty handed," says mother ; " you know from e.xperience how sweet little
delicacies, brought by friendly hands to the side of a sick-bed, are to a poor
invalid."
" Hetty, my dear, if you have done your dishes, you must get your cards
and make a few rolls, for 1 am quite out of grey yarn, and M-e must have
some more stockings in the work. Old man, don't cut that pumpkin too
thick. — Ada, daughter, get a plate of doughnuts and some of those nice fall
pijjpins and set on the table ; I guess these boys can eat a few while they are
cyphering. I do wonder if you have got light enough. Sol, get another
candle, I am sure such industrious boys ought to have all the light they
want."
TIius, my readers, I have given you a slight outline of a farmer's house,
such as it used to be, such as it might be, and such as it always should be,
and such as, I am proud to say, many an American farmer can boast of even
in these degenerate days of " boughten stuff gowns " and lack-a-daisical
lounging of farmer's girls, who are miserable and tired of nothing to do.
How do you like the picture ? If well, imitate it. It is a happiness easily
acquired.
It is easy to imagine the sun'oundings of such a home as the one described
above. And as tliere is probably no better exponent of the farmer's life
than the farmer's liome, we propose to present the portrait of a home quite
in contrast to the preceding one. We are sorry that such as tliis are altoge-
ther too common. Here is the sketch :
A square brown house; a chimney coming out of the middle of a roof;
not a tree nearer than the orchard, and not a flower at the door. At one end
projects a kitchen; from the kitchen projects a wood-shed and wagon-cover,
occupied at night by hens ; beyond the wood-shed a hog-pen, fragrant and
musical. Proceeding no further in this direction, we look directly across the
road, to where the barn stands, like the hull of a great black ship of the line,
with its portholes spread threateningly upon the fort opposite, out of one of
which a horse has thrust his head for the puqjose of examining the streufth
of the works. An old ox-sled is turned up against the wall close by, where
it will have the privilege of rotting. This whole establishment was contrived
with a single eye to utility. The barn Avas built in such a manner that its
deposits might be convenient to the road which divides the farm, while the
sty was made an attachment of the house for convenience in feeding its
occupants.
We enter the house at the back door, and find the family at dinner in the
kitchen. A kettle of soap-grease is stewing upon the stove, and the fumes
of this, mingled with those that were generated by boiling the cabbage
wliicli v\'e see upon the table, and by perspiring men in shirt-sleeves, and bv
boots that have forgotten, or do not care where they have been, make the air
anything but agreeable to those who are not accustomed to it. This is the
place where the family live. They cook everything here for themselves an3
2SS
THE FARMERY.
[CnAP. III.
tlioir Iiogs. They eat evoiy meal liere. They sit here every eveniug, and
liere they receive their friends. Tlie women in this kitchen toil incessantly,
from the time tliey rise in the morning, until they go to bed at night. Here
man and woman, sons and daughters, live in the belief that work is the
great tiling, that efficiency in work is the crowning excellence of manhood
and womanhood, and willingly go so far into essential self-debasement some-
times as to contemn beauty, and those who love it, and to glory above all
things in brute strength, and brute endurance.
We do not expect to see every farm-liouse a domestic paradise; but we do
contend that one contrived upon the moderate plan described in Xo. 305 will
be likely to produce a better race of men and women than such a home as
tlie one last mentioned in this paragraph.
Having occupied as mucli space as we can afford to give to the dwellings,
let us now look at some of the surroundings necessaiy to make up a complete
farmery.
SECTION XV.-CELLAKS, CHIMNEYS, AND ICE-HOUSES.
"N a cold climate, two of the most important requi-
ites of a farmd\ouse are good cellars and good chim-
neys. In all the great farming region nortli of Lat. 40°,
L\ there are nights almost every "Winter in wliich the tliermo-
meter falls 10° below 0° of Farenheit ; and .in some of the
elevated portions of New England it sometimes falls 40°
below zero. Tliere warm cellars are a necessity. Every-
where chimneys are so, for there is not a greater source of
vexation about a farm-house than a smoky chimney. For-
merly, ice was looked upon as a luxury merely ; it is so no
longei'. Hence we devote space to give tlie best information
we can obtain, how to build an ice-house and preserve its
contents.
310. Cellars— Where and How to Build them. — As we luive
already intimated, we do not approve of extensive cellars imder dwellings.
As a general thing, in all damp soils, like millions of acres of the western
prairie lands, cellars, even when kept with the utmost care, are not healthy ;
and when kept as we have often seen them, dripping with moisture, and
frequently with water standing several inches deep, they are positive conta-
gion breeders. In all such situations we reconnnend cave ccllai"s, built on
the level of the surface. An excellent one which vcc built near the kitchen
door, S by 20 feet, was made of ciglit-inch brick walls, seven feet high, with
an entry and double doors at one end, and double windows at the other. At
first our design was to arch this over and make a grassy mound ; but upon
Sec. 15.] CELLARS, CHIMNEYS AND ICE-HOUSES. 2S9
second thought, we earthed it up as high as the top of the wall and then put
on a building for a smoke-house, the fire for which was built at the bottom and
carried up in a flue. "Where there is a hillside, a cave cellar may be made
more easily, though we did not find it a serious job to heap up the earth from
the level ground, taking care to slope it off so as not to leave any noticeable
depression. Such a cellar is very convenient, dry, pleasant, and not
unhealthy. K built where a building over it would be unsightly, or not
needed, it may be arched and covered with earth and made quite an orna-
ment of the house surroundings.
Wherever a cellar is it should have as uniform a temperature as possible,
the year through ; it should never sink much below 38° Fahrenheit, nor rise
above 50°, and it should be always moist, yet never wet. It should be also
well ventilated, and that should be by a flue of the chimney, constructed
specially for that object, when the cellar is under the dwelling.
311. — Chimneys— How to Build thenii — A new combination of chimney and
ventilator has been patented by a Philadelphian (Mr. Leeds), and is very
strongly recommended by many who have tried it in that city. The brick
wall of this chimney is without flues, no matter how large the house, but the
smoke is carried up, say half the height of the building, through a cast-metal
box or square flue in the centre of the stack, while pure, cold air is intro-
duced at the bottom of the building into the chimney outside of the flue.
The heat of the flue causes this air to ascend with great rapidity and force,
carrying the smoke with it from their juncture at the top of the box, and
rendering it wholly impossible that the chimney should ever smoke. Venti-
lation is effected by valves opening from the external or air-chimney into the
rooms, so as to throw out a column of air, warmed by its contact with the
flue, into the room near its floor, while another valve near the ceiling sucks in
and carries off the impure air— the draught of the heated flue being aided by
the influx of heated air through the lower valve into the room. This arrange-
ment, it is claimed, saves the expense of brick flues, saves heat, which other-
wise passes off uselessly through the chimney, insures a thorough ventilation
without trouble or cost, and affords a perfect security against fires from
defective or overheated chimneys, through the gradual charring of the
wooden beams or other timbers imbedded or ending against the chimney.
A connection with the cellar, by an opening into such a flue, would draw off
all the foul air that would be generated in any but a very badly kept cellar ;
besides proving a valuable safeguard against the carelessness of carpenters,
who do sometimes place wood in fearfully dangerous places. If all stove-
heated houses had such means of ventilation, it would do something toward
bringing back the same state of health that existed in connection with open
fire-places.
The comfort of a dwelling depends in a great degree upon its having good
chimneys, always maintaining a current of air upward within, and secured
externally against the entrance of water. Form, size, location and workman-
ship, all unite in producing a good or bad article.
19
290 THE FARMERY. [Chap. IH.
The ridge or liighest part of the roof is the best place for the exit of the
chimney, for it is less liable to those sudden gusts of " blowing down
chimney " than when in proximity to higher objects. In this place too, the
roof is more easily rendered tight and secure against wet. In small houses
with but one chimney we need not seek any other place for it. In buildings
larger, where several chimneys are needed, keep the same object in view,
and approach as near to it as possible. In brick houses, if tlie chimney
is built into an exterior wall, it will sometimes fail to draAV well, because
the air outside of the house cools the warm ascending current within the
flue. If the flue is in a south wall, the heat of the sun sometimes aids tlie
draught.
The size of the chimney is also important. TIic modern fashion is quite
too small for utility. Economy of space and a desire to conceal entirely an
object merely of utilit}^ have caused its dimensions to be contracted until a
few months' deposit of soot entirely chokes the passage. While we no longer
need the huge '• good old-fashioned chimneys " of former days, the flues should
not be contracted so as to hinder the current of smoke, which needs a channel
as smooth as for the flow of water. We often find the curves, where the
most room is needed, half filled with mortar carelessly dropped and loosely
adhering to the bricks. By making a proj^er table above the roof, it can be
made water-proof; but tliis, if not well done at first, always proves a
vexatious and difficult matter to accomplisli. Mortar, putty, cement, and
I)aint, in all their variations, have been tried with various success. An old
grafter recommends for this purpose " grafting wax," as the cheapest, surest,
and most durable application. But we say, build so that they will all be
unnecessary.
Always begin j-our chimneys from a good foundation on the earth. He
who builds a small "stem" in the garret, builds a large nuisance for
himself. The soot tea, black and penetrating, will leak out to discolor the
walls, the gathered soot and ashes cannot be removed, and the thing proves
a chimney only in name and in its appearance on the roof
All unused stove-pipe holes and fire-places should be closed to secure the
best draught.
Where there are two chimneys in the same building one will sometimes
overpower the other, with the most provoking results. This is a contingency
to be regarded in forming the plan.
Tiie top of the chimney may be full size and open where there is no
danger of down currents ; otherwise it should be arched or provided with
some cap or ventilator of sheet iron. Those who have built will see the
importance of these hints; those who are to build, will do well to regard
them.
312. Ice-IIonseSi — ?^cxt to a good cellar, an ice-house is a necessity of a
farm-house. Here we can do without an ice-house, and north of latitude 40°
we cannot do without a cellar — at least, not comfortably ; and, in our
opinion, any family who have once enjoyed the comforts of an ice-house.
Seo. 15.] CELLARS, CHIMNEYS AND ICE-HOUSES. 291
will ever after think that thej cannot live quite comfortably without
one.
"We have often witnessed in good farm-houses the necessity of a suppl}-^ of
ice, in the character of the butter placed upon the table — even among those
who know how to make good butter, we find a quality far inferior to the
samples made where there are cool spring houses or an abundant supply of
ice. TVe give a few other reasons iu favor of every farmer's having an
icehouse, and we beg farmers to read and consider them well, and then we
will tell them how to build one.
313. Reasons why Farmers should have Ice-Houses. — It is August ; hot,
faint and exhausted, the farmer comes from the field so thirsty that he
cannot satisfy himself with water from a well so shallow that the burning
rays of the sun have reached the surface and penetrated into the water,
warming it almost hot enough for dish-water. Some draw their water
from springs, and others from cisterns. It is only here and there that
we find a spring that comes gushing to the surface, or that feeds a deep Avell
with water, cool enough to satisfy the over-heated, thirsty harvester. How
refreshing such water is, not only to drink, but to lave the face and hands
and breast, before sitting down to a meal, or lying down to repose to recupe-
rate tired nature. We have no doubt that the laving is far bettor than the
drinking, and it should always be the first step taken to quench thirst.
Again, how refreshing is a cool drink with the lunch in the field, but how
difiicult to have it there, at only half a mile from the coldest spring or well.
How easy it would be if there was an ice-house on the farm. A piece
that could be carried in one hand, wrapped in a blanket, would be large
enough to cool the drink of a dozen men all the forenoon, and it would
invigorate them more than a bottle of rum. Ice, taken in moderate quan-
tity, is a tonic, and serves to keep the system in such healthy condition, that
food gives it more strength. Simply, then, upon economic principles, every
farmer should have an ice-house. A humane man should have an ice-house.
It adds to the health and comfort of his summer laborers. Let him think of
it now — think of it iu August, think of it while sighing, Oh, for a cool
drink ! Oh, for a cup of ice-water !
The stingy man, the veriest old hunks, who is never quite satisfied with
the amount of labor tliat he gets out of his workmen in the harvest-field,
should have an ice-house ; it will enable him to get more work out of them.
Now is the very time to tliink of this ;i'particularly in the heat of the har-
vest-field.
The man that knows tliat fresh meat is not only moi-e palatable in the
heat of Summer, but that there is a positive economy in feeding his family
and extra laborers upon sweet grass-fed beef and mutton, and upon cold milk
and sweet, hard butter ; and that a man who does feed his day-laborers so can
always get better men and more work for his money than liis neighbor who
lives upon salt junk and rum, will have an ice-house ; and if he has not got
one he will make up his mind, before the present Summer is over, that as
292 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
soon as tliere is a lull in the work of haying and harvest he will set about
building an ice-house, wliich lie can do with his own hands and common
farm-laborers ; and with less than the work of one hand and team during a
week in winter, he can lay up such a store of ice that he need never drink
warm water, nor eat soft butter, nor fear to kill a sheep lest the meat should
spoil before it could be eaten.
Let all remember this fiict : Ice is not a luxury; that is, one that can be
dispensed with, and may be indulged in only by the wealthy ; but one of
the most economical things that can be provided for family use. It is an
article that no farmer can afford to do without.
Now, having given arguments enough to convince any man that he
should build an ice-house, we proceed to tell him how to do it.
314. Uow to Build an Ice-HousCt — An ice-house is not the complicated,
costly structure that some people appear to think it is. Quite the contrary,
it is one of the easiest and most simple things to build, needing very little
mechanical skill, and being quite inexpensive. All of the work about an
ice-house can be done by any farmer of ordinary Yankee capacity in the use
of such a set of carpenters' tools as every farmer should keep. In the first
lilace, it is not necessary to build an ice-house under ground, although in
dry, gravelly soil it may be built so at less expense than on the surface, and
it is easier filled. A hill-side is the most convenient location, with the gable
of one end above the surface, in which liavc an opening to put in ice — the
other end, to a level with the floor, being exposed — through which we would
have the ordinary entrance by double doors. In such a situation we would
use broken stone, making a hollow, grouted wall ; and the same kind of wall
might be built on level ground ; and a very good, cheap, durable wall it is.
Brick or stone may also be used for tli'e walls, according to the fancy of the
builder, always making them hollow, and the outer and inner part of the
wall absolutely as air-tight as could be made with brick and mortar.
Tiie cheapest, easiest and quickest constructed ice-house, and one all-suffi-
cient for the purpose, is built of wood ; and the money difference in cost
placed at interest will more than keep the wooden house in repair and gool
as brick or stone. So we will give directions for building a plaiu, cheap,
common, rough-board, farm ice-house, large enough for all ordinary private
families.
Select a spot of ground convenient to the kitchen door, and remove the soil
and put coarse gravel or sand in itj place, with drains leading away from
the eaves, so constructed that it will be absolutely impossible for water
to stand under or around the building. Lay down two-inch plank six inches
wide, bedded their thickness in the sand, for sills; tlie end ones eight feet
long and side ones thirteen feet. Cut your studs off square, eight feet long,
of any size or width that you can get in the refuse heap at the nearest saw-
mill or lumber-yard, so that you can get one straight side, and set them up
face side in, and toe-nail them to the sill, with an inch-board on top for a
plate, upon which rest the joist ; nail up through the plate to hold them
Sko. 15.] CELLARS, CHIMNEYS, AND ICE-HOUSES. 293
in place. Now board these studs on the inside, and batten the cracks with
rough boards, and serve the under side of the joists in the same way. This
makes a tiglit boarded room, eight feet wide, eight feet liigh, and twelve
feet long. The floor must be laid upon timber bedded in gravel or charcoal,
to cut off any currents of air, but so that all water from melted ice will
drain off immediately. Divide oft' four feet of the end in which you intend
to have the door, for a cooling-room, and you will have room for a cube of
ice eight feet, less the straw or sawdust all around between the ice and
boards, and this will last any family through the hot weather, with most liberal
use of it for all needed purposes.
Now for the protection of the ice to prevent its melting. Set up another
"balloon frame" outside of the first, from one to two feet off, the widest
space being the best, boarded perpendicularly with rough boards battened.
The top of the outer frame must be tied firmly to the inner one by strips of
boards nailed from plate to plate, and the space between the walls com-
pactly filled with charcoal, sawdust, or straw, provision being made for a
narrow doorway in one end, to be closed with shutters inside and out, which
must be made to shut tight, and will be greatly improved by lining them
with a coat of straw two inches thick, fastened on by lath nailed across.
About the roof. This must be made in the same way as tlie sides, with two
sets of rafters, boarded and filled between with straw, with good shingling
outside, or some other tight roofing. It will be necessary to make a trap in
the roof, or a door in the gable end, opposite the usual entrance, with a slide
leading to the interior, for the convenience of filling, and there must be a
suitable ventilating chimney, six inches square, from the ice up through
the roof, which at times may be partially closed by a wisp of straw. Tlie
space between the joists and the rafters, if filled with straw, will assist in
the preservation of the ice, and need never be removed, except the portion
around the door made for putting in ice.
Tlie expense of snch an ice-house it will be easy to calculate upon the
local cost of lumber.
Such a building as we have described will take forty-eight studs 8 feet
long, 2 by 4 inclies in size, which is quite strong enough, and sixteen inside
rafters of same size, 8 feet long ; twenty rafters of same size, 9 feet long, for
outside; two sills 2 by 6 inches, 8 feet long each; two ditto 13 feet long
each for inside frame ; two ditto 16 feet and two ditto 12 feet for outside
sills, and some short pieces of stuff for gable-end studs ; for plates two
boards 6 inches wide, 13 feet long; two ditto 8 feet long; two ditto 12 feet
and two ditto 16 feet each; and this constitutes the timber of the frame, and
will not exceed 700 feet, board measure. In fact, tiiis wliole frame could be
made of straight poles, or split stuff, which would cost but a trifle on some
farms. The boarding of sides, roofs, floors, partition, measures in all, we be-
lieve, 1,620 feet of surface and bat;tens, so that 2,500 feet of lumber and 2,000
sliingles appear to be ample for an ice-house to stow a cube 8 feet square,
witli a cooling-room 4: by 8 ; and two men can build it in four days. Now
294 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
count the lumber at $12 a thousand, sliingles at $4 a thousand, work at $2
a day, nails, liinges, etc., $2, team work $2, and we have a total of $50 for
the cost of a building that is wor.h $50 to any farmer every year. AVho
would do without an ice-house ?
Having given the above as our own plan, we will add the plans of several
others. Que writer says :
" Instead of one hollow wall for a non-conductor of heat, as in ordinary
ice-houses, I have two, with a space between them for confined air. The site
is on a gravel slope. The foundation, for convenience in storing ice, is dug
two feet below the surface of the ground. The outside wall, for non-con-
ducting material, is six inches in the clear. The inside wall is four inches.
The doors for entrance correspond perfectly with the hollow walls in
thickness, and are filled in the same manner — -being shaped to shut with
a bevel edge, like the door to safes used by merchants and bankers.
At the lower side of the plates is a ceiling, upon which I put spent
tan one foot thick, which tan is in direct connection with the side-walls,
so that any settling in of the walls may be supplied from overhead.
From the imder side of the ceiling runs a ventilator, with a hole of one and
a half inch bore, up through the roof, which is finished with an ornamental
cap.
"Tlie room for ice is eight by ten feet in the clear, and eight feet higli.
About all tlie waste of ice that I observed during the summer was at the
bottom, and this was so slow that we used the ice without regard to economy
for a large family, and in a dairy of thirty-five cows, besides giving freely
to our neighbors.
"I put sticks four inches thick in the bottom to put ice on, and also some
straw about the sides as well as underneath the ice."
At a discussion about ice-houses, by the American Institute Farmers' Club,
the following facts were elicited :
Mr. Pardee read an extract from a paper upon ihe ventilation and drain-
age of ice-houses. It states that an underground ice-house is calculated to
melt ice much taster than above, because the earth gets heated and melts
the ice.
William S. Caepentek — It is a question of great moment to farmers how
small a cube of ice can be kept well. I have not, in my exiicrience, found
tliat one less than ten feet will keep. I have a floor over my ice, which I
keep covered with straw, and find it an excellent thing to prevent thawing.
I find the bottom layer of my house, which is an underground one, keeps
better than the layers above. Same of my neighbors think the ice keeps
the best if the cakes are set on edge.
JouN G. Bekgen — The great ice-packers I have seen put in their cakes'
flat, and very compact. Some of my neighbors break up the blocks of ice,
but I prefer the solid blocks. My opinion is that straw is bettor tlian salt
hay lo pack ice in. I should jirefor to have a very heavy coat of straw on
the ice, and then I don't care about the ventilation above. I will say, how-
Sec. 15.] CELLAES, CHIMNEYS, AND ICE-HOUSES. 295
ever, that my neighbors' ice-houses that have no upper floor, and are a good
deal open at the top, do keep the ice well.
Prof. JSTash — "We are too much inclined to be innovators in all our build-
ings, and in ice-houses particularly. "We must look at the true philosophy
of keeping ice, or we shall fail ; for the philosophy of it is to put it as mucli
away from the air as possible, and that is why we pack it in straw or saw-
dust, etc. As to giving some ventilation to the loft, or space over the ice,
it may be of service. I think that an ice-house should not have any pro-
vision for ventilation — the tighter the better.
Solon RoBmsoN^There is a misunderstanding about this term ventila-
tion. As one of the advocates of it for an ice-house, as well as all other
houses, I do not mean open exposure, but simply to allow an escape of the
heated air that will accumulate in the space between the straw and the roof.
Make it as tight all round the body of the ice as possible, by using non-
conducting substances from the exterior, and cover the top of the ice as
closely as you please with sawdust or straw, but don't make the upper part
too close ; at least, leave the cracks in the gable ends open. As for the
sides, the best of all substances to fill with is fine charcoal ; the next best,
sawdust ; next, tan-bark, straw, leaves from the forest, or salt hay, or any
other fibrous substance. It is not necessary to have a double M^all if your
ice is sufficiently packed around with any of the above substances. The air,
at any ]-ate, must not come in contact with the ice, nor with a board that
touches it. And a stone or the ground will melt ice much quicker than
wood. What I have been most anxious for in bringing up this discussion
upon ice-houses, is to divest the subject of all scientific nonsense about
making buildings to keep ice of so expensive a character that no common
farmer would undertake it. Yet there are thousands of men who might
enjoy the comforts of a full supply of ice, and some of them would do it
if they only knew that they could build a house at almost no cost. A log
cabin, as described by Mi". Pell, or a cellar lined with fence-rails and a
board roof, with plenty of sawdust, leaves, or straw, will keep it longer than
a stone or brick building, put up at a cost of $500, I want to encourage
people to build cheap ice-houses.
A correspondent says: "I live on Staten Island, where neither charcoal,
sawdust, nor tan-bark can be had, except at great expense, but dry forest-
leaves and salt hay cost but a trifle. "Will either of the latter answer a good
purpose for an ice-house out of the ground, and, if so, wliich is the best? (1.)
I propose to make two boxes of rough hemlock boards — the outer one
twelve feet square by ten feet high, the inner one ten feet square by the same
bight — so as to leave a continuous space of twelve inches all round between
the boxes, this space to be filled with leaves or hay pressed down tight. (2.)
The roof to be covered with tongued and grooved boards, and set at an
angle of 35 degrees, with a projection of two feet. The double doors
will be in the peak of the roof, the outside frame to be supported by chest-
nut posts, lined on one side, and set into the ground four feet apart ; the
296 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
inside box, or frame, to bo supported by joists, 2x-t-inch, set edgewise, three
feet apart, secured against the inner side. Chestnut sleepers will be laid on
the ground, covered with loose boards, from which there will be good dniin-
age. Will it be necessary to make the roof double, and have an opening on
the top for ventilation? (3.) Can you suggest any improvement on tlii.-.
plan, without increasing the cost? (4.) One of my neighbors, for the want
of tan-bark or sawdust, built an expensive ice-house on the ground, walled
up with stone, but it fails to keep the ice. (5.)"
I will briefly answer these inquiries :
1. Either salt hay or leaves Avill answer a good purpose, and I should use
whichever is the cheapest.
2. This plan will make an ice-house that will keep the contents safe in
any place.
3. There is the same necessity for a double roof that there is for double
sides, and more, for that is not necessary if there is a good thick lining of
straw between the ice and boards. I double my roof by a thatch of straw,
first laid and then boarded over.
4. The improvement I should suggest would be a cheaper frame. Make
the outside just like the inside. It is cheaper, and will answer just as well
as the chestnut-posts.
5. This is probably owing to deficient ventilation ; that is, openings in the
gable ends far above the ice, to allow the hot air and foul gases that accu-
mulate there to pass ofl". If the stone walls of an ice-house once get heated
from the sun, they retain the lieat both day and night, and communicate it
to the atmosphere within. Stone is the worst material for an ice-house that
can be used.
RoBEKT L. Pell said that he built an ice-house just like a log-cabin, in
the ground, with a board roof, that keeps ice first-rate. He built one of
stone and one of brick, laid in cement, neither of which would keep ice.
lie fills on a cold day, and leaves the house open to allow the ice to freeze.
He packs broken ice into all the spaces between the cakes, and puts straw
at the bottom eight inches thick, and packs the ice up to the wood on the
sides, and leaves it until June or July, when there is a space melted away
all round, and that is then packed tight with straw. His ice-house is most
thoroughly ventilated in the upper portion of it. A full set of ice-tools costs
about $50, but he did not think it necessary for a farmer to go to that ex-
pense ; a saw is nearly as good as an ice-plow to cut ice on a small scale,
Avhen great haste is not very necessary, as is the case with the great ice-
gatherers for market.
John G. Bergen — My ice-house is a cellar, about twelve feet square at the
top and ten feet at the bottom, and this is fitted with a double-boarded frame,
the hollow filled with sawdust. The earth is so porous that it gives a
natural drainage. Tliere is a building, used for other purposes, over the ice-
house, which is ventilated, but the ice part has no ventilation ; and I cover
the ice with sawdust, and also around the sides, and it keeps well. I pack
Sec. 15.] CELLARS, CHIMNEYS, AND ICE-HODSES. 297
the cakes close, and tliey come out as square as tliey went in. There is a
free circulation of air in the iipper part of my ice-house, and nothing but
straw to exclude the air from the ice. The great Hudson River ice-hoiises
are very large, and always built above ground, with double walls, filled with
sawdust. The ice is packed close, and broken ice filled in to all the cracks.
Some single ice-houses hold 3,000 tuns; and most of the ice used in the city
is cut upon the river, and not upon lakes.
Mr. QaiNN — I noticed that some of these ice-houses use salt hay. The
roofs and sides are double, and the best of them are tilled with fine charcoal,
making the wails eighteen inches thick. I know one person who had an
underground ice-house, and now has one above, which he prefers ; the ice
keeps in this the best.
J. P. Vkeedek — I made my ice-house by digging a hole ten or twelve feet
square, and lined it with boards as a double wall, filled in witli tanbark.
My roof is a straw thatch. My ice keeps perfectly well. I have gqod
drainage, and I put about six inches of straw around the ice on bottom,
sides, and top. The house is only four feet below tlie surface, and the rest
above. I pack about twelve or fourteen tuns of ice, being careful to fill all
the crevices with broken ice.
John G. Bergen said that he did not think a double roof necessary.
None of the ice-houses in his neighborhood had them.
Piof. Mapes — The point settled in building ice-houses is, that the whole
ice-hoiise should be above ground. This is the practice in Massachusetts.
There is no substance equal to a confined space of air for the walls of ice-
houses. Build of whatever substance you please, so that you have a double
wall, and tight enough to hold air, and you will have a perfect protector of
ice. As to ventilation, Jenner, who first constructed ventilated ice-boxes,
found that ice melted faster in ventilated than in unventilated boxes. Ventila-
tion is necessary when you desire to keep food sweet. If there is no ventila-
tion, the confined air soon becomes very foul from animal substances on ice.
He then gave some interesting particulars of the large refrigeratoi-s in some
of the city packing-houses. Some are so large that they use up a number
of tuns of ice a day. The temperature is kept at 42 degrees, and in large
rooms thus cooled hundreds of animals can be killed and cooled every day.
If your object is to keep ice without use, shut up close — it needs no venti-
lation.
315. How to Make and Store Ice. — H. Lyman, of Johnstown, Wis., tells
how to make ice for putting up in ice-houses, where there-is no convenient
pond or stream, and how to store it without an expensive house built on
purpose. Mr. Lyman says :
" I live on tlie prairie. On the coldest day of January I draw water from
the well and pour it into square tin pans, two feet long, nine inches wide at
the bottom, and nine and an eighth at the top, and about nine inches deep.
While I have been drawing water, Dick has been gathering clean snow
and putting it into the water. The compound is frozen immediately. I now
298 THE FARMERY. [Cuap. ID.
apply hot water w'tli cloths to the sides of the tin containers, which enables
me to empty out the blocks of ice.
" A cube of ice of four feet is all I need. No separate building need be
erected to keep it in.. The barn, the wood-liouse, or the tool-house can
furnish an ample corner. Tiie conditions of its safe keeping are — the walls
of a building around, and two feet of compact straw on every side of the
gelid mass. In packing, I lay loose boards on a bed of straw, a^id on this
platform I lay the ice. I take care to expose the ice to the lowest tempera-
ture of the year, and lay it up in the coldest state. If every alternate block
of ice is inverted, the mass is thereby made compact; if not, lliere will be
a little space open at the bottom between the respective blocks. AVhen the
cube is comj)lete, cover the whole with straw. This work can be effected
with milk pans or other vessels, and if straw or ice be carefully filled into
the intervals in packing it will answer a good purpose, though square pans
are preferable. I use snow for the sake of hastening the process of freezing.
The pans are flared a little toward the top to f;\cilitate turning out."
This excellent plan should be carefully heeded by all the dwellers upon
prairies, and by a great many other people.
.310. How to Carry Ice to Ihc Field.— Lucius Beach, of Port Huron, Mich.,
says : " Many farmers do not put up ice from the supposed difficulty of using
it on the farm away from the house. I have used ice-water for constant
drink two summers on my farm. I happened to carry water with ice in it
into the field in a six-quart tin pail with a cover to it. "We used the watei",
and the ice was left in the pail about six hours in a hot day, and some of it
still remained. I then procured a twelve-quart tin pail with cover, put
in a large piece of ice, took a jug of water^into the field, and turned it on
to the ice as we wanted to use it. In this way it will last from six to ten
hours for the use of six men, and is a luxury indeed."
317. liOW to Keep Ice iu ^'lliunicr. — If you have no ice-liouse, and buy ice,
or even if you have an ice-house, and do not want to open it except at even-
ing or morning, or if it is inconvenieiit to the house, and you wish to have
ice always hand}', this is how you can do it. Have a bushel of clean, dry
sawdust, put a peck of it in the bottom of a tight barrel, having one hole
for drainage, then put in a layer of lumps of ice and another peck of saw-
dust, and so on, covering the top tightly with sawdust, and over all a folded
blanket. Do not let the ice touch the staves, and do not set the barrel in a
warm place, and you will have ice all day, with scarcely any perceptible
waste. Provide sawdust enough, so that you can shift the wet for dry every.
day. This is a much better ]ilan than wrapping ice in a blanket or keeping
it in a refrigerator, because the best of these usefid articles of household fur-
niture do not ])reservc ice, but rather waste it, and in so doing preserve the
food placed in them.
318. Refrigerators.^No family can afford to keep house without a re-
frigerator— a food-preserver. "\Ve do not mean an ice-box, which, like the
one above described, will keep ice, but nothing else — that is, not to any ad-
Sec. IG.J
THE BARX AND ITS APPUBTEKANCES.
299
vantage. A piece of meat, placed upon ice, -will keep a longer time than
in the open warm air, but it does not keep as good as in dry air of ice
temperature, and it spoils very quickly after it is taken olf the ice. A cus-
tard pie kept three days on the ice will be slimy and aiot toothsome ; but
when kept in a good refrigerator, the pie will be as sweet and dry as it is in
a pantry in cool weather ; a piece of meat will keep in July as well as in
January. Such a refrigerator has the ice at the top, and the air cooled by
it falls upon the food below, or on a shelf alongside of the ice, aftd is as dry
as any other cold air. A box of fine charcoal, kept in the i-efrigerator, and
changed every month, will absorb all the unpleasant odors and keep the air
sweet. Such refrigerators are common now in New York in families, and
some of the butchers have them large enough to store the quarters of a bul-
lock and several sheep and calves. And some of the packing-houses have
them large enough to store and cut and pack, in a winter atmosphere, several
hundred hogs a day. Without such " cooling-rooms," the summer slanghter-
ing of butchers' animals could never be carried on to the great extent it is in
all the large sea-board cities. This is one of the great inventions of the
present age. These improved refrigerators, of suitable size for families, cost
from $15 to $50 each. Ours, which cost $25, is worth $10 a year— has been
in use live years, and is just as good as ever, and we see no reason why it
will not be so ten years hence. It is better than none, even M'ithout ice, as
it preserves an even condition of temperature. Every farmer should have
ice, and no one should be without a refrigerator in some very convenient
locality near the kitchen cr store-room.
SECTION XVI.-THE BARN AND ITS APPURTENANCES.
F all that might be profitably said under the title of this
^y section were given, we should require a whole volume
instead of a few pages, which is all the space we can allot
to the important subject.
A farm without a barn is only to be tolerated in a new
settlement, as in some cases on the great prairies, where the
land can be got under cultivation before the owner can erect
the necessary buildings. Even there, we have always no-
ticed that the most thrifty farmers were those who erected
the best barns, at the earliest moment practicable.
Tlie barn and its appurtenances, treated of in this section,
contains information that will be found valuable to every one
who owns, or ever expects to own, a farm.
319. The Use and Value of Barns, and their Locationt— Of
course, a good barn is one of the great essentials of a farmery — one that can
300 THE FARMERY. [Chap. HI.
not be dispensed with. Grain and hay may bo preserved in stacks or bar-
racks, but tiie one can not be threshed and cleaned out-door -without waste,
and (he other can not be fed to the stock to good advantage anywhere but
in the barn. A good house and convenient out-buildings are comfortable; a
good barn is one of the grand necessities of good farming.
No farmer can afford to do without one of sufScicnt size to acconmiodatc
all the purposes for which a barn is appropriate. We have rarely, if ever,
seen upon a well-cultivated farm a barn that was too large. In nine out of
ten cases the barn is too small. After it is too late, the farmer regrets that
he had not built it larger. But lack of size is not so great a fault as wrong
location, for you can build to the original, by a lean-to upon one side, and
open shed or stable on the other, or an entire new building adjoining, so as
to make the whole quite as convenient as though all built together in one
building. But if the location is wrong, it never can be righted. So, in
building anew, make this a question for careful consideration : " Where shall
I place my barn ?" And do not place it until you know that you are rigiit.
We will point out a few essential things about location, which we think
may be of service to those about to build barns.'
First, a barn never should be set up-hill from the house, where by any
possibility the drainage either on the surface, or under it, should come down
about the door, or into the cellar or well. AVherever the situation will
admit of it, place the barn on a lower level than the house, and northerly
or westerly from it, and do not be afraid to give a good distance between.
You had better walk an extra hundred feet all your life than have a hundred
foul smells creeping into every room in your dwelling.
Secondly, never build your barn upon the roadside. Upon the road,
only a mile long, which we daily travel between our own home and the
railroad station, there are four barns, located upon just such situations as are
very common in all hilly regions, the face of a hill, which gives mo.-t excel-
lent natural drainage— but unfortunately for good economy, the drainage is
directly into the jniblic I'oad.
Another thing in the location of a barn should he had in view, and that
is convenience of access. For a large farm, a hillside barn, that can liave a
drive-way into the second or third stor}-, affords a great convenience about
unloading hay, and hauling away manure from the lower side.
A location should be chosen for a barn, so far as it can be, with reference
to other important considerations, where it will not occupy half an acre, or
more, perhaps, of the very best soil, about the center adopted fc)r the farmery
establishment. If you are about to make a new location for the whole of *
the buildings to constitute a farmery, it will be easy to have them arranged
relatively right, if you first make a complete map of the whole farm, and
then make j'our locations to suit peculiar circumstances. On a rough, rocky
farm yon may often save an acre of good land by placing your buildings
upon ground or rock fit only to build upon, and much better for that than a
rich soil.
Seo. 16.]
THE BARN AND ITS APPURTENANCES.
301
Above all things, in selecting a site for the ftirmeiy, of which the barn,
with its appurtenances, forms such a conspicuous portion, avoid locating
directly upon both sides of the road, and all locations upon brook or river
banks, wliich allow so much fertility to be washed away. Aud do not go
to the bottom of the hill because there is a natural spring there, or because
you can dig a well so easily. You can have a cistern anywhere near a roof,
if you can not get a well. Do not locate on the very pinnacle of the hill —
it is too bleak, even in quite warm latitudes. If you place the house on the
hill, you need not put the barn, like one I see almost daily, on the top of
the highest pile of rocks in the vicinity — a spot bleak euoiigh to Ulow the
hair off a cow's back.
Having said this much of the most important question, we will now
introduce some descriptions of a few of the best barns in this country.
320. Barn built by the Shakers, Canterbury, N. H.— The location of this
Shaker society is about fifteen miles north of Concord, N. H., and nine miles
east of Merrimac Eiver. The society is composed of three families, and
owns about 2,500 acres, lying in nearly a square form, in the center of
which are their substantially built and commodious dwelling-houses and
numerous other buildings, all of which are painted of lightish colors, and
kept in the most complete repair and neatness.
The main body of the barn is 200 feet in length by 45 in width, with 34
feet jjosts (three stories high). The roof is nearly flat, double boarded, then
covered with three layers of stout sheathing paper, saturated with coal tar,
upon which is spread a thick coat of coal tar and screened gravel. There
is a projection at each end of the barn, 25 feet in length and about 16 in
width, so that the whole length is 250 feet. The whole structure is well
boarded. The sides and ends are covered with 16-inch pine shingles, laid
four inches to the weather. There are three floors, extending the whole
length of the main body of the barn. The ground upon which the barn
was erected was nearly level, but at great expense a drive-way has been
graded, of easy ascent, so tliat the loads of hay are driven on to the upper
floor, over the high beams, so that, in unloading, the hay is pitched down,
instead of up. This makes a material ditierence in forking over 200 tons
of hay each hay season. The floors, ceilings, partitions, etc., are all planed
and finished off as handsomely as farm-houses formerly were. There are
two hovels on the lower floor, extending the whole length of the main barn,
the eastern portions of which are arranged for tying up 23 cows in each,
with sliding stanchions. The cows have been so trained, as they pass in
the hovel each one takes its own place with the regularity of well-trained
soldiers, and by a simple contrivance — the turn of a short lever — the heads
of all the cows are fastened or loosened, quicker than any one could be tied
by a rope. Each cow is named, and, like the "world's people," they select
fancy names for their cows, such as Rosa, Lady Grace, Julia, Bustle, and
Crinoline, each of which is printed in large type on slips of pasteboard, and
tacked upon the joists over each one. Upon the roof are three large, hand-
302 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
soiuely finished ventilators, with Ycnetian blinds. The cellar, 200 by 45
leer, is of good depth ; the walls are of split granite, pointed with cement.
Large wooden tubes pass from the cellar through the roof, which effectually
carry ofl' the heated foul air of the manure. From the south side of the cen-
ter of the barn described, a two-story building extends, south, 100 feet by
27. The upper part is used for storing hay, grain, straw, etc. ; the lower,
for calf-peus, store-rooms, and hospital for sick animals, with a nicely fitted
up room for the herdsman. The roof of this, like that of the large barn, is
nearly flat, tarred and graveled, and shingled upon the sides and ends, as is,
also, a new sheep-barn, built adjoining. This runs from the southeast cor-
ner of the large barn, 108 feet long by 43 wide. The drive-way floor of
this is 17 feet wide, so that two teams can stand abreast, and at the south
end the floor is wide enough to allow the turning about of the team, so that
the oxen passing out go before the cart, instead of the cart going out first —
for the south end is not graded up bo as to admit of driving through, as in
(he large barn.
Another addition Avas planned, that is, a long shod, extending from the
southwest corner of the barn 100 feet. This will give two barn-yards of
about 100 feet square each, well sheltered, all but the south, with both yards
well supplied with water.
As the Shakers are famous for good barns, we shall give the description
of another one of theirs. We have great confidence in the economy of the
form of the one next described, as well as its great convenience.
321. A Circular Barn. — The Shakers of Berkshire County, Mass., have a
barn that is worthy the attention of farmers who are contemplating the
erection of barns upon a large scale. We should think that on some
accounts it would be a good form to erect upon large prairie farms. We
recommend its form for adobe buildings and concrete walls, as one best
adapted to withstand the force of hard storms, as well as the form most
economical for the room inclosed. The barn owned by the Shakers is 100
feet in diameter, built of stone — a material that is very abundant in that
part of Massachusetts. It is two stories higli, the first one being only seven
and a half feet between floors, and containing stalls for seventy head of
cattle, and two calf stables. These stalls are situated in a circle next the
outer wall, with the heads of the animals pointing inward, looking into an
alley in which the feeder passes around in front of and looking into the face
of every animal. The circle forming the stable and alley-Avay is fourteen
feet wide, inside of which is the great bay. Over the stable and alley is
the threshing-floor, which is fourteen feet wide and about three hundred
feet long on the outer side, into which a dozen loads of ha}' may be hauled,
and all be unloaded at the same time into the bay in the center. There
should be a large chimney formed of timbers open in the center of such a
mass of liay, connecting with air tubes under the stable floor, extending out
to the outside of the building, and with a large ventilator in the peak of the
roof. AVe should also recommend an extension of the eaves beyond the
Sec. 16.] ' THE BARlf AND ITS APPURTENANCES. 303
outer wall, by means of brackets, so as to form a shed over the doors, and
the manure thrown out of the stable and piled against the wall.
In the barn mentioned there is a granary projecting into the circle of t'le
bay, which we do not exactly approve, preferring the granary in a sejsarate
building, to which grain may be conveyed through spouts, if the barn is
located iipon the hillside, which is preferable on account of entering the
threshing-floor on a level, though that is not indispensable, as a wagou-way
can be graded up from a level plat.
323. Barn Foundations. — The stone foundation of a barn should never be
laid in mortar. This is an error that should be avoided, as imnecessary and
unprofitable. It would be even better to place the sills upon pillars, leaving
a free circulation, and space high enough to furnish shelter for all tlie
poultry in winter, and thus keep them out of the inside of the barn, whore
they are a nuisance. The main object, however, is to give free circiilation
of the air, to drive out all foul gases, and promote the health of animals.
The surface must be so graded that no M'ater will stand under the barn.
323. Opinions of Practical Farmers about Barns. — At a Farmers' Club in
West Springfield, Mass., after consultation and debate, it was decided that a
large barn was better than two or more small ones ; that a tight barn was
better, even for badly-cnrcd hay, than an open one ; that a brick barn and a
blate roof wei-e the best and cheapest for a man who has all his materials to
buy ; that a good connection between a house and barn is a covered walk,
overhung with grapevines ; that economy of roof and convenience for work
were of the first importance in any building ; that warm water and warm
stables were essential to the comfort of animals ; that the housing of manures
was judicious ; that liquid manures arc largely lost, even by those who
have cellars and sheds for s'oriug tliem ; and that the best absorbents of
liquid manure are buckwheat hulls, leaf mold, sawdust, fine sand, dried
peat, turf, and straw.
Tlie meeting -was held at the house of one of the members— an old-fash-
ioned two-story building — with modern furniture and fixtures, where the
well-spread tables were bountifully loaded with fat chickens, mealy potatoes,
light bread, yellow butter, melting cheese, with pies and cake to match,
all lavishly bestowed, and such conversation ensued as would, if it could
be imitated ia every neighborhood, prove of great benefit to the people.
Let the plan be imitated. If not the plan of the barn, certainly the plan of
meeting with your neighbors, and talking over the subject, as to whether
you shall build a large or small barn, and of what materials. It is also
very important to every one about to build, to go about, far and near, and
look at all the barns of various sizes, forms, and fashions, and talk about
their conveniences and the reverse.
324. Barns Boarded Tight or Open.— "Whether barns should be tight is one
of the most important questions that a farmer can consider ; for it may
involve the health and lives of all his farm stock. It is contended by some
writers, with a good deal of reason, that open barns are more healthy for
304 THE FARMERY. [Cjiap. III.
stock, particularly the bovine portion, than closely boarded ones. A com-
munication from a farmer in Maine says :
'■ Several years ago, I learned by experience that tight barns were not
healthy for cattle, and a little reasoning upon the subject will explain why
tliis is £0. It is a well-known fact, that the droppings of cattle, both solid
and liquid, exhale a vast amount of gases of diflercnt kinds, and these ga■^c3
are unfit for respiration ; if cattle are deprived of air, and breathe these
gases, they die instantly, and if they breathe air impregnated with a large
projjortion of these gases, they sicken immediately ; the disease most likely
to be produced is pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs, as the poison is
applied directly to them.
" Now what provision is made in modern tight barns to get rid of these
gases ? Wliy, there is a ventilator on the top of the barn, but how are
these gases to get to the top_ of the barn, since a large proportion of them
are heavier than atmospheric air? The carbonic and sulphurous gases,
which are more abundant than all others, are heavier than air, and con-
sequently will not ascend ; ammonia is light and would fly away, but the
carbonic and sulphurous gases, having a strong afiinity for ammonia, seize
the fugitive, and by a chemical action a new compound is formed heavier
than air, which, of course, must remain, unless there is some underground
passage by which it can escape. If there is no place for its escape, these
gases accumulate until the barn becomes filled with them, the hay is im-
]>regnated, and the stock has to eat as well as breathe this noxious matter,
and the trouble is Morse if the stock is high fed. Fii-st, because high-fed
animals have a greater amount of blood, the blood-vessels are fuller, and
consequently a greater tendency to congestion. Secondly, because the
excrements of higli-fed animals evolve a much greater amount of gases than
those of others, and the difficulty of ventilation is increased by the fact that
these gases arc so nearly of the weight of air. If they were all light, like
carbureted hydiogen, they would soon escape at the top ; or if they were
heavy like water, or even pure carbonic acid gas, they would, in most barns,
find cracks sufficiently large to run out near the bottom ; but as the fads
prove that the gases are nearly of the same weight of air, I am led to the
following conclusions :
" First, that the walls of barns should never be clapboarded ; then there
will be a gentle current constantly passing through the barn, and the gases
passing out of the cracks on the leeward side; second, that the stable for
liorscs and cattle should extend from one end of the barn to the other, with
a door at each end, both of which should generally be open excepting in
severe cold weather, and in storms. I have found by experience that a
horse kept in a small, tight stable, will commence coughing in a very few
days. Cattle do not suflTer with tiie cold (unless the cold is extreme) if tliey
are in good health, arc well fed, and have a dry, clean stall, and plenty of
good air to breathe. The lungs of an ox will manufacture a vast amount
of animal heat. I have known a cow to be wintered with no other shelter
Sec. 16.] THE BARN AND ITS APPURTENANCES. 305
than an open shed, more than two hundred miles farther north than Massa-
chusetts, and she gave milk all winter, and came out well in the spring."
There is something worth a thought in this matter about airy barns. We
know them to be the best tor liay and grain; and we know that in olden
time in New England, all of the barns, covered with upright boards, put on
green, had wide cracks from top to bottom, and in such stables, although
very cold, the cattle wintered well and kept healthy. It is shelter from
storms, and not shelter from cold, that all of our stock needs.
325. Ventilating Hay-mows. — One of the worst practices of farmers, in New
England particularly, is storing hay in large bays, without a sign of any
ventilation under the bulk, which usually rests upon a few loose poles or
boards on the damp ground. A bay should have ventilation, not only under
it, but up through it, by means of a chimney made of four poles fastened
together by rounds like a ladder. A loose stone foundation could be laid
for the hay bottom, with an air-chamber from the outside leading to the
chimney, directly over which there should be a ventilator in the roof. This
simple contrivance would not only save many a tun of hay from mustiness,
but it would enable the owner to put in his hay in a much greener state,
and that which is next the chimney would always come out very sweet.
326. Stables — how to fonstrnct them. — A stable should be built with a view
to several points, among which we may mention economy of space consistent
with comfort, convenience of feeding and milking the animals, convenience
of tethering them so that they may have the largest measure of liberty of
motion, but be unable to injure one another; convenience of getting hay
from the loft and grain from the bin to the stalls ; and convenience of re-
moving the liquid and solid excretions, so as to preserve their quality, and
remove them so speedily tliat the effluvium may not be breathed by the cows.
The floor of a cow-stall of a well-constructed stable is four feet to four feet
six inches long, raised two or three inches for a dry platform. Behind the
platform the floor is made of white-oak slats set apart so that the urine may
drop through to the cellar beneath. The floor-beams are laid four feet
apart. On the sides stout elects are nailed, and on these the 2x3^ white-
oak slats are dovetailed and firmly nailed. Tiie slats are beveled to a sharp
edge beneath, so that the manure will not clog the open spaces, but drop
clear as soon as it sinks below the upper edges of the slats. The slatted
space is a foot and a half in width. Behind that the first plank of the floor
is made to lift like a trap-door, turning on hinges, to secure an open space
through which to hoe the droppings, litter, etc., that would not readily pass
between the slats. By this simple contrivance the droppings of thirty cows
can be removed in a few minutes.
327. Stables should always be built high — that is, high between floors. Most
stables are built low, " because they are warmer." But the builders forget
that warmth is obtained at a sacrifice of pure air and the health of the an-
imal. Shut a man up in a tight, small box ; the air may be warmer, but it
will soon lay him out dead and cold if he continues to breathe it. If stables
306 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
are tight, they sliould have high ceilings; if the}' are not tight, but open to
the admission of cold currents of air from all directions, they will be too
much ventilated, or, rather, ventilated in the wrong place. One of the
cheapest modes of ventilation is to build the stable liigh, so as to give room
for the light air to rise above the heads of animals. The grand rule that
must be observed is not to coniine a beast in a room so small that its
breathing will soon poison all the air unless the foul portion can escape and
fresh air enter.
328. Cattle Sheds that Cost Nothingi — It is an act of wanton cruelty to
expose stock to the blasts of winter without shelter. In a country of saw-
mills, how cheaply a shed can be built of slabs nailed to rough posts, set in
the gi'ound, and roofed by laying one course of slabs round side down, and
the upper course round side up ! The cracks of the sides can be battened
with thin strips of slabs or refuse boards.
In a wooded country, where sawed stuff can not be had, how cheaply a
side of round logs can be built and cracks daubed with mud. Then an
excellent roof can be made of split stuff, called shakes in some places and
clap-boards in others, being split 2i to 5 feet long, and 4 to 6 inches wide,
according to the quality of the timber for riving. These laid upon round
ribs, and held in place by weight-poles, make a roof, though rough in appear-
ance, as tight as a shingled one. If bark is peeled at the proper time and
laid at once, or piled and dried flat, it makes a jjretty good roof, still cheaper
than one of shakes, though not so durable. We have seen a very good
cattle-shed roof made of hemlock boughs, laid on in courses, butts up.
Cheap sheds on the prairie, where cattle are exposed to winter blasts more
than in any other locality, can be made so easily that it seems worse than
cruel — it is wicked — to leave the poor brutes exposed.
Where rails are to be had, lay up a double wall of rails a foot apart, by
using cross-pieces at the end, and fill up the space with sods, or with earth
and leaves, or brush, or with coarse manure, or moldy hay and straw, such
as cattle will not cat out, and you have a good wind-breaker. Extend from
this wall, to the south, rails or poles to rest upon a girder on posts, and stack
hay or straw on top, and there is a shed. It costs but little more to stack
hay in this way than it does to make a suitable stack-bottom, and then fence
the stack. As the hay is fed oft' in winter, fill up the space with refuse Lay
and straw, so as to break the wind, if it does not stop all the rain. Such
sheds for sheep are very valualile.
Where rails are scarce, a good wall can be made of prairie sods laid up in
courses, with hazel brush or small limbs to bind the sods •together, to give
strength and prevent cattle from hooking the wall down. On this wall lay
a plate to support the floor of the stack or roof. Such cattle shelter pays it8
cost every winter. Tlierc is straw enough burned or wasted every fall, upon
the Western prairies, to shelter all the stock every winter, if it were put up
in some such cheap form as wc have indicated.
329. A Valuable, Cheap Feed-Trough.— One of the puzzles in building horse
Sso. 16.] THE BARN AND ITS APPURTENANCES. 307
Stables has been how to make tlie feed-trouglis. "We can ?olve that difficulty.
"We have learned how to make a horse feed-troug!i. Or, rather, -vve have
learned how to purchase a very good and very cheap one. We learned it
of a progressive young farmer. Tlio farm of Josiali Macy, a Westchester
County farmer of the old school, is conducted by his grandson, who has
gained knowledge from books, and goes ahead with improvements, one of
which is a new feed-trough. It is simply an iron pot — just such a one as our
dinner used to be boiled in before the age of cooking-stoves. One of about
four gallons is a good size, and it is set in the corner of the manger, in a
casing of boards that inclose the rim, just up even with the top. It is sujje-
rior to any wooden, iron, or stone feed-box we ever saw ; is not expensive,
and, barring accidents, it will last forever, and be a good pot afterward.
330. Earthen Stable Floors.— One of the best substances that can be found
for flooring for horses is clean sand. It is superior to wood, as it does not
heat and injure hoofs. Some English veterinary surgeons use nothing else
for bedding but sand. We have always found stables with dirt floors prefer-
able to plank ones.
331. The Stable Yard.— The stable, or barn-yard, is one of the most im-
portant appurtenances of the farmery. Two grand objects must be kept in
view in its construction — the comfort of the animals aud the preservation of
the manure. If it is on soft soil, and tolerably level, as such yards are upon
nine out of every ten of the Western prairie farms, they are most uncom-
fortable places for stock, although good for preservation of manure, but that
is little or no object where it is of so little value. The only help that we can
see for a barn-yard upon such soil, wliere the tramping of cattle makes it
into a quagmire, is thorough underdrainage, and scraping the earth from
around into a low mound, and covering tlie most of that with sheds. It may
be BO constructed that all the drainage of the manure will concentrate in one
spo", to be absorbed by straw or other manure-making substance. We have
found paving a yard witli common fence-rails, where stones could not be
procured, paid the cost every year, and such a pavement will last half a
dozen years.
In a rocky country, like eastern New York, Pennsylvania, and the New
England States, if care and sound judgment are used in the location of a
farmery, the yard can be fixed on the southerly side of the barn and sheds,
where it will always be dry, and very comfortable for stock, and yet not
wasteful of manure. Our own is located upon a rock, sloping southeast.
Just outside the fence, at the lowest corner, an excavation is made, to be
kept full of muck, sods, or other absorbents, so that while the yard is con-
stantly drained, the drainage is not lost. Some very good yards we have
seen constructed with a deep basin in the center. The great objection to
this form in a small yard is tliat the basin sometimes gets so full that there
is not dry space enough around the edges for the cattle. Sometimes, too, it
freezes over quite full, and strong cattle push the weaker ones upon the ice
to their injury. We prefer the absorbing basin outside of the yard.
308
THE FARMERY.
[Chap. III.
332. The Uen-Roost. — Every farmery must have a lien-roost, if it does
not have a poultry-yard ; and tliis should not be an open shed, nor a cold
open room, but one so arranged that it will be well sheltered from cold winds
aud storms, and lighted by a glass window upon the sunny side or in the
roof. It will also be found a most excellent provision to give hens access in
M-inter to a cellar, whore they can scratch gravel and wallow in dust. The
hen-roost, too, should be arranged with special reference to saving all the
droppings of the fowls, because it is the most valuable manure that is made
about a farmery.
SECTION XVII.-WATER FOR THE FARMERY.
iBOUT half of the farms in the United States are
deficient in water — that is, the water is not con-
venient for stock; and in many situations cattle
can only be watered by pumping, or by the still
more tedious process of drawing water in a bucket
from a well. This is a serious piece of labor, and a
useless one, because the wind can be made to do the
work a great deal better, cheaper, and more certain ;
and the whole expense of a wind-mill, pump, and
putting into operation, in a well twenty feet deep,
would not probably exceed $50.
You may use any one of a dozen iron pumps, to be
found in almost every hardware store. Our own
y7^^^~^ ^ ^ choice would be "West's Anti-Freezing Pump, which
X.,_^ is made of iron, and is very durable. The wind-mill
for the motive power is simplicity simplified. The wind-wheel is four feet
in diameter, divided into eight parts, curved from the center, just as we used
to whittle out wind-mills from a pine shingle forty years ago. The wheel
may be made of wood or iron. If of wood, fix the points of the sails in a
wooden hub and secure the outer ends by a rim, just like that of a large
spinning-wheel. Fix this wheel firmly upon an inch iron-bar, say two feet
long, with two bearings to run in iron or hard wood, and a crank in the
center suited to the stroke of your pump. If the valve works four inches,
make your crank short two inches. Now make a frame of three pieces,
three quarters of a square, with bearings for the wind-wheel shaft upon
two, and an inch and a quarter hole in the center of the other piece.
Upon this frame attach a vane of strong, thin wood, about three feet long
and one foot wide at the outer end. Now erect a gallows-frame seven feet
wide and fifteen feet high over the pump, fixed with a pipe in the well. No
matter whether that pipe is straight or not. Now put a bolt, with a big
head and washer, through the hole in the frame that holds the shaft, aud
Sec. 17.] WATER FOR THE FARMERY. 309
through the center of the cross-piece of the gallows, so that the small frame
will be held firmly by the head of that bolt, yet will turn freely in the wind.
From the piston-rod of the pumj), extend a rod with a swivel-joint in the
center to the crank, and, let the wind blow high or low, you will have the
satisfaction of knowing that your cattle are supplied with water. It is a
good plan to make a cistern to hold a supply in case the pump stops at any
time for repairs or want of wind ; the latter will not be apt to occur, as it
will run with a very slight breeze. From your watering-tub or trough, con-
duct a pipe back to the well, and you need not fear frost unless the pump
stops. By making use of a force-pump you may get a supply from a well
in the valley up to your house and barn on the hill, or to irrigate your
garden. See Nos. 369, 370,
How to get water most convenient to all parts of the farmery should be
the leading consideration ; because water is indispensable — neither man nor
beast can do without it a single day. All else may be inconvenient — water
sliould never be. It should be brought in pipes from a higher level, when-
ever it is practicable at any reasonable expense, because that is the most
convenient of all forms in which water can be had at the farmery ; and no
farmer can aflord to neglect to supply his place with water, if he owns a
spring or stream that would afford such a supply, because it is the greatest
labor-saving fixture that he can make.
If aqueduct M-ater can not be had, then convenient wells and pumps
should be; and if water can not be had by easy, shallow digging, in wells,
it can and should be in cisterns : and upon this question we will give some
useful information.
333. Econoniy of Aqueducts. — Some farmers neglect to make provision for
watering domestic animals until drought actually arrives, and then they can
not. We well knew one who, during a drought, drove his cattle a mile to
water, at the same time that he had roof enough on his large barn to give
them all the drink they needed, if a cistern of proper capacity had been pre-
pared to retain it. The barn cost $1,000 — the cistern might be built for
$50 — yet every animal of his large lierd must travel miles every week for
necessary drink. lie might construct a cistern now, but it will be another
year before he can derive benefit from it, and so he puts otf the labor.
There are many others who do the same. We know another farmer, who
has lived till past eighty years of age upon a farm where there is a gushing
spring of excellent water within sixty rods of his house and barn, high
enough to run through pipes over the top of every building, yet this man
draws water with a bucket from a well, which sometimes fails, when he has
to go to a more distant and inconvenient well, or haul water in barrels from
the river; and his stock, all the long winter, go down the road to the river-
side for drink, wasting time (and that is money) and manure, to replace
which he buj's fertilizers. Saving the first cost of an aqueduct, in such
cases, is not saving money. Neither is the neglect to construct cisterns a
good piece of economy.
310 THE FARMERY. [Chap. HI.
334. Value of Cisterns— their Size and Contents.— Xo man, -nhose only sup-
ply of water is in a deep well, or where the well or spring water, however
convenient, is hard — that is, like all the water of limestone countries, iinfit
for washing, or making butter — can atlbrd to do without a cistern. If the
earth where the cistern is to be built is compact clay, it can be dug out in
the form of a jug, with only a man-hole at the top; and in all ground but
cavin» sand it can be dug and plastered without any brick walls, and the
top covered with durable timber, which should be placed at least four feet
from the surface to its under side, as it will, when thus covered, last enough
longer to pay for the extra work. Wherever flat stones abound, a moderate-
sized cistern should be covered with them, laid shelving over each way, if
not large enough to reach clear across. The earth-bottom and walls are
easily made tight by cement (water-lime mortar), made -with three parts of
clean, coarse, sharp sand to one of lime, which has to be wet up only as it
is wanted for use, or it will set wherever it has a chance to dry upon the
bed where mixed. It should be very thoroughly worked in, mixing wliile
pretty wet, and plastered on the bottom first and then up the sides, one coat
after another as fast as one is dry — two or three coats — taking care that no
defect is made in the joining of tlie sides and bottom together. The bottom
should be dug liollowing, and corners full ; and to save cement, any little in-
equalities in the walls may be filled witli clay or lime-mortar before putting on
the cement plaster. In situations where cement can not be obt^ned, a good
cistern can be made as follows, which will last a dozen years certain. "We
know one good at twenty years old. Take one and a half-inch plank, six or
eight feet long, six inches wide at one end and six and a quarter at the other ;
joint and dowel the edges, and fit the ends with a croze upon heads six or
eight feet across, and hoop just enough to keep together to roll into the hole,
biggest end down, upon a soft mortar bed of clay, four inches deep ; then
till the space, between the tub and walls, which should be four or six inches
wide, with clay just moist enough to tamp in the most compact manner,
and the cistern will never leak, and will give great satisfaction for its small
cost. The top should be covered over with timber and earth, deep enough to
keep wami in winter and cool in summer.
Upon the roof of a barn 35 by 70 feet — if three feet of rain fall annually
— three cubic feet of water will be aftbrded by every square foot of surface —
more than 7,000 cubic feet from the whole roof — which woidd be about
1,700 barrels. This would be enougli to water daily, the year through, thir-
teen head of cattle, each animal drinking four twelve-quart pails full per day.
But if the water were reserved for the dry season only, or when small streams
are dry, thirty or forty head might be watered from one roof.
People are apt to make their cisterns too small, so that often they do not
hold a tenth part of the water from the eaves. In the above-mentioned
instance it would not be necessary to construct one large enough to hold tlie
entire 1,700 barrels. If the cattle were watered from it the year round, and
its contents thus constantly drawn as if fills, one large enough to hold -tOO
Sec. 17.] "WATER FOR THE FARMERY. 311
barrels would do ; but if needed for the dry season only, it should be more
than double. A cistern fourteen feet in diameter and twelve feet deep would
hold about 450 barrels — twenty feet in diameter, and the same depth, would
be sufficient for 900 barrels. If built imder ground, and contracted toward
the top, it would require to be a little larger in dimensions, to allow for the
contracted space. Such a contraction would be absolutely necessary to
admit of convenient and safe covering at the top, and could be effected
without any difficulty if built of masonry. The pressure of the water out-
ward would be counterbalanced by the pressure of the earth against the
exterior, especially if well rammed in as the wall is built.
There are some portions of the coimtry where the subsoil is underlaid by
slate or other rock which may be excavated. In Buch cases, it sometimes
happens that Avith a little care in cutting, the water-lime mortar may be ap-
plied immediately to the rocky walls, a shoulder above being made on which
to build the contracted part of the wall.
We have such a cistern, dug in tolerably compact earth, and plastered
with cement, put on in two or three coats, using about two and a half barrels
for a cistern eight feet wide and six feet deep. It was designed to be
deeper, which would have made a better proportion, but the excavators
came upon a ledge that could not be blasted, and was very difficult to jjick
up, and the bottom being very rough, required more plaster. The top is
covered with chestnut plank, over which is earth, and the water is let in
through a pij^e beneath the surface, and taken out by another that leads to
the pump in the kitchen. Tliere is also an outlet pipe under the covering
for surplus water, so that when full, tliere is a body of water five feet deep
by eight wide, and this gives about sixty barrels; and being supplied by
1,600 superficial feet of roof, is not likely to fail for family use. The water
is perfectly filtered by the most convenient filtering arrangement for a cis-
tern that we ever saw.
This is b}^ Peirce's patent porous cement pipes, which are laid in a sort
of net-work in the bottom of the cistern, and the pump-pipe attached to
them, so that no water can reach the pump that has not passed through the
substance of the pipes, which are in appearance much like solid stone, and
more than an inch thick, which certainly forms a very perfect strainer to free
the rain water of all impurities. A writer in his recommendation to every-
body to build cisterns, says :
' I have one in my house cellar, entirely below the bottom of the cellar,
six and half feet deep and five and a half in diameter, holding about 1,000
gallons. It was dug six feet eight inches deep and seven feet in diameter.
The bottom being made smooth, was laid over with brick. The mason then
began the side with brick laid in cement, leaving a space all round between
the brick and earth about five inches. After raising the work about eighteen
inches, he carefully filled the space between the brick and side of the hole
with earth, well and carefully pressed down. If you wet the earth or clay
as you fill it in, it will be more compact.
312 THE FARMERY. [Chap. HI.
" "When yoii get vrithiu about two feet of the top, commence gradually to
draw in the work toward the center, leaving, when finished, a space open
about two feet across. The next thing is to plaster the inside with cement ;
also the top on the outside, commencing where you began to draw in. About
two courses of brick are laid round the mouth of the cistern, forming a neck,
which adds to tlie strength of the top. Now cover the whole with earth,
e.xcept the neck. The water is conducted to my cistern through a small
brick drain laid in cement. I also have a drain near the top to let off the
surplus water. If a cistern is made out of doors, it must be below the reach
of frost. Lead pipe would probably be cheaper than brick to conduct water
to and from the cistern.
" I have no doubt but that a cistern made this way of hard brick would
last a century. Mine, holding 1,000 gallons, cost $18. The larger the size,
the less the cost in proportion to the capacity. If the earth is firm and hard,
you may lay the brick close against it, thus saving the trouble of filling in
and digging so large. I have known them made by cementing directly on
the earth, using no brick, and covering the top with timbers or plank. One
made with brick will cost more, but I think it best and cheapest, taking into
consideration safety and durability."
Tables of Coxtents of Circulae Cisterns. — ^The following tables of the
size and contents of circular cisterns may be convenient to those about to
build them. For each foot of depth, the number of barrels answering to
the diflerent diametei-s is as follows :
For 5 feet in diameter 4.66 barrels.
6 " " 6.71
7 " " 9.13
8 " " 11.93 "
9 " " 15.10 "
10 " " 18.65 "
A cistern SJ feet diameter will hold for every 10 inches in depth 59 gallons.
4 " •' 78 "
4i " " 99 ".
5 " " 122 "
6} " " 148 "
6 " " 176
8 " '« 310 "
You will find by this table that a cistern six feet deep and six in diameter
will hold 1,260 gallons, and each foot you add in depth will hold 210
gallons. Therefore, one ten feet deep and six in diameter Avill contain
2,100 gallons.
To find the contents of any cistern in wine gallons, the diameter and
depth being known :
1. Multiply one half the diameter (in feet) by itself.
2. Multiply the above product by 3|, which will give the area of the bot-
tom of the cistern ncarhj.
3. Multiply this by the number of feet in depth ; this will give the cubic
contents in feet.
4. Multiply the last product by 1,728 (tlie number of cubic inches in a
foot), which gives the number of cubic inches.
Seo. ir.] WATER FOR THE FARMERY. 313
5. Divide the whole result by 231 (tlie number of cubic inches in the wine
gallon), and the result will be the number of gallons in the cistern.
Divide the gallons by 30, and you will have the number of barrels, and
thus you can calculate how large to make a cistern for the use of house or
barn ; and be sure not to neglect so important and so inexpensive an im-
provement as making a cistern.
335. Digging Wells. — There is no better improvement put upon a farm
than wells, either in their every-day convenience or value in estimating
the price of a farm. In some localities it will pay to dig a well at the
house, at the barn, in the stable-yard, and in almost every field. In com-
pact earth, a well can be dug without curbing to Bujjport the earth sides
during the excavation.
Where curbing is necessary, the best way to do it is to build the wall
upon a wooden or iron ring, and let that down as the excavation proceeds,
adding brick or stone at the top as fast as may be necessary to keep the wall
even with the surface.
336. Horizontal Wells. — Here is a new idea for dwellers in mountainous,
or even moderately hilly districts to think of. Mining after coal in Penn-
sylvania, and gold in California, has clearly illustrated the fact, that wells
may be dug into hillsides, or banks, or bluffs, as well level or horizontally,
as down perpendicularly, which would save dangerous and severe labor.
Water, so troublesome in digging common wells, has not to be bailed in the
horizontal, as it takes care of itself. The certainty of discovering or ci;tting
off veins of water is greater with the horizontal well than the perpendicular,
if it starts in near the base of a hill, or anywhere as much below the surface
as a common shaft would be likely to be sunk. By laying down wooden rails,
all the dirt can be brought out in a little railway car, and the stone or brick
carried in to build the well as fast as the digging progresses. It will not
be necessary to make a horizontal shaft any larger than a perpendicular
one, though it should be of a different shape. We would make it in the
form of the figure we call a naught or cipher in numerals. Two feet wide
and four feet high will be large enough, with a gentle descent for the water
to run to the outlet ; and in many situations it can be made to run through
a short pipe into the house ; or if it will not run, it can be drawn by a pump
through a horizontal pipe any distance.
There is another advantage in such a well. It would not be constantly
liable to have things falling, or being thrown into it, and the water would
remain purer.
There are a great many pastures where water for stock has to be drawn
from wells, which might have a natural flow from hillsides, with an expend-
iture of no more time and money than is required for a perpendicular well.
There are some dairy farms that could have valuable spring-houses sup-
plied by such a horizontal well, and such a supply of cold running water
would add to the value of the farm almost as much, in some cases, as its
whole value is now.
31i THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
Such wells have been constructed in California, and wo earnestly com-
mend them to the attention of all the farmers in the hilly portions of the
Atlantic States. In rocky hills a horizontal shaft can be drifted in much
easier than it can be bored perpendicularly ; and the work either in rock
or earth digging can be much better done in winter in a horizontal than in
a perpendicular well. We hope to see them extensively adopted.
337. Wells on liills> — We have seen a great many wells on the tops of hills
affording a large supply of water, while the bottom was above the plain or
valley in which the farmstead was situated. How easy to obtain this water
by a siphon, or a pipe inserted on a level, which can be done without dig-
ging a ditch the whole depth and distance. Ascertain where the level of
the bottom of the well will strike on the face of the hill, and dig in there,
and set up a frame to support an earth-boring auger, and drive a bore
straight through to the well, which can be easily done one or two hundred
feet, if artesian wells can be bored one or two thousand feet perpendicular.
Where the distance is too great, or the hill is rocky, put in a siphon pipe,
with a little hand-pump to start it, and you can always have running water
in your yard or garden at the foot of the hill.
33S. Causes of Impure Water in WellSi — It sometimes occurs that the water
of a well, noted for its purity and delicious drinking quality, becomes
offensive to the taste and smell without any apparent cause. Sometimes it
is occasioned by surface water from an impure source finding its way to the
well, after many years of exemption ; and sometimes it comes from i-oots of
trees growing into the water and decaying ; and sometimes worms work
their way in and decay ; and occasionally rats, mice, or other pests burrow
in the wall and injure the water. And not unfrequently a new vein of
water finds its way into an old well and materially changes the character
of the water. Generally a M-ell is improved by cleaning, but we have
known the contrary. In a well of our own, in the trap-rock district norili
of Xew York city, the quality of the water was materially injured by sub-
stituting a pump in place of a bucket. The reason was obvious. The
water was seven or eight feet deep, and the bucket drew it from the surface
and the pump from the bottom, and in the water drawn from the bottom
M-e found a strong sulphur taste and smell. Cleaning it out did no good ;
the water at the bottom was decidedly different fi'om the toji. The only
remedy, if we continued to use the pump, which was iron, and costly, and
extremely convenient (it is one of Gay & West's force-pumps — very valu-
able for farm use), was to attach a gutta-percha pipe to the bottom of the
iron pipe, and to a float, so that it would always draw the water from the
surface, at whatever hight it might be in the well by the fluctuations of
the seasons.
Where wells are injured by surface water, resort should be had at once
to the most thorough draining. Lay tile or stone drains five or six feet
deep, so as to cut off all leaking into the well. If injured by trees — which,
by-the-by, should never be set near a well — dig a deep trench so as to cut
Seo. ir.j WATER FOB THE FARMERY. 315
off all the roots, and fill that trench with coarse gravel, or a stiff mass of
clay, that will not be attractive to the roots. Remove all that you can from
the wall and earth near the well, and time will cure the water. Sometimes,
to get rid of roots, insects, or other pests, it will pay cost to unwall the well
and build it anew. Fill in charcoal, cindei's, or other sweet substances ;
and sometimes it will be well to lay a portion of the top wall in cement
mortar. .
It is recommended in all cases, where well-water becomes unpalatable, to
agitate it freely, and very often. If drawn with a bucket, set a man at
work pushing the bucket down deep aiid drawing it up full, and pouring it
back again, so as to fall in the water till it is all thoroughly mixed and all
the stones washed, and then when it settles clear again it will probably be
found as good as ever.
This plan of agitating the water may also be applied to cisterns to good
advantage.
Looking into a well, so as to see anything at the bottom, can be easily
done any sunny day (the morning is the best time), by using a looking-glass
so as to reflect the rays of light and throw them quite to the bottom of a
deep well. We have used this means to discover the position of a bucket
that had broken loose and fallen to the bottom, and then with the steel-
yards hung to a rope have been able to liook on to the bucket and draw it
up at once. "We once recovered a tin pail of butter in the same way.
339. Self-Emptjing Well-Bucket. — If the water is drawn from a well by a
bucket and windlass, two ropes are better than one. Fasten by a staple to
the center of the windlass and wind each way toward the ends, so that tlie
ropes will be widest apart when the bucket is up. Instead of a bail, attach
a short chain or piece of iron rod to each car of the bucket, and set the ears
low down, so that the bucket will tip easily. Cut a hole in the bottom, four
inches across, and cover it with a block coated with soft sole leather, like
the valve of a pump-bucket, which will open to let in the water as the
bucket descends, and close as soon as it starts upward. To empty the
water easily, there are two ways — first, and best, by a flat iron hook about
eight inches long, fastened to the well-spout in such a way that it may
catch the edge of the bucket as it is drawn up, and tip and empty. The
other way is to have a pin in the spout that will strike the valve and open
it when the bucket is placed upon the spout. Two buckets with two ropes
will work much steadier and easier, and in the long run cost less than with
one, and the valve to fill, and hook to empty the bucket, are great labor-
saving fixtures.
It is almost as important to keep water pure for stock as for family use.
Pure water is a great luxury to the palate of a thirsty horse, and every man
who is fortunate enough to be the owner of so noble an animal, should see
that the wants of the same are properly provided for.
Unfortunatelj', very few persons realize the importance of supplying
domestic animals with pure water ; yet they stand in need of it whenever
316 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
thirsty, and as a matter of iirofit to ourselves and liuinanitj to tliem, we
should see that their -wants are well supplied.
Pure water is very nutritious, and as a nutritious agent its value is im-
paired when of inferior quality, or when mixed with indigestible foreign
substances, such as are often found in watering-troughs located by the way-
r ide.
Some very interesting experiments liave lately been made on horses
belonging to the French army, in view of testing their endurance asTegards
llie deprivation of water, and it was found that some of them lived twenty-
live days on water alone ; it is a singular fact that seventy -five per cent, of
tlic weight of a horse's body is composed of fluid.
Strange water, as it is called, often has a bad effect on the digestive organs
when first used, and in order to guard against its consequences, English
grooms always provide for the wants of their horses, when away from
home at the race-course, by furnishing them witli an abundant supply of
pure water to which they have been accustomed, which is transported from
place to place in hogsheads.
340. The Hydraulic Rami — ^To those who have no spring above the level
of the house, but have one below, we press the subject of a water-ram — a
simple, little, inexj^ensivo machine that can be made to throw about one
eighth or a tenth of the water that flows through it up a steep hill and along
a pipe half a mile or more, discharging it in a cistern in the garret of a house
or loft of the barn, whence it is drawn as it is wanted in any apartment,
while the overflow or surplus of water will give you a constant little stream
in the cattle water-trough. Hundreds of these rams arc in use all over the
country ; but there are thousands of places where they are not in use, where
equal natural facilities exist. Our object here is only to call attention to the
fact, that every farmer who has a spring in a valley where he can get three
or four feet fall from it to work the ram, can get a portion of that water on
top of a hill ; and in many places where no running springs naturally exist,
sufficient water can be obtained by digging. We have seen a stream dis-
charged at the outlet of an underdrain sufficient to drive a ram — water ob-
tained without any expectation of obtaining it; because the object was to
drain the land of its surj^lus water, and prevent it from oozing out of the
surface of the hillside.
The house of the late John C. Stevens, at South Amboy, is 120 feet above
the level of a spring, near the bay shore. At this spring he set a water-ram,
with a two-inch drive-pipe, about sixty feet long, laid upon an inclination
of five feet. About one eighth of the water which runs through this pipe
is sent, by the action of the ram — a little affair, about as big as a teakettle —
up through a small lead pipe into the house, nearly half a mile distant.
Perhaps the whole may have cost $100. "We know a good many places where
$50 has secured a full and constant supply of water from the bottom of a
hill almost impossible to climb, yet which had been climbed from the first
settlement of the country till the little water-ram was set to work. We know
Sec. it.] WATER FOR THE FARMERY. 317
a great many otlier places where it is worth a dollar a day to tote the water
up the slippery rocks in buckets, where all that labor could be saved by an
expenditure of $50, and an annual expense for repairs of a shilling a year.
Yet those who own such places do not improve them, because they do not
know they can.
3il. Durability of Wooden Pipes for AqneductSi— Charles Stearns, of Spring-
field, Mass., has proved by a somewhat lengthy experience that wooden
pipes are nearly indestructible, if laid deep — deep en«ugh to prevent atmos-
pheric action upon the wood. His rule is six feet deep in sandy or porous
earth; four feet deep in compact, clayey earth, and three feet deep in
swampy earth, where the peaty condition of the soil, which is antiseptic, pre-
serves wood from decay. Thus laid, Mr. Stearns thinks wood will outlast iron
or lead ; and the wooden pipes are cheaper than any material that can be
used, where a bore of two to six inches is required. In one instance, an
aqueduct laid by Mr. Stearns of threefourths-inch caliber lead pipe,, cor-
roded and failed in fifteen years, and had to be replaced. Another one,
made with very heavy lead pipe of two-inch caliber, laid through a wet
meadow, in the very kind of soil that preserves wood the most perfectly,
failed so as to need repairs within three or four years, and at the end of ten
years had to be replaced with new pipe, which he then made of wood, and
which, after twenty years of use, is still in good order. The aqueduct pipes
supplying Springfield with spring water, that comes to the surface on the
sandy plains above the town, have been in use fourteen years, and bid fair
to last many years longer. The bore of the logs is from one and a half to
seven inches, charred on the inner surface by forcing flame through
the bore, or by the insertion of a heated rod, to prevent the timber from
giving any unpleasant taste to the water. Mr. Stearns thinks, from experi-
ments made, that lead pipe will last enough longer to pay for the expense
of burying it deep, or packing it closely in clay. He also thinks that the
interest upon the diiference in cost betweeii well-made and properly laid
wooden pipes and those of a more costly material, called indestructible, Avill
keep the wooden pipes in repair forever. For the branch pipes leading into
the houses, Mr. Stearns used lead pipes in all the houses supplied from the
Springfield Water- Works, and has never known any injury to occur to any
one using the water ; and his own family have used water passed through
lead pipe a long distance for many years, without suffering any of the
efiects frequently ascribed to such water ; nor has he ever heard of a case
based upon any better testimony than " they say so." The water that sup-
plies Springfield comes from several springs, improved by digging, and we
have no doubt that there are hundreds of other Tillages that might be
watered in the same way, greatly to the comfort and health of the inhabit-
ants. There is another advantage besides cheapness in wooden pipes. It is
the ease with which they are tapped, wherever and whenever a branch is to
be taken ofif, and they are also easily repaired. We hope that not only vil-
lages, but farmers, wherever a sp"i:ig exists above the level of the farmstead.
318
THE FAKMERY.
[Chap. ni.
will avail themselves of its benefits. Many farmers have chestnut or cedar,
the best of timber, which they could have prepared at very small expense l)y
their own hands, and get an aqueduct that would, in case of sale of the farm,
]>;iy ten times its cost ; and it would be worth still more to the owner, for it
Would afibrd him a constant enjoyment.
Tliere is a very curious maimfactory of wooden aqueduct pipes at Elmira,
N. Y. A large pine log is cut up into a series of pipes, from an iiieli bore
to ten or twelve inches, taking one out of the other, leaving the sides from
one to two inches thick. These pipes are then banded with hoop-iron, drawn
by a powerful macliine through hot coal-tar, and being buried below the
action of the atmosphere, are expected to last for an indefinite period.
SECTION XVIII.-STACKING AND STORING GRAIN ; CORN-CRIBS, PIG-
GERIES, AND PIG-FEEDING ; SMOKE-HOUSES, AND CURING BACON.
jLTHOUGH, like most of our subjects, these are
treated briefly, each is worthy of notice, and must
have enough, if nothing more, to attract attention,
60 as to incite the reader to look further into the
matter.
One of the indispensable buildings of a farmery is a
good storehouse for grain. Upon a small farm, a room
in the barn can be set apart for the storage of small
grain, but it is more liable to the depredations of rats
and mice than in a building made purposely for a gran-
ary. Every fiirmer who annually raises a hundred
bushels of ears of Indian corn can not afford to do
without a corn-crib, because corn can not be stored
safely except in a room with very open sides.
342. Corn-fribs. — TJie best kind of a corn-crib is a
building twenty feet wide, and of such length as will give sufiicient capacity
— say thirty feet long — for a farm where ten to twenty acres of corn are
usually grown. Tlie sides should not be less than ten feet high, and boarded
up and down with strips two inches wide, one inch apart. Six feet from the
sides, partitions are made in the same way. This leaves a drive-way eight
feet wide, so that you can drive in a wagon-load of corn and throw it right
and left over the beam into the crib. This drive-way should be made to close
at both ends with slat-gates, or lattice-work gates, so as to allow a free cir-
culation of air.
313. Rail-Pen Corn-CribSi — Cribbing com, after the Western fiishion, in
open rail-pens, is considered down East a very slovenly method. Yet it is
one of the best ways in which it can be stored. It is true it wastes a little
Sko. 18.] STACKING AOT) STORING GRAIN. 319
by shelling if it remains till spring, but not much if the j^ens are so located
that the pigs and poultry can be let in to pick up the scattered grains. The
■way to make a rail-pen corn-crib is to take straight fence-rails, as near of a
size as possible, and saw part of them into halves of equal length, so that
you can lay up a pen half as wide as it is long, notching the corners so that
the rails will come close enough together to prevent the ears falling out.
If this can not be done with all of the cracks, they must be stopped by
" chinking" from the inside, or by boards nailed over. It is usual to build
the pen upon a floor of rails, which arc sometimes laid on the ground, and
sometimes raised upon logs, stones, or blocks. The pen should not be over
eight feet high, and when full is covered with boards held on by a heavy
rail or pole. In woodland regions the covei-ing is usually made of " shakes"
—split clap-boards, such as log-cabin roofs are generally made of. On the
prairies, we have frequently seen straw used for a covering; and we have
also seen many thousands of bushels of wheat, both in the chaff and after it is
winnowed, stored in the same rude way, by simply calking the cracks with
straw.
Nor is it a very wasteful way of storing wheat, if the pen is built upon a
hard-beaten spot, where all the grain can be swept up when the pen is
empitied.
We have also seen corn put up in rail-pens without any covering, and
kept through the winter without damage, the ears being simply rounded up
on top. We have often been told by those who have had a good deal of
experience in storing corn in this way, that rain does not hurt it — all that
does not run through dries out the first windy day. Wheat in the chafi" will
not injure in a long rain-storm, when simjily piled in a conical heap, if it
does not wet at the bottom.
Great boat-loads of Black Sea wheat are brought down long rivers, being
many weeks on the passage, without any covering. The wheat is rounded
up in the center, somewhat in the form of a roof, and the outside gets wet
and grows into a mat, sometimes two inches thick, and that shelters the mass
below. It does not strike us as an economical method, but that depends
upon circumstances, as it does in cribbing Indian-corn. It certainly never
would pay to build expensive cribs to store some of the great crops of the
West ; and it has been found good economy, for want of better storage, to
let the corn remain where it grew until wanted for use. Even with smaller
crops, it may not always be evidence of bad farming where we see the corn
stand in shocks until wanted. It certainly keeps better there than it would
in a badly ventilated store-room.
344. Stathcis for Stack Bottoms. — In England, it is not considered good
economy to build barns enough to store all the grain, and it is therefore
stacked out. In this country, if economy warranted the practice of storing
all under roofs, necessity would often forbid, and require our great crops of
wheat to be put up in stacks. In England, upon well-conducted farms,
•where the practice of stacking prevails, the stathels for the stacks to rest
320 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
upon are permanent structures. Some of tbem are made witli stone pillars
and caps ; and sotne with a wooden frame on stone pillars ; and in some in-
stances iron Las been substituted for wood. The stack being elevated a foitt
or two, allows a circulation of air, and very much assists the curing of the
grain. We recommend farmers, wlierever they are in the regular practice
of stacking hay and grain, to have a permanent stack yard, provided with
stack bottoms, after the English fashion. Even for temporary stacking,
building the stack upon the ground is a very wasteful practice. "We have
seen stacks upon the "Western prairie built in a spot, dry at the time, become
saturated with water, and half rotted two feet above the ground, before they
were used up in winter. For a temporary stack bottom, there is nothing
more convenient than fence-rails. "We have built long wheat-ricks on the
]irairie in this way. "We took fence-rails and laid them up as though build-
ing a worm fence, pretty straight, in two liiles about two feet apart at the
bottom, and about four rails high, leaning inward so that the two lines of
fence touch. Against this upon each side the sheaves were set with butts
on the ground, leaning toward the center until a sufficient bottom for the
rick was formed. This leaves an air pipe through the bottom, and keeps all
the heads from the ground, and altliough the water stood some inches deep
in a wet time over the spongy soil, all the wheat came out bright and sound.
The butts of the lower sheaves only were rotted. The fence sustained the
greatest weight of the rick, besides giving it air.
345. The Piggery. — No farmery is complete without a well-arranged pig-
gery, which consists of a grain-room, a root cellar, a cooking-room, a feeding-
room, a sleeping-room — all under cover. All this is requisite upon a farm
where only two or three pigs are fatted annually. It is still more requisite
where a dozen or more pigs are kept— where the leading object of the farmer
is to convert coarse farm products into pork ; except Avhere pigs are M'holly
fatted in corniields, as at the "West. Upon all other farms a well-arranged
piggery is indispensable, and, as we have sliown in Section 11, that cooking
food for pigs is advantageous, the greater the conveniences for cooking, the
more profitable will be the feeding.
The best arranged piggery we ever saw for convenience and saving of la-
bor was built upon tlie side of a "Vermont hill, where potatoes were a lead-
ing article in the manufacture of pork. The potatoes were stored in a cave
cellar, from which they were shoveled upon a screen, over which they rolled
to the large potash-kettle set in an arch some twenty or thirty feet distant.
Generally the potatoes thus screened needed no washing ; if they did, pro-
vision was made for doing it by a copious stream of water let on as they
traversed the screen. The water was let into the kettle from the source sui>
plying the washing water. The floor where the kettle stood contained bins
for meal, which were lillcd from the bags emptied into a spout on the out-
side. The cooked food was shoveled from the kettle into a hopper that
conducted it into a cooling-trough on the floor below, which stood liigh
enough to allow the swill to run through a long conductor to the feed-
Seo. 18.] PIGS AND PIGGERIES. 321
troHglis. The objection to tliis last arrangement was, tliat the swill had to
be made thin enough to flow freely. The arrangement, however, was a very
perfect one, and worthy of imitation upon all similarly situated farms.
3i6. Railway Cooking Arrangement for Pigs. — We suggested the following
arrangement, more than twenty years ago, for cooking food for pigs or any
other stock, and we afterward had a model made and exhibited at the fair
of the American Institute, which awarded it a silver medal.
This is the plan : arrange a steam chamber of any given dimensions — say
tliree feet by six feet, and three feet high — over a furnace kettle, or any-
•\vhere that steam could be conveyed into it from a boiler. This chamber
has a door at one end, made steam-tight, and rails in the bottom upon which
a car travels, and these rails should extend outside to the root-bin, or meal-
tubs, or reservoirs of food to be cooked. The car being loaded, is rolled into
the chamber, and door closed. When the food is cooked, shut off steam and
open an escape-valve, and then the door, and roll out the car over cooling
vats, and open a trap in the bottom of the car, and let the contents drop.
These cooling vats may be placed near enough to dip the swill into the feed-
troughs, or it may be carried in another car along an alley, and thence dipped
into the feed-troughs, or made to run into them through conductors. Such
an arrangement would, without doubt, save a great deal of hard labor, and
it would not be very expensive. Whatever the arrangement of the piggery,
keep tliis fact constantly in view, that in some sections of the country the
manure which yon can make while fatting your pork, if your piggery is
well arranged, will prove to be the most profitable part of the pork-making
process.
There is another necessary farm-building which we may as well speak of
here, particularly as it is one that may, whenever the situation will admit,
very properly be located in the immediate vicinity of the piggery, and it is
equally valuable to the farmer as a mine of manurial wealth. It is —
347. The Temple of Cloacina.— Every farm-house must have a temple set
apart for this heathenish deity, but no farm-house should have such a neces-
sary appendage a disgrace to civilization, as too many of them are. Such
a building should be placed convenient to the house, but never in sight.
It should be located in a clump of shrubbery, mostly evergreens, out of sight
from tiie house, or else it should be made part and parcel of some of the out-
buildings, so as never to be a prominent object. We have often seen these
buildings so placed that they were the most conspicuous things about the
place. A very little refinement in a fai-mer's family will make it revolt at ex-
posing the part of a farmery that should be hidden from public gaze. A
very little knowledge of the deoderizing effect of fine, dry, swamp muck, or
charcoal, or plaster, or copperas will serve to keep a place that must be
visited every day, by every member of tlie family, so sweet that it never
will be offensive ; and the valuable contents of the vault, which should be
always shallow and easy to clean, will then become a source of profit, instead
of a nuisance both disagreeable and disgraceful.
322 TDE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
348. Smoke-Uonses— How to Build and how to Use Then.— Wc lay it down
as an axiom, that tlie best sniokc-liouso ever built is a log cabin, witli the
cracks all open. In such a building you can not confine the smoke so as
to smother the meat and spoil it, as it easily can be and often is in a very
tight room. It is not generally understood how much the excellence of
bacon depends on the manner in Avhicli it may be smoked. Indeed, we look
upon this part of tlie process as more important than a good receipt for
pickling. A ham that is well pickled ma}' be spoiled in smoking it, and
then no skill in cookery will take away its dark color and strong, rancid
taste. To make good hams, there must be a free circulation of atmosphere,
so tliat the smoke never shall become heated. A smoke never should be
made in a damp, foggy, or rainy day.
In building a smoke-house the farmer is more apt to regard external
appearances than the object for which it is intended. It may be very strong
and neat, but if it be built on wrong principles, it will never give satisfac-
tion, and the good wife will be always wondering how it is that her bacon
is not equal to that which she eats away from home. Now, there is no
bacon in this country superior to that produced in Maryland, where the
smoke-houses are certainly rather primitive in their construction. Tliey
are usually made of logs, rudely plastered with clay on the outside, and
thatched with straw. The hams are hung upon hooks driven into the
rafters. The fire of chips — covered with saw-dust in order to prevent a
blaze — is in the middle of the floor — ground floor, generally ; and the smoke,
after having done its duty, escapes through the innumerable cracks and
openings in the wall and thatch. Such a building is not very ornamental,
but it is much more eflicient than those we frequently see co"nstructed of
brick or stone, with tight joof, a close-fitting door, and but one small aper-
ture for the escape of the smoke. The great secret in the art of smoking
hams is to dry them in smoke, but not by heat. When they are kept close
to the fire, they invariably acquire a disagreeable flavor, and often become
soft and greasy. The smoke should not be allowed to reach them until
nearly or quite cool,- and to eflect this some farmers have the fire outside of
the building, perhaps twenty or thirty feet distant, and conduct the smoke
to the interior through a narrow covered trench. By its passage through
the trench, it is cooled and purified, and there is no danger of its giving an
unpleasant taste to the meat. A still better plan is practiced by the people
of Westphalia, which, as all the world knows, is celebrated for its bacon.
The smoking is performed in extensive cliambers, in the uppermost stories
of high buildings. Some are four or five stories above the ground, and the
smoke Is conveyed to them by tubes from pipes in the cellars. Tlie vapor
is condensed, and the heat absorbed by the tubes, so that the smoke is both
dry and cool when it comes in contact with the meat. Man}' of the farm-
houses in Pennsylvania have a somewhat similar arrangement. A room is
partitioned oflf in the garret, next to the kitchen chimney, and the hams are
hung from the rafters overhead. Near the floor is a small opening in the
Sec. 18.] SMOKE-HOUSE AND FRUIT-DRYING HOUSE. 323
chimney, by which the smoke enters the apartment ; and instead of return-
ing to the flue, it linds its way into the open air through tlie innumerable
crevices in the roof. The meat is tluis kept perfectly dry, and it will be
found to liave a color and flavor unknown in that treated in the common
metliod.
A smoke-house can hardly be too open ; where the walls and roof are
tight, or nearly so, the smoke condenses on the bacon, rendering it flabby
and ill-colored. To be sure, when there is good ventilation it takes much
longer to complete the process, but this delay we believe to be rather bene-
ficial than otherwise. Some people have the fault of always being in a
huny, and their bacon is never well smoked. It should be cured gradually
and slowly, and this is another reason why the Germans are so successful in
the business. In Virginia, two months is not considered a long time for the
operation.
Green sugar-maple chips are the best for the fire, and after maple are
ranked hickory, sweet birch, and white ash or beech. Some think well-
dried corn-cobs superior to everything else ; and they certainly furnish a
sweet, penetrating smoke. Saw-dust from hard wood is also excellent for
the purpose, but rotten wood should never be used ; and it is said that locust
bark will actually spoil tlie flavor of hams ; and we doubt not that there are
many other substances which will produce the same result.
Some persons are always very particular about hanging their hams with
the leg end down. They should never be allowed to touch each other, nor
touch any flat substance. In hanging large numbers of hams in a crowded
room, we ha,ve often kept them apart by a small piece of a corn-cob.
No farmery is complete without a smoke-house, and where the amount of
meat to be annually smoked is insufficient to make it an object to erect a
building specially for that purpose, it will be found very easy to set apart a
small room in some of the outbuildings, and convey the smoke to it through
a long flue. As the building mentioned in No. 349 never will be wanted for
the purpose for which it was constructed, wlien bacon should be smoked, it
could, perhaps, be made so as to answer both purposes.
3i9. A Fruit-Drying House. — In some sections remote from cities, and upon
some farms, fruit-drying is quite an object, and is relied upon by the female
portion of the family as a means of replenishing their wardrobe, independent
of the general products of the farm. Upon fruit farms it is also made a
considerable item of the regular business. All such farms should have a
fruit-drying house, built upon scientific principles, to accomplish the object
in the most expeditious manner, at the least expense. The true principle of
drying fruit would be to place it on open-work hurdles, in the flue of a
Jieated air furnace, so that there would be a continual draft of hot air pass-
ing through the fruit, carrying off" the moisture into the upper air. The best
one we ever saw,heated the air in the basement of a three-story building. In
the third story, one side of the. large brick flue was arranged like the drawers
of a bureau, the bottom of the drawers being basket-work. In these, each of
324 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
which hekl about a bushel of apples or peaches cut in quarters, the fruit
dried with wonderful rapidity. It needed no other attention than changing
the drawers once from top to bottom, to efjuallzo the drying, so as to finisli
all at once. Other things besides fruit were dried in this flue, such as sweet
corn, okra, pease, tomatoes, etc.
The following, taken from the Yidlcy Farmer, is the description of a dry-
ing-house in use in "Wisconsin :
" It consists of a building of logs, brick, or stone, of any convenient size,
say ten feet wide by twelve or fourteen long, and one story high, having an
ordinary roof, with a ventilator to admit of the escape of the heat and. vapor
arising from the fruit.
"The furnace should open on the outside of the building, at the end. It
should be about two feet square. Tiie sides should be of brick, and as thin
as may be to sustain the top. The flue should ])e extended to near the entire
lengtli of the building, and then return, forming a parallel flue, which may
be reduced to two tliirds the size of tlio furnace or main flue, terminating in
a cliimney near the door of the furnace. The top of the furnace and flue
should be covered with plates of thin boiler iron ; thicker iron, or a covering
of brick or stone, will not admit of a suflicient escape of heat to facilitate
the drying process. The fruit is dried on trays or hurdles, arranged in three
tiers, one above another, with a space of twelve or fifteen inches between
them. Tlie hurdles maj' be two and a half feet wide, six or seven feet long,
and three inches deep. These are made of common boards, with a lath bot-
tom, made thin ; the laths should be made of hickory, as the fruit is found
to dry much more readily on hard wood lath than it does on poplar or other
soft wood. Through the length of the building frames are put up to support
the hurdles of fruit. These frames or rails extend tlirough openings made
in the end of the building opposite the furnace, and corresponding with each
pair of rails are wooden shutters. The i-ails extend on the outside about six
feet ; upon these the hurdles are placed crosswise ; upon each of the hurdles
are rollers corresponding with the rails ; being filled with the fruit to be dried,
the hurdles are run in like cars upon a railroad. Thus arranged, with the
three tiers of rails filled with tra3-s of fruit, about one and a half barrels can
be dried at once, requiring about twenty-four hours to complete the opera-
tion. The trays nearest the fire will, of course, dry the fastest, and, with the
convenience of the railroad and the shutters in tlie end of the buildiiig, they
may be drawn out and changed to the upper rails, when the whole may be
finished within the twenty-four hours in the most perfect and uniform man-
ner, and without the least burning. The fire sliould be made without grates,
on the bottom of the furnace, which consumes less fuel, and keeps uji a more
uniform heat than if placed above the draft.
"In some instances we have seen pieces of old steam-boilers substituted
in the place of brick walls for a furnace; to the boiler is connected and re-
turned a pipe of somewhat smaller dimensions, a sheet-iron pipe, which ad-
mits of the free escape of heat and speedy drying of the fruit.
Seo. 19.]
ECONOMY IN BUILDING.— BALLOON FRAMES.
325
"The ordinary method of drying peaches and apples in Kentucky and
Tennessee is to construct a kihi of stone, witli a broad flat top, upon which the
fruit is laid, and a fire kept up in the flue beneath till the fruit is sufficiently
dried. This is more expeditious than drying in the sun, and the fruit is not
so liable to be soiled by flies, yet it is objectionable on account of liability
to burn the fruit in contact with the over-heated stone."
SECTION X1X.-EC0N0M1CAL FARM BUILDINGS, BALLOON FRAMES,
CONCRETE WALLS, AND OTHER CHEAP STYLES OF BUILDING.
^(JL
fE are satisfied that we can do those who desire to
build no greater favor than making them acquainted
with the modern style of building, known as "bal-
loon fi-ames" — a name that was at first conferred
upon them in ridicule on account of their lightness
and unsubstantiability. This name is only true as
it applied to their lightness. Balloon frames are not
ridiculous from anj' lack of sufficient strength. There
is need of no stronger building than one made upon
this plan, except where it is necessary to have strength
of timber to sustain weighty storage or ponderous
machiueiy. For all ordinary farm buildings, we
earnestly recommend balloon frames. And we are
not alone in our recommendations, though, so far as
we know, we were the first in lecommending them to farmers in the Eastern
States. Of late, Geo. E. Woodward, au architect and builder of New York
city, has written some exceedingly valuable articles upon this subject, and
published them in the Country Gentleman, with illustrations, and to him or
them we respectfully refer readers, who may be incited from what we say
here, to make further inquiries.
Among the sensible things said by Mr. Woodward, are the following ;
"Economy in the construction of all buildings adapted to the habitation
or convenience of man has been a study of much interest to those who con-
template the erection of buildings for their own use or for the purposes of a
profitable investment ; though we are inclined to think experimental or in.
ventive talent has applied itself more to produce some new and cheap build-
ing material than to develop the full resources of such materials as are found
best adapted to our wants.
" Necessity has done much for the building public by introducing
to their favorable notice the balloon stj4e of framing wooden buildings —
a style which is not well undej'stood in the old settled and well-timbered
portions of our country, but is, with few exceptions, the only plan adopted
326 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
throughout the magnificent agricultural districts west of our great inland
seas.
" The increasing value of lumber and labor must turn the attention of men
of moderate means to those successful plans ■which have demonstrated econ-
omy in both, and at the same time preserved the full qualities of strength
and security so generally accorded to the old fogy principles of framing, but
which, we presume to say, is inferior in all the true requisites of cheap and
substantial building.
" Any intelligent man who can lay out a right angle and adjust a plumb
line may do his own building, for it is without a mortice, a tenon, or brace,
and a man and boy can do all the work. This principle is the one applied to
the construction of what are technically as well as sarcastically termed bal-
loon frames, which, instead of proving a failure, stands with more than
30,000 examples of every conceivable size and form, a perfect success."
350. How to baild Balloon Frames. — The following remarks upon the sub-
ject we printed some years ago, not only to show that much labor and much
timber may be saved, but tiuit sawed timber may be dispensed with where
it is very expensive. We know that this article enabled many persons to
build cheap frames, and as it once did good, we reprint it that it may do
miich more good in future. The remarks were an answer to the inquiry how
to build balloon houses.
"I would saw all my timber for a frame house, or ordinary frame out-
building, of tlie following dimensions : two inches by eight, two by four, two
by one. I liave sometimes built them, when I lived on the grand prairie
of Indiana, many miles from saw-mills, nearly all of split and hewed stnff,
making use of rails or round poles, reduced to stn\ight lines and even thick-
ness on two sides, for studs and rafters. But sawed stuff is easiest wrought,
though in a timber country the other is far the cheapest. First, level your
foundation, and lay down two of the two-by-eight pieces, flatwise, for side-
sills. Upon these set the floor-sleepers on edge, 32 inches apart. Fasten
one at each end, and, perhaps, one or two in the middle, if the building is
large, with a wooden pin. These end-sleepers are the end sills. Now lay
the floor, unless you design to have one that would be likely to be injured
by the weather before you get the roof on. It is a great saving, though, of
labor to begin at the bottom of a house and build up. In laying the floor
first, you have no studs to cut and tit around, and can let your boards run
out over the end«, just as it happens, and afterward saw them ofl' smooth by
the sill. Now set up a corner post, which is nothing but one of the two-by-
four studs, fastening the bottom by four nails; make it plumb, and stay it
each way. Set another at the other corner, and then mark ofi" your door
and window places, and set up the side-studs and put in the frames. Fill
up with studs between, 16 inches apart, supporting the top by a line or
strip of board from corner to corner, or staid studs between. Now cover
that side with rough sheeting-boards, unless you intend to side up with clap-
boards on the studs, which I never would do, except for a small, common
Sec. 19.] HOW TO BUILD BALLOON FRAMES. 327
building. Make no calculation about the top of your studs ; wait till you
get to tliat liight. You may use them of any length, with broken or stub-
shot ends, no matter. When you have this side boarded as high as you can
rejich, proceed to set up another. In the mean time, other workmen can
be lathing the first side. When you have got the sides all up, fix upon the hight
of your upper floor, and strike a line upon the studs for the under side of the
joist, and cut a gain four inclies wide, half-inch deep, and nail on firmly
one of the inch strips. Upon tliese strips rest the chamber-floor joist. Cut
a notch in the joist one inch deep in tlie lower edge, and lock it on the strip,
and nail each joist to each stud. Now lay tliis floor and go on to build the
upper story as you did the lower one, splicing on and lengthening out studs
wherever needed, until you get high enough for the plate. Splice studs or
joist by simply butting the ends together, and nailing strips on each side.
Strike a line and saw off tlie top of the studs even upon each side of the
building — not the ends— and nail on one of the inch strips. That is the
plate. Cut the ends of the upper joist the bevel of the pitch of the roof, and
nail them fast to the plate, placing the end ones inside the studs, which you
will let run up promiscuously, to be cut off alongside of the rafter. Now
lay the garret floor by all means before you put on the roof, and you will
find that you have saved 50 per cent, of hard labor. The rafters, if sup-
ported so as not to be over ten feet long, will be strong enough of the two-
by-four stuff. Bevel tlie ends and nail fast to the joist. Tiien there is no
strain upon the sides by the weight of the roof, which may be covered with
shingles or other materials, the cheapest being composition or cement roofs.
To make one of this kind, take soft, spongy, thick paper, and tack it upon
the boards in courses like shingles. Commence at the top with hot tar and
saturate the paper, upon which sift fine gravel evenly, pressing it in while
hot — that is, while tar and gravel are both hot. One coat will make a light
roof; two coats will make it more durable. Put up your partitions of stuff
one by four, unless where you want to support the upper joist; then use
stuff two by four, with strips nailed on top for the joist to rest upon, fasten-
ing altogether by nails wherever timbers touch. Thus you will have a frame
without a tenon, or mortice, or brace, and yet it is far cheaper and incalcu-
lably stronger when finished than though it was composed of timbers ten
inclies square, with a thousand auger-holes and a hundred days' work with
the chisel and adze, making holes and pins to fill them. To lay out and
frame a building so that all its parts will come together, requires the skill
of a master mechanic, and a host of men, and a deal of hard work to lift
the great sticks of timber into position. To erect a balloon building requires
about as nmch mechanical skill as it does to build a board fence. Any
farmer who is handy with the saw, iron square, and hammer, with one of his
boys or a common laborer to assist him, can go to work and put up a frame
for an outbuilding, and finish it oft' with his own labor just as well as to
hire a carpenter to score and hew great oak sticks and fill them full of
mortices, all by the science of the 'square rule.' It is a waste of labor that
328 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
we should all lend our aid to j)ut a stop to. Besides, it wWl enable many a
fanner to improve his place witli new buildings, who, though he has long
needed them, has shuddered at the thought of cutting down half of the Ijcst
trees in his wood-lot, and then giving half a year's work to hauling it home
and paying for what I do know is tlie wliolly useless labor of framing. If
it had not been for the knowledge of balloon frames, Chicago and San
Francisco could never have arisen, as they did, from little villages to great
cities in a single year. It is not alone city buildings, which are sujiported
by one another, that may be thus erected, but those upon the open j)rairic,
where the wind has a sweep from Mackinaw to the Mississippi — for there
they are built — and stand as firm as any of the old frames of New England,
with posts and beams sixteen inches square."
To this we add something more from Mr. Woodward. He says :
" We hear and read very much about the policy of cutting mortices,
tenons, gains, etc., in the various pieces which go to make up the balloon
frame. Now it is our opinion, based upon a long and thoroughly practical
experience, that he who does much of this will have some misspent time
to account for hereafter, besides weakening his building and hastening the
decay of the frame. A gain must be cut in the studding for the side girt,
unless the dwelling be lined. Gains are sometimes cut in floor joists for
the purpose of locking them over partitions that run through the bight
of the building. Rafters projecting over the sides should bo notched, to
give them a foothold on the plate. These causes would, as a general thing,
constitute all the cutting necessary.
" In building houses one-aud-a-half-story high, never cut a gain for tlie side
girt on which to rest the upper-story floor joists, unless the thrust of the roof
be well guarded against by secure collar beams. We prefer, wlien we cut
this gain, to use studding one inch wider for the sides. Where the building
is lined, the side girt rests on top of the lining, and no cutting is necessary.
" Unplastered buildings, of a moderate size, are suflieiently strong if the
girt be nailed directly to tlie studding without cutting the gain or recess.
"We have recommended, in the construction of a barn 24 by 40, alternate
studs on the sides, 2 by 4 and 2 by 5, the side girt to be nailed to tlie narrow
stud and let one inch into the wide stud. This would not auswer for a
plastered building, as the surface is not flush for lathing.
"Two full story buildings are abundantly strong with 2 by 4 studding and
gains cut into them for side girt; tiie third floor ties the top of the studding,
so there is no yield. Tlie joists of tlie third floor should be placed upon the
plate, the ends beveled to the same pitch of the rafters, and each joist nailed
at both ends to each rafter.
" We prefer to build the second story full for a dwelling-house, as we get
more strength, more convenient room, and the real difl'eronco in expense is
practically nothing. Where the studding is more than five feet high above
the second floor of a barn, two or three tie-strips across the foot of the
rafters will make all snug. There should be tie or collar beams on all rafters.
Sec. 19.] COST OF A BALLOON-FRAMK HOUSE. 329
"Ie story-a!id-a-lialf buildings, it is very desirable that collars be put on
securely, so as to prevent any thrust of the rafters ; where the side girt is
not gained in, as in small unplastered buildings, the collars may be nailed
or spiked to the rafter. If the side girt is set into the studding, as it should
be in a plastered building not lined inside, it makes a weak point in the
studding, reducing them from 2 by 4 to 2 by 3, and the collars should be
put on in such a manner as to guard against any thrust whatever. The size
of the building and the judgment of its constructor will indicate the best
course to pursue. Buildings of one, two, or more full stories have no collars ;
the joists of the upper floor tie the top of the building, and take the thrust
of the rafters. In the usual mode of inside lining, one side laps the stud.
The ends of the lining of the adjoining side are nailed to a strip fastened to
the stud to receive them.
" "We have built balloon frames with green oak studding, basswood siding,
and butternut trimmings, that have never j'ielded. There is a system of
compensation among the light sticks of a balloon frame by which the sea-
soning process goes on without injury to it. We have seen warped surfaces
produced by using green oak siding and by careless building, but there is
no good reason why a balloon-frame building should not be always square
and plumb, and the outside boarding remain secure.
''Tlie subject of tapering rafters has been pretty thoroughly discussed here-
tofore. The same amount of strength can be had with a less amount of
lumber. There is an additional labor in sawing such I'afters, as well as a
different calculation to be made in using up a log to the best advantage. It
is necessary always to order this special bill of rafters direct from the mill,
and the i-esult will be that the extra cost will, nine times out of ten, over-
balance the amount saved."
351. The Cost of the Author's Balloon House and Barui — There is not only
a saving in first cost of lumber, but a very large item will be saved in the
bill of carriage, particularly where it has to be hauled a long distance on a
wagon. The saving in the carpenter's bill is very large, because so much
of the work may be done by persons less skillful than a well-bred carpenter.
And then there is a total saving of all that troublesome, dangerous, hard
work attendant upon an old-fashioned "raising."
We have lately built (that is, we were our own architect) a house and barn,
a few miles out of the city of New York, upon the plan we are advocating,
and therefore can speak from actual experience of the benefits of the plan
in an old as well as in a new country. The house, or rather the addition to
an old one, is 18 by 2i feet, with an attachment eight feet square upon one
side, and a piazza six feet wide on the other. It is one story of lOi feet, and
has nine windows and seven doors. Both floors are deadened by a course
of boards and heavy coat of clay mortar. The siding is nailed upon studs
2 by I inches, and there are two courses of lath and plastering — one half
way between the siding and inside lath. Tlie roof projects, and is orna-
mented, and the garret is lathed and plastered, and the lower part divided
330 THE FARMERY. [Chap. IIL
into four rooms, and all is of good materials and workmanship, at a total
cost, except painting and papering, of §450. Tlic sills and sleepers are pine,
3 l>y 7, and the joist 3 by 6, spruce, and all would have been just as good,
if procurable, 2 by 6 inches ; and there is not an upright stick larger than
2 by 4 of hemlock. Tiiis house, notwithstanding its cheapness, is strong,
durable, warm, and good-looking. What more could we have of a ponder-
ous, expensive frame ?
Our horse barn is 22 by 24 feet, and 13 feet high, and has but one upright
stick in it larger than 2 by 4 inches. As the hay -loft is a high half story, it
was thought best to have a center-post, wliich is 3 by 7, to support the ridge
pole in the middle. The studs are covered with smooth pine siding, and the
lower story is lined with rough boards, and the building is as strong as we
desire, and cost, completelj' tinished, with good floors, stalls, mangers, doors,
and windows, $300. The carpenter's work was only §50.
We have dwelt more fully upon this subject of balloon frames than upon
many others, because we look upon it as one of very great importance. It
is one that, if fully understood, would induce and enable farmers to have
better dwellings and other farm buildings.
352. Concrete Walls. — The best advice that we can give one who asks for
information about making concrete walls, or how to build houses of gravel,
or broken stones and lime and sand, is that he buy a little book called a
" Home for All,'' published by Fowler <k Wells, which gives all the details
of this mode of building. Mr. Fowler directs mixing a large mortar -bed
of lime and sand together, with twice as much sand as slacked lime, made
quite thin, and well worked. Into this mixture of lime and sand and water
the gravel or broken stone is put and evenly mixed, and then shoveled out
into a barrow or hoisting tub, and from that dumped into a smaller mortar-
bed on the scaifold, where it gets another good mixing, and wetting if
needed, and is then shoveled into the box that forms the mold to give shape
to the walls. In tli mold it hardens in one day so that the mold can be
removed, but it takes a longer time to dry hard enough to put on the next
course. Such walls, if well made, are almost as solid as hewn stone, and
much cheaper where lime is not costly, and where sand and gravel or broken
stone can be had for hauling.
The proportion of materials given in the book referred to for a concrete
wall are eight wheelbarrows full of lime, mixed with sixteen barrows of sand
into a thin mortar, to which add sixty or eighty barrows of pebbles or rubble-
stone. The lime may be of the coarsest kind, and not over one bushel of
stone lime to thirty bushels of sand and stones. A wall three stories high
is recommended — twelve inches thick for the first, ten inches for the second,
and eight inches for the third. To protect the outside plastering, the roof
should be a projecting one.
We do not know how far this plan of building can l>c recommended upon
the score of economy. We think that will depend very much upon circum-
stances. If broken stone or pebbles are very convenient to the building site,
Seo. 19.] CONCRETE WALLS. 331
and lime to be bad for tbe burning on the place, or at a small cost, the
building will be a cheap one, and not otherwise. Horace Greeley built a
large barn of concrete upon his farm in Westchester County, of such stones
as are spread over the surface of these granitic hills. Although it is a very
substantial building, our opinion is that we could build a good frame, and
put the surplus money into other improvements, to a better profit.
353. Building with Billets of Wood.— A new style of building has been
adopted in several places at the West, where brick and stones are inconve-
nient, and sawed lumber and carpenter's work are expensive. The plan is to
saw billets of wood of an even length, say one foot long, from limbs of trees ;
or split stuff; slabs, we suppose, would answer a good purpose, if split up into
fire-wood size. These billets must be straight enough to pile up well. The
wall is made by laying them in lime mortar, and, we believe, in some cases,
in good clay mortar, where lime and sand are scarce, and then plastering
the wall outside and in. The great objection seems to be that the outside
plastering cleaves off, as it does from all plastered buildings exposed to rain,
frost, and heat. A friend writes us inquiring whether there is any composi-
tion for outside plaster that will stand the weather. We answer, none that
can be wholly depended upon. A mortar made of hydraulic cement
(water lime), of good quality, mixed with clean, coarse, sharp sand — two
parts of sand to one of cement — would stand until some crack occurred, and
water and frost get in behind. Perliaps the mortar described in No. 359
will answer the purpose. But as it is cheaper, and perhaps equally good,
we would recommend an ordinary coat of plaster, and then take cement aud
any cheap oil, and mix a pretty thick paint, and put on thoroughly two or
three coats. Another good paint may be made as follows : Take four pounds
of rosin and one pint of linseed oil, and boil together, adding about an
ounce of red lead, and put it on hot, and afterward paint any color you like.
If a crack ever occurs, stop it at once with the rosin and oil mixture. We
have no doubt that these billets-of-wood houses can be built in many places
cheaper than any other, and that they can be made neat, comfortable, and
durable.
332
THE FARMERY.
[Chap. III.
SECTION XX.-ROOFS AND ROOFING-PAINTS AND WHITEWASH FOR
FARM BUILDINGS-NAILS AND MORTAR-FARM GATES.
]HATEVER the st}'!© of building adopted for anv
of tiie farmery structures, a good roof never should
be lost sight of, for upon that, much of the farm
economy depends. A leaky roof on a dwelling de-
stroys comfort and property, and is the source of
many unpleasant days and nights to the family, and
sometimes productive of sickness, as well as injury
to furniture. A leaky roof upon a barn will destroy
every year a greater value of hay and grain than it
would cost to make it tight. It is for this that we give
special attention to this part of the farm buildings.
We also give some valuable hints upon painting and
whitewashing, because both beauty and economy
may be thus promoted.
354. Sawed SbingleSi — Of all the inventions ever contrived, that of sawed
shingles has proved to be one of the least value to the country. The only
profit is to the patentee and manufacturer. To every one who has used
them, sawed shingles have proved a loss, no matter what the saving lias
been in first cost, unless the shingles, previous to laying on the roof, were
prepared so as to prevent their saturation with water every time the rainfell-
upon them. It is this repeated saturation of sawed shingles that rots them,
and gives us leaky roofs in one fourth the time that split shingles remain
sound. It is true that good shingle timber is becoming scarce, and more
and more so every year, and that farmers must have something as a sub-
stitute. What that something is we know not, but are quite sure, where
economy is studied, that it will not be sawed shingles. If they must be
used, let the roof have a very steep pitch. On a flat roof we liave known
them rot entirely through in five years. Another roof, ten years old, both
shingles and roof-boards, when taken off, crumbled into a mass of rotten
wood, that scarcely bore any resemblance to boards and shingles.
"A retired mechanic" writes us that he followed building eighteen years,
and prefers sawed shingles if they are planed on the upper side, and says
that a smart hand can plane from two to three thousand a day. We think
a machine miglit be constructed to plane one side of sawed shingles without
adding much to the cost. Witliout planing or dipping in boiling oil or tar,
we do not believe sawed shingles should ever be used by any one who wants
a good roof, or who cares for economy. The writer of a letter now before
us spe.iks in very severe terms of the manufacturers of sawed shingles. He
says they are often made of small cross-grained, sapling spruce, and that
Seo. 20.] ROOFS AND ROOFING. 333
the bark of the tree will last about as long as snch shingles on a roof. Tlie
carelessness of persons employed to lay shingles is notorious, and a cross-
grained shingle is just as apt to be laid wrong side up as right. Then the
surface wears rough, and water soaks into the wood and rots it through so
as to leak in a few months. This writer thinks the fault of sawed shingles
is much more in tlie timber than in the manufacture ; that is, that sawed
shingles from good, sound, straight-grained timber will last as long as
split ones.
Another letter writer suggests that sawed shingles should never be laid
upon a boarded roof, but upon narrow laths, one to each course. He says :
" I know of a building where the shingles were put on boards and the
boards put close together, which have been on but a few years and are very
leaky ; the shingles and boards have rotted through in places, while other
]>arts are sound and good. I think the reason is, the shingles lie so close to
the boards that when they get wet they never dry through ; while if laid upon
laths, sawed shingles will last as long as split ones from the same timber."
Another writer, speaking of the absolute necessity of using something as
a substitute for split shingles on account of the scarcity of timber, wants to
know M-hy we can not have tile manufactured that will be a better substi-
tute for shingles than anything else that we have, both for economy and
certainty of having a good roof.
A correspondent speaks of shingles cut by a machine patented by J. L.
Brown, of Indianapolis, Ind., at the rate of 50,000 a day, that are altogether
superior to sawed sliingles, even should the latter bo planed. This may be
so, but we have no faith in the economy of using shingles made by any kind
of machinery that cuts wood across the grain. No shingles thus made will
be as durable as split ones, unless saturated with oils or resins, or kyanized,
and then they would be as expensive as those made by riving and shaving,
or perhaps as much so in the long run as slate or tin. Depend upon it, using
poor shingles upon farm buildings is very poor economy.
355. Preserving Shiugles on Roofs. — " Some paint roof shingles after they
are laid. This makes them rot sooner than they otherwise would. Some
paint the courses as they are laid ; this is a great preservative if each shingle
is painted its full length, and not by courses."
Mr. Ed. Emerson, of Hollis, Mass., thus gives, in the New England
Farmer, some hints that ai-e worthy of preservation upon shingling roofs.
He says :
" Twenty- three years ago I had quite a lot of refuse shingles on hand, both
sappy and shaky, and I laid them on the back kitchen and wood-shed. I
have just examined them, and think they will last at least seven years longer.
The building has not leaked, to my knowledge. I soaked these shingles in
a very thin whitewash, made with brine instead of clear water. There has
been nothing done to them since, although T have no doubt that to have
whitewashed or served a coat of dry-slaked lime or fine salt once in two or
three years on them, would have been of great advantage to them.
334 THE FARMERY. [Chap. HI
" As I shingle differently from almost every one else, I will give you my
method, and my reasons for it. Uowever wide the shingles may be, I do
not allow the nails to be put more than two inches apart, liioson — If yonr
shingle* are wet or green, and the wide ones are nailed at the edges, the
shingles must split or one of the nails must draw when the shjnglc shrinks.
If the shingle is dry, it must huff or crowd the nail out when it swells.
Thus your nails are kept in constant motion by every shrink or swell of the
sliingle till they are broken, pulled out, or the shingle is split. I do not
want the nails driven quite in, or so as to 6ink_the head. Jitason — The
heads of the nails hold up the butts of the next row of shingles, and give
the air a free circulation.
" I lay all my shingles in whitewash. I prefer brine for making it. I
line with red chalk. I then whitewash the last course laid down to the
line, and after the building is shingled I whitewash the whole of the roof.
Reason — ^To make the shingles last twice as long as they would without the
whitewash, and I consider it much better than just whitewashing the roof
after shingling."
'■'■ Whitewashed shingles are never mossy. If slaked lime is sprinkled upon
wet roofs, it will prevent moss from growing, and if the shingles are cov-
ered ever so thick with moss, putting the lime on twice will take all the
moss off and leave the roof white and clean, and it will look almost as well
as if it had been painted. It ought to be done once a year, and, in my opin-
ion, the shingles will last almost twice as long as they will to let the roof all
grow over to moss." One who has tried this plan says :
" I tried it on the back part of mj- house ten years ago, when the shingles
were all covered over with moss, and appeared to be nearly rotten. I then
gave the roof a heavy coat of lime, and have followed it nearly every year
since, and the roof is better now than at first."
356. Roofs — their Form— Shingled and Composition.— It is a serious defect iu
our roof architecture that the roofs of most buildings are so"flat that the rain
finds its way under the shingles. Sharp roofs keep out rain and last longer,
and although the first cost is a trifle greater, they are cheai^cr in the end.
We know of no composition we can recommend to cure leaky shingled
roofs, though several arc advertised as sure cures. "We are afraid they are
like the Indian's gun — "cost more than he worth." There is a patent
asphalt roofing felt that can be easily put on by any person. It weighs only
about forty-two pounds to the square one hundred feet. It must be stretched
tight and smooth, overlapping full one inch at the joinings, and closely
nailed through the overlap. It should then receive a coating of coal-tar and
lime — two gallons of the former to six pounds of the latter — well boiled to-
'gether and kept constantly stirred while boiling, and put on with a swab,
and while it is soft some coarse sand may be sifted over it. This coating
needs renewing once in five or six j-ears.
There is also roofing-paper — a soft, spongy substance, saturated with tar,
which comes in rolls, and is sold for about four cents a pound. It is un-
Sbo. 20.] ROOFS AND ROOFIXG. 335
rolled upon a flat boarded roof, and tacked sufficiently to hold it in place,
and then saturated with tar, which glues it to the boards, and it is covered
with sand ; then more tar and another coat of sand.
Another i^ceipt for composition roofs is given as follows : Take coal-tar,
300 pounds; hydraulic lime, 150 pounds; ocher, 75 pounds; and whiting,
40 pounds. Mix these substances together thoroughly, and they will make,
a sufficient quantity of cement to cover 1,000 square feet of roofing. It
should be laid down upon strong cotton sheeting nailed to the roof-boards,
and on the top of all a coat of dry sand or gravel is to be laid and pressed
firmly down. The cost of such roofing is about $2 30 per ten feet square.
It answers very well for sheds and other outhouses.
357. Protecting Roofs from Fire. — In a country where wood is used as fuel,
and where roofs are made of pine shingles, and where droughts are among
the things occurring every summer, there is constant danger of conflagration
of the dwelling from sparks on the roof. This may be guarded against in
a very great measure in a very inexpensive manner. A roof carefully
washed with three coats of either composition mentioned in Kos. 360 or 361,
once in three years, would be a hundred times less liable to take fire from
sparks than an unwashed roof.
Such a wash would be a very cheap preventive of danger from fire. So is
the paint mentioned in the following extract:
" A wash composed of lime, salt, and fine sand or wood ashes, put on in the
ordinary way of whitewashing, renders the roof fifty-fold more safe against
taking fire from falling cinders or otherwise, in cases of fire in the vicinity.
It pays the expense a hundred-fold in its preserving influence against the effect
of the weather. The older and more weather-beaten the shingles, the more
benefit derived. Such shingles generally become more or less warped, rough,
and cracked ; the application of the wash, by wetting the upper surface, re-
stores them at once to their original form, thereby closing the space between
the shingles, and the lime and sand, by filling up the cracks and pores in
the shingle itself, prevent its warping for j'ears."
358. Cheap NailSi — ^The cheapest nails are not the lowest priced ones.
Cut nails, made of iron of good quality, will outlast such as can be bouglit
at the lowest rates about two to one. Never use nails for siding or shingles
that break very easily ; and be sure not to allow your carpenter to use
nails of very light weight. First-rate cut nails of suitable size may cost
twenty-five per cent, more than the poorest and lightest, but in the end they
are a hundred per cent, the best. Nails made of poor iron will rust out a
great deal quicker than nails made of good tough malleable iron, like that
known as old sable. It is about on a par with sawed shingles to use the
cheapest or lowest priced nails, particularly for shingling. In building
balloon frames none but the very best quality of nails should be used.
Those known as " fence nails" are far the best, being made of thicker iron
than the ordinary nails of the same number.
Weathet'-Proof Ifails — are described in the Ohio Cultivator. It says:
336 THE FAEMERT. [Chap. IH.
"Everybody knows what a difficult thing it is to nail roof-boards and
weather-boards so tliat they will hold for a good length of time. Tliere arc
many other places in which it is nearly impossible to make nails do the
office for which they are intended. A remedy — and tlie only one I ever
saw — I discovered a few years ago; it is very simple and never fails. Take
tcnpenny, malleable nails, and place the head in a vice, and with a pair of
pincers grip the nail near the point, and twist it half-way round, minding to
make the twist somewhat elongated. In driving, the nail becomes a screw,
and neither sun nor hammer can withdraw it."
359. To make Mortar Impervious (o Wet. — " Provide a square wooden
trough, say S by 4 feet, and 2 feet deep ; put in a quantity of fresh lump
lime, and add water quickly. When the lime is well boiled, having assisted
that operation by frequent stirring, add tar (the heat of boiling lime melts
the tar), stir it well, taking care that every part of the lime is intimately
mixed with the tar; then add sharp sand or crushed clinker, and stir it well
as before ; after which, in about twenty hours, it Avill be fit for use."
360. Cheap Paints for Farm DuildingSt— Tar and lime may be used, in
order to make either wood or mason-work watei-proof The best way to
prepare gas or coal tar for coating wood-work with, is to get some of the
best stone lime, avoiding chalk lime, and slake it to a fine powder; boil the
tar for about half an hour, and then add about one pint of hot lime-powder
to a gallon of tar, and boil it about half an hour longer, stiiTing it coniinu-
ally, and using it iiot.
We give the above as we find it, but prefer the following : Take the com-
mon " Rosendale cement" (water lime), sift it, and mix the fine powder with
coal-tar, or any kind of oil, and it will make an excellent paint, of a drab or
brown-stone color.
361. Permanent Whitewash Paint.— Another excellent paint is made of
the following ingredients: that is, one bushel of well-burnt white lime
unslaked, 20 lbs. Spanish whiting, 17 lbs. rock-salt, 12 lbs. brown sugar.
Slake the lime, and sift out any lumps or stones, and mix it into a good
whitewash, say with 40 gallons of wafer, and then add the other ingredients,
and stir all well together, and put on two or three thin coats with a common
whitewash brush. Five dollars' worth of this cheap white paint will give
the farmery such an improved appearance that it would sell readily for $100
more than it would in its old wood colored coat and neglccted-looking con-
dition. Tliis mixture makes a paint that is very clieap, and makes a coat
that does not wash off or rub off, and looks well — that is, makes the rough
boards of a barn, shed, outbuilding, or fence look much better than in their
natural wood-colored condition ; and it will, by its antiseptic qualities, tend
beneficially toward the preservation of the wood. It can be tinted by any
of the articles mentioned in 362. This is intended for the outside of build-
ings, or where it is exposed to the weather. In order to give a good color,
three coats are necessary on brick and two on wood.
Another cheap and good paint may be made of any pure clay ; such as
Sko. 20.] PAINTS AND WHITEWASH. 337
potters use is the right sort ; or that known as " blue day" will answer a
good purpose in its natural condition. Even such as brick-makers use can
be washed of all its impurities, by thoroughly mi.xing it with a large bulk
of water, and lotting it settle and then draw oft' the water, and also reject
the bottom of the mass, which will contain all the sand.
To prepare clay for paint, first dry it, either in the sun or by fire, and
then pulverize it fine, which may be done with a cannon-ball in a swinging
iron jjot. Then sift it, and mix with boiled linseed oil, pretty thick, and you
will have just as good a fire-proof paint, or a weather-protecting paint, as
any that are sold as such in the shops.
In some localities soft slate, or slate-dust from a manufactory, can be had,
and that will make a good " mineral paint."
362. Zinc and Lime Whitewash Paint. — Take a clean barrel that will hold
water. Put into it half a barrel of quicklime, and slake it by pouring over
it boiling water sufficient to cover it four or five inches deep, and stirring it
until slaked. When quite slaked, dissolve it in water, and add two pounds
of sulpliate of zinc and one of common salt, wliich in a few days will cause
the whitewash to harden on the wood-work. Add sutficient water to bring
it to the consistency of thick whitewash.
To make the above wash of a pleasant cream color, add three pounds of
yellow ochcr.
For fawn color, add four pounds of umber, one pound of Indian red, and
one pound of lampblack.
For gray or stone color, add four pounds of raw umber and two pounds
of lampblack.
The color may be put on witli a common whitewash brush, and will be
found much more durable than common whitewash.
363. Stucco Whitewash. — To make a brilliant stucco whitewash for all
buildings, inside and out, take a bushel of clean lumps of well-burnt lime,
slaked ; add one fourth pound of whiting or burnt alum pulverized, one
pound of loaf sugar, three quarts of rye flour, made into a thin and well-
boiled paste, and one pound of the cleanest glue, dissolved. This may be
put on cold within doors, but should be applied hot outside.
The following is another receipt for stucco whitewash : Take half a bushel
of nice unslaked lime, slake it with boiling water, covering it during the
process, to keep in the steam. Strain tlie liquid through a fine sieve or
strainer, and add to it a peck of salt, previously well dissolved in water ;
three pounds ground rice, boiled to a thin paste, and stirred in boiling hot ;
half a pound Spanish whiting, and a pound of clean glue, which has been
previously dissolved by soaking it first, and then hanging over a slow fire,
in a small kettle inside a large one filled with water. Add five gallons of
hot water to the mixture, stir it well, and let it stand a few days covered
from the dirt. It should be put on quite hot; for this purpose it can be
kept in a kettle on a furnace. It is said that about a pint of this mixture
v.-ill cover a yard square of the outside of a house, if properly applied.
338 THE FARMERY. [CnAP. UI.
The size of the brushes used should be adapted to the work required. This
composition answei-s as well as oil paint ou wood or stone, and is cheaper.
It retains its brilliancy for many years.
Coloring may be put in, and made of any shade you like. Spanish brown
stirred in will make red pink, more or less deep to the quantity. A delicate
tinge of this is very pretty for inside walls. Finely pulverized common
clay, well mixed with Spanish brown, makes a reddish stone color. Yellow
ocher stirred in makes yellow wash, but chrome goes further, and makes a
color generally esteemed prettier. In all these cases the darkness of the
shades is determined of course by the quantity of coloring used. It is diffi-
cult to make rules, because tastes are different; it would be best to try
experiments on a shingle, and let it dry. "We have been told that green
must not be mixed with lime. The lime destroys the color, and the color
has an effect on the whitewash, which makes it crack and peel. When
walls have been badly smoked, and you wish to have them a clean white, it
is well to squeeze indigo plentifully through a bag into the water you use,
before it is stirred into the mixture. If a larger quantity than five gallons
be wanted, the same proportion should be observed.
The above is the receipt that has been so long in circulation as that wliich
gave the original whiteness to the " "White House" at "Washington.
In oil painting, never suffer a painter to use unboiled oil upon any of
your buildings or farm implements, and certainly never suffer yourself to
leave any of them unpainted. Take care that the painter is not too liberal
in the use of his " driers" in your paint. Tint is to please the eye. Oil
preserves the wood, and one coat of boiled oil is worth three of unboiled.
All farm buildings sliould be oil-painted or whitewashed. "Whitewash
fends to preserve wooden buildings niore than any ordinary coat of paint,
particularly such a one as would bo given to unplaned boards, wliich is a
better condition for whitewashing than Avhen smooth. The ice-house should
be whitewashed on the outside as often as it is necessary to keep it perfectly
white, as that is an important aid toward keeping it cool.
364. Farmery Gates. — No farmery can be considered at all complete that
is not amply furnished with gates, constructed with particular adaptation to
their several situations, and arranged in tlic most ])erfect manner with
hinges, latches, and fastenings. There is to us no greater evidence of a
slovenly farmer than is furnished by half-dilapidated, or at best incon-
venient, barf. These bar-ways may answer in ticld fences, wliere they are
seldom to be opened, but they are a nuisance about the farmery. Most of
the farmery gates should be self-closing, and made to swing so that an
animal could not push against and open the gate. In some places a gate
can not be made to swing cither way ; then it must be made to open npon
some one of the several ^ilans that have been made for convenient opening
in a straight line. One of the sort patented by some one in Oneida County,
N. Y., is a very easy working gate. It is made of very light stuff, and for
a wagon-way a pair, each five feet long, are set between posts nine feet
Sec. 20.] IMPEOVED FARM GATES. 339
apart, and lield against the posts by guides, M'liich allow of their easy work-
ing. Attached by bolts to the upper outward corner are two light strips of
boards, one on each side, and two others in the center. These strips are
hinged to posts at the bottom in the same way they are at the top to the
gate, and when tlie gate is shut they stand at an angle with the gate like
braces, and when the gate is to be opened it lifts upon these centers, and
passes over and stands alongside of the fence in a straiglit line. Such
gates are very convenient in case of snow, as they lift up right out of the
drift, so as to allow a passage without shoveling. When closed, the two
gates are fastened together by hooks or bolts, or any convenient fastening.
As they are not hinged to the posts, these may be made quite light.
Another plan of a gate, to open without swinging, is to suspend it upon
rollers running upon a rail overhead. Some one has improved upon this
plan to make the gate openable by a person driving up in a wagon. Tin's
is done by lifting the gate at the front end by a lever, which changes the
level of the railway-bar upon which the gate hangs, so that it rolls back by
its own gravity. The principle will be understood by looking at any gate
made to run off on rollers upon a bar above the top, by supposing one end
of the bar raised, when the gate rolls down. A touch of another lever, as
the wagon passes, reverses the position of the bar, and the gate rolls back
again to its closed i^osition.
The great objection to this, and almost all the plans for opening gates from
the wagon, without alighting, is the unsightly appearance of the gallows-
frame necessary to support the levers, ropes, and pulleys.
We have seen gates which opened by the weight of the wagon passing
over a bar, and shutting it by anotlier touch of a bar on the other side.
There is a good deal of machinery to this plan, as well as to nearly all of
the contrivances to open and shut gates without labor, and the most of them
are very liable to fail of working easily.
The most simple one of the kind, and, so far as we could judge from a
single examination, the least liable to ^et out of working order, was one ex-
hibited at the New York State Fair of 1860 by Jasper Johnson, of Genesee
County. One of the greatest advantages of this invention is, that it can be
applied to gates already in use, so that one can be opened by a person in a
wagon and shut as he passes through without stopping.
Any erection that will sustain a single cord upon each side, and a bar of
iron about four feet long, of the size of an ordinary crowbar, and one or
two small rods, comprises all that need be added to any gate to fix it for
this convenient way of opening. This bar of iron is made in a peculiar
form, and attached to the gate-post by a loose joint at one end, while the
other works in a long staple attached to the gate. Its position is moved by
pulling the cord, and its specific gravity being thus changed, throws the
gate open, and shuts it by another pull at the same cord, or the other one,
as the person drives through. The attachment certainly is a very cheap
one, and its operation was entirely satisfactory.
S40
THE FARMERY.
[Chap. III.
Kol)insoii's Farm Gale is the name given to one invented, and not
patented, by Dr. D. A. Robinson, Union Springs, N. Y., of whicii wo tliink
pretty liiglily. One of its good points is the clieapness of the liinges. These
are fignred and fully described in tliat excellent pocket manual, tiie "Rural
Register," published by Luther Tucker, from whicli we copy the following
description :
"This gate may be made of any light, tough, and durable wood, but an-
swers a good purpose wlien made of pine, -with the upright or cross-bars of
white oak. The upper horizontal bar is 11 feet long, .3 inches wide horizon-
tally, and 5 inches deep at the hinge, and 2^ at the latch. The mortises arc
only two thirds through, to shut out rain, and f by 3 inches — except in
the heel-piece they are an inch and quarter. The heel-piece is 3 by 5 inches,
and the four lower bars are boards 1 by 5 inches. The cross-bars, the
brace, and the two pieces forming tlie head-piece are 1 by 3 inches. They
are secured at each crossing by wrought or annealed nails. The head-piece
consists merely of two boards, nailed on each side of the horizontal boards.
The hinge is made by driving an iron rod, at least three fourtlis of an inch
in diameter, into the top of tlie post, which turns in a hole seven eighths of
an inch, bored two thii-ds of tlie distance through the large end of the upper
bar. A short iron plug driven into this hole makes a hard resting point
tliat will not wear, for the gate to turn upon. The lower hinge is a wooden
block, attached to the lower part of the gate, and hollowed out so as to lit
upon the round post. The latch is not attached to the gate, but to tlie post,
so that it catches over the top rail, which is made to project bej'ond the end
of the gate for that purpose. If it is preferred to have the latch fastened on
the gate lower down, a pin can be tixed in or one of the slats projected for-
ward. This gate is not liable to sag much, because tluire is no xockjht what-
ever straining the hi^iges, excej}t while the gate is open. A pin or spike is
driven into the post on which the hinges turn, just above the lower hinge,
to prevent hogs or other animals from lifting the gate, but which does not
prevent it from being placed on its hinges while open. The post holding
the latch may be rough, except the face, and the other need be rounded only
where the hinge turns.
" The whole cost of the hinges need not exceed ten cents, and the gate
itself may be made at no greater expense than a common set of bars."
An excellent gate-fastening is one in common use in Mississippi and some
other Southern States, which we have never seen in any of the Northern
ones. A gain is cut in the corner of the post, say three by four inches, and
in that is hung a piece of flat bar iron, say one incii wide and one fourth
of an inch thick, bent in somewhat the form and of the length of half a
horse-shoe, the upper end hammered thin and bent over a staple which is
driven in the upper part of the gain, so that the lower end of tlie bar rests
on the bottom, near the outer edge. An iron pin in the upright of the gate
strikes against this little bar and lifts it up and passes beyond the end of it,
when it falls back, and no power but a man's hand can open the gate — but
Sec. 20.] IMPROVKD FARM GATES. 341
for tliat it is very easy. It is one of tlie best latches we ever saw to prevent
nnrnly animals from getting the gate open, and it is very cheaply made, and
would be a very safe one for all the gates about the farmery liable to be
opened hj the hogs and cattle.
The following is a good plan of a new gate-hinge or plan of fastening the
upper hook or eye of a gate-hinge into the post, which we have seen de-
scribed lately, and like it so much that we M'ish all farmers to know it. In-
stead of driving the hook into the post, a hole is bored quite through it just
at the top of the upper rail of the fence, and the shank is made long enough
to reach some inches beyond the post, and has several notches on its upper
side. Bore a hole through tlie rail and put a small bolt with a loophole at
one end, to bite into a notch of the hinge, and nut at the other. Of course,
when screwed up, the sag of the gate can not draw the hook ; but if neces-
sary it can be made shorter by shifting a notcli or two.
The following dimensions of a good strong farm gate, and the timber
for it, may be taken as pretty near correct :
Space between posts, 12 feet ; hight of posts above ground, 5i feet ; slats,
12 feet long, 5 inches wide, li inches thick for the bottom one, and 3 inches
wide for the other six ; hight of gate, 44 feet. The ends into which the
slats are tenoned are 2i by 3 inches, 5 feet long. Some prefer to have the
top rail double the strength of the middle slats. There are two braces and
a center upright fastened with STnall screw bolts or rivets. If a strap hinge is
used, they should be riveted to the slats. If straps are not used, the iron
should be made to clasp the upright, and not go through it.
In soft land, like that of the "Western prairies, it is difficult to make gate-
posts stand firm, and they are often formed with a gallows-looking cross-bar
overhead.
A better way is to put this cross-bar and braces at the bottom. Frame
the posts and braces into a sill, and bury that three feet deep, and it will
effectually prevent the posts from sagging, and then you may use them of
much smaller timber.
A good light gate is made as follows : Take strips of board's three inches
wide, half an incii thick, of any strong wood ; pine, free of knots and weak
spots, will answer, and cut them suitable lengths for the length, and others
for the width of the gate. Lay down upon a smooth surface several of the
short strips not over three feet apart, and then lay the long strips on for a
close gate three inches apart at the bottom, gradually widening to the top ;
then lay down short strips directly over the others, and nail through these
with clinch nails. We have sometimes reversed the order, and used two long
strips opposite, instead of two short ones, which makes a stronger but heavier
gate. Small gates made either way are quite strong enough. The hinges
should \)o. of a peculiar form, with long straps to clasp the gate so as to rivet
through and hold the wood between the iron.
In Section LIT., in an article npon farm fences, something will be found
about how to make gate and fence posts durable.
342
TILE FARMERY.
[Chap. III.
SECTION XXI.-LIGHTNING COXDUCTORS-PROTECTION OF FARM
BUILDINGS FROM FIRE.
T is a great question for the owner of farm buildings
rr whether lie can protect them from destruction by light-
ning-rods. Being almost faithless ourselves, yet not quite
sure that lightning-rods are all useless, we will give the
opinions of several who have investigated the question.
3C5. Opinions of the Value of Lightning Conductors. — Mr.
Quinby, a practical electrician, gave the following view
of the subject in an article in the Worki?};/ Farmer :
" Tliere can be few subjects of equal importance less gen-
erally understood, or perhaps more tiniversally misunder-
stood, than the science of electricity in its application to
lightning-rods. The errors of the past are verj' slow of erad-
ication, although it must be admitted that progress has been
made since the famous discussion in George III.'s time as to
whether lightning-rods should be pointed or blunt at the top. So little is
known of electricity itself, and so largely is it a purely speculative science,
that it is no wonder that doctors disagree.
" It is clear that the most valuable opinion on this subject is to be looked
for from those who have made the study of electricity and thunder-storms a
specialty, with the practical result in view of ascertaining the most efteetnal
means of protection, and it is to be remarked that those who have done this
have arrived at similar conclusions.
" It is a common eiTor to suppose that lightning-rods should be insulated,
and a very natural one, arising from a superficial view of the subject. It
should be remembered that currents of electricity in a rarefied state are con-
tinually circulating through masses of matter silently and without producing
any manifest effects ; the effect of insulation is to interrupt the flow of these
currents, whereas the lightning-rod ought rather to be so contrived as to fa-
cilitate their free passage from the building to the rod, and thence to the at-
mosphere, and mci versa.
" During that disturbed, electi-ificd condition of the atmosphere, which
Ave call a thunder-storm, these currents circulate in greater volume and
rapidity, and a sulKcient interruption of them brings about a discharge of
lightning.
" At such times tlic insulation of the rod from the building is a most ex-
cellent device for causing an explosion of accumulated electricity eitlier
from or into the building, as the case may be. The rod, on the contrary,
ought to act somewhat as a safety-valve, as regards any electrical disturb-
ance within the house, neutralizing it gradually, and thus preventing an
explosion.
Sec. 21.] LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS. 343
"Should the rod be struck by lightning, its efficacy in carrying off the
shock will depend on whether it presents a continuous chain of conducting
matter, in the line or direction of the discharge, which is superior to any-
thing witliin ihe building. If it does not, all the glass in the world will not
prevent fluid from leaving the rod and passing througli the building on such
conductors as it may find there.
"The true theory or purposes of the lightning-rod is to facilitate electric-
ity in following out its natural laws and tendencies, and nothing can be
more truly unscientific or practically absurd than the idea of presenting a
barrier or obstruction to lightning."
This theory fully accords with all our information upon this subject.
The following are the views of another practical electrician, S. D. Cush-
man, of South Bend, Ind. He says :
" A conductor for the protection of life and property from the effects of
lightning should be so constructed and applied that it will add to the con-
ducting power of the building so as to admit of the most intense discharge
being securely transmitted, without explosion or damage to the building or
structure.
' " Attkaction. — The utility of a lightning-rod does not consist in its
attracting power.
"Insulation. — ^The conducting power of a lightning-rod is frequently
diminislied by insulation, and never is increased; it should never be insu-
lated. It may be fastened to the building with brackets of wood or staples.
" Points. — The attaching to the upper end of a lightning-rod a copper,
silver, gold, or any kind of a point, does not add to the utility of the rod,
but when attached always diminishes, more or less, the conducting power
of the rod, by breaking up the perfect continuity that a rod should possess,
and interrupting its polarity.
" Size. — An iron lightning-rod should never have less than three inches
conducting surface, possessing solidity sufficient to have strength and dura-
bility.
" CoNSTEUcTioN. — A liglituing-rod should not possess in its construction
sharp edges, neither should it be in sections nor pieces (the sections or pieces
being hooked or screwed together), but it should be all in one piece, possess-
ing an equal, even unbroken surface in its whole length.
" Application. — In the application of the rod to the building the conduct-
ing power of the building should be brought into the general line of con-
duction ; that is, the rod should come in good metallic contact with all the
important metallic substances upon the outside of the building, such as
gutters, spouts, etc. That part of the rod that comes in contact with the
earth should be increased in its surface and conducting power, so that there
will not be less conducting sijrface in contact with the earth than is exposed
to the building and atmosphere, and care should be taken that the earth
around and in contact with the rod is always moist.
" Shade-Teees. — Shade-trees should not be relied upon as a protection
344 " THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
from lightning, because their conducting power varies so much, and very
often, when in tlieir best conducting condition, tliey are damaged by the
lightning passing over them. Tlie conducting power of shade-trees, then,
should be increased and made permanent by the application of an iron or
copper wire.
"Errors. — One of the errors committed in protecting from lightning is
an improper estimate placed upon the conducting power of the building,
compared with the material used for protection. When a liglitning-con-
ductor terminates or ends in a substance of imperfect or less conducting
power, it is reduced to the conducling power of the body in which it ends.
"Dry earth is a non or imperfect conductor. Earth owes its conducting
power to water. According to Cavendish, the conducting power of iron, as
compared to the conducting power of water, is as four hundred millions to
one. The electrical size of the mass of lightning-rods is not as large as a
common knitting-needle, being reduced by so small a portion of the rod's
surface coming in contact with damp earth.
"Another error is in constructing the rod in sections. Rods properly
applied, of perfect continuity, being all in one piece, without coupling or
hooking, have never failed to carry the quantity of electricity that may
have passed upon them safely and successfully to the ground, while the sec-
tioned, or the rods hooked or screwed together by burs or nuts, have fre-
quently failed to do their duty. Scarcely a day or a week passes during
the summer months but we hear of the failure of the coupled lightning-rods.
"However well the fact of electrical conduction may be known — however
well scientific men may be agreed that by the judicious employment of
metallic bodies we may increase protection against lightning, certain it is
that they have taken too much upon trust, and neglected the investigation
of the facts.
" Men ignorant of every electrical principle have professed to furnish
security against lightning, until the scientific electrician who attempts to
sell lightning-rods is received with jeers and contempt as a designing
swindler ; his story is listened to with impatience, and his presence consid-
ered an intrusion."
The rod recommended by Mr. Cushman is made of four copper and four
iron wires laid together, with a pointed cap on the top, and some metal plates
at the bottom. There must never be a splice in the wire, but several wires
carried up from the ground, in the main body, may be taken ofl' and con-
nected with the metal roof of a building, or with other points.
The following language we used upon a discussion of this subject before
the American Institute Farmers' Club :
"As lightning-rods are most commonly constructed, they are not what
they are generally conceived to be — that is, attractors of an approaching
thunderbolt, ])icking it up on the sharp points, and conducting it down a
carefully insulated rod to a safe deposit in the earth. If a lightning-rod
ever performed such a service, I should like to be assured of the fact. At
Sec. 21.] LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS. 345
present I have no faith. I believe that, when the atmosphere is surcharged
with electricity, any metallic substance will absorb it just in proportion to
its natural affinity, and if there is an excess of fluid in the air around tlic
top of a rod, it will run down it to the earth, just as it runs along telegraph
wires ; and experience has proved that a bright, sharu ooint is more attract-
ive than a blunt one.
"Still, a blunt rod will become charged, and so will a metal roof, and,
more than all, an iron building, and the water-conductor, or whatever otlier
metallic substances reach from the top to the earth, will tend to dissipate the
excess of electricity in tlie air above and around the building, and prevent
an accumulation of it sufficient to produce an explosion. But I have not
one particle of faith that any building that happened to be situated in the
path of what we call a thunderbolt, ever was saved by the best lightning-
rod ever erected. And if iu its course the discharge from the cloud, coming
like a rifle-ball from the muzzle of the gun, happens to strike the sharp
point of the rod, it is, to my mind, a preposterous idea to suppose that perfect
insulation of that rod from the building can be of any possible advantage."
This opinion we still abide by. The world is full of theories upon the
subject. "We wish we could elucidate them. We want all these lightning
theories reduced to two or tliree facts. It is claimed by some that iron is
the best, and by others that copper is best. One contends that blunt iron is
just as good as sharp gold or platina. One says that insulation is necessary,
and the otlier that it is not. Now it is facts that we want. Farmers want
to know whether they can protect their buildings from danger of beino-
struck by lightning.
A. B. Dickenson, a practical and close observing farmer of Steuben
County, N. Y., is of opinion that no lightning-rod will protect a barn while
giving oflT steam arising from newly stored hay and grain. Tlien, of what
advantage to erect one ? for that is the very time it is most needed to save
the farmers' barns from destruction, which are much more likely to be de-
stroyed than any other buildings, and the loss is much greater.
Adrian Bergen, of Long Island, relates one case of a barn apparently
saved by the conductor. The force of the shock was so great that a man in
the barn was knocked down. Tlie rod was a small, round one, fastened to
the barn by wooden supports. After the explosion a hole was found at the
foot of the rod.
So we have read of many cases where there was an apparent good eff"ect
from having conductors upon buildings. A very heavy crash fell upon or
over a house and barn in New Hampshire, which melted the points of new
conductors and apparently dissipated the fluid so as to prevent damage,
though the barn appeared to be filled with electricity.
The Temple at Jerusalem stood ten centuries without oeing injured ; but
this building had a great deal of metal about it, and perhaps conductors for
water that carried the electricity from the roof to the ground. Yet we have
many instances in this country where buildings have been struck that were
346 THE FARMERY. [Chap. HI.
fully provided with liglitning-rotls. Tiiis may be owing to bad coiistnietiou
of tlic rods. In the case of a great explosion, like the one in Xew Hamp-
shire, it is not likely that a single rod could convey all the charge to the
ground. If a rod was full of points along its length, it would serve to dissi-
pate the charge, and a square rod is better than a round one.
AVm. S. Carpenter, of the eastern part of "Westchester County, N. Y., says :
"The farmers in my section have no faith in lightning-rods, because the
proportion of barns that have been struck Avith rods upon them is greater
tlian those without conductors. A scientific work states that a cop])er rod
one inch in diameter is better than an iron rod four inches in tliametcr, and
nothing less than that seems to be sufficient. This rod, too, must be contin-
uous, and well connected at the bottom with damp earth."
Cases have occurred where a tin roof appeared to act as a great absorbent
of the electricity, which it conducted down the tin water-spouts, and in one
case into a water-cask, which it burst, and passed on into the wet earth.
Single rods arc apparently not always reliable. It is not doubted that an
extensive spread of metal diffuses lightning. Then, are buildings safe with
metal roofs ? Flagstaffs have been torn to pieces on their tops, and no mark
of injury left about the dwelling. Would it not answer the purpose and be
also economical to place a stout rod on the center of a wooden roof, and at-
tach to the bottom, where it touches the roof, a number of telegraph wires,
carried in many directions to the ground ? Would the stroke on the center
rod be carried safely off by such radii ? If so, the plan is vastly cheaper
than an entire metal roof. Faraday experimented on iron cages snsj^ended
in air — in one of them a man ; in another small cylindrical one, a mouse;
The cages powerfully charged with electricity, produced no effect on the
man or mouse. The plan of one central rod, with many wires covering the
building, may produce like results.
It is wortli a trial. It is also worthy of observation how many more barns
than houses are struck by lightning. A calculation of an average of seven
persons to a dwelling in the United States, basing the population at
30,000,000, would give 4,200,000 dwellings. And assuming that there are
5,000,000 of farmei's, we may say there are 700,000 barns. Now, greatly
as the number of dwellings exceeds that of bai-ns, our ojiinion is that there
are two barns to one dwelling destroyed by lightning.
Tlie impression is common, that barns when first filled with iho harvest
are attractive of the fluid by the medium of the ascending gas of their con-
tents. This is probabl}' true, and it is our opinion that a rod to serve as
a conductor, so as to be a sure protection, must reach higher than this col-
umn of vapor. Some barns need several rods ; others may need but one.
It depends upon the location very much, whetlicr on a damp or dry soil, etc.
Prof. Hen wick, of New York, says :
"I doubt whether a barn was ever struck by lightning which was prop-
erly protected by a conductor."
Ah ! but what is that proper protection ? That is what we would gladly
Sko. 21.] LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS. 347
tell the farmers. AYe know of a fact tliat two barns were burned the last
season in Westchester County, which were provided with conductors, wliicli
the owners thought as perfect as it is possible to make them. Several cases
have come within our knowledge where green trees were torn to shivers
near buildings, whicli saved the buildings from destruction, while lightning-
rods on the buildings touclied by the trees did not attract or conduct the
fluid.
Then, as trees certainly are protectors, let every farmer plant trees around
all the farmery. That they are the very best conductors wc believe, but
they are never tall enough to protect the barn when giving off its towering
column of steam.
366. Material of Conductors and Insulators. — If a farmer has determined
to erect a lightning-rod, the first and most important thing for him to be as-
sured of is, what constitutes the best conducting material. As there are but
two materials, copper and iron, and as both are good conductors, and only
vary in power according to size, the clioice may be regulated by the cost.
M. Ponlet, a French scientific writer, gives the conducting power of copper
as five and a half to six and a half times (varying with the specimens tried)
greater than iron. Then, if iron is six cents a pound and copper thirty-six
cents, the cost would be equal for a given length of rod. Tliis is probably a
fair average of the difference in the conducting power, as Dr. Priestly makes
copper five times greater than iron, and Prof. Faraday six and two-fifth times
greater. As scientific men have calculated tliat a copper rod, to possess suf-
ficient conducting power, should be, for short rods, half an inch diameter,
and for very long ones, three fourths of an inch, it follows that none of the
iron rods in use are large enough, for they are generally under one inch di-
ameter. We believe that that is large enough, and we do not believe that
insulators are necessary, but that the rod should be in one continuous piece,
and if it can not be welded together on the ground where it is to be erected,
it should be firmly screwed togetlier, so as to be as nearly solid as possible.
If the rod is continuous, it may be safely fastened to the building witli
ordinary iron staples. If it is insei'ted deep in the earth, so as always to be
moist, there is no danger about the lightning leaving it while passing from
the cloud to the earth, should it be attracted by the ever briglit point which
the rod should, and must, possess, to be of any practical value as an at-
tractor of electricity.
Instead of insulating a rod from the house, it would add to its efficiency,
if the house has a tin roof, to connect it with the conductor. It would also
be beneficial, we believe, to connect the conductor with the tin water-spouts
"of a wooden building.
367. The Area of Attraction of Lightning fonductorst — It is of much import-
ance to a farmer, if he intends to protect his buildings by lightning-rods, to
know how far a single rod will afford protection ; that is, the area of attraction
over which the single briglit point of the rod is supposed to exercise an in-
fluence— so as to attract or bend a stream of electricity from its course — so
348 Tin: FARMERY. [Chap. IH.
as to carry it down the conductor to tlic eartli witliout liarni to tlie building
My own opinion is, that the area is mnch snaallcr than is generally sup-
posed. If a rod is erected at one gable of a barn forty feet long, projecting
ten feet above the peak, we do not believe it would aftbrd the least protection
to the other end.
If a conductor is erected upon a dwelling, it should have a point ten feet
above each gable and each chimney, and then it is doubtful whether the
steaui and smoke arising from a wood fire would not prove a better con-
ductor than a rod.
We should not feel any protection from the very best lightning conductor
projecting ten feet above the roof, at over ten feet from it. Probably this
fact, that the area is very small over Avhich protection extends, may account
for buildings being struck and destroyed which were furnished with well-
arranged lightning conductors. The area exposed was too great lor the at-
tractive power of the rod.
3GS. Protection from Fire. — There is no mistake about the matter of pro-
tecting buildings from danger of fire, whatever there may be about protect-
ing them from lightning.
In the first place, haven careful supervisory care in building that no wood
is allowed to be placed where it can be heated to a point of ignition. Here
is a case in point. In building a chimney upon the soft, damii soil of the
Western prairie, where brick was too expensive to encourage excavating
down to a solid foundation, the mason suggested placing hewed timber on
the ground, to which I readily assented, as it would save brick, and being
two feet below the hearth there was no thought of danger from the fire.
So upon this foundation the chimney was built, and as it was built right
end up, it afforded the opportunity of having large fires, thougli the fire-
place was but a small one.
After keeping a hot fire through several extremely cold days and nights in
midwinter, we began to be annoyed by the smell of wood burning in a con-
fined situation. This continued several days, and began to be alarming, yet
no one would believe it could be possible that those solid oak timbers under
the chimney were being consumed by subterranean fire. Yet it was so, and
it was found imjiossible to extinguish the fire without digging uj) the hearth,
and with great labor working out the most exposed timber; and as the other
could not be taken out without danger of throwing down the whole chimne}',
we saturated it with salt, alum, and lime, to prevent it from taking fire
again.
This case we have introduced solely to prove how dangerous it is to allow
any wood to come near enough to the fire to be heated very hot, for wood
will ignite from heat, without any possible contact with the fire. Another
case :
A gentleman in this city set a stove in a lower room, and conducted the
pipe througli the room above, used as a nurser\'. For convenience of warm-
ing food he had a liole made in a slab of stone, just large enough for the
Sec. 21.] WINDMILLS AND THEIR USE. 349
pipe to fit closely. This stone was neatly set in the floor, forming, as the
owner and the mason thougfit, a very safe way to conduct the stove-pipe,
which did not stand within a foot of any of the wood- work. It was for a
long time a great convenience, and very safe ; but one day the stove below
was heated pretty hot, and communicated its heat to the stone, and the
wooden beams it rested upon, which had been long seasoning, ignited, and
the house was within a very narrow chance of destruction. Five minutes
more of absence from that room, and it would have been too late.
We could name many instances like these which have come within our
own observation, but we hope these are sufficient to put all who read them
on their guard against similar dangerous practices in building.
Stove-pipes may be safely passed through floors and wooden walls by in-
serting an earthen pipe, at least one inch in diameter larger than the stove-
pipe, which should not be allowed to touch the earthen pipe, but should be
wedged ofl" from it by little pieces of stone, brick, or broken earthenware.
This allows a current of air continually to circulate, and renders it impossible
to become heated so much as to convey fire through the earthen pipe to the
wood-work. If the stove-pipe fits tightly in the earthen one it will be liable
to become hot, like the stone mentioned, and set fire to the house.
369. Wiudmiils and their Fse iu a Farmery. — There is one more building,
or an adjunct of some of the buildings of the farmery, that should be men-
tioned, before closing this chapter, more fully than it is in the commence-
ment of Sec. XVII. We allude to the windmill. Besides pumping water,
which, by-the-by, would be a great help in the way of protection against
fire, a windmill attached to a barn could bo made serviceable for a great
many purposes, such as threshing, corn-shelling, cutting straw, grinding
feed, sawing wood, and turning the grindstone.
Wind is undoubtedly the cheapest power that a farmer can use, and, not-
withstanding its inconstancy, the improvement mentioned below operates
well, and has been often applied to many valuable uses. By windmills,
swamps may be drained and upland irrigated. What an advantage in a
drought in many parts of the country, besides the economy of using a great
amount of fertilizing matter in water at all times !
We have often suggested the idea of using wind-power to pump up water
into a reservoir, or wind up a weight, to be held as a reserved power, that
could be used when the wind did not blow.
There is no doubt in our mind that such a cheap power could be econom-
ically established to do a great deal of work that requires a motor upon
almost every large farm. If the seat of the power is at the barn, it can be
carried to the house by a couple of wires, to do the churning. We have seen
power carried thus from a water-wheel, nearly half a mile from the dairy,
and it was used not only to drive the churn, but the washing machine, the
sausage-cutter, a small grindstone, and the coffee-mill. To obtain the power
from the wind-wheel, all that would be necessary for the dairywoman to do
would be to pull a cord or wire at the house, which would throw into gear-
350 THE FARMERY. [Chap. III.
ing a driving-wheel, and lliat would, by means of the wires, convey a crank
motion from the windinill to the cliuni, no matter how distant ; and the
motion can be stopped and started as easily as though churning by hand.
The objection to wind-power is want of constancy. Tliis can only be
obviated by accumulating power. If the situation is such that a water
reservoir can be filled upon high ground, to be used in a calm, the accumu-
lation of power would not be expensive.
The method of couvx-ying power by wires a long distance, from the water-
wheel to the churn, may be seen in several places along the Chenango Canal.
370. Self-regulating Wiudmills.— One of the best contrivances for a self-
regulating windmill was invented by Daniel Ilalliday, of Ellington, Tolland
Co., Ct. The size mostly built by him has five-feet wings, that is, the diam-
eter of the wind-wheel is ten feet, and the first one was in operation for six
months without a hand being touched to it to regulate the sails. It run
fifteen days at one time without stopping day or niglit, and it stood through
some hard gales. The beauty of the improvement is, that it stands still when
the wind rages hardest, witii the edge of the wings to the wind, and as it
lulls they gradually resume their position for a gentle breeze. It is so con-
trived that nothing but a squall of great severity falling upon it without a
moment's warning can produce damage.
The mill mentioned has drawn water from a well 2S feet deep, 100 feet
distant, and forced it into a small reservoir in the upper part of the barn,
sufficient for all farm purposes, garden irrigation, and " lots to spare." The
cost of such a mill will be $50, and the pumps and pipes about §25. It is
elevated on a single oak post a foot square, the turn circle being supported
by iron braces. The wings are made of one longitudinal iron bar, through
which run small rods ; upon these rods, narrow boards, half an inch thick,
are fitted, holes being bored through from edge to edge, and screwed
together by nuts on the ends of the rods. This makes strong, light sails,
which, it will be seen, are fixtures not to be furled or clewed up ; but they
are thrown up edgewise to the wind by a very ingenious and simple arrange-
ment of the machinery, which obviates the great objection to windmills for
farm use— the necessity of constant su" ervision of the sails to suit the
strength of the wind.
■ With this much food for reflection, we will close the chapter upon the
farmery.
CHAPTER IV.
DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
SECTION XXII.-THE FOOD QUESTION-QUANTITY, QUALITY, VARIETY,
ADAPTATION, ADULTERATION, AND CHANGES PRODUCED BY COOK-
ING, BRIEFLY CONSIDERED.
vT^^OMESTIC ECONOMY ! What is it? ''Domestic,
belonging to the house or home ; Economy, from
two Greek -words, signifying a Iioiise or family
law — that which relates to the family concerns
of a household, and the disposition or arrange-
ment of any household work."
Snch is the character of this chapter. It is full of
information useful to every household. "Without it,
■we should have fallen short of our object in writiii<i'
this book. It was never our intention to make a work
for the sole benefit of the male portion of farmers.
Mucli of the preceding chapter, and nearly all of this,
is intended to promote the comfort of those who ad-
minister all of our home comforts.
We shall also say something that will be valuable
upon the subject of the dairy, at least to new beginners in the various arts
and mysteries of domestic economy.
No question can be discussed between the master and mistress of the
house, nor between parents and a family of growing cliildreii, tliat is of
greater importance than the one that heads this section. To the employer-
and his hirelings, to the master and his slave, it is a question not only of
interest, but of health, and it is all concentrated in four words : quantity,
quality, variety, adaptation.
There is only one thing more requisite, and that is, that each of these
words should be fully understood and properly acted upon. Believing that
they are not so, we shall treat upon each briefly in its order. And first —
371. What Amount of Food is Required by a Hard-working Man?— This de-
pends on the quality of the food, the nature of the climate, and on such a
variety of circumstances that it is impossible to give a satisfactory answer.
The average allowance to British sailors in active service is 302 ounces of
solid food per week, and a pint and a half of rum. Dr. Percy, an English
author, mentions the diet of a prize fighter during a course of rigorous train-
ing, who ate one pound of mutton at each meal three times a day ; at dinner
I I
352 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
lie ate in addition two ounces of bread, and .at each niciil drank half a pint
of ale. lie walked regularly 17 miles per day. The total solid food con-
tained in this diet is 350 ounces weekl}'. We suppose about three pounds
of solid food per day in temperate climates may be taken as the average
consumed by hard-working men. But in the Arctic and Antarctic regions
tlie amount of food that can be disposed of is truly immense. Tims Ross
tells us that the 'Esquimaux eat 10 lbs. of meat at a moal, accompanied by
the same quantity of oil. Parry weighed the food of nn Esquimaux lad,
scarcely full grown, and found that he consumed, daring the day — sea-
horee flesh, %\ lbs.; bread, If lbs. ; rich gravy soup, \\ pint; raw spirits,
3 glasses; strong grog, 1 tumbler; water, 1 gallon 1 pint. Cochrane de-
scribes a Taknt or Tongouse as eating 40 lbs. of flesh in a day, saying that a
good calf, -weighing 200 lbs., " may serve four or five good Yakuts for a
single meal," and that he has seen three of them " consume a reindeer at one
meal." Admiral Saritclieff says he knew a Yakut wlio consumed " the hind
quarters of a large ox, 20 lbs. of fat, and a proportionate quantity of melted
butter for his drink" in a day. The admiral tried an experiment with liim
by giving him '• a thick porridge of rice, boiled down with 3 lbs of butter,
weighing toscther 28 lbs. ; and although the glutton had already break-
fasted, yet did he sit down to it with great eagerness, and consumed the
whole without stirring from the spot ; and, except that his stomach be-
trayed more than an ordinary fullness, he showed no signs of inconve-
nience or injury." Barrow states that three Hottentots ate one sheep in a
(lay, and that ten of them ate an ox all but the hind legs in three days.
Tlic Saraoyedes are stated to consume S or 10 11)S. of meat at a meal, fla-
voi-cd with a dozen tallow candles, and washed down with a quart or two
of train-oil. Extravagant as these statements appear to be, most of them
have been verified by numerous observations.
We need not go to savage lands to find gluttons. We liave the well-au-
thenticated fact of one who lived in Connecticut, about seventy years ago,
who ate tliree shad a day, upon a wager, thirty days in succession. The
same man repeatedly ate a goose or a turkey at a meal. These were acts
of gluttony, and we look upon gluttony as a great sin. There is just as
much wrong in feeding too much to those who labor for us, who may hap-
pen to possess gluttiinous natures, as there is in feeding others too little.
Every laboring man requires a sufficiency of sound, nutritious food to
enable him to perform a fair task of labor. The question is. What is
sufficient ?
372. Rations of Southern Slares. — Tlie average ration of negro slaves in
our Southern States is 3i lbs. of bacon and a peck of corn-meal per -week to
each adult. Tiic meal will weigh 1-ii ISs., making IS lbs. of the strongest
kind of solid food. Then tliey always eat potatoes, turnips, greens, pindars,
green corn, and other things in their season; enough to make up an average
of three pounds of solid food a day.
As it is the policy of planters to give the slaves all the food that is neces-
Sec. 22.] THE FOOD QUESTION". 353
sary to give them strength, and as it is against tlie rules of good economy to
give more, we may safely calculate that three pounds a day is all that a la-
boring man requires.
373. Soldiers' Rations. — The English are proverbially hearty eaters, and
the English government have not only studied economy, but the wants of
their healthy, strong men in fixing tiieir rations so as to give all that is nec-
essary, and this is found to consist of the following articles. While the men
are in barracks, 1 lb. of bread and ^ of a lb. of meat per day. In camp or
actual service, 1^ lbs. of bread and f of a lb. of meat. On foreign service,
1 lb. of bread or | lb. of biscuit and 1 lb. of meat. AVhen billeted for board,
the allowance is 1 lb. of bread, 1\ lb. of meat, 1 lb. of potatoes, and 1 quart
of beer.
This was mainly followed in the American army until the summer of
1861, when in consequence of grumblings among the soldiers about insuffi-
cient food, the rations were increased, and are now as follows :
Ratioxs — Daily — li lbs. of pork or bacon, or li lb. of fresh or salt beef;
22 oz. of bread or flour, or 1 lb. of pilot bread.
Rations to One Hundred Men — Daily — Eight quai»ts of beans, 10 lbs.
of rice or hominy, besides 1 lb. of potatoes three times a week to each man,
or a substitute therefor ; 10 lbs. of coffee ; 15 lbs. of sugar ; i quarts of
vinegar; IJ lbs. of adamantine candles; i lbs. of soap; 2 quarts of salt.
Extra issues of molasses occasionally made.
Rations may be commuted at forty cents per day when stationed in cities,
or when there is no opportunity of messing, or when in regular camp, at the
cost of the rations.
374. Variety of Food. — Man craves a change of food, that is, a variety of
substances, either one of which would sustain life, but would not be satis-
factory. Nature demands the variation, and the mixing together of the
several substances. "Why ? Simply because no one will give all the ele-
ments that go to make up the animal economy. One article furnishes phos-
phate for boues, which another article is destitute of, yet it may contain
matter that will clothe the bone with muscle. Food that contained neither
fat nor sugar would be insufficient to keep up the animal heat. Food that
contained all the elements of bone, muscle, fiber, fat, and heat-producing
qualities, might be so concentrated as to be unwholesome.
A man fed upon pemmican would have a dispo,^ition to eat straw, husks,
and twigs, or gnaw the bark from trees to get something to distend the
stomach, and enable it to perform its functions healthily. Let this be
thought of in feeding domestic animals as well as men. It will furnish an
easy rule for your guidance. Judge them by yourself, and act accordingly.
You will find it an easy and sure road tx> success. We do not for animals,
quadruped or biped, recommend, a variety of food at the same meal — only
a change from time to time, so as to give variety, and consequently all the
elements necessary to produce growth.
And neither man nor beast will reach a high point in the scale of perfee-
354 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
tioii who is conlined to one single article, or to two or three articles of food.
Look, for example, at the rice-catiDg nations ; also to those who, like the
Esquimaux, live principally upon the fat of seals and whales ; or to savage
nations, confined to an almost exclusive diet of meat. Each shows a lack
.of some quality that we consider essential in civilized man. The confine-
ment of a large portion of a nation of people to a diet of potatoes is rapidly
working a deterioration in the race.
" The profusions of nature tempt the appetite of man. The productions
of all the earth are at his command. But, for tlie control of his appetites,
man is endowed with reason and conscience. The brute is governed in re-
gard both to the quantity and kind of its food by an instinct from which
it rarely deviates, unless when domesticated, and conseq^uently corrupted.
" Tliere are three practical laws to be observed in the taking of food. One
regards the time, another the quality, and the third the quantity.
" An interval of at least five hours should elapse between meals for
adults, unless some extraordinary exertion has exhausted the system, or
something has interrupted or prevented the reception of a full meal at the
stated hour. The stated hours should be regular.''
375. Quality of Food Suited to a Farmer's Family. — " As to the quality of
the food, there is no doubt that the more simply it is cooked the more easily
it is digested.
" Chemical analysis should be the guide for the cookery book.
"No one would think of eating raw potash, a substance that dissolves
metals, but we do not hesitate to eat saleratus, which is a modified prepara-
tion of it, and has the same, though a more gradual eti'ect, upon the organic
tissues and the blood. Soda, it is well understood, rots cloth and takes the
skin from the hands when it is put into soap, or even when used to ' break
hard water,' as the washerwomen term it ; yet we put it into bread and
cakes. Our stomachs were not made to digest metals, and when we powder
them and eat them, we try to cheat nature.
"Spices were undoubtedly made for use in those climates where they
grow, but the native.s of those climates use them much more sparingly than
we do. "We may reasonably suppose that they are more adapted to the
wants of hot climates than of cold ones, as nature lias placed them in the
former, and yet we saturate our food with them, mix them together, destroy
the flavors of each by so doing, and make a stimulus to appetite by a con-
glomeration, which is a most unnatural one, and gradually injures tiie very
power of digestion. We thus conceal, also, that fine aronui of vegetables
and meats which distinguishes one from the other, and deprive oui-selves of
the pleasure God designed we should feel in partaking of them. There is
a delicate fruit of the tropics resembling a muskmelon, which grows, how-
ever, not upon a vine, but upon a tree, the taste of which is so finely deli-
cate, that a foreigner can not even perceive it at first ; but if he does not
cover it with pepper and salt, as we have seen many foreigners do, to 'give
it a taste,' he will, after partaking of it a few days or weeks (according to
Sec. 22.] THE FOOD QDESTION. 355
the simplicity or sophistication of liis appetite), appreciate its flavor, which
is that of the most delicate aromatic nut. In our climate we lose the flavor
of many vegetables in the same way, by covering them with pepper, and
also by putting them into water below the boiling-point when we cook them.
Everj' one who is so happy as to live in the country, and can gather vege-
tables daily from his own garden, knows the difference between them when
gatliered thus and properly, cooked, and those which have been picked and
kept for market even one night.
" When substances like rice, corn-starch, and farina are used, which have
very little taste (rice, because it has been so long exposed to the air after it
is gathered, and corn-starch and farina, because, from the mode of their
prejjaration, they lose a great part of the nutritious ingredients of the corn),
a delicate flavoring of spice may be used without injury to health.
"Science may at last bring us to the conclusion, that each climate and
region produces those articles of food which it is most healthful to eat in
their respective localities.
"The quality of children's food should differ from that of adults, so far
as that it should consist of more substances containing starch, gum, and
sugar.
"It is not the most costly or most luxurious living that we would advo-
cate, but it is a variety of food. The difBculty is, that we are tempted
sometimes by a great variety of dishes at one meal to eat too much. This
is no argument against variety of food.
"It is important that we should study to increase earth's products, and
improve their quality, to produce the highest condition of perfection in man.
A man, it is true, may be a glutton, and consume mountains of flesh and rich
dishes, but that is not the point. It is that we all should consume the best
food possible to be produced, and in sufiicient variety to give healthy
results."
376. flow Food Affects the System. — " The prevalent idea that soup which
sets into strong jelly is most nutritious, is altogether a mistake. The soup
sets because it contains the gelatin of the sinews, flesh, and bones ; it has
been fully proved that no animal can live upon this imagined richness
alone. In fact, such jelly is unwholesome, for it loads the blood with useless
substances ; hence what are termed rich soups, being loaded with gelatin,
are not ranked among the articles of wholesome food. Marked results of
the effects of cooking upon food may, be seen in the contrast between civil-
ized and savage nations. In every nation on earth, those who rule the
masses are invariably better fed than the masses themselves. This is evi-
denced in the power exercised by the beef-eating British over the rice-eating
East Indian nations." It is further evidenced by the condition of the people
of this country, where the masses are better fed than in any other on earth,
and where there are greater numbers of men fit to be rulers than in any
other. And this proportion will increase as the laws of hygiene are better
understood, for then, those who control the preparation of food for those
356 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Cbap. IV.
masses will understand how cooking affects the raw material of food, so as
to make it wholesome and nufi-itious, or otherwise.
Next to the knowledge of the differences in the human constitution and
the nature of food proper for man, tlie art of cooking so as to make the food
most agreeable to the jialate should be studied by every good housekeeper.
Bear in mind that in preparing food three things are to be united — the pro-
motion of health, the study of economy, and tlie gratification of taste.
Pie-catin(j is an Americanism that we can not approve nor recommend to
tlie extent it is practiced. Though pie be nearly allied to piety, this does
not save it from condemnation. Pies are eaten for breakfast, for lunch, for
dinner, supper, and many go to bed on pies. "Oh, pies save a great deal
of cooking!" says the frugal housewife, "and are so convenient for the
children to take to school, and then they are not so hungry when they have
pie to eat." Pies are New England's favorite refection ; but that does not
prove them, as a general thing, well adapted to the wants of the liuman
system. Pies of every description, as used in almost every New England
farm-house, may safely be classed "unwliolesome food." The woi-st of tlie
family is the one most prized — the rich, sweet, highly spiced mince-pie. It
is one of the prolific parents of dyspepsia.
377. Adaptation of Food to Tircumstances. — One of the great mistakes of
many families is in not adapting the food to the season, the climate, and
circumstances. A hard-working negro slave may eat fat bacon and corn-
bread in August, and bask in the sun in Mississippi. It would not be good
diet for a sedentary white man.
Fruit is an essential article of food for the preservation of health, in
bilious localities. It seems particularly adapted by nature to that end.
A sensible man always adapts his eating to his labor. The following
remarks upon this subject we adopt, because they are pertinent :
" I have been asked sometimes how I could perform so large an amount
of work with apparently so little diminution of strength. I attribute my
power of endurance to a long-formed habit of observing, every day of my
life, the -simple laws of health, and none more than the laws of eating. It
ceases any longer to be a matter of self-denial. It is almost like an instinct.
If I have a severe tax on my brain in the morning, I can not eat heartily at
breakfast. If the M-hole day is to be one of exertion, I eat very little till
the exertion is over. I know that two forces can not be concentrated in
activity at the same time in the body. I know that wiien the stomach
works, the brain must rest — and that when the brain works, the stomach must
rest.
" If I am going to be moving about out of doors a good deal, I can give
a fuller swing to my appetite, which is never exceedingly bad. But if I
am engaged actively, and necessarily in mental labor, I can not eat much.
And I have made eating with regularity and with a reference to what I
have to do, a habit so long that it ceases any longer to be a subject of
thought. It almost takes care of itself. I attribute much of my ability to
Sko. 22.] THE FOOD QUESTION. , 357
endure work to good habits of eating, constant attention to the laws of sleep,
physical exercise, and general cheerfulness.
"There is one thing more to be said in this connection. It is not a matter
of epicureanism that a niiin sliould be dainty concerning the food he eats.
On the contrary, I hold tiiat a civilized man ought to be civilized in his
cookery. I suppose one of tlie infallible signs of the millennium will be a
better regulated kitclicn — a kitchen that sends out food that will help to
promote health and increase Christianity."
378. The Food and CEothia^ a Man may Consume in a Lifetime. — Alex.
Soyer's " Modern Housewife" gives the follovving calculation as the probable
amount of food that an epicure of seventy years might have consumed.
"Supposing his gastronomic performances to commence at ten years, he will
make 65,700 breakfasts, dinners, and suppers, to say nothing of luncheons
and extra feastings. To supply the epicure's table for sixt^'' years, Soyer cal-
culates he will require 30 oxen, 200 sheep, 100 calves, 200 lambs, 50 pigs ;
ill poultry, 1,200 fowls, 300 turkeys, 150 geese, 400 ducklings, 203 pigeons;
1,400 partridges, pheasants, and grouse; 600 woodcocks and snipes; 600
wild ducks, widgeon, and teal; 450 plovers, ruffs, and reeves; 800 quails,
ortolans, and dotterels, and a few^ guillemots and other foreign birds ; also
500 hares and rabbits, 40 deer, 120 Guinea-fowl, 10 peacocks, and 360 wild-
fi.wls. In the way of fish, 120 turbot, 140 salmon, 120 cod, 260 trout, 400
iuaekerel, 300 whitings, 800 soles and slips, 400 flounders, 400 red mullet,
200 eels, 150 haddocks, 400 herrings, 5,000 smelts, and some hundred thou-
sand of those delicious, silvery whitebait, besides a few hundred species of
fresh-water fishes. In shell-fish, 20 turtle, 30,000 oysters, 1,500 lobsters or
crabs, 300,000 prawns, shrimps, sardines, and anchovies. In the way of
fruit, about 500 lbs. of grapes, 360 lbs. of pineapples, 600 peaches, 1,400
apricots, 240 melons, and some hundred thousand plums, green-gages, ap-
ples, pears, and some millions of cherries, strawberries, raspberries, currants,
mulberries, and an abundance of other small fruit, viz., walnuts, chestnuts,
dry figs, and plums. In vegetables of all kinds, 5,475 lbs. weight, and
about 2,434f lbs. of butter, 684 lbs. of cheese, 21,000 eggs, 800 tongues. Of
bread, 4i tons, half a ton of salt and pepper, near 2i tons of sugar. His
drink during the same period may be set down as follows : 49 hogsheads of
wine, 13,683 gallons of beer, 584 gallons of spirits, 342 gallons of liqueur,
2,394| gallons of coffee, cocoa, tea, etc., and 304 gallons of milk, 2,736 gal-
lons of water. This mass of food in sixty years amounts to no less than
333 tous weight of meat, farinaceous food and vegetables, etc., out of which
I have named in detail the probable delicacies that would be selected by an
epicure through life. But observe that I did not count the first ten years
of his life, at the beginning of which lie lived upon pap, bread and milk,
etc., also a little meat, the expense of which I add to the age from then to
twenty, as no one can really be called an epicure before that age ; it will
thus make the expenses more equal as regards the calculation. The follow-
ing is the list of what I consider his daily meals :
358 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
" Breakfast. — Three quarters of a pint of coffee, four ounces of bread, one
ounce of butter, two eggs, or four ounces of meat, or four ounces of fish.
" LuNcn. — Two ounces of liread, two ounces of meat, or poultry, or game,
two ounces of vegetables, and a half pint of beer, or a glass of wine.
" Dinnf:r. — Half a pint of soup, a quarter of a pound of fish, half a pound
of meat, a quarter of a pound of poultry, a quarter of a pound of savory
dishes or game, two ounces of vegetables, two ounces of bread, two ounces
of pastry or roasts, half an ounce of cheese, a quarter of a |X)und of fruit, one
pint of wine, one glass of liqueur, one cup of coffee or tea ; at night oue glass
of spirits and water."
To tliis we have added the following calculation of the clothing the same
man may have used. AYe estimate that a full-dr*ssed man carries about
fifty yards of cloth upon his body, or at least it has taken so many square
yards of cloth to make the following garments : one under and one over
shirt and drawers, eight yards ; vest, with all its inside and out, four yards ;
coat, overcoat, and cloak, 32 yards ; the handkerchiefs in the coat and cloak
pockets, two yards ; pants, lined, four yards. Then we may add a night-
shirt, four yards, and morning wrapper, 10 yards, and we have Gi yards for
a single suit. Allow six of these suits a year — of some garments he will
want more, and some less than six, but take that as an average, and Ave have
384 yards for the gentleman's wardrobe one year. Multiply tliat l)y sixty
years, and we have 23,040 yards of cloth, which appears a iair allowance, as
we throw out the ten years of childhood. With these garments he will want
each year two pair of boots, two pair of shoes, two pair of slijipers, two pair
of rubbers or overshoes — 480 pairs. "With these he will wear sixty dozen
pairs of stockings and (four hats a year) 240 hats. I Avill say nothing about
the yards of cloth that he will want about his toilet and table, his carpets
and curtains, and his bed, with its daily change of bedding ; but you can
imagine it would make a large spread. The great question for considera-
ti,on, in an agricultural point of view, is this : Could such a consun)er of
earth's products produce as much as lie consumed, with all industry applied
during life, or would he be dependent upon the labor of otliers ?
379. How Cooking Cbanges Food. — We are not going to make a cook-book,
but simply to attract attention to some of the leading scientific principles of
the efl'ect of fire upon articles of food.
Meat, for instance, often loses more than half its substance, which is
wasted and lost in the process of cooking, because the cook did not under-
stand some of the simple elements of the chemistry of cooking, and the
eft'ect of water and heat upon flesh.
If meat is to be boiled for eating, particularly fresh lean beef or mutton,
never soak it in cold water. Have your water boiling over a brisk fire, and
plunge the meat into it, and see that the heat is kept up. If soup is to be
made, then the meat should soak a long time in cold water, because it
extracts the substance that is wanted in the soup, leaving the fibrous portion
of the meat almost worthless. If the meat is to be boiled for eating, plung-
THE FOOD QDESTIO>f. 359
i:ig it in hot water has the same effect tliat is produced upon an egg — the
albumen is coagulated, and remains in the meat, and cooks witli it, and
becomes the most nutritive portion of it. Therefore remember it as one of
the most important items of knowledge ai)out cooking, never to put a piece
of meat into water to boil, unless the water is boiling hot ; and never put a
p ec8 of meat to roast until your fire is very hot ; and if it goes into an oven
to bake, see that the oven is hot enough to cook the outside almost instantly.
If you let it simmer slowly, it will ooze out the richest portion of its property
for food. "Tiie first efi"ect of applying a strong heat to a piece of fresh
meat, is to cause the fibers to contract, to squeeze out a portion of the juice,
and partially !o close the pores so as to prevent the escape of more. Heat
is applied to meat chiefly in three ways — boiling, roasting, and baking.
During these operations, fresh beef and mutton, when moderately fat, lose,
on an average, about as follows :
In boiling. In baking. In roasting.
4 lbs. of beef lose lib lib. 3 oz llb.Soz.
4 lbs. of mutton lose 14 oz 1 lb. 4 oz 1 lb. 6 oz.
The greater loss in baking and roasting arises chiefly from the greater quan-
tity of water evaporated, and of fat which is melted out by either of these
two methods of cooking.
" In preparing meat for the table, we discover that it is most desir-
able to retain all the ingredients of its juice ; how this is to be done will
depend much upon the method of culinary procedure. K the piece of
meat be introduced into the water when briskly boiling, the albumen at its
surface, and to a certain depth inward, is immediately coagulated, thus
inclosing the mass in a crust or shell, which neither permits its juice to flow
out, nor the external water to penetrate within, to dissolve, dilute, and
weaken it. The greater part of the sapid constituents of the meat are thus
retained, rendering it juicy and well-flavored. It should be boiled for only
a few minutes, and then kept for some time at a temperature from 158 to
165 degrees. Meat is underdone or bloody when it has been heated
throughout only to the temperature of coagulating albumen (140 degrees) ;
it is quite done or cooked when it has been heated through its whole mass
to 158 or 165 degrees, at which temperature the coloring matter of the
blood coagulates. As in boiling, so in baking or roasting ; for whether the
meat be surrounded by water or in an oven, as soon as the water-proof coat-
ing is formed around it, the further changes are efl'ected alike in both cases,
by internal vapor or steam. In roasting or baking, therefore, the fire should
be at first made quite hot, until the surface-pores are completely plugged
and the albuminous crust formed. Hence, a beefsteak or mutton-chop is
done quickly over a smart fire, that the richly-flavored natural juices may
be retained."
The above is extracted from a most valuable book — one that no house-
keeper can afford to do without. It is " Youmans' Hand-Book of Household
Science." It is science in such an attractive form that all may read it with
360 DOMESTIC ECONOrr. [CnAP. IV.
pleasure and profit. Weshall drawupon its valuable store-house of knowledi^e
for other facts in confirmation of wliat we have to say upon the food question.
3S0. How the Aibumea of Meat is Extracted.— When we wish to dissolve
out the albumen, and not the gelatin of meat, for soup or for beef-tea, which
is much used as nutritive food for the sick, the meat should be cut fine — the
finer the better — and soaked a few minutes in an equal weight of cold water,
then slowly heated to boiling, and so continued a few minutes more, and
when strained you will have as much weight of pure extract as you had of
meat, and it will afford equal nutriment. It M-ould not do so if boiled for
liours, in a large mass. Hence, meat for soups should be finely divided.
The efl"ect of long boiling of meat for soup is to thicken the soup, and make
it apparently richer; but it is so only apparently. The albumen is extracted
by cold water. It is cooked in the water in as short a time as an egg would
cook. The substance extracted by long boiling, making the soup appear
thick when cold, is gelatin. Still further boiling would make glue, whicli
would harden by drying, like the glue of commerce. It is not considered a
nutritious kind of food.
381. French Experiments with Gelatinons Food.—" The French attempted
to feed the inmates of their hospitals on gelatinous extract of bones ; mur-
murs arose, and a commission was appointed, with Magendie at its head, to
investigate the matter, the conclusion of which was, that giving gelatin to
the poor was just equivalent to giving them nothing at all. The use of
gelatin as a nutritive or invigoi-ating substance may be regarded as given
up. The utmost claim now put forth for it is that, mixed with other food, it
makes it go furtlier ; but at tlie same time we must be careful not to use it
to excess, as it is apt not only to weaken the individual by its insuflicicucy
as an article of diet, but causes also diarrhea, whether by acting as a foreign
body, or by some spontaneous decomposition. Hence the unwholesomeness,
to healthy stomachs, of dishes containing a great quantity of gelatin, such
as mock-turtle soup, calvcs'-foot jelly, etc."
The healthiness of any kind of strong meat soup is not a matter of doubt
in the minds of those who have given the subject a thought. It may be
taken in small quantities at the beginning of a meal, when it will be imme-
diately followed with fibrous food ; but the appetite never should be sat-
isfied upon soup alone, unless it is soup-maigre, or soup made almost entirely
of vegetables.
382. Relative Values of Food for giving Warmth or making Flesh. — Tlic fol-
lowing table shows Liebig's estimate of the proportion of warmth-giving
substances to the flesh-producing substances in various articles. Basing the
flesh-producing power at 10, each of the following articles gives the propor-
tion of warmth-producing power set opposite.
ITiiman milk 40
Cow's milk 30
Lfutils 21
Horse beans 22
I'cas 23
Fat mutton 27
Fat pork 30 1 Ryo flour 57
ISccf 17 Hi*il.-y C7
Hare 2 White potatoes 86
Veal 1 Black potatoes 115
Wheat flour 40] Uice V2i
Oatme.ll 60 Buckwheat 130
Seo. 22.] THE FOOD QUESTION". 3G1
This table gives a sufficient explanation of the reason why buckwheat is
always used as winter food. The reason is still more apparent when we
know that butler and syrnp, which are eaten with buckwheat cakes, ai'e
also producers of heat. It shows that veal is a very fit food for children
and very unfit for aged people. In cold climates, particularly, where men
are much in the open air, they instinctively crave fat meat. At the tropics,
instinct teaches man to consume an abundance of fruits and vegetables. In
temperate regions, where we may indulge with impunity in a variety of
food, instinct is not so strong, or at least does not point out so imerringly
what wc should eat, and therefore the question should be more fully dis-
cussed ; for among all the arts of civilized life there are none in which all
arc more interested than the preparation of our daily food.
3S3. Changes produced in Cooking Vegetables. — Many vegetables, for in-
stance the potato, in a raw state, are wholly unfit for food. Every lioiise-
keeper knows that cooking renders them palatable and wholesome, but every
one does not know how they are affected by heat, nor why one mode of
cooking makes them acceptable to the taste, while they may be nearly
spoiled by a different application of heat. Hence it is not always applied
in the right manner to produce the best effect.
It is often said of potatoes, " they were spoiled in the cooking." Look at
the reason. A i:)Ound of potatoes contains on an average about three quar-
ters of a pound of water and two to two and a half ounces of starch. It also
contains about one fourth as much sugar and gum as it does starch, and
about one sixth as much woody fiber.
If a good, sound potato is plunged whole into boiling water and kept boil-
ing until softened throughout to such a degree that it could be readily mashed,
the starch-grains burst and absorb the water, so that the mass appears moi'c
like meal than like starch boiled in water, and is then in a condition to af-
ford its nutritious properties readily to the system. If potatoes are naturally
bad, cooking will not make them good, but bad cooking will make the best
potatoes quite unfit for human food. If they are put into cold water and
simmered slowly till soft, they will generally become so waxy that they are
quite indigestible.
If potatoes are i-oasted or baked, they should be put into a hot oven
or buried in hot embers, and kept hot until taken out, which should be
as soon as sufficiently cooked — otherwise a new change takes place, the wa-
ter begins to evaporate, and the outside burns, while the interior soon be-
comes worthless.
In frying potatoes, the starch and fibrin are often turned to charcoal,
which is just as nutritious and digestible as charcoal made of wood. As it
is with potatoes, so it is with many other vegetables — they may be spoiled
by improper cooking. As a general rule, put all into boiling water and
keep it boiling briskly till the articles are sufficiently cooked. Never at-
tempt to cook green vegetables in what is termed hard water ; it will some-
times render green peas wholly unfit for food. The difficulty is often rem-
362 DOJIESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
cdicd by putting a little lump of potasli, saleratus, or soda in the water. If
too iiiiich is used, it causes the vegetables to fall to pieces.
SSi. Reasons for Improved Cookery. — Erasmus says: " Bad feeding makes
the vulgar seditious and quarrelsome." Perhaps this -will account for the
quarrelsome character of some families. We seriously think every young
woman should have some knowledge of cooking. Ignorance upon this
subject ought to be a reproach. Few nations have the wealth of material
for fine cookery that we possess. Fish, flesh, and fowl are abundant ; fruits
and vegetables unsurpassable, and can be raised without great labor or ex-
pense, and it is owing to our own culpable carelessness in all that pertains
to licalth that we are not the Iiealthiest, best fed, and best trained people in
the world. Yet Americans generally undervalue preparations for eating.
Disdaining gluttony, despising pampering to fancies, they run into the op-
posite extreme of neglecting that which is of real value to their bodies. This
inattention proceeds not from inability to comprehend the science of cook-
ery, nor real dislike to good things, for their a[)preciatlve power of such is
on a par with that of other nations ; but they grow up with the idea that it
is unbecoming to be dainty, and beneath their dignity and independence of
character to think too much of their stomachs. American mothers too
seldom instruct their daugliters in the culinary art.
In early times necessities were stronger than comforts ; kitchens were un-
furnished with conveniences ; cooking utensils were clumsy and scarce ;
pots and kettles did double dutj^ ; iron skillets were used instead of sauce-
pans. This is not and need not be the case now. Every farm-house shouM
have all the modern improvements for cooking, and then as a general thing
our cooking should be better; and as necessities are no longer stronger than
comforts, the reason that we lack the comforts is because our young Ameri-
can housekeepers lack the knowledge, and, for a certainty, their Irish cooks
do not possess much of the science of the useful art of cookery.
Every beginner thinks it an easy thing to learn, and, without any knowl-
edge of the necessary rudiments, expects to blunder into some sort of pro-
ficiency, so that in time ihe mistakes come to be regarded as the rule, and
they abide by their own experience, rather than accept of rules that science
teaches.
Another, and perhaps to most people the most important reason for im-
proved cookery is, the economy of food. " What shall Ave eat ?" and " How
shall it be cooked ?" should bo made a part of the household economy of
every family, particularly every one who purchases food by the wages of
daily labor. This question is not an idle one, and only interesting to those
who live in cities. It is equally so to those who furnish the city with
food. Let us glance at the prices which the consumers in the city have
to pay.
Of late years, the price of butchers' meats in New York, at retail, have
been frequently at the following rates :
For roasting pieces of beef and beef-steaks, the nominal price per pound
Sec. 22.] THE FOOD QUESTION. 363
is from IS to 25 ceuts, while the real price, owing to the cheating in weight,
is often 25 2>er cent, higher. A piece only fit for soup is charged at about
12 or 15 cents, and a shin-bone, with very little meat, rates at 10 cents a
pound. Plates, navels, necks, briskets, and rounds are rarely sold fresh,
and one of the strongest reasons given by butchers for selling the portions
universally called for at such high prices is, that they can not retail the
coarser parts at any price, except the small portion taken as corned beef, and
for this the price is sometimes from 12 to 18 cents a pound. A leg or loin
of mutton is sold at 16 to 20 cents a pound, and all the coarser parts at 12
to 16 cents, and some of them are coarse and poor enough. Yeal that is fit
to eat, is sold at about the same price per pound as mutton. Lamb is fifty
per cent, liiglier. Fresh pork — miserably poor, too — sells at 12 to 15 cents.
Salt pork and smoked bacon sell for 15 to 18 cents, and smoked beef the
same.
"When the greatest meat-eating people in the world pay such prices, it
would be reasonable to expect that they would be willing to learn and
practice improved cookery. We are sorry to say that they do not. A school
that teaches the art is rare. It should, as a universal rule, be taught in all
schools. In many families, with all the economy of the best housekeeping,
it certainly is a question of serious import as to what we shall eat, that will
afford sufficient nourishment and variety of food for health, and still enable
those whose income is limited to keep expenses below that limit. In such
families it is important that they should learn how to cook butchers' meat
more economically than it is generally in America. In some measure ad-
vantage can be taken, though it seldom is, in buying fresh meat. The
price by the piece or by the quarter, of beef and mutton, often varies fifty
per cent, and a fore-quarter always sells the lowest; yet, to the consumer,
it is absolutely the most valuable.
The truest economy is to cat less expensive meat and more vegetables,
and learn how to compound them as the French do, so as to make whole-
some, nutritious, economical food by improved cookery.
385. Water for Cooking. — One reason why we have treated so largely upon
cisterns (see 333, 334), and why we made one for fomily.use while we had
a nevei"-failing well of water, is because rain-water is the best of all for
culinary purposes. What is termed hard-water is unfit for cooking some
kinds of vegetables, and is never good for tea. We have already stated that
■water is sometimes so hard that green peas could not be cooked soft in it.
On the other hand, care must be taken in the use of rain-watei*, or the tender
vegetables will be broken down by a little over-boiling. In sucli water
always be careful to throw as much salt as will serve to season the vege-
tables for the palate. Onions lose nearly all their peculiar flavor when boiled
in soft water without salt. This matter of suitable water for the kitchen
has quite as much importance to the cook as it has to the laundress.
386. A New Cooking Vessel Wanted. — A writer in the Scientific Americati
suggests an improvement in cooking vessels that we hope will bo at once
364 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
acted upon. It is to coat the inside with silver or platinum, which could bo
done by the galvanic battery, so that the expense would not be too great lor
ordinary use in the houses of those who are able to live in a way suited to a
high order of civilization. This would be a particularly desirable improve-
ment in kettles for heating water for tea. So it would for such cookery
as requires porcelain-lined kettles. From the greatly increased supply of
silver from "Washoe, Arizona, and other silver mines, we may yet be able
to improve our domestic utensils. Iron, copper, brass, zinc, are all objec-
tionable for many purposes, and porcelain lining is soon destroyed by care-
less cooks.
3S7. Flour — How to Select Good. — Farmers of all the Eastern States buy
flour, and some of them are not very good judges of what they buy. There
are a few plain rules to observe in buying flour by whicli you can tell its
quality, and select that which is good. The best flour is not snowy white,
but has a yellowish tint when a handful is squeezed together and then
broken open. Lay a little in the palm of your hand and smooth it with a
knife or your finger, and see that it is free from specks, and of even fineness,
but not an impal2:)able powder. To prove this, throw a little lump against a
perpendicular board or smooth wall, upon which the inost of it, if good,
should stick. Good flour, squeezed in the hand, will retain its shape. If
you wet a little in your hand, see that it does not work soft and sticky, or
you may get spring-wheat instead of winter-wheat flour. Flour that works
sticky is not good. If it has a bluish tint it is not good. If it falls in dr}'
])owder when thrown, or if it falls apart, dry and powdery, when squeezed,
it is not good. "We commend to all families who buy flour the trial of these
tests with the flour now on hand, the quality of which is known.
3SS. Adulteratious of Food. — The first object of a housekeeper should be
to procure unadulterated articles. This is very difiicult for city people to
do, owing to the adulteration of almost every article of food prepared for
sale. But this is not the case with most of the food used by farmers, because
it is made of home products.
Many of the adulteratious of such articles as are usually purchased may
1)0 detected by simple tests. The microscope reveals the adulterations of
flour, sugar, farina, arrow-root, starch, salt, etc.
Bread, that most important article of food, is always more healthful in a
farmer's family, because it is free from adulterations, or at least much more
free than baker's bread.
3S0. Uoff Eating .\ffects tUe Health.— To meet at the breakfast-table, father,
mother, children, all well, ought to be a happiness to any heart ; it should
be a source of humble gratitude, and should wake \\y the warmest feelings
of our nature. Make it a rule never to come to the table in a churlish mood.
Let joy pervade 3'our meals.
"The tables of the rich and the nobles of England are centei-s of mirth,
wit, and honJwmic, and they live long. It takes hours to get through a
repast. The negroes of a well-to-do family in Kentucky, while at their
Sec. 22.] THE FOOD QUESTION. 365
meals, abandon themselves to jabber and mirth, and they enjoy life. At the
family-table all should meet to make a common interchange of high-bred
courtesies ; of warm affections ; of cheering mirthfulness, and that generosity
of nature which lifts us above the brutes which perish ; for such things pro-
mole good digestion, health, and long life. Cliildren in good health, if left
to themselves at the table, become, after a few mouthfuls, garrulous and
noisy ; but if within bounds at all reasonable or bearable, it is better to let
them alone ; they eat less, because they do not eat so rapidly as if compelled
to keep silent, while the Very exhilaration of sjiirits quickens the circulation
of tlie vital fluids, and energizes digestion and assimilation."
Let this excellent advice of HalVs Journal of Health be followed univer-
sally, and we shall hear less about dyspepsia.
390. Early Breakfast— its Effect on Health.— '-Breakfast should be eaten
before leaving the house in the morning for exercise or any description of
labor. Those who practice this will be able to i:)erform more work, and with
greater comfort and alacrity, than those who work an hour or two before
breakfast. Besides this, the average duration of the life of those who take
breakfast before exercise or work will be a number of years greater than
those who do otherwise.
" If early breakfast were taken in regions where chill and fever and fever
and ague prevail, and if in addition a brisk fire were kindled in the family
room for the hours including sunset and sunrise, these troublesome maladies
would diminish in any one year, not ten-fold, but a thousand-fold ; because
miasm is more solid, more concentrated, and hence luoro malignant about
sunrise and sunset than at any other hour of the twenty-four."
This, and much more said upon the same subject by Dr. Hall, agrees fully
Avith our long experience in a miasmatic region of the West. The most in-
dustrious people who come from New England, where they had always
been accustomed to early rising and working before breakfast, were the
ones most liable to attacks in autumn of bilious fever and ague. Let us
therefore urge every resident in such a region, never to go to work, nor
go much out of doors before breakfasting, and let no expense or trouble
about the work deter you from having your dwellings purified by fire. In
some parts of South Carolina men have lost their lives from a single night's
exposure to miasm, without fire. Ileuce, whenever persons are compelled
to spend a night in such a situation, their first care is to build a large fire
and, without sleeping, keep near it, even in the smoke, and thus they escape
the danger of the poisonous at.mosphere.
3G6
DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
[Chap. IV.
i^RCTION XXIII.-THE BREAD QUESTIOX-VARIETIES AND QUALITY OF
BREAD, AND HOW IT IS MADE-YEAST, AND HOW TO MAKE IT FOR
FAMILY USE.
L^Cn is the importance of the subject in relation
to tlie healthiness of fooJ, that bread should be of
the very best quality, we have devoted a section
especially to its consideration. In this country it is
the general custom to make bread in families, and as our
domestics are not scientific, it is in many cases absolutely
necessary that they should not be left to the temptation
of using the readiest means for making bread acceptable,
by putting in the convenient saleratus or soda, -which, like
charity, in that particular, covers a multitude of sins. If the
dough lias been put together over-night, it may have gone
on to the stage of acetous fermentation, and a little sale-
ratus (more than is necessary to sweeten it is often put in)
will conceal the fact, and make all appear right. It will
also save the trouble of kneading well. Let the mistress, then, if she do
not actually mix the bread, overlook the process ; and it would be a good
custom if all the ladies in a family would take their turn at bread-making,
and thus insure its good qualities by efficient kneading. It can not be
kneaded too much. But of that hereafter, and in all that pertains to the
subject, we hope to give some useful information to all who are not already
i^ood bread-makers. Not only in bread, but in every article consumed
upon the farmer's table, we beg of him and the mistress of the family
never to lose sight of the importance of quality. The proper consideration
of this question will save many a doctor's bill, as well as the misery
attendant upon sickness.
There is nothing that the good housekeeper so much desires about her
cooking as to have good bread, and as all have not had the advantages of
the daughters mentioned in the following extract of a letter to the author,
we shall give as much information as we can crowd into a brief space upon
this subject.
391. Good Wheaten Bread, and How to Make it. — Tlie letter alluded to is
from a sensible, practical woman, who says:
" I have been a housekeeper thirty years, and I have reared a family of
six daughters, and we have always made our own bread, and it is a very rare
thing for us to make poor bread.
"Now, the first thing I strive to teach my girls is cooking, and making
bread is one of the first items of cookery. I know that good bread can be
made by the diflferent kinds of yeast, but the recipe that is the most simple
is the best.
Seo. 23.] THE BREAD QUESTION. 367
" Here is my way of making good bread : Take one pint of warm water,
one teaspoonful of salt, put it in a dish sufficiently large to admit of stirring
in flour until it is a thick batter, and keep it warm, quite warm, and in five
hours it will rise or become fit for use. If it does not rise sufficiently, dis-
solve a piece of common soda as large as two kernels of corn and stir into
the batter.
" You can make three common-sized loaves of bread with this yeast,
which will be nice and tender. The soda is only necessary when the flour
is of an inferior quality."
The following directions for making bread we give in the language of
another good housekeeper. She says:
"To have good, wholesome bread, it is absolutely necessary to pay atten-
tion to the making of it, and to believe that making bread, like learning to
read, does not come by nature; that it is indispensable to learn every little
fact connected with the fermenting or raising of the dough ; absolutely nec-
essary to understand the difi'ereneo between vinous and acetous fermentation,
and when an alkali, such as saleratus or bicarbonate of soda, is required.
"Of course, good flour is the first requisite. The finer the flour the
greater the labor in kneading it ; and the finest flour does not always make
the sweetest and healthiest bread, yet the best flour is the cheapest ; though
I must confess I can not advise about using inferior flour, for I have never
had any.
" The next important thing is the yeast, and I give the preference to tha
made of potatoes. I have tried brewer's yeast, baker's yeast, yeast cakes, hop
yeast ; leaven, which is a bit of sour dough, and needs saleratus to make the
bread sweet ; in fact, all the various kinds of yeast, and after over two years
of constant use, I am content with potato yeast.
" The rule of making it is this : Take ten potatoes of nearly equal size —
wash and boil them ; when cooked, peel and mash them perfectly smooth ;
pour on to this a quart of boiling-hot water ; stir in a cofl'ee-cup of good, pure
sugar, and after standing a few minutes, pour in a quart of boiling water
wanting a gill ; when lukewarm, add a pint of yeast to raise it, put it in a
tightly-covered vessel to ferment, and set it away in a moderately warm
place until sufficiently risen, which may be known by the potato appearing
upon the top of the liquid, and light, foamy spots bursting up through it.
The temperature of the place where this is set to rise or work shoiild be
from 68 to 74 degrees ; too much heat is as bad as too much cold. When
this is risen, put it into a stone jug and cork it ; tie in the cork and keep it
in a cool place. A gill and a half, or common-sized teacupful, is sufficient
to raise dough for two large loaves of bread. The source of the sourness
which supervenes in bread, under careless or unskillful hands, was formerly
ascribed to each of all the constituents of flour; to its gluten, which is 10
parts ; its starch, which is 70 parts ; and its sugar, 4 parts ; the other 16
parts are water — but ei-roneously, for it is merely the result of the second
fermentation, which always succeeds the vinous when pushed improperly
368 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
too far. Tlicre are extremely simple and effectual methods for enabling the
Laker to adopt measures either to prevent or correct the evil of accscence,
and these are to neutralize the acid by the use of an alkali, such as soda, or
an alkaline earth, such as magnesia or chalk.
" If proper care be taken of the yeast, there is no danger of having sour
dough ; and if the yeast be removed to a lower temperature after the signs
pointed out, the acetic fermentation never sets in.
" To make bread I set a sponge over-night. To a half pint of lukewarm
water, put in a gill and a half of yeast and a pint of flour (after measuring,
sift the flour), and stir this all well together, strew a little flour over the top,
and cover the dish and put it in the same temperature that the yeast was
in. In the morning, warm half a tea-cup of milk (if water is used, add half
a tablespoonful of butter), add two tablcspoonfuls of lime-water after it is
warm, and stir this into the sponge ; have ready a pint and a half of flour,
and knead tliis with half a teaspoonful of salt into the sponge. Divide this
into two portions, and put each into a buttered pan to rise, and when the
dough rises to the top and bursts into little cracks, it is ready to bake.
These loaves will bake in a common stove or range-oven, heated with coal,
in thirty or thirt^'-five minutes. The advantages of lime-water are these:
Tlic dough requires less kneading, the loaves bake in less time, and the
bread keeps soft and moist longer, and is less liable to mold, and it is healthy
bread. Alter the bread is baked, it should be turned upside down from the
pans upon a folded cloth, and left there until cool. Then it may be put into
a covered tin. By following this jilan, I never lose any bread from mold. In
cool Aveather, the pans containing the dough should bo placed over a vessel
containing hot water, or each pan over a bowl or pitcher with hot water in
it, and covered with a cloth. These loaves are generally ready to bake in
two or two and a half hours.
"To make biscuit, I warm a tablespoonful of butter in half a teacupful of
milk, and stir it hot on a quart of ilour, let it stand and cool, and when
lukewarm add a gill of yeast, a spoonful of lime-water, and a little salt, and
lukewarm water to knead the whole into a smooth lump of dough ; sprinkle
a little flour into the bottom of the dish, lay in the dough, cover it, and
when risen (which niay be known by the dough's cracking and its spongy
look when cut with a knife\ divide the dough into equal portions and j)Ut
in pan«, and let then\ stand twenty minutes before putting to bake.
'• I never use tin or metal ware of any kind to mix bread in. I prefer a
wooden bowl and, spoon, because they can always be kept clean and sweet.
A still better thing i^ a yellow nappy, as it can be dipped into hot water be-
fore setting the dough in it.
'• As to the use of saleratus and soda, it is only tolerated by the grossest
igiiorance. It is the received impression that an alkali makes the bread
tender, and it is indiscriminately used, and hence so much yellow-looking
bread. These alkalies are only of service when an acid is to be neutralized,
and then they should be used very sparingly. It is very difficult to enlighten
Sbo. 23.] THE BREAD QUESTION. 369
an ignorant cook, whose obstinacy is in proportion to her ignorance, and
■whose threat of leaving if not left undisturbed in her kitchen, frightens her
titnid, delicate mistress into silence and absence. How few mistresses there
are who are able to contend with these kitchen autocrats, or are competent
to prove their ability to execute what they have undertaken to teach.
"If an old housekeeper reads what has been written, she will cry out:
• La, what a fuss about bread-making, which any ninny can do !' And if
she has a batch of good bread once in a fortnight, and that by good luck,
as she would call it, she thinks she knows all about it, and disdains to give
attention to such a trifling matter. Yet, if you ask her why her bread was
not invariably good, she can not explain otherwise than that the leaven was
overworked, the yeast not good, the water too hot, or the flour was bad.
No wonder this question continues to agitate the world, since tlie world is
daily doomed to dough and burnt crusts. Good bread is the exception and
not the rule in more than half the families of the world."
For this reason we think that some further rules for bread-making, which
couie from those who always have good bread, will be acceptable. The
lirst is from "Waldo, Ohio. The writer says :
"I soak about a pint of dry hops two or three hours, or until the water
foams, by which time I have boiled seven medium-sized potatoes, which I
then mash, boiling hot, with a saucerful of flour, leaving the skins on ; then
add a quart of cold water, little at a time, mashing and mixing thoroughly
after each addition of water. When lukewarm, I stir in the hop-yeast, and
let it stand until morning; then I run it through a cullender, with two
quarts of lukewarm water, which I add part at a time, that the ferment
may be rinsed from the potato-skins. Then add two rounding tablespoou-
fuls of salt, and then flour until it can only be stirred witli difficulty. Then
I set It over a kettle of warm water in winter, or in a- cool place in summer,
until it is very light, when I mix it and knead it thoroughly until it will
not adhere to the tabic or bread-bowl. "Wlien very light, knead into loaves
and put it in the pans, this time kneading as little and handling as lightly
as possible. When it is again light, I put it in a hot oven, bake an hour,
taking care by watching not to let it burn. When done, rub the crust with
a little lard, and wrap up till cold. K the yeast sours, add soda to correct
acidity."
Another woman, Lynda Cdl, of Clevit, Eaton County, Mich., gives her
me'hod, as ibilows :
" Pare and slice four common-sized potatoes, and boil them in one quart
of water. When done, pour tlie water off into a basin, mash the ])Otatoe3
and put them in the water, and when about niilk-warm add one teacupful
of good hop-yeast; stir in flour enough to make a thick batter, and let it
stand about two hours in a warm place. Then put flour enough in your
bread-bowl to make three loaves of bread ; add three pints of warm water
to the yeast, and stir it in the flour, and set in a warm t)lace till it has
sponged nicely ; then mold, and bake one hour."
370 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
Tlie two following arc from tlic Granite State Ilcaltli Institute :
'• Indian Snow-Cakk. — With one (juart of meal mix two tablespoonfiils of
fine dry sugar and one teaspoonful of salt. Stir into this (piickly two
quarts of light, clean snow. When it is well mixed, put it in a deep cake-
dish, sprinkle a little snow over the top, and bake half an hour in a hot
oven.
" Potato Koll. — Boil one dozen mealy potatoes, nicely peeled, covered
closely in just water enough to cook them. As soon as they are tender,
drain ofi' the water if any remain, and leave them over the fire a few min-
utes uncovered. This is the best manner of cooking potatoes for the table,
also. Mash them fine with one cup of sweet cream or new milk ; nib them
through a cullender into a quart of flour ; then add half a tea-cup of fresh
yeast, and sufficient sweet milk to make a stiff dough ; keep it in a warm
place until light; mold into rolls, and let it stand fifteen minutes; bake in a
quick oven for half an hour."
We give another practical rule for potato bread: "Tiie evening be-
fore you Avish to bake, take six or eight potatoes, more or less, jnedium
size, pare, boil in water till done; mash very fine, then put back into the
water they were boiled in, and, when they come to a boil, have ready a pan ;
I prefer earthen, as that keeps warm longer, with, say, a pint of flour; ]Hnir
on the scalding potatoes and water, beat well, cool with Avater, if thicker
than buckwheat-cake batter ; add, when a little more than milk-warm, half
a pint or less of your bottled yeast, stir mx'II, cover close, and sot in a warm
place till morning, when the mass will be perfectly light, if all the materials
are good and put rightly together. Then mold out into small loaves, put in
pans, cover, and set aside fill they rise again ; be very careful not to let
them over-rise this time, or all your care is thrown away ; have your oven
of a moderate heat, and M'hile baking watch carefully ; the loaves ought to
bake in 40 minutes or an hour, according to the size. When done, they
should be a light brown ; cover them up on a board kept on purpose, and by
evening you will have bread that is ricii and wholesome."
Another direction, from an old housekeeper, says: "Take two handfuls
of hops, three pints of water, six potatoes; boil all till the potatoes are soft;
pare them, mash through a cullender, strain the liquid ; then put it in your
preserving kettle, over the fire, with the potatoes added ; also, one cup of
sugar, one table-spoon of salt, one table-spoon of ginger ; then add flour
enough to give it the consistency of paste; let it boil five minutes, stirring it
all the time. Turn out, and when partially cool, add half a pint of good
yeast. Let this stand until fermentation takes place. In tlie winter I keep the
yeast in a stone pot in the cellar, but in summer I dry it by mixing it with
corn-meal, and spreading it on a table and exposing it to the air (not sun).
Now we liave good yeast, Ave will proceed immediately to make good bread.
Wash and pare two dozen good-sized potatoes; boil them, with a large
handful of salt, till reduced to a fine pulp; strain through a cullender, add
three pints of sweet milk, and when sufliciently cool to bear your hand in it,
Sec. 23.] THE BREAD QUESTION. 371
stir in as much flour as Avill make it into a thick batter; to this sponge add
a coffee-cup of the j-east. I always make my sponge at night. In the
morning I add six quarts of sweet milk and three gills of lime-water, and
knead into a stiff dough.
"Some housekeepers use alum, as it makes the bread fairer, but I prefer
lime-water, as that coagulates the gluten; and it requires less baking, and
retains its moisture longer — and I think it much healthier than alum, and
health is the great desideratum. In two or tliree hours after jou knead
your bread, it will be as light and porous as a honeycomb; knead it down,
and when it has again risen, mold, and put it into pans. Let it stand till it
rises again, then wash the loaves over with cold water ; this prevents the
formation of too hard a crust; bake in a well-heated oven. "When baked,
■wash again, wrapping it up closely in your bread-cloth. "Wrapping the
bread up in the steam till cold, prevents it from becoming hard and dry. If
your flour is good, bread made in this way will be equal in appearance to
the best bakers' bread, and in jwint of sweetness and econonn', far superior.
The quantities I have named make twelve good-sized loaves, and my family
requires such a baking twice a week. For many years this plan lias given
me good bread, and I liope others will try it."
392. How to make Good "Bakers' Bread." — ^To tliose who would like to
know how to have such bread as the city bakers make, we recommend the
following formula of one that Ave know makes good bread, and we believe
uses first-rate flour, and no deleterious mineral substances:
Bakeks' Yeast. — The following is the formula for making a tub of yeast:
Four pailfuls of hot water, two quarts of malt, half a pound of hops, six pounds
of flour, four quarts of yeast. The hops are boiled about five minutes, and
strained. The flour is made into a paste, with liot water, before mixing in
the tub. The malt and yeast are added when the water in the tub is milk-
warm, and stirred briskly. It must stand from 14 to 18 hours before it is in
order to use.
Fermext. — The following is the preparation for mixing a barrel of flour :
Boil one half peck of potatoes, which are to be mashed, strained, and mixed
thin in water, with four pounds of flour and four quarts of yeast, and left to
stand eight hours.
Setting the Sponge.- — -A pailful of this ferment is poured into the flour
in one end of the bread-trough, and mixed, with an addition of some hot
water, into a soft dough, and left to stand three hours, when more water is
added, and the whole mass mixed into a stiti' bread-dough, and left two
hours to rise, when it is ready to make out into loaves for the oven.
Salt Used. — The quantity of salt used in a barrel of flour is four quarts,
and no other mineral ingredient is ever added by an honest baker. Care
must be taken to use plenty of yeast, but not an excess, and that the dough
is not left to rise too long. A great deal of liard manual labor is required
in kneading dough, to have good bread.
393. Brown Bread, or " Bostoa Bread."— An old Yankee housewife gives
372 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
us tlic followinjj valuable diicctions for nuikiiig lioiiio-mudo or family
bread, i^oinetiines called —
"Wheat and Indian Ekkad. — To two quarts of sifted Indian meal add
liot water enough to wet tlie same ; wlien siitKciently cooled, add one tea-
spoonful or more of salt, iialf a pint of yeast, and one half teacupful of uid-
lasscs. Then add wheat flour enough to make it info loaves (it should bo
well kneaded), and when well risen, bake or steam it three or more hours;
if this should get sour while rising, add a teaspoonful of sugar and a little
salcratus dissolved in water.
"Rye and Indian Bread. — Take equal quantities of Indian meal and rye
flour; scald the meal, and when lukewarm add the flour, with one half
pint of good yeast to four quarts of the mixture, an even tablespoonful
of salt, and half a cup of molasses, kneading the mixture well. This kind
of bread should be softer tlian wheat flour bread ; all the water added after
scalding the meal should be lukewarm. When it has risen sufl3eiently, put
it to bake in a brick oven or stove — the former should be hotter than for flour-
bread ; if in a stove oven, it should be steamed two hours, then baked one
hour or more; when done, it is a dark brown. The best article for baking
this kind of bread in is brown earthenware — say pans eight or ten inches
in bight, and diameter about the same— grease or butter the pans, put in the
mixture, then dip your hand in cold water, and smooth the loaf; after this,
slash the loaf both ways with a knife, quite deoi>. Some let it rise a little
more before they put it to bake. Many people prefer this bread made
of one third rye flour, instead of one iialf. When it is difficult to get
rye, wheat flour will answer as a substitute. It adds very much to
the richness and flavor of this kind of bread to let it remain in the oven
over-night."
Indian or Yankee Bkown Bread. — Another old bread-maker gives the
following information about Yankee brown bread :
" Brown bread, kneaded and made into loaves in the common way of
mixing white bread, dries more quickly than the white. I obviate this dit-
ficulty thus : Take a quantity of meal, sutticient for as much bread as you
wish to make at once, put it in the mixing-pan with a bowl of rising, and
add sufticieiit lukewarm water to bring it to the consistency usually required
in making johnny-cake, mixing in the same manner with a spoon, but do
not stir too long, or it will not have that liveliness so desirable in good meal.
It is also a much neater method, as you arc not obliged to immerse your
hands in the dough.
" Grease your pans, and fill not quite half full, and set it as usual to rise,
which it will not be long in doing if the temperature is right. Bake one
hour in a slow but steady oven. It injures a large loaf to cut while warm,
though my family are very fond of it in this state, and I generally bake a
loaf in a small pan to be eaten warm.
"I can assure you that bread made in this manner will keep moist fr
several days, and even when it does become rather dry, owing to its being
Seo. 23.] THE BREAD QUESTION. 373
light and porous, it is immediately restored by simply warming the slices
slightly in the oven of your stove before eating."
We reproduce liere, from a useful little book called "How to Live,"
which we wrote a few years since, for those who will try the economy as
well as palatableness of a loaf of wheat and Indian bread, the following
good receipt, long in use by our good mother and grandmother :
" To two quarts of Indian meal add boiling water enough to wet the same ;
when sufficiently cooled, add one teaspoonful of salt, half a pint of yeast,
one teaspoonful of saleratus, one half teacupful of molasses, and flour
enough to form it into a loaf (it should not be kneaded hard); when
light, bake two hours in a well-heated oven. (It should be baked until
brown.)"
And here is another good receipt from the same book for making rye and
Indian bread, which is both cheap and wholesome :
"Stir and mi.v most thoroughly two quarts of Indian corn meal with a
tablespoonful of salt and a quart of boiling water, or enough to wet every
grain of meal. Wlien the mush cools to milk-warm, stir in one quart of rye
meal and a teacupful of good yeast, which you will first mix with half a pint
of warm water, so that the yeast will be more evenly dift'used. With the
rye meal add water enough to make the mass a stiff dough, but not as hard
or tough as flour. It must be kneaded witii tlie hands. [Remeinher — rye
meal is not rye jiour. It is the unbolted product of the whole grain.] Put
the dough in a pan, and pat it smooth with a wet hand. It will rise enough
to bake in an hour, in a warm place, and siiould be put in a hot oven, and
remain three hours; or if during the night, all the better. If white flour
was not fashionable, or if people did not think that brown bread has a look
of poverty, we should have the brown bread upon every table, for it is not
only more economical, it is more nuti-itious and more healthy, particularly
for children.
" "We do not eat oatmeal in this country to any extent, and yet it is the
most nutritions breadstuff ever used by man."
394. PoSatoes Used in Bread-Makiug. — When potatoes bear such a price to
wlieat flour tliat, uiien cooked, they arc about half the price per pound of
the,flour, it is good economy to add of potatoes about one fourth the weight
that is used of flour, for a batch of bread. Bread so made is pleasanter to
the taste, and equally nutritions. T!u; potatoes should be lioiled with the
skins on, and then peeled, mashed, and s:irred into a pulp with warm water,
and rubbed through a wire sieve, and tiien mixed with the flour, and yeast
added as for otlier bread. Tiie bakers of jSTew York understand the economy
of using potatoes in their bread, whenever they are sold at low prices. Tlie
small potatoes, which are unsalable for other puruoscs, are often sold whole-
sale to bakers, and added 1o the flour.
Tlie potatoes make the broad nioisfer than it would be if composed en-
tirely of flour, so that for those wlio sell their loaves by weight, the more
water they can be made to contain the greater will be their profits. When
374 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Cdap. IV.
about one third of the weight is comjjosed of potatoes, it makes iirst-rate
bread. Many persons prefer tlie potato-bread because it is moist, and never
think liow much water they are buying at si.\penee a pound.
There is another use of potatoes in bread — they make it appear light, not-
withstanding its specific gravity. Potatoes take ou the vinous fermentation
(juickcr than flour, and sometimes that passes into the acetous state, which
the bakers correct witii bicarbonate of soda, or lime-water, still adding
weight without any addition of nourishment. Lime-water is not objection-
able ; it is only so tliat we sliould be induced to buy it at sixpence a pound,
because the baker puts it in his sour iluur or potato-bread, to make us think
it is sweet.
Prof. Liebig advises the use of one pint of lime-water to every five
pounds of flour. The lime-water should be prepared by dissolving lime in
water to a point of saturation, and letting it settle and then bottling for
future use. "With this lime-watei', use pure yeast, and you will have light,
healthy bread. "With saleratus, largely used, you will not have wholesome
bread, disguise it as you will. In using lime-water, add it first to the flour,
then add pure water and yeast, and you will have better bread than you cau
obtain from any preparation of carbonate of soda or cream of tartar.
Wheat, divested of all its bran, docs not contain enough of all the health-
giving ingredients, particularly of phosphate of litne, to satisfy the demands
of nature. With such flour, potatoes are beneficial.
Bread should be more thoroughly baked thau it is usually, and not eatcu
warm from the oven.
Dry bread should never be thrown away. By soaking and reconverting
it into dough, it can be again baked into excellent bread. It is of such ma-
terials that the delicious tea-rusks are made. Dry bread also makes most
delicious puddings. Bread of fine flour is too much eatcu. We recommend
farmers to have tiieir wheat ground more coarsely, and only take out a por-
tion of the bran. They may also add corn or rye meal, with advantage to
economy and health. It will be also economical in the country to add
potatoes. It is not always so in the city. And it is not quite honest either
to sell them at the price of superfine flour bread.
For potato biscuit, grate one half dozen potatoes; add one quart of water;
one cupful of hop-yeast at night; and in the morning, when light, add three
teaspoonfids of sugar, and fluur to form a dough. Let it ri.se; when light
put in tins; let it rise again, and bake one half hour.
3l»ij. Sprouted Wheal Flour — its Effect o.j Krfail. — Sprouted wheat flour
makes what housewives <':dl runny dough, and that is apt to make clammy
bread. To remedy this, it has been recommended to add half a gill of
whisky to flour enough to make four moderate-sized loaves. But many
object to the use t>f whisky to make bread, and ask if somelhiiig else will
not answer as well. We think it will. We think if about the same qua-i-
tity of shortening is added to the flour that is commonly nsed in making the
old-fashion Yankee light biscuit, that the bread will be light, fine-grained,
Sec. 23.] THE BREAD QUESTION. 375
and free from all tlie difficulties usually attributed to grown wheat.
Tlie addition of a little butter or lard to any flour will not do any harm.
Try it.
396. Yeast— How to Make it.— The chemists have proved that yeast is a
plant, as much so as mold or any other fungus. As we get it fresh from the
brewer, yeast appears to be a yellowish gray or fawn-colored, frothy liquid.
It soon settles down and appears dead, but is still active. The taste is bit-
ter, and it emits a rather disagreeable odor. Its effect upon all moist sub-
stances is to cause them to ferment, by a rapid increase of its growth, and a
generation and diffusion through the mass of carbonic acid gas, which makes
the dough puff up and assume the condition called light.
The great secret of bread-making is to use just the right quantity of yeast
to produce a light loaf without having any of the flavor or odor of the
yeast imparted to it, as it will if too much is used, or if the action of the
yeast is not arrested at exactly the right time.
We give in j^o. 397 the most convenient form for preserving yeast ready
for use. If liquid yeast is preferred, it can be made by mixing wheat flour
and water into a paste and letting it stand two or three days in a mod-
erately warm place, when it will begin to emit a disagreeable sour odor,
which afterward passes off or changes to a vinous odor at the end of six
da^'s. Then if you have the opportunity to get malt from a brewery — and
if not, you can make it by sprouting barley or Indian corn, which must
then be dried and crushed — you will make an infusion of malt and boil it in
water with a handful of hops, and cool it till lukewarm, and add it to the
paste previously thinned into a soft batter with tepid water. This mixture
kept in a warm place a few hours, begins to show activity. Fermentation
has commenced, and will work the mass until there is a clear liquid on the
surface, which pour off, and the opaque liquid at the bottom is good yeast,
which you may keep as long as you like in winter, and in summer upon ice,
or hermetically sealed in bottles till wanted for use.
A good yeast can be made, when you have the seed — that is, active yeast
— from four pounds of peeled potatoes boiled in four quarts of water and
a large handful of hops in a bag. The Y>otatoes are mashed and thoroughly
mixed with the water and a little salt, molasses, and flour to make a batter,
to which a couple of spoonfuls of good yeast are added, and this will ferment
the whole and make it fit for use as leaven for bread ; it may be kept a long
time in a cool place.
Yeast is sometimes preserved by dipping clean twigs in it and drying
them and preserving them dry till needed, when they are soaked and the
liquor added to the sponge.
It has also been dried by spreading it with a brush upon a board and re-
peating it as fast as each layer is dried until of considerable thickness, when
it is scaled off, broken up and bottled, and sealed air-tight ; it will then
keep for years.
A yeast-plant Las been found in California capable of reproduction to an
376 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
indefinite degree wlien placed in n. bottle with a little Bweetened water.
These plants ai>pear somewliat like small grains of wliite-lnilled corn soaki'd
ill water, or like the lumps of wheat flour which form in boiling, if not siif-
liciently stirred. A spoonful of this substance put into a quart of flour
mixed for a sponge will cause it to ferment, just as an addition of ordinary
yeast would. Tiie difficulty in its use is, that it is rather liable to become
too acid, but it is a pretty good substitute for common yeast in a new coun-
try where bakers and brewers are not convenient.
397. Teast-fakcs, or Ready-made least,— Take three ounces of good fresh
hops, three and a half pounds of rye flour, seven pounds of Indian corn
meal, and one gallon of water ; rub the hops so as to separate them ; put
them into boiling water and boil half an hour ; strain the liquor through
a fine sieve into an earthen vessel. While hot, put in the rye flour, and
when lukewarm add a pint of yeast. Next day put in the Indian meal,
stirring it well, and the mess will be stiflT dough. Knead it thoroughly, and
roll it out to the thickness of about a third of an inch, and cut up in cakes
three inches square, and dry them on a clean board or a tin in the sun.
Turn them every day, let them receive no wet, and they will become as hard
as ship biscuit. Store them in a bag or \>o\, perfectly free from damp.
When you bake, take two cakes for three loaves, and put them into a quart
of tepid water with half a pint of flour in a vessel near the fire-place over-
night, where they will dissolve by morning, and then use them in setting
your sponge as you would the yeast of beer. These yeast-cakes may be
kept just as long as you desire.
Kye flour is better than wheaten, but not absolutely essential. Some use
potatoes, but a lady writes us that she finds the addition of the potatoes of
no benefit and no injury, and for years has used Indian meal only — which,
being simpler, makes the work easier.
To naake yeast powder, take one pound of saleratus and two pounds of
cream of tartar, mix them thoroughly together by passing them two or three
times through a sieve. To each quart of flour add two heaping teaspooiifuls
of this yeast or baking powder; wet with sweet milk or water, as usual,
and bake at once in a quick oven. The bread should be in small loaves —
biscuit in the same way.
398. Salcratus-Rising for Bread.—" In discussing this I aim at the health
stand-point, and reject whatever impairs the nutritive qualities of the flour,
injures its flavor, or discolors it. The excellence of bread and its lightness
depend upon the disengagement of carbonic acid gas during the process of
fermentation, which is the action of yeast upon the saccharine matter of the
flour. Ferment or yeast is an organized matter, and its essentially opera-
tive constituent is a peculiar azotized matter, which, in the wine-vat, is
mixed with some tartar and other salts, and in the beer-tun with gum and
starch. Azote is found in animal bodies, and certain vegetables contain art
azotized principle ; indigo, caperine, gluten, and many others contain an
abundance of azote. All bread-making which dispenses with kneading and
Sbo. 23.] THE BREAD QUESTION^. 377
true yeast fermentation may be distrusted. The compositions of what may
be termed bread compounds, even if palatable, diifer greatly from true,
good bread.
" It is not of what kind of eatable things bread can be made, but how to
best make good, wholesome bread that is as sweet when a day or two old as
when first made, or better even than when new, that has no taste of yeast,
none of the bitter of hops, nor the disagreeable flavor of alkali, and that will
keep good a week, if necessary.
" The preference should be given to that yeast that will make the light-
est, sweetest bread, without aid from extraneous substances, that is least
likely to run into the acetous fermentation without infusing the bitter of hops.
" The idea that alkalies make the bread tender is an error, tiie dough be-
fore their introduction having run into the mucilaginous or putrefactive fer-
mentation."
But as many do and will continue to use alkalies, we will give some of
the most approved methods,
"For making prepared flour that can be used at leisure, to each quart of
flour add one teaspoonful of saleratus and two of pure cream of tartar, and
what salt is required ; mi.x them thoroughly together while dry, and set
aside for irse. Flour prepared in this way will last three months, for tlie
reason, the flour keeps the chemicals separate from each other; it can then
be wet up in the usual way and baked at once. Use this prepared flour for
bread, biscnit, or any kind of sweet cake or pan-cakes, but do not mix the
pan-cakes until j-ou want to use thorn.
" The best method for making bread with sour milk and saleratus is to
add to each pound or quart of flour one heaping teaspoonful of saleratus and
what salt is required ; mix them well together ; which is best done by pass-
ing it all through a sieve. Then add as much sour milk as will make
the dough the usual thickness. Mold it in small loaves, and bake at once.
If the bread should be a little yellow, put in less saleratus next time. For
biscuit, it should be molded quite thin. Very little shortening is required ;
it should be baked in a hot oven ; and, if baked quick, the steam will help
to raise the biscuit."
It is contended by the advocates for this bread, that " being free from all
yeasty particles, it is more digestible and not so likely to create flatulence or
turn acid on weak stomachs as fermented biead ; and when of tiic finest
quality, it is beneficial to those who suffer headache, acidity, flatulence,
eructations, a sense of sinking in the j)it of the stomach, distention, or pains
after meals, and to all who are subject to gout or gravel. It is also us'jfn!
in many affections of the skin.
"These remarks apply to both varieties of the bread, but especially to the
brown, which is further invaluable to all who are liable to constipation
from torpidity of the colon, or large intestines — the common infirmity of
the sedentary — and of tiiose who have been accustomed to oatmeal diet in
their youth.
37S DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
" But the advantages of llie process are not limited to matters relating to
health. It is valuable because bread can be prepared by it in tlie short
space of half an hour, thus saving much time and labor. It is valuable, also,
because the materials are not perishable, and may be rendered available in
places and at times when yeast and other ferment is not within reach — as at
sea, for exam2)le, or in country retirements ; and it is still more valuable as
regards economy. The cost of the chemicals is counterbalanced by that of
the yeast, salt, and alum, otherwise employed ; but were it not so, they
would form an altogether unimportant item in the price of bread ; while by
their use a saving is effected in the flour of not less than 13 per cent. In
the common process much of the saccharine part of the flour is lost by being
converted into carbonic acid and spirit, and thus waste is incurred solely for
the purpose of getting carbonic acid to raise the dough. By the new method
waste is avoided, and the gas obtained in a manner equally efiicacious.
And it is a striking instance of the successful application of chemical phi-
losophy to the common arts of life, for fermentation destroys a part of the
flour or meal, so that 280 lbs., which make 300 lbs. of bread by fermenta-
tion, give 380 lbs. by the new process."
399. Soda vsi ¥cast, and Dread without Yeast. — Without taking any part
in the controversy about the healthiness or unhcalthiness of soda bread, we
will give extracts from the opinions of its advocates as follows :
" Soda is a caustic alkali in its uncoinbined state. It is the base of com-
mon salt. In this form it is daily taken into our stomachs witli food, and
also administered regularly to domestic animals by the careful husbandman.
Let ns remember that notwithstanding the chlorid of sodium has been used
from time immemorial by man, and always eagerly sought after by wild
animals, it has also met opposers among ultra hydropathists. It is therefore
not so astonishing that the bicarbonate, whicli is what is used in cookery
and of recent introduction, shoidd find many opposers.
"Potash is an alkali extracted from wood ashes by percolation, and for
culinar}- jjurposes is combined with two equivalents of carbonic acid, and
sold under the name of saleratus. The chemical natures and physiological
effects of tlie two bicarbonates are so nearly identical that I shall not keep
up the distinction in treating of them, though from the fact that tlie bicar-
bonate of soda is dryer and more easil}' reduced to powder, it is i)referable.
" To secure the desired effect of bicarTjonate of soda, it is necessary to use
it in cotmcction with some acid which, by combining with the alkali, sets
free tlie carbonic acid, in form of gas, at the time of baking. Sour milk,
which contains lactic acid, is best. The lactic acid, having a stronger aflin-
ity for the soda than the carbonic acid has, combines with ir, forming
lactate of soda, a neutral salt, jtossessed of no caustic property wliatever ;
while the gas, disengaged, fills the bread with minute cells and thus renders
it light and palatable.
" In the absence of sour milk, tartaric acid or cream of tartar should be
used. If tartaric acid is used, tartrate of soda results ; a harmless substance
Sko. 23.] THE BREAD QUESTION. 379
even iu considerable quantities, and by no means unpleasant to take in
warm days in the form of an effervescing draught. If cream of tartar is
used, the product is tartrate of soda and potassa, or Kochelle salts, which,
in ounce doses, is known to be one of our mildest saline purgatives.
"A hearty eater will take only a few grains of any of these salts at a
meal, and these readily pass oiF through the excretions of the body, or enter
upon their phj-siological offices in the gastric fluids — the bile or blood.
" These bicarbonatos, used without an acid, render bread unpalatable ; and
this of itself would prevent persons from using them to a hurtful extent.
" Instead of being a curse to the world, the introduction of the bicarbon-
ate of soda has been a great blessing in banishing lard, iu a great measure,
from our biscuit. That the largj quantity of grease necessary to make good
short biscuit of superfine flour renders bread in a high degree indigestible,
will be universally admitted. Make biscuit according to the following
formula, and you have an article altogether superior iu point of digestibility
and flavor to those in which lard is used as the only shortening.
'■'■Rule 1. Flour, two pounds; fine Indian meal, a teacupful; bicarbonate
of soda, a heaping teaspoonful. Thoroughly mix these dry, and make up
with new buttermilk, or if the milk is very sour, add water sufficiently to
make it about like new buttermilk. The soda must be neutralized, and, in
using milk, judgment on this point must be exercised.
" Hide 2. Flour and meal as above ; rub together dry a teaspoonful of
soda and two thirds as much tartaric acid. Mix this dry with the meal and
flour, and make up with water.
" Eule 3. Same as Ko. 2, except use a teasooonful of cream of tartar in-
stead of the tartaric acid.
"A very small quantity of lard or butter may be used with advantage to
the taste, but it is not essentiah These ingredients added to corn bread
make a wonderful improvement on the old-fashioned hoe-cake. That this
bj'ead is healthier than yeast bread there is no doubt.
'■'A healthy stomach, especially in winter, when the system is in a vigor-
ous condition, may take yeast in considerable quantity and digest the meal
before the process of fermentation lias time to take place. But not so with
weak stomachs, or healthy ones in the heat of summer, because yeast is the
deposit formed in fermenting liquids, and has the property, when added to
solutions of starch or sugar, even in exceedingly small quantities, of exci -
ing the vinous fermentation in the whole mass, and may, and often does, do
it, in the stomach as well as in bread."
But the sweetest, most nutritious, most wholesome bakers' bread, we
believe, that ever was made, is that first brought into general use in New
York in 1861, by the establishment of a large manufactory for its produc-
tion, which used over forty barrels a day, when working in full force. Tliis
bread is called '• unfermented," yet it is as light as any good home-made
bread, which it very much resembles.
The following is the process by which it is made light without yeast :
380 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV
"The best superfiiMJ flour, witli a due proportion of pure wafer, passes
from the bin, tiirougli a hvrj,'e iron pipe, into a huge, hollow globe of ca^^t-
iron, lined with tin, in which revols'es an iron shaft with polished steel arms,
wliicli mix and knead the dough.
"During this operation pure carbonic acid gas is conveyed from the gas-
ometer into the globe by a powerful force-pump, and is incorporated uni-
fomily into the whole mass. Every ingredient is in definite proportion, and
the most perfect accuracy is thus insured. By the pressure of the gas the
dough is then forced through a valve into baking-tins, and in an hour and
a lialf, from flour in the bin, it is beautifully baked bread. Xo hand of man
touches it in the whole process. All is done by the iron hands of niachinei-y
and the power of steam. No chemical change whatever occurs in the flour.
All its elements — the starch, the gluten, and sugar — are retained in their
original proportions and purity, and the result is the best and sweetest bread
in existence. By the old process a little of the starch is always converted into
dextrine — a species of glue — giving the bread a dark color, and sometimes
sodden texture. To remedy this, alum is generally used, and the bread there-
by further vitiated. Perfect cleanliness in the manufacture of bread has
not been possible heretofore. It is by this process.
" Bread made at home has been the purest that could be had, for the ves-
sels were carefully looked after, and the air was generally free from dust
and decomposing particles, but none could tell what impurities contaminated
the yeast, which, whether it came from baker or brewer, was necessarily
more or less mixed with foreign substances. Home-made bread was the
cleanest we could have, but was not perfectly pure ; while Avith the mo.-t
watchful supervision and most careful cleanliness, bakers' bread, made in
the ordinary way, can not possibly be entirely clean."
Another advantage unfermented bread has over all other bakers' bread, is
its remarkable keeping quality. It has been eaten with great satisfaction
when twelve days old.
"William Lounsberry, commissary of the 20th Regiment, New York State,
which had been served with this bread while in the city and on the march
to Washington, speaks of it in the following terms:
" The bread has been on our table every day since we left, and is con-
sidered by all a great delicacy. It loses none of its flavor by its age, but,
for me, it really seems to improve.
"It. is sweet, light, and very palatable. I consider it, in many respects,
the best bread I ever tasted, in addition to its power of retaining its excel-
lence so long, the virtue which gives it its inestimable value. I wish I could
be the means of informing a much larger number than 1 am able of its in-
estimable merits."
We have spoken of this method of making bread, not because it will help
families to make better bread, but to show what improvements have been
devised to make bread upon a large scale. The process would be a good
one for the army and navy, and in all large towns. It is proper to say,
Sec. 23.] THE BREAD QUESTION. 381
howeviT, that the bread is not a aniversal favorite. Habit so vitiates the
taste, tliat there arc people who love sour bread, and also bread tliat smells
and tas:es rank of yeast. To us it is not agreeable nor healthy. This " iin-
ferniented bread" is patented by Elislia Fitzgerald and James Perry, ^ffew
York.
400. Other Substitutes for Tcast— Ch€inica!s in Bread.— A substitute for
cream of tartar has been discovered by Prof. E. ISi". Horsford, which he
thinks far preferable to use with soda in bread. lie says of it :
" All tliese considerations led me to the conviction that, if it were possible
to prepare phosphoric acid in some form of acid phosphate of lime, such
that, after its action with moist carbonate of soda, it would leave phosphate
of soda (a constituent of the blood) and phosphate of lime (an essential con-
stituent of food), and confer upon it the necessary qualities of a dry, pulver-
ulent acid, the end would be so far attained as to justify a practical experi-
ment in domestic use.
'• I succeeded in producing an article in condition to meet tlie wants of
the problem. I then introduced it into my family for use in all forms, as a
substitute for cream of tartar for culinary purposes. When many months
of daily use had assured me that my theoretical views were sustained by
practical application, I gave it into the hands of friends, whose prolonged
experience fully confirmed my own. It has been in constant use in my
family now for more than four yeai-s ; and in the form of yeast powder,
during tliis time, it has been produced and consumed in all parts of the
country to a very large extent, settling, in the most satisfactory manner, all
questions as to its serviceability and healthfulness.
" The article is prepared according to instructions furnished by myself, as
the result of long-continued experiment, and it will be produced of invari-
able purity and strength equal to that of cream of tartar."
Of the same purport, and having a direct reference to this case, are the
views of Dr. Samuel Jackson, professor of the institute of medicine in the
University of Pennsylvania :
" Your substitute for cream of tartar for the raising of bread is a decided
improvement. The tartaric acid is not a constituent of the grains from
wliich flour is made; it is not a nutritive principle, and often disagrees with
the alimentary organs. Tlie pliosphate of lime, which is the principal in-
gredient of your preparation, is an essential constituent of all grains. It is
further an important nutritive principle ; and recent experiments have
proved it is an indispensable element in the formation, not of bones only,
but of all the animal tissues. A deficiency of the phosphate of lime in food
is a common cause of ill-healtli, of defective development, and retarded
growth in children. In the conversion of wheat into flour, the phospliate
of lime is rejected with the bran; and, in consequence, this necessary ele-
ment of nutrition, contrary to the arrangement of nature, is not obtained
from our fine wheat bread. Your preparation, wliile it makes a light, sweet,
and palatable bread, restores to it the phpsphate of lime which has been
382 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
separated from the flour, and tliiis adapts it as an aliment for the mainten-
ance of a liealthy state of the organization."
Other chemists and piiysicians of acknowledged high character and stand-
ing have given similar opinions.
If raising bread by yeast is properly conducted, it is quite unobjection-
able ; but if, as is often the case, fermentation is allowed to proceed too long,
acetic and lactic acids are formed, and some of the complex nitrogenous
substances arise from the decomposition of the plastic bodies of the flour,
and are incorporated in tlie bread.
Yeast bread is never good unless the fermentation is arrested by baking
at just the riglit time. Ordinarily, this right time is a ))eriod of short dura-
tion, and probably not one loaf in one hundred is raised and baked when it
should be. The circnmstanccs which modify the time in which the fermenta-
tion may take place ai'C so various, that it may occur in thirty minutes or
twelve hours. Tiie sponge requires constant watching, and this, in the mul-
titudinous duties of the kitchen, it is not always possible to secure. Then
saleratus or soda, to sweeten the sour sponge, is the resort of the cook ; and
the result is an unpalatable and imwholesome loaf, unworthy the name of
bread, and is really unwholesome food.
A correspondent of the Country Gentleman recommends the following
formula for unfermented bread :
"Take of flour 3 lbs., bicarbonate of soda 9 draelims, hydrochloric acid,
specitie gravity I.IG, 11 drachms. About 25 oz. of water will be required
to form the dough. First mi.x the soda and flour as thoroughly as possible ;
which is best done by sliaking the soda in fine powder from a sieve over the
flour with one hand, while tlie flour is stirred with the other, and then
passing the mi.xturo once or more through the sieve. Next pour the aciel
into the water and dift'usc it by stirring them well together, avoiding the use
of any metallic utensil that the soda might come in contact with. Then
•mix the dough and water so prepared as speedily as possible. Tiie dough
should be speedily put into a quick oven. This manner of making bread is
a great improvement, and will prove advantageous, compared with tlie fer-
menting method, and the quality also will be found vastly superior to the
antique ' leavened bread,' jnu-ticuhirly for dyspeptics, as it has this advant-
age, tliat it never sours on tiie stomach. By tliis method bread can be made
in two hours, and it saves both time and labor. The ingredients are simple,
and cost little. Fermentation always destroys more or less of the flour, be-
sides otherwise injuring it lor the purposes of assimilation.
" A large proportion of the bread used in some families is scarcely more
than an active form of j-east, which produces in tiie stomach a new fer-
mentation and a host of disorders. And tlien we witness, of coui-se, the
blue va])ors, which under difl'erent aspects are as ruinous to the welfare and
l>eace of a family as are those of a distillery. If tlie proportions of acid and
baking soda directed to be used are thought to be too great, they may be
varied at discretion.
Seo. 23.] TEIE BREAD QUESTIOiT. 383
"In bread-making the only purpose served by fermentation is the genera-
tion of cai-bonic acid lo raise the dough, and to effect this a quantity of yeast
is mixed with the flour. But the same purpose is gained by mixing a
quantity of carbonate of soda with the floui', with a corresponding^ropor-
tiou of hydrochloric or muriatic acid, and bread so formed is more nutri-
tious and economical."
Common salt always should be added, not only because it is palatable,
but because it has a chemical effect upon the flour, so that that of inferior
quality assumes an appearance above the reality. This is proved in what is
called " saU-rising Inxtd," ■which always looks whiter than the same flour
made with yeast. Salt also has the eftect to make flour take up and retain
more water in the bread. Alum has the same effect as salt in a stronger
degree, and its use by bakers is dishonest, because it is much more delete-
rious t'aan salt to the human stomach.
Sulphate of copper is another deleterious article in bread, but it can only
be used in small quantities, without great danger, and produces the same
results as alum in a still greater degree.
Carbonate of magnesia, nscd at the rate of 20 to 40 grs. to tlie pound of
flour, produces effects similar to the alum or sulphate of copper, and good
scientiiic authority has j^ronounced it harmless, or at least preferable to soda.
Other authoritj' says its inaptitude to become entirely soluble makes it
highly objectionable.
Probably the safest mineral substance that can be used in bread is lime,
as recommended by Liebig (394).
To prepare this lime-water, mix a quarter of a pound of slaked lime in a
gallon of pure, soft water or filtered rain-water, and cork it tight in bottles.
The water will dissolve eloth of its weight of the lime, and the balance will
settle to the bottom, leaving the water transparent, which may be used at
the rate of 5 lbs. to 19 lbs. of flour, and then fresh water may be added to
the lime until all that is soluble is used up. The quantity of lime taken into
the system is so minute that it is believed that it is not only not deleterious,
but positively beneficial.
401. Profi Youmans' Opinion of Chemicals in Bread. — Speaking of the use
of various chemical substances for yeast. Prof. Youmans sa^'s :
"The class of substances thus introduced in the bread are not nutritive
but mediciiial, and exert a disturbing action upon the healthy organism.
And altiiough their occasional and cautious employment may perhaps be
tolerated on the ground of convenience, yet we consider their habitual
use as highly injudicious and unwise. This is the best that can be said of
the chemical substances used to raise bread, even when pure; but as com-
monly obtained, they are apt to be contaminated with impurities more
objectionable still. For example, the commercial muriatic acid which is
commonly employed along with bicarbonate of soda, is always quite impure,
often containing chlorine, chlorid of iron, sulphurous acid, and even ar-
senic, so that the chemist never uses it without a tedious process of purifica-
JS-l DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
tion for liis purposes, wliieli arc of far less importance than its emijloyment
in diet. Wliile common hydrochloric acid sells for three cents per pound
wholesale, tiie purified article is sold for thirty-five. Tartaric acid is apt
to contain lime, and is frequently adulterated with cream of tartar, wliich is
sold at half the price, and greatly reduces its efficacy ; wliile cream of tartar
is variously mixed witli alum, chalk, hisulphatc of potash, tartrate of lime, and
even sand. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia is liable by exposure to the air to
lose a portion of its ammonia. It is hence seen that the substances we
employ are not only liable to injure by ingredients which they may con-
ceal, but that their irregular composition must often, more or less, defeat the
end for wliich tliey are intended. We may suggest that in tlie absence of
tests, the best practical defense is to purcliase these materials of the drug-
gist rather than the grocer. If soda is desired, call for the bicarbonate of
soda ; it contains a double charge of carbonic acid, and is purest. Soda-
saleratus is only tlie crude, impure carbonate — soda ash. The cream of tartar
should appear M'hite and pure, and not of a yellowish tinge. Carbonate of
potash in its crude state appears as pearlash ; in its more ]nirified form it is
saleratus. Crude soda is known as sal-soda or soda-saleratus ; refined and
cleared of its chief impurities, it forms carbonate and bicarbonate of soda.
All these compounds have the common alkaline or burning property, wliich
belongs to free potash and soda, which is lowered or weakened by the car-
bonic acid united with them. The potash compounds are the strongest,
those of soda being of the same nature, but weaker. Yet the system, as we
have just seen, recognizes essential differences between them; one ])erlains
to the blood and the other to the flesh. According to the theory of tlieir
general use for raising bread, they ought to be neutralized by an acid, mu-
riatic, tartaric, acetic, or lactic, thus losing their peculiar properties and be-
coming salts. These changes do take place to a certain extent, and the sa-
line compounds formed are much less powerful and noxious than the un-
neutralized alkalies ; their effects are moderately laxative. Yet, in tlie
common use of these substances, as we have stated, the alkali is not all e.x-
tinguished ; much of it enters the system in its active form. Pure, strong
potash is a powerful corrosive ]>oison, disorganizing the stomach and dis-
solving its way through its coats quicker, perhaps, than any other jjoisonous
agent. When the alkalies are taken in small quantities, as when there
is an excess in bread, they disturb healthy digestion in the stomach by neu-
tralizing its necessary acids. They are sometimes found agreeable as pal-
liatives when there is undue acidity of the stomach ; and, on the other
bund, they may be of service in the digestion and absorption of fatty snb-
tances. It is alleged that their continued use tends to reduce the propor-
tion of fibrin in the blood. Cases are stated where families have been poi-
soned by the excessive employment of saleratus.'"
402. Baking Bread— Heat of the Oven— Quality of Flouro- The heat of the
oven, besides being cquallj' diffused, should continue regulaf. The heat is
right when flour sprinkled on the oven-bottom turns brown gradually, and
Sec. 23.] THE BREAD QUESTION 385
too hot if the flour chars black directly ; for tlien it ■will produce a thick
crnst, often burnt, while the interior of the loaf is underdone. The crumb
is cooked at the boiling-point — 212 degrees — and might be done in a steam-
clianiber as Avell as an oven, but for the crust, which we all love so well that
we are not willing to dispense with it for any more economical mode of
cooking t!ian the oven.
The heat of the oven swells a well-raised lump of dough to about double
the size b}' the expansion of carbonic acid gas, and by steam arising from
the moisture in the loaf, and by the vaporizing of alcohol, distilled out in
the process of baking, to an amount equal to about one quarter of one per
cent, of the weight of bread. A well-raised loaf of bread is more than half
cavities. The loss of Aveight in baking depends upon the quality of the
flour and size of the loaf. A one-pound loaf will generally require 1 lb. 6 oz.
of dough. A three-pound loaf requires 3 lbs. 12 oz of dough. A six-pound
loaf requires 7 lbs. of dough. This shows that it is the most economical
to bake large loaves.
If you wish to prevent baking a hard crust, you can do so by rubbing the
loaf, after it is shaped for the oven, with a little lard, just enough to varnish
the surface. The crust, however, if not burnt, is always eaten with satis-
faciion, its agreeable bitter taste being preferred by many persons.
The crust, which is dry and crisp upon new bread, grows soft and moisi
after a day or two. Some housewives always wrap their loaves in wet cloths
when taken from the oven, to prevent the crust from continuing to get dryer.
There is no need of this, because the moisture of the crumb soon softens the
crust, and frequently leaves the crumb too dry. When this is the case, re-
turn the stale loaf to the oven in company with a dish of hot water.
The average quantity of water in well-baked wheaten loaves is about
forty-five per cent. Tlie best flour contains six to ten per cent, of water.
The reason that spring wheat flour makes moister bread than winter wheat,
is because it contains more gluten, and that being once thoroughly wet in
mixing the dough, is retentive of the water, even after it has lost its tough,
adhesive qualities, in passing from dough into well-baked bread crumb. A
portion of the starch of the dough also retains water by being converted by
the baking process into gum. The loaf will retain much more moisture,
and. consequently be better bread, if it crusts over immediately upon its
being placed in the oven, as it is then in a measure impervious to water, and
shuts in all that the interior of the loaf contains.
403. The Effect of Kneading. — Good bread can not be made by merely
mixing flour and water and yeast. The mass must be kneaded so as to
be sure to bring every grain of flour in contact with its equivalent grain
of water, and so as to diff"use the yeast uniformly throughout the mass,
or else the resulting gas will be liberated in excess in one spot and not at all
in another. This is seen in badly-kneaded loaves in the large holes they
contain, and in a crust that easily detaches from the crumb, as though it bad
been lifted up by internal force. The air-cells in a well-kneaded loaf are
386 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
fine and unifonn tlirongliout the mass, and all will be formed at about the
same time. If the flour and yeast are decidedly good, and the kneading
decidedly bad, the bread will not give satisfaction. On the otiier hand,
good kneading, good molding, and good baking, will make a second or
third-rate quality of flour pass almost c(nial to the best.
404. Preparations of Wheat and Otlifr Substances for Bread.— There are
many things Avhich may be used to mix M-ith white wheat flour, or as sub-
stitutes for it. A baker in Paris has tried a successful experiment to reduce
the cost of bread by mixing rice flour with that of wheat. lie puts in one
part of rice to five of wheat flour, and the economy eflfected reaches the very
considerable figure of one sou in the two-pound loaf. The government has
had the bread examined by competent persons, and has authorized the sale
of it at a less rate tlian fixed by the police. The demand is such that the
baker can not supply it. Neither the nutriment nor the taste of the bi"ead
would appear to be aflfected by the presence of the new ingredient.
The greatest advantage of mixing rice flour with wheat flour is to enable
the loaf to retain more water, and make a moister bread.
Bread made of wheat meal, as is proved by tlie chemical experiments of
Prof. Johnston, aflords much more nutriment than that made from superfine
flour. Tliese experiments show us that 1,000 lbs. of wheat meal, or the
wheat ground coarsely, and the hulls or bran portion sifted out by using a
common meal-sieve, contain the elements of — Muscular matter, 156 lbs. ;
fat, 28 lbs. ; bone materia], 170-354 lbs.
"Wiiereas in fine flour are found only of — Muscular matter, 130 lbs.; fat,
20 lbs. ; bone material, CO-210 lbs. Leaving a balance iu favor of the
former of 144 lbs. in 1,000 lbs. of the real elements of food convertible by
assimilation into mn&cular flesh, fat, and bone.
Now, as bread ranks among the chief, if not as the chief substance de-
signed for the nutrition and support of the human frame, the above facts
ought to have weight, in a pecuniary point of view, as an argument against
the exclusive use of superfine flour.
Unbolted wheat meal for bread is in high favor with many, and we think
every family should use it a portion of the time. In mixing the dough of
this meal, do not make it quite as stifl' as you would white flour, and you
must be careful that it docs not sour in rising, as it will do so sooner tiian
bolted flour. It also requires a hotter oven and longer baking, and the crust
is more apt to burn.
Rye flour mixed with wheat flour enables the loaf to hold more water.
The objection to it is its darker color and rye taste.
Indian corn meal is also mixed with wheat flour, for the same purpose a.s
rye flour, and if pure white corn is used, it does not aflfect the color of the
loaf, and makes very sweet bread.
Of mixing potatoes we have fully treated (394), and recommend farmers
to grow some of the very white fleshed, dry sorts, for this purpose.
A French process uses ninety per cent, of the wheat nuxking white bread.
Sec. 23.] THE BREAD QUESTION-. 387
The wheat is ground into fine wheat flour, sevcntj-four per cent. ; brown
meal, sixteen per cent. ; bran, ten j^er cent. The meal is then mixed quite
thin Miih water and the necessary yeast added, and this is used to mix the
white flour into a dough, whicli is baked as usual when light. The bread
is declared to be greatly improved, being less likely to sour, and is light,
sweet, and nutritious,
405. Corn Breadi — Although Indian corn is a more universal crop than
wheat, corn bread is by no means in universal use. The reason is in some
measure to be accounted for in the inborn love of fermented bread which
the meal of this grain will not make. The use of " leavened bread" has
been thought by some to come in part from the early notion that it created
a distinction between Christians and Jews. The former always use leavened
bread — at least the Protestants do, in their sacraments — and the Jews have
their holy " feasts of unleavened broad ;" so that eating unleavened bread
as a constant practice has been said to be an unchristian act. It was also
the daily food of the heathen, and in early times, when the first settlers of
the country were very poor, corn bread was the only kind ; and the use
of it now may call up reminiscences of painful poverty. It is also the only
bread of slaves, and it may be looked upon as a badge of servitude. At
any rate, the poorest classes of the -Northern States make the least use of
corn bread. Yet it is the very thiog tliat they should eat, because it is
nutritious, healthful, and economical. In Northern cities, corn meal fur-
nishes scarcely one per cent, of tlie bread food, and not one per cent, of that
is made into bread. In tlie farming regions of the northeastern States pure
corn bread is only seen occasionally upon the farmer's table, though bread
made of a mixture of about two parts of corn meal and one of rye meal,
familiarly known as " ry'n'-injun," is still extensively used. (See 393.)
A much better mixture is one part rye meal, two parts corn meal, and
four parts fine wheat flour. The rye and corn are mixed with yeast, quite
soft, and set to rise, and after getting veiy spongy, the wheat flour is worked
in, and the mass allowed to get light before it is put to bake.
At the South, corn bread is almost the only sort ever seen upon the tables
of many families who rank upon a par with the mass of Northern farmers.
All eat it there and are content, both master and slave, and those who are
hired, or sit at the table as guests. If a farmer at the North should attempt
to feed his laborers exclusively upon corn bread, there would probably be a
revolt, particularly if a majority of them were Irish, whose only bread in
their own country was potatoes.
Such laborers have yet to learn that corn bread gives more working force
than bread of fine Avheaten flour. The latter gives the most brain food, and
is best for growing children ; but Indian corn, either iu tire form of bread, or
many of the other forms in which it comes to the tables of those who know
how to cook it, furnishes the laborer with a greater proportion of power
than any other grain, and its value should be better known, and it then
would be more used as an article of food.
388
DOfESTIC ECON^OMT.
[Chap. IV.
Perhajis the reason why the use of corn bread is going out of fashion in
this region, ■wliich is in the very center of the great corn belt, niaj' be found
in the fact that so many households are now served by cooks who were not
born in a corn-growing country, and who seem incapable of learning that
corn meal is not fit to eat in a semi-raw state. If they make it into niujh,
they only scald it. If they mix it into bread, they insist upon its being done
as soon as it is heated through. Learn, then, that corn meal can not be
cooked too much — it seldom is enough. The best corn bread we ever ate
was from meal well kneaded with nothing but water and a little salt, and
then made into lumps about tlie size and somewhat the shape of a man's foot,
and raked in the embers just like potatoes to roast, and there allowed to
remain and cook all night. The next best corn bread is the old-style johnny-
cake, mixed in the same wa}', and patted about three-quarters of an inch
thick upon a board, and roasted before an exceedingly hot fire.
The next best are the " corn-dodgers" of the Southwest, mixed like the
first^ and baked in an iron bake-pan, standing on hot coals, with hot coals
on the lid. These dodgers are usually of two to four pounds weight, and
when brought hot to the table are certainly good bread. They are much
eaten cold, but we can not recommend tliem in that condition, onl}- as being
infinitely better than the half-baked corn bread common at the Nortli.
All the improvements of corn bread ever attempted by adding other
ingredients have failed, to our taste, to produce an article ^qual to a well-
baked ash-cake or corn-dodger.
Eemember the three grand secrets about making good corn bread : never
to grind your meal very fine, always to have it fresh ground, and never fear
baking it too much. All corn bread should be cooked a long time. The
negroes often bury the dough in the hot embers all night.
One of the most common objections to tl>e use of corn bread is its sup-
posed indigestibility. On account of this character, which it has obtained,
as we think, unjustly, it is avoided by many people who are of a dyspeptic
habit. We think there is a mistake in ascribing this c'laracfer to corn bread
indiscriminately. If Indian corn meal is not thoroughly cooked, it is indi-
gestible— more so, perhaps, tlian any other grain. But such bread as that
above described as ash-cakes or corn-dodgers, we do not believe indigestible.
We have often eaten corn-cakes, made purposely for a severe affliction of
indigestion, and found them better than any other kind of bread. These
were made of meal and water and salt only, and patted out into the size
and thickness of Boston crackers, and most thoroughly baked in a quick
oven. See Section XXIY.
Sec. 24.]
SUBSTITUTES FOK BREAD.
389
SECTION XXIV.-SUBSTITUTES FOR BREAD, IN GREEN AND DRIED
CORN, POP-CORN, HOMINY, AND PREPARATIONS OF WHEAT
OW truly has brea<J heen denominated " the staff
of life!" For it there is no substitute; though
some of the excellent preparations of food treated
of in this section may be considered substitutes,
but they are only partially so ; yet they are
worthy of our especial attention, because, as
articles of food, all over America, they hold a high
rank; and a notice of them seems fitting in connec-
tion with the bread question. Each one of the
articles named in this section furnishes wholesome
and economical food, and some of them should be
better known in every farmer's family.
406. Oreeu C«rn, or Roasting Ears. — Boasting the
ears, is the primitive way of using Indian corn. It
is the first use that the earl}-^ settlers of America made of it, because that was
the uiode in which they found the Indians preparing it. The quality of the
corn grown for eating while in its milky state, has been much improved
since Captain Smith took his first meal with Pocahontas, on the banks
of James River, in 1607. Certainly there can be no richer vegetable
food than the best quality of sugar corn, such as every farmer should
ii;row, when simply boiled, or when made up in that Indian dish called snc-
co-tash. And if any farmer doubts the value of this green corn, as winter
food, when carefully preserved by drying, or in sealed cans, we think he
would be convinced, if he could dine at our table for a month in midwinter,
where he would find it was one of the regular dishes. We have just made
a hearty meal of this and another preparation of corn, dii'cctly to be noticed.
It is almost a substitute for bread and meat. It is useless to advise any
native American farmer's family to eat green corn, but it is not useless nor
improper to urge nine tenths of them to use a better variet3^ And we do
most earnestly ask every family to preserve enough by drying to give the
family a dish of it two or three times a week, cooked by boiling in plain
soft water two or three hours, and until nearly all the water is absorbed or
evaporated, and then season with salt and butter. If a little saleratus is
added at fi.rst, it will become tender with less boiling. Some like it dished
up with milk or cream. It is also excellent stewed with beans (succotash),
seasoned with a piece of meat, and it is very good in soups.
407. Dow to Dry and f ook Sweet Corn. — "When the corn is in good condition
for eating, the grains being fully grown, boil a quantity of ears just enough
to cook the starch, and let them cool and dry a few hours, and then shell or
390 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
cut off tlie grains and spread tlicni in the sun till dried. The best way to
dry the corn is to nail a j)iece of cloth of very open texture on a frame ; say
two feet wide and live feet long, will he a convenient size to handle. If the
corn is spread thinly upon this cloth it will dry quickly without souring. It
should "be covered with a piece of musquito netting to keep off the flics.
Another person gives the following directions for drying sweet corn.
" As soon as the corn is fit for the table, husk and spread the ears in an
open oven or some quick drying-place. "When the kernels loosen, shell the
corn as soon as you can, and spread it upon a cloth to dry in the sun, or on
paper in a warm oven ; stir it often that it may dry quickly and not over-
heat. Dried in this way, the kernels remain whole, are sweeter, and retain
more of the natural flavor by drying faster. When all dried, expose it to
the wind by turning it slowly from dish to dish ; the wind blows ofi' all that
troublesome white chaff."
Another plan has been highly recommended and a machine invented to
facilitate the operation ; this is to bore out the pith of the cob and then com-
pletely dry the corn on the cob and keep it there till wanted for the table,
when it may be shelled first or boiled as it grew.
Directions for cooking dried sweet corn are very sin)ple. Wash and put
it in warm water to soak several hours; then in the same water boil it for
a half hour. Just before taking it up, add some sweet milk or cream, pep-
per and salt to tlie taste, and a little sugar if it is not as sweet as would be
agreeable. Sometimes a bit of soda as large as a pea in a half pint of corn,
while soaking, makes it more tender, and corrects any stale taste which it
has acquired by long keeping.
This is a good dish with meat, dressed with gravy, or it maybe eaten wilh
sauce as a dessert dish. It is good enough, eaten any way, to be, and it
should be, upon every American farmer's table, s
408. Hulled Coru, or Lye Uominy, is another primitive form of preparing
an excellent substitute for bread. In the form of " tortillas," it is the almost
universal bread of Central America. We look upon hulled corn as one of
the luxuries of American farm life, yet not one in ten of farmers' families
ever enjoy it. It is particularly acceptable in the spring of the year, when
old vegetables are on the decline, and new ones have not yet con)e into use.
When the farmer burns wood, a white lye may be mado in a few minntes,
or cobs may be burned and ashes used to make a lye, into wh'ch put the corn
to be hulled, which should be large, white-flint corn, and let it remain until
the hull will slip easily, and then rinse it thoroughly in cold water, rubbing
it with the hands or stirring it with a stick till all the hulls are washed off.
Feed the hulls and chits which come out to the )>igs or hens, and boil fho
corn for j-oursclf until it swells to three times its original size, and is as soft
as bread. Yon may prepare and boil a gallon at once for six persons, and
what is not eaten at first may be warmed over just as you would potatoes.
Those who have no wood ashes or cobs to make weak lye of, may hull coi-n
by using a teaspoonful of saleratus to a quart of corn, in water enough to
Sec. 2-4.] SUBSTITUTES FOK BREAD. 391
cover it. In either case the lye must be made hot after tlie corn is put in
to loosen the hull ; and if the lye is not carefully washed from the corn, it
will taste unpleasantly. t
409. Saiop; or Dry Uominy. — This is another and most valuable prepara-
tion of corn, and an excellent, wholesome, economical substitute for bread.
It is an article that no family, desirous of practicing economy, can do without.
It is a very cheaj), healthy, nutritious food. It usually costs only half the
price per pound of flour, and contains no moisture, while the best of flour
holds from twelve to sixteen pounds of water in a barrel. In point of econ-
omy as human food, one bushel of hominy is equal to ten of potatoes, for
which it is an excellent substitute, and is almost as universally liked as po-
tatoes, and at the South it is more freelj' eaten ; while at the North it is
seldom seen, except by a few persons in cities. By hominy, we do not mean
a sort of coarse meal, but grains of white corn from which the hull and
chit or eye have been removed by moistening and ponnding in a wooden
mortar, or patent hulling machine, leaving the grains almost whole, and
composed of little else Dut starch.
410. How to Cook IIODlinyi — The process is very simple to those who know
how. As but few do, we give the formula of practice in our own family :
Wash slightly in cold water, and soak twelve hours in tepid, soft water ;
then boil slowly from three to six hours in the same water, with plenty more
added from time to time, taking care to prevent burning. Do not salt
while cooking, as salt or hard water will harden the corn ; so it will peas or
beans, green or dry, and rice also. When done, add butter and salt ; or a
better way is to let each one season to suit the taste. It may be eaten with
meat in lieu of vegetables, or with sugar or syrup. It is good, hot or cold ;
it is good frequently warmed over, for it is like the old-fashioned pot of —
" Beau porridge hot, or bean porridge cold,
Dean porridge best at nine days old. ' '
So is liominy ; it is good always, and very wholesome, and like tomatoes,
only requires to be eaten once or twice to fix the taste in its favor.
In New York this article is called samp, and the name hominy is given to
corn cracked in a mill, and winnowed, and sifted, and numbered according
to its fineness. We add a few of the M'ays in which hominy may be used.
HoMTNY Breakfast-Cakes. — Mash the cold hominy with a rolling-pin,
and add a little flour-and-milk batter, so as to make the whole thick enough
to form into little cakes in the hand, or it may be put upon the griddle with
a spoon. • Bake brown, eat hot, and you will declare you never ate anything
better of the batter-cake kind.
IIoMiNY Pudding. — Prepare as for breakfast-cakes ; add one egg to oiu h
pint, some whole cinnamon, sugar to suit the taste, and a few raisins, and
bake like rice-pudding. A little butter or chopped suet may be added.
Serve hot or cold, with or without sauce.
Hominy Salad. — To a pint of cold hominy add a small onion, a quarter
of a boiled chicken, or about the same quantity of lobster, chopped fine, to
392 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
which some add a small pickle. To be dressed with sweet oil, mustard,
popper, and vinegar. It is a very good substitute for green salads at seasons
when the latter can not be obtained.
Hominy and Milk, hot or cold, is as much better than iiiush-and-milk as
that is better than rye-meal porridge.
Hominy and Beans. — Mix equal parts of cold baked beans and hominy
together, and heat up, and you will have an excellent dish.
Soft Hominy Bread. — One spoonful of boiled hominy, cooled ; a small
lump of butter, one egg, half a jiint of wheat flour — mixed with milk to the
consistency of cream. Bake a half hour in a hot oven.
Hominy "Waffles. — Two spoonfuls of hominy, a small lump of butter,
two eggs, one quart of wheat flour. Thin with milk to the consistency of
very thick cream. Bake in waffle-irons.
411. How Hominy is niadCt — The primitive way of making hominy Ava3
beating the corn in a mortar, in a considerable mass together, so as to rub
off the hulls by attrition of the grains, without breaking them. Nearly
forty years ago, in floating down the Ohio Iliver of a still evening, we 'first
heard the music of the hominy mortars, which filled the air, as tlie voices of
the negroes kept time to the strokes of the pestles, preparing a favorite food
for their masters as well as themselves. But of late years the ground hom-
iny, or cracked corn, has in a great measure driven the old hominy mortar
out of use. Negro hominy is cooked by soaking and boiling until it
becomes gelatinous, and then, when cold, if cut in slices and fried in a
little fat, is often eaten in preference to any other bread. Hominy is also
made by mechanical means, one of which is a shaft armed with files,
revolving in a case with the corn, which makes a very nice article.
At the South, negroes prefer hominy or corn meal to wheat flour, pound
for pound. Corn is ground very coarse, and frequently eaten, hulls and all,
in preference to sifting. Faw would be willing to live upon that alone. It
would not be good economy to do so. It would be good economv for us all
to use more Indian corn meal, and it would not only be economical, but
healthy, to eat more hominy.
"We will add liere several good receipts for cooking corn meal, as substi-
tutes for whcaten bread :
412. Virginia Corn Bread. — Dissolve one tablespoonful of butter in three
and a half pints of boiling milk; in this scald one quart of Indian meal;
when cool, add a half pint of wheat flour, a little sugar, a teas[>oonful of
salt, and two eggs well beaten ; mix well together, and bake in two cake-
tins well greased or buttered.
413. The St. €liarles Hotel Indian Bread.— Beat two eggs very light, mix
them with one pint of sour milk (or butter with sweet milk will do), then
add a teaspoonful of soda or saleratus, then stir in slowly one pint of Indian
meal and one tablespoonful of melted butter; beat these w-ell together-
bake in a common cakcpau, in a quick oven. The bread can be made very
good without eggs.
Sec. 24.] SUBSTITUTES FOR BREAD. 393
414. Musb, or llasty Puddiug. — Stir into a half pint of cold water enough
Indian meal to make a thick batter; put this into three or four quarts of
boiling water over the fire ; after this has boiled ten minutes, stir in a
dessert-spoonful of salt, and sifted meal until it is quite thick ; let it boil
from one to two liours, stirring it often to prevent its burning.
415. Fried Mushi — Mush to be fried should boil a little stiifer, with a half
pint of flour, say, to two quarts of mush ; put the mush in an earthen dish
dipped in cold water ; let it stand until jierfectly cold ; then cut it in slices
half an inch thick, and fry them brown on both sides in a little butter or
pork fat — lard will do with a little salt.
410. Indiau CakeSi — To a pint of mush add milk or warm water to make a
batter, and flour enough to make the cuke hold together ; two or three eggs,
two spoonfuls of molasses or sugar, a little nutmeg or lemon, to suit the
taste ; bake on a griddle or in an oven.
417. Baked Indiau Pudding. — Into one quart of boiling milk scald ten
tablespoonfuls of Indian meal ; when cold, add a teacupful of molasses, a
piece of butter the size of an egg, a teaspooriful of salt, also of ginger and
cinnamon ; bake in a jjudding-dish from one to two hours, in a cook-stove,
or longer if in a brick oven. When done it has the appearance of brown
bread.
418. Pop-Corn— Its Uses as Food— It makes Delicious Puddings.— We can
not close this section upon substitutes for bread without bringing to the notice
of farmers a new preparation of Indian corn, original with the author, but
highly approved by a very large number of persons to whom the new dis-
covery has been made known. It is as much a pleasure as it is a duty to
tell farmers how they can grow and prepare upon their own farms a substi-
tute for rice, farina, tapioca, sago, etc., for culinary purposes — something, in
short, that shall be as good as either of the above substances for the use of
the good housewife, to make a pudding — a pudding that is not a mere
adjunct of a dinner, but a real substantial addition to it; as hearty as one
of corn meal ; more wholesome than that, more toothsome, and equally cheap ;
60 that it is within the reach of all, both rich and poor; and as I think it a
valuable discovery in the preparation of food, I am anxious that everybody
sliould enjoy the benefit of my discovery.
" Necessity is the mother of invention." It was so in this case. It was
discovered that a pudding could be got up in an impromptu manner, upon
an emergency, in a farm-house, when tlic ingredients in most common use
were exhausted.
For years popped corn had been an almost daily dish, all the family and
all visitors liking it very much ; but we had never thought of reducing it to
meal, and applying it to culinary purposes, until one winter daj% when a
pudding was wanted, and it was not convenient to obtain any of the ordi-
nary substances used for that purpose. To the cook's suggestion that corn
meal might be borrowed, the mistress of the house replied : " No, no — my
father would rather go hungry than live by borrowing. Besides, I don't
394 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
think there is time to make a corn-meal pudding ; it requires four good
liotirs to cook it sufficiently, otiierwise it always has a raw taste; for corn
meal is never good unless cooked a great deal. I think you will have to
give up the pudding, but I will ask my father."
So slie did, and lie said : " Let us liave a pop-corn pudding."
" Oh, it will, I fear, be a waste of time and material, and prove a great
failure."
" No matter ; there is as much to be learned by failure as success. Let
us try."
So we did. A pint of ]>op-corn was put through the operation, and it
made sixteen pints of popped corn, which was first crushed witii a rolling-
pin on the kitchen-table, and then ground in the cofl'ce-mili into a coai-se
meal, which measured eight pints. It is easiest crushed by putting it in a
bng. We have since procured a large-sized coffee-mill, that grinds the corn
without first mashing it. The difficulty was, that it was so light it would
not feed regularly into the grinding-plates of tlie mill. "Wc grow the corn
for popping; it is a small, white, flint grain, upon small cobs, and quite
prolific in its yield. It is popped in a small popper made of woven wire,
and takes perhaps half an hour to pop and grind a pint.
i\d. llow to make a Pop-Corn Pudding. — Mix five pints of the pop-corn
meal with full four pints of sweet milk, and set it where it will warm
slightly, and soak an hour or two. Then let it cool, and add two eggs,
sugar, raisins, spice, as you would to a rice-pudding. Let it be set on a hot
stove and boiled a few minutes, stirring it several times to get the meal well
mixed with the milk, because it inclines, from its great lightness, to float,
and if baked without stirring there will be a brown crust on top and custard
at the bottom. It should be baked about an hour, and served hot, and will
be eaten with great satisfaction — satisfaction that a new ingredient for a
delicious, rich, wholesome pudding has been discovered — one always at hand,
easily prepared, and one that has never failed to gratify the taste of all who
have tried it.
The cost of such a pudding to a farmer is the cost of the sugar, raisins,
and spice — the milk and corn I count at nothing. "What should I count the
cost of five eighths of a Y>mt of corn and four pints of milk, which, if not
oaten upon the table, would go to the pigs ? The eggs would sell possibly
tor four cents, and the things bought cost as much more, in a pudding that
fed eight liearty people. Let us then eat pudding — good, rich pudding — as
much as we can at a meal, at a cost of one cent each. It is cheap ; try it,
and you will say it is good.
420. Pop-Corn Griddle Cakesi^ — Anolhor use for this pop-corn meal is for
griddle cakes. To my taste, they are quite equal to rice cakes, cooked in
any M-ay that rice is, and are much heartier. In fact, there is no stronger
food for a laboring man tlian any of the preparations of corn in the way I
liavc indicated. At the same time, its digestibility is unquestioned.
4:21. The Philosophy of Popping Corni — The philosophy of the advantage
Seo. 24.] SUBSTITUTES FOR BREAD. 395
of thus preparing corn is worthy of our attention. Of all the cereals, Indian
corn requires the greatest action of fire to fit it for food. It is full of essen-
tial oil, and that needs to be cooked, and it can only be done by a very high
heat or a long-continued moderate one. If long continued, the other con-
stituents of the corn are sometimes injured, and so are the ingredients added
to the meal. If not well cooked, any article of food prepared from corn,
however palatable, is not so digestible as wheaten bread. Now, in pop-
ping corn, it is subjected to a very high heat, which thoroughly cooks the
oil, and fits the corn at once for food — a food that almost everybody loves,
and so will everybody love the various preparations of food from meal made
of popped corn, for it may be eaten without fear by the dyspeptic, and it
will be eaten with satisfaction to appease hunger.
As we know that corn and corn meal, properly kiln-dried, will keep a long
time, we may safely argue that meal prepared by a still more perfect system
of fire-drying, will keep an indefinite length of time, or just as long as we
wish. If ground and packed in barrels, the pop-corn meal will keep better
than corn meal or flour, or even whole grain.
422. Hulled Wheat, Wheaten Groats, and Boiled Whe&U—IluUed wheat is
another excellent substitute for bread. It can be hulled by lye, or by any
of the mechanical means used for hulling corn or rice, one of which is to
ran it through millstones, set just far enough apart to rub otf the husks.
It is cooked by simply boiling, and is eaten in the various ways that we have
mentioned for hominy.
Wheati'?i Groats, or "grits," as they are usually called, are coarsely-
ground wheat — as coarse as it can well be ground. This is also a substitute
for bread. It is cooked by boiling in plain water, as hominy or hulled corn
and wheat should always be, until all the water is absorbed. It is eaten both
hot and cold, or warmed over, and it does not require as much cooking as any
preparation of Indfan corn, and it is both palatable and healthful.
Every family, whether rich or poor, or in town or country, should make
it a religious duty to use more corn meal, oatmeal, Graham flour, hominy,
and cracked wheat for bread, in preference to fine wheat flour, both for
health and economy. Look at the relative retail prices per pound of these
articles, and see which will give the most nutriment for the least money;
not which will afi'ord you the most fashionable bread.
Boiled wheat is another simple form of preparing an excellent substitute
for bread, particularly at liarvest-time, while the grains are not as hard as
afterwards. It should be carefully selected, and cleaned, and washed, and
then soaked several hours, and boiled in the same water until some of the
i;rains crack open. It may be eaten with meat, or as a dessert, with syrup,
sauce, or milk.
500
DOMESTIC ECOXOMY.
[Chap. IV.
SECTION XXV.-EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES.
NDER this head, which really means selecting
choice extracts from hooks that vre read, we intend
to gather up a great numher of useful thing?, and
concentrate them here for easy reference in a some-
what miscellaneous order.
We will open the section with a most valuable line
of advice, selected from a letter of an excellent house-
wife to her daughter, when about undertaking the
responsibilities of housekeeping. She says :
423. "Always Buy Good Articles, notwitlistanding
the first cost is more, in preference to cheap or low-
priced sorts, which are generally the most uneconomi-
cal ; and sometimes low-priced articles of food prove
detrimental to health. Make it a point to read every-
thing that comes in your way about domestic economy.
You can not learn too much. Keep a little memorandum-book, with alplia-
bet pages, and make it a rule to store up cxcerpta from all 30U read, for
future use. It will prove to you a lasting source of useful knowledge.
Frequently you need only make a reference in your memorandum where to
look for what you want. No head is large enough fur a storehouse of all
that a good housewife will at some time want to know."
424. Economy of Farm-house Lights. — This is a very important question for
the consideration of farmers' wives, who may find that it will not always be
good economy to burn their own tallow. Certainly not, if it can be ex-
changed for a light-producing substance which will save the hard, unplea-
sunt labor of candle-making, and at the same time afford a much better and
a pleasanter light. Unfortunately, we have no standard of comparative
cost of tallow — the almost universal source of farm-house light — with fluid
substances. E. N. Kenf, of the United States Assay Office, fells us, in the
following table, which is the most economical as regards cost of oleaginous
substances for light.
42.x Cost of Oils for Light Compared ;
Mni^^rioia T-~„TT„i Retail Ptioe of Oil Cost of r.n Kqual
'*'-^'""'''- LampUsoa. per Gallon. Amouul of Light.
Kerosene oil Kerosene $1 00 84 10
Caiiiphenc Cainphone C3 4 85
Sylvic oil Rosin oil 50 C 05
H-ipc-soed oil Mechanical 1 50 9 00
Whule oil Solar 1 00 12 00
Lard oil Solar 1 25 17 00
Sperm oil Solar 2 25 2G 00
Burning fluid Large wick 87 29 00
42(5. Cost of Oil and Caudles Compared. — Dr. Ure gives the comparative cost
of an equal amount of light per hour from the following substances :
Sec. 25.] EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES. 397
" Carcel lamp, with sperm oil, Ijd. ; wax candles, 6d. ; spermaceti candles,
5id. ; stearic acid candles, 4id. ; molded tallow candles, 2id."
427. Economy of Kerosene Oil. — From the foregoing it will be seen that
kerosene oil is the least expensive of all fluid liglit-producing substances;
and as it is now refined, and burnt in improved lamps, we believe it to be
a very agreeable substitute for tallow candles, but whether cheaper or not
can only be determined by actual experiments in different households, com-
paring the cost per gallon with the value per pound of tallow, and the light
produced or the light required. As a general thing, farm-house lights are
very inferior, and many a bright pair of eyes has been dimmed in conse-
quence. It is on this account that this question of light should be more
discussed and experimented upon. Do not continue to use candles, or any
particular form of lamp or kind of oil, because you have long been in that
practice, if there really is something better.
428. How to Improve Caudles. — If you do use home-made candles, pray
purify the tallow, and do not mix lard with it, though you may add a little
alum, and never use your candles any sooner than you would soap — until
they are at least six months old. Pack them in bran, and set them away in
a cool, dry place, and see how much they improve by age.
It is well to mix beef and mutton tallow, but the proportion of the latter
should be small, because it sometimes gives ofl" a disagreeable odor. All
good tallow is white, firm, and brittle, and dipped candles can only be made
of it in mild weather. Be careful to use notliing but fine, white, clean cot-
ton yarn for wicking.
429. Lard— How to Make and Keep it Sweet. — The lard of a hog of a])out
a year old, fattened upon corn, and carefully rendered and packed in stone
pots or sound oaken firkins, and kept covered close, will keep in a cool cel-
lar just as long as any farmer's wife wants to keep it. Lard must be thor-
oughly cooked in rendering, to keep sweet.
A cooling-room attached to the ice-house is an excellent place to keep
lard in summer. But remember that lard will never keep well in any place
if it has been insufiiciently cooked.
430. Rice and Sago should both have a clear, fresh, white appearance
when you purchase. Kice with the largest whole grains is the best. Kice
is remarkable for being the richest in starch, and most deficient in oil, of all
the cultivated grains. Old rice is apt to be infected with weevil.
The small, white sago, called pearl sago, is the best. The large, brown
kind has an earthy taste. These articles, and ground rice, tapioca, etc.,
should be kept in boxes or jars closely covered.
431. Spices, Cocoa, and Chocolate. — Spices should never be purchased by
a farmer's family in a ground state. They are frequently adulterated, and
always lose strength as soon as opened.
JVutmegs sometimes are kept in store until stale. Fresh ones can be se-
lected by pricking with a pin at the stem end, when, if good, a drop of oil
will ooze out.
39S DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. FV.
Cocoa sliells arc apt to be musty from long keeping. Never purchase a
large quantity until you have tried a sample and proved it fresh and swee'.
Cracked cocoa is generally the best. Some that is carefully put up in
papers keeps well. Chocolate is often adulterated so that it makes a nau-
seous beverage. Do not buy but a single cake until you prove it good.
Both these articles are made from the cocoa beans, which grow upon small
trees, cultivated for the purpose in Central America and other tropical lati-
tudes. The beans are bitter and astringent, and are roasted like coffee to
prepare them for use. They contain much more oil or fatty matter than
coffee berries. It is rated iu an analysis by Lampadius over 53 per cent, of
the substance. The substance containing the aroma of the bean is given at
16.70 per cent. The shells are the dried fleshy pulp that surrounds the
beans in the pods.
The cracked cocoa is the broken roasted beans. Chocolate is made of the
beans, ground with hot rollers, and made into a paste with sugar, and sea-
soned with vanilla and spices, and if not adulterated, makes a wholesome
beverage, but it is next to impossible to lind chocolate that is pure.
432. Coffee, as it comes to us, is the half of a dried bean which was inclosed
in a pulpy berrj^ that grew somewhat like a cherry upon a tree naturally ten
to thirty feet high, but kept pruned low in coffee plantations, which are to
be found in most tropical countries. The best variety of coffee comes from
Mocha, in Arabia. The berry is small and round, and the odor and flavor
xerj agreeable ; it bears a high price. And next to it is the Java coffee, a
large, pale yellow berry. The Brazilian, commonly called Rio coffee, is the
sort in most common use. The berry is of medium size, greenish color, and
appears rusted with specks of gray. It is not a fine flavored coffee, having
a good deal of acridness, but it is in favor with farmers generally, because
" it goes farther than mild coffee." All coffee improves by age if kept dry.
It should be roasted very evenly, of a light brown color, and used very soon
afterward, as it loses value every day after it is roasted, and after it is
ground it will become almost worthless by a few days' exposure to the air.
Koasted coflee should always be carefully kept in a closed canister, separate
from all food, as it rapidly absorbs odors. Roasting coffee in a room will
always disinfect it of bad effluvia. It also imparts its own odor to other
things, such as tea, butter, and bread.
In roasting coffee, first dry it gently in an open pan until it changes
color, and then cover the pan and scorch it rapidly without charring a grain.
The term, "burning coflee," implies a great error in its preparation, or ig-
norance of its character. Roasting renders the grains of coffee brittle, and
makes the matter that it is desirable to extract more soluble in hot water,
and produces as great a cl>omical change as fire does upon corn meal or any
other article of food.
The peculiar aroma of coffee as it comes to the tal>le, which gives it the
flavor and stimulating eft'cct ascribed to it, is never found in coffee grains
before they are roasted. But if it is burnt, this flavor is destroyed, and
Seo. 2o.] excerpt a of USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES. 399
in its place we have a bitter, acrid, tannic acid taste, wliicli produces py-
rosis in the stomachs of those who use it largely.
Never allow pepper and coft'ee to come in contact. The two should not be
kept in the same pantry.
The best water for a decoction of coifee is that with a slight alkaline tinc-
ture, and it has been recommended to add 40 grs. of dry soda to a pound
of coifee. It is certainly true that some of the springs of the Rocky Mount-
ains, which are so alkaline as not to be drinkable, make good coffee. So do
wells that will not make good tea.
Never buy ground coffee. Besides the fact that it loses strength, it is
almost universally adulterated. Peas are largely used for this purpose, and
beans, corn, dried carrots, turnips, chiccory, and several other substances are
also employed.
433. Tea — its Value as Food* — That tea has a value as food, we can not
doubt. Long before its use among European nations, the Chinese had set-
tled this question to their satisfaction. If it is not of itself food, it seems to
help us to assimilate other things. It certainly is a favorite beverage with
all who are accustomed to its use, and so far as health is concerned, we be-
lieve it is certainly harmless, if pure, as the best black teas generally are.
The green teas, either from the nature of the article, or from something-
added in curing, have a much greater effect upon the nervous system tliau
the black teas. Pekoe and Oolong are the names of two of the best varieties
of black tea. Gunpowder and Imperial are the two best green teas.
434. How to Make Black Tea. — Black tea must be boiled some minutes
— thirty is better than less — in a close vessel, to get the fragrant aroma and
all the vegetable extract that adds value to the delicious beverage we get
from a well-made cup of good black tea.
Never use hard water for tea Filtered rain-water makes good tea.
Never steep it in lukewarm water, and never let it come to the table at that
temperature. The true aroma of tea is never obtained except when it is
boiling hot. Tea should never be exposed to the air. Keep all ground
Biiices, and also ground coffee, carefully excluded from the air.
435. Sugar and Molassesi — For most purposes refined sugars are the
most economical. In buying raw sugar, select none but the cleanest sorts,
such as the best New Orleans, or Santa Cruz, of a light straw color, coarsely
crystallized. White Havana sugar is not as clean as white Brazil sugar.
Select bright, light-colored molasses. Never buy the thick, dark-colored,
srgar-house syrup. Its thickness does not indicate sweetness. For the
table, the real " golden syrup" of the sugar-refiners is not only the best, but
most economical. We make an excellent table syrup every year of maple-
sugar dissolved in boiling water.
436. Knowledge for the Kitchen. — Here are a few simple rules for the kitchen
that may be usefully remembered :
Oranges and lemons keep best wrapped close in soft paper, and laid in a
drawer with linen.
400 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
Bread and cakes slionld be kept in a tiu box or stone jar.
Salt codliiih sliould bo kept in a dry place, where the odor of it will not
afiect the house. Tiie best kind is that which is called dun, from its peculiar
color. Fish skin, for clearing cotiee, should be washed, dried, cut small, and
kept in a box or pajier bag.
Soft soap should be kept in a dry place in the cellar, and should not be
used till three months old.
Bar soap should be cut into pieces of a convenient size, and left where it
will become dry. It is well to keep it several weeks before using, as it
spends fast when it is new.
Cranberries will keep all winter in a firkin of water in the cellar.
Potatoes should be put into the cellar as soon as the}' are dug. Lying
exposed in the sun turns them green and makes them watery. Some good
housekeepers have sods laid over barrels cf potatoes not iu immediate use.
To prevent them from sprouting in the spring, turn them out on the cellar
bottom.
To thaw frozen potatoes, put them in hot water. To thaw frozen apples,
put them in cold water. Neither will keep well after being frozen.
437. Slorius Butter and Cheese. — The most economical, and, to our taste,
the best table butter is that which is packed in September and October for
the next winter's use. If well made, in a soft-water region, there is no
difficulty about keeping butter sweet in a temperate climate, if j)roperly
made. Never keej) butter and cheese together, except it is in a very cool
room, and then not in close contact.
If cheese is rich and good, it always feels soft imder the pressure of
the fingers. Even if kept until quite old, it does not become iiorny. Be
careful not to select a horny cheese. That which is very strong is neither
good nor healthy. To keep one that is cut, tie it up in a bag that will not
admit flies, and hang it in a cool, dry place. K mold appears on it, wipe
it off with a dry cloth.
438. Keeping Sweet Potatoes. — One who is a successful grower of sw«;t
potatoes in quite a northern latitude— ne;ir 42 degrees — gives the following
as his method of keeping them over winter. He says:
" I use dry sand to put them up in ; it does not matter how the sand was
dried — in a kiln, a log heap, or in the sun — if it is dry, that is all that is
required. I prefer drying it in a log heap, as it costs at least four times less,
and is just as good. And a family that has a little room with a stove in it,
may keep a box or two, with eight or ten bushels in them, without any in-
convenience of consequence. The boxes must be raised a few inches from
the floor, and they must not be less than four inches from the wall. Fill the
boxes with potatoes, and then put in diy sand until they are covered.
" I have known ihem kept well in buckwheat chafl". In order to keep
potatoes with success, there must be a thermometer kept in the room. The
mercury must not sink below 40 degrees; if it does, the potatoes will chill
and rot ; and it must not rise above 60 degrees, or they will grow." (See 565.)
Sec. 25.] EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES. 401
4:39. Preserving Eggs. — The following receipt is of such easy application
that all housewives should try it, and satisfy themselves whether it is all that
its author claims for it:
" Dissolve some gum shellac in a sufficient quantity of alcohol to make a
thin varnish, give each egg a coat, and after they become thoroughly dry,
pack them in bran or sawdust, with their points downward, in such a man-
nei' that they can not shift about. After you have kept them as long as you
desire, wash the varnish carefully off, and they will be in the same state as
they were before packing, ready either for eating or hatching."
440. Beans — How to Cook them. — "Few people know the luxury of baked
beans, simply because few cooks properly prepare them. Besns generally
are not cooked half long enough. Tiiis is a sure method : Two quarts of
middling-sized white beans, two pounds of salt pork, and one spoonful of
molasses. Pick the beans over carefully, wash them, and add a gallon of
boiling-hot soft water; let them soak in it nil night; in the morning, put
them in fresh water, adding a teaspoonful of saleratus, and boil gently, till
the skin is very tender and about to break. Take them up dry, put them
in your dish, so as to have the beans fill the dish nearly to the upper edge;
turn in boiling water till the top is just covered; bake with a steady fire
four or five hours. Watch them and add more water from time to time, as
it dries away. Tliis is an old-time New England Saturday-evening dish."
441. Tomatoes— Various Methods of Preserving and Using them. — There is
no way to preserve tomatoes for M'inter use so good as drying them. It is
easily done thus: Scald, and peel, and stew to a gelatinous mass, and spread
upon earthen plates, and dry in the sunshine or in a slow oven. It will then
resemble dried stewed pumpkin, or the pulp of peaches dried in the same way.
When wanted for use in winter, a portion of this dried tomato is soaked first
in cold water, and that is gradually warmed till the whole becomes a ho-
mogeneous mass, more or less thick, according to the quantity of water used.
It may be eaten as a sauce with meats, or, by adding sugar, as a sweet-
meat, or in place of currant jelly with venison and mutton, or as a substi-
tute for cranberries with roast turkey. It is an excellent and a cheap
sauce.
Tomato Chowder. — ^To one bushel of green tomatoes add one dozen green
peppers, 12 common-sized onions, one quart of grated horseradish, one cuj)
of ground mustard, one ounce of cinnamon, one ounce of cloves, whole. The
tomatoes, onions, and peppers chop fine. Put the tomatoes and onions in a
vessel over-night, sprinld* a little salt over them, and in the morning drain
oif the water, put all together and boil them in clear water until tender, then
drain the water from them, mix with the above-named spices, pack in ajar,
and pour scalded vinegar over them.
Another way is to take green tomatoes, cut a small piece off the stem end,
and also from the other side ; then lay them in a pan. Sprinkle with salt,
pour boiliuij water on them, and let them stand ten minutes. Pour the
water off and serve them in the same manner again ; then pour boiling wa-
402 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
ter on them without salt, and let them stand a few minutes. Chop them up
fine, putting in some cabbage, horseradish, and peppers ; and wiien all
chopped, put on salt, pepper, and vinegar, and they are ready to pickle in
crocks. This makes an excellent relish with meat.
Tomato Catchup. — Scald ripe tomatoes just sufficiently to allow you to
take off the skins ; let them stand for a day, covered with salt; strain thcin,
to thoroughly remove the seeds ; then to every two quarts add three ounces
of cloves, two of black pepper, two nutmegs, and a very little Cayenne pop-
per and salt ; boil the liquor for an hour; let it cool and settle ; add a pint
of the best cider vinegar : bottle, cork, and seal tight, and keep it always in
a cool place.
Another "Wat. — Take a bushel of tomatoes and boil them till soft;
squeeze them through a fine wire sieve, and add half a gallon of vinegar,
one pint and a half of salt, two ounces of cloves, quarter of a pound of all-
spice, two ounces of Cayenne pepper, five heads of garlic, skinned and sep-
arated ; mix together and boil about three hours, or until reduced to about
one half ; then bottle, without straining.
Tomato Sauce. — One peck of tomatoes, one ounce of cloves, one ounce
of cinnamon, one quart of vinegar, four pounds of brown sugar, two table-
spoonfuls of salt, and the same of ground black pepper. Peel the tomatoes,
and boil until very tender. Drain them from the juice. Now boil tlie
sugar, spices, etc., in the liquid until it is thick as syrup ; return the fruit
into this syrup, and stew until the mass is a jam, and it keeps well any
length of time. This may be used to flavor the following sauce :
442. Picnic Sance. — Beat the yelks of four eggs perfectly ; mix with the
eggs a tumbler of jelly, four large tablespoonfuls of brown sugar, four large
tablespoonfuls of mustard stirred into a batter with vinegar; to these ingre-
dients add a teacupful of butter and two tumblers of best vinegar. Stir all
together carefully ; set the vessel in which you have mixed the sauce in a pot
of boiling water and cook until it tliickens and the egg is done ; stir in a
little salt and half a teaspoonful of Cayenne pepper and as much tomato
sauce as will give it a pleasant flavor.
443. mushrooms, and their Uses and Production!— It has been pul)lished
that some of the great jtroduccrs of mushrooms near Paris, who grow them
in artiflcial caves, can produce at the rate of eighty quarts a day upon an
acre of surface, which would give an annual crop of 29,200 quarts. Allow-
ing the actual crop only one fourth of this quantity, it would be a very val-
uable one, as the average market price in New York is 25 cents a quart.
Say 7,300 quarts for the product of an acre, at 25 cents, this would be
$1,825 a year. The construction of artiflcial caves, however, is so ex-
pensive, that mushrooms are not likely to be much cultivated by farmers for
family use, though many of them will continue to collect such as are pro-
duced spontaneously about the homestead ; and to enable them to do so
without danger of getting iiokl of other plants of the agaric family that are
poisonous, we give the following rules to distinguish the edible mushrooms
Sec. 25.] EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES. 403
from toadstools. "Without giving the botanical characters, we notice some
of the marks by which they may be distinguished:
First. The mushroom has no bad smell. The skin on the top of the
mushroom will readily peel off. The gills or plates on the under side of the
mushroom are of a white and pinkish or rosy hue, and though turning
brownisli by age, yet never of that lurid brown of the toadstool. "When
sprinkled with salt and allowed to stand a few hours, the mushroom gives
out juice, but the toadstool becomes dry and leathery. If all these charac-
ters are united in the specimen it may be safely eaten, otherwise it should
be rejected, as it would be better to throw away acres of good mushrooms
than to eat one of the poisonous toadstools.
Secondly. Mushrooms which grow in marsliy, shady places, and in thick
forests where the sun has no access, are in general to be regarded as pos-
sessing dangerous qualities ; their substance is softer, moister, and more
porous than that of mushrooms used for the table. Tliey have likewise &
more disagreeable and dirty-looking appearance. Tliose which have a
dusky hue, and change color when cut, or show a gaudy or many very dis-
tinct colors, particularly if tliey have been originally covered by skin or ex-
hale a strong and uin>leasant odor, ought not to be eaten. Those which
have short bulbous stalks, or fragments of skin adhering to the surface, or
which grow rapidly and corrupt quickly, should also be rejected. It has
been generally supposed that poisonous mushrooms lose their deleterious
qualities, but this is a rule to which there are many exceptions, and which
ought therefore to be very cautiously admitted.
If you wish to grow mush,rooms, procure some of the spawn from a gar-
dener, and make a bed of light loamy soil, mixed with manure from horses
fed upon grain ; it will produce these plants when the temperature is right,
which is about 50 or 55 degrees Fahrenheit, in dry, calm, summer weather.
A cave cellar, or natural cave, or recess in the rocks, is a good place to make
a mushroom bed.
444. Drying Rhubarb.— Ehubarb, when well prepared, will keep good for
an indefinite period. The stalks should be broken off while they are crisp
and tender, and cut into pieces about an inch in length. These pieces should
then be strung on a thin twine, and hung up to dry. Rhubarb shrinks in
drying more than any other plant, and when dry strongly resembles pieces
of soft wood. When wanted for use, it should be soaked in water all
night, and the next day stewed over a slow fire. None of its properties
appear to be lost in drying, and it is equally as good in winter as any other
dried fruit.
Another plan is to cook it first ; for this get the Linnaeus rhubarb. It is
larger, more tender, and better flavored than any other, requires less sugar
by one fourth, and has no skin to be taken off. Do not attempt to peel it,
but cut in pieces as long as tlie thickness of the stalk, and put them with
your sugar in an earthen dish without water; cover it to retain the flavor,
and place it in an oven and cook till quite tender, without stirring or break-
404 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
ing the pieces. If too much cooked, it assumes a disgusting string}' appear-
ance, and loses all fruity character. Tlie rosy color of the stalks will give
your dish an attractive aj^peariuicc, and the dyspeptic will find in it a power-
ful aid to digestion.
This, if thinly spread upon plates, and dried in the sun or a slow oven,
just as the pulp of peaches or stewed pumpkin is sometimes prepared, will
keep as well as pumpkin, if packed away in thick paper bags or boxes, and
kept in a dry place.
Rhuliarb has within a brief period, quite within our memorj', become
generally diffused, and is now looked upon as a famil)- necessity rather than
a luxury. There are several varieties: Gaboon's seedling is the largest, but
is rather coarse and not so high flavored as some otliers, of which we may
have more to say under the head of the garden. We will only speak here
of one or two methods of preserving tlie good qualities of the stalk by dry-
ing. For drying whole, the Victoria is one of the best varieties. Other
sorts contain too much woody fiber.
445. Facts about Pork aud Bacon— How to Cure and Keep Hams.— The best
and most solid pork is made by lapid feeding of pigs in autuinn, wliich have
been kept growing, but not fat, ail summer. Hogs that are kept fat through
the summer are most apt to afford soft pork, wliicli shrinks in the pot.
One writer says tliat — " Pigs should be wintered ui)on two ears of corn
a day, fed very regularly, one at night and one in the morning, keeping
them in a warm, close pen, without water, and they will hibernate in good
condition upon this small amount of feed. If watered or fed with liquid
food, and kept in the cold, much of the food is expended in keeping up
animal heat. The pigs should be in good condition when put iqi, and must
be well bedded to enable them to keep warm."
446. Dry-Salting Bacon. — Hams, or any part of the pig designed for bacon,
we think, should never be put in pickle ; they are decidedly better salted
dry.
Our practice has been to weigh both. pork and salt, giving six pounds of
fine salt to one hundred pounds of pork. First sprinkle about one fourth
of an ounce of saltpeter, finely pulveiizcd, upon a ham or shoulder,
and then rub it well over with salt, and pile up the pieces in some dry
room, just as you would pile up a lot of stove- wood. It should be over-
hauled once, and the spare salt rubbed on fresh-looking spots, and the pile
reconstructed so as to allow the air to come to all parts. It will completely
salt in as many days as a ham weighs pounds.
For pickled pork, it is advantageous to salt it in bulk, before packing in
barrels. Nothing will drain off from meat thus salted, but just what should
drain away. When your pork is ready to go into the barrel, pack it as tight
as you can force it in, and then fill tlie barrel with brine ; not salted water,
but brine, which is water saturated with salt. Pork thus cured will keep
longer than we can calculate.
447. English and Irish Mode of Curing Bacon.— The Irish Farmer's Gazette
Seo. 25.] EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES, 405
gives the following directions : " Singe off tlie hair, and scrape thoroughly
clean ; when cut up, rub the flesh side well with common salt, and pack the
pieces on top of each other on a tray with a gutter round it to catch the
brine; once every four or five days the salt should be changed, and the
flitches moved, placing those on top at the bottom; five or six weeks of this
treatment will eufiice to cure the bacon, when it may be hung up to dry,
first rubbing over with coarse bran, or any kind of sawdust except deal;
if smoking be preferred, hang in a chinmey; if not, in a dry, airy part
of the kitchen, not too near llie fire. We are not acquainted with the
Limerick mercantile process ; tlie Wicklow is similar to that given above,
and practiced by farmers there"
An English recipe says: "For four lianis, take two ounces of saltpeter,
two quarts of molasses, one quarter of a pound of pepper, half an ounce of
cochineal, and about three pints of fine salt. If the hams have been in salt
pickle, the salt will not be needed. Pound the saltpeter and cocliineal, then
put all these ingredients together, and rub the hams thorouglilj' with the
pickle, turning them every day."
448. A Good Pickle for Hams. — It depends partly njx)n how hogs are fed,
but more upon the manner of curing tiian anything else as to the quality of
hams. They can be made almost as delieat'j as tender chicken. For curing
iiams in pickle wc have tried and approve the following compound of
ariiclcs; To 100 lbs. of hams use 8 or 9 lbs. of rock-salt, 2 oz. of saltpeter,
2 lbs. of white sugar, 1 quart of best syrup, 4 oz. of saleratus, and 1 oz. of
allspice.
These materials are boiled and scummed, in ten or twelve gallons of water,
and the hams j^acked in a barrel, and the brine put on cool, adding water
if necessary to cover the hams. None but a new oak barrel should be used.
Scald the barrel and cool it before putting in tiie hams. Let them lie three
weeks, and then take them out and air them twenty-four hours ; put them
back again three weeks, and then take them out and dry them tlioroughly
before smoking, wliicli is done in an airy smoke-house, with cobs and maple
or liickory chips. It is then a most delicious article of food. In smoking,
be careful to keep your hams cool; never allow fire enough to heat the
meat
449. Preserving Hams lor Family Tse.— To keep hams through the summer,
hang them in a dry, cool room, and draw a loose cotton bag over them, and
tie it tightly around the string tliat iiolds the meat. Tliis must be done
before flies come in the spring, and it will keep them away. We have kept
liaras prepared in this way till over three years old, and they were as much
better than new ones, as ripe old cheese is better than one a day old. Tlie
Lest hauis that we have in this couutry are from hogs fed upon beech-nuts;
but hams of hogs fatted upon corn are much better than those from what
are generally known as mast-fed hogs.
450. How to Cook a Ham. — Never put a ham into a kettle of cold water,
and be equally careful never to put one into boiling water. First let the
406 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Cuap. IV.
water become lukewarm; then put in the ham. Let it simmer or boil
lightly for four or five hours — five is better than four — then take it out ftinl
shave off the riud. Rub granulated sugar into the whole surface of the
ham, so long as it can be made to receive it. Place the ham in a baking-
dish, with a bottle of champagne or prime cider. Baste occasionally with
the juice, and let it bake an hour in a gentle lieat. A slice from a nicely-
cured ham, thus cooked, is enough to tempt a Jew.
451. Sausa^e-Makingt — All the lean scraps of pork that accumulate in cut-
ting up the pigs, whether for bacon or pickled pork, will be most economi-
cally used if made into sausage meat. But do not attempt this work unless
you have a good sausage-meat cutter ; and if you wish to stufl' the meat into
cases, you should have a combined cutter and stuflTer, so as to do the work at
one operation. Cut the pork into small pieces, and divide it in parcels of
about a quart, upon a clean table, to which the cutter should be fiistened.
Mix your seasoning of salt, sage, thyme, cloves, pepper, and a little sugar,
if you like it, with your meat, and tiien put it through the cutting-machine,
thus nicely blending the seasoning with the meat, which passes directly into
the cases, and finishes the job with great expedition.
452. The Value of Pork in Bacon. — If bacon sides should range at 13 cents
per pound, shoulders at 10 cents, and hams at 15 cents ; and prime ]»ickled
pork at $18 per barrel, mixed pork at $16, and rumps at $14 per barrel, we
would advise all small farmers, who have a limited force to feal, and a
limited pui"se to empty, to buy the rumps ; they are about eight inches of
the small end of the backbone, with the tail cut off, and consisting of a due
proportion of fat, lean, and bone, and are the cheapest meat diet that can
possibly be purchased by planters for their people.
453. How to Cure and Cook Corucd Beef.— For a pickle, to every 100 lbs.
of beef, take five lbs. of salt, a quarter of an oimce of saltpeter, and one pound
of sugar ; dissolve in sufficient water to cover the meat. Do not get your
meat too salt, for it makes it tough and tasteless. Do not allow it to remain
over two weeks in the first brine, for it takes up all the blood that was in the
meat, and consequently ought to be drained off, as tlie meat will be much
more likely to be injured tiian it will when separated and replaced with
fresh-made brine : but more especially in warm weather. In tliis way it will
keep with just sufficient salt to season it. In the second place, tiie cooking
is of just as much importance as the corning ; it should be boiled at least
four hours, or until it can be cut and eaten as readily as a piece of soft
bread. Not one half of the domestics cook their meat long enough. Try it
once and you will see the difference. Meat prepared in this way can be
eaten with a relish, and is easily digested, giving nourishment and strength
to the body. But fried meats, or meats half cooked, can not be properly
masticated or prepared for the action of the stomach, and are among the
most indigestible articles of nourishment. Some persons arc always in too
much of a hurry or too lazy to chew their food, thereby favoring their teeth
and throwing the responsibility upon the stomach. Frequent abuses of this
Sec. 25.] EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES. 407
important organ develop disease, and the individual is said to have dyspep-
sia with all its attendant evils. Therefore, spare not the cooking; you
will have the less chewing, and greater advantage of the food.
454. Italian Mode of Cooking Scrap, or Coarse Portions of Beef.— A very
economical and most savory and delicious dish can be made with two or
tliree pounds of chuck steak, or cheap parts of beef, which infinitely surpasses
the tasteless, insipid, common eating-house stuflF, called " beef a la mode."
Cut the steak into pieces of less than two inches square ; season with black
pepper and salt, put them into a saucepan with a full half pint of cold
water on the fire, and as soon as it boils up, remove it from the fire and set
it where it would simmer for two hours and a half, until perfectly tender.
While simmering, tie up in muslin a bunch of sweet herbs, composed of
knotted marjoram, winter savory, and a little thyme, and take it out just
before the dish is served. Of course, the stew must occasionally be shaken,
as all others are; remember, however, the fat must not be skimmed off; the
more fat there is, the better the stew. The dish is of Italian origin, and is
eaten by Italians with plain boiled macaroni and Parmesan cheese, or with
a salad, and with either is a dainty dish.
455. Pressed Beef.— This is another excellent way of using up the cheap
parts of fresh beef, or even that which is corned by the receipt given in No.
453. Boil any ragged scrap pieces, with not too much fat, until the bones
will freely separate from the meat, which pick off and pack in any strong
dish, and add such seasoning as you wish of salt, pepper, spice ; some add
a trifle of molasses or sugar, and press the whole into a cake, just as those do
who make " head-cheese" from that portion of pork that is better prepared
in this way tiian any other.
456. Csrful Little Tilings for Dousekeepers.— "The truest economy begins
in little things." And so we give a dozen of them in a bunch to conclude
our " e.xcerpta of knowledge for the kitchen."
Mahogaxt Stain. — Take four ounces of red sanders, one pound of fustic,
and an ounce of logwood, and boll them in half a gallon of water for one
hour; then apply it wami with a brush or sponge; when dry, apply var-
nish. With this you can renovate old furniture.
A Cheap Refeigeeator. — "Two tin pails, soldered one into the other, the
space between them filled with charcoal, in small pieces (not necessarily
dust), with the cover arranged in the same way, will keep a small quantity
of ice a very long time. Three inveited tea-cups, or something made for
the purpose, should support the ice to keep it out of the water. Next to
putting the ice in a tin pail and wrapping it in a blanket, this is the
simplest ice-keeper we know of, and it is entirely philosophical and ef-
fective."
To this we add the recommendation of putting this tin pail, with the ice
in it, with a hole as big as a pin at the bottom and dripping-pan nnder it,
in a chest or close-shutting closet, the air of which will be cooled, with the
provision placed in it.
408 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
This, of course, is only a substitute for a good refrigerator, but will be
found much better than none, and can be made for almost nothing, by any
man with Yankee gumption.
To Make Tough Meat or Fowl Tender. — One or two tablespoonfuls of
sharp vinegar put into tlie water when set to cook will do this, and in no
way impair the flavor of the stew or soup. Veal to roast is much improved
by being rubbed all over with vinegar and allowed to remain two or three
hours before cooking. Fifteen miimtcs to the pound is the received rule for
roasting and boiling meats, and ten for fish.
How TO Use Salt.— Beef or mutton should not have a bit of salt put
upon either when first set to roast ; just before serving, baste the meat, sprin-
kle fine salt slightly over it, dredge flour on, and let it brown up. Poultry
must be covered with sweet lard and salt — a teaspoonful of salt to two of lard
— before roasting.
To Prevent Metals from Ivusting. — Melt together three parts of lard
and one of rosin powder. A very thin coating applied with a brush will
preserve Russia-iron stoves and grates from rusting during summer, even in
damp situations. For this purpose, a portion of black lead may be mixed
with the lard. The efi"ect is equally good on brass, copper, steel, etc.
The same compound forms an excellent water-proof paste for leather.
Boots, when treated with it, will thereafter take the iisual polish when
blackened, and the soles may be saturated with it without soiling the floor,
as it does not rub oif.
Seeds and many other things are best kept in wooden boxes,. By a new
patent contrivance, boards are cut about one eighth of an inch thick, of suit-
able length and width to bend into forms for the sides of a round box, the
largest holding about a peck, and eight others, smaller and smaller, to form
a nest. The ends are fastened together Avith some kind of glue, and the bot-
toms are fastened in by a rim of tin bent over the corner; and the lids are
made in the same way, so that the ends may be of stufl" but little thicker
than the sides. The tin corners are great protectors against mice, as that is
the only part of a circular box likely to be gnawed into, and this makes
them quite safe for seeds and better as m'cII as cheaper than tin boxes, and
a decided improvement upon the old-style circular wooden boxes whicli have
bottoms made of a half-inch board, so as to nail it in. "We should think that
half bushel and smaller measures, made up on the same plan, with iron in-
stead of tin corners, would be first-rate.
Unpleasant Odoes arising from boiling ham, cabbages, etc., arc com-
pletely corrected by throwing whole red peppers into the pot, and at the
same time the flavor of the food is improved. Pieces of charcoal will pro-
duce the same eflfect.
A Good "Way of Koasting Apples. — Select the largest apples; scoop
out the core without cutting quite through ; fill the hollow with butter and
fine, soft sugar ; let them roast in a slow oven, and serve up with the syrup.
Hodge-Podge. — Cut two pounds of mutton into small pieces, and put them
Sko. 25.] EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES. 409
in a stewpan with three quarts of water and a tablespoonful of salt. Set it
on the fire and let it come to a boil ; then set it where it will simmer an
hour; keep it well skimmed; then add one carrot, two turnips, two large
onions cut into small pieces, and half a dozen lettuce-heads, and let the
whole cook quite tender. Skim ofl" all the fat, and serve either with tiie
meat in the soup or separately. A pint of green peas boiled in the soup will
be found to be a great addition.
Haie-Beushes are best cleaned by washing them in sal soda or saleratns
water, which removes all the oily coating.
Sage and all other herbs for family use should be cut when the plant is
budding for blossom, and dried in the shade, and tiien stored in thick paper
bags, and there is no better place for them than hanging from the garret
rafters.
To Cleajj Knives. — ^Take a potato, cut in halves, and dip the cut part in
brick-dust and rub the knives, the potato affording just enough moisture.
Foe Cleaning Tainted Baeeels. — Put one peck of charcoal and one tea-
cup of saleratus into each barrel, fill them up with boiling water, cover tight,
and let tliem stand until cold.
■157. Vermin-Remedies — Moths, Bi^s, Ants. — Moths are driven away, it is
generally believed, or rather the miller that lays the eggs is, by any strong
odor; so that furs or woolens, packed in a chest of camphor-wood, or of
cedar, or sassafras, or with the shavings of those woods, or with gura-cam-
plior, or tobacco, snuflT, or pepper, are preserved from the ravages of these
pests. After moths commence eating, they pay no regard to the presence of
camphor, cedar, or tobacco ; in fact, I think they enjoy the latter, if any-
thing else than humanity can. Tiie superiority of pepper to camphor, as a
preventive of moths eating furs, consists in the fact that, while the eggs will
hatch among camphor, there is something in the aroma of pepper which
destroys their vitality. Woolens may be safely stored in a close linen bag
if often looked after. And probably looking after is the best of all the
preventives, for moths never work where they are frequently disturbed.
But if articles are ]iacked in linen bags, they should be taken out and aired
once a month during summer.
Before packing away fers, they should be well beaten, to dislodge the
moths that, despite t!ie most scrupulous care, may be deposited in them.
But the dreaded and inconvenient taking up and beating carpets will not
always insure success; but one who has tried it, says: "I conquered
them wholly in this Avay — I took a coarse crash towel and wrung it out of
clean water, and spread it smoothlj' on the carpet, then ironed it dry with a
good hot iron, repeating the operation on all suspected places, and those
least used. It does not injure the pile or color of the carpet in the least, as
it is not necessary to press hard, heat and steam being the agents ; and they
do the work effectually on worms and eggs. Then the camphor will doubt-
less prevent future depredations of the miller, by placing a few little crumbs
under the edges of the carpets without moving them."
no DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
Patcliouli is recommended as a preventive of moths. Sachets de patch-
ouli are iiiiide of cotton-wool, among ■which a few grains of the powdered
patchouli leaves are mixed, and folded in paper. Placed among clothe?,
tiiey are said to drive away moths. In Ilindostan, patchouli is used bj tiie
women for scenting their hair, and it is also mixed with tobacco for the
hookah. In this country the patchouli leaves, it is said, will retain their
scent if dried in the dark by being jdaced singly in a drawer, and turned
daily for a fortnight. The Arabs dry the leaves and stuff pillows and mat-
tresses with them, believing that tiiey prevent contagion and prolong life; a
belief which attaches among the ignorant to sage and other odoriferous
plants. As a scent, patchouli is used by perfumers chiefly for mixing with
otiier aromatics.
Benzoin is used in the museum of the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, to
keep the moths out of the skins of the animals.
Tallow packed with clothes is also a moth preventive. But after all, fre-
quent shakings are the best preventives of all injuries by moths or mold.
Bugs nui}' be killed with alum. Make a solution of alum, as strong as
water will dissolve, and apply that hot to places infested with bugs of any
sort, in bedsteads, closets, or trees and plants, taking care not to apply it so
as to kill tender plants, and the bugs will take a strong dislike to (he
locality. You may brush it in cracks and crevices of floors, ceilings, or
walls of a room, or in the holes and nesting-places of these small vermin in
trees.
Corrosive sublimate is excellent for bugs and ants. For bedsteads it may
be mixed with soap. For ants, with lard and sugar, through which draw
woolen yarn, and fi.x it in cracks infested with ants.
45S. Rat Rrmedirs. — Chlorid of lime has frequently proved a sure thing
to drive rats away from any place infested by them. An ounce of it, scat-
tered in the place where they come to feed, or wrapped in a bit of muslin
and put in their holes, where it acquires dampness, produces a g;is that is
not ofleusivc to man, but is to the rats. If chlorid of lime is moistened
with muriatic acid, and placed in a drain, vault, or cellar, and closed from
the air a little while, the rats will depart, because it will be death to remain.
This is also a good disinfectant, and will for a time remove the eflluvia of a
dead rat. One application of dry chlorid of lime to rat lilies has driven
them away for a year. If they return, a renewal of it will start them .again.
Cats arc the best rat-traps that we have found after many years' ex-
perience, and next to cats, the chafl'-trai). This is best made by partly filling
a large, smooth kettle with water, and then covering with a few inches of
chafl". The first rat that gets in makes a great outcry, which brings others
to share his fate.
The best food with which to mix poison for killing rats is pumpkin seeds.
Wet them, and sprinkle on a little arsenic, which will adhere to the seeds.
Tliey will be eaten by rats and mice, while cats, fowls, etc., not being fond
of such food, will not meddle with them. AVherever poison is put for these
Sko. 25.] EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES. 411
troublesome pests of the farm, water should be near by, so that tliey may
eat, drink, and die outside of their holes and hiding-places. Musk-rats,
which are often troublesome pests upon some farms bordering creeks or
ponds, may be poisoned \vi(h arsenic upon pieces of parsnej) or sweet apple.
Gunpowder, flashed in rat-holes, is said to be good to drive them away from
the premises.
459. Disinfectants and the Value of Disinfecting.— Nothing conduces more to
promote the health of a family than pure atmosphere. It can be kept so
only in dwellings properly constructed for ventilation. From sitting-room,
dining-room, and bed-rooms we have air flues that have a strong draught
out of the top of the house, and the kitchen is largely furnished with venti-
lation. In all unventilated rooms of the house, and in sick chambers, odors
at times accumulate so as to need disinfecting, while cellars, sinks, out-
houses, and stables often need it. Coffee roasted in a room, solution of cop-
peras sprinkled about, or cloths wet in it and hung up; chlorid of lime
moistened, each acts quickly as a disinfectant. The odor of a dead rat can
bo allayed at once by moistening an ounce of chlorid of lime with a tea-
spoouful of muriatic acid. But no one should breathe much of the gas it
engenders.
There is a considerable difierencc between a deodorizer and a disinfectant.
The former either merely removes or disguises a foul odor; the latter changes
the character of the matter which creates the etHuvia, and prevents it from
sending forth disease. Fresh slaked lime and charcoal dust are very good
deodorizers, but their disinfecting powers are not equal to some of the salts
of manganese, which, when they combine with pestilential fluids in siuks
and drains, give out at the same time a considerable quantity of pure oxygen
to refresh the atmosphere. The manganate of soda, or potash, has recently
been tried in London with much success in deodorizing and disinfecting the
water of the river Thames, and its use in our cities during dry weather may
be of great benefit. It is applied by dissolving it in warm water, and pour-
ing it into the sink or drain to be disinfected.
M. Herpin, of Paris, in the Journal de Phai'maeie, recommends dried
and pulverized plaster of Paris, mixed with rather more than one fifth of its
weight of powdered charcoal, as a cheap and most effective disinfecting
mixture. It entirely removes the noxious emanations from decomposing
organic matters, fixing the ammonia, and forming a valuable manure.
Prof. Nash, of Amherst College, gives the following formula for making
what may be termed home-made chlorid of lime :
"Take one barrel of lime and one bushel of salt, dissolved in as little
wa'er as will dissolve the whole ; slake the lime with the water, putting on
more water than will dry-slake it, so much that it will form a veiy thick
jia^te; this will not take all the water; jiut on, therefore, a little of the
remainder daily until the lime has taken the whole. The result will be a
sort of impure chlorid of lime, but a very powerful deodorizer, equally
good for all out-door purposes with the article bought at the apothecary's.
*12 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
and costing not one twentieth part as much. This should be kept under a
slied or some out-building. It should be kept moist, and it may be apj)lied
whenever offensive odors are generated, with the assurance that it will be
effective to purify the air, and will add to the value of the manure much
more than it costs. It Avould be well for every farmer to prepare a quan-
tity of this, and have it always on hand."
IIow much more sensible it M-ould be for the city authorities to use this
mixture, which concentrates effluvia, instead of quicklime, which dissipates
it through tlie air and into everybody's lungs!
To prove how quickly the air of a sitting-room becomes impui-e, place in
it a pitcher of iced water, and in a few hours it will have absorbed from the
room nearly all the respired and perspired gases of the room, the air of
vvhich will have become purer, but the water utterly filthy. This depends
on the fact that the water has the faculty of condensing, and thereliy absorb-
ing all the gases, which it does without increasing its own bulk. Tlie colder
the water is, the greater its capacity to contain these gases. At ordinary
temperatures a pint of water will absorb a pint of carbonic acid gas and
several pints of ammonia. This capacity is nearly doubled by reducing the
temperature to that of ice. Hence water kept in the room awhile is always
unfit for use, and should be often renewed, whether it has become warm or
not. And for the same reason, the water in a pump-stoek should all be
pumped out in the morning before any is used. That wliich has stood in
the pitcher during the night is not fit for coffee water in the morning. Im-
pure water is injurious to health as well as impure air, and every person
should provide tlie means of ol)taining it fresh and pure for all domestic uses.
460. Soap-Makiug and Washing. — Wood ashes made from any hard wood
will make soap. Pine ashes are nearly worthless. Beech, mai)le, birch, and
hickory are among the best sorts for leaching. Put sticks and straw in the
bottom of the leach-tub, packed close, and four quarts of lime to a barrel of
ashes, which wet and pound down as you put in, and then put on water
slowly two days before you let the lye 'run, and it will come strong, but
should be boiled still stronger before you put in grease. Pones, rinds,
gristle, and hard scraps must go into very strong lye, and will then soon bo
eaten up, all but the earthy part of bones, which ekira out and save for tlie
grapevines and pear-trees. Make the soap strong of grease as well as lye,
and do not use it till very old, and it Avill be very good. It siiould be of a
salvy consistence.
To make soap with potash : Use the best quality of "first sorts" of pot-
ash, in the proportion of six pounds of potash to seven pounds of grease, for
a barrel of 40 gallons. Break up tlio ])otash into small lumps and dissolve
24 lbs. in two pailfuls of hot water. It dissolves rather slowly when the
potash is good. When dissolved, put the solution into the kettle, and add
tlie grease quite warm, and stir the mixture together; allow it to stand all
night, if convenient. In the morning apply a moderate heat until the mix-
ture appears ropy; then fill up with cold water. Cost, say G lbs. of potash,
Seo. 25.] EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES. 413
36 cents ; 7 lbs. grease, 28 cents — 64 cents for a barrel of soap. Another re-
ceipt says :
" One hundred pounds of good soap for $1 30 : Take six pounds of potash,
75 cents ; four pounds of lard, 50 cents ; quarter of a pound of rosin, 5
cents. Beat up the rosin, mix all together well, and set aside for five days ;
then put the whole into a twelve-gallon cask of warm water, and stir twice a
day for ten days, at the expiration of which time you will have about one
hundred pounds of excellent soap."
Tlie following is considered a valuable aid to the washerwoman, by one
who has tried it. She says :
"Take one pound of sal soda and half a pound of unslaked lime; put
them in a gallon of water and boil twenty minutes; let it stand till cool,
then drain off and put it in a stone jug or jar. Soak your dirty clothes
all night, or until they are well wet through, then wring them out and rub
on plenty of soap, and to one boiler of clothes well covered with water add
one teaspoonful of the washing fluid. Boil half an hour briskly, then wash
them thoroughly through one suds, and rinse well with water, and your
clothes will look better than the old way of washing twice before boiling.
This is an invaluable recipe, and I do want every poor tired woman to
try it."
Another one says : " Take two pounds of soda ash, two pounds of hard soap,
and ten quarts of water ; cut the soap fine ; add all together, put into a kettle,
and bring to a boil, then take it off the fire and stir until nearly cool. Put
your clothes to soak the evening before you wash. In the morning, wring
out, boil them in water, to which is added nearly a pint of the compound
to every pailful. "Wash out in the same water and rinse, and your washing
is done."
4G1. Washing Machiues liave been contrived, ])atented, made, and sold and
discarded almost as numerously as "patent ciiurns." We have tried a good
many. Tlie cliurns have all been given up for the old dasiier, and notwith-
sfanding washing was " made easy," the old wash-board still liolds its place,
though some wasliing machiues are worthy of commendation as assistants in
the laundry. None will do all the work. Perhaps our lad}' readers will say
tliat wo ought to tell them which to buy. We can not do it. Tlie latest
e:;puiiencc of our family is decidedly in favor of Doty's New York machine,
'• iinpi-oved," which acts upon the plan of a cloth-dresser's fulling-mill, and
i.-! very easily Avorked. Tiie " Meti'opolitan washing machine" is the pound-
iiig barrel improved by springs that make it work easy. It is useful for
heavy work. Clothes Wkixgees are worthy of the highest commendation.
Tliey are the most important of all household labor-saving machines. They
are made of different forms, but the principle in eacli is the same, being con-
struc'.ed to attach to the edge of a wash-tub, and contain two elastic rollers
which are turned by a crank with one hand, while with the otiicr the washer
picks up one end of a garment and holds it to the rollers, through whicli it
passes rapidly and falls into a clothes-basket a great deal dryer than any
414 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Cdap. IV.
woman could wring it with all lier strength and tcu-fold more time. Tliese
machines cost from $5 to $10, according to size, and are very simple in con-
struction, very effective, and look as though they would be very durable,
and are certainly very great labor-saving machines, and one should be in
every family', and we are doing a public duty in making them as exten-
sively known as any other fact for farmers. With a Metropolitan washing
machine and a clothes-wringer, or, rather, a clothes-squeezer, which has
been several years in use in the author's iamily, washing-day is no longer
one that is dreaded. With these, washing is made easy.
462. Soft Water. — No woman can wash witli any satisfaction unless she
has soft water. It is for this tiiat we have treated so fully upon cisterns—
333, 331, 335. Hard well water can be goftened with lye, potash, or soda.
We have seen a statement that a well of hard water was permanently cured
by putting four feet of coarse gravel in the bottom, where the water oozed
in through the blue clay. AVe recommend that a space at least a foot
wide behind the wall should also be filled with gravel as high as the water
comes in.
As Ironing follows washing, we say: If your flat-irons arc rough, rub
them well with fine salt, and it will make them smooth ; so will rubbing
them with a waxed rag. Be sure to use them hot.
463. Beds and Bedding.— There is no article of household furniture of so
mueli importance as the bed. It is the place where exhausted nature enjoys
recuperation, and all that art can do to make it comfortable at all seasons
of the year, should be done, particularly in the farmer's home, where the
nature of the labor is so exhausting. We are so much opposed to feather
beds, tliat we have not had one in the house for many years, and we never
sleep more comfortably than we do at home upon hard mattresses. We
think that feather beds ought to be done away with, especially in warm
weather. For spring, summer, and fiill, husk beds ought to be in use in
every family, and would be if better known. There is no better time for pro-
curing husks than M'hen the corn is being harvested, and the husks will be
much nicer and cleaner when corn is cut and shocked, and not become so
dry and weather-beaten. A good husk bod will last from twenty to thirty
years. Every farmer's daughter can supply herself with such beds against
time of need at a trifling expense.
No one who has not tried them knows the value of husk beds, which is
such tliat some persons think that straw and mattresses would be entirely
done away with if husk beds were once tried ; that they are not only more
pliable than mattresses, but are more durable, and the first cost is but little.
To have iiusks nice they may be split after the manner of splitting straw for
braiding. The finer they are tlie softer will be the bed, although they will
not be likely to last as long as when they are put in whole. Three barrels
full, well stowed in, will fill a good-sized tick, that is, after they have been
split. The bed will alwa^-s be light, the husks do not become matted down
like feathers, and they are certainly more healthy to sleep on.
Sec. 25.] s:XCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES. 415
464. Home-Made Mattresses of Hair and Wool. — Hair mattresses can also he
made in every farmer's family of very good quality out of pig's hair, which
slioiild be cleaned in the same way that fine wool is cleaned of all its gummy
dirt. See 129. Where sheep arc kept, a great deal of good material for
mattresses can be saved from taglocks and clippings of wool, which can bo
cleansed with but little trouble by placing them some days in a basket in a
running stream, or even by soaking in still water. The filth dissolves with-
out injury to the wool. The cardings of horses and bullocks, if saved and
cleansed, will soon accumulate enough for a mattress ; for one of twenty
pounds on the top of a husk one will make a luxurious bed. There is no
secret about making a mattress. Holster the edges upon one of the sides,
and lay it flat on the floor or a broad table, and fill in the material evenly
of an equal thickness all over, and then sew on the top and lift tiie mattress
upon two or three narrow strips of boards supported at the ends upon tables,
benches, or barrels, so that you can stitch through and through with a long
needle which you can buy for such work, using strong, smooth linen twine,
with a cloth button under the loop of each stitch.
Cotton makes a soft, pleasant mattress Avhen new, but it soon mats to-
gether, and we do not esteem it a healthy material for beds or bedding, ex-
cept for sheets and light quilts. Beech leaves make a very good mattress,
clean, sweet, and wholesome; they are best when gathered by hand from
green trees. Straw, too, is always much better cut in a green state and dried
in the sun, and rye straw is the best kind.
The best vegetable material ever used for mattresses, and almost equal to
hair, is the long moss which grows upon forest trees, covering them as with
a gray beard in several of the " Confederated States." It requires to be
macerated in water until a thin cuticle peels off by washing, or by drying
and beating, leaving the black, hairy-looking threads of the interior, which
are very tough and durable.
465. How to Make Bed Comforters. — ^The best bedding ever used is linen
sheets and blankets for summer, and cotton sheets and blankets for winter.
But as all can not have blankets, we will tell them how to make hed com-
forters. It may be new to some readers that nice, warm bed comforters can
be made without the labor of quilting.
Make two calico spreads, old or new, and tack one in a quilting-frame, if
you have one, and if not, spread it on the floor and lay on four pounds of cot-
ton batting, and then the other spread, and tack through and through with
a darning-needle and tie tight over a piece of bright colored clotli, or yarn,
or wool, in squares of a foot, and you will have a neat-looking warm article
of bedding. Two persons can make five of theni in a day.
466. Improvemeut in Quilting-Frames. — And why not improve quilting-
frames? They need it. The old ones are about as awkward contrivances
as ever were conceived — always in the way when in use, with their long
arms sticking out all over the room long after they.had ceased to be useful.
What man ever looked upon these necessary implements of household econ-
il6 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
omy -with any satisfaction ? He looks every time he comes into the liouso
■with an anxious eye at the progress of tlie work, "lioping the confounded
long-armed quilting-frames will get out of the way some time." Now, for
the special benefit of such nervous gentlemen, some jjood soul out in Mich-
igan has invented a quilting-machiiie that has no arms to stick out in the
way. " Necessity is the mother of invention," and this inventor, we sup-
pose, lived in a log-cabin only sixteen feet square, which, as it contained two
beds and a cooking-stove, had no spare room to set up tiie quilting-frames
on four chairs ; so he contrived a machine something like this, as near as
we can understand the description : Frame four legs together like the frame
of a kitchen table, with side pieces nine feet long, dropped live inches below
the top of the legs, and end pieces two and a half feet long. Now take some
scantling, two or two and a half inches square, and round them with inch
round tenons upon each end to work in sockets in tiie top of the legs. Upon
one end of each of these rollers have a little ratchet wlieel and catch, and
nail a strip of cloth along one side of each to which to tack the edges of the
quilt. AVIien all ready, roll it all but tho two and a half feet M-ide strip
upon one roller and tighten the catch ; now quilt that side and roll upon the
other roller and so on till finished. The side ])ieces should be made to go in
with a kc}', so that the frame can be taken down and packed away at any
time, even with the quilt half finished, as it can be rolled up snug. It is a
simple piece of domestic machinery, but would add to the comfort of many
a household.
467. Carpets and Carpet Sweepers.— Keep a broom exclusively for carpet
sweeping. Never use it for any other purpose. Every one knows that tho
daily dust arising from sweeping carpets causes a permanent injury to furni-
ture, books, pictures, and the lungs. It is an old but good way to sprinkle
tlie flt)or first with damp tea-leaves, and then sweep with a bristle brush ;
but latterly we have found it much easier and more convenient to use one
of the new revolving carpet sweei)ers, which takes up the dust and puts it
away in a box so it does not rise without using any moistening application.
They are especially suited to libraries, oliices, cabinets, and parlors.
The most economical carpet, probably, is a good, stout American ingrain,
which will cost about two dollars a square yard. If you are buying a
carpet for durability, choose small figures. A farmer should never grudge
the money to cover one room, at least, with a first-rate carpet, and
cheaper ones for sitting-rooms, bed-rooms, and dining-room, if one is set
ajjart for the latter purpose. There is no furniture that adds so much to
the comfort of a house at the same cost as carpets. These is no labor better
bestowed about a house than giving the carpet a thorough shaking and
beating in a hot, dry day, upon tiie clean grass, at least once a year.
You need not hesitate to wash a carpet with strong soap-suds, with a
brush, as it lies upon the floor, using clear water afterward, and drying it
by ironing upon coarse towels spread over the wet spots.
468. Removing Stains— Beef-Gall.— There is no better substance than the
Seo. 25.] EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES. 417
veiy cheap article — upon most farms — of beef-gall to take out slains upon
carpets, as well as many other things.
The clarified gall of the ox is also much used by scourers for renovating
the delicate colored silks and satins. In its natural state it contains green-
ish coloring matter, and is then only applicable for restoring the brightness
of dark materials. It is de-colored thus: Take one pint of gall, boil and
skim it, then divide into two parts ; to one half pint add half an ounce of
salt, to the other add half an ounce of powdered alum ; each part is to be
heated till the additions are dissolved; then pour into separate bottles, and
allow them to stand in a quiet place, and clear for a month or eight weeks,
even longer if not bright. The clear portions of both are then to be poured
gently off the sediments and mijed together; the coloring matter coagu-
lates and falls, from which the transparent gall is finally separated by filter-
ing through blotting-paper. In this state it will keep any length of time
with its qualities unimpaired, and free from odor.
If the stain upon silk or satin is produced by an acid, such as from fruits,
and that upon black or dark colors, tiie best re-agent is liquid ammonia (strong
hartshorn) rubbed in till it disappears. For plain and figured silks, of
delicate colors, we can not give a general rule, and therefore leave them
to be operated upon by the professional degraisseurs. To obliterate grease
spots from white silk or satin, we may proceed as directed for colored silks;
but fruit, ink, and glove marks require a different treatment. These marks
are generally removed by dampening the part with oxalic acid dissolved in
v.ater ; about the eighth part of an ounce in a wine-glassful of water is strong
enough. The common salts of lemon in water also answer well. Cofiee-
stains, mud-splashes, etc., will mostly give way to the use of soap and water.
Curd soap should be applied for this purpose.
For grease spots upon cloth and all kinds of woolen goods, soap and water
may be used without fear, provided it is well washed out afterward. Ful-
ler's earth or powdered French chalk, made into a paste with water, and
laid upon the part, is, however, the best application, to be brushed out when
dry.
Paint marks are removed with turpentine, the smell of which may be
quickly dissipated l)y hanging the article upon a line in the air.
Silk articles should not be kept folded in white paper, as the chlorid of
lime used in bleaching the paper will probably impair the color of the silk.
Brown or blue paper is better ; the yellowish, smooth India paper is best of
all. Silks intended for dress should not be kept long in the house before
they are made up, as lying in the folds will have a tendency to impair is
durability by causing it to cut or split, particularly if the silk has been
thickened by gum. Thread-lace vails are very easily cut. Articles of vel-
vet should not be laid by with any weight upon them. If the n^p of a thiu
velvet is laid down it is not possible to raise it up again. Hard silk should
never be wrinkled, because the thread is easily broken in the crease, and it
never can be rectified. The way to take wrinkles out of silk scarfs and
418 DOMESTIO ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
handkerchiefs is to moisten the suiface evenly with a sponge and some weak
glue, and then pin tlie silk with some toilet pins around the selvedges on a
mattress or leather-bed, taking pains to draw out the silk as tight as possible.
"Wlien dry, all the wrinkles will have disappeared. It is a nice job to dre.^s
light-colored tilk, and few should try it. Efome silk articles should be moist-
ened with weak glue or gum-water, and the wrinkles ironed out by a hot flat-
iron on the wrong side.
To Take Grease Olt of Silk. — Hub a lump of wet magnesia over the
spot ; wlicn dr}-, brush off the powder, and no grease will be seen. It may
be applied to other stuffs. This is an old and well-tried remedy ; but there
is a newer and better remedy, but not so thoronglily proved — thisisZx/i-
zine, the most complete substance to cleanse all fabrics that we have ever
seen.
Ox-gall and turpentine are both good to take out grease. If turpentine
be employed, it should be distilled, and perfectly free from rosin. The
preparation called scouring-drops is pure turpentine, perfumed with essence
of lemon. Either of these substances may be applied with a ^xgcq of
sponge, or with a remnant of the same material that is being cleaned.
When the grease spot is large, the greater part may be removed, in the first
instance, by the application of blotting-paper and a hot iron.
Use a piece of zinc to stir your glue, or keep a small piece of zinc in tlie
bottom, and it will — so we read — prevent it from acquiring that impleasant
odor common to glue. "Where glue is always to be heated with steam, a
zinc glue-pot is recounneudcd.
Tlie presence of cotton in woolen fabrics may be easily recognized by the
following tests :
"When boiled for twenty minutes in a solution of nitrate of mercury, the
woolen fibers accpiire a red color, but the cotton fibers remain colorless.
When the fabric is boiled with caustic soda solution (sp. gr. 105^, the wool
dissolves, but the cotton is only slightly affected. Picric acid also stains
wool vellow, but has no action on cotton.
There are five pounds of pure sulphur in every 100 pounds of wool.
Hence silverware, wrapped up in flannel, or any other woolen stuff, will
turn black.
A bit of glue, dissolved in skira-milk and water, will restore old crape.
Eibbona of any kind should be washed in cold soap-suds, and not rinsed.
A hot iron, held over varnished furniture, will take out grease spots.
Sec. 20.]
DOMESTIC WINES.
419
SECTION XXVI.-DOMESTIC WINES, CIDER, AND PRESERVES.
RULES FOR DOMESTIC WINE-MAKEKS — HOW TO PRESERVE CIDER SWEET PRE-
SERVING FRUITS FOR WINTER.
yOMESTIC WINE, as iisnallj niamifacturccl, is ra-
ther a cordial than a wine, and is entirely inferior
to good grape wine; but when properly made, it
will be a very healthful beverage, particularly for
Slimmer drink, when fully diluted witii water.
We recommend to those who have the means,
to manufacture currant wine; and let it be pure cur-
rant wine, using nothing but currants, water, and
sugar, without alcohol.
There is no great difficulty in making good currant
wine. White sugar only should be used. Tiie better
the quality of the sugar the better the wine will be.
The idea that any sort of sugar will do for wine is
pretty well exploded.
It is now also said that white currants make a niucli
nicer wine than the red currants, but that is according to foncy.
While we admit that the true wine must be made from the grape, still,
for the want of a more appropriate name for beverages made from fruits
other than tlie grape, we call them wines. These domestic wines may bo
made from the currant, rhubarb, strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, and
gooseberry, of passable qualitj'. Inferior but drinkable wines may be made
from paisneps and many other roots.
In the manufacture of all domestic wines, the great mistake is in the use
of sugar of an inferior quality ; double-refined is not sufficiently pure to
manufacture either of these wines of the best quality ; treble-retincd su"ar
should be used; tliat of inferior kind contains gum, and after the fermenta-
tion this gum becomes fetid, and its disagreeable odor has to be overcome at
the expense of the odor of the fruit, and therefore it sliould never be used.
Brown sugar, no matter of how good a quality, will not make wine, for
when fermented, that portion which is like molasses in flavor, if separated
from the sugar, as in the process of refining, becomes a rank rum, and not
sufficiently delicate as the preserving alcohol of the result. When grapes
are fermented, the sugar or saccharine matter is not converted into ruiu, but
into an undistilled brandy of an unobjectionable flavor.
In making small-fruit wines, alcohol should never be added ; a sufficient
quantity will be produced by the fermentation to preserve the product, and
any further addition injures tlie quality and arrests the fermentation. When
alcohol is added, these wines do not improve at all by age.
420 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
The common practice of racking cider has caused many to rack fruit
•\vincs, -whicli some wine-makers tell us is all wrong. They say :
"When the proper amount of the juice of a fruit, and treble-refined
sugar iu solution, is placed in a barrel with the bung loose, in a cellar of
even temperature, fermentation will readily commence, and will proceed
until the sugar, or a portion of it, is converted into alcohol, when it will
cease. The buffy coat which rises to the surface will then settle and at-
tach itself to the cask ; the bung should then be driven in, and in six months
the wine may be drawn ofl" and bottled. No alcohol will be necessary to
keep it."
Let these general rules be observed, and the following special directions
pui-sued, and domestic wine may be made in any farmer's family of almost
any kind of small fruits.
The directions given in 469 are from George II. Hite, of Iforrisania, near
New York, who is one of the most successful domestic wine-makers of our
acquaintance.
469. Ilow to Make Currant and olher Wines.— "The currants should be
perfectly ripe when gathered ; they should be stemmed and washed before
pressing, which should be done as thorouglily as possible with a 12-inch
cider press. Ascertain the amount of juice thus obtained, and then add
that amount of water to the pumice, and incorporate the water, and pum-
ice well together : lei it stand a few hours, and press it again. By this
process an additional quantity of juice, though irot so strong, is obtained;
then mix the first pressing with the second, and weigh a gallon of it, and
whatever it falls short of 10 pounds to the gallon, add enough of good re-
fined sugar to make ifweigh 10 pounds, and so on of the rest. I would here
remark that an additional amount of sugar added to the above will make a
sweeter wine, and perhaps more suitable to the taste of many.
"It would be rather an expensive business to those who have but few ber-
ries to make currant wine from the first pressing of the currant alone, as it
requires one bushel of currants to produce a little over three gallons of pure
juice. The red currant pure juice weighs eight and a half pounds to the
gallon. The white currant juice comes almost within the wine-nuiker's rule,
weighing nine and a quarter pounds to the gallon. The way in which I
make currant wine is, to use the pure juice alone or without mucii water,
and I find that I can readily command three dollars per gallon for it,
whereas the other would be dear at one dollar per gallon, and not much of
a wine at that.
*' Elderberry wine is made in the same way as first stated, adding about
half water in the way of re-pressing the pumice, etc., as, if it is made without
the addition of too much sugar, it resembles claret very closely.
" Black currant wine is made in thcvsame way as the elderbeiTy, only the
berries should be scalded before pressing, and if carefully managed in the
fermentation, will resemble the Ilhine wines.
"When the juice, sugar, and water are well incorporated by stirring to-
Sec. 26.] DOMESTIC "WIITES. 421
gether until tlic sugar is dissolved, it is then placed in an open tub in a tein-
perature of about 60 degrees Fahrenheit, there to stand a few days until the
froth and impurities rise to the surface, which must be removed as often as
they accumulate ; and when the liquid becomes limpid and somewhat trans-
parent, then it is put in a clean barrel, filling to within five or eight inches of
the bung. A tube, somewhat in the shape of a siphon, or more in the shape
of an ox-bow, made of glass, is inserted into the bung about two inches, and
made air-tight by means of small wedges of wood and wax, etc., the other
end passing into a pail of water to the depth of three or four inches. This is
done to prevent the oxygen of the air penetrating the fermenting mass, and
also to retain much of the finer aromatic essences which are so essential to
fine-flavored wines.
" A great advantage is also gained thereby in rendering it less necessary to
keep, watch over the fermentation as pursued by some in keeping the barrel
bung full by replenishing with some of the juice standing near at hand,
which becomes pricked before fermentation has ended, rendering it in t!ie
end little less than sweetened vinegar. No admixture should be attempted
after fermentation has commenced, and if the temperature of fermentation is
kept at about GO or 65 degrees Fahrenheit for about six weeks or two
months, it will be ready to remove the tube. Then fill the barrel full of the
sort made in a separate vessel for that purpose, and put the bung in
moderately tight for a few days, and after that drive it in tight until about
December, when tlie wine must be racked ofl' from the lees, the barrel rinsed
with hot and cold water, and when drained quite dry, insert into the bung-
hole a small cup, suspended by a wire, containing one ounce of spirits of
wine or alcohol, ignited, and kept there until the barrel is well fumigated,
during which the bung must not be closed. Then return the wine again and
keep it there for three months, when the same process is repeated. If it is
done a third time it will be all the belter. It is now finished, and can be
kept for any length of time, either in bottles or wood, slowly improving
by age.
" Grapes may be made into wine in the same way as first mentioned above,
with this difierence, that when the pumice is to be re-pressed, sugar dissolved
with grape-juice (by heat) must be added to the water that is mixed with
tlie pumice, and stand a few hours before the second pressing. It must con-
tain the same proportion of sugar and water as is found in the natural juice
of the first pressing, all of which is mixed well together and fermented as
above. But if the grapes are left on the vine until they are quite ripe, say
until they have received the eflTects of a white frost, and carefully selected,
tlie good from the bad, and thoroughly pressed and fermented as above,
without the addition of either sugar or water, you will have wine worthy
of the name. It is true we can not have so great a quantity of juice, but
what Ave have is good." •
We add several other formulas for making currant wine, as follows :
First. " Gather your currants when fully ripe; break them in a tub ; pre>?
422 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
them through a sifter; strain through a flannel bag, and measure the juice.
Atkl two gallons of water to one of juice, and three pounds of Kew Orleans
sugar; stir till dissolved. Strain througli a hair sieve, then a close tow
liiien bag, and afterward a flannel one. The juice must not stand all
night. The cask must be sweet and clean, never used for beer nor cider, aiul
if new, well seasoned. Do not fill j'our cask too full, otherwise it works
out at the bung, which is injurious to the wine; make a quantity over and
above to fill up the cask. Lay tlie bung on the hole to prevent flies from
creeping in. In three or four weeks bung up, leaving only the vent-hole
open till done working ; rack off, if wanted for present use, but it is best to
leave it on the lees till spring, or it may be left for two years without dam-
age. When you draw off tlic wine, bore a hole so it may run off clear of
the lees. Some put in spirits, but I do not think it advisable. Do not put
in more than one third juice, for that would render the wine hard and im-
pleasant ; nor too much sugar, as that would deprive it of its pure vinous
taste. It improves by age."
Second. A sample which was very clear, and at two years old of a deli-
icate, fine flavor, was made by the following rule:
Take two quarts of juice, two quarts of water, and three pounds of refined
sugar; mix and let it stand two or tliree days; skim every day, then strain
through gauze, and put into the cask and let it stand one year; then bottle,
and you have an excellent wine.
Another sample, made with one quart of juice, three quarts of water and
one pound of sugar, was a very pleasant drink, but would not keep as long
as the other.
Tiiird. " Before pressing the juice from the currants, pass them oetween a
pair of rollers to crush tlicm, after which they may be placed in a strong
bag, and they will part with the juice readily by light pressure, such as a
common screw or heavy weights. To each quart of juice add three pounds
of double refined loaf sugar — single refined sugar is not sufliciently pure —
then add as much water as will make one gallon. Or, in other words, sup-
pose the cask intended to be used to be tliirty gallons ; in this put thirty
quarts of currant juice, ninety pounds of double refined sugar, and fill the
cask to the bung with water; roll it over until the sugar is all dissolved.
Tills will be told by its ceasing to rattle in the barrel. Next day roll it
again, and place it in a cellar where the temperature will bo sure to be
even. Leave the bung loose for the free admission of air. In the course of
one or two or three days, fermentation will eounnence. By placing the
ear to the bung-hole a slight noise will be heard, such as may be observed
when carbonic acid is escaping from champagne or soda water. Fermenta-
tion will continue f<n- a few weeks, converting the sugar into alcohol. As
soon as this ceases, drive the bung in tightly, and leave the cask for six
months, at the end of which time the wine may be drawn off perfectly clear,
witliout any excess of sweetness."
Fourth. Take one quart of juice, thi-ee pounds of sugar prepared as above,
Seo. 26.] DOMESTIC WINES. 423
and Avater enough to make a gallon ; leave it in the cask one j'oar, then
draw oft' and l)ottlo.
470. Elderberry Wine. — We have tasted of a wine made from clderhci-rics
Ly Alfred Specr, in New Jersey, that certainly had some excellent qualities.
After prei)aring tlie jnice, like that of currants, he requires four years to
ripen it. Ilis statement is :
■ " First year, it is kept in large casks, M'ith valve bungs to allow the gas
to escape, and at the same time prevent the oxygen of the atmosphere from
coming in contact with tlie wine.
" Second year, racked to small casks, and moved to another building.
"Third year, drawn off in bottles and piled away in stacks, which are
tlicn completely covered witli sand, kept at one certain temperature the
year round.
"Fourth year, they are dug out, the wine decanted in fresh bottles and
laid away, being kept in another temperature until the end of this j'ear,
when they. are sealed, labeled, and packed ready for shipping.
"The principal part of the whole operation is tlie management of
the temperature in the rooms and cellars. Each year, as the wine is
drawn off into other vessels, it is moved to a building kept at a dif-
ferent temperature from the previous year, where it is kept uniform during
tlie whole time by means of cool vaults or stoves, as the case and season
require.
" So that after four years it becomes unchangeable, and ready for market
in any climate.
"It is made from the juice of cultivated elderberries, which are made to
grow nearly as large as the smallest-sized grapes, and pure without the ad-
dition of alcohol or spirits in any form."
471. Wine from Rhubarb Stalks. — Ehubarb will yield live times as much
per acre as grapes, but care sliould be taken not to use the stalk too close
to the leaf, as it will impart a peculiar flavor to the wine. Take a thirty-
gallon cask, put in si.xteen gallons of rhubarb juice, ninety pounds of sugar,
and water to fill the cask. Nothing but the best refined sugar should bo
used if the best results are desired_, and it is still better to dissolve the sugar
and boil it, with the' addition of a spoonful of suli)liuric acid to every five
or six gallons, before mixing it with the juice. This must be allowed to get
cold before iising.
Another formula says: "Trim off the leaves, and grind and press the
stalks in any cider-mill. To each gallon of juice add one gallon of water
and six pounds of refined sugar, and fill the casks, leaving tlie bungs out.
A moderately cool cellar is the best place to keep it. Fill up occasionally,
either from juice kept on purpose or with sweetened water, so that the im-
purities which rise to the surface while fermentation is going on, may be
worked off. When sufficiently fermented, which will require from one to
two or more months, bung tightly, and let it remain till winter, Avhen it may
be racked off into other casks, or bottled. Some persons refine it before
424 rOMESTIC ECONOilY. [Coap. IV.
bottling, by putting into each barrel two ounces of isinglass, dissolved iu a
quart of wine."
Cahoon's seedling yields the greatest quantity of juice. Mr. Cahoou's
method of making wine is to mix equal quantities of water with the juice
of the stalks, and to each gallon three and a half pounds fair qualify of New
Orleans sugar, filling the barrels quite full, and refining witli isinglass,
and allowing the wine to remain till spring, when it is bottled. By adding
or diminishing the quantity of sugar, it will vary the strength of the wine
in the same proportion. Tlie pure juice, without water, makes a very strong
wine by using four pounds of sugar to each gallon. Mr. Gaboon estimates
tliat 2,500 gallons of wine can be made from an acre planted witli his seed-
ling. Sold at from $2 to $4 a gallon, this would yield a return of $5,000.
The fault of the above is the unrefined quality of the sugar. Well-made
rhubarb wine will cease to ferment in about eight weeks, and then it should
be corked tightly, and kept one year undisturbed before bottling. In three
years it will become like a dry sherry wine.
472. Bottling and forks. — Use none but strong, heavy bottles, and look to
your corks if you would have your wine keep. One of the greatest mis-
takes made by those wlio are new beginners in wine-making is the using of
poor corks; they do not reflect that the common cork permits tiie air to
reach and destroy the wine Besides this, a poor one can not be drawn
wiliiout breaking, and tlius injuring the flavor of the wine. If wine-makers
woidd desire to Imve their wine keep well and taste well on opening, let
them never use any but the very best velvet corks. The use of the best
quality will more than doubly pay by securing the wine from spoiling, and
retaining the flavoi-, which is often lost by a bad cork.
Bottles should always be stored upon their sides, or in racks, with the
corks down. If pour corks are used, they must be covered Avith sealing-wax.
473. Wine of GrapeSi — Most of the wine made in this country is barely
drinkable; wliat is called pure juice of tiie grape is often but little, if any,
better than very ])oor sour cider, and is not generally palatable to the com-
mon taste. In a trial of wine tliat I attended, a number of first-rate judges
of wine finally settled upon a specimen of currant wine, as superior to any
of the sweetened specimens of grape juice; yet the concoctors of it label it
"pure juice of the grape," "fit for sacramental purposes and for the sick."
Tliey insist tliat fermentation of sugar does not produce alcohol. Tliey are
misiaken ; fermentation produces it, and distillation separates it. This
sugared wine is not pure — it is one fourth alcohol. Much of the imported
wine is sugared. Some of the best wine can not be imported; we can not
move from place to place the very best wines made of pure grape juice.
These sweetened beverages all lack one very essential element of wine,
and that is the gout, which all genuine grape wines possess. Unfortunately,
with very few exceptions, American grapes have proved so deficient in
giape-sugar, that they would not make wine without adding cane-sugar,
which makes rum instead of brandy, which is the true spirit of wine. Some
Seo. 26.] DOMESTIC WINES. 425
of the best wine-makers of the country now believe that they have dis-
covered, in the Delaware grape, one that will make wine equal to the best
European varieties. Some Cincinnati Catawba is a good substitute for
Rhine wine. Some good wines are made in California.
47-1. How to IHake Grape Wine. — For the benefit of those who may wish to
do a little in the way of domestic wine-making, we will give a few simple
rules, such as are followed by wine-makers on a small scale :
Mashing the Gkape. — ^There are various metliods of mashing the grape
now used by the more careful wine-inakers. Previous to the mashing,
however, when first-rate wine is to be made, the bunches are carefully ex-
amined, and all unripe and rotten berries are plucked off and thrown away ;
then the grapes are thrown into a tub and mashed by tramping with the
feet, or bruised with a club, or crushed by passing between two large
wooden rollers, which are far enough apart to allow the seeds to pass with-
out being broken. Tlie seeds, if mashed, would give a bitter taste to the
wine. To tramp grapes, wear India-rubber boots.
Peessing the Gkape. — Tiie pressing of the mashed berries is a simple
process, like the pressing of cheese, or apples for cider. The grape-press is
usually made to hold al^out 150 lbs. of grapes at each pressing. If white
wine is to be made, the grapes are pressed as soon as mashed ; but if red
wine is wanted, the whole mass is left to ferment for six or seven days, in
which time the juice takes the dark color of the skin.
Fermentation. — Tlie juice for white wine, as it comes from the press, is
put into pipes measuring 140 gallons, about 115 gallons of juice being put
into each cask, leaving one fourth of it empty. Tlie bung-hole is left open,
and in two or three daj's the fermentation begins, and its force is over in
three or four days. The wine-maker then proceeds to fill up the casks,
sradually pouring in six or eight gallons at a time, so that the casks are
tilled in the course of three or four days more. The casks should be filled
up before the strength of the fermentation is over, so that the dirt or scum
may be borne up to the bung-hole and there thrown out.
Eacking. — The vigor of the movement being over, the bung-hole is closed
and tlie wine is left for a period varying from four weeks to three months.
It is tlien drawn off through a cock placed a couple of inches above the hot:
torn of tlie pipe, taking care not to disturb the sediment at the bottom.
The clearer wine is poured into a clean cask ; that filled with sediment is
filtered through a doubled cotton cloth, and is then mixed again into the
first drawing, or it is used without filtration in making brandy. About
one twentieth of the juice as it comes from the press ftiils down as sedi-
ment. Tlie process of transferring wine from one cask to another is termed
" racking off."
After the first racking, the new cask i.s completely filled, the bung closed,
and the wine is not disturbed till March or April, when it begins to feel a more
lively fermentation, for that process never ceases entirely. "Wlien the vine
sprouts in March or April, and when it blossoms in June, and tlie grape
426 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [CniP. IV.
ripens in September, the new wine ferments; and at tbose times the bungs
must be raised, and care must be taken not to disturb the barrels. Between
times, wlien there is no perceptible fermentation, tlie wine should be racked
oii' two or three times in a year, and at the end of a year and a half it is
clear and good, but it continues to grow better with age. The red wine is
treated in precisely the same manner, except that it is allowed to ferment
before pressure. Immediately after the. pressure the wine should be placed
in as cool a cellar as can be obtained in the country, and should be kept
there always. This cellar should have no moldy matter about it, no vege-
tables or salt meat in it, nor anything that can corrupt the natural swco'.ncss
of the air.
Red and White Wine. — Bkandt. — All the white wine made in this man-
ner resembles hock or sauterne ; the red wine may be made to resemble
claret, burgundy, or port. When the berries are picked early, the i-ed
wine is like claret, but has more body ; if the grapes are left upon the stem
until they, are nearly dry, they give less juice, but the wine has a much
stronger body, and rivals port in strength.
The method of making champagne is held as a secret, and we shall not
attempt to describe it fully, Tlie main facts, however, are that the wine is
bottled about six months after pressing ; it is again re-bottled in eight
months more. The bottles are laid down upon their sides in racks, and
a large per-centage of them are broken by the activity of the fermenta-
tion.
The refuse of the press and all the sediment of the new wine may be used
in making brandy, which is obtained by distillation in the same manner as
whisky is distilled from maize or potatoes. For every hundred gallons of
wine about twenty-five of brandy are obtained.
475. Wine of TomatoeSt — Wo have no experience of wine from this fruit,
but a lady writes us from Iowa as follows :
"Are you aware what very excellent wine can be made from tomatoes?
I tried it on a small scale last year, and find it serves as good a purpose for
iising in sickness and in cooking as the compounds of nauseous drugs usually
sold for wine. Many who have tasted it were unable to tell it from grape
wine. If people will use wine, it is certainly well to have it free from
poison, and tomatoes are so abundant that it could be afi'orded cheaply.
If vinegar can bo made from it, it will be a blessing to the West, where
we have such horrible compounds under that name. The recipe : One
pound of white sugar to a quart of juice, and similar treatment to cur-
rant Aviiio."
476. Blackberry Cordial. — ^This is not wine, though an article called black-
berry wine is often made in the same way that wine of other small fruits is
made, and is a very good beverage ; but this is what the name implies,
blackberry cordial, and it sliould be jirovided in every family, particularly
where there are growing children ; it is such an excellent remedy for chil-
dren troubled with diarrhea and all other diseases of the bowels generated
Seo. 26.] DOMESTIC WINES AND CIDER. 427
ill the fepriiig season. To ruake it, to two quarts of blackberry juice add one
pound of loaf sugar, half an ounce of nutmeg, lialf an ounce of cinnamon,
pulverized fine, quarter of an ounce of cloves, quarter of an ounce of allspice,
finely pulverized, and a handful of raisins. Boil all together for a short
time, ahd wiien cold, add one pint of fourth-proof French brandy. Black
currants also treated in the same way make an excellent cordial. See 472.
477. Cider— Preserving it Sweet.— The following is the plan recommended
by Professor Horsford, of Cambridge, Mass. :
""When the cider in iho barrel is undergoing a lively fermentation, add
as much white sugar as will be equal to half or three qtrarters of a pound to
each gallon of eider, and let the fermentation proceed until the liquid attains
the right taste to suit; then add an eighth to a quarter of an ounce of sul-
phite (not sulphate) of lime to each gallon of cider in the cask ; first mixing
the powder in about a quart of the cider, and then pouring it back into the
cask and giving it a thorough shaking or rolling. After standing bunged
up a few days for the matter added to become incorporated with the cider,
it may be bottled or used from the cask."
Do not mistake sulphate of lime — which is a natural production, and
known as plaster of Paris — for sulphite of lime, which is a manufactured
article, and is worth by the barrel about thirty-three cents a pound, and by
the cwt. thirty-seven and a half cents, and by the single pound fifty cents.
It has been of late years much used by sugar-makers to prevent fermentation
of cane-juice, and in our opinion it will be found more efibctive as a pre-
ventive of fermentation in cider than an arrester of it after it has proceeded
nearly to completion.
We kept cider on tap that was treated as above for six months, which
appeared to possess exactly the same degree of acidity as it had when first
treated, but it had an unpleasant sulphur taste.
Using Heat and Bottling. — The following is the formula: Fill bottles
with sweet cider and set them on a board in a flat-bottomed boiler with cold
water, which heat to the boiling-point until the cider begins to run over,
but not to boil so as to alter its flavor; then cork and seal just as fruits are
treated, and the cider will keep equally well.
Condensed Cider is the name of a new article first made by Gail Borden,
Jun., in 1863, using the same process which he invented for condensing milk ;
that is, boiling it in vacuum with steam-pipes, reducing the cider direct from
the press to a stifl' jelly, which will keep as well as any fruit-jelly made by
domestic process. For transportation it is put up like the condensed milk,
in tin cans. It is reduced to its original condition by adding as much water
as it had parted with. It is, probably, the best plan ever devised for keep-
ing cider sweet.
478. — Oiling Ciden — When a barrel of cider is tapped, it grows hard ; that
is, more and more acid, until it gets too hard to drink, if it is kept long on
t<vp. This is occasioned by the air, which fills the cask above the cider as
fast as it is drawn out. The air can not be excluded, even if the cask were
428 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
air-tight, because the cider will not run from the tap if there is no air tn
press it out. If cider is exposed long to air, it will become vinegar. In
fact, the way to make vinegar of cider is to expose it to the air as mucli as
possible. To prevent the cider on tap from becoming acid, it is recom-
mended, as soon as one or two gallons are drawn out, to pour in the bung-hole
about half a pint of clear sperm oil, or sweet oil if it is preferred. It should
be warm when poured in, and it will spread in a thin coat over the surface,
and keep spreading as the cider is drawn down, and thus exclude the air,
without giving any taste of oil to the cider.
This plan of preserving cider is worthy of farther attention. "We have
faith in it from knowing that oil-casks arc the best we know of for storing
cider, imparting no flavor, and keeping it sound as bottled cider for years.
Sperm-oil casks are more valuable lor cider-casks than for any other ])urpose.
479. Filtering Cideri — Cider is very much improved hy filtering. This
should be done when the first fern)entation is over, by racking it off into
clean ban-els. A good plan for a filter is the following:
"Take a square or round wooden box, made of inch pine plank, three
feet in diameter, and one foot four inches deep. Make it with a bottom
perforated with numerous one-quarter-inch augur holes, over which should
be laid coarse liemp bagging. Now fill in the box for eight inches with
pieces of charcoal — animal charcoal is the best — about nut size, and on the
top of this place a four-inch layer of clean washed sand, and cover all with
coarse hemp bagging, and you have a cheap and good filter. Any num-
ber of such filters may be used, according to the quantity of cider to
be operated upon, and the cloth can be frequently washed Avithout dis-
turbing the sand and charcoal. Before any cider is filtered through, pass
a stream of clear water into the filter for fifteen minutes, so as to remove
any fine, loose particles of charcoal that otherwise would be mixed with
the cider."
480. Aeriiying Cider. — If cider, when it first comes from the press, could
be filtered, and the clear liquid allowed to fall from an upper story in a thin
stream into a large tub in the story below, or, if feasible, to continue fulling
from one to another through several stories of a building, it would become
greatly improved, and we are assured by one who has tried it, that it may
be bottled at once without any further fermentation, and it will remain in
its sweet or slightly acidulated state, and when at a year old it is uncorked
it will sparkle like champagne wine.
The grand secret of having a cider equal to pure wine is in checking any
further fermentation. If the cider is left to itself, the acetous fermentation
follows— the sedimentary matter at the bottom of the cask rises, and the
liquid becomes muddy— this, acting as yeast, produces a second and inoro
violent fermentation, resulting generally in hard cider.
By straining out the crude and useless matter from the liquor, the liability
to excessive fermentation is greatly lessened, and so it is by fumigating
casks with burning sulphur as well as aerifying. Bemcmber, however, tha^
Seo. 26.] CIDER, VIKEGAK, AND PRESERVES. 429
this airing process must be confined to eider while quite new. If fermented
cider were treated in the same way, the result would be vinegar.
When cider is kept tightly bunged up, it changes little and very gradually;
bottled, it changes none at all, except a certain improvement by age which
takes place.
Air will at once begin to change the alcohol into vinegar if it comes in
contact with it, and this will make the best cider hard and sour before
long.
481. Tinrgar — How to Slake it. — If you have cider that " won't turn to
vinegar," just try the following plan : Fill a barrel, tub, box, or any other
clean vessel, with clean shavings, or small twigs of anj' sweet wood, such as
maple, birch, beech, etc., and wet them with vinegar, if you have it, and if
not, cider, or even warm water will answer. This barrel must be full of
holes, sides and bottom, and set over a larger vessel, to catch the drip as it
leaches through. Tlic cider is to be conveyed to the leach by any con-
venient method. A good way is to put it in a pail, set on the barrel over
the shavings, and carry it over the edge by siphons, made of rags, or cotton
lamp-wicking, or a hank of cotton yarn. These conductors should be cut
long enough to reach from the bottom of the pail or pan used, up over the
edge, and down an inch below the bottom. This gradual emptying of the
pail, and trickling down through the filter, exposes the liquid to the atmos-
phere, and that is what is wanted to make vinegar. If the first operation is
iusuflicient, let it be repeated, and good strong vinegar will be the result.
CcEEANT VmEGAE. — " Last year," writes a lady, " for trial, I took fourteen
pounds of currants, mashed them as for wine, put them into a tub with two
or three pails of water, stirring it two or three times a day. After standing
several days, I strained or pressed it, and with molasses enough to make it
as sweet as new cider, I had ten gallons. I put it into a keg, and did not
open it till December, when I found it to be as good vinegar as was ever
made."
Blackberry vinegar may be made in the same way ; or, if you arc making
wine, do not throw away the seeds and skins after drawing oii' the must.
Pour warm water over these until they are entirely covered, and let them
stand in an open vessel three or four days. Then draw oif the liquid and
let that stand until the acetous fermentation takes place. A small quantity
of coarse sugar or molasses will hasten the process. In this way a most
excellent article of wine vinegar may be obtained by many who have not
the means of making cider vinegar.
482. Preserving Fruits for Winter Use.— We have already given a plan in
337 of a fruit-drying house, and have recommended preserving various kinds
of fruits by drying for winter use, and now we give some directions for
various other preparations for preserving fruit, cooked and uncooked.
Apples keep best in a dry, cool room, just above the freezing-point. If
headed in barrels, apples will keep in a room where water would freeze
quite solid. They will not keep well in a warm cellar where cabbage,
430 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
turnips, or any strong-smelling substances arc stored, for tlicy al)Sorb the un-
pleasant odor. If packed in straw or chaff that becomes damp and musty,
they will spoil.
483. Grapes— How to Keep Them.— Tliere are three easy ways that wil!
serve the pui'poso in some degi'ce — that is, it will preserve them some weeks
into the winter in a tolerable state of freshness. Tiie firet is to liang np tlie
bunches separately by the stems in a dry room, barely warm enough to pre-
serve fruit from freezing. Tiio next is to pack the bunches, each separately,
in absolutely dry sawdust, of some sweet wood, in layers, in a box or cask.
The other is to pack the bunches separately between layers of clean cotton
fiber or batting. In each case the fruit should be kept in a dry, cool room,
and, when packed in cotton, the room may be so cold that it would freeze
water, yet will not injure the grapes. Care must be taken that the fruit is
dry and clean, and that there arc no decayed, mashed, or imperfect grapes
on the bunches.
Another direction says :
" In gathering grapes for keeping fresh, they should be allowed to hang
on the vines until fully ripe, and then gathered with care to avoid bruising.
The foirest bunches should be cliosen to put away, and with a pair of small
scissors all defective and bruised berries should be cut off. They should
then be placed in boxes well ventilated, and remain for a few days, when
they should be packed in boxes holding six or eight pounds each. It is not
important that the box be tight ; it is better that it should not be. Tliesc
should be put in the coolest place in the house, whore the air is dry. On
the approach of freezing weather they may be removed to upj>cr shelves sus-
pended in the cellar, or in any dry room where the temperature is as near
the freezing-point as possible.
" "While grapes may be grown in such profusion and with so little labor,
it is a little remarkable that a sui)ply for every household in the country is
not secured, not only in the regular season of them, but to last until sprinjj.
There is no trouble in keeping grapes through tlie winter as fiesli as whei»
they are first gathered."
484. Preserving Fruit in Air-Tight Cans a»<I Bottles.— The vuxlus ojmandi
of putting up fruit so as to preserve it in a fresh state witliout cooking, dry-
ing, or packing in sugar is not yet fully understood b}' ail farmers' families,
though largely manufactured for sale by many persons in cities; and man}'
contrivances have been invented for sealing up cans, some of whicli are
A'ery convenient ; but the same tiling can be accomplished with bottles
corked and sealed according to these directions.
It is a business that can not so well be done in families as in large manu-
factories, where everything is arranged for convenience ; but still, with a
little experience and careful attention, every family can save enougli of tlie
various fruits of the season to furnish their tables with a great delicacy
during that portion of the year when they can get nothing of the kind.
The whole secret consists in expelling the air from bottles or cans by heat,
Sec. 26.J PRESERVING FRUIT IN AIE-TIGIIT CANS. 431
and then sealing up the contents hermetically. If the article to be pre-
served is peaches, select such as you would for sweetmeats, and pare and cut
them so that they can be put in the bottle, and you must do this witii the
least possible delay, or they will be colored by the atmosphere. Some per-
sons who want them to retain their natural whiteness peel them under wa-
ter. When the bottle is full, cork it tight and wire down the cork with
very little projecting above the glass. When you have bottles enougli to
till a kettle, such as may be most convenient, put them in and boil with the
water all around up to the nozzle for about fifteen or twenty minutes, or
until the bottle appears to be full of steam, the atmosphere having been
forced out through the cork. As soon as the bottles are cool enougli to
handle, dip the corks in sealing-wax, so as to cover them quite tight. An
additional precaution is used by some in putting tin-foil over the wax.
Another plan is to cook the fruit sliglitly in a kettle, and then put it into
cans or bottles, and pour hot syrup of sugar in to fill up the interstices, and
then cork and seal, the heat of the fruit and syrup answering to expel tlie
air. But the less they are cooked or sweetened, tlie more natural will be
the taste, like fresh fruit when opened. We have eaten peaches a year old
that WG could not tell from those sugared ten hours before.
Tomatoes are very easily preserved, and retain their freshness better than
almost any other fruit. The small kind only are used. Scald and peel
them witliout breaking the flesh. Bottles should hold about a quart only,
because when once opened, the contents must be used up at once. Bottles
made on purpose, with large throats and a ring on the inside, are the best,
and bottles are better than cans for all acid fruit. The cans, however, are
more easily secured by solder than the bottles by corks and wax, as the air
is let out through a small puncture after the large opening is soldered up
and cans heated, and that hole stopped with a single drop of solder.
Every article of fruit will keeji fresh if the air is exhausted and the bottle
sealed tight. The least particle of air admitted through any imperfection
of the sealing will spoil the fruit. If tlie air could be driven out without
heat, there would be no need of any cooking, and only just enough sliould
be given to expel the air and not change the taste. Many persons prefer
to add syrup made by about one pound of sugar to a quart of water to all
suitable fruits. Green corn, beans, peas, tomatoes, pie-plant, currants,
gooseberries, cherries, plums, raspberries, strawberries, peaches, are the most
common things put up in this way. Tliey add greatly to the pleasures of
the table and to the health of those who consume them — in that respect
quite unlike the common preserves.
We have known fruit for pies put up in three-quart cans by partially
cooking in an open kettle in a syrup just sweet enough for use, and putting
the fruit in the cans hot and soldering immediately. It kept thus perfectly.
Some fruits keep mucli better and with less heating than others. Peas are
among the hardest articles to keep, they contain so much fixed air.
We advise every family in the country to try this plan of putting up
432 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Cuap. IV.
fruits for -winter use on a small scale this year, and if successful, enlarge
upon it next year
A new mode, to us, of canning fruit is recommended as follows :
" Take a common wide-moutlied crock or jar of any size ; prepare the
fruit in the usual -way ; fill the jar and tie two waxed cloths tightly over
the mouth. The jar must not be A-ery narrow-mouthed in proportion to its
size. A common, straight, stone gallon jar is of good proportions. If the
mouth is too small, the cloths can not follow the surface of the fruit down
in a cold time. The cloth must touch the fruit at all times, and if tlie
mouth is wide it can rise and fall with the weather. In order to have the
jar very full, it is well to let the fruit cool down a little below 212 de-
grees ; then fill up with more fruit just before putting on the cloth. The
clotlis niay be of the common muslin, but they must be soaked in melted
wax. The wax should be beeswax chiefly ; a little rosin and tallow will
help it."
4S5. Dry SuRar-Preserviilg;. — Strawberries, raspbemes, blackberries, cher-
ries, and peaches can be preserved in this manner : Lay the ripe fruit in
broad dishes, and sprinkle over it the same quantity of sugar used in cook-
ing it. Set it in the sun or a moderately heated oven until the juice forms
a thick syrup with the sugar. Pack the fruit in tumblers, and i)Our the
syrup over it. Paste writing-paper over the glasses, and set tliem in a cool,
dry place. Peaches must be pared and split, and cherries stoned. Pre-
served in this manner, the fruit retains much more of its natural flavor and
healthfulncss than when cooked. The paper which is usually pasted over
jars of preserves is porous, and admits air. To render it perfectly impervi-
ous to air, apply the white of an egg with a brush to the paper before cover-
ing the jars, overlapping the edges an inch or two.
486. Dry Pressure Preserving. — By submitting vegetables to a powerful
pressure, they have been prepared in France so that they have been kept in
a dry state many months. Cabbages, beets, parsneps, peas, apples, etc., are
divested of all moisture by a powerful hydraulic press, and thus are packed
in small compass for use of men on sliip-board. They are a tolerable sub-
stitute for fresh vegetables, but as unlike them as bull beef is to tender
lamb. Upon such a voyage, however, as that of the Grinnell expedition,
where' the ships were frozen up nine months, a taste of such food as this
would have been not only palatable, but extremely beneficial to health. We
understand it is not expensive.
487. Currant Jelly. — As cuirant jelly is pleasant and useful to both the
sick and the well, we give the following directions for making it of excellent
quality, which retains the beautiful crimson color of the currant much bet-
ter than that made by the old mode: "Squeeze the juice out of the cui^
rants, strain and measure it, put it in a porcelain or very well-cleaned cop-
per or brass kettle, and boil it until the scum ceases to rise ; then, without
taking the juice off the fire, stir in one pound of well-refined sugar to every
pint of juice, and as soon as the sugar is fully dissolved — which will be
Sec. 26.] PICKLES AND PRESERVES. 433
in less than a minute — take it off and pour it into the vessels prepared to
receive it."
Cider Jellt. — Boil three quarts of cider jnst from the press till it is re-
duced to one. Skim ■well, and add not quite one quart of white sugar. Boil
fifteen or twenty minutes, and strain through a coarse linen cloth into your
jelly glasses.
488. Pickling Cncnmbers, Itlelons, Tomatoes, Peaches. — The great art in
making good pickles is to have good vinegar. The best vinegar for pick-
ling^is made of sound cider. As good vinegar is not always at hand, the
best way is to prepare a brine strong enough to bear an egg. When the
tub is full of pickles, allow the brine to cover them ; then cover them over
with cabbage-leaves, and a board and weight to keep them in the brine. For
use, freshen in warm water, and put them in a bright brass kettle, with
vinegar enough to cover them, and scald them fifteen or twenty minutes ;
put them in jars, and pour hot vinegar over them ; flavor them with
cloves, mace, black pepper, an onion or two, and a little horseradish and
ginger.
For Peach Pickles. — Stir two pounds of white sugar into two quarts of
the best cider vinegar. Boil it ten minutes, skimming it well. Have ready
some large, fully-ripe peaches ; rub them with a clean flannel to take oflF the
down, and stick four cloves into each. Put them into glass or whiteware
jars, rather more than half full, and pour on them the vinegar boiling hot.
Cover them closely, set them in a cool place, and let them rest for a week.
Then pour ofif the liquid, and give it another boiling. Afterward pour it
again on the peaches; cover them closely, corking the jars and tying leather
over each, and put them away till wanted for use. Instead of cloves you
may stick the peaches with blades of mace, six blades to each peach. If
you find a coat of mold on the top of a jar of pickles, remove it carefully,
and do not throw away the pickles, as they may still be quite good be-
neath.
489. Apples, how Preserved, and (heir Use. — Where apples abound, as they
do in a large portion of the Northern States, they should be found in some
form upon every farm-house table at nearly every meal. Several very
choice sorts can be kept through the winter up to the time when apples
come again ; and where they abound, there is really but little occasion for
preserving small fruits, as indicated in preceding paragraphs. Apples,
when first taken from the tree, if laid in a heap eighteen inches in depth,
and covered with a cloth, or a little straw, will soon sweat and become quite
moist ; then the cover or straw should be taken ofi^, and the apples suflered
to dry as suddenly as possible. Then packed in barrels and kept till tliey
sweat again, and finally dried, repacked, and stored in proper situations, they
will always be ready for furnishing some o£ the best sweetmeats at short
notice that a farmer can enjoy, for they furnish healthy food.
Apples brought to the table raw should be only such kinds as can be eaten
after sweet things, as pastry and custards, hence all intensely sour apples.
434 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
liowever grateful at other times, arc not fit for the dessert. There is almost
an infinite number, and among them our best varieties, -which do not come
within this stricture, though some of the choicest for culinary purposes are
too sour for the dessert uncooked.
The eflect of heat on many apples is quite noticeable. Baked apples are
always liked. We are not surpi'ised when a tender apple bakes soft and
delicate, but when one tough and corky loses all these cliaracteristics, and
surpasses in delicacy even the other, as is often the case, we appreciate better
the chemical action which heat induces. Sweet apples, free from decay,
worms, or gnarly spots, scrupulously cleaned and placed in pans, and baked
in a slow oven till fully done, are excellent. The apples should shrivel and
dry away very much, and the skin should not be broken so as to let the
juice out. The sweetness is thus concentrated, and they are three times as
good as if simply baked through.
Sour or tart apples may be baked much quicker ; the juice, instead of be-
coming viscid and thick by heat, is apt to flow out, or the steam splits the
skin and lets it out, and it is likely to burn to the pan. Baked tart apples
should be eaten witii sugar, or they may be baked with sugar. Tart apples,
washed, placed in a pan with a little water, and sprinkled over well with
sugar — or the same, cored and the holes filled with sugar — or pared as well
as cored, and spice added with the sugar, are delicious. Some use one or two
cloves to each apple, or a bit of cinnamon with some lemon-peel ; others grate
nutmeg or sprinkle cinnamon over the apples in the pan.
To our taste, plain baked apples, or sliglitly sugared if very tart, is the
very best preparation of this valuable fruit for the table.
Apple Ccstaed. — To make the cheapest and best every-day farmer's apple
custard, take sweet apples that will cook soft, pare, cut, and stew them ;
when well done, stir till the pieces are broken ; \j-hen cool, thin with milk
to a proper consistency, and bake with one crust, like a pumpkin pie. Eggs
may be prepared and added with milk, thougli it will do without. No
sweetening is necessary. It may be seasoned with any kind of sj^ice to suit
the taste — the less the better.
Raw Apples and Milk. — A tender sub-acid, or sweet apple — the latter
preferable — pared and sliced thin into a bowl of milk, for breakfast or sup-
per, is a great luxury to some persons at any time of the year ; and it is not
less healthful thau grateful to the palate.
Sec. 27.] HYGIENIC. 435
SECTION XXVII.-HYGIENIC.
FEEPAEATION OF FOOD FOR THE SICK REifEDIES FOB POISONS, BITES, AND
STINGS.
(E will not tire the reader with nostrums under this
title ; we simply ask attention to a very short section
upon matters of great importance to those who are
suffering, and which come properly under the head
of this chapter. All of our readers who have,
while recovering from sickness, asked, " "What shall
I eat ?" will appreciate all that is said in the next
paragraph.
490. Food for the Sick and Dyspeptic— Sickness
occurs in every family, and during convalescence
the appetite is sometimes so delicate it needs a good
deal of pampering. In some families there is always
an invalid, who can not eat the every-day food of
those whose appetites are strong. To sucli, some of
the following hints may be very acceptable, and equally acceptable to some
who are not sick.
What shall I eat? How often this question is asked by the sick, or those
Avith delicate appetites! Nature demands food, but the appetite does not
crave it, and the mind of the feeble invalid can not fix upon anything that
he will relish.
It may relieve such sufferers to point out a few suitable articles of food,
such as are easily prepared and usually tempt delicate aj^petites.
Here is one peculiarly New Englandisli :
" Cut some codfish in bits the size of a pea, and boil it a minute in water
to freshen it. Pour off all the water, and add some cream and a little
pepper.
"Split and toast a Boston cracker, and put the above upon it. Milk and
a little butter may be used instead of cream.
" Hani or smoked beef may be prepared in the same way. For a variety,
beat up an egg and stir it in, instead of cream, or with the cream.
"These preparations are also good for a relish for a family breakfast
or tea."
Another excellent dish for sick or well, and economical withal, is made
by taking a few cakes of pilot-bread and soaking them till partially soft,
after breaking them into mouthfuls, in just water enough to be all absorbed ;
then cut a slice of fat salt pork into very small pieces, fry it crisp, pour it
over the bread, and heat the whole in a stove or oven, or in a spider.
436 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
Anotlicr plan is to pour over tlie Lrcad a sweetened butter gravy, or vino
sauce, or the juice of stewed fruit or preserves. All are good.
A very excellent food for delicate stoinuclis may be made by sweetening
■water, cold or hot, with refined sugar, and crumbling into it stale bread.
Bread and cider used to be a favorite food in Yankee land in old times.
Sweeten the cider, and crumb into it toasted bread.
Sometimes a piece of codfish or a slice of fat salt pork, roasted upon
live coals, will tempt a convalescent appetite -when notliing else will answer.
In making porridge of corn or oatmeal, be careful to cook it -well. Do
not think it done till it has boiled an hour.
Rice gruel does not need so much cooking. It should not be given to a
person of constipated habits. Simple boiled rice is a delicate food for the
sick.
Arrowroot, tapioca, farina, and corn starch arc all of the same character —
highly concentrated food. A good gruel may be made of either, and fla-
vored with sugar, nutmeg, lemon, or whatever would be agreeable. Stale
bread, very dry, crumbed and made into a gruel, is perhaps the most di-
gestible. Stale bread, toasted very dry and brown, and then steeped in wa-
ter a long time, makes a good drink for the sick, and furnishes considerable
nourishment.
In all cases of sickness, when the appetite craves fruit vre -would give it,
ripe and fresh in its season, or preserved and cooked in the most simple
manner. Apples for the sick should always be roasted. So should po-
tatoes.
If tlie friends of the sick possess a little skill and neatness in the prepara-
tion of dishes, the patient need never say, " What shall I eat T'
The following is well relished by some appetites, but we doubt its di-
gestibility: Shave a good crisp head of cabbage as fine as i)ossible; add a
tablespoonful of horseradish to each quart of shaved cabbage ; let one pint
of vinegar come to a boil; have ready three well-beaten eggs with a little
salt ; pour the eggs into the vinegar and stir until cooked ; then pour it
over the cabbage and set it away, as it is better when cold. Tliis will keep
some days, and is always ready.
Roasting a Chicken may bo thought a very simple operation, but,
in our opinion, not one in ten of modern housekeepers can do it to per-
fection. First, because they have no conveniences. The abominable cook-
ing-stove has spoiled many a dish, and none more so than this of a roast
chicken, which never has been and never will be roasted to perfection in
any other way than tied np by the legs swinging by a string before a wood
fire, dripping its gravy into a ])an in wliich there is a little cream and a
lump of butter, with which the roast is to bo basted from time to time until
the skin is brown and flesh thoi-oughly cooked. It is tliis cooking in the
open air that gives it the i)cculiar richness. If a chicken must be roasted or
baked in a stove-oven, it should bo done with the oven door open. "With
some stoves it can be much better done in an open pan set down before the
Sec. 27.] HYGIEIHC. 437
grate. All holes in the body of a fowl should be sewed up as tight as pos-
sible— not merely drawn together, but tight.
^ A badly cooked fowl should never be set before an invalid, or one whose
digestion is naturally weak. The following makes a nice dish for a delicate
appetite :
Lay half a dozen crackers in a tureen ; pour enough boiling water over
them to cover them. In a few minutes they will be swollen three or four
times their original size. Now grate loaf sugar and a little nutmeg over
them, and dip on enough cream to make a nice sauce, and you have a
simple and delicious dessert that will rest lightly upon the stomach, and it
is easily prepared. Leave out the cream, and U is a valuable recipes- for
" sick-room cookery."
LEMOX.VDE.— Three lemons to a pint of water makes strong lemonade ;
sweeten to taste. This is a cool, refreshing, pleasant, and salubrious bev-
erage for invalids.
Mead.— Three pounds of sugar, five gills of molasses, three pints of wa-
ter, three ounces of tartaric acid, one ounce of sarsaparilla. Stir it over the
fire till at the boiling-point. When cold, bottle and cork tight. Add the
supercarbonate of soda when you drink it.
GiNGEu Beee.— Two gallons of boiling water, two pounds of crushed
sugar, one and a half ounces of bruised ginger, one ounce of cream of tartar,
one lemon, two tablespoonfuls of yeast. Mix all together (except the yeast)
and let it stand over-night ; tlien add the yeast ; strain and bottle it ; tie
down the corks. In twelve hours it may be drank.
Beef Tea is very nourishing if rightly prepared. Take perfectly lean
parts of fat beef, cut it into cubes half an inch square, and soak it some hours
in cold water, and then boil all together for an hour. You may improve
this by adding a toasted cracker to each bowlful.
The following formula is given by Liebig : Half a pound of fresh, lean beef,
cut small in one pint and a third of pure water, with four drops of muriatic
acid q,nd half a small spoonful of salt, to stand an hour cold, and then strain
without squeezing. It may then be cooked and taken hot or cold
Mutton or chicken tea sliould be made according to the first of the above
directions, and rice may be added, if not intended solely for drink.
491. Cautions about Preserving Health.— The art of preserving health is of
more consequence than all the prescriptions for pampering sick appetites. A
great deal of sickness might be avoided by forethought. There is always
some cause to produce sickness, and that cause may frequently be removed
by a few hours' labor.
Stagnant water in the cellar is a great breeder of disease. Let there al-
ways be a free passage of air through the cellar by taking out the windows,
so that the air can circulate freely and keep it healthy.
If there are stagnant ponds near your dwellings, they should be drained.
Kemove, as far as you can, every cause of disease ; be temperate and regu-
lar in all your habits ; avoid exposure, and be careful of what you eat.
438 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. (Ohaf. IV.
492. PoisonSi — There Sre numerous poisons lurking unsusi^ectcd abont.
many dwellings that tend to produce sickness. Among otlier poisons, wc
enumerate —
Oxalic acid used iu solution for cleaning hrass and removing stains from
linen, is a virulent jjoison. Lime forms an insoluble compound with it, and
proves the best antidote when it lias been taken into the stomach.
Among vegetable poisons we find the mountain laurel {Kalinia laiifolia),
and the dwarf or sheep laurel {K. augustifolia). Tliese not only are eaten
by animals, but the leaves are mistaken by children for wintergreen, and
■\ve have known serious cases of poisoning to result.
Poison sumach {Rhus venenata) and poison vine or poison ivy {R. toxico-
dendron) produce excessive irritation of the skin, and even blistering from
contact Avith most persons, and some are so sensitive that the odor only of
the first or its smoke in burning produces most painful results. Tlie wild or
poison parsnep has a similar effect upon some persons, and some very del-
icate skins are aflected by the garden parsnep. The effect is hightened
when the leaves are covered with dew ; when dried, they may be handled
with safety.
Water liemlock {Cicuta maculata) is a virulent poison. From the form
of its inflorescence and the aromatic odor of its seed and root, it is some-
times mistaken for sweet cicely {Myrrhis odorata) by cliildren. Pains
should be taken to extirpate it wherever found, as also to prevent tiie spread
of a similar plant, a foreigner, poison hemlock {Conium maculatiim).
Among poisonous garden flowers we have the larkspur, monkshood, and
foxglove.
Opium, tlie product of the poppy, in some form, either as laudanum or
elixir, is a very frequent means of poisoning. These medicines are too pow-
erful to be trusted in ignorant bands, as the yearly record of fatal accidents
sadly attests.
Tlie green color on wall paper and on cards attached to varions dry
goods, often contains arsenic, a single square incli having enough to destroy
a child. Green wall paper is unfit for use, especially for sleeping-rooms.
The exhalation from such walls has been known to sicken the occupants.
[The frequent use of poisonous colors upon candy or children's playthings
indicates the need of the utmost caution on the part of paicnts. The red,
green, yellow, and blue colors may all be liarmless, but fatal cases of jjoi-
soning and the examination of chemists prove that the grossest ignorance or
the deepest depravity prevails with some makers and venders.
Copper in all its forms is poisonous. Acid or greasy food allowed to stand
in copper or brass vessels, readily corrodes them, and proves their unfitness
for such uses. The metallic or brassy taste of the articles usually aftbrds
reasonable warning.
Common black writing-ink, made of nutgalls and iron, is not poisonous,
but the blue ink has a different composition, and is so in a greater or less
degree. Indelible ink and also hair-dyes having nitrate of silver as the es-
Sec. 2r.] HTGIENIC. 439
scntial ingredient, are poisonous. Corrosive sublimate used in alcohol as a
bedbug poison should never be kept in families, as it has been the cause of
very many accidents.
Phosphorus, an ingredient in friction matches, is a deadly poison. Too
much caution can not be used to keep them away from small children, who
will put anything in their mouths. The free use of warm water will not
only favor the vomiting which may ensue from the action of the poison it-
self, but as a diluent it may serve to weaken its power and render it com-
parativel}^ harmless. Common table-mustard is a very prompt emetic. The
dose is a teaspoonful of dry mustard ; stir this in a tumbler of water and
drink at one draught. It is quick, sure, and as agreeable as any emetic. If
some does remain in the stomach, it does no harm. In a few cases some an-
tidote may neutralize the poisonous substance in the stomach, but the main
dependence must be in removing immediately its contents either by an
emetic or, better, liy the stomach-pump. Vegetable acids, as vinegar, are good
antidotes to many of the vegetable poisons, yet no rules can be given upon
which it would be safe to rely without medical assistance.
493. Bee Stings and Mosquito Bites. — "We have often cured the poison of
bee stings, and relieved the pain almost instantly by an application of spirits
of hartshorn (liquid ammonia). If that is not convenient, wet the skin and
apply powdered saleratus or sal soda, which effects upon some persons in-
stant relief. The same things may be applied with success to mosquito bites
upon children or others, where they are particularly poisonous. Some-
body has published a statement that, if a piece of raw beef is placed in
a room infested, with mosquitoes, they will all suck the beef and let folks
alone.
494. Snake Bites and Remedies. — ^The most virulent and fatal of all poisons,
excepting always the poison of bad ventilation, comes from snake bites,
which occur occasionally in some of the new settlements of our country.
We have known death to supervene in several cases for want of a little
knowledge of remedies ready at hand. One remedy is to drink whisky, or
any spirit, as soon as possible, sufficient to produce insensibility. Another
remedy is to kill a chicken, or any other animal, and cut it open and apply
the warm flesh to the wound, holding fast, and renewing it when it loses the
animal heat. Another is a poultice of equal parts of raw onions, tobacco,
and salt, mashed together, moistened with whisky, and bound on tight and
frequently renewed. Sweet or olive oil, we know as a very valuable
remedy, taken in half-gill doses, and cloths bound upon the bitten spot
soaked in oil. We eslTnestly recommend a trial of the following remedy :
Wet a bunch of lint with a teaspoonful of chloroform, and lay it on the
bite, and cover it with a watch crystal, a wine-glass, or a tumbler, pressed
down so as to exclude the air, and hold it there fifteen to thirty minutes,
which will probably raise a blister, and prove so painful that the pain of the
poison will not be felt.
495. Hydrophobia — Cure of Mad-dog Bites. — A Leipsic — Germany — journal
440 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
gives tlie following, said to have proved many times a sure remedy for the
bite of a mad dog :
"Take immediately -warm vinegar or tepid water, wash the wound clean
therewith, and then dry it ; then pour upon the wound a few drops of
hydrochloric acid, because mineral acid destroys the poison of the saliva."
Brazilian Mode of Cuke. — We have seen it stated that the bites of rat-
tlesnakes and mad dogs and stings of scorpions are cured in Brazil by the
use of spirits of hartshorn. It should be applied immediately, if possible,
and the wound kept wet by cloth application or continual sponging, and
doses of the spirits diluted, taken into tlie stomach three or four times a
day. It is said that the spirits of hartshorn Las a chemical affinity for the
poison virus, and absorbs and decomposes it, and thus renders it harmless.
If this is the case, then ammonia in any form would have the same effect.
At any rate the remedy is simple and easily tried, and should be tested.
We have faith in it, knowing it to be an excellent remedy for a bee sting.
496. Remedies for Lockjaw, Felons, and Ulcers. — We have heard a great
deal about the medicinal value of a poultice made of grated beet-roots, and
now we find the following statement, which we consider worthy of attention,
the remedy is so easily applied :
"A young lady ran a nail into her foot, which produced lockjaw of such
a malignant character that her physicians pronounced her recovery hope-
less. An old nurse applied a poultice of pounded beetroots, renewing it
often, and the result was a complete cure."
A good remedy for a felon is made of common soft soap and air-slaked
lime, stirred till it is of the consistency of glazier's putty. Make a leather
thimble, fill it with this composition, and insert the finger therein, and our
informant says a cure is certain. This is a domestic application that every
housekeeper can apply promptly.
A fig heated as warm as it can be borne, and cut open and applied to
almost any ulcerated sore, and renewed as it cools, is recommended for boils
and similar affections as one of the best remedies. It may be applied to an
ulcerated tooth.
497. Remedy for a Tight Finger-Ring. — If it can not be removed by such
mechanical appliances as inserting a stout thread under it and pulling upon
it, nor by thin strips of metal, then chemistry must be resorted to, and the
strength of the ring destroyed, so that it can be easily broken. This is done
by rubbing it with quicksilver, which has an affinity for pure gold, and
makes it brittle.
9
Tin: DAIRY.
441
SECTION XXVIII.-THE DAIRY.
BrTTEE-MAKmCr,
A8 PRACTICED BY FIESTCLASS DAIRYMEN CIIEESE AND
CHEESE-MAKING.
(E can not teach all who need to be taught tlic
perfect art of butter-making, -which is one of tlie
useful arts that but few households possess. In the
great butter market of New York, we find that not
one tenth is really first-rate ; and probably more
than one half is sold from one to three cents a
pound below the first price, while tons are sold
every year at the price of soft grease, and used for
other purposes than food. "What a loss to the pro-
ducers ! In hopes to aid this class, we have em-
bodied in this section directions for making butter,
as practiced by some of the best butter-makers in
the country. Among these. we may name A. B.
Dickenson, Hornby, Steuben Co., N. Y''. ; Jesse Car-
penter, of Elmira, IST. T. ; John T. Norton, of Farmington, Ct., and others.
498. First Requisites in Butter-Making.— A. B. Dickenson says : " One of
the first requisites in butterrmaking is care that all the utensils of the dairy
are kept dry and sweet; that the milk-room is well ventilated, of a proper
temperature, free from dampness and the unpleasant smell generated by
moisture ; that the cream is not allowed to stand too long upon the milk,
nor after it is skimmed ; that it be churned at a proper temperature, tlie
operation being neither hurried unduly or carried too far; that it should lie
salted with the nicest salt obtainable, not injured by the addition of su^-ar
or saltpeter, and that all the buttermilk be properly and efi'ectually removed.
"The utmost moisture which should be found in thoroughly worked but-
ter is a very slight dew, and it should be of such firm consistency as to slice
down, hardly dimming the brightness of a knife:blade. No butter is prop-
erly made unless it will bear these tests.
" For depositing the milk, when strained, the tin pail of the capacity of
about twelve quarts is preferable to any other kind of vessel. It is snfli-
ciently large to fulfill all the requirements in that particular, while its su-
periority over the shallow pan — which is considerably used — is too palpable
to admit of doubt.
" No first quality of butter can be made either in November or August.
While the one is too cold with frost-bitten grass, the other is quite too
warm, and without ice it is impossible to make first quality of butter. Be
careful in washing butter to handle it with a ladle, so as not to aflfect the
442 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
grain ; then put it away in some sweet, fool place out of the reaeli of any bad
odor wliicli it might absorb. Wlien it lias stood long enough to get its
proper rich color, work it over and lay it down and keep it with the same
degree of care. It would spoil in sixty days in a common farm cellar,
where meats, fish, and vegetables are kept.
" It would be a much easier task to teach a man to make a watch than how
to make the first quality of butter, as it is the most sensitive and the most
liable to jnjury of all the eatables extracted from the vegetable kingdom.
It is so sensitive as to partake of everything that can affect it that it comes
in contact with — as onions, carrots, parsncps, turnips, fish, or anything else
that would make it unpalatable, cither in the butter or the milk before
churning. Isot onl}' so, but the butter partakes of everything the cow eats
or drinks, and the longer it stands after being made, the more perceptibly
will the unpalatable things on which she fed make themselves manifest. By
this it M'ill be seen that the most important thing for first quality of butter
is tlie food for the cow. ]S"eithcr from roots of any sort or kind, nor grain
of any description, can first quality of butter be extracted. It must be from
something that imparts a sweeter and finer flavor. The cow must give good
rich milk, as first quality of butter can not be made from poor palo milk,
for it lacks the essential quality of good butter."
liost and quiet are as important to a butter-producing cow as good food.
She should never be dogged, beaten, driven on a run, nor have her quiet in
any way disturbed.
499. Churnin.7, Washing, aad Coloring Dattor,— In spite of all tlio patented
improvements, the old dasher churn still holds its position, not onlv in fam-
ilies, but among dairymen. The following are A. B. Dickenson's directions
for churning milk and working butter :
"The churn sliould be as nearly straight up and down as possible, as the
dash should stir all the milk every stroke it makes, so that the butter in the
churn should all come at the same time. If the milk is too cold, the only
safe way to warm it is to place a pail of milk in a large boiler of warm wa-
ter to bring it to the exact temperature, whicli is about 55 to CO degrees — a
few degrees warmer in cold than warm M-eather. As soon as the butter lias
come and gathered, take it immediately from the churn in its warm state
and put it in a large wooden bowl, wliich is the best vessel for the purpose ;
then put it in cold, snfi water ; tlien commence pulling the butter over with
the ladle in so gentle and careful a manner as not to affect the grain, for as sure
as that is injured at the washing or working, the butter becomes oily and
can never be reclaimed. Every particle of milk must be washed out, and
then season with the best Liverpool salt. Set the bowl away until the next
day, and when sufficiently cool, work the mass thoroughly, but not so as
to make it oily, and on the third day pack it away if it has assumed the
right color. Examine it well before packing, and be sure that no milky
water runs from it, for if packed with the least drop, you will hear from it
next April.
Sec. 2S.] TlIE DAIRY. 443
'• If jour spring or ■well is hard water, save ice from streams, as lime never
congeals ■with ice. Save rain-water, and then ■with ice yon -will liave soft,
cool water to wash j-our butter, without which you can not get the milk
out without injuring the grain. Soft water is as indispensable to wash but-
ter as it is to wash fi^ie linen. "Washing butter is not positively necessary
if it is to be ^ised within a few weeks.
'•Th.e idea of coloring butter with anything after it is made is as absurd
as painting rye bread white, with the expectation of making it taste like
■wheat."
Jesse Carpenter says : " Tlic milk in the churn, when fit for churning,
should indicate 64 degrees Fahrenheit, and should be agitated with a move-
ment of the dash at not less than fifty strokes to the minute. Less motion
will fail to divide properly the butter from the milk. When done, tlie
butter sliould be taken from the churn and thrown into a tub oi- a small
churn partly filled with water 42 to 44 degrees Fahrenheit, and the butter-
milk forced out with a small dash. It should then be put into trays and
washed until the water used ceases to be the least discolored with buttei--
milk. It is then ready for salting, which done, carry the trays immediately
to tho cellar. Use one and a quarter ounces of salt to the pound of worked
butter. Three or four hours after tlie first salting, stir with a ladle and put
it in the form of a honeycomb, in order to give it the greatest possible sur-
face exposure to the air, which gives color and fixes the high flavor.
" Butter, when well manufactured, while standing preparatory to pack-
ing, is composed of granuhited particles, between which are myriads of in-
finitesimal cells filled wtih brine, which is its life. At this period it should
be touched with a light Imnd, as too much and too careless working will destroy
its granular and cellular character, and reduce the whole to a compact and
lifeless mass, with au immediate loss of flavor, and a certain and reliable
prospect, if packed, of a rapid change of its character from indifiierently
good to miserably poor butter. It should never be worked in the tray
while in a dry state, or all the ill results just alluded to will be realized.
As a general rule, after the butter has stood in the trays twenty-four liours,
and has been worked three or four times as directed, it is ready for packing.
After the firkin is filled, it should stand a short time, and then should be
covered with a clean piece of muslin, and the whole covered with brine."
Mr. H. E. Lowman, a neighbor of Mr. Carpenter, states the following
fact about his butter, which is a strong one in favor of washing butter :
" Mr. Carpenter for the last twenty years, besides fattening the calves to
the customary age of four weeks, has averaged a fraction over two firkins
to the cow per year. He has had butter stand in packages in his cellar for
one year and a half, and open then with a flavor so fresh and sweet that
the very best and most critical judges and buyers were deceived one year
in its age, none even suspecting it to be the product of a former year. He
never has, during that period, failed to reach in New York market the
highest figure representing the maximum market for Orange County butter,
i44 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
:uk1 latterly he has very often exceeded the very liighcst market from i to
2^ cents per pound."
J>utter is judged hy its color, aroma, taste, and consistency. Its color
sliould be a delicate pale straw, not apj^roaching M'hite, and yet ])erhaps that
is better than the deep orange tint, almost always a sure indication of ex-
traneous coloring matter. The peculiar smell of good butter is easily rec-
ognized. The better the quality the more delicate this aroma; while, as the
quality degenerates, about in the same proportion does the smell vary, until
it l)ccomes ijositively offensive. This fragrance is dependent very much on
the process of manufacture. Orange County dairymaids make " Orange
County butter" wherever they follow the same processes. The taste of the
butter will betray any inattention to the proper care of either the milk,
cream, or the vessels in which they are kept. So will the addition of any
foreign matter, such as impure or too much or too little salt, sugar, or color-
ing matter. A certain amount of salt is necessary to bring out the true
flavor of butter in its greatest delicacy. In texture or consistency, a greater
difference is seen than upon any other point. Some arc firm, leaving no mark
upon a knife after being thrust into a lump, with hardly enough moisture to
dim its brightness, while other lots are soft, leaving greasy streaks upon the
blade, and large drops of an opaque liquid oozing from the newly cut
surface. The existence of cither of these signs gives sure indication of an
imperfect, if not bad, process of making.
500. Number of Quarts of Milk for a Pound of Butter.— The number of
quarts of milk required to make a pound of butter varies very widely. By
many trials in England, it is found that one pound of butter requires from
fourteen to sixteen quarts of milk ; that is about one ounce from a quart,
varying with the feed and the season. Although it may be true that the
milk of a majority of the cows in this country would require an equal nuuiber
of quarts to make a pound of butter, yet there are cows that will give a
pound to four quarts of milk. Col. Jaques, of Massachusetts, and Maj.
John Jones, of Delaware, both had a " cream-pot" breed of cows which we
saw a few years ago produce this result. But we believe that it requires an
average of fourteen quarts to a jwund, and that is why farmers prefer to sell
their milk where it brings over two cents a quart. At that rate a milk-
dairyman can not even afford to make his own family butter; he can buy it
from a iarmer, who can not sell his milk, at a rate more economical.
William Buekminster, of Framingham, Mass., in 18.55, exhibited a Devon
cow for premium, as the best butter-niakcr, with satisfactory proof of the
following yield of milk :
"In June and July last she filled a common milk-pail, at night, as full as
any dairymaid would wish to carry. And on June 17 her milk weighed, morn-
ing and night, each 34} pounds; June 10, morning and night, 345 pounds;
June 19, morning and night, 34 pounds; June 20, morning and night, 323
pounds; June 21, morning and night, 32J pounds; June 22, morning and
night, 30i pounds ; June 23, morning and night, 30^ pounds."
Sec. 28.] THE DAIRY. 445
He also certified at the time slie was offered, in October, that four quarls
of her milk, when fed on grass only, and that of an ordinary pasture, pro-
duced one pound of the finest yellow butter. "This cow," he says, " is one
of the six cows owned and bred by me, whose milk has repeatedly yielded
one pound of butter from four beer quarts. Her keep through the autumn
of the thi-ee years of lier milking has been grass feed only, no grain, or
roots, or corn stover having been given her."
This is the richest milk of any but Alderneys, and above their average.
William S. Lincoln, of Worcester, Mass., produced from one cow, owned
by him, in the spring of 1858, eighteen pounds of butter a week ; and cows
that produce fifteen or sixteen pounds a week are not uncommon in that
State. The " Oaks cow" yielded her owner nineteen pounds a week at the
best, and nearly 500 pounds in the course of the season. These are extra-
ordinary cases, it is true ; but if one cow can do it, others can."
Now, if these are facts — and who can dispute them ? — what are we to
think of the quality of. judgment, sense, or economy of men who will keep
cows on their farms for the sole purpose of making butter, at an average of
one pound to fourteen quarts, when they could have cows that would give
a pound from less than half that quantity ? Let this fact be thought of, that
it does take fourteen quarts of milk for a pound of butter, which might be
made from four quarts. While this is a fact, it is not to be wondered at
that Orange County farmers have quit making butter, notwithstanding the
high reputation it had attained, and prefer to send their milk to New York
from every farm within reach of the river or railroad. If the milk averages
two and a half cents a quart Avlien sold, and it would take fourteen quarts
to make a pound of butter, it would make the first cost of the butter thirty-
five cents a pound, besides all the labor of its manufacture.
The Ilomcftead says: "Mr. Coit, of Norwich, keeps two cows which, in
the best of the season, furnish four quarts of milk daily for use, and make
nineteen pounds of butter a week. The writer also thinks that an improved
style of milk-room would be quite as likely to increase the yield of butter
as an improved breed of cows. If only an additional poimd a week from
each cow could be secured in this way, it would be a matter worth looking
into by our farmers, and would greatly increase the yieldof butter in theState."
Think of it, farmers, in every State. An additional pound of butter a
week to each cow ! What would be the aggregate ? Can anybody tell ?
Can anybody think of the vast amount, and that it would be all clear profit?
And it is just as easy as it is to do right instead of wrong.
Good cows, sweet feed, and pure water are the first of all requisites to
the manufacture of good butter. Good cows, that proper color and right
consistency be secured ; sweet feed and pure water, that no flavor be im-
parted to the milk which would render the butter unpalatable. Dependent,
however, as the quality of the article is upou the cow and the goodness of
the food, a proper degree of care and skill on the part of the dairywijman is
of much greater conseaueuce.
446 DOMESTIC ECOXOMY. [Cbap. r\'.
Undoubtedly butter can be worked so as to keep sweet without washing ;
60 can wlieat be cut with a sickle, and thrashed with a flail, but they arc not
great labor-saving machines.
With successful butter-makers the churning occupies about half an hour.
By increasing the temperature of the cream, it could be done in one half
the time, but the quality of the butter would be much reduced. In winter,
to facilitate the rising of the cream, the eartheu pans for holding the
milk are rinsed in hot water before use, and warm water is applied
around them, not to heat the milk, but for a time to maintain its original
temperature.
When the temperature of the dairy is less than fifty degrees Fahrenheit,
the milk will not ripen for churning, and in such case should be removed for
a time to a temperature of iifty-tive degrees. The sudden warming of the
milk will not always enable it to yield up its butter readily.
One butter-maker says : " Carefully conducted experiments prove that
more butter is obtained from a given quantity of milk, when set in pans .
partly filled, than when full." This is in opposition to the theory of A. B.
Dickenson.
A French chemist declares that butter may be made without churning, by
the use of a filter, uKide of white felt, in the form of a bag, in the four
corners of which are inserted porous strings, like candlewick, to hasten oflf
the fluid portion of the milk. The bag being suspended by the four corners,
from twenty-four to thirty hours, the contents of the filter will be found to
be of the consistence of " smear case" (soft cheese). This solidified cream
is then placed in a linen bag, tied tight, and the bag kneaded like a roll of
dough. In a few minutes the mass grows liquid, and the butter and butter-
milk are separated.
One large butter-maker sa^: "I use a horse-power churn, of a capacity
sufliciently great to make one hundred and twenty pounds of butter. I
always try the temperature of my churn before putting in the cream. If
below fifty -five degrees, I raise it to that point with warm water, and keep
the cream as near that point as possible. As soon as the cream is in the
churn I start the horse, and keep him moving at a steady gait until the but-
ter is broken, or begins to gather in small lumps. Opposite the opening
through which the cream is poured into the churn is an inch hole, which is
stopped with a plug. When the butter is formed as above stated, I open this
hole and draw oif all the buttermilk, then start the horse again, and keep
him going until I gather the butter into a solid mass. This accomplished,
it is taken from the chui-n and put into a tub prepared for it. I then weigh
the whole mass, and transfer it to the butter-worker, when it is worked over
twice, after which I add one dessert tablespoonful of the very best dairy
salt to every pound. I again Mork it well, so as to incorporate the salt
thoroughly. It is again weighed into pound lumps and printed. The
human baud is never allowed to touch the butter, nor is water ever used to
wash it"
Sec. 28.] THE DAIRY. 447
Of course it is sold immediately ; if it is to be kept, we tliiuk it must be
washed.
501. Butter Affected by Food of Cows.— The quality of all butter is so
greatly atfected by the food of the cows, that no one can make good butter,
although he has good cows, if their food is poor. In summer, there is nothing
bettor than clover pasture. At any rate, the pasture must atibrd sweet grass,
running water, and trees for shade and rest. A cow should be selected for
her quiet disposition, as much as any other quality, for a butter-making
cow ; for milk alone, this is not so important. If she has vicious propen-
sities, she can not be cured by viciousness. In winter, clover hay, cured in
the most perfect manner, is better for butter than any other hay. To this
add slops once or twice every day, composed of bran, shorts, cut potatoes,
corn meal partially cooked, and salt, and an occasional handful of bone
meal, lime, ashes, or charcoal-dust will be found advantageous. Carrots
are always good for a butter cow. Nothing should ever be given her that
is not sweet enough for you to eat yourself. And even that is not always
good food for a cow, as turnips, cabbages, and onions are considered good
food for the table — ^they are not for the stable, if sweet milk is an object.
Then she must be kept in a clean, sweet-smelling stable, warm and dry,
but ventilated. The same stable should be used in summer for milking,
after which the cows may be allowed to sleep out, if it is such weather that
they can lie upon the ground in comfort ; and if not, keep them in until after
milking in the morning. Every cow should know her own stall as well as
a man knows his own bed, and they will soon learn to be unwilling to cat
or be milked anywhere else. Food and care of the cow, and perfect quiet
and comfort for her in every respect, are the first requisites in making good
butter.
A stable can be kept sweet enough to lodge in by the daily use of plaster,
charcoal, prepared muck, or an occasional sprinkling of dilute sulphuric acid
or solution of copperas.
It is necessary for a full flow of milk to maintain a continual supply of
albuminous food, while in the latter period of fattening, such kinds of food
are superfluous, and only tend to enrich the manure heap There is one
leading feature in his practice, to which the utmost importance is attached
by Mr. Ilorsefall — an English dairyman — the maintenance of the condition
of his cows giving a large yield of milk. Tliis is done by the addition of
bean meal in greater quantitj' to those yielding the most milk He refers
also to the eff"ect of clover upon the supply of milk as known to all dairy-
men, the dry material of which is nearly as rich in albumen as beans, and
the inference is drawn that " albuminous matter is the most essential ele-
ment in the food of the milch cow, and that any deficiency in the supply of
this will be attended with loss of condition, and a consequent diminution in
the quality of her milk." He is of the opinion that " you can increase the
proportion of butter in milk more than that of casein or other solid parts."
Rape-cake seems more efiicient for this purpose than linseed-cake, the oily
448 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
matter in this seed more nearly resembling that in butter than tliat of flax-
seed. He also says: "It seems worthy of remark that a cow can yield a
lar greater weight of butter than she can store up in solid fat. Numerous
instances occur where a cow gives off two pounds of butter per day — four-
teen pounds per week — while lialf that quantity probably would not be laid
on in fat if she was fed for that purpose."
These "English notions" arc wortliy of American attention.
502. Butter Affected by the Packages.— It is one of the greatest mistakes
that butter packers make, to put it up in bad packages. Let it be taken for
an incontrovertible fact that, as a general thing, a dairy of butter of uniform
quality may be packed, one half in rough, untidy casks, and the otlier in
neat, swcet-Iooking firkins, of suitable and uniform size, and that half will
outsell the other at least ten per cent. The purchasers of butter, by the
single package or by the hundred packages, are always influenced by the
outside appearance. One of the reasons why Western butter sells at a price
generally under the market is because it comes in bad order. IIow can
people expect first prices for butter in mottled rolls, packed in a dry-goods
box or a flour barrel? Such butter, when it arrives in New York, is de-
nominated '• "Western grease," and sells at a price corresponding with its
name.
503. When to Skim Milk. — The right time to skim milk is just as the milk
begins to sour in the bottom of the pans. Then the cream is all at the
surface, and should at once be removed, with as little of the milk as pos-
sible. That housewife, or dairymaid, who thinks to obtain a greater quan-
tify by allowing the milk to stand beyond that time, labors under a mistake.
Any one who doubts can try it. Milk should be looked to at least three
times a day.
504. Alderney Cows and Alderney Dutter. — It is our matured opinion that
the Alderney cow is the only one for a family, where but one is kept, and
where rich milk and sweet cream are a leading object. (See 47, 48, 49.)
There is no doubt of the fact, that this breed of cattle is superior to any other
for making butter of rich flavor to the taste, and with a peculiar sweet
aroma. We have thoroughly tested butter made from Alderney cows, by
John T. Norton, of Farmington, Conn., and have submitted it to the sight,
smell, and taste of some good judges of butter, who, without hesitation, pro-
nounced it as unlike as it is richer than any other kind they have ever tasted.
We kept it some weeks e.\posed to an atmosphere that would soften ordinary
butter so that it could not easily be handled, and yet this remained almost
as firm as though just from a cool dairy-room. There can be no mistake in
its natural superiority and good keeping qualities over butter made from
cows of other breeds. This fact is as well known in England as the fact
that Southdown mutton is superior to that of other breeds of sheep. And
the fact is beginning to be known here, for we have heard of Alderney but-
ter selling in market, in places where it is well known in this country, at
double the price of good butter of common stock. This much for the in-
Seo. 28.] THE DAIRY. U9
formation and benefit of those who do not know that there is a very great
ditiorence in breeds of cattle for butter as well as for beef. For the latter
purposes tiie Alderneys are certainly superior to the Durhams. Herefords,
Devons, Ayrshires, or natives.
Anollier good qnality of the Alderneys is, that they will live upon house-
slops or garden or yard clippings, or upon short pastures.
Mr. Norton says : " I live on one of the old worn-out farms of Connecti-
cut, which I am trying to improve;'' and we say, upon such a farm he finds
it not only pleasant for his own nse to kecj) Alderney cows, but profitable to
make butter from them for the Hartford market. Our recommendation,
however, is not for dairy purposes, but strictly for private family use, and
for that we do consider this small breed of cows most valuable. There are
persons, however, of experience, who believe the Alderneys valuable for
dairy farms.
T. M. Stoughton, of Greenfield, Mass., says : " Alderney cows are not
only good for private family use, but actually the best for a large dairy.
" My experience has been with a herd of cows imported by Mr. Jonathan
Bird, of Belleville, N. J., from the island of Jersey, and selected with par-
ticular regard to their milking qualities. The herd came under my care in
1856, with the request from Mr. Bird that I should give them the same care
and feed as my native and Ayrshire cows, keeping a careful account of their
product by measurement and weight, so as to be able to determine whether
they are a profitable breed for butter-making. The following statement is
ofiered as an answer to ' What is a good cow V
'• Cow No. 1 calved in January, 1S51 — came into my care last of May.
In June, she made lOi pounds of butter per week; in July, 10^ pounds per
week; in August, 9i pounds per week; in the month of September, 30
pounds; in October, 28 pounds; and two weeks in November, 12i pounds;
and calved in December — making lOSi pounds in five months.
"No. 2 calved in September, 1851, and through the month of October
made 14i pounds of butter per week ; in Jiyie following she made 12 pounds
per week ; in August, C pounds per week ; and calved early in October —
making 317 pounds of butter for the year.
"No. 3 was a three-year-old heifer, calved in September, 1856. In the
month of October, made Hi pounds per week; in June following, 8.^
pounds per week ; in August, 4 pounds per week — making 267 pounds for
the year.
" No. 4 was a heifer two years old ; calved in March, 1858. From the
1st of April to November she made 200 pounds of butter. Greatest yield
per week, 10| pounds ; and made 7 pounds per week in September.
"No. 5, a heifer eighteen months old; calved in March, 1858. In the
five months following she made 108 pounds of butter.
"The above five are an average of the ten milking cows. Their feed has
been pasture only in the summer months, with hay and two quarts of corn
meal and rye middlings in the winter months. From the above statement
450 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
it will be seen that tlie cows which have come to maturity will make 300
pounds of butter per year under favorable circumstances. Alderney bultcr
sells iu the diflerent markets of the country for from forty to fifty cents per
pound. The best dairies of New York and New England do not average
over 200 pounds per cow (native and Duriiam). The average price of their
butter is not over twenty-five cents per pound.
" One of the most important peculiarities of the Alderney cow is her uni-
formity of quantity, making nearly as much butter at the end of eight
months after calving as at four. The objections urged against the Alderney
cow are, that she is a voracious feeder, lean, awkward in ajipearauce, and
will make but little beef when old.
" Admitting the Alderney cow to be a pretty sharp feeder, it can hardly
be expected that a cow will make from ten to fourteen pounds of first-rate
butter by simply standing in a cold stable, and looking at a haymow, or by
shirking round a stack of swamp hay. That she is inclined to he lean is an
evidence that she is a good milker ; for a cow that secretes fatty matter can
not secrete good milk at the same time, without being fed too high for the
permanent good of the cow. If she is ugly lo look at she is a good one to
go, for she will be worth §100 when six months, especially if a heifer. And
after being milked twelve or thirteen years, producing over 3,000 pounds of
butter, it is of no great consequence whether she makes 600 or 900 pounds
of beef."
505. Heating New Milk> — The Dainjman^s Record gives the opinion that
the heating of new milk to near the boiling-point just after it is drawn from
the cow, is preferable to allowing it to stand for a time before heating, and
thinks both butter and cheese are improved in flavor by so doing, " because
the animal odors which are objectionable would be expelled,'' and goes on
to say that " tasteless and leathery" cheese is caused by manufacturing
under too high a temperature rather than fi-om high heating before manu-
facturing.
506. Dust and Fly Covers for Milk-Pans.— To keep dust out of milk-pans,
make hoops of ratans, or ash wood, a little larger than the tops of the jJans,
and stretch over and sew on them some thin cotton stuff that will not stop
the circulation of the air, but will keep out the flics and mites, and when the
milk is cool, lay these covers over the pans. To keep out flies, use mosquito
netting or wire gauze instead of cloth. The wire gauze is a fine thing to
cover all windows in fly-time.
Some inventive Connecticut genius has contrived a portable, ventilated
milk-closet, which, from the description, we should think a very good thing,
but presume that any ingenious wood-worker could get up one a little dif-
ferent in form to answer the same purpose ; and we recommend all fami-
lies who keep but one cow, to provide themselves with such a convenient
ventilated milk-closet ; or one that will let fresh air in and foul air out, and
keep the milk safe from pestiferous insects and vermin.
The following item shows the benefit of keeping milk cool : " In sending
Sec. 28.] THE DAIRY. 451
milk to market, though it left the dairy perfectly sweet, it was often found
curdled on delivery to customers. To remedy tliis, the cans were covered
with thick cotton cloth, and this was wet with salt water. In this way the
difficulty was entirely obviated."
507. Necessity and Value of a Family Dairy Room. — Every farm-house
should have a room for milk, solely devoted to that, and nothing else. In
very dry soils this can be made easiest and best in the cellar, provided it
has a chimney ventilator of ample dimensions running to the top of the
house, which can be easily made when building, and no railk-room is perfect
without such ventilation, and in our opinion the cause of bad butter is as
much in the want of a suitable place to stand the milk, and a cool, sweet
room to store the butter, as in the process of manufacture. It is all import-
ant, also, that the milk-room should be of an unvarying temperature, so far
as it can be kept so without extra expenditure over the profitable advantage.
An attachment to the ice-house is the best place for storing butter. The fol-
lowing is a good plan for a family dairj'-room :
Build very convenient to the kitchen, but not adjoining, an eight-inch wall
brick building, eight feet by sixteen feet inside, with a door in one end and
a window in the other, and arch it over ten feet high in the center, and plas-
ter it all over ontside with water-proof cement. The top should be covered
with a coat of asphaltum, if to be had, or else with sand and tar. Give the
inside a coat of hard-finished plaster, and paint that well, so that it can be
washed. Where there is a» good chance for drainage, the walls may be
dropped two feet below the surface, or the whole built into a hillside, in
which case there can be no door nor window in one end, but there cau and
must be a large chimney ventilator. Make the floor of cement or flag-
ging-stones, and, if not too expensive, use stone shelves, built in the wall.
The outside is to be banked up with earth and sodded over so as to form
a grass}' mound, forming, in fact, a sort of cave cellar. A retaining wall
must be built each side of the door-way, and a shed over it, with wire-
screened windows in the door for ventilation, the sash being hinged to swing
down and fasten to the lower half of the door. Such a room will keep milk
sweet and of even temperature, and is not more expensive than a good
frame building.
The place where the milk is set, churning done, or butter stored, should
be absolutely sweet, clean, and deodorized of every smell. Water — cold
water, and its liberal application — is an essential about the dairy-house, and
ontside of it; upon everything ever used, hot water, soap and sand, and hard
hand-work, to make absolute purity, are the essential requisites to produce
good butter. Every woman should assure all the "men-folks," and often
rei^eat it to them, that no woman can make good butter if the cows are not
provided with suitable food. EecoUect, food and shelter — airy, roomy,
clean stables, summer and winter; none of your milking in the road, among
the hogs ; setting milk for cream where the air is scented with hog-pen efflu-
via, or any other but that of roses, mint, and new-mown hay.
452 DOMESTIO ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
Food is the first, purity the second, teuiperaturo the third requisite in
making sweet yellow butter.
The Lest way to make dairy shelves is to use strips sawed one by two
inches, and set so that the pans will stand upon their edges, or else place
thcni wide enough apart to receive the botioui of the pan, having cross
strips nailed in to support the sides, so that the pans would only touch at
four points, and so cause the milk to cool quickly, and save lahor in keeping
the shelves clean ; for a pan of warm milk set upon a flat slielf in a room a
little damp, or when the shelf has just been wasiied, will generate mold —
certainly more than when set on strips, as here recommended.
A Mr. Motley, of Massachusetts, has a dairy-room in the cellar of his house,
and arranged to be ventilated by an area window, which is covered with
wire netting. The floor is cemented, and of course kept scrupulously clean.
Plain, broad wooden shelves around the four sides of the room hold the pans
of milk. A marble-top table, standing in the center of the apartment, is
used for working the butter, and preparing it for market. The milk is.
churned in one of the well-known Crowell " thermometer churns," of a
capacity of thirty gallons. A small air-tight wood stove is used to insure
an equable temperature in winter. About 100 pounds of butter are made
weekly, which is sold to gentlemen in Boston at fifty cents per pound. It
is put up in neat quarter-pound rolls, prettily stamped, and sent to town in
tin boxes, fitted with shelves inside to keep the layci-s of rolls separate.
As to the delicious qualify of the butter, that is proved by the price.
508. How to Make Winter Butter.— If cows are fed with roots, meal, or
even whole corn, which, by-the-by, is only to be tolerated when corn is
worth less than twenty-five cents a bushel, there will be no complaint of
poor white butter, unless the fault is in the churning or the keeping of the
milk. Milk, in winter, should be kept about the same temperature as in
summer-time, and should not be allowed to stand unskimmed merely because
" it is taking no harm." Take off the cream, and if not enough for an im-
mediate churning, let it be kept cool and sweet till enough is accumulated,
when, if it is necessary to sour it, it may be put in a warm place and done
all at once. When put info the churn, it should be at a temperature of 62
degrees, and if kept at that, yellow butter will be got in thirty miuutea by'
churning moderately, if your cows have had a little salt every day.
509. Butter Colored to Order.— Are the butter-eaters of Xew York .nware
that butter, so far as color is concerned, is made to order as much as their
boots, hats, and coats? "We assure them that such is the fact, as is well
known to all dealers, and should be known to all consumers, and by them
wholly discountenanced. Our present notice of the fact arises from hear-
ing a woman bitterly denouncing the grocer who sent her " white butter."
After she had selected some '• nice yellow" butter, at two cents higher price
per pound, and retired, the grocer asked ns to test the samples. We found
the rejected white butter as sweet and fresh as could be desired, and worth
twenty per cent, more than the other, according to our taste. The other.
Seo. 28.] THE DAIRY. 453
however, was pretty to look at. It was of a deep yellow hue, but we at
once declared that it was made so by anuatto. " Yes," said the grocer,
"3'ou are right. That butter was made to order for me for just such cus-
tomers as that woman, who do not know good butter by the taste — they
judge only by looks. It actually cost me two cents a pound less than the
other. You saw how I sold it."
A butter-maker, writing to the author about " coloring butter to order,"
says:
'' We think j'ou K^ew Yorkers possessed of remai'kable tastes, if you really
prefer butter made yellow to order instead of that of a natural color, though
perfectly sweet. If it is the color instead of the quality that you care for,
we shall have to solicit a sample of the shade desired, and order more dye-
stuff. "We shall have to make butter for home use and for city use, as no
one in the country will eat colored butter in winter except as the milk
colors it. There is but very little in the country at this season that an-
swers the orders from the city, except such as has been fixed up to suit your
market."
Xow, butter-eaters, yoii hear how yellow butter is made " fresh from the
cow" in winter, and how much you pay for the privilege of eating " annatto
and other dyestuffs."
510. Rules for Salting Butterf — First, none but the very purest rock-salt,
or manufactured salt, prepared especially for the dairy, should ever be used.
An experienced Scotch dairyman says :
"Take the best crystal salt, wash it, dissolve, strain, settle, and turn off;
boil it down in some perfectly clean iron vessel, skim as boiling; when
stirred off dry, it will produce fine salt, white as the drifting snow, which,
if stirred up in a glass of water, will produce no sediment, and will be dis-
tinct from any mineral or other possible impurity."
Three experienced dairywomen in Berkshire County, Mass., give the fol-
lowing rules for quantity :
" No. 1. A teacupful of salt to six pounds of butter.
" No. 2. One pint of salt to fifteen pounds of butter.
" No. 3. An ounce of salt to a pound of butter."
Salting the cream before churning has been advocated as a good
practice. To every quart of cream, as it is skimmed and put in the pot to
accumulate until sufficient for churning, add a tablespoonful of salt. It
is stated that the time of churning is very much lessened by salting the
cream.
511. Packing and Preserving Butter. — A patent has been granted to "W.
Clark, of London, England, for a new method of treating butter. The but-
ter is worked in the usual manner, and is then placed between linen cloths
and submitted to severe pressure, which removes the whey and water. It
is then covered with clean white paper, which has received a coating on
both sides with a preparation composed of the white of eggs and fifteen
grains of salt to each egg. The paper is dried, and then heated before the
454 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
lire or with a hot iron just before it is applied to the lumps of butter. It is
claimed that butter treated in this way will keep two months without salt
in a cool cellar. Any ordinary cheese-press, or the presses accompanying
the portable cider-mills, now common, will answer the purpose. Pressing
removes the water, and the prepared paper excludes tlie air.
Earthen jars, made of the size and shape of a fifty-pounds tub (not a
firkin), and put in a wooden tub, made to fit, with a head in each end, are
recommended as an improvement for packing butter. If desirable, the
wooden tub may be made large enough to fill with salt between the two, or
can be made close. The heads should be made close to the butter-pot in
either case. Butter packed in this way will keep sweet any length of time,
if well made, while in the present mode of packing, in nine cases out of
ten, it will taste of the tub after being packed two months. The first cost
of the two is about one dollar, and after being sent to market, they can bo
returned a distance of 300 miles at a cost of about thirty cents. We fear the
expense of this improvement will prevent its general adoption, though we
can perceive no reason to doubt its efticacy.
There is no doubt that if butter could be rendered absolutely pure, it
would keep, if excluded from the air, as well as sweet-oil. That it is hardly
ever pure may be shown by a sample melted, and put in a bottle, to stand a
few hours in a wai-m place, when the oily part will float upon the top of
water or other impurities it may contain.
512. How to Cool Butter without Ice.— The following plan of cooling but-
ter is founded upon the scientific principle of cooling a body by evapora-
tion. Fill a deep plate or flat dish with water, and in that set a trivet, such
as are often used upon the ironing-table, to hold a plate of butter above the
water. Cover the butter-plate with a porous, earthen flower-pot that must
have its edge immersed in water, and a cork in the bole in the bottom.
Now dash water upon the pot, and repeat several times as it evaporates
during the day, keeping it in a cool place, and at supper-time you may
bring your butter to the table as delightfully firm as you would from an
ice-house.
513. Milking by Machinery. — If anything has been or may be invented to
relieve woman from the tiresome labor of milking, it will be hailed with in-
tense satisfaction. We therefore chronicle the fact of the recent invention
of a milking machine. The manner of its construction is simple enough.
It consists of two diaphragm pumps made of tin and India rubber, so ar-
ranged as to be easily taken apart for washing. The teat-cups are made
tapering to fit any size, and attached by flexible joints, so as to be spread
apart to suit wide-spreading teats, or those more contracted. It is possible
that it will prove a very useful invention. If so, we presume that farmers
will hear more of it.
The machine is attached to a pail, and set on a stool under the udder, the
four teats inserted in four tubes, and the pump operated, and the milk drawn
and conveyed by a conductor into the pail, the inventor says in a marvel-
Sec. 2S.] THE DAIRY. 455
ously short time— say three minutes for an ordinary cow ; milking entirely
clean, without injurj' and to her advantage, as it is beneficial to have the
work done quickly, and the machine is intended to do it quicker than it is
possible by hand. It is said also that cows gently stand this machine milk-
ing ; the contrivance is ingenious, and will work. Its practical utility wo
can not vouch for.
514. How to 3Iake Cows give Down. — We have often heard that one man
could lead a horse to Avater, but two could not make him drink. The great
mistake of most people in the management of horses, cows, and even men,
is trying to make them do things by force instead of milder means. The
best way to make a cow give down is to coax her. Patience and perse-
verance will generally overcome the difficulty and effect a cure. We have
seen cows that had been trained to being fed when milked until they would
only give down when bribed to do so. Strapping up the fore leg of a cow
with a strap slipped over the bent knee so that she can not walk until
milked, will sometimes cure her refractory disposition. If a cow will not
give down by gentle means, it is of no use to try to make her do it.
515. Milk Farms— Product, Price, Profit.— Milk for Cities— Condensed Milk.
— The entire business of many farmers, near cities, is producing milk for sale.
It is sent by railway more than lUO miles. The average value upon the
roads that supply New York may be three cents a quart, ranging about as
follows, as a general thing: for five months, at 2 cents; one month, 2i cents ;
two months, 3 cents ; four months, 3i cents. Freight will average two
cents a quart, besides a great loss of cans. It costs the farmer most to pro-
duce milk in April. The cost of winter feed, 5 lbs. of meal and 15 lbs. of
hay per day. The annual average product of good cows would be $00 each.
If cream only is sold, say 10 quarts per week at 15 cents, and 9 lbs. of
" skim cheese" at 8 cents, will make a cow yield $2 22 per week.
The yield of milk of extraordinary cows has been, for one, 15i quarts a
day for 150 days; for another, 1-li quarts a day for six months, sold at 3i
cents a quart, producing $107, from one cow, fed on grass and meal.
The income of an Illinois cheese and butter dairy, owned by Mr. Savory,
of De Kalb County, is given as follows, in a poor, dry season : 10,500 pounds
of cheese, at 10 cents, $1,050 ; 500 pounds of butter, at U cents, $70 ; 50
calves, at $1 50, $75 ; whey and sour milk (estimated), $50 ; total income,
$1,215. De. : 50 cows — to getting 100 tuns of hay, $150 ; care, milking, etc.,
$200; two hired girls, 30 weeks, and board, $180; interest on cash value of
cows, $100. Total cost, $630— $24 per cow ; and taking value of feed and
labor into account, was perhaps as profitable as a New York milk farm.
See 1" 41, etc.
Condensed Milk. — There is one method of sending milk to the cities,
lately adopted, that will enable farmers living beyond the limit of shipping
fresh milk, to send it to market. It can be done upon the same principle as
associated cheese dairies. See T 518. There are two modes: the product
of one, called " condensed milk," resembles ricli, thick cream ; the other.
456 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
called " concentrated milk," resembles and is composed in part of dry, white
suorar. Tiie former has nothing added, but much taken away.
The process of condensing milk was invented by Gail Borden, Jun. (him-
self an octogenarian). The first manufactory was established at Burrville,
Litchfield Co., Conn., if we remember rightly, about 1854-55, and is still in
successful operation, conducted by 'Wm. Borden. Another establishment
has since been started at Wassaic, Dutchess Co., N. Y., on the Harlem Rail-
road, So miles north of New York. Tliis is conducted bj' the inventor liim-
self, whose residence is at that place, where parties desirous to commence
similar operations can obtain the necessary information. The product of this
invention furnishes to residents in cities wlio have a taste for pure milk all that
they can reasonably desire. The process of condensation not only separates
the water from the more solid elements of the milk, but absolutely frees it
from all impurities, even including the unpleasant odor that is usually com-
bined with the milk of cows, and which sometimes, when they jye unhealthy,
is exceedingly offensive. Samples of milk from all the dairies arc constantly
subjected to tests to indicate the quality and detect impurity. As it is brought
in from the farms, it is emptied through fine strainers into tin cooling vats.
These must lie placed in running water or cooled with ice. The first jjrocess
in the operation of condensing milk is to free the natural milk of all its animal
heat; and during this cooling, if there is any sediment that was not removed
by the strainers, it is found in the bottom of the vats and igectud. The milk
is then heated by steam nearly up to the boiling-point. This brings up a very
small per-centage of cream that makes butter. The milk is now ready to com-
mence the process of condensation, and is drawn bj- an e.xhaust-pipo into a
steam-boiler heated by coils of pipe which raise the temperature to a given de-
gree, converting the water into vapor which fills the upper part of the boiler
from which it is pumped ofl'; and as it is discharged into the air, it gives out
a fetid odor almost equal to the swill-milk of Xew York. This pumping is
continued until this odor is exhausted, and until so much of the water has
been separated from the milk, that when it is once cooled again it has the
appearance of thick, smooth cream. It is then packed in cans for transporta-
tion; and we see no reason why milk could not be put up in this way upon
the prairies of Illinois as well as the pastures of Dutchess County.
For many purposes tiie condensed milk is used in the same condition ; for
ice-creams, eating upon fruit, and many culinary purposes, it is delicious.
"When milk is desired in its ordinary condition, add water until the con-
densed milk is thoroughly combined with it, and it is like good, rich, fresh
milk, except that it has lost a little of that piquancy which is found in some
'•pure milk." and which some city people seem to relish.
The advantages to the farmer of this invention he will readily understand.
A n)ilk-coiidensing factory established in any neighborhood, as it may be
wherever there is a i)ure stream of water, would i)rove as grout a conveni-
ence as a grist-mill, and more advantageous, because he can sell his grain
in the rough state, but can not dispose of his milk unless it is converted into
Sec. 2S.] THE DAIRY.— CIIEESE-MAKHSTG. 457
some condensed product. Tlie advantage of selling milk instead of convert-
ing it into butter or cheese, every farmer can calculate for himself, upon the
basis that it will require foyr quarts of milk for one pound of cheese, or
fourteen quarts for ono pound of butter, taking the avcragj product of cows
and average process of manufocturc. If intended for a condensing factory
in the immediate noigliborliood, the farmer would be enabled to carry the
milk directly from the stable.
Another advantage would be gained in the saving of cans, many of which
sent to cities are lost in spite of all the care of the owners. The establish-
ment of such factories will open up new fields of industry in many parts of
I ho country, adding wealth, comtbrt, and happiness to farmers' families.
We urge them all to consider the subject, and compare with other products
of the dairy this new one of condensed milk.
510. Cheese— How to Make It.— The following directions are given by Ed-
win Pitcher, of Martinsburg, N. Y., a noted maker of good cheese :
" The way to make a mild, rich, good-flavored, sound cheese is to work
the curd carefully, so as not to start the white whey, or, in other words,
work out the cream ; second, cook it well ; salt even, and enough to make it
good flavored ; press it well, and keep it cool and dvy when made. A
neglect in part will spoil the whole. We set our milk 86 degrees, as nearly
as we can, and put in rennet enough to bring the curd in half an hour.
" We use a cheese-cutter. Cut the curd carefully over once, and then lot
it stand fifteen or twenty minutes, till the whey begins to rise; then work it
line with a cheese-cutter; then put hot water enough under the tin vat to
raise the heat to 90 degrees. Stir often, so as not to let it pack down. We
then dip off about one third of the whey, and increase the heat to about
102 degrees, and keep it at that heat till it is well cooked, keeping it fine all
the lime. When it is done, it will fall apart in the hand like wheat. We
dip out of the tin vat (when it is cooled down to 90 degrees) into a sink, and
when the curd is dry put in a teacupful of salt curd, enough to make fifteen
pounds after it is pressed. K the curd is a little too soft, put in a little more
salt to harden it. We cool in the vat, in hot weather, by putting in cold
water under the vat, to 90 degrees, before dipping out. I think it hurts the
cheese very much to dip it out too hot.
"My cheese-room is plastered, and I let down my windows from the top
in hot weather, and I have a ventilator in the center overhead. The floor
is matched and made tight, so as to shut up the room in cool weather, with
seven trap-doors to let in the air when necessary. I think it essential,
in making good cheeses, to keep them cool. The cheese-rooui should never
be over 75 or 80 degrees, and it is better not over 70 degrees. I use cold
water on the floor, and a large piece of ice in a pan on the counter if the
weather is too hot. Keeping cool is a great cure for almost everything. It
saves cheese from fermenting and becoming strong. You can not very well
cook your cheese too much in May or June, and you must be sure and keep
your rennet sweet."
45S DOMESTIC ECONOMY. [Chap. IV.
A first-ratc clieese-maker of Herkimer County, N. Y., gives the follow-
ing as licr practice :
"I set the milk at 90 degrees, in spring and fall, and SG degrees in hot
weather. Heat up three times — first 90 degrees, then 95 degrees, and last
100 degrees. I put about one teacupful of salt to sixteen pounds of curd,
and use much care in breaking it up and -working; cutting at first wiih a
dairy -kniie of four blades, and using the knife with one hand during iho
whole operation, taking particular care not to squeeze the curd in any way,
but pass one hand under, and lifting gently, and letting it fall off the hand
and between the fingers, and with the other keep the knife in motion in the
curd, cutting it as fine as possible by the time it is ready for salting.
"Thought and care are essential in all the various operations. Intense
interest and anxiety are necessary in order to do all these things well, for
they influence the texture, flavor, and quality of the cheese.
" Rknnet. — The stomach of the calf should be taken when empty (no
curd in it) — care taken not to get dirt on it — and, without rinsing or wash-
ing, salted inside and out with one teacupful of salt to a rennet, and placed
in an earthen dish. It should lie in the salt two days, then be stretched
and dried upon a stick in the form of a hoop. When dried, take it off the
stick, and place it in a tight sack for use. Those prepared one season arc
not to l)e used till the next.
"When rennets are to be used, put three in an earthen vessel; then lake
two gallons of water, put one quart of salt in it, boil and skim, and cool till
niilk-warm. Then pour it upon them, and in one week the liipior will l,o
fit for use. One teacupful of it will curdle the milk of two niilkings from
fifteen cows, fit to break up in forty minutes."
An cxi^erienccd cheese-maker of Warner, N. II., gives her method as
follows :
"I first scald the tub, then strain the milk into it as soon as brought from
milking. Next put in sufiicicnt rennet, the quantity depending upon tho
quality to fetch the milk to a curd in from forty to sixty minutes. The curd
is then dipped carefull}' into the basket for draining until the next morning.
The morning's milk is prepared in the same manner (after tho thorough
scalding of the tub). The curd, when formed, is dipped in with that of the
previous evening; then left to drain, with an occasional stirring with a knife
or slice. I prefer a knife, as it is not so likely to injure tho curd. Wlicu
snfticicntly drained, which it will be by nine or ten o'clock if properly at-
tended to, I lie together the ends of the cloth, and hang in the cellar until
the succeeding day, when the curd of that day is prc]>ared in the manner of
the previous clay's curd. It is now ready for scalding. I pour boiling hot
M-ater, at the rate of one gallon for ten pounds of curd, into the tub ; next
slice in the curd from the basket, handling it carefully, so as not to disturb
the white whey. The curd is next brought from the cellar and sliced in tho
same manner. It is put in lastly, for being older it does not require as much
scaldinfj as the newer curd. I now let it stand from five to ten minutes,
Seo. 28.] THE DAIRY.— CHEESE-MAKING. 459
from the time the last slice is dropped in, tlien dip back into the basket, curd
and water together, to drain. I check and stir it up Avith the knife four or
five times, when it is ready for grinding. The mill is placed upon the
cheese tongs over the tub ; the curd is then sliced into the mill and ground,
when it is ready for the seasoning, which consists of a common-sized teacup-
ful of rock-salt and one teaspoonful of saltpeter for every twenty pounds of
curd. It is thoroughly mixed — not squeezed — with the hands. It is then
ready for pressing, which is done gently until night, when the cheese is
turned, cloth changed, and jrat back to pressing with sufficient weight, where
it remains until the next cheese is ready for the press."
"\Ve find in the best large cheese-dairies of this country, that where the
curd is scalded by steam, that the right temperature varies among different
cheese manufacturers; thus Mr. O. S. Curaings, of Trenton Falls, N. Y.,
scalds to lOi degrees; Mr. A. Coon, of Eussia, from lOS to 110 degrees ; Mr
"W". Buck, 102 to 101 degrees ; and Mr. S. JST. Andrews, 100 to 102 degrees.
517. English Cheese-Making.— The method of heating the milk by the ap-
plication of steam to the cheese-vat, is a great improvement over the English
method. So is the method of separating the curd from the whey by strain-
ing it through a cloth much more expeditious. In Cheshire the whey is re-
moved by pressing down a flat-bottomed pan gently on the curd in the
cheese-tub and allowing it to fill. "When the curd is thus partially freed
from the whey, it is again gently broken and allowed to settle and sep-
arate and the whey is boiled out slowly, the curd being placed on one
side of the tub, -which is slightly raised, and a board is placed on the curd
with heavy weights on top to press out the whey.
The curd is then cut into pieces six or eight inches square, and again
pressed with heavier weights. When as much whey as possible is removed
in this way, the curd is placed in a vat and gently broken. It is then put
under the press and a slight pressure applied at first, wliich is gradually in-
creased till no more whey can be pressed out. To facilitate the flow of the
whey, the cheese is pierced with skewers. This preliminary pressing occu-
pies four or five hours. The cheese is then taken out of the press, broken
up again very fine, salted, put up in the vat again, and pressed under a
heavy press for three or four days, clean and dry cloths being put round the
cheese as the old ones become wet.
This is a tedious process, and we think some of the operations of the
American process might be adopted in England with advantage. The es-
sential point of diff'erence is the scalding; this renders less salt and less
pressing necessary. There can be no doubt that the preserving action of the
salt is greater in proportion to the absence of whey in the cheese when it is
applied ; and it is for this reason that the Cheshire dairymen press their
curd before the salt is added. Many people prefer cheese made by the
English process.
518. Cheese-makiag by Assoriated Interest in Manufactories. — This system
was originated, we believe, by Jesse Williams, of Rome, Oneida, Co., N. Y.,
4(30
DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
[Chap. IV.
sonicwlicro about the year 1S50. Since tliat time it lias'been jrreatl}' extended
in Central and Northern New York, and considerably in Northern Oliio. It
is like the uianufacfuring of any other iiirni produce, except that this is
usually carried on upon joint account of the producers of the raw material.
Tlie success of this mode of cliecso-making has now become fully cstablislied.
It not only lessens the expense of manufacture, but improves the quality' of
the cheese. Tiie establishments vary greatly in size, using the milk of from
one hundred to fourteen hundred cows. The business has become so im-
portant that regular organizations have been effected, both in New York and
Ohio. To enable our readers to consult with those already engaged in the
business wc give the following list, naming the owner or superintendent and
location of a number of establishments represented in a convention held at
Home in January, 1864. This list, though representing onl}- a portion of the
dairy interest, shows ho%y the subject has affected the minds of farmers in
the central part of New York.
Names. Factories located. Cows.
Hugh Qiiinn Oneida Co 627
V\'illiams, Adams & Dewey . Oneida Co 350
G. W. Ddvis Oneida Co 380
F. Clark Oneida Co 350
Hiram Bromi Chenango Co. . . 500
James Katbburn Oneida Co 707
Charles Rathburn Oneida Co 125
.1. W. Broolxs Oneida Co 320
Ci E. Morse JIadison Co C50
J. Greenfleld Oneida Co 300
D. Ellis Warren, Miiss. . . 500
Is wc Sliell Herkimer Co 600
A. Anstead Oneida Co 500
J. G. Coatcs Oneida Co 300
Henry Hill Oneida Co 500
G. W, Wheeler Oneida Co 200
Gold Creek Factory Herkimer Co. . . 600
Collins' Factory Erie Co 1,000
New Woodstock Factory .. Madison Co. . . .1,200
F. Smith Oneida Co 575
Crosby & Huntington Oneida Co 510
G. B. Weeks Oneida Co 640
H. L Ilcse Oneida Co 1,000
B. F. Stevens Lewis Co 800
T. Tillinghast Cortland Co 900
Kenny & Frazer Cortland Co 1,400
Konie Cheese Manuf. Ass .Oneida Co 624
Wri-lit & Williams Oneida Co 5-50
Wbittaker & Curry Oneida Co 500
D. Thomas OneiJa Co 500
Names. Factories located. Cows.
L. M. Dunton Lewis Co 800
Asel Burnham, Jr Chautauque Co. 500
Hanck, Wilco.'c & Co Chautauque Co. 600
Clear Spring Factory Chautauque Co. 600
A. L. Fish Herkimer Co 500
Sehnser & Davis Fulton Co COO
Caydatta Cheese Factory. .Montgomery Co. 6O0
West Ejiton Factory Madison Co 600
Miller, Fowler & Co Oneida Co 800
R. U. Sherman Oneida Co 130
Jerome Bush Lewis Co 700
A. S. King Oneida Co 200
S. Allen Oneida Co COO
Alfred Buck Oneida Co 475
Brown & Co Madison Co 800
F. A. Norton Madison Co 500
S. Conan Madison Co 600
Savery & Coventry Madison Co CCQ
Kirkland Cheese Co Oneida Co 80Q
J. L. Dean Oneida Co SCO
Colosse Cheese Factory .... Oswego Co 600
Harvey Farrington Herkimer Co . . . 470
J. H. Hubbard Ooeida Co 40O
David Yourden Oneida Co 160
Ezra Barnard Oneida Co 220
Asa Chandler Oneida Co 270
J. M. Famham I>ewis Co 897
David W. Wilcox Oneida Co 750
Levi Tanner Oneida Co 950
E. S. Bennett Oswego Co 250
PLATE XIV.
(Page 401.)
This picture illustrates the subject upon which the chapter treats,
wlierc it is placed as a sign is sometimes shown, to indicate the
things within. It is the sign of the garden. In it were grown the
cabbage, corn, cucumbers, turnips, tomatoes, i)umpkins, potatoes,
beets, carrots, parsneps, egg-plants, ornamental gourds, onions, and
so on of all the rest. It indicates some of the subjects of this chap-
ter, but not all. It would require a large picture to do that. So,
after taking a glance at this, look well at every one of the next
hundred pages. Evei:y paragraph about " The Garden and its
Fruits" has a deep interest to every reader. The picture is only a
sort of wayside resting-place for tlie weary reader's eye. It is to
amuse arid lead the traveler on to more substantial fare.
XIV
462 THE GARDEN" AND ITS FEUITS. [Chap. V.
it will dissolve no more, and then using that brine to slake lime. A bushel
of salt may thus be mixed with three bushels of unslaked lime and the mix-
turo applied at the rate of 30 to 100 bushels of the slaked lime per aere. If
the lime after slaking is kept in a pile under a shed, the outward portion
eflloresees, and it may be raked off and put away in barrels as it accunin-
lates. The lime is then in the best possible eondition for use.
Of tlic profits of gardens there can be no doubt. Any one who is fa-
miliar with the operations of the market gardeners near large cities, knows
that the business is more profitable than ordinary farming. There is no
reason why many other persons should not enjoy similar protits.
There is not one village in ten in all the Eastern States that is large
enough to support a locomotive butcher that would not support a good
market garden from the first year of its cstablislimcnt, the produce being
sent around to the houses in the same way that the butcher sends his meat.
Of course, all the waste or refuse of the garden must be fed to the cow,
pig, and poultry, and of course the owner would grow wealthy faster than
the owner of a large farm cultivated in the ordinary way,
The great secret of success in market gardening lies in the succession
of crops. Heavy manuring, thorough cultivation, and a good market arc
of course important adjuncts, but all of these will not give maximum re-
sults without the gardener's skill in keeping the ground fully occupied ; and
in that, more than in all other things, is where not only gardencre, but
farmers, fail. They keep too much unoccupied land, allowing a grain crop,
oats, for instance, to be followed by a crop of miserable weeds more worth-
less than it is easy to imagine, for they arc more exhausting than the grain,
and of no use to man, animal, or soil. Land should never be left idle. lu
a well-arranged market garden one thing succeeds another so rapidly that
one row of the first crop is off to day and its successor growing in its place
to-morrow. The owner can not aftbrd to Avait till all is oflT, because by
planting one after the other, he has the ripening crop for sale in the same
order, and thus secures the whole value of the manure.
The work in a market garden properly begins in autumn. There arc
several vegetables that must be started at this season, and all the ground
should be manured cither then or during the winter. Much of the success of
the garden pecuniarily depends upon liaving its products a little anticipate
the usual season. Potatoes early in the season are worth two dollars a
bushel. Three weeks later they are down to a dollar or less. There is a
like falling off from most other articles, though hardly anything fails to re-
turn a j>aying price.
Spinach is sown in September and October to furnish cuttings in April
and May. Cabbage is sown about the same time to furnish plants for the
cold frame, which are ke])t through the winter, transplanted in April, and
furnish heads in June. They are put into the frame in rows very near to-
gether in November, and when the winter sets \n, are covered with boards,
removing only in mild weather and increasing light and heat as spring ad-
Sec. 29.] PLEASUEE AND PROFITS OF GAEDEKING. 463
vaiices, 1111111 the open ground is in condition to receive them. These are
called cold-frame plants, and furnish heads about two ■weeks earlier than the
hot-bed plants started in March. The best varieties for this early crop a're
the Early York and the Winnigstadt, -which makes a very solid head of ex-
cellent quality.
Lettuce is also sown in the fall, and -n-ith a little protection keeps well
through the winter. About the first of March operations commence with
the hot-beds. These are prepared witli various quantities of manure, ac-
cording to the heat required. The beds are generally from four to six feet
wide, for convenience in attending to the plants. They are covered with a
sash about three feet wide, the glass being not more than seven by nine.
In these beds a great variety of plants are forwarded — cabbage, tomatoes,
peppers, egg-plants, and other early plants.
The whole ground is covered as soon as it is sufficiently warm, and ar-
ranged so as to allow a succession crop. In the first course come radishes,
spinach, lettuce, cabbage, potatoes, peas, turnips, corn, kohl-rabi.
Early potatoes are off in time for late cabbage ; early radishes in time for
celery, sweet corn, or cabbage. Early peas are always followed by a crop
of something that will ripen before frost. Earl 3' corn may be followed by tur-
nips, or by spinach for spring, which will be off in time for tomatoes. Beets
are followed by celery, and peppei-s are transplanted among the heads of let-
tuce a week or two before they go to market ; or squashes or cucumbers are
planted. Quassia chips, steeped in hot water, and that sprinkled upon the
vines, are found to be efficient protection against bugs. Carrots form a good
succession crop to the onions. Tliey are sowed between the rows about the
middle of June. Two crops, and sometimes three, are always grown from
the same plot of ground in a season. Nothing but ignorance of these facts
prevents a great many small owners of land in the vicinity of small towns
from establishing market gardens for the supply of those who can not, or at
least do not, grow a supply for themselves of tlie most common sorts of gar-
den vegetables. It is a fact but little appreciated, that a very large portion
of those who have lived all their lives upon a farm, and made its cultiva-
tion their only business, are utterly incompetent to manage a garden — that
is, a garden intended for supplying any market with vegetables.
Illustrative of the pleasures and profits of gardening, we insert a report
of a visit of the author to the garden of an artist, to show wliat an un-
professional gardener may do upon a little spot of ground. Geo. II. Hite,
of Morrisania, lives upon a village lot, and is by profession an artist. Not
an artist in gardening — not one who professes or pretends to practice horti-
culture upon a scientific or artistic plan. Nor do I mention his garden as a
model of taste and skill which may be imitated by the wealthy at great ex-
pense. I mention it rather as the garden of a mechanic, and just such a one
as a great many mechanics or professional men might have if they would —
if they only knew how. I mention it full of hope that it may be the moving
cause toward inducing other men who have daily employment, as this one
4G4 TBE GARDEIT AND ITS FRUITS. [CnAr. V.
has, at some trade or profession, to devote a little time, some money, and a
great deal of sound common sense in the cultivation of tlic little half-iicro
plats that Avo often see surroundin;:^ village residences, which arc mere ex-
amples of the utter uselessness of land except to enable tiie owner to show
how barren and worthless he can make it. There is no need of this idle use
of land. There is no reason why every owner of a village lot should not
revel in all the luscious fruits of the season, and treat himself and his friends
to an occasional bottle of wine, equal to any that lie could purchase for a
couple of dollars, just as Geo. H. Ilite is now able to do, free of expense;
for his garden pays its own way, and a little more, of all cost of cultivation,
leaving him in the enjoyment of its delicious fruits, fresh from the earth, or
their pn^ducts preserved to continue almost as fresh throughout the winter.
And he is not b}' profession nor early education a gardener, being a native
of a State less noted for its horticultural skill and fruits than for its pro-
due: ions of great corn crops, great bullocks, great men — physically and in-
tellectually. Mr. Hite is a Kentuckian, and some of his early years were
spent in painting portraits in Louisiana. Then he came to Js^ew York, and
during other years acquired fame as an artist upon ivory. Then, some years
ago, like a sensible man, he began to create a home for his old age, when it
comes ; it is only in the blossom now ; and that home I have visited, and I
wish I could take every one M'ho hears or reads of it with nie to learn what
an artist has done, and what a mechanic, a lawyer, a doctor, or anybody
else might do in a garden tipon a village lot. Will the sluggards who sigh
after an abundance of fruit, and envy those who liave, j'ct take no steps to
have it themselves, believe me when I tell them that in this garden there
are grapevines of such extent, luxuriance, ami fruitftilncss, that sevei-al bar-
rels are required to hold the juice of the surplus of the crop? The fruitful
arbor that extends some fifty feet from the rear of the house, affords a de-
lightful shady spot, which, independent of the fruit, is well worth its cost.
Isabella grape wine, five years old, with no addition whatever to the juice
of the grape, is excellent. Strawberries grow to ])erfeetion in this garden ;
and as a cultivator of currants, Mr. Ilito excels. Not merely a few basket-
fills for family use, but bushel after bushel, red, white, and black. The ber-
ries of the true red Dutch variety are upon the average as large as the cherry
currants under ordinary cultivation ; ami as for productiveness, no state-
ment can convey an idea. To believe, you must see. And this is the result
of pruning. True, Mr. Ilite follows the Scriptural injunction about a bar-
ren tree, to " dig about and dung it,"' with all of his trees, and vines, and
slirubs, and flowers, and table vegetables; but with the currant the secret
of success is pruning. "Keep no old wood," is his injunction. Every
branch that has borne three crops must be cut away at the ground, having
been twice shortened in, by which the short fruit-spurs on the new wood
are always loaded, and the Ininches growing close to the canes, so that they
look like ropes of red berries. To commence with a single plant, cut it
away close to the ground, to induce several vigorous shoots, instead of one,
6ec. 20.] ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF GARDEN PLANTS. 465
growing tree-shaped. Next spring shorten all these canes, and let the fruit
grow below and new shoots above, and next spring shorten these again.
Some of Mr. Kite's three-year-old plants are now five or six feet hio-h, so
loaded with fruit that they have to be trained to stakes, which, by-the-by,
is the true way to grow currants. Next spring these vigorous, fruitful
branches, all that are three years old, will be unsparingly cut away. It is
tlie secret of success. Meantime, new shoots come up in successive order
to t.nhe their place. I have no doubt of the fact that currant bushes thus
treated, of the sour sort that are now growing neglected along many a gaf-
den wall, untrimmed in half a century, may be made to aflTord a field crop
of more than two hundred bushels per acre of superior size and flavor to
those grown in the ordinary waj-, and that the cost of production will be far
below twenty-five cents a bushel. The annual pruning would be the great-
est part of the labor, and, in the vicinity of this city, the wood cut away
would be worth nearly the cost of cutting; and in the country, where stone
chimneys and brick ovens are still fashionable, the brush, when well sea-
soned, would make superior oven wood. Besides wliat I have said of this
garden, there is much more to be learned from it, and that where it blos-
soms now, nine or ten years ago was a wilderness of wild bushes, blackber-
ries, and rocks, and that lie who has said " presto, change !" is not a magician,
but a very humble individual, with no more power to produce such change
than the most humble one of the mighty multitude who have an idea above
the gutter, with a will to work that idea out in tlie rich productions of na-
ture improved.
Besides the fruitful grapes I have alluded to, Mr, Ilitehas others, prin-
cipally of the Delawares, now growing beautifully ; and so satisfied is he
with the advantages of growing superior grapes, that he dug up a fruitful bed
of strawberry-plants to make room for more Delaware grapevines, which
he thinks will be the greatest wine-grape in America. Some of the surplus
products of his little plot of ground aflPorded the owner one year $iOO in
cash, which was more than enough to pay for hired labor and manixre. This
should encourage others to go and do likewise. I would have gone to this
man for mj' miniature portrait, but who would think of going to an artist
to learn horticulture? Yet I have learned, and in my ojjinion others may,
from very unexpected sources. Let us try.
519. Origin and History of some Common Garden Vegetables, — The history
of some of our fruits and vegetables is, in many respects, extremely curious.
" Tlie artichoke, we find, was so highly esteemed in Rome, that an arbi-
tary law was enacted to prevent commoners from eating it."
This statement shows the importance of calling all plants by their botanical
or scientific name, since we can not tell whether the writer means the
HeUanthiis tuherosus (Jerusalem artichoke), which is a plant of the sun-
flower species, or the artichoke which somewhat resembles a thistle, the
Cynara scolymus, which grows the edible part at the top instead of the
bottom.
466 THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V-
The plant used for flavoring, called lasil, -vvliich now stands so liigh that a
London alderman would spurn a basin of turtle made without it, was, 200
years before Christ, condemned by Chrysippus as an enemy to the sight and
a robber of the wits. Pliny says they sowed the seeds with maledictions
and ill words, believing that the more it was cursed the better it would
prosper.
Lettuce appears, from an anecdote related by Herodotus, to liave been
served at the royal tables of the Persian kings, five or six hundred yeai-s
before the Christian era, but they only knew one sort, which was a black
variety. Tliis esculent has been greatly improved by cultivation as well as
cabbage. We can remember when a head of lettuce would have been a
great curiosity, and the heads of cabbage fifty years ago were very unlike
merchantable cabbage-iieads of the present day.
Mint appears to have beea used formerly for other purposes besides
making mint-juleps, which produce a disease whicli, in ancient times, mint
was used to cure ; for Pliny says, at a consultation of physicians in his
chamber, it was decided that a chaplet of pennyroyal was better for gid-
diness aud swimming in the head than one of roses.
According to Ovid, mint was used by the ancients to perfume their table.=,
by rubbing the leaves upon them before serving the supper; and mxish-
rooms, both edible and poisonous, were known to the ancients. They were
considered, when good, a great dainty with the voluptuous Romans ; and
one of the poisonous sorts was used by Agrippina to destroy her husband
Tiberius Claudius.
Mustard, it will be recollected by Bible-readers, was cultivated in Syria
at the time of our Saviour, as it is mentioned in one of his beautiful parables
as being the least seed tliat was sown ki the field.
Garlic and onioiis must have been in liigh favor as food at a very early
day, since it appears that the Egyptians worshiped garlic, and were said to
■wish that they might enjoy it in Paradise ; though the Greeks held it in
such abhorrence, tliat they regarded those who ate it as profane. The Ro-
mans gave it to their laborers and soldiers to strengthen them, and to their
game-cocks previously to fighting them; and the Israelites, while in the
M-ilderucss, lamented the deprivation of these stimulating roots, to which
they had become so accustomed in Egypt. In this country, onions are eaten
by all classes, and in Kew York city, we have noticed, are greatly esteemed
in winter by the very poorest classes, particularly the dissijiated. Thoy are
not generally considered uidiealthy, though no dyspeptic should ever touch
garlic or onions in any shape, particularly raw.
Parsn€2)S were held in high esteem by tlic Emperor Tiberius, who im-
ported them annually into Rome from Germany, probably because they
grew much better in tliat colder climate, as they are greatly improved here
by remaining in the ground to freeze during winter.
Parsneps contain a large proportion of sugar; beer is made from them in
the north of Ireland, and wine, closely approaching the malmsey of Madeira,
. -..c. 2J.] ORIGIN AND HISTORY" OF GARDEN PLANTS. 467
is made from the roots. Marmalade, made with parsneps and a small
quantity of sugar, is said to excite appetite, and to be a very good food for
convalescents.
Parsley was cultivated, as it is now in gardens, in the time of Pliny, and
appears to have been highly esteemed as a seasoning of food.
Badishes were so highly esteemed by the Greeks, that they made them
of gold to offer at the shrine of Apollo. If these were made of the size that
radishes are represented as growing in those days, we certainly should prefer
the counterfeits to the real ; for it is stated that they grew to the weight of
forty or fifty pounds. Probably they were an entirely different article from
our radishes, and perhaps were a culinary vegetable.
Beets were made for the same purpose of silver, which shows the com-
parative estimation in ^hich they were held. "With us it is quite the
reverse.
Turnips, too, do not seem to have been highly esteemed, since Apollo
only got wooden turnips, while he got gold radishes and silver beets. This
was somewhat owing to climate, undoubtedly, for we have observed that
turnips are not esteemed in the cotton States, except for the tops to be used
as greens.
Thyme was planted in Greece, and thence imported into the Roman
Stater, on account of its value as pasture for the honey-bees.
Water-C7'ess was esteemed as a stimulating article of diet, as well in olden
time as at present, and was often eaten with salad to counteract its eifects,
, which were thought to be chilly. An old writer says :
" Water-cress is one of the most wholesome of our salad-herbs, and one of
the oldest in use. Its qualities are warm and stimulating, the reverse of
nearly all other raw vegetables. Xenophon recommended it to the Persians,
and the Romans gave it to those whose minds were deranged. Hence the
Greek proverb: 'Eat cress, and have more wit.' It is an excellent anti-
scorbutic ; and a salad so easily produced, and so important to the health of
townspeople, can not be too highly recommended. The daily supply at
Covent Garden, London, is about G,000 bunches, but it is said if twice as
many more bunches were brought in they would bo all sold."
Cahlage appears fo have been used for food from a very early period,
and few vegetables have undergone greater improvements, from the original
sea-kale to the lai'ge drum-head cabbage, some of which have heads almost
as solid as turnips, and of twenty pounds weight. Germany, of all other
countries, grows cabbage for food most abundantly. It is considered a
necessity for every family to have a barrel or more of sour-kraut, which is
made by cutting tlie cabbage-heads into small shreds, with sharp knives or a
machine, which is packed in barrels with a little salt, and sometimes a flavor
of spice, and in this way it keeps (we can not say sweet) in an eatable con-
dition all winter, and is usually stewed and eaten with vinegar, in place of
other vegetables, with meat.
Asparagus is another sea-plant, very much improved by cultivation. Tiie
468 THE GARDEN AND ITS FEDITS. [Chap. V.
first time we hear of this vegetable is in the time of Cato the Elder, two
hundred years before Christ. Tlie Emperor Augustus was very partial to it;
and at Ravenna it grew to sucli a size that three he.ads weighed a pound.
Mr. Grayson, of Mortlake, near London, has produced one hundred heads
that weiglied forty-two pounds, perhaps the largest ever known in Great
Britain ; and hundreds of acres around the metropolis are devoted to its
cultivation. The small heads are sometimes cut into pieces and boiled, as a
substitute for green peas. Medicinally, it is considered diuretic, and is said
to promote the appetite. It is considered antiscorbutic, and very good in
dropsical cases, but is avoided by those having tiie gout. The most extra-
ordinary virtue is that ascribed to it by Antoine Mizold, who says: "If the
root is put upon a tooth that aches violently, it causes it to come out without
pain." Our modern dentists will, we are sure, thank us for this information,
if it is true.
Asparagus and cabbage are both benefited by the use of salt for manure.
For asparagus, there is no danger of using too much salt. It may be used
in a crude state, or dissolved, or in compost.
Carrots, Ave are told, originated, or at least, were first cultivated for food,
in Holland. They are not only nutritious, but the pectic acid which they
contain has the effect to gelatinize other food, hence they are used in soups,
making them richer. There is no root grown by farmers of quite as much
value for stock as carrots. They are A'ery nutritious food for our tables,
simply boiled, and only require a little practice to be much liked. The
Avhite carrot is sometimes boiled, and mashed, and used in bread. The
foliage of carrots is truly beautiful, and we read that, in the time of Queen
Elizabeth, it was common for ladies to use the fresh, green leaves as orna-
ments of their head-dresses.
Potatoes have a history so wrapped in obscurity, that no one can tell for
a certainty where they originated. Tiieir adoption, as a general article of
food, dates back only to a comparatively recent ])eriod ; that is, since the
settlement of America, yet they are now considered an indispensable article
upon almost all the tables of rich and poor in all countries where tiie
potato flourishes, as it does in the northern United States and England and
Ireland.
The potato-plant {Solanuni titberos^im) is said to belong to a family
of poisonous plants, and an extract, powerfully narcotic, may be made
from the leaves and stalks, and a weak spirit is often distilled from
the roots; and a pretty good starch is made, both in a domestic Avay
and in large manufactories, from potatoes, Avith Avhich sago is often
adulterated.
Potatoes make good yeiist, and they are often used for making sizing;
and the water in Avhich potatoes are boiled is good to wash any fabrics in
that are liable to fade.
Excellent as potatoes arc for food, sad experience has proved that it will
not do for any nation to rely upon them. This reliance brouglit famine,
Seo. 29.] HISTORY OF GARDEN PLANTS. 469
misery, starvation, and death to Ireland, and disappointment to a great many
who have lost entire crops from the potato-disease.
Salad-plants have long been cultivated and eaten by the rich as a luxury,
and by the poor as a necessity, or rather, in many cases, more as an agree-
able economic article of food. In all cities and large manufacturing towns,
the laboring class are every year becoming greater consumers of lettuces,
radishes, and celer}^, and find benefit from tiieir use. This kind of food is
grown to great perfection, and is very largely consumed in France, Belgium,
and Holland— more so than in this country.
Salsifi/ is a plant that should be known more extensively tlian it is, be-
cause it afibrds an excellent article of food. Its roots grow like parsneps,
and the cultivation is similar, but they have quite a ditferent flavor, and on
account of a real, though slight, resemblance in smell and taste to oysters,
it is often called vegetable oyster-plant.
The greatest resemblance to oysters is, when the roots, which have stood
all winter in the ground, are dug in the early spring, boiled and mashed and
mixed with butter, and cooked and served hot, like oyster batter-cakes.
Okra is another valuable food-plant not much known and cultivated, ex-
cept in market gardens in the Northern States, though it is considered an
article of prime necessity at the South, being largely used by black and
white. The negroes make a vcr^- favorite dish with okra and bacon, called
gumbo, and we have eaten gumbo in New York, but it is very rare. The
principal use of okra here is in soups. The seed-pods are the part used,
cither green or dry. They give the soup a mucilaginous character. The
bark of the okra plant is very fibrous — as much so as hemp, and more
tough.
Sweet corn (see 541), as it is now grown in a great majority of the gardens,
affords one of the cheapest and richest luxuries that America enjoys. In
the latitude of this city it is fit to eat in Jul}', and continues in condition for
the table, with a little extra attention, till late in October. There are
-several varieties, some of which are noted for keeping fresh very late in the
season. There is no dish more universally liked than sweet corn while in
the green or milky state, and every family who have the means of growing
it should provide for a succession of crops during the season, so as never to
be without it, because no food can be produced cheaper, and none is more
nutritious, palatable, and wholesome.
We might go on to great length with this history and description of garden
plants, and at last should hardly know where to stop without breaking off
abruptly ; so we do it here, to go more into particulars of garden cultivation
of proper vegetables, plants, fruits,, and flowers.
470
THE GAKDEN AND ITS FRUITS.
[CUAP. V.
SECTION XXX.-GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES.
'TJR plan of treating ligbtly a great variety of sub-
jects will not warrant lis in giviii<; a complete
"Young Gardeners Assistant." That can be
■uglit in a separate volume, and it is a valuable book,
it we shall give a little information about all the
incipal kinds of culinary vegetables usually cultivat-
by farmers, or which should be cultivated by them,
which we trust will be found useful. In treating upon
some of the same things under field-culture, in the chapter
devoted to " Tlie Farm and Its Crops," we shall i>robably
give some further information, which may bo useful to
those who only plant a garden. And so will what we say
here be useful to those who wish to grow vegetables upon
a large, as well as upon a small, scale.
520. The Brassica Family— Propagatiag and Saving Seed.— This family of
plants, which includes all that are near enough related to tlio cabbage to
hybridize with it, is the most universally cultivated of any variety of culi-
nary vegetables. In planting out cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, turnips for
seed, great care should be taken to set each kind by itself, at considerable
distances apart, to prevent hybridization, and no seedsman must keep l)ee3,
for they are the greatest hybridizers in nature, carrying the pollen from one
blossom to another, and mixing the two together indiscriminately. All tlie
diflerent varieties of cabbage, such as Flat Dutcli, Savoy, Drumhead, mi.x
very readily and spoil each variety, or else by one chance in a score of
millions, produce a new variety which may be Avortli cultivation. As a
general rule, however, all farmers who raise their own seed should try to
keep the varieties separate. This may be done in most cases by setting out
the seed-stalks in diiferent fields. It is not necessary to confine them to the
garden. Where tliere is any great inconvenience about keeping the sorts
apart, yon had better plant only one sort for seed, and buy seed for all
otlier sorts you may wish to cultivate. Do not try to grow your own seed,
if it will cost you twice as much as it would to buy a small paper of a pro-
fessional seedsman. The principal advantage in growing your own seed is
to select carefully the very best and throw away all others, and unless you
do that, you had bettor not grow any. To grow good cabbage and turnip
seed, select the very best roofs to plant, and then select the best seed
branches.
A correspondent wants to know if turnip seed, harvcstca from roots
that were left out over winter, will produce good turnips if sown for a
Sec. 30.J GARDEN CULIKARY VEGETABLES. 471
crop. " My neighbors," says the writer, " tell me it will not produce tur-
nips, but charlock."
Wc do not believe that it will change in a single season, but we do know
of one instance where such seed was sown, and it produced turnijj-tops and
seed, but few bulbs of any value ; and we believe that if the seed of these
bulbless plants had been sown again and again, the whole semblance of
turnips except the tops would have been lost. And this being the fact, why
may we not believe that the reverse will be the case, where the most perfect
bulbs are selected for propagation ?
521. Cultivation and Value of the Turnip Crop. — The value of the ruta-
baga turnip for stock-feeding (see 880) seems to be almost universally con-
ceded, while the counnon flat turnip appears to be under a cloud of preju-
dice ia this country. We have, however, strong faith, from pei"sonal expe-
rience, in its value as winter food for horned cattle and sheep. There is
great diiFerence in the value of the several varieties. One of the best is the
Red Strap, which grows well up out of the ground, and all the upper part of
the bulb is of a rich plum red. This sort, if sown upon good land, grows
rapidly and solid, and such turnips always keep tlie best and afford the
most nutriment when fed to stock, and every vacant spot in the garden
may thus be profitably occupied.
For garden culture, turnips should be sown at three periods : first, as
early as the ground is dry and warm enough for the seed to vegetate ;
second, about the first of June ; and the third, after the peas have ripened,
and in all other vacant spots from which a first crop has been removed. If
seed is sown as late as the middle of October, or, according to latitude, as
late as it will grow bulbs the size of pigeons' eggs, and these are covered
over with a mulch of coarse manure, straw, or leaves, and the mulch raked
off very early in the spring, you will get a fine crop of sprouts for early
greens, and sometimes the bulbs will grow again so as to be good eating.
Remember, never save seed from such roots.
522. Protection of Turnips from Insects.— The young plants are liable to
sufter from the attack of certain insects, especially the turnip flea, or beetle
— called in England " the fly." As a protection against such enemies, we
recommend the following recipe : Mix one tablespoonful of sulphur with a
pint of blood-warm water to half a pound of seed ; let it soak a few min-
utes, then pour off the water and mix the seed with ashes or plaster.
Whether this would afford any protection against grasshoppers, could be
determined by trial.
There has been lately offered in market a new preparation of " attenuated
coal-tar," that is, coal-tar mixed with a dryer, making a granulated sub-
stance resembling gunpowder, which is said by those who have used it to
bo a good preventive of insects. We know that the scent of coal-tar is of-
fensive to most of the farm-pest family. A board-fence painted with coal-
tar appears to act as a protector of fruits trained alongside of it. Coal-tar
mixed with di-ied loam in the form of a powder should be tried as a pre-
472 THE GARDEN AND ITvS FRniTS. [Ciiap. V.
ventive of insects on the young turnips. In this form tlic expense would l<e
very friiiing. It may answer for all other garden plants just as well as tin-
more expensive preparations sold for the same purposes.
523. The Kohl-Rabi— Its Character and Use. — This relative of the turnip
and cabbage is comparatively a new garden plant, but one much approved
by all who are acquainted with it, and extensively grown for the New York
markets. It appears to be a cross between the cabbage and turnip, growing
with a bulb like the latter, which has the outward appearance of a cabbage-
stalk, with leaves like ruta baga. These bulbs, cooked, have more of the
flavor and general character of cabbage than turnips. Those who a;o not
acquainted with them should procure seed and give them a trial. Tiioy are
largely grown in England as a field-crop for 6to"Ck, the seed being phmted
by drills, four pounds per acre, and produce twenty-five tuns. For garden
culture, pursue exactly the same course as with cabbage.
524. Cabbage Cultivation, and Value as Food.— Almost every family cul-
tivates cabbage in the garden as an article of food, for which purpose we
look upon it as of very little account. TTe know it is relished by a very
large portion of the laboring class, and that class alone should eat it, as it is,
particularly when cooked, one of the most indigestible articles of food ever
taken into the human stomach. Eaten raw, in small quantities, it is more
digestible, and serves very well as a relish in place of other green food at
seasons when the garden does not afford a supply.
"We recommend the cultivation of cabbage in all gardens, even where tlic
Aimily do not care to grow it for the table, because a plant can be stuck in
here and there to fill up waste places, and if the plants are not wanted by
the family when grown, the cows will be very glad of them after the grass
is frosted in autumn. If cabbage is wanted for very early use, the plants
must be started in cold frames in autumn, and kept covered up all Avinter.
Such plants are much more hardy than hot-bed plants started in spring.
Seed may be sown, as soon as the ground is warm enough, in garden beds,
for earl^- cabbage, but for such as are wanted for winter use, seed sown late
in May or June, or even in July, will be early enough to set where peas and
early potatoes have been harvested. Cabbage requires a strong soil, and will
bear heavy manuring, except with hog-pen manure. That, it is pretty well
settled, causes the disease known as " club-foot" in cabbage. This whole
order of plants delights in bone-dust as a fertilizer and bones prepared as
superphosphates are still better.
The distance between the plants when set out varies from one and a naif
to three feet. A moist, cloudy day is the best time for transplanting, and
it is well to dip the roots before planting in a composition of black mold
and a little soot, made into thin mud with the addition of liquid manure.
Cabbages may be headed in winter by setting them with their roots in
good rich earth, just as they grew, and covering the tops so that they will not
freeze. This may be done with a roof of boards, hay, or dirt, or brush and
rails and straw covered witlx dirt, with little air-holes. Cabbage grown in
Sec. 30.] ^ GAKDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 473
this way is blanched, sweet, and tender, and will pay much more than the
cost of thus arranging the late stalks which failed to form heads in the fall.
The work should be done just before the ground freezes, and at first only
slightly cover the tops.
The heads can be kept very sound and clean, and convenient for daily use
in winter, by packing them in wet moss in barrels or boxes, which should
be kept in a room where the temperature is just above the freezing-point.
The easiest way that we ever put up cabbages for winter use was as fol-
lows: Lay two common fence rails, or two poles on the ground, side by
side, about six inches apart, and aS you pull up the cabbages, lay tiieui
down, with the heads resting upon the poles and the roots on the ground on
each side, at right angles with the poles. If you take off the loose leaves
for feed, lay a tliiu coat of straw over the heads, and then throw up the dirt
frona each side, so as to cover the heads about six inches deep, and form a
smooth mound, shaped like a winrow of hay.
Of the kinds of cabbage, we recommend the " Bergen," for its large size
and value for fodder. The " Fawn-colored Savoy" is more delicate for the
table. " Red cabbage" grows with very hard, small heads, and is esteemed
for pickling. It is not as sweet or palatable as other sorts to our taste. A
kind called "Thousand-headed" is much grown in some gardens for eating
green. It is a coarse variety. The "Green Curled Kale" is also grown for
greens. It does not head. So is the kind called " Brussels Sprouts." Tlio
earliest variety of cabbage is the "Early York," or "Early Wakefield."
Three other early varieties are called, "Early Sugarloaf," "Early Drum-
head or Battersea," and " Early London."
A new variety, lately introduced, is called " Stonemason." It originated
with J. J. II. Gregory, of Marblehead, Mass. It grows a large, rich head
on a very short stump. Tlie "Marblehead Mammoth" is another new
variety, introduced by Mr. Gregory, which grows heads that weigh thirty
pounds each. Tliere is a new kind called "Pomerain," which grows heads
shaped like the Eed Dutch, that is, conical, though much larger, and re-
markably solid.
525. Cauliflower is a delicate vegetable of the brassica family, the edible
part being the flower-buds, before they shoot up to seed. Cultivators have
succeeded in forming these into a very compact mass of several pounds'
weight. This is done, first, by using seed of the very best variety and culti-
vating in very rich ground ; and second, by carefully tying up the leaves
around the heads, to make it grow compactly. A heavy, moist, fresh loani
is the best soil for cabbages and cauliflowers.
The way the Dutch obtain cauliflowers, famous for size and delicacy, is as
follows :
"In tlie autumn they dig deep some gi'ound that has not been manured;
at the beginning of May they sow the large English cauliflower upon a bed
of manure, and cover it with straw mats at night. "When the young plants
are three or four inches high, they harrow the ground that had been pre-
474: THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
pared the autumn before, and with a wooden dibble, eighteen inches long^
they make holes about ten inches deep, at proper distances apart, and en-
large thcni by working the dibble round till the hole at the top is about
three incheo in diameter. They immediately fill these holes with water, and
repeat this three times the same day. In the evening they fill them witli
sheep-dung, leaving onh- room enough for the young plant, which tiiey very
carefully remove from the bed of manure and place in the hole with a little
earth. Directly afterwards they give them a good watering, and as soon as
the sun begins to dry them, water them again. Furthermore, as the plants
grow, they dig round them, and earth them up in rows. When the head is
forming, they pinch ofl' some of the lower leaves of the plant, and use them
to cover the young head."
52G. Broccoli is nearly allied to cauliflower, and though inferior in quality
is much cultivated. One of the secrets of growing cabbage is frequent hoe-
ing, and in case of drought, watering. The ground can not be stirred too
frequently, and it is well to hoc when the dew is on, if you are a little care-
ful about getting dirt on the plants.
Although cauliflowers are a little more diflicult to grow than cabbages,
wo have no doubt they are much more nutritious and digestible as food.
"\Vc have said more about the cultivation of the brassica famil}- in gardens
than we shall of any other, because the various sorts may be grown in a
great measure as a second crop, or to fill up waste ]>laces, and therefore it is
economical, because it affords such a great quantity of food.
527. Carrots, Beets, I'arsneps, Salsify, aud Uorseradish. — All these plants
require one grand feature in their cultivation, and one which many farmers
neglect. It is a perfect trenching of the earth, not less than two feet deep,
and far better if it is three feet. Tiicy all succeed best on a rather light
loam, not too sandy, which was manured the previous year with old manure.
If desirable to continue planting tlie same plat with these roots, let them
come in rotation, and use no manure that is not in a very pulverulent con-
dition. Guano, at the rate of three or four hundred pounds per acre ; super-
phosphate, at the rate of five hundred pounds per acre ; lime, at the rate of
fifty bushels per acre ; unleached ashes, at the rate of ten to twenty bushels
per acre, are all good fertilizers for root crops. All these roots arc apt to
grow pronged and ill-shapen in fresh-manured ground, as they always do in
ground badly spaded or plowed, unless prepared by the very best kind of
surface and subsoil plowing.
52S. Carrots, for early use, may be sown as soon as the ground is dry.
For winter use, tlie last of Ma}- or first of June in the latitude of New
York. They are best preserved for winter use in dry sand. The best early
variety is Early Horn ; the best for winter, or stock, is the Improved Long
Orange, though some prefer the Altringham. The large, white, Belgian
carrot has been cultivated here, but the yellow is still the favorite.
520. Beets should be sown very early for greens. The Early Flat Bas-
sano" or Early Blood Turnip-Beet will produce food soonest; but for win-
Sec. 30.] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 475
ter, we prefer the Long Blood Beet or Smooth Long Dark-red. The last
should not be sown till near the first of June. If it matures early, the
top part, wjiich grows out of ground, is very woody. Always soak beet-
seed twenty-four hours, and then roll it in plaster, ashes, dust, or meal, to
dry it for handling while planting. An ounce of seed will plant a row one
hundred feet long.
530. Parsueps should be sown early, and may be left where they grow
till the ground is wanted for a second crop. The soil must be trenched
and rich, or manured deep below the surface, to grow good parsneps. An
ounce of seed sows a row two hundred feet long — five pounds an acre.
The Long Smooth is the best variety. Parsneps are excellent food for
stock.
531. Salsify, or Oyster Plant, should be sown early in spring; an ounce
of seed to a row thirty feet long. Like parsneps, they are improved by
standing all winter where they grew.
Horseradish, is a plant of the genus Cachlearia, which is a sort of scurvy-
grass, and is unknown to, or, at least, uncultivated by many farmers. Its
sharp, pungent root is very agreeable to most persons as a seasoning to
meats, and it is considered a healthy excitant of appetite. It is easily
grown from cuttings in any deep, rich soil, even a mucky one that is quite
wet. It is best after standing out all winter. In the vicinity of cities it is
extensively grown as a market crop, and is very profitable. For family use
a few plants will suffice.
532. Ouion CuIturCt — There are three principal sorts of onions grown from
seed produced on the top — the red, yellow, and white. There is a kind
called Early Red, and the large Wetliersfield Red ; the latter grows the lar-
gest, and is best for field culture. The Danvers yellow variety is mild fla-
vored, early, and keeps well, and is preferred, where best known, to the
Yellow Dutch, which is known in some places as Strasburg or Silver-skin.
The White Portugal onion is the mildest, and good to grow for family
use, but requires great care to keep it over winter. In some parts of the
country scarcely any but top onions are grown. This kind produces
miniature onions on the top of the stalk, which are set to grow b^dbs for
use. Onions require a rich sandy loam, highly manured with thoroughly
rotted compost, deeply and finely worked and rolled, and the seed sown, one
ounce to a row fifteen feet long, in drills fourteen inches apart, and the
plants left standing four inches apart. Unlike most other things, onions do
best upon the same plat year after year. "Wood ashes, applied as top-
dressing, make one of the best fertilizers that can be given to an onion bed.
To prevent the ravages of the onion maggot, which of late years has proved
so destructive, it is recommended to sow poppies with the onion.
533. Peas— Choice Kinds aud Cultivation. — The following are the best early
peas in their order: Daniel O'Rourke; Early Princess; Early Emperor;
Prince Albert ; Early Kent. The following are dwarf varieties : Tom
Thumb ; Bishop's Early Dwarf, quite prolific and early ; Bishop's New Long
476
THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS.
[CnAP. V.
Podded, productive and good quality ; Dwarf-blnc Imperial, highly recom-
mended as a summer pea. The following are larger sorts, and are highly
recommended : Champion of England ; Fairbeard's Nonpareil ; Champion
of Scotland; Eugenie; Kapoleon ; Missouri Marrowfat ; Large White Mar-
rowfat, a late sort; Biackeyed Marrowfat, an excellent kind, worthy of gen-
eral cultivation ; British Queen, very prolific, long podded, and fine fla-
vored ; to which add the sugar pea, with edible pods.
Judging from the little attention paid by many farmers to the cultivation
of garden peas, we suppose thcj look upon them as luxuries, only to be in-
dulgod in by a few, except in very small quantities. In this they are quite
in error. There is nothing grown that is more nutritious and wholesome, and
much more attention should be paid to their cultivation, so as to have a full
daily supply, early and late. The first planting should be made just as soon
as the ground can be worked in spring, upon ground well manured the year
before, or else with very fine old compost or guano in the hill, but not in
contact with the seed. In small gardens, or where ground is scarce for early
crops, plant potatoes and peas together. Land can not be too rich for peas,
but if it is the richest of crude manure, more vines than seed will grow.
Ashes and plaster upon peas while growing, when a few inches high, will
help them remarkably. Plant in double rows, a foot apart, so as to set
bushes between. The largest sorts require four to six feet between the lines,
and we have found it advantageous to put them wide apart and jdant a row
of potatoes between. You want a pint of seed of the dwart" sorts, in a
double row, fifty or sixty feet long. The large growing sort will take a pint
to a hundred feet.
Pea-bugs injure l)ut do not destroy the germination of seed peas. It is
recommended to keep them in sealed bottles, and if a j^iece of gum cam-
phor as large as a pea is put in, it will destroy all bug life. One writer
recommends planting peas five inches deep early in the spring to prevent
the weevil. He plants beets at the same time between the rows of peas.
Another writer recommends fall ])lanting, or any time during winter when
there is no frost in the ground.
534. Deans for the Gardeu — Good Sorts. — We recommend careful atten-
tion to the cultivation of garden beans, because they furnish such good,
cheap, palatable food. The following half dozen sorts are the best that we
can name of the dwarf or bush variety, which give edible pods, called snap
or string beans :
The Early Valentine grows excellent, long, tender pods. Early Yellow
Six-weeks is very productive. Early Mohawk is not only prolific, but hardy.
The Earlj' China is an old favorite ; it is a white bean, with red eye. The
Thousand-to-One sort is also an old and very popular kind. As young
bean-plants are easily killed by frost, you must not plant them till that
danger is past and the ground is light and warm. A pint of seed will plant
a drill eighty feet long. Cover lightly without manure, and never hoe when
the vines arc wet, but stir the soil very often, aud use plaster and ashes.
Sec. 30.] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 477
Of pole-beans, the Early Dutch Case-knife takes the lead. It is earlv,
I^rolific, and good green or dry. The pods are sometimes eaten, hut can not
be recommended. The pods of all the Cranberry beans are good. The
" Horticultural Cranberry or "Wren's Egg" grows in beautifully red-striped
pods, is of a light red and cream color, speckled, of medium size, and very
good, both in the pods and shelled. The "White, or Marrowfat Cranberry,
is very tender and nice, but is a shy bearer. The old Red Cranberry is more
prolific and hardy, but the pods are less tender, and beans not so delicate in
flavor, but it is a valuable sort to rely upon. The beans grow of good size,
roundish, and deep-red color.
535. Lima Beans are a distinct order of plants from the others, and more
difficult to cultivate, as they require a longer season of warm weather, and
if planted before the ground is warm, are apt to rot, and each seed requires
to be liaudled separately and put in the ground with the eye, downward to
insure their coming up.
The best manure for Lima beans is superphosphate of lime. They grow in
long, flat, rough pods, and the vines are such great climbers, that they would
go to the top of poles thirty feet high. Tlie best way is to use jioles live or
six feet high, and pinch back the vines, or train them horizontally. To get
an early start, set each bean in a piece of sod two inches square, and place
these sods in a shallow box in the kitchen, and keep them well watered till
it will answer to set the beans out around the poles.
536. Califorsia Beans. — A variety of beans new to the Atlantic States, in-
troduced from California, has been highly recommended. A letter, written
by L. Norris, Windsor, Ashtabula County, O., says of it :
" This bean is of medium size, of a peach-blow color, and very prolific.
It requires only one, or at most two plants in each hill, as it produces many
lateral vines. It is a short runner, only from tliree to four feet in higlit. I
find by planting them with corn, one bean in each hill answers the purpose
well. By cooking these beans in the following way, they constitute a
savory dish, and need only to be tasted to be appreciated : Having cleaned
the beans, put them in cold water ; add a little salt, and boil uutiT done, but
not so much as to have the beans crack open. Have ready a frying-pan,
with some lard, whicii heat until it nearly boils; then take the beans out
with a skimmer and put them into the frying-pan and fry them until they
absorb nearly all the fat ; then add about a pint of the bean liquor (of which
you must reserve a plenty) ; tlien boil, or rather fry, a few minutes, stirring
it gently; but be sure the liquor docs not all boil away, as it is this wliich
gives the beans such a delicious flavor. They are now ready for the taljJe."
537. Flowering Beans are grown almost exclusively for ornament, and are
known as '"Scarlet runners" or ""White runners," being great climbers, and
profuse in beautiful flowers, and not very prolific bearers. It is a mistake
to suppose these beans are not edible ; they are so, but not of such delicate
flavor as to be recommended for that purpose ; they are \evy ornamental,
and may be planted to climb a pole in a showy spot in the garden, or near
4:78 THE GARDEIT AND ITS FRTJITS. [Cuap. V.
the house trained to trellises, or climbing strings up the house side, around
windows, or along a piazza front.
53S. Asparagus.— But few farmers have this delicious, early spring vege-
table in perfection, because they do not know how to cultivate it properly.
It is a perennial plant, which, if once well set, produces its crop of tender,
ricli shoots, year after year, with very little annual cultivation. It may be
started from seeds or roots, which should be set in a deeply-trenched bed,
well drained, and made just as rich as rich can be, and heavily salted.
Every autumn, cut off the tops, and cover the bed with a thick coat of
manure, salted ; and iil the spring, fork up the ground lightly, before the
sprouts start, mixing in the manure, and if any of it is unrotted, lay it as a
mulch between the rows. Lime and ashes are both excellent for surface-
dressings. There are three varieties of asparagus — the Large Green Purple
Top, or Giant; the Improved Ghent; and Common Green — though some
contend that the dififereuce is more in cultivation than anytliing else. The
common kind is certainly improved in size by high cultivation.
In May, 18G0, a Mr. Fecks, of Oyster Bay, L. I., exhil)ited, to the
American Institute Farmers' Club, specimens of a giant asparagus, grown
at Oyster Bay, originated from seed at Matinicock, L. I., the bed of wliich
is now over thirty years old. Some of .the stalks were near]}' an inch in
diameter. lie stated "that he had about four acres, which he called only a
' small patch,' because other ])ersons had more than twice as much, and he
had been told that one man near Jamaica has seventy acres. His beds are
made upon good potato-land, plowed deep, and highly manured with stable
or hog-pen manure. At one year from seed, the plants are set in rows four
feet apart, and fifteen or twenty inches apart in the rows. AVe trench four-
teen inches deep, with manure at bottom, which is covered with three inches
of soil, and the roots set, and the trench filled gradually during the summer.
In cultivation, we plow oft' the earth and put manure in the furrows aljund-
antly. My bed is so near the level of salt water that the tide rises upon it
at very high water, and the yield is $300 an acre. We do not cut it much,
if any, the first two years. We put fifty loads of manure per acre, and five
hundred pounds of guano. ' Some growers use 1,500 pounds of guano per
acre. The bunches of sixteen stalks weigh four pounds. Tlie best asparagus
is that which grows above ground. The white is always tough. We some-
times have bunches with eight inches of tender green."
It is a mistaken notion to cut or try to cat the white part of asparagus
stalks. None but the tender green part is fit to cat. An article now be-
fore us has the following sensible remarks upon this subject. The writer
says :
"The stalk is generally cut about four inches long, often not more than
two or three inches, and from one third to one half the length is white,
showing it grew below the surface of the soil ; this part is always tougli and
bitter, and unfit to eat. In truth, it is never eaten, so that fully one half of
the vreight of a bunch of asparagus, purchased in the market, is a dead loss.
Sec. 30.] GAEDEN CULINAEY VEGETABLES. 479
If the stalk be cut four inches long, and two inches below the earth's surface,
about one inch and a half of the top part is fit for nse — -no more. Aspara-
gus should never be cut till it is five or six inches out of the ground. I
often let it grow ten or twelve inches high. "When five or si.x inches high,
it should be cut about a half inch above the ground ; but when ten or twelve
inches high, it should be cut si.x or seven inches above the surface of the
earth ; or, if it be cut near the ground, all the bottom part sliould be
rejected.
"After cutting it, take a sharp knife, and commencing at the lower end,
feel your way along toward the top, till you come to where it is perfectly
tender, then cut it off, throwing away the lower part.
" It is only the green, tender part that is above the ground that is sweet,
healthy, and nutritious, or fit to cook and eat. The white, tough, and bitter
part, that grows below the earth's surface, is not half as good as corn-
stalks, and should not be allowed to be sold in any market in the civilized
world.
" For private families, asparagus-beds should be made at consideraljlc ex-
pense, and with mucli care. Four or five dollars will make a bed that will
amjily supply, for many years in succession, a family of eight or ten per-
sons, if properly taken care of. To make a first-rate bed for that number in
a familj', make it about five feet wide and twenty feet long. Dig out the
ground two and a half feet deep, and fill iip with chips, sawdust, tan, or
sticks of wood, packed close together, five or six inches from the Ijottom.
Then put in five or six inches of the strongest stable manure, and fill up to
the top with manure and dirt, about half and-half.
" The bed is now fit to plant. Put your roots about ten inches apart, each
way, over the entire bed, and then cover them about three inches deep with
the richest soil to be had, and sow evenly over the whole a peck of common
salt and a peck of ashes, mixed together. Asparagus is a marine-plant, re-
quiring salt and alkalies for fertilizers, which should be supjilied every
spring to make the plants flourish.
" Keep the beds clean of weeds and well manured, and for this quantity
of ground you will have a rich and abundant supply for eight or ten in
a family, every day, if desired, from about the first of April till the last of
June. The yield will be ten times as much as could be obtained from the
same number of square feet planted in peas or beans. There is not, among
all the green vegetables brought to market, another so productive, palatable,
nutritious, and healthy as this plant.
"Where it is raised for market, a warm, rich, vegetable mold should be
selected. A sandy loam is better than clay."
539. felery. — This is another good vegetable for early spring, when there
is a longing for something green or fresh from the garden, which is but little
known to farmers in general. It is a hardy biennial, grown from seed sown
in the spring, which will produce seed the second year. For the table, the
stalks only are used, and generally raw, though good cooked, and to make
480 THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
thein tender and palatable, are grown in a pecnliar M'ay, which blanches and
makes tliem crisp, tender, and pleasant to the taste, being aromatic and
slightly pungent, SM'eet, and agreeable to all who are accustomed to eating
them. There are several varieties in cultivation, some of the best of whicii
arc named as follows : White Solid, Seymour's Superb "White, Cole's Crystal
VChitc, Cole's Superb Eed, Dwarf White French, Incomparable; this is a
dwarf sort, of a short, stiff, close habit, growing crisp, solid, and white, and
keeps juicy and perfect longer than some other sorts. Laing's Mammoth
Eed is the largest sort, and is highly esteemed in England, but not as much
so here as Nonesuch, whicli is said to possess an excellent flavor, and keep
well in spring without seeding. Mead's Improved White is a new American
variety, getting into good repute. Celery-seed should be planted early in
spring, and covered shallow in rich, mellow soil, beating the earth down com-
l>:R'tly over the seeds with the back of a spade. When the plants are three
inciies high, thin them out to four inches apart, and keep them clear of weeds
till six inches high, and then transplant into trenches about a foot deep, first
tilling them half full of fine manure, well mixed with soil, and set the
plants six inches apart, first shortening roots and tops. As they increase in
size, draw in the sides of the trench, and continue to earth up, keeping the
stalks and leaves all drawn close together, so the tops only show a few inches
above the ridge. There is no better fertilizer than salt for this plant.
Sprinkle the ground each time before earthing up, and take care each time
to hold the stalks together, so that no dirt will fall into the center of the
bunch. An ounce of celery-seed will produce some five thousand plants.
Both in the plant-bed and in the trenches, celery will drink up a great deal
of water or liquid manure. Some recommend keeping the plants in the
trenches constantly saturated with water, tinctured with guano, or strong
manure and salt. If kept constantly moist, the earthing-up process may be
deferred till late in the fall. One says :
" Late in autumn the whole bed is covered with forest leaves, a foot or
foot and a half thick, with a few cornstalks to prevent their blowing away.
From this bed the celery may be readily obtained at any time, fresh, sweet,
and crisp, during tiie winter."
Another covers the ridge with coarse manure, so it will not freeze ; and
another takes up the plants, and packs them in an upright position in a.
trench three feet wide, and covers the whole with coarse manure. This is
only necessary where the plants are required in winter for market purposes.
For family use, a few can be kept in wet moss, while the ground remains
frozen. As a general rule, we believe the blacker the earth that celery is
"•lown in, the whiter will it blanch. Some jiersons blanch with boards, set
up against the plants, covered with charcoal-dust. A writer in the Garrhn-
crs Chronicle, London, recommends the use of sawdust, which he finds an-
swers the purpose better than any other material, especially for late crops
to be kept during the winter. He says:
" Having had some trouble in keeping late celery from rotting, where the
Sec. so.] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 481
soil was very retentive and damp, and the plants earthed up in the nsual
manner, I nsed sawdust, and found that it answered perfectly. Last winter
all the late celery was earthed up with sawdust, and it kept quite sound till
April, and no slugs or insects attacked it underground, the heads being very
solid, clear, and crisp, and well flavored. I had some doubts that the saw-
dust from resinous trees might give the celery a disagreeable flavor, but on
trial I found this not to be the case. Before the late severe frost occurred in
October I had just finished the earthing np of all the late celery with sawdust,
and I find it is now wonderfully fresh, the frost not having penetrated far
through the surface to the hearts."
Another correspondent recommends charred earth in preference to saw-
dust, "as it will not only answer the purpose as well, but will allow the
rain-water to percolate more freely to the roots of the plants, and be of in-
finite service to a soil of a damp, retentive nature." The sawdust, he thinks,
will induce an injurious growth of fungi in the soil.
540. ('hiccory. — This is a garden plant, scarcely known to American
farmers, though extensively grown in England, and within the last ten
years it has become a favorite article of growth and consumption. It grows
somewhat like carrots, and its cultivation is similar, and its principal use is
to furnish a substitute for cofl"ee, or an article to mix with it, as it is to a
great extent with all that is sold in a burnt and ground state for the pur-
pose of reducing the price, or if sold at the pi-ice of pure coffee, giving the
manufacturer a larger profit.
The carrot-like roots of the chiccory are washed, scraped, and cut into
small pieces, and kiln-dried, and then roasted and ground like coflee. To
give the chiccory an oily appearance like coffee, lard is put in the roaster at
the rate of two pounds to a hundred of dried roots. It is colored with Ve-
netian red, or logwood and mahogany dust, where the cliiccory is to be sold
nearly pure for " pure coffee."
Although not much grown here, we believe some coffee roasters in New
York know its value to them, and import it in considerable quantities. No
doubt it may be profitably cultivated, not only for sale or use as a substi-
tute for coffee, but for a good forage crop in the tops. Sow it in April in
drills a foot apart for hand hoeing, just as you should carrots, on rich, deep
soil, on such ground as would produce a good carrot crop, and harvest in
autumn. Some grow the leaves blanched, to use as a salad, by taking up
the roots in autumn and trimming off the tops, and setting the roots in sand
in a dark cellar, when young blanched leaves start out. The roots live over
winter like parsneps, but, like them, are tough and stringy the second year.
Tlie leaves resemble dandelion, and tops and roots have a delicate bitter
taste, and are slightly aromatic. For a forage crop, the tops grow very
rapidly and thick, and may be cut four or five times. The roots, too, are
very good for stock. We recommend its cultivation in gardens, in a small
way, until its value is well tested.
541. Corn in the Garden. — There are several varieties of sweet com suitable
482 THE GAKDEJT AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
for early and late use. "We will mention a few, and advise all farmers to
select such an assortment as will serve to give them ears fit for the tahlo
through the longest season possible. The earliest may he started in hot-
beds, and transplanted as well as any other plants, or it may be jilantcd, as
we have recommended for early beans, in square bits of sod, or in small
pots kept in the house, where it is warm and constantly moist. Smith's
Early White is a dwarf variety, which may be planted for the first yield in
hills only two and a half feet apart. Darling's Extra Early sweet corn is
thought by some to produce ears the earliest of any variety ; and the Early
lied Cob is also a very early sort, growing short ears, eight or ten rowed,
which fill well out to the end. The Early Tuscarora is a large variety, and
matures early, but not as much so as the dwarf sorts. It is eight rowed,
Avith broad, white grains, and remains fit for boiling a long time. This sort
requires a very rich soil. For the main crop, the kind known as Lai-ge
Sweet is perhaps the most productive ; and for very late eating, StoweU's
Evergreen or Burr's Mammoth Sweet sliould be planted in rich hills, three
and a half or four feet apart, as late as the middle of July. "We have seen
it yield well, planted late in August, by protecting the hills with stalks of
the early sorts tied around them. It is also kept good till December by
cutting or pulling up the hills and setting them in a dry cellar or out-
l)uilding. Both of these late sorts grow ears with twelve to eighteen rows,
large grains on white cobs, and very bushy stalks. Tiiere should be a
])lanting of corn for family use every fortnight from April to August.
"Where land is scarce, we recommend planting corn and potatoes in the
same hill. The corn will be just as good as though no potatoes were there,
and if the stalks of the corn are cut away as soon as the ears arc mature
enough to boil, the yield of potatoes will be a fair one — in our experience
just as good as hills alongside without corn.
bi2. Early Gardcu Potatoes> — It is quite important to farmers to know
what are the earliest sorts of potatoes, since they are the most staple tood
article grown as garden vegetables, and we therefore name some of the most
approved varieties. We have always found the nutmeg potatoes the earliest
of any, but objectionable on account of their general small size, and because
ihey do not yield well. There is a sort called '"Mammoth Nutmegs,"' which
grow larger and yield better. The Nutmegs have a very smooth skin, light
yellow, with white flesh, and keep well, but are good for nothing for winter
use. The Early June is a good potato, and more productive. The Extra
Early White is said to be productive, and capable of producing a very early
crop. The Early Wendell and Early Carpenter are both spoken of by those
who grow them as the best early variety known. We have been well satis-
fied with the Buckeye as an early growing potato, but it did not keep well
with us. The Dykeman is not as early as some others, but answers first-rate
to mature a week or two later. Either of these may be grown to great ad-
vantage in the garden, and we recommend that all of them should be tried,
and proved which is best for each particular locality.
Sec. 30.] GARDEN CULINAPwY VEGETABLES. 483
543. Cucurbita — GourdSi — The family of cucurbita, embracing everything
from gourds to cucumbers, appears in an almost countless variety of forms,
under some of which it is to be found in almost every garden. In our
youthful days, almost every family raised a few gourds, and very conve-
nient things they were, not only for water dippers, but holders of a great
many little articles. We used them for storehouses of small seeds. At the
South, and in some of the new portions of the "West, gourds are still grown
to a considerable extent, and when we traveled through most Of the South-
western States between 1840 and 1850, we should have thought something
was lacking if we had not found a pail and one or more drinking-gourds at
some convenient spot about the house — generally on the front piazza, where
every traveler could help himself to a drink of water. Often, too, on visit-
ing the springs by the roadside or in the plantations, we have f )und the in-
dispensable gourd hanging to a tree. They are grown of all sizes, from a
gill to a gallon ; and one kind that grows without the elongation for a
handle we have seen of the capacity of half a bushel, and the shell so hard
that they would last many years for dry storage. In Texas, a variety with
a depression in the middle, and bulb of equal size at each end, is frequently
used to carry water on horseback, it is so convenient to lash to the saddle.
A little drinking-gourd, as hard as wood, and almost white, holding about
a third of a pint, was given us by a lady in Mississippi, which accompanied
us during many tliousand miles of journeying, and out of which we had
many a sweet drink of water from i-oadside springs. No one thought it
worth while to steal a gourd from the wagon, while a tumbler, tin cup, or
earthen mug would probably have disappeared the first night. We heartily
commend this good old fashion of growing gourds to the attention of all
farmers. It will save many a dollar used up in tin cups and dippers, and
costly, fragile glass and earthenware.
544. CucumberSi — These rarely fail if planted in hills Tnadc as rich as it is
possible to make them, six or eight feet apart, leaving only two or three
plants to run to vines from each hill, and sometimes that is too many. The
ground must be kept free of weeds in all the stages of growth of vines, to
insure a good crop. A very good way to raise a few early cucumbers for
family use is to fill a barrel or larger cask with hog-pen or other rich ma-
nure, covered with sand, and set it in the grass-plat, near the house, where it
can be watered every day — no matter how often. We have seen a good lot
of cucumbers grown by earthing over the ash-leach and letting the vines
hang over the sides. This also requires frequent watering, for that is the
great source of all great garden productions. Without it, high manuring is
worthless.
Perhaps the earliest variety is one lately introduced, called the Early
Eussiau. It is prolific, and matures for the table ten days sooner than the
Early Cluster, or Early Frame, or Short Green. Tiie Early White-spined
sort is considered best for the table. It is larger than the other early sorts,
straight, smooth, and dark green. For pickles, there are several good sorts :
484 THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
the Long Green Prickly ; Long Green Turkey ; Stockwood Eidgc ; and
Carter's Long Ridge.
For early use, cucumbers may be planted in sods inverted in a box that
can be taken in and out of tlie house, according to weather, until it is warm
enough to set them in place. You can not make the hills for cucumbers
too rich. Some market gardeners divide the hills in quarters, and plant one
fourth at a time, a week apart ; 'so that if one planting fiiils, another Avill
succeed. The plants should be hoed frequently, and the bugs watched care-
fully. Seed improves by age ; an ounce will plant a hundred hills; though
as they are planted on Long Island for market, an ounce would be needed
for a dozen hills. The market gardeners put in such a quantity of seed,
that the bugs are not able to eat all until some get too big for them.
645. Miisk-Melous should not be planted till the earth gets warm, and
then in hills dug deep and made rich with Avell-rotted manure. It is a good
practice to pinch out the bud of the main shoot as soon as half a dozen
rough leaves are formed, as that causes lateral branches, and makes the fruit
set earlier. Light, dry, sandy loam made rich, and a dry, hot atmosphere,
if the plants are kept moist, will grow fine melons. We think the Green
citron, a small, rough green skin, roundish form, the best sort. Tlie Pine-
apple and Jenny Lind are similar, and excellent. The Nutmeg melon
grows larger, with rough skin and greenish flesh, aromatic and sweet.
Skillman's Fine Netted looks as though the green melon was bagged in a
brown net, and is a very fine melon, and ripens earl}-. Tlie Christiana is a
yellow-fleshed sort that ripens very early. It is a Massachusetts seedling.
54(5. Water-NeloBS, though grown in all the Northern States, never come
to such jierfection of excellence as they do in warmer climates. Here they
should be planted in Maj' in light, dry ground, and they often do best upon al-
most pure beds of sand, having hills prepared by digging out large holes and
filling them with manure, and covering it with soil. If the plants arc wa-
tered with a solution of two pounds of Peruvian guano in a barrel of water,
their vigor will be much increased. It is a great object to get them forward
as fast as possible. A very successful grower of water-melons upon the gra-
nitic soil of AVestchester County, N. Y., says :
"I dig a hole three feet wide and three feet deep or more, and fill it with
cow-yard manure early in the season* — say 1st of May, and cover this with
light soil, six or eight inches deep, before planting the seeds. For musk-
melons I manure with well-decomposed manure, sown broadcast and worked
into the soil. I would also work in a little of tliis fine manure in the top
of the water-melon hills."
The vines fruit better if the leading shoots are frequently pinched back.
"Water-melon hills should be ten feet apart in rich, sandy loam or artificially
enriched sand. Six or eight seeds to a hill, not over an inch deep, in fine,
black soil, over any amount of rich manure, will produce vigorotis vines.
The varieties of water-melons are almost innumerable. Tlie Mountain
Sweet and Black Spanish are our favorites. Cut-worms and bugs are the
Seo. 30.] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 485
greatest pests of all vines, and the best of the many remedies in our opinion
is the cheapest, which is simply inclosing the hill as soon as planted with a
board box six or eight inclies high, drawing the earth up a little around the
outside. It has been found unnecessary to cover the top with thin muslin
or flakes of cotton batting, except for tiie purpose of keeping the earth
warmer. These boxes should be made about a foot squai'c, and tapering
enough to admit packing them in nests to stow away as soon as the plants
are large enough to allow of removing their wooden walled protection.
Other seeds may be protected by such boxes against scratching hens, as they
will seldom, if ever, get inside to do mischief; and so long as hens do not de-
stroy seeds or plants, or fruit in a garden, they are useful, for they eat up
thousands of worms and bugs.
Other melons should lie planted and treated as we have said of water-
melons ; and of all the various sorts of musk-melons, the small green melon
that looks as though covered with a fine flaxen netting is the best, to our
taste, though we have great hopes that the new Persian melon, that grows
as big as the old musk-melon, will prove as rich as its first fruits indicate.
Great care is necessary to save melon seed pure. Vines of cucumbers
and melons never should grow near to each other. Let the truth be re-
membered, that the varieties of all this family will mix, and that seedlings
seldom improve cither sort, and that the best always suifer by the contact.
Bees are great mixers of the pollen of flowers, and they can only be j)re-
vented by getting up earlier in the morning than the bees. Select a number
of female blossoms which have opened during the night. They may be
known by growing on the end of the young squash, melon, etc., while the
male blossoms (" false blows," as they are often called) have no fruit. Scat-
ter the pollen of the male blossoms upon the stamens of the female ones, and
carefully cover the latter with millinet, or anything which will protect them
from the visits of the bees. A piece of cotton cloth, or even a squash leaf,
kept in place by a few clods of earth, will answer a good purpose. "When
the blossom withers, the covering may be removed, and the fruit marked by
a colored string tied loosely around the vine.
547. Melons Started in the House. — It is recommended by one who has
met with success, to fill some small open baskets with earth and start the
plants in them b}' artificial heat. Suitable baskets to hold a pint may be
made for half a cent each of bark or willow twigs, or split stuflf, or even
shavings, or old, worthless strawberry baskets may be used. Perhaps straw
baskets would answer, and be very cheaply made. Anything that will
hold the dirt until the plants are large enougli to set out, will answer the
purpose, and then the baskets and all the contents are planted in the hills.
The object in using baskets is not to disturb the roots of the plants, as they
are very tender, and do not bear transplanting. Any other tender plant
may be grown in the same way.
548. The Apple-Pic Melon. — L. Norris, of "Windsor, Ashtabula County,
O., says: "The apple-pie melon, with good cultivation, will attain to 40 or
486 TBE GARDEK AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
50 lbs. each, and if gathered carefully wlien rii^e, and kci)t in a dry, cool
place, will keep sound a year, and will always prove a good substitute for
fruit for pies or sweetmeats. To use, peel off the skin, take out the pulp, cut
fine, and stew three or four hours, when the substance will resemble stewed
green apples ; to which add sugar and lemon-juice, and it will make pies
that can not easily he told from those of apples."
Another cultivator says : " This melon attains a largo size ; I have grown
specimens the past season, eighteen inches in length, weighing from 30 to
40 lbs. They are cylindrical in form ; color, when ripe, a golden tint, very
solid, and flesh close-grained ; color of seeds, a dark green or blue ; ripens
in September, and will keep sound and good, it is said, for two years, but
we have not as yet tested their keeping qualities. They prove hardy and
of easy culture, and I consider this melon a valuable acquisition. We have
tested the quality of them for pies, and find them very delicious. To pre-
pare one for cooking, peel and cut up the melon small, taking out the seeds
and soft pulp. Put the pieces in a preserving kettle with just enough
water to keep them from burm"ng, and stew over a tolerably hi-isk fire for
three or four hours, or until the whole is reduced to a soft, pulpy mass, free
from lumps, and thoroughly done. You have then a substance resembling
green apples stewed, and by adding a little sugar and lemon-juico to it, and
making it with crust in the usual M'ay, it is impossible to tell it from a fresh
apple-pic. If you desire a pic like pumpkin or custard of the melons, stew
as above directed, but omit the lemons, and bring the pulpy mass to the
proper richness and consistency by the addition of sugar, milk, and eggs.
Little of either of these ingredients will be found necessary — only sufficient
to give the melon color and flavor.'*
549. Squashes— Summer aud Winter Varieties.— The varieties of squashes
are so numerous, that almost every neighborhoo<l has some favorite. The
most universal one is the Boston Marrow, and next the Hubbard squash ; the
last the best, but being a newer variety, has only become generally known
within a few yeai-s. They are both medium-sized, and are extremely rich
food for winter use, simply boiled and eaten as a table vegetable, as a
substitute for sweet potatoes, or for pics and other cookeries. The form of
the first is ovate, pointed, with thin, salmon-colored rind, and flesh of deep
orange color and fine-grained ; keeping all winter. Aver:ige weight, six
to eight pounds. The Hubbard is a better substitute for sweet potatoes
than the other. It has a hard shell, aud is an excellent kind to keep
through the winter. It grows about the same size as the Marrow, and is
immensely prolific. The Lima Cocoanut is a variety much esteenietl bj'
some as a winter squash ; it grows large, oblong, of a bluish color, very fine-
grained, and sweet. The Honolulu, a new variety, is said to excel all others
in productiveness, fine flavor, and good keeping qualities. A large, almost
Aviiite squash, which we have grown several years, we like full as well as
either of the above for pics, and it is more hardy, and sure to produce a
good crop in all situations. The flesh is sweet and rich, but not as fine-
Sf.c. 30.] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 487
gi-ained as the others, but it grows three or four times larger, with a smooth,
polished skin, the color of white wax. In size of fruit and vines, it is more
like pumpkins than ordinary squashes. Among all new varieties, we should
nt)t forget tlie old Crookneck. It is a squash of good eating and keeping
i|nality, and not so delicate in its growth as some others. There is also a
crook-necked summer squash, which is considered bj those who have grown
it, the largest, the very best of all the summer varieties. It is early, pro-
ductive, and one of the kind called bush, or non-running sorts. Its color
is yellow, and has a warty skin, and hard shell when ripe. The Early
White, scolloped, a bush variety, we have grown with satisfaction as to its
eating qualities, though we thought it a shy bearer. The hills for squashes
should be highly manured with well-rotted stable manure or compost, but
not with anything very putrescent, which will give off ammonia and kill
the 3'oung plants, which are very tender. The seeds must not be planted
while there is any danger of frost, as a very slight degree of cold will kill
the vines while new. The use of salt in manui-e must be avoided with all
the cHcurlita family, but plaster may be used to great advantage both as a
fertilizer and bug preventive.
550. Egg-Plants. — These garden plants are not as much grown in I^orthern
gardens as in Southe.rn ones, because they can rarely be brought forward
early enough in the spring without the aid of artificial heat, as the young
plants are very tender. If you have no hot-bed, sow the seed as early as
possible in a sheltered, warm, dry situation, and protect the young plants
with hand-glasses or boxes, or some covering in cold nights, until they are
three or four inches high ; and when the weather has become steadily warm,
transplant them into very rich, mellow soil, setting the plants two and a
half feet apart. A fourth ounce of seed will produce more plants than any
family wants. The earliest variety is called Long Purple, and grows a
plum-colored fruit of several pounds' M-eight, M'hich those who are accustomed
to eating it, call delicious. There is a sort, called Large Oval Purple, that
grows larger than the above, and is perhaps preferable for general culture.
The early and late sorts may be distinguished while growing by the stems.
The earliest grows smooth and the others prickly. There are two sorts
grown for garden ornament — one red and the other white— of much smaller
size than the sorts generally grown for cooking.
551. Salad-PIauts — Lettuce. — Lettuce is the principal salad-plant cultivated
among farmers, and so far as our observation extends, the poorest varieties
arc most in use, and rarely made to produce semi-solid heads, such as we
often see in the city market, almost large enough to be mistaken for cab-
bages. The best sort for early spring use, sown in open ground, or for hot-
bed forcing, is the Early Curled Silesia, because it makes a strong growth
of yellowish-green tender leaves, which are very good eating as soon as they
are large enough to pick, and will afterwards form loose heads. Do not pull
up the young roots, but pick off the leaves, or clip them from the roots with
a pair of scissors, and others will soon grow. The Early Tennis Ball is
488 THE GARDEN AND ITS FRCTTS. [Cn.vp. V.
esteemed one of the best varieties which form heads. Recollect that soino
sorts of lettuce M'ill not head, witli all your care, but t!ie leaves may be niaiK-
more tender by tying them up, so that tliey will grow blanched. One of tlio
best sorts of non-heading lettuce is the Ice Cos, the loaves of which aVi-
brittle, growing long, narrow, and dark-green, and of somewhat an icy ap-
pearance.
Tliere are also four otlier sorts of Cos lettuce — the Paris Green, Paris
"White, Florence or Golden, and Spotted Cos — each of which you will
be told is best by the person who grows it, and no other. The hardiest sort
is the Brown Dutch, which may be started in autumn, and slightly protected
so as to endure winter, and grow early in spring. It will form a loose head,
but is not generally grown for heads, but for the early young leaves ; the other
sorts being preferable to it for heading. One of the largest yarieties is called
Large India ; it is less curled tiian the Silesia, and the leaves are whiter,
slightly edged with pink. This kind endures the summer heats well, and
forms large, round heads, M-hich cut solid and crisp. There are several
other sorts, but what we have said of these is enough to show that there is n
great variety in this family of garden plants.
To grow good lettuce, the utmost care must be used in preparing the
ground. The soil should be made as fine as the seed, and as rich as good
garden mold can be. The seed should be sown every fortnight from Feb-
ruary to June, to get a succession of young plants. The ground must be
kept loose between the rows, and it pays well to water with guano in a weak
solution.
An ounce of lettuce seed will grow plants enough for half a dozen families.
It would require a bed about ten by twelve feet to sow an ounce of seed,
and it would produce some 5,000 plants.
552. mustard is often grown for salad, the white or yellow seed variety
being very good for that purpose. It should be sown in the fall, or it may
be started in spring, in a hot-bed or warm southern exposure, in rows
six inches apart, and no matter how thick in tlie rows, as it is to
be cut when two inches higli. The black seed kind is often sown for
greens, as well as to grow seed for use or sale. It ripens seed in July or
August.
553. Kastiirtiunii — This is another salad plant, when very young, though
generally grown for its fruit, which is used for pickling. The pods are
gathered before they ripen for this purpose, and some use tiie flower-buds,
esteeming them as good as capers. The orange-colored flowers are also used
for garnishing dishes. For salad, sow the dwarf variety early in spring, in
drills an inch deep, along borders of beds, so that what is not cut for salad
may grow for ornament.
55-i. Garden-Cress. — This is a favorite salad plant, and in this character
only the seminal plants are used. It is very hardy and prolitic, and may
be sowed once a week, from the opening of the ground in spring until tlic
close of the season. Old rich garden soil is the most congenial to it, but
Sec. 30] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 489
any lands of fine textnre will, if properly pulverized and enriched with
putrescent manure, produce a good crop.
Do not mistake this for the plant more known as peppergrass than it is
as cress. The article we allude to grows annually from seed or from roots,
forming compact bunches of twenty or thirty stalks, which grow a foot high,
and bear smooth succulent leaves and an upright stem full of seed-pods, some-
thing like turnip. It is very apt to seed itself, and may become ti-ouble-
some if care is not taken with it. It is so hardy that it keeps partially
green all winter, under a very slight covering, and its greatest value is, tliat
it affords something green very early in spring.
555. Water-Cress {Sisymhrium nasturtium) can be easily grown from
seeds or roots, wherever there is a stream or spring in the ground near the
house. It grows best in situations wiiere the roots are always in M'ater, and
in winter the whole plant is overflowed, and it particularly delights in pure
water, clear and cold, such as runs in the little spring-brooks. If you hap-
pen to have one that does not freeze, you may have water-cress at any time
during winter. It is started by sowing the seeds or setting the plants in a
suitable spot for its growtli. After it once gets fixed as a habitant of any
place, it requires no care in its cultivation.
556. Eudive, a plant of the chiccory species, is often cultivated for a
winter salad, though more used in stews and for garnishing tables. The
Green Curled is the hardiest sort, growing beautifully curled leaves, dark-
green, which are tender and crisp when young, and much esteemed as salad
Lty some persons, and are considered wholesome. The French use the Bata-
vian Endive in stews and soups. It is a broad-leaf sort, which grows not
much cui'led. This, when very young, is eaten as salad, but is not as good as
either the Green or White Curled. The seed is sown late in the spring, or even
middle of summer, for fall use, and the leaves are blanched for use by tying
the outer leaves over the inner ones. An ounce of seed will sow a bed eight
by ten feet.
557. Turnip-Sprouts, grown under a straw mulch, are blanched and tender,
and make a delicate, sweet salad, and may be had early in the spring with
a little care.
558. Okra> — Under the head of "History of Some Common Garden
Vegetables" we have told the uses of this plant. Its consumption has in-
creased so much in New York since its introduction a few years since, that
one market gardener of our acquaintance grew seven acres of it last year
(1860), part of the crop selling green and part dried. There is no plant
grown in the garden that afibrds cheaper food than okra. The pods, in soup,
make it mucilaginous and nutritious. There is a dwarf okra plant which
does not grow more than two or three feet high, and is very prolific of
branches and pods, that for this latitude will be a valuable improvement
over tlie large kind, which grows five or six feet long. Ripe okra seeds are
sometimes used as a substitute for coffee. It is doubtful whether they are
as good as the seeds of asparagus.
490 THE GARDEN AilD ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
Okra 6ecd slioiild not be planted till tlic ground has become warm in
spring, and may then be treated much like Indian-corn in all its cidtiration,
and grows well in soil suitable for corn.
559. TomatoeSi — The r;ipidity with which this vegetable has been brought
into almost universal use is well-nigh beyond belief. It is quite within the
memory of middle-aged people that it was grown only because its fruit was •
ornamental, and by many supposed to be poisonous. Its common name in New
Engliind was " Love Apple," though no one loved it. Kow there are not
many families that do not esteem tomatoes as much as any garden vegetable,
and gardeners are constantly making efl'orts to produce new varieties of im-
j^*5roved qualit}'. Let no one suppose he has got the best sort until he has
*tried several others. Tliere is more ditfcrcnce in the quality and value for
food of tomatoes than there is in potatoes. "We will name a few of the best.
We have grown a very large yellow tomato, which we prefer over all otliers,
because it is less acid, and the meat appears to have more of the food prin-
ci2)le in it than any of the red ones, unless it is one called Fejee Island
Tomato, which we think identical with one called " Perljpcted," and said to
have been introduced by C. Edwards Lester. It is a very large red sort,
and very good eating, and a little finer grained than one called the Large
Mammoth Red. The poorest tomato in existence is the one almost univer-
sally grown for the Xcw York market. It is of medium size, smooih. round-
ish, with a tough skin, and sour, hard meat, frequently very hollow, partially
filled with seeds and sour Avater, and being generally gathered in a green
state, is no more fit to eat than the vines it grows upon. It is grown be-
cause it bears transportation better than the good sorts, and it will sell to
people who do not know how to appreciate a good tomato. As a general
rule, to select good sorts of tomatocg for cultivation for family use, choose
those which grow nnevcn-shaped ratlier than smooth, such as you can pull
apart without cutting, the lobes separating with a glistening fracture. It" you
wish to have some ripen earlier than the large sorts, you may choose a round,
smooth, medium size, called Early Apple Tomato. For pickles and pre-
serves there is a sort known as pear or fig tomatoes, being about the size and
shape of figs. There is a small yellow sort, grown for preserving, and so is
the sort which grows about the size of potato-balls, and as round and smooth.
A distinct variety, called "Winter Cherries (see 675), grows with a liusk
about the size of large cherries, and is much liked by some to cat out of
hand. Care must be taken to prevent the difForent sorts of tomatoes from
mixing, else, if you have a choice kind, you will be apt to lose it, as the in-
clination is to run down rather than up the scale of improvement.
The cultivation is very simple. In warm latitudes they arc selfpropagat-
ing. In this latitude, where the family has no hot-bed, the seed should bo
sown for early use in boxes or jwts, in February and March. Tiic seeds sown
in boxes, if kept in a warm roon*!, in the light of a window, will grow healthy
plants, which, when two inches high, may be pricked out and set single in
pots, and carefully nursed till all danger of frost is over, in some warm,
Sec. 30.] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 491
sheltered situation, where they can grow out-doors. To hasten the first
fruit, pinch off all shoots above tlie first formed ones as soon as the tomatoes
are the size of cherries. Afterwards cut ofl:' most of the leaves, to let the
sun have its full force npon the fruit ; you will thus get a small crop soveial
weeks ahead of the ripening when planted out at the ordinary time and left
to the natural course of growtli. To have really good tomatoes, fit to be
eaten in a raw state, M'hich certainly is the most delicious form in which
they can be eaten, you nuist have a good sort, and grow them on good land,
and select the first fruit, and trim the vines so that the sun shines npon it,
and let it become fully ripened before it is gathered. It should always
be eaten while fresh to get its full value. Then it is both palatable and
wholesome.
If the seed be sown in May, in good rich soil, of a warm nature, with a
sufliciency of old, well-rotted manure, there will rarely be any danger of
failure. When the vines begin to show leaves, tliey should be provided
with a trellis, or tied to stakes fixed in the soil, to keep the fruit from being
injured by coming in contact Avith the dirt.
There is, however, a new sort lately introduced, called " Tomato ch Lilys'^
in France, and with us, the Upright or Tree-Tomato, that requires no sup-
port. Its stem is two feet high or more, and so remarkably strong and stifi',
that they are nearly self-supporting — a highly commendable quality. It
branches less than the common Great Ked Tomato, is less leafy, does not
want so much pinching, does not bear so freely, but its fruit is larger and
more regularly formed.
Medicinally, the tomato is in high repute. Dr. Bennett, a professor of
medicine of good standing, has published the following opinion of its good
qualities :
"1. That the tomato is one of the most powerful deobstruents of the Ma-
teria Mcdica, and that in all those aflfections of the liver and other organs,
M'here calomel is indicated, it is probably the most effective and least harm-
ful remedial agent known in the profession.
"2. That a chemical extract will be obtained from it which will alto-
gether supersede the use of calomel in the cure of disease.
" 3. That he has successfully treated serious diarrhea with this article alone.
" 4. That when used as an article of diet, it is almost a sovereign remedy
for dyspepsia or indigestion.
" 5. That persons removing from the East or ISTorth to the South or "West,
should by all means make use of it as an aliment, as it would in tiiat event
save them from the danger attendant upon those violent bilious attacks to
which almost all unacclimated persons are liable.
" 6. That the citizens in ordinary should make use of it either raw, cooked,
or in the form of a catsup, with their daily food, as it is the most healthy
article in the Materia Alt nie7if aria."
Prof. Eafinesque, of France, says: "It is everywhere deemed a very
healthy vegetable, and an invaluable article of food."
492 THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
Dunglison says: "It may be loukcd upon as one of the most wliolesonic
and valuable esculents that belon_:^ to the vegetable kingdom."
A writer in {\\c Fan ncr^s lii- gist cr says: "It has been tried l)y several
persons with decided success. They were afflicted with chronic cough, the
primary cause of which, in one case, was supposed to be a diseased liver; in
another, diseased lungs. It mitigates, and sometimes effectually checks, a
fit of coughing."
The method most commonly adopted in preparing this fruit for daily use
is to cut them in slices, and serve with salt, pepper, and vinegar, as you do
cucumbers.
To stew tomatoes, remove them ripe from the vines, slice up, and put them
in a pot over the stove or fire, without water. Stew them slowly, and when
done, put in a small piece of good butler, and eat them as you do apple-
sauce. Some add a little flour-bread, finely crumbed, or a couple of crackers
pulverized, to a quart of the stew.
560. Radisbes. — Almost every family grows radishes, but every one does
not grow them to perfection. The radish appears to have originated from
China, where it is still grown to much higher perfection than in any country
of its adoption, and is largely used as an article of food throughout the year,
one variety being grown especially for winter use. Although not a very
nourishing sort of food, it is a very palatable condiment, and very ac-
ceptable upon all tables in the spring season. The tops are frequently
used when quite new as a salad, and the green seed-pods make nice small
l)ickles. To grow good radishes, your ground must be rich from manur-
ing in previous years, or by guano in solution, or superphosphate, while
the plants are growing, and not by fresh putrescent manures. Kadishes are
only good when the growth is rapid. To have this they must have a good
soil and frequent waterings, either naturally or artificially.
For early use, sow on mildly hot beds, or in bo.xes in-doors, and after-
ward in sheltered places, and water frequently, thinning out the weakest
plants. Put in a few seed every ten days, as long as you want to continue
the production, in drills ten inches apart, or with other seeds of slower
growth, to mark the rows. An ounce of seed will plant a bed ten feet
square. One of the best early sorts is known by the long name of Early
Short-topped Long Scarlet. It grows half out of ground, and very crisp.
The Olive shaped radish, lately introduced from France, is an early and fa-
vorite sort. It resembles the scarlet turnip radish ; is rose-colored, oblong ;
top quite small, and if grown rapidly, is crisp and sweet. For our use, we
l)rofer turnip radishes to the long sorts. For winter use, the Siianish, or
lilack radish, or a sort called Rose-colored China, is sown in the fall, and
gathered before ff^ezing, and packed in sand in a dry cellar.
501. Rhubarb, or I'ie-Plant.— This valuable garden vegetable is easily
grown, and affords the first thing in spring for pies and tarts. It is best to
get roots for a start, as it is not always true to the kind from seed.
Autumn is the best time to make a rhubarb or pie-plant bed, and the
Sec 30.] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 493
roots may be put in at any time wlien the weather will admit. The great
secret of success is to get a deep, rich bed to begin with. It can not be too
deep or too rich. We would dig it five feet deep for family use, and fill one
foot with cobble-stone, if we could, or with broken brick, timber, and brush,
so arranged as to give a good drainage. Then fill up with sods, chip
manure, wood's mold, good soil, and well-composted manure in a homo-
geneous mass, casting away the subsoil. Such a made bed will last as long
as its maker will, and if ten feet wide and twenty feet long, set with three
rows of roots, two feet apart in the row, it will furnish the largest family
with more than they can use, so that some of their indolent neighbors can
get a portion. Except when grown for market, we would not select the
largest variety of i-luibarb. Seedling plants may be cut after the first year
to a small extent. It is good to mulch the bed summer and winter. Seed
stalks must be kept carefully cut away as fast as they appear, and the bed
must be richly manured every fall.
Some of the sorts in highest repute are the Victoria, Linnffius, Royal Al-
bert, Scarlet Nonpareil, and Mammoth. The largest sort is known as Ga-
boon's Seedling. It is better esteemed for wine-making than eating. Fif-
teen hundred gallons an acre have been made from this sort, grown upon
well-drained, rich, loamy land in Wisconsin. The stalks are cut in lengths of
two or three inches, and ground and pressed in a cider-mill, one hundred
pounds of stalks yielding ten gallons of juice, which is mixed with an equal
quantity of water, and about three and a half pounds of refined sugar to
each gallon of the mixture. This, if treated like other small fruit wines,
gives a palatable beverage, salable, and very profitable to the grower and
manufacturer.
562. Savory and IMediciual Garden Plants. — There is a variety of plants
which every farmer's family should grow in the garden, 'which are useful in
the kitchen, nursery, or sick chamber, a few of which we will name.
Iloarliound. — This plant {MarrxiVium vulgare) is called hoar on account
of the white, downy growth upon the leaves and branches, which resembles
hoar frost. The plant is in high repute as a remedy for colds and coughs.
It is not a native of America, but was introduced by the first settlers as a
valuable medicinal plant, and from the garden it has spread to the road-
side and fields in every favorable location, as it propagates readily from
the seed.
A good many other medicinal plants were introduced in the same way as
hoarhound by the New England pilgrims. Among them we may name
lavender, from which spirits of lavender and oil of spike are made, although
another plant (Z. spica) gives the name. Comfry is another of the old-time
medicines that our ancestors made use of in eases of inflamed throat and ii-
testines, and for emollient poultices and salves.
Pejppermiyit and Spearmint are pretty well known and generally esteemed.
One, if not both, come from Europe, and have been largely cultivated in this
country for the oil which, when diluted, or " cut" with alcohol, forming
494 THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
essence of pepperiiiint, is esteemed as a remedy for flatulence. Until the dis-
tillers of peppermint took to cheating by mixing oil of turpentine with their
product, which spoiled the trade, the growing of peppermint was a good
liiisincss in some of the New England States ; but since it has been so much
injured by fraud, it is not worth while for farmers to engage in its field
culture at the present price of the oil, though it should be grown in gardens
for family use.
As a crop, this plant can be grown upon any moist, rich soil ; that which
will produce good corn will grow peppermint. The land should be plowed
deep, and it will be found advantageous to use the subsoil lifter, and the
crop must be cultivated while the plants are small to keep the weeds down,
and therefore should be planted in rows eighteen inches apart. Spring is
the best time to set out a new plantation by offshoots or subdivision of old
roots. The yield will be small the first year, and upon some land, after two
or three years, it gets so full of grass as to render it necessary to turn the
whole sod over and let the mint grow up agaiu, which it will do, and the
process of turning under enriches the land. The mint is cut for distillation
when in blossom, and we think yields from fifteen to twenty pounds of oil
per acre.
Wormwood is another imported plant, and is a very hardy perennial.
Its leaves, bruised and wet with vinegar, are esteemed a valuable applica-
tion to sprains and bruises, and its bitter properties used to be esteemed as
a tonic.
Balm, Saffron, Hyssop, Lavender, Fennel, Bene, and liosemary are all use-
ful medicinal herbs to cultivate in gardens, and the following are grown
for various uses in cookery : Anise, Sweet Basil, Carraway, Coriander, Dill,
Fennel, Sweet Marjoram, Summer Savory, Thyme, and Sa</e. Tlie last is
considered almost a necessit^^ in some families, and is grown upon perennial
roots. It is better, we think, to plant seed every year, and not keep the roots ■
over two years. All of the above-named herbs are grown by gardeners near
cities to sell in market.
Parsley is another agreeable, savory herb, much used as a garnish of
meats on the table and seasoning of soups. It is easily grown in good gar-
den mold. It is sometimes planted as a fringe for beds or walks in tiie
garden. It is grown in some phxces for the roots, which arc like small
carrots, to feed to cattle. An ounce of seed is enough for a row two hun-
dred feet long.
Peppers should always be grown in sufficient quantity for seasoning all
soups and stews, as such is far healthier than pepper that we import.
Tlie Long Cayenne is a very pungent sort, and grows up dwarf-stalks.
The Ciierry pepper is also a good dwarf sort. For pods to jiickle green,
grow the squash pepper, which has a tomato-shajied pod, rather mild, and
very productive. The Sweet Mountain grows in a similar form, but much
larger. The Sweet Spanish is the mildest of all for pickling or to eat green
as a salad.
Sec. 30.] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 495
Peppers sliould be sown early in light, warm soil in a seed-bed, and trans-
planted and manured with guano Avater or hen-dung in solution.
5(33. Jerusalem Artichokes. — This plant, the Hdianthus tuieros^ci, slionld
have a small corner in every garden, or somewhere conveiiient about the
farmer}-, as it affords very agreeable food early in the spring, when some-
thing is longed for fresh from the earth. It is one of the best antiscorbutics
known. It also affords a great crop of good pig feed. One man in Ohio
estimates the yield at the rate of 1,700 bushels an acre. We recommend
this plant as altogether preferable for cultivation over the Chinese yam,
Dioscorea hatatas, about which so much has been written and said. All
that is necessary to be known about that plant we give in the next par-
agraph.
564. The Chinese Yam. — ^This new esculent has certainly been tested long
enough in this country to determine its true value for cultivation. That it
is palatable and nutritious, when properly cooked, no one doubts. That it
would ever he adopted as a substitute for the common potato {Solanmn
iuherosuni), or of the sweet potato {Convolvulus batatas), among those who
grow those roots as a sale crop, we have never believed, but have hoped that
it might prove a valuable addition to our family of food- producing plants ;
but as yet we have not the evidence that this will be the case.
The London Gardeners' Chronicle of September, 1858, says of the Clii-
nese yam {Dioscorea batatas) that —
" Many excellent results were obtained last year in various parts of the
country, and gardeners begin to understand the nature of this strange jjro-
diiclion, which, although provided for the food of man, naturally grows in
the ground in such a way as to make it impossible for him to pull it uj). It
is now, too, agreed that the quality of the root, when properly cooked, is
excellent.
" "When first introduced to Europe by the French, this esculent was re-
garded as a mere curiositj', and maltreated accordingly ; but eventually
such information concerning it was obtained from M. de Montiguy, French
consul at Shanghae, as led to its receiving the attention due to a root which
might some day be found good to eat.
"The herbage of the Chinese yam is singularly like that of Tamus com-
munis, the common black bryony of this country, consisting of long, weak,
angular, wiry, annual stems, covered with heart-shaped shining leaves. It
ordinarily begins to push its roots as soon as the ground temperature
rises to about 50 degrees, which, near London, corresponds with the begin-
ning of May. Shortly afterward the shoots appear and soon spread over
the surface, not, however, with much vigor at first, nor, indeed, till the
month of August. The plant is evidently occupied for some weeks in
making these true roots and preparing for the singular development of that
false i-oot, which is the yam itself — the part to be eaten. "When the roots
and stems have attained the necessary vigor, which seems to be when the
ground has become heated up to 60 degrees, or thereabouts, in August, there
496 THE GARDEX AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
appears among the roots a soft, fleshy horn, whieli directs itself perpendicu-
hirly downward, and growing with considerable rapidity, soon becomes a
club-shaped l>ody, tiic small end of which is near the surface of the ground.
Tliis manner of growth is exactly like that of the arrow-root plant {Maranta
arundinacea), and continues until the end of October, when the yam is
completed, and under proper treatment will have attained the length of from
15 to 24 inches, weighing about one pound. In France, specimens liave
been dug uj) weighing two and a half pounds, and measuring a yard in
length. In its perfect state it resembles a very long trumpet gourd or a
largo parsnep, with the crown downward. The tail, which forms one third
of the length, is cut off and divided Into inch lengths for propagation ; the
thicker part is eaten. In the course of i;s downward growth, the power of
development is so great that the thick end will force its w.iy into hard clay,
and even bury stones or fragments of pottery in its substance if its progress
id sufficiently opposed. All obstacles ought to be carefully removed.
The best results in the cultivation of this yam have been obtained where
tlio temperature was highest, and the first object of the gardener should be to
obtain all the heat the sun can give him in soil three feet deejJ.
The plant should be grown in ridges, made to run east and west, and rise
eighteen inches above the level, in earth ti'cnched three feet deep. The yam
will not be M'orth growing in poor or worn-out land, nor among stones.
There is no doubt of one beneficial result from the attempt to cultivate
this root, if the above directions are conaplied with. If it docs not produce
a profitable crop of yams, it will fit the ground most admirably for any o;her
crop; and any man who has ever planted, grown, and gathered them, and
afterward planted any other crop upon the same ground, must be convinced
of the advantage of deep cultivation, since the yams can not be extracted
without digging two or throe feet deep, which, even without manure, is a
most excellent preparation for beets, carrots, parsncps, or anything else ever
grown upon the farm, orchards included.
.565. Sweet Potatoes. — The first step in the cultivation of sweet potatoes is
to know how to sprout them, as they are grown from sets, not IVoni tubers
planted in the hill. J. W. Tenbrook, of RockviUe, Ind., published the fol-
lowing directions, which we copy and approve.
"Arrangements should be made early in the winter to have frames and
covers made and seed potatoes, manure, and all necessary material for the
hot-beds ready in due time.
"The potatoes should be kejit in a warm, dry room, until they are placed
in the hot-bed, which must be warm, as they will not bear a lower tempera-
ture than 40 degrees without injury.
"The location of the beds should be near a street or public road, on dry
ground, with a southern inclination, and convenient to pond or branch
water.
"The best material for a hot bed is fresh horse-stable manure that has not
been rotted ; and if mixed with one fourth to one half its bulk of either
Sso. 30.] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 497
sawdust, fresh leaves, tan-bark, or straw, the heat would he more mild and
durable, and less liable to scald the potatoes.
" About the first or second week of April, in this latitude, haul the
materials for the bed, and mix them together in a ridge where the bed is to
be made, and as soon as it is hot, shake it thoroughly, mixing the cold and
hot, wet and dry portions together, forming a bed on the top of tlie ground,
running east and west, which, when settled with the fork — not trampled —
should be fourteen inches high, more or less, as there is a greater or less pro-
portion of manure used, and six inches wider on all sides than tlie frame to
be placed over it.
" Ilot-bed frames should be made of two-inch oak plank, framed together
at the ends with keys, so as to be easily taken apart and stored when not in nse.
They should not be over twenty feet in length, nor exceed four in width. The
front, or south side, should be eiglit inches high ; the north, from eight to
twenty, according to the slope of the ground on which the bed stands, as the
top of the frame should have a pitch of eight to twelve inches to receive the
heat of the sun, and to shed off the rain freely. Temporary beds are made
by setting slabs or plank on edge, and tilling in the manure ; but such
beds are diflicult to cover, and if used, the potatoes should not be laid within
six inches of the sides. [See 598.]
" Cover the beds five inches deep with the mellow earth, on which set the
frames and proceed to lay the potatoes two Indies apart, with the top end
of the potato towai'd the planks, and inure them to the open air. Glass-
covered hot-beds cause the plants to spring up tender and weak, and such
plants do not grow, when set out in the hill, like those raised in open beds.
" The best covei-s are made of strong oiled muslin, tacked on lath, so that
they can be rolled up conveniently. These covers will admit the light, shed
ofl:' the rain, and be cheaper in the end than other covering, and eufiiciently
warm except in extremely cold weather, when straw or some warm covering
should be thrown over them. Trampled straAV, or mats made of rye straw,
answer in the absence of better covering.
" The beds should be watered in the evening with a suitable watering-pot,
to keep the earth in a good growing condition. If spring or well water is
used, it should stand in the sun or be warmed before using. After the plants
are xip, they should, if the weather is warm, be kept tolerably moist, to en-
courage the growth of good strong roots, and light warm showers would be
better than watering, but cold and heavy rains must be guarded against, as
they would soak into the beds and ruin them.
" Ditches should be formed around the beds, and the earth thrown up to
keep the water from running under and chilling them.
" When the plants are three inches high, and well rooted, they are ready
to pull, which is performed by taking hold of the plants with the thumb
and forefinger of one hand, while the potato is held firmly in its place with
the other. Careless drawing, by inexperienced persons, frequently destroys
half the profits of their beds.
498 THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Coap. V.
"When plants are to be sent a distance, tlicj should Le sot in shalhiw
boxes, with tlieir roots in M-et earth or moss, but they must not be packed in
wet weather, nor have their leaves wet, or tliey will rot immediately.
Plants may be taken off the beds and preserved in a cave or cellar for a
week or more, with their roots packed in damp moss or earth, if not jiacked
too close.
"If by bedding too early, or crowding, the plants should gi-ow long and
slender, they may be cut down to two or three inches in length ; but this
should be avoided by giving plenty of room and air, and by working the
earrh in among the roots -with the fingers as it is lifted up by the plants, and
settling it by watering."
The best ground to grow a crop of sweet potatoes upon is sand, enriched
with very well-rotted manure, leaf-mold, tine compost, guauo, or superphos-
phate. The hills are rounded up like mounds, a foot or more higli. All
who live upon sandy land, south of latitude 41 degrees, can grow a few
sweet potatoes in the garden, if not as a field crop. They are best preserved
by packing in cut straw, in barrels, set in a stove-heated room, where the
thermometer never will sink below 40 degrees, and rarely rise above CO de-
grees. See 438.
5C0. Hot Water for Seeds< — There are many seeds Avhicli may be greatly
quickened in their vegetating powers by tlic use of hot water. Onion-seed,
lor instance, may be made to sprout upon the instant by pouring boiling
water upon it. You need not fear killing it. Put some in a saucer, and
pour on water from a tea-kettle, and after a half minute i)our it off again,
and you may see the sprouts shooting out the next minute ; and if then
planted, while hot and moist, in pulverulent earth, closely packed upon
them, you will get them forward two or three weeks earlier. The same ef-
fect will be produced upon all black, hard-shelled seed, such as onion,
asparagus, sunflower, water-melon, apple, and many others. Locust-seed
should be thoroughly scalded in boiling-hot lye, or several repetitions of hot
water.
567. Cranberries in the GardcOi — Cranberries have been so long looked
upon as wild plants of swamps, that it is difficult for people to realize that
they can be grown in gardens as well as strawberries, which are naturally a
wild field growth.
Cranberries do naturally grow in swamps, but they may be made to grow
artificially in good loamy garden soil, or that which is naturally a little
mucky, such as is the most suitable for potatoes, if deeply worked. The
bcbt soil, -however, for cranberries, is almost pure sand, with water naturally
b'.anding, or percolating through it, within loss than two feet of the surface.
A bed occupying one rod and two fifths, in the garden of Charles B. Phelps,
Colebrook, Conn., planted in June, 1857, yielded three bushels in ISGO.
The vines were taken from a natural bed, and set in small tufts, one foot
apart in the rows, which were two feet apart, and these ■were kept clear of
weeds until the whole ground became matted w'ith vines. The bed then
Sko. 30.] GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES. 499
Avill continue longer in bearing than any bed of strawberries, witlioiit cn-
ricbing the soil.
The cranberry is a seini-aqnatic slender evergreen, content to occupy that
part of a farm which is too low and too wet to be used for any other pur-
])ose, and is satisfied to feed on water, and the slightly alluvial deposits
afforded by the adjacent highlands, and does not, like some overgrown
annual plants, make heavy drafts upon the soil.
For field culture of cranberries, all that we have said hero will be almost
equally applicable, but the subject is treated more at large in No. 700.
568. Number of Trees, Plants, or Rows to au Acre.— The following tables
will aid any one in determining how many trees or plants he can grow
upon one acre, which contains 43,500 superficial feet :
No. of feet apart No. of Plants.
1 43,500
IJ 19,300
2 10,890
2i 0,809
3 4,840
4 2,722
5 1,742
0 1,210
The following table shows the number of rows, of difterent widths, in a
square acre, and number of plants an acre contains-:
No. of Plants.
537
12 302
15 193
18 134
21 98
24 75
}. of feet apart
2
2J '.'.'.'.'.
3"
No. of rows,
...105
.... 85
.... 70
.... 00
.... 52
.... 46
.... 42
38
12 in. apart.
....22,050
....17,850
....14,700
....12,000
....10.920....
.... 9,600 ...
Plants
15 in. apart.
17,040
14,260
11,700
10,080
n a row.
18 in. apart.
....14,700....
....11900
24 in. apart
11,025
8,925
.... 9,800
7,350
f :::::
4.}
8,400
6,300
8.730
... . 7,728 ...
7.280
G,440
5,400
4,830
5 .....
.... 8,820....
7,050
.... 5,880
4,410
5.^
. . . 7 980
0,384
5,880
5,040
.... 5,-320
.... 4.900
4 200
3,990
3,075
. .. 3,150
0'
7
.... 35
30
.... 7.350
6 300
8
.... 26
.... 23
.... 21
.... 5,400
4,830
4 308
. 3 040 . . .
.... 2,730
9
. 3 864
3,220....
.... 2.940
2,415
10
.... 4.410....
3.528
2.205
It is a common practice to measure an acre thirteen rods each way ; that
gives au e.xeess of nine rods. At the South, it is common to measure seventy
yards each way for an acre, which is an excess of 540 yards. In calculating
the number of plants j)cr acre, set four feet apart — for instance, cabbages —
it is common to say ten thousand per acre. This allows nearly nine hundred
missing plants. In garden work these rules will always be useful.
500
THE GARDEN" AND ITS FRUITS.
[CnAP. V.
SECTION XXXI.-
-THE FLOWRR-GARDEN-VARIETIES AND CULTIVA-
TION OF FLOWERS.
-IRST, let us talk a little about the mor.il
influence of flower culture. "We are just as
well satisfied of the beneficial moral efl'ects of
flower cultivation, as we are that the efi'ects of their
beauty upon the senses of nearly all beholders is
pleasing. A mother who loves flowers is apt to infuse
the same feeling into her children. A love of flowers is
a love of the beautiful ; a love of the beautiful is a love
of the good ; and so step by step the cliild walks in the
pleasant paths of love, till its mind becomes thoroughly
imbued with all the sentiments of moral goodness. There
is no spot on the farm that grows such a " paying crop"
as the little parterre near tlie dwelling, devoted to the
cultivation of flowers. If it does not pay in golden coin,
it does in all that makes life worth staying here for. What golden hours
of joy are spent by the family in the flower-garden ! What blessed influ-
ences such hours have upon the character of children ! If you doubt the
moral influence of flowers, "look about you, and study the character of those
v.Iio cultivate them in contrast with those who do not. We have long since
i -jltled the question of the beneficial influences of flowers upon all families,
: lid therefore devote a little space to give, upon this subject, some very use-
ful information.
569. Suitable Soil for a FIowcr-Gardcu. — Upon the subject of soil, mc
copy from the catalogue of Benjamin K. Bliss, of Springfield, Mass., one of
tlie most successful cultivators and sellers of flower seeds in the United
States, the following sensible observations :
"The soil best adapted to flowering-plants generally is a light friable
loam, containing a moderate amount of vegetable matter, and suflicient
sand to render it porous ; but as it rarely happens that the- amateur has
much choice of soil, it is fortunate that most of them will succeed in any
but such as is of an extremely dry, sandy, or calcareous nature, or of a stiff,
lu'avy, retentive character. In the former, the plants are sure to be starved,
and in the latter, if they ever fairly take root, there is generally an undue
development of the foliage at the expense of the flowers. In soils of this
description much may be done by thoroughly breaking up the superficial
crust, 0-, as it is technicall}'^ termed, ' trenching' it at least one spade deep,
digging in sharp sand or road-scrapings, and if tlie operation be performed
in autumn, so that the loosened soil is thoroughly exposed during the winter
to the disintegrating influences of frost and other atmospheric agencies, the
advantage will be greatly increased.
Seo. 31.] THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 501
" In soil of an opposite cliaracter, i. c, sandy or calcareous, the remedy
will obviously consist in the addition of loam, iu conjunction with decayed
leaves or old rotten manure ; or where expense is no object, the surface may
bo entirely removed to the depth of eiglit or ten inches, and its place sup-
plied with the best loamy compost at hand. The use of strong crude manure
of an animal nature should be avoided. In ordinarily good soil an annual
light dressing of leaf-mold, decayed turf, or thoroughly rotten manure, in
quantities proportioned to the requirements of the soil, dug to the dejith of
a few inches, will be all that is requisite. These should be applied in spring,
only just previous to sowing the seeds, or much of the benefit resulting from
their application will be lost, tliough a single digging may be advantageously
given in autumn. In preparing the beds, care must be taken that they arc
so arranged that the ground may be a little elevated in the middle, that the
water may run off and the plants show to a better advantage.
"It is particularly requisite that seeds should not be sown too deep,
whence arises most of the failures of inexperienced gardeners. The depth
at which seeds are sown will vary with their size ; large seeds, such as those
of the Lupins, Sweet Pea, or Marvel of Pern, may be three quarters of an
inch deep; other varieties from an eighth to a half-inch deep, according to
the size or nature of the seed. Some that are very small require to be sown
on tlie actual surface, a slight pressure being tlien sufficient to imbed them to
a proper depth. For the majority of the seeds a very thin covering s\iffices ;
if sowed too deep, they are longer in germinating, and the small ones are
liable to decay. It sometimes insures a more even distribution of very small
seeds, such as tliose of Campanula, Digitalis, etc., if they are intimately
mixed before sowing with a little fine, dry soil, the mixture being sown in
the same way as the seeds. Woolly seeds, which adhere to each otJier, like
the Globe Amaranthus, etc., should be rubbed witli a little fine sand, which
will generally separate them. In all cases, the more thinly the seeds are
strewn the better; when too thickly sown, the seedlings become elon-
gated and sickly, an evil which no subsequent thinning out will entirely
remedy.
" If the soil be dry and the weather sunny, it will be necessary to water
the seeds slightly from a very fine rose watering-pot. Kain-water is prefer-
able. In the absence of rain, this application must be repeated every day
or two, for it is important to observe that, when once the seeds have begun
to swell, they are peculiarly susceptible to injury from drouth, and will speed-
ily perish unless the soil be maintained in a moist condition ; to a neglect
of this important precaution, many failures are solely attributable. On the
other hand, an excess of moisture previous to germination will often cause
the seed to decay, especially in cold seasons ; early in the spring, therefore,
the water-pot must be used with judgment, and never late iu the day, when
frosts threaten."
We have found the practice of warming water in the sun or by fire-lieat
very nmch preferable to the use of cold water. As it requires the very finest
502 THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
preparation of soil, we recommend all who sow the most delicate llower-
seeds to sift the earth through a sieve fine enough for corn-meal.
570. How to Make a Flower-Bfd. — The following extract, from a paper
read before the Farmers' Club, tells how the author made a flower-bed upon
a very hard, rough spot .
" I do not expect to tell a professed gardeuer, nor an amateur who already
knows how, anything new ; but I wish to tell some who do not know, how
to make a flower-bed. At least I will tell how I make one. and leave it to
others to follow suit or not, just as they can aSbrd. I received, May 10th, a
package of choice flower-seeds, and a dozen bulbs of Gladiolus. As the old
flower-beds had already been appropriated, new ones must be made ; and as
there is always a right place relative to the house and other things, the right
place in the present instance fell in a very bad place — on a spot of sod just
beneath the window that gives light to my writing-desk and book-case.
Here I marked out the forms of my beds in shapes to suit the ground, and
not like any diagram laid down in the books. I first took out a spading, as
deep as I could drive the spading-fork, breaking up the turf and the remains
of a mortar-bed left last autumn by the masons. This first spading and the
loose earth left I threw one side, and the next spade- deep the other side.
Then I took out another spade-deep and carted it away, and all the stones, and
that not a few, and then broke up another course still deeper, and then threw
back the second spading, and then the first, forking it all over loose and
mellow. Next I put in a heavy charge of rich manure, and over that
garden-mold and leaf-mold, mixing all up and raking fine. Next I put a
coat of sand, and then rich garden-mold, old rotted sods, and leaf-mold,
mixed and sifted. Now the bed was ready for the seeds, and after being
marked off to suit the fancy of her who docs the planting, they were covered
I by sifting earth over them, and watered. It is true this was a laborious job,
j but once done, it is done forever. Here is a bed of earth, rich and mellow
as an ash-heap, more than thirty inches deep. Math a subsoil of coarse sand,
gravel, and decayed granite rock, tliat gives good drainage. It will require
only an annual dressing of compost, and a light forking and raking, to keep
it in order to produce the most lovely ornament that ever added beauty to a
farm-house — a beautiful bed of flowers. Early this spring — almost as soon
as the snow was away— there came, first the little crocuses, and these were
followed by the hyacinths, and tulips, and dielytra spectabilis — beauty
uiiou beauty, enough to pav richly for all the labor of making a flower-
bed.
"AVhat man with a head a whit better than a pumpkin or a cabbage-head
would devote his whole soul to food vegetables, and refuse liis family the
gratification and cheap happiness of a flower-bed ?
"What woman with a soul above soft-soap and scrubbing-brushes, that
would live in a country home and not insist upon 'woman's riglit' to have
a flower-bed — ah ! to have her house surrounded with flowers, blooming from
spring till snow comes again?"
Seo. 31.] THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 503
571. fultivatton of Hardy Annuals. — Hardy annuals are those plants that
flower and ripen their fruits and perish in one season, hut many of them
may be sown in autumn to flower early the next year. Hardy annuals
;::o\v without artificial heat, and come to perfection in the open grounds ;
hut what are known as half hardy plants need pushing a little, except in
very favorable localities. Tender and small seeded varieties sometimes fail,
not on account of the bad growing properties of the seeds, but solely from
bad management. Delicate seeds, like the Calceolaria, or Chinese primrose,
must not be sown in the open ground. One party complained that some
line seeds failed to grow which were sown from one to two inches deep —
literally buried. The most inexperienced in gardening matters can sow sweet
peas, but it requires a practiced hand to look after such delicate seeds as
Calceolaria, Cineraria, Fuchsia, and such like.
Many persons think that when they make a hole in the soil with a trowel,
and throw in such small seed as Mignonette, that it should be sure to grow ;
and if it does not, they lay the blame upon the seed, when in nine cases out
of ten the fault is in sowing too deep. The proper depth for planting flower
seeds is but little more than their diameter, though Lupine and Sweet Peas
may be planted one inch deep ; but such small seeds as Portuhica and Mig-
nonette require to be sown almost upon the surface of the soil. Some seed
are diflicult to germinate. Cypress seed requii-e to be soaked in warm wa-
ter about one hour. The seeds of the Globe Amaranthus are covered witii
a thick woolly substance, which greatly retards germination, and if planted
without soaking, few, if any, will come up. The most convenient method
of sowing annuals is to take a round-pointed stick, with which draw a circle
six or eight inches in diameter, and from an eighth of an inch to an inch
deep, according to tlie size of the seed to be sown, placing a label with the
name in the center. The labels ought to be five or six inches long, painted
white, and marked witli a lead pencil before the paint gets dry ; in this waj'
the name will last a long time. Larkspurs, and many of the hardy annuals,
when sown late in autumn, lie dormant all winter, thereby making much
stronger plants, and flowering earlier than those sown in spring. The
dwarf Kocket Larkspurs, when sown on the edges of the borders, present a
beautiful sight with their various colors ; the seed requires to be sown in
October, and protected by a slight covering of straw during winter. Phlox
Drummondii are of all shades and colors ; they delight in a moist and
shaded situation ; seed sown one eighth of an inch deep in May, blooms from
June until October.
572. List of Choice Annuals.— The following choice list of hardy annuals
was made by Thomas Cavanach, a practical, sensible floriculturist in Brook-
lyn, ]Sr. Y. It is -worthy of the attention of all who desire to beautify their
homestead.
JVemophila Insignis, or Blue Love Grove.— ^eeA. sown in May, blooms
in July ; likes a rich soil and moist situation ; suitable for vases.
Abronia Vmlellata.—h. very pretty annual, with long trailing stems.
504: THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
bearing beautiful lilac and wliitc flowers ; vci-y fragrant suitable for vases ;
seed may be sown early in April, flowering in June.
Aster Chincnsis, or China Aster. — This beautiful annnal comprises over
twenty-five diflferent varieties. Truffaut's, for general cultivation, is the best,
on account of the beauty of its flowers and variety of their colors ; seeds
sown in the open ground in May, in rich soil. All single or semi-doublo
flowers should be pulled up and thrown away.
Calliopsis, or Coreopsis. — This is a very showy annual — fourteen dilforent
varieties ; flowers, bright yellow, mottled with a rich velvety crimson,
highly ornamental ; seed may be sown in October or early in April; easily
transplanted.
Balsam, or Lady's Slipper. — A well-known tender annual. The ca-
mclia-flowercd contains twelve varieties, of all shades and colors, variously
striped and mottled. Seed sown in the open ground in the hitter part of
May. To have them early, seed should be sown in pots in the house in
April, and transplanted to the garden Avhen four inches high. Plant singly,
pulling up all semi-double or single flowers.
Cuphea Platycentra.—K. very pretty annual or green-house jicrennial,
with scarlet .and purple flowers, suitable for vases; flowering all summer,
and in winter, if taken up in autumn and kept in the house ; sown in pots
in the house in April. Plants may be procured from any florist for a trifle.
Cypress Vine. — A splendid running vine, delicate foliage, bright crimson
flowers, of a star shape ; Alba, pure white. Seed sown in the latUn- part
of May ; likes a rich soil. A very ornamental pyramid may be made by
setting a straight pole in the ground six or eight feet high, surrounded by a
hoop three or four feet in diameter, fiistened to the ground with three j^tegs;
run strings from the top of the pole to the hoop. Sow the seed outside of
the hoop. It may also be trained over arches or vases.
Lathyrus Odoratus, or Sweet Pea. — One'of the prettiest and most fragrant
of tho popular annuals which ornament the flower-garden. The sweet pea
grows four or five feet high in rich soil. The plants should be tied to a stake
or an old tree. Sow the seed in April ; flowers in July.
Ageratum Mexicanum. — A half hardy annual, with light blue flowers.
Seed sown in May ; flowers in July, blooming profusely until killed by tho
frost.
Alyssmn Maritimu77i, or Sweet Alyssiim. — This is a hardy annual, growing
one ibot high ; flowers white ; very fragrant. Seed may be sown in autumn
or early in spring.
Cacalia, or Scarlet Tassel Floxcer. — A very pretty annual, with scarlet
and orange tassel-shaped flowers. Seed sown first of May ; blooms IVoni
July until October.
L'schschoUzia California, or California Gold Flower. — Flowers bright
yellow, very showy. This, witli slight protection during winter, will flower
the seco7id season; blooms from June until October.
Clarkia Klegans. — A hardy annual, very showy. Seed sown in Sciitem-
Seo. 31.] THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 505
ber flowers nuich better than when sown in spring. For spring sowing,
plant early in April, in poor soil.
Mirabilis Jalapa — commonly called Fonr-o'clock, from its habit of
o]K'iiing its flowers about that time in the afternoon. Mirahilisxi a Latin
word for wonderful. The roots of this plant, when dried, form the principal
constituent of the jalap of druggists. It is generally considered an annual ;
it has a large tuberous root which, if taken up in October, and stored in a
dry cellai', will flower the second season. Seed sown in April ; flowers
in June.
Scahiosa, or IfowTiing Bride — A variety of colors, from a jet black to a
deep lilac. Seed sown in May ; blooms in the latter part of June.
Zinnia Elegans. — One of the most showy annuals in cultivation ; flowers,
brilliant scarlet, white, orange, and light purple. The new double-flowered
Zinnia forms a beantifid addition to this class of annual flowers. Tiie flowers
resemble the double French marigold; they will bear transplanting. Seed
sown in May ; blooms in July.
Clintonia Elegans. — A beautiful, tender annual, covered with deep-blue
flowers ; grows about six inches high. Seed sown in May, in light, rich soil ;
blooms in July and August.
Gomphrena Glohosa., or Globe Amaranihus. — Five diiferent colors; the
seeds are rather diflicult to vegetate; they require to be soaked in warm
water. The flowers, if gathered and kept in a dry jjlace, will retain their
color for several years. Seed sown in May.
Mignonette is one of the sweetest of the annuals. Thousands of pots of it
are sold annually in the markets of Paris and London. It has been found
growing upon the walls of ruins near Paris, springing from every crevice
where the seed could germinate, and scenting the air with its fragrance.
The mignonette is of very easy culture ; in rich soil it grows luxuriantly, but
with poor flowers, that have little or no fragrance ; but in poor soil the flow-
ers will be large and very fragrant. When once the seeds are planted, it
will retain possession of the soil, springing up year after year. Seed sown
in May almost upon the surface of the soil.
Among the curious annuals is the 2Iimosa, or Sensitive Plant. Seed
sown in the open ground in May, in rich soil. This singular plant, at the
slightest touch, closes its leaves.
" Weak with nice sense the chaste mimosa stands,
From each rude touch withdraws her tender hands."
3[eseinbryanthemum, or lee Plant. — This curious plant has thick leaves,
which have the appearance of being covered with ice; very ornamental for
vases. Seed sown in May.
Loasa Acanthifolia. — A running vine, covered with curious yellow flow-
ers ; the stem and leaves arc covered with hairs or small bristles, which,
upon being touched, leave a stinging sensation similar to nettles. Seed
sown in May.
Coix Lachryma, or JoVs Tears. — A kind of ornamental grass. It is called
606 TDK GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
Job's tears on account of its shining, pearly seed, which, by a considerable
stretch of the imagination, may bo likened to a falling tear. Seed sown in
May half an inch deep.
The Avcna, or Animated Oat, is a curiosity. "When the seeds have fallen
off, their strong beard is so sensitive to the various changes of the atmo-
sphere, that they are continually in motion, like some insect crawling on the
ground. Seed sown in April.
Anagallis, or Pimpenul. — A dwarf-trailing plant, with blue and pink
flowers. The anagallis has been termed the Poor Man's Barometer. Not
the pimpernel alone closes its flowers when exposed to damp air, but many
other plants are equally sensitive. Stcllaria Media, or Chickwccd, and many
others, shut their flowers upon tlie approach of rain.
Another gardener gives the following list as a choice selection for a small
garden :
Ali/ssum Ifaritimuon — Sweet Alyssum. — A very desirable dwarf annual,
with small, white, honey-scented flowers in great profusion, blooms tor a
long time.
Asters. — Showy, hardy annuals. The fine German and French asters are
certainly among the finest flowers we have.
Balsams. — ^The camelia-flowered. balsams are most beautiful, and very
desirable.
Cacalia, or Tassel Flower.
Calliopsis, or Coreopsis. — Very showy and rich.
Candytuft. — A large quantity should be grown of this plant for bouquets.
Clarkia.
Eschscholtzia. — Yery showy and handsome.
Everlasting Flower. — Fine for winter bouquets.
Four-o'' clocks. — A well-known plant, desirable in large gardens.
Globe Aniaranthus. — Excellent for winter bouquets.
Jacohca, or Senecio. — Very pretty.
Mari(jold. — The dwarf varieties are pretty.
Miijiionette. — Sow plenty of this for bouquets.
Nasturtiums. — The dwarf varieties much resemble Tom Thumb gera-
niums, and are very desirable.
Nemophila, or Love Grove. — Plants with very small but prcttv flowei*s.
Dwarf.
I'etunias. — Among the verj' best plants ; of easy culture, and flowering
profusely tlie whole season.
Phlox Drummondii. — The very best annual; of long duration in bloom,
rich in color, excellent for bouquets; unequaled in all respects, in my esti--
mat ion.
J'oppies. — Very showy, and great variety.
Portulaca. — One of the best annuals.
Scalnosa, or Mourning Bride. — Showy.
Stocks. — Many annual varieties are cultivated, and are very desirable.
Sweet Sultan. — Quite pretty.
Whitlavia. — A very beautiful blue flowering annual.
Zinnia. — Very showy, free flowering plants.
573. Uardy Flowering Herbaceous PlanlSt— The following list gives a good
Seo. 31.] THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 507
assortment of some of the most desirable hardy flowering plants, some of
M-hich grow and bloom in beauty every year with almost no care. Of
course the list can be greatly extended, or selections can be made from this
and others to suit each taste. To many who do not know what to select,
tliese lists will be useful guides. We will briefly notice some of the most
desirable sorts.
Achilha Ptarmica. — Of the double-flowering variety, dwarf, continues in
bloom a long time, good for bouquets, flowers small, of a pure white.
Aco?iite. — Monkshood, mostly with blue flowers ; various higlits.
Althea Rosea. — Hollyhock, double varieties, very beautiful, all colors ;
six or seven feet liigh.
Anemone Ja/joniVa.— Japanese "Wind-flower, purplish red flowers, double;
about two feet in hight.
Baptisia Aiistralis. — False Indigo, fine blue flowers ; two to three feet
high.
Campanula. — Bell-flower, many varieties, with white and blue flowers ;
various higlits, all pretty.
Delphinium. — Larkspur, one of the best herbaceous plants, with fine blue
or white flowers. D.formosum and grandijlorum are the best.
Diciammus Fraximella, or Gas plant.
Diclytra, or Dicentra Spectahilis. — The very finest herbaceous plant.
lAmkia, or Day lily, many varieties ; all desirable.
Iris, or fleur de lis (flower de luce)..
Lychnis Chalccdonica. — ^The double variety has splendid scarlet flowers.
Phloxes. — A splendid class of plants, all beautiful, witliout any exception.
Pyreihrum. — Feverfew, double white flowers, very neat and pretty.
Sjjirca. — Meadow Sweet, many varieties, all desirable.
Tradescantia. — Spiderwort, with white, blue, or red flowers, very pretty.
Valerian. — A tall-growing plant, with fragrant white flowers.
Yiola Odorata. — Sweet Violet, very fragrant.
Chrysanthe?num..—Mnc\i improved of iate years, and in several varieties,
is one of the most desii-able of hardy flowering plants, and is very much
loved wlierever known. It is one of the very last to flower and cheer us
with its many-headed blossoms for the last tliree months of the departing
year, when most otiier plants have gone their way. Then, again, it is one
of the very best window plants. It not only flourishes, but luxuriates in-
doors, if properly cared for. As floral ornaments for the green-house and
conservatory, they are unsurpassed.
To get early flowers from chrysanthemum seed-plants, you must sow the
seed early in April in pots in the house, and transplant, or else sow seed in
a very nicely prepared warm bed in May. Be careful to thin out, so as to
give ample room for tlie plants to branch out.
574. Bulbous Flowering Plants. — The earliest flowers of the garden come
from bulbs planted in autumn. In a well-prepared bed, nicely sheltered
with a coat of leaves, the crocuses begin to bloom almost as soon as tlie
508 TUE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
covering is removed, after the frost is out of the ground. All tender bulbs
and perennials under a coating of leaves will keep sound till spring. It is
necessary to lay brugh or something else over the leaves, to hinder their
blowing away by tlie winds. Leaves make the best kind of covering for all
tender things. Frost rarely penetrates through a thick coating of them, as
may be seen during our most severe weather; by removing a bed of leaves
the ground will be found unfrozen.
There is no sight more striking to the eye than the effect produced in early
sjiring, when delicate snowdrops and the modest, many-colored crocuses
enamel the lawn, or make the garden lovely with their stainless purity, and
with the brilliancy of their colors. Coming, as they do, before the swallow,
these firstlings of the season have a special claim to the popular regard,
lliey are the harbingers of buds ajid blossoms, of leafy trees and unbound
waters, of sunshine and of singing birds, and when their tender green spears
begin to push themselves through the soil, Ave know that nature is awaken-
ing from her winter slumbers, and that more genial weather is at hand.
These little pilgrims that come to us with glad tidings, and that put on for
our delight the gayest robes, and silently, yet eloquently, assure us that we
are entering upon a new cycle of soft sunshine, and bland airs, and fragrant
odors, deserve to be more cherished than they usually are by all country-
women. Of all the flowers that bloom, those that come to us earliest are
entitled to receive the most cordial welcome, and it is for this that we appeal
in behalf of the more general culture of bulbous flowers.
"\Ve appeal to all farmers' wives and daughters for a more general cultiva-
tion of flower gardens and parterres around the house, because we believe
in their humanizing influences ; in the lessons they teach, and the sympa-
thies to which they appeal. We believe every family who has ground
should cultivate Hyacinths, Tulij>s, Jonquils, Crocus, Crown Imjx'rials,
Iris, Snowdrops, Polyanthus, Narcissus, Double Narcissus, Lilies, Gladio-
lus, and Dahlias. To these add Peonies, Di^iytra {Diccntra) Spectahilis,
and many other hardy herbaceous plants, such as Holly hocl's and the
Phloxes, Yucca fiktmentosa, etc.
Of all the bulbous flowering plants, the gladiolus takes the lead, accord-
ing to our fancy. The varieties of G. yandavensis are numerous, robust,
stately, with beautiful taper leaves of bright green, and long racemes of ex-
quisitely beautiful lily-shaped flowei"s, comprising every variety of shade
of colors, which can be kept up by timely planting from July to October in
the open air; and then, before hard frosts come, if stalks with undeveloped
buds are cut and set in water in the house, they will continue to bloom some
time longer. The bulbs must be taken up for winter, and need about the
same protection as onions.
Several bulbs, hyacinths in particular, may be grown in any room where
water will not freeze, in glasses adapted to the purpose, so that the bulb
rests in the mouth of the glass, and sends its roots down into the water.
Park-colored glasses arc preferable to white glass. The water should not
Seo. 31.] THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 509
be allowed to rise more than to touch the bottom of the bulb ; otherwise
they will rot. When first put in glasses, they should be stored away in a
dark, coel place, till the roots are about an inch long. If the roots do not
grow vigorously, give two or three drops of hartshorn fn each fresh supply
of water, and put in the glass a small lump of charcoal. Tlie water should
bo changed every foi'tnight, or three weeks at farthest ; but to do tiiis the
plant must not be taken out, but the glass held horizontally, and the water
poured ofl'. Soft or rain-water should alwaj's be used. By this mode of
treatment, and not keeping them in too warm or close a place, they will
bloom beaiitifully.
Tliey may also be grown in the house in pots, in the open light and air.
The bottom of the pot should have plenty of broken tiles in it to allow of
perfect drainage, and be frequently, but moderately, supplied with water.
Do not stand the pots in saucers of water.
575. The Hollyhock is a fine flower to grow in clumps about a lawn, and
may be made perennial by not allowing the stalks to ripen seeds. As there
-have been great improvements made in these flowers, we annex the names
that two dozen fine sorts are known by among seedsmen.
576. Select List of llollyhOCkSi — 1. Anak (Bircham). — Crimson ; flowers of
a fine form and full.
2. Black Prince (Gibbon). — Flowers large and very double ; black.
3. Brennu^ (Bircham). — Light crimson ; a fine, showy variety.
4. Charles Baron (Chater), — Flowers very large and full ; color pink,
shaded with salmon.
5. Beauty of Chestnut (Paul). — Flowers of a very fine form ; spike -ong,
and beautifully furnished with flowers of a beautiful bright rosy red ; a very
fine variety.
6. Charles Turner (Black). — Spike very close ; flowers of fine form, large,
and of good substance ; color deep crimson ; extra fine.
7. Commander-i?i-Chiey^ {Baron). — Flowers large and showy; dark-red.
8. Eva (Roake). — Flowers large, shape very fine ; color peach.
9. Emperor (Roake). — Form quite first-rate ; color a beautiful pink ; one
of the finest.
10. Felicia (Bircham). — Flowers and spike of excellent form and sub-
stance; color amethyst; extra.
11. General Bern (Veitch). — Spike very fine, flowers full size: color
bright red.
12. Hon. Jfrs. Ashley (Roake). — Flowers medium-sized, of great depth,
and very double ; color a delicate peach.
13. Lilac Model (Chater). — Flowers medium-sized, full, and of good sub-
stance.
li. Mrs. Foster (Turner). — A noble spike ; flowers large, of first-rate forn) ;
color beautiful light rose.
15. Miss Parsons (Pai-sons). — Spike full; flowers medium and close;
color pinkish salmon ; fine.
10. 3[agnum Boman (Baxon).- — Flowers very large; guard petals broad,
but not quite substance enough ; very showy.
17. Margaret Ann (Black). — Spike very fine; flowers good form, very
compact; color bright rose.
510 THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
18. Modd of Perfection (Baron). — Many Letter models at the present
day ; color creamy white.
19. Susannah (Veitch). — Flowers medium-sized and moderately smooth ;
color creamy white.
20. Pyramid (Parsons). — Flower medium-sized ; spike close and good ;
color buff.
21. Poupre de Tyre (Bircham). — A noble spike ; flowers large and free ;
color rich dark-purple; a first-rate variety.
22. Penelope (Bircham). — A very showy and beautiful variety ; color fine
rose.
23. Walden Gem (Chater). — Spike very fine ; flowers large and of fine
form ; color deep crimson.
24. Minnie Gray (Loring). — Size medium, form good ; color white.
As these have all been produced by planting seeds, and saving none but
the finest fiowering plants, we recommend a continuance of the practice by
all who grow hollyhocks.
577. The Verbena is an almost indispensable plant in lawns, it is so pretty
to fill up cut figures in the sward. The name, verbena, is an unmeaning
one, being derived from the Latin herba, which means any low, S2:)reading
plant. This plant has been very long in cultivation, and it was used in
ancient times in some of the sacred ceremonies, the altars and priests' heads
being wreathed with verbenas. Celsus speaks of the use of verbenas as a
febrifuge in sickness, but it is doubtful whether it was the same plant known
now by this name. The verbena is indigenous in the country of Buenos
Ayres, and was taken from there to England in 1825, and lo this country
ten years later, by Eobert Buist, of Philadelphia. Now it is known every-
where and is everywhere a favorite, as its cultivation is simple, and its low-
creeping habit and pretty flowers will keep it in favor until some new rival
comes to take its place. It flourishes best in sandy, rich loam, in garden-
beds, and blooms from midsummer till late in autumn, and if potteil, con-
tinues in bloom through the winter. Verbenas do not require frequent
watering ; they will grow upon very dry ground, and wet in excess mildews
and injures them. For pots, take half-and-half leaf-mold and good loam,
and add sand enough to give a preponderance of sand in tiie whole mixture.
As it is naturally a running plant, it must bo cultivated in that way, and
not, as we have seen it, Avith stift', upright stems. Nothing is more easy
than producing new varieties of colors in verbenas. We have only to grow
seedlings and select the best and cast away the remainder. All colors, ex-
cept light-blue and yellow, have been obtained. The following are the
names of a few of the latest new varieties, with their characteristics an-
nexed :
Giant of Battles. — Flower and truss large, habit good, foliage large; color
dark-scarlet, with purplish eye ; a new imporied variety.
Pred. — Flower medium, habit weak, a good bloomer, but of a dull, pur-
plish, lake color ; pretty for variety.
Admiral Pandas. — Foliage and habit good ; color velvety scarlet; fine.
Celestial. — A strong, rapidly growing variety, the leaves often two inches
5eo. 31.] THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 511
across ; truss large, elongated, forming a fine head ; color pink, with darker
eye ; desirable for its size and color.
" Mrs. Abbott. — Habit and foliage good, truss small ; color very dark,
velvety purple, light eye; fine.
Evening tStar. — Color dark-crimson, with well-defined whitish-pink eye ;
growth small ; a decided novelty, and a very striking fiower.
Rosy Gem. — A lovely verbena, foliage and flower of medium size ; color
rosy lake, with light eye ; extra fine.
For an ordinary purpose, however, some that have been long in use, that
can be bought for a tenth or a hundredth part of the price of these new
sorts, might give equal satisfaction, for the varieties have been so multiplied
that it is difficult to tell which are the favorites.
578. Flowers Grown as a Farm Crop. — There are many persons in France
who grow flowers as an exclusive crop. It is their sole dependence. "The
growing of flowers, for the production of fine essential oils and for medicinal
purposes, is confined mainly to the southern portion of the department of
Var, lying on the Mediterranean, adjoining the late Italian, but now. French,
province of Nice. There are extensive factories in Nismes, Montpelier,
Kice, and in Algeria, but the great center of this branch of industry is the
town of Grasse, lying some few miles inland, and its sea-port, Cannes, the
winter residence of Lord Brougham.
" It would be impossible to state, even approximately, the product of the
flower-fields of this interesting region. There are no less than sixty factories
in Grasse, giving employment, in the various departments of field and in-door
labor, to 5,000 persons. Many manufacturers grow their own flowers, others
buy them in the open market daily, and still others are supplied by con-
tracts. The latter system prevails among the leading hoases. Contracts
are made at a fixed price for a term of years for the total product of a farm,
at rates varying from 8 to 10 cents per kilogramme (2} lbs.) of rose leaves,
up to $1 for tuberose leaves, and even higher rates for violet leaves, which
last are mainly grown at Nice. The average prices are about as follows :
Eoee leaves 8 to 10 cents the kilogramme. I Acacia 60 to 80 cents the kilogramme.
Jessamine 40 to 60 " " Tuberose 100 " "
Orange 40 " " | Violet 80 to 1 "30 "
" These are the leading garden flowers used in Grasse ; only small quanti-
ties of the jonquil, narcissus, mignonette, etc., are cultivated. A great
breadth of land is devoted to lavender, rosemary, thyme, and other medic-
inal plants, which are sold at much lower rates than the above.
" Tlie preparation of all these plants divides itself mainly into four classes :
essential oils, distilled waters, pomades and oils, and dried flowers. The
great bulk of essential oils produced consists of lavender, rosemary, sage,
thyme, spikenard, and others of a terebintiiine nature ; the most valuable
oils produced in any quantity are those of Neroli and Petits Grains. Tiio
former is the result of the distillation of orange-flower water from the petals
of the flowers of the Bigarade, or bitter orange (the sweet or Portugal or-
ange yielding an inferior product), and t'.io latter is obtained from the green
512 TUE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Cuxr. V.
leaves of the same tree. Tlic price of Neroli varies, with the seasons, from
$30 to $45 the pound, and of Petits Grains from $S to $12. These two oils
are extensively used in the cotupositioii of Cologne water, and in combina-
tion with bergamot, give it its distinctive character. The orange-flower
M'ater is consumed in immeuse quantities in France, in the ' eau sucrue,' so
universally drank in the hot season. This, by the way, is the only shape in
which a Frenchman will drink water at all. The Bigaradc orange-tree re-
quires ten years to mature and twenty to obtain perfection, and yields an
average of seventeen pounds of flowers per annum.
"Rose water is also distilled in large quantities. A result of its distillation
is an exceedingly small quantity of otto of rose of the very highest quality ;
it appears in small supernatant grains or drops, which are carefully skimmed
off and rectified. It is superior to the famous Kizanlik, or Turkish otto,
and congeals, at ordinary temperatures, in beautiful, transparent crystals.
The ' Rose de Mai,' or double May rose, is the one universally grown.
" Another very costly article, of which less than one ounce had been pro-
duced in 1S55, is the essential oil of jessamine. Up to that period its exist-
ence in the plant was stoutly denied by the distillers, altliough to what other
principle the fine odor of the plant wtis due, they failed to prove. In that
year an Algerian chemist obtained a minute quantity, which cost him, as
we were informed, at the rate of 17,000 francs the kilogramme, or $90 the
ounce. It has, since then, been produced at a cheaper rate, but still toe
dear for commercial purposes. The wild Arabian jessamine is grafted on
the cultivated plant of the same species, acclimated, aud bears for mau)"^
years, if not winter killed, yielding 90 to 150 lbs. of flowers per thousand
plants. It is closely trimmed in spring, and deeply covered in winter. The
caterpillar is its most formidable enemy.
" A most inqjortant branch, and one in which great rivalry exists, is the
preparation of perfumed pomades and otto, which have a two-fold use : first,
as bases for the finer kind of pomatums and hair oils ; and next, as a me-
dium for obtaining spirituous extracts for the toilet, such as Lubin's well-
known extracts for the handkerchief. Their preparation is the most in-
teresting and curious feature of the Grasse establishments, and merits a word
of description. For the oils, the inodorous virgin olive oil is used, expressed
from olives just before their maturity.
" The pomade ' body,' -which is prepared in winter, is composed of one
part of beef suet and two parts of leaf lard, thoroughly hashed, washed in
several waters, and among the best manufacturers it is washed several times
in rose water to deprive it of all unpleasant odor, and then carefully melted
and stored away in huge tin cans in airy, cool vaults, for use in the sea-
son of flowers. The busy operations of tlie year commence with the rose
season.
" There are two processes for impregnating the pomade body and the oils
with the floral odors — one by infusion, tlie other by ' enfleurage.' The
first is employed for the strong, less volatile odors of the rose, orange, and
Seo. 31.] THE FLOWER-GARDEN". 513
acacia ; the latter for the sensitive, etliereal perfumes of the jessamine, tube-
rose, jonquil, and all the bulbous tribe, which will not endure the applica-
tion of even a moderate degree of heat.
"And first, by infusion; about TOO kilogrammes of the pomade body are
put into a tiii-planished copper %vater-bath, melted at a low temperature, and
charged, at daybreak, with a certain cpiantit}^ of the freshly gathered flow-
ers, which are stirred constantly during the day and night, the mass being
kept only warm enough to maintaini a semi-fluid state. About midnight it
is removed from the fire, put into strong l)ags made of fish-cord, and sub-
jected to heavy pressure in large, perforated, vertical iron cylinders, stand-
ing on marble bed-plates, which are gently warmed to prevent the conge-
lation of the exuding mass. Next morning fresh leaves are added, and the
process repeated daily until the desired strength of perfume is obtained,
^vhen the pomade is put into cylindrical tin boxes and sealed up for ship-
ment. The oils are treated in like manner, but are filtered instead of pressed.
"In preparing the oils, coarse, heavy, spongy cotton cloths, made especially
for this purpose at Marseilles, are saturated with oil and spread upon the
netted frames ; flowers are then strewn thickly upon them, and they are
piled up in like manner as the pomades. When sufticienth' charged with
odor, the oil is expressed from the cloths by powerful levers.
" Many hundred-weight of flowers and herbs are dried annually, and are
variously used in the healing art, and in the composition of scent-bags,
cachous, fuming pastils for the sick chamber, and kindred compounds of the
perfumer's art.
" The Parmezan, or double violet, is grown under the shade of trees, and
yields a delicate and delightful perfume. It was the favorite odor of the
Athenians under Pericles, and is now the fashionable scent of the Parisian
heau monde.
"The flower farms receive the highest culture; under-draining is not
practiced, but great attention is paid to irrigation. Some fields have a com-
plete network of irrigating tubes substantially laid in cement. A constant
warfare is waged upon insects, each plant having, as with us, its pet borer,
grub, or bug, and ' eternal vigilance is the price' of success. The heat in
summer is intense, though tempered by the sea breeze, and the winter is at
times as rigorous as in Washington or Richmond.
" Labor costs, per day, 35 to 40 cents for males, and 15 cents for females."
There is no other reason than that contained in the last sentence why flower
farms can not be established in this country as well as France. The ques-
tion rests entirely upon the cost of labor.
579. Soil for Flowers— Compost for Potting— Protecting from Insects. — All
flowers require a deep, rich, well-drained soil, and that should be annually
fertilized with a fine compost, in which wood's earth or leaf-mold predom-
inates. The following directions of a practical gardener, though given
mostly in reference to potting plants, will be found useful, the same soil
being good for flower-beds, particularly for an annual dressing.
514 THE GARDEN AND ITS FRUITS. [Chap. V.
" To liave suitable compost for plants, the different soils should bo mixed
for some time before they are wanted. In making composts, the foUowhicr
soils should be obtained: First, soil and turf from an old pasture ; second,
decomposed horse or cow manure ; third, peat soil or leaf-mold from tlie
woods; fourthj white sand ; fifth, coarse sand or gravel ; sixth, charcoal and
broken pots. The charcoal and broken pots are for drainage. A suitable
compost for fuchsias, roses, and geraniums consists of one part white sand,
one of leaf-mold, and one of decomposed manure and turf-mold. These
should be well mi.xed together and sifted before using. A compost for cac-
tus is made of sand, leaf, and turf-mold, with a good drainage of charcoal
and broken pots. All bulbous roots require a very rich soil composed of
equal parts of sea sand, rotten cow manure, peat soil, and good turf-mold.
" In taking plants out of pots, all that is necessary is to put the hand on
top of the dirt and then turn the pot bottom up, and hit a gentle rap, and
the ball of earth will slip out. Most jieople water plants too little. Two or
three times a week is necessary, or oftener in a dr\- stove room.
" To grow flowers in the greatest perfection, gardeners often cover them
and take great pains to preserve them free from contact of insects or the
pollen of other flowers.
'■ The thing of most importance in potting is suitable soil. Many persons
imagine that all that is requisite is earth, be it good or bad. We liave seen
plants potted in coimnon street manure, the owners laboring under the im-
pression that it was the very best kind because it was black.
"Unsuitable soil and large pots generally given to small, weak plants for
the purpose of causing them to grow, is, in nine cases out of ten, the cause
of their death.
" Giving small pots to weak plants encourages the growth of the roots
toward the side of the pot in search of air and moisture. In potting plants,
glazed pots should never be used, as they prevent the evaporation of all im-
purities through the sides of the pot.
" Of all the insects which infest house plants, the green fly, red spider,
and mealy bug arc the most difScult to get rid of. They are easily de-
stroyed in the green-house by tobacco smoke. For parlor plants, take a
pail of soft water, invert the plant over the pail, cover the surface of the pot
with a piece of paper to prevent the soil from falling out, and brush the
leaves downward with a dust brush, dipping the plant in the water several
times. The mealy bug may be found in the axils of the leaves of orange-
trees, camelias, passion flowers, and various other plants. They look like
small specks of cotton, and are only to be got rid of by picking them of}".
If plants should happen to get frozen, they should be syringed with cold
water and screened from the rays of the sun. Thus plants are frequently
saved that would otherwise be destroyed."
Library
N. C. State College
MAY 84
4« %'
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