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THE
FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Fig. 29. — GLACIER CARRYING DOWN STONES. See p.
Frontispiece.
THE
FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
BY
ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY.
AUTHOR OF 'A SHORT HISTORY OF NATURAL SCIENCE,
'BOTANICAL TABLES FOR YOUNG STUDENTS,' ETC.
I LLUSTRATED.
' For they remember yet the tales we told them
Around the hearth, of fairies, long ago,
When they loved still in fancy to behold them
Quick dancing earthward in the feathery snow.
But now the young and fresh imagination
Finds traces of their presence everywhere,
And peoples with a new and bright creation
The clear blue chambers of the sunny air."
Folk Lore,
EIGHTH THOUSAND.
LONDON:
EDWARD STANFORD, 55, CHARING CROSS, S.W.
1880.
s
PREFACE.
THE Ten Lectures of which this volume is composed
were delivered last spring, in St. John's Wood, to a
large audience of children and their friends, and at
their conclusion I was asked by many of those present
to publish them for a child's reading book.
At first I hesitated, feeling that written words can
never produce the same effect as viva-voce delivery.
But the majority of my juvenile hearers were evi-
dently so deeply interested that I am encouraged to
think that the present work may be a source of
pleasure to a wider circle of young people, and at the
same time awaken in them a love of nature and of
the study of science.
The Lectures have been entirely rewritten from
the short notes used when they were delivered.
With the exception of the first of the series, none of
them have any pretensions to originality, their object
being merely to explain well-known natural facts in
simple and pleasant language. Throughout the whole
book I have availed myself freely of the leading
popular works on science, but have found it im-
possible to give special references, as nearly all the
vi PREFACE.
matter I have dealt with has long been the common
property of scientific teachers.
I am much indebted to Mr. J. Cooper for the zeal
and assiduity he has shown in carrying out my sug-
gestions for illustrations. All the engravings, with
one exception, were executed under his superinten-
dence.
ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY.
Christmas, 1878
s
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
LECTURE I.
PAGE
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE : HOW TO ENTER IT ; HOW TO
USE IT; AND HOW TO ENJOY IT I
LECTURE II.
SUNBEAMS, AND THE WORK THEY DO 26
LECTURE III.
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE .. .. 50
LECTURE IV.
A DROP OF WATER ON ITS TRAVELS 73
LECTURE -V.
THE Two GREAT SCULPTORS — WATER AND ICE 99
LECTURE VI.
THE VOICES OF NATURE, AND HOW WE HEAR THEM .. .. 124
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS.
LECTURE VII.
PAGE
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE 150
LECTURE VIII.
THE HISTORY OF A PIECE OF COAL 171
LECTURE IX.
BEES IN THE HIVE 193
LECTURE X.
BEES AND FLOWERS 212
THE
FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
VLECTURE I.
HOW TO ENTER IT ; HOW TO USE IT ; AND HOW
TO ENJOY IT.
HAVE promised to
introduce you to-
day to the fairy-
land of science, —
a somewhat bold promise,
seeing that most of you
probably look upon science as a bundle of dry facts,
while fairy-land is all that is beautiful, and full of
2 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
poetry and imagination. But I thoroughly believe
myself, and hope to prove to you, that science is full
of beautiful pictures, of real poetry, and of wonder-
working fairies ; and what is more, I promise you
they shall be true fairies, whom you will love just
as much when you are old and greyheaded as when
you are young ; for you will be able to call them
up wherever you wander by land or by sea, through
meadow or through wood, through water or through
air ; and though they themselves will always remain
invisible, yet you will see their wonderful power at
work everywhere around you.
Let us first see for a moment what kind of tales
science has to tell, and how far they are equal to the
old fairy tales we all know so well. Who does not
remember the tale of the " Sleeping Beauty in the
Wood," and how under the spell of the angry fairy
the maiden pricked herself with the spindle and slept
a hundred years ? How the horses in the stall, the
dogs in the court-yard, the doves on the roof, the cook
who was boxing the scullery boy's ears in the kitchen,
and the king and queen with all their courtiers in the
hall remained spell-bound, while a thick hedge grew
up all round the castle and all within was still as
death. But when the hundred years had passed the
valiant prince came, the thorny hedge opened before
him bearing beautiful flowers ; and he, entering the
castle, reached the room where the princess lay, and
with one sweet kiss raised her and all around her to
life again.
Can science bring any tale to match this ?
Tell me, is there anything in this world more busy
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. 3
and active than water, as it rushes along in the swift
brook, or dashes over the stones, or spouts up in the
fountain, or trickles down from the roof, or shakes
itself into ripples on the surface of the pond as the
wind blows over ^ ? But have you never seen this
water spell-bound and motionless ? Look out of the
window some cold frosty morning in winter, at the
little brook which yesterday was flowing gently past
the house, and see how still it lies, with the stones
over which it was dashing now held tightly in its icy
grasp. Notice the wind-ripples on the pond ; they
have become fixed and motionless. Look up at the
roof of the house. There, instead of living doves
merely charmed to sleep, we have running water
caught in the very act of falling and turned into
transparent icicles, decorating the eaves with a beau-
tiful crystal fringe. On every tree and bush you will
catch the water-drops napping, in the form of tiny
crystals ; while the fountain looks like a tree of glass
with long down-hanging pointed leaves. Even the
damp of your own breath lies rigid and still on the
window-pane frozen into delicate patterns like fern-
leaves of ice.
All this water was yesterday flowing busily, or
falling drop by drop, or floating invisibly in the air ;
now it is all caught and spell-bound — by whom ?
By the enchantments of the frost-giant who holds it
fast in his grip and will not let it go.
But wait awhile, the deliverer is coming. In a
few weeks or days, or it may be in a few hours,
the brave sun will shine down ; the dull-grey, leaden
sky will melt before him, as the hedge gave way
B 2
4 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
before the prince in the fairy tale, and when the sun-
beam gently kisses the frozen water it will be set
free. Then the brook will flow rippling on again ;
the frost-drops will be shaken down from the trees,
the icicles fall from the roof, the moisture trickle
down the window-pane, and in the bright, warm sun-
shine all will be alive again.
Is not this a fairy tale of nature ? and such as these
it is which science tells.
Again, who has not heard of Catskin, who came
out of a hollow tree, bringing a walnut containing
three beautiful dresses — the first glowing as the sun,
the second pale and beautiful as the moon, the third
spangled like the star-lit sky, and each so fine and
delicate that all three could be packed in a nut ? But
science can tell of shells so tiny that a whole group
of them will lie on the point of a pin, and many
thousands be packed into a walnut-shell ; and each
one of these tiny structures is not the mere dress but
the home of a living animal. It is a tiny, tiny shell-
palace made of the most delicate lacework, each pat-
tern being more beautiful than the last ; and what is
more, the minute creature that lives in it has built it
out of the foam of the sea, though he himself appears
to be merely a drop of jelly.
Lastly, anyone who has read the ' Wonderful Tra-
vellers ' must recollect the man whose sight was so
keen that he could hit the eye of a fly sitting on a
tree two miles away. But tell me, can you see
gas before it is lighted, even when it is coming
out of the gas-jet close to your eyes ? Yet, if you
learn to use that wonderful instrument the spectro-
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. 5
scope, it will enable you to tell one kind of gas
from another, even when they are both ninety-one
millions of miles away on the face of the sun ; nay
more, it will read for you the nature of the different
gases in the far distant stars, billions of miles away,
and actually tell you whether you could find there any
of the same metals which we have on the earth.
We might find hundreds of such fairy tales In the
domain of science, but these three will serve as ex-
amples, and we must pass on to make the acquaint-
ance of the science-fairies themselves, and see if they
are as real as our old friends.
Tell me, why do you love fairy-land ? what is its
charm ? Is it not that things happen so suddenly,
so mysteriously, and without man having anything to
do with it ? In fairy-land, flowers blow, houses spring
up like Aladdin's palace in a single night, and people
are carried hundreds of miles in an instant by the
touch of a fairy wand.
And then this land is not some distant country
to which we can never hope to travel. It is here
in the midst of us, only our eyes must be opened or
we cannot see it. Ariel and Puck did not live in
some unknown region. On the contrary, Ariel's
song is
" Where the bee sucks, there suck I ;
In a cowslip's bell I lie ;
There I couch when owls do cry.
On the bat's back I do fly,
After summer, merrily."
The peasant falls asleep some evening in a wood,
and his eyes are opened by a fairy wand, so that he
6 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
sees the little goblins and imps dancing round him on
the green sward, sitting on mushrooms, or in the
heads of the flowers, drinking out of acorn-cups,
fighting with blades of grass, and riding on grass-
hoppers.
So, too, the gallant knight, riding to save some poor
oppressed maiden, dashes across the foaming torrent ;
and just in the middle, as he is being swept away,
his eyes are opened, and he sees fairy water-nymphs
soothing his terrified horse and guiding him gently to
the opposite shore. They are close at hand, these
sprites, to the simple peasant or the gallant knight, or
to anyone who has the gift of the fairies and can see
them. But the man who scoffs at them, and does not
believe in them or care for them, he never sees them.
Only now and then they play him an ugly trick,
leading him into some treacherous bog and leaving
him to get out as he may.
Now, exactly all this which is true of the fairies of
our childhood is true too of the fairies of science.
There are forces around us, and among us, which I
shall ask you to allow me to call fairies, and these are
ten thousand times more wonderful, more magical,
and more beautiful in their work, than those of the old
fairy tales. They, too, are invisible, and many people
live and die without ever seeing them or caring to see
them. These people go about with their eyes shut,
either because they will not open them, or because no
one has taught them how to see. They fret and worry
over their own little work and their own petty troubles,
and do not know how to rest and refresh themselves,
by letting the fairies open their eyes and show them
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. 7
the calm sweet pictures of nature. They are like
Peter Bell of whom Wordsworth wrote : —
" A primrose by a river's brim
A yellow primrose was to him,
And it was nothing more."
\
But we will not be like these, we will open our
eyes, and ask, " What are these forces or fairies, and
how can we see them ? "
Just go out into the country, and sit down quietly
and watch nature at work. Listen to the wind as
it blows, look at the clouds rolling overhead, and the
waves rippling on the pond at your feet. Hearken
to the brook as it flows by, watch the flower-buds
opening one by one, and then ask yourself, " How
all this is done ? " Go out in the evening and see
the dew gather drop by drop upon the grass, or
trace the delicate hoar-frost crystals which bespangle
every blade on a winter's morning. Look at the
vivid flashes of lightning in a storm, and listen to the
pealing thunder : and then tell me, by what machinery
is all this wonderful work done ? Man does none of
it, neither could he stop it if he were to try ; for it
is all the work of those invisible forces or fairies
whose acquaintance I wish you to make. Day and
night, summer and winter, storm or calm, these fairies
are at work, and we may hear them and know them,
and make friends of them if we will.
There is only one gift we must have before we can
learn to know them — we must have imagination. I
do not mean mere fancy, which creates unreal images
and impossible monsters, but imagination, the power
of making pictures or images in our mind, of that
which is, though it is invisible to us. Most children
8 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
have this glorious gift, and love to picture to them-
selves all that is told them, and to hear the same tale
over and over again till they see every bit of it as if it
were real. This is why they are sure to love science
if its tales are told them aright ; and I, for one, hope
the day may never come when we may lose that
childish clearness of vision, which enables us through
the temporal things which are seen, to realize those
eternal truths which are unseen.
If you have this gift of imagination come with me,
and in these lectures we will look for the invisible
fairies of nature.
Watch a shower of rain. Where do the drops come
from ? and why are they round, or rather slightly
oval ? In our fourth lecture we shall see that the
little particles of water of which the rain-drops are
made, were held apart and invisible in the air by heat,
one of the most wonderful of our forces * or fairies,
till the cold wind passed by and chilled the air. Then,
when there was no longer so much heat, another
invisible force, cohesion, which is always ready and
waiting, seized on the tiny particles at once, and
locked them together in a drop, the closest form in
which they could lie. Then as the drops became
larger and larger they fell into the grasp of another
invisible force, gravitation, which dragged them down
to the earth, drop by drop, till they made a shower of
* I am quite aware of the danger incurred by using this word " force,"
especially in the plural ; and how even the most modest little book may
suffer at the hands of scientific purists by employing it rashly. As,
however, the better term " energy " would not serve here, I ho'pe I may
be forgiven for retaining the much-abused term, especially as I sin in
very good company.
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. 9
rain. Pause for a moment and think. You have
surely heard of gravitation, by which the sun holds
the earth and the planets, and keeps them moving
round him in regular order ? Well, it is this same
gravitation which ^ at work also whenever a shower
of rain falls to the earth. Who can say that he is not
a great invisible giant, always silently and invisibly
toiling in great things and small whether we wake or
sleep ?
Now the shower is over, the sun comes out, and the
ground is soon as dry as though no rain had fallen.
Tell me, what has become of the rain-drops ? Part no
doubt have sunk into the ground, and as for the rest,
why you will say the sun has dried them up. Yes,
but how ? The sun is more than ninety-one millions
of miles away ; how has he touched the rain-drops ?
Have you ever heard that invisible waves are travelling
every instant over the space between the sun and us ?
We shall see in the next lecture how these waves are
the sun's messengers to the earth, and how they tear
asunder the rain-drops on the ground, scattering them
in tiny particles too small for us to see, and bearing
them away to the clouds. Here are more invisible
fairies \vorking every moment around you, and you
cannot even look out of the window without seeing
the work they are doing.
If, however, the day is cold and frosty, the water
does not fall in a shower of rain ; it comes down in the
shape of noiseless snow. Go out after such a snow-
shower, on a calm day, and look at some of the flakes
which have fallen ; you will see, if you choose good
specimens, that they are not mere masses of frozen
10 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
water, but that each one is a beautiful six-pointed
crystal star. How have these crystals been built up ?
What power has been at work arranging their delicate
forms ? In the fourth lecture we shall see that up in
the clouds another of our invisible fairies, which, for
want of a better name, we call the " force of crystal-
lization," has caught hold of the tiny particles of
water before " cohesion " had made them into round
drops, and there silently but rapidly, has moulded
them into those delicate crystal stars known as " snow-
flakes."
And now, suppose that this snow-shower has fallen
early in February ; turn aside for a moment from
examining the flakes, and clear the newly-fallen snow
from off the flower-bed on the lawn. What is this
little green tip peeping up out of the ground under
the snowy covering ? It is a young snowdrop plant.
Can you tell me why it grows ? where it finds its food ?
what makes it spread out its leaves and add to its
stalk day by day ? What fairies are at work here ?
First there is the hidden fairy " life," and of her
even our wisest men know but little. But they know
something of her way of working, and in Lecture VII.
we shall learn how the invisible fairy sunbeams have
been busy here also ; how last year's snowdrop plant
caught them and stored them up in its bulb, and how
now in the spring, as soon as warmth and moisture
creep down into the earth, these little imprisoned sun-
waves begin to be active, stirring up the matter in
the bulb, and making it swell and burst upwards till
it sends out a little shoot through the surface of the
soil. Then the sun-waves above-ground take up the
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. II
work, and form green granules in the tiny leaves,
helping them to take food out of the air, while the
little rootlets below are drinking water out of the
ground. The invisible life and invisible sunbeams are
busy here, setting Actively to work another fairy, the
force of " chemical attraction," and so the little snow-
drop plant grows and blossoms, without any help from
you or me.
One picture more, and then I hope you will believe
in my fairies. From the cold garden, you run into the
house, and find the fire laid indeed in the grate, but
the wood dead and the coals black, waiting to be
lighted. You strike a match, and soon there is a
blazing fire. Where does the heat come from ? Why
do the coals burn and give out a glowing light ? Have
you not read of gnomes buried down deep in the earth,
in mines, and held fast there till some fairy wand
has released them, and allowed them to come to earth
again ? Well, thousands and millions of years ago,
those coals were plants ; and, like the snowdrop in
the garden of to-day, they caught the sunbeams and
worked them into their leaves. Then the plants died
and were buried deep in the earth and the sunbeams
with them ; and like the gnomes they lay imprisoned
till the coals were dug out by the miners, and brought
to your grate ; and just now you yourself took hold
of the fairy wand which was to release them. You
struck a match, and its atoms clashing with atoms of
oxygen in the air, set the invisible fairies " heat " and
" chemical attraction " to work, and they were soon
busy within the wood and the coals causing their
atoms too to clash ; and the sunbeams, so long im-
12 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
prisoned, leapt into flame. Then you spread out your
hands and cried, " Oh, how nice and warm ! " and
little thought that you were warming yourself with
the sunbeams of ages and ages ago.
This is no fancy tale ; it is literally true, as we
shall see in Lecture VIII., that the warmth of a coal
fire could not exist if the plants of long ago had not
used the sunbeams to make their leaves, holding them
ready to give up their warmth again whenever those
crushed leaves are consumed.
Now, do you believe in, and care for, my fairy-land ?
Can you see in your imagination fairy Cohesion ever
ready to lock atoms together when they draw very
near to each other : or fairy Gravitation dragging
rain-drops down to the earth : or the fairy of Crystalli-
zation building up the snow-flakes in the clouds ? Can
you picture tiny sunbeam-waves of light and heat
travelling from the sun to the earth ? Do you care to
know how another strange fairy, Electricity, flings
the lightning across the sky and causes the rumbling
thunder ? Would you like to learn how the sun
makes pictures of the world on which he shines, so
that we can carry about with us photographs or
sun-pictures of all the beautiful scenery of the earth ?
And have you any curiosity about Chemical action,
which works such wonders in air, and land, and sea ?
If you have any wish to know and make friends of
these invisible forces, the next question is
How are you to enter the fairy-land of science ?
There is but one way. Like the knight or peasant
in the fairy tales, you must open your eyes. There is
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. 13
no lack of objects, everything around you will tell
some history if touched with the fairy wand of ima-
gination. I have often thought, when seeing some
sickly child drawn along the street, lying on its back
while other children romp and play, how much hap-
piness might be given to sick children at home or in
hospitals, if only they were told the stories which lie
hidden in the things around them. They need not
even move from their beds, for sunbeams can fall on
them there, and in a sunbeam there are stories enough
to occupy a month. The fire in the grate, the lamp
by the bedside, the water in the tumbler, the fly on
the ceiling above, the flower in the vase on the table,
anything, everything, has its history, and can reveal
to us nature's invisible fairies.
Only you must wish to see them. If you go
through the world looking upon everything only as
so much to eat, to drink, and to use, you will never
see the fairies of science. But if you ask yourself why
things happen, and how the great God above us has
made and governs this world of ours ; if you listen to
the wind, and care to learn why it blows ; if you ask
the little flower why it opens in the sunshine and
closes in the storm ; and if when you find questions
you cannot answer, you will take the trouble to hunt
out in books, or make experiments, to solve your own
questions, then you will learn to know and love those
fairies.
Mind, I do not advise you to be constantly asking
questions of other people ; for often a question quickly
answered is quickly forgotten, but a difficulty really
hunted down is a triumph for ever. For example,
14 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
if you ask why the rain dries up from the ground,
most likely you will be answered, " that the sun dries
it," and you will rest satisfied with the sound of the
words. But if you hold a wet handkerchief before
the fire and see the damp rising out of it, then you
have some real idea how moisture may be drawn up
by heat from the earth.
A little foreign niece of mine, only four years .old,
who could scarcely speak English plainly, was standing
one morning near the bedroom window and she noticed
the damp trickling down the window-pane. " Auntie,"
she said, " what for it rain inside ? " It was quite
useless to explain to her in words, how our breath had
condensed into drops of water upon the cold glass ;
but I wiped the pane clear, and breathed on it several
times. When new drops were formed, I said, " Cissy
and auntie have done like this all night in the room."
She nodded her little head and amused herself for a
long time breathing on the window-pane and watching
the tiny drops ; and about a month later, when we
were travelling back to Italy, I saw her following the
drops on the carriage window with her little finger,
and heard her say quietly to herself, "Cissy and
auntie made you." Had not even .this little child
some real picture in her mind of invisible water coming
from her mouth, and making drops upon the window-
pane ?
Then again, you must learn something of the
language of science. If you travel in a country with
no knowledge of its language, you can learn very little
about it : and in the same way if you are to go to
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. 15
books to find answers to your questions, you must
know something of the language they speak. You
need not learn hard scientific names, for the best
books have the fewest of these, but you must really
understand what is meant by ordinary words.
For example, how few people can really explain
the difference between a solid, such as the wood of the
table ; a liquid, as water ; and a gas, such as I can let
off from this gas-jet by turning the tap. And yet
any child can make a picture of this in his mind if
only it has been properly put before him.
All matter in the world is made up of minute
parts or particles ; in a solid these particles are locked
together so tightly that you must tear them forcibly
apart if you wish to alter the shape of the solid
piece. If I break or bend this wood I have to force
the particles to move round each other, and I have
great difficulty in doing it. But in a liquid, though
the particles are still held together, they do not cling
so tightly, but are able to roll or glide round each
other, so that when you pour water out of a cup on
to a table, it loses its cuplike shape and spreads itself
out flat. Lastly, in a gas the particles are no longer
held together at all, but they try to fly away from
each other ; and unless you shut a gas in tightly
and safely, it will soon have spread all over the
room.
A solid, therefore, will retain the same bulk and
shape unless you forcibly alter it ; a liquid will retain
the same bulk, but not the same shape if it be left
free ; a gas will not retain either the same bulk or
the same shape, but will spread over as large a space
l6 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
as it can find wherever it can penetrate. Such simple
things as these you must learn from books and by
experiment.
Then you must understand what is meant by
chemical attraction; and though I can explain this
roughly here, you will have to make many interesting
experiments before you will really learn to know this
wonderful fairy power. If I dissolve sugar in water,
though it disappears it still remains sugar, and does
not join itself to the water. I have only to let the
cup stand till the water dries, and the sugar will
remain at the bottom. There has been no chemical
attraction here.
But now I will put something else in water which
will call up the fairy power. Here is a little piece of
the metal potassium, one
of the simple substances
of the earth ; that is to
say, we cannot split it
up into other substances,
wherever we find it, it is
always the same. Now if
Piece of potassium in a basin of I put this piece of potas-
sium on the water it does
not disappear quietly like the sugar. See how it rolls
round and round, fizzing violently, with a blue flame
burning round it, and at last goes off with a pop.
What has been happening here ?
You must first know that water is made of two
substances, hydrogen and oxygen, and these are not
merely held together, but are joined so completely
that they have lost themselves and have become
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. IJ
water ; and each atom of water is made of two atoms
of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
Now the metal potassium is devotedly fond of
oxygen, and the moment I threw it on the water it
called the fairy " chemical attraction " to help it, and
dragged the atoms of oxygen out of the water and
joined them to itself. In doing this it also caught part
of the hydrogen, but only half, and so the rest was
left out in the cold. No, not in the cold ! for the
potassium and oxygen made such a great heat in
clashing together that the rest of the hydrogen
became very hot indeed, and sprang into the air to
find some other companion to make up for what it
had lost. Here it found some free oxygen in the
air, and it seized upon it so violently, that they
made a burning flame, while the potassium with its
newly found oxygen and hydrogen sank down quietly
into the water as potash. And so you see we have
got quite a new substance potash in the basin ; made
with a great deal of fuss by chemical attraction drawing
different atoms together.
When you can really picture this power to yourself
it will help you very much to understand what you
read and observe about nature.
Next, as plants grow around you on every side,
and are of so much importance in the world, you must
also learn something of the names of the different
parts of a flower, so that you may understand those
books which explain how a plant grows and lives and
forms its seeds. You must also know the common
names of the parts of an animal, and of your own
body, so that you may be interested in understand-
C
1 8 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
ing the use of the different organs ; how you breathe,
and how your blood flows; how one animal walks,
another flies, and another swims. Then you must
learn something of the various parts of the world, so
that you may know what is meant by a river, a plain,
a valley, or a delta. All these things are not difficult,
you can learn them pleasantly from simple books on
physics, chemistry, botany, physiology, and physical
geography ; and when you understand a few plain
scientific terms, then all by yourself, if you will open
your eyes and ears, you may wander happily in the
fairy-land of science. Then wherever you go you
will find
" Tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,
Sermons in stones, and good in everything."
And now we come to the last part of our subject.
When you have reached and entered the gates of
science, how are you to use and enjoy this new and
beautiful land ?
This is a very important question, for you may
make a twofold use of it. If you are only ambitious
to shine in the world, you may use it chiefly to get
prizes, to be at the top of your class, or to pass in
examinations ; but if you also enjoy discovering its
secrets, and desire to learn more and more of nature,
and to revel in dreams of its beauty, then you will study
science for its own sake as well. Now it is a good
thing to win prizes and be at the top of your class,
for it shows that you are industrious ; it is a good
thing to pass well in examinations, for it shows that
you are accurate ; but if you study science for this
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. 19
reason only, do not complain if you find it dull, and
dry, and hard to master. You may learn a great deal
that is useful, and nature will answer you truthfully
if you ask your questions accurately, but she will give
you dry facts, jusfr such as you ask for. If you do
not love her for herself she will never take you to her
heart.
This is the reason why so many complain that
science is dry and uninteresting. They forget that
though it is necessary to learn accurately, for so only
we can arrive at truth, it is equally necessary to love
knowledge and make it lovely to those who learn, and
to do this we must get at the spirit which lies under
the facts. What child which loves its mother's face
is content to know only that she has brown eyes, a
straight nose, a small mouth, and hair arranged in
such and such a manner ? No, it knows that its
mother has the sweetest smile of any woman living ;
that her eyes are loving, her k,iss is sweet, and that
when she looks grave, then something is wrong which
must be put right. And it is in this way that those
who wish to enjoy the fairy-land of science must love
nature.
It is well to know that when a piece of potassium
is thrown on water the change which takes place is
expressed by the formula K + H2O = KHO + H.
But it is better still to have a mental picture of the
tiny atoms clasping each other, and mingling so as to
make a new substance, and to feel how wonderful are
the many changing forms of nature. It is useful to
be able to classify a flower and to know that the
buttercup belongs to the Family Ranunculaceae, with
C 2
20
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
petals free and definite, stamens hypogynous and
indefinite, pistil apocarpous. But it is far sweeter to
learn about the life of the little plant, to understand
why its peculiar flower is useful to it, and how it
feeds itself, and makes its seed. No one can love dry
Fig> 2 facts ; we must clothe
them with real mean-
ing and love the truths
they tell, if we wish to
enjoy science.
Let us take an ex-
ample to show this.
I have here a branch
of white coral, a beau-
tiful, delicate piece of
nature's work. We
will begin by copy-
ing a description of
it from one of those
class-books which sup-
pose children to learn
words like parrots,
and to repeat them
with just as little un-
derstanding.
" Coral is formed by
an animal belonging
to the kingdom of
Radiates, sub-kingdom Polypes. The soft body of
the animal is attached to a support, the mouth
opening upwards in a row of tentacles. The coral
is secreted in the body of the polyp out of the
Piece of white coral.
THE FAIRY -LAND OF SCIENCE. 21
carbonate of lime in the sea. Thus the coral animal-
cule rears its polypidom or rocky structure in warm
latitudes, and constructs reefs or barriers round islands.
It is limited in range of depth from 25 to 30 fathoms.
Chemically conshdered, coral is carbonate of lime;
physiologically, it is the skeleton of an animal ; geo-
graphically, it is characteristic of warm latitudes,
especially of the Pacific Ocean." This description
is correct, and even very fairly complete, if you
know enough of the subject to understand it. But
tell me, does it lead you to love my piece of coral ?
Have you any picture in your mind of the coral
animal, its home, or its manner of working ?
But now, instead of trying to master this dry, hard
passage, take Mr. Huxley's penny lecture on ' Coral
and Coral Reefs,'* and with the piece of coral in
your hand, try really to learn its history. You will
then be able to picture to yourself the coral animal
as a kind of sea-anemone, something like those which
you have often seen, like red, blue, or green flowers,
putting out their feelers in sea-water on our coasts,
and drawing in the tiny sea-animals to digest them
in that bag of fluid which serves the sea-anemone as
a stomach. You will learn how this curious jelly
animal can split itself in two, and so form two polyps,
or send a bud out of its side and so grow up into a
kind of " tree or bush of polyps," or how it can hatch
little eggs inside it and throw out young ones from
its mouth, provided with little hairs, by means of
which they swim to new resting-places. You will
* ' Manchester Science Lectures,' No. I, Second Series. John Hey-
wood, 141, Deansgate, Manchester.
22 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
learn the difference between the animal which builds
up the red coral as its skeleton, and the group of
animals which build up the white ; and you will look
with new interest on our piece of white coral, as you
read that each of those little cups on its stem with
delicate divisions like the spokes of a wheel has been
the home of a separate polyp, and that from the sea-
water each little jelly animal has drunk in carbonate
of lime as you drink in sugar dissolved in water, and
then has used it grain by grain to build that delicate
cup and add to the coral tree.
We cannot stop to examine all about coral now, we
are only learning how to learn, but surely our speci-
men is already beginning to grow interesting ; and
when you have followed it out into the great Pacific
Ocean, where the wild waves dash restlessly against
the coral trees, and have seen these tiny drops of jelly
conquering the sea and building huge walls of stone
against the rough breakers, you will hardly rest till
you know all their history. Look at that curious cir-
cular island in the picture (Fig. 3), covered with palm
trees ; it has a large smooth lake in the middle, and
the bottom of this lake is covered with blue, red, and
green jelly animals, spreading out their feelers in the
water and looking like beautiful flowers, and all round
the outside of the island similar animals are to be
seen washed by the sea waves. Such islands as this
have been built entirely by the coral animals, and the
history of the way in which the reefs have sunk gra-
dually down, as the tiny creatures added to them inch
by inch, is as fascinating as the story of the building
of any fairy palace in the days of old. Read all this,
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. 23
and then if you have no coral of your own to examine,
go to the British Museum * and see the beautiful spe-
cimens in the glass cases there, and think that they
V Fis- 3-
Coral island in the Pacific.
have been built up under the rolling surf by the tiny
jelly animals; and then coral will become a real living
thing to you, and you will love the thoughts it awakens.
But people often ask, what is the use of learning
all this ? If you do not feel by this time how delight-
ful it is to fill your mind with beautiful pictures of
nature, perhaps it would be useless to say more. But
in this age of ours, when restlessness and love of ex-
citement pervade so many lives, is it nothing to be
taken out of ourselves and made to look at the
* These specimens are eventually going to South Kensington,
24 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
wonders of nature going on around us ? Do you
never feel tired and " out of sorts," and want to creep
away from your companions, because they are merry
and you are not ? Then is the time to read about
the stars, and how quietly they keep their course
from age to age ; or to visit some little flower, and
ask what story it has to tell ; or to watch the clouds,
and try to imagine how the winds drive them across
the sky. No person is so independent as he who can
find interest in a bare rock, a drop of water, the foam
of the sea, the spider on the wall, the flower under-
foot or the stars overhead. And these interests are
open to everyone who enters the fairy-land of science.
Moreover, we learn from this study to see that there
is a law and purpose in everything in the Universe,
and it makes us patient when we recognize the quiet
noiseless working of nature all around us. Study
light, and learn how all colour, beauty, and life depend
on the sun's rays ; note the winds and currents of the
air, regular even in their apparent irregularity, as they
carry heat and moisture all over the world. Watch
the water flowing in deep quiet streams, or forming
the vast ocean ; and then reflect that every drop is
guided by invisible forces working according to fixed
laws. See plants springing up under the sunlight,
learn the secrets of plant life, and how their scents
and colours attract the insects. Read how insects
cannot live without plants, nor plants without the
flitting butterfly or the busy bee. Realize that all
this is worked by fixed laws, and that out of it (even
if sometimes in suffering and pain) springs the wonder-
ful universe around us. And then say, can you fear
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE. 2$
for your own little life, even though it may have its
troubles ? Can you help feeling a part of this guided
and governed nature ? or doubt that the power which
fixed the laws of the stars and of the tiniest drop of
water — that made the plant draw power from the sun,
the tiny coral animal its food from the dashing waves ;
that adapted the flower to the insect and the insect
to the flower — is also moulding your life as part of
the great machinery of the universe, so that you have
only to work, and to wait, and to love ?
We are all groping dimly for the Unseen Power, but
no one who loves nature and studies it can ever feel
alone or unloved in the world. Facts, as mere facts,
are dry and barren, but nature is full of life and love,
and her calm unswerving rule is tending to some great
though hidden purpose. You may call this Unseen
Power what you will — may lean on it in loving,
trusting faith, or bend in reverent and silent awe ; but
even the little child who lives with nature and gazes
on her with open eye, must rise in some sense or other
through nature to nature's God.
26
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
LECTURE II.
SUNBEAMS AND THE WORK THEY DO.
HO does not love the
sunbeams, and feel brighter
and merrier as he watches them
playing on the wall, sparkling like diamonds on
the ripples of the sea, or making bows of coloured
light on the waterfall ? Is not the sunbeam so dear to
us that it has become a household word for all that is
merry and gay ? and when we want to describe the
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK. 2/
dearest, busiest little sprite amongst us, who wakes a
smile on all faces wherever she goes, do we not call
her the " sunbeam of the house " ?
And yet how little even the wisest among us know
about the nature and work of these bright messengers
of the sun as they dart across space !
Did you ever wake quite early in the morning,
when it was pitch-dark and you could see nothing,
not even your own hand ; and then lie watching as time
went on till the light came gradually creeping in at
the window ? If you have done this you will have
noticed that you can at first only just distinguish the
dim outline of the furniture ; then you can tell the dif-
ference between the white cloth on the table and the
dark wardrobe beside it ; then by degrees all the
smaller details, the handles of the drawer, the pattern
on the wall, and the different colours of all the objects
in the room become clearer and clearer till at last
you see all distinctly in broad daylight.
What has been happening here ? and why have the
things in the room become visible by such slow
degrees ? We say that the sun is rising, but we know
very well that it is not the sun which moves, but that
our earth has been turning slowly round, and bringing
the little spot on which we live face to face with the
great fiery ball, so that his beams can fall upon us.
Take a small globe, and stick a piece of black
plaster over England, then let a lighted lamp repre-
sent the sun, and turn the globe slowly, so that the
spot creeps round from the dark side away from the
lamp, until it catches, first the rays which pass along
the side of the globe, then the more direct rays, and
28 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
at last stands fully in the blaze of the light. Just this
was happening to our spot of the world as you lay in
bed and saw the light appear ; and we have to learn
to-day what those beams are which fall upon us
and what they do for us.
First we must learn something about the sun itself,
since it is the starting-place of all the sunbeams. If
the sun were a dark mass instead of a fiery one-we
should have none of these bright cheering messengers,
and though we were turned face to face with him every
day we should remain in one cold eternal night. Now
you will remember we mentioned in the last lecture
that it is heat which shakes apart the little atoms of
water and makes them float up in the air to fall again
as rain ; and that if the day is cold they fall as snow,
and all the water is turned into ice. But if the sun
were altogether dark, think how bitterly cold it would
be ; far colder than the most wintry weather ever
known, because in the bitterest night some warmth
comes out of the earth, where it has been stored from
the sunlight which fell during the day. But if we
never received any warmth at all, no water would
ever rise up into the sky, no rain ever fall, no rivers
flow, and consequently no plants could grow and no
animals live. All water would be in the form of snow
and ice, and the earth would be one great frozen mass
with nothing moving upon it.
So you see it becomes very interesting for us to learn
what the sun is, and how he sends us his beams.
How far away from us do you think he is ? On a
fine summer's day when we can see him clearly, it
looks as if we had only to get into a balloon and
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK. 29
reach him as he sits in the sky, and yet we know
roughly that he is more than ninety-one millions of
miles distant from our earth.
These figures are so enormous that you cannot
really grasp them. But imagine yourself in an exprese
train, travelling at the tremendous rate of sixty miles
an hour and never stopping. At that rate, if you
wished to arrive at the sun to-day you would have
been obliged to start 171 years ago. That is, you
must have set off in the early part of the reign of
Queen Anne, and you must have gone on, never, never
resting, through the reigns of George I., George II.,
and the long reign of George III., then through those
of George IV., William IV., and Victoria, whirling on
day and night at express speed, and at last, to-day,
you would have reached the sun !
And when you arrived there, how large do you
think you would find him to be ? Anaxagoras, a
learned Greek, was laughed at by all his fellow Greeks
because he said that the sun was as large as the
Peloponnesus, that is about the size of Middlesex.
How astonished they would have been if they could
have known that not only is he bigger than the whole
of Greece, but more than a million times bigger than
the whole world !
Our world itself is a very large place, so large that
our own country looks only like a tiny speck upon it, and
an express train would take nearly a month to travel
round it. Yet even our whole globe is nothing in size
compared to the sun, for it only measures 8000 miles
across, while the sun measures more than 852,000.
Imagine for a moment that you could cut the sun and
30 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
the earth each in half as you would cut an apple ; then
if you were to lay the flat side of the half-earth on the
flat side of the half-sun it would take 106 such earths
to stretch across the face of the sun. One of these 106
Fig:. 4-
106 earths laid across the face of the sun. Each one of these cots
represents roughly the size of the earth as compared to the size of the
sun represented by the large circle.
round spots on the diagram represents the size which
our earth would look if placed on the sun ; and they
are so tiny compared to him that they look only like
a string of minute beads stretched across his face.
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK. 31
Only think, then, how many of these minute dots
would be required to fill the whole of the inside of
Fig, 4, if it were a globe !
One of the best ways to form an idea of the whole
size of the sun is to imagine it to be hollow, like an
air-ball, and then see how many earths it would take
to fill it. You would hardly believe that it would take
one million, three hundred and thirty-one thousand
globes the size of our world squeezed together.
Just think, if a huge giant could travel all over the
universe and gather worlds, all as big as ours, and
were to make first a heap of merely ten such worlds,
how huge it would be ! Then he must have a hundred
such heaps of ten to make a thousand worlds ; and
then he must collect again a thousand times that
thousand to make a million, and when he had stuffed
them all into the sun-ball he would still have only
filled three-quarters of it !
After hearing this you will not be astonished that
such a monster should give out an enormous quantity
of light and heat ; so enormous that it is almost im-
possible to form any idea of it. Sir John Herschel
has, indeed, tried to picture it for us. He found that
a ball of lime with a flame of oxygen and hydrogen
playing round it (such as we use in magic lanterns
and call oxy-hydrogen light) becomes so violently
hot that it gives the most brilliant artificial light we
can get — such that you cannot put your eye near
it without injury. Yet if you wanted to have a light
as strong as that of our sun, it would not be enough
to make such a lime-ball as big as the sun is. No,
you must make it as big as 146 suns, or more than
32 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
146,000,000 times as big as our earth, in order to get
the right amount of light Then you would have a
tolerably good artificial sun ; for we know that the
body of the sun gives out an intense white light, just
as the lime-ball does, and that, like it, it has an atmo-
sphere of glowing gases round it.
But perhaps we get the best idea of the mighty
heat and light of the sun by remembering how few of
the rays which dart out on all sides from this fiery
ball can reach our tiny globe, and yet how powerful
they are. Look at the globe of a lamp in the middle of
the room, and see how its light pours out on all sides
and into every corner ; then take a grain of mustard-
seed, which will very well represent the comparative
size of our earth, and hold it up at a distance from the
lamp. How very few of all those rays which are
filling the room fall on the little mustard-seed, and
just. so few does our earth catch of the rays which
dart out from the sun. And yet this small quantity
(Winr-millionth part of the whole) does nearly all the
work of our world.*
In order to see how powerful the sun's rays are,
you have only to take a magnifying glass and gather
them to a point on a piece of brown paper, for they
will set the paper alight. Sir John Herschel tells us
that at the Cape of Good Hope the heat was even
so great that he cooked a beefsteak and roasted some
eggs by merely putting them in the sun, in a box
with a glass lid ! Indeed, just as we should all be
* These and the preceding numerical statements will be found worked
out in Sir J. Herschel's ' Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects,' 1868.
from which many of the facts in the first part of the lecture are taken.
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK. 33
frozen to death if the sun were cold, so we should
all be burnt up with intolerable heat if his fierce rays
fell with all their might upon us. But we have an
invisible veil protecting us, made — of what do you
think ? Of those *tiny particles of water which the
sunbeams draw up and scatter in the air, and which,
as we shall see in Lecture IV., cut off part of the in-
tense heat and make the air cool and pleasant for us.
We have now learnt something of the distance, the
size, the light, and the heat of the sun — the great
source of the sunbeams. But we are as yet no nearer
the answer to the question, What is a sunbeam ? how
does the sun touch our earth ?
Now suppose I wish to touch you from this plat-
form where I stand, I can do it in two ways. Firstly,
I can throw something at you and hit you — in this
case a thing will have passed across the space from
me to you. Or, secondly, if I could make a violent
movement so as to shake the floor of the room, you
would feel a quivering motion ; and so I should touch
you across the whole distance of the room. But in
this case no tiling would have passed from me to you
but a movement or wave, which passed along the
boards of the floor. Again, if I speak to you, how
does the sound reach your ear? Not by anything
being thrown from my mouth to your ear, but by
the motion of the air. When I speak I agitate the
air near my mouth, and that makes a wave in the
air beyond, and that one, another, and another (as
we shall see more fully in Lecture VI.), till the last
wave hits the drum of your ear.
D
34 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Thus we see there are two ways of touching any-
thing at a distance ; 1st, by throwing some thing at it
and hitting it ; 2nd, by sending a movement or wave
across to it, as in the case of the quivering boards and
the air.
Now the great natural philosopher Newton thought
that the sun touched us in the first of these ways, and
that sunbeams were made of very minute atoms of
matter thrown out by the sun, and making a perpetual
cannonade on our eyes. It is easy to understand
that this would make us see light and feel heat, just as
a blow in the eye makes us see stars, or on the body
makes it feel hot : and for a long time this explana-
tion was supposed to be the true one. But we know
now that there are many facts which cannot be
explained on this theory, though we cannot go into
them here. What we will do, is to try and under-
stand what now seems to be the true explanation of
a sunbeam.
About the same time that Newton wrote, a Dutch-
man, named Huyghens, suggested that light comes
from the sun in tiny waves, travelling across space
much in the same way as ripples travel across a pond.
The only difficulty was to explain in what substance
these waves could be travelling : not through water,
for we know that there is no water in space — nor
through air, for the air stops at a comparatively short
distance from our earth. There must then be some-
thing filling all space between us and the sun, finer
than either water or air.
And now I must ask you to use all your imagina-
tion, for I want you to picture to yourselves something
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK. 35
quite as invisible as the Emperor's new clothes in
Andersen's fairy-tale, only with this difference, that
our invisible something is very active ; and though we
can neither see it nor touch it we know it by its
effects. You musl imagine a fine substance filling all
space between us and the sun and the stars. A
substance so very delicate and subtle, that not only is
it invisible, but it can pass through solid bodies such
as glass, ice, or even wood or brick walls. This
substance we call "ether." I cannot give you here
the reasons why we must assume that it is throughout
all space ; you must take this on the word of such
men as Sir John Herschel or Professor Clerk-Maxwell,
until you can study the question for yourselves.
Now if you can imagine this ether filling every
corner of space, so that it is everywhere and passes
through everything, ask yourselves, what must happen
when a great commotion is going on in one of the
large bodies which float in it ? When the atoms of
the gases round the sun are clashing violently together
to make all its light and heat, do you not think they
must shake this ether all around them ? And then,
since the ether stretches on all sides from the sun to
our earth and all other planets, must not this quiver-
ing travel to us, just as the quivering of the boards
would from me to you ? Take a basin of water to
represent the ether, and take a piece of potassium like
that which we used in our last lecture, and hold it
with a pair of nippers in the middle of the water.
You will see that as the potassium hisses and the
flame burns round it, they will make waves which
will travel all over the water to the edge of the basin,
D 2
36 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
and you can imagine how in the same way waves
travel over the ether from the sun to us.
Straight away from the sun on all sides, never
stopping, never resting, but chasing after each other
with marvellous quickness, these tiny waves travel
out into space by night and by day. When our spot
of the earth where England lies is turned away from
them and they cannot touch us, then it is night for us,
but directly England is turned so as to face the sun,
then they strike on the land, and the water, and warm
it ; or upon our eyes, making the nerves quiver so that
we see light Look up at the sun and picture to
yourself that instead of one great blow from a fist
causing you to see stars for a moment, millions of
tiny blows from these sun-waves are striking every
instant on your eye ; then you will easily understand
that this would cause you to see a constant blaze of
light.
But when the sun is away, if the night is clear we
have light from the stars. Do these then too make
waves all across the enormous distance between them
and us ? Certainly they do, for they too are suns like
our own, only they are so far off that the waves they
send are more feeble, and so we only notice them
when the sun's stronger waves are away.
But perhaps you will ask, if no one has ever seen
these waves nor the ether in which they are made, what
right have we to say they are there ? Strange as it may
seem, though we cannot see them we have measured
them and know how large they are, and how many
can go into an inch of space. For as these tiny waves
are running on straight forward through the room, if
we put something in their way, they will have to run
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK.
37
round it ; and if you let in a very narrow ray of light
through a shutter and put an upright wire in the
sunbeam, you actually make the waves run round the
wire just as water runs round a post in a river ; and
they meet behind*the wire, just as the water meets in a
V shape behind the post. Now when they meet, they
run up against each other, and here it is we catch
them. For if they meet comfortably, both rising up
in a good wave, they run on together and make a
bright line of light ; but if they meet higgledy-
piggledy, one up and the other down, all in confusion,
they stop each other, and then there is no light, but
a line of darkness. And so behind your piece of
Fie- 5-
A, Hole in the shutter.
B, Wire placed in the beam of light.
S S, Screen on which the dark and light bands are caught.
wire you can catch the waves on a piece of paper,
and you will find they make dark and light lines one
side by side with the other, and by means of these
bands it is possible to find out how large the waves
must be. This question is too difficult for us to work
38 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
it out here, but you can see that large waves will make
broader light and dark bands than small ones will,
and that in this way the size of the waves may be
measured.
And now how large do you think they turn out to
be ? So very, very tiny that about fifty thousand
waves are contained in a single inch of space ! I
have drawn on the board the length of an inch,* and
now I will measure the same space in the air between
my finger and thumb. Within this space at this
moment there are fifty thousand tiny waves moving
up and down ! I promised you we would find in
science things as wonderful as in fairy tales. Are not
these tiny invisible messengers coming incessantly
from the sun as wonderful as any fairies ? and still
more so when, as we shall see presently, they are doing
nearly all the work of our world.
We must next try to realize how fast these waves
travel. You will remember that an express train
would take 171 years to reach us from the sun; and
even a cannon-ball would take from ten to thirteen
years to come that distance. Well, these tiny waves
take only seven minutes and a half to come the whole
9 1 millions of miles. The waves which are hitting your
eye at this moment are caused by a movement which
began at the sun only 7^ minutes ago. And remember,
this movement is going on incessantly, and these
waves are always following one after the other so
rapidly that they keep up a perpetual cannonade
upon the pupil of your eye. So fast do they come
that about 608 billion waves enter your eye in one
* The width of an inch may be seen in Fig. 12, p. 60.
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK. 39
single second.* I do not ask you to remember
these figures ; I only ask you to try and picture to
yourselves these infinitely tiny and active invisible
messengers from the sun, and to acknowledge that
light is a fairy thing.
But we do not yet know all about our sunbeam. See,
I have here a piece of glass with three sides, called a
'prism. If I put it in the „. ,
sunlight which is streaming
through the window, what
happens ? Look ! on the
table there is a line of beautiful colours. I can make
it long or short, as I turn the prism, but the colours
always remain arranged in the same way. Here at
my left hand is the red, beyond it orange, then yellow,
green, blue, indigo or deep blue, and violet, shading
one into the other all along the line. We have all
seen these colours w^ FlS-7-
dancing on the
wall when the sun
has been shining
brightly on the •fg- c
cut - glass pen-
dants of the chan-
delier and VOU Coloured spectrum thrown by a prism on the
* wall.
may see them Still D E, Window-shutter. F, Round hole in it.
more distinctly if ABC, Glass prism. M N, Wall.
you let a ray of light into a darkened room, and
pass it through the prism as in the diagram (Fig. 7).
* Light travels at the rate of 192,000 miles, or 12, 165, 120,000 inches
in a second. Taking the average number of wave-lengths in an inch at
50,000, then 12,165,120,000 X 50,000 = 608,256,000,000,000.
40 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
What are these colours ? Do they come from the
glass ? No ; for you will remember to have seen
them in the rainbow, and in the soap-bubble, and
even in a drop of dew or the scum on the top of a
pond. This beautiful coloured line is only our sunbeam
again, which has been split up into many colours by
passing through the glass, as it is in the rain-drops of
the rainbow and the bubbles of the scum of -the
pond.
Till now we have talked of the sunbeam as if it were
made of only one set of waves, but in truth it is made
of many sets of waves of different sizes, all travelling
along together from the sun. These various waves
have been measured, and we know that the waves
which make up red light are larger and more lazy
than those which make violet light, so that there are
only thirty-nine thousand red waves in an inch, while
there are fifty-seven thousand violet waves in the same
space.
How is it then, that if all these different waves,
making different colours, hit on our eye, they do not
always make us see coloured light ? Because, unless
they are interfered with, they all travel along together,
and you know that all colours, mixed together in
proper proportion, make white.
I have here a round piece of cardboard, painted with
the seven colours in succession several times over.
When it is still you can distinguish them all apart, but
when I whirl it quickly round — see ! — the cardboard
looks quite white, because we see them all so instan-
taneously that they are mingled together. In the same
way light looks white to you, because all the different
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK.
A, Cardboard painted with the seven
colours in succession.
B, Same cardboard spun quickly round.
coloured waves strike on your eye at once. You
can easily make one of these cards for yourselves,
only the white will always look dirty, because you
cannot get the colours
pure. **•
Now, when the light
passes through the
three-sided glass or
prism, the waves are
spread out, and the
slow, heavy, red waves
lag behind and re-
main at the lower end
R of the coloured line
on the wall (Fig. 7),
while the rapid little
violet waves are bent more out of their road and run
to V at the farther end of the line ; and the orange,
yellow, green, blue, and indigo arrange themselves
between, according to the size of their waves.
And now you are very likely eager to ask why the
quick waves should make us see one colour, and the
slow waves another. This is a very difficult question,
for we have a great deal still to learn about the effect
of light on the eye. But you can easily imagine that
colour is to our eye much the same as music is to our
ear. You know we can distinguish different notes
when the air-waves play slowly or quickly upon the
drum of the ear (as we shall see in Lecture VI.), and
somewhat in the same way the tiny waves of the ether
play on the retina or curtain at the back of our eye,
and make the nerves carry different messages to the
42 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
brain : and the colour we see depends upon the number
of waves which play upon the retina in a second.
Do you think we have now rightly answered the
question — What is a sunbeam ? We have seen that it
is really a succession of tiny rapid waves, travelling
from the sun to us across the invisible substance we
call "ether," and keeping up a constant cannonade
upon everything which comes in their way. We have
also seen that, tiny as these waves are, they can still
vary in size, so that one single sunbeam is made up
of myriads of different-sized waves, which travel all
together and make us see white light; unless for some
reason they are scattered apart, so that we see them
separately as red, green, blue, or yellow. How they
are scattered, and many other secrets of the sun-waves,
we cannot stop to consider now, but must pass on to
ask —
What work do the sunbeams do for us ?
They do two things — they give us light and heat. It
is by means of them alone that we see anything. When
the room was dark you could not distinguish the table,
the chairs, or even the walls of the room. Why ?
Because they had no light-waves to send to your eye.
But as the sunbeams began to pour in at the window,
the waves played upon the things in the room, and
when they hit them they bounded off them back to
your eye, as a wave of the sea bounds back from a
rock and strikes against a passing boat. Then, when
they fell upon your eye, they entered it and excited
the retina and the nerves, and the image of the chair
or the table was carried to your brain. Look around
at all the things in this room. Is it not strange to think
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK. 43
that each one of them is sending these invisible mes-
sengers straight to your eye as you look at it ; and
that you see me, and distinguish me from the table,
entirely by the kind of waves we each send to you ?
Some substance^ send back hardly any waves of
light, but let them all pass through them, and thus we
cannot see them. A pane of clear glass, for instance,
lets nearly all the light-waves pass through it, and
therefore you often cannot see that the glass is there,
because no light-messengers come back to you from
it. Thus people have sometimes walked up against a
glass door and broken it, not seeing it was there.
Those substances are transparent which, for some
reason unknown to us, allow the ether waves to pass
through them without shaking the atoms of which the
substance is made. In clear glass, for example, all
the light-waves pass through without affecting the
substance of the glass ; while in a white wall the
larger part of the rays are reflected back to your eye,
and those which pass into the wall, by giving motion
to its atoms lose their own vibrations.
Into polished shining metal the waves hardly enter
at all, but are thrown back from the surface ; and so a
steel knife or a silver spoon are very bright, and are
clearly seen. Quicksilver is put at the back of looking-
glasses because it reflects so many waves. It not only
sends back those which come from the sun, but those,
too, which come from your face. So, when you see your-
self in a looking-glass, the sun-waves have first played
on your face and bounded off from it to the looking-
glass ; then, when they strike the looking-glass, they
are thrown back again on to the retina of your eye, and
44 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
you see your own face by means of the very waves you
threw off from it an instant before.
But the reflected light-waves do more for us than
this. They not only make us see things, but they
make us see them in different colours. What, you
will ask, is this too the work of the sunbeams ? Cer-
tainly ; for if the colour we see depends on the size of
the waves which come back to us, then we must see
things coloured differently according to the waves they
send back. For instance, imagine a sunbeam playing
on a leaf: part of its waves bound straight back from
it to our eye and make us see the surface of the leaf,
but the rest go right into the leaf itself, and there
some of them are used up and kept prisoners. The
red, orange, yellow, blue, and violet waves are all
useful to the leaf, and it does not let them go again.
But it cannot absorb the green waves, and so it throws
them back, and they travel to your eye and make you
see a green colour. So when you say a leaf is green,
you mean that the leaf does not want the green waves
of the sunbeam, but sends them back to you. In the
same way the scarlet geranium rejects the red waves ;
this table sends back brown waves ; a white tablecloth
sends back nearly the whole of the waves, and a black
coat scarcely any. This is why, when there is very
little light in the room, you can see a white tablecloth
while you would not be able to distinguish a black
object, because the few faint rays that are there, are
all sent back to you from a white surface.
Is it not curious to think that there is really no
such thing as colour in the leaf, the table, the coat,
or the geranium flower, but we see them of different
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK. 45
colours because, for some reason, they send back only
certain coloured waves to our eye ?
Wherever you look, then, and whatever you see, all
the beautiful tints^ colours, lights, and shades around
you are the work o1f the tiny sun-waves.
Again, light does a great deal of work when it falls
upon plants. Those rays of light which are caught
by the leaf are by no means idle ; we shall see in
Lecture VII. that the leaf uses them to digest its food
and make the sap on which the plant feeds.
We all know that a plant becomes pale and sickly
if it has not sunlight, and the reason is, that without
these light-waves it cannot get food out of the air, nor
make the sap and juices which it needs. When you
look at plants and trees growing in the beautiful
meadows ; at the fields of corn, and at the lovely
landscape, you are looking on the work of the tiny
waves of light, which never rest all through the day in
helping to give life to every green thing that grows.
So far we have spoken only of light ; but hold your
hand in the sun and feel the heat of the sunbeams, and
then consider if the waves of heat do not do work
also. There are many waves in a sunbeam which
move too slowly to make us see light when they hit
our eye, but we can feel them as heat, though we
cannot see them as light. The simplest way of feeling
heat-waves is to hold a warm iron near your face. You
know that no light comes from it, yet you can feel the
heat-waves beating violently against your face and
scorching it. Now there are many of these dark heat-
rays in a sunbeam, and it is they which do most of
the work in the world.
46 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
In the first place, as they come quivering to the
earth, it is they which shake the water-drops apart, so
that these are carried up in the air, as we shall see in
the next lecture. And then remember, it is these
drops, falling again as rain, which make the rivers and
all the moving water on the earth. So also it is the
heat-waves which make the air hot and light, and
so cause it to rise and make winds and air-currents,
and these again give rise to ocean-currents. It is
these dark rays, again, which strike upon the land and
give it the warmth which enables plants to grow. It
is they also which keep up the warmth in our own
bodies, both by coming to us directly from the sun,
and also in a very roundabout way through plants.
You will remember that plants use up rays of light
and heat in growing ; then either we eat the plants, or
animals eat the plants and we eat the animals; and
when we digest the food, that heat comes back in our
bodies, which the plants first took from the sunbeam.
Breathe upon your hand, and feel how hot your breath
is ; well, that heat which you feel, was once in a sun-
beam, and has travelled from it through the food you
have eaten, and has now been at work keeping up the
heat of your body.
But there is still another way in which these plants
may give out the heat-waves they have imprisoned.
You will remember how we learnt in the first lecture
that coal is made of plants, and that the heat they
give out is the heat these plants once took in. Think
how much work is done by burning coals. Not only
are our houses warmed by coal fires and lighted by
coal gas, but our steam-engines and machinery work
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK. 4?
entirely by water which has been turned into steam by
the heat of coal and coke fires ; and our steamboats
travel all over the world by means of the same power.
In the same way the oil of our lamps comes either
from olives, which^grow on trees ; or from coal and
the remains of plants and animals in the earth. Even
our tallow candles are made of mutton fat, and sheep
eat grass ; and so, turn which way we will, we find that
the light and heat on our earth, whether they come
from fires, or candles, or lamps, or gas, and whether
they move machinery, or drive a train, or propel a
ship, are equally the work of the invisible waves of
ether coming from the sun, which make what we call
a sunbeam.
Lastly, there are still some hidden waves which we
have not yet mentioned, which are not useful to us
either as light or heat, and yet they are not idle.
Before I began this lecture, I put a piece of paper,
which had been dipped in nitrate of silver, under a
piece of glass ; and between it and the glass I put a
piece of lace. Look what the sun has been doing
while I have been speaking. It has been breaking up
the nitrate of silver on the paper and turning it into
a deep brown substance ; only where the threads of
the lace were, and the sun could not touch the nitrate
of silver, there the paper has remained light-coloured,
and by this means I have a beautiful impression of the
lace on the paper. I will now dip the impression into
water in which some hyposulphite of soda is dissolved,
and this will " fix " the picture, that is, prevent the
sun acting upon it any more ; then the picture will
remain distinct, and I can pass it round to you all.
48
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Here, again, invisible waves have been at work, and
this time neither as light nor as heat, but as chemical
agents, and it is these waves which give us all our
beautiful photographs In any toyshop you can buy
this prepared paper, and set the chemical waves at
work to make pictures. Only you must remember
Fig. 9.
Piece of lace photographed during the lecture.
to fix it in the solution afterwards, otherwise the
chemical rays will goon working after you have taken
the lace away, and all the paper will become brown
and your picture will disappear.
And now, tell me, may we not honestly say, that
the invisible waves which make our sunbeams, are
wonderful fairy messengers as they travel eternally
and unceasingly across space, never resting, never
tiring in doing the work of our world ? Little as we
have been able to learn about them in one short hour,
do they not seem to you worth studying and worth
thinking about, as we look at the beautiful results of
SUNBEAMS AND THEIR WORK.
49
their work ? The ancient Greeks worshipped the sun,
and condemned to death one of their greatest philo-
sophers, named Anaxagoras, because he denied that
it was a god. We can scarcely wonder at this when
we see what the sifci does for our world ; but we know
that it is a huge globe made of gases and fiery matter,
and not a god. We are grateful for the sun instead
of to him, and surely we shall look at him with new
interest, now that we can picture his tiny messengers,
the sunbeams, flitting over all space, falling upon our
earth, giving us light to see with, and beautiful colours
to enjoy, warming the air and the earth, making the
refreshing rain, and, in a word, filling the world with
life and gladness.
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
LECTURE III.
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE.
you
sit on the bank of a river in some quiet spot where
the water was deep and clear, and watch the fishes
swimming lazily along? When I was a child this
was one of my favourite occupations in the summer-
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE. 51
time on the banks of the Thames, and there was one
question which often puzzled me greatly, as I watched
the minnows and gudgeon gliding along through the
water. Why should fishes live in something and be
often buffeted abotit by waves and currents, while I
and others lived on the top of the earth and not in
anything ? I do not remember ever asking anyone
about this ; and if I had, in those days people did not
pay much attention to children's questions, and pro-
bably nobody would have told me, what I now tell
you, that we do live in something quite as real and
often quite as rough and stormy as the water in which
the fishes swim. The something in which we live
is air, and the reason that we do not perceive it, is
that we are in it, and that it is a gas, and invisible to
us ; while we are above the water in which the fishes
live, and it is a liquid which our eyes can perceive.
But let us suppose for a moment that a being, whose
eyes were so made that he could see gases as we see
liquids, was looking down from a distance upon our
earth. He would see an ocean of air, or aerial ocean,
all round the globe, with birds floating about in it,
and people walking along the bottom, just as we see
fish gliding along the bottom of a river. It is true, he
would never see even the birds come near to the sur-
face, for the highest-flying bird, the condor, never
soars more than five miles from the ground, and our
atmosphere, as we shall see, is at least 100 miles high.
So he would call us all deep-air creatures, just as
we talk of deep-sea animals ; and if we can imagine
that he fished in this air-ocean, and could pull one of
us out of it into space, he would find that we should
£ 2
52 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
gasp and die just as fishes do when pulled out of the
water.
He would also observe very curious things going
on in our air-ocean ; he would see large streams
and currents of air, which we call winds, and which
would appear to him as ocean-currents do to us, while
near down to the earth he would see thick mists
forming and then disappearing again, and these would
be our clouds. From them he would see rain, hail
and snow falling to the earth, and from time to time
bright flashes would shoot across the air-ocean, which
would be our lightning. Nay even the brilliant
rainbow, the northern aurora borealis, and the falling
stars, which seem to us so high up in space, would be
seen by him near to our earth, and all within the aerial
ocean.
But as we know of no such being living in space,
who can tell us what takes place in our invisible air,
and we cannot see it ourselves, we must try by ex-
periments to see it with our imagination, though we
cannot with our eyes.
First, then, can we discover what air is ? At one
time it was thought that it was a simple gas and could
not be separated into more than one kind. But we are
now going to make an experiment by which it has
been shown that air is made of two gases mingled
together, and that one of these gases, called oxygen, is
used up when anything burns, while the other nitrogen
is not used, and only serves to dilute the minute
atoms of oxygen. I have here a glass bell-jar, with a
cork fixed tightly in the neck, and I place the jar over
a pan of water, while on the water floats a plate with
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE. 53
a small piece of phosphorus upon it. You will see that
by putting the bell-jar over the water, I have shut
in a certain quantity of air, and my object now is to
use up the oxygen
f., . . , Fig. 10.
out of this air and
leave only nitro-
gen behind. To
do this I must
light the piece of
phosphorus, for
you will remem-
ber it is in burn-
ing that oxygen Phosphorus burning under a bell-jar (Roscoe).
is used up. I will
take the cork out, light the phosphorus, and cork up
the jar again. See ! as the phosphorus burns white
fumes fill the jar. These fumes are phosphoric acid,
which is a substance made of phosphorus and oxygen.
Our fairy force " chemical attraction " has been at
work here, joining the phosphorus and the oxygen of
the air together.
Now, phosphoric acid melts in water just as sugar
does, and in a few minutes these fumes will disappear.
They are beginning to melt already, and the water
from the pan is rising up in the bell-jar. Why is this?
Consider for a moment what we have done. First, the
jar was full of air, that is, of mixed oxygen and
nitrogen ; then the phosphorus used up the oxygen,
making white fumes ; afterwards, the water sucked up
these fumes ; and so, in the jar now nitrogen is the only
gas left, and the water has risen up to fill all the rest
of the space that was once taken up with the oxygen.
54 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
We can easily prove that there is no oxygen now
in the jar. I take out the cork and let a lighted taper
down into the gas. If there were any oxygen the
taper would burn, but you see it goes out directly,
proving that all the oxygen has been used up by
the phosphorus. When this experiment is made very
accurately, we find that for every pint of oxygen in air
there are four pints of nitrogen, so that the active
oxygen-atoms are scattered about, floating in the
sleepy, inactive nitrogen.
It is these oxygen-atoms which we use up when we
breathe. If I had put a mouse under the bell-jar,
instead of the phosphorus, the water would have risen
just the same, because the mouse would have breathed
in the oxygen and used it up in its body, joining it to
carbon and making a bad gas, carbonic acid, which
would also melt in the water, and when all the oxygen
was used, the mouse would have died.
Do you see now how foolish it is to live in rooms
that are closely shut up, or to hide your head under
the bedclothes when you sleep ? You use up all the
oxygen-atoms, and then there are none left for you to
breathe ; and besides this, you send out of your mouth
bad fumes, though you cannot see them, and these,
when you breathe them in again, poison you and
make you ill.
Perhaps you will say, If oxygen is so useful, why is
not the air made entirely of it ? But think for a
moment. If there was such an immense quantity of
oxygen, how fearfully fast everything would burn !
Our bodies would soon rise above fever heat from the
quantity of oxygen we should take in, and all fires and
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE. 55
lights would burn furiously. In fact, a flame once
lighted would spread so rapidly that no power on earth
could stop it, and everything would be destroyed. So
the lazy nitrogen is very useful in keeping the oxygen-
atoms apart ; and^we have time, even when a fire is
very large and powerful, to put it out before it has
drawn in more and more oxygen from the surrounding
air. Often, if you can shut a fire into a closed space,
as in a closely-shut room or the hold of a ship, it will
go out, because it has used up all the oxygen in the
air.
So, you see, we shall be right in picturing this in-
visible air all around us as a mixture of two gases.
But when we examine ordinary air very carefully, we
find small quantities of other gases in it, besides
oxygen and nitrogen. First, there is carbonic acid
gas. This is the bad gas which we give out of our
mouths after we have burnt up the oxygen with the
carbon of our bodies inside our lungs ; and this car-
bonic acid is also given out from everything that
burns. If only animals lived in the world, this gas
would soon poison the air ; but plants get hold of it,
and in the sunshine they break it up again, as we shall
see in Lecture VII., and use up the carbon, throwing
the oxygen back into the air for us to use. Secondly,
there are very small quantities in the air of ammonia,
or the gas which almost chokes you in smelling-salts,
and which, when liquid, is commonly called " spirits
of hartshorn." This ammonia is useful to plants, as
we shall see by and by. Lastly, there is a great deal
of water in the air, floating about as invisible vapour
or water-dust, and this we shall speak of in the next
5 6 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
lecture. Still, all these gases and vapours in the
atmosphere are in very small quantities, and the bulk
of the air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen.
Having now learned what air is) the next question
which presents itself is, Why does it stay round our
earth ? You will remember we saw in the first lecture,
that all the little atoms of a gas are trying to fly away
from each other, so that if I turn on this gas-jet the
atoms soon leave it, and reach you at the farther end
of the room, and you can smell the gas. Why, then,
do not all the atoms of oxygen and nitrogen fly away
from our earth into space, and leave us without any air ?
Ah ! here you must look for another of our invisible
forces. Have you forgotten our giant force, " gravita-
tion," which draws things together from a distance ?
This force draws together the earth and the atoms of
oxygen and nitrogen ; and as the earth is very big and
heavy, and the atoms of air are light and easily
moved, they are drawn down to the earth and held
there by gravitation. But for all that, the atmosphere
does not leave off trying to fly away ; it is always
pressing upwards and outwards with all its might,
while the earth is doing its best to hold it down.
The effect of this is, that near the earth, where the
pull downward is very strong, the air-atoms are drawn
very closely together, because gravitation gets the
best in the struggle. But as we get farther and farther
from the earth, the pull downward becomes weaker,
and then the air-atoms spring farther apart, and the
air becomes thinner. Suppose that the lines in this
diagram represent layers of air. Near the earth we
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE. 57
have to represent them as lying closely together, but
as they recede from the earth they are also farther
apart
Fig. II.
But the chief reason why the air is thicker or
denser nearer the earth, is because the upper layers
press it down. If you have a heap of papers lying
one on the top of the other, you know that those at
the bottom of the heap will be more closely pressed
together than those above, and just the same is the
case with the atoms of the air. Only there is this
difference, if the papers have lain for some time,
when you take the top ones off, the under ones remain
close together. But it is not so with the air, because
air is elastic, and the atoms are always trying to fly
apart, so that directly you take away the pressure they
spring up again as far as they can.
I have here an ordinary pop-gun. If I push the
cork in very tight, and then force the piston slowly
inwards, I can compress the air a good deal. Now I
am forcing the atoms nearer and nearer together, but at
58 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
last they rebel so strongly against being more crowded
that the cork cannot resist their pressure. Out it
flies, and the atoms spread themselves out comfortably
again in the air all around them. Now, just as I
pressed the air together in the pop-gun, so the atmo-
sphere high up above the earth presses on the air
below and keeps the atoms closely packed together.
And in this case the atoms cannot force back the air
above them as they did the cork in the pop-gun;
they are obliged to submit to be pressed together.
Even a short distance from the earth, however, at
the top of a high mountain, the air becomes lighter,
because it has less weight of atmosphere above it, and
people who go up in balloons often have great diffi-
culty in breathing, because the air is so thin and light.
In 1804 a Frenchman, named Gay-Lussac, went up
four miles and a half in a balloon, and brought down
some air ; and he found that it was much less heavy
than the same quantity of air taken close down to the
earth, showing that it was much thinner, or rarer, as it
is called;* and when, in 1862, Mr. Glaisher and
Mr. Coxwell went up five miles and a half, Mr.
Glaisher's veins began to swell, and his head grew
dizzy, and he fainted. The air was too thin for
him to breathe enough in at a time, and it did not
press heavily enough on the drums of his ears and
the veins of his body. He would have died if
Mr. Coxwell had not quickly let off some of the gas
in the balloon, so that it sank down into denser air.
* 100 cubic inches near the earth weighed 31 grains, while the same
quantity taken at four and a half miles up in the air weighed only
1 2 grains, or two-fifths of the weight.
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE. 59
And now comes another very interesting question.
If the air gets less and less dense as it is farther from
the earth, where does it stop altogether ? We cannot
go up to find out, because we should die long before
we reached the limit ; and for a long time we had to
guess about how high the atmosphere probably was,
and it was generally supposed not to be more than fifty
miles. But lately, some curious bodies, which we
should have never suspected would be useful to us in
this way, have let us into the secret of the height of
the atmosphere. These bodies are the meteors, or
falling stars.
Most people, at one time or another, have seen what
looks like a star shoot right across the sky, and dis-
appear. On a clear starlight night you may .often see
one or more of these bright lights flash through the
air ; for one falls on an average in every twenty
minutes, and on the nights of August Qth and No-
vember 1 3th there are numbers in one part of the
sky. These bodies are not really stars ; they are
simply stones or lumps of metal flying through the
air, and taking fire by clashing against the atoms of
oxygen in it. There are great numbers of these
masses moving round and round the sun, and when
our earth comes across their path, as it does espe-
cially in August and November, they dash with such
tremendous force through the atmosphere that they
grow white-hot, and give out light, and then dis-
appear, melted into vapour. Every now and then
one falls to the earth before it is all melted away,
and thus we learn that these stones contain tin, iron;
sulphur, phosphorus, and other substances.
6o
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
It is while these bodies are burning that they look
to us like falling stars, and when we see them
we know that they must be dashing against our
atmosphere. Now if two people stand a certain
known distance, say fifty miles, apart on the earth,
and observe these meteors and the direction in which
they each see them fall, they can calculate (by means
of the angle between the two directions) how high they,
are above them when they first see them, and at that
moment they must have struck against the atmo-
sphere, and even travelled some way through it, to
become white-hot. In this way we have learnt that
meteors burst into light at least 100 miles above the
surface of the earth, and so the atmosphere must be
more than 100 miles high.
Our next question is as to the weight of our aerial
ocean. You will easily understand that all this air
Fig. 12. weighing down upon the earth
must be very heavy, even though
it grows lighter as it ascends. The
atmosphere does, in fact, weigh
down upon land at the level of the
sea as much as if a 1 5-pound weight
were put upon every square inch of
land. This little piece of linen
paper, which I am holding up, mea-
A square inch of sures exactly a square inch, and
paper, as shown in the as it lies on the table, it is bearing
a weight of 15 Ibs. on its surface!
But how, then, comes it that I can lift it so easily ?
Why am I not conscious of the weight?
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE. 6 1
To understand this you must give all your attention,
for it is important and at first not very easy to grasp.
You must remember, in the first place, that the air is
heavy because it is attracted to the earth, and in the
second place, that*since air is elastic all the atoms of
it are pushing upwards against this gravitation. And
so, at any point in air, as for instance the place where
the paper now is as I hold it up, I feel no pressure,
because exactly as much as gravitation is pulling the
air down, so much elasticity is resisting and pushing it
up. So the pressure is equal upwards, downwards,
and on all sides, and I can move the paper with equal
ease any way.
Even if I lay the paper on the table this is still
true, because there is always some air under it.
If, however, I could get the air quite away from one
side of the paper, then the pressure on the other
side would show itself. I can do this by simply
wetting the paper and letting it fall on the table, and
the water will prevent any air from getting under it.
Now see ! if I try to lift it by the thread in the
middle, I have great difficulty, because the whole
15 pounds' weight of the atmosphere is pressing it
down. A still better way of making the experiment
is with a piece of leather, such as the boys often
amuse themselves with in the streets. This piece of
leather has been well soaked. I drop it on the floor,
and see ! it requires all my strength to pull it up.*
* In fastening the string to the leather the hole must be very small
and the knot as flat as possible, and it is even well to put a small piece
of kid under the knot. When I first made this experiment, not having
taken these precautions, it did not succeed well, owing to air getting in
through the hole.
62
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Fig- 13-
the little animal ex-
hausts the air inside
I now drop it on this stone weight, and so heavily is
it pressed down upon it by the atmosphere that I can
lift the weight with-
out its breaking away
from it.
Have you ever tried
to pick limpets off a
rock ? If so, you know
how tight they cling.
The limpet clings to
the rock just in the
same way as this lea-
ther does to the stone ;
Soaked leather lifting a stone paper-
weight.
its shell, and then it is pressed against the rock by
the whole weight of the air above.
Perhaps you will wonder how it is that if we have
a weight of 15 Ibs. pressing on every square inch
of our bodies, it does not crush us. And, indeed, it
amounts on the whole to a weight of about 15 tons
upon the body of a grown man. It would crush us if
it were not that there are gases and fluids inside our
bodies which press outwards and balance the weight so
that we do not feel it at all.
This is why Mr. Glaisher's veins swelled and he grew
giddy in thin air. The gases and fluids inside his
body were pressing outwards as much as when he was
below, but the air outside did not press so heavily, and
so all the natural condition of his body was disturbed.
I hope we now realize how heavily the air presses
down upon our earth, but it is equally necessary to
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE. 63
understand how, being elastic, it also presses upwards ;
and we can prove this by a simple experiment. I
fill this tumbler with water, and keeping a piece of
card firmly pressed against it, I turn the whole upside-
down. When I now
take my hand away
you would naturally
expect the card to
fall, and the water to
be spilt. But no ! the
card remains as if
glued to the tumbler,
kept there entirely
by the air pressing
upwards against it.* Averted tumbler of water with card kept
against it by atmospheric pressure.
And now we are
almost prepared to understand how we can weigh the
invisible air. One more experiment first. I have
here (Fig. 15, p. 64) what is called a U tube, be-
cause it is shaped like a large U. I pour some
water in it till it is about half full, and you will
notice that the water stands at the same height
in both arms of the tube (A, Fig. 15), because the
air presses on both surfaces alike. Putting my
thumb on one end I tilt the tube carefully, so as
to make the water run up to the end of one arm, and
then turn it back again (B, Fig. 15). But the water
does not now return to its even position, it remains
* The engraver has drawn the tumbler only half full of water. Thie
experiment will succeed quite as well in this way if the tumbler be
turned over quickly, so that part of the air escapes between the tumbler
and the card, and therefore the space above the water is occupied by
air less dense than that outside.
64 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
up in the arm on which my thumb rests. Why is
this ? Because my thumb keeps back the air from
pressing at that end, while the whole weight of the
atmosphere rests on the water at c. And so we
learn that not only has the atmosphere real weight,
but we can see the effects of this weight by making
it balance a co-
lumn of water or
u r 'A
Un^TyffiL In the case °f the
mJK^Jl^lii^ wetted leather we
gUl jf&Or^ felt the weight of
the air, here we
A, Water in a U tube under natural pressure • . ct • .
of air.
B, Water kept in one arm of the tube by Now when WC
pressure of the air being at the open end only \vish to SCC the
weight of the air
we consult a barometer, which works really just in
the same way as the water in this tube. An ordi-
nary upright barometer is simply a straight tube
of glass filled with mercury or quicksilver, and turned
upside-down in a small cup of mercury (see B,
Fig. 1 6). The tube is a little more than 30 inches
long, and though it is quite full of mercury before it
is turned up (A), yet directly it stands in the cup the
mercury falls, till there is a height of about 30 inches
between the surface of the mercury in the cup C, and
that of the mercury in the tube B. As it falls it leaves
an empty space above the mercury at B which is called
a vacuum, because it has no air in it. Now, the mercury
is under the same conditions as the water was in the
U tube, there is no pressure upon it at B, while there
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE. 65
is a pressure of 15 Ibs. upon it in the bowl, and there-
fore it remains held up in the tube.
But why will it not remain more than 30 inches
high in the tube ? You must remember it is only
kept up in the tubg at all by the air which presses on
the mercury in the cup.
And that column of mer-
cury C B now balances
the pressure of the air
outside, and presses down
on the mercury in the
cup at its mouth just as
much as the air does on
the rest. So this cup
and tube act exactly like
a pair of scales. The air
outside is the thing to be
weighed at one end as it
presses on the mercury,
the column C B answers
to the leaden weight at
the other end which tells
Tube of mercury inverted in a
basin of mercury.
you how heavy the air is.
Now if the bore of this
tube is made an inch
square, then the 30 inches
of mercury in it weigh
exactly 15 Ibs., and so we know that the weight of
the air is 15 Ibs. upon every square inch, but if the
bore of the tube is only half a square inch, and
therefore the 30 inches of mercury only weigh 7^ Ibs.
instead of 15 Ibs., the pressure of the atmosphere
F
66
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
will also be halved, because it will only act upon
half a square inch of surface, and for this reason it
©Fig. 17. will make no difference to the height
of the mercury whether the tube be
broad or narrow. Fig. 17 is a picture
of the ordinary upright barometer ; the
cup of mercury in which the tube stands
is hidden inside the round piece- of
wood A, and just at the bottom of this
round is a small hole B, through which
the air gets to the cup.
But now suppose the atmosphere
grows lighter, as it does when it has
much damp in it. The barometer will
show this at once, because there will
be less weight on the mercury in the
cup, therefore it will not keep the mer-
cury pushed so high up in the tube.
In other words, the mercury in the
tube will fall.
Let us suppose that one day the air
is so much lighter that it presses down
only with a weight of 14^ Ibs. to the
square inch instead of 15 Ibs. Then
the mercury would fall to 29 inches,
because each inch is equal to the
weight of half a pound. Now, when
A, Wood covering the air is damp and very full of water-
B?PHol™tbrotigh vaPour ^ is much lighter, and so when
which air acts, the barometer falls we expect rain.
Sometimes, however, other causes make the air light,
and then, although the barometer is low, no rain comes.
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE. 6/
Again, if the air becomes heavier the mercury is
pushed up above 30 to 31 inches, and in this way
we are able to weigh the invisible air-ocean all over
the world, and tell when it grows lighter or heavier.
This, then, is the*secret of the barometer. We cannot
speak of the thermometer to-day, but I should like to
warn you in passing that it has nothing to do with the
weight of the air, but only with heat, and acts in quite
a different way.
And now we have been so long hunting out, testing
and weighing our aerial ocean, that scarcely any time
is left us to speak of its movements or the pleasant
breezes which it makes for us in our country walks.
Did you ever try to run races on a very windy day ?
Ah ! then you feel the air strongly enough ; how it
beats against your face and chest, and blows down
your throat so as to take your breath away ; and what
hard work it is to struggle against it ! Stop for a
moment and rest, and ask yourself, what is the wind ?
Why does it blow sometimes one way and sometimes
another, and sometimes not at all ?
Wind is nothing more than air moving across the
surface of the earth, which as it passes along bends
the tops of the trees, beats against the houses, pushes
the ships along by their sails, turns the windmill,
carries off the smoke from cities, whistles through the
keyhole, and moans as it rushes down the valley.
What makes the air restless ? why should it not
lie still all round the earth ?
It is restless because, as you will remember, its
atoms are kept pressed together near the earth by the
F 2
68 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
weight of the air above, and they take every oppor-
tunity, when they can find more room, to spread out
violently and rush into the vacant space, and this rush
we call a wind.
Imagine a great number of active schoolboys all
crowded into a room till they can scarcely move their
arms and legs for the crush, and then suppose all at
once a large door is opened. Will they not all come
tumbling out pell-mell, one over the other, into the hall
beyond, so that if you stood in their way you would
most likely be knocked down ? Well, just this happens
to the air-atoms ; when they find a space before them
into which they can rush, they come on helter-skelter,
with such force that you have great difficulty in
standing against them, and catch hold of something to
support you for fear you should be blown down.
But how come they to find any empty space to
receive them ? To answer this we must go back
again to our little active invisible fairies the sunbeams.
When the sun-waves come pouring down upon the
earth they pass through the air almost without heating
it. But not so with the ground ; there they pass down
only a short distance and then are thrown back again.
And when these sun-waves come quivering back they
force the atoms of the air near the earth apart and
make it lighter ; so that the air close to the surface of the
heated ground becomes less heavy than the air above it,
and rises just as a cork rises in water. You know that
hot air rises in the chimney ; for if you put a piece of
lighted paper on the fire it is carried up by the draught
of air, often even before it can ignite. Now just as the
hot air rises from the fire, so it rises from the heated
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE, 69
ground up into higher parts of the atmosphere. And
as it rises it leaves only thin air behind it, and this
cannot resist the strong cold air whose atoms are
struggling and trying to get free, and they rush in
and fill the space!
One of the simplest examples of wind is to be
found at the seaside. There in the daytime the land
gets hot under the sunshine, and heats the air, making
it grow light and rise. Meanwhile the sunshine on
the water goes down deeper, and so does not send
back so many heat-waves into the air ; consequently
the air on the top of the water is cooler and heavier,
and it rushes in from over the sea to fill up the space
on the shore left by the warm air as it rises. This is
why the seaside is so pleasant in hot weather. During
the daytime a light sea-breeze nearly always sets in
from the sea to the land.
When night comes, however, then the land loses
its heat very quickly, because it has not stored it
up and the land-air grows cold ; but the sea, which
has been hoarding the sun-waves down in its depths,
now gives them up to the atmosphere above it, and
the sea-air becomes warm and rises. For this reason
it is now the turn of the cold air from the land to
spread over the sea, and you have a land-breeze blowing
off the shore.
Again, the reason why there are such steady winds,
called the trade winds, blowing towards the equator,
is that the sun is very hot at the equator, and hot air
is always rising there and making room for colder ail
to rush in. We have not time to travel farther with
the moving air, though its journeys are extremely
7° THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
interesting ; but if, when you read about the trade and
other winds, you will always picture to yourselves
warm air made light by heat rising up into space and
cold air expanding and rushing in to fill its place, I
can promise you that you will not find the study of
aerial currents so dry as many people imagine it
to be.
We are now able to form some picture of our aerial
ocean. We can imagine the active atoms of oxygen
floating in the sluggish nitrogen, and being used up in
eveiy candle-flame, gas-jet and fire, and in the breath
of all living beings ; and coming out again tied fast to
atoms of carbon and making carbonic acid. Then we
can turn to trees and plants, and see them tearing these
two apart again, holding the carbon fast and sending
the invisible atoms of oxygen bounding back again
into the air, ready to recommence work. We can
picture all these air-atoms, whether of oxygen or
nitrogen, packed close together on the surface of the
earth, and lying gradually further and further apart, as
they have less weight above them, till they become so
scattered that we can only detect them as they rub
against the flying meteors which flash into light. We
can feel this great weight of air pressing the limpet on
to the rock ; and we can see it pressing up the mercury
in the barometer and so enabling us to measure its
weight. Lastly, every breath of wind that blows past
us tells us how this aerial ocean is always moving to
and fro on the face of the earth ; and if we think for a
moment how much bad air and bad matter it must
carry away, as it goes from crowded cities to be
THE AERIAL OCEAN IN WHICH WE LIVE. 7 1
purified in the country, we can see how, in even this
one way alone, it is a great blessing to us.
Yet even now we have not mentioned many of the
beauties of our atmosphere. It is the tiny particles
floating in the air which scatter the light of the sun
so that it spreads over the whole country and into
shady places. The sun's rays always travel straight
forward ; and in the moon, where there is no atmo-
sphere, there is no light anywhere except just where
the rays fall. But around our earth the sun-waves hit
against the myriads of particles in the air and glide
off them into the corners of the room or the recesses
of a shady lane, and so we have light spread before
us wherever we walk in the daytime, instead of
those deep black shadows which we can see through
a telescope on the face of the moon.
Again, it is electricity playing in the air-atoms
which gives us the beautiful lightning and the grand
aurora borealis, and even the twinkling of the stars is
produced entirely by minute changes in the air. If it
were not for our aerial ocean the stars would stare
at us sternly, instead of smiling with the pleasant
twinkle-twinkle which we have all learned to love as
little children.
All these questions, however, we must leave for the
present ; only I hope you will be eager to read about
them wherever you can, and open your eyes to learn
their secrets. For the present we must be content if
we can even picture this wonderful ocean of gas
spread round our earth, and some of the work it does
for us.
We said in the last lecture that without the sun-
72 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
beams the earth would be cold, dark, and frost-ridden
With sunbeams, but without air, it would indeed have
burning heat, side by side with darkness and ice, but
it could have no soft light. Our planet might look
beautiful to others, as the moon does to us, but it
could have comparatively few beauties of its own.
With the sunbeams and the air, we see it has much
to make it beautiful. But a third worker is wanted
before our planet can revel in activity and life. This
worker is water ; and in the next lecture we shall
learn something of the beauty and the usefulness of
the " drops of water " on their travels.
A DROP OF WATER.
73
^ECTURE IV.
A DROP OF WATER ON ITS TRAVELS.
E are going to
spend an hour
to-day in fol-
lowing a drop
of water on its travels. If I dip my finger in this
basin of water and lift it up again, I bring with it
74 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
a small glistening drop out of the body of water
below, and hold it before you. Tell me, have you
any idea where this drop has been ? what changes it
has undergone, and what work it has been doing
during all the long ages that water has lain on the
face of the earth ? It is a drop now, but it was not
so before I lifted it out of the basin ; then it was
part of a sheet of water, and will be so again if I Jet
it fall. Again, if I were to put this basin on the stove
till all the water had boiled away, where would my
drop be then ? Where would it go ? What forms
will it take before it reappears in the rain-cloud, the
river, or the sparkling dew ?
These are questions we are going to try to answer
to-day ; and first, before we can in the least under-
stand how water travels, we must call to mind what
we have learnt about the sunbeams and the air. We
must have clearly pictured in our imagination those
countless sun-waves which are for ever crossing space,
and especially those larger and slower undulations, the
dark heat-waves ; for it is these, you will remember,
which force the air-atoms apart and make the air
light, and it is also these which are most busy in
sending water on its travels. But not these alone.
The sun-waves might shake the water-drops as much
as they liked, and turn them into invisible vapour, but
they could not carry them over the earth if it were not
for the winds and currents of that aerial ocean which
bears the vapour on its bosom, and wafts it to different
regions of the world.
Let us try to understand how these two invisible
workers, the sun-waves and the air, deal with the drops
A DROP OF WATER. 75
of water. I have here a kettle (Fig. 18, p. 76) .boiling
over a spirit-lamp, and I want you to follow minutely
what is going on in it. First, in the flame of the lamp,
atoms of the spirit drawn up from below are clashing
with the oxygen-atajris in the air. This, as you know,
causes heat-waves and light-waves to move rapidly
all round the lamp. The light-waves cannot pass
through the kettle, but the heat-waves can, and as
they enter the water inside they agitate it violently.
Quickly, and still more quickly, the particles of water
near the bottom of the kettle move to and fro and are
shaken apart ; and as they become light they rise
through the colder water, letting another layer come
down to be heated in its turn. The motion grows
more and more violent, making the water hotter and
hotter, till at last the particles of which it is com-
posed fly asunder, and escape as invisible vapour.
If this kettle were transparent you would not see any
steam above the water, because it is in the form of an
invisible gas. But as the steam comes out of the
mouth of the kettle you see a cloud. Why is this ?
Because the vapour is chilled by coming out into the
cold air, and its particles are drawn together again
into tiny, tiny drops of water, to which Dr. Tyndall has
given the suggestive name of water-dust. If you
hold a plate over the steam you can catch these tiny
drops, though they will run into one another almost
as you are catching them.
The clouds you see floating in the sky are made of
exactly the same kind of water-dust as the cloud from
the kettle, and I wish to show you that this is also really
the same as the invisible steam within the kettle. I
76 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE,
will do so by an experiment suggested by Dr. Tyndall.
Here is another spirit-lamp, which I will hold under
the cloud of steam — see ! the cloud disappears ! As
soon as the water-dust is heated the heat-waves
scatter it again into invisible particles, which float
away into the room. Even without the spirit-lamp,
you can convince yourself that water-vapour may be
invisible ; for close to the mouth of the kettle you will
see a short blank space before the cloud begins. In
this space there must be steam, but it is still so hot
that you cannot see it ; and this proves that heat-
waves can so shake water apart as to carry it away
invisibly right before your eyes.
Now, although we never see any water travelling
from our earth up into the skies, we know' that it goes
there, for it comes down again in rain, and so it must
go up invisibly. But where does the heat come from
which makes this water invisible ? Not from below,
as in the case of the kettle, but from above, pouring
down from the sun. Wherever the sun-waves touch
the rivers, ponds, lakes, seas, or fields of ice and snow
A DROP OF WATER. 77
upon our earth, they carry off invisible water- vapour.
They dart down through the top layers of the water,
and shake the water-particles forcibly apart ; and
in this case the dr.ops fly asunder more easily and
before they are so hot, because they are not kept
down by a great weight of water above, as in the
kettle, but find plenty of room to spread themselves
out in the gaps between the air-atoms of the atmo-
sphere.
Can you imagine these water-particles, just above
any pond or lake, rising up and getting entangled
among the air-atoms ? They are very light, much
lighter than the atmosphere ; and so, when a great
many of them are spread about in the air which lies
just over the pond, they make it much lighter than
the layer of air above, and so help it to rise, while
the heavier layer of air comes down ready to take
up more vapour.
In this way the sun-waves and the air carry off
water every day, and all day long, from the top of
lakes, rivers, pools, springs, and seas, and even from
the surface of ice and snow. Without any fuss or
noise or sign of any kind, the water of our earth
is being drawn up invisibly into the sky.
It has been calculated that in the Indian Ocean
three-quarters of an inch of water is carried off from
the surface of the sea in one day and night ; so that
as much as 22 feet, or a depth of water about twice
the height of an ordinary room, is silently and in-
visibly lifted up from the whole surface of the. ocean
in one year. It is true this is one of the hottest parts
of the earth, where the sun-waves are most active :
7 8 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
but even in our own country many feet of water are
drawn up in the summer-time.
What, then, becomes of all this water ? Let us follow
it as it struggles upwards to the sky. We see it in
our imagination first carrying layer after layer of air
up with it from the sea till it rises far above our heads
and above the highest mountains. But now, call to
mind what happens to the air as it recedes from the
earth. Do you not remember that the air-atoms are
always trying to fly apart, and are only kept pressed
together by the weight of air above them ? Well, as
this water-laden air rises up, its particles, no longer
so much pressed together, begin to separate, and in
so doing they use up part of the heat which they
carried up from the earth, and thus the air becomes
colder. Then you know at once what must happen
to the invisible vapour, — it will form into tiny water-
drops, like the steam from the kettle. And so, as the
air rises and becomes colder, the vapour gathers into
visible masses, and we can see it hanging in the sky,
and call it clouds. When these clouds are highest they
are about ten miles from the earth, but when they are
made of heavy drops and hang low down, they some-
times come within a mile of the ground.
Look up at the clouds as you go home, and think
that the water of which they are made has all been
drawn up invisibly through the air. Not, however,
necessarily here 'in London, for we have already seen
that air travels as wind all over the world, rushing in
to fill spaces made by rising air wherever they occur,
and so these clouds may be made of vapour collected
in the Mediterranean, or in the Gulf of Mexico off
A DROP OF WATER.
79
the coast of America, or even, if the wind is from
the north, of chilly particles gathered from the surface
of Greenland ice and snow, and brought here by the
moving currents of air. Only, of one thing we may
be sure, that they "borne from the water of our earth.
Sometimes, if the air is warm, these water-particles
may travel a long way without ever forming into
clouds ; and on a hot, cloudless day the air is often
very full of invisible vapour. Then, if a cold wind
comes sweeping along, high up in the sky, and chills
this vapour, it forms into great bodies of water-dust
clouds, and the sky is overcast. At other times
Fig. 19.
Clouds formed by ascending vapour as it enters cold spaces in the
atmosphere.
clouds hang lazily in a bright sky, and these show us
that just where they are (as in Fig. 19) the air is cold
and turns the invisible vapour rising from the ground
into visible water-dust, so that exactly in those spaces
we see it as clouds. Such clouds form often on a
warm, still summer's day, and they are shaped like
masses of wool, ending in a straight line below. They
are not merely hanging in the sky, they are really
resting upon a tall column of invisible vapour which
stretches right up from the earth ; and that straight
80 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
line under the clouds marks the place where the air
becomes cold enough to turn this invisible vapour into
visible drops of water.
And now, suppose that while these or any other
kind of clouds are overhead, there comes along either
a very cold wind, or a wind full of vapour. As it
passes through the clouds, it makes them very full of
water, for, if it chills them, it makes the water-dust
draw more closely together ; or, if it brings a new load
of water-dust, the air is fuller than it can hold. In
either case a number of water-particles are set free,
and our fairy force " cohesion " seizes upon them at
once and forms them into large water-drops. Then
they are much heavier than the air, and so they can
float no longer, but down they come to the earth in a
shower of rain.
There are other ways in which the air may be
chilled, and rain made to fall, as, for example, when
a wind laden with moisture strikes against the cold
tops of mountains. Thus the Khasia Hills in India,
which face the Bay of Bengal, chill the air which
crosses them on its way from the Indian Ocean. The
wet winds are driven up the sides of the hills, the air
expands, and the vapour is chilled, and forming into
drops, falls in torrents of rain. Sir J. Hooker tells us
that as much as 500 inches of rain fell in these hills
in nine months. That is to say, if you could measure
off all the ground over which the rain fell, and spread
the whole nine months' rain over it, it would make a
lake 500 inches, or more than 40 feet deep ! You will
not be surprised that the country on the other side of
these hills gets hardly any rain, for all the water has
A DROP OF WATER. 8 1
been taken out of the air before it comes there. Again
for example in England, the wind comes to Cumber-
land and Westmoreland over the Atlantic, full of
vapour, and as it strikes against the Pennine Hills it
shakes off its watexy load ; so that the lake district is
the most rainy in England, with the exception perhaps
of Wales, where the high mountains have the same
effect.
In this way, from different causes, the water of
which the sun has robbed our rivers and seas, comes
back to us, after it has travelled to various parts of
the world, floating on the bosom of the air. But it
does not always fall straight back into the rivers and
seas again, a large part of it falls on the land, and has
to trickle down slopes and into the earth, in order to
get back to its natural home, and it is often caught on
its way before it can reach the great waters.
Go to any piece of ground which is left wild and
untouched, you will find it covered with grass, weeds,
and other plants ; if you dig up a small plot you will
find innumerable tiny roots creeping through the
ground in every direction. Each of these roots has
a sponge-like mouth by which the plant takes up
water. Now, imagine rain-drops falling on this plot
of ground and sinking into the earth. On every side
they will find rootlets thirsting to drink them in, and
they will be sucked up as if by tiny sponges, and
drawn into the plants, and up the stems to the leaves.
Here, as we shall see in Lecture VI L, they are worked
up into food for the plant, and only if the leaf has
more water than it needs, some drops may escape at
G
82 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
the tiny openings under the leaf, and be drawn up
again by the sun-waves as invisible vapour into the
air.
Again, much of the rain falls on hard rock and
stone, where it cannot sink in, and then it lies in pools
till it is shaken apart again into vapour and carried
off in the air. Nor is it idle here, even before it is
carried up to make clouds. We have to thank this
invisible vapour in the air for protecting us from the
burning heat of the sun by day and intolerable frost
by night.
Let us for a moment imagine that we can see all
that we know exists between us and the sun. First,
we have the fine ether across which the sunbeams
travel, beating down upon our earth with immense
force, so that in the sandy desert they are like a
burning fire. Then we have the coarser atmosphere of
oxygen and nitrogen atoms hanging in this ether, and
bending the minute sun-waves out of their direct path.
But they do very little to hinder them on their way,
and this is why in very dry countries the sun's heat is
so intense. The rays beat down mercilessly, and
nothing opposes them. Lastly, in damp countries we
have the larger but still invisible particles of vapour
hanging about among the air-atoms. Now, these
watery particles, although they are very few (only
about one twenty-fifth part of the whole atmosphere),
do hinder the sun-waves. For they are very greedy
of heat, and though the light- waves pass easily through
them, they catch the heat-waves and use them to help
themselves to expand. And so, when there is invisible
vapour in the air, the sunbeams come to us deprived
A DROP OF WATER. 83
of some of their heat-waves, and we can remain in the
sunshine without suffering from the heat.
This is how the water-vapour shields us by day,
but by night it is still more useful. During the day
our earth and the air near it have been storing up the
heat which has been poured down on them, and at
night, when the sun goes down, all this heat begins to
escape again. Now, if there were no vapour in the air,
this heat would rush back into space so rapidly that
the ground would become cold and frozen even on a
summer's night, and all but the most hardy plants
would die. But the vapour which formed a veil
against the sun in the day, now forms a still more
powerful veil against the escape of the heat by night.
It shuts in the heat-waves, and only allows them to
make their way slowly upwards from the earth — thus
producing for us the soft, balmy nights of summer
and preventing all life being destroyed in the winter.
Perhaps you would scarcely imagine at first that it
is this screen of vapour which determines whether or
not we shall have dew upon the ground. Have you
ever thought why dew forms, or what power has
been at work scattering the sparkling drops upon the
grass ? Picture to yourself that it has been a very
hot summer's day, and the ground and the grass have
been well warmed, and that the sun goes down in a
clear sky without any clouds. At once the heat-waves
which have been stored up in the ground, bound back
into the air, and here some are greedily absorbed by
the vapour, while others make their way slowly up-
wards. The grass, especially, gives out these heat-
waves very quickly, because the blades, being very
G 2
84 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE
thin, are almost all surface. In consequence of this
they part with their heat more quickly than they can
draw it up from the ground, and become cold. Now,
the air lying just above the grass is full of invisible
vapour, and the cold of the blades, as it touches them,
chills the water-particles, and they are no longer able
to hold apart, but are drawn together into drops on the
surface of the leaves.
We can easily make artificial dew for ourselves. I
have here a bottle of ice which has been kept outside
the window. When I bring it into the warm room a
mist forms rapidly outside the bottle. This mist is
composed of water-drops, drawn out of the air of the
room, because the cold glass chilled the air all round
it, so that it gave up its invisible water to form dew-
drops. Just in this same way the cold blades of grass
chill the air lying above them, and steal its vapour.
But try the experiment, some night when a heavy
dew is expected, of spreading a thin piece of muslin
over some part of the grass, supporting it at the four
corners with pieces of stick so that it forms an
awning. Though there may be plenty of dew on the
grass all round, yet under this awning you will find
scarcely any. The reason of this is that the muslin
checks the heat-waves as they rise from the grass,
and so the grass-blades are not chilled enough to
draw together the water-drops on their surface. If
you walk out early in the summer mornings and look
at the fine cobwebs flung across the hedges, you
will see plenty of drops on the cobwebs themselves
sparkling like diamonds ; but underneath on the
leaves there will be none, for even the delicate cobweb
A DROP OF WATER. 85
has been strong enough to shut in the heat-waves and
keep the leaves warm.
Again, if you walk off the grass on to the gravel
path, you find no dew there. Why is this ? Because
the stones -of the gravel can draw up heat from the
earth below as fast as they give it out, and so they
are never cold enough to chill the air which touches
them. On a cloudy night also you will often find
little or no dew even on the grass. The reason of
this is that the clouds give back heat to the earth,
and so the grass does not become chilled enough to
draw the water-drops together on its surface. But
after a hot, dry day, when the plants are thirsty and
there is little hope of rain to refresh them, then they
are able in the evening to draw the little drops from
the air and drink them in before the rising sun comes
again to carry them away.
But our rain-drop undergoes other changes more
strange than these. Till now we have been imagining
it to travel only where the temperature is moderate
enough for it to remain in a liquid state as water.
But suppose that when it is drawn up into the air it
meets with such a cold blast as to bring it to the
freezing point. If it falls into this blast when it is
already a drop, then it will freeze into a hailstone,
and often on a hot summer's day we may have a
severe hailstorm, because the rain-drops have crossed
a bitterly cold wind as they were falling, and have
been frozen into round drops of ice.
But if the water-vapour reaches the freezing air
while it is still an invisible gas, and before it has
86
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Fig. 20.
been drawn into a drop, then its history is very
different. The ordinary force of cohesion has then
no power over the particles to make them into watery
globes, but its place is taken by the fairy process of
" crystallization," and they are formed into beautiful
white flakes, to fall in
a snow - shower. I
want you to picture
this process to your-
selves, for if once you
can take an interest in
the wonderful power
of nature to build up
crystals, you will be
astonished how often
you will meet with
instances of it, and
what pleasure it will
add to your life.
The particles of
nearly all substances,
when left free and
not hurried, can build
themselves into crystal
forms. If you melt salt
in water and then let
all the water evaporate
slowly, you will get salt-crystals; — beautiful cubes of
transparent salt all built on the same pattern. The
same is true of sugar ; and if you will look at the
spikes of an ordinary stick of sugar-candy, such as I
have here, you will see the kind of crystals which
A piece of sugar-candy, photographed
of the natural size.
A DROP OF WATER. 87
sugar forms. You may even pick out such shapes as
these from the common crystallized brown sugar in
the sugar basin, or see them with a magnifying glass
on a lump of white sugar.
But it is not only easily melted substances such as
sugar and salt which form crystals. The beautiful
stalactite grottos are all made of crystals of lime.
Diamonds are crystals of carbon, made inside the
earth. Rock-crystals, which you know probably under
the name of Irish diamonds, are crystallized quartz ;
and so, with slightly different colourings, are agates,
opals, jasper, onyx, cairngorms, and many other
precious stones. Iron, copper, gold, and sulphur,
when melted and cooled slowly build themselves into
crystals, each of their own peculiar form, and we see
that there is here a wonderful order, such as we should
never have dreamt of, if we had not proved it. If
you possess a microscope you may watch the growth
of crystals yourself by melting some common pow-
dered nitre in a little water till you find that no more
will melt in it. Then put a few drops of this water
on a warm glass slide and place it under the micro-
scope. As the drops dry you will see the long
transparent needles of nitre forming on the glass, and
notice how regularly these crystals grow, not by taking
food inside like living beings, but by adding particle
to particle on the outside evenly and regularly.
Can we form any idea why the crystals build them-
selves up so systematically ? Dr. Tyndall says we
can, and I hope by the help of these small bar
magnets to show you how he explains it. These
little pieces of steel, which I hope you can see lying
88 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
on this white cardboard, have been rubbed along a
magnet until they have become magnets themselves,
and I can attract and lift up a needle with any one of
them. But if I try to lift one bar with another, I can
only do it by bringing certain ends together. I have
tied a piece of red cotton (c, Fig. 21) round one end
of each of the magnets, and if I bring two red ends
together they will not cling together but roll apart.
If, on the contrary, I put a red end against an
end where there is no cotton, then the two bars cling
Fig. 21.
A B
c
Bar magnets attracting and repelling each other.
c, Cotton tied round the north pole of the magnet.
together. This is because every magnet has two
poles or points which are exactly opposite in character.
One of these is called the north pole of the magnet,
because, if the rod hangs freely, that end will point to
the north, and the other is the south pole, pointing to
the south. Now, when I bring two red ends, that is,
two north poles together, they drive each other away.
See ! the magnet I am not holding runs away from
the other. The same will happen if I bring two
south poles together. But if I bring a red end and
A DROP OF WATER. 89
a black end, that is, a north pole and a south pole
together, then they are attracted and cling. I will
make a triangle (A, Fig. 21) in which a black end
and a red end always come together, and you see
the triangle holds ^together. But now if I take off
the lower bar and turn it (B, Fig. 21) so that two
red ends and two black ends come together, then
this bar actually rolls back from the others down the
cardboard. If I were to break these bars into a
thousand pieces, each piece would still have two
poles, and if they were scattered about near each
other in such a way that they were quite free to
move, they would arrange themselves always so that
two different poles came together.
Now picture to yourselves that all the particles of
those substances which form crystals have poles like
our magnets, then you can imagine that when the
heat which held them apart is withdrawn and the
particles come very near together, they will arrange
themselves according to the attraction of their poles
and so build up regular and beautiful patterns.
So, if we could travel up to the clouds where this
fairy power of crystallization is at work, we should
find the particles of water-vapour in a freezing
atmosphere being built up into minute solid crystals
of snow. If you go out after a snow-shower and
search carefully, you will see that the snow-flakes are
not mere lumps of frozen water, but beautiful six-
pointed crystal stars, so white and pure that when we
want to speak of anything being spotlessly white, you
say that it is " white as snow." Some of these crystals
are simply flat slabs with six sides, others are stars
90 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
with six rods or spikes springing from the centre,
others with six spikes each formed like a delicate
fern. No less than a thousand different forms of
delicate crystals have been found among snow-
Snow-ctystals.
flakes, but though there is such a great variety, yet
they are all built on the six-sided and six-pointed
plan, and are all rendered dazzlingly white by the
reflection of the light from the faces of the crystals and
the tiny air-bubbles built up within them. This, you
see, is why, when the snow melts, you have only a little
dirty water in your hand ; the crystals are gone and
there are no more air-bubbles held prisoners to act as
looking-glasses to the light. Hoar-frost is also made
up of tiny water-crystals, and is nothing more than
frozen dew hanging on the blades of grass and from
the trees.
But how about ice ? Here, you will say, is frozen
water, and yet we see no crystals, only a clear trans-
parent mass. Here, again, Dr. Tyndall helps us. He
says (and as I have proved it true, so may you for
yourselves, if you will) that if you take a magnifying
glass, and look down on the surface of ice on a sunny
day, you will see a number of dark, six-sided stars,
looking like flattened flowers, and in the centre of each
a bright spot. These flowers, which are seen when
the ice is melting, are our old friends the crystal stars
A DROP OF WATER. 91
turning into water, and the bright spot in the middle
is a bubble of empty space, left because the watery
flower does not fill up as much room as the ice of the
crystal star did
Fig 23.
tVater-flowers in melting ice. — Tvndall.
And this leads us to notice that ice always takes
up more room than water, and that this is the reason
why our water-pipes burst in severe frosts ; for as the
water freezes it expands with great force, and the pipe
is cracked, and then when the thaw comes on, and
the water melts again, it pours through the crack the
ice has made.
It is not difficult to understand why ice should take
more room ; for we know that if we were to try to
arrange bricks end to end in star-like shapes, we must
leave some spaces between, and could not pack them
so closely as if they lay side by side. And so,
when this giant force of crystallization constrains
the atoms of frozen water to grow into star-like
forms, the solid mass must fill more room than
92 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
the liquid water, and when the star melts, this
space reveals itself to us in the bright spot of the
centre.
We have now seen our drop of water under all its
various forms of invisible gas, visible steam, cloud,
dew, hoar-frost, snow, and ice, and we have only time
shortly to see it on its travels, not merely up and
down, as hitherto, but round the world.
We must first go to the sea as the distillery, or the
place from which water is drawn up invisibly, in its
purest state, into the air ; and we must go chiefly to
the seas of the tropics, because here the sun shines most
directly all the year round, sending heat-waves to shake
the water-particles asunder. It has been found by
experiment that, in order to turn I Ib. of water into
vapour, as much heat must be used as is required to
melt 5 Ibs. of iron ; and if you consider for a moment
how difficult iron is to melt, and how we can keep an
iron poker in a hot fire and yet it remains solid, this
will help you to realize how much heat the sun must
pour down in order to carry off such a constant supply
of vapour from the tropical seas.
Now, when all this vapour is drawn up into the
air, we know that some of it will form into clouds
as it gets chilled high up in the sky, and then it will
pour down again in those tremendous floods of rain
which occur in the tropics.
But the sun and air will not let it all fall down at
once, and the winds which are blowing from the
equator to the poles carry large masses of it away
with them. Then, as you know, it will depend on
A DROP OF WATER. 93
many things how far this vapour is carried. Some of
it, chilled by cold blasts, or by striking on cold moun-
tain tops, as it travels northwards, will fall in rain
in Europe and Asia, while that which travels south-
wards may fall in*South America, Australia, or New
Zealand, or be carried over the sea to the South Pole.
Wherever it falls on the land as rain, and is not used
by plants, it will do one of two things ; either it will
run down in streams and form brooks and rivers, and
so at last find its way back to the sea, or it will sink
deep in the earth till it comes upon some hard rock
through which it cannot get, and then, being hard
pressed by the water coming on behind, it will rise up
again through cracks, and come to the surface as a
spring. These springs, again, feed rivers, sometimes
above-ground, sometimes for long distances under-
ground ; but one way or another at last the whole
drains back into the sea.
But if the vapour travels on till it reaches high moun
tains in cooler lands, such as the Alps of Switzerland ;
or is carried to the poles and to such countries as Green-
land or the Antarctic Continent, then it will come
down as snow, forming immense snow-fields. And
here a curious change takes place in it. If you make
an ordinary snowball and work it firmly together, it
becomes very hard, and if you then press it forcibly into
a mould you can turn it into transparent ice. And
in the same way the snow which falls in Greenland
and on the high mountains of Switzerland becomes
very firmly pressed together, as it slides down into
the valleys. It is like a crowd of people passing
from a broad thoroughfare into a narrow street. As
94 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
the valley grows narrower and narrower the great
mass of snow in front cannot move down quickly,
while more and more is piled up by the snowfall
behind, and the crowd and crush grow denser and
denser. In this way the snow is pressed together till
the air that was hidden in its crystals, and which gave
it its beautiful whiteness, is all pressed out, and the
snow-crystals themselves are squeezed into one solid
mass of pure, transparent ice.
Then we have what is called a " glacier," or river of
ice, and this solid river comes creeping down till, in
Greenland, it reaches the edge of the sea. There it
is pushed over the brink of the land, and large pieces
snap off, and we have " icebergs." These icebergs —
made, remember, of the same water which was first
drawn up from the tropics — float on the wide sea, and
melting in its warm currents, topple over and over*
till they disappear and mix with the water, to be
carried back again to the warm ocean from which
they first started. In Switzerland the glaciers cannot
reach the sea, but they move down into the valleys
till they come to a warmer region, and there the end
of the glacier melts, and flows away in a stream. The
Rhone and many other rivers are fed by the glaciers
of the Alps ; and as these rivers flow into the sea, our
drop of water again finds its way back to its home.
But when it joins itself in this way to its com-
panions, from whom it was parted for a time, does
* A floating iceberg must have about eight times as much ice under
the water as it has above, and therefore, when the lower part melts
in a warm current, the iceberg loses its balance and tilts over, so as to
rearrange itself round the centre of gravity.
A DROP OF WATER. 95
it come back clear and transparent as it left them ?
From the iceberg it does indeed return pure and
clear ; for the fairy Crystallization will have no
impurities, not even salt, in her ice-crystals, and so as
they melt they give back nothing but pure water to
the sea. Yet even icebergs bring down earth and
stones frozen into the bottom of the ice, and so they
feed the sea with mud.
But the drops of water in rivers are by no means
as pure as when they rose up into the sky. We
shall see in the next lecture how rivers carry down
not only sand and mud all along their course, but
even solid matter such as salt, lime, iron, and flint,
dissolved in the clear water, just as sugar is dissolved,
without our being able to see it. The water, too,
which has sunk down into the earth, takes up much
matter as it travels along. You all know that the
water you drink from a spring is very different from
rain-water, and you will often find a hard crust at
the bottom of kettles and in boilers, which is formed
of the carbonate of lime which is driven out- of
the clear water when it is boiled. The water has
become " hard " in consequence of having picked
up and dissolved the carbonate of lime on its way
through the earth, just in the same way as water would
become sweet if you poured it through a sugar-cask.
You will also have heard of iron-springs, sulphur-
springs, and salt-springs, which come out of the earth,
even if you have never tasted any of them, and the
water of all these springs finds its way back at last
to the sea.
And now, can you understand, why sea-water
96 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
should taste salt and bitter ? Every drop of water
which flows from the earth to the sea carries some-
thing with it. Generally, there is so little of any sub-
stance in the water that we cannot taste it, and we
call it pure water ; but the purest of spring or river-
water has always some solid matter dissolved in it,
and all this goes to the sea. Now, when the sun-
waves come to take the water out of the sea again,
they will have nothing but the pure water itself; and
so all these salts and carbonates and other solid
substances are left behind, and we taste them in sea-
water.
Some day, when you are at the seaside, take
some sea-water and set it on the hob till a great
deal has simmered gently away, and the liquid
is very thick. Then take a drop of this liquid, and
examine it under a microscope. As it dries up
gradually, you will see a number of crystals forming,
some square — and these will be crystals of ordinary
salt ; some oblong — these will be crystals of gypsum
or alabaster ; and others of various shapes. Then,
when you see how much matter from the land is
contained in sea-water, you will no longer wonder
that the sea is salt ; on the contrary, you will ask,
Why does it not grow salter every year ?
The answer to this scarcely belongs to our history
of a drop of water, but I must just suggest it to you.
In the sea are numbers of soft-bodied animals, like
the jelly animals which form the coral, which require
hard material for their shells or the solid branches on
which they live, and they are greedily watching for
these atoms of lime, of flint, of magnesia, and of other
A DROP OF WATER. 97
substances brought down into the sea. It is with
lime and magnesia that the tiny chalk-builders form
their beautiful shells, and the coral animals their
skeletons, while another class of builders use the flint ;
and when these creatures die, their remains go to
form fresh land at the bottom of the sea ; and so,
though the earth is being washed away by the
rivers and springs it is being built up again, out
of the same materials, in the depths of the great
ocean.
And now we have reached the end of the travels of
our drop of water. We have seen it drawn up by the
fairy " heat," invisible into the sky ; there fairy " co-
hesion " seized it, and formed it into water-drops, and
the giant, "gravitation," pulled it down again to the
earth. Or, if it rose to freezing regions, the fairy of
" crystallization " built it up into snow-crystals, again
to fall to the earth, and either to be melted back into
water by heat, or to slide down the valleys by force
of gravitation, till it became squeezed into ice. We
have detected it, when invisible, forming a veil round
our earth, and keeping off the intense heat of the sun's
rays by day, or shutting it in by night. We have seen
it chilled by the blades of grass, forming sparkling
dew-drops or crystals of hoar-frost, glistening in
the early morning sun ; and we have seen it in the
dark underground, being drunk up greedily by the
roots of plants. We have started with it from the
tropics, and travelled over land and sea, watch-
ing it forming rivers, or flowing underground in
springs, or moving onwards to the high mountains
or the poles, and coming back again in glaciers and
H
98 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
icebergs. Through all this, while it is being carried
hither and thither by invisible power, we find no trace
of its becoming worn out, or likely to rest from its
labours. Ever onwards it goes, up and down, and
round and round the world, taking many forms, and
performing many wonderful feats. We have seen
some of the work that it does, in refreshing the air,
feeding the plants, giving us clear, sparkling water, to
drink, and carrying matter to the sea ; but besides
this, it does a wonderful work in altering all the face
of our earth. This work we shall consider in the
next lecture, on "The two great Sculptors — Water
and Ice."
THE TWO GREA T SCULPTORS. 99
LECTURE V.
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS — WATER AND ICE.
N our last lecture we saw
that water can exist in
three forms : — 1st, as an
invisible vapour ; 2nd, as liquid water ; 3rd, as solid
snow and ice.
To - day we are going to take the two last of
H 2
100 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
these forms, water and ice, and speak of them as
sculptors.
To understand why they deserve this name we must
first consider what the work of a sculptor is. If you
go into a statuary yard you will find there large
blocks of granite, marble, and other kinds of stone,
hewn roughly into different shapes ; but if you pass
into the studio, where the sculptor himself is at work,
you will find beautiful statues, more or less finished ;
and you will see that out of rough blocks of stone he
has been able to cut images which look like living
forms. You can even see by their faces whether they
are intended to be sad, or thoughtful, or gay, and by
their attitude whether they are writhing in pain, or
dancing with joy, or resting peacefully. How has all
this history been worked out from the shapeless
stone ? It has been done by the sculptor's chisel. A
piece chipped off here, a wrinkle cut there, a smooth
surface rounded off in another place, so as to give a
gentle curve ; all these touches gradually shape the
figure and mould it out of the rough stone, first into
a rude shape and afterwards, by delicate strokes, into
the form of a living being.
Now, just in the same way as the wrinkles and curves
of a statue are cut by the sculptor's chisel, so the hills
and valleys, the steep slopes and gentle curves on the
face of our earth, giving it all its beauty, and the
varied landscapes we love so well, have been cut out
by water and ice passing over them. It is true that
some of the greater wrinkles of the earth, the lofty
mountains, and the high masses of land which rise
above the sea, have been caused by earthquakes and
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS. IOI
shrinking of the earth. We shall not speak of these
to-day, but put them aside as belonging to the rough
work of the statuary yard. But when once these large
masses are put ready for water to work upon, then all
the rest of the rugged wrinkles and gentle slopes which
make the country so beautiful are due to water and
ice ; and for this reason I have called them "sculptors."
Go for a walk in the country, or notice the land-
scape as you travel on a railway journey. You pass
by hills and through valleys, through narrow steep
gorges cut in hard rock, or through wild ravines up
the sides of which you can hardly scramble. Then
you come to grassy slopes and to smooth plains
across which you can look for miles without seeing a
hill ; or, when you arrive at the seashore, you clamber
into caves and grottos, and along dark narrow pas-
sages leading from one bay to another. All these —
hills, valleys, gorges, ravines, slopes, plains, caves,
grottos, and rocky shores — have been cut out by
water. Day by day and year by year, while every-
thing seems to us to remain the same, this industrious
sculptor is chipping away, a few grains here, a corner
there, a large mass in another place, till he gives to
the country its own peculiar scenery, just as the
human sculptor gives expression to his statue.
Our work to-day will consist in trying to form some
idea of the way in which water thus carves out the
surface of the earth, and we will begin by seeing how
much can be done by our old friends the rain-drops
before they become running streams.
Everyone must have noticed that whenever rain
falls on soft ground it makes small round holes in
102 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
which it collects, and then sinks into the ground;
forcing its way between the grains of earth. But you
would hardly think that the beautiful pillars in Fig. 24
have been made entirely in this way by rain beating
upon and soaking into the ground.
Earth-pillars near Botzen, in the Tyrol.
(Adapted from Lyell's ' Principles.')
Where these pillars stand there was once a solid
mass of clay and stones, into which the rain-drops
crept, loosening the earthy particles ; and then when
the sun dried the earth again, cracks were formed so
that the next shower loosened it still more, and carried
some of the mud down into the valley below. But
here and there large stones were buried in the clay,
and where this happened the rain could not penetrate,
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS. 103
and the stones became the tops of tall pillars of clay,
washed into shape by the rain beating on its sides, but
escaping the general destruction of the rest of the
mud. In this way the whole valley has been carved
out into fine pillars, some still having capping-stones,
while others have lost them, and these last will soon
be washed away. We have no such valleys of earth-
pillars here in England, but you may sometimes see
tiny pillars under bridges where the drippings have
washed away the earth between the pebbles, and such
small examples which you can observe for yourselves
are quite as instructive as more important ones.
Another way in which rain changes the surface of the
earth is by sinking down through loose soil from the top
of a cliff to a depth of many feet till it comes to solid
rock, and then lying spread over a wide space. Here
it makes a kind of watery mud, which is a very unsafe
foundation for the hill of earth above it, and so after
a time the whole mass slips down and makes a fresh
piece of land at the foot of the cliff. If you have ever
been at the Isle of Wight you will have seen an
undulating strip of ground, called the Undercliff, at
Ventnor and other places, stretching all along the sea
below the high cliffs. This land was once at the top
of the cliff, and came down by a succession of landslips
such as we have been describing. A very great land-
slip of this kind happened in the memory of living
people, at Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire, in the year
1839.
You will easily see how in forming earth-pillars and
causing landslips rain changes the face of the country,
104 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
but these are only rare effects of water. It is when the
rain collects in brooks and forms rivers that it is most
busy in sculpturing the land. Look out some day
into the road or the garden where the ground slopes a
little, and watch what happens during a shower of
rain. First the rain-drops run together in every little
hollow of the ground, then the water begins to flow
along any ruts or channels it can find, lying here and
there in pools, but always making its way gradually
down the slope. Meanwhile from other parts of the
ground little rills are coming, and these all meet in
some larger ruts where the ground is lowest, making
one great stream, which at last empties itself into the
gutter or an area, or finds its way down some grating.
Now just this, which we can watch whenever a
heavy shower of rain comes down on the road, happens
also all over the world. Up in the mountains, where
there is always a great deal of rain, little rills gather
and fall over the mountain sides, meeting in some
stream below. Then, as this stream flows on, it is fed
by many runnels of water, which come from all parts
of the country, trickling along ruts, and flowing in
small brooks and rivulets down the gentle slope of the
land till they reach the big stream, which at last is
important enough to be called a river. Sometimes
this river comes to a large hollow in the land and
there the water gathers and forms a lake ; but still at
the lower end of this lake out it comes again, forming
a new river, and growing and growing by receiving
fresh streams until at last it reaches the sea.
The River Thames, which you all know, and whose
course you will find clearly described in Mr. Huxley's
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS. 10$
' Physiography,' drains in this way no less than one-
seventh of the whole of England. All the rain which
falls in Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Middlesex, Hertford-
shire, Surrey, the north of Wiltshire and north-west
of Kent, the south*of Buckinghamshire and of Glou-
cestershire, finds its way into the Thames; making
an area of 6160 square miles over which every little
rivulet and brook trickle down to the one great river,
which bears them to the ocean. And so with every
other area of land in the world there is some one
channel towards which the ground on all sides slopes
gently down, and into this channel all the water will
run, on its way to the sea.
But what has this to do with sculpture or cutting
out of valleys ? If you will only take a glass of water
out of any river, and let it stand for some hours, you
will soon answer this question for yourself. For you
will find that even from river water which looks quite
clear, a thin layer of mud will fall to the bottom of
the glass, and if you take the water when the river is
swollen and muddy you will get quite a thick deposit.
This shows that the brooks, the streams, and the rivers
wash away the land as they flow over it and carry it
from the mountains down to the valleys, and from the
valleys away out into the sea.
But besides earthy matter, which we can see, there
is much matter dissolved in the water of rivers (as we
mentioned in the last lecture), and this we cannot see.
If you use water which comes out of a chalk
country you will find that after a time the kettle in
which you have been in the habit of boiling this water
has a hard crust on its bottom and sides, and this crust
106 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
is made of chalk or carbonate of lime, which the water
took out of the rocks when it was passing through
them. Professor Bischoff has calculated that the river
Rhine carries past Bonn every year enough carbonate
of lime dissolved in its water to make 332,000 million
oyster-shells, and that if all these shells were built into
a cube it would measure 560 feet every way.
Imagine to yourselves the whole of St. Paul's
churchyard filled with oyster-shells, built up in a large
square till they reached half as high again as the top
of the cathedral, then you will have some idea of the
amount of chalk carried invisibly past Bonn in the
water of the Rhine every year.
Since all this matter, whether brought down as
mud or dissolved, comes from one part of the land
to be carried elsewhere or out to sea, it is clear that
some gaps and hollows must be left in the places from
which it is taken. Let us see how these gaps are
made. Have you ever clambered up the mountain-
side, or even up one of those small ravines in the hill-
side, which have generally a little stream trickling
through them ? If so, you must have noticed the
number of pebbles, large and small, lying in patches
here and there in the stream, and many pieces of
broken rock, which are often scattered along the sides
of the ravine ; and how, as you climb, the path grows
steeper, and the rocks become rugged and stick out
in strange shapes.
The history of this ravine will tell us a great
deal about the carving of water. Once it was nothing
more than a little furrow in the hill-side down which
the rain found its way in a thin thread-like stream.
But by and by, as the stream carried down some of
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS.
lO?
the earth, and the furrow grew deeper and wider, the
sides began to crumble when the sun dried up the
rain which had soaked in. Then in winter, when the
sides of the hill were moist with the autumn rains,
frost came and turned the water to Ice, and so made
Fig. 25
Ravine worn by water in the side of a hill.
the cracks still larger, and the swollen stream rushing
down, caught the loose pieces of rock and washed
them down into its bed. Here they were rolled over
and over, and grated against each other, and were
ground away till they became rounded pebbles, such
as lie in the foreground of the picture (Fig. 25) ; while
IOS THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
the grit which was rubbed off them was carried
farther down by the stream. And so in time this
became a little valley, and as the stream cut it deeper
and deeper, there was room to clamber along the
sides of it, and ferns and mosses began to cover
the naked stone, and small trees rooted themselves
along the banks, and this beautiful little nook sprang
up on the hill-side entirely by the sculpturing of
water.
Shall you not feel a fresh interest in all the little
valleys, ravines, and gorges you meet with in the
country, if you can picture them being formed in this
way year by year ? There are many curious differences
in them which you can study for yourselves. Some
will be smooth, broad valleys, and here the rocks have
been soft and easily worn, and water trickling down
the sides of the first valley has cut other channels so
as to make smaller valleys running across it. In other
places there will be narrow ravines, and here the rocks
have been hard, so that they did not wear away
gradually, but broke off and fell in blocks, leaving
high cliffs on each side. In some places you will come
to a beautiful waterfall, where the water has tumbled
over a steep cliff, and then eaten its way back, just
like a saw cutting through a piece of wood.
There are two things in particular to notice in a
waterfall like this. First, how the water and spray
dash against the bottom of the cliff down which it
falls, and grind the small pebbles against the rock.
In this way the bottom of the cliff is undermined, and
so great pieces tumble down from time to time, and
keep the fall upright instead of its being sloped away
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS, 109
at the top, and becoming a mere stream. Secondly,
you may often see curious cup-shaped holes, called
" pot-holes," in the rocks on the sides of a waterfall,
and these also are concerned in its formation. In these
holes you will generally find two or three small
pebbles, and you have here a beautiful example of
how water uses stones to grind away the face of the
earth. These holes are made entirely by the falling
water eddying round and round in a small hollow of
the rock, and grinding the pebbles which it has
brought down, against the bottom and sides of this
hollow, just as you grind round a pestle in a mortar.
By degrees the hole grows deeper and deeper, and
though the first pebbles are probably ground down
to powder, others fall in, and so in time there is a
great hole perforated right through, helping to make
the rock break and fall away.
In this and other ways the water works its. way
back in a surprising manner. The Isle of Wight gives
us some good instances of this ; Alum Bay Chine
and the celebrated Blackgang Chine have been en-
tirely cut out by waterfalls. But the best known and
most remarkable example is the Niagara Falls, in
America. Here, the River Niagara first wanders
through a flat country, and then reaches the great
Lake Erie in a hollow of the plain. After that, it
flows gently down for about fifteen miles, and then the
slope becomes greater and it rushes on to the Falls of
Niagara. These falls are not nearly so high as many
people imagine, being only 165 feet, or about half the
height of St. Paul's Cathedral, but they are 2700 feet
or nearly half-a-mile wide, and no less than 670,000
no
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
tons of water fall over them every minute, making
magnificent clouds .of spray.
Fig. 26.
,-
Bird's-eye view of Lake Erie, Niagara Falls, and Queenstown.
(Lyell.)
Sir Charles Lyell, when he was at Niagara, came
to the conclusion that, taking one year with another,
these falls eat back the cliff at the rate of about one
foot a year, as you can easily imagine they would do,
when you think with what force the water must dash
against the bottom of the falls. In this way a deep
cleft has been cut right back from Queenstown for a
distance of seven miles, to the place where the falls
now are. This helps us a little to understand how
Fig. 27.— GREAT CANON, COLORADO RIVER.
(From Lieut. Ives' Report.)
To face p. in.
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS. Ill
very slowly and gradually water cuts its way ; for if
a foot a year is about the average of the waste of the
rock, it will have taken more than thirty-five thousand
years for that channel of seven miles to be made.
But even this ch#sm cut by the falls of Niagara is
nothing compared with the canons of Colorado. Canon
is a Spanish word for a rocky gorge, and these gorges
are indeed so grand, that if we had not seen in other
places what water can do, we should never have been
able to believe that it could have cut out these gigantic
chasms. For more than three hundred miles the River
Colorado, coming down from the Rocky Mountains,
has eaten its way through a country made of granite
and hard beds of limestone and sandstone, and it has
cut down straight through these rocks, leaving walls
from half-a-mile to a mile high, standing straight up
from it. The cliffs of the Great Canon, as it is called,
stretch up for more than a mile above the river
which flows in the gorge below! Fancy yourselves
for a moment in a boat on this river, as shown in
Figure 27, and looking up at these gigantic walls of
rock towering above you. Even half-way up them,
a man, if he could get there, would be so small you
could not see him without a telescope ; while the
opening at the top between the two walls would seem
so narrow at such an immense distance that the sky
above would have the appearance of nothing more
than a narrow streak of blue. Yet these huge chasms
have not been made by any violent breaking apart
of the rocks or convulsion of an earthquake. No,
they have been gradually, silently, and steadily cut
through by the river which now glides quietly in the
1 1 2 THE FA IR Y-LAND OF SCIENCE.
wider chasms, or rushes rapidly through the narrow
gorges at their feet.
" No description," says Lieutenant Ives, one of the
first explorers of this river, " can convey the idea of
the varied and majestic grandeur of this peerless water-
way. Wherever the river turns, the entire panorama
changes. Stately facades, august cathedrals, amphi-
theatres, rotundas, castellated walls, and rows of
time-stained ruins, surmounted by every form of
tower, minaret, dome and spire, have been moulded
from the cyclopean masses of rock that form the
mighty defile." Who will say, after this, that water is
not the grandest of all sculptors, as it cuts through
hundreds of miles of rock, forming such magnificent
granite groups, not only unsurpassed but unequalled
by any of the works of man ?
But we must not look upon water only as a cutting
instrument, for it does more than merely carve out
land in one place, it also carries it away and lays it
down elsewhere ; and in this it is more like a modeller
in clay, who smooths off the material from one part of
his figure to put it upon another.
Running water is not only always carrying away
mud, but at the same time laying it down here and
there wherever it flows. When a torrent brings down
stones and gravel from the mountains, it will depend
on the size and weight of the pieces how long they
will be in falling through the water. If you take a
handful of gravel and throw it into a glass full of
water, you will notice that the stones in it will fall to
the bottom at once, the grit and coarse sand will take
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS. 113
longer in sinking, and lastly, the fine sand will be an
hour or two in settling down, so that the water
becomes clear. Now, suppose that this gravel were
sinking in the water of a river. The stones would be
buoyed up as long as the river was very full and
flowed very quickly, but they would drop through
sooner than the coarse sand. The coarse sand in its
turn would begin to sink as the river flowed more
slowly, and would reach the bottom while the fine
sand was still borne on. Lastly, the fine sand would
sink through very, very slowly, and only settle in
comparatively still water.
From this it will happen that stones will generally
lie near to the bottom of torrents at the foot of the
banks from which they fall, while the gravel will be
carried on by the stream after it leaves the mountains.
This too, however, will be laid down when the river
comes into a more level country and runs more slowly.
Or it maybe left together with the finer mud in a lake,
as in the lake of Geneva, into which the Rhone flows
laden with mud and comes out at the other end clear
and pure. But if no lake lies in the way the finer
earth will still travel on, and the river will take up
more and more as it flows, till at last it will leave this
too on the plains across which it moves sluggishly
along, or will deposit it at its mouth when it joins the
sea.
You all know the history of the Nile ; how, when the
rains fall very heavily in March and April in the
mountains of Abyssinia, the river comes rushing down,
and brings with it a load of mud which it spreads out
over the Nile valley in Egypt. This annual layer of
I
114 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
mud is so thin that it takes a thousand years for
it to become 2 or 3 feet thick ; but besides that which
falls in the valley a great deal is taken to the mouth
of the river and there forms new land, making what is
called the " Delta " of the Nile. Alexandria, Rosetta,
and Damietta, are towns which are all built on land
made of Nile mud which was carried down ages and
ages ago, and which has now become firm and hard
like the rest of the country. You will easily remember
other deltas mentioned in books, and all these are
made of the mud carried down from the land to the
sea. The delta of the Ganges and Brahmapootra in
India, is actually as large as the whole of England and
Wales,* and the River Mississippi in America drains
such a large tract of country that its delta grows,
Mr. Geikie tells us, at the rate of 86 yards in a year.
All this new land laid down in Egypt, in India, in
America, and in other places, is the work of water.
Even on the Thames you may see mud-banks, as at
Gravesend, which are made of earth brought from
the interior of England. But at the mouth of the
Thames the sea washes up very strongly every tide,
and so it carries most of the mud away and prevents
a delta growing up there. If you will look about when
you are at the seaside, and notice wherever a stream
flows down into the sea, you may even see little
miniature deltas being formed there, though the sea
generally washes them away again in a few hours,
unless the place is well sheltered.
This, then, is what becomes of the earth carried
down by rivers. Either on plains, or in lakes, or in
* 58,311 square miles.
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS. 115
the sea, it falls down to form new land. But what
becomes of the dissolved chalk and other substances ?
We have seen that a great deal of it is used by river
and sea animals to build their shells and skeletons,
and some of it is 4fft on the surface of the ground by
springs when the water evaporates. It is this car-
bonate of lime which forms a hard crust over any-
thing upon which it may happen to be deposited, and
then these things are called " petrified."
But it is in the caves and hollows of the earth
that this dissolved matter is built up into the most
beautiful forms. If you have ever been to Buxton in
Derbyshire, you will probably have visited a cavern
called Poole's Cavern, not far from there, which when
you enter it looks as if it were built up entirely
of rods of beautiful transparent white glass, hanging
from the ceiling, from the walls, or rising up from the
floor. In this cavern, and many others like it,* water
comes dripping through the roof, and as it falls
slowly drop by drop it leaves behind a little of the
carbonate of lime it has brought out of the rocks.
This carbonate of lime forms itself into a thin, white
film on the roof, often making a complete circle, and
then, as the water drips from it day by day, it goes on
growing and growing till it forms a long needle-shaped
or tube-shaped rod, hanging like an icicle. These rods
are called stalactites, and they are so beautiful, as their
minute crystals glisten when a light is taken into the
cavern, that one of them near Tenby is called the
" Fairy Chamber." Meanwhile, the water which drips
on to the floor also leaves some carbonate of lime
* See the picture at the head of the lecture.
1 2
1 1 6 THE FAIRY-LA ND OF SCIENCE.
where it falls, and this forms a pillar, growing up
towards the roof, and often the hanging stalactites
and the rising pillars (called stalagmites) meet in the
middle and form one column. And thus we see that
underground, as well as aboveground, water moulds
beautiful forms in the crust of the earth. At Adelsberg,
near Trieste, there is a magnificent stalactite grotto
made of a number of chambers one following another,
with a river flowing through them ; and the famous
Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, more than ten miles
long, is another example of these wonderful limestone
caverns.
But we have not yet spoken of the sea, and this
surely is not idle in altering the shape of the land.
Even the waves themselves in a storm wash against
the cliffs and bring down stones and pieces of rock on
to the shore below. And they help to make cracks
and holes in the cliffs, for as they dash with force
against them they compress the air which lies in
the joints of the stone and cause it to force the rock
apart, and so larger cracks are made and the cliff is
ready to crumble.
It is, however, the stones and sand and pieces of rock
lying at the foot of the cliff which are most active in
wearing it away. Have you never watched the waves
breaking upon a beach in a heavy storm ? How they
catch up the stones and hurl them down again, grinding
them against each other! At high tide in such a
storm these stones are thrown against the foot of the
cliff, and each blow does something towards knocking
away part of the rock, till at last, after many storms,
THE TWO GREA T SCULPTORS.
117
the cliff is undermined and large pieces fall down.
These pieces are in their turn ground down to pebbles
which serve to batter against the remaining rock.
Professor Geikie tells us that the waves beat in a
storm against the*Bell Rock Lighthouse with as much
force as if you dashed a weight of 3 tons against
every square inch of the rock, and Stevenson found
stones of 2 tons' weight which had been thrown during
storms right over the ledge of the lighthouse. Think
what force there must be in waves which can lift up
such a rock and throw it, and such force as this beats
upon our sea-coasts and eats away the land.
Fig. 28.
Cliffs off Arbroath, showing the waste ol the shore
Fig 28 is a sketch on the shores of Arbroath which
1 made some years ago. You will not find it difn-
1 1 8 THE FA IR I -LAND OF SCIENCE.
cult to picture to yourselves how the sea has eaten
away these cliffs till some of the strongest pieces
which have resisted the waves stand out by them-
selves in the sea. That cave in the left-hand corner
ends in a narrow dark passage from which you come
out on the other side of the rocks into another bay.
Such caves as these are made chiefly by the force of
the waves and the air, bringing down pieces of rock
from under the cliff and so making a cavity, and then
as the waves roll these pieces over and over and grind
them against the sides, the hole is made larger.
There are many places on the English coast where
large pieces of the road are destroyed by the crumbling
down of cliffs when they have been undermined by
caverns such as these.
Thus, you see, the whole of the beautiful scenery of
the sea — the shores, the steep cliffs, the quiet bays, the
creeks and caverns — are all the work of the "sculptor"
water ; and he works best where the rocks are hardest,
for there they offer him a good stout wall to batter,
whereas in places where the ground is soft it washes
down into a gradual gentle slope, and so the waves
come flowing smoothly in and have no power to eat
away the shore.
And now, what has Ice got to do with the sculp-
turing of the land ? First, we must remember how
much the frost does in breaking up the ground. The
farmers know this, and always plough after a frost,
because the moisture, freezing in the ground, has
broken up the clods, and done half their work for
them.
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS. 119
But this is not the chief work of ice. You will
remember how we learnt in our last lecture that snow,
when it falls on the mountains, gradually slides down
into the valleys, and is pressed together by' the
gathering snow behind until it becomes moulded into
a solid river of ice (see Fig. 29, Frontispiece). In
Greenland and in Norway there are enormous ice-
rivers or glaciers, and even in Switzerland some of
them are very large. The Aletsch glacier, in the
Alps, is fifteen miles long, and some are even longer
than this. They move very slowly — on an average
about 20 to 27 inches in the centre, and 13 to
19 inches at the sides every twenty- four hours, in
summer and autumn. How they move, we cannot
stop to discuss now ; but if you will take a slab of
thin ice and rest it upon its two ends only, you can
prove to yourself that ice does bend, for in a few
hours you will find that its own weight has drawn it
down in the centre so as to form a curve. This will
help you to picture to yourselves how glaciers can
adapt themselves to the windings of the valley,
creeping slowly onwards until they come down to a
point where the air is warm enough to melt them, and
then the ice flows away in a stream of water. It is
very curious to see the number of little rills running
down the great masses of ice at the glacier's mouth,
bringing down with them gravel, and every now and
then a large stone, which falls splashing into the stream
below. If you look at the glacier in the Frontispiece,
you will see that these stones come from those long
lines of stones and boulders stretching along the sides
and centre of the glacier. It is easy to understand
I : : THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
where the stones at the side come from ; for we have
seen that damp and frost cause pieces to break oti
the surface of the rocks, and it is natural that these
pieces should roll down the steep sides of the moun-
tains on to the glacier. But the middle row requires
some explanation. Look to the back of the picture,
and you will see that this line of stones is made of
two side rows, which come from the valleys above.
Two glaciers, you see, have there joined into one, and so
made a heap of stones all along their line of junction,
These stones are being continually, though slowly,
conveyed by the glacier, from all the mountains along
its sides, down to the place where it melts. Here it
lets them fall, and they are gradually piled up till
they form great walls of stone, which are called
irwraines. Some of the moraines left by the larger
glaciers of olden time, in the country near Turin, form
high hills, rising up even to 1500 feet.
Therefore, if ice did no more than carry these stone
blocks, it would alter the face of the country ; but it
does much more than this. As the glacier moves
along, it often cracks for a considerable way across
its surface, and this crack widens and widens, until at
last it becomes a great gaping chasm, or crevasse as it
is called, so that you can look down it right to the
bottom of the glacier. Into these crevasses large
blocks of rock fall, and when the chasm is closed
again as the ice presses on. these masses are frozen
firmly into the bottom of the glacier, much in the
same way as a steel cutter is fixed in the bottom of a
plane. And they do just the same kind of work ; for
as the glacier slides down the valley, they scratch and
THE TWO CHEAT SCULPTORS. 121
grind the rocks underneath them, rubbing themselves
away, it is true, but also scraping away the ground
over which they move. In this way the glacier
becomes a cutting instrument, and carves out the
valleys deeper an^, deeper as it passes through them.
You may always know where a glacier has been,
even if no trace of ice remains ; for you will see rocks
with scratches along them which have been cut by
these stones ; and even where the rocks have not been
ground away, you will find them rounded like those in
the left-hand of the Frontispiece, showing that the
glacier-plane has been over them. These rounded
rocks are called " roches moutonnees," because at the
distance they look like sheep lying down.
You have only to look at the stream flowing from
the mouth of a glacier to see what a quantity of soil
it has ground off from the bottom of the valley ; for
the water is thick, and coloured a deep yellow by the
mud it carries. This mud soon reaches the rivers
into which the streams run ; and such rivers as the
Rhone and the Rhine are thick with matter brought
down from the Alps. The Rhone leaves this mud in
the Lake of Geneva, flowing out at the other end quite
clear and pure. A mile and a half of land has been
formed at the head of the lake since the time of the
Romans by the mud thus brought down from the
mountains.
Thus we see that ice, like water, is always busy
carving out the surface of the earth, and sending down
material to make new land elsewhere. We know that
in past ages the glaciers were much larger than they
are in our time ; for we find traces of them over large
122 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
parts of Switzerland where glaciers do not now exist,
and huge blocks which could only have been carried
by ice, and which are called " erratic blocks," some of
them as big as cottages, have been left scattered over
all the northern part of Europe. These blocks were
a great puzzle to scientific men till, in 1 840, Professor
Agassiz showed that they must have been brought by
ice all the way from Norway and Russia.
In those ancient days, there were even glaciers in
England ; for in Cumberland and in Wales you may
see their work, in scratched and rounded rocks, and
the moraines they have left. Llanberis Pass, so
famous for its beauty, is covered with ice-scratches,
and blocks are scattered all over the sides of the
valley. There is one block high up on the right-hand
slope of the valley, as you enter from the Beddgelert
side, which is exactly poised upon another block, so
that it rocks to and fro. It must have been left thus
balanced when the ice melted round it. You may
easily see that these blocks were carried by ice, and
not by water, because their edges are sharp, whereas,
if they had been rolled in water, they would have
been smoothed down.
We cannot here go into the history of that great
Glacial Period long ago, when large fields of ice
covered all the north of England ; but when you
read it for yourselves and understand the changes on
the earth's surface which we can see being made by
ice now, then such grand scenery as the rugged
valleys of Wales, with large angular stone blocks
scattered over them, will tell you a wonderful story
of the ice of bygone times.
THE TWO GREAT SCULPTORS. 123
And now we have touched lightly on the chief
ways in which water and ice carve out the surface
of the earth. We have seen that rain, rivers, springs,
the waves of the sea, frost, and glaciers all do their
part in chiselling uut ravines and valleys, and in pro-
ducing rugged peaks or undulating plains — here
cutting through rocks so as to form precipitous cliffs,
there laying down new land to add to the flat country
— in one place grinding stones to powder, in others
piling them up in gigantic ridges. We cannot go a
step into the country without seeing the work of water
around us ; every little gully and ravine tells us that
the sculpture is going on ; every stream, with its
burden of visible or invisible matter, reminds us that
some earth is being taken away and carried to a new
spot. In our little lives we see indeed but very small
changes, but by these we learn how greater ones have
been brought about, and how we owe the outline of
all our beautiful scenery, with its hills and valleys,
its mountains and plains, its cliffs and caverns, its
quiet nooks and its grand rugged precipices, to the
work of the " Two great sculptors, Water and Ice."
124
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
LECTURE VI.
THE VOICES OF NATURE AND HOW WE HEAR THEM.
E have reached
to-day the mid-
dle point of our course, and here we will make a
new start. All the wonderful histories which we
have been studying in the last five lectures have had
THE VOICES OF NATURE. 125
little or nothing to do with living creatures. The
sunbeams would strike on our earth, the air would
move restlessly to and fro, the water-drops would rise
and fall, the valleys and ravines would still be cut
out by rivers, if mere were no such thing as life upon
the earth. But without living things there could be
none of the beauty which these changes bring about.
Without plants, the sunbeams the air and the water
would be quite unable to clothe the bare rocks, and
without animals and man they could not produce
light, or sound, or feeling of any kind.
In the next five lectures, however, we are going to
learn something of the use living creatures make of
the earth ; and to-day we will begin by studying one
of the ways in which we are affected by the changes
of nature, and hear her voice.
We are all so accustomed to trust to our sight to
guide us in most of our actions, and to think of things
as we see them, that we often forget how very much
we owe to sotind. And yet Nature speaks to us so
much by her gentle, her touching, or her awful sounds,
that the life of a deaf person is even more hard to
bear than that of a blind one.
Have you ever amused yourself with trying how
many different sounds you can distinguish if you
listen at an open window in a busy street ? You will
probably be able to recognize easily the jolting of the
heavy waggon or dray, the rumble of the omnibus, the
smooth roll of the private carriage and the rattle of the
light butcher's cart ; and even while you are listening
for these, the crack of the carter's whip, the cry of the
costermonger at his stall, and the voices of the passers
126 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
by will strike upon your ear. Then if you give still
more close attention you will hear the doors open and
shut along the street, the footsteps of the passengers,
the scraping of the shovel of the mud-carts ; nay, if
he happen to stand near, you may even hear the
jingling of the shoeblack's pence as he plays pitch
and toss upon the pavement. If you think for a
moment, does it not seem wonderful that you should
hear all these sounds so that you can recognize each
one distinctly while all the rest are going on around
you ?
But suppose you go into the quiet country.
Surely there will be silence there. Try some day
and prove it for yourself, lie down on the grass in
a sheltered nook and listen attentively. If there
be ever so little wind stirring you will hear it rustling
gently through the trees ; or even if there is not this,
it will be strange if you do not hear some wandering
gnat buzzing, or some busy bee humming as it moves
from flower to flower. Then a grasshopper will set
up a chirp within a few yards of you, or, if all living
creatures are silent, a brook not far off may be flowing
along with a rippling musical sound. These and a
hundred other noises you will hear in the most quiet
country spot ; the lowing of cattle, the song of the birds,
the squeak of the field-mouse, the croak of the frog,
mingling with the sound of the woodman's axe in the
distance, or the dash of some river torrent. And
besides these quiet sounds, there are still other occa-
sional voices of nature which speak to us from time
to time. The howling of the tempestuous wind, the
roar of the sea-waves in a storm, the crash of thunder,
THE VOICES OF NATURE. 1 27
and the mighty noise of the falling avalanche ; such
sounds as these tell us how great and terrible nature
can be.
Now, has it ever occurred to you to think what
sound is, and how*it is that we hear all these things ?
Strange as it may seem, if there were no creature that
could hear upon the earth, there would be no such
thing as sound, though all these movements in nature
were going on just as they are now.
Try and grasp this thoroughly, for it is difficult at
first to make people believe it. Suppose you were
stone-deaf, there would be no such thing as sound to
you. A heavy hammer falling on an anvil would
indeed shake the air violently, but since this air when
it reached your ear would find a useless instrument,
it could not play upon it. A nd it is this play on the
drum of your ear and the nerves within it speaking
to your brain which makes sound. Therefore, if all
creatures on or around the earth were without ears or
nerves of hearing, there would be no instruments on
which to play, and consequently there would be no
such thing as sound. This proves that two things
are needed in order that we may hear. First, the
outside movement which plays on our hearing instru-
ment ; and, secondly, the hearing instrument itself.
First, then, let us try to understand what happens
outside our ears. Take a poker and tie a piece of
string to it, and holding the ends of the string to your
ears, strike the poker against the fender. You will
hear a very loud sound, for the blow will set all the
particles of the poker quivering, and this movement
128 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
will pass right along the string to the drum of your
ear and play upon it.
Now take the string away from your ears, and hold
it with your teeth. Step your ears tight, and strike
the poker once more against the fender. You will
hear the sound quite as loudly and clearly as you did
before, but this time the drum of your ear has not
been agitated. How, then, has the sound been pro-
duced ? In this case, the quivering movement has
passed through your teeth into the bones of your head,
and from them into the nerves, and so produced sound
in your brain. And now, as a final experiment, fasten
the string to the mantelpiece, and hit it again against
the fender. How much feebler the sound is this time,
and how much sooner it stops ! Yet still it reaches
you, for the movement has come this time across the
air to the drum of your ear.
Here we are back again in the land of invisible
workers ! We have all been listening and hearing
ever since we were babies, but have we ever made any
picture to ourselves of how sound comes to us right
across a room or a field, when we stand at one end
and the person who calls is at the other ?
Since we have studied the " aerial ocean," we know
that the air filling the space between us, though in-
visible, is something very real, and now all we have to
do is to understand exactly how the movement crosses
this air.
This we shall do most readily by means of an
experiment made by Dr. Tyndall in his lectures on
Sound. I have here a number of boxwood balls
resting in a wooden tray which has a bell hung at the
THE VOICES OF NATURE. 129
end of it. I am going to take the end ball and roll it
sharply against the rest, and then I want you to
notice carefully what happens. See ! the ball at the
other end has flown oft" and hit the bell, so that you
hear it ring. Yet 1the other balls remain where they
were before. Why is this ? It is because each of the
balls, as it was knocked forwards, had one in front of
it to stop it and make it bound back again, but the
last one was free to move on. When I threw this ball
from my hand against the others, the one in front of it
moved, and hitting the third ball, bounded back
again ; the third did the same to the fourth, the fourth
to the fifth, and so on to the end of the line. Each
ball thus came back to its place, but it passed the
shock on to the last ball, and the ball to the bell. If I
now put the balls close up to the bell, and repeat the
experiment, you still hear the sound, for the last ball
shakes the bell as if it were a ball in front of it.
Now imagine these balls to be atoms of air, and the
bell your ear. If I clap my hands and so hit the air
in front of them, each air-atom hits the next just as
the balls did, and though it comes back to its place,
it passes the shock on along the whole line to the
atom touching the drum of your ear, and so you
K
130 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
receive a blow. But a curious thing happens in the
air which you cannot notice in the balls. You must
remember that air is elastic, just as if there were
springs between the atoms as in the diagram, Fig. 31,
and so when any shock knocks the atoms forward,
several of them can be crowded together before they
push on those in front. Then, as soon as they have
passed the shock on, they rebound and begin to
separate again, and so swing to and fro till they
come to rest. Meanwhile the second set will go
through just the same movements, and will spring
apart as soon as they have passed the shock on to a
third set, and so you will have one set of crowded
Fig. 31-
atoms and one set of separated atoms alternately all
along the line, and the same set will never be crowded
two instants together.
You may see an excellent example of this in a
luggage train in a railway station, when the trucks are
left to bump each other till they stop. You will see
three or four trucks knock together, then they will
pass the shock on to the four in front, while they
themselves bound back and separate as far as their
chains will let them : the next four trucks will do the
same, and so a kind of wave of crowded trucks passes
on to the end of the train, and they bump to and fro
till the whole comes to a standstill. Try to imagine a
THE VOICES OF NATURE. 131
movement like this going on in the line of air-atoms,
Fig. 31, the drum of your ear being at the end B.
Those which are crowded together at that end will
hit -on the drum of your ear and drive the membrane
which covers it inVards ; then instantly the wave will
change, these atoms will bound back, and the mem-
brane will recover itself again, but only to receive a
second blow as the atoms are driven forwards again,
and so the membrane will be driven in and out till the
air has settled down.
This you see is quite different to the waves of light
which move in crests and hollows. Indeed, it is not
Fig. 32-
what we usually understand by a wave at all, but
a set of crowdings and partings of the atoms of air
which follow each other rapidly across the air. A
crowding of atoms is called a condensation, and a
parting is called a rarefaction, and when we speak of
the length of a wave of sound, we mean the distance
between two condensations, a a Fig. 32, or between
two rarefactions, b b.
Although each atom of air moves a very little way
forwards and then back, yet, as a long row of atoms
may be crowded together before they begin to part, a
wave is often very long. When a man talks in an
ordinary bass voice, he makes sound-waves from 8 to
K 2
13? THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
12 feet long ; a woman's voice makes shorter waves,
from 2 to 4 feet long, and consequently the tone is
higher, as we shall presently explain.
And now I hope that some one is anxious to ask
why, when I clap my hands, anyone behind me or at
the side, can hear it as well or nearly as well as you
who are in front. This is because I give a shock to
the air all round my hands, and waves go out on~ all
sides, making as it were globes of crowdings and
partings widening and widening away from the clap
as circles widen on a pond. Thus the waves travel
behind me, above me, and on all sides, until they hit
the walls, the ceiling, and the floor of the room, and
wherever you happen to be, they hit upon your ear.
If you can picture to yourself these waves spreading
out in all directions, you will easily see why sound
grows fainter at the distance. Just close round my
hands when I clap them, there is a small quantity of
air, and so the shock I give it is very violent, but as
the sound-waves spread on all sides they have more
and more air to move, and so the air-atoms are
shaken less violently and strike with less force on
your ear.
If we can prevent the sound-wave from spreading,
then the sound is not weakened. The Frenchman Biot
found that a low whisper could be heard distinctly for
a distance of half a mile through a tube, because the
waves could not spread beyond the small column of
air. But unless you speak into a small space of some
kind, you cannot prevent the waves going out from
you in all directions.
Try and imagine that you see these waves spreading
THE VOICES OF NATURE 133
all round me now and hitting on your ears as they
pass, then on the ears of those behind you, and on
and on in widening globes till they reach the wall.
What will happen when they get there ? If the wall
were thin, as a wdbden partition is, they would shake
it, and it again would shake the air on the other side,
and so anyone in the next room would have the
sound of my voice brought to their ear.
But something more will happen. In any case
the sound-waves hitting against the wall will bound
back from it just as a ball bounds back when thrown
against anything, and so another set of sound-waves
reflected from the wall will come back across the
room. If these waves come to your ear so quickly that
they mix with direct waves, they help to make the
sound louder. For instance, if I say " Ha," you hear
that sound louder in this room than you would in the
open air, for the " Ha " from my mouth and a second
" Ha " from the wall come to your ear so instantane-
ously that they make one sound. This is why you
can often hear better at the far end of a church when
you stand against a screen or a wall, than when you
are half-way up the building nearer to the speaker,
because near the wall the reflected waves strike
strongly on your ear and make the sound louder.
Sometimes, when the sound comes from a great
explosion, these reflected waves are so strong that
they are able to break glass. In the explosion of
gunpowder in St. John's Wood, many houses in the
back streets had their windows broken ; for the sound-
waves bounded off at angles from the walls and struck
back upon them.
134 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Now, suppose the wall were so far behind you that
the reflected sound-waves only hit upon your ear after
those coming straight from me had died away ; then
you would hear the sound twice, " Ha " from me and
" Ha " from the wall, and here you have an echo,
" Ha, ha." In order for this to happen in ordinary
air, you must be standing at least 56 feet away from
the point from which the waves are reflected, for then
the second blow will come one-tenth of a second -after
the first one, and that is long enough for you to feel
them separately.* Miss. C. A. Martineau tells a story
of a dog which was terribly frightened by an echo.
Thinking another dog was barking, he ran forward to
meet him, and was very much astonished, when, as he
came nearer the wall, the echo ceased. I myself once
knew a case of this kind, and my dog, when he could
find no enemy, ran back barking, till he was a certain
distance off, and then the echo of course began again.
He grew so furious at last that we had great diffi-
culty in preventing him from flying at a strange man
who happened to be passing at the time.
Sometimes, in the mountains, walls of rock rise at
some distance one behind another, and then each one
will send back its echo a little later than the rock before
it, so that the " Ha " which you give will come back
as a peal of laughter. There is an echo in Woodstock
Park which repeats the word twenty times. Again
sometimes, as in the Alps, the sound-waves in coming
* Sound travels 1 120 feet in a second, in air of ordinary temperature,
and therefore 112 feet in the tenth of a second. Therefore the journey
of 56 feet beyond you to reach the wall and 56 feet to return, will
occupy the sound-wave one-tenth of a second and separate the two
sounds.
THE VOICES OF NATURE. 135
back rebound from mountain to mountain and are
driven backwards and forwards, becoming fainter and
fainter till they die away ; these echoes are very
beautiful.
If you are now*a.ble to picture to yourselves one set
of waves going to the wall, and another set returning
and crossing them, you will be ready to understand
something of that very difficult question, How is it
that we can hear many different sounds at one time
and tell them apart ?
Have you ever watched the sea when its surface is
much ruffled, and noticed how, besides the big waves
of the tide, there are numberless smaller ripples made
by the wind blowing the surface of the water, or the
oars of a boat dipping in it, or even rain-drops falling ?
If you have done this you will have seen that all
these waves and ripples cross each other, and you can
follow any one ripple with your eye as it goes on its
way undisturbed by the rest. Or you may make
beautiful crossing and recrossing ripples on a pond
by throwing in two stones at a little distance from
each other, and here too you can follow any one wave
on to the edge of the pond.
Now just in this way the waves of sound, in their
manner of moving, cross and recross each other. You
will remember too, that different sounds make waves
of different lengths, just as the tide makes a long wave
and the rain-drops tiny ones. Therefore each sound
falls with its own peculiar wave upon your ear, and
you can listen to that particular wave just as you look
at one particular ripple, and then the sound becomes
clear to you.
136 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
All this is what is going on outside your ear, but
what is happening in your ear itself ? How do these
blows of the air speak to your brain ? By means of
the following diagram, Fig. 33, we wil1 tr7 to under'
stand roughly our beautiful hearing instrument, the
ear.
Fig. 33-
a, Concha, or shell of the ear. b c, Auditory canal, c, Tympanic
membrane stretched across the drum of the ear. E, Eustachian tube.
d, e, f, ear-bones : d, the hammer, malleus ; e, the anvil, incus ; f, the
stirrup, stapes. L, Labyrinth, g, Cochlea, or internal spiral shell.
A, One of the little windows ; the other is covered by the stirrup.
First, I want you to notice how beautifully the out-
side shell, or concha as it is called (a), is curved round
so that any movement of the air coming to it from
the front is caught in it and reflected into the hole of
the ear. Put your finger round your ear and feel how
the gristly part is curved towards the front of your
THE VOICES OF NATURE. 137
head. This concha makes a curve much like the
curve a deaf man makes with his hand behind his ear
to catch the sound. Animals often have to raise their
ears to catch the sound well, but ours stand always
ready. When the air-waves have passed in at the
hole of your ear, they move all the air in the passage,
be, which is called the auditory, or hearing, canal.
This canal is lined with little hairs to keep out insects
and dust, and the wax which collects in it serves the
same purpose. But if too much wax collects, it pre-
vents the air from playing well upon the drum, and
therefore makes you deaf. Across the end of this
canal, at c, a membrane or skin called the tympanum
is stretched, like the parchment over the head of a
drum, and it is this membrane which moves to and
fro as the air-waves strike on it. A violent box
on the ear will sometimes break this delicate mem-
brane, or injure it, and therefore it is very wrong to
hit a person violently on the ear.
On the other side of this membrane, inside the ear,
there is air, which fills the whole of the inner chamber
and the tube E, which runs down into the throat behind
the nose, and is called the Eustachian tube after the
man who discovered it. This tube is closed at the
end by a valve which opens and shuts. If you breathe
out strongly, and then shut your mouth and swallow,
you will hear a little " click " in your ear. This is
because in swallowing you draw the air out of the
Eustachian tube and so draw in the membrane c, which
clicks as it goes back again. But unless you do this
the tube and the whole chamber cavity behind the
membrane remains full of air.
138 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Now, as this membrane is driven to and fro by the
sound-waves, it naturally shakes the air in the cavity
behind it, and it also sets moving three most curious
little bones. The first of these bones d is fastened
to the middle of the drumhead so that it moves to
and fro every time this membrane quivers. The head
of this bone fits into a hole in the next bone e, the
anvil, and is fastened to it by muscles, so as to drag it
along with it ; but, the muscles being elastic, it can
draw back a little from the anvil, and so give it a blow
each time it comes back. This anvil, e is in. its turn
very firmly fixed to the little bone /, shaped like a
stirrup, which you see at the end of the chain.
This stirrup rests upon a curious body L, which
looks in the diagram like a snail-shell with tubes
coming out of it. This body, which is called the
labyrinth, is made of bone, but it has two little
windows in it, one h covered only by a membrane,
while the other has the head of the stirrup f resting
upon it.
Now, with a little attention you will understand
that when the air in the canal be shakes the drum-
head c to and fro, this membrane must drag with it
the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup. Each time
the drum goes in, the hammer will hit the anvil, and
drive the stirrup against the little window ; every time
it goes out it will draw the hammer, the anvil, and the
stirrup out again, ready for another blow. Thus the
stirrup is always playing upon this little window.
Meanwhile, inside the bony labyrinth L there is a
fluid like water, and along the little passages are
very fine hairs, which wave to and fro like reeds ; and
THE VOICES OF NATURE. 139
whenever the stirrup hits at the little window, the
fluid moves these hairs to and fro, and they irritate
the ends of a nerve i, and this nerve carries the mes-
sage to your brain. There are also some curious little
stones called otolrr.hs, lying in some parts of this fluid,
and they, by their rolling to and fro, probably keep up
the motion and prolong the sound.
You must not imagine we have explained here the
many intricacies which occur in the ear ; I can only
hope to give you a rough idea of it, so that you may
picture to yourselves the air-waves moving (as in
Fig. 32) backwards and forward in the canal of your
ear, then the tympanum vibrating to and fro, the
hammer hitting the anvil, the stirrup knocking at the
little window, the fluid waving the fine hairs and rolling
the tiny stones, the ends of the nerve quivering, and
then (how we know not) the brain hearing the message.
Is not this wonderful, going on as it does at every
sound you hear ? And yet this is not all, for inside
that curled part of the labyrinth gy which looks like a
snail-shell and is called the cochlea, there is a most
wonderful apparatus of more than three thousand fine
stretched filaments or threads, and these act like the
strings of a harp, and make you hear different tones.
If you go near to a harp or a piano, and sing any
particular note very loudly, you will hear this note
sounding in the instrument, because you will set just
that particular string quivering, which gives the note
you sang. The air-waves set going by your voice
touch that string, because it can quiver in time with
them, while none of the other strings can do so. Now,
just in the same way the tJxiy instrument of three
140 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE,
thousand strings in your ear, which is called Corti's
organ, vibrates to the air-waves, one thread to one set
of waves, and another to another, and according to
the fibre that quivers, will be the sound you hear.
Here then at last, we see how nature speaks to us.
All the movements going on outside, however violent
and varied they may be, cannot of themselves make
sound. But here, in the little space behind the drum
of our ear, the air-waves are sorted and sent on to
our brain, where they speak to us as sound.
But why then do we not hear all sounds as music ?
Why are some mere noise, and others clear musical
notes ? This depends entirely upon whether the sound-
waves come quickly and regularly, or by an irregular
succession of shocks. For example, when a load of
stones is being shot out of a cart, you hear only a long,
continuous noise, because the stones fall irregularly,
some quicker, some slower, here a number together,
and there two or three stragglers by themselves ; each
of these different shocks comes to your ear and makes
a confused, noisy sound. But if you run a stick very
quickly along a paling, you will hear a sound very
like a musical note. This is because the rods of the
paling are all at equal distances one from the other,
and so the shocks fall quickly one after another at
regular intervals upon your ear. Any quick and
regular succession of sounds makes a note, even
though it may be an ugly one. The squeak of a slate
pencil along a slate, and the shriek of a railway
whistle are not pleasant, but they are real notes which
you could copy on a violin.
THE VOICES OF NATURE. 141
I have here a simple apparatus which I have had made
to show you that rapid and regular shocks produce a
natural musical note. This wheel (Fig. 34) is milled at
the edge like a shilling, and when I turn it rapidly so
that it strikes against the edge of the card fixed
behind it, the notches strike in rapid succession, and
produce a musical sound. We can also prove by
this experiment that the quicker the blows are, the
higher the note will be. I pull the string gently at
Fig- 34-
first, and then quicker and quicker, and you will
notice that the note grows sharper and sharper,
till the movement begins to slacken, when the note
goes down again. This is because the more rapidly
the air is hit, the shorter are the waves it makes, and
short waves give a high note.
Let us examine this with two tuning-forks. I
strike one, and it sounds C, the third space in the
treble ; I strike the other, and it sounds A, the first
leger line, five notes above the C. I have drawn on this
142
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
diagram (Fig. 35), an imaginary picture of these two
sets of waves. You see that the A fork makes three
waves, while the C fork makes only two. Why is
this ? Because the prong of the A fork moves three
times backwards and forwards while the prong of the
C fork only moves twice ; therefore the A fork does
not crowd so many atoms together before it draws
back, and the waves are shorter. These two notes, C
and A, are a fifth apart ; if we had two forks, of which
Fig- 35-
one went twice as fast as the other, making four
waves while the other made two, then the notes of
these forks would be an octave higher.
So we see that all the sounds we hear, — the warning
noises which keep us from harm, the beautiful musical
notes with all the tunes and harmonies that delight
us, even the power of hearing the voices of those we
love, and learning from one another that which each
can tell, — all these depend upon the invisible waves of
air, even as the pleasures of light depend on the waves
of ether. It is by these sound-waves that nature
THE VOICES OF NA TURE. 143
speaks to us, and in all her movements there is a
reason why her voice is sharp or tender, loud or
gentle, awful or loving. Take for instance the brook
we spoke of at the beginning of the lecture. Why
does it sing so sweetly, while the wide deep river
makes no noise ? Because the little brook eddies and
purls round the stones, hitting them as it passes ;
sometimes the water falls down a large stone, and
strikes against the water below ; or sometimes it
grates the little pebbles together as they lie in its bed.
Each of these blows makes a small globe of sound-
waves, which spread and spread till they fall on your
ear, and because they fall quickly and regularly, they
make a low, musical note. We might almost fancy
that the brook wished to show how joyfully it flows
along, recalling Shelley's beautiful lines : —
" Sometimes it fell
Among the moss with hollow harmony,
Dark and profound ; now on the polished stones
It danced ; like childhood laughing as it went."
The broad deep river, on the contrary, makes none
of these cascades and commotions. The only places
against which it rubs are the banks and the bottom ;
and here you can sometimes hear it grating the par-
ticles of sand against each other if you listen very
carefully. But there is another reason why falling
water makes a sound, and often even a loud roaring
noise in the cataract and in the breaking waves of the
sea. You do not only hear the water dashing against
the rocky ledges or on the beach, you also hear the
bursting of innumerable little bladders of air which
are contained in the water. As each of these bladders
144 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
is dashed on the ground, it explodes and sends
sound-waves to your ear. Listen to the sea some
day when the waves are high and stormy, and you
cannot fail to be struck by the irregular bursts of
sound.
The waves, however, do not only roar as they dash
on the ground ; have you never noticed now they seem
to scream as they draw back down the beach ? Termy-
son calls it,
'"The scream of the madden'd beach dragged down by the wave ;"
and it is caused by the stonec grating against each
other as the waves drag them down. Dr. Tyndall
tells us that it is possible to know the size of the
stones by the kind of noise they make. If they
are large, it is a confused noise ; when smaller, a
kind of scream ; while a gravelly beach will produce a
mere hiss.
Who could be dull by the side of a brook, a water-
fall, or the sea, while he can listen for sounds like these,
and picture to himself how they are being made ? You
may discover a number of other causes of sound made
by water, if you once pay attention to them.
Nor is it only water that sings to us. Listen to
the wind, how sweetly it sighs among the leaves.
There we hear it, because it rubs the leaves together,
and they produce the sound-waves. But walk against
the wind some day and you can hear it whistling in
your own ear, striking against the curved cup, and
then setting up a succession of waves in the hearing
canal of the ear itself.
Why should it sound in one particular tone when
THE VOICES OF NA TURE.
145
Fig. 36.
all kinds of sound-waves must be surging about in the
disturbed air ?
This glass jar will answer our question roughly. If
I strike my tuning-fork and hold it over the jar, you
cannot hear it, because the sound is feeble, but if I
fill the jar gently with water, when the water rises
to a certain point you will hear a loud clear note,
because the waves of
air in the jar are ex-
actly the right length
to answer to the note
of the fork. If I now
blow across the mouth
of the jar you hear
the same note, showing
that a cavity of a par-
ticular length will only
sound to the waves
which fit it. Do you
see now the reason
why pan-pipes give different sounds, or even the hole
at the end of a common key when you blow across
it ? Here is a subject you will find very interesting
if you will read about it, for I can only just suggest
it to you here. But now you will see that the canal
of your ear also answers only to certain waves, and
so the wind sings in your ear with a real if not a
musical note.
Again, on a windy night have you not heard the
wind sounding a wild, sad note down a valley ? Why
do you think it sounds so much louder and more
musical here than when it is blowing across the plain ?
146 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Because the air in the valley will only answer to a
certain set of waves, and, like the pan-pipe, gives a
particular note as the wind blows across it, and these
waves go up and down the valley in regular pulses,
making a wild howl. You may hear the same in the
chimney, or in the keyhole ; all these are waves set up
in the hole across which the wind blows. Even the
music in the shell which you hold to your ear is made
by the air in the shell pulsating to and fro. And how
do you think it is set going ? By the throbbing of the
veins in your own ear, which causes the air in the shell
to vibrate.
Another grand voice of nature is the thundert
People often have a vague idea that thunder is pro-
duced by the clouds knocking together, which is very
absurd, if you remember that clouds are but water-
dust. The most probable explanation of thunder is
much more beautiful than this. You will remember
from Lecture III. that heat forces the air-atoms apart.
Now, when a flash of lightning crosses the sky it
suddenly expands the air all round it as it passes, so
that globe after globe of sound-waves is formed at
every point across which the lightning travels. Now
light, you remember, travels so wonderfully rapidly
(192,000 miles in a second) that a flash of lightning is
seen by us and is over in a second, even when it is two
or three miles long. But sound comes slowly, taking
five seconds to travel half a mile, and so all the sound-
waves at each point of the two or three miles fall on
our ear one after the other, and make the rolling
thunder. Sometimes the roll is made even longer
o
by the echo, as the sound-waves are reflected to and
THE VOICES OF NATURE. 147
fro by the clouds on their road; and in the mountains
we know how the peals echo and re-echo till they die
away.
We might filLup far more than an hour in speaking
of those voices which come to us as nature is at work.
Think of the patter of the rain, how each drop as it
hits the pavement sends circles of sound-waves out on
all sides ; or the loud report which falls on the ear of
the Alpine traveller as the glacier cracks on its way
down the valley ; or the mighty boom of the avalanche
as the snow slides in huge masses off the side of the
lofty mountain. Each and all of these create their
sound-waves, large or small, loud or feeble, which
make their way to your ear, and become converted
into sound.
We have, however, only time now just to glance at
life-sounds, of which there are so many around us.
Do you know why we hear a buzzing, as the gnat, the
bee, or the cockchafer fly past ? Not by the beating
of their wings against the air, as many people imagine,
and as is really the case with humming birds, but by
the scraping of the under-part of their hard wings
against the edges of their hind-legs, which are toothed
like a saw. The more rapidly their wings move the
stronger the grating sound becomes, and you will now
see why in hot, thirsty weather the buzzing of the gnat
is so loud, for the more thirsty and the more eager he
becomes, the wilder his movements will be.
Some insects, like the drone-fly (Eristalis tenax),
force the air through the tiny air-passages in their
sides, and as these passages are closed by little plates,
the plates vibrate to and fro and make sound-waves.
L 2
143 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Again, what are those curious sounds you may hear
sometimes if you rest your head on a trunk in the
forest ? They are made by the timber-boring beetles,
which saw the wood with their jaws and make a noise
in the world, even though they have no voice.
All these life-sounds are made by creatures which
do not sing or speak ; but the sweetest sounds of all
in the woods are the voices of the birds. All voice-
sounds are made by two elastic bands or cushions,
called vocal chords, stretched across the end of the
tube or windpipe through which we breathe, and as
we send the air through them we tighten or loosen
them as we will, and so make them vibrate quickly or
slowly and make sound-waves of different lengths.
But if you will try some day in the woods you will
find that a bird can beat you over and over again in
the length of his note ; when you are out of breath
and forced to stop he will go on with his merry trill
as fresh and clear as if he had only just begun. This
is because birds can draw air into the whole of their
body, and they have a large stock laid up in the folds
of their windpipe, and besides this the air-chamber
behind their elastic bands or vocal chords has two
compartments where we have only one, and the second
compartment has special muscles by which they can
open and shut it, and so prolong the trill.
Only think what a rapid succession of waves must
quiver through the air as a tiny lark agitates his little
throat and pours forth a volume of song ! The next
time you are in the country in the spring, spend half
an hour listening to him, and try and picture to
yourself how that little being is moving all the atmo-
THE VOICES OF NATURE.
149
sphere round him. Then dream for a little while about
sound, what it is, how marvellously it works outside in
the world, and inside in your ear and brain ; and then,
when you go back to work again, you will hardly
deny that it is well worth while to listen sometimes to
the voices of nature and ponder how it is that we hear
them.
ISO
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
LECTURE VII.
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE.
HEN the dreary
days of winter
and the early damp days
of spring are passing away,
and the warm bright sun-
shine has begun to pour down upon the grassy paths
of the wood, who does not love to go out and bring
home posies of violets, and bluebells, and prim-
roses ? We wander from one plant to another,
picking a flower here and a bud there, as they nestle
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE. 151
among the green leaves, and we make our rooms
sweet and gay with the tender and lovely blossoms.
But tell me, did you ever stop to think, as you added
flower after flovyer to your nosegay, how the plants
which bear them have been building up their green
leaves and their fragile buds during the last few
weeks ? If you had visited the same spot a month
before, a few last year's leaves, withered and dead,
would have been all that you would have found. And
now the whole wood is carpeted with delicate green
leaves, with nodding bluebells, and pale-yellow prim-
roses, as if a fairy had touched the ground and covered
it with fresh young life. And our fairies have been at
work here ; the fairy " Life," of whom we know so little,
though we love her so well and rejoice in the beautiful
forms she can produce ; the fairy sunbeams with their
invisible influence kissing the tiny shoots and warming
them into vigour and activity ; the gentle rain-drops,
the balmy air, all these have been working, while you
or I passed heedlessly by ; and now we come and
gather the flowers they have made, and too often
forget to wonder how these lovely forms have sprung
up around us.
Our work during the next hour will be to consider
this question. You were asked last week to bring
with you to-day a primrose-flower, or a whole plant if
possible, in order the better to follow out with me the
" Life of a Primrose." * This is a very different kind
of subject from those of our former lectures. There
* To enjoy this lecture, the child ought to have, if possible, a prim-
rose-flower, an almond soaked for a few minutes in hot water, and a
piece of orange
152 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
we took world-wide histories ; we travelled up to
the sun, or round the earth, or into the air ; now I
only ask you to fix your attention on one little plant,
and inquire into its history.
There is a beautiful little poem by Tennyson, which
says —
" Flower in the crannied wall,
I pluck you out of the crannies ;
Hold you here, root and all, in my hand,
Little flower ; but if I could understand
What you are, root and all, and all in all,
I should know what God and man is."
We cannot learn all about this little flower, but we
can learn enough to understand that it has a real
separate life of its own, well worth knowing. For
a plant is born, breathes, sleeps, feeds, and digests
just as truly as an animal does, though in a dif-
ferent way. It works hard both for itself to get its
food, and for others in making the air pure and fit
for animals to breathe. It often lays by provision
for the winter. It sends young plants out, as parents
send their children, to fight for themselves in the
world ; and then, after living sometimes to a good old
age, it dies, and leaves its place to others.
We will try to follow out something of this life to-
day ; and first, we will begin with the seed.
I have here a packet of primrose-seeds, but they
are so small that we cannot examine them ; so I have
also had given to each one of you an almond-kernel,
which is the seed of the almond-tree, and which has
been soaked, so that it splits in half easily. From
this we can learn about seeds in general, and then
apply it to the primrose.
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE,
153
Fig. 37-
If you peel the two skins off your almond-seed (the
thick, brown, outside skin, and the thin, transparent
one under it), the two halves of the almond will
slip apart quite easily . One of these
halves will have a small dent at the
pointed end, while in the other half
you will see a little lump, which fitted
into the dent when the two halves were
joined. This little lump (a b, Fig. 37)
is a young plant, and the two halves of
the almond are the seed-leaves which
hold the plantlet, and feed it till it
can feed itself. The rounded end of the „ ,, , ,
Half an almond,
plantlet (b) sticking out of the almond, showing the
is the beginning of the root, while the
other end (a) will in time become the
stem. If you look carefully, you will siem' /' D?
J J > J nmg of j-oot.
see two little points at this end, which
are the tips of future leaves. Only think how minute
this plantlet must be in a primrose, where the whole
seed is scarcely larger than a grain of sand ! Yet
in this tiny plantlet lies hid the life of the future
plant.
When a seed falls into the ground, so long as the
earth is cold and dry, it lies like a person in a trance,
as if it were dead ; but as soon as the warm, damp
spring comes, and the busy little sun-waves pierce
down into the earth, they wake up the plantlet, and
make it bestir itself. They agitate to and fro the
particles of matter in this tiny body, and cause them
to seek out for other particles to seize and join to
themselves.
plantlet.
a, rudiment of
stem, b, begin-
154
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
But these new particles cannot come in at the
roots, for the seed has none ; nor through the leaves,
for they have not yet grown up ; and so the plantlet
begins by helping itself to the store of food laid up in
the thick seed-leaves in which it is buried. Here it
finds starch, oils, sugar, and substances called albu-
minoids,— the sticky matter which you notice in
wheat-grains when you chew them is one of the
albuminoids. This food is all ready for the plantlet
to use, and it sucks it in, and works itself into a
young plant with tiny roots at one end, and a growing
shoot, with leaves, at the other.
But how does it grow ? What makes it become
larger ? To answer this, you must look at the second
thing I asked you to bring — a piece of orange. If
you take the skin off a
piece of orange, you will
see inside a number of long-
shaped transparent bags,
full of juice. These we call
cells, and the flesh of all
Fig. 38-
J oicy cells in a piece of orange.
plants and animals is made up of cells like these,
only of various shapes. In the pith of elder they are
round, large, and easily seen (a, Fig. 39) ; in the
stalks of plants they are long, and lap over each
other (b, Fig. 39), so as to give the stalk strength to
stand upright. Sometimes many cells growing one
on the top of the other, break into one tube and make
vessels. But whether large or small, they are all bags
growing one against the other.
In the orange-pulp these cells contain only sweet
juice, but in other parts of the orange-tree or any
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE.
155
other plant they contain a sticky substance with
little grains in it. This substance is called "proto-
plasm," or the first form of life, for it is alive and
Fig- 39-
Plant-cells.
a, round cells in pith of elder.
b, long cells in fibres of a plant.
active, and under a
microscope you may-
see in a living plant
streams of the little
grains moving about
in the cells.
Now we are pre-
pared to explain how
our plant grows. Ima-
gine the tiny primrose
plantlet to be made up
of cells rilled with
active living proto-
plasm, which drinks in
starch and other food
from the seed-leaves.
In this way each cell will grow too full for its skin,
and then the protoplasm divides into two parts
and builds up a wall between them, and so one cell
becomes two. Each of these two cells again breaks
up into two more, and so the plant grows larger and
larger, till by the time it has used up all the food in
the seed-leaves, it has sent roots covered with fine
hairs downwards into the earth, and a shoot with
beginnings of leaves up into the air.
Sometimes the seed-leaves themselves come above
ground, as in the mustard-plant, and sometimes they
are left empty behind, while the plantlet shoots
through them.
156 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
And now the plant can no longer afford to be idle
and live on prepared food. It must work for itself.
Until now it has been taking in the same kind of
food that you and I do ; for we too find many seeds
very pleasant to eat and useful to nourish us. But
now this store is exhausted. Upon what then is the
plant to live ? It is cleverer than we are in this, for
while we cannot live unless we have food which has
once been alive, plants can feed upon gases and water
and mineral matter only. Think over the substances
you can eat or drink, and you will find they are nearly
all made of things which have been alive : meat, vege-
tables, bread, beer, wine, milk ; all these are made from
living matter, and though you do take in such things
as water and salt, and even iron and phosphorus,
these would be quite useless if you did not eat and
drink prepared food which your body can work up
into living matter.
But the plant, as soon as it has roots and leaves,
begins to make living matter out of matter that has
never been alive. Through all the little hairs of its
roots it sucks in water, and in this water are dissolved
more or less of the salts of ammonia, phosphorus,
sulphur, iron, lime, magnesia, and even silica, or flint.
In all kinds of earth there is some iron, and we shall
see presently that this is very important to the plant.
Suppose, then, that our primrose has begun to drink
in water at its roots. How is it to get this water up
into the stem and leaves, seeing that the whole plant
is made of closed bags or cells ? It does it in a very
curious way, which you can prove for yourselves.
Whenever two fluids, one thicker than the other, such
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE. 157
as treacle and water for example, are only separated
by a skin or any porous substance, they will always
mix, the thinner one oozing through the skin into
the thicker one. If you tie a piece of bladder over a
glass tube, half fill the tube with treacle, and then let
the covered end rest in a bottle of water, in a few
hours the water will get in to the treacle and the
mixture will rise up in the tube till it flows over the
top. Now, the saps and juices of plants are thicker
than water, so, directly the water enters the cells at
the root it oozes up into the cells above, and mixes
with the sap. Then the matter in those cells becomes
thinner than in the cells above, so it too oozes up,
and in this way cell by cell the water is pumped up
into the leaves.
When it gets there it finds our old friends the sun-
beams hard at work. If you have ever tried to grow
a plant in a cellar, you will know that in the dark its
leaves remain white and sickly. It is only in the
sunlight that a beautiful delicate green tint is given
to them, and you will remember from Lecture II. that
this green tint shows that the leaf has used all the
sun-waves except those which make you see green ;
but why should it do this only when it has grown up
in the sunshine ?
The reason is this : when the sunbeam darts into
the leaf and sets all its particles quivering, it divides
the protoplasm into two kinds, collected into different
cells. One of these remains white, but the other kind,
near the surface, is altered by the sunlight and by the
help of the iron brought in by the water. This par-
ticular kind of protoplasm, which is called "chloro-
158 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
phyll," will have nothing to do with the green waves
and throws them back, so that every little grain of this
protoplasm looks green and gives the leaf its green
colour.
It is these little green cells that by the help of the
sun-waves digest the food of the plant and turn the
water and gases into useful sap and juices. We saw
in Lecture III. that when we breathe-in air, we use
up the oxygen in it and send back out of our mouths
carbonic acid, which is a gas made of oxygen and
carbon.
Now, every living thing wants carbon to feed upon,
but plants cannot take it in by itself, because carbon
is solid (the blacklead in your pencils is pure carbon),
and a plant cannot eat, it can only drink-in fluids and
gases. Here the little green cells help it out of its
difficulty. They take in or absorb out of the air the
carbonic acid gas which we have given out of our
mouths, and then by the help of the sun-waves they
tear the carbon and oxygen apart. Most of the oxygen
Fig> 4a they throw back into
the air for us to use, but
the carbon they keep.
If you will take some
fresh laurel-leaves and
put them into a tumbler
of water turned upside-
down in a saucer of
Oxygen-bubbles rising from laurel- water, and Set the
leaves in water. tumbler in the sunshine,
you will soon see little bright bubbles rising up
and clinging to the glass. These are bubbles of
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE. 1 59
oxygen gas, and they tell you that they have been
set free by the green cells which have torn from them
the carbon of the carbonic acid in the water.
But what becomes of the carbon ? And what use
is made of the water which we have kept waiting all
this time in the leaves ? Water, you already know
is made of hydrogen and oxygen ; but perhaps you
will be surprised when I tell you that starch, sugar,
and oil, which we get from plants, are nothing more
than hydrogen and oxygen in different quantities
joined to carbon.
It is very difficult at first to picture such a black
thing as carbon making part of delicate leaves and
beautiful flowers, and still more of pure white sugar.
But we can make an experiment by which we can
draw the hydrogen and oxygen out of common loaf
sugar, and then you will see the carbon stand out in
all its blackness. I have here a plate with a heap of
white sugar in it. I pour upon it first some hot
water to melt and warm
it, and then some strong
sulphuric acid. This acid
does nothing more than
simply draw the hydrogen
and oxygen out. See ! in r ,
J ° Carbon rising up from white sugar.
a few moments a black
mass of carbon begins to rise, all of which has come
out of the white sugar you saw just now.* You see,
* The common dilute sulphuric acid of commerce is not strong enough
for this experiment, and any child who wants to get pure sulphuric
acid must take some elder person with him, otherwise the chemist will
not sell it to him. Great care must be taken in using it, as it burns
everything it touches.
160 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
then, that from the whitest substance in plants we
can get this black carbon ; and in truth, one-half of
the dry part of every plant is composed of it.
Now look at my plant again, and tell me if we
have not already found a curious history ? Fancy
that you see the water creeping in at the roots, oozing
up from cell to cell till it reaches the leaves, and there
meeting the carbon which has just come out of the
air, and being worked up with it by the sun-waves
into starch, or sugar, or oils.
But meanwhile, how is new protoplasm to be
formed ? for without this active substance none of the
work can go on. Here comes into use a lazy gas
we spoke of in Lecture III. There we thought that
nitrogen was of no use except to float oxygen in the
air, but here we shall find it very useful. So far
as we know, plants cannot take up nitrogen out of
the air, but they can get it out of the ammonia which
the water brings in at their roots.
Ammonia, you will remember, is a strong-smelling
gas, made of hydrogen and nitrogen, and which is
often almost stifling near a manure-heap. When you
manure a plant you help it to get this ammonia, but
at any time it gets some from the soil and also from
the rain-drops which bring it down in the air. Out
of this ammonia the plant takes the nitrogen and
works it up with the three elements, carbon, oxygen,
and hydrogen, to make the substances called albumi-
noids, which form a large part of the food of the
plant, and it is these albuminoids which go to make
protoplasm. You will notice that while the starch
and other substances are only made of three elements,
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE. l6l
the active protoplasm is made of these three added
to a fourth, nitrogen, and it also contains phosphorus
and sulphur.
And so hour .after hour and day after day our
primrose goes on pumping up water and ammonia
from its roots to its leaves, drinking in carbonic acid
from the air, and using the sun-waves to work them
all up into food to be sent to all parts of its body.
In this way these leaves act, you see, as the stomach
of the plant, and digest its food.
Sometimes more water is drawn up into the leaves
than can be used, and then the leaf opens thousands
of little mouths in the skin of its under surface, which
let the drops out just as drops of perspiration ooze
through our skin when we are over-
heated. These little mouths, which
are called stomates (a, Fig. 42) are
made of two flattened cells, fitting
against each other. When the air
is damp and the plant has too
much water these lie open and let
it out, but when the air is dry, and 0. f
J ' Stomates of a leaf.
the plant wants to keep as much
water as it can, then they are closely shut. There
are as many as a hundred thousand of these mouths
under one apple-leaf, so you may imagine how small
they often are.
Plants which only live one year, such as migno-
nette, the sweet pea, and the poppy, take in just enough
food to supply their daily wants and to make the
seeds we shall speak of presently. Then, as soon as
their seeds are ripe their roots begin to shrivel, and
M
1 62 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
water is no longer carried up. The green cells can no
longer get food to digest, and they themselves are
broken up by the sunbeams and turn yellow, and the
plant dies.
But many plants are more industrious than the
stock and mignonette, and lay by store for another
year, and our primrose is one of these. Look at this
thick solid mass below the primrose leaves, out of
which the roots spring.* This is really the stem of
the primrose hidden underground, and all the starch,
albuminoids, &c., which the plant can spare as it
grows, are sent down into this underground stem and
stored up there, to lie quietly in the ground through
the long winter, and then when the warm spring comes
this stem begins to send out leaves for a new plant.
We have now seen how a plant springs up, feeds
itself, grows, stores up food, withers, and dies ; but we
have said nothing yet about its beautiful flowers or
how it forms its seeds. If we look down close to the
bottom of the leaves in a primrose root in spring-time,
we shall always find three or four little green buds
nestling in among the leaves, and day by day we may
see the stalk of these buds lengthening till they reach
up into the open sunshine, and then the flower opens
and shows its beautiful pale-yellow crown.
We all know that seeds are formed in the flower,
and that the seeds are necessary to grow into new
plants. But do we know the history of how they
are formed, or what is the use of the different parts
of the bud ? Let us examine them all, and then I
* See the plant in the foreground of the heading of the lecture.
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE.
163
think you will agree with me that this is not the least
wonderful part of the plant.
Remember that the seed is the one important thing,
and then notice how the flower protects it. First,
look at the outsicle green covering, which we call the
calyx. See how closely it fits in the bud, so that no
insects can creep in to gnaw the flower, nor any harm
come to it from cold or blight. Then, when the calyx
opens, notice that the yellow leaves which form the
crown or corolla, are each alternate with one of the
calyx leaves, so that anything which got past the first
covering would be stopped by the second. Lastly,
when the delicate corolla has opened out, look at
those curious yellow bags just at the top of the tube
(2 b, Fig 43). What is their use ?
Fig- 43-
The two forms of the Primrose-flower.
a, Stigma or sticky head of the seed-vessel, b, Anthers of the
stamens, c, Corolla or crown of the flower, d, Calyx or outer covering.
sv, Seed-vessel. A, Enlarged pistil, with pollen-grain resting on the
stigma and growing down to the ovule, o , Ovules.
But I fancy I see two or three little questioning
faces which seem to say, " I see no yellow bags at
M 2
1 64 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
the top of the tube." Well, I cannot tell whether
you can or not in the specimen you have in your
hand ; for one of the most curious things about prim-
rose flowers is, that some of them have these yellow
bags at the top of the tube and some of them hidden
down right in the middle. But this I can tell you :
those of you who have got no yellow bags at the top
will have a round knob there (la, Fig. 43), and" will
find the yellow bags (b) buried in the tube. Those,
on the other hand, who have the yellow bags (2 b,
Fig. 43) at the top will find the knob (a) half-way
down the tube.
Now for the use of these yellow bags, which are
called the anthers of the stamens, the stalk on which
they grow being called the filament or thread. If
you can manage to split them open you will find that
they have a yellow powder in them, called pollen, the
same as the powder which sticks to your nose when
you put it into a lily; and if you look with a magni-
fying glass at the little green knob in the centre of
the flower you will probably see some of this yellow
dust sticking on it (A, Fig. 43). We will leave it
there for a time, and examine the body called the
pistil, to which the knob belongs. Pull off the yellow
corolla (which will come off quite easily), and turn
back the green leaves. You will then see that the
knob stands on the top of a column, and at the
bottom of this column there is a round ball (sv),
which is a vessel for holding the seeds. In this
diagram (A, Fig. 43) I have drawn the whole of this
curious ball and column as if cut in half, so that we
may see what is in it. In the middle of the ball, in a
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE. 165
cluster, there are a number of round transparent little
bodies, looking something like round green orange-
cells full of juice. They are really cells full of proto-
plasm, with one h'ttle dark spot in each of them, which
by-and-by is to make our little plantlet that we found
in the seed.
" These, then, are seeds," you will say. Not yet ;
they are only ovules, or little bodies which may
become seeds. If they were left as they are they
would all wither and die. But those little yellow
grains of pollen, which we saw sticking to the knob at
the top, are coming down to help them. As soon as
these yellow grains touch the sticky knob or stigma,
as it is called, they throw out tubes, which grow
down the column until they reach the ovules. In
each one of these they find a tiny hole, and into
this they creep, and then they pour into the ovule all
the protoplasm from the pollen-grain which is sticking
above, and this enables it to grow into a real seed,
with a tiny plantlet inside.
This is how the plant forms its seed to bring up
new little ones next year, while the leaves and the
roots are at work preparing the necessary food.
Think sometimes when you walk in the woods, how
hard at work the little plants and big trees are, all
around you. You breathe in the nice fresh oxygen
they have been throwing out, and little think that it
is they who are making the country so fresh and
pleasant, and that while they look as if they were
doing nothing but enjoying the bright sunshine, they
are really fulfilling their part in the world by the help
of this sunshine ; earning their food from the ground ;
1 66 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
working it up ; turning their leaves where they can
best get light (and in this it is chiefly the violet sun-
waves that help them), growing, even at night, by
making new cells out of the food they have taken in
the day ; storing up for the winter ; putting out their
flowers and making their seeds, and all the while
smiling so pleasantly in quiet nooks and sunny dells
that it makes us glad to see them.
But why should the primroses have such golden
crowns ? plain green ones would protect the seed quite
as well. Ah ! now we come to a secret well worth
knowing. Look at the two primrose flowers, I and 2,
Fig. 43, p. 163, and tell me how you think the dust gets
on to the top of the sticky knob or stigma. No. 2
seems easy enough to explain, for it looks as if the
pollen could fall down easily from the stamens on to
the knob, but it cannot fall up, as it would have to do
in No. I. Now the curious truth is, as Mr. Darwin
has shown, that neither of these flowers can get the
dust easily for themselves, but of the two No. I has
the least difficulty.
Look at a withered primrose, and see how it holds
its head down, and after a little while the yellow
crown falls off. It is just about as it is falling that
the anthers or bags of the stamens burst open, and
then, in No. I (Fig. 44), they are dragged over the
knob and some of the grains stick there. But in the
other form of primrose, No. 2, when the flower falls off,
the stamens do not come near the knob, so it has no
chance of getting any pollen ; and while the primrose
is upright the tube is so narrow that the dust does not
easily fall. But, as I have said, neither kind gets it
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE. 1 67
very easily, nor is it good for them if they do. The
seeds are much stronger and better if the dust or
pollen of one flower is carried away and left on the
\> Fig. 44.
Corolla of Primrose falling off.
r, Primrose with long pistil, and stamens in the tube, same as I of
Fig. 43. 2, Primrose with short pistil, and stamens at mouth of tube, 2,
Fig- 43-
knob or stigma of another flower ; and the only way
this can be done is by insects flying from one flower
to another and carrying the dust on their legs and
bodies.
If you suck the end of the tube of the primrose
flower you will find it tastes sweet, because a drop of
honey has been lying there. When the insects go in
to get this honey, they brush themselves against the
yellow dust-bags, and some of the dust sticks to them,
and then when they go to the next flower they rub it
off on to its sticky knob.
Look at No. I and No. 2 (Fig. 43) and you will see
at once that if an insect goes into No. I and the pollen
sticks to him, when he goes into No. 2 just that part
of his body on which the pollen is will touch the
1 68 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
knob ; and so the flowers become what we call
"crossed," that is, the pollen-dust of the one feeds
the ovule of the other. And just the same thing will
happen if he flies from No. 2 to No. I. There the
dust will be just in the position to touch the knob
which sticks out of the flower.
Therefore, we can see clearly that it is good for the
primrose that bees and other insects should come" to
it, and anything it can do to entice them will be
useful. Now, do you not think that when an insect
once knew that the pale-yellow crown showed where
honey was to be found, he would soon spy these
crowns out as he flew along ? or if they were behind
a hedge, and he could not see them, would not the
sweet scent tell him where to come and look for
them ? And so we see that the pretty sweet-scented
corolla is not only delightful for us to look at and
to smell, but it is really very useful in helping the
primrose to make strong healthy seeds out of which
the young plants are to grow next year.
And now let us see what we have learnt. We began
with a tiny seed, though we did not then know how
this seed had been made. We saw the plantlet buried
in it, and learnt how it fed at first on prepared food,
but soon began to make living matter for itself out of
gases taken from the water and the air. How inge-
niously it pumped up the water through the cells to
its stomach — the leaves ! And how marvellously the
sun-waves entering there formed the little green
granules, and then helped them to make food and
living protoplasm! At this point we might have
THE LIFE OF A PRIMROSE. 169
gone further, and studied how the fibres and all the
different vessels of the plant are formed, and a won-
drous history it would have been. But it was too
long for one hour's lecture, and you must read it for
yourselves in booSs on botany. We had to pass on
to the flower, and learn the use of the covering leaves,
the gaily coloured crown attracting the insects, the
dust-bags holding the pollen, the little ovules each
with the germ of a new plantlet, lying hidden in the
seed-vessel, waiting for the pollen-grains to grow
down to them. Lastly, when the pollen crept in at
the tiny opening we learnt that the ovule had now
all it wanted to grow into a perfect seed.
And so we came back to a primrose seed, the point
from which we started ; and we have a history of our
primrose from its birth to the day when its leaves
and flowers wither away and it dies down for the
winter.
But what fairies are they which have been at work
here ? First, the busy little fairy Life in the active
protoplasm ; and secondly, the sun-waves. We have
seen that it was by the help of the sunbeams that the
green granules were made, and the water, carbonic
acid, and nitrogen worked up into the living plant.
And in doing this work the sun-waves were caught
and their strength used up, so that they could no
longer quiver back into space. But are they gone for
ever ? So long as the leaves or the stem or the root
of the plant remain they are gone, but when those are
destroyed we can get them back again. Take a
handful of dry withered plants and light them with a
match, then as the leaves burn and are turned back
I/O THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
again to carbonic acid, nitrogen, and water, our sun-
beams come back again in the flame and heat.
And the life of the plant ? What is it, and why is
this protoplasm always active and busy ? I cannot
tell you. Study as we may, the life of the tiny plant
is as much a mystery as your life and mine. It came,
like all things, from the bosom of the Great Father,
but we cannot tell how it came nor what it is. We can
see the active grains moving under the microscope,
but we cannot see the power that moves them. We
only know it is a power given to the plant, as to you
and to me, to enable it to live its life, and to do its
useful work in the world.
A PIECE OF COAL.
I/I
LECTURE VIII.
THE HISTORY OF A PIECE OF COAL.
HAVE here a piece of coal
(Fig. 45), which, though
it has been cut with some
care so as to have a smooth face, is really in no other
way different from any ordinary lump which you can
1/2 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
pick for yourself out of the coal-scuttle. Our work
to-day is to relate the history of this black lump ; to
learn what it is, what it has been, and what it will be.
45-
Piece of coal.
a, Smooth face, showing laminae or thin layers.
It looks uninteresting enough at first sight, and yet
if we examine it closely we shall find some questions
to ask even about its appearance. Look at the
smooth face of this specimen and see if you can
explain those fine lines which run across so close
together as to look like the edges of the leaves of a
book. Try to break a piece of coal, and you will find
that it will split much more easily along those lines
than across the other way of the lump ; and if you wish
to light a fire quickly you should always put this
lined face downwards so that the heat can force its
way up through these cracks and gradually split up
the block. Then again if you break the coal carefully
along one of these lines you will find a fine film of
charcoal lying in the crack, and you will begin to sus-
pect that this black coal must have been built up in
A PIECE OF COAL. 173
very thin layers, with a kind of black dust between
them.
The next thing you will call to mind is that this
coal burns and gives flame and heat, and that this
means that in some way sunbeams are imprisoned in
it ; lastly, this will lead you to think of plants, and
how they work up the strength of the sunbeams into
their leaves, and hide black carbon in even the
purest and whitest substance they contain.
Is coal made of burnt plants, then ? Not burnt ones,
for if so it would not burn again ; but you may have
read how the makers of charcoal take wood and bake
it without letting it burn, and then it turns black
and will afterwards make a very good fire ; and
so you will see that it is probable that our piece of
coal is made of plants which have been baked and
altered, but which have still much sunbeam strength
bottled up in them, which can be set free as they
burn.
If you will take an imaginary journey with me to a
coal-pit near Newcastle, which I visited many years
ago, you will see that we have very good evidence that
coal is made of plants, for in all coal-mines we find
remains of them at every step we take.
Let us imagine that we have put on old clothes which
will not spoil, and have stepped into the iron basket
(see Fig. 46) called by the miners a cage, and are being
let down the shaft to the gallery where the miners are
at work. Most of them will probably be in the gal-
lery b, because a great deal of the coal in d has been
already taken out. But we will stop in a because
there we can see a great deal of the roof and the
174
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
floor. When we land on the floor of the gallery we
shall find ourselves in a kind of tunnel with railway
lines laid along it and trucks laden with coal coming
Fig. 46.
Sand
stone
Imaginary section of a coal-mine.
towards the cage to be drawn up, while empty ones
are running back to be loaded where the miners are
at work. Taking lamps in our hands and keeping
out of the way of the trucks, we will first throw the
light on the roof, which is made of shale or hardened
clay. We shall not have gone many yards before
we see impressions of plants in the shale, like those in
this specimen (Fig. 47), which was taken out of a
coal-mine at Neath in Glamorganshire, a few days
ago, and sent up for this lecture. You will recognize
at once the marks of ferns (a), for they look like those
you gather in the hedges of an ordinary country lane,
and that long striped branch (b) does not look unlike
a reed, and indeed it is something of this kind, as we
A PIECE OF COAL.
175
shall see by-and-by. You will find plenty of these
impressions of plants as you go along the gallery and
look up at the roof, and with them there will be others
Fig. 47-
A piece of shale with impressions of ferns and Calamite stems.
with spotted stems, or with stems having a curious
diamond pattern upon them, and many ferns of
various kinds.
Next look down at your feet and examine the floor.
Stigmaria — root or underground stem of Sigillaria.
You will not have to search long before you will
almost certainly find a piece of stone like that repre-
sented in Fig. 48, which has also come from Neath
176 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Colliery.* This fossil, which is the cast of a piece of a
plant, puzzled those who found it for a very long time.
At last, however, Mr. Binney found the specimen
growing to the bottom of the trunk of one of the fossil
trees with spotted stems, called Sigillaria ; and so
proved that this curious pitted stone is a piece of
fossil root, or rather underground stem, like that
which we found in the primrose, and that the little
pits or dents in it are scars where the rootlets once
were given off.
Whole masses of these root-stems, with ribbon-like
roots lying scattered near them, are found buried in
the layer of clay called the underclay which makes
the floor of the coal, and they prove to us that this
underclay must have been once the ground in which
the roots of the coal-plants grew. You will feel still
more sure of this when you find that there is not only
one straight gallery of coal, but that galleries branch
out right and left, and that everywhere you find the
coal lying like a sandwich between the floor and the
roof, showing that quite a large piece of country must
be covered by these remains of plants all rooted in the
underclay.
But how about the coal itself ? It seems likely,
when we find roots below and leaves and stems above,
that the middle is made of plants, but can we prove
it ? We shall see presently that it has been so
crushed and altered by being buried deep in the
ground that the traces of leaves have almost been
* I am much indebted to Mr. John Williams, of Neath, for pro-
curing these fossils for me ; and also to Professor Judd for lending me
some for an earlier lecture.
A PIECE OF COAL. 177
destroyed, though people who are used to examining
with the microscope, can see the crushed remains of
plants in thin slices of coal.
But fortunately for us, perfect pieces of plants have
been preserved even in the coal-bed itself. Do you re-
member our learning in Lecture IV. that water with
lime in it petrifies things, that is, leaves carbonate of
lime to fill up grain by grain the fibres of an animal
or plant as the living matter decays, and so keeps an
exact representation of the object ?
Now, it so happens that in a coal-bed at South
Ouram, near Halifax, as well as in some other places,
carbonate of lime trickled in before the plants were
turned into coal, and made some round nodules in the
plant-bed, which look like cannon-balls. Afterwards,
when all the rest of the bed was turned into coal, these
round balls remained crystallized, and by cutting thin
transparent slices across the nodule we can distinctly
see the leaves and stems and curious little round
bodies which make up the coal. Several such sections
may be seen at the British Museum, and when we
compare these fragments of plants with those which
we find above and below the coal-bed, we find that
they agree, thus proving that coal is made of plants,
and of those plants whose roots grew in the clay floor,
while their heads reached up far above where the roof
now is.
The next question is, what kind of plants were
these ? Have we anything like them living in the
world now ? You might perhaps think that it would
be impossible to decide this question from mere
petrified pieces of plants. But many men have spent
N
I7*> THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
their whole lives in deciphering all the fragments that
could be found, and though the section given in
Fig. 49 may look to you quite incomprehensible, yet
Fig. 49.
Contents of a coal-ball. (Carruthers.)*
S, Stem of Sigillaria cut across. L, Stem of Lepidodendron cut across.
L', Stem of Lepidodendron cut lengthways. /, cone of Lepidodendron
(Lepidostrobus) cut across. C, Stem of Calamite cut across. ct c, c, Fruit
of Calamite lengthways and across, f, Stem of a fern with fragments
of fern-leaves scattered round it. The small round dots scattered here
and there are the larger spores which have fallen out of the fruit-cones.
a botanist can read it as we read a book. For ex-
ample, at S and L, where stems are cut across, he can
* I am much indebted to Mr. Carruthers, of the British Museum, for
allowing me to copy this figure from his original diagram of a coal-ball,
and also for giving me much valuable assistance.
A PIECE OF COAL.
1/9
Fig. 50.
learn exactly how they were built up inside, and com-
pare them with the stems of living plants, while the
fruits cc and the little round spores lying near them,
tell him their history as well as if he had gathered them
from the tree. In this way we have learnt to know
very fairly what the plants of the coal were like, and
you will be surprised when I tell you that the huge
trees of the coal-forests, of which we sometimes find
trunks in the coal-mines from ten to fifty feet long, are
only represented on the
earth now by small insig-
nificant plants, scarcely
ever more than two feet,
and often not many
inches high.
Have you ever seen
the little club-moss or Ly-
copodium which grows
all over England, but
chiefly in the north, on
heaths and mountains ?
At the end of each of
its branches it bears a
cone made of scaly
leaves ; and fixed to the
inside of each of these
leaves is a case called
a sporangium, full of little spores or moss-seeds, as
we may call them, though they are not exactly like true
seeds. In one of these club-mosses called Selaginella,
the cases B near the bottom of the cone contain large
spores b, while those near the top, A, contain a
N 2
Selaginella sclaginoides.
Species of club-moss bearing two
kinds of spores.
l8o THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
powdery dust a. These spores are full of resin, and
they are collected on the Continent for making arti-
ficial lightning in the theatres, because they flare when
lighted.
Now this little Selaginella is of all living plants the
one most like some of the gigantic trees of the coal-
forests. If you look at this picture of a coal-forest
(Fig. 51), you will find it difficult perhaps to believe
that those great trees, with diamond markings all up
the trunk, hanging over from the right to the left of
the picture, and covering all the top with their boughs,
could be ki any way relations of the little Selaginella ;
yet we find branches of them in the beds above the
coal, bearing cones larger but just like Selaginella
cones ; and what is most curious, the spores in these
cones are of exactly the same kind and not any larger
than those of the club-moss.
These trees are called by botanists Lepidodendrons,
or scaly trees ; there are numbers of them in all coal-
mines, and one trunk has been found 49 feet long.
Their branches were divided in a curious forked
manner and bore cones at the ends. The spores
which fell from these cones are found flattened in the
coal, and they may be seen scattered about in the
coal-ball (Fig. 49).
Another famous tree which grew in the coal-forests
was the one whose roots we found in the floor or
underclay of the coal. It has been called Sigillaria,
because it has marks like seals (sigillum, a seal) all
up the trunk, due to the scars left by the leaves when
they fell from the tree. You will see the Sigillarias
on the left-hand side of the coal-forest picture, having
those curious tufts of leaves springing out of them at
Fig. 51. —A FOREST OF THE COAL PERIOD.
To face p. 180.
A PIECE OF COAL.
iSl
the top. Their stems make up a great deal of the coal,
and the bark of their trunks is often found in the clays
above, squeezed flat in lengths of 30, 60, or 70 feet.
Sometimes, instead of being flat the bark is still in the
shape of a trunk,*and the interior is filled with sand ;
and then the trunk is very heavy, and if the miners do
not prop the roof up well it falls down and kills those
beneath it. Stigmaria (Fig. 48, page 175) is the root of
the Sigillaria, and is found in the clays below the coal.
Botanists are not yet quite certain about the seed-
cases of this tree, but Fi
Mr. Carruthers believes
that they grew inside
the base of the leaves, as
they do in the quillwort,
a small plant which
grows at the bottom of
our mountain lakes.
But what is that
curious reed-like stem
we found in the piece
of shale (see Fig. 47) ?
That stem is very im-
portant, for it belonged
to a plant called a Cata-
mite, which, as we shall
see presently, helped to
sift the earth away from
the coal and keep it
pure. This plant was
a near relation of the " horsetail," or Equisetum, which
grows in our marshes ; only, just as in the case of the
other trees, it was enormously larger, being often
Equisetum or horsetail.
1 82 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
20 feet high, whereas the little Equisetum, Fig. 52, is
seldom more than a foot, and never more than 4 feet
high in England, though in tropical South America
they are much higher. Still, if you have ever gathered
" horsetails," you will see at once that those trees in
the foreground of the picture (Fig. 51), with leaves
arranged in stars round the branches, are only larger
copies of the little marsh-plants ; and the seed-vessels
of the two plants are almost exactly the same.
These great trees, the Lepidodendrons, the Sigil-
larias, and the Calamites, together with large tree-
ferns and smaller ferns, are the chief plants that we
know of in the coal-forests. It seems very strange at
first that they should have been so large when their
descendants are now so small, but if you look at our
chief plants and trees now, you will find that nearly
all of them bear flowers, and this is a great advantage
to them, because it tempts the insects to bring them
the pollen-dust, as we saw in the last lecture.
Now the Lepidodendrons and their companions
had no true flowers, but only these seed-cases which
we have mentioned ; but as there were no flowering
plants in their time, and they had the ground all to
themselves, they grew fine and large. By-and-by, how-
ever, when the flowering plants came in, these began
to crowd out the old giants of the coal-forests, so
that they dwindled and dwindled from century to
century till their great-great-grandchildren, thousands
of generations after, only lift up their tiny heads in
marshes and on heaths, and tell us that they were big
once upon a time.
And indeed they must have been magnificent in
A PIECE OF COAL. 183
those olden days, when they grew thick and tall in
the lonely marshes where plants and trees were the
chief inhabitants. We find no traces in the clay-beds
of the coal to lead us to suppose that men lived in those
days, nor lions, nor tigers, nor even birds to fly among
the trees ; but these grand forests were almost silent,
except when a huge animal something like a gigantic
newt or frog went croaking through the marsh, or a
kind of grasshopper chirruped on the land. But these
forms of life were few and far between, compared to
the huge trees and tangled masses of ferns and reeds
which covered the whole ground, or were reflected in
the bosom of the large pools and lakes round about
which they grew.
And now, if you have some idea of the plants and
trees of the coal, it is time to ask how these plants
became buried in the earth and made pure coal,
instead of decaying away and leaving behind only a
mixture of earth and leaves ?
To answer this question, I must ask you to take
another journey with me across the Atlantic to the
shores of America, and to land at Norfolk in Virginia,
because there we can see a state of things something
like the marshes of the coal -forests. All round
about Norfolk the land is low, flat, and marshy, and
to the south of the town, stretching far away into
North Carolina, is a large, desolate swamp, no less
than forty miles long and twenty-five broad. The
whole place is one enormous quagmire, overgrown
with water-plants and trees. The soil is as black as ink
from the old, dead leaves, grasses, roots, and stems
1 84 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
which lie in it ; and so soft, that everything would
sink into it, if it were not for the matted roots of the
mosses, ferns, and other plants which bind it together.
You may dig down for ten or fifteen feet, and find
nothing but peat made of the remains of plants
which have lived and died there in succession for
ages and ages, while the black trunks of the faljen
trees lie here and there, gradually being covered up
by the dead plants.
The whole place is so still, gloomy, and desolate,
that it goes by the name of the " Great Dismal
Swamp," and you see we have here what might well
be the beginning of a bed of coal ; for we know that
peat when dried becomes firm and makes an excellent
fire, and that if it were pressed till it was hard and
solid it would not be unlike coal. If, then, we can
explain how this peaty bed has been kept pure from
earth, we shall be able to understand how a coal-bed
may have been formed, even though the plants and
trees which grow in this swamp are different from
those which grew in the coal-forests.
The explanation is not difficult ; streams flow
constantly, or rather ooze into the Great Dismal
Swamp from the land that lies to the west, but
instead of bringing mud in with them as rivers bring
to the sea, they bring only clear, pure water, because,
as they filter for miles through the dense jungle of
reeds, ferns, and shrubs which grow round the marsh,
all the earth is sifted out and left behind. In this
way the spongy mass of dead plants remains free
from earthy grains, while the water and the shade of
the thick forest of trees prevent the leaves, stems,
A PIECE OF COAL. 185
&c., from being decomposed by the air and sun.
And so year after year as the plants die they leave
their remains for other plants to take root in, and the
peaty mass gro^s thicker and thicker, while tall
cedar trees and evergreens live and die in these vast,
swampy forests, and being in loose ground are easily
blown down by the wind, and leave their trunks to be
covered up by the growing moss and weeds.
Now we know that there were plenty of ferns and
of large Calamites growing thickly together in the coal-
forests, for we find their remains everywhere in the
clay, so we can easily picture to ourselves how the
dense jungle formed by these plants would fringe the
coal-swamp, as the present plants do the Great
Dismal Swamp, and would keep out all earthy matter,
so that year after year the plants would die and form
a thick bed of peat, afterwards to become coal.
The next thing we have to account for is the bed of
shale or hardened clay covering over the coal. Now
we know that from time to time land has gone slowly
up and down on our globe so as in some places to
carry the dry ground under the sea, and in others to
raise the sea-bed above the water. Let us suppose,
then, that the great Dismal Swamp was gradually to
sink down so that the sea washed over it and killed
the reeds and shrubs. Then the streams from the
west would not be sifted any longer but would bring
down mud, and leave it, as in the delta of the Nile or
Mississippi, to make a layer over the dead plants.
You will easily understand that this mud would have
many pieces of dead trees and plants in it, which were
stifled and died as it covered them over ; and thus the
1 86 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
remains would be preserved like those which we find
now in the roof of the coal-galleries.
But still there are the thick sandstones in the coal-
mine to be explained. How did they come there ?
To explain them, we must suppose that the ground
went on sinking till the sea covered the whole place
where once the swamp had been, and then sea-sand
would be thrown down over the clay and gradually
pressed down by the weight of new sand above, till it
formed solid sandstone and our coal-bed became
buried deeper and deeper in the earth.
At last, after long ages, when the thick mass of
sandstones above the bed b (Fig. 46, p. 174) had been
laid down, the sinking must have stopped and the land
have risen a little, so that the sea was driven back ;
and then the rivers would bring down earth again and
make another clay-bed. Then a new forest would
spring up, the ferns, Calamites, Lepidodendrons, and
Sigillarias would gradually form another jungle, and
many hundreds of feet above the buried coal-bed b, a
second bed of peat and vegetable matter would begin
to accumulate to form the coal-bed a.
Such is the history of how the coal which we now
dig out of the depths of the earth once grew as beautiful
plants on the surface. We cannot tell exactly all the
ground over which these forests grew in England,
because some of the coal they made has been carried
away since by rivers and cut down by the waves of
the sea, but we can say that wherever there is coal
now, there they must have been.
Try and picture to yourselves that on the east coast
A PIECE OF COAL. 1 87
of Northumberland and Durham, where all is now black
with coal-dust, and grimy with the smoke of furnaces ;
and where the noise of hammers and steam-engines,
and of carts and trucks hurrying to and fro, makes the
country re-echo with the sound of labour ; there ages
ago in the silent swamp shaded with monster trees, one
thin layer of plants after another was formed, year after
year, to become the coal we now value so much. In
Lancashire, busy Lancashire, the same thing was
happening, and even in the middle of Yorkshire and
Derbyshire the sea must have come up and washed a
silent shore where a vast forest spread out over at least
700 or 800 square miles. In Staffordshire, too, which
is now almost the middle of England, another small
coal-field tells the same story, while in South Wales
the deep coal-mines and number of coal-seams re-
mind us how for centuries and centuries forests must
have flourished and have disappeared over and over
again under the sand of the sea.
But what is it that has changed these beds of dead
plants into hard, stony coal ? In the first place you
must remember they have been pressed down under
an enormous weight of rocks above them. We can
learn something about this even from our common
lead pencils. At one time the graphite or pure carbon,
of which the blacklead (as we wrongly call it) of our
pencils is made, was dug solid out of the earth. But
so much has now been used that they are obliged
to collect the graphite dust, and press it under a
heavy weight, and this makes such solid pieces that
they can cut them into leads for ordinary cedar
pencils.
1 88 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Now the pressure which we can exert by machinery
is absolutely nothing compared to the weight of all
those hundreds of feet of solid rock which lie over the
coal-beds, and which has pressed them down for thou-
sands and perhaps millions of years ; and besides this,
we know that parts of the inside of the earth are very
hot, and many of the rocks in which coal is found are
altered by heat. So we can picture to ourselves that
the coal was not only squeezed into a solid mass,
but often much of the oil and gas which were in the
leaves of the plants was driven out by heat, and the
whole baked, as it were, into one substance. The dif-
ference between coal which flames and coal which
burns only with a red heat, is chiefly that one has been
baked and crushed more than the other. Coal which
flames has still got in it the tar and the gas and the
oils which the plant stored up in its leaves, and these
when they escape again give back the sunbeams in a
bright flame. The hard stone coal, on the contrary,
has lost a great part of these oils, and only carbon
remains, which seizes hold of the oxygen of the air
and burns without flame. Coke is pure carbon, which
we make artificially by driving out the oils and gases
from coal, and the gas we burn is part of what is
driven out.
We can easily make coal-gas here in this room. I
have brought a tobacco-pipe, the bowl of which is
filled with a little powdered coal, and the broad end
cemented up with common clay. When we place
this bowl over a spirit-lamp and make it very hot, the
gas is driven out at the narrow end of the pipe and
lights easily (see Fig. 53). This is the way all our gas
A PIECE OF COAL. 1 89
is made, only that furnaces are used to bake the coal
in, and the gas is passed into large reservoirs till it is
wanted for use.
'* Fig- 53-
You will find it difficult at first to understand how
coal can be so full of oil and tar and gases, until you
have tried to think over how much of all these there is
in plants, and especially in seeds — think of the oils of
almonds, of lavender, of cloves, and of caraways ; and
the oils of turpentine which we get from the pines,
and out of which tar is made. When you remember
these and many more, and also how the seeds of the
club-moss now are largely charged with oil, you will
easily imagine that the large masses of coal-plants
which have been pressed together and broken and
crushed, would give out a great deal of oil which,
when made very hot, rises up as gas. You may often
yourself see tar oozing out of the lumps of coal in a
fire, and making little black bubbles which burst and
burn. It is from this tar that James Young first made
the paraffin oil we burn in our lamps, and the spirit
benzoline comes from the same source.
190 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
From benzoline, again, we get a liquid called aniline,
from which are made so many of our beautiful dyes
— mauve, magenta, and violet ; and what is still more
curious, the bitter almonds, pear-drops, and many
other sweets which children like so well, are actually
flavoured by essences which come out of coal-tar.
Thus from coal we get not only nearly all our heat
and our light, but beautiful colours and pleasant
flavours. We spoke just now of the plants of the coal
as being without beautiful flowers, and yet we see that
long, long after their death they give us lovely colours
and tints as beautiful as any in flower-world now.
Think, then, how much we owe to these plants
which lived and died so long ago ! If they had
been able to reason, perhaps they might have said
that they did not seem of much use in the world.
They had no pretty flowers, and there was no one to
admire their beautiful green foliage except a few
croaking reptiles, and little crickets and grasshoppers ;
and they lived and died all on one spot, generation
after generation, without seeming to do much good to
anything or anybody. Then they were covered up
and put out of sight, and down in the dark earth
they were pressed all out of shape and lost their
beauty and became only black, hard coal. There
they lay for centuries and centuries, and thousands
and thousands of years, and still no one seemed to
want them.
At last, one day, long, long after man had been
living on the earth, and had been burning wood for
fires, and so gradually using up the trees in the forests,
A PIECE OF COAL. IQI
it was discovered that this black stone would burn,
and from that time coal has been becoming every day
more and more useful. Without it not only should
we have been without warmth in our houses, or light
in our streets when the stock of forest-wood was used
up; but we could never have melted large quantities
of iron-stone and extracted the iron. We have proof
of this in Sussex. The whole country is full of iron-
stone, and the railings of St. Paul's churchyard are
made of Sussex iron. Iron-foundries were at work
there as long as there was wood enough to supply
them, but gradually the works fell into disuse, and
the last furnace was put out in the year 1809. So now,
because there is no coal in Sussex, the iron lies idle ;
while in the North, where the ironstone is near the
coal-mines, hundreds of tons are melted out every day.
Again, without coal we could have had no engines of
any kind, and consequently no large manufactories of
cotton goods, linen goods, or cutlery. In fact, almost
everything we use could only have been made with
difficulty and in small quantities; and even if we could
have made them it would have been impossible to
have sent them so quickly all over the world without
coal, for we could have had no railways or steamships,
but must have carried all goods along canals, and by
slow sailing vessels. We ourselves must have taken
days to perform journeys now made in a few hours,
and months to reach our colonies.
In consequence of this we should have remained a
very poor people. Without manufactories and in-
dustries we should have had to live chiefly by tilling
the ground, and everyone being obliged to toil for
192 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
their daily bfiad, there would have been much less
time or opportunity for anyone to study science, or
literature, or history, or to provide themselves with
comforts and refinements of life.
All this then, those plants and trees of the far-off
ages, which seemed to lead such useless lives, have
o *
done and are doing for us. There are many people
in the world who complain that life is dull, that they
do not see the use of it, and that there seems no work
specially for them to do. I would advise such people,
whether they are grown up or little children, to read
the story of the plants which form the coal. These
saw no results during their own short existences, they
only lived and enjoyed the bright sunshine, and did
their work, and were content. And now thousands,
probably millions, of years after they lived and died,
England owes her greatness, and we much of our
happiness and comfort, to the sunbeams which those
plants wove into their lives.
They burst forth again in our fires, in our brilliant
lights, and in our engines, and do the greater part of
our work ; teaching us
That nothing walks with aimless feet,
That not one life shall be destroyed,
Or cast as rubbish to the void,
When God hath made the pile complete."
In Memoriam, liv.
BEES IN THE HIVE.
IQ3
LECTURE IX.
BEES IN THE HIVE.
day one of the most won-
derful cities in the world.
It is a city with no human
beings in it, and yet it is densely populated, for such
a city may contain from twenty thousand to sixty
thousand inhabitants. In it you will find streets,
but no pavements, for the inhabitants walk along
O
194 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
the walls of the houses; while in the houses you
will see no windows, for each house just fits its
owner, and the door is the only opening in it.
Though made without hands these houses are most
evenly and regularly built in tiers one above the
other ; and here and there a few royal palaces, larger
and more spacious than the rest, catch the eye con-
spicuously as they stand out at the corners of the
streets.
Some of the ordinary houses are used to live in,
while others serve as storehouses where food is laid up
in the summer to feed the inhabitants during the
winter, when they are not allowed to go outside the
walls. Not that the gates are ever shut : that is not
necessary, for in this wonderful city each citizen
follows the laws ; going out when it is time to go out,
coming home at proper hours, and staying at home
when it is his or her duty. And in the winter, when
it is very cold outside, the inhabitants, having no fires,
keep themselves warm within the city by clustering
together, and never venturing out of doors.
One single queen reigns over the whole of this
numerous population, and you might perhaps fancy
that, having so many subjects to work for her and
wait upon her, she would do nothing but amuse
herself. On the contrary, she too obeys the laws
laid down for her guidance, and never, except on one
or two state occasions, goes out of the city, but works
as hard as the rest in performing her own royal
duties.
From sunrise to sunset, whenever the weather is
fine, all is life, activity, and bustle in this busy city.
BEES IN THE HIVE. 1 95
Though the gates are so narrow that two inhabitants
can only just pass each other on their way through
them, yet thousands go in and out every hour of the
day ; some bringing in materials to build new houses,
others food and provisions to store up for the winter ;
and while all appears confusion and disorder among
this rapidly moving throng, yet in reality each has her
own work to do, and perfect order reigns over the
whole.
Even if you did not already know from the title of
the lecture what city this is that I am describing, you
would no doubt guess that it is a beehive. For where
in the whole world, except indeed upon an anthill, can
we find so busy, so industrious, or so orderly a com-
munity as among the bees ? More than a hundred
years ago, a blind naturalist, Francois Huber, set
himself to study the habits of these wonderful insects,
and with the help of his wife and an intelligent man-
servant managed to learn most of their secrets. Before
his time all naturalists had failed in watching bees,
because if they put them in hives with glass windows,
the bees, not liking the light, closed up the windows
with cement before they began to work. But Huber
invented a hive which he could open and close at will,
putting a glass hive inside it, and by this means he
was able to surprise the bees at their work. Thanks
to his studies, and to those of other naturalists who
have followed in his steps, we now know almost as
much about the home of bees as we do about our own ;
and if we follow out to-day the building of a bee-city
and the life of its inhabitants, I think you will acknow-
ledge that they are a wonderful community, and that
O 2
196 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
it is a great compliment to anyone to say that he or
she is " as busy as a bee."
In order to begin at the beginning of the story,
let us suppose that we go into a country garden
one fine morning in May when the sun is shining
brightly overhead, and that we see hanging from the
bough of an old apple-tree a black object which looks
very much like a large plum-pudding. On approach-
ing it, however, we see that it is a large cluster or
swarm of bees clinging to each other by their legs ;
each bee with its two fore-legs clinging to the two
hinder legs of the one above it. In this way as many
as 20,000 bees may be clinging together, and yet they
hang so freely that a bee, even from quite the centre
of the swarm, can disengage herself from her neigh-
bours and pass through to the outside of the cluster
whenever she wishes.
If these bees were left to themselves, they would
find a home after a time in a hollow tree, or under
the roof of a house, or in some other cavity, and begin
to build their honeycomb there. But as we do not
wish to lose their honey we will bring a hive, and,
holding it under the swarm, shake the bough gently
so that the bees fall into it, and cling to the sides
as we turn it over on a piece of clean linen, on the
stand where the hive is to be.
And now let us suppose that we are able to watch
what is going on in the hive. Before five minutes
are over the industrious little insects have begun to
disperse and to make arrangements in their new home.
A number (perhaps about two thousand) of large,
BEES IN THE HIVE. 1 97
lumbering bees of a darker colour than the rest, will,
it is true, wander aimlessly about the hive, and wait for
the others to feed them and house them ; but these
are the drones, *or male bees (3, Fig. 54), who never
do any work except during one or two days in their
whole lives. But the smaller working bees (i, Fig. 54)
begin to be busy at once. Some fly off in search of
I. Worker bee. 2. Queen-bee. 3. Drone or male bee.
honey. Others walk carefully all round the inside of
the hive to see if there are any cracks in it ; and if
there are, they go off to the horse-chestnut trees,
poplars, hollyhocks, or other plants which have sticky
buds, and gather a kind of gum called "propolis,"
with which they cement the cracks and make them
air-tight. Others again, cluster round one bee (2, Fig.
54) blacker than the rest and having a longer body and
shorter wings ; for this is the queen-bee, the mother of
the hive, and she must be watched and tended.
But the largest number begin to hang in a cluster
from the roof just as they did from the bough of the
apple tree. What are they doing there ? Watch for a
little while and you will boon see one bee come out
198
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
55-
from among its companions and settle on the top of
the inside of the hive, turning herself round and round,
so as to push the other bees back, and to make a space
in which she can work. Then she will begin to pick
at the under part of her body with her fore-legs, and
will bring a scale of wax from a curious sort of pocket
under her abdomen. Holding this wax in her claws,
she will bite it with her hard, pointed upper jaws,
which move to and fro sideways like a pair of pincers,
then, moistening it with her tongue into a kind of
paste, she will draw it out like a ribbon and plaster it
on the top of the hive.
After that she will take another piece ; for she has
eight of these little wax-pockets, and she will go on
till they are all exhausted.
Then she will fly away out
of the hive, leaving a small
wax lump on the hive ceil-
ing or on the bar stretched
across it ; then her place
will be taken by another
bee who will go through
the same manoeuvres.
This bee will be followed
, by another, and another,
Plate of wax with bases of cells, .
hanging from the bar of a hive. till a large wall of wax
has been built, hanging
from the bar of the hive as in Fig. 55, only that it
will not yet have cells fashioned in it.
Meanwhile the bees which have been gathering
honey out of doors begin to come back laden. But
they cannot store their honey, for there are no cells
BEES IN THE HIVE, 199
made yet to put it in ; neither can they build combs
with the rest, for they have no wax in their wax-
pockets. So they just go and hang quietly on to the
other bees, andv«there they remain for twenty-four
hours, during which time they digest the honey they
have gathered, and part of it forms wax and oozes
out from the scales under their body. Then they
are prepared to join the others at work and plaster
wax on to the hive.
And now, as soon as a rough lump of wax is ready,
another set of bees come to do their work. These are
called the nursing bees, because they prepare the cells
and feed the young ones. One of these bees, standing on
the roof of the hive, begins to force her head into the
wax, biting with her jaws and moving her head to and
fro. Soon she has made the beginning of a round
hollow, and then she passes on to make another, while
a second bee takes her place and enlarges the first
one. As many as twenty bees will be employed in
this way, one after another, upon each hole before it is
large enough for the base of a cell.
Meanwhile another set of nursing bees have been
working just in the same way on the other side of the
wax, and so a series of hollows are made back to back
all over the comb. Then the bees form the walls of
the cells, and soon a number of six-sided tubes, about
half an inch deep, stand all along each side of the
comb ready to receive honey or bee-eggs.
You can see the shape of these cells in c, d, Fig. 56, and
notice how closely they fit into each other. Even the
ends are so shaped that, as they lie back to back, the
bottom of one cell (B, Fig. 56) fits into the space between
200 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
the ends of three cells meeting it from the opposite
side (A, Fig. 56), while they fit into the spaces around
it. Upon this plan the clever little bees fill every
atom of space, use the least possible quantity of wax,
Fig. 56.
B shows in the centre the closed end of a cell which would fit into
the space in the centre of the three closed cells in A, while the ends of
these three would fit into the spaces in B. c, dt side-view of cells.
and make the cells lie so closely together that the
whole comb is kept warm when the young bees are
in it.
There are some kinds of bees who do not live in
hives, but each one builds a home of its own. These
bees — such as the upholsterer bee, which digs a hole in
the earth and lines it with flowers and leaves, and the
mason bee, which builds in walls — do not make six-
sided cells, but round ones, for room is no object to
them. But nature has gradually taught the little hive-
bee to build its cells more and more closely, till they
fit perfectly within each other. If you make a number
of round holes close together in a soft substance, and
then squeeze the substance evenly from all sides, the
rounds will gradually take a six-sided form, showing
that this is the closest shape into which they can be
compressed. Although the bee does not know this,
BEES IN THE HIVE. 2OI
yet as she gnaws away every bit of wax that can be
spared she brings the holes into this shape.
As soon as one comb is finished, the beeS begin
another by the side of it, leaving a narrow lane between,
just broad enough for two bees to pass back to back
as they crawl along, and so the work goes on till the
hive is full of combs.
As soon, however, as a length of about five or six
inches of the first comb has been made into cells,
the bees which are bringing home honey no longer
hang to make it into wax, but begin to store it in the
cells. We all know where the bees go to fetch their
honey, and how, when a bee settles on a flower, she
thrusts into it her small tongue-like proboscis, which
is really a lengthened under-lip, and sucks out the
drop of honey. This she swallows, passing it down
her throat into a honey-bag or first stomach, which
lies between her throat and her real stomach, and when
she gets back to the hive she can empty this bag and
pass the honey back through her mouth again into the
honey-cells.
But if you watch bees carefully, especially in the
spring-time, you will find that they carry off something
else besides honey. Early in the morning, when the dew
is on the ground, or later in the day, in moist, shady
places, you may see a bee rubbing itself against a flower,
or biting those bags of yellow dust or pollen which we
mentioned in Lecture VII. When she has covered
herself with pollen, she will brush it off with her feet,
and, bringing it to her mouth, she will moisten and roll
it into a little ball, and then pass it back from the first
pair of legs to the second and so to the third or hinder
202 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
pair. Here she will pack it into a little hairy groove
called a "basket" in the joint of one of the hind legs,
where you may see it, looking like a swelled joint, as
she hovers among the flowers. She often fills both
hind legs in this way, and when she arrives back at
the hive the nursing bees take the lumps from her, and
eat it themselves, or mix it with honey to feed_the
young bees ; or, when they have any to spare, store it
away in old honey-cells to be used by-and-by. This
is the dark, bitter stuff called " bee-bread " which you
often find in a honeycomb, especially in a comb which
has been filled late in the summer.
When the bee has been relieved of the bee-bread
she goes off to one of the clean cells in the new comb,
and, standing on the edge, throws up the honey from
the honey-bag into the cell. One cell will hold the
contents of many honey-bags, and so the busy little
workers have to work all day filling cell after cell, in
which the honey lies uncovered, being too thick and
sticky to flow out, and is used for daily food — unless
there is any to spare, and then they close up the cells
with wax to keep for the winter.
Meanwhile, a day or two after the bees have settled
in the hive, the queen-bee begins to get very restless.
She goes outside the hive and hovers about a little
while, and then comes in again, and though generally
the bees all look very closely after her to keep her
indoors, yet now they let her do as she likes. Again
she goes out, and again back, and then, at last, she
soars up into the air and flies away. But she is not
allowed to go alone. All the drones of the hive rise
SEES IN THE HIVE. 203
up after her, forming a guard of honour to follow her
wherever she goes.
In about half-an-hour she comes back again, and
then the working, bees all gather round her, knowing
that now she wilt remain quietly in the hive and
spend all her time in laying eggs : for it is the queen-
bee who lays all the eggs in the hive. This she
begins to do about two days after her flight. There
are now many cells ready besides those filled with
honey : and, escorted by several bees, the queen-bee
goes to one of these, and, putting her head into it,
remains there a second as if she were examining
whether it would make a good home for the young
bee. Then, coming out, she turns round and lays a
small, oval, bluish-white egg in the cell. After this
she takes no more notice of it, but goes on to the next
cell and the next, doing the same thing, and laying
eggs in all the empty cells equally on both sides of
the comb. She goes on so quickly that she some-
times lays as many as 200 eggs in one day.
Then the work of the nursing bees begins. In two
or three days each egg has become a tiny maggot or
larva, and the nursing bees put into its cell a mixture
of pollen and honey which they have prepared in their
own mouths, thus making a kind of sweet bath in which
the larva lies. In five or six days the larva grows so
fat upon this that it nearly fills the cell, and then the
bees seal up the mouth of the cell with a thin cover
of wax, made of little rings and with a tiny hole in the
centre.
As soon as the larva is covered in, it begins to give
out from its under-lip a whitish, silken film, made of
2O4
THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
Fief- 57-
two threads of silk glued together, and with this it
spins a covering or cocoon all round itself, and so it
remains for about ten days more. At last, just twenty-
one days after the egg was laid, the young bee is quite
perfect, lying in the cell as in Fig. 57, and she begins
to eat her way through the
cocoon and through the
waxen lid, and scrambles
out of her cell. Then the
nurses come again to her,
stroke her wings and feed
her for twenty-four hours, and
after that she is quite ready
to begin work, and flies out
to gather honey and pollen
like the rest of the workers.
By this time the number
of working bees in the hive
is becoming very great, and
the storing of honey and
pollen - dust goes on very
quickly. Even the empty
cells which the young bees
have left are cleaned out by
the nurses and rilled with
honey ; and this honey is
darker than that stored in
Brood-comb cut open, with the
pupse, or young bees, /, p, in
the cells.
The lower cells contain eggs,
afterwards to become bees.
q, a royal cell.
clean cells, and which we always call " virgin honey "
because it is so pure and clear.
At last, after six weeks, the queen leaves off laying
worker-eggs, and begins to lay, in some rather larger
cells, eggs from which drones, or male bees, will grow
BEES IN THE HIVE. 2O5
up in about twenty days. Meanwhile the worker-bees
have been building on the edge of the cones some
very curious cells (q, Fig. 57) which look like thimbles
hanging with the open side upwards, and about every
three days the queen stops in laying drone-eggs and
goes to put an egg in one of these cells. Notice that
she waits three days between each of these peculiar
layings, because we shall see presently that there is a
good reason for her doing so.
The nursing bees take great care of these eggs, and
instead of putting ordinary food into the cell, they fill
it with a sweet, pungent jelly, for this larva is to
become a princess and a future queen-bee. Curiously
enough, it seems to be the peculiar food and the size
of the cell which makes the larva grow into a mother-
bee which can lay eggs, for if a hive has the mis-
fortune to lose its queen, they take one of the ordinary
worker-larvae and put it into a royal cell and feed it
with jelly, and it becomes a queen-bee. As soon as the
princess is shut in like the others, she begins to spin
her cocoon, but she does not quite close it as the other
bees do, but leaves a hole at the top.
At the end of sixteen days after the first royal
egg was laid, the eldest princess begins to try to eat
her way out of her cell, and about this time the
old queen becomes very uneasy, and wanders about
distractedly. The reason of this is, that there can
never be two queen-bees in one hive, and the queen
knows that her daughter will soon be coming out of
her cradle and will try to turn her off her throne.
So, not wishing to have to fight for her kingdom, she
makes up her mind to seek a new home and take a
206 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
number of her subjects with her. If you watch the
hive about this time you will notice many of the bees
clustering together after they have brought in their
honey, and hanging patiently, in order to have plenty
of wax ready to use when they start, while the queen
keeps a sharp look-out for a bright, sunny day, on
which they can swarm : for bees will never swarm on
a wet or doubtful day if they can possibly help it, and
we can easily understand why, when we consider how
the rain would clog their wings and spoil the wax
under their bodies.
Meanwhile the young princess grows very impatient,
and tries to get out of her cell, but the worker-bees
drive her back, for they know there would be a terrible
fight if the two queens met. So they close up the
hole she has made with fresh wax after having put in
some food for her to live upon till she is released.
At last a suitable day arrives, and about ten or
eleven o'clock in the morning the old queen leaves the
hive, taking with her about 2000 drones and from
12,000 to 20,000 worker-bees, which fly a little way
clustering round her till she alights on the bough of
some tree, and then they form a compact swarm ready
for a new hive or to find a home of their own.
Leaving them to go their way, we will now return
to the old hive. Here the liberated princess is
reigning in all her glory ; the worker-bees crowd
round her, watch over her, and feed her as though
they could not do enough to show her honour. But
still she is not happy. She is restless, and runs about
as if looking for an enemy, and she tries to get at the
remaining royal cells where the other young princesses
BEES IN THE HIVE. 2O?
are still shut in. But the workers will not let her
touch them, and at last she stands still and begins to
beat the air with her wings and to tremble all over,
moving more and^more quickly, till she makes quite a
loud, piping noise.
Hark ! What is that note answering her ? It is a
low, hoarse sound, and it comes from the cell of the
next eldest princess. Now we see why the young
queen has been so restless. She knows her sister will
soon come out, and the louder and stronger the sound
becomes within the cell, the sooner she knows the
fight will have to begin. And so she makes up her
mind to follow her mother's example and to lead off
a second swarm. But she cannot always stop to
choose a fine day, for her sister is growing very strong
and may come out of her cell before she is off. And
so the second, or after swarm, gets ready and goes
away. And this explains why princesses' eggs are
laid a few days apart, for if they were laid all on the
same day, there would be no time for one princess to
go off with a swarm before the other came out of her
cell. Sometimes, when the workers are not watchful
enough, two queens do meet, and then they fight till
one is killed ; or sometimes they both go off with the
same swarm without finding each other out. But this
only delays the fight till they get into the new hive ;
sooner or later one must be killed.
And now a third queen begins to reign in the old
hive, and she is just as restless as the preceding ones,
for there are still more princesses to be born. But
this time, if no new swarm wants to start, the workers
do not try to protect the royal cells. The young
208 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
queen darts at the first she sees, gnaws a hole with
her jaws, and, thrusting in her sting through the hole
in the cocoon, kills the young bee while it is still a
prisoner. She then goes to the next, and the next,
and never rests till all the young princesses are de-
stroyed. Then she is contented, for she knows no
other queen will come to dethrone her. After a few
days she takes her flight in the air with the drones, and
comes home to settle down in the hive for the winter.
Then a very curious scene takes place. The drones
are no more use, for the queen will not fly out again,
and these idle bees will never do any work in the
hive. So the worker-bees begin to kill them, falling
upon them, and stinging them to death, and as the
drones have no stings they cannot defend themselves,
and in a few days there is not a drone, nor even a
drone-egg, left in the hive. This massacre seems very
sad to us, since the poor drones have never done any
harm beyond being hopelessly idle. But it is less sad
when we know that they could not live many weeks,
even if they were not attacked, and, with winter
coming, the bees cannot afford to feed useless mouths,
so .a quick death is probably happier for them than
starvation.
And now all the remaining inhabitants of the hive
settle down to feeding the young bees and laying in
the winter's store. It is at this time, after they have
been toiling and saving, that we come and take their
honey ; and from a well-stocked hive we may even take
30 Ibs. without starving the industrious little inhabi-
tants. But then we must often feed them in return,
BEES IN THE HIVE. 209
and give them sweet syrup in the late autumn and the
next early spring when they cannot find any flowers.
Although the hive has now become comparatively
quiet and the work goes on without excitement, yet
every single bee is employed in some way, either out
of doors or about the hive. Besides the honey col-
lectors and the nurses, a certain number of bees are
told off to ventilate the hive. You will easily under-
stand that where so many insects are packed closely
together the heat will become very great, and the air
impure and unwholesome. And the bees have no
windows that they can open to let in fresh air, so they
are obliged to fan it in from the one opening of the hive.
The way in which they do this is very interesting.
Some of the bees stand close to the entrance, with
their faces towards it, and opening their wings, so as to
make them into fans, they wave them to and fro,
producing a current of air. Behind these bees, and all
over the floor of the hive, there stand others, this time
with their backs towards the entrance, and fan in the
same manner, and in this way air is sent into all the
passages.
Another set of bees clean out the cells after the
young bees are born, and make them fit to receive
honey, while others guard the entrance of the hive to
keep away the destructive wax-moth, which tries to lay
its eggs in the comb so that its young ones may feed
on the honey. All industrious people have to guard
their property against thieves and vagabonds, and the
bees have many intruders, such as wasps and snails
and slugs, which creep in whenever they get a chance.
If they succeed in escaping the sentinel bees, then a
P
210 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
fight takes place within the hive, and the invader is
stung to death.
Sometimes, however, after they have killed the
enemy, the bees cannot get rid of his body, for a snail
or slug is too heavy to be easily moved, and yet it
would make the hive very unhealthy to allow it to
remain. In this dilemma the ingenious little bees
fetch the gummy " propolis " from the plant-buds and
cement the intruder all over, thus embalming his
body and preventing it from decaying.
And so the life of this wonderful city goes on.
Building, harvesting, storing, nursing, ventilating and
cleaning from morn till night, the little worker-bee
lives for about eight months, and in that time has
done quite her share of work in the world. Only the
young bees, born late in the season, live on till the
next year to work in the spring. The queen-bee lives
longer, probably about two years, and then she too
dies, after having had a family of many thousands of
children.
We have already pointed out that in our fairy-land
of nature all things work together so as to bring order
out of apparent confusion. But though we should
naturally expect winds and currents, rivers and clouds,
and even plants to follow fixed laws, we should
scarcely have looked for such regularity in the life
of the active, independent busy bee. Yet we see that
she, too, has her own appointed work to do, and does
it regularly and in an orderly manner. In this lecture
we have been speaking entirely of the bee within the
hive, and noticing how marvellously her instincts
guide her in her daily life. But within the last few
BEES IN THE HIVE.
211
years we have learnt that she performs a most curious
and wonderful work in the world outside her home,
and that we owe to her not only the sweet honey we
eat, but even in* a great degree the beauty and gay
colours of the flowers which she visits when collecting
it. This work will form the subject of our next
lecture, and while we love the little bee for her con-
stant industry, patience, and order within the hive,
we shall, I think, marvel at the wonderful law of
nature which guides her in her unconscious mission of
love among the flowers which grow around it.
P 2
212 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
LECTURE X.
BEES AND FLOWERS.
WHATEVER thoughts
each one of you may
brought to the lecture to-day,
I want you to throw them all aside and fancy yourself
to be in a pretty country garden on a hot summer's
morning. Perhaps you have been walking, or read-
ing, or playing, but it is getting too hot now to do
BEES AND FLOWERS. 21$
anything ; and so you have chosen the shadiest nook
under the old walnut-tree, close to the flower-bed on
the lawn, and would almost like to go to sleep if it
were not too early in the day.
As you lie there thinking of nothing in particular,
except how pleasant it is to be idle now and then,
you notice a gentle buzzing close to you, and you see
that on the flower-bed close by, several bees are
working busily among the flowers. They do not seem
to mind the heat, nor to wish to rest ; and they fly so
lightly and look so happy over their work that it does
not tire you to look at them.
That great humble-bee takes it leisurely enough as
she goes lumbering along, poking her head into the
larkspurs, and remaining so long in each you might
almost think she had fallen asleep. The brown hive-
bee, on the other hand, moves busily and quickly
among the stocks, sweet peas, and mignonette. She
is evidently out on active duty, and means to get all
she can from each flower, so as to carry a good load
back to the hive. In some blossoms she does not stay
a moment, but draws her head back directly she has
popped it in, as if to say, " No honey there." But
over the full blossoms she lingers a little, and then
scrambles out again with her drop of honey, and goes
off to seek more in the next flower.
Let us watch her a little more closely. There are
plenty of different plants growing in the flower-bed,
but, curiously enough, she does not go first to one kind
and then to another ; but keeps to one, perhaps the
mignonette, the whole time, till she flies away. Rouse
yourself up to follow her, and you will see she takes
214 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
her way back to the hive. She may perhaps stop to
visit a stray plant of mignonette on her way, tmt no
other flower will tempt her till she has taken her load
home.
Then when she comes back again she may perhaps
go to another kind of flower, such as the sweet peas,
for instance, and keep to them during the next journey,
but it is more likely that she will be true to her old
friend the mignonette for the whole day.
We all know why she makes so many journeys
between the garden and the hive, and that she is
collecting drops of honey from each flower, and car-
rying it to be stored up in the honeycomb for winter's
food. How she stores it, and how she also gathers
pollen-dust for her bee-bread, we saw in the last
lecture ; to-day we will follow her in her work among
the flowers, and see, while they are so useful to her,
what she is doing for them in return.
We have already learnt from the life of a piimrose
that plants can make better and stronger seeds when
they can get pollen-dust from another plant, than
when they are obliged to use that which grows in the
same flower ; but I am sure you will be very much
surprised to hear that the more we study flowers the
more we find that their colours, their scent, and their
curious shapes are all so many baits and traps set by
nature to entice insects to come to the flowers, and
carry this pollen-dust from one to the other.
So far as we know, it is entirely for this purpose
that the plants form honey in different parts of the
flower, sometimes in little bags or glands, as in the
petals of the buttercup flower, sometimes in clear
BEES AND FLOWERS. 21$
drops, as in the tube of the honeysuckle. This food
they prepare for the insects, and then they have all
sorts of contrivances to entice them to come and
fetch it.
You will remeisber that the plants of the coal had
no bright or conspicuous flowers. Now we can under-
stand why this was, for there were no flying insects
at that time to carry the pollen-dust from flower to
flower, and therefore there was no need of coloured
flowers to attract them. But little by little, as flies,
butterflies, moths and bees began to live in the world,
flowers too began to appear, and plants hung out these
gay-coloured signs, as much as to say, " Come to me,
and I will give you honey if you will bring me pollen-
dust in exchange, so that my seeds may grow healthy
and strong."
We cannot stop to inquire to-day how this all
gradually came about, and how the flowers gradually
put on gay colours and curious shapes to tempt the
insects to visit them ; but we will learn something
about the way they attract them now, and how you
may see it for yourselves if you keep your eyes
open.
For example, if you watch the different kinds of
grasses, sedges and rushes, which have such tiny
flowers that you can scarcely see them, you will find
that no insects visit them. Neither will you ever find
bees buzzing round oak-trees, nut-trees, willows, elms
or birches. But on the pretty and sweet-smelling
apple - blossoms, or the strongly scented lime-trees,
you will find bees, wasps, and plenty of other
insects.
216 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
The reason of this is that grasses, sedges, rushes,
nut-trees, willows, and the others we have mentioned,
have all of them a great deal of pollen-dust, and as
the wind blows them to and fro, it wafts the dust from
one flower to another, and so these plants do not want
the insects, and it is not worth their while to give out
honey, or to have gaudy or sweet-scented flowers to
attract them.
But wherever you see bright or conspicuous flowers
you may be quite sure that the plants want the bees
or some other winged insect to come and carry their
pollen for them. Snowdrops hanging their white
heads among their green leaves, crocuses with their
violet and yellow flowers, the gaudy poppy, the large-
flowered hollyhock or the sunflower, the flaunting
dandelion, the pretty pink willow-herb, the clustered
blossoms of the mustard and turnip flowers, the
bright blue forget-me-not and the delicate little
yellow trefoil, all these are visited by insects, which
easily catch sight of them as they pass by and hasten
to sip their honey.
Sir John Lubbock has shown that bees are not only
attracted by bright colours, but that they even know
one colour from another. He put some honey on
slips of glass with coloured papers under them, and
when he had accustomed the bees to find the honey
always on the blue glass, he washed this glass clean,
and put the honey on the red glass instead. Now if
the bees had followed only the smell of the honey,
they would have flown to the red glass, but they did
not. They went first to the blue glass, expecting to
BEES AND FLOWERS. 2 1/
find the honey on the usual colour, and it was only
when they were disappointed that they went off to
the red.
Is it not beautiful to think that the bright pleasant
colours we love so* much in flowers, are not only orna-
mental, but that they are useful and doing their part
in keeping up healthy life in our world ?
Neither must we forget what sweet scents can do.
Have you never noticed the delicious smell which
comes from beds of mignonette, thyme, rosemary, mint,
or sweet alyssum, from the small hidden bunches of
laurustinus blossom, or from the tiny flowers of the
privet ? These plants have found another way of
attracting the insects ; they have no need of bright
colours, for their scent is quite as true and certain a
guide. You will be surprised if you once begin to
count them up, how many white and dull or dark-
looking flowers are sweet-scented, while gaudy flowers,
such as the tulip, foxglove and hollyhock, have little
or no scent. And then, just as in the world we find
some people who have everything to attract others to
them, beauty and gentleness, cleverness, kindliness, and
loving sympathy, so we find some flowers, like the
beautiful lily, the lovely rose, and the delicate hyacinth,
which have colour and scent and graceful shapes all
combined.
But we are not yet nearly at an end of the contri-
vances of flowers to secure the visits of insects. Have
you not observed that different flowers open and close
at different times ? The daisy receives its name day's
eye, because it opens at sunrise and closes at sunset,
2l8 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
while the evening primrose (CELnothera biennis) and
the night campion (Silene noctiflord) spread out their
flowers just as the daisy is going to bed.
What do you think is the reason of this ? If you
go near a bed of evening primroses just when the sun
is setting, you will soon be able to guess, for they will
then give out such a sweet scent that you will not
doubt for a moment that they are calling the evening
moths to come and visit them. The daisy opens by
day, because it is visited by day insects, but those
particular moths which can carry the pollen-dust of
the evening primrose, fly only by night, and if this
flower opened by day other insects might steal its
honey, while they would not be the right size or shape
to touch its pollen-bags and carry the dust.
It is the same if you pass by a honeysuckle in the
evening ; you will be surprised how much stronger its
scent is than in the day-time. This is because the
sphinx hawk-moth is the favourite visitor of that
flower, and comes at nightfall, guided by the strong
scent, to suck out the honey with its long proboscis,
and carry the pollen-dust.
Again, some flowers close whenever rain is coming.
The pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) is one of these,
hence its name of the "Shepherd's Weather-glass."
This little flower closes, no doubt, to prevent its
pollen-dust being washed away, for it has no honey ;
while other flowers do it to protect the drop of honey
at the bottom of their corolla. Look at the daisies
for example when a storm is coming on ; as the sky
grows dark and heavy, you will see them shrink up
and close till the sun shines again. They do this
BEES AND FLOWERS. 2IQ
because in each of the little yellow florets in. the
centre of the flower there is a drop of honey which
would be quite spoiled if it were washed by the rain.
And now you will see why cup-shaped flowers so
often droop their heads — think of the harebell, the
snowdrop, the lily-of-the-valley, the campanula, and
a host of others ; how pretty they look with their
bells hanging so modestly from the slender stalk !
They are bending down to protect the honey-glands
within them, for if the cup became full of rain or dew
the honey would be useless, and the insects would
cease to visit them.
But it is not only necessary that the flowers should
keep their honey for the insects, they also have to
take care and keep it for the right kind of insect.
Ants are in many cases great enemies to them, for
they like honey as much as bees and butterflies do,
yet you will easily see that they are so small that if
they creep into a flower they pass the anthers without
rubbing against them, and so take the honey without
doing any good to the plant Therefore we find
numberless contrivances for keeping the ants and other
creeping insects away. Look for example at the hairy
stalk of the primrose flower ; those little hairs are like
a forest to a tiny ant, and they protect the flower from
his visits. The Spanish catchfly (Silene otites), on the
other hand, has a smooth, but very gummy stem, and
on this the insects stick, if they try to climb. Slugs
and snails too will often attack and bite flowers, unless
they are kept away by thorns and bristles, such as we
find on the teazel and the burdock. And so we are
gradually learning that everything which a plant does
220 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
has its meaning, if we can only find it out, and that
even every insignificant hair has its own proper use, and
when we are once aware of this a flower-garden may
become quite a new world to us if we open our eyes to
all that is going on in it.
But as we cannot wander among many plants to-
day, let us take a few which the bees visit, and see
how they contrive not to give up their honey without
getting help in return. We will start with the blue
wood-geranium, because from it we first began to
learn the use of insects to flowers.
More than a hundred years ago a young German
botanist, Christian Conrad Sprengel, noticed some soft
hairs growing in the centre of this flower, just round
the stamens, and he was so sure that every part of a
plant is useful, that he set himself to find out what
these hairs meant. He soon discovered that they
protected some small honey-bags at the base of the
stamens, and kept the rain from washing the honey
away, just as our eyebrows prevent the perspiration
on our faces from running into our eyes. This led
him to notice that plants take great care to keep their
honey for insects, and by degrees he proved that they
did this in order to tempt the insects to visit them
and carry off their pollen.
The first thing to notice in this little geranium
flower is that the purple lines which ornament it all
point directly to the place where the honey lies at
the bottom of the stamens, and actually serve to lead
the bee to the honey ; and this is true of the veins
and marking of nearly all flowers except of those
BEES AND FLOWERS.
221
Fig. 58.
which open by night, and in these they would be useless,
for the insects would not see them.
When the geranium first opens, all its ten stamens
are lying flat on ftie corolla or coloured crown, as in
the left-hand flower in Fig. 58, and then the bee
cannot get at the
honey. But in a
short time five sta-
mens begin to raise
themselves and cling
round the stigma or
knob at the top of the
seed-vessel, as in the
middle flower. Now
you would think they
would leave their dust
there. But no ! the
stigma is closed up
so tight that the dust
cannot get on to the
sticky part. Now,
however, the bee can
get at the honey-
glands on the out-
side of the raised
stamens ; and as he
sucks it, his back
touches the anthers or dust-bags, and he carries off the
pollen. Then, as soon as all their dust is gone, these
five stamens fall down, and the other five spring
up. Still, however, the stigma remains closed, and
the pollen of these stamens, too, may be carried away
Geranium sylvaticum, the Wood
Geranium.
In the left-hand flower the stamens are
all lying down. In the middle flower five
stamens clasp the stigma. In the right-
hand flower the stigma is open after all
the stamens have fallen.
222 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
to another flower. At last these five also fall down,
and then, and not till then, the stigma opens and lays
out its five sticky points, as you may see in the right-
hand flower, Fig. 58.
But its own pollen is all gone, how then will it get
any ? It will get it from some bee who has just taken it
from another and younger flower ; and thus you see the
blossom is prevented from using its own pollen, and
made to use that of another blossom, so that its seeds
may grow healthy and strong.
The garden nasturtium, into whose blossom we saw
the humble-bee poking his head, takes still more care
of its pollen-dust. It hides its honey down at the end
of its long spur, and only sends out one stamen at a
time instead of five like the geranium ; and then,
when all the stamens have had their turn, the
sticky knob comes out last for pollen from another
flower.
All this you may see for yourselves if you find
geraniums* in the hedges, and nasturtiums in your
garden. But even if you have not these, you may
learn the history of another flower quite as curious,
and which you can find in any field or lane even near
London. The common dead-nettle (Fig. 59) takes a
great deal of trouble in order that the bee may carry
off its pollen. When you have found one of these
plants, take a flower from the ring all round the stalk
and tear it gently open, so that you can see down
its throat There, just at the very bottom, you will
* The scarlet and other bright geraniums of our flower-gardens are
not true geraniums, but pelargoniums. You may, however, watch all
these peculiarities in them if you cannot procure the true wild geranium.
BEES AND FLOWERS.
223
find a thick fringe of hairs (/, No. 2, Fig. 59), and
you will guess at once that these are to protect a
drop of honey below. Little insects which would
Fig- 59-
Flower of the Dead-Nettie (Lamium album).
I, Whole. 2, Cut in half.
/, Fringe of hairs protecting honey at base, s, Stigma.
a, Anthers of stamens. /, Lip of flower.
creep into the flower and rob it of its honey without
touching the anthers of the stamens (a, Fig. 59)
cannot get past these hairs, and so the drop is kept
till the bee comes to fetch it.
Now look for the stamens : there are four of them
(a a), two long and two short, and they are quite
224 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
hidden under the hood which forms the top of the
flower. How will the bee touch them ? If you were
to watch one, you would find that when the bee
alights on the broad lip /, and thrusts her head down
the tube, she first of all knocks her back against the
little forked tip s. This is the sticky stigma, and she
leaves there any dust she has brought from another
flower; then, as she must push far in to reach the honey,
she rubs the top of her back against the anthers a a, and
before she comes out again has carried away the
yellow powder on her back, ready to give it to the
next flower.
Do you remember how we noticed at the beginning
of the lecture that a bee always likes to visit the same
kind of plant in one journey ? You see now that
this is very useful to the flowers. If the bee went
from a dead-nettle to a geranium, the dust would be
lost, for it would be of no use to any other plant but a
dead-nettle. But since the bee likes to get the same
kind of honey each journey, she goes to the same kind
of flowers, and places the pollen-dust just where it is
wanted.
There is another flower, called the Salvia, which
belongs to the same family as our dead-nettle, and I
think you will agree with me that its way of dusting
the bee's back is most clever. The Salvia (Fig. 60) is
shaped just like the dead-nettle, with a hood and a
broad lip, but instead of four stamens it has only two,
the other two being shrivelled up. The two that are
left have a very strange shape, for the stalk or
filament of the stamen (i/) is very short, while the
anther, which is in most flowers two little bags stuck
BEES AND FLOWERS.
225
together, has here grown out into a long thread a b,
with a little dust-bag at one end only. In I, Fig. 60,
you only see one of these stems, because the flower is
«
Fig. 60.
Flower of the Salvia.
I. Half a flower, showing the filament /, the swinging anther a b,
b' a', and the stigma j. 2. Bee entering the flower pushes the anther so
that it takes the position a'b', No. I, and hits him on the back.
3. Older flower : stigma touching the bee.
cut in half, but in the whole flower, one stands on
each side just within the lip. Now, when the bee
puts her head into the tube to reach the honey, she
passes right between these two swinging anthers, and
knocking against the end b pushes it before her and
so brings the dust-bag a plump down on her back,
scattering the dust there ! You can easily try this by
thrusting a pencil into any Salvia flower, and you will
see the anther fall.
You will notice that all this time the bee does not
touch the sticky stigma which hangs high above her j
Q
226 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
but after the anthers are empty and shrivelled the
stalk of the stigma grows longer, and it falls lower
clown. By-and-by another bee, having pollen on
her back, comes to look for honey, and as she goes
into No. 3, she rubs against the stigma and leaves
upon it the dust from another flower.
Tell me, has not the Salvia, while remaining so
much the same shape as the dead-nettle, devised a
wonderful contrivance to make use of the visits of the
bee ?
The common sweet violet ( Viola odoratd) or the dog
violet (Viola canina], which you can gather in any
meadow, give up their pollen-dust in quite a different
way from the Salvia, and yet it is equally ingenious.
Everyone has noticed what an irregular shape this
flower has, and that one of its purple petals has a
curious spur sticking out behind. In the tip of this
spur and in the spur of the stamen lying in it the
violet hides its honey, and to reach it the bee must
press past the curious ring of orange-tipped bodies in
the middle of the flower. These bodies are the anthers
a a, Fig. 61, which fit tightly round the stigma s, so that
when the pollen-dust /, which is very dry, comes out
of the bags, it remains shut in by the tips as if in a
box. Two of these stamens have spurs which lie in
the coloured spur of the flower, and have honey at the
end of them. Now, when the bee shakes the end of
the stigma s, it parts the ring of anthers, and the fine
dust falls through upon the insect.
Let us see for a moment how wonderfully this flower
is arranged to bring about the carrying of the pollen,
as Sprengel pointed out years ago. In the first place,
BEES AND FLOWERS. 22?
it hangs on a thin stalk, and bends its head down so
that the rain cannot come near the honey in the spur,
and also so that the pollen-dust falls forward into the
Fig. 61.
Section of the Dog Violet. Lubbock.
A, Anthers and stigma enlarged, a a, Anthers. J, Stigma.
/, Pollen. A, Honey.
front of the little box made by the closed anthers.
Then the pollen is quite dry, instead of being sticky
as in most plants. This is in order that it may fall
easily through the cracks. Then the style or stalk
of the stigma is very thin and its tip very broad, so
that it quivers easily when the bee touches it, and so
shakes the anthers apart, while the anthers them-
selves fold over to make the box, and yet not so
tightly but that the dust can fall through when they
Q 2
228 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
are shaken. Lastly, if you look at the veins of the
flower, you will find that they all point towards the
spur where the honey is to be found, so that when
the sweet smell of the flower has brought the bee,
she cannot fail to go in at the right place.
Two more flowers still I want us to examine
together, and then I hope you will care to look: at
every flower you meet, to try and see what insects
visit it, and how its pollen-dust is carried. These two
flowers are the common Bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus
corniculatus), and the Early Orchis (Orchis mascitla),
which you may find in almost any moist meadow in
the spring and early summer.
The Bird's-foot trefoil, Fig. 62, you will find almost
anywhere all through the summer, and you will know
it from other flowers very like it by its leaf, which is
not a true trefoil, for behind the three usual leaflets
of the clover and the shamrock leaf, it has two small
leaflets near the stalk. The flower, you will notice,
is shaped very like the flower of a pea, and indeed it
belongs to the same family, called the Papilionacece or
butterfly family, because the flowers look something
like an insect flying.
In all these flowers the top petal (sfa, Fig. 62)
stands up like a flag to catch the eye of the insect,
and for this reason botanists call it the "standard."
Below it are two side-petals w called the " wings," and
if you pick these off you will find that the remaining
two petals k are joined together at the tip in a shape
like the keel of a boat (2, Fig. 62). For this reason
they are called the " keel." Notice as we pass that
these two last petals have in them a curious little
BEES AND FLOWERS.
229
hollow or depression d, and if you look inside the
" wings " you will notice a little knob that fits into
this hollow, and so locks the two together. We shall
see by-^nd-by that this is important
Fig. 62.
stu
L--A
Lotus corniculatus, Bird's-foot Trefoil.
I. Full flower : sta, Standard ; w, Wings ; k, Keel. 2. Keel o4
flower: d, Depression into which wings fit. 3. Interior of flower:
s, Stigma ; /, Pollen ; a, Anthers ; h, Place where honey lies.
Next let us look at the half-flower when it is cut
open, and see what there is inside. There are ten
stamens in all, enclosed with the stigma in the keel ;
nine are joined together and one is by itself. The
anthers of five of these stamens burst open while the
flower is still a bud, but the oj:her stamens go on grow-
ing, and push the pollen-dust, which is very moist
230 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
and sticky, right up into the tip of the keel. Here
you see it lies right round the stigma s, but as we
saw before in the geranium, the stigma is not ripe
and sticky yet, and so it does not use the pollen-
grains.
Now suppose that a bee comes to the flower. The
honey she has to fetch lies inside the tube at h, and
the one stamen being loose she is able to get Her
proboscis in. But if she is to be of any use to the
flower she must uncover the pollen-dust. See how
cunningly the flower has contrived this. In order to
put her head into the tube the bee must stand upon
the wings w, and her weight bends them down. But
they are locked to the keel k by the knob fitting in
the hole d, and so the keel is pushed down too, and
the sticky pollen-dust is uncovered and comes right
against the stomach of the bee and sticks there ! As
soon as she has done feeding and flies away, up go
the wings and the keel with them, covering up any
pollen that remains ready for next time. Then when
the bee goes to another flower, as she touches the
stigma as well as the pollen, she leaves some of the
foreign dust upon it, and the flower uses that rather
than its own, because it is better for its seeds. If
however no bee happens to come to one of these
flowers, after a time the stigma becomes sticky and it
uses its own pollen : and this is perhaps one reason
why the bird's-foot trefoil is so very common, because
it can do its own work if the bee does not help it.
Now we come lastly to the Orchis flower. Mr.
Darwin has written a whole book on the many
curious and wonderful ways in which orchids tempt
BEES AND FLOWERS.
231
bees and other insects to fertilize them. We can only
take the simplest, but I think you will say that even
this blossom is more like a conjuror's box than you
would have supposed it possible that a flower could be.
Let us examine it closely. It has six deep-red
covering leaves, three ccc, Fig. 63, belonging to the
Fig. 63.
Orchis mascula.
ccc, Calyx, co, co, co, Corolla, p, Pollen-masses, r, Rostelluin
or lid covering the knob at the end of pollen-masses, s s, Stigmas.
P, a Pollinia or pollen-mass, of which a is the pollen and d the sticky
gland which adheres to the head of the bee. s v, Seed-vessel. sj>, Spur
of the flower.
calyx or outer cup, and three co, co, co, belonging to
the corolla or crown of the flower ; but all six are
coloured alike, except that the large one in front,
232 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
i
called the " lip," has spots and lines upon it which will
suggest to you at once that they point to the honey.
But where are the anthers, and where is the stigma ?
Look just under the arch made by those three
bending flower-leaves, and there you will see two
small slits, and in these some little club-shaped bodies
pp, which you can pick out with the point of a needle.
One of these enlarged is shown at P. It is composed
of sticky grains of pollen a held together by fine
threads on the top of a thin stalk ; and at the bottom
of the stalk there is a little round body d. This is
all that you will find to represent the stamens of the
flower. When these masses of pollen, or pollinia as
they are called, are within the flower, the knob at the
bottom is covered by a little lid r, shutting them in
like the lid of a box, and just below this lid r you will
see two yellowish lumps ss, which are very sticky.
These are the top of the stigma, and they are just
above the seed-vessel s v, which you can see in the
lowest flower in the picture.
Now let us see how this flower gives up its pollen.
When a bee comes to look for honey in the orchis,
she alights on the lip, and guided by the lines makes
straight for the opening just in front of the stigmas
ss. Putting her head into this opening she pushes
down into the spur sp, where by biting the inside skin
she gets some juicy sap. Notice that she has to bite,
which takes time.
You will see at once that she must touch the
stigmas in going in, and so give them any pollen she
has on her head. But she also touches the little lid r
and it files Instantly open, bringing the glands d
BEES AND FLOWERS. 233
at the ena of the pollen-masses against her head.
These glands are moist and sticky, and while she is
gnawing the inside of the spur they dry a little and
cling to her head and she brings them out with her.
Darwin once caught a bee with as many as sixteen of
these pollen-masses clinging to her head.
But if the bee went into the next flower with these
pollinia sticking upright, she would simply put them
into the same slits in the next flower, she would not
touch them against the stigma. Nature, however, has
provided against this. As the bee flies along, the
glands sticking to its head dry more and more, and as
they dry they curl up and drag the pollen - masses
down, so that instead of standing upright, as in
I, Fig. 63, they point forwards, as in 2.
And now, when the bee goes into the next flower,
she will thrust them right against the sticky stigmas,
and as they cling there the fine threads which hold
the grains together break away, and the flower is
fertilized.
If you will gather some of these orchids during
your next spring walk in the woods, and will put a
pencil down the tube to represent the head of the bee,
you may see the little box open, and the two pollen-
masses cling to the pencil. Then if you draw it out
you may see them gradually bend forwards, and by
thrusting your pencil into the next flower you may see
the grains of pollen break away, and you will have
followed out the work of the bee.
Do not such wonderful contrivances as these make
us long to know and understand all the hidden
234 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
work that is going on around us among the flowers,
the insects, and all forms of life ? I have been able to
tell you but very little, but I can promise you that
the more you examine, the more you will find
marvellous histories such as these in simple field-
flowers.
Long as we have known how useful honey was to
the bee, and how it could only get it from flowers,
yet it was not till quite lately that we have learned to
follow out Sprengel's suggestion, and to trace the use
which the bee is to the flower. But now that we have
once had our eyes opened, every flower teaches us
something new, and we find that each plant adapts
itself in a most wonderful way to the insects which
visit it, both so as to provide them with honey, and at
the same time to make them unconsciously do it good
service.
And so we learn that even among insects and
flowers, those who do most for others, receive most
in return. The bee and the flower do not either of
them reason about the matter, they only go on living
their little lives as nature guides them, helping and
improving each other. Think for a moment how it
would be, if a plant used up all its sap for its own life,
and did not give up any to make the drop of honey
in its flower. The bees would soon find out that
these particular flowers were not worth visiting, and
the flower would not get its pollen-dust carried, and
would have to do its own work and grow weakly and
small. Or suppose on the other hand that the bee bit
a hole in the bottom of the flower, and so got at the
honey, as indeed they sometimes do ; then she would
BEES AND FLOWERS. 235
not carry the pollen-dust, and so would not keep up
the healthy strong flowers which make her daily food.
But this, as you see, is not the rule. On the con-
trary, the flower feeds the bee, and the bee quite
unconsciously helps the flower to make its healthy
seed. Nay more ; when you are able to read all that
has been written on this subject, you will find that
we have good reason to think that the flowerless
plants of the Coal Period have gradually put on the
beautiful colours, sweet scent, and graceful shapes of
our present flowers, in consequence of the necessity of
attracting insects, and thus we owe our lovely flowers
to the mutual kindliness of plants and insects.
And is there nothing beyond this ? Surely there
is. Flowers and insects, as we have seen, act without
thought or knowledge of what they are doing ; but
the law of mutual help which guides them is the same
which bids you and me be kind and good to all those
around us, if we would lead useful and happy lives.
And when we see that the Great Power which rules
over our universe makes each work for the good of all,
even in such humble things as bees and flowers ; and
that beauty and loveliness come out of the struggle
and striving of all living things ; then, if our own life
be sometimes difficult, and the struggle hard to bear,
we learn from the flowers that the best way to meet
our troubles is to lay up our little drop of honey
for others, sure that when they come to sip it they
will, even if unconsciously, give us new vigour and
courage in return.
And now we have arrived at the end of those sub-
236 THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
jects which we selected out of the Fairy-land of
Science. You must not for a moment imagine,
however, that we have in any way exhausted our
fairy domain ; on the contrary, we have scarcely
explored even the outskirts of it. The " History of a
Grain of Salt," "A Butterfly's Life," or " The Labours
of an Ant," would introduce us to fairies and wonders
quite as interesting as those of which we have spoken
in these Lectures. While "A Flash of Lightning,"
" An Explosion in a Coal-mine," or " The Eruption of
a Volcano," would bring us into the presence of
terrible giants known and dreaded from time imme-
morial.
But at least we have passed through the gates, and
have learnt that there is a world of wonder which we
may visit if we will ; and that it lies quite close to us,
hidden in every dewdrop and gust of wind, in every
brook and valley, in every little plant or animal.
We have only to stretch out our hand and touch
them with the wand of inquiry, and they will answer
us and reveal the fairy forces which guide and govern
them ; and thus pleasant and happy thoughts may
be conjured up at any time, wherever we find our-
selves, by simply calling upon nature's fairies and
asking them to speak to us. Is it not strange, then,
that people should pass them by so often without a
thought, and be content to grow up ignorant of all
the wonderful powers ever active in the world around
them ?
Neither is it pleasure alone which we gain by a
study of nature. We cannot examine even a tiny
sunbeam, and picture the minute waves of which it
BEES AND FLOWERS. 237
is composed, travelling incessantly from the sun,
without being filled with wonder and awe at the
marvellous activity and power displayed in the in-
finitely small as well as in the infinitely great things
of the universe. We cannot become familiar with the
facts of gravitation, cohesion, or crystallization, with-
out realizing that the laws of nature are fixed, orderly,
and constant, and will repay us with failure or success
according as we act ignorantly or wisely ; and thus we
shall begin to be afraid of leading careless, useless, and
idle lives. We cannot watch the working of the fairy
"life" in the primrose or the bee, without learning
that living beings as well as inanimate things are
governed by these same laws of nature ; nor can we
contemplate the mutual adaptation of bees and
flowers without acknowledging that it teaches the
truth that those succeed best in life who, whether
consciously or unconsciously, do their best for others.
And so our wanderings in the Fairy -land of
Science will have given us much pleasant know-
ledge, and taught us in many ways how to regulate
our own lives, while they may also serve a far higher
purpose, by showing us that the forces of nature,
whether they are apparently mechanical, as in gravi-
tation or heat, or intelligent, as in living beings, are
one and all the voice of the Great Creator, and speak
to us of His Nature and His Will.
C 238 )
INDEX.
ADELSBERG STALACTITE GROTTO,
116
Aerial ocean, 51, 70
Agassiz on "erratic blocks," 122
Air, bad, in close rooms, 54
carrying water-vapour, 74> 7^i
93
elasticity of, 57
its pressure on the earth, 60
made of two gases, 52
• rising of hot, 68
weight of, 58
Air-atoms forming waves of sound,
130
Air-bubbles bursting in waves, 143
Air-currents, cause of, 67
Albuminoids, 154, 1 60
Almond-seed, 153
Alum Bay Chine, 109
Ammonia in air, 55
Anaxagoras on size of the sun, 29
Antarctic Continent, snowfields of,
93
Anthers of stamens, 164
bursting of, 166
Aqueous vapour, whence it comes,
77
Arbroath, waste of cliffs at, 117
Ariel's song, 5
Atmosphere causing the spread of
light, 71
Atmosphere, height of, 59
weight of, 60-66
Aurora borealis, 52, 71
Avalanche, noise of, 147
BALLOON ASCENTS, 58
Balls illustrating sound-waves, 129
Barometer and its action, 64-66
Bee-bread, 202
Bee, pollen-masses on head of, 233
Bees and flowers useful to each
other, 235
and orchids, 231
cementing dead bodies, 2IO
feeding of, 203, 205
>• Huber on, 195
length of life of, 2IO
nursing, 199
sentinel, 209
swarming, 196, 206, 207
ventilating, 209
visit one set of flowers at a
time, 214, 224 .
worker, queen, and drone, 197
young princess, 205
Beetles, timber-boring, 148
Biot, Professor, on sound in tubes,
132
Bird's-foot trefoil, structure of, 229
Birds, trill of, 148
Bischof, on lime in River Rhine, 106
INDEX.
239
Blackgang Chine, 109
Bones of the ear, 138
Bonn, solid matter carried past, 106
Breathing and burning, 54
Brood-comb of bees, 204
Brook, song of the, 143
Burning and breathing, 54
Buttercup, honey-glands in, 215
Buxton, Poole's Cavern, near, 115
CALAMITES OF THE COAL, 181
Calyx, use of, 163
Canons of Colorado, 1 1 1
Carbon in plants, 158
in sugar, 159
Carbonate of lime crystals, 115
Carbonic acid in air, 55
Cardboard of colours, revolving, 41
Carruthers, Mr., cited, 178, 181
Caverns, stalactitic, 115
Caves on sea-shore, 118
Cells of a plant, 154
of bees, 200
Chalk-builders, 4, 97
Chemical action, 12, 16, 53
rays, 48
Chlorophyll in leaves, 158
Cissy and the drops, 14
City of the bees, 193
Clerk-Maxwell on ether, 35
Clouds, how formed, 75, 78
Club-moss and coal-plants, 179
Coal, a piece of, 172
essences from, 190
imprisoned fairies in, 1 1
its growth and purity, 183-185
oils, tar, and gas of, 189
ball, contents of a, 1 78
fields of England, 187
-forest, picture of a, 180
-gas, making of, 188
-mine, section of a, 1 74
Coal-plants, what they have done
for us, 190
Cobwebs and dewdrops, 84
Cochlea of ear, 139
Cocoon of beest 203, 205
Cohesion and its work, 8, 12, 80
Coke, 188
Colorado canons, III
Colour, bees distinguish, 2l6
Colours, cause of, 44
revolving disk of, 41
Coral, Huxley on, 21
picture of, 20
-island, 23
Corolla, use of, 166
Corti's organ, 140
Country, sounds of the, 126
Crevasses, 120
Crystallization, 87, 89
a fairy force, 10
Crystals in sugar-candy, 86
how they form, 89
in many substances, 87
of sea-salts, 96
of snow, 89
Cumberland, rain in, 8l
DAISY, opening of the, 217
closing in rain, 218
Darwin, Mr., cited, 231-233
Dead-nettle, structure of the, 223
Deltas, 114
Deposition of mud, 1 13
Dew, how formed, 83
artificial, 84
Distillation of water from seas, 92
Drones, slaughter of, 208
EAR, construction of the, 136
stones, 139
Earth, its size compared to the sun,
29
240
INDEX.
Earth-pillars, picture of, 102
Earth's state if there were no sun, 28
Echoes, 133, 144
Eggs, laying of queen-bee, 205
Enemies of bees, 209
of plants, 219
Equisetum, or horse-tail, 181
Erratic blocks, 122
Ether, waves of the, 35-82
Eustachian tube, 137
Evaporation from rivers and seas, 77
Evening primrose, insects visiting,
218
Eye, light- waves entering, 38-41
FAIRIES, or forces of nature, 6-12
Fairy "Life," 169
Fairy-tales and science, 2
Flowers bright to attract insects, 216
times of opening of, 217
Food of a plant, 156
Frost bursting water-pipes, 91
breaking up the fields, 1 1 8
GANGES DELTA, 114
Gas, definition of a, 15
in coal, 188
Gay-Lussac's balloon ascent, 58
Geikie, Mr., cited, 117
Geneva, mud in lake of, 121
Geranium, fertilization of, 220
sylvaticum, 221
of the garden, 222
Glacial Period, 122
Glaciers, 94, 119
blocks carried by, 122
Glaisher's balloon ascent, 58, 62
God in nature, 25
Graphite, hardened by pressure, 187
Grass, dew forming on, 83
Gravesend, mud-banks at, 1 14
Gravitation and its work, 8, 12
Great Dismal Swamp, America, 183
Greenland, glaciers of, 1 19
snow-fields of, 93
vapour carried from, 79
Gulf of Mexico, vapour carried up
from, 78
HAILSTONES, how formed, 85
Hard water, 95
Hartshorn, spirits of, 55
Heat, a fairy force, 8
cut off by water- vapour, 82
necessary to turn water into
vapour, 92
of the sun, 32
work done by, 45
imprisoned in coal, 46
of our bodies, 46
Helpfulness, mutual, of- insects and
flowers, 235
Herschel, Sir J., on the sun, 32
Hive-bee, forming cells, 200
Hives, ventilation of, 209
bees cementing cracks in, 197
Hoar-frost, 90
Honey, carried by bee, 2OI
secreted by flowers for bees,
215
use of, to the primrose, 167
Honeysuckle, scent at night, 218
Hooker, Sir J., on rainfall, 80
Horse-tails and calamites, 181
Huber on bees, 195
Huxley, Mr., on coral, 21
cited, 104
Huyghens on light, 34
ICE, formed of pressed snow, 93
purity of, 95
sculpturing power of, 1 19
water-flowers in, 91
Icebergs, 94
INDEX.
241
Imagination in science, 7
Indian Ocean, vapour carried up
from, 77
Insects attracted by scent and
colour, 217
buzzing of, 147
visiting the primrose, 167
Iron, use of in leaves, 157
worked in Sussex, 191
Ives, Lieut., on Caiions, 112
JAR, resonance in a, 145
Judd, Professor, cited, 176
KENTUCKY, Mammoth Cave of, 116
Kettle, crust in a, 105
vapour rising from a, 75
Khasia Hills, rain in, 80
LACE, photographed during lecture,
48
Lake-district, rain in the, 81
Land-breeze and sea-breeze, 69
Landslips, 103
Lamium album, 223
Larva of bees, 203
Laws of nature, 24
Leather wetted, lifting a weight, 62
Leaves, oxygen-bubbles rising from,
158
stomates in, 161
the stomach of a plant, 161
Lepidodendrons, trees of coal, 1 78,
1 80, 182
Life of a plant, 1 70
Light, coloured spectrum of, 39
dark and light bands of, 37
of the sun, 31
effect of, on plants, 45
reflection of, 43
scattered by particles in air, 71
Light-waves entering the eye, 38
Light-waves, size of, 38
Lightning, 52, 71
Lime, carbonate of, petrifying, 115
Limpet clinging to a rock, 62
Liquid, definition of a, 15
Lines in flowers, 222
Llanberis Pass, 122
Looking-glass, cause of reflection
in, 43
Lotus corniculatus, 229
Lubbock, Sir J., cited, 216, 227
Lycopodium like coal-plants, 179
Lyme Regis, landslip of, 103
MAGNETS, attraction and repulsion
of, 88
Martineau, Miss C., on echoes, 134
Mediterranean, vapour carried up
from, 78
Mercury, action of, in a barometer,
65
Metal reflecting light, 43
Meteors, height of atmosphere
shown by, 59
Mississippi delta, 114
Moraines, I2O
Mountains causing rainfall, 80
Mouse breathing in bell-jar, 54
Mud in river-water, 105
Musical notes, 140, 142
NASTURTIUM and the bee, 222
Nature and her laws, 24
love of, 19
Neath Colliery, fossils from, 175
Newton on light, 34
Niagara Falls, 109-111
Nile plain and delta, 113
Nitre crystals, how to make, 87
Nitrogen in air, 53
Nodules in coal, 177
Noise and music, 140
R
242
INDEX
Norfolk, Virginia, Dismal Swamp
in, 183
Notes of music, 142
OIL, its heat and light, 47
Oils in coal, 188, 189
in plants, 154, 159, 189
Orange-cells, 154
Orchis mascula, its structure, 231
Otoliths, or ear-stones, 139
Oxygen in air, 53
Ovules of plants, 163
PAN-PIPES, 145
Paper, pressure of air on square
inch of, 60
Paraffin from coal, 189
Peat, formation of, 184
Petrifactions, 115
Pelargoniums, 222
Pennine Hills causing rainfall, 8 1
Peter Bell on a primrose, 7
Phosphoric acid, 53
Phosphorus burning in air, 53
Photography, 47
Pimpernel, closing for rain, 217
Plant-cells, 155
Plant, food of a, 156
water rising in a, 157
Plants absorbing rain, 81
• annual and perennial, 161
contrivances for protection in,
219
effect of light on, 45
fertilized by wind, 215
in a coal-mine, 1 74
— light and heat imprisoned in,
169
remains in coal-nodules, 177
Poker, sound of a vibrating, 128
Pollen-dust carried by bees, 215
of flowers, 227, 229
Pollen, gathering of, 201
use of, 164
Pollinia of an orchis, 23 1
Polyps, coral, 21
Poole's Cavern, 115
Popgun, compressing air ia, 57
Potash formed, 17
Potassium in water, 16
Pot-holes, 109
Pressure, making coal hard, 187
Primrose, corolla falling off, 167
Protoplasm, 155
green granules of, 157
Primrose, the life of a, 150
two forms of, 163 •
Princess-bees, slaughter of, 2oS
Prism giving coloured light, 39
Propolis, or bee-cement, 297
QUEEN-BEE, flight of, 202
laying eggs, 203
Queenstown, cliffs at, no
RAIN, causes of, 79, 80
fairies working in, 8
fall of barometer before, 66
Ravine worn by water, 107
Reflection of light, 43
Resonance in a jar, 145
Rhine, amount of lirce carried by,
1 06
Roches moutonnees, 121
Rock hurled by waves, 117
ST. JOHN'S WOOD, explosion in,
133
St Paul's railings of Sussex iron,
191
, Niagara falls only half the
height of, 109
Salvia, bee entering the, 225
Sap of plants, 157
INDEX,
243
Scent of flowers attracts 'nsects,
217
Science, fairy-tales of, 2
how to study, 1 8
Sculptors, water and ice, 99, 118
Sea-breeze and land-breeze, 69
Sea washing away land, no
why salt, 96
what becomes of solid matter
in, 97
Seeds, how formed, 165
oils in, 189
Selaginella, figure of, 179
Shale, piece of, with plants, 175
Shelley, cited, 143
Shell, music of the, 146
Sigillaria, 176, 180
Snow, cause of whiteness of, 90
fairies working in, 9
Snow-crystals, 90
Snow-drop fairies, 10
Snowfields, 93
Snow-flakes, crystallization of, 89
Solid, definition of a, 15
Sound, globes of, 132
its nature, 127
— reflection of, 133
Sounds of town and country, 125-
127
Sound-waves, 131
South Ouram, coal-nodules at, 177
Spectrum, coloured, 39
Sphinx hawk-moth visiting honey-
suckle, 218
Spores of club-moss, 179
in coal, 178, 180
Sprengel on insects and flowers,
220, 226, 234
Springs, 93
mineral, 95
Stalactites, 115
Stalagmites, 116
Stamens of a flower, 164
Starch in plants, 154, 159
Stars, light of the, 36
twinkling of, 71
Stigma of a flower, 165
Stigmas of orchids, 231
Stigmaria root, 175
Stomates in leaves, 161
Striae made by ice, 121, 122
Sugar, carbon in, 159
candy crystals, 86
Sun, distance of the, 29
size of the, 29
heat and light of, 32
Sunbeams, 27, 42
causing colour, 44
causing wind, 68
how few reach the earth, 32
made of many colours, 40
rate at which they travel, 38
turning water to vapour, 74,
77
Sunrise, 27
Sussex, iron worked in, 191
Swamp, Great Dismal, 183
Swarming of bees, 196, 206
Switzerland, glaciers of, 1 19
snow and ice in, 93
TAR FROM COAL, 189
Tennyson's ' In Memoriam ' cited,
192
poem of a flower, 152
Thames, drainage of, 104
mud-banks, 114
Thunder, noise of, 146
Trade-winds, 69
Treacle and water mixing through
a membrane, 157
Trees of the coal-forest, 180
Trefoil, structure of flower of, 229
Tumbler of water inverted, 63
244
INDEX.
Tuning-forks vibrating, 142
Turin, moraines near, 120
Twinkling of stars, 71
Tympanum of the ear, 137
Tyndall, Dr., cited, 75, 87, 91,
128, 144
UNDERCLAYS of coal, 176
Undercliff, Isle of Wight, 103
Undulatory theory of light, 33-35
VIBRATION OF TUNING-FORKS, 142
Violet, structure of the, 227
WALES, rain in, 81
Water, cutting power of, 105-112
"hard," 95
— heat required to vaporize, 92
how it rises in a plant, 157
in U tube kept up by pressure,
64
solid matter dissolved in, 105
Water-dust, 75
Waterfalls, how formed, 108
Water-flowers in ice, 91
Water-pipes, cause of bursting of,
9i
Water-vapour invisible, 75, 77
screening the sun's heat, 82
Waves, noise of the, 143, 144
of light measured, 37
of sound crossing each other,
135
Wave-theory of light, 33-35
Wax, plate of in hive, 198
formation of, 199
Weight and pressure of air, 58, 60
barometer measuring, 64-66
Wheel revolving to make musical
note, 141
Williams, Mr. J., cited, 176
Wind, cause of, 67
noise of the, 144-146
— fertilizing plants, 216
Winds, land and sea, 69
, trade-, 69
Woodstock Park, echoes in, 134
Work of the sunbeams, 42
YOUNG, Dr., cited, 189
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sheets, 25s.; mounted, in case, 35s.; on roller, varnished, 21. 2s.; on spring
roller, 4£. 4s.
ASIA. — Scale, 110 miles to an inch; size, 65 inches by 58. Coloured and
mounted on linen, in morocco case, 31. 13s. 6d. ; on roller, varnished, 31. ; spring
roller, 61.
AFRICA. — Scale, 94 miles to an inch; size, 58 inches by 65. Coloured and
mounted on linen, in morocco case, 31. 13s. 6d. ; on roller, varnished, 3/.; spring
roller, 61.
NORTH AMERICA. — Scale, 83 miles to an inch; size, 58 inches by 65.
Coloured and mounted on linen, in morocco case, 3/. 13*. 6d.; on roller,
varnished, 31. ; spring roller, 61.
CANADA. — Scale, 16 miles to an inch; size, 96 inches by 54. Eight Coloured
Sheets, 21. 12s. 6d. ; mounted, in case, 31. 13s. 6d. ; on roller, varnished, 4J. 4s. ;
spring roller, 81.
UNITED STATES and CENTRAL AMERICA. — Scale, 54*
miles to an inch ; size, 72 inches by 56. Coloured and mounted on linen, in
morocco case, 31. 13s. 6<f. ; on roller, varnished, 3t. ; spring roller, 61.
SOUTH AMERICA. — Scale, 83 miles to an inch; size, 58 inches by 65.
Coloured and mounted on linen, morocco case, 31. 13s. 6d: on roller, varnished,
31. ; spring roller, 61.
AUSTRALASIA. — Scale, 64 miles to an inch; size, 65 inches by 58.
Coloured and mounted on linen, morocco case, 31. 13s. 6d. ; on roller, varnished,
31. ; spring roller, 61.
AUSTRALIA. — Scale, 26 miles to an inch; size, 8 feet 6 inches by 6 feet
6 inches. In Nine Sheets, coloured, 21. 12s. 6d. ; mounted, in morocco case,
or on roller, varnished, 41. 4*. ; on spring roller, 7J. 7*.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
16 SELECTED LIST.
EUROPE.-STANFORD'S PORTABLE MAP of EUROPE; showing the
latest Political Boundaries, the Railways, the Submarine Telegraphs, &c. Scale,
150 miles to an inch; size, 36 inches by 33. Fully coloured and mounted on
linen, in case, 10s. ; on roller, varnished, 14s.
CENTRAL EUROPE.— DAVIES'S MAP of CENTRAL EUROPE;
containing all the Railways, with their Stations. The principal roads, tlie
rivers, and chief mountain ranges are clearly delineated. Scale, 24 miles to
an inch ; size, 47 inches by 3s. Sheets, plain, 10s. ; coloured, 12s. ; mounted on
linen, in case, 16s.
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. By J. ABROWSMITH. Scale, 28 miles to an inch;
size, 26 inches by 22. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted In case, 5s.
DENMARK and ICELAND. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale, 13 miles to
an inch ; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted in case, 5s.
FRANCE, in DEPARTMENTS. With a Supplementary Map, divided
Into Provinces, and a Map of the Island of Corsica. By J. AHROWSMITH. Scale,
31 miles to an inch; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet, coloured, 3s.; mounted in
case, 5s.
GERMANY. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale, 25 miles to an inch ; in two sheets,
size of each, 22 inches by 26. Price of each, coloured sheet, 3s. ; mounted, in
case, 5s.
ITALY, including Sicily and the Maltese Islands. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale,
20 miles to an inch ; in two sheets, size of each, 22 inches by 26. Price of each,
coloured, 3s. ; mounted to case, 5s.
NETHERLANDS and BELGIUM, including Luxembourg and the
Country to the East as far as the Khine. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale, 13 miles
to an inch ; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted in case, 5s.
RUSSIA and POLAND, including Finland. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale,
90 miles to an inch ; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted in
case, 5s.
SPAIN and PORTUGAL. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale, 30 miles to an
inch ; size, 26 inches by 22. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted in case, 5s.
SWEDEN and NORWAY. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale, 35 miles to an
inch ; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted in case, 5s.
SWITZERLAND. By J. ABROWSMITH. Scale, 10$ miles to an inch; size,
26 inches by 22. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted in case, 5s.
TURKEY in EUROPE, including the Archipelago, Greece, the Ionian
Islands, and the South part of Ualmatia. By J. ARHOWSMITH. Scale, 40 miles
to an inch ; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted in case, 5s.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
MAPS. 17
BRITISH ISLES-
BRITISH ISLES.— NEW WALL MAP. Constructed on the basis of the
Ordnance Survey, and distinguishing in a clear manner the Cities, County and
Assize Towns, Municipal Boroughs, Parliamentary Representation Towns which
are Counties of themselves, Episcopal Sees, Principal Villages, &c. The
Railways are carefully laid down and coloured, and the Map from ite size is
well suited for Public Offices, Institutions, Reading-Rooms, Railway Stations,
good School-Rooms, &c. Scale, 8 miles to an inch; size, 81 inches by 90.
Price, coloured, mounted on mahogany roller, ami varnished, 31.
BRITISH ISLES.— DA VIES'S NEW RAILWAY MAP of the BRITISH
ISLES, and part of France. Scale, 22 miles to an inch ; size, 31 inches by 38.
Price, coloured in sheet, 6s. ; mounted on linen, in case, 9s. ; or on roller,
varnished, 15s.
BRITISH ISLES.— STEREOGRAPH1CAL MAP of the BRITISH ISLES.
Constructed to show the Correct Relation of the Physical Features. Size,
50 inches by 58 ; scale, 11£ miles to 1 inch. Price, mounted on rollers and
varnished, 21s.
ENGLAND and WALES.— LARGE SCALE RAILWAY and STATION
MAP ot ENGLAND and WALES. In 24 sheets (sold separately). Con-
structed on the basis of the trigonometrical survey. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale,
3 miles to an inch ; size of each sheet, 20 inches by 2-<. Price, plain, 1*. ;
mounted in case, 2s. 6<i. ; coloured. Is. 6d. ; mounted in case, 3s. Size of the
complete map, 114 inches by 128. Price, plain, in ca--e or portfolio, 1Z. 5*.;
coloured, in case or portfolio, ll. 8* ; mounted on cloth to fold, in case, coloured,
41 4s. ; on canvas, roller, and varnished, 41. 14s. 6d. : on spring roller, Si. 9s.
ENGLAND and WALES.— STANFORD'S PORTABLE MAP of ENG-
LAND and WALES. With the Railways very clearly delineated; the Cities
and Towns distinguished according to their Population, &c. Scale, 15 miles to
an inch; size, 28 inches by 32. Coloured and mounted on linen, in case, 5s.;
or on roller, varnished, 8s.
ENGLAND and "WALES.— W ALL MAP. Scale, 8 miles to an inch;
size, 50 inches by 58. Price, mounted on mahogany roller, varnished, 21s.
SCOTLAND.— NEW WALL MAP, showing the Divisions of the Counties,
the Towns, Villages, Railways, &c. Scale, 8 miles to an inch ; size, 34 inches
by 42. Price, coloured, mounted on mahogany roller, and varnished, 12s. 6d.
SCOTLAND, in COUNTIES. With the Roads, Rivers, &c. By J.
ABKOWSMITH. Scale, 12 miles to an inc,h; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet,
coloured, 3s. ; mounted in case, 5s.
IRELAND, in COUNTIES and BARONIES, on the basis of the
Ordnance Survey and the Census. Scale, 8 miles to an inch ; size, 31 inches
by 38. On two sheets, coloured, 8s. ; mounted on linen, in case, 10s. 6d. ; on
roller, varnished, 15s.
IRELAND.— NEW WALL MAP, showing the divisions of the Counties, all
the Towns, Principal Villages, Railways, &c. Scale, 8 miles to an inch; size,
34 inches by 42. Price, coloured, mounted on roller, varnished, 12s. fid.
IRELAND, in COUNTIES. With the Roads, Rivers, &c. By J.
ARROWSMITH. Sca'e, 12 miles to an inch; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet,
coloured, 3s. ; mounted in case, 5s.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
18 SELECTED LIST.
MODERN LONDON and its SUBURBS, extending from Hampstead
to the Crystal Palace, and from Hammersmith Bridge to Greenwich ; showing
all the Railways and Stations the Roads, Footpaths, &c. Scale, 6 inches to the
mile ; size, 5 feet by 6. On six large sheets, 25*. ; mounted on linen, In case, or
on roller, varnished, 42s.
COLLINS' STANDARD MAP of LONDON. Admirably adapted
for visitors to the City. Scale, 4 inches to a mile; size, 34£ inches by 27.
Price, plain, in case, is. ; coloured, 1*. 6d. ; mounted on linen, ditto, 3s. 6d. ;
on roller, varnished, 7s. 6<i.
BRITISH METROPOLIS.— DA VIES'S NEW MAP of the BRITISH
METROPOLIS. Scale, 3 inches to a milo ; size, 36 inches by 25£. Price,
plain sheet, 3s. 6d. ; coloured, 5s. ; mounted on linen, in case, 7*. 6d. ; on roller,
% varnished, 10s. 6<i. With continuation southward beyond the Crystal Palace,
plain sheet, 5s.; coloured, 7s. 6d.; mounted on linen, in case, 11s.; on roller,
varnished, 15s.
RAILWAY MAP of LONDON and ENVTRONS.-STANKORD'S
SPKCIAL MAP of the RAILWAYS, RAILWAY STATIONS, TRAM-
WAYS, POSTAL DISTRICTS, and SUB-DISTRICTS, in LONDON and its
ENVIRONS. Scale, 1 inch to a mile; size, 24 inches by 26. Price, coloured
and folded, Is. ; mounted on linen, in case, 3s.
RAILWAY MAP of LONDON.— The 'DISTRICT' RAILWAY MAP
of LONDON, showing all the Stations on the 'Inner,' 'Middle,' and 'Outer'
Circles of the Metropolitan Underground Railways, with the principal Streets,
Parks, Public Buildings, Places of Amusement, ic. Size, 37 inches by 2i.
Coloured, and folded in cover, 6d.
PARISH MAP of LONDON.— STANFORD'S MAP of LONDON and its
ENVIRONS, showing the boundary of the Jurisdiction of the Metropolitan
Board of Works, the Parishes, Districts, Railways, &c. Srale, 2 inches to a
mile ; size, 40 inches by 27. Price, in sheet, 6.*. ; mounted on linen, in case, 9s. ;
on roller, varnished, 12s.
LONDON and its ENVIRONS.-DAVIES'S MAP of LONDON and its
ENVIRONS. _ Scale, 2 inches to a mile ; size, 36 inches by 28. The main roads
out of London, the Minor Roads and Footpaths in the Environs', the Railways
completed and in progress, are carefully defined. Price, sheet, 4*. ; coloured,
5s. 6d.; mounted on linen, in case, 8s.; or on roller, varnished, 14s.
ENVIRONS of LONDON.— A MAP of the ENVIRONS of LONDON
including twenty-five miles irom life Metropolis. Scale, f of an inch to a mile
size, 36 inches by 35. This Map includes the Whole of the County of Middlesex
with parts of the Counties of Surrey, Kent, Essex, Herts, Bucks, and Berks
Price, on one large sheet, coloured, 8s. ; mounted, in case, 10s. ; on roller, var
nished, 14s.
ENVIRONS of LONDON. — DA VIES'S MAP of the ENVIRONS of
LONDON. Scale, 1 inch to a mile ; size; 43 inches by 32. Price, sheet, plain, 4s.;
coloured, 5s. 6<i. ; mounted on linen, in case, 8s. ; or on roller, varnished, 14s.
ENVIRONS of LONDON.— STANFORD'S NEW MAP of the COUNTRY
TWELVE MILES round LONDON. Scale, 1 inch to a mile; size, 25 inches
by 25. Price, plain, folded in case, 2s. 6d. ; coloured, ditto, 3s. 6d. ; mounted on
linen, ditto, 5s. 6d.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
MAPS. 19
GENERAL MAP OF ASIA.— By J. ABBOWSHTTH. Scale, 300 miles to
an inch ; size, 26 inches by 22. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted, in case, 5*.
CENTRAL ASIA.— STANFORD'S MAP of CENTRAL ASIA, including
Teheran, Khiva, Bokhara, Kokan, Yarkand, Kabul, Herat, &c. Scale, 110 miles
to an inch ; size, 22 inches by 17. Coloured sheet, It. Sd.; mounted, in case, 5».
ASIA MINOR, &c. (TURKEY in ASIA). With portions of Persia, the
Caspian Sea, and the Caucasian Mountains. By J. ARBOWSJIITH. Scale, 55
miles to an inch ; size, 26 inches by 22. Sheet, coloured, 2s. ; mounted, in
case, 5*.
INDIA.— STANFORD'S NEW PORTABLE MAP of INDIA. Exhibiting the
Present Divisions of the Country according to the most Recent Surveys. Scale,
86 miles to an inch : size, 29 inches by 33. Coloured, 6*. ; mounted on linen, in
case, St. ; on roller, varnished, 1 1*.
INDIA.— MAP of INDIA. By J. ARKOWSJOTH. Scale, 90 miles to an Inch;
size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet, coloured, 3*. ; mounted in case, 5s.
CEYLON.— MAP of CEYLON. Constructed from a Base of Triangnlations and
corresponding Astronomical Observations. By Major-General JOHN FBASER,
late Deputy-Quartermasier-General. Reconstructed by JOHN ABKOWSMITH
Scale, 4 miles to an inch ; size, 52 inches by 78. Eight sheets, coloured. 2f. 5*. ;
mounted, in case, 32. 13*. 6J.; on roller, Tarnished, 4l. 4s.; spring roller,
61. 16s. 6d.
CEYLON.— COFFEE ESTATES of CEYLON. Map showing the Position of the
Coffee E-tates in the Central Province of Ceylon. By J. ABUOWSMITH. Size,
15 inches by 20. Sheet, coloured, Zt. ; mounted, in case, 5*.
BTJRMAH, &C. — A Map showing the various Routes proposed for connecting
China with India and Europe thruugh Burmab, and developing the Trade of
Eastern Bengal. Burmah, and China. Prepared under the direction of JOHN
OGILVT HAT, F.R.G.S. Scale, 33 miles to an inch; size, 27 inches by 32.
Coloured, 3*. ; mounted, in case, 5s.
BTJRMAH and ADJACENT COUNTRIES.— Compiled from
various MSS., and other Documents. By J. AKROWSMITH. Scale, 24 miles to
an inch ; size, 26 inches by 22. Sueet, coloured, 3*. ; mounted, in case, 5*.
CHINA.— MAP of CHINA. By J. ARROWSWITH. Scale. 90 miles to an inch ;
size, 26 inches by 22. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted, in case, 5*.
CHINA and JAPAN.— STANFORD'S MAP of the EMPIRES of CHI NA
and JAPAN, with the Adjacent Parts of British India, Asiatic Russia. Burmab,
&c. Scale, 110 miles to an inch; size, 38 inches by 24. One sheet, full coloured,
8*. ; mounted on linen, in case, 10s. 6J. ; on roller, varnished, 14*.
JAPAN.— LIBRARY MAP of JAPAN. Compiled by E. KNIFPING, Esq.
Size, 4 feet 6 inches by 5 feet 6 inches; scale, 17 miles to an inch. Coloured,
in sheets, 21. 2s. ; mounted, on rollers, or in case, 31. 3t. ; mounted, on spring
rollers, 6i.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
c 2
20 SELECTED LIST.
GENERAL, MAP of AFRICA.— By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale, 260 miles
to an inch ; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted, in case, 5s.
EGYPT.— MAP of EGYPT. Compiled from the most authentic materials, and
founded on the best Astronomical Observations. By Colonel W. M. LEAKE,
R.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Scale, 10 miles to an inch ; size, 34 inches by 52. Two
sheets, coloured, 21s. ; mounted, in case, 28s. ; on roller, varnished, 36s.
EGYPT.— MAP of EGYPT: including the Peninsula of Mount Sinai. By
J. ARROWSMITH. New Edition. Scale, 26 miles to an inch; size, 22 inches by
26. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted, in case, 5s.
AFRICA (NORTH-WEST).— MAP of NORTH-WEST AFRICA, in-
eluding the Coast of Guinea, and the Isle of Fernando Po, on the South, and the
Western parts of Egypt and Darfnr, on the East. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale,
130 miles to an inch ; size, 26 inches by 22. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted, in
case, 5s.
AFRICA (SOUTH).— MAP of SOUTH AFRICA to 16 deg. South Latitude.
By HENRY HALL, Draughtsman to the Royal Engineers, Cape Town. Scale, 50
miles to an inch ; size, 34 inches by 28. Two sheets, coloured, 10s. 6d. ;
mounted on linen, in case, 13s. 6d. ; on roller, varnished, 15s.
AFRICA (SOUTH - EASTERN). — MAP of SOUTH-EASTERN
AFRICA. Compiled by HENRY HALL. Scale. 25 miles to an inch; size, 26
inches by 22. Sheet, 4s. ; mounted on linen, in case, 6s.
AFRICA (WEST COAST).— MAP of the WEST COAST of AFRICA.
Comprising Guinea and the British Possessions at Sierra Leone, on the Gambia,
and the Gold Coast, &c. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale, 50 miles to an inch. Two
coloured sheets; size of each, 22 inches by 26, 6s. Mounted, in case, 10s.
CAPE of GOOD HOPE and SOUTH AFRICA.— MAP of SOUTH
AFRICA, Cape Colony, Natal, &c. By HENRY HALL. Scale, 50 miles to an
Inch; size, 29 inches by 17. Sheet, price 4s. 6d.; mounted, in case, 6s. 6<J.
CAPE COLONY (EASTERN FRONTIER).— MAPof the EASTERN
FRONTIER of the CAPE COLONY. Compiled by HENRY HALL. Scale,
8 miles to an inch ; size, 40 inches by 38. Sheets, 18s. 6d. ; mounteu on linen,
in case, 25s. ; on roller, varnished, 31s. 6d.
NATAL.— A MAP of the COLONY of NATAL. By ALEXANDER MATO, Land
Surveyor, Natal. Compiled from the Diagrams and General Plans in the
Surveyor-General's Office, and from Data furnished by P. C. SUTHERLAND, Esq.,
M.D., F.R.S., Surveyor-General. Scale, 4 miles to an inch ; size, 54 inches by 80.
Coloured, Four Sheets, 21. 5s. ; mounted, in case, or on rollers, varnished, 3J.
NATAL.— MAP of the COLONY of NATAL. Compiled in the Surveyor-
General's Office. Size, llj Inches by 14J. Sheet, coloured, Is.; mounted, in
case, 2s. 6(2.
NUBIA and ABYSSINIA, including Darfnr, Kordofan, and part of Arabia.
By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale, 65 miles to an inch ; size, 26 inches by 22. Sheet,
coloured, 3s. ; mounted, in case, 5s.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
MAPS. 21
BRITISH COLUMBIA.— NEW MAP of BRITISH COLUMBIA, to the
56th Parallel North Latitude, showing the New Gold Fields of Omineca, the
most recent discoveries at Cariboo and other places, and the proposed routes for
the Inter-Oceanic Railway. Scale, 25 miles to an inch ; size, 39 inches by 27.
Price, in sheet, coloured, is. 6d. ; or mounted on liuen, in case, 10s. 6d.
CANADA.— MAP of UPPER and LOWER CANADA, New Brunswick, Nova
Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, Cape Breton Island, Newfoundland, and a large
portion of the United States. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale, 35 miles to an inch ;
size, 40 inches by 26. Two sheets, coloured, 6s. ; mounted, in case, 10s. ; on
roller, varnished, 15s.
UNITED STATES and CANADA.— STANFORD'S NEW RAILWAY
and COUNTY MAP of the UNITED STATES and TERRITORIES, together
with Canada, New Brunswick, £c. Scale, 54£ miles to an inch ; size, 57 inches
by 36. Two sheets, coloured, 21s. ; case, 25». ; on rollers, varnished, 30*.
UNITED STATES.— STANFORD'S HANDY MAP of the UNITED
STATES. Scale, 90 miles to an inch; size, 40 inches by 25. Coloured sheet,
7s. 6d. ; mounted, in case, 10s. 6d. ; on roller, varnished, 15s.
UNITED STATES.— STANFORD'S SMALLER RAILWAY MAP of the
UNITED STATES. Scale, 120 miles to an inch; size, 29 inches by 17J. Two
sbeets, coloured, 4s. 6d. ; mounted on linen, in case, 6s. (id.
CENTRAL AMERICA.— BAILEY'S MAP of CENTRAL AMERICA,
including the States of Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa
Rica. Scale, 8 miles to an inch ; size, 40 inches by 27. Sheet, 7s. 6d.; mounted
on linen, in case, 10s. Sd. ; on roller, varnished, 14s.
IT HXICO.— A GENERAL MAP of the REPUBLIC of MEXICO. By the
Brigadier-General PEDRO GAKCIA CONDE. Engraved from the Original Survey
made by order of the Mexican Government. Size, 50 inches by 37. Sheets,
price, los. 6e/. ; mounted on linen, in case, 18s.
B3RMUDAS.— MAP of the BERMUDAS. Published by direction of His
Excellency Major-General J. H. LEFBOY, C.B., R.A., Governor and Commander-
in-Chief of the Bermudas. Scale, 2i miles to an inch; size, 62 inches by 63.
Mounted, in case, or on roller, varnished, 21s.
WEST INDIA ISLANDS and GUATEMALA.— Showing the
Colonies in possession of the various European Powers. By J. ARROWSMITH.
Scale, 90 miles to an inch ; size, 26 inches by 22. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted,
in case, 5s.
JAMAICA.— A NEW MAP of the ISLAND OF JAMAICA. Prepared by
THOMAS HARRISON, Government Surveyor, Kingston, Jamaica, under the direc-
tion of Major-General J. R. MANN, R.E., Director of Roads and Surveyor-General.
Scale, 1\ miles to an inch ; size, 64 inches by 27. Mounted, in case, or on roller,
varnished, 21s.
BARBADOES. — Topographical Map, based upon Mayo's Original Survey in
1721, and corrected to the year 1846. By Sir ROBERT H. SCHOMBURGH, K.R.E.
Scale, 2 miles to an inch ; size, 40 inches by 50. Two sheets, coloured, 21s. ;
mounted, in case, 23s. ; on roller, varnished, 37s.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
22 SELECTED LIST.
AUSTRALASIA. — This Map includes Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand,
Borneo, and the Malay Archipelago. The Natural Features are accurately and
distinctly represented, and the Tracts of all the Australian Travellers up to the
present time are laid down. The Divisions of the British Possessions Into
Provinces and Counties are shown. Scale, 86 miles to an inch ; size, 58 inches
by 50. Price, mounted on linen, on roller, varnished, 13*.
AUSTRALIA. —With all the Recent Exploratfons, Tracts of the Principal
Explorers, the Roads, Railways, Telegraphs, and Altitudes. Originally Drawn
by, and Engraved under the immediate superintendence of, the late JOHX
ARUOWSMITH. Revised and Corrected to present date. Scale, 80 miles to an
inch; size, 44 inches by 26. Sheets, colouied, 6*.; mounted in case, 10s.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.— With Plans of Perth, Fremantle, and Guild-
ford. From the Surveys of John Septimus Roe, Esq., Surveyor-General, and from
other Official Documents in the Colonial Office and Admiralty. By J. ARROW-
SMITH. Scale, 16 miles to an inch ; size, 40 inches by 22. Two sheets, coloured,
6s. ; in case, I us.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.-^howing the Division into Counties of the settled
portions of the Province. With Situation of Mines of Copper and Lead. From
the Surveys of Capt. Frome, R.E., Surveyor-General ot the Colony. By J.
ARROWSMITH. Scale, 14 miles to an inch ; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet,
coloured, 3s. ; in case, 5s.
QUEENSLAND.— STANFORD'S NEW MAP of the PROVINCE of
QUEENSLAND (North-Eastern Australia): Compiled from the most reli-
able Authorities. Scale, 64 miles to an inch ; size, 18 inches by 23. In sheets,
coloured, 2s. 6d. ; mounted on linen, in case, 4s. 6d.
VICTORIA.— A NEW MAP of the PROVINCE of VICTORIA (Australia) :
Showing all the Roads, Rivers, Towns, Counties, Gold Diggings, Sheep and
Cattle Stations, &c. Scale, 20 miles to an inch ; size, 31 inches by 21. In
sheet, 2s. 6d. ; or mounted on linen, in case, 4s. 6d.
NEW ZEALAND.— With all Recent Topographical Information, New Ad-
ministrative Divisions, Railways, Submarine Telegraphs, &c. Size, 24 inches
by 42 ; scale, 25 miles to an inch. Price, mounted in case or on roller, var-
nished, 9$.
NEW ZEALAND.— STANFORD'S MAP of NEW ZEALAND: Compiled
from the most recent Documents. Scale, 64 miles to an inch ; size, 17 inches
by 9. Full-coloured, in sheet, 2s. ; mounted on linen, in case, 3s. 6d.
NEW ZEALAND.— From Official Documents. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale,
38 miles to an inch ; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet, coloured, 3s. ; mounted, in
case, 5s.
TASMANIA (Van Diexnen's Land).— From MS. Surveys in the
Colonial Office, and in the Van Diemen's Land Company's Office. By J. ARROW-
SMITH. Scale, 10£ miles to an inch; size, 22 inches by 26. Sheet, coloured, 3*. ;
mounted in case, 5s.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London
MAPS. 23
BRITISH ISLES.— GEOLOGICAL MAP of the BRITISH ISLES. By
Professor A. C. RAMSAY, LL.I)., K.K.S., Director-General of the Geological
Surveys of the United Kingdom. Scale, 11^ miles to an inch; size, 50 Inches
by 58. Mounted on rollers, varnished, 42s.
BRITISH ISLES.— STANFORD'S GEOLOGICAL MAP of the BRITISH
ISLES. Compiled under the Superintendence of E. BEST, H.M. Geological
Survey. Scale, 25 miles to an inch ; size, 23 inches by 29.
ENGLAND and WALES. By ANDREW C. RAMSAT, LL.D., F.R.S., and
G.S., Director-General of the Geological Surveys of Great Britain and Ireland,
and Professor of Geology at the Royal Scliool of Mines. This Map shows all
the Railways, Roads, &c., and when mounted in case, folds into a convenient
pocket size, making an excellent Travelling Map. Scale, 12 miles to an inch ;
size, 36 inches by 42. Fourth Edition, with Corrections and Addliions. Price, in
sheet, U. 5s. ; mounted on linen, in case, II. 10s. ; or on roller, varnished, If. 12«.
ENGLAND and WALES. Showing the Inland Navigation, Railways,
Roads, Minerals, &c. By J. ARROWSMITH. Scale, 18 miles to an inch ; size,
22 inches by 26. One sheet, 12«. ; mounted in case, 15s.
SOUTH-EAST ENGLAND.— GEOLOGICAL MODEL of the SOUTH-
EAST of ENGLAND and Part of France; including the Weald and the Bas
Boulonnais. By WILLIAM TOPLET, F.G.S., Geological Survey of England and
Wales, and J. B. JORDAN, Mming Record Office. Scale, 4 miles to an inch
horizontal, and 2,400 feet to an inch vertical. Coloured and varnished in black
frame, to hang up, 51. ; or packed in case for safe transit, 51. 5s.
LONDON and its ENVIRONS. Scale, 1 inch to a mile; size, 24 inches
by 26. Compiled from various authorities by J. B. JORDAN, Ksq., of the
Mining Record Office. Price, folded in cover, 5s. ; mounted on linen, in case,
7s. 6d. ; or on roller, varnished, 9s.
IRELAND. Founded on the Maps of the Geological Survey of Sir Richard
Griffith and of Professor J. B. Jukes. By EDWAKD HULL, M.A., F.R.S.,
Director of H.M.'s Geological Survey of Ireland. Scale, 8 miles to an inch;
size, 31 inches by 33. Price, in sheets, 25s. ; mounted on linen, in case, 30s. ;
on rollers, varnished, 32s.
SOUTH AFRICA.— GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP of SOUTH AFRICA.
Compiled by E. J. DUNN from personal observations, combined with those of
Messrs. A. G. and T. BAIN, WTLIE, ATHEKSTONE, PINCHIN, SUTHERLAND, and
BUTTON. Scale, 35 miles to an inch ; size, 34 inches by 28. One sheet, 10s. ;
mounted in case, 13s. 6d. ; on roller, varnished, 16s.
CANADA and the ADJACENT REGIONS, Including Parts of the
other BRITISH PROVINCES and of the UNITED STATES. By Sir W. E.
LOGAN, F.R.S., &c.. Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. Scale, 25 miles
to an inch ; size, 102 inches l>y 45. On eight sheets, 31. 10s. ; mounted on linen,
on roller, varnished, or in two parts to fold in morocco case, 51. 5*.
NEWFOUNDLAND.— GEOLOGICAL MAP of NEWFOUNDLAND. By
ALEXANDER MURRAY, F.G.S., assisted by JAMES P. HOWLEY, and Drawn by
ROBERT BAULOW. Scale, 25 miles to au inch; size, 26 inches by 26. One
sheet, 10s. ; mounted in case, 12s. 6(2.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
24 SELECTED LIST.
STANFORD'S NEW SERIES OF SCHOOL MAPS.
Prepared under the direction of the SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE
and of the NATIONAL SOCIETY, are patronized by Her Majesty's Government
for the Army and Navy Schools, the Commissioners of National Education for
Ireland, the School Boards of London, and of all the principal Provincial
towns. The Series comprises the following Maps: —
THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE— THE WESTERN HEMI-
SPHERE.—Two distinct Maps. Size, each 50 inches by 58. Price of each,
mounted on roller, varnished, 13s. ; the two mounted together, '26s.
EUROPE. — Scale, 65 miles to an inch; size, 50 inches by 58. Price, mounted on
roller, varnished, 13*.
BRITISH ISLES.— Scale, 8 miles to an inch ; size, 15 inches by 90. Mounted
on roller, varnished, price 42*.
BRITISH ISLES.— Scale, iif miles to an inch ; size, 50 inches by 58. Price,
mounted on roller, varnished, 13s.
ENGLAND and WALES— Scale, 8 miles to an inch ; size, 50 inches by 58.
Price, mounted on roller, varnished, 13*.
SCOTLAND and IRELAND.— Separate Maps. Scale, 8 miles to an inch;
size, 34 inches by 42. Price of each, mounted on roller, varnished, 9s.
ASIA. — Scale, 140 miles to an inch ; size, 50 inches by 58. Price, mounted on
roller, varnished, 13s.
HOLY LAND.— Scale, 4* miles to an inch; size, 50 inches by 58. Price,
mounted on roller, varnished, 13*.
OLD TESTAMENT.— MAP of the HOLY LAND to ILLUSTRATE the
OLD TESTAMENT. Scale, 8 miles to an inch ; size, 34 inches by 42. Price,
mounted on roller, varnished, 9*. »
NEW TESTAMENT.— MAP of the HOLY LAND to ILLUSTRATE the
NEW TESTAMENT. Scale, 7 miles to an inch ; size, 34 inches by 42. Price,
mounted on roller, varnished, 9*.
ACTS and EPISTLES.— MAP of the PLACES mentioned in the ACTS and
the EPISTLES. Scale, 57 miles to an inch; size, 34 inches by 42. Price,
mounted on roller, varnished, 9*.
JOURNEYINGS of the CHILDREN of ISRAEL.— MAP of the
PENINSULA of SINAI, the NEGEB, and LOWER EGYPT. Scale, 10 miles
to an inch; size, 42 inches by 34. Price, mounted on roller, varnished, 9*.
INDIA.— Scale, 40 miles to an inch; size, 50 inches by 58. Price, mounted on
roller, varnished, 13s.
AFRICA.— Scale, 118 miles to an inch ; size, 50 inches by 58. Price, mounted
on roller, varnished, 13*.
NORTH AMERICA.— Scale, 97 miles to an inch; size, 50 inches by 58.
Price, mounted on roller, varnished, 13s.
SOUTH AMERICA.— Scale, 97 miles to an inch; size, 50 inches by 58.
Price, mounted on roller, varnished, 13*.
AUSTRALASIA.— Scale, 86 miles to an inch ; size, 58 inches by 50. Price,
mounted on roller, varnished, 13*.
AUSTRALIA.— Scale, 86 miles to an inch; size, 42 inches by 34. Price
mounted on roller, varnished, 9s.
NEW ZEALAND.— Scale, 25 miles to an inch; size, 42 inches by 34. Price
mounted on roller, varnished, 9s.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
MAPS. 25
STANFORD'S SMALLER SERIES OF SCHOOL MAPS.
Published under the direction of the Committee of General Literature and Educa-
tion appointed by the SOCIETY FOB PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE and
of the NATIONAL SOCIETY.
These New Maps are accurately Coloured in Political Divisions; they retain all the
characteristic boldness of the larger Series, and are specially suitable for Srtiall
Classes.
WORLD IN HEMISPHERES. — EASTERN HEMISPHERE —
WESTERN HEMISPHERE. Two separate Maps. Size of each map, 27
inches by 32. Price, coloured and mounted on roller, varnished, 6s. each;
coloured sheet, 2s. 6d.
*„* The two Hemispheres can be had mounted as one map ; size, 54 inches by 32.
Price, coloured, on roller, varnished, 12s.
EUROPE. — Size, 32 inches by 27. Coloured and mounted on roller, varnished,
6s. ; coloured sheet, 2s. 6d.
ASIA.— Size, 32 inches by 27. Coloured and mounted on roller, varnished, 6s ;
coloured sheet, 2s. 6d.
INDIA. — Size, 27 inches by 32. Coloured and mounted on roller, varnished,
6s. ; coloured sheet, 2s. 6d.
HOLY LAND.— To ILLUSTRATE the OLD and NEW TESTAMENTS.
Size, 27 inches by 32. Coloured and mounted on roller, varnished, 6s. ;
coloured sheet, 2s. 6d.
OLD TESTAMENT.— MAP of the HOLY LAND to ILLUSTRATE the
OLD TESTAMENT. Size, 17 inches by 22. Coloured and mounted on roller,
varnished, 4s. ;* on millboard, varnished, 3s. 6d. ; coloured sheet, Is. 6<i.
NEW TESTAMENT.— MAP of the HOLY LAND to ILLUSTRATE the
NEW TESTAMENT. Size, 17 inches by 22. Coloured and mounted ou
roller, varnished, 4s. ;* on millboard, varnished, 3s. 6d. ; coloured sheet, Is. 6d.
* The Maps of the Old Testament and New Testament can be had, mounted
together, price 8s.
ACTS and EPISTLES.— MAP of PLACES MENTIONED in the ACTS
and EPISTLES: showing St. Paul's Missionary Journeys, Journey to Rome,
&c. Size, 22 inches by 17. Coloured and mounted on roller, varnished, 4s. ;
on millboard, varnished, 3s. 6d. ; coloured sheet, Is. 6<i.
JOURNEYING-S of the CHILDREN of ISRAEL.-MAP of the
J'ENIN&ULA of SINAI, the NEGEB, and LOWER EGYPT, to illustrate
the History of the Patriarchs and the Exodus; with a Supplementary Map of
tlie Migration of Terah and Abraham. Size, 17 inches by 22. Coloured and
mounted on roller, varnished, 4s. ; on millboard, 3s. 6d. ; coloured sheet,
Is. 6d.
NORTH AMERICA. — Size, 27 inches by 32. Coloured and mounted on
roller, varnished, 6s. ; coloured sheet, 2s. 6ii.
SOUTH AMERICA. — Size, 27 inches by 32. Coloured and mounted on
roller, varnished, 6s. ; coloured sheet, 2s. 6cJ.
AUSTRALIA. — Size, 22 inches by 17. Coloured and mounted on roller,
varnished, 4s. ; on millboard, varnished, 3s. 6d. ; coloured sheet, Is. 6d.
NEW ZEALAND. — Size, 17 inches by 22. Coloured, and mounted on roller,
varnished, 4s. ; on millboard, varnished, 3s. 6d. ; coloured sheet, is. 6d.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
26 SELECTED LIST.
STANFORD'S NEW GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES OF
WALL MAPS.
For use in Schools and Colleges. Edited by Professor RAMSAT, LL.D., F.K.S., ic.,
Director-General of the Geological Surveys of the United Kingdom.
This series aims at exhibiting in the first place, and prominently, the forms of
relief and of contour of the land masses of the globe, and next of the sea bed. At
once a general idea is gained by the youngest studi-nt, on an inspection of the Map,
of the relative position of the high, dry, and cold table-lands and mountainous
regions, and the warm, moist, and feriile plains in each great division of the globe.
For instance, in our own country it is seen at once why the eastern part is devoted
to agricultural purposes, and the western part to mining and inuuutiict urine; or by
reference to the Map of Europe we can readily see how a rise in the level of the sea
of a few hundreds of feet would suffice to inundate the whole northern part of
Europe ; and on the other band, how the general upheaval of the land of a few hun-
dreds of feet would alter the whole contour of Europe, connecting the British Isles
with the Continent, and annihilating the North Sea and the Baltic.
The following Maps, forming part of the Phy>ical Series of Wall Maps for use in
Schools and Colleges, are ready for sale, and will be found, both in utility and artktic
finish, not inferior to any Maps hitherto offered to the public.
They are uniform in scale and size with the Political Series already in use, and
which have acquired so great a popularity; and will be found as accurate and, it is
hoped and believed, as useful in teaching Physical Geography as the companion series
are and have been in Political Geography.
BRITISH ISLES. Mounted on linen, on rollers, varnished. Scale, 11* miles
to an inch ; size, 50 inches by 58. Price 30*.
ENGLAND and WALES. Mounted on linen, on rollers, varnished. Scale,
8 miles to an inch ; size, 50 inches by 58. Price 30s.
SCOTLAND. Mounted on linen, on rollers, varnished. Scale, 8 miles to an
inch; size, 34 inches by 42. Pike 18s.
IRELAND. Mounted on linen, on rollers, varnished. Scale, 8 miles to an inch ;
size, 34 inches by 42. Price 18s.
EUROPE. Mounted on limn, on rollers, varnished. Scale, 65 miles to an inch ;
size, 6« inches by 50. Price 30s.
ASIA. Mounted on linen, on rollers, varnished. Scale, 140 miles to an inch ;
size, 58 inches by 50. Price 30s.
AFRICA. Mounted on linen, on rollers, varnished. Scale, 116 miles to an inch ;
size, 50 inches by 58. Price 30s.
NORTH AMERICA. Mounted on linen, on rollers, varnished. Scale, 97
miles to an inch -, size, 50 inches by 58. Price 30*.
SOUTH AMERICA. Mounted on linen, on rollers, varnished. Scale, 97
miles to an inch ; size, 50 inches by 58. Price 30s.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
MAPS.
27
V ARTY'S EDUCATIONAL SERIES of CHEAP WALL
MAPS, for class teaching, constructed by AKKOWSMITH, WALKEE, &c. New
and revised editions, coloured, mounted, and varnished.
The World in Hemispheres. Size, 51 inches by 26. Price 12*.
The World (Mercator). Size, 50 inches by 32. Price 10*.
The British Isles. Size, 51 inches by 41. Price 10*.
Also the following, each 6*., size, 34 Inches by 26 :—
Europe. Australia.
Asia. England.
Africa. Scotland.
America. Ireland.
New Zealand. Roman Empire.
Journeyings of
the Children of
Israel.
S. Paul's Voyages
and Travels.
V ARTY'S LARGE OUTLINE MAPS. Price, in plain sheet, 2s. ;
coloured, 3s. ; mounted on rollers, 7s.
The World (globular), 2 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 3 inches. Price, in plain
sheet, Is. ; coloured, Is. 6ef.
The World (Mercator), 21 inches by 15 in.
And the following, plain-sheet, 1*. 3d. ; coloured, 1*. 6d. ; mounted on rollers, 4*. ;
size, 2 feet 10 inches by 2 feet 2 inches.
Europe.
Asia.
Africa.
America.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
Palestine (O. Test.).
Palestine (N. Test.).
STANFORD'S OUTLINE MAPS. Size, 17 inches by 14, printed on
drawing paper. A Series of Geograj&ical Exercises, to be filled in from the
Useful Knowledge Society's Maps and Atlases. Price 6d. each.
World in Hemi- Germany, General.
Italy, General.
Spain and Portu-
gal.
Russia.
Denmark. >
Sweden. I °ne
Norway. ) MaP'
Turkish Empire.
Asia.
Asia Minor.
I Greece.
in
spheres, West.
World in Hemi-
spheres, East.
Europe.
British Isles.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
France.
Netherlands.
Switzerland.
India.
China.
Palestine.
Africa.
Egypt.
America, North.
Canada, and the
United States.
America, South.
West India Islands
Australia.
New Zealand.
STANFORD'S PROJECTION SERIES. Uniform in size, price, &c.,
with Stanford's Outlines.
The OXFORD SERIES of OUTLINE MAPS. Size, 16 inches by 14.
Price 3d. each.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
28 SELECTED LIST.
Diagrams of Jtahtral fjrsforg.
These Diagrams, compiled by the eminent Scientific Men whose names are
appended, are drawn with the strictest regard to Nature, and engraved in the best
style of art. The Series consists of Eleven Subjects, each arranged so that it may be
mounted in one sheet, or be divided into four sections and folded in the form of a
book, thus rendering them available either for Class Exercises or Individual Study.
Price of each, mounted on roller and varnished, 6s. ; or folded in book form, 4*.
I. CHARACTERISTIC BRITISH FOSSILS. By J. W. LOWRT,
F.R.G.S. Exhibits nearly 600 of the more prominent forms of Organic remains
found in British Strata,
II. CHARACTERISTIC BRITISH TERTIARY FOSSILS.
By J. W. LOWKT, F.R.G.S. This Diagram is similarly arranged to No. 1, and
illustrates upwards of 800 specimens of the Tertiary Formation.
III. FOSSIL, CRUSTACEA. By J. W. SALTER, A.L.S., F.G.S, and H.
WOODWARD, F.G.S., F.Z.S. Consisting of about 500 Illustrations of tie Orders
and Sub-Orders, and showing their Eange in Geological time.
IV. The VEGETABLE KINGDOM. By A. HENFREY. Arranged
according to tbe Natural System, each Order being illustrated by numerous
examples of representative species.
V. The ORDERS and FAMILIES of MOLLTJSCA. By Dr.
WOODWARD. Represented in six classes : Cephalopoda, illustrated by 20
examples; Gasteropoda, 4 Orders, illustrated by IsO examples; Pteropoda,
illustrated by 18 examples; Conchifera, illustrated by 158 examples; Brachio-
poda, illustrated by 11 examples ; and Tunicata, illustrated by 20 examples.
VI. MYRIAPOD A, — ARACHNID A, — CRUSTACEA, — AN-
NELID A,— and ENTOZOA. By ADAM WHITE and Dr. BAIRD. The
numerous Tribes represented under these Orders are illustrated by upwards of
180 examples, including Centipedes, Spiders, Crabs, Sandhoppers, Seamlce,
Serpulas, Leeches, &c.
VII. INSECTS. By ADAM WHITE. Contains nearly 250 drawings of the
different Orders: Coleoptera; Euplexoptera ; Orthoptera ; Thysanoptera —
Thripidie, &c. ; Neuroptera; Trichoptera; Hymenoptera ; Strepsiptera —
Hylechthrus rubis; Lepidoptera; Homoptera — Heteroptera; Diptera; and
Aphaniptera.
VIII. FISHES. By P. H. GOSSE. Showing over 130 of the most conspicuous
types, arranged In their Orders and Families.
IX. REPTILIA and AMPHIBIA. By Drs. BELL and BAIRD. Contains
105 figures of the principal typical forms.
X. BIRDS. By GEORGE GRAY. Contains drawings of 236 of the leading illus-
trative specimens.
XI. MAMMALIA. By Dr. BAIRD. Exhibits 145 of the chief illustrations
selected from the several Orders.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
BEADING BOOKS. 29
cries 0f
for (Strls.
Editfti by the Rev. J. P. FAUNTHORPE, M.A., Principal of Whttelands Training
College. With original illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth.
Standard 1.— Illustrated Short Stories, &c. 56 pp. id.
,, 2.— Illustrated Easy Lessons. 164 pp. is. 3d.
,, 3. — Instructive Lessons. Illustrated. 206pp. is. 6d.
,, 4. — Original Stories and Selected Poems. 264pp. is. 9d.
,, 5.— Domestic Economy and Household Science.
356 pp. 2s. 6d.
,, 6.— Literary Reading: Book. 386 pp, 3s.
Series 0f jltmttetr
a0hs for
Edited by the Rev. EVAN DANIEL, M.A., Principal of the Battersea Training
College. Post 8vo, cloth.
Standard I. 88 pp. Price sd.
„ II. 140pp. Price is.
„ III. 184 pp. Price Is. 6d.
Illustrated.
Standard IV. 244pp. Price is. 9d.
,, V. 288pp. Pi-ice 2s.
,, VI. 336pp. Price 2s. 6(Z.
IBattecn: |1rtmers, for §cms
Written by the Rev. E. DANIEL, M.A.
Primer I. Illustrated. Large type. 42 pp. Price 5d.
II. „ 64 pp. Price Id.
Jf.ess0tts.
Chiefly Intended for Elementary Schools, and for Home Use.
Our Bodily Life— How and Why We Breathe— Food— Drink-
Cookery— Needlework— Clothing-— Air and Ventilation-
Sicknesses that Spread — Weather — Astronomy — Birds —
Flowers — Money.
BY
Mrs. FENWICK MILLER ; G. PHILLIPS BEVAN, F.G.S. ; Dr. MANN, F.R. A.S.,
F.R.G.S. ; J. C. BOCKMASTER, B.A. ; Mrs. BENJAMIN CLARKE; J. J. POPE;
RICHARD A. PROCTOR, B.A. ; Rev. F. 0. MORRIS, M.A. ; Rev. G. HENSLOW, M.A.,
F.L.S. ; Rev. T. E. CKALLAS, M.A.
Price 16s. per 100. Single copies 3d. each.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
30
SELECTED LIST.
<frbiti0's
EDITED BT ROBERT JAMES MANN, M.D., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., late Super-
intendent of Education in Natal. Price 9d. each.
Algebra.
Astronomy.
Botany.
British Constitution.
Chemistry.
Classical Biography.
English Grammar.
English History.
French Grammar.
French History.
General Geography.
General Knowledge.
Grecian Antiquities.
Grecian History.
Irish History.
Italian Grammar.
Jewish Antiquities.
Music.
Natural Philosophy.
Roman Antiquities.
Roman History.
Sacred History.
Scottish Histoiy.
Universal History. '
INSTRUCTIVE ATLAS of MODERN GEOGRAPHY.-Con-
taiiiing Sixteen Coloured Maps, each 17 inches by 14.
ELEMENTARY PHYSICAL ATLAS, intended chiefly for Map-
Drawing, and the Study of the Great Physical Features and Relief Contours of
the Continent, with an Introduction to serve as a Guide for both purposes. By
the Rev. J. P. FAUNTHORPE, M.A., F.R.G.S., Principal of Whitelands Training
College. Eighth Edition. Sixteen Maps, printed in Colour, with descriptive
Letterpress. Price 4s.
OUTLINE ATLAS. -Containing Sixteen Maps, intended chiefly for use with
the ' Elementary Physical Atlas.' Coloured Wrapper, Is.
PROJECTION ATLAS.— Containing Sixteen Plates of Projections, intended
chiefly for use with the ' Elementary Physical Atlas.' Coloured Wrapper, Is.
BLANK SHEETS for MAPS.— Sixteen Leaves of Blank Paper for Map-
Drawing, intended chiefly lor use with the 'Elementary Physical Atlas."
Coloured Wrapper, 6d.
PHYSICAL ATLAS.— A Series of Twelve Maps for Map-Drawing nnd
Examination. By CHARLES BIRD, B.A., F.R.A.S., Science Master in the Brad-
ford Grammar School. Royal 4to, stiff boards, cloth back, 4s. 6t/.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
PRINTS. 31
Animal |)nitts.
PRECEPTIVE ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BIBLE. A Series
of Fifty-two Prints to aid Scriptural Instruction, selected in part by the Author
of ' Lessons on Objects.' The whole from Original Designs by S. BENDIXEN,
Artist, expres>ly for this Work. They have been recently re-engraved, and are
carefully coloured. Size, 17^ inches by 13.
Price of the Work.
The Set of 52 Prints, in Paper Wrapper 52s.
in One Volume, handsomely half-bound .. .. 60s.
in Varty's Oak Frame, with glass, lock and key 60s.
Single Prints, Is. each ; mounted on millboard, Is. 4tJ. each.
VARTY'S SELECT SERIES of DOMESTIC and WILD
ANIMALS, Drawn from Nature and from the Works of Eminent Artists. In
36 carefully-coloured Plates, exhibiting 130 Figures. Size, 12 inches by 9.
The selection of Animals has been limited to those which are most known and
best adapted to elicit inquiry from the young, and afford scope for instruction and
application.
Bound In Frame
in Cloth. and Glass.
S-t of 36 Prints, Coloured 18s. .. 24s. .. 24*.
Plain 12s. .. 17s. .. 18s.
Single Prints, coloured, 6d. ; mounted on millboard, lOei.
The ANIMAL KINGDOM at ONE VIEW, clearly exhibiting, on
four beautifully-coloured Plates containing 184 Illustrations, tbe relative sizes of
Animals to Man, and their comparative sizes with each other, as arranged in
Divisions, Orders, &c., according to the method of Baron Cuvier.
Exhibited on four Imperial Sheets, each 30 inches by 22 : —
Cloth,
Complete Set,
Animals and Landscape, full coloured
Animals only coloured
Single Plates, /u2{ coloured
Rollers, and
Varnished.
38s.
35s.
10s.
On
Sheets.
18s.
las.
5s.
VARTY'S GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS of ANIMALS,
showing their Utility to Man, in their Services during Life and Uses after
Death. Beautifully coloured. Size, 15 inches by 12. Price, the set, 31s. 6d. ;
in frame, with glass, lock and key, 39s. 6d. ; or half-bound in leather, and
lettered, 1 vol. folio, 42s.
The 21 separate Prints may also be had, price Is. 6d. each.
Or Haunted on Millboard. Is. 10d
For complete lists of EDWARD STANFORD'S PUBLICATIONS, see his GENERAL
CATALOGUE of MAPS and ATLASKS, LIST of BOOKS, EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE, &c.,
gratis on application, or by post for one penny stamp.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
CATALOGUES
ISSUED BY
EDWARD STANFORD,
55, CHAKING CEOSS, S.W.
1. ATLASES and MAPS. — General Catalogue of Atlases and Maps
published or sold by EDWAKD STANFORD. New Edition.
2. BOOKS. — Selected List of Books published by EDWARD STANFORD.
Naval and Military Books, Ordnance Survey Publications, Memoirs of the
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, and Meteorological Office
Publications, published on account of Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
4. LONDON and its ENVIRONS.— Selected List of Maps of
London and its Environs, published by EDWARD STANFORD.
5. ORDNANCE MAPS.— Catalogue of the Ordnance Maps, published
under the superintendence of Colonel COOKE. Price 6d. ; per post Id.
6. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY of GREAT BRITAIN and
IRELAND. — Catalogue of the Geological Maps, Sections, and Memoirs of
the Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, under the Superin-
tendence of ANDREW C. RAMSAY, LL.D., F.R.S., Director-General of the
Geological Surveys of the United Kingdom. Price 6d. ; per post Id.
8. ADMIRALTY CHARTS.— Catalogue of Charts, Plans, Views, and
Sailing I Erections, &c., published by order of the Lords Commissioners of
the Admiralty. 224 pp. royal 8vo. Price 7s. ; per post "is. 4d.
9. INDIA. — Catalogue of Maps of the British Possessions in India and
other parts of Asia, with continuation to the year 1876. Published by
order of Her Majesty's Secretary of State for India, in Council. Post free
for two penny stamps.
10. EDUCATIONAL.— Select List of Educational Works, published by
EDWARD STANFORD, including those formerly published by VAHTY and
Cox.
11. EDUCATIONAL WORKS and STATIONERY.-^TAN-
FORD'S Catalogue of School Stationery, Educational Works, Atlases, Maps,
and Globes, with Specimens of Copy and Exercise Books, Jfec.
12. SCHOOL PRIZE BOOKS.— List of Works specially adapted for
School Prizes, Awards, and Presentations.
14. BOOKS and MAPS for TOURISTS.— STANFORD'S Tourist's
Catalogue, containing a List, irrespective of Publisher, of all the best
Guide Books and Maps suitable for the British and Continental Traveller ;
with Jndex Maps to the Government Surveys of England, France, and
Switzerland.
*«* With the exception of those with price affixed, any of the above Cata-
logues can be had gratis on application ; or, per post, for penny stump.
Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross, London.
Agent, by Appointment, for the sale of the Ordnance and Geological
Survey Maps, the Admiralty Charts, Her Majesty's Stationery
Office and India Office Publications, #c.
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