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FAITHS  OF  MAN 


A  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  RELIGIONS 


BY 


MAJOR-GENERAL  J.  G.  R.  FORLONG 

M.R.A.S.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.R.S.E.,  M.A.I.,  A.I.C.E.,  F.R.H.S. 

AUTHOlt  OF   "RIVBR8  OF  LIPK " 

AND 

"SHOBT  STUDIES   IN   THE  SCIEMCE  OF  COMPARATIVE  RSLI0I0X8 " 


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PUBLISHED  BY  HIS  EXECUTORS 


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SUBJECT  INDEX 

This  Index  will  enable  the  reader  to  see  at  a  glance  the  headings  under 
which  to  look  for  information,  on  any  subject  which  he  may  wish  more 
particularly  to  study. 

Animals 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Aino,  Animal-worship,  Apis,  Apophis,  Ass  (see  Onolatria) 
Basilisk,  Bear  (see  Ursus),  Bee,  Beetle,  Behemoth,  Bestiaries,  Birds,  Boar, 
Butterfly,  Calf,  Cat,  Cobra,  Cock,  Cow,  Crab,  Cuckoo,  Dog,  Dove,  Dragons : 
(Vol.  II)  Eagle,  Eel,  Elephant,  Fish,  Fox  (see  Japan),  Frog,  Gkiruda,  Goats, 
Goose,  Hansa,  Hare,  Harpy,  Hat€,  Hawk,  Heifer,  Hippos,  Horse,  Ibis, 
Eachcha-pa,  Kerberos,  Kingfisher,  Kira,  Leviathan,  Lion,  Lukos  (Lupus), 
Magpie,  Minotaur,  Mnevis,  Munin,  Mus  (mouse),  Mygale :  (Vol.  Ill) 
Naga,  Nahash,  Nandi,  Nightingale,  Onolatria,  Owl,  Parrot,  Peacock,  Peleia, 
Pehcan,  Phoinix,  Picus,  Quail,  Ram,  Kaven,  Eiksha,  Bohits,  Sada,  Sam-pati, 
Sand,  SaramS,  Sasa,  Serpents,  Shesha,  Simurgh,  SkoU,  Stork,  Swallows, 
Taons,  Taurus,  Turtle,  Unicom,  UrsBus,  Ursus,  Yahana,  Yfirsha,  Yartika, 
Vistash-pati,  Wagtail,  Weasel  (see  Cat),  Worm,  Wren. 

(Yol.  I)  See.  Antony,  Arah&t,  Bftiragi,  Bhikshu,  Buddha,  Chela, 
Christianity,  Conversion,  Cynics,  Dervishes :  (Yol.  II)  Essenes,  Gurus : 
(Vol.  Ill)  Rahan,  Tirthankara,  Wahhabis,  Yati,  Yoga,  Zikr. 

Astronomy 

(Yol.  I)  See.  Aquarius,  Aries,  Budha,  Crab,  Day,  Dhanus :  (Yol.  II) 
Eras,  Falguna,  Friday,  Oemini,  Geology,  Gor,  HeliadSs,  Hijirah,  Ejetli-yuga, 
Kalpa,  Kanopos,  Rarabos,  Karkas,  Eartika,  Krittika,  Kroda,  Libra,  Makara, 
May,  Mexico,  Month,  Muharram:  (Yol.  Ill)  Nurth,  Phosphor,  Ramadfin, 
Rohina,  Samvata,  Sar,  Scorpio,  Sothik  cycle.  Star,  Sun,  Sunday,  Sveta, 
Thalgs,  UttarSyana,  Yikram,  Week,  Year,  Zodiak. 

Books 

(Yol.  I)  See.  Acts,  Apokaluptik,  Apokrupha,  Apokruphal  gospels,  Athftr- 
va  Yeda,  Avasta,  Baman  Yasht,  Bhilgavad-gita,  Bible,  Bidpai,  Br&hmanas, 
Buddharcharita,  Bundahish,  Canticles,  Chronicles,  Clement  of  Rome,  Dabist&n, 
Des&tir,  Deuteronomy,   Dhammapada,    Dharraa-Sastra,    Didachd,  Dinkard^ 


vi  Subject  Index 

Dipa-vansa :  (Vol  II)  flcclesiastes,  Eddas,  Enoch,  Esther,  Exodus,  £zekiel, 
Ezra,  O&tha,  Gemara,  Genesis,  Gospels,  Gi^nth,  Haggada,  Hebrews  (Epistle), 
Hitopadesa,  Isaiah,  James,  Jasher,  Jatakas,  Jeremiah,  Job,  John,  Jonah, 
Joshua,  Jude,  Judges,  Lalita-Yistara,  Libraries,  Luke,  Maha-bharata,  Maha 
vansa,  Mainyo-i-kard,  Manak-meya,  Mantra,  Manu-shastra,  Mark,  Massorah, 
Matthew^  Midrash,  Mishnah,  Mormons,  Muhammad  (Koran) :  (Vol.  Ill) 
Pancha-tantra,  Pentateuch,  Peshito,  Peter  (epistle,  gospel),  Prajna-paramita, 
Proverbs,  Psalms,  Psalms  of  Solomon,  Pur&nas,  Kaghu-vansa,  Ramayana, 
R&ti,  Bevelation,  Rig-Veda,  Saga,  Samuel,  Satapatha,  Septuagint,  Shah- 
namah,  Sutra,  Talmud,  Tantras,  Tao-ti-king,  Targum,  Testament,  Tibet, 
Toldoth-Jesu,  Tri-pitaka,  Upanishad,  Upa-Vedas,  Vedas,  Vendidad,  Wisdom 
of  Solomon,  Yajur- Veda,  Yasna,  Yasts,  Zachariah,  Zoroaster  (Zend-Avesta). 

Buildings 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Agni-mundalum,  Agora,  Anuradha-pur,  Architecture, 
Bamoth,  Boro-Budur,  Briddha-kala,  Chaitya,  Chaurten,  Cholula,  Church, 
Dsgoba,  Dipadan,  Dolmen :  (Vol.  II)  Fidh,  Gya,  Hospitals,  Ka'aba,  Kalil, 
Kranog,  Kromlech,  Madhneh,  Manda,  Mazar,  Minaret,  Mithra,  Mukam : 
(Vol.  Ill)  Nakon-vat,  Naos,  Nuraghes,  Pagoda,  Prutaneion,  Kam-isvara, 
Synagogues,  Tabernacles,  Tombs. 

(Countries 
(Vol.  I)  See.  Abyssinia,  Africa,  Albion,  Anam,  Arabia,  Aram,  Armenia, 
As&m,  Asia,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Bahrein,  Baktria,  Barmah,  Borneo,  Britain, 
Ceylon,  China,  Delos,  Dhrita-rashtra :  (Vol.  II)  Eg3rpt,  Elam,  Fiji,  Gand^lra, 
Georgia,  Gilbert  Island,  Hadramaut,  Hawaii,  Hebrides  (New),  India,  Ionia, 
Ireland,  Italy,  Japan,  Kaldea,  Kaledonia,  Kalinga,  Kamaon,  Kana'an, 
Kappadokia,  Kaptor  (Caphtor),  Kardunias,  Kaukasia,  Kerala,  Korea, 
Koromandel,  Krete,  Kuntala,  Kupros,  Lesbos,  Lud  (Lydia),  Lukia  (Lycia), 
Magadha,  Magan,  Mexico,  Midiau,  Melukha,  Moab:  (Vol.  Ill)  'Om^n, 
Ophir,  Palestine,  Panjab,  Peru,  Phrygia,  Polynesia,  Punt,  Rhodes,  Russia, 
Sardinia,  Siam,  Sumer,  Sunda  Islands,  Suvama,  Syria,  Tahiti,  Ta-tsin,  Tibet, 
Trakia  (Thrace),  Union  Islands,  Uz,  Yaman,  Yukataii. 

Festivai^ 
(Vol.  I)  See.  Agonia,  Argei,  Assimiption,  Bakr,  Bel-tein,  Candlemass, 
Carnival,  Christmas,  Corpus  Christi,  Dipa-vali,  Dola-yatri :  (Vol.  II)  Easter, 
Eleusis,  Eleutheria,  Epiphany,  Feralia,  Floralia,  Haj,  Hallow-even,  Harvest, 
Hogmanay,  Holi,  Lamb-mass,  Lent,  Liberalia,  Lupercalia:  (Vol.  Ill) 
Passover,  Pentecost,  Perumal,  Pongal,  Punya,  Purim,  Sabbath,  Shrove-tide, 
Siva-Ratri,  Whiteday  (Whitsunday),  Yule. 

Images 
(Vol.  I)   See.     Bambino,   Christmas,   Colors,   Cross,    Doll:    (Vol.   II) 
Faith,  Hajr  el  Aswad,  KSmardhenu,   Krom-kruach:    (Vol.  Ill)  Teraphim, 
Tirthankara. 


Subject  Index  vii 

GrODS 

(Vol  I)  See.    Abu,  Achara,  Adar,  Adhi-Buddha,  Aditi,  Adon,  ^sar,  Af , 
Ag,  Agdos,  Agenor,  Agu,  Ahriman,  AhOra,  Ai,  Air,  Akad,  Akar,  Akheloos, 
Alakh,  Alah,  Amba,  Amen,  Ames,  Amidas,  Amset,  Amt,  Anahita,  Ananta, 
Anapurna,  Anar,  Anhur,  Anita,  Anouki,  Anubis,  Anunit,  Aparna,  Apet, 
Aphrodite,   Apollo,   Ares,  Arjuna,   Arkat6,   Armaiti,   Armakhos,  Artemis, 
Aruna,   Aser   (Assnr),    Askl^pios,    Ason,    Asoros,    'Astar,    Asura,    Asvins, 
Atargatis,  Ate,  Aten-Ra,  Athene,  Athor,  Attus,  Avalokit-isvara,  Ayanar, 
Ba'al,  Ba'al-Peor,  Ba'al-Zebub,  Baau,  Badari,  Baidya-Nath,  Bakkhos  (Bacchus), 
Bala-rama,  Baldur,  Bas  (Bes,  Bast,  Pasht),  Bath-kol,  Baze,  Benapa,  Bertha, 
Beruth,  Bhairava,  Bish,  Brahm,  Brahma,  Brihas-pati,  Bura-penu,  Buts,  Ceres, 
Chandra,  Chiun,  Cupid,  Cyb6l6,  Dag,  Dagon,  Dahana,  Daikoku,  Daj-bog, 
Daksha,    Daktuloi,    Damkina,   Damodara,    Danae,   Danawas,   Dani-devara, 
Dasaratha,  Davata,  Derketo,  Dh&t,  Dhater,  Diana,  Dis,  Diti,  Dodol,  Durga, 
Dyaus:    (Vol.   II)    Ea,   Earth,   Ekashtaka,   El,   Elagabalus,   Eleos,   Elicius, 
Elohim,  'Elion,   Enzuna,   Eos,   Erinues,  Ens,   Eros,   Evuna,   Fatsmu,   Fear, 
Feronia,  Fors-Fortuna,  Frey,  Freyr,  Freya,  Frig,  Fro,  Fufluns,  Gad,  Ganesa, 
Gauri,  Gefion,  Giri,  Glam,  Gluskap,  Gdpa,  Govinda,  Grain,  Gritta  (Grydat), 
Gugga,  Guha,  Guller,  Habal,  Hadad,  Haldis,  Hari,  Harmakhis,  Harpakrut, 
Haubas,  Heb€,  Hekate,  Helene,  Helios,  Henir,  Hgphaistos,  HSra,  Heraktes, 
Hermes,  Hertha,  Hesi,  Hestia,  Het,  Hindi,  Hiuke,  H'nos,  Hod,  Holda,  Honix, 
HoDover,  Hor,  Huacas,  Huitzilo,  Hurakan,  lal,  lao,  Ida,  les,  Ifa,  Ignis,  Ila, 
Ilmaka,  Im,  Indra,  Indrani,  Ino,  lo,  lord,  Irkalla,  Isis,  Istar,  Istio,  Isvana, 
Jagarn&th,  Janus,  Jata,  Jehovah,  Jingo,  Jupiter,  Kabeiroi,  Kali,  Kalisto 
(Callisto),  Kalki,  Kama,  Kamilla,  Kamillus,  Kandi,  Kane,  Kapalin,  Kartika, 
Kasyapa,  Kauman,  Ked,  Kekt,  KemOsh,  Ken,  Keres&sp,  Ketket,  Khalisah, 
Kharis,  Khem,  Kheper-ra,  Khonsu,  Kinuras,  Kiun,  Kla,  Kneph,  Knuphis, 
Konsus,  Kos,  Kotus,  Kouretes,  Krishna,  Kritanta,  Kronos,  Ku,  Kua,  Kubete, 
Kuetzal-koatl,  Kulal,  Kula-devas,  Kulmu,  Kumara,  Kumbha-karna,  Kunti, 
Kur,  Kuvera,  Kwan-yin,  Lada,  Lagamar,  Lakhmu,  Lakshmi,  Lalan,  Lar,  Las 
(Laz),  Lethem,  Lodur,  Loki,  Lono,  Losna,  Lucina,  Ma,  Madava,  Madhava, 
Madia,  Mahlnieva,  Maha-at,  Mah-endra,  Maha-esha,  Mah3reshvara,  Mahi, 
Mahila^    Maia,     Malak,    Manaf,    Manasa,     Mania,    Manko-Kapak,     Mara, 
Marduk,   M&ri,    Mari,   Mars,   Martu,   Maruts,    Mary,   Mat    (Maut),   Mau, 
Matuta,   Mean,    Menat,   Mentu,   Mercury,    Merti,    Metis,   Minerva,    Mini, 
Mithra,  Mlakukh,   Moon,   Mritya,   Mulge,    Mulida,  Munthukh,   Murutas: 
(Vol.  ID)  Nahab,  Naila,  Nakarah,  Namtar,  Nana,  Nanar,  Narada,  Nagatai, 
Nathu-rSm,  Nature,  Nebo,  Nefr-aten,  Neith,  Nejamesha,  Nephthys,  Neptune, 
Xereus,  Nergal,  Neri,  Nerthus,  Night,  Nik,  Nile,  Niord,  Nirba,  Nisroch, 
Nubti,  Nutar,  Nyang,  Oannes,  Odin,  Oegir,  Oitosuros,  Okeanos,  Okro,  Oler, 
Omito,   On,   Onouris,   Orthia,   Os,   Osiris,   Ouranos,    Ouri,    Pacha -kamak, 
Pakshin,  Paku,  Pales,  Palin,  Pallas,  Pan,  Pandia,  Panth,  Papa,  Param^tma, 
Param-Isvara,    Paran,    Parasu-r&ma,   ParSvati,   Parcae,   Parjanya,   Parvata, 
Parana,  Payzone,   Pele,   Penates,   Persephon6,    Pertunda,    Phan6s,    Phlea, 
Poseiddn,   Pothos,    Praja-pati,    Pramzimas,    PrSna,    Priapos,    Pritha,    Pro- 


viii  Subject  Index 

makhos,  Ptah,  Pundarik-aksha,  Purari,  Purikh,  Purudamsa,  Pushan,  Pushpa, 
Ra,  Rsdha,  Raivata,  Kanan,  Rayavant,  Remphan,  Rhea,  Rimmon,  Rinder, 
Rongo,  Rua,  Rudra,  Runga,  Sabaoth,  Sakra,  Saman,  Samas,  Sands,  Sancus, 
Sandan,  Sanja,  Sankara,  Sankin,  Sanku,  SarSsvati,  Sarbanda,  Satarnipa, 
Saturn,  Sauni,  Sava,  Savatri,  Seb,  Sebek,  Seben,  Sekhet,  SelSne,  Selk, 
Serapis,  Set,  Shu,  Sige,  Silik-mulu-khi,  Silenus,  Simigiz,  Sin,  Sipna,  Sitala, 
Siva,  Skrat,  Sky,  Son  (Shon€),  Sopt,  Soramus,  Spurke,  Suko,  Sut,  Syama, 
Syn,  Tahiti,  Tammuz,  Tanaoa,  TanS,  Tanen,  Tangaloa,  Tanith,  T&ra,  Taramis, 
Tarku,  Tartak,  Tasm'etu,  Tefnut,  Tengri,  Teo  (Ti),  Teo-yami-que,  Tepeyeotli, 
Tethus  (Thetis),  Teut,  Tez-katli-poka,  Themis,  Thor,  Thoth,  Titans,  Tlalok, 
Toeris,  Toia,  Toma-tink,  Trita,  Triton,  Tuisko,  Turn,  Tvashtri,  Typhon, 
Tyr,  Udar,  Ugra,  Uko,  Uller,  Urania,  Usil,  Vach,  Vaidya-nath,  Varuna, 
Vasishtha,  Vayu,  Vena,  Venus,  Vertumnus,  Vesta,  Vetal,  Vira-bhadra,  Vira- 
kocha,  Vishnu,  Visva-deva,  Visva-krit  (Visva-karma),  Visv-6svara,  Viteres, 
Vivasvat,  VoUa,  Vrik-dara,  Yama,  Yarai,  Y'auk,  Yeue,  Zalmoxis,  Zeus, 
Zir'a-banitu,  Zima. 

Language 

(Vol.  I)  See.  A,  Ab,  Ad,  Ain,  Ak,  Aka,  Alarodian,  Am,  An,  Ap,  Ar, 
Aral,  Aryans,  Asak,  Asma,  At,  Atua,  Ba,  Bar,  Basar,  Bel,  Bhabra-lat, 
Bhadra,  Bhaga,  Bhas,  Bhur,  Bor,  Brim,  Bu,  Bud,  Bukabu,  China,  Da, 
Dad,  Dagal,  Dar,  Daughter,  Deva,  Dharma,  Dhu,  Dil,  Dimir  (Dingir), 
Dravidians:  (Vol.  II)  Er-gal,  Eskimo,  Etruskans,  Ey,  Faidth,  Fal,  Fallah, 
Finns,  Fo,  Fu,  Ga,  Gab,  Gabar,  Gal,  Gam,  Gan,  Gandha,  Ganta,  Grar,  Garbh, 
Gard,  Garj,  Gas,  Gau,  Ge,  Ge-beleizes,  Geis,  Ghata,  Giaur,  Gipsies,  Girdh, 
Gled,  Gt>ld,  Ghora,  Griha,  Gud,  Gul,  Hakm,  Han,  Haug,  Hel,  Helde,  Her, 
Hindi,  Holy,  Hotra,  Htir,  I,  In,  Indriya,  Indu,  Iravata,  Islam,  Israel,  Isvara, 
Itu,  Ivashstri,  Ja,  Jan,  J&ti,  Jews,  Jin,  Jiv,  Jiya,  Ka,  Kab,  K&fir,  Kala,  K&la, 
Kam,  Kandara,  Kandasa,  Kantha,  Kanya,  Kar,  Karas,  Kas,  Katso,  Kelde, 
Kha,  Khoda,  Khrio,  Khu,  Ki,  King,  Kirana,  Kitu,  Kit-tu,  Kratu,  Krish, 
Ku,  Kuli,  Kund,  Kup,  Kut,  La,  Lad  (Lud),  Languages,  Law,  Leach,  Liod, 
Lu,  Lucus,  Luk,  Luna,  Ma,  Mag,  Mah  (Mas),  Maitri,  Mala,  Malabar,  Mam, 
Man,  Maol,  Mar,  Mari,  Massebah,  Me,  Medha,  Mehtar,  M€ne,  Meni,  Mer, 
Mera,  Muk:  (Vol.  Ill)  Na,  Nab,  Nag,  Nagar,  Nala,  Naos,  Nara,  Nara, 
Naraka,  Nef,  Nesos  (Nusos),  Nin,  Numphe,  Pa,  Pad,  Pahlavi,  Paiya,  Pai5n, 
Paighamber,  Paka,  Pakh,  Pal,  Palakis,  Pali,  Pan,  Pandu,  Par,  Paradise, 
Patesi,  Pati,  Pen,  Pharaoh,  Pis,  Prabhava,  Prakrit,  Pra-moda,  Pu,  Pur, 
Pushtu,  Put,  Python,  Quirites,  Rabb,  Raga,  Raham,  Ramh,  Ramya,  Ki, 
Riki,  Ru,  Ruakh,  Ruh,  Rum,  Rupa,  Sa,  Sak,  Sal,  Salim,  Samal,  Sam-Buddha, 
Sami,  Samudra,  Samvarta,  San,  Sanskrit,  Sar,  Saracen,  Sarira,  Sarvaga,  Sas, 
Sastra,  Sat,  Satan,  Satva,  Sed,  Seka,  Selah,  Set,  Shaddai,  Shekina,  Shem, 
Shu,  Sil,  Silver,  Simha,  Slesha,  Smriti,  Sri,  Sruti,  Stamba,  Stana,  Su,  Suchi, 
Sula,  SOr,  Svadhfi,  Sviti,  Ta,  Tal,  Tarn,  Tan,  Tap,  Taphos,  Tar,  Tarkhan, 
Tat,  Theos,  Ti,  Tol,   Tu,   Turanians,   Ua,  Ud,  Uma,  Un,  Unu,  Ur,  Us, 


Subject  Index  ix 

VaisSkha,  Vakea,  Van,  YSna,  Varna,  Varvarika,  Vas,  Vata,  Vik,  Vir,  Vrata, 
Vrish,  Yidish,  Zarvan-Akarana,  Zogo. 

Legends  and  Superstitions 

(Vol.  1}  See.  Aalu,  Abram,  Adam,  Africa,  Ahi,  Amenti,  Amphiarios, 
Amshashpands,  Andromeda,  Apsaras,  Apt,  Ardhanar,  Aricia,  Arthur, 
Asmodeufl,  Asva-ghosha,  Atalanta,  Atlas,  Baubo,  Begelmir,  Bellerophon, 
Bhima,  Bhishma,  Boar,  Brimir,  Buns,  Buto,  DaimOn,  Darvands,  Deuce, 
Devil,  Druids,  Drupada,  Duma,  Duryodhana:  (Vol.  II)  Ea-bani,  Elektra, 
Elijah,  Elves,  Endumi6n,  Enoch,  Eon,  Er,  Erekhtheus,  Erikhthonios,  Esau, 
Etana,  Europe,  Eve,  Faflun,  Farid,  Fervers,  Fetish,  Fin,  Floods,  Fravashis, 
Gabriel,  Oandharvas,  GanumedSs,  Garha-patya,  GarQda,  Genesis,  Gilgamas, 
Glastonbury,  Govan,  Gdpa,  Gorgons,  Grail,  Graphiel,  Greeks,  HSg,  Haidas, 
Hand,  Haris-chandra,  Harpy,  Hasan  and  Hosein,  Hasis-adra,  Hawaii,  Helen€, 
Helenos,  HellS,  Heos,  Hesperides,  Houris,  Ijhdaha,  Ilos,  Incubi,  Israfil,  Ixion, 
Janaka,  Jason,  Jemshid,  Jerusalem,  Jin,  John,  Jonah,  Joseph,  Ka,  Kachins, 
Kadmos,  Kadru,  K&han,  Kain,  Kakos  (Cacus),  Kalil,  Kftliya,  Kardama, 
Kama,  Kentaur,  Ker-neter,  KerQb,  Khairon,  KheirOn,  Kinnaras,  Kissaros, 
Korubantes,  Kox-kox,  Laburinthos,  Lakshmana,  Lamia,  Lamech,  Lilith, 
Logos,  Lukaios,  Luka6n,  Lukastos,  Luke,  Mahdi,  Maitra-varuna,  Maitreya, 
Makka,  Manasarawar,  Mani,  Mao,  Maricha,  Mas,  Maya,  Memnon,  Meru, 
Meshio,  Mimir,  Minos,  Misor,  Mista,  Moses,  Muda,  Munker  and  Nakir, 
Mythology :  (Vol.  Ill)  Nag-arjuna,  Nahusha,  Nand,  Nara-sinha,  Nfit,  Navajo, 
Nazareth,  Neimhidh,  Nephilim,  Nemi,  Nimrod,  Nix,  Noah,  Numph3,  Ob, 
Oidipous,  Orpheus,  Parasu,  Paris,  Peleus,  Pelias,  PersS,  Perseus,  Phoroneus, 
Phlegethon,  Pigmy,  Pisasha,  Pitris,  Pradyuma,  Prahlada,  Pramatha,  Prokn$, 
Prokris,  Prometheus,  Psukhe,  Puck,  Pundarika,  Pururavas,  Piirusha,  Push- 
kara,  Pushti,  Raghu,  Bahu,  Raji,  Bakshasa,  Rama,  Rambha,  Raphael, 
Rephaim,  Romulus,  Sadhya,  Sagara,  Sakuntalfi,  Saleh,  Sali-v&hana,  Samael, 
Samba,  Sambara,  Sambhu,  Samson,  Sanjna,  Saranyu,  Sargina,  SarpSdon, 
Sarva,  Sem$l€,  Semiramis,  Seraphim,  Shfimir,  Shatiyeh,  Sidh,  Sirens,  Sita, 
Skanda,  Sosiosh,  Sraosha,  Subhadra,  Su-brfthmanya,  Suki,  Sukra,  Suna-sepha, 
Su-pamas,  Surasa,  Surabhi,  Suriel,  Tages,  Tamas,  Tantalos,  Tartaros,  Tashtir, 
Telchines,  Telephassa,  Telephos,  Tiamat,  Tithdnos,  Tituos,  Tri-lochan,  Urana, 
Uriel,  Urvasi,  Usha,  Vfidava,  V&mana,  Vanth,  Vesantara,  Vibhandaka, 
Vichitra-virya,  Vira-vara,  Visva-Mitra,  Vohu-mano,  Volta,  Vritra,  Wandus, 
Wejas,  Witch,  Yakshas,  Yas6dha,  Yatus,  Yayati,  Yazatas,  Yima,  Yimr, 
Zarik,  Zi,  Zohftk, 

Persons 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Aaron,  Abel,  Abram,  Adam,  ApoUonius  of  Tyana, 
Aristaios,  Aristeas,  Arius,  Arthur,  AsCka,  Asva-ghosha,  Athenagoras, 
Avicena,  Badar-ayana,  B&li,  Basava,  BerQni,  Bharad-waja,  Bhartri-Hari, 
Bhava-bhuti,  Bokika,  Buddha,  Buddha-ghosha,  Gelsus,  Chaitanya,  Christ, 
Chrysippus,  Chuang-tze,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Clement  of  Rome,  Ctesias, 


X  Subject  Index 

Cyprian,  CyrQ,  Dadicha,  Daityas,  Daniel,  Darwin,  David,  Dbrita,  Diderot, 
Dido,  Dilapa,  Drona :  (Vol.  II)  £lagabalus,  Epaphas,  Epimenides,  Epiphanius, 
Efiop,  Eusebius,  Ezekiel,  Ezra,  Fa-hien,  (Jondophares,  Gotama,  Gugga,  Gupta, 
Gushtasp,  Hammurabi,  Harsha,  Hasan,  Hesiod,  Hillel,  Homer,  Hume,  Ibn- 
Batuta,  Ignatius,  Iksbvaku,  Irenseus,  Isaac,  Isaiab,  Jacob,  James,  Jarsrsandha, 
Jeremiab,  Jerome,  Jesus,  Josepb,  Josepbus,  Justin  Martyr,  Kabir,  Kadambas, 
Kain,  K&U-dSsa,  Kamban,  Kanishka,  Kbalifa,  Kuras  (Cyrus),  Kushan,  Lao- 
tze,  Lokman,  Lutber,  Madbavacbarya,  Mabft-nama,  Mabarsena,  Maba-vira, 
Mabina,  Maimonides,  Manes,  Manetbo,  Manu-skibar,  Marcion,  Megastbenes, 
Mencius,  Menes,  Moses,  Moses  of  Kbor^ne,  Mubammad:  (Vol.  Ill)  Nsg- 
arjuna,  NSga-sena,  Nami,  Narayana-svami,  Nimi,  Nimrod,  Noab,  Origen, 
Osman,  Palladius,  Panini,  Pantainos,  Papias,  Patanjali,  Paul,  Pelagius,  Peter, 
Pbilo,  Pbilo  of  Byblos,  Plato,  Pliny,  Plutarcb,  Polycarp,  Quirinus,  Rabula, 
K&ma-nand,  Kama-nuja,  Sankar-acbarya,  Sargina,  Saul,  Solomon,  Subanda, 
Suetonius,  Symmacbus,  Tacitus,  Tamo,  Tatbagata,  Tatian,  Terab,  Tertullian, 
Tbeodotion,  Tiru-valluvar,  Vallabba-acbarya,  Vyasa,  Wixi-pekocba,  Yajna- 
valkya,  Yaska. 

Philosophy 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Adam-Kadmon,  Advaita,  Agnostiks,  Akademy,  Aristides, 
^Vristippos,  Atbeism,  Atma,  Ayin,  Bala,  Br^ma,  Cbina,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, Confucius,  Conscience,  Cynics,  Darsana,  Deatb,  Demokritos,  Design, 
,  Dreams,  Dvaita :  (Vol.  II)  Empedokl6s,  Epikouros,  Etbiks,  Faitb,  Freewill, 
Geology,  Gnostiks,  God,  Heaven,  Hel  (Hell),  Henotbeism,  Hypnotism,  Im- 
mortality, Kabbala,  Kamftrila,  Kant,  Kapila,  Karma,  Logos,  Lucretius, 
Materialism,  Mencius,  Metempsycbosis,  Metse,  Mimansa,  Mimra,  Miracles, 
Monism,  Morality:  (Vol.  Ill)  Nature,  Nirvfina,  NySya,  Pantbeism,  Peri- 
patetiks,  Plato,  Plotinus,  Porphureos,  Positivism,  Pra-dbana,  Prajna,  Prakriti, 
Pratyek-Buddba,  Pbren,  Pyrrbo,  Pytbagoras,  Religion,  Sankya,  San^akas, 
Secularists,  Skeptiks,  Slavery,  Sokrates,  Sopbists,  Soul,  Spinoza,  Spirits, 
Stoiks,  Sufi,  Superstition,  Theism,  Tiru-valluvar,  Vaise-sbika,  Woman. 

Places 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Abu,  Adam's  Peak,  Afka,  Agadbe,  Ajanta,  Amarua, 
Amrftvati,  Anuradba-par,  'Arafat,  Ararat,  Argos,  Aricia,  Arvand,  Asen, 
Ba'albek,  Baku,  Balkb,  Banaras,  Beni-Hasan,  Bethel,  Bethlehem,  Cholula, 
Dalriada,  Damavend,  Delphi,  Denderab,  Deo-garh,  Deval,  Dodona,  Dvipa: 
(Vol.  II)  Easter-Isle,  'Eden,  Edessa,  Ekbatana,  Elburz,  Elepbanta,  Eleusis, 
Elora,  Elvand,  Endor,  P]pidauro8,  Erech,  Euphrates,  Galeed,  Gaza,  Gebal, 
Gezer,  Gilgal,  Glastonbury,  Govandana,  Gya,  Hamath,  Haran,  Hastinapur, 
Hebron,  Hima,  Ida,  Ilion,  Indra-putra,  Innisb-muir,  Isernia,  Jaga-isvar, 
Jerusalem,  Jezreel,  Kadesh,  Kailasa,  Kalab,  Kalinda,  Kalneh,  Kama-rupa, 
Kanchin-janga,  Kanchi-pQr,  Kanoj,  Kapilsrvastu,  Karkemisb,  Karli,  Karmel, 
Karnak,  Kausambi,  Kunthos,  Kusanagar,  Kusko,  Kutha,  Lacbisb,  Lhasa, 
Lob  (Tell),  Loka,  Magan,  Maba-bali-pur,  Makka,  Mari,  Markand,  Martan, 
Memphis,    Mem,    Miktlan,  Moriah,    Mukene,  Muri   (Murray):   (Vol.  Ill) 


Subject  Index  xl 

Nazareth,  Nebo,  Nineveh,  Nipur,  Nizir,  Olives  (Mt),  Olumpos,  Ombos,  Omei, 
PagdOf  Palatine,  Palenque,  Paphos,  Pasargadse,  Patali-putra,  Persepolis, 
Philse,  Potakara,  Prayag,  Rivers,  Rome,  Sais,  Salsette,  Samfila,  Samaria, 
SamothrakS,  Sanchi,  Sar-nfith,  Saron  (Sharon),  Shiloh,'  Siloam,  Sinai,  Sindhu, 
Sippara,  Soraktd,  Sr&vasti,  Sri-saila,  Sukhada,  Susa,  Svarga,  Tarshish,  Thebes, 
Thinis,  Tophet,  Tripolis,  Troy  (see  Trojans),  Tyre,  Ujjain,  Uxmal,  Vaikuntha, 
Vaisali,  Van,  Vi-jayarnagar,  Vindhya,  Walhalla,  Yamuna,  Zamzam,  Zoan. 

Plants  and  Trees 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Almond,  Apple,  Aricia,  Ash,  Asoka,  Bean,  Birch,  Citron, 
Dudaim :  (Vol.  II)  Eshel,  Figs,  Gonds,  Grass,  Groves,  GyS,  Hebron, 
Hyssop,  Jambu,  Kalpa-vriksha,  K&ma-lata,  Kusa,  Lily,  Manna,  Mistletoe, 
Mula-vriksha :  (Vol.  Ill)  Nalina,  Nut,  Oak,  Olives,  Onion,  Orange,  Padma, 
Palasa,  Parijata,  Pipal,  Plantain,  Rose,  Rudrftksha,  Rue,  Sekina,  Sindura, 
Skambha,  Soma,  Strawberry,  Tala,  Taru,  Trees,  Tulsi,  Vriksh,  Yggdrasil. 

Rages 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Abors,  Ad,  Aghori,  Ahirs,  Aino,  AithiopSs,  Akad,  Akaians, 
Allemanni,  Amazons,  Amorites,  Amu,  Anak,  Andamans,  Andhra,  Anga, 
Ans&ri,  Arabia,  Arasas,  Aryaman,  Aryans,  Asura,  Australians,  Azteks, 
Badagas,  Badawi,  Badumas,  Bali,  Bangas,  Belgse,  Bhars,  Bhargas,  Bhats, 
Bhils,  Birhors,  Borneo,  Brahui,  Brinjaris,  Buts,  Chalukyas,  Chera,  Chin, 
Chins,  Cholas,  Danai,  Dangars,  DSsa,  Doman,  Dr&vids ;  (Vol.  II)  Eruthrea, 
Eskimo,  Etru8kans,Fene,  Fin,  Finns,  Gael,  Garos,  Grauls,  Gipsies,  Gonds,  Goths, 
Greeks,  Haidas,  Haihayas,  Ham,  Hebrews,  HellSn,  Hindus,  Huns,  Hyksos, 
IberSs,  Ilvas,  Jftts,  Jerahmeel,  Kabyles,  Kachins,  Kafir,  Kanjars,  Kasdim, 
Kati,  K&tis,  Kelts,  Khaldaioi,  Khariyas,  Kharvars,  Khasis  (Kosis),  Kheta 
(Hittites),  Khonds,  Kimbri,  Kols,  Kopts,  Koreish,  Kosa,  Kuehs,  Kukis, 
Kulins,  Kuinri,  Kurks,  Kurmis,  Kurumbas,  Kurus,  Kus,  Kus  (Cush)  Lapps, 
Libu,  Ligues,  Luzi,  Madai  (Medes),  Malagasi,  Malays,  Mali,  Manehus, 
Maoris,  Mayas,  Melanesia,  MeropSs,  Minas,  Minyans,  Mongols,  Mons,  Mros, 
Mans:  (Vol.  Ill)  Nabatheans,  Naga,  Nairs,  Navajo  Indians,  Neolithik, 
Oskans,  Palavas,  Palaeolithik,  Pandus,  Papuans,  Parsis,  Parthians,  Pata- 
gonians,  Pathrusim,  Pelasgi,  Persians,  Phoinikians,  Picts,  Population, 
Pulayas,  Pulusatu,  Pundras,  Purus,  Rajputs,  Rattas,  Rodiyas,  Sabeans, 
Sabines,  Sabiria,  Sakyas,  Samoans,  Sanars,  Savars,  Saxons,  Scots,  Serbi, 
Siberians,  Sikani  (Sikuloi),  Silures,  Skuths  (Scythians),  Slavs,  Sontals, 
Tartar,  Tellingas,  Todas,  Tongas,  Tritsus,  Trojans,  Tuatha-Dedanan, 
Tunguse,  Turanians,  Turditani,  Turks,  Tyrrheni,  Umbri,  Vaggis,  Veddahs, 
Voduns,  Yadavas  (Yadus),  Yavana,  Yezidis,  Yorubas,  Yourouks,  Yu-chi, 
Zulus,  Zu2im. 

Religions  and  Sects 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Adamites,  Akad,  Animism,  Arius,  Armenia,  Arya-Som&j, 
Asrama,  Atonement,  Azteks,  Bfib,  Babylon,  Baigas,  Bhrigus,  Bon,  Brahmo- 


xii  Subject  Index 

Somaj,  Buddha,  China,  Christ,  Church,  ConversioDs,  Creeds,  Druids, 
Druses :  (Vol.  II)  Ebionites,  Egypt,  Essenes,  Etruskans,  Eutycheans,  Fetish, 
Free-masons,  Ghebers,  Gnostiks,  Grosain,  Greek-Church,  GOru,  Hinduism, 
Inspiration,  Jacobites,  Jains,  Jangams,  Japan,  Justification,  Eadesh, 
Kanaka-muni,  Karaites,  Karens,  Kasi  (Kassdtes),  Kfisyapa,  Khonds,  Kiblali, 
Kil,  Kraku-chandra,  Kshatriya,  Kukus,  Kulins,  L&mas,  Levi,  Linga-puja, 
Luther,  Maha-atma,  MahS-yana,  Malagasi,  Malays,  Mamitu,  Mandseans, 
Manes,  Maoris,  Marcion,  Maronites,  Maz&r,  Mazbah,  Mehtar,  Melanesia, 
Mennonites,  Messiah,  Mexico,  Mlechas,  Moab,  Monachism,  Mongols,  Mono- 
theism, Mormons,  Muhammad :  (Vol.  Ill)  Nabi,  Naga,  Nazarite, 
Nestorians,  Nun,  Pagan,  Palaki,  Pariahs,  Parusva-n&t,  PatalS^  Pharisees, 
Phongye,  Phoinikians,  Pontifex-Maximus,  Population,  Prayer,  Prophets, 
Purgatory,  Purohita,  Quakers,  Rechabites,  Religion,  Resurrection,  Rita, 
Sabbath,  Sabians,  Sabellius,  Sacraments,  Sacrifice,  Sadducees,  Sakta,  Salii, 
Samans,  Samaria,  SanySsi,  Saoshyas,  Sarospa,  Shakers,  Shi'ahs,  Shinshu, 
Shin-to,  Sibulla  (Sibyl),  Sikhs,  Skoptsy,  Sobotnikis,  Spentarmainyus, 
Sraman,  Sravak,  Stundists,  Sudra,  Sunni,  Tantras,  Thera,  Therapeutai, 
Trinities,  Vaishnfiva,  Yezidis,  Zoroaster. 

RiTBs  AND  Customs 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Ag  (Agni),  Agapse,  Asva-medha,  Australians,  'Azazel 
(scape  goat).  Baptism,  Basivis,  Boar,  Circumcision,  Couvade,-  Dakshina,  Danc- 
ing, Dasara,  Dead,  De-Suil,  DevadSsis:  (Vol.  II)  Eucharist^  Fire,  Flamen, 
Haruspices,  Homa,  Mass :  (Vol.  Ill)  Oaths,  Om-kara,  Pra-dakshina,  Prayas, 
Sam-kalpam,  Sati  (Suttee),  Spondists,  Sraddha,  Tabernacles,  Tabu,  Tawaf, 
Thargelion,  Thing,  Tirtha,  Tlachto,  Upa-nyana,  Water,  Wells,  Whippings, 
Yaj. 

Saints 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Agnes,  Antony,  Asitfi,  Barlaam,  Chrysostom,  Columba, 
Cyprian,  Cyril,  Declan,  Denys:  (Vol.  II)  Faith,  Faolan  (Fillan),  Foutin, 
George,  Josaphat,  Kosmas,  Michael,  Mungho :  (Vol.  Ill)  Nicholas,  Ninian, 
Olaf,  Patrick,  Peter,  Swithin,  Thomas,  Ursel  (Ursula),  Yahyah. 

Symbols 

(Vol.  I)  See.  Abraxas,  Aigis,  Ait,  Akmdn,  Altar,  Ambrosia,  'Amud, 
Angula,  Augusta,  Ank  (Ankh),  Ankus,  Ans&b,  Apron,  Arani,  Argha,  Arks, 
Arrows,  Arthur  (Table),  Asyins,  Balls,  Bands,  Banner,  Beads,  Bells,  Bhuj, 
Bones,  Bridges,  Bulla,  Buns,  Candles,  Cauldrons,  Caves,  Chakra,  Chrisma, 
Colors,  Comb,  Crosses,  Crowns,  Cup,  Dalada,  Danda,  Danta,  Delta,  Dhavja, 
Distaff,  Door,  Dor-je,  Drums,  Dust :  (Vol.  II)  *Ed,  Eggs,  Ephod,  Eye,  Fan, 
Fascinum,  Feathers,  Fingers,  Fleur-de-lis,  Foot,  Fylfot,  Garter,  Hair, 
Hammer,  Hand,  Harhut,  Harp,  Head,  Heart,  Horns,  Idol,  Jamdiya,  Janivara, 
Kakud,  Kam  (Cairn),  Kestos,  Klachan,  Klogha,  Knots,  Kteis,  Kuris  (Quiris), 
Kurumbas,  Kut,  Labarum,  Labrus,  Laksha,  Li,  Lingam,  Mace, '  Mandara, 


Subject  Index  xiii 

May-poles,  Mirror,  Mountains,  Muidhr:  (Vol.  Ill)  Nails,  Nama,  Nimbus, 
Noose,  Nudity,  Obeliskoe,  Om,  Omphalos,  Orkoe,  Pad,  Pakhad,  Pftla 
(Phalloe),  Pall,  Palladium,  Parusha,  Pas,  Pasent  (Pshent),  Pavaka,  Pegasos, 
Pestle,  Phulakteria,  Pillars,  Pinaka,  Pind,  Pita,  Pitba-veda,  Plough, 
Puramidos,  Pyx,  Rakab,  Rat,  Ring,  Rod,  Rood,  Rosaries,  Rudder,  Salagrama, 
Salt,  Sambba,  Sambhuka,  Samva,  Sankha,  Scapular,  Sea,  Shekel,  Shells, 
Shields,  Shoes,  Sila-nargig,  Simfi,  Sisna,  Sistrum,  Spear,  Sphinx,  St^lS,  Stole, 
Stones,  Su-nanda,  Sutrala,  Svastika,  Sword,  Tail,  Tak€,  Tale,  Talisman, 
Teeth,  Teraphim,  Thigh,  Threshold,  Thumb,  Thummim,  Thunder,  Thursos, 
.  Toe,  Tonsure,  Torii,  Totems,  Triangles,  Trident,  Triskelion,  Trisul,  Urim, 
Vajra,  Vedi,  Vesica-Piscis,  Vestments,  Wheels,  Wings,  Yoni,  Zikr. 

Writing 

(Vol.  I)  See.  A,  Alphabets,  Amama,  Arabia,  Asoka,  Brahmi,  C,  China, 
Deva-nagari :  (Vol.  II)  E,  F,  G,  Gamma,  Georgia,  Gezer,  Greeks,  H,  I,  J, 
K,  Kharoshthi,  Krete,  Kuneiform,  Rupros,  L,  M,  Mongols :  (Vol.  Ill)  N, 
Nestorians,  0,  Ogham,  Orthography,  P,  Q,  R,  Rosetta  Stone,  S,  T,  Tau,  Z. 


ERRATA,  VOL.  II. 

P.    42,  line  16,  for  "  son  "  read  grandson. 
„  387,    „    37,  for  "Deva-nagari'*  read  Deva-nagari. 


FAITHS   OF   MAN 


The  Bnglish  E  represents  various  sounds  in  other  languages,  such  as 
the  long  ay  and  short  eh,  and  the  Latin  ob  (Greek  ai).  In  Arabic 
this  vowel  is  not  marked.     Thus  Mekka  is  Makka. 

Ea.  Akkadian.  The  ocean  god,  adopted  by  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians,  and  worshiped  by  Sennacherib  on  the  Persian  Qul£  [The 
word  may  mean  only  "  spirit "  (Turkish  ee)  or  E-a  "  water  spirit" — 
Ed.]  His  wife  was  Dam-ki-na,  "  lady  of  the  earth/'  and  their  child 
was  the  sun.  The  Akkadians  also  called  him  En-ki,  "  the  lord  of 
earth."  The  Armenian  king  Dusratta  invokes  Ea  in  the  15th 
century  B.a  when  writing  to  Amenophis  III.  Like  Osiris  he  was 
judge  of  the  dead,  who  were  led  before  him,  by  Tammuz  and  Istar, 
under  the  ocean.  He  was  also  Zi-kia  ("  spirit  of  earth "),  and  the 
Greek  Oannes  (see  Dagon),  "  the  great  fish,"  half  man,  half  fish, 
according  to  Berosus  (compare  Vishnu  under  Matsya).  He  thus 
combined  the  character  of  Pluto  and  PoseidCn,  and  was  the  wisest  of 
gods*  His  emblems  were  the  bull,  the  deer  (Dara,  which  was  one  of 
his  names  as  ''chief"),  the  ram's  head,  and  the  sea  goat  (Capricorn^ 
as  shown  on  Eassite  boundary  stones. 

Ea-bani.  A  friendly  minotaur  who  aided  the  Babylonian  hero 
Gilgamas,  and  was  slain  by  the  gods  (see  Babylon).  He  is 
represented  as  a  kind  of  bull-satyr,  with  bull's  legs,  horns,  and 
tail.  [The  name  is  probably  Akkadian,  meaning  **  Ea's  spirit/' 
though  usually  regarded  as  Semitic  for  "Ea  has  made."  —  Ed.] 
Eabani  was  destroyed  by  a  gad-fly,  and  his  ghost  came  up  from 
Hades  to  console  his  mourning  comrade  the  sun  hero  (see  further 
Gilgamas). 

Eagle«  The  Yahana,  or  vehicle,  of  Vishnu  and  many  other 
8un  and  heaven  gods  (see  Etana),  suitably  chosen  by  Christians  also, 
to  carry  the  Logos  or  Word  of  Life.  It  was  the  emblem  of  Zeus, 
bearing  his  thunderbolt,  and  that  of  Indra  (the  Yajra).     It  slept  on 


2  Earth 

the  sceptre  of  Zeus,  and  placed  eggs  in  his  lap,  recovering  his  lost 
ring,  and  giving  him  his  darts.  It  was  carried  on  the  standards  of 
Imperial  Home,  denoting  the  sky  spirit  (see  Hawk)  and  messenger  of 
Jove  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  i,  p.  134,  fig.  .53).  The  eagle  stole  the 
garments  of  Aphrodite,  in  aid  of  Hermes  (a  dawn  myth),  and  is 
connected  with  the  griffin.  The  marvellous  Saena  bird  of  Zoroastrians 
symbolising  wisdom,  and  the  Persian  Simurg  (in  the  Bundahish)  was 
"  the  ever  blessed,  glorious,  and  mighty  bird  whose  wiugs  dim  the  very 
sunbeams."  As  Garuda  it  is  the  power  of  Vishnu  (often  two-headed), 
and  the  destroyer  of  serpents.  It  is  also  the  Arab  Bukh  (or  the  Boc), 
but  Skandinavians  and  Franks,  when  Christians,  regarded  it  as  gloomy 
and  demonifikcal.  It  has  a  long  mythical  history  among  Turanian 
Hittites,  and  other  tribes  from  Central  Asia,  connected  with  owls, 
and  Svastika  crosses  (see  Acaxiemy,  18th  August  1883).  Christians 
replaced  it  in  brazen  beauty  in  their  churches.  [The  double-headed 
eagle  surmounts  an  Akkadian  text  at  Tell  Lob*  It  occurs  as  a 
Hittite  sign  at  Boghaz  Keui  and  Eyuk,  in  Asia  Minor,  with  the 
Sphynz.  It  was  the  ensign  of  the  Seljuk  Turks,  found  in  several 
cases  in  Armenia,  and  also  the  Oaruda  bird  on  coins  of  the  Arsacidse 
in  Parthia.  The  Hittite  double-headed  eagle  supports  a  pair  of 
deities,  and  seems  to  be  the  emblem  of  Tammuz  and  Istar  as  the 
twins  of  day  and  night. — Ed.] 

Earth*  The  great  mother  godess  (Damkina,  B'elit,  De-Met6r,  GS, 
£ra,  Terra,  Bhsea,  Hertha,  Kubelg,  or  Parvati).  In  all  ages  she  is 
the  mother,  nurse,  and  nourisher.  In  Egypt  alone  the  earth  is  male 
(see  Seb).  The  root  er  apparently  means  **  abode "  (Sanskrit  ira, 
Greek  ira,  Old  German  ero,  Old  Saxon  ertha,  Turkish  ar,  Hebrew 
ere^,  Arabic  ar<^  for  "  earth  ").  She  was  mother  of  gods  and  men,  of 
whom  heaven  was  the  father  (see  China). 

"  Endowed  with  fertile  all  destroying  force, 
The  all  parent,  bounding,  whose  prolific  powers 
Produce  a  store  of  beauteous  fruits  and  flowers. 
The  all- various  maid,  the  eternal  world's  strong  base 
Immortal,  bless^,  crowned  with  every  grace. 
From  whose  wide  womb,  as  from  an  endless  root 
Fruits  many  formed  mature,  and  grateful  shoot. 
All  flowery  daemon,  centre  of  the  world, 
Around  thy  orb  the  beauteous  stars  are  hurled" 

The  poetic  Platonist  (as  rendered  by  Mr  Thomas  Taylor)  also  sings  of 
Rhsea  as  earth. 


Easter  8 

^  Mother  of  gods  great  nurse  of  all,  draw  near 
Divinely  honoured ;  and  regard  my  prayer. 
Throned  on  a  car,  by  lions  drawn  along 
By  bull-destroying  lions  swift  and  strong." 
"The  earth  is  thine,  and  needy  mortals  share 
Their  constant  food  from  thy  protecting  care. 
From  thee  the  sea  and  every  river  flows. 
From  thee  at  first  both  gods  and  men  arose." 

The  prevailing  idea  of  the  ancients  was  that  the  earth  was  a  pivot  round 
which  all  revolved,  and  herself  a  large,  living,  gracious  being.  The 
earth  godess  Ma,  in  Asia  Minor,  rode  or  stood  on  a  lion.  She  bad 
her  right  to  a  small  secluded  corner  of  the  field,  left  untilled  :  though 
Kelts  dedicated  this  to  an  earth  demon  ("  the  good  man  of  the  croft ") 
whom  they  feared  to  call  a  devil  (see  also  the  Corner  of  the  Field, 
Levit  xxiii,  22).  The  earth  we  now  know  is  not  the  centre  of  the 
universe.  It  revolves  on  its  axis  with  a  surface  speed  of  1040  miles 
an  hour,  and  in  its  orbit  at  66,476  miles  an  hour ;  and  rushes  with 
the  rest  of  the  solar  system  towards  the  constellation  of  Hercules. 

Easter*  The  season  of  the  sun's  ''easting,"  when  it  rises  due 
east  The  date  at  which  Easter  should  be  kept  was  a  bone  of  con- 
tention among  Christians  down  to  our  6th  century*  In  445  A.C.  the 
Easters  of  Home  and  Alexandria  differed  by  18  days.  St  Ambrose 
of  Milan  says  that,  in  the  4th  century,  the  Gauls  kept  it  on  the 
21st  March  (the  equinox),  but  the  Italians  on  the  18th  April;  and 
there  was  a  double  Easter  as  late  as  651  A.C.  The  Koman  and  Qreek 
Easters  still  differ  like  their  Calendars  (see  Zodiak,  and  Rivera  of 
Life,  i,  Table,  p.  424).  Grimm  calls  the  Teutonic  Eostre  "the  rising 
light:  on  her  day  (Bal-dag  or  'sun's  day')  she  opens  heaven  to 
Baldur."  [The  original  Easter  controversy  was  whether  the  feast 
should  be  held  after  the  full  moon,  the  crucifixion  being  on  the  14tb 
of  Nisan ;  or  whether  the  day  of  the  Resurrection  (Sunday)  should 
be  celebrated  on  the  Lord's-day  following  the  first  full  moon  after  the 
vernal  equinox. — ^Ed.]  In  Europe  many  ancient  rites  not  of  Christian 
origin  marked  Easter  (see  Buns,  and  Eggs) ;  and  Brand  (Antiq,,  i, 
p.  145)  says  that  "small  breads  were  indiscriminately  distributed,  by 
being  thrown  from  church  steeples/'  a  custom  surviving  till  quite 
recently  at  Paddington  and  Twickenham.  In  Somerset,  according  to 
its  "Old  Book"  (see  Notes  and  Queries,  18th  January  1902),  the 
ancient  phallic  rite  of  the  clippan  survived  ;  and  "  clipping,  embrac- 
ing, kissing,"  with  dances  round  the  steeple  of  the  parish  church,  are 
said  to  be  still  practised  at  Easter.  Mr  Elwortby  says  it  was  "  a  spring 
performance,  in  which  both  sexes  took  part  .  .  .  the  essential  part 


4  Easter  Isle 

being  the  clipping,"  or  worshipful  dance  round  the  tower.  In  the 
year  1883  the  Christian  Easter,  the  Hindu  Holi,  the  ParsI  Nao-roz, 
and  the  Jewish  Passover,  were  all  celebrated  in  India  on  the  same 
day,  which  might  have  impressed  on  the  masses  the  oneness  of  all 
religions.  The  Jews  still  offer  eggs  on  the  SMer  night  of  the  Passover, 
as  ''  emblems  of  immortality  and  speedy  resurrection " ;  and  their 
"  heaving  "  or  "  lifting  **  rites  (the  wave-offering)  take  place  at  E^aster. 
A  writer  in  Notes  and  Queries  (3rd  August  1883)  describes  the 
"  liftings  at  Durham,  a  city  famous  for  sundry  suggestive  maiden  rites, 
water  fStes,  mustard,  law,  physics,  and  gospel"  These  include  much 
play  with  shoes  (see  Foot) ;  and  on  Easter  Sunday  this  writer  "  saw 
over  half  a  dozen  young  women  thrown  down,  others  held  almost 
upside  down  till  their  boots  were  dragged  off:  these  were  not  returned 
without  a  forfeit — not  too  seemly."  On  the  next  Tuesday  the  women 
seize  the  men's  hats,  and  levy  a  forfeit,  or  ''accept  some  token  of 
amity."  At  Church-Stretton  in  Shropshire  (Notes  and  Queries, 
22nd  September  1883),  men  force  women  into  gaily  decorated  chairs 
on  Easter  Monday,  and  brush  their  feet  with  a  bunch  of  box.  In 
Staffordshire  this  was  done  on  Tuesday  in  Easter  week.  In  the 
cathedral  town  of  Ripon,  lads  make  a  rush  for  the  girls'  feet  at  the 
end  of  the  Easter  service,  and  keep  their  shoebuckles  till  noon  next 
day,  unless  a  forfeit  is  paid.  The  women  then  do  the  same  to  the 
men,  keeping  their  seizures  till  the  Tuesday  evening — a  day  when  all 
wives  should  beat  their  husbands  (see  **  Flagellation,"  in  the  Index 
Prohibitorum  of  1877),  while  on  the  next  day  husbands  beat  their 
wives.  During  this  feast  the  sexes  also  steal  the  clothing  of  one 
another,  and  boys  and  girls  sing,  wave  branches,  and  romp  together, 
as  at  the  Roman  Terminalia  and  Floralia. 

The  First  Council  of  Nicea  (325  A.C.)  fixed  Easter  by  the  rule 
still  observed,  and  so  dissociated  it  from  the  Passover  day.  The 
Western  date  was  revised  in  1582  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII  (Gregorian 
calendar),  but  England  only  adopted  the  correction  in  1752,  and  the 
Greek  and  Russian  Churches  retain  the  old  incorrect  Julian  calendar. 

Easter  Isle  :  otherwise  Vaihu,  or  Davis'  Isle  :  off  the  W.  coast 
of  S.  America,  a  little  N.  of  the  latitude  of  New  Zealand.  It  appears 
to  have  been  a  resting-place  for  races  drifting  from  Polynesia  to 
America.  Fornander  {Polynesia,  i,  p.  3)  says  that  the  massive 
masonry  here  found  is  like  that  of  the  Ladrones  (near  Formosa  on  the 
E.  of  China),  and  of  neighbouring  islands.  Capt.  Herendeen  (Journal 
RL  Oeogr.  Socy.,  July  1885),  describes  similar  "heavy  masonry  both 
above  and  below  present  sea  level,  in  Ponape,  a  small  islet  of  Micro- 


Easter  Isle  6 

nesia  (near  the  Ladronea)  .  .  .  and  other  ruins  of  temples,  and  forts^ 
built  evidently  by  a  superior  prehistoric  race."  Similar  structures  are 
found  in  the  islet  of  Kusaie,  in  the  Eastern  Caroline  group  (S.  of  the 
Ladrones),  in  the  line  from  the  Indian  Archipelago  to  Peru.  These 
are  all  interesting  landmarks  for  the  philologist  and  archseologist ;  and 
native  dialects  indicate  the  same  track  for  the  Malays  (see  ShoH 
Studies,  i  and  ii ;  and  Mr  Christian,  Journal  Rl,  Oeogr.  Socy.^ 
December  1898). 

Miss  Gordon  dimming  found  *'  on  Easter  Isle,  great  platforms  of 
Cyclopean  masonry,  with  hundreds  of  stone  figures  18  ft.  high";  and 
other  travellers  speak  of  intractable  trachyte  stones  cut  and  inscribed, 
in  other  Polynesian  islands,  some  of  which  Sir  T.  Brassey  brought  to 
Europa  One  statue  from  Easter  Island  now  stands  outside  the  British 
Museum.  Fourteen  texts,  incised  on  wooden  boards,  have  been  found, 
io  unknown  language  :  the  characters  on  the  most  celebrated  old  stone 
"  certainly  resemble  S.  Indian  writing  "  (Prof.  T.  De  la  Coup^rie.  See 
Jov/nud  Rl.  Asiatic  Socy.,  July  1885,  p.  443).  We  showed  in  1872 
and  1897,  that  the  Mflla  builders  cut  the  rock  temples  of  Central 
India,  and  the  shrines  of  Cambodia,  and  with  these  the  elaborate  stone 
structures  of  Japan,  of  the  Carolines,  Formosa,  and  Polynesia. 

Capt  H.  V.  Barclay  (PaU  Mall  MagaziTie,  October  1902) 
describes  the  ruins  of  Easter  Isle,  which  are  still  a  striking  relic 
of  Indian  civilisation.  The  weird  statues,  sometimes  50  ft.  high, 
are  hewn  from  single  stones,  but  always  terminate  at  the  hips.  In 
some  **  the  back  of  the  head  is  flattened,"  with  inscriptions  down  the 
back.  They  have  all  a  stern  contemptuous  expression  with  deep-sunk 
eyea  The  ears  (as  among  non-Aryan  Buddhists :  see  Buddha)  are 
long,  and  often  adorned  with  carvings.  The  flat  top  of  the  head  had 
originally  a  large  cylinder  of  red  volcanic  stone  upon  it :  numbers  of 
these  stones  are  found  near  the  statues  on  the  ground.  The  faces 
of  these  images  are  well  cut,  in  grey  durable  trachyte  from  quarries 
close  by.  They  stand  on  platforms  faced  with  large  well-dressed 
stones,  without  mortar.  Most  of  the  statues  lie  fallen,  many  broken 
at  the  neck,  their  downfall  being  probably  due  to  earthquakes.  Some 
500  more  or  less  perfect  images  have  been  counted.  About  100 
platforms  remain,  covered  with  volcanic  scoriae  and  grass.  Single 
hewn  stones  often  weigh  five  tons  or  more,  facing  rough  walls  which 
are  connected  by  cross  walls,  at  irregular  intervals,  making  small 
chambers,  roofed  with  flat  slabs.  There  are  no  visible  means  of  access 
to  these,  but  they  often  contain  human  bones.  The  statues  stand  on 
slabs  of  hewn  stone,  and  show  no  connection  with  the  chambers,  but 
are  spaced  equally  along  the  front  of  the  platform. 


6  Eben 

EbeH;     Hebrew  ;  ''  stone/'  see  Aben. 

Ebionites*     Hebrew  :  EHon  *'  needy  "  :  or  otherwise  "  wishing*' 
(i.e,  men  of  "  good  will "),  a  sect  of  our   let  century  described  by 
Eusebius  (JEcdea,  Hist.^  iii,   27:  vi,    17):   called   "poor,"  he  says, 
**  because  cherishing  low  and  mean  opinions  of  Christ."     They  were 
only  described  by  their  enemies  till  the  discovery  of  their  own  manual 
(see  DidachS).     Epiphanius,  as  bishop  in  Cyprus  (360  A.C.),  said  that 
they  were  founded  by  Ebion,  a  Samaritan,  and  he  apparently  follows 
Tertullian,  and  Origen.     Epiphanius  says  that  Ebion  held  Christ  to 
have  been  appointed  by  Qod  to  rule  the  future,  but  the  devil  to  rule 
the  present  world,  and  that  Jesus  was  one  on  whom  Christ  descended 
as  «  dove  at  the  Baptism,  forsaking  him  on  the  cross  (as  Gnostiks, 
Moslems,  and  Druzes,  all  taught  also)  on  account  of  the  words  "  my^ 
God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me."    Jesus,  said  the  Ebionites, 
was  a  "  plain  man  of  Nazareth,"  born  like  other  men  :  and  they  rejected 
the  account  of  Virgin  birth  in  the  Gospels.    They  observed  the  Sabbath, 
and  circumcision.    But  another  kindred  sect  (called  Nazarenes)  accepted 
this  dogma,  yet  refused  to  recognise  Christ  as  pre-existent,  or  as  the 
Logos.     They  both  rejected  Paul  as  an  enemy,  and  an  apostate  from^^ 
the^  Jewish  law,   regarding  his  writings  as   heretical.      The  Gospel 
of  Matthew  they  held  to  be  alone  trustworthy  (excepting  the  first 
chapters),  and  Symmachus,  an  Ebionite,  commented  on  it.     Cerinthua 
and  Carpocrates  were  Ebionite  Gnostiks  (see  Gnostiks  and  Irena^s) : 
such  judaic  Christians  were  known  to  Jews,  according  to  the  Talmud, 
aa   "  Galilean   §addl]|j;im "  or  ''  pious  persons "  (see   Essenes).      The 
Ebionites  lived   mostly   in   Basban   (at   Pella,  Kaukabah,  and   other 
sites),  and  clung  to  the  teaching  of  Peter,  as  opposed  to  that  of  Paul« 
The  Aramaik  "  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews "  was  perhaps  theirs,  but  is 
now  lost.     It  spoke  of  the  Jordan  as  being  changed  into  fire  at  the 
Baptism,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  as  the  "  mother  "  of  Christ  whom  it 
carried  by  the  hair  to  Tabor — according  to  quotations  in  the  Christian 
fathers. 

The  Gnosticism  of  Cerinthus  and  Saturninus,  in  Syria,  was 
distinct  from  Egyptian  Gnosticism.  These  teachers  were  ascetiks 
who  forbade  the  use  of  flesh  and  wine,  observed  abstinence  from 
marriage,  and  believed  in  the  approaching  return  of  the  Messiah, 
like  Essenes  and  Ebionites.  The  latter  seem,  in  short,  to  have  been 
the  early  Judaic  Christians  who  regarded  Jesus  only  as  a  hum^n 
prophet,  inspired  by  God,  and  as  the  true  Messiah.  The  Catholics  of 
the  4th  century  persecuted  and  destroyed  this  original  sect. 

Ecclesiastes.     The  Hebrew   ]^oheleth,   "the  preacher."     The 


Ecclesiastes  7 

writer  of  this  Old  Testament  Book  speaks  in  the  character .  of  a 
"  Preacher,  the  son  of  David,  king  in  Jerusalem "  (i,  1),  or  "  King 
over  Israel  in  Jerusalem"  (i,  12).  He  says,  ''better  is  a  poor  and  a 
wise  child  than  an  old  and  foolish  king,  who  will  no  more  be  admon- 
ished. For  out  of  prison  he  cometh  to  reign"  (iv,  13).  ''Vanity  of 
vanities "  is  his  refrain ;  but  all  was  not  vanity  to  Koheleth,  who 
believed  in  honest  work,  love,  and  youth.  The  Hebrew  of  this  work 
is  often  like  that  even  of  the  Mishnah.  Some  verses  may  be  later 
interpolations,  such  as  the  last  six  in  the  book,  thought  to  be  added 
to  counteract  the  general  Agnosticism  of  its  tone.  Dr  Delitzsch  calls 
it  "a  collection  of  the  days  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes  "  (247  to  222  B.c.) : 
Prof  Oraetz  thinks  it  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Herods.  The  5th 
General  Council  questioned  the  inspiration  of  Koheleth  and  of  the  Song 
of  Solomon,  and  it  has  always  been  considered  doubtful  scripture, 
especially  by  some  Protestants.  Dr  Cheyne  (in  1885-87)  rejects  the 
final  six  verses,  and  questions  other  passages,  but  maintains  ( Wiadom 
of  ihe  Old  TestaTnent)  that :  "  The  author  of  Koheleth  is  not  atheistic 
in  any  vital  sense  in  his  philosophical  meditations."  Dr  Graetz  says 
that  "the  old  text  reads  for  'thy  Creator*  (xii,  1),  'tby  well'  or 
wife."  He  explains  the  passage  that  follows  according  to  the  Rabbinical 
interpretation  of  the  allegory,  as  referring  to  the  decay  of  the  body — 
**  keepers  of  the  house  "  are  arms  and  hands ;  "  strong  men,"  feet  and 
legs;  the  "grinders"  (feminine),  teeth;  and  the  voice  rises,  piping 
like  a  sparrow  in  childish  treble,  till  the  silver  cord  (or  string)  is 
loosed  (the  tongue) ;  and  the  golden  bowl  (the  brain)  is  brok^  (xii, 
3-6).  The  author  of  ]^oheleth  appears  as  a  Stoik  weary  of  study,  and 
one  who  advocates  calm  enjoyment  of  all  that  is  really  good  in  life, 
with  patience  in  sorrow.  He  passes  lightly  by  dogmas  which  were  so 
important  to  others,  as  vanities  with  no  solid  foundation.  This  writer, 
who  had  evidently  led  a  busy,  thoughtful  life,  was  weary  of  thought 
and  of  learning.  He  finds  even  the  order  of  nature  oppressive  at 
times.  The  ills  of  life  prevent  permanent  enjoyment :  even  pleasure 
is  monotonous,  and  the  wise  man  dies  like  the  fool :  we  can  but  live 
on,  and  suffer  as  others  have  done.  .  Death  seems  preferable  to  life, 
for  energy  breeds  envy,  and  indolence  brings  poverty :  riches  lose  us 
true  friends,  religion  is  generally  hypocrisy,  women  usually  false.  It^ 
is  well  to  fear  Qod,  and  unwise  to  defy  or  ignore  Him.  It  is  useless 
to  speculate  on  the  future,  but  a  good  name  is  no  doubt  better  than 
riches.  We  should  strive  to  do  good,  and  leave  aloqe  the  great 
problems. 

All  religious  systems  have  produced  their  skeptikal  ^oheleths, 
who  have  attacked  alike  Yedas  and  Buddhist  Tripitakas,  the  Christian 


9  Ecclesiastes 

Bible,  and  the  ^oran.  In  our  11th  century,  when  the  latter  had 
become  the  '*  Eternal  Word  of  God  "  from  Spain  to  India,  the  cultured 
poet-astronomer,  'Omar  Khayyam,  wrote  (Whinfield's  TranslatioD, 
1883):— 

"  I  drown  in  sin,  show  me  thy  clemency. 
Mj  soul  is  dark.    Make  me  thy  light  to  see. 
A  heaven  that  must  be  earned  by  painful  works 
I  call  a  wage  :  not  a  gift  fair  and  free." 

"  Hypocrites  only  build  on  saintly  show, 
Treating  the  body  as  the  spirit's  foe." 

''  Your  course  annoys  me,  O  ye  wheeling  skies. 
Unloose  me  from  your  chain  of  tyrannies.'' 

"  Some  look  for  truth  in  creeds,  and  forms,  and  rules. 
Some  grope  for  doubts  and  dogmas  in  the  schools. 
But,  from  behind  the  veil,  a  voice  proclaims 
Your  road  lies  neither  here  nor  there,  O  fools." 

Again  we  read  in.  Sanskrit,  perhaps  1000  B.C.  (Dr  Muir's 
rendering,  pp.  17-22),  how  the  Brfthman  addresses  Rama : — 

*'  To  us  no  sacred  texts  are  given 
Unerring,  perfect,  dropped  from  heaven. 
No  love  inspired,  no  truth  supplied, 
From  source  supernal  men  to  guide. 
Have  ever  reached  this  world." 

In  the  Maha-bhaxata  (perhaps  about  500  B.C.) : — 

"  The  principles  of  duty  lie 
Enveloped  deep  in  mystery. 
On  what  can  men  their  conduct  found  ? 
For  reasons  lack  all  solid  ground. 
One  text  another  contradicts. 
The  Veda  with  itoelf  conflicts." 

Dr  E.  J.  Dillon  (Contemporary  Review,  Feb.  1894)  thinks  that 
the  text  of  ]^oheleth  has  suffered  from  transpositions  and  interpola- 
tions, and  that  the  Latin  and  Syriak  versions  show  clearly  that  passages 
have  dropped  out  of  the  Greek  text  He  concludes  that  the  book 
''undoubtedly  constitutes  the  most  potent  solvent  of  theological 
Christian  doctrines  ever  written,  by  Jew  or  Christian.  It  is  no  harm- 
less work."  Christians  vainly  strove  to  explain  the  blunt,  clear 
statements  of  the  Preacher — ^as  when  St  Augustine  says  that  he  really 
meant  the  Eucharist  when  he  said  that  there  was  nothing  better  for 
man  than  to  eat  and  drink.     The  teaching,  says  Dr  Dillon,  is  clearly 


'Ed  9 

"a  mixture  of  the  pessimism  of  Epicureans  and  Buddhists."  [The 
language  of  ^oheleth  is  the  later  Hebrew  of  the  books  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  (3rd  cent  B.C.),  with  words  found  in  use  in  the  Mishnah  as 
late  as  200  A.C. ;  but  some  terms,  like  PhithegaTn,  "  decree  "  (viii,  11 ; 
Esther  i,  20),  are  not  Hebrew,  and  may  be  archaic.  The  author  con- 
siders it  better  to  listen  than  to  sacrifice  in  temples  (v,  1),  yet  seems 
to  share  with  the  author  of  Job  a  belief  in  guardian  angels  (v,  6). 
Two  expressions  recall  ancient  Babylonian  ideas  (see  Babylon) ;  the 
first  being  the  terrible  misfortune  of  dying  without  burial,  and  without 
a  record  of  one's  name  (vi,  3;  viii,  10);  and  the  other  the  words, 
"let  thy  garments  be  always  white,  and  let  thy  head  lack  no  ointment," 
which  are  found  in  the  address  of  Qilgamas  to  the  god  of  fate.  "  Thy 
belly  is  full,  day  and  night  men  are  affrighted.  To-day  decide  to  give 
joy.  Day  and  night  there  is  carrying  off  and  mourning.  Let  thy 
robes  be  white,  let  thine  head  be  anointed,  let  water  be  brought  thee. 
Let  the  captives  of  thy  hand  be  free  a  little.  Let  them  enjoy  a 
breathing  time  from  these  things." — Ed.]  The  title  "  Ecclesiasticus  " 
is  given  to  a  work  now  known  in  Hebrew  as  well  as  in  Qreek  and 
Syriak,  and  properly  called  the  Wisdom  of  SircLch,  This  (according 
to  its  Preface)  was  first  written  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes 
(probably  I,  acceding  247  B.G.);  and  Simon  the  High  Priest  (probably 
Simon  the  Just,  about  330  B.c.)  is  the  latest  worthy  named.  This 
work  also  belongs  to  Hebrew  "  Wisdom  "  literature. 

'Ed.  Hebrew  :  "  witness,"  "  token."  The  'Edoth  were  "  tokens  " 
before  the  Tablets  of  the  Law  or  of  the  'Edoth  (Ex.  xxxii,  15)  were 
made,  or  put  (xxv,  1 6),  in  the  Ark  :  for  the  manna  was  placed  before 
'Edoth  (xvi,  34)  ere  reaching  SinaL  The  'Edoth,  or  "  tokens,"  were 
placed  on  the  king  at  accession  (2  Kings  xi,  12). 

Eddas.  These  embody  ancient  Skandinavian  traditions,  or 
"mothers'  tales."  The  Elder  Edda,  consisting  of  39  poems,  was 
written  out  for  the  first  time  by  priests  in  Iceland  (Ar6  Erode,  and 
Saemund  Erode)  about  1120  A.C.  The  Younger  Edda,  a  century 
later,  was  so  written  by  the  Christian  bishop  Snorri  Sturlassen  (1178 
to  1241).  Neither  was  known  to  Europe  before  1643.  The  hymns 
in  this  Younger  Edda  are  called  sagas  (''  saws "  or  "  sayings "),  but 
are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Norse  sagas,  which  arose  in  the 
Vickin  (Viking)  ages  (see  Vik).  In  the  Elder  Edda  we  begin  with  the 
creation  of  gods,  giants,  men,  dwarfs,  and  other  creatures,  and  proceed 
to  the  "  Last  Battle  " — the  destruction  and  renewal  of  the  world,  as 
related  in  the  divine  "Song  of  Volva" — a  sibyl.  Other  hymns  are 
devoted  to  particular  gods  and  heroes,  to  the  Niflungs,  and  to  Sigurd 


10  'Eden 

who   slew   the   dragon   Fafnir.      The   Yoiva,   seated    on    a   throne, 
addresses  Odin  and  other  gods,  telling  them  about  the  world  before 
their  existence,  and  of  the  dread  day  of  Ragnarok,  when  all  will  end 
and   Chaos  rule  supreme.      A   god    Heimdal,  disguised   as  a   man, 
named  Big  (or  ''  king  "),  finds  a  pair  of  dwarfs,  Ai  and  Edda  ("  father 
and    mother''),  by  the  seashore,  and   gives  them  power  to  produce 
Thralb  who  dig  and   burn  peat,  herd  swine,  and  farm  land.     Rig 
then  finds  Afi  aud  Amma  (also  a  "  father  and  mother  "),  who  produce 
Churls,  who  plough,  use  carts,  and  build  houses.     Lastly,  he  comes 
to  Fadir  and  Moder,  who  produce  the  Jarl  or  firee  man,  who  hunts, 
and  uses  swords,  and  runes  or  writiugs  (which  the  Norse  got  from. 
Greek  traders,  as  Dr  Isaac  Taylor  shows),  about  our  5th  century 
(see  Ruues).     In  the  "Soug  of  Thrym"  we  learn  how  Thor  lost  his 
hammer,  which  the  giant  refused  to  return  unless  Freya  was  given  to 
him.     Thor  feigned  (see  Freya)  to  be  a  maideu,  in  whose  lap  his 
hammer  is  found  (a  phallic  tale).     The  Younger  Edda  is  in  prose, 
and  is  Christianised  by  its  author.     It  consists  of  five  parts.     The 
first  begins  with  an   Adam  aud   Eve.     The   second   is  about   ''the 
delusion  of  King  Qylf i  and  the  giantess  Qefion  "  :  also  as  to  the 
miraculous  rise  of  the  island  of  Zealand,  and  how  Odin  led  the  ^sir 
(or  gods)  to  settle  in  Gylfi's  land,  that  is  in  Sweden.     Minute  details 
as  to  the  poetry  of  Skalds  are  here  given,  with  lists  of  their  names, 
and   even  a  philological   treatise  with   rules  of  grammar  for  their 
guidance. 

The  three  oldest  MSS.  of  this  work — of  which  that  of  Upsala  is 
the  most  important — date  from  about  1300  A.G.  Hence,  perhaps, 
the  allusion  to  baptism ;  for  Fadir  and  Moder  baptise  their  child  JarL 
The  spirit  of  a  dead  father,  in  one  tale,  appears  and  urges  his  son  to 
"righteousness  of  life."  The  Elder  Edda  contains  a  **Lay  of  the 
Sun."  Rydberg  {Teutonic  Mythology)  holds  that  the  Younger  Edda 
is  not  reliable  as  a  key  to  the  Elder,  and  that  neither  are  true  records 
of  the  religion  of  Odin.  But  they  rescue  from  oblivion  many  ancient 
fragments  of  poetry ;  and  he  believes  the  myths  to  have  a  historic 
foundation. 

'Eden.  Hebrew :  "  delight."  A  garden  in  the  east,  with  the 
trees  of  life  and  knowledge  (see  Meru).  Dr  Delitzsch  would  place 
Eden  in  lower  Babylonia,  comparing  the  word  Edina  for  "plain." 
[He  however  ignores  the  fact  that  the  root  of  this  word  is  spelt  with 
Aleph,  not  (as  in  'Eden)  with  'Ain — Ed.]  ;  but  Eden  is  not  noticed  in 
Babylonian  records,  unless  in  the  later  allusions  to  Sargina's  conquest 
of  Su-Edin  (perhaps  "  River  of  Eden  ") ;  and  it  is  placed  (Gen.  ii,  8-14) 


Edessa  li^ 

at  the  sources  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  or  in  Eastern  Armenia.' 
[In  the  legend  of  Gilgamas  the  magic  tree  is  in  a  mythical  land 
beyond  or  beneath  the  sea.     See  also  Eridu  and  Paradise. — Ed.] 

Edessa.  Now  Orfah,  an  ancient  city  of  N.  Mesopotamia,  said 
to  be  founded  by  Nimrod,  and  to  be  "Ur  of  the  Chaldees"  (see 
Abraham).  In  our  4th  and  5th  centuries  it  was  famous  for  its. 
libraries,  and  learning.  Moses  of  KhorSne  (the  historian  of  Armenia)- 
came  thither  to  study,  from  his  home  near  Darou  in  Armenia,  about' 
390  A.C.  Hence  also,  according  to  tradition,  came  the  only  portrait 
of  Christ,  an  event  celebrated  on  the  16  th  August  each  year.  In  the^ 
Edessa  University  also  Nestorius  studied  (see  Councils),  which  led  to 
the  suppression  of  this  college  about  500  A.C.,  and  so  to  the  spread> 
of  Nestorian  Christianity  through  Mid-Asia  even  to  China  (see* 
Nestorians). 

EeL  In  mythology  a  water  serpent  The  Kelts  feared  it 
Women  with  child  used  to  say  they  "came  on  an  eel,"  by  a  river  or, 
at  a  well;  and  "she  who  had  touched  the  eel  was  said  to  have 
discovered  nature's  great  secret'!  It  was  the  Madara  or  Madone^' 
hero  or  fool,  and  the  Manthana  that  produces  Ambrosia  (Prof  A.  de. 
Gubematis'  Zocl,  Mythol.,  ii,  p.  36). 

Egg^.  Plutarch  calls  the  egg  HtUe  tee  geneaeos,  as  containing  all 
elements  of  Itfe,  though  not  itself  capable  of  motion.  **  All  comes  from 
^6  %g '' :  &U  life  from  the  cell  (see  Dove  and  Japan).  The  egg  was 
the  symbol  of  Venus,  and  of  earth  godesses,  and  therefore  found  in 
Bakkhik  rites.  Plutarch  discussed  whether  the  egg  or  its  parent 
eame  first  Orpheans  claimed  priority  for  the  egg,  saying  that  Erebos 
(Hades  or  Evening)  incubated  an  egg  before  anything  else  existed 
save  Eros  Q*  desire "),  ether,  night  and  day.  It  was  the  nucleus  of 
crude  matter  in  chaos,  or  in  the  abyss.  To  produce  it  (see  Clerrientine 
Homilies,  vi,  4-6)  required  "  Time  "  (Kronos)  and  **  Earth  "  (Rhaea). 
From  it  came  all  things  material  and  spiritual  Orpheans  called  this 
PhaneSf  "  because  when  it  appeared  the  universe  shone  forth,  with  the^ 
lustre  of  fire,  perfected  in  water."  Life  so  "  appeared "  no  longer 
chaotic  but  orderly,  though  what  some  called  Pluto  remained  as  crude 
dead  matter  in  the  depths.  The  Orpheans  (see  Taylor's  Hymns), 
spoke  of  "  the  egg-born  one  (the  Protogonos  or  first-born),  the  bull-faced 
roarer,  with  golden  wings,  generator  of  the  blessed  immortals,  the 
renowned  and  holy  light,  ineffable,  occult,  the  celebrated  Erikapaios : 
Phanes  the  glory  of  the  pure  light,  and  Priapos,  king  of  dark-faced 
splendour   {i.e,    Praja-pati,    the   creator) :    genial,   and    ever-varying 


12  Eggs 

sacred  mysteries."  Proclus  dwells  on  this  Orphic  muDdane  ^g,  and 
mundane  phallos  (the  female  and  male  principles  in  nature).  Sir  P. 
le  Page  Kenouf  thinks  that  the  Egyptians  had  no  conception  of  a 
mundane  egg,  but  only  of  the  ''golden  egg"  which  was  the  sun,  and 
sprang  **  from  the  back  of  Seb  "  (the  goose,  and  the  earth  god),  and 
was  separate  from  the  earth  ("  Ritual  of  Dead,"  Proc.  Bib.  Arch. 
8ocy.,  May  1893).  Ba  created  the  egg,  and  in  a  magic  papyrus  some 
are  cursed  "  because  they  believe  not  in  Ra's  egg" ;  and  we  read  "  0 
liquid  found  in  earth,  substance  of  the  seaoun  gods,  great  in  heaven, 
great  in  Hades,  which  is  in  the  nest  over  the  waves,  may  I  liquify 
thee  with  water  "  (Hibbert  Lect,  iii ;  Bee.  of  Past,  x,  p.  147,  in  1892). 
On  Greek  and  Phoenician  coins  we  find  the  creative  principle  as  an 
egg  with  a  serpent  twined  round  it  (see  Druids,  and  Rivera  of  Lift, 
i,  p.  248,  fig.  250).  Phoenician  cosmogonies  also  spoke  of  the  egg 
whence  all  nature  issued. 

In  India  the  egg  signifies  either  sex  :  for,  set  with  the  big  end 
upmost  it  is  Parvati  (mother  earth),  and  with  small  end  up  it  is  Siva 
(the  lingam)  ;  and  this  held  good  in  the  west  also  in  the  Paphian 
shrine  of  Venus  {Rivera  of  Life,  plates  x  and  xvi,  and  fig.  233, 
p.  166).  Sir  W.  Jones  gives  us,  in  solemn  verse,  the  high  flown 
language  of  Hindus  as  to  the  egg  whence  Brahma  came  (see  Brahma) : 
the  "lucid  gem,"  an  egg  "bright  as  gold,"  produced,  by  the  seed 
placed  in  the  waters  {Inatit  of  Manu.,  vii,  92).  Brahma  long  dwelt 
in  it,  meditating  on  himself,  and  then  divided  it  equally,  and  made 
from  it  the  heavens  and  the  earth.  In  China  (Shih-King)  Hsieh  was 
produced  from  an  egg,  which  fell  on  a  godess  while  bathing ;  as  the 
Dea  Syria  came  from  an  egg  pushed  to  shore  by  fishes,  when  fialling 
into  the  Euphrates  (see  Dove).  The  egg  fertilizes  all  it  touches — land, 
river,  or  well — and  women  excused  their  condition  by  saying  they  saw, 
or  touched,  an  egg  by  a  sacred  well.  Eggs  are  marriage  emblems  (see 
Indian  Antiq.,  April  1892).  They  are  broken  before  guests.  The 
mistress  of  a  house  (among  Hindus  and  Parsis),  brings  a  tray  with 
eggs,  a  cocoanut,  rice,  salt,  cakes,  sugar,  and  water :  she  waves  an  egg 
over  her  guest's  head,  and  breaks  it  at  his  feet ;  she  does  the  same 
with  the  cocoanut,  and  sprinkles  the  other  gifts  about  him.  Waving 
her  hands  she  cracks  her  finger  joints  on  her  forehead,  and  bids  him 
step  forward,  right  foot  first,  assured  that  as  he  leaves,  all  evil  influences 
have  been  dissipated.  In  the  case  of  a  bridegroom,  the  mother-in-law 
has  in  her  tray  a  gem-ring,  nuts,  almonds,  a  cone  of  sugar ;  and  she 
places  the  ring  on  his  finger,  and  rice  on  his  forehead ;  passes  her 
hands  over  his  face  and  head,  and  aids  the  priest  to  tie  the  couple 
together  with  a  thread,  or  by  their  garments,  before  the  sacred  fire, 


J 


Egypt  18 

in  addition  to  the  rites  above-mentioned.  She  strews  flowers  and 
incense  as  prayers  are  chanted,  and  in  these  cases  the  breaking  of  the 
egg  is  considered  to  be  a  symbol  of  sacrifice,  since  the  taking  of  animal 
life  is  abhorrent  to  Hindus  and  Parsis  alike. 

Landseer  (Sabean  Bea.,  pp.  81-83)  describes  a  sacred  egg  in 
Cyprus  as  30  ft.  in  circumference.  The  Phcenicians  worshiped  it, 
and  the  sacred  bull  was  sculptured  on  it.  [This  however — at  Amathus 
— was  apparently  a  stone  "  sea,"  in  egg  form. — Ed.]  Dr  Schliemann 
found  an  alabaster  egg  deep  down  in  the  ruins  of  Troy.  The  Druid 
gUinirTtadrcedd,  or  "  snake  stones,"  among  the  Welsh,  are  the  Boman 
"  serpent  eggs  "  (see  Druids).  The  procession  of  Ceres  in  Rome,  says 
Yarro,  was  preceded  by  an  egg.  Christians  bear  eggs  on  Palm  Sunday 
also  at  Rome  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  p.  138,  fig.  55).  Ostrich  eggs 
were  found  in  the  Etruskan  cemetery  of  Vulci,  painted  with  winged 
camels  (see  Dennis,  "Etruria"),  and  are  noted  by  Diodorus  (i,  27). 
Fausanias  says  that,  in  the  temple  of  Hilakra  and  Phoib^,  the  egg  of 
Leda  (whence  came  Helen — the  moon,  and  the  twin  brothers  Castor 
and  Pollux — day  and  night),  hung  from  the  roof  wrapped  in  ribbons. 
Ostrich  eggs  are  commonly  hung  also  in  Moslem  mosks,  as  at  Hebron 
above  the  tombs  of  the  patriarchs. 

Many  coarse  jokes  about  eggs  belong  to  the  Easter  festivities. 
[In  Italy,  Easter  eggs  are  coloured  with  cofiee  grounds  a  dark  brown, 
and  then  adorned  with  designs  scraped  on  them  by  nuns. — Ed.J  In 
Chinese  temples,  and  Christian  churches  alike,  they  symbolise  resurrec- 
tion ;  and  in  Christian  lands  texts  and  mottoes  are  inscribed  on  them. 
The  "  material  of  being,"  as  we  have  seen  Plutarch  to  call  the  egg,  is 
about  to  be  quickened  at  this  season.  "  The  entwined  egg,"  says 
Pliny,  is  "  a  badge  of  distinctiou  in  Rome."  Claudius  Csesar  put  a 
Boman  to  death  for  assuming  it  Among  modem  Syrians  eggs  are  a 
charm  against  the  evil  eye  (see  Eye). 

Eg^pt.  The  Egyptian  gods  and  beliefs  will  be  fouud  under 
special  articles.  The  name  Aiguptos,  as  given  by  Greeks,  seems  to 
mean  "shore  land  of  Kopts,"  as  a  native  word.  The  native  name 
Khemi  is  rendered  "dark" — perhaps  better  "sun-burnt"  The 
Semitic  name  Misri,  or  Misraim,  signifies  "  guarded  places  " — perhaps 
on  account  of  the  wall,  or  chain  of  forts,  separating  Egypt  from  the 
Asiatic  tribes  on  her  east  frontier ;  whence  the  modern  Arabic  Musr. 
The  original  civilising  race  came  apparently  from  Asia,  before  the  age 
of  the  Pyramids.  [The  carved  slates,  supposed  to  be  as  old  as  the 
Ist  dynasty  (see  Proc.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  May  1900,  p.  135  ;  Novem- 
ber 1904,  p.  262,  papers  by  Mr  F.  Legge),  represent  hunting  scenes, 


.i>  Egypt 

und  wars  with  negroes ;  and  the  writer  regards  them  as  showing 
invaders  from  Asia  Minor :  for  they  are  armed  with  the  double  axe 
(the  Ldbrus),  of  Karians  and  Ejretans,  found  also  on  Hittite  monu- 
ments, and  at  Behistun,  as  well  as  in  Etruria,  as  used  by  TuraniaDS. 
The  native  language,  however,  is  closest,  in  grammar  and  in  vocabulary 
alike,  to  Semitic  speech. — Ed.] 

At  the  dawn  of  monumental  history  Egypt  and  Babylonia  are 
equally  found  to  be  powerful  and  civilised.  The  building  race  spread 
from  Memphis  to  Thebes,  and  yet  further  south  :  and  Menes  (succeed-^ 
ing  the  mythical  age  of  the  12  great  gods),  was  traditionally  the 
.founder  of  Memphis.  But  cities  and  nomes  (or  provinces)  jealously 
preserved  their  independence,  and  their  distinct  cults.  Monotheism 
proper  had  no  existence ;  but,  in  the  fusion  of  various  beliefs,  Heno- 
theism  (the  selection  of  one  out  of  many  gods),  was  usual,  as  it  is 
to-day  in  India.  Beast  worship,  according  to  Brugsch  (Hist.  .Egypt, 
i,  p.  32),  appears  at  the  earliest  historic  period  (see  Animal  Worship) ; 
but  religious  texts  are  rare  till  the  12  th  dynasty.  In  the  18th 
•century  B.c.  all  the  chief  Egyptian  gods  are  noticed,  and  pictured, 
with  their  legends,  which  are  rarely  mentioned  earlier  (Maspero,  Hist, 
Egypt,  i,  p.  124).  Beast  worship  came  first,  mythology  followed  with 
.gods  both  phallic  and  solar,  and  philosophy  developed  later.  The 
people  of  Lukopolis  ("  wolf  town  "),  propitiated  the  wolf  that  tore  their 
sheep  ;  other  diepherds  adored  the  bull  and  the  ram.  None  ate  the 
flesh  of  the  beast  sacred  in  their  town,  save  on  rare  occasions  ,of  sacri- 
fice. Yet  the  beasts'  head  (Amen's  ram,  Thoth's  ibis,  etc.),  did  not 
of  necessity  denote  a  totem  of  the  tribe,  but  rather  the  divine 
attributes  of  power,  fertility,  or  intelligence ;  the  physical  or  moral 
peculiarities  of  gods. 

[The  great  gods  may  be  classed  as  follows : — 


Heaven  . 

.     Nut  (Neith),  Maut,  female. 

Earth       . 

.     Seb,  male. 

Sun 

.     Horus,  Ba,  Tum,  Amen,  Ptah,  Osiris. 

Moon 

•     Isis,  female  ;  Aah,  male. 

Water     . 

.     Hapi,  the  Nile  (androgynous). 

Hell 

.     Set,  Typhon,  Bes,  Bast,  Sekhet. 

Air 

.     Shu,  Tefnut. 

The  Messenger 

.     Thoth,  Anubis. 

Dawn  and  Sunset 

Hathor  and  Nephthys. — Ed." 

M.  Maspero  classifies  the  deities  as  (1st)  Qods  of  the  Dead — 
•Osiris,  Isis,  Hprus,  Nephthys,  Sokaris :  (2nd)  Elemental  gods — Seb, 
^ut,  and  others :  (3rd)  Solar  gods — Ra,  Amen,  Ptah,  and  others,  with 


Egypt  16 

their  enemies  Set»  Typhon,  etc.  The  great  myth  of  Osiris  relating  his 
feud  with  Set  is,  says  Benouf,  "as  old  as  Egyptian  civilisation/' 
belonging,  says  Maspero,  to  the  Ist  dynasty,  though  the  details  are 
known  to  us  only  from  much  later  text& 

The  Egyptians,  like  the  Hindus,  seem  to  have  scorned  ordinary 
chronology,  and  spanned  time  by  great  astronomical  cycles,  like  the 
Sothic  cycle  (1461  years),  depending  on  the  "heliacal  rising''  of  the 
dog  star.  [It  should  be  remembered  that  there  is  no  monumental 
chronology  at  all  in  Egypt.  All  that  we  know  of  actual  early  dates 
is,  that  Amenophis  lY  corresponded  with  Bumaburias  of  Babylon 
about  1430  B.C.,  that  Thothmes  III  reigned  54  years,  and  Amenophis 
III  36  years.  The  two  copies  of  the  Abydos  tablet  (found  in  1818 
and  1864),  in  which  75  kings  precede  Seti  I,  and  his  son  Barneses  II 
— the  12th  dynasty  immediately  preceding  the  18th — have  no  dates  : 
nor  has  the  &Lkkara  list  published  by  Mariette  in  1863.  The  "Turin 
Papyrus"  is  a  mere  fragment,  though  it  once  contained  a  chronology 
made  out  in  a  late  age,  and  attributing  reigns  of  70  to  95  years  to 
kings  of  the  1st  and  2nd  dynasties.  All  systems  of  chronology  rest 
on  the  statements  of  Manetbo  (about  250  B.C.),  as  extant  in  a  hope- 
lessly corrupt  condition,  according  to  copies  by  Eusebius  (4th  century 
^a),  and  George  the  Syncellus  (about  800  A.C.),  these  conflicting  as 
to  names  and  numerals  with  the  Turin  papyrus  for  early  kings,  and 
with  the  list  of  Eratosthenes  (born  276  B.C.),  the  librarian  of  Ptolemy 
Euergetes,  for  Theban  kings.  It  is  uncertain  whether  early  dynasties 
were  successive  or  contemporary,  and  Manetho  relates  mythical  stories 
of  the  earlier  kings,  and  is  hopelessly  confused  as  to  the  great  18  th 
and  19  th  dynasties.  Mahler's  dates  rest  on  an  attempted  calculation 
from  certain  notices  of  the  heliacal  rising  of  Sothis  (Sirius),  but  are 
vitiated  by  the  fact  that  the  orbit  of  the  earth  is  not  in  the  same 
plane  with  the  movement  of  Sirius,  so  that  the  rate  of  difference  in 
the  rising  is  not  constant.  The  uncertainty  in  these  calculations  as 
to  dates  about  the  time  of  the  18th  dynasty  amounts  to  some  200 
years,  and  calculations  of  the  sun's  position  have  also  been  mistaken 
(see  Aries).  Dates  therefore  are  better  fixed  by  aid  of  Babylonian 
chronology  (see  Babylon),  than  by  any  calculation  of  the  difference 
between  the  Egyptian  vague  year  of  365  days  (which  was  ancient,  and, 
perhaps,  continuously  retained),  and  the  sidereal  year. — Ed.] 

By  about  the  4th  century  B.C.  the  ancient  Egyptian  cults 
admitted — at  Alexandria — the  free  thought  of  Greece,  the  teaching 
of  Grove  and  Stoa,  the  positivism  as  well  as  the  mysticism  of  Greek 
rulers.  The  later  accounts  of  Plutarch  are  tinged  with  contemporary 
foreign  colouring,  and  untrustworthy  in  consequence.    The  monuments 


16  Egypt 

and  the  ritual  alone  are  true  guides.  Agnosticism,  Theism,  Pantheism, 
invaded  Egypt  in  Greek  and  Roman  times.  The  secret  rites  of  the 
Serapeum  superseded  Osiris  by  a  foreign  god — Serapis — ^brought  firom 
Pontus.  The  Gnostiks  framed  their  systems  from  ancient  Egyptian 
and  later  Greek  or  Jewish  philosophers.  Buddhism  also  was  known, 
at  least  as  early  as  250  B.C.,  to  the  Ptolemies  (see  Buddha);  and  the 
Therapeutai  ("  healers  ")  appeared  as  ascetiks  in  Egypt  (see  Essenes), 
followed  by  Christian  hermits.  In  study  of  the  religion,  as  of  the 
history,  we  are  confused  rather  than  helped  by  Greek  accounts. 

The  date  of  Menes'  accession  is  very  variously  estimated,  according 
as  the  dynasties  are  considered  to  have  been  contemporary  or  other- 
wise. The  results  are  as  various  as  those  for  the  date  of  Adam  (see 
Bible),  the  best  known  students  being  disagreed  as  follows : — ^Dr  Birch 
gives  5895  B.C.  for  Menes,  ChampoUion  5870,  Mariette  5004,  Le* 
normant  4915,  Petrie  4777,  Lepsius  3892,  Eenouf  3000,  Wilkinson 
2691  B.C.  All  we  can  say  is  that  by  3000  B.C.,  and  perhaps  before 
5000  B.C.,  Egjrpt  was  a  country  of  settled  government  and  civilised 
manners,  recognising  the  principles  of  law  and  ethiks,  skilled  in 
metallurgy,  architecture,  art,  and  irrigation.  Brugscb  relates  how  a 
medical  work  on  leprosy  was  found  hidden  in  a  writing  case,  buried 
under  a  statue  of  Anubis  at  Sakhur,  in  the  days  of  Bameses  II ;  and 
ethikal  treatises  go  back  much  earlier  than  this.  The  dry  climate  of 
Egypt  has  preserved  for  us  mummy  cloths,  and  papyri,  some  4000 
years  old.  Compared  with  their  texts  all  writings,  save  those  of 
Babylonian  tablets,  are  but  as  of  yesterday.  Benouf  says  of  the 
Prisse  papyrus  that  it  was  wiutten  (like  Hammurabi's  laws)  "  centuries 
before  the  Hebrew  lawgiver  was  born,  by  a  writer  of  the  5th  dynasty." 
In  the  British  Museum  we  can  still  read  the  will  of  Amen-em-hat  I, 
of  the  12th  dynasty.  Works  on  religion,  history,  medicine,  with 
travels,  fiction,  and  poetry,  belong  to  the  19th  and  20th  dynasties 
(1400  to  1200  B.G.).  The  oldest  known  book  in  the  world  is  that  of 
Prince  Ptah-hotep,  belonging  to  the  reign  of  Assas  in  the  5th  dynasty. 
A  text  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford  belongs  to  the  2nd  dynasty, 
and  Dr  Isaac  Taylor  {Alphabet,  i)  says  of  the  script  that  "it  was 
even  then  an  extremely  ancient  graphic  system,  with  long  ages  of  pre- 
vious development  stretching  out,  behind  it,  into  a  distant  past  of 
almost  inconceivable  remoteness,  and  far  older  than  the  pyramids" — or 
some  7000  to  8000  years  ago  (pp.  57  to  64).  When  Plato  visited 
the  schools  and  libraries  of  Heliopolis  they  were  perhaps  at  least  2000 
years  old.  Egyptian  civilisation,  about  3000  B.C.  or  earlier,  is  considered 
to  have  been  equal  to  that  of  many  European  countries  during  the 
18th  century  of  our  era.     Go  back  as  far  as  we  may  there  is  not,  says 


Egypt  11 

Benouf,  a  *'  vestige  of  a  state  of  barbarism,  or  even  of  patriarchal  life, 
anterior  to  the  monumental  period.  The  earliest  monuments  present 
the  same  fully  devebped  civilisation,  and  the  same  religion,  as  the 
later.  The  systems  of  notation,  the  decimals,  the  calendar,  the 
political  divisions  into  nomes — each  with  its  principal  deity— piost  of 
the  gods  still  known  to  us,  certainly  all  the  great  ones ;  the  nature 
and  offices  of  the  priesthood,  all  are  as  old  as  the  pyramids.  Much  of 
the  above  belonged  to  the  1st  and  2nd  dynasties  yet  descended  to 
Christian  times."  [Deductions  of  recent  years  from  the  supposed 
discovery  of  the  tomb  of  Menes — which  is  not  generally  accepted  as 
proven — and  of  certain  Libyan  remains,  which — however  rude — may 
yet  be  contemporary  with  higher  art,  cannot  be  held  to  modify  this 
statement. — ^Ed.] 

Dr  Birch  (Introduction  to  Anct.  Hist,  of  Egypt)  says  of  Egyptian 
law :  "  Crimes  were  punished  according  to  their  enormity.  .  .  . 
Treason,  murder,  adultery,  theft,  and  the  practice  of  magic,  were  crimes 
of  the  deepest  dye,  and  punished  accordingly."  In  domestic  life  the 
Egyptian  was  attached  to  his  wife  and  children  ;  and  equality  of  the 
sexes  was  well  marked,  the  woman  appearing  as  the  equal  and  com- 
panion of  her  father,  brethren,  or  husband. 

The  NuteVf  or  **  deity,"  in  Egypt  was  the  "  mighty  one "  who 
(says  Brugsch)  is,  in  some  inscriptions,  "tlie  only  one,  and  alone; 
none  other  is  with  him.  He  is  the  One  who  has  made  all."  He  is 
"  the  One  alone  with  many  hands,"  according  to  the  Hymn  to  Amen, 
of  whom  there  is  "  no  true  image  in  any  temple."  But  like  other 
ancient  peoples  the  Egyptian  was  a  Henotheist — he  selected  Amen 
from  many  other  gods — and  by  the  time  of  the  19th  dynasty  the 
Pantheistic  stage  was  reached.  If  Amen  was  the  ''  one  "  at  Thebes, 
so  was  Ra  at  On,  or  Ptah  at  Memphis.  Vast  galleries  were  cut  in 
solid  rock  for  the  mummies  of  the  Apis  bulls.  Apis  was  the  symbol 
of  the  "  god  of  gods,"  and  symbolised  also  all  gods :  he  was  ''  the 
second  life  of  Ptah,"  as  the  goat  of  Mendes  was  the  soul  of  Osiris,  of 
Shu,  and  of  Khepra  the  creator.  To  the  philosophic  "  the  one  "  was 
Ptah,  but  the  masses  loved  the  plurality  of  solar,  lunar,  phallic,  and 
fire  symbols.  The  priestly  Pantheist  preached  in  vain  that,  as 
Renouf  says :  "  All  individual  things  are  only  the  modifications  of  the 
One  and  All — the  Eternal  and  Infinite  God-World,  and  the  universal 
force  in  Nature,  eternal  and  unchangeable  though  varied  in  form." 
Do  the  masses  among  ourselves  understand  such  truths  ?  Yet  the 
priests  inscribed  on  the  walls  of  Amen's  temple  in  the  Libyan  desert : 
"  The  Lord,  the  Supreme  One,  reveals  himself  in  all  that  is ;  and 
has  names  in  everything  from  hill  to  stream.     Each  god  assumes  his 


is  Egypt 

aspect.  He  shines  in  Ba,  Ptah,  Shu,  Ehonsu,  and  dwells  by  this 
Ammonian  shrine  " :  being  there  depicted,  as  Benouf  remarks,  **  under 
the  type  of  the  ithyphallic  god  "  {Hihbert  Led,,  p.  232).  Amen-Ra 
was  "  heaven,  earth,  fire,  water,  air,  and  whatever  is  in  the  midst  of 
them.  ...  He  is  immanent  in  all  things.  ...  He  is,  as  creator,  the 
ram  of  the  sheep,  the  god  of  the  goats,  and  the  bull  of  the  cows.  .  .  . 
He  strengthens  the  woman  in  travail,  and  gives  life  to  those  bom 
from  her"  (p.  233).  Ptah  remained  to  the  last,  ^Hhe  ithyphallic 
soul  of  the  universe " ;  and  Neith  the  good  mother.  Ra  was  the 
earliest  and  most  universal  heavenly  father — ^the  sun  who  was  Osiris 
on  earth  and  in  Hades.  Popular  beliefs  and  the  teaching  of  the  texts 
conflict,  because  they  are  beliefs  of  distinct  classes  of  Egyptians. 

There  was  in  Egypt  no  metempsychosis  (or  transmigration  of  the 
soul)  such  as  Indians  and  Greeks  taught.  The  soul  during,  or  after, 
itft  journey  in  Hades  could  assume  such  form  as  the  Osiris  of  the 
deceased  pleased,  such  as  the  hawk,  the  bull,  or  other  emblems  of 
gods  (Renouf,  Ritual  of  the  Dead,  notes  to  chap.  Ixxvii ;  Proc.  Bib, 
Arch.  Socy.,  February  1894).  By  such  changes  of  form  the  soul 
escaped  various  dangers  on  its  way  to  the  judgment  hall  of  Osiris 
(see  Amenti),  but  this  is  a  different  idea  from  that  of  successive  lives  on 
earth  as  beast,  bird,  or  man.  In  addition  to  scenes  and  texts  of  the 
Bitual,  the  tombs  contained  jewelry  and  cosmetics,  false  hair,  and 
court  dresses  for  heaven,  with  favourite  animals  such  as  dogs  and 
hawks,  showing  that  man  expected  to  live  in  the  other  world  much 
as  he  had  done  on  earth. 

The  Ritual  of  the  Dead  was  called  in  Egyptian  the  "  Per-em- 
hru,"  or  "  going  out  of  day."  The  soul  departed,  like  the  sun,  west- 
wards to  enter  Amenti  or  Hades,  and  travelled  with  the  sun  at  night 
eastwards,  under  earth,  to  meet  Osiris.  When  tried  and  justified  it 
might  enter  the  "  bark  of  Ra,"  and  float  on  the  waters  of  heaven 
with  the  sun  by  day,  being  thus  united  with  Osiris,  or  Ra,  There 
was  apparently  no  book  with  a  regular  sequence  of  chapters  of  this 
Ritual,  prior  to  the  26th,  or  last  native  dynasty,  about  600  B.C.  But 
texts  occur  in  tombs,  on  cloths,  and  on  coffins,  as  early  as  the  days  of 
Teta  (1st  dynasty),  Unas  (5th),  and  Pepi  (6th  dynasty).  They  abound 
on  sarcophagi  of  the  12th  dynasty,  but  are  not  found  on  papyri  before 
about  1600  B.C.  Renouf  finds  that,  as  early  as  the  10th  or  lltb 
dynasty,  some  texts  were  already  so  ancient  as  to  require  glosses  to 
explain  them.  He  recognises  three  periods  in  the  successive  growth 
of  the  Ritual:  (1)  previous  to  the  18th  dynasty;  (2)  the  period  of 
Theban  kings  (1700  to  1000  B.C.);  and  (3)  subsequent  additions. 
About  600  B.a  appeared  the  complete  book,  with  chapters  and  sections. 


Egypt  19 

Stero  injunctions  then  forbade  additions  or  alterations ;  but  up  to  the 
26  th  dynasty  scribes  had  been  busy  in  collecting  scattered  texts — as 
when  the  64th  chapter  was  found  in  'Hhe  temple  of  Thoth  the 
revealer/*  by  the  son  of  King  Men-ka-ra  of  the  4th  or  5th  dynasty, 
when  making  an  inventory  of  records;  or  the  130th  chapter  in  the 
temple  of  This  or  Abydos,  in  the  reign  of  Hespu  (or  Hesepti)  probably 
the  5th  king  of  the  1st  dynasty,  when  the  coffin  made  by  Horus  for 
Osiris  was  said  to  have  been  discovered.  The  inscriptions  on  the 
coffin  of  Men-ka-ra  (either  4th  king  of  4th  dynasty  or,  7th  of  the 
5thX  with  contemporary  documents,  show  the  texts  to  have  been  then 
well  known ;  and  those  on  the  coffin  of  Queen  Mentu-hotep  prove  the 
same  for  the  11th  dynasty. 

Papyri  of  the  18th  and  down  to  the  20th  dynasty  seem  to  have 
been  in  use  for  the  Ritual  down  to  1200  B.C.  The  first  queen  of  the 
21st  dynasty  had  a  nearly  perfect  copy  of  the  whole  of  the  Ritual 
texts  made  for  her  use.  Other  works,  such  as  Books  of  the  Breath  of 
Life,  and  Of  the  Lower  BeTnisphere,  were  also  sacred,  commenting  on 
the  original  Per-em-hru.  The  Turin  papyrus  copy  of  the  Ritual  used 
to  be  considered  the  best,  and  was  probably  made  in  the  5th  century 
B.C.  But  in  1883  the  British  Museum  had  secured  the  better  text 
written  by  Ani,  the  royal  scribe  in  the  time  of  the  19th  dynasty,  some 
3200  years  ago;  and  this  has  been  published  in  fac-simile  by  the 
Trustees  (see  Timea,  25th  August  1890;  Dr  Vleyte^s  Livre  des  Moris, 
1883 ;  Proc.  Bib.  Arch  Socy,,  1885  to  1904 ;  Academy,  23rd  June 
1883, 10th  September  1887,  4th  August  1888).  The  Ani  version  is 
judged  by  script,  language,  and  art  to  belong  to  the  14th  century  B.C. ; 
and  is  much  more  perfect  than  the  Harris  papyri,  only  a  few  characters 
being  missing.  It  is  76  feet  10  inches  long,  by  1  foot  3  inches  wide. 
Its  style  is  the  same  as  that  of  Hu-nefer,  written  in  the  age  of 
Seti  I,  about  1350  B.c.  M.  Naville,  after  ten  years  of  labour,  gives  a 
translation  of  the  Ritual  (Todten-Buch  der  xviii-xx  Dynastie,  1887). 
This  is  called  "the  cream  of  71  papyri,  of  sculptured  texts  of  six 
sepulchres,  and  of  the  winding  sheet  of  Thothmes  III."  From  this 
edition  came  perhaps  two-thirds  of  the  thousands  of  less  perfect  papyri, 
which  are  known,  but  are  all  faulty  in  some  degree.  The  old  edition 
of  Lepsius  gave  a  corrupt  text,  because  founded  on  specimens  of  a  late 
period.  M.  Naville  recognises  four  phases  of  the  text :  (1)  that  of 
the  ancient  or  middle  empire  in  hieroglyphics — ^as  yet  to  be  collated ; 

(2)  the  Theban  text  (17th  to  20th  dynasties),  also  in  hieroglyphics; 

(3)  the  hieratic  (or  tunning  hand),  as  used  from  the  20th  to  the  26th 
dynasty ;  (4)  the  Saite  and  Ptolemaic  text — a  revised  version  in  both 
hieroglyphs  and  hieratic  script.     M.  Naville  agrees  with  Mariette  that 


20  Hgypt 

there  were  more  ancient  books  which  were  not  included  in  the  Ritual ; 
and  he  accepts  the  great  age  of  the  64th  and  130th  chapters  above 
noticed. 

Ani,  the  author  of  the  new  text,  calls  himself  **  Scribe  of  the 
sacred  revenues  of  all  the  Theban  gods,  and  guardian  of  the  granaries 
of  Abydos.''  A  picture  shows  him  standing  with  his  wife  before  a 
table  of  offerings,  with  a  hymn  to  the  sun-god  which  he  is  supposed 
to  be  chanting.  This  pictorial  introduction  exhibits  the  teaching  of 
the  Kitual  as  to  the  future  of  the  dead.  The  second  picture  shows  the 
adoration,  at  sunrise,  of  the  dog-headed  apes — spirits  of  dawn,  with 
invocation  of  Osiris  as  "  King  of  Kings,  and  Lord  of  Lords,  Ruler  of 
Bulers,  who  from  the  womb  of  Nut  (the  sky)  hast  inherited  the  whole 
earth,  and  ruled  the  world  and  the  under  world."  Then  comes  the 
weighing  of  the  heart  (see  Amenti)  :  "  there  is  no  iniquity  in  him  :  he 
is  not  one  who  cut  down  the  bread  in  the  temples,  he  was  not  sordid 
in  his  actions,  he  is  not  one  who  set  speech  going  against  others  as 
long  as  he  was  on  earth."  He  is  therefore  permitted  to  join  the 
followers  of  Horus,  with  a  permanent  allotment  of  food ;  the  "Devourer" 
not  being  allowed  to  prevail  over  him.  He  is  led  by  Horus  to  Osiris, 
and  passes  on  to  enjoy  a  renewed  existence  "  as  on  earth."  He  may 
assume  any  form  he  pleases,  may  join  the  gods,  or  may  be  assimilated 
to  Osiris.  The  next  scene  is  the  burial  of  the  mummy,  surrounded  by 
priests,  and  the  widow,  with  a  group  of  mourning  women ;  and  the 
reception  of  the  same  by  Anubis  as  god  of  the  tomb.  Afterwards  we 
see  Ani'in  the  other  world,  playing  draughts  with  his  wife  in  a  bower, 
while  their  souls  stand  by  as  human-headed  birds.  The  lion  gods  of 
*'  yesterday  and  to-day/'  and  the  Bennu  bird,  stand  between  them  and 
the  bier  guarded  by  Isis  and  Nephthys  (dawn  and  eve)  as  two  vultures. 
Other  scenes  represent  the  "  gates  of  the  tomb,"  the  meeting  of  Ba 
and  Osiris  in  Tattu,  the  sun-god  Mau  (the  cat)  beheading  the  serpent 
of  darkness,  the  sun-boat,  the  seven  gates  and  ten  pylons  of  Amenti, 
the  "opening  of  the  mouth"  of  the  deceased  giving  him  words  of 
power.  Short  chapters  deal  with  "  not  dying  the  second  death,"  "  not 
.turning  to  corruption,"  "  reuniting  the  soul  to  the  dead  body,"  "  living 
after  death,"  transformations  into  a  dove,  a  hawk,  a  good  serpent  Seta, 
a  crocodile ;  or  into  Ptah,  and  the  soul  of  Tmu  ;  into  a  heron,  a  coot, 
a  lotus,  a  "  god  enlightening  the  darkness."  Finally,  we  find  the  soul 
in  the  "  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death,"  crying,  '*  what  is  this  place  to 
which  I  have  journeyed  ?  For  it  is  without  water  and  without  air ! 
It  is  all  abyss,  utter  darkness,  sheer  perplexity"  (see  Times,  25th 
August  1890.     The  complete  translation  was  issued  in  1895). 

The  Bitual  shows  us  that  the  Egyptian  standard  of  morality  was 


Egypt  n 

very  high.  "  Not  one  of  the  Ofaristian  virtues,"  writes  Chabas,  "  is 
forgotten  in  the  Egyptian  code  :  piety,  charity,  gentleness,  self-com- 
mand in  word  and  .action ;  chastity,  the  protection  of  the  weak, 
benevolence  towards  the  needy,  deference  to  superiors,  respect  for 
property,  in  its  minutest  details."  The  Ritual  includes  15  Books,, 
divided  into  chapters,  each  headed  by  some  illustration  of  the  contents* 
These  may  be  briefly  described. 

Book  I.  *'  The  Manifestation  of  Light,"  in  16  chapters,  opens  with 
the  *•  Wisdom  of  Thoth,"  the  inspiration  by  Osiris  of  the  "  Osiris "  of 
the  de»ad  man.  We  see  Hades  (Amenti)  with  the  ploughers  and 
powers  of  the  fields  of  Aalu,  and  men  drawing  water,  and  transporting 
the  "  divine  gifts,  in  the  abodes  of  the  blessed." 

Book  IL  "The  Egyptian  Faith" — chapters  17  to  20.  It  treats 
of  mystic  matters,  and  of  all  the  startling  phenomena  of  the  sky.  The 
writer  saw  strange  forms  in  the  constellations — as  of  ^  seven  spirits 
of  God,  Osiris,  his  coffin,  his  throne,"  etc. 

Book  III.  "The  Reconstruction  of  the  Deceased" — chapters  21 
to  26.  It  allegorises  the  various  bodily  members  of  Osiris  and  Isis, 
and  the  renewed  creation  of  all  things  by  the  sun. 

Book  IV.  "  The  Preservation  of  the  body  in  Hades  "—chapters 
27  to  42.      It  describes  the  soul  fighting  its  way  through  Had^es. 

Book  V.  "Protection  in  Hades" — chapters  43  to  51.  This 
continues  the  story  of  the  soul's  journey,  till  it  sees  Osiris  and  cries 
triumphantly  :  ''  I  am  thy  son,  O  Osiris,  and  I  die  not  again.  I  have 
escaped  the  second  death."     (Revelat.  ii,  11). 

Book  VI.  "The  Celestial  Diet" — chapters  52  to  63.  The  Osiris 
of  the  deceased  is  "  built  up  to  live  forever,  and  be  one  with  the  eternal 
Lord  of  Ages." 

Book  VII.  Chapters  64  to  75.  The  progress  of  the  soul,  its 
trials,  and  egress  from  darkness  into  light  It  is  said  to  "  Come  forth 
like  the  sun,  and  live  forever  ...  to  be  the  greatest  of  created  forms, 
which  has  opened  the  doors  of  heaven  and  earth  ...  and  now  sees 
his  father  face  to  face."  .   . 

Book  VIII.  "The  Metamorphoses" — chapters  76  to  90.  The 
^ul  (as  above  noted)  takes  various  forms,  suitable  for  progress  in  its 
purification.  It  seeks  to  become  "  pure  as  the  sun,  incorruptible, 
UDdefiled,  and  separated  from  sin."  Thus  (chapter  85)  it  exclaims, 
"I  am  the  Sun  .  .  .  my  soul  is  God.  I  create  perception.  I  am 
the  Lord  of  Truth,  and  dwell  in  it.  Osiris  loved  and  made  me  as  I 
am,  and  though  created  I  rule  eternity,  and  have  no  end." 

Book  IX.  "Protection  of  the  Soul  " — chapters  91  to  117.  The 
soul  is  seen  in  the  sun-boat,  emerging  from  Hades  into  space,  "the 


22  Bgypt 

alxkle  of  Osiris."  This  Elysium  is  a  world  like  this  one,  but  better. 
It  is  a  land  where  com  and  wine  abound,  where  wheat  and  barley 
grow  7  cubits  high,  with  ears  2  to  4  cubits  long.  '*  It  is  reaped  by 
the  glorified  ones  in  presence  of  the  Powers  of  the  East"  Chapter  9 1 
is  repeated  in  chapter  108. 

Book  X.  "The  going  into  and  out  of  Hades" — chapters  118  to 
124.  The  soul  is  bom  again  in  a  spiritual  resurrection.  It  goes 
into  Hades  as  a  hawk,  and  comes  out  as  a  Bennu — ^a  solar  bird  or 
Phoenix. 

Book  XI.  "The  Hall  of  the  Two  Truths"— chapter  125.  The 
soul  pleads  before  the  judges,  and  cries :  "  O  thou  great  Lord  God  of 
Truth  I  know  thee,  and  the  forty-two  gods  around  thy  throne ;  and 
I  am  here  to  receive  thy  blessings."  Each  of  the  42  personifies  a 
virtue,,  a  moral  law,  or  attribute  ;  and  if,  in  naming  each,  the  soul  can 
claim  obedience  to  it,  it  is  fully  justified,  and  is  thenceforth  called  the 
Osiris  of  the  deceased.  The  Hall  itself  personifies  Truth  and  Justice — 
punishment  and  acquittal.  Ever  since  the  soul  entered  the  sun-bark 
it  is  said  "  to  have  fed  on  Truth,  and  delighted  in  all  that  the  gods 
desire,  and  that  good  men  have  said." 

Book  XII.  "  Adoration  of  the  Gods  of  the  Orbit " — chapters  126 
to  129.  Mysterious  addresses  to  the  gods  accompanying  Osiris  to 
heaven. 

Book  XIII.  "The  Day  of  Osiris" — chapters  130  to  143.  The 
sun's  course,  from  birth  to  death,  corresponding  to  that  of  the  soul 
from  birth  to  glorification,  when  its  aspirations  are  all  attained,  and  it 
is  one  with  God,  and  can  come  and  go  as  it  pleases. 

Book  XIV.  "The  House  of  Osiris" — chapters  144  to  161, 
The  house  has  21  halls  and  gates,  each  with  its  guardian,  symbolising 
the  attributes  of  Osiris.  This  was  the  most  popular,  if  not  the  most 
important,  book  of  the  Ritual,  laying  down  rules  for  the  temple — that 
is  the  body.  It  is  here  written  that :  "  None  but  the  king  or  the 
priest  may  see  this  book  ...  no  such  other  is  known  anywhere,  nor 
will  be  forever.  .  .  .  The  spirit  for  whom  it  is  made  has  prevailed 
forever  .  .  .  none  may  add  to  its  words."  This  book  orders  the 
making  of  the  tomb,  in  which  "  the  body  shall  lie  incorrupt,  and 
produce  no  forms  that  live  and  die."  It  is  to  be  preserved  like 
Osiris,  '*  who  knew  no  decay."  At  the  portal  of  the  tomb  the  Osiris 
cries :  "  I  am,  I  live,  I  grow,  I  wake  in  peace ;  my  substance  knows 
no  decay ;  it  is  not  dispersed  ;  it  neither  wastes  nor  dies  in  that 
land,"  He  goes  on  (chapter  154)  to  say  that  he  will  enjoy  ever- 
lasting life,  because  his  father  Osiris  rose  from  death  to  be  the  king 
of  immortality. 


J 


Egypt 


23 


.  Book  XV.  The  "Orientation" — chapters  162-3.  Mystical  passages 
concerning  Amen-Ra.     The  book  ends  with  the  words  "  it  is  ended/* 

The  priestly  scribe  Hu,  about  1650  B.G.,  says :  "Thou  shalt  not 
recite  the  book  of  Un-nefer  ('  the  good  god ')  in  the  presence  of  any 
person."  This  prohibition  is  still  stronger  under  the  19th  dynasty. 
This  book  is  a  great  mystery,  to  be  revealed  by  the  priest  only  to  his 
son  (see  Dr  Budge's  "  Facsimiles  of  Papyri  of  Hu-nefer,"  Athenceum^ 
16th  September  1899).  Thus  the  mysteries  were  in  later  times  kept 
secret,  as  we  gather  also  from  Herodotos.  But,  in  spite  of  the  usually 
expressed  Egyptian  belief  in  a  future  life.  Agnosticism  is  found  as 
early  as  the  17th  century  B.C.  (see  Dr  W.  Max  Mtiller,  "Translat. 
Harris  Papyrus,"  Egtn.  Arch.  Report,  1898-9);  and  death  is  "treated 
from  an  Agnostik  point  of  view,  alike  in  Theban  tombs,  and  in  other 
writings  " — including  even  the  Ritual. 

The  leading  facts  of  Egyptian  history  may  be  briefly  stated, 
adopting  the  moderate  chronology  of  Mariette.  [This  chronology  is 
based  on  the  numerals  given  by  Manetho,  and  regards  all  dynasties 
as  successive,  except  the  15th,  16th,  and  l7th,  which  are  made 
contemporary  with  each  other.  Mariette  and  Brugsch  agree  in  a 
date  about  1700  B.C.,  for  the  foundation  of  the  18th  dynasty,  and 
this  fits  with  Babylonian  dates.  If,  however,  the  four  foreign  dynasties 
were  (as  seems  indicated  by  a  text  of  Bameses  III),  contemporary  with 
the  13th  dynasty  ruling  Upper  Egypt,  and  if  the  dynasties  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Egypt  were  parallel  down  to  the  rise  of  the  great  conquering 
18th  dynasty,  we  should  obtain  the  following  results  from  the  numbers 
given  by  Manetho  : — 


Lotver 

Egypt 

B,C. 

Upper 

Egypt 

B.C. 

3rd  dyn.  lasted  214  years  3128 

Ist  dyn.  lasted  263  years  3139 

■  4th 

274     „ 

,     2914 

2nd 

302     ,.      2876 

6th 

200     „ 

,     2640 

5th 

218     „     2574 

1th 

0       „ 

,     2440 

nth 

43     „     2356 

8th 

146     „ 

,     2440 

12th 

160     „     2313 

9th       .  „ 

409     „ 

,      2294 

13th 

453     „     2153 

10th 

185     „ 

1885 

(Both  lines  end  1700  B.C.) 

The  kings  of  both  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  reigning  before 
1700  B.C.,  thus  go  back  to  about  3000  B.C.  (Renoufs  date  for  the 
first  pyramids) ;  and  the  Abydos  list  not  only  omits  the  four  foreign, 
or  Hyksos,  dynasties  (14th  to  17th),  but  even  seems  to  ignore  the 
weak  13th  dynasty.  It  gives  75  kings  before  1400  B.C.,  who  may 
have  occupied  1000  years,  to  which  some  500  should  be  added  for 


S4  Egypt 

the  Hyksos  period,  which  again  brings  us  very  near  to  3000  kaas 
the  date  for  Menes  at  Abydos,  and  Nicherophes  in  Memphis.  All 
dates,  however,  lire  speculative  before  the  1 8th  dynasty,  and  even  then 
only  approximate. — Ed.] 

let  dynasty,  at  This  {Kharabdt-d'Madfilneh,  "ruins  of  the 
buried,"  Abydos)  say  5000  down  to  4750  B.c.  The  Ritual  dates 
back  (chapter  130)  to  Hesepti  the  5th  king.  The  slate  carvings, 
mentioned  above,  are  believed  to  be  of  this  dynasty.  The  great 
stepped  pyramid  of  Sakkara  is  attributed  to  the  4th  king.  It  is 
more  roughly  oriented  than  those  of  the  3rd  and  6th  dynasties^ 
There  are  Nubian  pyramids  139  in  number  which,  if  representing 
139  successive  monarchs,  might  cover  some  3000  years  (see  CStm« 
Umpy.  Review,  Sept.  1881 ;  and  Bonwick's  Pyramids,  p.  95). 
Lepsius  found  GO  royal  tombs  of  the  1st  dynasty,  as  old  as  the 
pyramids.  Metallurgy,  and  some  elements  of  mathematics,  must  have 
been  known  to  the  first  pyramid  builders.  Rude  surgical  implements, 
of  flint,  existed  in  the  time  of  Teta  the  second  king,  according  to  the 
Berlin  papyri.  The  5th  king  built  the  pyramids  of  Kochome,  it 
is  said. 

27id  dynasty,  at  This  :  about  4750  down  to  4450  B.O.  Kaka, 
the  second  king,  appears  to  have  worshiped  the  Apis  of  Memphis 
(Mnevis),  and  the  ram  (Ba-en-tattu)  of  Heliopolis.  Nefer-ra-ra,  the 
7th  king,  built  the  Meidun  pyramid,  between  Cairo  and  Beni  Sueif. 
Dr  Birch  (Rede  Led.,  1874)  held  that  Senat  was  the  1st  king,  and 
his  monument  the  oldest  known. 

8rd  dynasty,  at  Memphis  in  Lower  Egypt:  say  4450  to 
4235  8.0.  The  treatise  of  Ptah-hotep  claims  to  be  of  this  age,  but 
the  copies  belong  to  the  5th  and  12th  dynasties.  The  author  says 
he  was  110  years  old  when  he  wrote  it — which  we  may  doubt  It 
inculcates  morality,  and  speaks  of  God  in  the  singular  as  judge  of  all 
The  second  king  is  said  to  have  written  on  surgery,  and  to  have 
performed  lithotomy  :  he  was  deified  as  a  son  of  Ftah.  The  national 
type  in  this  age,  according  to  Prof.  Owen,  and  Dr  Birch,  was  more 
like  the  European  than  either  the  African  or  the  Semitic  (see  Rede 
Lect,  1876  ;  Tran^.  Oriental  Congress,  1874).  Mr  S.  L.  Poole  says 
that  "  in  architecture,  and  reliefs,"  the  results  are  immature,  but  in 
other  respects  the  art  is  equal  to  that  of  later  ages. 

4th  dynasty,  at  Memphis:  say  4235  down  to  3950  B.C.  The 
3rd  king  (Khafira  or  Cheops)  built  the  great  pyramid ;  and  the  4th 
king  (Men-ka-ra)  built  the  third.  His  coffin  is  in  the  British  Musseum^ 
showing  that  he  adored  Uasir  (Osiris)  as  "  the  Eternal  One,  ruler  of 
the  ages,  the  bull,  the  sun."     Papyri,  both  rolled  and  folded,  belong 


Egypt  23 

to  this  age ;  and  in  a  medical  treatise  we  have  (says  Mr  Poole)  ''  pre- 
scriptions of  foreign  physicians  .  .  .  another  indication  of  relations 
with  civilised  countries"  (Contemporary  Review^  September  1881). 
The  usual  implements  of  ancient  scribes  are  also  thus  early  mentioned. 
The  Meidun  tombs  belong  to  the  beginning  of  the  dynasty  ;  many 
were:  found  intact  (Dr  F.  Petrie,  Oriental  Congrats,  September  1891)  : 
some  of  the  pictures  occupied  an  area  of  1200  square  feet.  The 
skeletons  are  complete,  lying  on  the  left  side  with  the  knees  drawn 
up  to  the  trunk,  though  the  coffins  are  equal  to  the  whole  length  of 
the  body,  and  with  the  heads  to  the  north  (see  Dead). 

bth  dynasty^  at  Memphis  (or  at  Elephanta) :  say  3950  to  3700 
B.C.  The  Turin  copy  of  the  Ritual  belonged  to  this  age,  with  various 
proverbial  treatises.  *'A  change  in  (racial)  type  now  took  place/' 
according  to  Dr  Virchow  (Geog.  Soc.,  Berlin,  November  1888).  The 
skulls  are  long,  like  those  of  modern  Egyptian  peasants,  whereas  those 
of  the  first  four  dynasties  are  round,  suggesting  a  Turanian  race.  The 
wall  pictures  show  us  a  jovial  nation,  rejoicing  in  field  sports,  and  not 
fearing  death.  Professor  Ebers,  and  others,  believe  that  a  canal  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  Red  Sea  was  begun  at  this  time,  though  not 
completed  till  a  later  age — 1400  B.C.  Treatises  of  this  and  the  next 
dynasty  suggest  a  high  civilisation  (Academy,  8th  September  1900), 
as  the  passage  that  follows  shows :  ''  As  to  thy  conduct  in  debate : 
If  the  disputant  wax  warm,  and  is  thy  superior  in  ability,  lower  thine 
hands,  bend  the  back,  and  do  not  be  passionate,  or  interrupt  him,  for 
this  shows  that  thou  art  unable  to  be  tranquil  when  contradicted.  If 
thou  carry  messages  from  one  great  man  to  another,  conform  thyself 
exactly  to  what  has  been  entrusted  to  thee.  .  .  .  Whoso  perverts  his 
message,  by  repeating  only  what  may  be  pleasing  to  any  man,  great  or 
small,  is  detestable.  .  .  .  The  great  man  who  has  plenty  can  do  as 
pleases  himself.  ...  To  order  thyself  humbly  before  thy  betters  is  not 
only  wisdom  but  &  religious  duty,  and  good  before  Ood.  It  is  the  duty 
of  a  master  to  see  that  his  servant  knows  what  is  to  be  done,  and  does 
it.  Give  orders  without  reserve  to  those  who  do  wrong  and  are  turbu- 
lent. They  will  not  then  deviate  from  the  right  path.  Lose  not  thy 
temper  ;  this  is  a  supreme  duty.  Anger  is  a  fatal  malady,  leading 
to  discord  and  entanglements.  It  is  fatal  to  a  judge :  for  he  must 
encourage  witnesses,  and  pleaders,  and  petitioners,  advising  them,  and 
listening  with  kind  looks.  The  good  man  must  be  able  to  plead  before 
bis  God  that  he  has  given  food  to  the  hungry,  water  to  the  thirsty, 
clothes  to  the  naked,  a  boat  to  the  shipwrecked  :  that  he  has  not 
illtreat^d  slaves,  nor  defrauded  the  oppressed,  nor  caused  any  one 
pain :   that    he  has  neither  committed   nor  ordered   a   murder,  nor 


26  Egypt 

harmed  even  animals;  has  not  wrought  fornication,  nor  borne  false 
witness,  nor  trespassed  on  the  lands  of  any  ;  nor  has  been  a  tale 
bearer:  that  he  has  lied  to  no  man,  nor  upheld  a  lie  against  the 
truth.  For  he  knows  that  Ood  punishes  the  liar  and  deceiver."  This 
is  a  higher  code  than  that  of  patriarchs  like  Jacob. 

6th  dynasty,  at  Elephanta  (Assouan),  and  at  Memphis:  saj 
3700  to  3500  B.C.  An  important  family,  which  seems  to  have  ruled 
all  over  Egypt,  at  least  in  some  reigns.  It  announces  in  its  texts  that 
"  all  priestly  establishments  "  of  the  early  pyramid  period  **  are  to  he 
duly  maintained."  The  Ritual  in  this  age  is  mingled  with  other 
prayers  on  the  coffins.  "  They  are  similar  in  characters  to  those  of 
the  pyramid  of  Pepi  (or  Ra-meri)  of  this  dynasty  "  (Proc,  Bib.  Arch. 
Socy.,  May  1881).  There  are  constant  allusions  to  the  myth  of  Osiris, 
and  to  Nut,  Horus,  and  Seb :  to  Set,  Sothis,  and  even  to  Amen. 
Mariette  found  a  memoir  by  Una,  a  great  prime  minister  of  this 
age — a  royal  secretary  for  war  and  public  works  alike.  He  describes 
his  services  from  youth  to  old  age,  under  the  first  three  kings  (Teta  III» 
Pepi  I,  and  Mer-en-ra).  The  country  was  invaded,  and  all — including 
the  priests — were  bidden  to  defend  it :  while  friendly  negro  tribes  were 
to  send  contingents.  Una  says  that  he  defeated  the  **  people  of  tbe 
sands,"  and  of  the  neighbouring  sea  coasts.  Negroes  are  here  first 
mentioned  in  writing,  but  are  represented  on  the  1st  dynasty  slates. 
Negro  slaves,  and  boatmen,  and  galleys,  are  noticed  supplying  Egypt 
with  wood,  for  ships  and  camps,  which  came  apparently  from  forests 
on  the  Atbara  River.  Una  was  governor  of  Upper  Egypt,  and  is 
mentioned  in  texts  on  five  pyramids.  The  dynasty  ended  with  Queen 
Nefer-ka-ra  (Nitocris),  the  heroine  of  many  legends.  She  enlarged 
the  third  pyramid  (4th  dynasty)  as  a  tomb  for  herself,  casing  it  with 
red  granite  from  Sy6ne,  and  naming  it  "  the  superior."  Dr  Birch 
regards  the  6th  dynasty  as  the  actual  last  age  of  the  Old  Empire. 
But  we  have  a  pyramid  as  late  as  the  12th  dynasty. 

7th  dynusty,  at  Memphis  (say  3500  B.C.),  consisted  of  70  kings 
ruling  for  only  70  days,  according  to  Manetho;  but  others  give  it 
5  kings  ruling  for  70  years.  We  have  little  information  as 
to  the  period  (3500  to  3010)  of  the  7th  and  down  to  the  11th 
dynasty. 

8th  dynasty,  at  Memphis:  say  3500  to  3350  b.c.  Dr  Birch 
says  :  "  After  the  6th  dynasty  a  monumental  silence  announces  a 
national  calamity.  No  tomb,  nor  pyramid,  nor  contemporary  inscrip- 
tion details  its  fate,  or  links  it  to  its  successors  of  the  11th  dynasty" 
(Sede  Lect,  1874).  Some  doubts  exist  as  to  this  family.  [If  they 
were   contemporary  in  lower  Egypt  with  the  great  12  th  dynasty  of 


Egypt  27 

Thebes,  which  dominated  the  whole  country,  this  silence  might  be 
understood  perhaps. — Ed.] 

9th  dynaMy,  at  Heracleopolis  (Ai^Tiae'el'Medmeh  in  Lower 
Egypt).:  say  3350  to  3240  B.c.  These  kings  also  are  monumentally 
obscure. 

lO^A  dynasty,  at  Heracleopolis:  say  3240  to  3050  B.c.  They 
were  apparently  also  quiet  rulers,  in  the  Nile  valley,  or  Delta. 

lltJi  dynasty^  at  Thebes:  say  3050  to  3010  B.c.  Manetho 
gives  no  names  of  these  kings,  any  more  than  for  the  four  preceding 
dynasties. 

12th  dynasty,  at  Thebes,  in  Upper  Egypt:  say  3010  to  2850 
B.C.  This  was  a  powerful  family,  of  whom  we  know  much.  They 
worked  the  Sinaitic  copper  and  blue-stone  mines ;  and  appear  to  have 
held  Oezer  in  Philistia,  according  to  scarabs  there  excavated.  Texts 
of  Usertesen  I  (the  2nd  king),  occur  at  Wady  el  Magharah  (**  cave 
valley "),  and  Sarbut-el-Khadim  ("  servant's  stone "),  in  Sinai ;  and 
Amen-em-hat  II  (the  3rd  king),  raised  a  temple  at  the  latter  site. 
The  story  of  Saneha  begins  in  the  reign  of  Usertesen  I  (Proc.  Bib. 
Arch.  Socy.,  xiv,  pp.  452-458,  in  1891  ;  Rec.  of  Fast,  New  Series, 
ii,  p.  19).  Saneha  fled  from  Usertesen  to  Edom,  and  to  shore  lands 
far  north,  beyond  the  limits  of  Egyptian  influence ;  telling  a  foreign 
ruler,  Ammiansi,  that  the  Pharoah  "  did  not  covet  the  lands  of  the 
north."  Lake  j\loeris  and  the  Labyrinth  were  constructed  in  this 
age.  The  obelisk  of  On  (Heliopolis),  and  the  tombs  of  Beni-Hasan, 
are  of  the  same  period.  Amen-em-hat  I,  founder  of  the  dynasty,  is 
said  to  have  appeared  in  a  dream  to  his  son  Usertesen,  giving  him 
good  council.  It  was  apparently  a  golden  age  of  Egyptian  prosperity, 
before  the  invasion  of  the  Delta  by  mixed  Mongol  and  Semitic  tribes 
from  Syria.  The  vision  (of  fvhich  six  texts  are  known),  urges  the 
monarch  to  mix  with  his  people,  and  not  merely  with  his  nobles ; 
the  glory  of  a  king  is  to  defend  the  weak  and  poor  (see  Mr  S.  L. 
Poole,  Contemp,  Review,  Feb.  1879).  The  will  of  Amen-em-hat  I 
is  in  the  British  Museum.  The  regulation  of  frontiers,  and  relations 
with  Asiatics,  are  evidenced  by  pictures  (see  fieni-Hasan).  The 
Labyrinth,  with  its  3000  chambens — serving  perhaps  as  public  quar* 
ters — was  kept  in  repair  henceforth  down  to  the  4th  century  B.c. 
Pliny  regards  it  as  the  parent  of  the  Labyrinth  of  Krete.  Dorians 
and  lonians  probably  borrowed  their  architectural  style  from  the 
monuments  and  pillars  of  this  age.  Some  parts  of  the  ritual  appear 
for  the  first  time  on  the  monuments  of  the  12th  dynasty.  The  oasis 
of  the  Feiyum  was  filled  by  Amen-em-hat  III  (the  6th  king),  by 
means  of  a  canal  dug  for  70  miles  from  the  Nile.      It  became  Lake 


28  Egypt 

Moeris,  which  covered  150  square  miles  in  area.  A  secondary  lake 
was  made  by  another  channel,  running  N.W.  to  El-!K^rn  ("the  bom"). 
Ouages  were  set  up  on  the  Nile  at  the  2nd  cataract  (Semneh)  in 
Nubia.  Here  Usertesen  III  (the  5th  king),  was  worshiped.  The 
obelisk  of  On  raised  by  Usertesen  I  (the  2nd  king),  was  described  by 
Strabo,  and  stands  in  the  ruins  of  the  old  sun  temple,  with  its  legend : 
"  The  Hor  of  the  Sun :  the  life  of  those  who  are  born,  ,  ,  .  The  son 
of  the  sun-god,  Ra  Usertesen,  friend  of  the  spirits  of  On.  The  ever- 
living  golden  Hor,  the  good  god  and  dispenser  of  life  for  ever  more/' 

13^/^  dynasty,  at  Thebes:  say  2850  to  2400  ac  Manetho 
gives  no  names  of  this  dynasty,  and  the  Abydos  list  seems  to  ignore 
it.  Lenormant  considered  that  the  14th  dynasty  was  contemporary 
with  the  13th.  [A  text  of  Rameses  III  refers  to  a  king  of  the  south, 
Soknunra,  as  contemporary  with  Apepi,  the  last  king  of  the  loth 
dynasty.  Probably  the  13  th  dynasty  was  confined  to  Thebes  by  the 
foreign  princes  of  the  Delta,  the  Hyksos  and  others ;  it  lasted,  says 
Manetho,  453  years,  while  the  Hyksos  age  lasted  some  500  years  in 
all. — Eo.]  A  king  Sebek-hotep  (worshiping  the  crocodile)  is  noticed 
at  Tanis  (Zoan  in  the  Delta),  and  is  attributed  to  the  13th  dynasty. 
Nefer-hotep  is  called  the  22nd  king  in  the  Turin  papyrus,  and  he 
records  at  Philae  that  "  Anka  was  the  giver  of  my  life."  The  Delta 
was  now  half  Asiatic,  and  the  Theban  kings  lost  power. 

14th  dynasty,  at  Xois  (Sakha):  say  2400  to  2200  B.C.  The 
Turanian  fondness  for  confederacies  of  tribes  instead  of  kingdoms  (seen 
also  among  Hittites  and  Etniskans),  appears  to  suggest  several  small 
provincial  chiefs,  ruling  at  the  same  time  in  various  Egyptian  nomes. 
The  Hyksos  (15th  dynasty)  seem  never  to  have  assumed,  the  crowns 
of  either  Upper  or  Lower  Egypt.  The  14th  dynasty  was  probably 
contemporary  with  them,  ruling  for  either  184  or  484  years,  accord- 
ing to  two  statements  in  Manetho,  who  gives  no  names. 

16^A,  lUh,  nth  dynasties.  In  the  Delta:  say  2200  to  1700 
B.C.  These  were  foreign  Asiatics,  at  a  time  when  the  1st  dynasty  of 
Babylon  was  invading  Syria  (see  Babylon).  The  15th  dynasty  were 
Hyksos  (Hyk-shasu,  "Nomad  Rulers,''  according  to  Brugsch),  and 
ruled,  says  Manetho,  for  284  years :  he  gives  the  names  of  six  kings, 
the  last  being  Apophis  (Apepi),  whose  capital  was  at  Zoan  or  Tanis 
(San),  where  his  name  is  found  (see  Hyksos).  The  l7th  dynasty  were 
also  "shepherds,"  ruling  for  151  years,  so  that  the  total  shepherd 
period  was  435  years.  The  16th  dynasty  are  called  "Greek  shep- 
herds," ruling  518  years  (perhaps  at  Naucratis).  Nothing  is  known 
of  them  monumentally.  The  sphynxes  found  at  Tanis  were  supposed 
to  be  the  work  of  the   Hyksos,  but  later  scholars  say   that  Apepi 


Egypt  29 

scratched  his  name  on  native  Egyptian  sculptures.  The  sphynz  was, 
however,  both  a  Hittite  and  a  Babylonian  emblem.  Apepi  (according 
to  Barneses  III)  worshiped  no  Egyptian  god,  but  was  devoted  to 
Sutekh  (or  Set,  according  to  Cbabas),  who  was  the  Hittite  chief  deity. 
The  Hyksos  called  themselves  Min  (Brugsch,  Hist.  JEgt,,  i,  p.  234), 
coming  from  a  country  east  of  Syria,  and  near  Assyria.  They  appear 
therefore  to  have  been  Minni,  or  Minyans,  from  near  Lake  Van ;  and 
the  Minyans  of  this  region  (Matiene  or  Mitanni),  in  the  15th  century 
B.C.,  spoke  a  Turanian  language,  being  apparently  of  the  same  stock 
with  the  Kassites  of  Babylon  and  the  Hittites,  which  agrees  with  the 
worship  of  Sutekh.  [Between  the  12th  and  18th  dynasties  also,  foreign 
pottery,  like  that  found  in  Palestine,  Kappadokia,  and  on  the  shores  of 
the  iEgean  Sea,  appears  in  Egypt,  and  is  marked  with  emblems  of  the 
"  Asianic  syllabary  "  which  was  used  by  Hittites,  Karians,  Kretans,  and 
Kuprians.  These  emblems  also  recur  in  the  lower  strata  of  the 
excavations  at  Lachish  and  Oezer  in  Philistia,  indicating  the  probable 
derivation  of  this  pottery  during  the  Hyksos  age.  The  Hyksos  names 
of  kings  given  by  Manetho  are  not  Egyptian,  and  after  their  time 
Semitic  and  Akkadian  loan  words  appear,  in  great  numbers,  in  the 
Egyptian  vocabulary. — ^Ed.] 

ISth  dyvasty,  at  Thebes:  about  1700  down  to  1400  b.c.  The 
founder  of  this  great  conquering  dynasty  was  Ah-mes  ("son  of  the 
moon  "),  who  first  drove  the  Nubians  from  Wady  Haifa,  and  afterwards 
expelled  the  foreigners  from  the  Delta.  He  then  undertook  public 
works,  <as  recorded  by  his  favourite  admiral  and  general  Ah-raes,  son 
of  Abna.  Egyptian  war  vessels  now  appeared  on  the  Nile,  with 
chariots  drawn  by  horses  (previously,  it  seems,  unknown  to  the 
Egyptians,  but  already  used  in  Asia).  White  stone  was  quarried  to 
repair  the  temples  of  Amen  at  Thebes,  and  of  Ptah  at  Memphis. 
Ahmes  was  succeeded,  about  1670,  by  his  son  Amenophis  I  (Amen- 
hotep),  whose  throne  name  was  Tser-ka-ra.  He  conquered  in  the 
south,  and  enlarged  the  great  Karnak  temple  of  Thebes.  About 
1660  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Thothmes  I  ("child  of  Thoth  "), 
under  whom,  for  the  first  time,  Egyptian  armies  overran  Syria  and 
entered  Mesopotamia,  where  the  2nd  dynasty  of  Babylon  was  appar- 
ently far  less  powerful  than  the  first  had  been.  He  also  added  Nubia, 
^  far  as  Dongola  to  his  empire  on  the  south.  His  eldest  son, 
Thothmes  II,  succeeded  (Nefer-shau),  but  seems  to  have  been  a  weak 
prince.  During  the  minority  of  the  next  king,  Thothmes  III,  brother 
apparently  of  Thothmes  II,  Egypt  was  ruled  by  his  able  elder  sister, 
Hatasu,  who  was  a  great  worshiper  of  Amen-Ba.  From  the  text  at 
Sarbut-el-Khadim,  in  Sinai,  it  appears  that  she  was  still  the  actual 


30  Egypt 

ruler  in  the  16th  year  of  Thothmes  III.  Including  these  16  years 
he  reigned  for  54  in  all,  and  began  his  conquests  in  Syria  in  his 
22  nd  year.  During  19  years  he  fought  15  campaigns,  and  received 
tribute  not  only  from  Palestine  and  N.  Syria,  but  also  from  Assyria 
and  Babylon,  according  to  his  own  records.  His  last  14  years  were 
apparently  peaceful,  temples  being  dedicated  in  Egypt.  Under  Hatasu 
an  expedition  was  sent  to  bring  spices  and  foreign  shrubs  from  Punl^— 
apparently  in  Abyssinia  or  Somaliland.  The  envoys  brought  back 
ebony,  apes,  leopards,  dogs,  slaves,  gold,  silver,  and  ivory.  In  the 
22nd  year  Thothmes  III  (about  1580  RC.)  defeated  Hittites  and 
Canaanites  near  Megiddo,  in  Central  Palestine,  and  returned  laden 
with  spoil.  In  subsequent  campaigns  he  reached  Damascus,  and 
marched  thence  to  Aradus  in  Phoenicia.  In  the  32nd  year  he 
attacked  Sangara  the  Hittite — probably  at  Karkemish,  where  this 
name  was  dynastic.  He  then  set  up  his  tablet  on  the  Euphrates, 
beside  that  of  Thothmes  I.  The  list  of  conquered  towns  includes  not 
only  Karkemish,  but  others  beyond  the  Euphrates.  He  hunted  a 
herd  of  120  elephants  in  this  region.  He  left  to  his  son  an  empire 
reaching  1000  miles  NT.  and  S.,  and  about  400  miles  R  and  W.  He 
was  brave  and  determined  in  war,  and  equally  great  in  peace.  [The 
names  of  the  conquered  cities  include  119  in  Palestine,  and  231 
further  north.  In  the  south  these  are  all  Semitic,  but  in  the  north 
many  of  the  town  names  survive  still  in  the  Turkish  nomenclature  of 
N.  Syria.— Ed.] 

Amenhotep  II  (Ea-aa-Khefru)  succeeded  his  famous  father.  [His 
mummy  has  been  recently  found  in  its  original  tomb,  in  the  outer 
chamber  of  which  certain  mutilated  bodies  appear  to  represent  slaves 
sacrificed  to  accompany  him  to  Hades.  See  as  to  this  practice  under 
Dead. — Ed.]  He  is  said  to  have  slain  seven  Syrian  kings,  and  to 
have  hanged  up  their  bodies  in  Egypt.  He  built  temples  also,  and 
made  his  son  priest  of  Amen.  This  son,  Thothmes  IV,  appears  to 
have  been  the  first  to  marry  an  Asiatic  wife.  His  aid  was  invoked 
(according  to  an  extant  tablet),  by  Bimmon  Nirari  (apparently  of 
Assyria),  against  the  Hittites  of  Mer'ash  in  N.  Syria.  The  great 
sphynx  was  repaired  in  his  reign,  and  an  altar  to  Har-makhis  placed 
in  a  shrine  between  its  paws.  The  chariot  of  this  king  has  also 
recently  been  discovered.  He  was  succeeded  (about  1500  B.c.)  by 
his  son  Amenophis  III,  who  ruled  for  36  years.  He  married 
Teie,  a  princess  who  seems  to  have  been  an  Asiatic,  and  a  recent 
scarab  (Proc,  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  May  1899,  p.  156),  shows  that  she 
was  already  his  queen  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign.  In  the  tenth 
year,  according  to  another  scarab  {Rec.  of  Past,  Old  Series,  xii,  p.  39) 


Egypt  3t 

he  married  Gilukhepa,  daughter  of  Suttarna,  king  of  Matiene,  or 
Armenia.  Thus,  for  three  generations,  Semitic  and  Turanian  influ- 
ence b^gan  to  reassert  itself  in  Egypt ;  for  Amenophis,  son  of  Ame- 
nophis  lU,  married  Tadukhepa,  granddaughter  of  Suttarna,  and 
daughter  of  Dusratta,  while  yet  crown  prince  (see  Amarna  and  Aten). 
Amenophis  III  (whose  crown  name  was  Neb-mat-ra,  or  NimmutriyaX 
visited  Armenia  himself  and  there  slew  102  lions.  During  his  reign, 
after  Suttarna's  death,  the  Hittites  revolted ;  and  Gebal  in  Syria,  was 
attacked  by  'AbdasbSrah,  the  Amorite  chief  of  Lebanon.  But  this 
Amorite  revolt  was  not  countenanced  by  Kuri-galzu  I  of  Babylon, 
who  refused  to  aid  the  Canaanites  ;  while  the  Hittites  were  (iefeated 
by  Dusratta  of  Matiene.  About  the  same  time,  or  later,  the  wild 
Habiri,  or  'Abiri,  overran  S.  Palestine  (see  Amarna  and  Hebrews), 
and  slew  the  rulers  of  Gezer,  Lachish,  Askalon,  and  other  cities  of 
Philistia.  Amenophis  lY  acceded  after  his  father  had  reigned  36 
years;  and  we  know  him  to  have  been  contemporary  with  fiurna* 
burias  of  Babylon — about  1440  or  1430  B.C.  He  was  the  principal 
builder  of  Tell  Amarna,  though  the  seals  and  correspondence  of  his 
predecessors  are  found  there  also.  His  throne  name  was  Nefer-Rheper- 
Ea,  or  Nabkhuriya.  He  assumed  later  the  name  Rhu-en-Aten.  In 
his  reign  certain  texts  with  the  names  of  Amen  seem  to  have  been 
mutilated  ;  but  he  is  addressed  by  the  Asiatic  princes  as  being,  like 
his  father,  a  worshiper  of  Amen  (as  well  as  of  Aten),  and  the  Ritual 
occurs  on  his  coffin.  He  was  no  doubt  influenced  by  his  Armenian 
wife,  and  his  foreign  mother,  Teie.  In  his  time  'Aziru,  son  of  'Abd- 
asherah,  revolted  aqd  captured  Semyra,  Gebal,  Beirut,  Sidon,  and 
probably  Tyre  ;  while  the  Hittites  of  ^adesh,  under  Edugama,  in- 
vaded Bashan  in  league  with  Amorites,  and  attacked  Damascus.  This 
second  revolt  may  have  been  after  the  death  of  Dusratta,  to  whom  a 
large  part  of  N.  Syria — from  Haran  to  Ralkhis  (Rinnesrin),  appears 
to  have  been  granted  under  Egyptian  suzerainty,  at  the  time  of  Tadu* 
kbepa*s  marriage  to  Amenophis  IV.  The  Hittites  of  Mer'ash  were 
still  independent  in  this  region,  and  those  of  ^sulesh  on  the  Orontes^ 
further  S.,  became  so  also  during  this  later  rebellion.  The  last-named 
kiug  of  this  famous  dynasty  was  Horus  (Hor-em-heb  :  Proc.  Bib.  ArcK 
Socy,,  March  1896),  of  whom  little  or  nothing  is  known.  His  throne 
name  was  Heri-en-Amen  ;  and  he  was  apparently  a  worshiper  of 
Amen,  Uor,  Thoth,  Rhem,  Set,  Maut,  Athor,  Anuk  and  other  native 
Egyptian  gods.  He  is  called  **  the  lion  of  the  land  of  Rush  .  .  .  like 
to  Mentu,  lord  of  Thebes."  His  wife  was  a  sister-in-law  of  Ame- 
nophis lY  ;  and  he  appears  to  have  died  about  1400  B.C.,  or  a  little 
earlier,  Egyptian  chronology  is  only  approximate  down  to  about  800  B.C, 


82  Egypt 

19th  dynasty,  at  Thebes  ;  about  1400  down  to  1200  ac.  The 
founder  Rameses  I  (Ramessu,  enthroned  as  Men-pehti-ra)  appears  to 
have  been  at  war  with  Sap-lil,  the  Hittite  king  of  l^adesh,  while  striv- 
ing to  recover  what  had,  perhaps,  been  lost  during  the  reign  of  Ameno- 
phis  IV.  He  was  succeeded  by  Meren-ptah,  or  Seti  I,  said  to  have  been 
his  son-in-law.  This  king  began  by  defeating  Asiatics  at  SbaruheD,  east 
of  Gaza,  and  fought  with  Mautenar,  the  Hittite  king  of  il^adesh  [an 
inscription  with  his  name  was  found  in  1901  at  Tell  esh  Shehab,  in 
Bashan,  by  the  Rev.  John  Kelman. — Ed.]  His  fleets  sailed  on  the 
Red  Sea,  but  we  hear  of  no  naval  exploits  in  the  Mediterranean.  He 
began  (or  continued)  a  canal  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  which  his  son  completed  ;  and  built  temples  at  Karnak,  Thebes, 
and  Abydos.  In  the  "  Valley  of  Kings "  he  excavated  the  deepest 
tomb  in  the  world  for  himself:  the  shaft  runs  900  feet  through  solid 
rock  ;  and  here  his  empty  sarcophagus — now  in  the  Sloane  Museum — 
was  found  by  Belzoni  in  1817.  The  mummy,  like  most  of  those  of 
the  18th  and  19th  dynasties,  was  transferred  later  to  the  rocky 
hiding-place  at  Deir  el  Babeiri.  This  coffin  is  covered  with  portions 
of  the  Ritual,  describing  Amenti ;  the  boat  of  Ra ;  and  the  punish- 
ment of  the  wicked  by  Tum  and  Horus.  Seti  I  calls  himself  Seti- 
meri-Ptah  ("  lover  of  Ptah  ")  ;  but,  on  the  gates  of  temples  at  Karnak 
and  elsewhere,  he  appears  as  a  worshiper  of  Amen,  Mentu,  Shu, 
Khein,  Knef,  Sati  (Set),  Tefnut,  Ank,  Maut,  and  other  gods.  His 
miners  in  the  deserts  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile  (as  shown 
by  the  stela  of  Kuban,  near  Dakg),  were  perishing  for  want  of  water, 
and  (like  Moses)  he  is  said  to  have  supplied  it :  "  He  spoke  to  the 
rock  and  the  water  flowed  forth."  A  shaft  was  dug  for  120  cubits 
(200  feet);  the  water  at  length  sprang  up  to  6  feet  above  the  ground 
(this  being  the  first  known  artesian  well) ;  and  the  people  cried : 
**  Thou  art  Ra ;  whatsoever  pleases  thy  heart  shall  happen.  If  thou 
seekest  light  in  the  night,  it  is  so.  If  thou  sayest  to  the  water  come 
up  upon  the  mountain ;  lo  1  the  ocean  will  come  forth  *'  (see  JBec.  of 
Past,  New  Series,  vol.  v).  The  tablet  of  Abydos  comes  down  to  Seti  I, 
giving  75  kings  before  him,  from  Menes  to  Nefer-ka-ra  (Nitocris)  the 
last  of  the  6th  dynasty,  followed  by  18  unknown  kings;  the  57th 
name  is  Mentu-hotep,  and  that  of  Seti's  father  immediately  precedes 
his  own.  The  list  differs,  however,  from  that  of  Sakkara.  Seti's  wife, 
Tua,  is  believed  to  have  been  a  daughter  of  Amenophis  IV.  He  had 
three  sons,  the  eldest  being  Miamun  (Rameses  II),  whom  he  is  said 
to  have  associated  with  himself  in  the  government  when  only  12 
years  old. 

The  reign  of  Rameses  II  must  have  begun  about    1330   B.c. 


Egypt  88 

He  is  Raid  in  one  text  to  have  ruled  '*  when  yet  in  the  egg " ;  and 
from  his  mummy  (with  sparse  grey  hairs)  he  appears  to  have  been  an 
old  man  when  he  died.  Manetho  states  that  he  reigued  66  years,  so 
that  his  son  would  not  succeed  till  about  1270  B.C.  His  wars  in 
Syria  carried  Egyptian  arms  north  of  ilgladesh  on  Orontes  into  the 
Hittite  country,  and  in  later  years  he  made  a  treaty  with  the  Hittite 
king  Kheta-sar  on  equal  terms.  He  made  Tanis  (the  old  Hyksos 
capital)  his  chief  city  in  Lower  Egypt,  calling  it  Fi-Ramessn  ("  capital 
of  Barneses ") ;  and  his  inscriptions  are  found  here,  and  at  Tell 
Maskhutah,  or  Pithom,  in  the  same  district 

The  city  of  Rameses  (probably  Tanis)  could  not  apparently  have 
been  so  named  before  the  commencement  of  the  19th  dynasty  at 
earliest  (see  Oen.  xlvii,  11  ;  Ex.  i,  11);  but  to  suppose  that 
Joseph  lived  in  this  age  would  cause  inextricable  confusion,  if  Israel 
dwelt  430  years  in  Egypt:  for  in  that  case  the  Exodus  would  be 
brought  down  to  900  ac. — a  century  later  than  the  approximate 
diite  of  Solomon's  accession ;  whereas  we  know  from  the  "  Black 
Obelisk"  that  Jehu  was  reigning  about  840  B.c.  Renouf  (Proc. 
Bib,  Arch^  Socy.,  Dec,  1893)  says  that:  "Egyptian  records  know 
absolutely  nothing  about  Israelites  "  ;  and  he  adds :  *'  We  may  dis- 
sociate Moses  and  the  Exodus  from  the  date  of  any  Bameses,  but  we 
cannot  so  dissociate  the  writer  of  the  sacred  nairatives.  He  did  not 
live  before  the  great  Bameses,  and  he  may  have  lived  many  centuries 
later.  The  further  back  the  Exodus  is  placed,  the  more  clear  it 
becomes  that  the  Pentateuch  could  not  have  been  written  by  Moses^ 
and  the  less  claim  has  the  narrative  to  be  considered  contemporaneous, 
or  even  recent,  history." 

On  the  S.  wall  of  the  Eamak  temple  the  siege  of  Askalon  by  a 
Rameses,  supposed  by  Brugsch  to  be  Rameses  II,  is  represented.  A 
rock  text  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dog  River,  N.  of  Beirut,  shows  that 
Rameses  II  was  there  with  his  army  in  his  4th  and  10th  years. 
Other  texts  of  his  reign  occur  at  Sidon,  and  at  Sheikh  S'ad  in  Bashan. 
In  his  5  th  year  a  great  league  of  northern  nations,  "  from  the  extreme 
end  of  the  sea  to  the  land  of  the  Hittites  "  was  formed  to  oppose  him 
(Brugsch,  Hist.  Egt.,  ii,  p.  44).  The  names  of  the  tribes  include 
maoy  that  are  the  subject  of  learned  disputes,  but  among  them  we 
find  Hittites,  and  people  of  Aradus,  and  Aleppo,  and  Gozan,  with 
those  of  Naharina  (Naharalm),  gathering  under  the  prince  of  the 
Kheta  or  Hittites  (Rec.  of  Past,  Old  Series,  i,  p.  67).  Kadesh  and 
Karkemish  are  named,  with  the  Masu  (Mysians),  Pidasa  (Pedasos), 
Leka  (Lycians  or  Ligyes),  Dardani  (Dardanos),  and  others.  [The 
Kassites  were  then  ruling  in  Babylon,  and  the  whole  Turanian  power, 


84  Egypt 

from  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  to  Mesopotamia — perhaps  aided  by  Aryans 
(see  Barneses  III,  below) — ^was  leagued  against  Egypt — Ed.]  Id 
his  8th  year  Kameses  II  conquered  certain  towns  in  lower  Oalilee, 
including  Dapur  or  Tabor  and  Shalama  :  [this  may  be  Sulem  (Shunem), 
to  which  are  added  Marama  (Mevrun),  Beta  Antha  ('Ainata,  Beth 
'Anath),  and  Elalopu  (perhaps  Shelabun\  with  'Ain  Anamim — Ed.]. 
The  conquest  of  ^adesh  on  Orontes  (^adea)  followed  the  defeat  of 
the  league.  The  army  appears  ("Third  Sallier  Papyrus")  to  have 
advanced  by  Beirut  and  the  valley  of  the  Eleutherus ;  and  Bameses 
himself  narrowly  escaped  from  a  Hittite  ambuscade,  through  which 
he  dashed  with  his  wonted  bravery.  Eventually  he  overthrew  them ; 
and  their  king  humbly  sued  for  peace.  An  honourable  and  Mendly 
treaty  was  concluded  for  mutual  protection  ;  and,  in  the  34:th  year  of 
the  reign  of  Barneses  II,  King  Kheta-sira  (of  Ijladesh)  brought  to 
Egypt  his  daughter,  who  was  admired  by  the  Pharaoh,  and  who 
received  the  name  Ur-ma-nefer-ra.  Up  to  his  21st  year  Barneses 
continued  to  march  and  fight  for  empire  in  Asia  (Brugsch,  Hist 
Egtf  ii,  p.  63).  Many  otherwise  learned  critics  still  maintain  that 
the  Exodus  took  place  during  the  active  reign  of  Bameses  II.  Even 
in  1896  Dr  E.  Mahler  published  a  volume  to  show  that  "the  flight 
was  in  1335,  the  13th  year  of  Bameses  II,  which  is  proved  from  the 
Amama  tablets,  showing  the  synchronism  of  the  reigns  of  Amenophis 
lY  and  Burnaburias  and  Assur-uballid."  The  connection  is  not 
apparent ;  and  the  coincidence  of  reign  certainly  does  not  fix  exactly 
the  accession  of  Bameses  (see  Babylon). 

[Another  valuable  record  of  this  reign  relates  the  adventures  of 
an  Egyptian  in  Syria  (Rec,  of  Past,  Old  Series,  i,  p.  108).  He 
travelled  from  the  land  of  the  Hittites  by  l^ladesh  to  Gebal,  Beirut, 
Sidon,  and  Sarepta.  He  mentions  Tyre  on  its  island  with  a  double 
port ;  and  names  many  cities  of  Galilee,  and  the  Jordan  Biver,  with 
Megiddo.  The  country  was  full  of  robbers  ;  but  friendly  chiefs  gave 
him  camel's  flesh.  His  chariot  was  repaired  at  Joppa,  whence  he 
returned  home  by  Behoboth,  Gaza,  and  Baphia. — Ed.] 

Bameses  built  granaries  in  the  desert  near  the  Delta,  and  a  wall 
90  miles  long,  from  Heliopolis  to  Pelusium,  to  keep  out  the  wandering 
tribes  on  the  borders  of  Egypt.  The  age  was  one  of  great  literary 
activity,  and  we  find  "  writers  on  history,  divinity,  practical  philosophy, 
epistolary  correspondence,  poetry,  and  morals."  "  Pentaur,  the  epic 
poet,"  wrote  the  Lay  of  Bameses  Victorious.  Enna,  the  State  librarian, 
was  the  first  novelist,  writing  the  Tale  of  the  Ttvo  Brothers,  Anpu 
(Anubis),  and  Bata  (**  the  earth  soul "),  which  contains  an  episode 
recalling  the  story  of  Joseph  and  Potiphar's  wife.     [This  folk-lore  tale 


E^pt  85 

describes  how  Bata,  when  accused  by  his  brother's  wife,  cut  off  his 
phallus  which  a  fish  swallowed.  He  heard  the  cows  talking,  and  fled 
to  the  cedar  tree  in  the  East,  where  he  left  his  heart,  and  met  a 
beautiful  witch.  The  sea  carried  a  scented  lock  of  her  hair  to  Egypt, 
and  the  king  sent  an  army  to  find  her.  Bata  wa.s  slain,  and  became 
a  Fersea  tree,  a  chip  of  which  the  witch  swallowed,  and  he  was  thus 
reborn  a  king.  The  incident  of  the  scented  hair  occurs  in  a  Hindu 
tale :  and  other  legends  of  this  age  in  Egypt  recall  Aryan  myths. — ^Ed.] 
The  fragmentary  Turin  papyrus,  giving  the  dates  of  kings,  also 
belonged  to  this  age  originally.  Rameses  II  was  a  great  builder,  and 
constructed  the  Ramesseum  at  Thebes,  and  the  beautiful  rock  temples 
of  Abu  Simbel.  He  completed  the  ''  Hall  of  Columns  "  at  Kamak  ; 
and  from  its  has  reliefs  we  learn  much  as  to  his  conquest  of  il^adesh 
and  other  cities.  He  died  in  old  age,  and  his  mummy  presents  a  very 
striking  countenance,  more  Asiatic  than  Egyptian,  with  a  powerful 
aquiline  nose.  He  did  not  however  scruple  to  erase  the  names  of 
former  kings  (even  it  is  said  of  his  own  father),  to  substitute  his  own 
in  records  of  conquest.  He  was  worshiped  in  temples  as  "  the  just 
and  vigilant  one,  the  son  of  the  sun,  of  Amen,  Ptah,  and  Horus." 
"  Resting,"  says  Dean  Stanley,  "  in  awful  majesty,  after  the  conquest  of 
all  the  known  world."  He  appears  to  be  the  Sesostris  of  the  Greeks, 
whose  conquests  extended  to  the  shores  of  the  iEgean  Sea  according 
to  Herodotos,  the  name  being  the  Egyptian  Se-sopt-ra. 

About  1270  B.C.  Rameses  II  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
surviving  son  Merenptah  II  (the  first  so  named  being  Seti  I),  or  the 
Mineptah  of  Manetho.  His  throne  name  was  Hotep-hi-ma  ("  he  who 
trusts  in  truth  '*) ;  ^and  he  maintained  the  power  of  Egypt,  and  the 
Hittite  alliance.  The  "  White  Libyans  "  [apparently  Greek  colonists 
from  Krete,  in  accord  with  Greek  tradition — Ed.],  raided  the  W, 
borders  of  Egypt  in  his  reign,  in  alliance  with  tribes  from  the  north. 
They  threatened  On  and  Memphis,  but  the  generals  of  Mineptah 
"  defeated  the  invaders  totally  and  irremediably  "  (Rec,  of  Passt^  Old 
Series,  iii,  p.  39) ;  and  afterwards  it  appears  that  Libyans  were  found 
in  Egyptian  service  as  "  most  trusted  troops."  [Among  the  names  of 
tribes  allied  to  the  Libyans  we  find  Akausha  (supposed  to  be  Achseans), 
Tursha  or  Tulsha  (people  of  Tros,  Thrace,  or  Tlos),  Shartana  (Sardians), 
and  others  "of  the  lands  of  the  sea."  Of  Libyans  6359  were  killed 
and  of  the  allies  2370  :  the  Libyan  prisoners  included  218  women 
of  vanquished  chiefs;  and  9376  weapons  were  taken  from  9111  men. 
"  They  came  to  the  land  of  Khemi  (Egypt)  to  search  for  possessions," 
but  were  defeated  after  '^  six  hours  of  slaughter."  Mineptah  also  sent 
to  the  land  of  the  Fettishu,  "  which  I  made  to  take  corn  in  boats  to 


*6  Egypt 

give  life  to  the  land  of  the  Eheta :  for  I  am  he  to  whom  the  gods 
have  brought  all  support :  the  world  is  under  my  power :  king  of  the 
upper  and  lower  country,  Ba-en-ra  ('soul  of  Ra'),  beloved  of  Amen,  son 
of  the  sun — Meren-ptah." — Ed.]      In   1896   Prof.  W.   M.    Flinders 
Petrie  (Academy,  11th  April ;  Contemporary  Review,  May)  published 
an  account  of  a  granite  stela  of  Amenophis  III,  found  face  downwards 
in  a  wall,  with  a  later  text  of  Meren-ptah,  supposed  to  be.  Mineptah  IL 
It  refers  to  the  victory ;  and,  in  the  last  paragraph,  the  king  says : 
^'  Vanquished  are  the  Tahennu  (N.  Africans) :  the  Kheta  (Hittites) 
are  quieted :  ravished  is  Pa-Ejinana  (noticed  by  the  Mohar  of  the 
reign  of  Rameses  II  as  being  near  Tyre)  with  all  violence  ;  taken  is 
Askadna :  Yenu  of  the  Amu  (Yanoab  near  Tyre)  is  made  as  though  it 
had   not  existed  :  the  people  I-si-ra-il-u  is  spoiled,  it  has  no  seed, 
Syria  (Ruten,  or  Khar)  has  become  as  the  widows  {Khar)  of  the  land 
of  Egypt :  all  lands  together  are  at  peace."     This  name  Isirailu  has 
the  determinatives  of  man  and  woman  (Atheiueum,  25th  April  1896), 
evidently  applying  to  a  race  and  not  to  a  city.     [The  suggestion  that 
we  should  read  "  Jezreel "  is  also  objectionable,  as  the  word  does  not 
contain  the  letter  z,  or  the  guttural  *ain,  in  the  Egyptian. — ^Ed.]      If 
we  have  here  a  notice  of  Israel  in  Palestine  about  1270  to  1260  EC, 
we  must  discard  the  legend  attributed  to  Manetho,  which  would  place 
the  date  of  the   Exodus  in  the  reign  of   an  Amenophis,  following 
Rameses  II  and  supposed  to  be  Mineptah.     It  relates  (according  to 
Josephus,  who  entirely  discredits  it)  that,  after  a  rebellion  of  a  leprous 
people  led  by  Osarsiph  they  were  expelled,  and  founded  Jerusalem. 
But  Renouf  {Proc.  Bib,  Arch,  Socy,,  December  1893)  warned  us  that 
^'  no  importance  should  be  attached  to  any  of  the  statements  attributed 
to  Manetho,  when  they  cannot  be  verified  by  the  monuments "  (see 
Hebrews). 

Mineptah  II  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Seti  II,  or  Mineptah  III, 
who  appears  to  have  lived  quietly  at  Thebes.  On  the  rocks  of  Abu 
Simbel  there  is  notice  of  his  conquests  in  Nubia  ;  and  Brugsch  believes 
that  "  his  rule  was  acknowledged  in  the  far  north-east "  (Hist  Egt,, 
ii,  p.  133).  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  successor  of  this  king 
(Set-nakht,  or  Miamun  II,  according  to  Brugsch  ;  Meri-en-Ptah  or 
Siptah  according  to  others);  but  the  great  19th  dynasty  sank 
in  decay,  and  anarchy  followeid  about  1200  B.c.  According  to 
Rameses  III  a  Syrian  or  Phoenician  named  Haris,  or  Harith,  ruled 
in  the  Delta  during  this  period.  Papyri  of  the  19th  or  20th  dynasty, 
found  in  1894,  speak  of  workmen  employed  in  the  necropolis  of 
Thebes,  with  notice  of  their  sickness,  bad  morals,  and  revolt  for 
non-payment  of  their  wages;  and   it  was  at  this  time,  apparently, 


Egypt  87 

that  the  great  Pharaohs  were  removed  from  their  coffins  to  the 
hidlDg-pIace  at  Deir-el-Baheiri,  being  stolen — some  suppose — ^by  the 
tomb  excavators. 

20th  dymasty,  at  Thebes;  about  1200  down  to  1060  ac 
This  age  is  not  yet  clearly  known.  Set-nakht»  according  to  his 
son  Bameses  III,  '*  established  his  authority  by  prompt  and  vigorous 
measures."  He  seems  to  have  been  a  relative,  if  not  a  son,  of  Seti  11. 
He  was  "  like  the  god  Khepra-Sutekh  in  his  fury :  he  put  in  order 
the  lands  that  had  revolted,  executed  the  rebellious,  and  purified  the 
throne;  set  up  temples,  and  prescribed  their  services  and  laws." 
Kameses  III  is  called  ''the  last  of  the  great  Pharaohs,",  and  is 
known  to  us  by  the  Harris  papyri,  and  by  sculptures  at  Medinet 
Habu.  He  appears  to  have  fought  in  Mt  Seir  and  the  Sinaitic 
desert,  and  with  the  Mediterranean  races  in  the  north.  From  pictures 
of  his  reign  we  know  that  many  of  these  were  light-complexioned 
peoples,  with  blue  eyes,  and  long  side-locks  like  those  of  early  Greek 
statues,  wearing  also  homed  helmets  such  as  occur  on  Mycenean  vases. 
The  list  of  tribes  who  attacked  Egypt  ''  by  sea  and  land,"  and  who 
wasted  Aradus  and  Karkemish,  and  "camped  in  the  land  of  the 
Amorites" — that  is  to  aay  in  the  Lebanon — includes  the  Hittite^, 
and  the  Kati  (of  Kappadokia),  the  Ainorites,  and  the  Danau  (Danai 
or  Qreeks),  with  the  Zakkar  (of  Mt.  Zagreus),  and  the  Purosata  or 
Pilista.  Rameses  III  appears  to  have  pursued  them  to  Cilicia  and 
Cyprus,  and  afterwards  deported  Shardana  (Sardians)  to  Egypt,  and 
settled  the  Uashuash  (Libyans)  at  the  Bamesseum,  receiving  tribute 
also  from  Buten  or  Syria  (Brugsch,  Hist.  Ilgt.,  ii,  p.  140-152).  His 
conquests  include  (Rec.  of  Fast,  New  Series,  vi,  pp.  31-45)  a  list 
of  39  towns.  .  [The  position  of  these  is  disputed  in  most  cases ;  but 
they  are  admitted  to  include  Aleppo  and  Karkemish  in  Syria ; 
Adana  in  Cilicia  with  Soli;  and,  in  Cyprus,  Idalion,  Kition,  and 
Kabyra. — Ed.] 

Bameses  III  made  a  great  reservoir  near  Suez,  and  reopened  the 
SiDaitic  mines.  He  suppressed  a  serious  palace  plot ;  and  it  is  recorded 
that "  the  weakest  woman  could  travel  unmolested  wherever  she  wished, 
and  mercenary  soldiers  reposed  at  ease  in  their  cities."  With  his  death 
the  palmy  period  of  Egyptian  history  closes.  He  never  mentions  any 
Hebrews ;  and  we  may  suppose  that  their  judges  were  merely  local 
sheikhs,  mainly  in  the  mountains,  whose  deeds  were  magnified  by  later 
Hebrew  writers.  We  know  very  little  about  the  later  kings  of  this 
dynasty,  who  appear  to  have  borne  the  name  of  Bameses  as  a  rule. 
A  king  Meri-tum  followed  Bameses  YI;  and  about  1060  B.c.  the 
dynasty  fell  into  decay,  Egypt  being  then  apparently  under  Assyrian 


88  Egypt 

influence.  The  priests  of  Amen  rose  to  protect  themselves,  and 
Barneses  IX  is  represented  leaning  on  a  priest.  The  connection 
with  Mesopotamia  seems  to  be  indicated  by  a  story  which  relates 
how  the  ark  of  Ehonsu  was  sent  away  "a  17  months'  journey,"  to 
heal  a  princess  in  Baktan,  where  perhaps  Tiglath  Pileser  I  was 
ruling. 

21 8^  dynasty,  in  Thebes;  about  1060  down  to  960  B.c.  The 
high  priest  of  Amen  in  Tanis,  Her-hor,  was  a  friend  of  Rameses  XIII, 
and  became  king,  having,  it  is  believed,  married  a  princess  of  Nineveh. 
Egypt  was  perhaps  in  friendly  relationship  with  the  rising  power  of 
Assyria,  In  this  age  (see  Brugsch,  Hist.  Egt.,  ii,  p.  192)  we  read  of 
a  Rameses  who  married  the  daughter  of  Palaskhalnes  the  great 
king  of  Assyria ;  but  Assyrian  history  is  unknown  during  the  11th 
century  B.c.  We  hear  also  of  a  certain  Naromat  (perhaps  Naram- 
Addu,  ''  Hadad  be  exalted  ")  son  of  ''  Sheshonk  (Shishak)  great  king 
of  Assyria,"  and  himself  "  great  king  of  Assyria,  king  of  kings,"  as 
having  been  buried  at  Abydos,  where  a  statue  was  erected  in  his 
honour.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  son  of  an  Egyptian  princess 
Mehet-en-nukh.  The  second  king  of  the  dynasty  was  Fi-ankh  ;  and 
the  third,  Pi-netem  I,  is  noticed  in  Tanis.  This  dynasty  would  be 
contemporary  with  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon,  and  it  appears 
that  the  Egyptians  then  attacked  Gezer  in  Palestine  (1  Kings  iii,  1 ; 
ix,  16),  being  allied  according  to  the  Bible  with  the  Hebrews.  Egypt, 
however,  had  not  relinquished  its  claims  to  suzerainty,  as  the  next 
episode  in  its  history  shows. 

22nd  dynasty,  at  Bubastis ;  about  960  down  to  840  B.c.  The 
first  King  Sheshonk,  or  Shishak,  assembled  a  great  army  (2  Chron. 
xii,  2),  and  attacked  Palestine  after  the  death  of  Solomon.  He  was 
apparently  a  son  of  Naromat,  aud  thus  an  ally  of  Assyria.  He  has 
left  us  a  list  of  133  towns  in  Palestine,  extending  to  Galilee,  which 
he  conquered.  Reboboam  was  only  allowed  to  reign  in  Judah  as  a 
tributary  of  Egypt,  and  Jeroboam  found  refuge  in  Egypt  when  flying 
from  Solomon.  The  name  Tuda-Malak,  in  the  list  of  Shishak,  is 
that  of  a  town  (perhaps  Jehud  of  Dan)  not  of  a  "  king  of  Judah  " 
[which  would  be  bad  grammar  in  Egyptian  speech — Ed.].  The 
second  king  of  the  dynasty  was  Usarkon  I :  who  appears  to  be  the 
Zerab  of  Ethiopia  (2  Chron.  xiv,  9)  who  attacked  Asa  of  Judah. 
Takelut  I  (perhaps  Tiglath),  the  6th  king  according  to  Manetho,  was 
succeeded  by  Usarkon  II ;  and  the  last  three  were  Sheshonk  II, 
Takelut  II,  and  Sheshouk  III.  [As  far  as  known,  therefore,  nearly 
all  the  kings  of  this  dynasty  seem  to  have  borne  names  connecting 
them  with  Assyria. — Ed.] 


Egypt  89 

23rd  dynasty,  aX  Tanis  and  Thebes;  about  840  down  to  750 
B.C.  Four  kings  are  noticed  by  Manetho,  but  there  are  no  monu- 
mental records  of  their  history. 

24th  dynasty ;  a  single  king  Bochoris  is  noticed  by  Manetho, 
and  was  captured  about  744  B.C.  by  Sabaco. 

25th  dynasty.  These  kings  appear  to  have  been  Ethiopians 
ruling  from  Napata  (Jebel  Barkal),  the  dynasty  (consisting  of  three 
kings,  Sabaco,  Sevechus,  and  Tarako  or  Tirhakah,  according  to 
Manetho)  lasted  till  670  B.C.,  when  the  latter  was  taken  prisoner  by 
Esarhaddon  of  Assyria  (as  represented  on  a  bas  relief  at  Samala  in  N. 
Syria)  after  the  destruction  of  his  palace  at  Memphis.  [According  to 
Sennacherib  Egypt  had  several  small  kinglets  in  this  age;  and  if 
Tirhakah  was  king  of  Ethiopia  about  702  B.G.  (2  Kings  xix,  9)  he 
must  have  reigned  some  32  years.  Manetho  gives  him  only  18  ;  but 
his  total  of  40  for  the  dynasty  appears  to  be  too  short  to  agree  with 
Assyrian  dates;  for  Sevechus  was  the  King  So  (2  Kings  xvii,  4) 
whose  aid  Hoshea  invoked  against  Assyria,  about  730  B.C. — Ed.]  In 
C70  B.O.  Egypt  became  a  satrapy  of  Ass3nia  under  Esarhaddon. 
Tirhakah  calls  himself  "King  of  Khemi,  of  Tesher  (the  Bed  Sea 
region),  and  of  Kep-Kep  or  Nubia."  He  appears,  according  to  a 
recent  discovery,  to  have  pursued  the  retreating  Sennacherib  (in  702 
B.C.)  to  Syria,  though  previously  defeated  by  him  in  the  plains  near 
Joppa,  when  Sennacherib  shut  up  Hezekiah  in  Jerusalem,  and  carried 
off  200,150  captives  from  towns  of  Judah. 

26th  dynasty.  From  670  to  527  B.C.,  the  dates  being  now 
controlled  by  Assyrian  records.  [On  the  death  of  Esarhaddon,  in 
Egypt,  Assurbani-pal  acceded  in  668  B.c.  Assyria  was  now  suzerain 
from  Elam  to  Egypt,  but  the  tributary  nations  were  all  discontented. 
In  648  he  was  involved  in  a  great  struggle  with  his  brother  at 
Babylon,  and  after  that  in  a  long  Elamite  war.  On  his  death  the 
power  of  Assyria  rapidly  decayed  from  about  625  to  610  B,c.,  when 
Nineveh,  already  ruined  by  the  Scythian  incursions,  was  destroyed  by 
the  allied  Babylonians  and  Modes.  The  Babylonians  were  conquered 
by  Cyrus  in  53.8,  and  Cambyses  couquered  Egypt  in  527  B.C. 
Manetho  gives  9  kings  for  the  26th  dynasty,  of  whom  the  third  was 
Necho  I,  who,  according  to  Brugsch,  was  deposed  by  Assur-bani-pal 
and  taken  prisoner  to  Nineveh,  but  afterwards  re-established  as  a 
tribatary  ruler  at  Sais  and  Memphis.  His  successor,  Psammetichus, 
ruled  54  years,  followed  by  Necho  II,  who  attacked  Josiah,  king  of 
Judah,  about  607  B.C.  (2  Kings  xxiii,  84).  The  7th  king  was 
Hophra,  and  the  8th,  Amasis. — Ed.]  Psammetichus  I  was  a  Libyan 
who,  aided  by  Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  asserted  his  independence  of 


40  Egypt 

Assyria.  His  name  as  an  ^thiopic  word  is  rendered  **  son  of  the 
sun."  He  introduced  Phoenician,  E^arian,  and  Greek  mercenaries  into 
Egypt,  whose  rough  texts  are  found  at  Abu  Simbel.  He  is  said  to 
have  built  a  temple  to  Ptah  at  Aradus  in  Phoenicia;  but,  about  630 
B.C.,  all  western  Asia  was  devastated  by  the  Scythiaos,  who  advanced 
to  the  borders  of  Egypt  from  the  Caucasus.  Psammetichus  repaired 
the  Theban  temples,  and  added  a  great  court  to  that  of  Ptah  at 
Memphis.  He  excavated  the  great  Apis  mausoleum  at  Sakkara.  In 
his  time  also  the  Phoenicians,  starting  from  Suez,  circumnavigated 
Afirioat 

Necho  (Nuku  II),  the  successor  of  Psammetichus,  undertook  a 
ship  canal  from  the  Bitter  Lakes  to  Suez,  but  desisted  after  losing 
some  120,000  workmen.  In  608  he  attacked  Palestine,  but  soon 
after  was  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (Nabu-kudur-usur)  of  Babylon, 
at  Elarkemish  on  the  Euphrates.  After  his  death,  and  the  short 
reign  of  Psammetichus  II,  Apries  or  Hophra  acceded  about  590  B.c. 
(Jer.  xliv,  30) ;  he  appears  to  have  been  killed  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
when  he  invaded  Egypt  as  far  as  Syene  in  568  B.c. :  Ahmes  or 
Amasis  was  then  set  on  the  throne,  as  a  Babylonian  tributary.  He 
favoured  the  introduction  of  foreign  art  and  trade,  and  established 
Greeks  at  Naucratis.  When  the  power  of  Babylon  began  to  wane,  on 
the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  Amasis  seized  on  Cyprus,  and  demanded 
tribute  from  Phoenicia.  He  imprudently  allied  himself  with  Croesus 
against  the  rising  power  of  Cyrus,  and  shortly  after  his  death 
Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus,  entered  Egypt,  and  Psammetichus  III  was 
slain,  with  some  2000  of  his  leading  men.  Thus  ended  the  long 
line  of  the  Pharaohs,  and  Egypt  became  a  Persian  province. 

2^th  dynasty,  from  527  to  405  B.C.  This  consisted  of  Persians 
to  the  death  of  Darius  II.  The  temples  of  Egypt  were  preserved  by 
the  tolerant  Persians,  and  no  stranger  was  allowed  to  defile  them ;  at 
Sais  Cambyses  is  described  as  ^  the  friend  of  all  the  gods  and  guardian 
of  the  temples"  (Brugsch,  Hiat  Egt.,  ii,  pp.  294-296).  He  offered 
libations  to  "  The  Everlasting  One,"  in  the  temple  of  Neith,  and  this 
title  was  that  given  to  Osiris  by  his  Egyptian  subjects.  Darius  I 
(521  to  485  B.C.)  also  dedicated  a  temple  to  Amen  near  El  Kharjeh, 
and  here  a  text  of  Darius  II  (about  424  b.g.)  says  that  it  "stands 
in  remembrance  of  my  father  the  great  god  Amen-Ra."  About 
485  B.O.,  however,  Egypt  strove  to  shake  off  the  Persian  yoke,  when 
Xerxes  (485  to  464  b.c.)  succeeded  Darius  I,  and  became  involved 
in  his  great  war  on  Greece:  it  again  revolted  in  460  B.c.  from 
Artaxerzes  I,  with  Athenian  aid,  and  was  not  subdued  for  five 
years. 


Ekash-taka  41 

28ih  dyncuty.  Amertseus  of  Sais  revolted  in  405  B.c.  on  the 
accession  of  Artaxerxes  II,  or  perhaps  earlier ;  and  was  not  subdued 
for  6  years. 

29th  dynasty  —  Mendesians,  ruling  for  20  years  according  to 
Manetho  (about  400  to  380  B.c).  During  this  period  Evagoras  of 
Cyprus  revolted  firom  Persia  (391  to  385  B.C.),  and  was  supported  by 
aid  of  50  Egyptian  galleys. 

30^  dynasty — ^the  Sebenytic;  consisting  of  three  kings, 
380  to  340  B.C.  This  was  the  last  attempt  of  the  Egyptians  to 
recover  their  freedom.  In  351  RC.  Nectanebo  was  set  up  in  Egypt 
as  a  Pharaoh,  supported  by  the  Greeks.  The  Phoenicians  drove  out 
their  Persian  governors  from  Syria  and  Cilicia.  But  Artaxerxes  III 
(Okhos)  succeeded  in  detaching  Tennes,  king  of  Sidon,  and  enlisted 
10,000  Greeks  from  Thebes,  Argos,  and  Asia  Minor — enemies  of  the 
Athenians  and  Spartans.  The  treachery  of  Tennes  led  to  the  ruin  of 
the  alliance  against  Persia,  but  on  his  submission,  he  was  put  to 
death.  Nectanebo — the  last  Egyptian  king — fled  to  Ethiopia,  and 
never  returned. 

31 8^  dyTuisty.  This  merely  consisted  of  the  last  kings  of  Persia, 
''Okhos,  Arus,  and  Darius,"  according  to  Manetho  —  firom  340 
to  332  B.C.,  when  Alexander  the  Great  conquered  Egypt.  Even  as 
late  as  this  period  we  find  the  ancient  Egyptian  gods  still  worshiped, 
including  according  to  inscriptions  *'  Khnum  the  lord  of  all  gods," 
and  "  Tum  the  great  primordial  male  power,  the  ram,  the  begetter " 
(Brugsch). 

Ekash-takft.  The  daughter  of  Praja-pati  (the  creator)  and  the 
mother  of  Indra  and  Soma. 

Ekbatana.  Otherwise  Agbatana  (Aiskhulos).  A  name  given 
to  several  fortresses  in  Greek  works,  in  Media,  Persia,  and  even  on 
Mt  Earmel.  The  most  famous  is  the  palace-citadel  of  the  Median 
king  Deioces,  supposed  to  be  Hamadan  at  the  foot  of  Mt  Elvand. 
Herodotos  describes  it  as  having  seven  surrounding  walls,  each  painted 
a  different  color,  like  the  Babylonian  Ziggurats  (see  Architecture). 
It  is  supposed  that  Akhmetha  (Ezra  vi,  2),  the  fort  (Bvrah)  of  the 
Medes,  was  the  same  (Proc.  Bib.  Arch,  iSocy.,  June  1893).  Perse- 
polis,  Ispahan,  and  the  Arsacid  fortress  Europus,  were  so  named. 
[Probably  it  is  Akkadian,  viz.  Ak-bata-na,  "height  of  the  fort," 
rendered  Hama-danu,  or  ''strong  enclosure,"  in  Semitic  speech. 
—Ed.] 

EL   Elah.  Elohim.     Hebrew :   "  strong  one."     (Assyrian  ilu^ 


42  Elagabalus 

Hi,  Udni  :  Arabic  Aldk)  The  name  for  "  God  "  or  "  Lord  "  in  all 
Semitic  languages.  [In  Assyrian,  and  in  the  Amarna  letters,  the 
plural  {Hi,  or  Elohim)  is  used  as  a  singular,  and  as  a  title  for  kings. 
— Ed.]  From  the  same  root  come  names  for  high  trees,  £lah, 
"  terebinth,"  and  "  oak "  (also  Elon  and  All  on) ;  as  also  perhaps 
AU  "ram,"  Ayil  "buck"  [from  the  cognate  root  AiZ  "strong" 
— Ed.].  The  Elohim,  or  Ale-im,  were  gods  of  trees — see  Abraham's 
oak-tree  shrines  at  Shechem  and  Hebron  ("the  oak  of  Moreh," 
Oen.  xii,  6:  xxxiii,  20:  xxxv,  4:  Josh,  xxiv,  26:  "the  oaks  of 
Mamre,"  Gen.  xiii,  18:  xviii,  1,  4:  the  "oak"  of  Bethel, 
Gen.  xxxv,  8), 

Elagabalus.  Otherwise  Heliogabalus.  The  Aramaik  Ela- 
gabal  ("god  of  the  mountain"),  a  deity  worshiped  at  Emesa 
(Homs),  in  Central  Syria,  as  a  "  large  black  stone."  Bassianus 
(commonly  called  Heliogabalus),  the  high  priest  of  this  shrine,  was 
the  son  of  Julia  of  Emesa,  sister  of  the  Empress  Julia  Domna,  and 
so  became  Emperor  of  Eome  at  the  age  of  14  years,  by  the  favour  of 
the  legionaries  of  Syria  in  218  A.C.  He  assumed  the  name  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus  Pius,  in  memory  of  his  famous  Antoniue  prede- 
cessors. He  built  the  great  Ba'albek  temple,  and  carried  the  black 
stone  of  Elagabalus  to  Rome,  where  it  was  solemnly  married  to 
Venus  Urania.  After  four  years  of  foolish,  corrupt,  and  superstitious 
rule,  he  was  murdered  by  his  own  soldiers,  and  the  body  thrown  into 
the  Tiber  (222  A.C.),  whence  he  was  nicknamed  Tiberinus. 

'Elam.  Hebrew  :  "  high  land."  The  plateau  of  W.  Persia,  east 
of  the  Tigris.  [The  Akkadian  name  is  Si-nim,  "  high  region,"  Baby- 
lonian *Elamu.     See  Isaiah  xlix,  12. — Ed.] 

Elapatra.  Sanskrit.  A  powerful  serpent,  hero,  or  deity,  son 
of  Kadru,  a  daughter  of  Daksha,  and  of  Easyapa  (the  sun) :  she 
produced  a  thousand  many-headed  snakea 

Elburz.  The  mountain  chain  N.  of  Teheran  (see  Damavand  and 
Elvand),  rising  18,600  feet  above  sea  level,  with  many  peaks  10,000 
feet  high.  It  was  the  Persian  "  world  mountain,"  Hara-barazaite,  or 
Hala-barjat. 

Elektra.  Greek.  The  daughter  of  Okeanos  and  Tethus,  the 
"  bright  one,"  wife  of  Athamas  (Tammuz),  also  a  daughter  of  Iris, 
the  rainbow.  She  bore  Dardanos,  and  lason,  to  Ilios — a  sky  god; 
and  through  grief  for  the  destruction  of  Troy  (Ilion),  she  was  changed 
into  one  of  the  Pleiades. 


Eleos  43 

EleOS.     An  Athenian  god  of  "  mercy." 

Hlephant*     This  revered  and  royal  animal  symbolises  wisdom 
in  India  (see  Ganesa),  but  was  not  generally  worshiped.     It  wajs  the 
carrier  and  symbol  of  Indra ;  and  Buddha  took  the  form  of  a  white 
elephant  in  the  womb  of  Maya,  which  is  the  reason  why  it  is  sacred 
in  Barmah.     The  range  of  the  elephant  in  W.  Asia  appears  to  have 
been  considerably  wider    in   earlier   ages.     Carved   ivory   figures   of 
elephants  are  mentioned  as  offerings  even  in  the  reign  of  Khufu  (2nd 
king  of   4th   dynasty)  in   Egypt,  and    they   decorate   the  coffin   of 
Antef  II.    About  1580  B.C.,  Thothmes  III  hunted  120  wild  elephants 
near  Ni  (Ninus  Yetus),  on  the  Euphrates ;  and  a  picture  of  his  reign 
shows  a  Syrian   leading  a  young  elephant  as  a  present  to  Egypt. 
Ivory  is  also  noticed  as  part  of  the  tribute  from  Syria.     About  850 
B.C.  the  elephant  appears,  with  apes,  Baktrian  camels,  a  buffaloe,  and 
a  rhinoceros,  on  the  ''  black  obelisk  "  of  Shalmaneser  in  Assyria.     In 
702  B.C.  Sennacherib  received  ivory  thrones  from  Hezekiah  of  Judah, 
recalling  Solomon's  ivory  throne.     About  490  to  403  B.C.,  Phidias  in 
Greece  used  ivory  for  statues.     In  China  (1700  to  1100  B.C.),  the 
Shang  dynasty  imported  ivory,  with  apes,  peacocks,  tortoise-shell,  and 
pearls  (Sir  George  Bird  wood,  Aihenoeum,  22nd  June  1895).     Apes 
still  exist  in   China,   elephants  probably  came  from  Barmah.     The 
"horns"  of  the  Am-aki  ("  bull's  tooth")  hunted  by  Tiglath  Pileser  I 
(1130  B.C.),  near  the  Euphrates,  are  variously  regarded  as  elephants* 
teeth    or  horns  of  the   wild    bull.     Ivory    (SheTt^hablm,   "tooih    of 
elephants"),  came  from  Tarshish  [Tarsus — Ed.]  in  Solomon's  time, 
according  to  the  Bible  (1   Kings  x,  22).     The  Hebrew  Hab  is  pro- 
bably the  Sanskrit  Ibha  (used  also  in  Tamil)  for  "  elephant "  {Mann, 
vi,  121,  Ibha-^nta,  "elephants  tooth  "  or  ivory).     In  India  hati  is 
the  *' hand-nosed  one."     Homer  (about  750  B.C.  or  later)  speaks  of 
elephas,  for  ivory,  as  do   Pindar,  Hesiod,  Herodotos,  and  Aristotle. 
Ivory  objects  are  found  early  at  Troy,  and  in  Earia  and  other  parts 
of  Asia  Minor,  as  well  as  in  Syria.     Elephants  were  used  by  both 
Persians  and  Indians  against  Alexander  the  Great  (330  B.C.),  and  by 
the   Seleucidie    in     Syria.       Ptolemy    Philadelphos    (283-247    B.C.) 
organised  elephant  farms  in  Abyssinia,  or  in   Somaliland,  and  had 
400  African  war  elephants.     Pyrrhus  defeated  the  Romans  (280  B.C.) 
by  bringing  elephants  to  Italy;  about  250  B.C.  they  are  commonly 
represented   in   Indian  cave-temples.     The  Carthaginians  apparently 
tamed  the  African  elephant,  and  Hannibal  (218  B.C.)  brought  them 
over  the  Alps.     The  Romans  called   them   "Lucanian  bulls."     The 
word  defphaSy  for  elephant  and  ivory  (Arabic  El-fU),  is  the  Semitic 


44  Elephanta 

aleiph  or  aJ/pu,  "bull"  or  "ox."  [The  word  eb  signified  "elephant" 
in  Egyptian,  like  the  Hebrew  hah  (see  Abu).  The  Assyrian  word 
hiri  for  "  ivory  "  is  probably  the  origin  of  the  Greek  fbwr ;  and  ibis 
ivory  was  known  first,  apparently,  by  Semitic  trade  in  Europe. — ^Ed.] 
(see  BehemothX 

Elephantai  or  Ghara-puri.  A  celebrated  sacred  islet  in  the 
Bombay  harbour,  about  6  miles  from  the  city,  and  4  miles  from  the 
coast  It  is  named  frt)m  a  large  stone  elephant  {goQ  or  gcLr}\  which 
stood  near  the  usual  landing-place,  close  to  the  cave-temple  of  Siva» 
In  1814  this  elephant  began  to  decay,  and  was  reconstructed  in  1864 
being  transferred  to  the  Victoria  gardens  in  Bombay.  A  large  stone 
horse,  once  in  the  valley  between  the  two  hills  of  the  island,  has 
disappeared.  The  trap  rock  weathers  easily,  and  the  great  cave 
(about  130  ft.  square,  and  15  to  18  ft.  high),  is  now  half  filled  up. 
A  winding  path  leads  up  to  the  entrance,  250  fL  above  the  sea.  On 
entering  we  are  faced  by  a  colossal  three-faced  bust  of  the  Tri-murti 
or  Trinity — Siva  as  Creator,  Preserver,  and  Destroyer.  Other  statues 
of  the  god,  some  40  or  50  figures,  are  cut  in  the  rock.  In  a  chapel 
15  ft  square  there  are  8  nude  figures,  13  to  14  ft  high,  guarding  the 
lingam,  on  the  top  of  which  the  sun  setting  in  the  west  shines,  through 
an  orifice.  This  so-called  "  wishing  stone "  is  2  fL  in  diameter,  and 
3  ft  high,  standing  in  an  Argha  (see  Argha),  which  is  filled  with  ghu 
or  melted  butter,  or  with  juices  of  plants,  rice,  etc.,  with  which  pious 
Hindus  constantly  anoint  the  lingam.  They  collect  the  drippings  to 
anoint  themselves,  as  a  cure  for  sickness,  or  for  fertilising  purposes. 
East  of  the  Tri-murti  is  the  famous  Ardhanar-Isvara  figure,  half  male, 
half  female,  now  much  mutilated  (see  Rivera  of  Life^  i,  plate  xiv). 
It  represents  the  legend  of  creation  (see  under  its  name,  and  under 
Brahma).  Other  caves  on  the  island  have  been  plundered  by 
foreigners.  They  contain  strange  phallic  figures  (see  Payne  Ej:iigbt, 
Worship  of  Priapvs),  The  site  is  visited  in  February  (see  Siva- 
Batri).  Fergusson  supposes  the  caves  to  date  from  our  8th  or  9th 
century  (see  Elora). 

Elephantis.     See  Abu. 


The  city  of  the  mysteries  of  Eleusina,  or  Ds-m§ter, 
crowned  by  her  great  fire  shrine,  with  its  huge  statue  of  Zeus.  Broadly 
stated,  the  rites  were  those  of  the  worship  of  the  mysterious  phenomena 
of  nature,  especially  as  manifested  in  fertile  spring  and  fruit-laden 
autumn.  M.  F.  Lenormant  (Contemporary  Review,  1880)  speaks 
of  ''phenomena  converted  into  divine  figures,  and  theological  poetry 


Eleusis  45 

running  into  Pantheism,  and  anthropomorphism  developing  legendary 
history."  In  course  of  time  when  men  became  enlightened,  and  found 
that  the  gods  and  their  legends  were  unreal  and  their  old  faith  un- 
founded, they  charged  their  priests  with  having  invented  it  all  for 
their  own  benefit — which  indeed  had  long  been  the  case.  Theological 
chaos  followed,  and  true  religion  would  have  perished  with  the  gods, 
but  for  philosophers  like  Sokrat^,  to  whom  they  gave  hemlock  as 
poison.  The  Orpheans  claimed  to  have  established  the  Eleusinian 
rites,  in  honour  of  DSmStdr  and  Persephond.  Others  said  they  came 
from  Egypt  The  site  was  one  that  nature  worshipers  were  likely 
very  early  to  select.  It  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  S.E.  extremity  of 
a  rocky  akropolis,  guarding  the  sacred  and  fertile  Rhavian  plains. 
The  tribes  said  that  DSmetSr  here  first  produced  com ;  and  they  used 
for  centuries  to  reap  it  for  the  making  of  sacrificial  cakes.  Here  they 
showed  the  threshing-floor  of  Triptolemos,  and  the  Holy  Mother's  well 
{KaUi-kharon  Phrear)  where  women  used  to  sing  and  dance,  especially 
when  in  autumn  they  celebrated  the  descent  of  FersephonS  beneath 
the  earth,  and  garnered  its  fruits  with  wild  rejoicings.  Beside  the 
well  stood  (as  the  lingam  now  still  stands  by  wells  in  India)  the 
Agdaetoa  Petra,  round  which  they  danced,  chanting  cyclic  hymns. 
It  was  called  the  *'  sad  rock "  (Triste  Saxum),  from  the  legend  that 
here  D^mStSr  (as  Amobius  relates)  sat  in  sad  miseiy,  mourning  her 
child,  till  roused  by  Baubo  the  naughty  nurse  (see  Baubo).  The 
"  sacred  way  "  led  from  the  east,  first  to  the  temple  of  Triptolemos 
(now  the  church  of  St  Zacharias),  and,  by  the  Propylsea  of  Artemis 
and  Poseidon,  to  the  great  temple  of  D€-m6t6r — mother  earth.  Here 
the  epopta,  or  initiates,  contemplated  in  the  dark  interior  the 
"  mysteries " — the  phallus,  the  sacred  egg  and  serpent,  and  the  kista 
or  ark.  Here  Zeus  was  said  to  have  placed  the  testes  cut  from  the 
goat  in  the  lap  of  the  godess  (see  Thos.  Taylor,  Meuainia);  for 
the  oldest  cult  was  a  coarse  nature  worship.  The  services  were  held 
in  the  dark  adytum  of  the  rock-cut  shrine  (see  plan,  Athenceum,  22nd 
August  1885),  a  pillared  hall  (50  by  54  metres),  with  rock-cut  seats 
in  tiers  20  feet  deep,  capable  of  holding  3000  persons.  There  were 
four  side  entrances,  and  two  from  the  front  colonnade  to  the  S.K  The 
temple  was  windowless ;  but  the  mysteries  were  celebrated  by  night, 
with  rites  that  Orpheans  called  **  Omphalik "  (Lenormant,  as  above, 
p.  426).  They  resembled  those  of  Bakkhos  (or  Zagreos)  at  Delphi. 
The  phallus  was  a  symbol  in  the  processions ;  but  the  spring  rites 
were  in  honour  of  the  mother  of  nature,  whose  daughter  Persephond 
(the  seed)  had  been  buried  in  Hades  or  earth,  whence  arose  fear  lest 
she  should  not  rise  again.     Over  the  entrance  to  the  shrine  were  the 


46  Eleusis 

enigmatical  words  **  Konx  Ompax/'  which  were  reiterated  over  the 
initiated.  Above  the  white  marble  fane  was  the  colossal  statue  of 
Zeus,  calm  and  majestic.  On  either  side  of  the  sacred  way  was 
a  smiling  figure  of  the  loving  Mother,  greeting  novitiates,  as  they 
were  led,  crowned  with  myrtle,  to  her  doorway.  Here  they  halted, 
and  were  baptised  with  holy  water,  and  asked  in  a  solemnly  intoned 
chant :  ''  Art  thou  free  from  crime,  pure  in  word  and  deed  :  only  if 
so  enter  thou  here,  else  will  the  gods  destroy  thee,  and  this  portal 
will  be  to  thee  the  shadow  of  death.  Though  weak  and  thoughtless, 
if  thou  aspire  to  combat  the  world,  and  to  perfect  thyself,  approach 
the  gods,  and  they  will  help  thee."  Baptism  was  the  first,  and  the 
most  important,  rite  of  Eleusis.  The  hierophant  then  relinquished 
his  original  name  forever,  if  a  priest,  receiving  a  new  and  holy  name, 
which  could  only  be  told,  under  seal  of  secrecy,  and  to  initiates  (see 
Rev.  ii,  17). 

The  "  Greater  Mysteries  "  were  those  of  the  month  Boedromion, 
lasting  nine  days  at  the  season  of  ingathering,  in  September  and 
October.  They  began  with  fasting,  and  baptism  in  the  sea,  with 
solemn  processions,  and  offerings  of  fish,  fruits,  and  grain,  to  the 
gods  —  or  rather  to  their  priests.  Women  then  carried  mystic 
"cists,"  or  boxes,  symbolising  the  expected  fruits  to  be  received 
from  the  deities.  There  were  torch-light  processions  in  honour  of 
lakkhos,  son  of  De-meter,  with  sacrifices  following.  The  worshipers 
partook  of  the  Eucbaristic  cake  (see  Buns),  with  fruits,  and  water 
mingled  with  wine.  They  then  broke  up,  to  celebrate  games  and 
rejoicings,  when  universal  licence  was  permitted  (see  Africa,  and 
Australia).  There  was  (as  among  savages)  need  for  the  oaths  of 
secrecy  which  were  demanded  of  the  initiates :  for,  according  to 
Lenormant  (following  ancient  writers),  they  were  conducted  to  a 
dark  chamber  to  witness  the  "great  sacrifice  of  nature"  performed 
by  a  god  and  a  godess.  The  lesser  mysteries  took  place  in  the  month 
Anthest^rion,  in  February,  beginning  with  the  sacrifice  of  a  sow,  with 
rites  as  above,  but  now  lugubrious  since  fear  for  the  newly  buried  seed 
kept  the  hearts  of  all  in  a  state  of  doubt  and  dread. 

[Arnobius  and  Clement  of  Alexandria  appear  to  have  been  initiates, 
and  hint  plainly  at  the  phallic  emblems,  revealed  to  epopts  after  "many 
sighings  of  the  seers."  That  the  initiated  believed  in  nothing  but 
the  dual  principle  of  nature  (see  Druses)  seems  to  be  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  Alcibiades,  after  initiation,  mutilated  the  statues  of  Hermes 
at  Athens.  Sokrates  spoke  of  the  mysteries  as  giving  glorious  hopes  of 
immortality.  Cicero  said  that  the  initiates  not  only  received  lessons 
that  made  life  more  agreeable,  but  that  they  also  drew  from  them 


Eleutheria  47 

hopes  for  the  moment  of  death.  At  Eleusis  the  wandering  mother  had 
offered  herself  as  a  nurse  for  Demoph5on,  the  child  of  King  Celeus,  and 
the  parents  were  alarmed  to  find  her  bathing  the  infant  with  fire.  The 
passers-by  were  greeted  by  the  celebrants  with  rude  jests.  A  posset 
of  barley  meal,  mint,  and  water  was  drunk.  The  greater  mysteries,  in 
autumn,  were  held  as  follows : — 1st  day,  that  of  assembly ;  2nd,  of 
baptism,  with  the  cry  "  Mistai  to  the  Sea,"  where  they  were  purified 
on  the  shore  hard  by ;  3rd,  the  fast  day ;  4th,  the  day  of  baskets, 
holding  pomegranates  and  poppy  seeds,  and  borne  on  a  car,  together 
with  the  kistai,  or  chests,  carried  by  women ;  5th,  the  day  of  lamps 
and  torches ;  6th,  the  great  day  of  lakkhos  (Dionusos),  with  a  pro- 
cession carrying  his  statue  :  by  night  the  epopts  were  initiated  ;  7th, 
the  day  of  jests  and  games ;  8th,  that  of  Epidauria,  in  honour  of  the 
healing  god  Asklepios ;  9th,  the  day  of  libations,  when  water  was 
poured  out  towards  the  east,  and  wine  towards  the  west  See  F. 
Lenormant,  Elevsia^  1860  :  Voie  Sacrie  Meusinienne,  1864. — Ed.] 

Eleutheria.  Rites  celebrated  at  Eleuthera  in  Boiotia,  by  tribes 
claiming  descent  from  Aithusa,  a  daughter  of  Poseidon.  They  adored 
Dionusos  as  an  incarnation  of  Helios,  the  sun,  with  sacrifices  of  bulls, 
and  very  licentious  customs. 

Elicius.  Latin.  A  name  for  Jupiter.  Numa's  altar  to  Elicius 
stood  on  the  Aventine  hill. 

Elijah.  Elish'a.  Hebrew  prophets,  of  whom  there  were  many 
mythical  tales.  Their  names  mean  "  Yah  is  my  God,"  and  "  God 
saves."  Elijah,  among  Arabs,  is  the  mysterious  el-Khudr — "  the 
green  one"  (who  is  also,  atnong  Christians,  St  George),  typifying 
verdant  nature  (see  Green).  He  is,  with  Enoch,  one  of  the  fabled 
guardians  of  paradise.  The  Jews,  from  the  middle  ages  downwards, 
have  regarded  Elijah  as  a  mysterious  being  who  guards  men  from  birth 
to  death.  He  beats  those  who  pray  behind  (or  N.  of)  a  synagogue. 
At  weddings  a  chair  is  placed  for  him,  as  also  at  the  Passover.  His 
father,  Sabak,  foresaw  his  birth  ajs  a  babe  wrapped  in  swaddling  bands 
of  fire.  Priests  foretold  that  his  words  should  be  as  fire,  and  never 
fail  to  be  fulfilled  {De  Vita  Porphyr.).  He  is  the  "  angel  of  the 
covenant/'  and  the  "  messenger"  (Malachi  iii,  1).  He  assumed  many 
forms  to  bless  the  faithful,  appearing  as  a  nobleman,  a  reptile,  and  a 
harlot  (see  authorities  in  Proc.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  May  1886).  He 
will  return  to  earth  three  days  before  the  coming  of  the  Messiah. 
He  lives  in  the  5th  heaven,  under  the  tree  of  life,  eating  its  fruit,  and 
drinking  the  water  of  life.     He  lays  the  head  of  the  Messiah  on  his 


4S  Elohim 

bosom.  Baying,  *'Be  still,  for  the  end  is  nigh."  His  body  has  never 
tasted  death,  for  Tahveh  promised  him  immortality  as  the  destroyer 
of  the  priests  of  Ba'aL  He  is  much  respected  as  Elias  by  Christiaos, 
in  W.  Asia  and  Greece,  and  he  has  a  wooden  statue  on  KarmeL  In 
the  Old  Testament  Elijah  the  Tishbite  appears  as  a  meteor  from 
Qilead,  and  destroys  men  with  fire.  The  largest  cup  is  filled  to  the 
brim,  and  set  for  him  on  the  Passover  table  (see  Hershon,  Talmvdie 
Miscellany),  The  voice  of  Elijah,  says  Rabbi  Yassi  (Berakoth),  is 
"  like  the  cooing  of  a  dove  " ;  but  he  is  specially  angry  with  idolators : 
a  small  child  who,  when  famishing,  pressed  an  image  to  its  bosom,  was 
killed  by  him  in  a  horribly  cruel  manner  (Sanhed/rin,  Hershon, 
p.  171).  He  was  bold  in  "charging  God  with  turning  Israel's  heart 
to  evil"  {TaZ.  Bab.  Sanhedrin,  113,  B) ;  for  he  is  a  "passionate  man." 
He  ascended  to  heaven  in  the  "  chariot  of  Israel,"  after  miraculonsly 
dividing  Jordan  by  means  of  his  mantle.  In  S.  Europe  the  20th 
July  is  his  day,  but  Christians  generally  dedicate  the  1 4th  June  to 
St  Elias.  A  double  portion  of  his  spirit  fell  on  Elish'a,  who  also 
crossed  Jordan  dryshod,  and  raised  the  dead  like  Elijah.  He  fed  his 
followers  on  miraculous  food,  and  increased  the  supply  of  oil  for  a 
widow,  as  did  Elijah ;  he  made  iron  float,  and  healed  the  waters ; 
while  Elijah  wajs  fed  by  ravens,  and  tended  by  an  angeL  Elish'a  slew 
the  children  who  mocked  him  as  being  bald  (or  rayless),  by  aid  of  the 
wintry  bears.  The  monastery  of  Mar  Elias,  between  Jerusalem  and 
Bethlehem,  marks  the  spot  where  Elijah  was  born  (or  one  of  them), 
and  preserves  his  foot  or  body  mark.  Ilias,  accoixling  to  Moslems, 
"  still  lives,  for  he  drank  of  the  fountain  of  life ;  and  will  live  till  the 
day  of  judgment" 

Elohim.      Hebrew  :  "  god,"  and  also  "  gods."     See  El. 

Elora.  This  site,  celebrated  for  its  caves  and  rock  temples,  is 
150  miles  N.E.  of  Bombay,  in  the  Aurangbad  hills,  which  run  K  and 
S.,  and  curve,  in  crescent  form,  on  the  east  of  the  town  of  Elar  or 
Yelur,  which  has  long  been  famous  for  its  holy  kund,  or  tank, 
probably  the  centre  which  caused  the  excavation  of  the  caves  (see 
Capt.  Seely's  octavo  on  the  site,  1824,  p.  311).  It  is  popularly 
believed  that  a  Raja  Edu,  or  Elu,  was  healed  by  its  waters,  in  our 
8th  century,  coming  from  EUich-pur;  and  that  he  founded  the 
village ;  but  some  of  the  Buddhist  caves  may  be  as  old  as  the  2nd 
century  b.c.  There  are  in  all  30  caves,  or  more,  literally  covered 
from  floor  to  roof  with  elaborate  carvings,  often  leaving  hardly  a  span 
of  space  between  them :  every  curve  and  line  in  the  carefully 
executed   figures   has  some   reference  to   the  mythological   ideas  of 


Elora  49 

Hindus.  Capt.  Seely  says  that  these  caves  contain  three  times  as 
many  figures  as  can  be  found  in  the  200  caves  of  Salsette.  An 
artist  deputed  by  the  Bombay  Government  to  draw  them  said  this 
would  require  the  labours  of  40,000  men  for  40  years  (Archceologia, 
vii,  p.  336  ;  Seely,  p.  328).  The  Buddhist  caves  are  to  the  south, 
and  the  Jain  caves  to  the  north,  of  the  central  Hindu  caves.  Out  of  the 
total  of  30  there  are  12  still  recognisable  as  Buddhist,  and  5  as  Jaina, 
in  one  of  which  latter  is  a  colossal  statue  of  one  of  their  Tirthankaras, 
or  saints  (see  plan,  Rivera  of  Life,  plate  iv).  The  Qhat  road  ascends 
to  the  central  caves,  the  Buddhist  group  being  about  1^  miles  to  the 
south.  All  the  caves  face  nearly  due  west,  so  that  the  light  of  the 
afternoon  sun  shines  into  them.  In  the  oval  lake,  or  kund,  is  a 
conical  islet,  all  the  features  of  the  site  being  thus  such  as  ancient 
nature  worshipers  usually  selected.  Hence  Sivaites  say  that  this  was 
a  place  very  early  recognised  as  a  Sivala-Tiriut,  or  place  of  pilgrimage. 
The  caves  however,  and  not  the  kund,  now  attract  the  attention  of 
Brahmans,  of  whom  native  princes  still  maintain  a  host  at  Elur,  none 
other  being  allowed  by  them  to  touch  the  holy  waters.  Siva  no 
doubt  was  symbolised  by  the  cone  in  the  lake  (a  lingam  in  an 
Argha)  which  recalls  that  of  the  Davinish,  or  *' god's  island,"  at 
Enniskillen. 

The  caves  include  ten  principal  ones,  in  order  of  importance  as 
follows.  The  Kaildaa  (Siva's  Paradise) :  the  Dha/rma  (or  "  religion's 
cave ") :  the  iTidra-eabha  ("  Indra's  cave ")  :  the  Tin-tal  (or  three 
storeyed):  the  Viefxi- Karma  Saiha:  the  NUdkantha  (a  shrine  of 
"  blue  throated  "  Siva) :  the  Rama  cave :  the  Jana-vdea  {"  nuptial 
hall ") :  the  Das-Avatdr  cave  (of  "  ten  incarnations  ") ;  and  the  shrine 
of  Jagor-Tidtha,  The  details  are  fairly  described  by  Capt.  Seely,  after 
a  fortnight's  residence  at  Elur  in  1810  (see  also  the  papers  of  Sir 
C.  W.  Malet  in  1794,  Asiatic  Res.,  vi :  and  the  works  of  Fergusson 
and  Burgess).  But  some  features  are  not  understood  by  those  who 
have  not  studied  the  growth  of  faiths. 

Mr  Burgess,  the  archsBoIogical  surveyor,  considers  the  Kailas- 
Sabha  to  be  purely  Dravidian.  The  kneeling  bull  guards  the 
entrance,  under  a  pillared  canopy,  facing  the  fine  central  hall  beyond 
which  is  the  Holy  of  Holies,  with  its  Sri-linga  in  the  Argha ;  and  a 
great  dome  with  spiral  symbolic  tracery  rises  above.  The  wide  area 
adjoining  is  occupied  by  great  pillars,  and  couchant  elephants ;  and 
two  large  columns  (like  Jachin  and  Boaz)  stand  in  the  outer  facade. 
Everywhere  near  we  find  figures  of  BaJa-Bama,  Bhlma,  Vira-Bhadra, 
and  other  types  of  the  Hindu  Hercules.  The  latter,  the  eight-armed 
son  of  Siva,  rises  out  of  one  of  the  lingams  (Asiatic  Res.,  vi,  p.  409). 


50  Elora 

In  the  Jana-vasa  also  all  creation  is  seen  issuing  fron^t  the  liugam  of 
Vishnu :  it  is  the  primary  Jarva,  or  "  birth  "  of  human  forms — or 
perhaps  of  those  apelike  beings  described  in  some  Puranas ;  while 
Siva  and  Parvati  are  represented  in  nuptial  embraces,  od  an  en- 
tablature supported  by  the  eight-handed,  five-headed  Yira-Bhadra ; 
two  joyous  apes  peer  out  of  a  crevice,  pointing  to  the  scene  above 
them,  as  the  means  of  their  coming  into  existence  (plate,  p.  396, 
Asiatic  Res,),  Vishnu  looks  on  also  as  an  assistant  of  Maha-Deva 
(Siva) ;  but  elsewhere  he  is  the  principal  figure.  These  caves  indeed 
furnish  representations  of  every  legend  and  doctrine  of  Vedik,  £pik, 
and  Puranik  mythology :  of  Vedik  cosmogony  as  well  as  of  the 
creation  by  Brahma.  The  presiding  deity  has  usually  a  solar  nimbus, 
but  the  assistants  have  invariably  the  conical,  phallic  headdress  (see 
Rivera  of  Life,  i,  p.  185). 

The  symbolic  pillars  standing  in  the  entrances,  or  in  the  principal 
inner  chapels,  are  now  known  as  Dvipans,  or  "  light-shafts  '*  (compare 
the  great  cones  of  Saivat,  and  near  the  Futtepur  shrine,  Rivera  of 
Life,  ii,  p.  254,  plate  xiii).  In  the  Indra-Sabha,  says  Capt.  Seely 
(p.  243),  are  two  remarkable  slender  pillars  to  which  magical  powers 
are  supposed  to  be  attached,  because  when  struck  "  they  yield  a  deep 
hollow  sound,  which  continues  for  about  a  quarter  of  a  minute.'' 
Here  too  are  huge  elephants  typifying  the  wisdom  of  Indra ;  and 
elephants,  with  lions,  are  commonly  carved  on  the  pillar  capitals,  with 
solar  discs,  which  however  the  fanatical  soldiers  of  Aurungzebe's 
armies  have  often  destroyed.  This  great  emperor  died  in  the  Elora 
district  in  17 17  A.c.  His  tomb,  and  that  of  his  wife,  are  the  great 
sights  at  Aurangabad,  not  far  S.W.  of  Elora. 

Fergusson  says  that  these  cave  pillars  had  a  **  flame  "  above  them 
(like  obelisks),  though  the  artists  omit  this.  He  thinks  the  Kailasa 
cave  was  carved  as  it  now  is  by  Cheras  or  Cholas — true  phallic  wor- 
ehipers  (see  those  headings).  They  probably  were  here  dominant  about 
750  to  950  A.C. ;  and  this  would  account  for  the  abundance  of 
serpent,  and  phallic,  symbols.  The  whole  designs  of  this  cave, 
including  the  sitting  bull,  seem  to  belong  to  a  single  period  which 
cannot  have  been  one  of  Buddhist  rule.  Here  we  find  Bhavani  seated 
near  Anapurna,  godess  of  abundance ;  and  Krishna  trampling  on  the 
iCalya-Naga  of  the  Jamuna.  Beside  eternal  Brahma,  who  however 
has  rarely  even  an  altar,  we  see  Vithoba,  a  rude  local  Avatara  of 
Vishnu,  and  Bhairava  the  early  phallic  Siva.  There  are  chapels  to 
Visva-Karma — the  Indian  Vulcan  who  is  even  said  to  have  made 
Brahma  (see  under  these  two  names).  We  have  also  Vishnu  on 
bis   watery   couch   with   Sesha  the  serpent  above  him  :  and  in  the 


Elvand  61 

Jaga-natha  cave  a  frieze  represents  two  serpents  entertwined  as  on  the 
Caduceus  (Asiatic  Rea,,  vi,  p.  389).  Nude  figures  of  males,  and 
females,  with  serpents,  occur  in  the  Indra-Sabha  {Asiatic  Res,,  p.  392, 
and  Fergusson's  Indian  Architecture),  Cobras,  with  3,  5,  or  7  hoods 
and  strange  half  human  heads,  cover  the  canopies  above  the  lingams. 
Some  of  these  stand  on  3  steps  in  their  Arghas :  others  are  over- 
shadowed by  a  cobra's  hood.  The  sacred  odd  numbers  3,  5,  7,  and  9, 
at  Elora,  are  repeated  iu  groups  of  divine  figures,  in  steps,  and  in  the 
hoods  of  the  Nagas.  Indra  and  Indrani,  with  attendants,  sit  each 
under  a  Tree  of  Life,  that  of  Indrani  bearing  symbolical  egg-shaped 
fruits.  She  also  appears  on  a  lion  or  a  tiger:  and  she  bears  her  sun-babe 
in  her  lap,  both  mother  and  child  holding  up  the  fore-finger  of  the 
right  hand  (see  Eye).  Indra  rides  on  his  elephant,  and  four  peacocks 
are  perched  on  his  tree  (see  Fingers,  Pad,  Peacock).  Both  deities  have 
as  usual  the  left  foot  doubled  over  in  front  of  their  lower  parts. 
The  "horses  of  the  sun''  (2  Kings  xxiii,  11)  are  also  carved  at  Elora, 
as  well  as  a  sun-god  with  seven  horses*  heads ;  and  there  are  many 
zodiakal  emblems,  and  groups  of  twelve  figures. 

In  the  undoubted  Buddhist  and  Jaina  caves  we  find  shrines  of 
Adi-nath,  the  primeval  deity,  and  numerous  cells  for  monks,  each  with 
a  resting  place,  and  a  spring  of  clear  water.  But  the  Buddha  is 
strangely  associated  with  emblems  of  the  older  Bod  worship  (see  Bud), 
no  doubt  as  the  later  Budha  Avatara  of  Vishnu.  He  appears  often 
nude,  and  always  with  the  thick  lips  and  elongated  ears,  given  to  him 
by  non-Aryans  (see  Buddha).  The  progress  of  Neo-Brahmanism  is 
represented  also  at  Elora,  in  the  Haldl-Kor  Sabha,  or  **  low-caste  cave  " 
— a  name  probably  given  by  Brahmans  to  a  Buddhist's,  or  "  heretic's  " 
shrine. 

Kurma,  the  turtle,  only  appears  once,  "  standing,"  says  Capt. 
Seely,  "by  itself  like  the  sphynx  at  Kailas."  We  have  evidently 
much  still  to  learn  as  to  the  symbolism  of  these  and  other  famous 
Indian  caves. 

« 

Elvand  El  vend.  This  is  the  Baga-vand,  or  Boga-vati  of 
ancient  Persians  (see  Damavand  and  Elburz) :  a  high  conical  mountain 
overlooking  Hamadan  (see  Ekbatana).  It  is  the  eastern  peak  of  the 
range  N.  of  Teheran,  to  which  also  belongs  further  W.  the  Tak:t-i- 
Suleiman. 

Elves*  In  German  Elbes ;  plural  of  elf.  Spirits  of  woods, 
hills,  and  streams,  usually  mischievous,  and  much  feared  by  our 
ancestors.  They  presided  specially  over  metals  (see  Daktuloi).  The 
aame  may  mean  ''Alpine"  spirits. 


52  'Elion 

'Elidn.  Phoenician :  "  the  most  high."  The  deity  also  of 
Melkisedek  (Gen.  xiv,  18,  19)  whom  Abraham  is  represented  to  have 
identitied  with  Tahveh  (ver.  22). 

Empedokles.  A  native  of  Sicily,  about  450  B.C.  He  was  a 
man  of  wealth  and  learning,  who  embraced  the  atomic  theory  of 
DSmokritos  (see  that  heading),  and  affirmed  that  all  nature  evolved 
under  fixed  laws,  without  the  inteiference  of  the  gods.  With  poetic 
fancy  he  spoke  of  atoms  combined  or  separated  through  love  and 
hate.  He  thus  anticipated  our  modern  theory,  and  our  discoveries  as  to 
attractions  and  repulsions.  He  said  that  unfit  combinations  endured 
only  for  a  time,  to  be  succeeded  by  others,  and  that  matter  was  but 
the  combination  of  unalterable  and  substantial  atoms,  which  he 
called  "  the  roots  of  things."  He  distinguished  four  elements,  fire,  air, 
water,  and  earth,  deified,  he  said,  as  Zeus,  Hera,  NSstis,  and  Aidoneus. 
These  he  supposed  to  be  simple  elementary  substances,  eternal  and 
unalterable,  which  united  mechanically  according  to  properties  of 
attraction  and  repulsion.  He  conceived  them  to  be  constituted  by 
spheres  of  pure  existence,  offering  equal  resistance  in  every  direction, 
and  embodying  the  ideas  of  pure  divinity,  united  by  Love.  Like  the 
Eleatiks  he  spoke  of  a  "  holy  and  infinite  Spirit  passing  through  the 
world  with  rapid  thoughts  ...  an  eternal  power  of  Necessity "  (see 
Prof  Brandis.  Smith's  Dicty.  Or.  and  Rorn^  Biogr.).  Empedokles 
insists  on  good  moral  conduct,  as  the  best  preventive  of  disease,  since 
all  things  so  follow  their  natural  course.  He  was  extolled  as  an 
"  averter  of  evils,"  and  even  as  a  "  controller  of  storms,"  his  disciples 
saying  that  he  accomplished  this  miraculously :  that  he  drained 
marshes,  and  quelled  noxious  winds,  and  epidemics  :  that  he  cured 
strange  malignant  diseases,  and  prolonged  lives.  He  was  supposed  to 
desire  that  men  should  regard  him  as  being  an  incarnate  god.  It  was 
an  age  of  varied  movements ;  and  Empedokles  was  acquainted  with 
Anaxagoras,  Parmenides,  Pausanias,  and  the  Pythagoreans :  he  was 
also  said  to  have  visited  Magi.  He  believed  in  transmigrations  of 
souls ;  and  Aristotle  places  him  among  the  "  lonik "  physiologists, 
holding  that  an  existence  could  as  little  be  supposed  to  pass  into 
non-existence  as  that  the  non-existent  could  pass  into  existence, 
since  *'from  nothing  nothing  comes/'  Thus  a  complete  final 
annihilation  (of  the  universe),  is,  he  said,  impossible ;  and  life  and 
death  are  mere  questions  of  mixture  and  separation. 

En.     Akkadian  :  ''  Lord«"     See  An 

Endor.     Hebrew  *Ain-Dorf  "spring  of  habitation*"     Now  the 


Endiimion  58 

village   Andur  on  a  rocky  slope,  with  caves,  4  miles  S.  of  Tabor. 
It  is  feunous  for  its  witch  (1  Sam.  xxviii,  3-25),  see  Ob. 

Endumion.  Endymion.  The  slumbering  beautiful  sun,  of 
Karia,  and  Olumpos,  with  whom  SelenS  (the  "  shining  "  moon)  fell  in 
love,  descending  to  kiss  him  in  the  cave  of  Mt.  Latmos  (probably 
"  oblivion "  like  Lethe,  from  the  root  lot  "  to  hide ") :  he  is  the 
opposite  to  Hyperion  (Huper-ion),  and  the  setting  as  contrasted 
¥rith  the  rising  sun.  Endumion  had  toiled  like  his  father  Aithlios, 
and  had  wandered  with  Asterodia  (the  "  starry  ").  He  sank  at  last 
to  rest  below,  as  the  moon  rose  above  him.  By  her  he  had  fifty 
daughters,  and  others  by  other  godesses.  He  had  loved  Hdra ;  and 
Zeus  cast  him  into  everlasting  slumber  on  Latmos  in  consequence. 
He  was,  like  all  sun-gods,  a  shepherd  and  a  hunter.  A  shrine  was 
erected  to  him  on  Olumpos,  whence  he  could  be  seen  sinking  into  his 
^*  grave  " — a  "  glowing  western  spot "  on  the  hills  of  Elis,  as  seen  by 
those  who  ran  races  in  his  honour  in  the  plain  below  Olumpos. 
Pausanias  (viii,  1)  here  found  his  tomb,  where  Arkadians,  Argives, 
and  Akhaians,  daily  saw  him  die. 

Enoch.  The  name  both  of  a  mythical  hero  and  of  his  city 
— KhanvJc  in  Hebrew,  or  Hanuk,  [This  may  be  the  Akkadian 
Khan-uk  "great  chief"  and  Un-ug  "great  city":  the  latter  was 
firecli  near  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates. — EId.]  He  is  variously 
called  a  son  of  l^ain  (Gen.  iv,  17),  and  seventh  in  descent  from 
Adam  (Gen.  v,  19) :  he  "  walked  with  God  "  for  365  years  (or  days), 
and  "  was  not,  for  God  took  him."  This  "  translation,"  and  that  of 
Elijah,  established  the  doctrine  of  immortality  according  to  the 
Pharisees  ;  but  they  forgot  that  they  had  not  established  the  reality 
of  either  of  these  mythical  events.  Enoch  was  supposed  to  have 
invented  astronomy  and  arithmetic  ;  and  the  authors  of  the  Epistles 
to  the  Hebrews  and  of  Jude  knew  much  about  him  which  we  do  not 
know  (Heb.  xi,  5  ;  Jude  14),  as  for  instance  his  prophecy.  Later 
legends  connected  him  with  Behemoth  ;  and  he  is  commemorated  as 
unlike  any  other  man  (Ecclus.  xlix,  14).  The  Arabs  called  him 
Idris  (l^oran  xix),  "  exalted  by  Allah  to  a  high  place "  (see  Elijah). 
He  is  perhaps  the  Anak  of  a  Phrygian  legend,  who  predicted  the 
flood  of  Deukalion — a  Phoenician  story. 

Enoch — Book  of.  An  important  apokaluptik  Jewish  book, 
supposed  to  have  been  written  in  the  1st  or  2nd  century  B.C.  It 
seems  to  be  quoted  in  the  Epistles  of  Jude  and  Barnabas,  and  was 
known  to  Christians  of   our  first  three  centuries,  including  Justin, 


£4  Enoch — Book  of 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  Irenseus,  TertuUian,  and  Origen.  TeTtuUian  j 
(190  to  210  A.C.)  called  it  "a  divinely  inspired  book  of  the  immortal  ! 
patriarch  .  .  .  which  Noah  preserved  in  the  Ark  .  .  .  Jews  disavowed  : 
it  because  it  speaks  of  Christ."  The  credulous  African  "father"  . 
quotes  Hebrews  (zi,  5)  and  Jude  (14),  to  prove  that  it  is  as  holy  as 
any  other  Hebrew  scriptures.  Origen,  adopting  this  view,  gives  it 
authority  equal  to  that  of  the  Psalms,  quoting  its  doctrine  (xl,  8,  9) 
as  to  angels ;  but  the  bishops  of  the  4th  century  rejected  it,  and  it 
was  lost  to  Europe  by  the  time  of  Augustine  (6th  century),  though 
George  the  Syncellus  (800  a.c.)  notices  fragments  of  it  as  still  to  he 
found  in  the  East  lu  1773  Bruce  brought  a  Coptic  version  from 
Abyssinia,  presenting  one  copy  to  the  Paris  library,  and  a  second  to 
the  Bodleian.  Dr  Laurence,  Archbishop  of  Cashel,  and  Hebrew  Pro- 
fessor at  Oxford,  translated  it  in  1821  ;  and  Dr  Dillmau  (1853) 
rendered  it  into  German.  This  edition  was  edited  by  the  Rev.  K  H. 
Charles,  M.A.,  at  Oxford  in  1893,  and  is  probably  the  best.  [There 
is  the  usual  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  integrity  and  age  of  the 
text,  but  it  is  generally  regarded  as  a  work  extant  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  with  corruptions  and  glosses  by  Christian  copyists.  Much  of 
the  matter  which  it  contains  recalls  the  Persian  literature  (see  Bun- 
dahish)  which  was  apparently  known  to  Pharisees.  It  has  been  called 
the  ''  Semitic  Milton  " ;  and  Enoch,  guided  by  an  angel  through  the 
various  hells,  recalls  the  vision  of  Dante.  Ewald  divides  the  book 
into  six  parts :  it  begins  with  an  account  of  the  fallen  angels  and 
giants  (see  Gen.  vi,  1-4),  and  of  Enoch's  travels  through  heaven,  earth, 
and  hell  (i  to  xxxvi) ;  the  second  ''  Vision  of  Wisdom  "  relates  to 
angels  and  the  Messiah  (xxxvii  to  Ixxi)  ;  the  third  part  treats  of 
the  sun,  moon,  stars,  four  winds,  and  other  matters  (Ixxii  to  Ixxxii); 
the  fourth  includes  two  visions  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Messiah  (Ixxxiii 
to  xci);  the  fifth  (xcii  to  cv)  contains  various  admonitions;  the  sixth 
(cvi  to  cviii)  includes  appendices  as  to  wonders  connected  with  the 
birth  of  Noah,  and  concerning  the  future  of  the  just  and  the  unjust — 
Ed.] 

According  to  Enoch,  the  Messiah  is  "  a  son  of  God  "  (cv  :  called 
also  ''son  of  woman/'  Ixii)  ''whose  name  was  named  before  the  sun, 
and  the  signs,  were  made  .  .  .  who  existed  secretly  from  the  begin- 
ning in  presence  of  God."  Though  he  is  the  Elect,  Righteous,  and 
Anointed,  yet  he  is  the  Son  of  Man,  and  of  Woman  (see  Logos). 
Enoch  exults  in  the  triumph  of  "  faith  and  truth  '* ;  he  peoples  the 
world  with  legions  of  angels  ;  he  sees  "  hosts  of  heaven,  and  of  eternal 
darkness  " ;  he  believes  in  Satan  and  in  the  doom  of  the  wicked,  as  well 
as  in  the  glorious  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  in  the  future,  when  the 


En-zu-na  65 

pious  will  enjoy  peace  and  plenty,  and  have  1000  children  each. 
But  the  ResurrectioD  (xci-civ)  will  be  spiritual,  the  righteous  being  as 
the  angels  in  heaven,  whose  chants  Enoch  heard.  The  book  appears 
to  have  been  written  (in  Hebrew,  or  in  Aramaik)  by  a  Jew  of  Pales- 
tine. It  was  translated  into  Greek  and  other  tongues,  receiving 
additions  and  emendations  through  the  ages.  Archbishop  Laurence 
placed  it  as  late  as  36  B.C.,  or  in  the  early  years  of  Herod  the  Great. 
The  expansion  of  the  original  continued  for  at  least  a  century.  We 
may  trace  in  it  the  Buddhist  influence  on  Jewish  ascetics  (see  Essenes). 
Men  are  exhorted  to  walk  quietly  in  the  "  paths  of  righteousness," 
expecting  death  without  sorrow.  Enoch  denounces  iniquity,  injustice, 
and  distrust  of  his  God ;  he  hears  a  voice  from  heaven  say,  "  The 
elect  shall  inherit  the  earth  .  .  .  joy  and  peace  .  •  .  they  will  sit 
on  thrones  of  glory,  while  for  those  who  reject  the  Lord  it  were  better 
tbey  had  never  been  bom  ;  for  an  everlasting  fire  awaits  them 
hereafter "  —  a  direful  doctrine  eagerly  accepted  and  propagated  by 
Christians,  based  perhaps  on  the  great  Mazdean  beliefs,  which  domin- 
ated Western  Asia  after  SOO  B.C.  and  are  found  to  have  been  known 
in  Asia  Minor  in  Roman  times  (see  Hamilton's  texts.  No.  193).  From 
Persia  Enoch  may  have  gleaned  that  the  righteous  would  become 
angels  in  heaven  (li),  and  that  "great  punishment  follows  great 
iniquity  "  (xc).  The  **  gates  of  heaven  "  (Ixxi)  seem  to  be  borrowed 
from  the  account  of  Ahura-mazda's  heavenly  city.  Enoch  travelled 
through  the  universe  with  an  angel,  to  study  the  mysteries  of  creation ; 
yet,  like  other  simple  folk  of  the  age  when  the  book  was  written,  he 
thought  the  earth  to  be  the  centre  of  creation,  resting  on  a  "  comer 
stone."  He  ''  beheld  also  four  winds,"  and  the  pillars  of  heaven  with 
those  supporting  earth  (as  in  Job  and  the  Psalms)  :  yet  he  admonishes 
men  to  "  seek  for  wisdom  .  .  .  the  simple  will  perish  in  their  sim- 
plicity. ...  if  they  listen  not  to  the  wise  "  (xcvii). 

En-zu-na*  Akkadian :  "  lord  of  growth,"  a  title  of  Aku,  the 
moon-god  (Sinu,  in  Semitic  speech),  who  was  the  son  of  Mulge  (or 
Eu-lil)y  the  lord  of  Hades  and  of  ghosts.  The  name  may  also  be 
rendered  "  lord  of  wisdom." 

Eon.  Greek  aidna.  The  Greek  form  of  the  name  of  a  "  being  " 
pair  to  Protogonos  ("  the  first  bom  "),  children  of  the  wind  (Kolpias) 
and  of  his  wife  Baau  (**  the  depth  "),  according  to  Phoenician  myth- 
ology.    Eon  "  found  food  on  trees  "  like  Eve. 

Eds.  The  Greek  dawn  godess,  with  rosy  fingers  and  a  crown  of 
light ;  she  was  the  sister  of  Helios  and  Sel6n§  (sun  and  moon),  and 


66  Epaphus 

a  child  of  Huperion  (the  rising  sun)  and  of  Theia  (the  "bright" 
godess).  She  was  winged,  and  drove  a  chariot  with  four  swift  steeds. 
The  Latins  called  her  Aurora.  She  rises  from  the  couch  of  the  old 
immortal  (see  Tithonos),  over  the  all-encircling  ocean,  to  announce  the 
coming  of  the  Lord  of  Day.  Her  red  light  guides  him,  and  she 
becomes  Hemera  or  "  day."  She  wooed  many  heroes,  such  as  Orion, 
the  hunter  sun.  She  shut  up  the  aged  Tithdnos  in  a  chest  or  cave. 
Her  great  son,  Memnon,  king  of  the  Aithiopes  in  the  south,  was 
slain  by  the  solar  Akhilleus,  and  her  tears  then  fell  on  earth  as  the 
morning  dew.  Boreas  the  14.  wind,  and  other  such  figures,  were  her 
children  by  Astraios  the  "starry"  one.  She  loved  Kephalos  ("the 
head  "),  a  rising  sun  who  forsook  her,  and  slew  Procris  ("  the  dew  "), 
thus  drying  her  own  tears.  The  root  of  the  name  is  the  Aryan  Is  or 
Ua  "  bright  '*  (see  Ushas). 

Epaphus.  According  to  Greeks  the  first  king  of  Egypt  (see  To), 
whose  daughter's  son  colonised  the  Libyan  desert.  The  2nd  king  of 
the  6th  dynasty  was  Pepi,  and  the  last  of  the  Hyksos  was  Apepl 

Ephod.  Hebrew :  from  a  root  meaning  "  to  gird."  It  is  some- 
times rendered  stole,  or  "  stole,"  in  the  Greek  of  the  Old  Testament 
It  is  generally  regarded  as  being  a  vest,  or  tunic,  worn  by  priests  and 
kings  when  divining  in  the  presence  of  their  tribal  god.  [If  it  was  a 
"  stole,"  to  which  the  breastplate  was  attached,  it  may  compare  with 
the  Tallith  or  prayer  scarf,  worn  by  Jews  over  the  shoulders,  but  on 
the  head  during  prayer.  This  is  of  white  lamb's  wool — not  of  linen 
like  the  ephod — with  blue  stripes  and  fringes.  The  ephod  was 
embroidered  (Exod.  xxxix,  2),  and  had  a  '*  band  for  fastening  "  (verse 
5),  which  was  of  like  work.  The  breastplate  hung  from  gold  chains, 
fastened  by  the  two  onyx  stones  to  the  "  shoulders  "  or  "  sides  "  of  the 
ephod. — Ed.]  The  high  priest's  ephod  hare  the  zodiakal  amulet  of 
12  stones,  connected  with  the  12  tribes  of  Israel,  behind,  or  in  which 
were  the  Urim  and  Thummim  (see  Urim)  :  so  that  the  whole  garment 
resembled  the  vestments  of  Egyptian  and  other  priests :  [at  Mycense 
breastplates  of  gold  were  found,  and  another  in  an  Etruskan  tomb — 
Ed.].  Among  our  own  Druids,  who  wore  white  garments  like  Hebrew 
priests,  the  lodha-moran  was  a  **  plate  of  judgment,"  or  talisman  like 
the  Hebrew  "  breastplate  of  judgment "  (Identity  of  Heha.  and 
Druids,  probably  by  Godfrey  Higgins,  1829).  The  Polynesians  even 
had  such  emblems  of  their  god  Atua.  David,  as  a  priest-king,  danced 
before  the  ark  in  a  linen  ephod  (2  Sam.  vi,  14  ;  1  Chron.  xv,  27). 
The  priest  Ahimelech  had  one  at  Nob  (1  Sam  xxi,  9),  and  Abiathar 
his  son  carried  one  with  him  in  his  hand,  when  he  fled  to  David — ^a 


Epidauros  67 

linen  ephod  (1  Sam.  zxiii,  6,  9)  used  in  enquiring  of  God.  In  Saul's 
time  (after  the  massacre  at  Nob)  Hebrews  did  not  enquire  at  the  ark 
(see  1  Chron.  xiii,  3),  and  even  before  this  the  Qreek  translators  read 
"ephod'*  for  "ark"  (in  1  Sam.  xiv,  18).  Samuel  wore  an  ephod  at 
Shiloh  before  the  ark  was  lost  (1  Sam.  ii,  18),  and  it  was  a  regular 
symbol  at  any  shrine  yet  earlier  (Judges  viii,  27  ;  xvii,  5  ;  xviii,  14). 
Hindus  and  Buddhists  still  possess  a  talismanic  breastplate,  in  the 
Nava-Eatna  or  "  nine  gems  "  (see  Sir  G.  Birdwood,  Journal  of  Socy. 
of  Arts,  18th  March  1887). 

Epidauros.  One  of  the  earliest  religious  centres  of  the  Pelopon 
nesos,  called  "  holy  Epidauros."  It  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Karians  from  Asia  Minor,  and  was  as  old  as  Argos,  Muk6n6,  and 
Tiruns,  if  not  older.  lonians,  and  Dorians,  followed  the  Karians  ; 
but  the  city  fell,  with  others  of  Argolis,  in  the  Cth  century  B.C.; 
though  its  sanctuaries — especially  that  of  Askl^pios  some  5  miles 
inland — ^were  still  wealthy  and  venerated  in  the  2nd  century  B.C. ; 
and  famous  for  medical  cures,  even  after  they  had  been  robbed  by 
foreigners,  in  our  1st  century.  The  sacred  way  at  this  site  (now  the 
village  Pidavro)  led  west  from  the  port  to  the  shrine  of  Asklepios  in 
the  plain  enclosed  by  surrounding  mountains.  The  god  was  said  to 
have  been  suckled  by  a  goat  like  Zeus.  The  shrines  of  Apollo  and 
Artemis  stood  on  the  hills.  The  shrine  of  Asklepios  was  of  white 
marble,  and  circular — the  "  Labyrinthik  Tholos,"  in  which  he  sat  on 
a  throne,  staff  in  hand,  resting  his  left  on  a  serpent,  with  a  dog  at 
his  feet  There  were  temples  also  of  Dionusos,  Athene,  Here,  Artemis, 
and  AphroditS,  and  of  Apollo  Aiguptios,  indicating  Egyptian  influence. 
In  the  shrine  of  Asklepios  none  might  be  born,  or  die ;  but  rooms  for 
the  sick  were  provided  hard  by.  A  subterranean  passage  still  leads 
from  a  hole  in  the  ruined  walls,  connected  perhaps  with  an  oracle  (see 
Academy,  14th  Aug.  1886). 

Epikouros.  Epicureans.    Epikouros  was  bom  (342-341 

B.C.)  at  Samos,  and  began  life  as  a  poor  boy  studying  philosophic 
discipline.  He  was  in  Athens  for  four  years  from  the  age  of  14,  and 
at  the  time  when  Xenokratgs  was  teaching  in  the  Akademy.  His 
father  was  a  petty  "  klerikos,"  or  scribe,  at  Kolophon,  on  the  Ionian 
coast,  where  Epikouros  next  joined  him,  and  read  the  works  of 
Demokritos  of  Abdera  (see  Demokritos).  He  mastered  the  atomic 
theory  of  this  philosopher,  and  was  amazed  at  the  ignorance  of 
Athenian  teachers.  In  306  B.C.  he  was  settled  in  a  small  garden  in 
Athens,  which  he  watered  for  a  livelihood.  Diogenes  Laertius  says 
that  he  was  **  a  man  of  simple,  pure,  and  temperate  habits,  a  kind 


5»  Epikouros 

friend,  and  a  patriotic  citizen " ;  but  one  who  avoided  politics  and  i 
devoted  himself  to  philosophy,  with  the  object  of  showing  his  fellows 
how  to  lead  a  cheerful  independent  life.  He  was  an  invalid  for  many 
years,  bearing  his  sufferings  with  courage  and  patience,  and  showing 
an  affectionate  character.  Yet  few  great  minds  have  been  as  mud) 
misunderstood,  or  maligned,  in  spite  of  his  voluminous  writings.  His 
doctrine  of  the  pursuit  of  happiness  as  our  chief  aim — of  the  greatest 
Imppiness,  for  the  largest  number,  and  for  all  time — required  to  be 
carefully  handled,  being  as  hard  to  define  as  Plato's  god.  Men  were 
quite  willing  to  regard  happiuess  as  the  chief  good,  but  they  discarded 
the  otlier  definitions  of  this  good  man  in  regard  to  true,  prolonged, 
and  universal  happiness.  He  went  further  than  Aristippos  (see  that 
heading) ;  and  spoke  lightly  of  Aristotle's  school,  proclaiming  himself 
to  be  self-taught.  He  came  under  the  lash  of  powerful  sects  who 
culled  him  an  atheist,  a  libertine,  and  by  many  other  opprobrious 
epithets.  He  was  feared  by  the  ordinary  devout  and  ignorant  citizen, 
as  well  as  by  priests :  for  be  said  that  the  gods  were  mere  images  or 
idols,  phantoms  of  the  imagination,  in  a  world  of  atoms.  They  might 
exist  in  supreme  happiness,  but  tbey  did  not  interfere,  for  good  or  for 
ill,  with  the  world,  or  with  mankind — a  doctrine  which  took  from 
priests  and  politicians  their  power  of  controlling  the  masses,  through 
their  hopes  and  fears.  Epikouros  (like  Buddha)  said  that  pleasure 
rests  on  continual,  pure,  and  noble,  intellectual  enjoyment :  on  d-tn- 
raxia  and  dponia^  freedom  from  pain  and  trouble :  on  peace,  and  on 
the  happiness  bred  by  peace  of  mind.  It  must  not  be  transient,  but 
rest  in  quiet — the  pronesia  which  is  the  "  beginning  of  every  good." 
Rome  never  honoured  Epikouros,  nor  did  Cicero  understand  him 
aright,  though  he  strives  to  represent  his  views  in'  the  arguments  of 
Vellius  (De  Nat.  Deorum).  He  paints  Epikouros  as  "dreading 
nothing  so  much  as  seeming  to  doubt,''  and  **  speaking  as  one  just 
descended  from  a  council  of  the  gods " — many  of  whom  the  wise 
Samian  thought  to  permeate  space.  Greek  Epicureans  were  devoted 
to  their  master,  and  almost  worshiped  him  after  death.  They  were 
not  few  :  "  exceeding,"  says  Diogenes,  "  the  population  of  whole  towns." 
By  "  Nature  "  Epikouros  understood  a  material  entity,  moved  mechanic- 
ally by  its  properties.  Strato  (300  B.c.)  thought  the  same,  but  did 
not  enter  on  the  atomic  theory  of  Epikouros,  and  called  the  Law  of 
Nature  a  fluid  necessity  (see  Empedokles  and  Stoiks).  To  Epikouros 
the  god  of  Plato,  and  the  Pronoia  of  Stoiks,  were  indefinable  phantoms 
like  our  "  Providence " ;  and  he  laughed  at  the  idea  that  the  world 
was  endowed  with  sense  and  spirit.  His  atoms,  he  thought,  came 
together  in  a  vacuum  fortuitously,   but  were  yet  attracted  by  fixed 


Epimenides  69 

laws.  He  was  equally  opposed  to  popular  superstition  and  to  Stoik 
fatalism.  Yet  he  admitted  a  prol^pseia  or  "preconception/'  such  as 
mankind  generally  have  felt^  in  connection  with  the  idea  of  a  Qod. 
He  saw  that  men  had  recourse  to  the  explanation  of  divine  action 
when  unable  to  account  for  phenomena,  and  so  made  for  themselves 
an  awful  and  eternal  master. 

Cotta,  the  old  Roman  priest,  inclined  to  the  Akademik  doctrines, 
is  represented  (De  Nat.  Deorum^  187)  as  telling  the  Epicureans  that 
"  they— only  to  avoid  censure — do  not  deny  the  existence  of  the  gods 
.  .  .  they  believe  them  to  be  wholly  inactive,  and  regardless  of  every- 
thing/' They  had  no  belief  in  the  miraculous  (183),  and  said  that 
fear  of  the  gods  never  restrained  men  actually  from  evil  deeds. 
Epikouros  taught  that  ''he  is  not  godless  who  rejects  the  gods  of  the 
crowd,  but  rather  he  who  accepts  them."  The  greatest  disciple  of 
Epikouros  in  later  days  was  Lucretius. 

Epimenides.  A  Kretan  poet  and  sage  of  Enossos,  the  capital 
of  Minos,  living  a  meditative  life,  which  is  fabled  (as  among  Hebrews) 
to  have  lasted  for  5  or  7  generations.  The  Athenians  carried  him  to 
Athens,  to  stay  the  plague  in  596  B.C.  This  he  did,  ordering  the  city 
to  be  cleansed,  while  sundry  rites  and  sacrifices  satisfied  people  and 
priests.  The  only  reward  he  asked  was  a  decree  of  eternal  friendship 
between  Athens  and  Knossos.  He  was  called  one  of  the  Seven  Sages, 
but  best  known  as  an  Orphik  bard. 

EpiphEnius.  A  writer  of  Jewish  origin,  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity about  360  a.c,  and  born  about  320  to  310  A.C.,  near 
EleutheropoHs  (Beit  Jihrln)  in  S.  Palestine.  He  was  a  monk  who 
burned  with  zeal  for  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy.  He  became  a  bishop  in 
Cyprus,  and  a  famous  literary  character  (356  to  367  A.C.)  residing  at 
Salamis  or  Constantia.  He  aided  his  great  friend  Hilarion  in  estab- 
lishing monasticism  in  Syria :  and  he  opposed  the  Arians,  and  the 
Semi-Arians  whom  most  Eastern  bishops  favoured.  He  entered 
warmly  into  the  controversies  of  the  age ;  and  in  his  great  book  on 
Heresies  he  bade  Arabia  to  accept  the  dogma  of  the  '*  perpetual 
virginity"  of  Mary.  In  his  Ankv/rotos,  and  Panarion  (374  to 
377  A.c.)  he  attacks  Gnostiks,  Arians,  and  followers  of  Origen,  as 
*'  corrupt  heretics  who  knew  not  the  true  gospels,  and  taught  soul- 
destroying  errors."  He  said  that  "only  he,  Jerome,  and  Paulinus, 
knew  the  gospels."  He  apparently  accepted  the  doctrines  of  the 
2nd  Council — that  of  Constantinople — in  381  A.C.;  and  when  in 
Rome  lived  with  Jerome  at  the  house  of  his  patroness  Paula.  She 
visited  him  later  at  Salamis,  and  went  with  him  to  rejoin  Jerome  in 


60  Epiphany 

Palestine.  The  latter  called  Epiphanius  the  "  father  of  the  episcopate." 
He  was  wont  to  abuse  Origen  as  the  "  father  of  Arian  heresies/'  aod 
would  not  permit  monks  to  read  the  works  of  that  famous  writer 
(see  Origen).  In  spite  of  old  age  he  set  out,  in  394  A.a,  to  denounce 
the  Origenists  at  Jerusalem,  where  John,  the  bishop  of  the  city,  allowed 
him  to  preach  in  the  Church  of  the  Anastasis.  He  very  ungraciously 
denounced  John,  and  a  violent  quarrel  followed,  the  populace  taking 
his  side.  Even  Jerome  was  not  spared  as  having  leanings  to  Origen's 
teaching.  On  his  return  home  in  399  A.C.  he  expelled  Origenists,  and 
was  finally  ordered  to  Constantinople  by  Chrysostom,  with  whom  he  had 
refused  to  hold  communion.  He  died  on  board  ship  in  403  A.a  He 
is  mainly  remembered  as  an  enemy  of  heretics,  denouncing  80  heresies 
which  arose,  he  said,  between  his  own  time  and  that  of  the  birth  of 
Christ.  His  Panarion  was  described  as  a  "  box  containing  cures  for 
the  bites  of  the  bereticaJ  serpents."  Even  in  his  days  opinions  were 
still  very  unsettled.  His  disquisitions  are  prolix,  and  we  cannot  feel 
assured  that  his  statements  are  reliable,  for  he  called  those  who 
dififered  from  him  wild  beasts,  vipers,  infidels,  etc.  He  is  not  to  be 
confused  with  Epiphanius  Scholasticus  (about  510  A.C.),  the  chaplain 
and  amanuensis  of  CassiodOrus,  the  famous  abbot  of  the  Monasterium 
Vivarieuse,  and  a  translator  of  Greek  and  Latin  scriptures,  and  of 
other  works  such  as  those  of  the  Greek  historians  Socrates,  Sozomen, 
and  Theodoret,  as  well  as  of  Josephus. 

Epiphany.  The  feast  of  *'  manifestation,"  12  days  after  Christ- 
mas, when  traditionally  the  Magi  visited  Bethlehem.  Their  names 
are  usually  given  as  Caspar,  Melchior,  and  Balthasar,  sons  respectively 
of  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet.  Even  to  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century  kings  used  to  offer  gold,  frankincense,  and  myrrh,  at  this 
feast  in  memory  of  these  "  Three  Kings " ;  and  Romans  then  still 
flocked  to  the  Ara  Coelior  "  altar  of  heaven  "  (see  Bambino).  The  vigil 
of  "  Twelfth  Night "  was  famous  also  for  the  "  Twelfth  Cake "  (see 
Beans),  and  for  the  election  of  the  "  Lord  (or  Abbot)  of  Misrule,"  or 
of  a  Fool  to  lead  the  well-called  "  Feast  of  Fools " — a  period  of 
licentious  revelry.  Farmers  and  their  servants  assembled  on  a  mound 
overlooking  the  corn  fields,  lighted  12  fires,  shouted,  and  drank 
boisterous  toasts  in  cider,  and  strong  ale.  Others  poured  libations  in 
orchards ;  the  young  wore  masks,  and  men  put  on  women's  clothes. 
Some  placed  the  great  cake  on  the  horn  of  an  ox  to  be  tossed.  If  it 
fell  in  front  it  was  given  to  the  master,  but  if  behind  to  the  mistress 
of  the  house.  Women  barred  themselves  in  their  chambers,  admitting 
only  those  who  guessed  what  they  had  on  the  spit — a  choice  morsel 


Epistles  Cl 

given  to  him  who  guessed  aright.  Epiphany  was  called  "Little 
Christmas"  but  not  recognised  as  a  separate  feast  till  813  A.G.  (see 
Hone's  Mysteriea).  Roumanians,  Bohemians,  and  Magyars,  celebrate 
the  feast  of  the  "  Three  Kings,"  whose  great  shrine  is  Cologne 
Cathedral 

Epistles.     See  Bible. 

Er.     A  common  root  for  "  man  "  :  The  Armenian  ayr,  Turkish  «r, 
and  Latin  vir  (see  Ar). 

[At  the  end  of  the  Republic  (Book  x)  Plato  tells  the  legend  of 
Er  son  of  Armenios,  in  Pamphylia.  He  came  back  from  the  dead,  and 
described  what  he  had  seen.  In  a  great  plain  there  were  two  holes, 
corresponding  with  two  in  heaven  above.  Souls  came  up  from  earth, 
and  down  from  heaven,  to  judges  who  sat  in  the  midst.  The  subter- 
ranean journey  might  last  1000  years — ten  for  every  year  of  life  on  earth 
before  the  soul  entered  Hades.  Each  soul  might  choose  its  next  life 
on  earth,  and  chose  by  memory  of  former  experience.  After  8  days' 
journey  Er  found  a  beam  or  pillar  of  light,  and  saw  the  steel  spindle 
of  Necessity,  belonging  to  the  distaff  on  her  knees,  whence  the  fate  of 
the  world  is  spun.  Round  it  are  8  revolving  whorls — eight  spheres 
each  uttering  a  note  of  its  own.  Beside  it  sit  the  three  fates — Lakhesis, 
Klotho,  and  Atropos  (past,  present,  and  future) :  here  the  souls  make 
their  choice  ;  and  a  herald  proclaims  that  heaven  is  guiltless  if  they 
choose  wrongly.  They  then  go  to  the  plain  of  forgetfulness,  and  are 
bom  again,  appearing  from  heaven  as  shooting  stars.  The  spindle  is 
the  centre  of  the  world  (see  Earth) ;  and  there  seems  to  be  some 
resemblance  to  the  Buddhist  **  Wheel  of  Existence." — Ed.] 

Eras.  These  are  very  important  for  the  correct  determination 
of  historic  dates,  but  often  uncertain — ^like  the  Christian  era  (see 
Chnstmas),  which  came  into  use  only  in  529  A.C.,  in  the  time  of 
Justinian.  The  most  familiar  eras  are  :  The  First  Olympiad,  776  B.C.; 
the  foundation  of  Rome,  753-4  B.C.  (Varro)  ;  the  era  of  the  Seleucidse, 
26th  September  311  B.c. ;  the  Saka  era  in  India,  78  A.c. ;  the  Gupta 
era  in  India,  319  A.C.  ;  the  Moslem  era  of  the  Hejira,  16th  July 
622  A.C.  There  is  a  Burmese  era  of  639  A.C.,  and  a  Napalese  era 
of  880  A.C. ;  also  a  Pars!  and  Siamese  era,  631  A.O. 

Erebus.     See  Europe. 

Eridu.     See  Euphrates. 

Erech.     The    Akkadian    Ur-uk,    or    '*  great   city,"    E.   of   the 


02  Erekhtheus 

Euphrates,  near  its  mouth  :  now  Warka  (Oen.  x,  10).     It  is  one  of 
the  oldest  and  most  important  sites  in  Kaldea. 

Erekhtheus.  ErikhthdnioS.  Greek.  Apparently  "  man  of 
earth  "  (see  Er).  The  Greeks  regarded  the  first  as  a  local  Attik  hero. 
The  latter  was  the  child  of  Athene  and  Hephaistos,  liom  as  a  serpent, 
and  called  also  G^-gen^s  (''  earth  bom  ").  Athene,  the  dawn  godess, 
hid  him  in  an  ark,  basket,  or  chest,  which  was  given  to  Herse  (the 
"  dew")  and  her  two  sisters,  who  were  prohibited  from  .opening  it.  Heree 
and  Aglauros  however  did  so,  and  were  driven  mad,  being  hurled  from 
the  Akropolis  of  Athens.  Erikhthonios  had  his  shrine  in  this  Akropolis 
(see  Athene). 

Er-g^al.  Akkadian  :  "  great  man  " — probably  the  origin  of  the 
name  given  in  Greek  as  H^rakles :  in  Latin  as  Hercules  :  in  Etruskan 
as  Ercle. 

ErinueS.  Erinyes.  The  Furies  according  to  the  Greeks. 
They  were  also,  however,  called  Eumenid^,  or  "well  minded," 
perhaps  through  fear  of  their  wrath.  They  were  personified  curses, 
and  said  to  be  more  ancient  than  Zeus.  Neither  sacrifice  nor  teais 
would  stay  the  Erinues,  as  they  hunted  the  sinner  cursed  by  a  father, 
or  an  ancestor.  They  appealed  to  Dike — godess  of  justice — ^to  aid 
them  in  punishing  the  wicked.  They  are  pictured  as  black  maidens, 
with  serpents  in  their  hair,  and  blood  dripping  from  their  eyes.  Black 
sheep  were  offered  to  them,  with  honey  and  water,  white  doves,  and 
the  narcissus  plant.  A  cave  near  the  Areopagos  was  sacred  to  them, 
where  they  had  a  special  day  of  rites.  None  dared  enter  their  sacred 
grove  at  Kolonos.  They  were  three  sistei-s  (Alektro,  Megaira,  and 
Tisiphong)  borne  by  earth  when  the  blood  of  Ouranos  fell  on  her. 
Their  name  appears  to  mean  "injury."  They  stood  by  the  throne 
of  Zeus,  but  generally  abode  in  Tartaros  or  Erebos  (Hell  and 
Night).  Some  connect  them  with  Saranyu.  [This,  however,  would 
be  Herinues.  The  Akkadians,  and  Babylonians,  were  equally  afraid 
of  curses. — Ed.] 

Eris.  The  Greek  godess  of  discord,  and  strife,  the  sister  of 
Ares,  god  of  battle.  Hesiod  says  she  was  a  daughter  of  night 
Virgil  makes  Discordia  the  companion  of  Mars  and  of  Belldna 
.  ("  war ").  She  appeared  at  the  marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  and 
flung  the  apple  marked  ''for  the  fairest,"  which  led  t-o  the  ruin  of 
Troy.  She  was  angry  at  not  being  bidden  to  the  feast — like  the 
witch  of  our  folk-tales. 

Eros.     Greek  :  **  love  "  or  "  desire  "  :  said  to  have  been  worshiped 


Eruthrea  68 

very  early,  at  Tbespiai  in  Boiotia,  in  the  form  of  a  phallic  atone. 
The  Athenians  placed  bis  statue  at  the  entrance  of  the  grove  of  the 
Akademy,  and  in  the  temple  of  Aphrodite :  they  offered  to  him  the 
cock,  ram,  and  hare.  His  flower  was  the  rose.  Orpheus  and  Hesiod 
called  him  the  "first  begotten/'  who  arose  from  chaos  to  guide  the 
councils  of  heaven  and  earth — which  truly  love,  or  passion,  still  does 
on  earth.  He  was  the  **  father  of  night,  and  the  splendour  of  day." 
Plato  called  him  the  oldest  of  gods,  sprung  from  the  mundane  egg 
(see  Eggs).  He  is  usually  a  winged  boy,  with  a  golden  quiver  full  of 
arrows.  He  had  a  mother  but  no  father,  though  later  writers  called 
him  the  cbild  of  Zeus  and  Oaia  (sky  and  earth) :  he  played  many 
tricks  on  gods  and  men  (see  Kama).  He  loved  Psukhg  (the  breeze — 
afterwards  the  soul),  and  they  lived  in  the  cave  of  Dikte,  or  Luktos, 
till  she  lighted  her  lamp  to  see  him,  when  he  fled. 

Eruthrea.  The  Erythreans  of  S.  Arabia  were  the  Himyar  or 
Hamyar  race  (see  Arabia),  the  Greek,  like  the  Arabic  name,  meaning 
"ruddy."  Erythreans  founded  Paphos  in  Cyprus,  according  to  Stephen 
of  Byzantium  (see  Cesnola's  Cyprus,  p.  219).  The  Phoenicians  were 
so  called,  as  comiug  from  the  Erythrean  Sea  or  Persian  Gulf  (see 
^Tieid^  vii).  The  wife  of  Mercury  was  Eruthrea  or  "  ruddy,"  and 
Herakles  of  Akhaia  was  Eruthreus,  like  the  horse  of  Apollo  in  the 
Iliad.  ., 

Es.      A  root  for  '*  fire,"  and  also  for  "  spirit "  (see  As). 

ESclU.  Hebrew  *Asu,,  the  "  hairy,"  also  called  S'eir  "  rough," 
SLnd  £dom  "red."  The  hunter  brother  of  Jacob  ("the  follower"), 
who  held  bis  heel  (Gen.  xzv,  25  ;  Hosea  xii,  3).  He  lived  in  the 
rough,  red,  sandstone  mountains  of  S'eir. 

Eshel.  Hebrew.  This  is  rendered  "  tree "  or  "  grove " 
(Gen.  xxi,  33;  1  Sam.  xxii,  6;  xxxi,  13),  but  it  means  properly 
a  "  tamarisk  " — Arabic  Ithel, 

Eskimo.  A  name  given  to  the  Greenland  race  by  the  Cree 
Indians — namely  Wiyaskimowok  "  raw  flesh  eaters."  They  are  said 
DOW  to  number  only  about  10,000  in  all,  and  are  under  Danish  rule, 
professing  Christianity.  Attempts  to  convert  them,  in  the  11th 
century,  had  died  away  by  the  15th  ;  but  iu  1733  they  were  taken 
in  hand  by  Moravian  missionaries,  chiefly  mechanics,  who  won  their 
esteem  in  about  five  years.  Before  this  they  were  regarded  as 
**  godless,"  but  had  a  supreme  god  Tornarsuk  ("  head  of  the  Tornak  " 
or  spirits — an  old   Turanian  word) :    he  is   now  degraded  as  a  kind  of 


64  Eskimo 

Satan.  He  used  to  live  within  the  earth,  and  "  all  who  had  stmen 
after  goodness,  and  suffered  for  the  benefit  of  their  fellows,  were  to  go 
to  him  and  lead  a  happy  life."  A  good  life  was  all  that  Tomarsuk 
demanded ;  but  the  Danish  Eskimo  now  accept  a  god  in  heaven.  Dr 
Rink  (Eskimo  Tribes,  1887)  says  (p.  141)  that  "  the  poor  Eskimo's 
ideas  of  good  and  evil,  recompense  and  punishment,  are  tamed 
topsy-turvy."  The  old  priests  and  lawgivers — the  Angakoks — have 
become  mere  wizards.  Yet,  according  to  Dr  Rink,  the  results  of  a 
century  and  a  half  of  Christian  teaching  are  highly  unsatisfactory 
(pp.  148, 153,  155).  The  soul  used  to  be  regarded  as  "in  some  way 
independent  of  the  body  .  .  .  probably  as  ruling  it " :  (it  is  called 
the  inniui,  or  "  owner  "  of  the  body) :  for  the  whole  world  was  held 
to  be  "  owned  and  ruled  by  spirits."  The  Eskimo  call  themselves 
also  Innuit,  or  "  owners,"  of  their  country.  The  souls  of  the  dead 
went  to  either  a  lower  or  an  upper  world :  the  former  was  warm  and 
comfortable,  like  their  own  underground  bouses ;  the  latter  was  a  cold 
and  hungry  region,  where  dwelt  the  Arssar-tut,  spirits  who  play  ball 
with  the  head  of  a  walrus,  and  so  cause  the  Aurora  Borealia  Prayeis 
(seratit,  or  "  charms ")  and  amulets  were  used ;  and  Tomarsuk 
provided  Tornaks  as  guardian  angels,  to  listen  to  the  supplications 
of  his  children  through  their  Angakoks.  Witchcraft  (Kusuinek), 
and  sorcery  (Ilisinek),  were  regarded  as  unlawful  means  of  escaping 
evil,  yet  were  much  practised  as  appeals  to  evil  powers.  The 
Eskimo  had  no  master-devil,  but  some  bad  spirits  like  *' Grand- 
mother Anarkuagsak,"  who  lives  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  is 
apt  to  draw  people  down  to  herself:  all  mortals  must  keep  on 
good  terms  with  her,  and  also  with  the  Eiugtoks,  or  wandering 
subterranean  demons,  generally  of  evil  nature.  The  Ingnersuaks, 
who  frequent  the  caves,  and  pointed  rocks,  on  dangerous  coasts, 
must  also  be  propitiated,  and  some  mariners  have  found  them  to 
be  benevolent  spirits,  giving  shelter  in  times  of  trouble. 

The  original  home  of  this  people,  but  in  very  remote  times, 
must  have  been  in  N.  Asia.  Dr  Rink  (who  believes  them  to  be 
American  aborigines)  says  that  *'  only  a  few  "  (the  Tuski)  are  found 
on  the  Asiatic  side  of  Behring  Straits.  He  finds  the  Alaska 
Eskimo  often  crossing  to  Asia.  [Baron  Nordenskiold  says  that 
they  are  connected  with  the  Chukchis  and  Eoryaks  of  N.K  Asia. 
Some  regard  them  as  descendants  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  KW. 
Europe,  where  remains  of  small  Lapp-like  people  occur — as  in  Auvergne. 
They  are  remarkably  long-headed  ;  but  Sir  W.  Flower  is  strongly  of 
opinion  that  they  are  "a  branch  of  the  typical  North  Asiatic 
Mongols,"  who  have  "  gradually  developed  characters  most  of  which 


Eskimo  65 

are  strongly  expressed  modifications  of  those  seen  in  their  allies,  who 
stiU  remain  on  the  western  side  of  Behring  Straits  "  (see  Mr  R. 
Lydekker,  F.RS.,  in  Hutchinson's  Living  Racea^  p.  506).  Donner  has 
also  compared  Eskimo  vocabularies  with  those  of  Finns  and  Lapps. — 
£d.]  Mr  C.  Lelland  (Algankvn  Legends)  says  that  "  the  old  Shaman 
religion,  sorcery,  .  .  .  and  legends  of  the  Eskimo,  all  point  to  an 
early  N.  Asian  cradle " :  he  finds  the  same  folk-lore  "  common  to 
Greenlanders,  Finns,  Lapps,  Tunguses,  and  Northern  Tartars. '* 
Among  all  alike  we  find  laws  of  primogeniture,  and  worship  of 
ancestors — an  animism  like  that  of  Akkadians;  nor  do  they 
neglect  sky  gods,  such  as  Olus-kap  among  the  Wabanaki,  or  N.E. 
Eskimos  :  he  was  worshiped  as  a  friendly  power,  yet  called  "  the 
liar,''  having  vowed  an  immediate  return  to  earth,  like  other  known 
deities,  which  he  has  neglected  to  accomplish.  Mr  Lelland  finds  the 
mythology  of  Eskimos  of  mixed  Algonkin  blood  (in  the  East),  to  recall 
the  Ealevala  (see  Finns) :  "  but  in  spirit  and  meaning  entirely 
unlike  anything  American.''  He  calls  the  demigods,  Gluskap  and 
Lax,  "  the  gentleman  and  Puck " :  for  Lax  is  something  between 
PuDcb  and  Satan — perhaps  connected  with  the  Norse  Loki.  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  crossing  the  straits  (see  Vining,  Inglorious  CoLurribus, 
pp.  6  to  0)  :  for  rats  cross  from  island  to  island.  M.  de  Rosmy 
says :  "  Fleets  of  Eskimos  annually  resort  to  Russian  America  from 
Kamtchatka."  On  both  coasts  there  are  tattoed  Eskimos,  and  their 
physical  type  approaches  that  of  the  Aleuts,  as  do  their  social  habits 
and  rites. 

The  Eskimo  language  seems  to  have  been  stationary.  It  is  still 
the  same  from  British  Labrador,  throughout  Qreenland  to  Behring 
Straits,  along  some  3500  miles  of  coast.  It  is  quite  unlike  the  Aryan 
tongues  of  Europe.  [It  is  called  an  "  incorporating  "  language,  like 
those  of  American  Indians,  as  consisting  of  long  compound  words,  or 
set  phrases  regarded  as  such.  This,  however,  is  quite  as  observable 
in  Mongol  speech  (see  Castren's  Orammar  of  the  Buriat  Dialect) ; 
and  indeed  such  compounds  are  common  even  in  German. — Ed.] 

Mr  Murdoch  {Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology :  Smithsonian 
Institute,  1887-1888,  published  1892)  says  that  the  Eskimo  are 
devoid  of  morality,  the  married,  unmarried,  and  children  joking  freely 
together  about  sexual  matters  (p.  419) :  yet  they  have  discovered  the 
Golden  Rule  "to  avoid  doing  to  anyone  what  you  would  not  have 
done  to  yourself."  Chanus  are  commonly  used,  especially  the  canine 
teeth  of  bears.  The  spirits  are  often  heard  making  a  rushing  noise, 
as  if  of  a  large  bird  flying  over  or  under  the  roof,  or  even  as  a  singing 
in  the  ears  (pp.  427  to  432). 

e2 


66  Eshmun 

Hshmun,  Esmun.  PhoeDician  (probably  from  the  root 
shaman^  "fat,"  "rich,"  "prosperous").  The  Greeks  identified  this 
god  with  Asklepios,  the  god  of  health.  He  was  worshiped  at 
Beirut,  and  at  Carthage,  with  'Ashtoreth  and  Melkarth ;  and  his 
name  is  found  in  Punic  texts  (see  Cox,  Aryan  Mythol,^  edit  1882, 
p.  281 ;  Brown's  Oreat  Dionya.  Myth,  ii,  p,  258). 

Hsop.  Aisdpos.  The  reputed  author  of  fables,  many  of  which 
were  known  to  the  Greeks  in  the  time  of  Sokrates.  The  Assyrians 
also  had  fables,  such  as  that  of  the  Horse  and  Bull,  or  of  the  Serpent 
and  Eagle  (see  Etana),  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  Esop's  fables  ha?e 
been  ascribed  to  many  peoples  from  Egypt  to  China.  Many  occur  in 
the  Pali  Jataka,  or  "  birth  "  stories  of  Buddhists,  in  the  Pancba-tantra 
and  Hitopadesa  of  Hindus,  in  the  Jewish  Talmud,  in  the  !^lila  wa 
Dimna  of  Arabs,  in  the  Anwar-i-Suhaili  of  Persians,  and  in  Urdu 
Khirad-afroz,  and  Bait  al  Pachise ;  as  well  as  in  the  Sanskrit  Vetala 
Pancha-Vinsati,  or  "  Twenty-five  Stories."  The  English  Esop  is  mainly 
taken  from  the  fables  of  Bidpai  or  Pilpay  (see  Bidpai) — a  mediaeval 
collection  first  published  in  1610 — and,  as  the  work  of  Elsop,  may 
be  considered  spurious.  Mr  J.  Jacobs  calls  our  Esop  "  Phoedrus  with 
trimmings,"  for  Phoedrus  made  the  first  Latin  collection  in  25  A.C 
apparently  following  Demetrius  Phaleros  (about  320  B.a);  whereaa 
Aristophanes  knew  of  fables  by  Esop  in  425  B.c.  Esop  was  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Solon  (620  B.C.),  and  to  have  died  about 
564  B.C.  Samos,  Sardis,  Thrakia,  and  Phrygia  claimed  his  birth, 
and  he  appears  to  have  been  a  foreign  slave  who  won  freedom  by  his 
talents.  He  refused  to  distribute  the  charities  of  Croesus  to  the 
people  of  Delphi,  who  flung  him  from  a  precipice  ;  but  the  gods 
supported  him  and  punished  Delphi  with  plagues.  He  is  often 
described  as  having  been  an  ugly  and  diminutive  person,  as  is  also 
the  Arab  Esop,  Lukman.  Both  seem  to  have  been  familiar  with 
Eastern  traditions  and  fauna.  They  allude  to  monkeys,  panthers, 
peacocks,  and  other  Indian  or  Asiatic  animals,  whom  they  describe  as 
able  to  talk  and  reason  like  the  serpent  in  Eden,  or  Balaam's  ass 
(see  Proc.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy,,  November  1882).  Mr  Jacobs  thinks 
that  about  a  dozen  of  our  English  fables  come  from  the  Jatakas, 
others  are  found  in  the  Talmud  (but  may  be  borrowed),  and  others  in 
Libyan  fables,  in  Arabia,  in  Greek  literature,  and  in  Anglo-Saxon 
mythologies.     See  Hitopadesa  and  Pancha-tantra. 

Essenes.  The  name  for  Jewish  ascetiks,  found  in  Josephus, 
Pliny,  and  Philo :  they  lived  mostly  in  the  deserts  of  Judea  and 
Jordan,  and  in  caves  N.W,  of  the  Dead   Sea.     The  origin  of  the 


Essenes  67 

name  is  much  disputed.  [Perhaps  the  best  derivation  is  from  J^dsah, 
"to  seek  refuge,"  to  "retire,"  since  they  were  hermits. — Ed.] 
Josephus  makes  them  the  third  great  Jewish  sect,  the  others  being 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees  (see  Ant,  iKIII,  v,  9  :  xi,  2  :  XV,  x,  4 : 
Wars,  I,  iii,  5  :  II,  viii,  2-13).  He  describes  their  customs  at  length 
{ArU.,  XVII,  i,  5  ;  and  especially  in  Wars,  II,  viii).  Philo's  account 
is  found  in  his  tract  "  That  all  the  good  are  free  "  (the  authenticity 
of  which  is  disputed),  and  in  a  fragment  from  his  Apology  for  the 
Jews,  preserved  by  Eusebius  {Prcep,  Evang,,  viii,  11),  Pliny 
{H,  Nat,  V,  17)  speaks  of  their  colony  by  the  Dead  Sea.  We 
gather  that  they  were  generally  celibates,  who  had  all  things  in 
common,  and  met  in  a  common  establishment.  They  wore  white, 
and  had  a  novitiate  of  three  years'  duration.  They  forbade  oaths,  and 
offered  no  sacrifices,  yet  adored  angels  and  the  rising  sun.  There 
were  four  grades  or  castes ;  and  if  touched  by  one  of  a  lower  grade 
they  must  be  purified  by  water.  They  kept  the  Sabbath,  and 
reverenced  Jewish  scriptures.  They  were  much  venerated  as 
prophets  and  healers  of  the  sick.  Judas  in  110  ac,  is  the  earliest 
known  Essene,  but  lived  in  ordinary  society  according  to  Josephus, 
Menahem  was  a  friend  of  Hillel,  and  of  Herod  the  Great  One  of  the 
gates  of  Jerusalem  was  named  after  them  {Wars^  V,  iv,  2). 

Josephus  says  (Ant,  XVIII,  i,  5)  that  they  "  resembled  those 
DacsB  who  are  called  Polistai."  This  is  perhaps  a  clerical  error 
for  Podistai  or  Buddhists.  These  were  the  Etistai  of  Strabo 
(i,  pp.  453-454,  Bohn's  translat,  1854).  The  Puthagorik  Dakai 
are  mentioned  by  Scaliger  (Whiston's  note  on  the  above  passage  of 
Josephus)  which  connects  them  with  the  Indian  Budha-guru  or 
''  wisdom  teacher '' ;  and  he  says  that  "  these  Dacse  lived  alone  like 
monks,  in  tents  and  caves,"  and  Strabo  tells  us  that  "  the  Ktistai 
were  a  Thrakian  sect  who  lived  without  wives."  Their  brethren  the 
MaBsi  '*  religiously  abstained  from  eating  anything  that  had  life, 
living  in  a  quiet  way  on  honey,  milk,  and  cheese :  wherefore  con- 
sidered a  religious  people,  and  called  EapnobataB,"  that  is  to  say 
"smokers."  Josephus  himself  compares  the  Essenes  to  the 
Pythagoreans ;  they  were  excused  from  the  oath  of  allegiance  by 
Herod  (Ant,  XV,  x,  4),  who  "had  them  in  much  honour";  and  they 
"are  like  those  whom  the  Greeks  called  Pythagoreans."  The 
whole  region  N.  of  modern  Greece,  from  the  Hellespont  to  the 
Adriatic — ancient  Thrakia  and  Msesia — abounded  in  such  ascetik 
sects,  whom  Strabo  and  Homer  alike  call  "most  just  men," 
"  livers  on  milk,"  "  devoid  of  desire  for  riches,"  "  peregrinators 
of  the   country,"  and   otherwise  resembling  Sramans  and  Bhikshus. 


68  Essenes 

De  Quinoey  called  them  *'the  first  Christians."  Bishop  Lightfoot 
(on  Coloaaiane)  argues  that  Mazdean  ideas  supplied  ''just  those 
elements  which  distinguish  the  tenets  and  practices  of  Essenes  &om 
the  normal  type  of  Judaism  ...  as  dualism,  sun  adoration,  invoca- 
tion of  spirits,  and  worship  of  angels,  magical  rites,  and  intense 
striving  after  purity."  We  can,  however,  hardly  acquit  the  Jews  of 
having  been  generally  prone  to  all  these  beliefs.  Hermippos  of 
Smyrna  (about  250  B.C.)  had  "given  to  the  Greeks,"  says  the  bishop, 
"the  most  detailed  account  of  Zoroastrianism  which  had  ever  been 
laid  before  them  .  .  .  the  Magian  system  then  took  root  in  Asia 
Minor,  making  itself  a  second  home  in  Cappadocia.  .  .  .  Palestine 
was  surrounded  by  Persian  influences."  [The  cuneiform  texts,  no  less 
than  the  historic  statements,  show  us  that  from  the  5th  century  KC 
to  the  Christian  era,  Asia  Minor  was  full  of  Persians.  The  worship 
of  Mithras  was  brought  from  Pontus,  by  the  soldiers  of  Pompey,  to 
Bome  about  60  B.c. — Ed.]  But  as  we  show  (see  Buddha),  the 
Buddhist  creed  had  reached  Syria  as  early  as  the  3rd  century  B.C., 
and  was  more  akin  to  Essene  asceticism  than  was  the  Mazdean. 
Does  not  this  teach  us  that  all  is  due  to  evolution,  and  that  there  has 
never  been  a  really  new  religion  since  the  world  began  ? 

During  and  after  the  time  of  Pythagoras  the  countries  N.  of 
Attika  and  Thebes  were  known  as  Thrakia,  from  Byzantium  to  the 
Danube.  The  DacsB,  or  Dakai,  were  a  Skuthik  people,  N.  of  the 
Danube,  from  which  region  they  had  driven  the  Getse  southwards  (see 
Strabo,  i).  They  were  Asiatic  tribes,  who  had  arrived  before  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  Mr  Gossellin  (on  Straho,  i,  467)  calls  them 
Dags  from  Daghistan,  east  of  the  Caucasus.  The  name  no  doubt  is 
connected  with  Dagh,  for  "mountain."  Thus  they  appear  to  have 
reached  Thrakia  from  regions  which  were  already  full  of  Buddhists  in 
the  3rd  century  B.C.,  or  earlier.  Their  asceticism,  as  we  have  seen, 
was  known  to  the  Jewish  historian  in  our  1st  century.  Asiatic 
Buddhism  appears  to  have  penetrated  not  only  to  Syria,  but  along  the 
N.  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  to  Europe.  The  ideas  of  Essenes  may 
have  been  derived — as  regards  suu  worship,  angels,  and  other  matters 
— from  Mazdeans.  After  the  break-up  of  the  Crotona  school  Pytha- 
goreans were  scattered  throughout  the  Greek  kingdoms.  They  gradually 
became  merged  in  the  later  Platonists.  The  Essenes  are  said  to  have 
regarded  death  as  setting  free  the  soul,  which  they  may  have  learned 
from  either  Buddhists  or  Greeks.  They  had  much  sympathy  with 
Greek  philosophy  and  "  probably  also  with  Oriental  ideas,"  says  Mr 
Kirkup  (Ihficyclop.  Brit\  who  also  admits  that  they  "  could  nob  have 
reached  these  peculiar  points  of  view  in  perfect  isolation  from  ante- 


Esther  69 

cedent  and  contemporary  speculation."  Philo  says  that  they  rejected 
logic  as  unnecessary  to  the  acquisition  of  virtue ;  and  speculation  on 
nature  as  too  lofty  for  the  human  intellect ;  in  which  respects  they 
agreed  with  Buddha  and  Confucius. 

The  Essenes  shunned  marriage,  and  often  adopted  children  to  be 
brought  up  in  their  tenets.  They  regarded  pleasure  as  evil,  and  dis«» 
trusted  women  ;  some  (like  Hindus)  retired  from  domestic  life  after 
the  birth  of  a  son.  They  lived  on  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  gave 
thanks  before  their  meals.  They  drank  no  wine,  and  regarded  uuction 
with  oil  as  a  defilement :  so  that  they  were  not  in  sympathy  with  the 
idea  of  a  Messiah  or  "anointed  one."  They  had  no  servants,  but 
helped  one  another.  They  wore  old  clothes,  and  were  engaged  in 
husbandry.  Their  officers  were  elected,  and  they  judged  causes  among 
themselves  by  a  council  of  at  least  100  members.  They  were  estimated 
to  number  some  4000  in  all.  The  novice  received  a  white  robe,  an 
apron,  and  a  symbolic  axe.  Those  convicted  of  crime  were  expelled 
from  the  society.  They  bound  themselves  by  a  vow  of  secrecy  not 
to  reveal  the  contents  of  certain  sacred  books,  or  "the  names 
of  the  angels."  They  also  vowed  piety,  justice,  obedience,  and 
honesty;  and  they  showed  active  charity  to  the  poor.  Philo  says 
that  their  three  rules  were,  the  love  of  God,  of  virtue,  and  of  all 
mankind. 

Mr  A.  Lillie  regards  Essenes  as  the  predecessors  of  Christ,  who 
thus  appears  as  no  more  than  an  Essene  monk.  Dean  Mansel  (Gnostic 
Heresies,  p.  31)  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  ''Essen ism  was  due  to 
Buddhist  missionaries,  who  visited  Egypt  within  two  generations  of 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great"  [The  Essenes  said  that  the  souls 
of  the  just  went  to  a  happy  land  beyond  the  ocean,  where  was  no  rain, 
nor  snow,  nor  heat,  but  only  a  west  breeze  from  the  sea.  The  wicked 
went  to  a  land  of  winter,  darkness,  and  torment.  It  is  notable  that 
this  is  very  like  Mazdean  accounts  of  the  fate  of  men  after  death  ; 
though  the  Psalms,  and  the  book  of  Job,  furnish  hints  as  to  "gathering," 
and  as  to  the  wicked  being  blown  away  to  darkness  by  the  wind, 
which  are  equally  comparable  with  Persian  allegoric  language. — Ed.] 

Esther.  Persian,  stara  "  star."  Her  Hebrew  name  was  Hadas- 
sah,  "myrtle,"  a  plant  with  a  white  starlike  flower.  She  is  the 
heroine  of  a  Hebrew  romance,  written  in  the  3rd — or  perhaps  2nd — 
century  B.C.,  where  she  is  represented  as  becoming  the  queen  of  Xerxes 
(Ahasuerus,  compare  Ezra  iv,  6),  or  of  Artaxerxes  according  to  Joeephus, 
and  the  Greek  Septuagint.  The  latter  contains  long  passages  which 
are  not  in   our  Hebrew   text,  including  a  preface  which  describes 


70  Etana 

Mordecais  vision  of  two  dragons  fighting,  and  of  a  small  spring 
becoming  a  great  river;  also  two  letters  by  Artaxerxes  (after  iii, 
13>  and  viii,  13),  with  Elsther's  prayer  (after  iv,  17),  and  the  final 
explanation  (after  x,  3)  of  the  vision,  as  fulfilled  by  Mordecai  and 
Haman,  as  the  dragons,  and  Esther  as  the  river.  It  also  ends  with  a 
note  which  refers  to  Ptolemy  and  Lysimachus,  and  which  cannot  be 
earlier  than  307  B.a 

Nothing  is  more  improbable  than  that  a  Hebrew  maiden  could 
become  a  queen  of  the  Persian  monarch,  in  an  age  when  these  kings 
only  intermarried  with  certain  noble  Persian  families ;  or  that  the 
king  should  have  taken  a  Jew  as  prime  minister,  giving  him  per- 
mission to  arrange  for  a  massacre  of  75,300  Persians  (ix,  16).  The 
story  is  connected  with  the  winter  feast  of  Purim  in  the  month  Adar. 
[The  word  Pur  for  "  lot"  is  not  known  in  Persian  (see  Elsther  ix,  24), 
yet  may  come  from  the  Aryan  Par  whence  para  "  a  part." — Ed.]  It 
is  remarkable  that  Mordecai,  though  a  Jew,  should  bear  a  name  con* 
nected  with  that  of  the  Babylonian  sun  god  Marduk.  We  cannot 
wonder  that  Esther  was  regarded  as  a  doubtful  book  in  our  4th 
century,  and  by  later  Protestant^,  though  accepted  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  in  1563. 

Etana.     A  Babylonian  mythical  hero,  whose  legend  is  gathered 

from   several   broken  kuneiform   tablets  (see  Brit  Mus.    Catalogue^ 

1900,  p.   74).     It  recalls  that   of  Ganymede   among    Greeks.     It 

begins  with  the  story  of  the  serpent  who  complained  to  Shamash  (the 

sun)  that  the  eagle  had  devoured  its  young,  praying  him  to  catch  the 

eagle  in  his  net.     Shamash  counsels  the  serpent  to  hide  in  the  carcase 

of  an  ox,  and  to  catch  the  eagle  himself  and  clip  its  wings.     The 

serpent  goes  to  the  eagle's  mountain,  and  hides  in  the  body  of  a  wild 

ox.     Birds  assemble  to  devour  the  carrion,  but  the  eagle  says  to  its 

young,  "  Come,  let  us  go,  and  not  trouble  as  to  the  flesh  of  a  wild 

ox."     An  eaglet  spies  the  serpent.     Here,  unfortunately,  there  is  a 

gap  in  the  text.      We  next  find  Etana  praying  to  Shamash  to  grant 

him  a  son  in  return  for  sacrifices  ofiered  :    "Let  the  command  go 

forth  from  thy  mouth,  and  give  me  the  plant  that  assists  birth ;  bring 

a  child  to  birth,  and  grant  me  a  son."     Shamash  bids  Etana  visit  the 

eagle,  and  on  reaching  the  mountain  he  asks  again  for  this  plant     A 

gap  follows.      The  eagle  then   proposes   to  carry  Etana  to   heaven, 

where  alone  this  plant  is  to  be  found.     He  holds  on  to  the  eagle's 

neck,  and  is  borne  aloft  in  three  flights  to  the  heaven  of  Anu.     In 

the  first  flight  earth  is  seen  below  as  a  mountain  in  the  sea ;  in  the 

second,  the  sea  is  a  girdle  of  the  land ;  in  the  third,  ocean  appears  no 


Ethiks  71 

broader  than  a  garden  ditch.     The  eagle  tries  to  fly  yet  higher,  but 
is  exhausted  and  falls. 

Ethiks  (see  Morals).  Early  religions  were  not  ethikal  in  our 
sense  of  the  term  ;  and  even  the  good  Melancthon  (Schwartzerde) 
says :  "  We  do  not  excel  in  intellect  and  learning,  nay,  nor  in  decency 
and  morals,  but  in  true  knowledge  and  worship  of  God."  "  Religion,** 
said  Schleiermacher,  "  belongs  neither  to  the  domain  of  science,  nor 
of  morals;  it  is  essentially  neither  knowledge  nor  conduct^  but 
emotion  only,  specific  in  nature,  and  inherent  iu  the  immediate  con- 
sciousness of  each  individual.''  Only  by  education  does  man  leara 
that  religion  must  fail  unless  ethikally  based.  Matthew  Arnold 
defined  his  theistik  belief  as  "  morality  touched  by  emotion  "  ;  James 
Martineau  regarded  his  own  faith  as  "  the  culminating  meridian  of 
morals." 

Etmskans.  The  first  civilisers  of  Italy  are  variously  called 
Etruskans,  Tuskans,  Tursenoi,  and  Tyrrhenians  (Turr^noi) ;  and  were 
said  to  be  of  Lydian  origin  (Herod.,  i,  94;  Tacitus,  Ann,,  iv,  55), 
reaching  Umbria  or  N.  Italy  about  1000  B.C.  They  appear  also  to 
have  called  themselves  Rasena.  They  ruled  Rome  itself  till  510  B.C., 
when  the  Aryan  Keltik  element  began  to  dominate  them.  [The 
early  population  was  no  doubt  much  mixed,  the  Umbrians  in  the 
north,  and  the  Oskans  in  the  south,  speaking,  and  writing,  in  Aryan 
dialects.  But  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  points  out  that  the  Etruskans  proper 
were  not  Aryans.  Even  in  Lydia  there  was  a  mixed  population,  and 
Hittite  remains  occur  there.  Among  the  parallels  traceable  between 
Etruskans  and  the  non- Aryans  of  Asia  Minor  are  found  :  the  common 
use  of  Cyclopean  masonry  ;  of  similar  pottery ;  of  the  tutulua  or  high 
conical  headdress ;  of  the  calcevs  repandua  or  shoe  with  a  curled  toe ; 
of  the  labms,  or  double-headed  axe  of  Krete,  Karia,  and  Kappadokia, 
found  also  on  a  Hittite  monument ;  of  the  Gorgon's  head,  and  the 
spbynx,  which  is  also  a  Hittite  figure.  The  Lydian  seal  cylinders 
show  us  a  double-headed  god  like  the  Etruskan  Janus,  and  bear 
Hittite  characters.  The  Turanian  type  of  the  Etruskans,  and  the 
Turanian  character  of  their  language,  are  fully  treated  by  Dr  Isaac 
Taylor,  Etruscan  Beaearchea,  1874,  with  his  pamphlet  on  the 
Etruscan  Language,  1876.  The  magnificent  Etruskan  terra  cotta 
sarcophagus  from  Caere  in  Etruria  (Cervetri),  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  shows  an  Etruskan  lady  with  black  hair  and  yellow  face, 
and  sloping  Mongol  eyes.  It  bears  two  Etruskan  legends,  and  is 
supported  on  four  winged  sphynxes.  The  grinning  head  of  the 
Etruskan  god  of  Hades — Charun — is  very  like   that  of   Babylonian 


72  Etruskans 

demons.     The   Etniskan    chronology  (V^rro,  quoted    by  CensormuB, 
De  Die  Natale,  xvii)  goes  back  to  1000  B.a — Ed.] 

Ovid  and  Cicero  speak  of  the  Etruskan  founder  Tages,  who  was 
ever  young,   coming   from   the   earth  in  the  land  of  Tarquinii  (the 
Tarkon  of  Etruskan  inscriptions),  and  teaching  agriculture  to  Tarkoa, 
Pe  also  instructed  the  Etruskans  in  auguries  preserved  in  the  12  Books 
of  Tages — ^perhaps  meaning  ''stone"  tables  (Akkadian  Tag  ''stone"). 
The  Aryans  venerated  Etruskan  rites,  and  books,  their  ritual,  and  omens 
by  lightning  and   otherwise :    even  the  word  (xerenionia  for  "  cere- 
monies" was  said  to  come  from  the  name  of .  the  Etruskan  city  Caere. 
The  mother  of  Etruskan  cities  (Acca-Larentia)  became  the  nurse  of 
Romulus  and  Remus  (see  Aka).     The  Etruskan  cosmogony  resembled 
that  of  Akkadians  as  borrowed  by  Babylonians.     The  creator  formed 
all  things  in  periods  of  1000  years  each  :   1st,  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  ;  2nd,  the  firmament ;  3rd,  the   waters ;  4th,   sun,   moon,  and 
stars;  5th,   birds,  reptiles,   and  beasts;   and   6th,   man.     Hellanicas 
calls    the    Tursenoi    an   aboriginal   people,   distinct   from   all  othera. 
Dionysius  (i,  30)  says  that  their  language  was  "barbarous,"  and  Dot 
related   to  others   known   to   him.     We  gather  from   this  language 
(especially  from  the  known  numerals)  that  they  were  of  Altaik,  or 
Turanian,  stock,  like  their  Asiatic  neighbours  the  Hittites  and  Katl 
[Among  the  clearest  philological  indications  are  the  use  of  postpositions 
and  agglutination,  with    words  such  as  Lar,  "  lord "  or  "  god ".  (the 
Kassite  lar  "master"),  Tarkon  "chief"  (the  Hittite  Tarkhun,  Turkish 
Tarkhan),  Idus  "  full   moon  "  (Akkadian  idu,  Turkish  yede,  "  moon," 
"month"),  Lucumo  "noble"  (Akkadian  lu  "man,"  gum  "official"), 
Puia  "child"  (Finnic  pu\  Leine  "he  lived"  (Finnic),  Clan  "son" 
(Turkish    oglan   "boy"),   Avil    "life"   (Turkish    ol   "to  be"),  and 
C!barun   (Turkish   Khar-un  "  evil  god "),   for    the    demon    ruler   of 
^ades,  who   bears   the  double-headed  axe.     Many  words  attributed 
— ^perhaps  incorrectly — to  Etruskans  are,  however,  Aryan,  especially 
.^Ssar  for   "gods,"  noticed    by  Suetonius  in   the  Life  of  Augustvs. 
Various  texts  at  Lemnos,  and  in   Etruria  itself — ^like  the  Eugubian 
tablets — ^are  loosely  called  Etruskan,  but  appear  to  be  rather  Sabine, 
Umbrian,  or    Oskan    (see    Sir    W.  Betham,  Etruria  Cdtica,  1842, 
voL  i,  p.   89).     Sir  W.  Gell  calls  the  Eugubian   texts  Umbrian  in 
8  cases,  while  4  in  Roman  characters  are  .Oskan.     The  true  Etruskan 
alphabet  differs  from  those  of  Umbrians  and  Oskans,  and  the  texts 
are  often  written,  in  alternate   lines,  from  right  to  left  and  left  to 
right,   as   in   early   inscriptions  (Greek   and  others)   in   Asia   Minor. 
Mirrors  called  Etruskan  also  appear  to  be  often  of  Greek  origin,  with 
Greek  legends  and  names.     Scarabs  found  in  Etruskan  tombs  resemble 


Etruskans  73 

those  of  Egypt,  and  PhceDicia,  yet  are  undoubtedly  original,  and 
Dot  either  copies  or  imported.  Some  of  the  names  of  Etruskan 
deities  also  appear  to  be  Greek,  though  most  of  them  are  non- 
Aryan. — Ed.] 

The  Etruskan  inscriptions  found  in  tombs  are  generally  very 
short  The  Perugia  text  is  of  46  lines  [apparently  Umbrian  or 
Oskan — Ed.].  In  1849  an  Egyptian  mummy  of  the  Ptolemaic  age 
was  brought  to  Europe  by  an  Austrian  explorer,  and  found  its  way 
to  the  Agram  museum.  Its  bandages  were  found  to  be  covered  with 
alphabetic  texts  which  Prof.  Karl,  in  1891,  states  to  represent  an 
Etruskan  ritual,  in  a  Turanian  tongue.  An  ancient  book  appears  to 
have  been  torn  up  for  the  purpose  of  swathing  the  mummy. 

The  Etruskans  seem  to  have  been  at  first  a  ruling  class,  with 
serfs  tilling  the  soil,  who  may  have  been  Pelasgi  or  other  Aryans. 
Their  earliest  capitals  were  at  Agulla  and  Tarquinii.     In   personal 
appearance  they  resembled  Hittites  and  Mongols,  with  sloping  eyes, 
black    hair,   high   cheek   bones,   short   noses,  large   heads,   and   faces 
generally  (but  not   always)   hairless.      In   figure   they   were   stoutly 
built.     They  are  believed  to  have  conquered  or  expelled   older  in- 
habitants,  probably   Umbrians,   with   whom  they  also  inter-married. 
A  Tarkon  ("tribal  chief '*),  was  said  to  have  founded  their  12  cities, 
and    to    have    decreed    laws   and    rites.     They   first  introduced   the 
civilisation  on  which  that  of  Rome  was  based,  spreading  over  Latium, 
and  S.  to  Campania — where  they  met  Greeks  and  Phoenicians  later. 
Livy  says  that  even  the  Bhoeti  in  the  Alps  were  civilised  by  them, 
and  retained   the  Tuskan  language.      There  were  Turr^noi  also  in 
Thrakia,  and  Pliny  and  Justin   thought  that  the  Basini  (or  Basena) 
invaded  Italy  from  the  Tyrol.     The  Etruskan  power  extended  from 
the  Po  to  Capua  (Vulturnum),  where  Mtiller  supposes  them  to  have 
been  settled  by  800  B.C.     They  were  hardy  sailors;  and,  in  538  B.C., 
they  joined  the  Carthaginians,  each  people  supplying  60  galleys,  to 
expel  the  Phocseans  from  the  island  of  Corsica.     The  Roman  victory 
at  Cumae  was  the  first  blow  to  their  power  in  474  B.C.     In  396  fi.c. 
Kome  seized  Veii;  and  in  384  B.c.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  plundered 
the  Tuscan  coast,  while  the  Oauls  overran  their  northern  province 
near  the  Po :  yet  the  Etruskans  were  still  allied  to  Carthaginians,  and 
9thers,  as  late  as  307  B.c.     Romulus  was  said  to  have  fought  with 
Veii ;  but  Coeles  Vibenna,  the  Etruskan,  with  his  mercenaries  settled 
later  on  the  Coelian  hill  at.  Rome,  where  one  quarter  was  called  the 
Tuscus  Vicus.     [The  word    Tus,  whence  Tuskan,   apparently  means 
"south,"  as   in   Turkish    dialects. — Ed.]      The    Etruskan    Tarquin   I 
(a  Tarkon)  was  the  founder  of   Roman   power,  receiving  from  the 


74  Etniskans 

people  "  a  golden  crown,  an  ivory  throne  and  sceptre,  a  purple  robe 
figured  with  gold,"  and  other  badges  of  royalty  (Dionys.,  iii,  57-61). 
Under  the  Tarqiiin  dyuasty  useful  works  like  the  Cloaca  Maxima  were 
begun  in  Rome ;  and  Etruskan  power  was  at  its  height  about  600  to 
500  B.C.     The  Tarquin   being  expelled  again  attacked  the  city,  in 
alliance   with    Porsena,  the    Lar  (or  ''master")    of  Clusium,  about 
610  B.C.;  and  is  said,  after  a  siege,  to  have  granted  terms  of  peace. 
Further  hostilities  are  unnoticed  till  483  B.C. ;  and  the  Latins,  accord- 
ing to  Livy,  called  the  Etruskan  capitals  "  allied  cities,"  and  their  own 
people  "  Roman  colonists  in  Etruria."     The  Etruskans  remained  more 
or  less  distinct,  in  religion  and  language,  down  almost  to  the  Christian 
era.     Even  now  in  Tuscany  the  names  of  their  gods  are  remembered, 
as  those  of  "  folletti  "  or  fairies.    In  89  B.c.  they  were  admitted  to  the 
jealously  guarded  privileges  of  the  "  Roman  citizen  " ;  but  they  sided 
with  the  tyrant  Marius ;  and  the  war  of  Perusia  (Perugia),  in  41  B.C., 
led  to  their  ruin.     In  the  time  of  Augustus,  Etruria  was  the  "  seventh 
region  of  Italy,'*  which  Constantino  incorporated  with  Umbria. 

In  the  Etruskan  confederacy  of  12  cities  each  king  was  in- 
dependent, and  all  were  allied  for  war — an  universal  Turanian  custom 
which  we  may  trace  among  Hittites,  Akkadians,  and  non- Aryans  in 
India.  The  cities  are  variously  reckoned,  but  included  Veil  and 
Tarquinii  near  Rome,  Caere  or  Agulla,  Falerii,  Volci,  Volsinii,  Clusium 
(taken  from  Umbrians),  Arretum,  Cortona,  Volaterrse  (or  Velathri), 
Populonia,  and  Vetulonia.  [The  word  Vol  appears  to  be  the  Turkish 
aul,  and  Akkadian  alu,  for  a  "camp"  or  "city." — Ed.]  This 
system  of  government  among  Turanians  proved  too  weak  to  resist  the 
empires  of  united  races,  whether  Semitic  or  Aryan.  In  Etruria  the 
leaders  were  often  the  priests,  as  being  the  best  educated  magnates  (see 
livy,  V,  i),  and  politicians  strengthened  their  power  by  accepting 
sacred  offices,  and  performing  the  rites  of  a  complicated  ritual.  The 
Lucumos  (called  Principes  by  Romans),  were  a  sacred  aristocracy  not 
in  touch  with  the  mixed  Umbrian  serfs,  or  Penestai — Aryans  who  in 
time  asserted  their  rights  and  power.  Like  other  Turanians,  the 
Tursenoi,  or  Etruskans,  were  highly  religious,  or,  as  we  should  call 
them,  superstitious.  Livy  calls  them  ''a  people  who  excelled  all 
others  in  devotion  to  religions,  as  well  as  in  the  knowledge  of  worships  " ; 
and  they  thus  became  the  instructors  of  Romans,  in  augury  and  rites. 
The  Greeks  equally  owed  many  of  their  deities,  and  early  arts,  to  the 
congeners  of  the  Tuskans  in  Asia  Minor.  The  mythology  of  Etruria 
points  to  an  Eastern,  and  to  a  Turanian,  origin  ;  as  we  see  from  the 
groups  of  gods  on  Etruskan  mirrors,  and  from  the  names  written  over 
them,  or  from  the  pictures  and  sarcophagi  in  Etruskan  tombs.     [One 


Etruskans 


75 


mirror  represents  Tinia  with  sceptre  and  trident,  having  Apulu  on  his 
right,  and  Turms,  with  winged  hat  and  caduceus,  on  his  left.  Another 
shows  Tina  as  Jove,  with  sceptie  and  spear,  supported  by  Thalna» 
while  Menerva  springs  armed  from  his  head,  to  be  received  by  the 
godess  Tha  .  .  .  r,  behind  whom  on  the  right  is  the  youthful  Sethluns 
with  his  hammer.  A  third  represents  Herkole  aided  by  a  winged 
Menerva.  A  fourth  shows  Therme  and  Menerva  driving  a  demon 
down  to  hell. — Ed.]  The  chief  triad  consisted  of  Tina,  Cupra,  and 
Menerva  (answering  to  Zeus,  Her6,  and  Athene),  and  these  had  every- 
where three  shrines,  with  three  gates.  There  were  also  six  male  and 
six  female  deities,  whom  Latins  called  Dii  Consentes — a  heavenly 
council.     The  relation  of  the  chief  gods  was  as  below. 


Character. 

Etruakan, 

Greek. 

Latin, 

Heaven 

Summano 

Ouranos 

Uranus 

Earth 

Angerona 

De-m6t€r 

Ceres 

Sea 

Neptuus 

Poseiddn 

Neptunus 

Hell 

Mantu 

Hades 

Pluto 

Sun 

Tushna 

Apollo 

Apollo 

Moon 

Lala 

Selene 

Diana 

Air 

Tina 

Zeus 

Jupiter 

The  herald 

Turms 

Hermes 

Mercurius 

The  names  of  the  gods  of  Etruria  are  explained  by  Dr  Isaac 
Taylor,  and  others,  by  aid  of  Turanian  languages.  Tina,  the  sky  spirit 
(Tartar  Tin\  Chinese  Tien,  "sky,"  "heaven"):  Summano  (Mongol 
Srnnans,  Lapp  TuTrum,  "  holy  ") :  Usil,  the  rising  sun  (Finnic,  Uaal, 
Aaal,  "  morning  ")  :  Tushna,  the  midday  sun  (Tartar  Tua  "  south  ")  : 
Janus,  the  god  of  creation,  and  of  doors,  two-headed  or  l>isexual 
(Tartar  Jen  "god":  Akkadian  Gan  "being"):  Nethuns  or  Nep- 
tuns  (probably  from  Nap  "  to  swell."  and  un  "  Lord,"  as  in  Akkadian 
"  lord  of  waves  ") :  Mantu  (Akkadian  Man  "  chief,"  Tu  "  below  "), 
otherwise  Vetis  or  Vedius  (perhaps  the  Akkadian  Bat  "  death  **). 
Puphluns  or  Fufluns  (perhaps  Pupulu-un  "  lord  of  what  is  grown  " : 
see  Bu)  answered  to  Bacchus :  Sethluns  was  Vulcan  (from  Set  or  Silt, 
Turkic,  **  to  bum,"  "roast" — Setlu-uns,  "lord  of  what  is  smelted"): 
Turms,  or  Therme,  was  the  messenger  of  heaven  (Akkadian  tur  "  to 
travel"):  Erkle  or  Herkole  was  Hercules  (Akkadian  Er-gal  "great 
man ") :  Charun,  or  Kharun,  was  an  infernal  deity  (Tartar  KhxiT 
"evil" — Khar-un  "lord  of  evil"):  Sancus  was  a  Sabine  god  (Akka- 
dian San,  Turkish  Savg,  "  mighty  ") :  Voltumna  was  a  deity  of  vows 
(perhaps  UUtv^un-na,  "  lord  of  future  doing  " — ^Akkadian) :  Vertum- 
nu8  was  a  god  of  autumn  (perhaps  Ir-tu-un-na,  "  god  of  rain  giving," 


76  Eucharist 

as  in   Akkadian).     The  godesses  included   Gupra  as  Juno  (perkaps 
Kvr-par  "  purple  light/'  as  in  Akkadian — the  sky  godess)  :  Tuian  was 
Venus,  and  wife  of  the  sun  (perhaps  Finnic,  Turan,  Tarom,  "  heaven " ; 
or  Tur-an-nay  Akkadian, ''  child  of  heaven  ")  :  Thana  was  Diana  (Tartar 
Tan   "light":    Yacut   ting   "dawn").     Thalna  (Akkadian  tal  "to 
rise ")  was  also  a  dawn  godess :  the  moon  was  Lala  (Akkadian  lal 
"  full "),  or  Losna  (perhaps  an  Aryan  name).     Menerva  was  the  Latin 
Minerva  (probably  MaVr-uru^  "  leader  of   light " — see  Ar).     Nortia 
was  Fortune  (Nar-ti-a    "ruler  of  casting"    lots).     Mania  was  the 
bride  of  Mantu  (perhaps  Man-ea  "  ruler  of  the  hole  "  or  of  Hell) ;  and 
Aogerona  is  rendered  Horta  "  garden  " — a  deity  of  enclosures  (Akka- 
dian  an  "  god,"  gar  "  garden,"   "  enclosure,"  un  "  lord "   or  "  lady," 
"  the  divine  lady  of  gardens  ")  :  the  Fates  were  also  female,  and  called 
Dii  Involuti  in  Latin,  while  the  Dii  Novensiles  were  apparently  gods 
who  controlled   thunderbolts.     The   Lares  were   spirits    (Kassite  lar 
"lord"),  as  were  the   l^enates  (Tartar  ban  "spirit").     The  doable- 
headed  god — Janus — is  represented  on  a  Lydian  cylinder  seal,  holding 
a  cross  in  his  right  hand  towards  a  worshiper,  and  a  whip  in  his  left 
towards  two  demons  (Col.  Conder,  Anthrop.  Journal,  Nov.  1887). 
The  "  Disciplina  Etrusca  "  grew  into  a  complicated  system  of  worship, 
with   divination    by  dreams,   weather,  stars,  lightning,   entrails,  the 
flight    of   birds;    with  fire,   solar,  and   phallic  rites.     The  populace 
adored  genii,  junones,  lares,  penates,  and  lemures,  or  ghosts,  with  much 
fear.     All  these  beliefs  were  also  features  of  religion  yet  earlier  among 
Hittites,  Kati,  Eassites,  and  Akkadians  (see  also  Fors). 

Eucharist.  HvJchariatia,  "giving  thanks,"  in  Greek.  The 
Jews  at  the  Passover  pronounced  a  prayer  of  thanksgiving,  or  grace, 
over  the  *'  cup  of  blessing,"  to  the  "  giver  of  the  vine."  The 
memorial  rite  became  among  Christians  a  "  sacred  mystery."  In 
Egypt  wine  and  meet  cakes  (like  the  Hebrew  ma^soth,  or  unleavened 
cakes,  whence  probably  the  Missa  or  Mass  was  named),  were  sacred  to 
Osiris.  The  cakes  and  Haoma  drink  of  the  rites  of  Mithra  were 
called  by  Tertullian  a  "  satanic  parody "  of  the  Christian  rite.  In 
the  Gita  Krishna  says  "  I  am  the  Soma  " — the  Ifersian  Haoma  which 
was  the  spirit  of  the  deity.  So  also  many  Christians  still  identify  the 
bread  and  wine  with  the  actual  "  flesh  and  blood  "  of  their  Lord,  giving 
a  material  interpretation  to  his  mystic  words.  These  elements  were 
regarded,  as  eariy  as  our  2Dd  century,  as  capable  of  working  miracles. 
They  were  laid  on  the  breast  of  those  who  died  too  suddenly  to 
partake  of  them.  The  bread  was  even  taken  home,  and  reserved  to 
be  eaten  before  the  first  meal,  and  used  as  a  poultice  to  cure  disease. 


Euhemeros  77 

The  churches  accepted,  from  the  earliest  age,  the  words  of  the  4th 
Gospel  (vi,  53),  and  Ignatius  (if  his  text  has  not  been  altered) 
certainly  taught  Transubstantiation.  The  reformers  of  our  16th 
century  shrank  from  such  materialistic  ideas ;  but  the  first  Canon  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  (1563)  lays  down  that:  "If  any  one  shall  say 
that  Christ,  as  exhibited  in  the  Eucharist,  is  only  spiritually  eaten ; 
and  not  sacrameutally  and  really,  let  him  be  accursed."  In  the 
second  Canon  it  is  laid  down :  "  In  the  most  holy  sacrifice  of  the 
Eucharist  there  is  truly,  really,  and  substantially,  the  body  and 
blood,  together  with  the  soul  and  divinity,  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  .  .  .  there  is  made  a  conversion  of  the  whole  substance  of 
the  bread  into  the  body,  and  of  the  whole  substance  of  the  wine 
into  the  blood  ;  which  conversion  the  Catholic  Church  calls  Tran- 
substantiation." This  is  supplemented  by  the  Catechism  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  requiring  "  Pastors  to  explain  that  there  is  contained 
(in  the  elements)  not  only  the  true  body  of  Christ,  and  whatever 
belongs  to  a  true  condition  of  a  body  (such  as  bones  and  nerves), 
but  also  a  whole  Christ."  The  Lutherans  winced  from  such  definitions 
(compare  Sacrifices),  and  adopted  Consubstantiation,  saying  that : 
"  there  is  only  a  substantial  presence  of  the  body  of  Christ  with  the 
bread  and  wine  of  the  Sacrament."  But  the  partakers  equally 
believed  that  they  absorbed  the  qualities  of  their  Lord,  and  thus 
attained  to  communion  with  him — which  is  the  ever-present  idea  of 
similar  sacrifices  among  savage  peoples.  We  see  it  clearly  in  accounts 
of  ancient  Mexican,  or  of  modern  Red  Indian  sacrifices  (see  Capt. 
Brooke's  Medicine  Men  of  the  ApacheSy  1892,  p.  524;  and  under 
Azteks).  The  Apaches  mixed  human  blood  with  their  unleavened 
bread,  baked  from  maize,  and  from  various  grass  seeds  on  which 
they  live. 

Mr  Clodd — ^President  of  the  Folk  Lore  Society — says  that  the 
Christian  rite  "  is  a  distinct  survival  of  the  barbarian  idea  of  eating  a 
god,  so  as  to  become  a  partaker  of  his  divine  nature."  The  Eucharistic 
feast  however,  originally,  included  more  than  the  two  elements  which 
were  distributed,  after  thanksgiving,  by  the  Christians  who  met  for  a 
communion  {Koinonia)  or  meal  in  common.  Cheese,  fruits,  and  even 
fish,  were  eaten  at  this  meal,  as  represented  in  the  Catacomb 
pictures,  or  in  that  of  the  Capella  Qrecia  two  miles  outside  the  Porta 
Salaria  of  Rome — ^said  by  some  to  be  as  early  as  170  A.c.  The 
fish  is  here  connected  with  a  cup  which  the  priest  offers  on  the  altar 
(see  Baptism). 

Euhemeros.      A   philosopher  of  the    Kurenaik  school,   about 


78  Eumenides 

320  B.C.,  teaching  a  doctrine  at  which  Herodotos  and  others  had 
hinted  a  century  earlier,  namely,  that  the  gods  had  been  once  living 
heroes,  who  had  usually  benefited  their  race,  and  invented  arts  of 
peace  and  war :  thus  being  idolized  during  life,  and  worshiped  after 
death.  These  ideas  Euhemeros  put  forward,  in  popular  style,  in  his 
Hierai  Anagraphai  or  Sacred  Histories^  basing  his  ideas  on  what  he 
had  seen  in  his  extensive  travels  down  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Indian 
Ocean ;  which  however,  according  to  others,  were  conceptions  that 
could  have  been  gathered  from  temple  inscriptions  in  Greece  itself. 
No  doubt  his  mind  was  widened  by  travel,  and  study,  in  other  lands, 
which  showed  him  the  relations  of  faiths,  and  the  ideals  of  men, 
convincing  him  that  legends  concerning  gods  were  based  on  incidents 
misunderstood,  or  exaggerated,  in  histories  which  were  traditional,  and 
imperfect 

Polybius,  Dionysius,  and  other  philosophic  historians  and  writers, 
more  or  less  accepted  Euhemerism  as  a  general  rule ;  and  some  still 
offer  the  same  explanations. 

Eumenides.     See  Erinues. 

Euphrates.  The  name  of  this  great  river  in  Hebrew  is  Fherath 
(Assyrian  Puratu),  usually  explained  as  "fertile."  [Possibly  the 
Akkadian  Pur-ata,  "chief  stream." — Ed.]  At  its  mouth  was  the 
city  of  Eridu  (supposed  to  have  been  at  Abtb-Shahrein),  which  is 
connected  with  myths  like  that  of  Oilgamas :  the  elysium  of  the 
gods  being  near  ''the  mouth  of  the  rivers"  (12th  Tablet  Gilgamas 
Series).  [The  mythical,  and  the  actual,  city  may  both  be  called  £ridu 
or  "  spacious."  A  legend  of  the  "  Bride  of  Hell/'  in  the  Amarna 
collection,  speaks  of  the  gods  as  dwelling  in  Eridu — perhaps  meaning 
"in  space." — Ed.] 

Europe.  This  word  may  be  the  Semitic  'Ereb  for  "sunset," 
and  "  west,"  (Arabic  gharb  "  west "),  like  Erebos,  the  place  of  sunset 
and  Hades  (from  a  root  "  to  descend,"  as  in  the  Assyrian  Eriim  also). 
Zeus,  as  a  bull,  fled  with  a  nymph  from  the  East ;  and  she  became 
Europa  in  the  West  She  was  the  daughter  of  a  Phoenician  god  (see 
Agenor),  or  of  Phoinix  the  Phoenician  "  palm,"  or  of  Telephassa  ("  far- 
shining"),  whom  the  jealous  Artemis  pierced  with  her  arrows — ^she 
was  the  wife  of  Ag§nor ;  and  Europa's  brother  was  Kadmos  {^edtm 
"  the  east ")  ;  so  that  most  of  the  names  are  Semitic.  She  was  trans- 
ported to  Krete,  which  thus  appears  to  be  the  western  limit  of  the 
legend. 

Eusebius.     The  bishop  of  Csesarea  in  Palestine,  and  the  "  father 


Eutycheans  79 

of  Church  history  ** — an  obsequious  ecclesiastic,  who  wrote  eulogies 
OQ  CoDstantiiie,  the  first  Christian  emperor.  He  was  born  iu  Pales- 
tine about  260  A.C. ;  and  became  bishop  of  Laodicea  iu  Phoeuicia 
about  303  A.C. ;  and  of  Csesarea  a  few  years  later.  He  was  thus  65 
at  the  time  of  the  first  Council  at  Nicea,  about  which  time  he  wrote 
his  valuable,  though  perhaps  not  quite  trustworthy,  Ecclesiaatical 
History,  Gibbon  (Dedine  and  Folly  ii,  79)  says  that:  **Euaebius 
himself  indirectly  confesses  that  he  has  related  that  which  might 
redound  to  the  glory,  and  suppressed  all  that  could  tend  to  the  dis- 
grace, of  religion."  Baronius  was  a  sincere  Christiao,  yet  he  calls 
Eusebius  a  **  falsifier  of  history,  a  wily  sycophant,  consummate  hypo- 
crite, and  time-serviug  persecutor."  Eusebius  heads  one  chapter 
{Proep.  Evang,,xx\,  31)  with  the  monstrous  title,  "How  far  it  may 
be  lawful  and  fitting  to  use  falsehoods,  as  a  medicine  for  the  advantage 
of  those  who  require  such  a  method."  [It  is  a  question  of  textual 
criticism  whether  he  was  responsible  for  such  words. — Ed.]  Hence 
arose  the  theory  of  "  pious  fraud,"  among  those  who  attempt  to  justify 
such  language. 

We  search  in  vain  for  reliable  chronology  in  regard  to  this  father 
of  history.  Bishop  Lightfoot  admits  that  his  writings  "  are  perplexing 
and  contradictory,"  We  cannot  even  prove  that  he  exerted  the 
influence  that  he  claims  over  the  great  emperor.  Yet  we  depend 
mainly  on  him  for  the  history  of  Christianity  before  his  time ;  and 
without  him  we  should  know  nothing  of  Papias,  Polycarp,  John  the 
Elder,  and  other  early  Christian  worthies ;  or  of  synods  and  councils 
down  to  325  A.c,  which  decided  for  us  the  creeds,  canons,  and 
dogmas  of  later  ages. 

Eutycheans.  Followers  of  Eutukhes,  abbot  of  a  monastery  in 
Constantinople,  who  denied  that  Christ  had  more  than  one  nature. 
He  was  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451  A.C. :  but  in 
the  6th  century  his  doctrines  were  further  advocated  by  Jacob 
Baradaeus,  who  convinced  the  Kopts  and  the  Armenians,  as  well  as  the 
greater  part  of  the  Syrian  Christians,  who  were  called,  after  him, 
'*  Jacobites,"  Thus  all  the  Asiatic  Churches — except  the  Nestorians 
— became  Monophysites,  or  believers  in  a  single  divine  nature  of 
Christ,  which  Greeks  and  Latins  have  alike  denied  since  the  question 
was  first  raised. 

Eve.  Hebrew  Khavah,  supposed  to  come  from  the  root  Kkih 
"to  live,"  Gen,  iii,  20  (see  Adam).  Her  grave  is  shown  by  Arabs 
outside  the  walls  of  Jeddah,  the  sea-port  of  Makka,  and,  according 
to  Sir  R  Burton,  is  a  huge  tumulus  300  feet  long  from  head  to 


80  Evuna 

waist,  and  200  feet  from  waist  to  heel.  But  the  tomb  itself  is  oalj 
about  75  feet  by  18  feet  in  area.  This  is  one  of  the  stations  of  the 
pilgrimage  to  Makka ;  and  the  pilgrim  arriving  by  sea  must  here  put 
on  the  Ihrdm,  or  **  sacred  "  dress,  to  be  worn  on  his  visit  to  Makka. 

Evuna.     A   non-Aryan  deity,  especially  among  the  aborigiDal 
Todas  of  S.  India. 

Exodus.      Greek  ex-odoa  *'  going  out."    In  the  Hebrew  this  book 
is  only  called   after  the  first  words,  '*  These  are   the  names."    The 
Jews  early  regarded   it  as   having   been   written  by  Moses.     Amos 
(about  770  B.C.)  speaks  (v,  25)  of  Israel  as  having  passed  40  years  in 
the  desert:  Uosea  (about  750  B.c.)  knew  of  a  prophet  (ii,  15)  who 
brought  Israel  out  of  Egypt;  but  Micah  alone  (about  700  B.G.)  names 
Moses,  Aaron,  and  Miriam  (vi,  4).     The  Book  of  Exodus,  however, 
professes  to  give  an  historical  account  of  the  growth  of  a  nation  of 
600,000   fighting   men   from    Jacob's    family   of    70    men.     That  a 
population  of  2^  millions  should  grow  up  in  215  years  (as  stated  in 
the  Greek  version)  would  represent  a  marvellous  increase,  though  in 
430  years  (as  stated  in  the  Hebrew  text)  it  might  be  possible.    Bishop 
Colenso  (Pent,  part  i)  showed,  however,  that  this  vast  host  could  not 
have  left  Egypt  in  a  single  day,  or  have  subsisted  in  the  desert.     The 
writer  who  speaks  of  the  building  of  Pithom  and  Raamses  (i,  11), 
cannot  have  lived  earlier  than  1400  B.C.,  and  probably  wrote  much 
later.     The  power  of   Egypt    in   Palestine    remained    unshaken  till 
about  1480  B.C.  or  later  (see  Amarna,  Bible,  iE^ypt,  and  Hebrews). 
Manetho  (250  RC.)  is  credited  with  a  legend  of  the  expulsion  of  a 
leprous  people,  which  is  "  of  uncertain  origin,  and  not  Egyptian."    No 
monument  yet  found   speaks   of  Israel  in  Egypt;  but  the   Hyksos 
rulers,  and  their  Asiatic  subjects,  were  expelled  about  1700  B.C.     The 
only  possible  allusions  to  Hebrew  history  refer  to  Israel  as  in  Palestine 
between   1480  and    1270   B.C.     Josephus  rejects   as  incredible  the 
accounts  of  Manetho,  and  of  unknown  writers  named  Cheremon  and 
Lysimachus,  saying  that  they  disagree,  and  regarding  their  Amenophis 
(a  successor  of  Rameses)  as  fictitious.     The  supposed  summary  of 
Egyptian  history  in  this  age,  by  Sextus  Julius  Africanus — a  Libyan 
who  lived  in  Palestine,  and  became  bishop  of  Alexandria,  in  our  3rd 
century — is  known  to  us  only  by  quotations  in  the  works  of  George 
the  Syncellus,  as  late  as  800  A.G.      Such  literature  has  no  value,  and 
the  only  authority  for  an  Exodus  having  occurred  is  the  Old  Testa- 
ment tradition^ 

Ey.     In  Keltik  speech  an  "  island."     This  is  apparently  an  old 


Eye  8i 

word  2  Egyptian  oi :  Hebrew  at ;  for  an  "  island/*  or  "  shore  land  " — 
found  also  in  Turanian  speech. 

Eye.  The  English  word  is  from  the  Aryan  root  Ak  'Ho  see.*^ 
In  the  symbolism  of  religions  the  eye  is  a  favourite  emblem ;  and  as^ 
there  is  a  good  and  also  an  evil  serpent,  so  too  there  is  a  divine  eye» 
and  an  evil  eye :  the  soft  sweet  glance  of  love,  and  the  withering 
look  of  the  envious :  the  eye  of  Osiris  in  Egypt,  and  the  evil  eye  of 
Akkadian  magic  texts.  All  early  peoples  believed  that  they  saw  the 
soul  in  the  eye,  which  is  the  great  revealer  of  the  inmost  thoughts 
and  passions.  The  eye  of  the  witch,  and  of  the  gipsy,  have  always 
been  dreaded,  like  that  of  the  Najar,  or  Briakta^  in  India.  Many 
are  the  charms.  Mantras,  and  fetishes,  required  to  ward  off  the  evil 
brought  by  the  eye.  The  Italian  still  believes  that  all  misfortunes 
come  from  the  "  mal  occhio,"  or  evil  eye  (see  Rivera  of  Life^  and  the 
posthumous  work  by  Mr  Westropp — for  which  we  wrote  a  preface  in 
1885 — on  Primitive  Syrfihclism). 

"The  man  with  the  evil  eye,"  says   Mr  P.  B.  Joshi,  *'is  not 

necessarily  a  cruel  man,  nor  one  bearing  ill-will  towards  his  victim  '' 

{Jowmal  Bombay  Anthrop.   Inatit,  i,  p.   3).     Yet  any  good  and 

comely  thing,  or  person,  is  liable  to  be  injured  by  such  a  man;  the 

envious  eye,  according  to  Bacon,  does  most  harm  to  the  beautiful  and 

prosperous.     In  Indian  villages  such  evil-eyed  persons  are  known  to 

all,  and  are  shunned  like  witches,  beggars,  and  strangers.     They  are 

said  to  ruin  fields,  crops,  food,  clothes,  and  implements.     Cows  are 

so  affected  by  them  that  their  milk  turns  to  blood ;  trees  drop  their 

fruits  or  leaves ;  even  walls  crack  and  fall ;  while  gems  lose  lustre 

in  their  presence.     Salt  should   be   spread   about,    and   conspicuous 

objects  put  in  view,  to  attract  the  unlucky  gaze,  such  as  beads,  brass 

objects,  hair,  and  tiger's  claws ;  or  garlic,  cloves,  and  shells.     These 

must  be  arranged  so  as  to  divert  the  Drishta  from  the  face,  or  from 

the  vital  organs,  of  man  or  beast     Thus  Neapolitans  use  a  piece  of 

horn,  or  an  image  of  the  Madonna :  or  propitiate  St  Antony  (patron 

of  animals)  by  tying  a  small  bag  of  sea  sand  and  flour,  with  flowers, 

to  the  manes  of  horses,  to  defeat  the  evil  eye.     In  Brand's  Antiquities 

we  read  of  Kelts  in  the  Western  Islands  who  wore  nuts  or  beans,  to 

ward  off  the  eye ;  as  the  Indian  peasant  wears  his  Drishta-mani,  the 

Irish  his  "scapular,"  or  the  Fellab  his  similar  leather  case,  with  a 

written  charm  sewn  up  inside.     In  the  Engadine  a  mother  recently 

clad  her  only  son  in  girl's  clothes,  to  deceive  the  evil-eyed  one  (sea 

,    Punjab  Notes  and  Queries,  i,  p.  135).     Indian  parents  do  the  same» 

and  tie  old  shoes,  horns,  skulls,  black  threads,  and  necklaces  that 


82  Eye 

have  been  consecrated  by  holy  men,  on  trees  which  overlook  their  fields 
or  houses,  and  on  cattle,  to  divert  the  eye.  Kelts  in  the  Hebrides 
pluck  the  snow-white  blossomed  ^'Toranain/'  and  wave  it  De-suil 
wise  over  anything  that  they  fear  to  lose,  chanting  "  Eolan,"  and 
calling  on  their  old  saints,  Columba,  Oran,  or  Michael,  to  aid  them. 
The  sick  must  be  given  to  eat  whatever  the  evil-eyed  one  has  been 
seen  to  eat,  on  the  great  principle  of  "  similia  similibus  " — as  stones 
are  offered  to  a  stone  god,  or  as  the  brazen  serpent  of  Moses  cured  the 
bites  of  other  serpents. 

Ancient  and  modem  Jews  alike  have  believed  in  the  evil  eye  (see 
Prov.  xxiii,  6:  xxviii,  22:  Matt,  xx,  16).  Col.  Conder  (HeUi  ani 
Moah,  chap,  ix)  gives  many  Jewish  and  Syrian  superstitious  "  similar  to 
those  of  the  Persians."  For  these  questions  the  Talmud,  Mishnah,  and 
Haggadah,  should,  he  says,  ''be  read  side  by  side  with  the  Zend- 
Avesta"  (pp.  273,  274).  This  applies  to  the  Psalms  as  well  (see 
Zoroaster) ;  and  "  Jews  who  wish  to  free  themselves  from  the  tyranny 
of  Talmudic  prescription  "  are  recommended  to  compare  the  Persian 
scriptures  with  the  Mishnah.  In  Syria  horses'  skulls  are  placed  in 
apple  trees,  eggs,  and  bits  of  blue  china  are  hung  on  walls,  and  amulets 
are  worn,  to  avert  the  *Ain  Farigh — the  "  empty  (or  evil)  eye.'*  A 
red  hand  is  carved  and  painted  over  doorways,  or  on  the  door,  with 
such  marks  as  *'  Solomon's  seal,"  or  the  double  triangle  ('*  the  Shield  of 
David  "),  by  Jews,  Samaritans,  and  Moslems  alike.  Yet,  according  to 
the  Babylonian  Talmud,  99  per  cent,  of  all  deaths  are  due  to  the  eya 
In  both  Italy  and  Syria  blue,  or  grey,  eyes,  are  especially  dreaded 
as  evil. 

Hindus  fear  the  glance  of  a  stranger,  or  of  a  heretic,  lighting  on 
their  food,  or  on  the  place  where  it  is  cooked.  It  is  not  considered 
lucky  by  them  (or  by  Italians,  or  Syrians,  either)  to  praise  or  admire 
a  child,  or  any  valued  object,  belonging  to  another ;  and  curious  charms 
are  uttered  if  this  be  done  (see  Jov/rnal  Bomhay  Anthrop.  Instit.\ 
Jews,  and  Moslems  also,  utter  special  phrases  in  such  cases.  Children 
are  purposely  left  with  dirty  faces  to  conceal  their  natural  beauty.  In 
the  Hall  of  Ambassadors,  in  the  Alhambra,  we  saw  in  1858  words  to 
the  effect :  **  I  will  remove  the  malice  of  the  evil  eye  by  these  five 
texts,"  written  on  the  wall.  Our  judges  used  to  be  protected  by  sprigs 
of  rue  from  such  influences — the  Fascinatio  of  the  Romans,  in  which 
Greeks  and  Spaniards  also  believe.  Such  superstition  still  exbts 
throughout  Europe,  but  especially  among  the  ignorant  classes  of  the 
south.  They  hang  small  horns,  and  phalli,  and  teeth,  rings,  and  beads, 
on  their  children,  especially  on  babes,  to  divert  the  eye.  Ostrich  eggs 
are  infallible  charms.     Teutonic  peasants  set  up  vases,  on  gable  ends. 


Eye  83 

which  must  be  kept  bright,  as  Chinese  and  Japanese  place  mirrors  on 
roofs.  Horse  shoes  also  avert  the  dreaded  invidia,  or  envious  glance. 
C.  0.  Mtiiler  says  "  the  more  repulsive  and  disgusting  the  object  used 
the  more  certain  is  the  desired  effect."  Phalli,  human  or  animal, 
especially  those  of  the  bull  and  ass,  are  therefore  nailed  up  over  the 
doors  of  dwellings. 

The  eyes  of  extraordinary  persons,  learned  men,  and  popes,  are 
much  feared.  Pius  IX  was  said  to  have  the  evil  eye.  Those  with  a 
"  cast,"  or  with  apparently  double  pupils,  are  specially  dreaded.  The 
combined  cross  and  phallus  is  a  powerful  sign,  as  seen  on  the  walls  of 
Alatri.  In  Naples  red  coral  phalli  are  worn  as  charms  against  the  eye. 
Ferdinand  II,  and  Victor  Immanuel,  were  often  seen  to  make  the 
sign  against  the  eye,  which  may  either  be  the  pointing  with  the  little 
and  the  fore  finger  extended,  or  the  thumb  placed  between  the  second 
and  third  fingers,  or  the  single  raised  finger.  Knots  are  also  useful 
(see  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Demonology,  1830,  p.  329),  and  Heron  writes 
(ii,  p.  228)  that  "cattle  not  protected  by  knotted  manes,  ribbons,  etc., 
are  very  apt  to  suffer"  from  the  eye.  Ash  trees  avert  it,  and  are 
therefore  planted  near  dwellings.  Plutarch  (Sympos,,  v,  9)  says  that 
objects  affecting  witchcraft  derive  efficiency  from  fantastic  forms. 
Hence  horns,  corals,  bits  of  bone,  and  sticks  of  strange  shape,  are 
strung  to  the  necks  of  Arabs,  Africans,  and  other  savages :  or  great 
necklaces  of  teeth,  as  in  Fiji.  More  advanced  races  used  texts, 
enclosed  in  cases  of  leather  or  of  metal.  In  Sardinia  these  are  found 
vith  Hebrew  lettering  of  early  date.  The  Babylonian  seal-cylinders, 
worn  on  the  wrist,  were  similar  charms,  and  Egyptian  Arabs  wear 
leather  cylinders  on  the  wrist,  with  cuttings  from  the  !^oran  inside. 
Keys,  anchors,  and  crosses,  are  worn  as  amulets,  and  the  Bible,  with  a 
key,  may  be  found  at  the  bed  head  still  in  European  homes.  The 
Koumanian  decks  himself  and  his  beasts  with  red  ribbons,  and  red 
flannel  Greeks  and  Turks  will  even  spit  in  the  faces  of  their 
children  if  a  stranger  has  admired  themi  All  such  customs  are  due  to 
the  eye  :  to  avert  which  the  Divine  Eye  was  carved  on  the  temples  of 
East  and  West,  or  on  Buddhist  stupas.  Phoenician  and  Burmese 
galleys,  and  Neapolitan  fishing  boats,  have  eyes  at  the  prow,  to 
frighten  away  the  demons  of  the  deep. 

Mr  Murray  Aynsley  ("  Asiatic  Symbolism,"  in  Indian  Antiq,, 
November  1886)  speaks  of  the  sign  of  horns — the  two  extended 
fingers  above  mentioned — to  counteract  the  "jettatura,"  or  evil  eye, 
in  Italy  :  "  Bonus  Eventus "  was  a  youthful  god  depicted  as  holding 
up  a  born  in  his  right  hand.  In  ancient  Egypt  the  Uta  or  *'  eye  " 
was  a  symbol  of  "  salvation."     It  was  the  "  light  of  the  body,"  the 


84 

Eye  of  Horus,  which  Set  as  a  black  boar  swallows  by  night.  The  hair 
of  the  eye  was  a  very  holy  ofiering  to  the  gods  of  Peru.  Dr  Biich 
says  that  symbolic  eye  charms  were  commonly  used  by  Egyptian 
ladies.  The  Uta  had  two  drops  called  ai.  The  right  eye  was  the 
sun,  and  the  left  eye  the  moon.  Out  of  92  samples  found  by  Mr  Price 
at  Bubastis  (1886)  43  were  right  eyes,  34  were  double  or  reversible, 
5  were  left  eyes,  and  10  were  combinations  of  two  pairs  of  eyes.  These 
were  of  blue  porcelain,  lapis  lazuli,  or  cornelian,  and  in  the  pupil  of  one 
was  the  figure  of  the  pigmy  god,  Ptah-Sokaris. 

Africans  call  the  evil  eye  Nazar  (perhaps  the  Semitic  tio^r  to 
"  watch  "),   with  the  meaning  of  "  gazing."      Blood  feuds  sometimes 
arise  from  quarrels  as  to  this  gaze.     Many  races  use  skulls  as  charms 
against  it.     The  Hindu  sets  up  cattle  skulls,  daubed  with  white  or 
with  red,  in  the  rooms  occupied  by  pregnant  women,  placing  them 
near  an  image  of  Sasthi  the  godess  of  pregnancy.     Bue,  onions,  and 
garlic  are   potent   all   over  the  world  against   the  eye.      Neapolitan 
mothers  bind  a  *'  cima  ruta ''  or  "  head  of  garlic "  over  the  heart  di 
a  new-bom  child,  and  strew  rue  round  the  mother's  bed.     The  Hindu 
father,  giving  away  the  bride,  puts  rue  into  the  sacred  fire.    In  Handet 
Ophelia  says,  ''  There's  rue  for  you,  and  some  for  me,  we  call  it  Herb  o' 
Grace  o'  Sundays  " — that  is  when  seeking  grace  on  the  Sunday.    "  Rue 
was  hung  round  the  neck  as  an  amulet  in  Aristotle's  time  "  (Brandy 
Pop,  Ant).     In  Italy  a  little  bull's  horn  of  gold  or  silver  or  of  coral 
("  the  horn  of  plenty ")  is  worn  to  avert  the  jettatura.     Mr  Aynsley 
heard  of  a  bull  being  driven  into  the  courtyard  of  an  Italian  house,  ia 
order  to  expel  the  mal  occhio.     He  supposes  it  to  have  acted  as  a 
kind  of  scapegoat  (see  'Azazel).     Dr  Schuyler  says  that  human  *'  sin 
bearers"  (Iskachi)  are  found  even  in  Turkestan.     Throughout  Turkey 
shoes  are  used  to  counteract  the  evil  eye,  though  it  is  an  insult  to  liftt 
or  cast,  a  shoe  throughout  the  East.     Greeks  and  Turks  hang  such 
shoes    on    their  dwellings  (see   Foot).     The  egg,  ring,  holed   stone^ 
crescent,  and  boat,  the  bell,  lotus,  rose,  lute,  and  whistle,  are  female 
charms,  of  which  Mr  Aynsley  gives  illustrations  from  Italy,  Norway, 
and  Switzerland.     The  Greek  mother,  making  the  '*  horns  "  sign  with 
two  fingers,  exclaims  "  Garlic  ! "  the  Swede  cries  out  "  Pepper  ! "  or 
"  Onion  ! "     The   Moslem   says    "  Iron,   0   accursed    one."     All  over 
Europe  a  coin  or  stone  with  a  natural  hole  in  it  is  lucky.     A  heavy 
necklace  of  holed  stones  to  keep  off  the  evil  eye  was  found  (Notes  and  j 
Queries)  in  a  Yorkshire    house.      Salt   is   thrown   after  a   bride,  or 
when  some  evil  person  has  trodden  near  a  dwelling.  Among  Mr  Aynsley's 
talismans  we  find  one  with  a  serpent  and  a  tree  from  which  it  issues ; 
its  head  resting  on  a  key ;  between  them  is  an  arm  holding  a  horn. 


Ezekiel  85 

The  heart  is  a  common  charm,  as  in  Egypt,  and  ofteii  is  transfixed  by 
a  dart,  and  hangs  from  a  sacred  bull  (see  Rivers  of  Life,  ii,  p.  316, 
plate  ziii).  The  heart  is  also  hung  to  the  waist  of  children  in  S.  India 
(see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  237,  fig.  109),  and  is  a  usual  form  for  a 
''  bulla  "  charm  in  Italy  (see  Abraxas). 

In  Smyrna  (and  indeed,  all  over  the  East)  grey  eyes  are  feared. 
Hindus  think  that  black,  or  dark  blue  eyes  are  protective,  but  a  blind 
^r  one-eyed  man  is  dangerous.  Apparently  the  unusual  colour  is 
regarded  as  suspicious.  Women  make  black  marks  on  themselves, 
and  on  children,  as  charms  ;  and  kohl,  or  black  eye  paint,  is  useful 
against  the  evil  eye,  as  are  stripes  and  brightly  coloured  figures  on 
walls  and  furniture ;  for  the  evil  glance  is  diverted  to  these.  Iron, 
and  steel-blue  objects,  are  a  great  protection  ;  thus  nails  are  driven 
into  trees  and  walls,  as  at  the  Capitol,  or  at  the  west  wall  of  the  Haram 
at  Jerusalem  where  Jews  affix  them  (see  Ezra  ix,  8  ;  Isaiah  xxii,  23  ; 
Ecclea  xii,  11).  Doors  are  studded  with  nails,  as  are  the  sticks  of 
travellers  and  post-runners  in  the  East,  who  swing  post-bags  on  them, 
and  believe  that  wild  beasts  will  be  afraid  to  attack  them*  Africans 
generally  believe  in  the  evil  eye,  and  also  in  the  ''  unlucky  foot." 

Ezekiel.  Hebrew :  Yekhazak-d,  *'Grod  strengthens."  This  prophet 
was  a  zealous  priest,  and  a  visionary,  who  strove  to  stir  up  the  nation 
in  captivity,  and  to  reform  the  Hebrew  priesthood,  using  very  vigoroujs 
language  and  strange  symbolic  actions.  We  must,  according  to  Dean 
Plumptre  (Commenta/ry),  regard  these  as  "real,  physical,  outward  acts," 
not  as  dreams,  even  when  (iv)  his  Qod  commands  him  to  lie  for  390 
days  on  his  left  side,  and  40  days  on  his  right,  beside  a  tile  on  which 
be  has  portrayed  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  having  first  baked  his  barley 
cakes  on  a  cow-dung  fire.  Such  austerities  are  quite  in  accord  with 
the  ways  of  modem  Yogis,  and  Sanyasis,  in  India.  In  spite  of  his 
coarse  language  (see  xvi  and  xxii)  Origen  called  Ezekiel  a  type  of 
Christ — because  he  was  a  "Son  of  Man."  His  visions  continued  from 
594  to  588  B.C.,  in  the  land  of  captivity,  beside  the  Khabur  river 
(ii  3).  His  tomb  is  shown  both  near  the  Euphrates,  N.  of  Baghdad, 
and  also  in  Palestine,  N.E.  of  Shechem.  The  Jewish  Sanhedrin  long 
refused  to  allow  his  writings  to  be  read,  or  included  in  their  canon,  on 
account  of  his  vivid  description  of  the  Merkebeh,  or  cherub-supported 
throne  of  Yahveh,  which  they  regarded  as  dangerously  suggesting 
image-worship,  and  the  imagery  of  Babylonia,  especially  where  the 
figure  of  Yahveh  himself  is  described  (i,  26)  as  the  "  appearance  of  a 
man." 

'Ezra.      Hebrew  :  "  help."     He  was  "  a  ready  scribe  in  the  law  of 


86 

Moses"  (Ezra  vii,  6),  who  had  "  prepared  his  heart  to  seek  the  law  of 
Yahyeh,  and  to  do  it,  and  to  teach  in  Israel  statutes  and  judgments" 
(verse  10).  But,  according  to  the  later  Jewish  legends,  the  ancient 
books  were  lost  (Fourth  Book  of  Esdras  xiv,  27-48),  and  the  whole 
literature  was  communicated  to  him  by  direct  inspiration,  including 
70  books  which  were  not  to  be  revealed.  The  whole  law,  however,  he 
is  there  represented  as  having  dictated  to  scribes,  "to  be  published 
openly."  Josephus,  and  others,  place  Ezra  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  I; 
but  the  notice  of  Darius  11  (Ezra  iv,  24)  seems  to  point  to  his  having 
lived  under  Artaxerxes  II  (see  Short  Studies,  1897,  p.  416;  also 
papers  by  Sir  H.  Howarth,  Academy,  Jany.  to  April  1893  ;  and  more 
fully  in  Proc.  Bib.  Arch,  Socy.,  Novr.  1901  to  Octr.  1904.) 

[This  suggestion  requires  some  explanation.  It  is  generally 
acknowledged  that  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  found  in  the 
Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  originally  formed  part  of  Chronicles. 
Later  scribes  separated  them  as  distinct  books,  repeating  the  closing 
clauses  of  Chronicles  (see  2  Chron.  xxvi,  22,  23  ;  and  Ezra  i,  1-3). 
An  extended  Greek  version  of  Ezra  also  exists,  known  as  "  The  First 
Book  of  Esdras,"  and  this  repeats  the  account  in  Chronicles  as  far  back 
as  the  time  of  Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxv,  1),  including  also  a  story  of  three 
youths  who  argued  on  the  proposition,  what  was  the  strongest  thing 
in  the  world  (1  Ezdras  iii,  iv).  It  can  hardly  be  said  that  this  work 
is  historically  more  reliable  than  the  Hebrew  book  (rendered  into 
Greek  as  the  ''  Second  Book  of  Esdras  "),  considering  that  it  speaks  of 
the  "King  of  Assyrians"  (1  Esdras  viii,  15)  in  the  reign  of  Darius  I, 
or  nearly  100  years  after  the  fall  of  Nineveh.  The  Hebrew  boob 
come  down,  in  the  final  chapters  concerning  Nehemiah,  to  the  time  of 
Jaddua,  who  was  high  priest  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  (see 
Neh.  xii,  22);  and  the  expression  "Darius  the  Persian" — referring  to 
Darius  Ill^-can  hardly  have  been  used  till  after  the  Greek  conquest 
of  332  B.C.  The  Book  of  Ezra,  as  found  in  modem  Hebrew  and 
English  Bibles,  includes  three  separate  documents  : — 1st,  a  fragment 
of  autobiography  (vii,  27  to  ix,  15) ;  2nd,  the  compiler's  account,  also 
in  Hebrew  (i,  1  to  iv,  6;  vi,  19  to  vii,  26;  x,  1  to  44);  and  3rd^ 
a  note  in  Aramaik  (iv,  7  to  vi,  18),  which  begins :  **  The  writing  of  the 
letter  was  written  in  the  Aramaik  tongue ;  and  the  Targum  is  in  the 
Aramaik  tongue  " ;  the  Targum  in  question  was  perhaps  added  to  the 
Hebrew  compilation  of  300  B.C.  at  a  later  period. 

The  visit  of  Ezra  to  Jerusalem  is  supposed  by  Josephus  to  have 
been  made  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  I  (Ezra  vii,  8),  or  in  458  B.a 
This  is  not  contradicted  by  the  Greek  1st  Book  of  Esdras.  The  theory 
that  it  occurred  under  Artaxerxes  II  (or  in  398  B.C.)  rests  on  a  single 


87 

verse  in  the  Aramaik  Targum  above  mentioned  (Ezra  iv,  24),  where 
we  have  a  distinct  notice  of  the  2nd  year  of  Darius  II,  or  423  B.C. 
It  is  argued  that  the  Hebrew  passage  (vii,  1)  which  begins,  "Now 
after  these  things/'  can  only  apply  to  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  II. 
This  view  has  not,  however,  been  received  with  any  general  acceptance, 
for  the  Aramaik  Targum  in  question  may  have  been  incorporated  in 
the  original  Hebrew  work  at  a  late  period.  The  Hebrew  (Ezra  iv, 
1  to  7,  and  vi,  19  to  vii,  26)  begins  with  events  under  Cyrus;  con- 
tinues  the  history  of  various  attempts  to  frustrate  the  Jews  down  to 
the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  I ;  and  then  returns  to  the  reign  of  Darius  I» 
and  of  his  successor  Artaxerxes  I,  under  whom  Ezra  reaches  Jerusalem. 
It  also  contains  (vi,  22)  the  same  notice — apparently  an  anachronism 
— of  the  "  King  of  Assyria,"  which,  as  already  said,  is  found  in  the 
Greek  1st  Book  of  Esdras.  The  Aramaik  note,  or  Targum,  inserted  in 
this  connection  (Ezra  iv,  7  to  vi,  18),  in  like  manner  follows  its  sub- 
ject— the  frustration  of  the  Jews — down  to  the  reign  of  Darius  II,  or 
423  B.C.,  and  then  takes  up  the  subject  of  their  success  (v,  ]),  going 
back  to  the  time  of  Cyrus,  with  the  words  :  "  and  "  (not  "  then  "  as  in 
the  English,  where  the  confusion  is  palpable)  "  the  prophets,  Haggai 
the  prophet,  and  Zechariah,  the  son  of  Iddo,  prophesied."  The  notice 
of  Darius  II  is  important  as  regards  the  date  of  the  Aramaik  passage ; 
but  it  does  not  perhaps  affect  the  date  of  Ezra  himself  There  is  no 
doubt  that  Zerubbabel,  and  his  followers,  are  represented  (in  both  the 
Hebrew  Ezra  and  the  Greek  1st  Book  of  Esdras)  as  living  in  the  age  of 
Cyrus  and  Darius  I ;  since  it  would  be  impossible  for  anyone  who 
had  seen  the  temple  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  588  B.C,,  to  be 
alive  in  398  B.C.  (see  Haggai  ii,  3;  Ezra  iii,  8,  11);  and,  if  the 
Aramaik  Targum  is  left  aside  as  a  later  interpolation,  Ezra,  in  the 
Hebrew  Book  of  Ezra,  appears  to  follow  (without  a  gap  of  117  years) 
in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  I. — Ed.] 


This  letter  is  represented,  in  English  renderings  of  both  Greek 
and  Hebrew,  by  Ph.  It  interchanges  also  with  B  and  V.  The 
Assyrian  letter  usually  represented  by  P  had,  in  reality  (at  all  events 
in  later  times)  the  sound  F  (see  Proc.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  March 
1902,  pp.  108  to  119);  and  in  this  respect  Assyrian  resembled 
modem  Arabic.  The  Hebrews  and  the  Greeks  had  both  the  P  and 
the  F  sounds.  The  Latins  distinguished  B,  F,  and  P;  but  the 
Etruskans  had  no  B. 


§a  Faflun 

Faflun.  A  '*  foUetto/'  or  fairy  of  the  N,  Italians,  answering  to 
the  Etruskan  Puphluns,  and  like  him  a  spirit  of  the  vineyards  (see 
•£truskans)» 

F&-Hien»  A  famous  Chinese  Buddhist  pilgrim,  who  set  out 
with  a  few  friends  in  399  a.g.  by  the  usual  route  from  China  passing 
the  Lob  Nor  lake,  and  the  Gobi  desert,  to  Baktria,  and  though  the 
Afghan  passes  to  India.  He  travelled  to  Ceylon,  and  returned  after 
15  years,  having,  as  he  says,  visited  some  30  kingdoms.  He  was 
born  at  Wu-yang  in  China,  and  became  a  monk ;  his  object  was  to 
study  genuine  Buddhist  books ;  for  though  China  received  Buddhism 
as  early  as  56  A.a,  yet  it  had  only  a  few  Sutras,  and  abbreviated 
.*'  Rules  of  Discipline,''  with  the  legendary  life  of  Buddha,  receivbg 
these  through  Tibet.  Intercourse  with  India  had  ceased  between 
150  and  250  A.C.  on  account  of  the  rise  of  the  Turkish  "White 
Huns."  Fa-Hien  had  begun  to  study  Sanskrit  and  Pali,  and  was 
dissatisfied  with  the  corrupt  Buddhism  of  China.  He  set  out  towards 
the  end  of  the  year  (399  A.G.)  from  a  quiet  monastery  at  Tchangan. 
His  diaries  are  full  of  marvels.  Near  the  Lob  Nor  he  found  4000 
Buddhist  monks ;  and  the  faith  then  flourished  in  the  Pamirs,  Yar- 
kand,  Siralkol,  and  the  fertile  Swat  Valley.  At  Kie-cha,  in  the 
Tsung  Ling,  or  "  onion  "  range,  were  large  Buddhist  establishments ; 
and  here  the  king  held  five  yearly  assemblies,  *'  to  which  Sramans 
came  in  crowda"  In  Udyana  there  were  50  monasteries,  which  had 
all  disappeared  a  century  after  Fa-Hien's  visit  He  evidently  followed 
the  route  from  Yarkand  to  the  Gilgit  river,  and  to  the  country  of  the 
Dards ;  he  speaks  of  Taksha-sira,  but  apparently  saw  neither  this 
place  nor  Manikyala.  In  Khoten  Buddhism  was  mixed  with  older 
nature-worship  of  lingam  pillars.  Near  Darel  he  notices  a  famous 
wooden  image  of  the  future  Buddha — Maitrya — from  the  original 
seen  by  the  artist  in  heaven.  This  perished,  and  a  rock-cut  figure 
stands  on  the  site.  He  speaks  of  Buddha's  footprint  in  Udyana,  and 
relates  other  legends,  such  as  that  of  Gotama  giving  his  life  to  appease 
the  hunger  of  a  tigress  with  whelps,  at  Taksha-sila.  He  saw 
Eauishka's  great  stupa  (at  Peshawar)  over  the  earthen  bowl  of 
Buddha  which  none  could  remove ;  the  poor  could  fill  it  with  a  few 
flowers,  but  the  rich  failed  with  even  a  thousand  measures.  At 
Beghram,  near  Jelalabad,  he  saw  as  it  were  the  "  veritable  person  of 
Buddha,"  shining  like  gold  on  the  mountain  side.  This  luminous 
shadow  faded  as  you  approached.  Kings  sent  painters  to  copy  it,  but 
none  succeeded.  Buddha's  skull  and  staff  were  here,  and  here  he 
cut  his  hair,  and   built  a  tower  as  a  model  of  all  future  stupas. 


Faidth  8i 

Bowls  which  once  contaiDed  perfumed  waters,  such  as  he  describes  in 
connection  with  the  rites  of  this  skull,  have  been  found  in  caskets  in 
these  ruins  (Mr  A.  M.  Clive-  Bayly,  iTidian  Magazine),  At  Sabet- 
Mahet  there  was  a  Brahman  temple,  which  could  not  throw  its 
shadow  on  the  adjoining  Buddhist  chapel.  Here  too  were  Buddhists 
who  denied  worship  to  Gotama,  though  believing  in  earlier  Buddhas. 
He  remained  long  at  Patna  (Pali  -  botbra),  visiting  many  shrines, 
and  here  found  a  copy  of  the  Vinaya,  and  of  the  Rules  of  Discipline. 
He  copied  and  translated  them,  as  well  as  other  *' original  MSS.  of 
the  Lord  "  at  Gaya,  where  on  the  adjoining  hill  he  saw  "  the  isolated 
rock  near  Giryek/'  with  42  commandments  written  by  ''  the  finger  of 
Buddha."  His  diary,  in  short,  is  as  full  of  marvels  as  those  of 
Christian  pilgrims  to  Palestine  in  the  same  age.  He  went  south  to 
the  famous  Sri-Salla  monastery,  on  the  Krishna  river,  and  seems  to 
have  followed  that  stream  to  the  sea  —  sailing  thence  to  Ceylon, 
where  he  remained  two  years,  studying  Buddhist  books,  and  copying 
the  Vinaya  Pitaka  of  the  Mahisasaka  school ;  both  versions  of  the 
*'  Rules  of  Discipline " ;  and  the  two  Ajamas  (see  Prof.  Beal  on 
Legge's  "  Fa-Hien,"  Acad.,  30th  Oct.  1886). 

Faidth.  Eeltik:  a  diviner  or  wise  one — pronounced  Fai  or 
Faith :  from  the  Aryan  root  Bhidh  "  to  trust." 

Faith.  From  Bhidh  "to  trust"  Greek  Pistis,  Latin  Fides, 
Sanskrit  Bhakti — among  the  subtlest  temptations  of  Buddha  under 
the  Bodhi  tree. 

"  And  third  came  she  who  gives  dark  creeds  their  power 
Draped  fair  in  many  lauds  as  lowly  Faith  ; 
Yet  ever  juggling  souls  with  rites  and  prayers." 

"  The  Buddha  answered  *  What  thou  bidd'st  me  keep 
Is  form,  which  passes  ;  but  the  free  Truth  stands. 
Get  thee  into  thy  darkness/  " 

• 

In  S.W.  Gaul  Sta  Foy  is  still  worshiped  as  a  martyr  of  300  A.G. 
Her  image,  as  Sancta  Fides,  was  of  gold,  3  ft.  high,  with  a  crown  of 
gems  and  enamel,  on  which  were  represented  Jupiter,  Mars,  Apollo, 
and  Diana ;  so  that  this  **  holy  faith  "  owes  its  image  to  a  pagan  idol, 
probably  of  Byzantine  workmanship.  It  came  to  Conques, :  on  the 
Garonne,  from  Agen  about  874,  and  a  fine  basilica  was  built  for  it  in 
942-984  A.C.  which  has  ever  attracted  pilgrims.  Yet  faith  is  but  as 
the  sand  in  which  the  ostrich  hides  its  head,  awaiting  its  doom  :  '*  We 
know"  means  that  we  dimly  feel  what  we  cannot  explain.  One 
brother  as  cardinal  is  satisfied  with  the  authority  of  priests  and 
Others — entangled  in  the  Roman  net — the  other  (Francis  Newman) 


90  Faith 

stands  up  to  seek  Truths  and  to  reason  out  its  problems,  content  to  rest 
in  hope  when  he  touches  on  the  unknown.  Faith,  of  necessity,  be- 
lieves in  wonders,  and  fears  examination.  Buddha  shook  off  Bhakti 
when,  after  studying  all  faiths  and  philosophies  of  his  age,  he  rejected 
them  all  alike  as  unproven,  and  attained  to  the  path.  He  too  bad 
felt  a  "  call,"  like  many  another  pious  youth.  Tet  some,  like  Confucius, 
have  reached  wisdom  without  suffering  from  the  struggle  which  early 
belief  makes  hard  for  others.  Chaitanya,  the  Vishnu va  reformer, 
on  the  other  hand,  declared  Bhakti  to  be  "more  eflScacious  than 
abstraction ;  than  knowledge  of  the  divine  nature  (on  which  Brahman 
philosophers  insisted) ;  than  subjugation  of  the  passions ;  than  the 
practice  of  the  Yoga  (austerities) ;  than  charity,  virtue,  or  anything 
deemed  most  meritorious"  (Wilson).  Faith,  said  the  Christian 
(Heb.  xi,  1),  "is  the  assurance  of  things  hoped  for;  the  evidence  of 
things  not  seen" — of  things  therefore  that  can  only  be  imagined. 
But  the  word  for  "  evidence  "  is  not  witness  {ruarturia),  but  only 
"  statement "  {elenJchoa),  It  is  faith  such  as  led  Abraham  to  offer  up 
his  son  in  obedience  to  a  dream  ;  or  Sarah  to  believe,  though  she 
knew  the  physical  laws  of  nature  —  and  laughed.  The  walls  of 
Jericho  fell,  not  to  battering  rams,  or  the  blowing  of  trumpets,  or 
even  because  of  perambulations  with  the  sacred  ark,  but  to  faith, 
which  slaughtered  old  and  young,  guilty  and  innocent  alike,  in  the 
doomed  city — ^a  fair  example  of  the  evils  that  followed  an  unreasoning 
faith  in  a  "God  of  Battles."  Faith  has  required  bloody  sacrifices, 
and  scorns  doubt,  and  enquiry,  by  which  alone  we  advance  on  the  road 
to  truth.  Thomas  the  doubter  is  condemned,  because  he  would  not, 
without  evidence,  believe  that  the  dead  had  arisen.  Faith  condones 
for  many  crimes.  Even  the  murderer  may  go  forth  safely  to  his 
cruel  deed  if  he  has  humbly  prayed  at  the  Madonna's  shrine. 

Faith  in  the  past  has  barred  the  way  against  science  and  philo* 
sophy.  Even  Faraday  said  (see  G.  H.  Lewes,  Piroblema  of  Life  and 
Mind,  i,  p.  11)  :  "I  prostrate  my  reason  before  mysteries  I  am  unable 
to  comprehend  " — forgetting  that  he  was  accepting  assumptions  which, 
had  they  referred  to  science  in  his  laboratory,  he  would  have  rejected 
as  groundless.  To  change  Faith,  a  new  generation,  educated  anew,  is 
needed ;  but  we  now  see  on  the  horizon  what  Draper  perceived  30 
years  ago :  "  Faith  must  render  an  account  of  herself  to  Reason." 
Facts  must  replace  asserted  mysteries.  Religion  must  abandon  the 
old  tone  of  authority.  Thought  must  become  absolutely  free.  The 
ecclesiastic  must  restrict  himself  to  his  chosen  domain,  and  no  longer 
hinder  the  philosopher  who,  conscious  of  the  strength  and  purity  of 
his  motives,  will  no  longer  brook  the  interference  of  priests.     Voltaire 


Fal  91 

was  a  strong  Theist,  but  he  said  :  "  Divine  faith,  about  which  so  much 
has  been  written,  is  evidently  nothing  more  than  incredulity  brought 
into    subjection :    for  we  certainly  have  no  other  faculty  than  the 
understanding  by  which  we  can  believe ;  and  the  objects  of  faith  are 
not  those  of  the  understanding.     We  can  believe  only  what  appears 
to  be  true ;   and  nothing  can  appear  true   but  in   one  of  the  three 
following  ways  :  by  intuition  or  feeling — as,  '  I  exist,  I  see  the  sun  ' ; 
by  an  accumulation  of  probability  amounting  to  certainty — s^,  *  there 
is  a   city   called  Constantinople';    or  by  positive  demonstration — as, 
'  triangles  of  the  same  base  and  height  are  equal.'     Faith,  therefore, 
being  nothing  at  all  of  this  description,  can  no  more  be  a  belief  than 
it  can  be  yellow  or  red.      It  can  be  nothing  but  the  annihilation  of 
reason,  a  silence  of  adoration  at  the  contemplation  of  things  absolutely 
incomprehensible.     Thus,  speaking  philosophically,  no  person  believes 
the  Trinity :  no  person  believes  that  the  same    body   can    be    in    a 
thousand   places  at  once ;    and   he  who  says,  '  I  believe  these   mys- 
teries/ will  see,  beyond  the  possibility  of  a  doubt,    if  he  reflect  for 
a  moment  on  what  passes  in  his  mind,  that  these  words  mean  no 
more  than,  'I  respect  these  mysteries.'      I  submit  myself  to  those 
who  announce  them.      For  they  agree  with  me  that  my  reason,  or 
their  own  reason,  believes  them  not ;   but  it  is  clear  that,  if  my  reason 
is  not   persuaded,  I  am   not  persuaded.       I   and   my  reason  cannot 
possibly  be  two  different  beings.       It  is    an   absolute    contradiction 
that  I  should  receive  as  true  that  which  my  understanding  rejects 
as  false.     Faith,  therefore,  is  nothing  but  submissive,   and    deferen- 
tial, incredulity."     For  Faith  has  been  defined  as  the  "inactivity  of 
our  reason." 

Fal-  Fail  Keltik:  *' judge,"  "boundary,"  "decision,"  "fate" 
— ^as  in  the  Lia-fail  or  "stone  of  fate."  Fal  was  a  hero  whom 
Christianised  Erse  in  Ireland  identified  with  Simon  Magus  (Prof. 
Rhys,  Hibbert  Lect,  1886,  p.  213).  He  rode  on  a  wheel,  the  Roth- 
fail,  or  Roth-ramach,  "  the  wheel  of  light,"  which  was  "  one  of  the 
four  precious  things  brought  to  Ireland  by  the  Tuatha  Dedanaan." 
Wherever  the  Lia-fail  is  taken  a  Milesian  Goidal  (or  Irishman)  will 
reign,  like  Conn  at  Tara.  Under  every  king  whose  right  it  recog- 
nised this  "stone  of  fate"  gave  a  scream.  From  Tara  it  went  to 
Scone  in  Scotland,  till  Edward  I  of  England  seized  it ;  and  it  now 
is  fitted  beneath  the  seat  of  the  coronation  chair  at  Westminster. 
The  legend  says  that  Jeremiah  brought  it  to  Tara,  when  he  came  to 
Ireland  with  an  Irish  princess. 

Falguna  or  Phalguna.      The  Hindu  month  (15th  January  to 


92  Fallah 

« 

15tb  February)  when  girls  must  worship  Ama  ("the  mother"),  with 
salt,  and  long  kidney  beans  (see  Beans). 

Fallah.   Fellah.     Arabic :  ''  ploughman."     This  word  is  often 
used  incorrectly  as  though  applying  to  a  special  race. 

Faolan.  Saint  Fillan.  Faolan,  or  "little  wolf,"  was  one  of 
St  Columba's  missionaries,  at  Strath-fillan,  where  is  the  famous  stone 
and  bell  of  St  Fillan.  He  had  also  a  charmed  crozier  (the  Quigreach), 
with  a  bone  relic.  We  have  stood  by  the  weird  pool  under  the  steep, 
karn-crowned  cliff,  where  hundreds  used  once  to  be  healed,  and  the 
possessed  were  chained  to  cleats  still  visible  in  the  rock.  Within  the 
memory  of  living  men  the  place  has  been  visited,  and  two  women 
were  submerged  in  the  pool  in  1860.  The  old  rites  were  connected 
with  the  moon,  after  sunset,  in  her  first  quarter.  The  sick  and  peni- 
tent plunged  in,  over  their  heads,  in  the  water ;  took  stones  from  the 
bottom ;  climbed  to  the  three  earns  on  the  mound  ;  walked  thrice 
*'  sun-wise  "  round  them,  casting  a  stone  at  each.  They  then  walked, 
or  were  carried,  to  the  Priory  Chapel,  now  a  ruin,  and  were  tied  down 
on  the  sacred  stone  slab  (a  holed  stone),  wearing  their  wet  clothes; 
in  very  bad  cases  the  magic  bell  was  put  on  the  patient's  head,  but 
was  fortunately  not  very  heavy ;  in  the  morning  the  patient  was 
found  to  be  unbound,  which  proved  that  he  was  cured.  The  site  is 
still  a  sacred  centre,  for  a  new  parish  church  stands  opposite  the  pool 
(see  Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  pp.  298-304). 

Fan.  The  mystic  Vannus,  or  winnowing  fan,  was  an  emblem  of 
lakkhos,  son  of  D6-Meter.  Fans  are  often  represented  on  Assyrian 
bas-reliefs ;  and  with  Indian  Sanyasis  (beardless  tonsured  priests)  the 
fan  is  sacred.  Apuleios,  in  our  2nd  century,  describes  it  in  the 
procession  of  Isis,  beside  the  wine  cup,  caduceus,  and  sacred  branch 
and  fire :  it  was  piled  up  with  gold.  The  Greeks  also  piled  up  a  fan 
with  fruits,  and  placed  it  on  the  bride's  head  at  weddings,  as  an 
emblem  of  fertility — like  the  rice  showers  in  other  cases.  At  Thebes 
in  Egypt  wo  find  fans  represented  in  pictures  of  the  18th  dynasty. 
Christian  churches  had  special  fans,  which  only  tonsured  priests  might 
use,  and  this  only  when  consecrating  the  sacred  elements. 

Faiid.  A  celebrated  sheikh,  and  a  Sufi  freethinker  (see  Sikhs). 
His  shrine  was  built  round  a  sacred  Pilu  tree,  at  Farid-Kot,  con- 
'secrated  by  his  touch.  It  grants  fertility  to  those  who  flock  to  the 
spot  He  is  called  "Farid  of  the  sugar  stick";  for  sugar  sticks, 
called  Faridi,  are  here  given  out  to  girls,  from  the  Shakar-ganj  or 
"  sugar  place  "  on  Thursdays. 


Farj  98 

Farj.     Arabi6 :  "  pleasure  " :  FarHj  is  the  YOni. 

Far'oun.  Arabic :  "  Prince,"  "  Tyrant."  The  word  Phar*aoh  is 
the  same,  and,  according  to  Benouf,  is  Semitic.  It  is  not  used  to 
mean  "king"  (Per-aa),  in  Egypt,  before  the  time  of  the  18th 
dynasty,  and  was  apparently  a  loan  word  coming  in  with  the  Hyksos 
(see  Proc,  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  Feby.  1901,  p.  73). 

Fascinum.  Like  the  Greek  Baskanon  this  meant,  in  Latin, 
'^  bewitching,"  "  fascination."  Horace  uses  the  word  to  mean  the 
phallus  (French  Feane),  The  Synod  of  Tours  forbade  the  phallic 
worship  of  the  Fesne  in  1396  A.C.,  unless  accompanied  with 
chanting  of  the  Creed  and  Lord's  Prayer.  But  the  Fesne  as  an 
amulet  is  still  in  use. 

Father.     See  Ab,  and  Ad,  Pa  and  Papa. 

Fatsmil.     The  Japanese  Hercules. 

Fear.  All  nations  have  had  gods  of  fear.  The  Greek  Phobos 
was  a  son  of  Ares,  with  a  lion's  head,  as  on  the  shield  of  Agamemnon, 
which  showed  Terror  in  a  lion's  skin,  sounding  a  trumpet,  and  holding 
a  shield  on  which  was  the  head  of  the  Gorgon  Medusa  (Turkish 
gorgo  "  fear ").  Homer  also  makes  Terror  a  godess  on  the  Aigis  of 
Athene.  Hesiod  calls  her  a  daughter  of  Ares  and  Aphrodite,  placing 
her  on  the  shield  of  H3rakl6s,  and  saying  that  Fear  always  accom- 
panies Are&— or  war.  Pausanias  says  she  had  a  statue  at  Corinth ; 
others  speak  of  her  temple  at  Sparta,  by  the  palace  of  the  Ephori. 
Aiskhulos  describes  seven  chiefs  as  swearing  by  Fear,  and  by  Ares, 
before  Thebes.  The  Bomans  personified  her  as  Pavor  and  Pallor 
— ^fear  and  paleness — and  she  was  invoked  by  their  generals,  as  by 
Theseus  or  Alexander  the  Great,  that  she  might  frighten  the  foe. 
AH  who  were  engaged  in  hazardous  enterprises  prayed  to  her.  On 
ancient  medals,  and  shields,  she  appears  (as  the  Gorgon)  with 
scared  aspect,  open  mouth,  and  hair  standing  on  end,  or  turned 
into  snakes.  The  Hebrew  Yahveh  was  called  a  God  of  Fear,  and 
Christians  still  regard  fear  of  God  as  the  first  principle  of  religion. 

Feathers.  The  feather  in  Egypt  was  held  in  the  hand  of 
Tbmei,  godess  of  justice :  for  a  feather  would  turn  the  scale,  in 
Amenti,  when  the  soul  was  judged.  But  feathers — like  the  Fleur- 
de-lis — are  often  later  euphuistik  emblems  for  the  phallus,  as  we 
see  in  the  three  Prince  of  Wales'  feathers.  The  popes  had  a 
similar  badge  of  three  ostrich  feathers,  which  was  previously 
adopted   by    Lorenzo  dei    Medici    (a  family   whose    arms    were  the 


94  Feet 

three  balls) :  this  was  also  called  the  "  giglio "  —  lily  or  gilly 
flower — bearing  the  motto  "Semper"  ("ever"),  the  three  feathers 
being  green,  white,  and  blue  (or  red),  which  the  Church  said 
meant  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity  {Notes  and  Queries,  Ist  May 
1886).  The  feathers  appear  (Jenning's  Rosicrucians),  with  the 
moon  and  the  Yoni  beneath  them — the  moon  resting  on  a  Fleur-de-lis 
form — with  a  lingam.  The  motto  Ich  dien  "  I  serve  "  is  thus 
appropriate,  but  the  date  is  unknown  (see  Times'  Lit.  Supplem...  Nov. 
14th,  1902,  p.  341).  The  Egyptian  gods  Amen-Ra  and  Sebek  have 
long  feathers  on  their  crowns,  representing  probably  rays  of  light 

Feet.      See  Foot. 

Fene.   Fin,   Fiann.   Feinn.    The  old  Irish  militia   were 

called  Feinn  or  Fenians,  and  Fionn,  son  of  Cumhal,  was  a  famous 
hero.  The  Fion-gail  or  "fair  strangers"  were  contrasted  with  the 
Dubh-gail  or  '*  black  strangers,"  so  that  the  word  comes  from  the 
Aryan  root  bhan  "  bright "  or  **  white."  But  Fiene  is  also  a  sacred 
place  like  the  Latin  Fanum  a  "  fane  "  (see  Fin). 

FeralicL  A  Roman  festival,  celebrated  from  the  l7th  to  the 
21st  of  February,  or  otherwise  early  in  March.  The  seed  being 
committed  to  earth  the  infernal  gods  must  be  propitiated,  and  Ceres 
was  now  mournfully  seeking  Proserpina.  The  Latins  lighted  torches 
to  help  her  in  the  dark,  and  worshiped  Februa  ("  heat ")  as  a  godess. 
The  Christians  substituted  their  Virgin  (see  Candlemas),  but  trans- 
ferred the  worship  of  souls  to  November,  when  they  lighted  up 
cemeteries,  and  perambulated  the  graves  with  torches,  afflicting 
themselves  with  flagellations  (see  Feronia). 

Feridun.  The  son  of  Jamshid,  an  early  royal  hero  of  Ispahan 
(Firdusi's  Shdh-ndmehy  11th  century  A.C.).  A  blacksmith  (Kaveh) 
persuaded  him  to  slay  Zohak  (see  Max  Milller,  Chips,  i,  p.  99  ;  and 
Rivers  of  Life,  ii,  p.  24).  This  is  the  later  form  of  the  legend  of 
Thraetona  (the  Vedik  Trita)  slaying  Azi-dahak  "  the  biting  snake,"  as 
in  the  Zend  Avesta. 

Feronia.  The  godess  of  fire,  whose  altars  were  on  mountains 
(especially  volcanoes)  in  sacred  groves,  by  thermal  springs  like  that  of 
the  Samian  city  under  Mt.  Sorakte  ("  snow  peak  "),  which  was  sacred 
to  Etruskans.  The  Sabines  consecrated  this  to  Soranus  (from  sar  to 
"shine"),  who  (Virgil,  ^n.,  xi,  785)  was  a  god  of  fire  and  light,  the 
Apollo  of  Sorakte  "guardian  of  the  holy  mount."  The  name  Feronia 
comes  from  the  Aryan  root  bhur  "  to  burn  "  (see  Phoroneus). 


Fervers  96 

Fcrvers.     The  Fravardin    of   the  Zend   Avesta — female    genii 
dwelling  in  all  things,  and  protecting  men. 

Festivals,     These  are  detailed  under  their  special  names  (se^ 
subject  index). 


The  word  '^ Fetiche"  was  first  used  by  President  de 
Brosses  (Du  CvXte  dea  Dieux  FHichea,  1760).  He  says  that: 
*' African  negroes  called  material  and  terrestrial  objects  of  worship 
fetiche."  The  Portuguese  have  for  several  centuries  used  the  word 
"  Feitice  "  for  charms  and  magic.  Fetishism  is  now  the  term  for  the 
worship  of  natural  or  manufactured  objects  or  symbols,  such  as  the 
horns,  bones,  skulls,  or  organs,  of  animals  and  human  beings  (see  Eye), 
or  stones,  corals,  serpents,  crosses,  and  idols  of  all  kinds.  Holy  Scrip- 
tures may  become — or  be  used  as — fetishes.  [The  Christians  of 
Antioch  in  our  4th  century,  according  to  Chrysostom,  used  copies 
of  the  gospels  as  charms  tied  on  to  their  beds :  as  the  Bible — with 
the  door  key — is  used  by  European  peasants. — Ed.]  Major  Ellis 
{Ishi-speaking  peopUa  of  the  Gold  Coast,  1887)  and  Professor 
Keane,  in  reviewing  the  same  work,  deny  that  any  savages  originally 
regarded  sticks  and  stones  as  supernatural  beings,  though  ''  fear 
made  the  gods."  But  what  savages  believed  was  that  spirits  could 
tiike  up  their  abode  in  consecrated  objects  and  emblems,  such  as 
lingam  stones  and  stakes,  idols,  and  symbols.  Bede  says  that  the 
"  Psalter  was  carried  sun-wise  round  the  Scottish  army  on  the  breast 
of  a  sinless  cleric."  The  Irish  made  fetishes  of  ancient  copies  of  the 
gospels,  on  which  they  swore  with  fear  and  trembling.  Relics  such  as 
Veronica's  handkerchief,  or  the  '*  holy  coat "  of  Treves,  denounced  as 
fraudulent  by  the  popes,  are  as  much  fetishes  as  the  hairs,  tooth, 
bones,  and  begging  bowl  of  Buddha. 

Fidh.  Keltik  :  "  wood,"  from  the  Aryan  root  Bhid  "  to  cleave  " 
(see  Bud).  It  appears  to  mean  a  "stake,"  or  any  other  long 
pointed  object.  The  round  towers  were  called  Fidh  -  neemhedh 
(the  heavenly  Fidh),  as  the  Gauls  had  their  .  Dru-nemet  or 
"  holy  tree "  down  to  our  8th  century  (Dulaure,  Hist,  dea  Cultes,  i, 
pp.  58  to  60).  O'Brien  (Round  Towera,  1834)  regards  the  Fidh 
(p.  lOo)  as  meaning  a  phallus.  Among  many  mediaeval  writers  the 
"dry  tree"  was  an  emblem  of  celibacy,  and  the  "green  tree"  of 
reproduction — these  both  growing  in  a  paradise  beyond  the  sea 
(see  Yule's  Marco  Polo).  Cormac,  bishop  of  Cashel  in  our  9th 
(or  some  say  7th)  century,  says  that  anciently  hundreds  of  round 
towers  existed  in  Ireland,  "  and  that  noble  judges  placed  in  them 


06  Figs 

vases  containing  relics"  (O'Brien,  Round  Toiuers,  chap,  xxvi),  so 
that  they  then  resembled.  Indian  stupas.  [These  high,  slender,  roand 
towers  existed,  according  to  Gerald  of  Cambray,  before  Strongbow's 
conquest,  1170  A.C.  They  have,  however,  in  some  cases  pointed 
arches  later  than  the  11th  century.  There  are  64  of  them  in 
Ireland,  mainly  near  the  coast.  They  are  found  in  flat  ground 
near  ancient  churches.  They  cannot  therefore  have  been  beacoa 
towers ;  but  may  have  served  as  refuge  towers — such  as  are  found 
in  Afghanistan — for  the  church  relics  and  plate.  The  door  is 
always  high  up,  and  only  to  be  reached  by  a  ladder.  Human 
skeletons  occur  in  the  foundations — perhaps  victims  sacrificed  to  the 
earth  god  intended  to  render  the  building  safe. — Ed.]  Round  these 
towers  men  and  women  danced  at  solar  festivals.  General  Valiancy 
and  others  relate  this  took  place  at  Tailetan  (now  Tell-town).  "On 
the  1st  of  August  (Luc-nasa),  when  the  sun  and  moon  were  said  to 
be  married,"  games  were  held  at  Tara,  and  maidens  danced  round  the 
great  menhir  on  the  hill.  It  was  called  the  "  love  festival,"  lasting 
15  days:  "the  females  exposed  themselves  to  enamour  the  swains." 
The  name  Tailti  was  that  of  the  daughter  of  the  12th  king  of 
Ireland  (O'Brien,  Round  Towers,  p.  388).  The  Irish  (see  Petrie,  i, 
pp.  61,  62),  according  to  a  vellum  MS.  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
represented  King  Priam  (^nid,  ii,  512  to  539)  as  exclaiming, 
"  Wretch,  would  you  kill  my  son  before  the  altar  of  the  gods,  in  the 
Fid-nemid  of  Jove."  So  that  the  word,  applied  to  the  round 
towers,  had  evidently  the  sense  of  a  holy  place  or  symbol  Two 
towers  like  those  of  Ireland  exist  in  Scotland  :  one  at  Brechin  in 
Forfarshire,  the  other  at  the  old  Pict  capital  of  Abernethy  on  the 
S.  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Tay. 

Figs.  The  shape  of  the  leaf,  and  of  the  fruit,  of  this  tree  did 
not  escape  the  attention  of  ancient  nature  worshipers ;  and  the 
"  fig  leaf"  was  an  euphuism  for  the  phallus.  The  aprons  of  the  first 
pair  in  Eden  were  fig  leaves,  and  the  form  is  that  still  used  in  the 
amulets  of  silver,  ivory,  and  bone,  which  Indian  mothers  hang  from 
the  waists  of  small  girls  otherwise  naked.  Even  the  Buddhist 
archbishop  of  Ceylon  signs  his  name  with  a  fig  leaf — as  Christian 
bishops  use  the  cross. '  To  adore  the  fig  leaf  (Asvattha)  is,  according 
to  the  Ananda  Tantram,  to  adore  the  Adho-Mukam  or  "inner 
place"  (see  Sakta) :  that  is  to  say,  the  "fig-leaf  shaped  Yoni."  The 
Italians,  like  the  ancient  Romans,  call  phalli  ''  figs " ;  and  the  latter 
joked  about  the  Ficus,  and  the  Ficaria,  Ficetum,  and  Ficarii.  It  was 
under  a   fig  tree — the   Ruminalis,  named  from  rwma  "a  teat"— 


Fiji  97 

that  the  wolf  suckled  Romulus  and  Bemus  in  the  Lupercal  oave ;  and 
senators  sat  under  the  sacred  fig  in  the  centre  of  the  Comitium  of  the 
Forum,  the  tree,  according  to  Augurs,  having  transferred  itself  from 
the  old  site  under  the  Palatine  hill  to  this  spot  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat^ 
XV,  20).  The  wild  fig  (Capri-ficus  or  "goat's  fig")  was  on  the  site 
where  women  sacrificed  to  Vulcan  at  the  Caprificiales.  The  fig  was 
identified  with  Romulus  himself.  (Prof.  A.  di  Gubernatis,  Mythol,  dee 
Plantea,  ii,  p.  137).  Phalli  made  of  fig  tree  wood  were  symbols  in 
the  rites  of  Bakkhos ;  and  were  kept  in  sacred  arks.  Piedmontese 
peasants  say  that  "the  fig  chases  away  the  wolf"  (winter,  night,  or 
sterility)  ;  and  it  has  its  demoniac  aspect,  as  well  as  that  of  sweetness 
and  ambrosial  juice.  Bakkhos  was  said  to  create  the  fig  as  well  as 
the  grape ;  and  Greeks  adored  Dionusos  Sukites,  the  fig  god.  Sukeos, 
pursued  by  Zeus,  was  changed  into  a  fig  tree  to  please  RhsBa,  the 
earth  mother.  The  fruit  was  sacred  to  Hermes,  and  to  Here,  and 
interchanges  with  the  apple  in  popular  folk-lore  (see  Apple)  ;  but  it 
is  also  the  "arbor  infamis,"  and  the  tree  of  Judas,  as  betraying 
innocence.  None  dare  to  sleep  under  it,  a  superstition  also  found 
among  Syrians,  who  say  it  is  "  bad  for  the  eyes " :  for  it  should  not 
be  seen.  The  expressions  '*  fare  la  fica,"  "  faire  la  figue,"  "  dar  una 
higa,"  in  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish,  mean  "  to  make  the  fig,"  that 
is  the  symbol  of  the  thumb  lietween  the  two  middle  fingers,  a  phallic 
sign  (see  Eye).  Up  to'  our  4th  or  5th  century  the  Manichsean 
Gnostiks  are  said  to  have  observed  "detestable  ceremonies  of  figs." 
Mr  Jibrail  (Quarterly  Stat.  Pal.  Expl.  Fund,  July  1889)  says  that 
Druzes  still  present  figs  to  one  another,  and  Druze  women  eat  figs 
after  prayers,  and  have  a  special  "  Egg  Thursday "  in  spring  (see 
Eggs).  The  sign  of  the  fig — above  described — is  a  common  amulet 
in  S.  Europe ;  and  over  the  gates  of  Fort  Kumarom  is  a  hand  with 
one  finger  extended  (Notes  and  Queries,  11th  July  1886),  which  is 
the  gesture  called  also  by  Italians  "  showing  a  fig  " ;  thus  the  virgin 
fortress  of  Kumari  derides  its  foes.  A  Spanish  mother,  says  the 
Marquis  de  Custine,  meeting  a  suspicious  character,  hastily  puts  her 
child's  hand  into  the  right  position,  saying  "  Higo  higo  haga,  usted 
una  fija."  Such  customs  and  amulets  are  common  also  among 
Basques  and  Bretons. 

Fiji.  This  is  a  group  of  200  islands,  with  a  population  of  about 
130,000  persons,  who  profess  some  kind  of  Christianity,  mingled  with 
ancient  superstitions :  for  they  know  only  as  a  rule  the  leading  rites, 
and  are  practically  still  worshipers  of  demons,  fetishes,  and  stones, 
though  fast  forgetting  the  meaning  of  their  old  customs  (see  Samoans). 


98  Fiji 

Mr  Coote  (WaTideringa,  1882)  says  that  their  prayers  remind  him 
of  Hebrew  Psalms.  "  Let  us  live ;  and  let  those  who  speak  evil  of 
us  perish.  Let  the  enemy  be  clubbed,  swept  away,  utterly  destroyed, 
piled  in  heaps.  Let  their  teeth  be  broken.  May  they  fall  headlong 
into  a  pit.  Let  us  live :  let  our  enemies  perish."  Akkadians  and 
Babylonians  had  such  prayers,  and  such  words  we  still  repeat  with 
pious  reverence  in  civilised  Europe.  The  Fiji  gods  include  Tanum- 
banga,  Ndauthina,  Kumbunavanua,  M'batimona,  Kavuravu,  Mainatava- 
sara,  and  others.  N'dengei  is  described  as  the  "  supreme  impersona- 
tion of  abstract  eternal  existence" — ^which  we  do  not  believe  any 
Fijian  to  have  ever  been  capable  of  conceiving.  He  has  a  serpent's 
head,  or  dwells  in  a  serpent,  and  in  a  gloomy  cavern,  with  a  single 
priest  or  Uto.  He  was  "  produced  by  a  mother  who  found  two  stones 
at  the  bottom  of  a  great  moat/'  in  which  we  find  a  simpler  symbol  of 
existence.  Fijians  worshiped  "  two  stones  "  (Sir  J.  Lubbock,  Origin 
of  Civil.  ;  see  Itivera  of  Life^  ii,  p.  140,  fig.  253,  "Fijian  phalli*'). 
The  stone  worship  was  extremely  sensual,  and  the  emblems  included 
seals,  lizards,  eels,  and  other  creeping  things  inhabiting  holes.  Each 
tribe  had  its  sacred  animal,  which  never  injured  any  of  the  tribe  that 
adored  it.  The  small  stone  called  Eavek,  or  "  love,"  had  a  girdle 
round  it  called  Liku ;  it  was  sacred  to  a  Venus,  and  food  was  ofiered 
to  it  daily  at  Thokova.  Another  menhir  covered  with  cup-marks — as 
in  India  (the  Danda)  and  among  Kelts — was  probably  a  solar  symbol 
One  chief,  according  to  Lubbock,  "represented  his  two  wives  by 
two  stones" — probably  egg-shaped.  Fijians  also  have  sacred  trees, 
especially  worshiping  the  ash.  Conical  and  bullet-shaped  stones, 
from  Fiji,  are  in  the  Christie  collection  of  the  British  Museum.  The 
dead  are  buried  in  caves  and  tumuli,  and  it  was  the  duty  of  the 
widow's  brother  to  strangle  her  unless  indeed  she  called  on  him  to  do 
80 :  for  the  demon  Nanga  bars  the  road  to  Mabula,  or  Hades,  and 
tortures  male  ghosts  unaccompanied  by  wives,  whom  he  allows  to  pass 
When  a  chief  is  dying  he  is  taken  to  the  Mabure-Ealous,  or  "  god's 
house,"  and  his  death  is  concealed  as  long  as  possible,  since  revolutions 
and  general  plunder  will  follow.  If  women  die  in  child-birth,  a 
banana,  wrapped  in  a  child's  garment,  is  laid  on  the  breast  Tbe 
Fiji  gods  (as  at  Samoa)  are  swathed  in  mats  and  robes  (as  in  Japan, 
or  among  Eomans,  or  in  the  case  of  the  Inish-Murray  stone),  like  the 
Tarao  of  Tahiti,  swathed  with  straw  (see  Ta-aroa).  Circumcision  in 
Fiji  is  "  a  propitiatory  rite,  as  an  offering  of  atonement,"  for  a  sick 
father,  by  one  of  his  brother's  sons,  with,  as  usual,  heavy  fees  to 
priests  to  induce  the  deities  to  accept  the  sacrifice.  [In  1897  the 
population  had  dwindled   to  122,000  natives,  having  diminished  by 


Fiilan  99 

nearly  half  since  1859,  and  including  a  small  number  of  Polynesians, 
The  Fijians  proper  are  a  mixed  negrito  and  Malay  race,  some  tall 
and  chocolate  coloured  with  frizzled  hair  like  Papuans,  and  some 
nearer  to  the  Malay  type.  They  were  cannibals,  and  one  chief  is  said 
to  have  set  up  900  stones  to  represent  the  men  he  had  eaten. 
Human  sacrifices  were  common.  Fire  was  made  by  means  of  the 
fire-stick  (see  Hutchinson's  Living  Races,  p.  1 ). — Ed,] 

Fiilan.     See  Faolan. 

Fin.  Fion.  See  Fene.  The  Fion-gail,  or  "fair  strangers," 
formed  a  small  Fenian  army  under  King  Cormac  about  220  to  230 
A.C.  He  was  Kin^  of  Tara  (Dr  Joyce,  Old  Celtic  Romances,  p.  411), 
and  "  the  Find  or  Finn,  son  of  Cumhal,  or  Cumhail."  The  traditional 
site  of  his  palace  is  at  the  tall  pillar  on  the  hill  of  Allen,  near  Kildare, 
in  Ireland.  Though  he  could  perform  miracles,  and  was  regarded  as 
divine,  he  was  killed  by  a  fisherman  in  284  A.C.,  leaving  two  sons, 
Ossian  the  poet,  and  Oskar.  Many  legends  of  the  Fin  are  connected 
with  pillars,  bones,  and  stones :  such  as  the  "  thumb,"  which  was 
"an  erect  bone  with  the  flesh  off,"  and  the  "tooth  of  knowledge" 
(see  Bones,  Teeth,  Thumb).  The  son  of  Fian,  or  Fin,  was  Diarmed, 
whose  elopement  with  Graine  ("  the  sun  ")  betrothed  to  Find,  and  the 
courtship  of  Ailbhe,  form  a  well-known  Irish  epos. 

Finns.  A  very  important  Turanian  group,  on  the  east  of  the 
Swedes,  and  south  of  the  Lapps.  They  now  number  about  2  millions ; 
and,  having  mingled  with  Skandinavians,  they  are  usually  fair,  with 
blue  eyes.  Their  language  also  is  full  of  Aryan  loan  words,  though 
in  structure  and  vocabulary  it  is  Turanian  (see  Basques) :  the  name 
Finn  may  itself  be  Aryan  (from  the  root  Bhan  "  fair  "),  and  they  are 
called  in  their  own  tongue  " Suoma-leinen,"  or  "swamp-dwellers." 
They  spread  early  from  the  valleys  of  the  Volga  and  the  Don  to 
Finland,  and  Lapland  (see  Journal  Anthrop.  Instit,  Nov.  1886). 
Only  about  10,000  are  now  supposed  to  be  pure  Finns,  and  the  Lapps 
number  ouly  30,000  persons,  representing  perhaps  a  yet  earlier 
arrival  from  Central  Asia,  constituting  the  Ugro-Finnic  group — 
connected  with  the  early  Turkish  Uigurs;  including  also  the  Estho- 
Dians  south  of  Finland  (see  Japan).  These  people  are  called  Chudes 
in  Russian,  colonising  the  fen,  and  lake,  regions  N.  of  St  Petersburg* 
Eastern  Finns  also  extend  beyond  the  Urals  into  W.  Siberia ;  and 
Sir  H.  Rawlinson  supposes  Finnic  populations  to  have  preceded  the 
Aryans  throughout  Europe;  of  whom  the  Basques  are  an  outlying 
group.     The  Finnic  and  the  Magyar  tongues  are  the  representatives 


l«)  Finns 

of  Turanian  speech  in  E.  Europe,  and  are  connected  with  that  of  the 
Samoyedes  in  N.  Asia.  Finnish  was  first  studied  scientifically  about 
1820  A.G.,  when  it  was  discovered  that  a  rich  mythology,  with  many 
myths  and  legends,  existed,  forming  the  Kalevala — a  great  epik  orally 
preserved,  which  "  equals  the  Iliad  in  length  and  completeness,  aad 
ia  not  less  beautiful/'  according  to  Dr  Max  MtLller.  It  claims  its  place 
as  the  "  fifth  national  epic  of  the  world "  with  Homer,  the  Maha- 
bharata,  the  Shah-nameh,  and  the  Nibelungen-Iied.  It  is  named 
from  Ealeva,  the  "  land  of  plenty  and  happiness,"  and  begins  with  the 
creation  of  the  world,  and  with  the  triumph  of  a  divine  triad  ruling 
the  land  of  cold  and  death.  We  may  ask,  if  these  rude  Turanians 
of  the  far  north  were  thus  able  to  create  such  literature,  why  should 
not  others  of  the  stock  have  done  the  same  in  Kaldea  or  in 
India  ? 

The  Finns  had  gathered  on  the  Baltic  shores  before  700  A.C, 
and  accepted  Swedish  rule  by  1200.  England  first  heard  of  them 
about  1000  A.C.,  as  "K wains,  living  on  the  White  Sea,"  and  as 
Beormas  or  Permiansr — "wild  people  knowing  neither  God  nor  good 
order."  In  the  south-east  Russians  ruled  them  in  1300  ;  and  in 
1716  they  were  subjugated  by  Peter  the  Great.  Since  1809  they 
have  been  all  Russian  subjects,  claiming  to  be  ruled  by  their  own 
laws — an  agreement  recently  broken  (1890  to  1894)  by  the  Tzar. 
Their  myths  have  been  compared  by  F.  Lenormant  (La  Magie)  with 
those  of  the  Akkadians,  and  their  language  compares  with  Akkadian. 
Xheir  god  of  air  and  winds  is  Ukko  :  their  wood  god  is  Tapio :  their 
god  of  water  is  Ahti.  Jumala,  "the  Lord,"  is  their  "Great  Father'' 
— now  identified  with  the  angel  Gabriel ;  and  Perkel  (perhaps  the 
Aryan  Ferkunas)  presides  over  demons.  The  Lapps  are  allied  to  the 
Finns  racially,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  magic  drums  (FoUcLore 
Quarterly,  March  1893).  The  Tcheremiss  and  Votiaks,  Permians* 
Ostiaks,  and  Voguls,  are  branches  of  the  same  race,  between  the 
Caspian  .and  the  Samoyeds  of  W.  Siberia;  their  dialects  have  been 
compared  by  Donner  (1886),  Prof.  Smirnoff  (Scot  Oeog.  Mag.,  June 
1891)  says  that  polygamy,  and  survivals  of  communism,  still  exist 
among  the  Tcheremiss  and  Votiaks.  Wives  are  still  carried  off  by 
force  and  purchased.  Foo<j  and  drink  are  still  put  in  coflSns,  or  a 
bridal  dress  for  a  maiden,  and  a  string  in  a  boy's  cofiBn  showing  hi& 
father's  height,  to  which  he  must  grow  in  the  other  world.  Sacrifices 
— especially  the  head  and  heart  of  the  victim — are  offered  in  groves, 
and  cakes  in  the  shape  of  horses.  The  chief  gods  are  those  of  the  sky 
and  of  the  dawn — mother  of  the  sun,  with  deities  of  agriculture,  rain^ 
and  cattle.     Wizards  are  believed  (even  among  the  Finns,  who  have 


Fingers  lol 

attained  to  a  high  civilisation)  to  control  storms  and  diseases,  and  to 
ascend  to  heaven  and  descend  into  hell. 

Fingers.  These  form  phallic  signs  (see  also  Daktuloi,  Eye,  and 
Fig).  The  finger  laid  to  the  mouth  (as  on  gems  representing  the 
Egyptian  Harpokrates)  has  this  meaning,  and  is  a  common  Qnostik 
emblem  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  p.  31tj,  plate  xiii),  being  a  charm 
against  the  evil  eye.  Among  Romans  the  hand  with  the  middle 
finger  raised  was  the  "  digitus  impudicus  "  or  "  infamis."  Such  signs 
are  common  at  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  (see  Miuade  Secret^  plates  5, 
20,  32,  33,  37,  45).  The  two  raised  fingers  (first  and  second  among 
Latins,  or  first  and  fourth  in  the  East),  are  a  Christian  emblem  of 
blessing.  We  may  compare  also  the  '*  Pardon  de  St  Jean  du  doigt " 
or  "  St  John  of  the  Finger "  in  Bretagne,  for  surviving  phallic  sym- 
iwlism  (Wide  World  Mag.,  Octr.  1899).  To  this  shrine,  on  23rd 
June,  thousands  of  pilgrims  march  in  procession  from  Plougasnou  to 
adore  the  sacred  symbol,  in  a  precious  case  on  the  high  altar.  It  is 
the  finger  with  which  John  the  Baptist  pointed  to  the  Lamb  of  God. 
Julian  the  Apostate — says  the  legend— ordered  it  to  be  burned,  but 
a  miraculous  fall  of  rain  protected  it,  and  Philip,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem, 
concealed  it.  Thecla,  a  Norman  maiden,  took  it  to  her  home,  and 
built  a  chapel.  In  the  16th  century,  a  young  Breton  archer  of 
Plougasnou,  in  the  service  of  a  Norman  noble,  witnessed  the  miracles 
of  the  '^  holy  finger,"  and  grieved  not  to  be  able  to  take  it  with  him. 
As  he  went  home  the  trees  bowed  to  him,  and  the  bushes  greeted 
bim,  the  bells  of  a  Norman  village  rang  for  him,  and  he  was  cast  into 
prison  as  a  sorcerer.  He  woke  to  find  himself  near  home,  and  as  he 
entered  the  chapel  of  St  Meriadec,  to  return  thanks,  the  bells  chimed 
and  the  candles  were  lighted  by  unseen  handa  Those  who  were  with 
him  saw  the  holy  finger  emerge  from  the  archer's  arm  and  place 
itself  on  tlie  altar.  Pilgrims  then  became  so  numerous  that  a  special 
chapel  was  built  in  1513,  where  miracles  have  ever  since  occurred. 


The  Greek  Pur :  firom  the  Aryan  root  Bhur  (see  Bar),  AU 
nations  regarded  fire  as  sacred  since  the  discovery  of  the  fire  drill  (see 
Ag  and  Azteks).  The  Yedas  distinguish  five  elements  :  1.  Akas&  or 
Ether,  which  has  the  property  of  conveying  sound  :  2.  Air,  which  has 
the  properties  (guna)  of  sound  and  feeling  :  3.  Fire  with  sound,  feeling, 
and  colour:  4.  Water,  with  these  and  taste  :  5.  Earth,  with  the  gunaa 
of  sound,  feeling,  colour,  taste,  and  smell.  Skandinavians,  who  still 
carry  fire  to  protect  them,  used  to  place  it  in  pits  dug  in  new  lands 
to  drive  away  demons,  and  keep  it  alight  beside  babes  till  baptised 
(see  also  Candles).     Dr  Stewart,  minister  at  Lochaber  {Jownwl  Scot 


102  Fire 

Ant  Socy.y  March  1890)  witnessed  such  rites  in  Wigtonshire  in  1889. 
Five  women  of  a  hamlet,  in  a  remote  glen^  were  passing  a  sick  child 
through  the  fira  Two  held  a  blazing  hoop,  two  others  passed  the 
child  backwards  and  forwards  through  it.  The  mother  looked  on  a 
little  distance  away,  and  when  her  child  was  restored  to  her,  the  hoop 
was  thrown  into  a  pool  hard  by.  The  child  was  18  months  old,  and 
a  weakling,  supposed  to  have  been  affected  by  the  evil  eye.  A  bunch 
of  bog  myrtle  was  then  placed  over  its  bed  by  an  old  woman,  who 
directed  that  it  should  not  be  removed  till  the  next  new  moou. 

Kelts  still  jump  round  burning  cart  wheels,  while  village  smiths 
are  welding  the  tyres,  to  avert  the  evil  eye  (see  also  Bridget).  In 
Bulgaria  sorcerers  called  Nistinares  leap  through  fires  on  May  Day 
(see  Beltine),  walking  on  the  hot  embers  to  prophecy,  bless,  and  curse; 
only  in  May  does  the  fire  not  hurt  them  (Mr  A.  Lang,  Contempy. 
Review^  Aug.  1896).  We  have  often  witnessed  such  rites  in  S.  India, 
and  found  the  feet  of  the  fire  walkers  only  badly  scorched.  Mr 
Thomson  (South  Sea  Yams)  gives  a  photograph  of  fire  treaders  in  Fiji 
in  1893,  but  cannot  explain  the  apparent  impunity  with  which  they 
walk  on  hot  stones  and  burning  embers,  as  do  the  Moslem  Dervishes. 
We  may  probably  distinguish  the  **  passing  through "  the  fire  to 
Moloch  (Levit.  xviii,  21 ;  2  Kings  xvi,  3  ;  xxiii,  10 ;  Jer.  xxxii,  35) 
from  the  burning  of  children  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  3  ;  Jer.  vii,  31).  In 
Iceland  (Edda)  a  pious  Christian  hero  aided  a  pagan  hero  to  pass 
unscathed  through  the  fire,  and  the  ''  Fire  Ordeal "  was  kept  up  till 
1817.  Lockhart  (Church  Service,  1826)  says  that  a  "communicant 
carried  a  red  hot  bar  of  iron,  and  walked  on  a  red  hot  plough-share 
without  scorch  or  scar  ...  to  the  glory  of  God  .  .  .  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  records  ...  of  the  audacity  and  weakness  of  mankind" 
("  Janus,"  quoted  by  Mr.  A.  Lang,  as  above). 

The  Russians  light  fires  near  corpses,  or  in  cemeteries,  maintained 
by  watchmen.  Australian  bush  tribes  employ  old  women  with  fire- 
sticks  to  guard  the  young  from  evil  spirits,  as  Kelts  did  for  babes  aod 
mothers.  Fire  rites  were  common  in  Europe  down  to  the  13th 
century.  Lithuanian  Aryans,  in  Russia,  like  Hindus  and  Tartars,  still 
regard  fire  as  a  deity.  In  Rome,  down  to  the  first  Christian  century, 
the  emperor  walked  behind  the  sacred  fire,  and  all  marriages  were 
solemnised  in  its  presence,  bride  and  bridegroom  both  touching  the 
holy  altar  fire,  and  the  holy  water  beside  it.  Fire  rites  survive  among 
the  Pueblos  of  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Colorado.  A  visitor  to  the 
fetes  of  Taos,  near  Santa  F6  in  the  United  States,  says  that  he  found 
natives — probably  of  Aztek  descent — holding  councils  beside  "the 
sacred  fires  of  Montezuma,"  which  are  never  allowed  to  go  out    Theae 


Fire  103 

Estufaa  were  regular  fire  temples^  under  ground,  with  pits  fenced 
round  and  jealously  guarded*  They  could  only  be  reached  by  a  ladder, 
which  was  hidden  when  not  in  use  {MacmyXan^a  Magaziney  November 
1882).  Even  Indians  supposed  to  be  Christians  have  fire  and  serpent 
rites  (Capt.  Bourke,  Mokis  of  Arizona),  the  Mokis  being  offihoots  of 
the  Snake  Indians  (Prof.  Keane^  Acaderay,  22nd  November  1884), 
whose  lands  stretch  from  Mexico  to  British  Columbia  (see  Serpent). 
Mongols,  who  are  Moslems  or  Buddhists,  still  venerate  fire,  never 
stepping  over  it,  or  scattering  it,  or  allowing  it  to  be  defiled.  A 
marriage  contract  is  sealed  by  being  committed  to  the  flames,  for  it  is 
then  recorded  in  heaven — just  as  Agni  of  old  was  the  messenger  of 
the  gods  (see  Indian  Antiq.,  July  1882).  When  a  bride  is  brought 
to  her  lord  in  China  her  chair  is  carried  over  a  brazier  of  live  coals 
(see  Apple).  Casati  says  that  among  the  Niam-niams,  of  Central 
Africa,  an  ever  burning  fire  is  maintained  in  its  shrine  by  sacred 
virgins,  in  connection  with  the  tombs  of  chiefs.  These  poor  maidens 
are  immured  for  life,  and  their  food  is  brought  to  them.  (Athenceumf 
11th  August  1883).  The  Japanese  say  of  relatives  that  they  "are  of 
the  same  fire,"  as  did  Greeks  and  Phoenicians  {Jov/mal  Anthrop. 
Instit,  July  1870,  p.  58). 

Every  Latin  village  had  its  round  hut  for  sacred  fire,  and  the 
temple  of  the  Vestals  was  also  circular.  Persian  fire-worship  survived 
till  recently  (see  Baku).  In  Ireland  at  Beltine,  mothers  gave  their 
children  the  "  baptism  by  fire/'  tossing  them  through  the  flame  to  be 
caught  by  a  man ;  and  Beltine-glas  ("  the  yellow  sun-fire ")  is  still 
known  in  some  parts  of  Ireland  (Mr  M.  Aynsley,  Indian  Antiq., 
March,  April,  1886).  Householders,  after  the  rites  are  concluded, 
seize  a  brand,  and  rush  to  their  homes  to  light  the  fire  ;  it  is  considered 
unlucky  if  they  fail  to  do  so.  The  last  year's  brand  is  burnt,  and 
replaced  by  the  new  one,  which  is  placed  over  the  hearth  when  the  fire 
is  lit  The  fire  of  Jehovah's  altar  was  ever  burning  till  the  fatal  9th 
of  Ab  in  70  A.c.  The  fire  rites  at  Easter  in  Jerusalem,  when  the  fire 
from  heaven  falls  into,  and  issues  from,  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  when 
all  must  light  their  tapers  at  it,  is  traced  to  800  A.C.  It  used,  in  the 
12th  century  A.C.,  to  appear  sometimes  in  the  Templum  Domini  (the 
Borne  of  the  Bock),  or  in  the  Templum  Salomonis  (the  Aksa  mosque 
hard  by),  instead  of  in  the  cathedral  (see  CoL  Conder,  Tent  Work  in 
Palestine), 

Virgil  makes  Aruns  say  (AEn,.  xi,  784)  : — 

"  O  patron  of  Soracte's  high  abodes 
PhcebuB  thou  ruling  power  among  the  gods 


104  Fish 

Whom  first  we  serye,  whole  woods  of  unctuous  pine 

Bum  on  thj  heaps,  and  to  thj  glory  shine 

Bj  thee  protected  on  our  naked  soles 

Through  flames  unsinged  we  pass,  though  treading  kindled  coals." 

The  "  heap "  was  the  kara  emblem  of  Apollo.  The  Hirpini 
C'  wolfish  ones  ")  in  Qaul  were  his  priests,  and  their  fires  were  sacred 
to  the  sun.  Fire  cures  every  ill — whence  the  Hindu  ceremony  of 
the  Dam-madar,  when  the  worshipers  run  or  jump  through  sacred 
flames.  The  name  comes  from  that  of  Shah-Madar,  a  Moslem  ruler 
about  1400  A.C.  The  Hindu  often  exclaims  "Cure  me,  0  holy  Kali, 
and  I  will  walk  thy  fires."  He  drives  his  sick  cattle  between  two  fires, 
as  Kelts  used  also  to  do,  a  custom  forbidden  by  churches,  yet  still  not 
quite  obsolete.  All  sacred  iSres  are  lighted  from  the  sun,  or  by  the 
fire  stick  (see  Arani  and  Svastika).  The  fire  stick  should  be  of 
Asyattha  (Ficus  Religiosa)  and  Sami  (Acacia  Suma)  usually  planted 
near  temples,  aud  thus  "  married  "  as  Hindus  say.  The  altar  fire  at 
Jerusalem  was  of  fig  wood,  with  pine  and  cedar.  The  Greeks  and 
Egyptians  also  used  fig  wood,  aud  the  former  called  it  phallos-wood : 
this,  with  the  harder  wood  of  the  laurel  or  thorn  as  the  drill,  formed 
their  •  fire-drill  (the  Prometheus,  or  Pramantha) ;  and  both  Persian 
Magi,  and  Eskimos,  lighted  holy  fires  by  the  same  means  :  for  fire, 
*'  the  golden  handed  one,"  was  the  first  principle  to  Mazdeans.  The 
Jews  said  that  their  sacred  seven-branched  lamp  burned  miraculously, 
without  trimming,  till  the  death  of  Simou  the  Just,  and  from  it  all 
other  lamps  should  be  lit  (see  Mishnah  Tamid ;  and  Quarterly  Stat. 
Pal.  Hxpl.  FuTid,  April  1886,  p.  129). 

Fish.  A  very  important  emblem  in  mythology.  The  first 
Avat&r  or  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  in  India,  was  the  fish  (see  Matsya). 
The  story  is  related  in  the  Matsya,  and  in  the  Bhagavata  Puranas, 
with  some  differences.  While  great  Brahma  slept  a  demon  stole  the 
Yedas,  and  the  destruction  of  the  world  was  thereupon  decreed.  Vishnu 
had  perceived  the  theft,  and  to  avert  injustice  he  appeared,  as  a  small 
fish,  to  a  pious  man  while  he  was  bathing.  The  good  Satya-Vrata 
spared  the  fish,  placing  it  in  a  vessel  for  which  it  soon  became  too  large, 
then  transferring  it  successively  to  a  larger  vessel,  to  a  lake,  to  the 
Ganges,  and  finally  to  the  ocean,  where  Satya  worshiped  this  great  fish  as 
Narayana.  Vishnu  then- told  him  that  the  world  must  perish,  ordering 
him  to  build  a  vessel,  for  himself  and  the  seven  Bishls  or  pious  persons, 
with  their  families,  and  for  the  seeds  of  plant  and  animal  life.  The 
waters  covered  the  plains,  and  all  men  perished  save  those  thus  elected. 
Vishnu  appeared  again  as  a  huge  golden  fish,  to  which  the  hero  (Manu 
or  Satya- Vrata)  made  fast  his  ark,  with  a  serpent  tied  to  the  single 


Flamen  los 

horn  of  the  fish,  which  drew  the  vessel  to  a  high  mountain  where 
Satya — afterwards  called  a  demigod  and  son  of  Yirasyat — was  taught 
all  religion  and  philosophy,  fpr  the  new  world  after  the  Flood  (seo 
Floods). 

The  ,Matsya-nari,  or  Indian  mermaid,  is  also  connected  with 
Vishnu  when  issuing  from  the  mouth  of  the  fish — recalling  Hercules 
swallowed  by  the  fish,  and  the  Hebrew  legend  of  Jonah,  as  well  as 
many  folk-tales  of  the  fish  that  swallows  and  restores  a  ring,  or  a 
phallus.  The  recovery  of  the  Vedas  by  aid  of  a  fish  also  recalls  the  Irish 
mermaid  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  p.  247,  fig.  115)  as  represented  at 
Clonfert,  carrying  a  sacred  book.  Other  fish  emblems  of  the  Kelts 
are  found  at  Cashel,  and  at  Kells  in  County  Meath  (Rivers  of  Life, 
i,  p.  247;  fig.  116).  The  fish  was  also  a  favourite  emblem  among 
early  Christians  (see  Baptism),  representing  the  '*  Ikhthus " — ^the 
Greek  letters  being  supposed  to  stand  for  "  Jesus  Christ  the  Son  of 
God  Saviour."  It  is  found  in  Soman  catacombs,  and  on  Christian 
buildings  of  the  4th  century  in  Syria,  and  was  recommended  by 
Clement  of  Alexandria  as  an  emblem  on  Christian  signet  rings.  In 
Naples  however  the  fish  is  a  phallic  emblem.  Fish  were  sacred  to 
Venus,  and  to  Ashtoreth  (see  Dove) :  "  the  fish  that  laughs  "  must  not 
be  touched  by  women :  the  two  twin,  or  crossed^  fishes  are  emblems 
of  fertility  and  of  early  spring  (see  Dagon,  Derkdto,  £a).  Ascetiks 
were  not  allowed  to  eat  fish ;  but  Christians  eat  it  in  Lent,  and  it 
ODce  formed  part  of  their  communion  meal  (see  Eucharist).  The  joke 
of  the  ''  poisson  d'Avril "  was  phallic,  says  Gubematis  (Zool,  MythoL, 
ii,  p.  339):  and  the  expression  "nuova  pesce"  in  Naples  has  a 
similar  meaning.  Even  the  water  in  which  fish  are  boiled  will  cure 
sterility.  In  ancient  Egypt  Isis  is  represented  with  a  fish  on  her 
head:  and  fish  are  common  emblems  in  church  architecture,  support- 
ing the  fleur-de-lis  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  i,  p.  6,  plate  v).  The  so-called 
Vesica  Piscis  is  an  euphuism  for  the  Yoni.  Egyptian  priests  shunned 
fish,  as  do  most  African  tribes  (except  the  Ba-tlaping  or  "  fish- people '' 
among  the  Bechuanas),  while  Arabs  generally  avoid  fish,  and  eels  (see 
Kel)  as  being  quite  as  unclean  food  as  snakes.  Kelts  refused  to  eat 
eels :  Eastern  Jews  do  not  eat  fish,  but  at  marriages  they  place  one 
on  the  ground,  and  the  bride  and  bridegroom  walk  round,  or  step  over 
it  seven  times  aq  an  emblem  of  fertility,  just  as  Indians  circum- 
ambulate the  linga  and  yoni  (see  Lingam ;  and  our  letter  in  Notes  arid 
Queries,  16th  February  1884,  p.  134). 

Flamen.     A  priest  of  the  holy  "  flame,"  which  he  alone  might 
touch,  and  fan  with  the  "  mystic  fan  "  of  Bacchus  (see  Fan).      The 


106  Fleur-de«lis 

flame-colored  robes  of  Flamens  are  said  to  have  been  copied  by  the 
Boman  cardinals.  Their  chief  was  the  Pontifex  Maximus  (a  title 
also  adopted  by  Popes),  or  "  great  bridge-maker,"  who  made  the  bridge 
from  heaven  to  earth  (see  Bridges). 

Fleur-de-lis.  An  emblem  supposed  to  represent  the  iris  or 
gillyflower ;  but  which  seems  (see  Feathers,  and  Trisul)  to  have  been 
often  an  euphuism  for  the  phallus.  The  lilies  appear  on  a  Bible  pre- 
sented by  Charles  II  of  France,  869  A.C.,  and  the  Franks  claimed  to 
have  used  the  symbol  in  Friesland  as  early  as  400  A.C.  The  white 
lily  IS  an  emblem  of  the  Virgin  ;  and  St  Joseph  has  always  a  rod  with 
white  lilies  (on  which  a  dove  sat),  in  connection  with  the  legend  of 
his  flowering  rod  (see  Dove),  which  indicated  him  as  a  husband  for 
the  Virgin. 

Floods,  Inundations  having  been  common  catastrophes  — 
though  never  universal  as  that  of  Noah  was  said  to  be — it  is  natural 
that  legends  of  floods  should  appear  in  many  countries.  The  Baby- 
lonian legend,  however,  appears  to  have  an  astronomical  meaDing. 
being  connected  with  the  eleventh  episode  in  the  labours  of  the  hero 
Gilgamas  ("  the  sun  spirit "),  and  thus  terminating  before  the  spring 
equinox.  The  dove,  the  swallow,  and  the  raven  in  this  myth  are 
emblems  of  the  winter  months,  the  dove  being  migratory  like  the 
swallow,  and  a  harbinger  of  the  dry  spring  weather.  The  name  of 
the  Babylonian  Noah,  who  escaped  in  a  boat  with  his  family  and 
treasures,  and  the  seeds  of  animal  and  vegetable  creation,  and  who 
afterwards  sacrificed  and  was  removed  by  the  gods  to  their  paradise 
land  '*  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers "  is  variously  rendered  Khasisadra 
(the  Xisuthros  of  Berosus)  and  Tamzi  (or  Tammuz) ;  and  by  him  the 
story  is  related  to  Gilgamas,  after  he  has  crossed  the  sea  and  passed 
the  jewelled  tree  guarded  by  a  snake  (see  Gilgamas  and  Hasis-adra). 
[Critics  suppose  the  Bible  account  to  consist  of  two  narratives  blended 
together.  They  follow  the  present  Hebrew  text  in  distinguishing  a 
Jehovistic  and  an  Elohistic  document ;  but  the  Greek  Septuagint 
gives  these  sacred  names  quite  differently  in  the  narrative. — Ed.] 
The  date  at  which  Noah's  flood  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  (2592, 
or  3217  B.C.,  according  to  Hebrew  or  Gceek  reckonings — see  Bible), 
is  later  than  the  age  in  which  the  great  civilisations  of  Western  Asia, 
and  of  Egypt  must  now  be  regarded  as  having  already  commenced. 

Science  declares  the  idea  of  an  universal  deluge  to  be  fraught 
with  impossibilities.  Even  if  we  suppose  Ararat  only  (see  Ararat)  to 
have  been  covered  by  the  flood,  we  should  require  a  rainfall  of  217 
inches  per  hour  to  cover  it  in  40  days.      The  idea  of  a  local  flood, 


Floods  107 

covering  all  Mesopotamia,  is  as  impracticable  as  that  of  a  universal 
deluge,  under  the  geological  conditions  of  that  region  within  the  age 
of  man's  existence  on  earth.  No  ark  or  boat  could  contain  specimens 
of  the  known  fauna  of. that  country,  nor  does  the  history  of  geological 
evolution  point  to  any  such  cataclysm*  The  ancient  legends  are  in 
hopeless  disagreement  with  scientific  facts. 

The  Greeks  borrowed,  like  the  Hebrews,  from  all  the  mythology 
of  the  early  races  of  West  Asia.  The  Phoenicians  had  a  flood  legend, 
which  was  preserved  in  the  story  of  Deukalion  ("  the  lord  of  the  ship," 
Ihi  Kcdiun),  who  was  a  son  of  Prometheus,  and  a  king  at  Phthia 
in  lower  Thessaly.  Warned  by  his  father  that  Zeus  would  destroy 
mankind,  being  wroth  at  his  treatment  by  Lukaon,  Deukalion  built  a 
boat  which,  after  nine  days'  flood,  was  stranded  on  Pamassos.  Here 
he  landed  with  his  wife  Purrha,  and  with  Megaros,  a  son  of  Zeus ; 
cranes  and  wolves  (creatures  of  winter  and  spring)  guided  them  to 
new  homes  in  Thessaly,  and  a  new  race  sprang  from  stones  that 
Deukalion,  and  Purrha,  flung  behind  them.  Another  legend  of  a 
local  flood,  from  which  Ogug^  escaped,  belonged  to  the  low-lying 
plains  of  Boidtia,  and  is  described  by  Pindar,  "  the  lyrical  Theban," 
about  500  B.C.  Ogug^s,  though  an  "  autokhthon,"  or  aboriginal  in- 
habitant  of  Boiotia,  was  transferred  later  with  his  legend  to  Attika. 
According  to  Hesiod  also,  the  Titans  (who  recall  the  giants  living 
before  the  Flood  according  to  the  Hebrews),  were  submerged  in 
Stygian  waves  after  they  had  piled  up  their  cloud  mountains  against 
Zeus  in  heaven*  Iris,  the  rainbow  godess,  hovered  over  the  ocean 
when  Jove  swore  not  to  flood  earth  again,  as  the  bow  of  Istar  appeared 
in  the  Babylonian  tale,  or  the  bow  of  Yafaveh  in  the  Hebrew  (see 
Hesiod,  Theog.,  779,  and  Rev.  G.  Faber,  Cabiri,  i,  p.  261). 

The  Hindus  had  their  flood  of  Manu  (see  Fish),  and  the  Chinese 
their  river  "  Flood  of  Yu."  The  Persian  legend  (in  the  Vendidad), 
speaks  only  of  a  great  winter,  and  of  Yima's  Vara  or  "  enclosure," 
whence  birds  bade  him  come  forth  in  spring.  There  is,  however,  no 
distinct  flood  story  in  Egypt ;  for,  when  men  are  destroyed  by  the 
wrath  of  Ra  and  of  Sekhet,  they  are  only  drowned  in  blood.  The 
Koran  legend  is  taken  from  the  Hebrew  scriptures,  but  states  that 
the  flood  issued  from  a  certain  spring  called  the  Tannur  ("  oven "), 
which  again  swallowed  the  waters.  This  Tannur  is  shown  in  N« 
Syria  (see  Col.  Gender's  Heth  and  Afoah,  i),  close  to  an  enclosure 
called  "The  Ship  of  the  Prophet  Noah,"  not  far  from  Kadesh  ("the 
holy  place  ")  on  the  Orontes  ;  and  again  at  Bambyce  (Membej),  or  at 
Hierapolis,  "  the  holy  city,"  further  north. 

In  the  Skandinavian  Eddas  we  read  of  a  flood,  but  this  is  an 


108  Floralia 

Asiatic  echo,  and  perhaps  due  to  Christian  teaching,  which  also  is  to 
be  suspected  in  the  Welsh  story  of  the  "  great  lord  of  waters/'  and  of 
those  who  escaped  when  lake  Llion  overflowed  (Welsh  Triads).  Its 
waters  were  drawn  off  by  "  the  oxen  of  Hu-Qadern,"  servant  of  the 
demon  Afane,  which  oxen  appear  to  be  the  bellowing  thunder  clouds — 
like  Indra's  oxen.  The  Mexicans  seem  to  have  had  flood  l^esds, 
being  well  acquainted  with  mighty  rivers;  but  the  details  recorded 
are  liable  to  suspicion  of  Spanish  influences,  about  1540,  in  the  case 
of  Kox-kox-tli ;  for  Dr  Tylor  {Oiffurd  Lecture^,  1891)  says  that  the 
original  Aztek  picture  only  represents  a  man  in  a  canoe  stranded  on 
an  island  (see  Azteks).  Nata,  and  Nina  his  wife,  were  enclosed  in  a 
hollowed  cypress  tree  by  the  god  Titlahnan,  and  came  out  after  the 
flood  :  they  roasted  fish  and  were  admonished  by  the  deity.  The 
Quiches  of  Guatemala  said  that  the  flood  destroyed  the  first  men  who 
were  made  of  wood.  The  Algonquins  said  that  birds  warned  Messoa, 
the  hunter,  of  the  rising  of  a  great  lake,  and  the  wolves  guided  him 
to  safety ;  he  sent  a  raven  to  find  land,  and  the  musk  rat — whom  he 
married — helped  him  to  make  it.  The  Tupis  in  Brazil  (about  1550) 
spoke  of  a  stranger  who  caused  a  flood,  whence  few  escaped,  and  of 
the  god  Monan,  who  burned  earth  with  fire,  and  drowned  it  with 
water.  The  Peruvians  believed  in  successive  destructions  by  famine, 
and  flood  (recalling  the  Hindu  "  Ralpa "  cycles) ;  and  the  Aztek 
flood  was  the  end  of  the  first  of  four  such  cycles  (Dr  D.  6.  Brinton, 
Myths  of  the  New  World,  1876,  pp.  220-229). 

What  is  more  natural  than  that  men  who  observed  fossil  fish, 
and  shells,  on  high  mountains  or  in  deserts,  should  conclude  that  the 
gods  had  once  dipped  the  earth  under  ocean,  and  had  again  brought 
it  up  from  the  depths ;  but  that  they  had  also  saved  some  few  men 
and  beasts,  whence  those  of  later  ages  were  descended  ?  (See  also 
Hawaii.) 

Floralia.  The  fSte  of  Flora,  the  godess  of  flowers,  from  28tb 
April  to  Ist  May ;  a  Roman  edict  of  238  B.C.  defined  the  rites, 
which  were  already  ancient  on  the  "  seven  hills  "  of  Home,  going  back 
to  the  8th  century  B.C.  among  Etruskans.  Numa  was  one  of  the 
priests  of  Flora's  shrine.  The  rites  became  so  gross  that  they  were 
prohibited ;  yet,  even  in  our  2nd  or  3rd  century,  women  are  said  to 
have  celebrated  them  naked ;  similar  practices  continued  in  some 
Italian  states  even  to  the  Middle  Ages. 

Fo«     The  common  Chinese  corruption  for  the  name  of  Buddha. 
Foot.     The  Yishnuvas  in  India  regard  the  foot  as  a  symbol  of 


Foot  109 

the  phallus  (see  Pad).     The  footprints  of  gods  and  heroes,  of  their 
horses,  or  of  other  animals,  are  regarded  as  conclusive  evidence  of 
the  legends   attached :     see,  for   instance,  the    Ceylonese  footprint 
(Adam's  Peak),  or  the  Palestine  examples.     The  latter  include  that 
of  Christ  on  Olivet,  and  another  in  the  Aksa  Mosk  ;  that  of  Mu- 
hammad— with  Gabriers  finger  marks — on  the  ^khrah  rock  ;  that 
of  Adam  at  Hebron ;  vestiges  of  Elijah  at  Mar  Elias ;  footsteps  of  a 
prophet  in  the  mosk  at  Baalbek  ;  and  of  a  prophetess  in  Moab,  S.  of 
Heshbon.     The  gigantic  footprint  of  Herakl6s  was  shown  in  Scythia. 
Numerous  other  examples  occur  all  over  the  world  (see  Mr  Kumagusu 
Minakata,  ''Footprints  of  Gods,"  Notes  and  Queries,  1st  Sept,  pp. 
163-165  ;  22nd  Sept.,  pp.  223-226,  1900).     The  Japanese  scholar 
compares  the  examples  in  his  native  land  with  those  recorded  by 
others,  such  as  the  bird-like  prints  of  the  great  spirit  in  N.  America 
and  Mexico,  in  Columbia  and  Peru  ;  the  sculptured  pair  of  footprints 
at  Man^-er-Hro^  in  France,  and  others  of  early  date   in  Sweden; 
those  of  Christ  in   Rome  and  in  France ;  those  of  the  miraculous 
bitch  that  aided  Clovis  at  Pas  de  Dieu ;  the  knees  of  St  Ursicinus  at 
Rome,  and  of  Sta  Theocrita  in  the  island  of  Pares.     Of  St  Hyacinth 
and  St  Mark  footsteps  also  are  shown.     In  Egypt  we  hear  of  foot- 
steps of  Osiris;  and  Bechuana  Kaffirs  show   those  of  the  Modimo 
C'  god  '')  cave,  near  Lake  Ngami.     In  this  case  they  are  the  footprints 
of  many  animals  that  were  created  in,  and  issued   from,  the  cavern. 
Footprints  of  the  horses  of  heroes  are  also  common  (see  Arthur).     The 
footprint  on  Adam's  peak — whether  of  St  Thomas,  Buddha,  Adam, 
Siva,  or  the  Chinese  Panku — holds  rain  water  in  which  believers  wash 
their  faces.     In  Japan,  too,   Buddha  left  footprints  (though  never 
visiting  the  island),  and  horse  prints  are  shown.     In  Eosala  a  lion's 
print,  and  one  of  Buddha,  are  noticed.     In  Siam  we  have  the  prints 
of  elephants  and  tigers,  who  escorted  Buddha ;  and  in  Polynesia  those 
of  Tiitii,  made  when  he  was  pushing  heaven  and  earth  apart.     Those 
of  giants,  godesses,  and  priests  are  numerous  in  Japan,  where  also  the 
lightning  fiend  leaves  bis  claw  marks  on  trees.      Horse  prints  occur  in 
Korea ;  and  in  China  emperors  were  begotten  by  maidens  who  trod 
in  the  footprints  of  gigantic  deities.     Lao-tzse  has  also  left  footmarks, 
and  others  belong  to  dragons,  birds,  bulls,  horses,  tigers,  cranes  ;  to  a 
hermit  and  his  deer,  to  donkeys,  and  dogs,  and  fowls,  connected  with 
Taoist  or    Buddhist    saints.       Lhassa,   and   Ferghana,   furnish    other 
examples.     To  those  thus  enumerated  we  may  add  many  Christian 
examples,  for  wherever  Christ,  or  an  apostle,  or  a  saint  went,  rocks 
became  soft  and  retained  marks  of  their  feet  or  hands. 


110  Fors 

ForS.  Fortuna.  The  Italian  deity  of  Fate,  answering  to  the 
Greek  TdkbS.  Dr  Max  MtLller  {Biography  of  Words)  shows  that  the 
popular  derivation  from  fer  ("  bear,"  "  carry  ")  is  impossible.  In  the 
Book  of  Esther  (iii,  7;  ix,  26,  32)  the  word  Pur  for  a  "lot"  ia 
apparently  Persian,  though  not  known  as  such,  and  is  given  a 
Hebrew  plural,  whence  the  name  of  the  festival  of  Purim.  In 
Aryan  speech  PHr  is  "fire"  (see  Bar),  but  we  need  not,  in  Italy, 
look  only  to  Aryan  speech  (see  Etruskaus) ;  and  Fors  may  have 
beeo  a  Turanian  word.  [The  Aryan  root  Bhar  may  be  suggested, 
whence  the  Latin  par  *'  equal,"  pars  "  part,"  portio  **  portion " ;  in 
Akkadian  we  have  bar  or  par  "half";  the  idea  being  that  of 
equal  chances. — Ed.]  The  early  shrines  of  Fortuna  included  that  at 
the  Volscian  capital  of  Antium :  the  temple  of  the  Latini  on  Mi 
Alba;  and  the  Sabine  or  Samnite  shrine  of  Praeneste,  with  the 
Etruskan  temple  at  Caera  Here  the  "  sortes "  or  lots  were  cast, 
sealing  fate.  (Cicero,  Be  Div.^  i,  34  :  ii,  41,  56  ;  Ovid,  Fasti,  ii,  477 : 
vi,  93,  217  ;  Virgil,  ^n,,  iv,  346,  377  :  vii,  679  ;  see  Danet,  Did. 
Ant,  and  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  vi,  333.)  Qibbon  derives  the 
Christian  "  Sortes  Sanctorum  "  from  the  Sortes  of  Fortuna.  The 
Augurs  delivered  the  decisions  of  Fortuna  (whether  as  a  male  or  a 
female  deity)  in  little  sealed  packets,  sometimes  called  Sortes  Con- 
viviales,  which  survive  among  us  in  the  modest  form  of  Christmas 
"  crackers  "  with  mottoes  to  decide  our  fate,  connected  as  of  old  with 
fire  rites. 

The  rites  of  Fors  were  observed  by  the  Roman  kings  Ancus 
Martins,  and  Servius  Tullius.  Tullus  Hostilius,  succeeding  Numa, 
in  670  B.C.  attacked  the  Sabines  and  the  Albans,  and  destroyed 
Yeii  and  Tusculum.  On  this  account  the  gods  sent  fire  and 
pestilence  on  Some,  and  a  voice  from  the  Alban  temple  of  Fors, 
otherwise  Jupiter  Latiaris,  foretold  the  death  of  Tullus  :  he  besought 
mercy  of  Jupiter  Elicius.  but  was  destroyed,  we  read,  with  all  his 
house,  by  burning  stones  from  the  Alban  Mount  (Varro,  see  Smith's 
Dicty,  Or.  and  Rom.  Biog.) :  wherefore  Ancus  Martins  (succeeding  in 
641  B.G.)  erected  a  temple,  on  the  most  sacred  hill  in  Rome,  to  the 
Alban  Fors.  Servius  Tullius  was  a  favourite  of  Tanaquil  (or  Thana- 
kul  "  the  servant  of  Thana "  the  Etruskan  godess)  wife  of  Tarquin 
(Tar-kon),  and  succeeded  this  Etruskan  monarch,  whose  daughter  he 
married,  on  his  murder  in  579  B.C.  According  to  Ovid  and  others 
he  must  have  been  an  incarnation  of  Fors,  for  Tanaquil  and  Ocrisia 
— the  mother  of  Tullius — saw  in  the  sacred  fiame  a  phallus  (com- 
pare under  Deuce)  while  worshiping  the  Lars  with  "  buns  "  and  wine. 
Ocrisia  was  therefore  devoted  to  Jove    (like  Babylonian  maidens — see 


Fors  111 

Deva-dasis)  ;  and  TuUius  was  bora,  and  even  as  a  babe  was  seen  by 
Tanaquil  sleeping  surrounded  by  flames.  He  built  a  beautiful  shrine 
to  the  godess  Fors  Primigenia,  and  by  her  be  was  often  visited ;  she 
was  a  deity  of  Alba  and  of  PrsenestS  alike  ;  and  the  temple  built  by 
TuUius  was  in  the  Capitol,  This  Fors  was  the  daughter,  according 
to  Cicero,  of  Jupiter  Latiaris.  TuUius  was  apparently  an  Etruskan, 
aud  his  native  name  was  Mastarua  ('*  hero  of  the  tribe,"  Mas-tar-na 
in  Akkadian) :  he  was  a  comrade  of  the  Etruskan  Cseles  Yibenna, 
who  colonised  the  Cselian  hill  at  Rome,  and  being  in  favour  of  the 
Plebeians  he  was  murdered,  in  535  B.a,  by  Patrician  adherents  of  the 
murdered  Tarquin,  who  was  of  the  same  race.  Thus  Fors  appears  to 
have  been  an  Etruskan  deity.  The  laws  of  TuUius  were  set  aside,  by 
his  successor,  Tarquin  the  proud,  and  this  Etruskan  tyrant  was 
expeUed  in  510  &c.  These  and  other  indications  show  us  that  the 
Etruskans  educated  the  Aryans  of  Italy — Umbrians,  Oskans,  Sabines, 
and  Latins — especially  in  religion,  laying  the  foundation  of  Boman 
civilisation  (see  Etruskans). 

The  worship  of  Fors,  in  her  beautiful  shrine  on  the  E^quiline 
hill,  long  survived.  In  400  A.C.,  St  Augustine  {City  of  Ood,  iv,  18) 
inveighs  against  her,  and  asks  "  How  can  Fors  be  sometimes  good 
and  sometimes  bad  .  .  .  give  evils  as  well  as  blessings  ? "  He 
argued  with  his  teacher  that  a  fountain  cannot  send  forth  bitter  water 
as  well  as  sweet  (Epist.  of  James  iii,  11) ;  but  he  forgot  that  Yahveh 
says  (Isaiah  xlv,  7),  "  I  make  peace  and  create  evil,"  **  shall  there  be 
evil  in  a  city  and  Yahveh  hath  not  done  it  ?"  (Amos  iii,  6  ;  Job  ii,  10). 
At  the  entrauce  of  the  palace  of  Zeus  there  are  two  great  vessels,  from 
one  of  which  flow  all  blessings  for  men,  and  from  the  other  misery 
and  misfortune.  The  Greeks  said  that  the  gods  themselves  are 
subject  to  Tukhe  or  ''  Fate."  In  Athens  she  was  shown  with  the 
babe-god  Ploutos,  or  *'  wealth,"  in  her  arms.  On  medals  she  appears 
standing  on  the  round  globe  which  she  rules,  having  in  one  hand  the 
Horn  of  Plenty,  and  in  the  other  the  Rudder.  Sometimes  her  hand 
rests  on  a  wheel,  showing  the  revolving  fortunes  of  the  fickle  godess 
Fortuna-Beduce,  the  ever  changeable. 

At  PrsenestS  Fors  had  a  wondrous  gilt  statue.  The  Romans  said 
that  when  she  came  to  Rome  she  threw  off  her  wings,  and  shoes, 
determined  to  remain  there  for  ever.  Pausauias  calls  Tukhg  an  ocean 
njmpb,  and  one  of  the  blind  fates  (the  Parcae).  Pindar  calls  her  a 
dangbter  of  Zeus,  on  whom  he  bestowed  power  to  aid,  or  to  thwart, 
the  affairs  of  men.  "The  ancients,"  says  M.  Danet  (Diet.  Antiq,), 
"  represented  Fors  Fortuna  of  both  sexes,  as  they  did  several  other 
divinities."     In  her  Roman  temples  she  was  Fors  Libera,  and  Fors 


us  Foutin 

Parva,  worshiped  by  newly-married  women,  who  dedicated  to  her 
their  maiden  girdles,  and  prayed  to  her  to  make  the  husband's  love 
continue.  She  was  Mammosa  (like  Artemis  of  Ephesus),  Publica, 
Frivata,  Conservatrix,  and  Primigenia.  The  Prsenestd  shrine  was  said 
to  be  founded  by  Coeculus  ("  the  little  blind  one  "),  son  of  Vulcan — 
the  fire  (Bryant,  Mythol,  i,  pp.  123-128).  The  boy  Jove — ^the 
Bonus  Puer  Phosphor — was  the  child  of  Fortuna  Primigenia  (Grater's 
Inscriptions^  No.  Ixxvi,  6,  7).  Cicero  connects  him  with  the  casting 
of  lots  (De  Div.,  ii),  saying  "  there  is  still  a  place  religiously  fenced 
off  on  account  of  the  boy  Jove,  who  being  suckled,  with  Juno,  seeking 
the  breast  in  the  lap  of  Fortuna,  is  most  chastely  worshiped  by 
mothers."  Prsenestd  retained  its  rites  and  freedom  till  351  &c. 
(Livy,  vi,  30  ;  Diod.,  xvi,  45).  Cicero  calls  it  a  Colonia  (Cat.^  i,  3) 
It  stood  on  a  bold  spur  of  the  Alban  hills,  2400  ft  above  the  sea, 
23  miles  E.  of  Rome,  facing  and  towering  above  Alba  and  Tusculum. 
The  fane  of  Fors  Fortuna  was  on  the  summit  of  the  hill.  Sulla 
destroyed  the  upper  city  in  83  B.C.,  and  a  new  city  and  shrine  were 
built  lower  down.  In  our  5  th  century  it  became  Palestrina  (where 
a  famous  Phoenician  votive  bowl  was  found).  Horace  says  that,  in  his 
time,  "  still  did  chaste  Sabine  wives  pile  up  the  sacred  fires,"  of  Vesta, 
and  of  Fors  Fortuna. 

Foutin.  St  Foutin  (or  Photinus),  is  supposed  to  be  named 
from  the  Latin  Fotum,  "fostered,"  from  a  root  meaning  "to  warm" 
— more  probably  from  Phos  "  light "  in  Greek. 

Fox.  See  Japan,  Lukos,  and  Spirits.  The  fox  is  in  mythology  the 
emblem  of  craft  and  deceit,  a  demon  among  Japanese  and  Chinese. 

Fravashis.      See  Fervers.     The  Fravardin  of  the  Avesta. 

Freemasons.  French,  Franc- ma9on  :  German,  Freimauerei : 
"  mason "  being  Low  Latin  (nuicio  for  Truirdo),  from  "  marcus "  a 
hammer.  The  brotherhoods  date  only  from  the  18th  century;  the 
first  London  lodge  from  the  24th  June  I7l7  ;  that  of  Paris  from 
1725;  and  that  of  Dublin  from  1730.  But  such  associations  had 
been  developing  during  previous  centuries,  tracing  back  even  to  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  being  due  to  the  necessity  for  self  protection,  against 
tyranny  in  both  Church  and  State.  Dr  Priestly,  commenting  on 
Dupuis  (Origin  of  Religions),  compares  Freemasons  to  gypsies,  as 
having  rites  of  initiation,  and  oaths  of  fidelity.  Such  secret  societies 
are  ancient  in  Asia,  among  Essenes,  Gnostiks,  and  Templars,  or 
Moslem  Dervishes,  Druzes,  and  others ;  and  especially  so  among  the 
Chinese.      Freemasons    devoted    themselves  especially   to   John  the 


Freemasons  118 

Baptist  (patron  of  the  first  Kuights  Hospitallers),  and  to  John  the 
Divine.  They  attach  mystic  value  to  certain  colors,  such  as  white, 
blue,  purple,  and  crimson,  which  typify  air,  water,  earth,  and  fire. 
They  have  symbols,  many  of  which  are  ancient  religious  or  magical 
emblems.  These  occur  on  the  masonry  of  the  Crusaders'  churches 
built  by  Italian  Normans,  in  Palestine,  in  our  12th  century,  and  are 
equally  found  on  that  of  European  cathedrals  in  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries,  including  the  hammer,  the  trowel,  the  gavel,  the  triangle, 
circle,  and  square,  the  fylfot,  the  fish,  and  the  pentacle  or 
"  Solomon's  seal,"  with  the  double  triangle  or  ^*  shield  of  David  "  (see 
Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  235,  fig.  108).  The  triangle  is  an  emblem  of 
Deity  (see  Triangles).  Nor  is  the  "  luminous  ring  "  overlooked  (see 
Ring),  being  presented  to  those  initiated  into  the  Order  of  Noah  (see 
Fellows,  Myateriea,  chap.  v).  Mr  FeUows  says,  indeed  (p.  284): 
'*  There  is  scarcely  a  single  ceremony  in  Freemasonry  which  is  not 
found  in  the  old  pagan  mysteries."  He  considers  it  demonstrable 
that  "  Freemasonry  was  (in  its  essence)  nature  and  sun  worship  .  .  * 
see  especially  the  hidden  mysteries  of  our  Blue  Lodge  symbolism." 
Freemasonry  seems  to  have  gleaned  much  in  the  East  from  older  secret 
confraternities.  We  have  been  assured  ourselves,  by  Pars!  and 
Jewish  Freemasons,  that  a  brother  is  expected  always  to  assist  a 
brother,  and  never  to  prosecute  him  for  debt. 

The  symbolism  of  Freemasons  is  mainly  based  on  the  Bible,  but 
includes  many  astronomical  emblems,  besides  the  ark,  the  pillars,  the 
tables  of  the  law,  and  the  arch.  The  "Royal  Arch"  consists  of 
seven  stones,  marked  by  the  signs  of  the  genial  months — the  ram, 
bull,  twins,  crab  (as  the  keystone),  lion,  virgin,  and  scales.  [The 
month  signs  were  also  carved,  in  the  12th  century,  on  the  arch  of  the 
Hospital  of  the  Knights  of  St  John  at  Jerusalem.— ^Ed.]  Above  the 
arch  is  the  sun  to  the  proper  right,  and  the  moon  to  the  proper  left 
Beneath  it  are  the  seven  Pleiades,  round  which  the  universe  revolves, 
and  under  these  the  masonic  coat  of  arms — a  cross  with  the  bull,  lion, 
eagle,  and  man,  in  its  4  quarterings — representing  the  four  evangelists, 
while  the  crests  are  the  horn  of  plenty,  and  the  compass  crossing  the 
gavel  (or  mason's  square),  forming  the  double  triangle.  Between 
these  is  the  name  of  God.  These  arms  stand  on  the  tesselated  pave- 
ment under  the  arch,  which  is  supported  by  a  plain  pillar  to  the  right, 
and  an  entwined  one  to  the  left.  The  two  pillars  Jachin  (strength), 
and  Boaz  (stability)  are  important  masonic  symbols.  Before  the  arch 
stands  the  coiBn,  in  form  of  two  truncated  cones,  marked  by  the  cross, 
and  indicating  that  the  initiate  must  die  to  his  old  nature,  before  he 
passes  through  the  gate  (see  Door),  and  is  born  again :  at  its  foot  is 


114  Freemasons 


the  "  urn  of  St  John  " — a  box  whence  a  serpent  issues,  reminding  ns 
of  the  Greek  mysteries  (see  Bleusis,  and  Erekhtheus).  This  am  has 
a  conical  cover — ^recalling  the  phallic  cones  in  the  temples  of  the 
Syrian  Venus. 

The  apron  is  the  characteristic  Mason's  dress ;  but  the  Essene 
initiate  received  an  apron  and  a  hammer-like  axe  (see  Rivera  of  Life, 
i,  p.  237,  fig.  109);  and  popes  and  bishops,  like  some  Brahmaos, 
wear  aprons — as  did  Adam  and  Eve.  The  Tau  cross  (used  also  by 
Gnostiks,  and  found  in  Templar  churches)  is  marked  on  the  apron; 
and  Masons  say  that  it  "  marks  the  Pythagorean  solar  cycle  of  600 
years."  Irenseus  (Against  Heresies,  III,  xxiii,  5)  says  that  "  Adam  put 
upon  himself  and  Eve  a  bridle  of  continence  .  .  .  conformable  to  his 
disobedience.  ...  At  last  God  mercifully  clad  them  with  skins." 
In  the  rites  of  Mithra  the  candidate  was  invested  with  a  tiara,  a 
purple  tunic,  and  a  girdle,  with  a  white  apron,  which  is  found  also  on 
many  statues  in  Egypt,  Greece,  India,  and  America,  and  is  indeed 
used  "always  and  invariably,"  according  to  the  Royal  Masomn 
Encylopcedia  (p.  48).  Mr  F.  Crowe  (trans.  Are  Quatvxyr  Corona- 
tomm)  gives  most  of  the  various  masonic  aprons,  including  one  "  having 
the  appearance  of  the  Highlander's  sporran."  On  one  of  these  the  Tau 
is  upside  down,  beneath  a  dark  circle  on  a  white  ground,  and  the  circle 
is  wreathed  with  flowers  (see  Mr  Simpson's  articles  in  the  last-named 
publication,  V,  i,  Jany.  1892). 

In  other  rites  three  candles  stand  at  each  angle  of  the  triangle 
of  the  Trinity,  which  is  Abraxs,  or  365 — the  days  of  the  year.  The 
sacred  numbers  3,  5,  7,  and  9 — making  24  for  the  24  elders — are 
gorgeously  colored  round  the  triangle  in  blue  and  gold.  The  number 
three  appears  in  the  three  degrees  of  the  lesser  and  greater  mysteries, 
and  Royal  Arch,  or  Arch  of  the  Master  Key.  The  Master  Mason 
stands  on  the  east,  while  others  cluster  round  him,  as  planets  round 
the  sun  (see  Dervish). 

The  mysterious  design  of  the  "certificate"  belonging  to  the 
"  Grand  Lodge  of  England,"  and  intended  to  "  certify  that  the  name  of 
(N)  is  written  in  the  cubical  stone,"  appears  to  give  a  fairly  complete 
collection  of  symbols.  "  Nothing"  (it  says)  "is  wanting  save  the  key" 
(see  Heckethorn's  Secret  Societies  of  All  Ages,  1897).  We  here  find 
an  oval  in  a  square,  and  a  cross  made  up  of  8  squares  in  the  oval, 
each  square  bearing  the  emblems  of  degrees.  On  the  left  (proper 
right),  outside  the  oval,  is  a  bell  at  the  top,  and  men  dancing  round  a 
pillar  or  obelisk  at  the  bottom,  with  the  legend  "  Talia  St  lun  gere 
possis  "  :  the  sun,  and  the  magic  square,  are  also  on  this  side.  Opposite 
(on  the  proper  left)  is  the  watch  (for  time)  and  a  scene  of  tree  worship, 


Freemasons  115 

with  the  legend,  "  Sit  tibi  scire  satis."     The  crossed  circle,  and  the 
moon,  are  on  this  side.     The  squares  forming  the  central  cross  are 
arranged  two  to  left,  two  to  right,  and  four  beneath  each  other  in  the 
centre.      These — beginning  with   the  central  top  design — appear   to 
represent :    1.  The  Logoa^  as  described  in  the  Revelation  of  St  John. 
2.  Jerusalem,  with  its  mediaeval  coat  of  arms.      3.  The  fortress  of 
Enoch  or  Hermes,     4.  The  pyramid  sepulchre,  with  a  serpent :  the 
tower  of  liberty  (Solomon),  equality  (Moses),  and  truth  (Hermes),  with 
a  cross  and  ladder,  above  which  is  the  two-headed  eagle.    The  squares 
to  the  proper  right  are :    5.   Creation,  with   the  four  elements,  the 
central  flaming  triangle  of  the  Trinity,  the  cross  and  other  emblems, 
and  the  legends,  "  Chaos,"  "  Open,"  **  Lux  ex  tenebris."     6.  The  Brvie 
Stone,  with  Jachin  and  Boaz,  the  pick,  the  broom,  the  waning  moon, 
and  other  emblems.     On  the  proper  left  we  have :   7.  The  Order  of 
Baldwin  (1118  A.C.),  the  second  king  of  Jerusalem,  with  the  infant 
Christ  on  a  rainbow  spanning  the  space  between  a  fire  tower  and  a  bull 
tower  (Jachin  and  Boaz),  and  with  the  legend,  "  The  fear  of  the  Lord 
is  the  beginning  of  wisdom."     8.  Justice,  with  the  scales,  the  com- 
passes, the  gavel,  and  the  circle  divided  into  degrees.     This  is  called 
"  The  Cubical  Stone!*     AH  this  symbolism,  however,  as  in  the  case  of 
other  sects,  may  be  regarded  as  belonging  rather  to  the  exoteric  than 
to  the  higher  teaching  of  Masonry. 

Masons  claim  great  antiquity  for  their  mysteries,  tracing  them  to 
a  divine  origin  through  Adam,  Moses,  and  Solomon.     Hermes  was  a 
common   name  among   Gnostik    societies.     Some   trace   Masonry   to 
St  Alban  (709  A.C.),  and  claim  King  Athelstan  as  a  Mason.     But  the 
mediseval  Masons'  Guilds  did  not  appear  in  the  west  till  about  1356 
A.a  {Ars,  Quat  Coron.,  V,  i,  pp.  41-44),  though  a  "masonic  habita- 
tion," at  York,  is  spoken  of  as  existing  in  the  11th  or  12th  century. 
In  1677  a  royal  charter  was  granted  to  certain  Masons  by  Charles  II 
of  England.     In  the  1 8th  century  they  began  to  organise  their  later 
mysteries  of  7  and  33  degrees,  and  the  order  of  the  "black  and  white 
eagle/'  apparently  two-headed,   and   symbolising  day  and   night,  as 
among  Hittites  (see  Eagle).     The  "luminous  ring,"  and   the   "blue 
lodge,"  appear  to  borrow  from  the  Templars,  and  later  Rosicrucians. 
Hiram  of  Tyre — as  a  temple  builder — is  also  much  spoken   of  by 
Masons    Masonry,  however,  sprang  probably  from  the  mediseval  guilds, 
which  were  originally  a  kind  of  trades'  union,  of  skilled  stone  workers 
and  carpenters,  employed  on  the  beautiful  fanes  of  Norman  Europe. 
These  collegia  had  well-defined  rules  and  customs  :  some  had  a  common 
fund  ;  and  they  were  ruled  by  Arch  or  Master  Masons,  who  maintained 
the  rights  of  even  the  humblest  apprentice.     They  came  in  time  to 


116  Free-will 

regard  themselves  as  religious  societies,  and  in  modem  times  became 
dissociated  from  their  crafts,  and  perhaps  little  more  than  societies  for 
mutual  help ;  the  associates  (like  Onostiks  and  others)  being  known  bj 
secret  signs,  such  as  the  "  Mason's  grip "  in  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
They  spoke  of  their  degrees  as  "holy  and  solemn  sacraments,"  swearing 
secrecy  on  the  Bible,  with  obedience  to  superiors,  and  service  to  God 
and  to  the  brethren.  They  protected  themselves  by  guarding  the 
door  (looking  out  through  a  wicket  or  window),  while  the  lodge  was 
**  tiled/'  Like  other  associations  (Christian,  Onostik,  Templar,  or  Druze) 
they  have  been  subject  to  many  calumnious  accusations.  The  Church 
of  Bome,  especially,  has  always  denounced  a  society  over  which  priests 
have  no  control,  and  which  is  unconcerned  with  the  interests  of  her 
system — which  rests  on  belief  in  a  good  life,  apart  from  faith,  thus 
bringing  down  on  its  members  the  anathemas  and  slanders  of  popes 
and  priests. 

Pree-wilL  The  teachers  of  religion  deny,  ignore,  or  avoid  this 
question.  Neither  the  word  nor  the  idea  are  found  in  the  Bible.  To 
the  Hebrew,  Ood  was  the  author  of  good  and  evil — blessing  and 
punishment — who  deceives  false  prophets  as  well  as  iuspiring  others. 
Amos  (iii,  6)  says,  ''  Shall  there  be  evil  in  a  city,  aud  the  Lord  hath 
not  done  it.*'  The  Moslem  agrees  with  the  Christian  in  saying  •'Thy 
will  be  done."  [Luther  agreed  with  Paul  (Romans  vii,  15-25)  as  to 
the  struggles  of  the  will.  Erasmus,  on  the  other  hand,  was  influenced 
by  Greek  ideas.  Plato  (see  £r)  taught  that  God  was  not  to  blame  if 
man  wrougly  decided  in  face  of  his  own  previous  experience.  Aristotle 
believed  (but  does  not  attempt  to  prove)  that  man  had  Free  Choice, 
and  was  responsible  (Nicom.  Ethica,  III,  ii-v)  for  couduct;  unless 
through  madness,  disease,  or  "  impenetrable  ignorance,"  he  could  be 
Excused.  The  Council  of  Trent,  in  declariug  for  Free-will,  did  not 
even  allow  "  impenetrable  ignorance  "  as  an  excuse.  They  feared  to 
charge  God  with  responsibility  for  human  sins,  or  the  Devil  either,  as 
that  would  make  him  independent  of  God  ;  but  Calvin  in  teaching 
Predestination — which  Moslems  also  believe — had  no  such  scruples. — 
Ed.]  Science  teaches  that  there  is  no  freedom  of  choice,  but  that 
all  decision  is  as  purely  a  matter  of  necessity  as  is  the  action  of  the 
balance :  all  must  act  according  to  the  conditions  of  existence,  and  as 
the  influences  of  heredity  and  surroundings  lead.  It  is  on  the 
strength  and  continuity  of  these  influences  that  the  training  of  man 
or  child  depends.  They  have  no  power  to  become  free  from  them  ; 
and  few  ever  break  away  from  conditions  imposed  by  early  training, 
unless  they  come  under  new  influences  of  an  enlarged  experience.    We 


Free-will  iiT 

canBot  coDceive  of  the  non-conditioned,  so  that  it  is  practically  to  us 
non-existent  A  power  that  was  without  a  law  (that  is,  a  consistency 
of  action)  woald  be  one  that  we  could  not  dare  to  trust,  and  not  a 
law-giver  to  man.  Such  a  Ood,  if  all  knowing  aud  creating  sin,  must 
(as  the  Hebrews  taught)  be  responsible  for  all  evil.  The  learned 
Qifford  Lecturer  of  1892  placed  this  view  before  the  Aberdeen 
students  in  these  words :  "  Qod  purposely  created  man  capable  of 
sinning,  because  only  so  could  He  create  a  being  capable  of  obedience." 
But  such  rhetoric  makes  Ood,  though  He  had  almighty  power  for 
good,  the  creator  of  infinite  misery,  with  the  object  of  forcing  obedience 
from  slaves,  who  only  in  a  secondary  degree  are  responsible  for  errors 
due  to  the  sins  of  their  fathers,  which  the  best  efforts  throughout  life 
can  seldom  amend. 

Volition  without  motive  is — according  to  Mill,  Sir  W.  Hamilton, 
and  other  thinkers — quite  inconceivable.  It  supposes  man  capable 
of  producing  uncaused  motives — that  is  of  creation  out  of  nothing. 
Prof.  Tyndall  recognised  that  we  are  not  the  masters  of  circumstances, 
which  are  made,  not  by,  but  for  us.  Hamilton  says  that  if  the  power 
of  motive  A  be  as  12,  and  of  motive  6  as  8,  it  is  inconceivable  that 
action  should  not  be  due  to  motive  A — the  weight  in  that  scale  is  the 
heavier  (see  Mr  A.  J.  Bell,  Why  does  Man  Exist,  xlix).  The 
umversal  and  mechanical  law  is,  that  force  will  follow  the  line  of  least 
resistance  (see  Conscience  and  Design).  Cause  and  effect  have  no 
meaning  if  conceived  of  as  independent  Yet  Hamilton  seems  to 
have  believed  in  the  freedom  of  the  will,  though  he  says  that  "  the 
proof  of  it  is  impossible,  nay  inconceivable." 

These  speculations  were  familiar  to  the  old  philosophers  wha 
studied  Vedas  and  Darsanas :  to  Kapila  and  Buddha,  as  well  as  to 
the  disciples  of  Plato.  They,  like  Aristotle,  saw  only  one  solution  in 
education,  as  the  cure  of  "  invincible  ignorance,"  to  which  error  is  to 
be  solely  ascribed.  We  can  be  trained  to  pause  when  influenced  by 
impulses  of  passion,  and  to  reflect  on  past  experiences  of  inevitable 
results,  or  to  listen  to  wise  counsels  from  those  of  wider  experience 
than  our  own.  Thus  the  wise  man  instead  of  rising  up  to  smite  sits 
down  to  think.  He  learns  that  there  is  no  more  a  will  (or  choice) 
than  there  is  a  soul  or  ghost :  "  I  will "  is  as  much  a  vague  phrase 
as  "  I  laugh  "  or  "  I  jump."  We  labour  to  make  use  of  experience, 
until  we  gradually  change  our  disposition,  and  create  a  new  line  of 
least  resistance  more  in  accord  with  the  realities  of  circumstance.  We 
still  personify  the  Will,  but  "  whether  we  will  or  no,"  we  are  "  con- 
vinced against  our  (untrained)  will."  Free-will  in  fact  is  a  con-» 
tradiction  in  terms.     We  can,  it  is  true,  "do  as  we  like,"  but  we 


118  Free-will 

mast  ''  like  "  first ;  and  our  liking  must  be  consistent  unless  we  have 
lost  the  balance  of  Reason — ^that  is  of  action  due  to  experience  of 
reality.     The  will  is  tied  by  knowledge  of  consequence,  and  if  we  are 
ignorant  of  such  experience,  our  motives  are  prejudices  and  untrained 
passions.     Truly  do  we  say  that  "  D.Y.  we  will  do  so  and  so/'  for  an 
onmipotent  law  rules  all     Mr  Herbert  Spencer  puts  this  clearly  when 
he  says :  "  A  body  in  space,  subject  to  the  attraction  of  a  single  other 
body,  moves  in  a  direction  that  can  be  accurately  predicted.  ...  If  it 
is  surrounded  by  bodies  of  all  sizes,  at  all  distances,  its  motion  wiJJ 
apparently  be  uninfluenced  by  any  of  them ;  it  will  move  in  some 
indefinable  varying  line,  that  appears  to  be  8elf-<letermined  ";  but  it  is 
not  really  so,  only  we  are  unable  to  calculate  all  the  attractions  or 
repulsions  on  which  it  depends.     Hobbes  roughly  declared  that  the 
will  was  "  the  last  appetite."     If  the  race  be  uneducated  and  untrained, 
it  cannot  shake  off  the  evils  of  heredity  and  of  past  racial  developments 
and  circumstances.     Believers  in  "  Necessity "  hold  that  all  events 
follow  a  natural  sequence,  according  to  laws  as  inevitable  as  that  of 
gravity,  or  of  chemical  aflSnity,  ruling  the  organic  and  the  inorganic 
world  alike.     As  bad  seed,  and  bad  cultivation  in  bad  soil,  produce 
inferior  vegetables,  so  surely  do  animal  heredity  and  bad  surroundings 
produce  bad  men  and  women.     Our  bodies  are  made  up  of  carbon, 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  elements  which  follow  the  inevitable 
laws  of  their  chemical  aflSnities  (the  causes  of  which  are  unknown  to 
us)  :    thus    neither   child    nor    vegetable  can    accomplish    anything 
against  the  bodily  conditions  of  its  existence.     Beyond  the  sensations 
due  to  bodily  action  we  can  know  nothing.     Fancy  may  regroup  such 
experiences,  but  it  is  to  be  recognised  as  imagination,  apt  to  run  riot, 
and  not  as  reality.     [Reflection,  whether  original  or  due  to  others, 
aims  at  discovering  the  realities  which  should  govern  our  action :  it  is 
careful  observation  of  results.     But  such  training  is  due  to  the  same 
consistent  purpose  which  has  developed  higher  from  lower  forms,  and 
life   itself  from   inorganic  attractions. — Ed.]     The  fact  is,   as  Kant 
long  ago  showed,  that :  "  All  human  actions  are  as  much  under  the 
control  of  the  universal  laws  of  Nature  as  any  other  physical  pheno- 
mena " :  "  The  rational  predispositions,"  he  adds,  "  seem  destined  to 
develop  themselves  more  in  the  species  than  in  the  individual"    It 
is  not  every  wave  that  shows  the  tide,  but  neither  the   wave  nor 
anything  else  is  due  to  "  chance,"  which  is  merely  a  word  expressing 
our  ignorance  of  the  forces  that  are  at  work,  and  our  want  of  pre- 
vision of  the  inevitable  consequence.     The  eternal  laws,  which  move 
stars  and  planets  and  the  elements  of  animal  organisms,  are  the  same; 
why  not  therefore  those  that  control  the  tiny  race  of  man,  on  his  tinj 


Frey  119 

planet,  in  thought,  will,  and  progress  ?  Voltaire  said  :  '*  Nothing 
happens  without  a  cause  ...  an  effect  without  a  cause  is  a  sentence 
without  meaning  .  .  .  my  will  is  but  a  consequence  of  my  judgment, 
and  the  one  necessarily  follows  the  other  as  cause  and  effect."  The 
will  is  as  natural  to  the  creature  as  scent  and  color  are  to  the 
flower;  and  these  we  know  depend  on  its  heredity,  yet  can  be 
influenced  by  soil  and  cultivation.  Knowing  these  exactly,  we  can 
predict  the  result ;  but  in  the  more  complicated  question  of  human 
motive  we  must  be  content  with  an  Agnostik  attitude,  though  assured 
that  the  law  of  necessity  still  holds  good. 

Frey.  Freyr.  Fraig.  Fro.  The  Skandinavian  god  of 
reproduction.  The  name  comes  from  the  Aryan  root  Bhri  or  Bhxir 
"  to  produce  "  or  "  bear  "  (see  Bar),  found  in  the  Latin  Frux  "  fruit." 
His  female  forms  are  Freya  and  Frigg.  He  is  represented  as  the 
brother  of  Freya.  At  Upsala  he  was  represented  by  a  menhir  or 
phallus  (see  Norweg.  Antiq,,  i,  p.  25).  He  was  drawn  through 
heaven  by  the  golden  boar  (see  Boar).  He  is  the  "  Lord  of  Increase  " 
presiding  over  rain  and  sunshine,  harvests,  wealth,  and  peace — the 
sun  god  (Indra),  who  is  the  cause  of  all  fertility.  Gerda,  the  earth 
godess,  is  said  to  have  resisted  him  though  bribed  by  apples  and 
rings,  till  Skiruer,  his  attendant,  threatened  her  with  eternal  sterility. 
Freyr  ploughed  Oerda  at  the  season  when  Teutons  used  to  carry 
their  ploughs,  in  boats  or  arks,  over  their  fields  in  spring.  Frey  and 
Freya  were  children  of  "  Niord  the  rich,"  whom  the  Vanir  gave  to 
the  iEsar  or  Msir  (the  gods)  as  hostages  at  the  end  of  a  great  war. 
Niord  (or  Njord)  was  born  in  Vana-heim  ("  water  home  ")  being  the 
third  As  (or  "  spirit "),  ruler  of  the  winds  and  quencher  of  the  evil 
fire  of  Loki.  Fro,  among  Teutons,  was  a  beneficent  form  of  Frey, 
merciful  and  long-suffering — a  god  who  gives  strength  and  sweetness 
to  life. 

Freya.  The  Skandinavian  Venus,  sister  of  Frey,  is  distinguished 
from  Frigg  the  Skandinavian  Juno,  but  they  are  only  various  aspects 
of  one  godess  of  reproduction — the  earth  mother  and  virgin  earth. 
Freya  also  is  called  Sessrymner  "  the  large  wombed  "  (see  Earth),  and 
was  a  "  godess  ^of  the  Vanir  delighting  in  love,  song  and  dance." 
She  listens  to  the  vows  of  lovers,  and  produces  general  fertility.  Loki 
("  fire  ")  opened  her  door,  loosed  her  girdle,  and  crept  into  her  bed  as 
a  flea,  by  order  of  Odin  (Woden  "the  blue  one")  or  heaven.  By 
Odin  she  had  a  child  called  Hnos,  "the  treasure"  or  "delight"  Her 
car  was  drawn  by  cats,  and  she  (like  Loki)  was  clothed  in  feathers. 
She  was  consecrated  by  receiving  in  her  lap  the  hammer  of  Thor, 


120  Friday 

which  Thrjm,  the  winter  giant,  stole.  Thor,  disguised  as  a  bride, 
went  to  Freya  in  Jotun-heim  and  there  regained  the  hammer  from 
Thrym.  Freya's  abode  was  in  the  Folk-vang  or  "  people's  habita- 
tions" (see  Sharp's  Nor.  Myth,,  i,  p.  56).  She  ever  longs  for  Odin 
(the  ancient  pair,  heaven  and  earth,  being  so  represented),  and  is 
intoxicated  by  his  love.  Her  tears  and  her  ornaments  are  of  gold. 
She  travels  abroad  and  takes  many  names  and  forms.  To  one  she 
gives  "  the  sacred  joys  of  marriage  with  many  children,"  to  another 
vain  longings.  She  is  a  wild  and  joyous  Ceres,  related  to  Gerda  the 
earth,  and  to  Skirner  the  invigorating  air.  She  becomes  a  cloud 
rider,  a  swan  maiden,  the  leader  of  the  Valkyries  or  silvery  clouds — a 
maid  of  the  mist.  The  twins  Frey  and  Freya  (like  Tammuz  and 
Istar)  were  gods  of  love,  taking  the  highest  rank  in  Asgard,  the 
abode  of  spirits. 

Friday.  The  day  of  Freya  and  Frigg ;  and  of  Venus  among 
Latins.  To  Moslems,  who  worshiped  a  Venus  at  Makka,  it  became 
the  holy  day  {YoTa  d  Juw^a,  "  the  day  of  gathering") ;  and  it  is  the 
''  wife's  day "  to  them,  on  which  the  husband  may  not  approach  a 
concubine.  She  alone,  on  that  day,  may  light  the  household  fire,  and 
preside  at  the  hearth.  Christians  now  object  to  weddings  on  Friday, 
which  is  regarded  as  an  unlucky  day  of  fasts  and  fish  eating — the  fish 
being  sacred  to  Venus.  Yet  in  1871  the  census  shows  that,  amoog 
Irish  Kelts,  nearly  44  per  cent  are  married  on  Friday.  The  Hindu 
house-mistress  adores  her  cow  on  Friday,  calling  it  *'  Eamadevi, 
"godess  of  love." 

Frigg.  Frigga.  Frygga.  See  Frey  and  Freya.  The 
Skaudinavian  Juno,  wife  of  Odin  or  Heaven  :  godess  of  marriage 
and  of  earth,  and  of  Hlyn,  or  mild  warmth.  Her  name  signifies 
"  the  bearer,"  and  she  is  the  Frau  or  married  woman  (Thorpe, 
Not.  Antiq.,  i,  p.  231).  When  Odin,  the  blue  sky,  disappeared, 
and  the  M&ar  despaired  of  his  return,  she  married  his  brothers,  Ve 
and  Vilir.  Her  father  was  Fiorgynn,  the  male  earth,  whose  consort 
was  Fiorvin  or  lordt,  otherwise  Ertha,  the  mother  also  of  Tbor. 
Frigg  lived  in  Fensaler,  the  humid  earth,  but  she  is  also,  like  Freya, 
a  feathered  godess  or  falcon.  From  Odin  and  Frigg  sprang  the 
^ar ;  and  Baldur  the  beautiful  (see  Baldur)  was  their  lamented 
son.  Fulla  or  "  plenty  "  waited  on  Frigg,  as  did  Hlyn  "  the  warm," 
and  Gna  the  "  gentle  "  breeze.  Orion  was  her  rok  or  distaff.  She 
appears  (in  winter)  as  the  "  white  lady,"  and  has  flaxen  hair.  Her 
legends  refer  to  snow  and  feathers,  milk  and  cows  (see  Bertha),  all 
connected  with  rain  and  snow.     She  is  the  Mother  Rose  (see  H§bd)» 


Fro  121 

the  *'  marriage  grass  "  (Orchis  odoratissima),  the  primrose,  the  forget- 
me-not.  Stones  must  be  cast  on  her  cairn  or  heap  (as  memorials 
of  a  visit) ;  and  Christians  still  cast  stones  into  Frigga's  cave  at 
Urselberg,  on  the  Burgeiser  Alp  near  Wartenburg.  She  watches 
Odin  her  lord,  being  ever  anxious  lest  some  misfortune  should 
overtake  him.  Though  silent  she  is  said  to  know  the  destinies  of 
all,  like  Hindu  godesses.  She  is  jealous  of  Gerda  and  Gunnlod, 
the  earths  of  spring  and  of  autumn,  whom  Odin  embraced,  receiving 
from  them  his  "mead"  of  blood  and  honey.  The  mead  produced 
poetry,  and  art,  from  its  "  maddening "  influence.  Frigga,  and  Code 
daughter  of  Thor,  were  worshiped  at  midsummer.  Christians  found 
it  hard  to  put  down  these  fStes  (see  Mr  M.  Conway,  Defmonologyy  ii, 
p.  379). 

Fro.   Fruija.     See  Frey. 

Frog.  This  night  croaker  is  called  in  India  the  friend  of  Indu 
the  moon.  In  Egypt,  Hekt,  wife  of  Khnum,  is  a  frog  godess  (see 
Baubo),  and  moon  deity.  Bhekas  "  the  frog "  (Sanskrit),  is  the 
harbinger  of  rain,  and  Indu  is  the  "  rain  dropping "  or  dewy  one. 
Indra,  the  rain  god,  grants  what  Bhekas  croaks  for ;  but  the  moon  is 
said  to  kill  the  frog,  silencing  him  with  heavy  dews.  In  spring,  under 
the  showers,  he  sings  and  calls  on  men  to  plough  the  earth.  Italian 
children  (says  Prof.  A.  de  Gubernatis)  have  an  instrument — the  Canta- 
Rana  or  "frog  singer" — used  to  imitate  his  song  in  Holy  Week, 
lu  the  Rig  Veda  (Hymn  103)  we  find  the  praises  of  the  Mandukas 
ur  *'  cloud-frogs,"  with  those  of  Indra,  who  drives  the  cloud  cows  from 
the  cave  of  the  Panis  who  obstruct  rain.  One  Manduks  is  said  to 
bellow  like  a  bull  (the  bull-frog),  others  are  of  yellow-greeu  Qiarit) 
color.  The  cloud  frog  swells  itself  out  like  the  cloud  bull,  and 
bursts  (as  in  the  fable),  but  also  assumes  beautiful  forms  to  enchant 
maidens  (see  ZooL  MythoL,  ii,  under  Frog). 

Fu.     "  Father  "  :  in  Chinese.     See  Bu. 

Fufluns.  Puphluns.  The  Etruskan  Bakkhos.  From  the  root 
Pu  (see  Bu)  reduplicated  with  the  passive  aflSx.  Pu-pu-lu-uns  is 
*'  the  god  of  that  which  is  made  to  grow,"  connected  with  the  name  of 
the  Etruskan  city  Populonia,  and  perhaps  with  the  Latin  word  popuZus, 
"  population  "  or  increasing  tribes. 

Fyl-fot.  The  Teutonic  name  of  the  Svastika  or  cross  with  feet, 
the  Greek  gammadion  or  "  crooked  "  sign  (see  Count  G.  D'Alviella, 
La  Migration,  dee  Symbolea,  1892).     This  sign,  found  from  Peru  to 


122 

Cornwall,  ia  called  Fael-fut,  Fujel-fot,  and  Fyl-fot,  among  Aryans,  and 
identified  with  Thor's  hammer,  being  found  on  dolmens  in  Com* 
wall,  and,  as  a  charm  against  thunder,  on  bells  in  Yorkshire  (see  Bells). 
It  appears  to  signify  the  "  fowl's  foot "  (German  Vogel  "  bird  "),  or 
"  flying  foot,"  alluding  to  the  whirl  of  the  Svastika  wheel  (see  Svastika). 
It  was  everywhere  a  sacred  emblem.  The  Aryan  root  Plu  signifies 
"  to  fly."  The  symbol  is  also  the  croix  crampone^,  or  "  crook  cross/'  of 
heralds. 


The  third  letter  of  early  alphabets  (see  C),  represents  both  the 
hard  O  and  the  soft  J  sound,  which  interchanges  with  the  bard  in 
dialects — such  as  Syrian  compared  with  Egyptian  Arabic.  The 
hard  O  interchanges  with  the  guttural  !K,  which  is  sometimes  dropped 
like  H.  The  final  G  is  replaced  by  the  guttural  ng  in  Turkish  speech, 
which  also  stands  for  M  (see  Dimir). 

Gsu  See  Ea,  and  Gan.  This  root  is  widely  spread  as  meaning 
"  cry,"  "  live,"  and  "  be."  [Egyptian  kha  "  to  be  born  "  :  Aryan  ga 
" beget,"  ^ri  "live":  Mongol  ke^  khe,  "make."  Perhaps  originally  a 
"mouth"  or  "hole":  Akkadian  ka,  gu,  "mouth,"  "'call,"  ge  "abyss," 
kw  "  eat "  :  Egyptian  hu  "  food  "  :  Aryan  gha  "  gape  "  :  Hebrew  gau 
"  inside  "  :  Chinese  hau  "  mouth  "  :  Turkish  agui  "  hole,"  ag  "  open." 
—Ed.] 

Gab.  Sanskrit :  "  mouth  "  "  hole "  (see  Ga).  This  is  also  an 
ancient  root,  meaning  "  hollow,"  or  "  cup,"  and  the  "  hand  "  or  hollow 
of  the  hand  :  hence  to  "  catch "  or  "  hold."  [Egyptian  kap,  khab, 
"  bent  "  :  Aryan  kap,  kubh,  "  bend  "  (see  Gam)  :  Hebrew  guph  "  hollow," 
^abb  "  domed " :  Akkadian  gdb  "  breast "  :  Turkish,  kob^  kaJb,  kou, 
"  hollow  "  :  Finnic  kap  "  sphere  "  :  Akkadian  gub  "  hand,"  "  hold  '* : 
Egyptian  kheb  "fist,"  '*khefa  "hold":  Aryan  kap  "hold":  Hebrew 
caph  "  hollow  of  the  hand " :  Turkish  kap  "  grip " :  Chinese  chap 
"  hold,"  kup  "  cover."  The  Aryan  kup  "  cup  "  is  the  Hebrew  koh'a 
"cup,"  "helmet."— Ed.] 

Gabar.  in  Hebrew  a  root  meaning  "strong,"  whence  the  Gib- 
borim,  or  "  very  strong  men  "  (heroes),  were  named  (see  Gab  "  to  hold," 
and  Ar  "  man  "). 

Gabriel.  Hebrew :  "  power  of  God,"  personified  as  an  angeL 
(Daniel  viii,  16  ;  ix,  21  :  Luke  i,  19,  26)  :  he  appeared  to  Daniel  as 


Gad  123 


''a  man."  The  Jibiil  of  the  i^oran  inspired  Muliammad,  and 
according  to  Moslem  tradition  his  finger  marks  appear  on  the  Sakhrah 
or  "  rock  "  at  Jerusalem,  which  he  held  down  to  prevent  its  following 
Muhammad  to  heaven.  Moslems  call  him  "Ruh  el  Amin/'  the 
*'  faithful  spirit,"  and  he  appears  usually  to  be  a  good  spirit  helping 
mankind. 

Ga.d.  The  name  of  a  deity  of  good  luck,  from  a  widespread  root 
meaning  **  the  right  hand."  [Akkadian  kat  "  hand " :  Finnic  hat 
"  hand,"  "  luck  "  :  Aryan  ghad  "grasp  "  :  Hebrew  akhcul  "  take."— Ed.] 
It  is  perhaps  connected  with  gud  "  strong  "  (see  Gut).  In  Isaiah  we 
read  (Ixv,  11)  that  the  Hebrews  "prepare  a  table  for  Gad,"  and 
"  furnish  a  drink  ofifering  for  Meni "  (also  a  deity  of  "  numbers "  or 
"  lots ").  Ba'al  Gad  (Josh,  xiii,  5)  was  a  Syrian  "  master  of  luck." 
The  name  was  also  given  to  a  Hebrew  tribe  (rendered  "  troop  "  in  the 
English),  as  is  made  clear  by  the  Greek  Septuagint  translation  TvJche 
''fortune."  He  is  compared  to  a  lion  (see  Gen.  xxx,  11  :  xlix,  19  : 
Deut.  xxxiii,  20),  and  those  who  increase  good  luck  are  blessed. 

Gael.  Gail.  Keltik.  Probably  like  the  words  Gaul  and  Galli,  it 
comes  from  the  root  gal  to  be  "  mighty,"  "  great,"  **  brave."  In  Ireland 
the  Fion-gail,  and  the  Dubh-gail,  are  rendered  respectively  "  fair  "  and 
'*  black  strangers  " — perhaps  referring  to  the  Belgse  or  fair  Kelts,  and 
the  red-haired  Brythons  on  the  one  part,  and  to  the  Goidels  or  black- 
haired  Kelts  on  the  other.  They  were  akin  to  the  Gauls  who  invaded 
Galatia  279  A.C. ;  and  to  the  Caledonians  who  were  a  fair  race  in 
Scotland — the  "  Gail-dana  "  or  "  place  of  Gaels."  Galway  and  Galloway 
are  also  supposed  to  preserve  their  name.  Caledon  however  is  other- 
wise explained  as  meaning  "  the  woods." 

Gal.  In  Akkadian  "  great "  (Turkish  khalin).  The  eunuch  priests 
of  Kubgle  were  called  Galli,  perhaps  from  the  Akkadian  gal-lu  "great 
nian."     In  Aryan  speech  the  root  means  "  brave." 

Gal.  An  ancient  root  meaning  "  to  go  in  a  circle,"  "  to  roll  " — 
otherwise  kar,  as  B  and  L  are  not  distinguished  in  early  languages. 
In  Hebrew  gall  is  "to  roll,"  khol  "circle."  In  Keltic  speech  gal-gal 
'ha" pebble,"  or  " rolled "  stone  (see  Gilgal).  The  Hebrew  gelUoth 
were  the  "  windings  "  of  Jordan  :  the  Aramaik  Golgotha  is  a  "  rounded  " 
skull :  Galilee  is  a  region  of  "  rolling  "  hills. 

Gale'ed.  [See  Genesis  (xxxi,  48) :  there  is  a  play  on  the  words 
Gile'ad  (probably  "rough  country")  and  Gal-'ed  "heap  (or  'circle')  of 
witness,"  referring  to  the  memorial  stone  monument  erected  by  Jacob 
Mid  I^ban,  called  in  Aramaik  Yegar-Sahadutha  ("  heap  of  witness  "), 


124  Gam 

and  according  to  a  gloss  Mispeh  ("  place  of  watching  ") :  according  to 
the  Qreek  Septuagint  the  monument  consisted  of  a  bounoa  or  "  heap," 
and  a  fttde  or  "  menhir " ;  and  it  is  a  common  early  custom  to  cast 
stones,  as  memorials  of  a  visit,  at  a  menhir,  which  thus  gradually 
becomes  covered  by  a  stone  pile. — ^Ed.]  The  Scythians  and  Teutons 
used  to  set  up'  a  spear  or  pole  in  their  kams  or  cairns  ;  and  General 
Valiancy  says  that  the  central  stone  of  Irish  circles  was  called  the 
*'  gull  or  gail."  On  this  stone-heap  Jacob  and  Laban  swore  oaths,  and 
ate  bread  together,  and  it  became  a  border  mark  between  Hebrews  and 
Arameatis. 

Gam.  GcUnma.  The  root  gam  means  '*  to  bend  "  :  Akkadian 
ganiy  Egyptian  ham,  Aryan  kam,  "  bend "  :  Turkish  kom,  "  round " : 
Chinese  kung  "  bow/'  Hence  the  letter  G,  was  called  gamma  "  crook  " 
or  gimel  "  crooked."  The  name  of  the  *'  camel "  is  perhaps  Turanian 
gam-el  or  ^  hump-beast."  [Turkish  kam,  "  humpy,"  and  el  "  beast" — 
Ed.]  From  the  same  root,  in  the  sense  of  "  inclination  "  or  as  we  say 
"  a  bent,"  come  words  for  favour,  and  love.  [Akkadian  gam.  " favour" : 
Egyptian  khemt  "  desire  "  :  Aryan  kam  "  love  "  :  Hebrew  kamaJi  "  to 
long  for "  :  Arabic  jam^a  "  to  embrace,"  "  to  draw  together,"  "  to 
assemble." — Ed.]  The  Greek  gamein  "to  marry"  means  "to 
embrace."  The  word  "  gem  "  signifies  a  "  bud,"  or  rounded  object ; 
and  "  gemini "  or  twins  are  a  pair,  attached  or  embracing. 

Gan.  See  Qa.  A  common  root  for  "growth"  or  "being.*' 
[Akkadian  gan,  gin,  gun,  "  to  be,"  "  to  grow " :  Aryan  gan  "  to 
beget "  :  Hebrew  kun  "  to  be  "  :  Turkish  kin  "  to  do  "  :  Chinese  ching 
"  to  make."  Hence  we  have  Gan  "  a  being,"  the  Arabic  ja/n  "  spirit," 
Latin  gens  "  tribe,"  and  Greek  gv/n€  "  female  being "  or  "  woman." 
The  Etruskan  Janus  may  be  from  this  root — Ed.] 

Gandha.  Sanskrit :  "  smell  " — whether  good  or  bad.  Hence 
unguent  (see  Gandharvas),  sulphur,  and  a  title  of  Siva. 

Gandhara.  A  country,  and  an  ancient  city,  near  Atak,  on  the 
Indus,  famous  for  horses,  horsemen,  and  irrigation  works.  Moslems 
called  it  Kandahar  later  ^not  the  Afghan  city  so  named) ;  the  in- 
habitants of  Gandaritis  were  known  to  Herodotos  as  Persian  subjects. 
The  population  was  Turanian  (Mr  Hewitt,  Journal  Bl,  Asiatic  Socy., 
April  1889,  p.  216):  the  Purus  and  Kurus  of  this  region  appear  to 
have  had  a  capital  at  Hastinapur  (near  Peshawar)  as  early  as  the 
age  of  the  Rig  Veda,  and  it  was  the  Kuru  capital  in  that  of  the 
Mahabharata  epik.  These  Dravidians,  moving  S.E.  from  the  western 
Kandahar,  retained  their  old  character  as  brave  horsemen. 


Gandharvas  125 

GaDdbarl  was  a  princess  of  Gandhara,  who  married  the  blind 
king  Dhrita-rashtra,  and  was  the  mother  of  100  Kurus  (see  those 
headings).  Hastinapur  is  now  sunk  in  the  Ganges,  a  little  N.W.  of 
Delhi  (see  Hastinapur). 

Gandharvas.     The  first  of  these  revealed  the  secrets  of  heaven 
to  man  according  to  the  Yedas.     The  meaning  of  the  name  appears 
to  have  been  lost ;  they  seem — as  horsemen — to  have  been  confused 
with  inhabitants  of  Gandhara,  and  in  the  Puranas  are  called  "  great 
horsemen."     [Possibly  it  is  derived  from  the  same  original  as  the 
Greek  Ken-taur. — Ed.]      They  are  said   to   have  been  "movers  in 
unguent "  (see  Gandba)  which  appears  to  be  a  later  false  etymology 
for  the  word.     Their  wives  were  the  Apsaras,  or  "  water  carrying " 
clouds.     In  the  Atharva  Veda  they  are  innumerable,  and  they  minister 
to  the  gods,  supplying  them  with  Soma,  and  with  songs,  and  music. 
The  sun  itself  is  "  ridden  by  the  fiery  Gandharba  "  ;  but  Chitra-ratha, 
the  name  of  the  chief  Gandharba,  means  "  the  car  of  brightness."     He 
ruled  the  heavenly  nymphs  (see  Apsaras)  and  invaded  the  hell  of  the 
Nagas,  or  snakes,  where  he  was  lost  in  the  great  waters.     The  Puranas 
say  that  the  Gandharvas  sprang  from  Brahma's  nose,  which  connects 
them  with  the  winds :  they  were  also  children  of  Muni,  one  of  the 
wives  of  Kasyapa — the  sun — and  were  marvelous  beings  inhabiting 
**  mighty  cities."     They  appear  to  be  the  thunder  clouds  whose  music 
is  heard  in  heaven,  confused  with  historical  horsemen  of  Gandhara, 
who  fought  the  Naga  tribes.     In  the  Aitareya  Brahmana  they  are 
dancers  and  singers,  and  "  lovers  of  women."     They  are  described  in 
the  Atharva  Veda  (see  Dr  Muir,  Sanskrit  Texts,  v,  p.  309)  as  being 
hairy  like  dogs  or  monkeys  (or  Kentaurs),  yet  taking  beautiful  forms 
to  deceive  women.     They  are  implored  to  content  themselves  with 
their    own    wives,  the   Apsaras    or    silvery  rain  clouds.     Gubernatis 
{Zool.   MythoL,   i,   p.    368)  connects  the   Gandharvas,  as  ''perfume 
movers"   with    the    "Asinus   in   unguente,"   and   so  with   the    Ono- 
kentaurs    (see    Onolatria),    and    the    famous    "three-legged    ass"    of 
Persians   (described    in    the    Bundahish).       The    ass    that    brays    in 
heaven,   like    the    bellowing    bull,   is  connected    with    the    thunder. 
The  Gandharba  is  a  demi-god,  yet  half  a  demon,  bringing  rain  and 
fire.     The  ooly  weapon  of  these  warriors  in  heaven  is  the  thunder 
— the  golden  horn  of  Odin.     They  are  swift  and  invulnerable  war- 
horses,  walking  in  perfumes,  and  changing  color  at  will,  being  most 
beautiful   in  the  evening.     The  Aryan  myths  seem  in  this  case  to 
be  based  on  a  Turanian  conception.     The  jovial  spirits  of  Gandharva- 
Loka  (heaven  as  the  "  place  of  clouds  "),  are  the  wild  Kentaurs  of  the 


126  Ganesa 

Thessalian  mountains.  They  have  a  common  origin  with  the  homed 
offspring  of  Ixion,  and  of  Nephelg  (the  cloud):  nor  must  we  foiget 
the  Oandharva-Veda,  at  the  end  of  the  Sama-Yeda,  where  they  are 
described  as  the  spirits  of  music,  song,  and  dance,  in  a  work  supposed 
to  be  among  the  latest  Hindu  Shastras  (see  Max  MuUer,  Chips,  toL  ii, 
on  Kuhn's  essay  about  the  Oandharvas). 

Ganesa.  Gana-patL  The  name  of  the  elephant-headed  god 
of  India,  rendered  "  lord  of  hosts  "  (gan-iaa),  or  (gana-pati)  "  master 
of  many."  He  is  a  form  of  Siva,  said  to  have  been  borne  by  Parvati 
to  the  Maruts  ("  storms "),  or  from  the  dust  which  they  raised  from 
earth.  He  is  also  a  son  of  Durga.  He  is  represented  as  an  obese 
deity  with  the  head  and  trunk  of  an  elephant  (Gaja),  but  with  only 
one  tusk  {eka-danta  or  **  one-toothed "),  the  other  according  to  the 
legend  having  been  cut  off  by  Bama,  but  more  probably  (see  Teeth) 
in  connection  with  the  phallus  which  he  displays  at  the  Holi  rites. 
Other  legends  say  that  Sama  deprived  him  of  half  his  power,  and 
that  the  sun  looking  on  him,  to  please  Parvati,  burned  off  his  head, 
which  Brahma  replaced  by  that  of  the  elephant,  typifying  sagacity 
and  power.  Siva  is  said  to  have  cut  off  Qanesa's  head  for  opposing 
him  when  visiting  Parvati.  He  is  the  god  of  wisdom,  and  of  seductive 
eloquence,  called  Vinayaka  or  the  '*  god  of  difficulties,"  whom  all  pious 
Hindus  consult  in  matters  of  difficulty  and  importance.  He  is  ruler 
of  the  home,  and  has  a  chapel,  or  a  niche,  wherever  men  can  offer 
him  daily  worship.  He  is  squat,  and  fat,  with  four  arms  ;  he  holds 
aloft  the  lotus,  or  the  sacred  thread,  and  the  sceptre  or  Ankus  (the 
elephant  goad),  and  beneath  these  the  sacred  shell,  and  the  chakra 
or  wheel.  He  is,  like  Siva,  the  Danda-kar  "  bearing  a  club " ;  and 
is  also  the  Chakra- Raja  or  "  lord  of  the  wheel."  He  also  carries 
sometimes  the  Trisul  or  trident  of  Siva,  or  holds  a  small  tooth. 
The  deep-rooted  Durva  grass  is  his  emblem  (or  food),  and  thus  called 
also  6ana-isa.  He  grants  this  nourishment  of  fast-spreading  herbage, 
without  which  animal  life  would  perish  (Nuti  and  Kutra,  "  nourishing," 
are  also  among  his  names),  for  he  is  the  nourisher  and  "  strength  of 
the  flocks."  Grass  was  of  the  flrst  importance  to  early  nomads  (see 
Grass),  whence  perhaps  the  Kusa  grass  became  so  sacred.  The 
Khasiyas,  and  other  non-Aryan  tribes  of  the  Himalayas,  worship 
Ganesa  as  Pasu-pati,  or  Bhutesa,  rude  forms  of  Siva,  associating  him 
in  their  rites  with  16  Matris  or  "mothers."  All  household  matters, 
they  say,  such  as  cooking,  and  vessels  for  food  and  water,  are  under 
his  care ;  and  he  must  be  worshiped  at  weddings  with  the  Jiva- 
matris.     He  is  worshiped  at  births,  with  prayers  that  every  organ 


Ganga  127 

— touched  in  turn — mBj  receive  strength  from  him.  His  Sakti  or 
female  form,  Shasti,  with  4  breasts,  and  4  arms,  wards  off  every 
eviL  Ganesa  alone  can  forgive  those  who  kill  a  serpent,  and  his 
image  stands  at  the  entrance  of  gardens,  at  passes  on  the  road,  and 
at  cross- ways.  He  must  be  invoked  at  rites  of  purification  (Punya- 
vachanam,  or  "words  spoken  on  a  good  day")  such  as  those  of 
bathing  (Snanam),  when  a  cone  of  turmeric  powder  is  offered  on 
a  silver  traj,  by  young  mothers,  12  days  after  the  birth  of  a  child. 
The  husband  may  then  shave  himself,  but  not  before.  Ganesa  rides 
on  the  rat  or  mouse,  which  was  sacred  to  the  Sminthean  Apollo,  to 
Freya  and  Holda,  and  to  Odin  who,  like  the  "Pied  Piper,"  led  an 
army  of  rats  (see  Bev.  Baring  Gould,  Cttrious  Myths  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  p.  467). 

In  Banaras  there  is  hardly  a  temple  (see  Sherring's  Band/raa) 
where  the  figure  of  Ganesa  is  not  found  in  some  niche,  or  as  the 
principal  deity.     He  is  sprinkled  with  holy  water,  and  painted  with 
vermilion,    having    silver   head,    hands,  and    feet.       When   Devodas 
determined  to  banish  all  gods,  even  Siva  could  not  move  him,  but 
the  wisdom,  and   eloquence,  of  Ganesa  prevailed  on   him.     Ganesa 
appears  with  Surya  the  sun,  and  with  the  Kaugrah  or  planets :  with 
the  black  ugly  godess  Barnarasi,  in  the  Tri-lochan  shrine  of  Siva ;  and 
beside  the  Kot-ling-esvar,  or  deity  of  a  thousand  lingas ;  invariably 
also  where  the  Pipal  tree,  and  the  Naga  snake,  of  the  old  sylvan 
worshipers  are  found.    His  special  shrine  (the  Bara-ganes),  at  Banaras, 
is  close  to  that  of  Jaga-nath  the  Bhut-esvar,  or  "  deity  of  spirits."     He 
is  found  near  the  Chandrarkup  or  "  moon  cup,"  and  in  the  shrines  of 
Siddh-esvari,  and  Sankata-Devi,  godesses  of  the  sacred  city,  with  whom 
he  is  worshiped  on  Mondays,  especially  at  Chait  or  Easter.    He  accom- 
panies Siva,  alike  in  Banaras  and  in  the  Himalayas,  at  Eedar-nath, 
as  also  where  the  marble  foot  of  Vishnu  (Til-ubhand-isvar),  the  three 
Nagas,   and   the   three   lingas  of  Siva,  are  adored.     In  all  Durga's 
shrines  also  her  son  Ganesa  appears  (see  Durga).     His  festival  takes 
place  about  Christmas-time,  when  students  of  Sanskrit  in  multitudes 
stand    before    him,  from   sunrise   to  sunset,  praying  for  knowledge. 
Vyasa,  the  author  of  the   Ramayana,  says  that  he  was  inspired  by 
Ganesa.     Yalmiki  says  that  Brahma  bade  him  to  become  a  scribe  of 
Ganesa  (see  Mr  Winternitz,  Journal  M,  Asiatic  Socy.,  April  1898). 
Ganesa  does  not  appear  in  the  Vedik  Pantheon,  but  in  the  Ganesa- 
Purana  he  is  superior  even  to  Brahma,  though  not  in  the  earlier  epiks. 
According  to  Barth,  he  appeared  **  early,  as  the  god  of  arts  and  letters." 

Ganga.     The  Hindu  godess  of  fertility  (see  Gan),  and  of  the  sacred 


128  Ganumedes 

river  sprang  from  the  head  of  Siva,  as  Minerva  from  the  head  of  Jove. 
She  is  the  Jan-gam  or  "  life  mover/'  and  a  daughter  of  Himavat,  from 
whose  "snowy"  breasts  she  draws  her  life.  Aryans  and  aborigines 
alike  adore  her,  at  any  stream  that  they  cross.  We  have  often  flung 
silver  to  her,  as  we  waded,  swam,  or  were  ferried  over  streams  and 
rivers  in  India — to  the  delight  of  our  attendants.  Siva  is  the  (jaDga- 
dhara  or  "  giver  of  Ganga  "  ;  and  the  Hari-dvara  (*'  door  of  verdure  ") 
is  the  gate  of  the  Ganges  at  Hardwar,  where  she  finally  leaves  her 
mountain  home.  To  it  all  Hiudu  sects  make  pilgrimage  to  cleanse 
body  and  soul.  Siva's  child  Eartika  is  the  holy  son  of  Gauga  (see 
Eartika),  called  also  Gangeya.  She  is  said  to  be  born  on  the  lOtb  of 
Jeth,  or  in  the  third  week  of  May,  when  she  springs  up  as  Himavati, 
the  "  snow  born  one."  She  is  then  adored  for  ten  days  at  Banaras, 
all  classes  bathing  in  her  blood,  and  making  gifts  to  Brahmans.  Girls 
float  on  her  breast  their  dolls,  as  symbols  of  future  progeny,  and  use 
no  such  playthings  for  the  next  four  months,  while  the  lands  are 
flooded  by  mother  Ganga.  She  also  supplies  milk  (Dudh)  or  nourishing 
waters. 

Ganumedes.  The  boy  cup-bearer  of  Zeus,  a  son  of  Tros,  who 
was  carried  to  heaven  by  the  eagle,  or  by  Eds.  Zeus  presented  his 
father  with  a  pair  of  divine  horses,  telling  him  that  his  son  had  been 
made  immortal.  In  some  respects  the  legend  recalls  a  Babylonian 
story  (see  Etana)  having  a  solar  connection.  [Perhaps  the  derivation  is 
from  Gan  "  living,"  and  Medha  "  sacrifice  " — see  Andromeda. — ^Ea] 

Gar.  (1)  An  ancient  root  meaning  to  "create"  or  "make." 
Hence  the  Creator  is  called  Oar  or  Oorra,  in  Irish  and  other  dialects. 
[Akkadian  Oar,  Aryan  Oar,  "  cause." — Ed.] 

Gar.  Kar.  Gal.  (2)  An  ancient  root  moaning  "to  shine." 
[Akkadian  /chil,  Turkish  chel,  "  to  beam  "  :  Egyptian  hrn,  "  day " 
Aryan  kar^  ghar,  gla,  "  shine  "  or  "  glow,"  whence  glad,  "  bright " 
Hebrew  and  Arabic  harr,  "  burn  " ;  Turkish  kara,  "  burnt,"  "  black  " 
Mongol  gal,  "  fire,"  hair,  "  gleam  "  :  Finnic  kar,  "  burn,"  kaUa,  "  flame," 
kil,  "  shine."  Also  "  to  see."  Turkish  kar,  Mongol  kara.  The  Persian 
kvyr  (Cyrus)  for  "  sun  "  is  from  this  root — Ed.] 

Gar.  Kar.  (3)  An  ancient  root  for  "  surrounding  "  and  "  enclos- 
ing," thus  "guarding."  [Akkadian  khar,  "round":  Egyptian  ker, 
"  circle  "  :  Aryan  gar,  "  assemble,"  kar,  "  round,"  "  roll."  "  run  " : 
Hebrew  gor,  "  turn  "  :  Arabic  kar,  "  turn."  Hence  also  many  words 
for  "  running,"  such  as  Mongol  kar,  "  to  run "  :  Akkadian  kwrra, 
Hindi    ghora,    "  horse  "  :  Akkadian  kar,  "  to  speed "  :   Finnic   kars, 


-pura  12& 

"  to  spring/*  "  to  run."     Words  for  "  circle  "  and  "  enclosure  "  come 
from  this  root. — Ed.] 


Gara-pura,  or  Gaja-pura.      See  Elephanta. 

Garbh.     Sanskrit :  "  shrine,"  "  cell,"  "  womb."     See  Gar  (3). 

Gard.  An  inclosure  "  guarded  "  or  **  girded  " :  see  Gar  (3),  a» 
in  Aa-gard,  "  the  fortress  of  the  gods,"  and  the  Keltik  Girdh,  "  a 
sanctuary."  The  Hebrew  ^ir,  Kiriah,  **  fort,"  "  city,"  comes  from 
the  same  root,  as  does  our  English  "  yard." 

Garha-patya.  Griha-patya.    Sanskrit.    A  class  of  Pitris  or 

"  fathers  " — manes  of  ancestors,  "  lords  of  the  house  "  :  from  gar  or  ger^ 
an  "  enclosure "  or  "  house "  in  many  languages  (see  Gar  (3),  alsa 
Mongol  ger^  "house"). 

Garj.  Sanskrit :  "  to  thunder  "  or  "  roar,"  from  the  common  root 
Icar  or  kal,  "  to  call."  From  this  perhaps  comes  gdrja  or  gdja^ 
"  elephant." 

Garos.  Non-Aryans  on  the  Garo  hills,  in  S.W.  Assam,  probably 
named  from  a  common  word  for  "  hill  "  (Kur),  They  number  80,000 
to  100,000  persons.  They  live  in  villages,  as  labourers,  foresters, 
and  fishers ;  but  they  are  too  fond  of  the  strong  rice  beer  that  they 
make.  They  resent  British  interference,  and  include  five  tribes^ 
Rabhas,  Kochs,  Mechs,  Kachars,  and  Dalus.  Neither  males  nor 
females  cut  their  hair,  but  tie  it  up  off  their  faces.  They  are  of 
middle  height,  and  dark  brown,  ugly  looking,  with  prominent  cheek 
bones,  thick  lips  and  noses,  large  ears,  and  very  little  beard.  They 
wear  many  ornaments,  but  few  clothes.  Like  other  tribes  of  Assam 
and  Barmah  they  will  not  touch  milk.  They  have  for  the  most  part 
given  up  polyandry ;  but  inheritance  still  passes  in  the  female  line^ 
the  wife  being  the  head  of  the  house.  The  husband  lives  in  his 
mother-in-law's  house,  and  is  required  to  marry  her  if  her  husband 
dies.  They  burn  the  dead — believing  in  a  future  life — and  bury  the 
ashes  at  the  door  of  the  bouse,  sacrificing  dogs  (see  Dog),  as  they  say 
the  dog  guides  the  dead  on  their  way.  Their  supreme  god  is  Saljang, 
an  incarnation  of  the  sun,  but  they  also  worship  the  spirits  of  rivers 
and  forests,  with  malignant  demons  to  whom  bloody  sacrifices  are 
offered.  Their  priests— or  E^mals — are  diviners,  who  watch  omens» 
and  direct  ceremonies.  They  believe  that  their  spirits  pass  into  wild 
animals.  Saljang,  being  a  good  deity,  requires  no  propitiation. 
Images  of  the  dead  are  placed  in  niches  in  the  house.  They  believe 
a  Garo  is  always  born  as  soon  as  a  Garo  is  buried.      They  preserve 


ISO  Garter 

with  pride  the  skulls  of  those  whom  they  have  killed,  using  them  as 
drinkiug-cups,  and  ornaments,  or  hanging  them  up  in  rustic  shrine& 
They   claim    descent  from   heaven,  and   adore   mountains,    especially 
Azuk,  the  heaven  mountain.     They  worship  Maha-Deva  (Siva)  and 
the  sun  and  moon,  casting  lots,  and  divining  as  to  which  should  he 
^ored.     They  pray  to  Saljang  for  good  crops,  and  offer  the  bull,  cock, 
hog,  and  dog,  to  the  sun.     They  faithfully  keep  promises  vowed  by 
placing  their  heads  on  a  sacred  stone  representing  Rishl-Maha-deva, 
and  looking  fixedly  at  a  sacred  mountain  which  symbolises  him,  while, 
with  the  right  hand  on  the  stone,  they  bow  towards  it     They  cany 
-charms,  and  tie  a  tiger's  nose  to  the  necks  of  women,  to  preserve 
them  in  childbirth.     The  dead  are  kept  four  days,  and  when  burned 
a  light  is  kept  burning  near  the  ashes  for  a  month  or  more,  which  is 
also  the  practice  of  the  Bunis  who  bury  the  dead.     They  used  to 
sacrifice  a  Hindu,  or  a  slave,  at  funerals,  but  now  substitute  a  bullock. 
The  "  dead  lamp  **  or  "  dead  fire  "  must  be  lighted  exactly  at  midnight, 
and  they  then  dance,  drinking,  round  it.     They  were  once  great  slave 
holders,  4  per  cent,  being  Nakals  or  slaves,  who  however  were  greatly 
cared  for,  and  devoted  to  their  masters.     The  bachelors  live  apart,  and 
the  women   sally  out  and  capture  those  whom  they  wish  to  marry. 
They  have  no  temples,  and  can  worship  Eishi-ji  (Siva)  in  any  place. 

Garter.  The  "girder."  See  Gard.  It  used  to  be  a  custom  to 
tear  in  pieces  the  bride's  garter,  and  distribute  it  among  the  wedding 
guests,  which  is  the  origin  of  our  "  wedding  favours."  This  is  still 
done  in  Alsace,  and  points  to  early  communistic  rites  (see  Africa  and 
Australians).  According  to  tradition  the  British  order  of  the  Garter 
was  founded  by  Edward  III  in  1349,  A.C.,  and  the  allusion  in  the 
motto  **  Honi  soit  qui  mal  y  pense,"  or  "  Shame  to  him  who  thioks 
«vil  therein,"  points  to  the  same  symbolism  as  above.  The  garter  is 
like  the  kestos  or  girdle,  which  only  the  bridegroom  could  loose 
among  many  ancient  races. 

Garuda.  An  eagle,  or  eagle-headed,  messenger  of  Vishnu  (see 
Eagle),  the  son  of  Kasyapa  (the  sun)  and  of  Vinata :  called  also 
Naga-teka,  the  "  snake  killer."  [The  Assyrian  Nisrok  was  apparently 
Niar-ukii,  "  the  eagle  man,"  represented  with  an  eagle's  head. — Ed.] 
Garuda  was  a  younger  brother  of  Aruna  or  of  Arjuna  (see  those  head- 
ings) ;  and  his  consort  was  Suki.  His  color  is  green,  and  the  emerald 
is  the  product  of  his  spittle.  He  was  chief  of  the  "  Fine  Winged " 
ones  (see  Supamas),  and  rests  on  a  heavenly  tree,  watching  earth  and 
swooping  down  on  dragons  and  snakes.  In  the  Ramayana  he  is  the 
grandchild  of  Qyena  and  Qyeni,  the  "  hawks "   who  carried  off  the 


Gas  131 

Amnta  or  ambrosia  of  the  gods.  The  Vedik  Qyena  also  so  carries 
off  the  Soma  plant.  The  Garuda  is  thus  the  Qino-muru  of  the  Iranian 
Avesta — the  well-known  Simurgh  or  miraculous  eagle,  which  sits  on 
the  heavenly  tree,  like  Indra  when  taking  the  form  of  the  Qyena- 
mriga  hawk.  [An  Etruskan  mirror  also  shows  the  eagle  sitting  on  a 
beavenly  tree  by  Tina. — Ed.]  It  is  clear  that  this  figure — often 
double-headed  on  Parthian  and  Indian  coins — originated  with  the 
Turanians  of  Babylonia. 

Gas.  An  ancient  root  for  "breathing"  or  "moving"  (see 
Spirits). 

Gath*  The  name  of  a  Philistine  city,  whence  the  Gittites  were 
so  called.  It  is  usually  rendered  "wine  press,"  but  is  perhaps  a 
Turanian  word  Gatu  for  "place"  (Akkadian)  or  "hill,"  like  the 
Finnic  Kadu  for  "  hill."  The  site  commonly  supposed  to  be  Gath  is 
on  a  hiU  at  the  mouth  of  the  Valley  of  Elah,  S.W.  of  Jerusalem  (Tell 
^8  Safi),  where  ancient  remains  have  recently  been  excavated,  including 
a  line  of  rude  menhirs,  which  appear  to  have  belonged  to  one  of  the 
Bamoth  of  the  Canaanites  (see  Bamoth). 

Gatha.  Sanskrit  Gaitha,  "  song  "  or  "  verse."  The  Gathas  of 
the  Persian  Avesta  are  supposed  to  be  the  oldest  part  of  that  litera- 
ture, on  account  of  their  dialect,  including  five  hymns. 

Gauls*  See  Gael.  The  Greek  Galloi  and  Keltoi,  the  Latin 
Celti,  inhabited  Europe  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Pyrennees.  They 
sacked  Rome  in  388  B.C.,  and  poured  into  Asia  Minor  in  279  A.C. 
Their  Druids  are  described  by  Roman  writers  (see  Druids),  and  their 
gods  were  compared  to  those  of  the  Latins.  Their  name  probably 
comes  from  Gala,  "  courage." 

Gau.  Sanskrit :  "  cow,"  from  an  ancient  root  meaning  "  to  call " 
or  "  bellow  "  (see  Ga).  The  Turkish  ong  "  to  bellow  "  produces  the 
word  uTiek  "  cow  "  (see  Go,  "  cow  "). 

Gauri.  The  "  yellow  haired  "  sky  virgin  of  India — a  name  of 
Parvati,  and  the  wife  of  the  Vedik  Varuna  (see  Gar,  Kar,  Ghar  "  to 
shine  ").  The  name  applies  to  hermits,  on  account  of  the  "  yellow  " 
robe.  Gauri  became  Durga  (see  Sherring's  Bandraa  Past  aTid 
Present,  pp.  160-162)  on  conquering  the  demon  Durg,  who  had 
nearly  destroyed  Indra,  Agni,  Pavana,  and  Jala :  they  prayed  to 
Siva,  and  (according  to  the  KasT-Khanda)  he  commanded  Gauri  to 
slay  Durg.  She  sent  Kali  (death)  to  do  so  :  Durg  however  seized 
Kali,  and  she  only  escaped   by  vomiting  flames,  and  fled  back  to 


132  Gautama 

Gauri  in  heaven  in  the  form  of  a  ball.  Oauri  then  became  incarnate 
in  a  form  with  a  thousand  arms  reaching  from  heaven  to  earth. 
Durg  was  at  first  enchanted  with  her,  but  had  to  gather  his  army 
fighting  for  life  with  his  trident  (Trisul),  sword,  bow  and  arrows.  He 
cast  rocks  and  mountains  on  Gauri,  nearly  killing  her,  but  at  length 
she  struck  him  to  earth,  and  cut  off  his  head  (see  Durga),  when 
heaven  rained  flowers  on  earth — evidently  a  solar  and  lunar  myth. 
Gauri's  fete  precedes  that  of  Durga,  and  (except  at  Banaras)  it  occurs 
in  the  end  of  August,  when  the  new  rice  is  offered  to  Parvati ;  and 
wells  and  serpents  are  also  then  adored,  as  at  the  Nag-Panchami 
feast  at  the  end  of  July.  Throughout  July  and  August  women  sing 
the  praises  of  Gauri,  visiting  friends  to  arrange  marriages  and  to 
name  babies.  At  the  new  moon  of  August  they  make  sweat-meats 
in  the  form  of  balls,  to  be  eaten  on  going  to  bed  (Rivera  of  Lift,  i, 
p.  427).  Great  efficacy  is  ascribed  to  visits  paid  to  wells  and  shrines 
of  "  our  Lady  Gauri." 

Gautama.     See  Gotama. 

Gaya.     See  Gya. 

Gaza.  Hebrew  'Azzah  (Deut  ii,  23)  "strong."  The  most 
southerly  city  of  Philistia,  a  fortress  on  a  mound  100  ft  high  near 
the  sea,  on  the  trade  route  from  Egypt  to  the  north.  It  is  mentioned 
as  early  as  the  15th  century  B.C.  (see  Amarna).  The  hillock  called 
£1  Muntar  ('*  the  watch  tower ")  on  its  south  is  the  traditional  spot 
to  which  Samson — the  "  sun  "  hero — took  the  gates  (see  Judg.  xvi, 
3).  An  inscription  of  Amenophis  II  (see  Quarterly  Stat  Pal.  Expl. 
Fund,  January  1893)  shows  that,  about  1540  B.C.,  he  dedicated  a 
shrine  to  Maut,  the  '*  mother  "  godess,  in  Gaza.  The  place  was  also 
famous,  down  to  400  A.C.,  for  a  temple  to  the  eight  gods,  of  whom 
the  chief  was  Mama  ("  our  Lord  **),  a  Jupiter  whose  colossal  statue  has 
been  found  at  Tell  el  'Ajul  to  the  south.  The  'Ashtoreth  of  Gaza 
is  described  as  represented  by  a  naked  phallic  statue  much  as 
elsewhere. 

Ge.  Greek :  "  earth."  In  the  Dorik  dialect  Ga,  and  otherwise 
Gaia.  In  Sanskrit  Oau ;  in  Zend  Oava ;  in  Gothic  Chivi,  mean 
earth.  The  Akkadian  Ki,  "  earth,"  "  place,"  may  be  compared.  Ge 
as  a  godess  of  earth  (a  "  producer,"  see  Ga),  is  the  wife  of  Ouranos  or 
heaven  (see  Earth). 

GebaL  Hebrew:  "mountain."  A  Phoenician  city  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  15th  century  B.C.,  lying  S.  of  the  Eleutherus  Siver, 


Ge-beleizes  133 

and  N.  of  Beirut.  Its  famous  temple  of  Baalath  is  noticed  by  its 
kiug  Bib-Adda,  in  his  letters  to  Egypt  (see  Amama),  and  by  the 
Mohar  traveller  of  the  14th  century  B.C.  (see  Adonis). 

Ge-beleizes.  A  god  of  the  Daci  and  Getae,  to  whom  human 
sacrifices  were  offered  :  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Xalmoxis  of  the 
Scythians.  As  an  Aryan  name  it  may  mean  "  creator  of  light "  (see 
Ga  and  Bel). 

Gefion.  The  Skandinavian  Diana,  a  guardian  of  maidens  (see 
£ddas). 

Geis.  Eeltik  :  vows  and  places  where  vows  are  made  (see  Rivera 
of  Life,  ii,  p.  342). 

Gemara.  Aramaik :  "  completion."  The  name  given  to  the 
Aramaik  commentary  on  the  Hebrew  Mishnah,  which  together  form 
the  Talmud,  or  "teaching/'  of  the  Jews.  There  are  two  Talmuds, 
which  have  the  same  Mishnah  or  commentary  on  the  liaw,  but 
different  Qemaras.  The  Jerusalem  Talmud  belongs  to  the  4th 
century  A.c. :  the  Babylonian  Talmud  is  placed  as  late  as  800  A.o. 
Both  are  gradual  accretions  round  the  Mishnah  of  the  2nd  century 
A.C.  Most  of  the  legendary  lore  of  the  Talmud  is  found  in  the 
Oemara,  and  in  other  works  of  the  same  age.  The  Mishnah  is  a  dry 
commentary  which,  though  it  includes  many  curious  superstitions, 
does  not  diverge  into  legend,  fable,  and  myth,  as  does  especially  the 
later  Babylonian  Gemara  (see  Asmodeus,  Mishnah,  Talmud). 

Gemini.  Latin :  "  twins."  See  Asvins,  and  0am.  Properly 
speaking  these  are  the  pair  represented  by  Tammuz  and  Istar  among 
Akkadians,  and  called  in  their  language  Kas  or  "  pair  "  (Turkish  Koa 
"pair")  who  ruled  the  "brick  making"  month  (the  Semitic  Sivanu), 
being  brother  and  sister,  as  well  as  husband  and  wife  (see  also  Frey 
and  Freya).     They  appear  on  a  Hittite  monument  (see  Eagle). 

Genesis.  Greek  :  "  origin."  The  first  part  of  the  Hebrew  Law, 
divided  ofif  by  later  scribes,  and  relating  Hebrew  traditions  from 
€reation  to  the  Descent  into  Egypt,  is  called  in  Hebrew  "  be-Bashith," 
from  the  opening  words  "  In  the  beginning."  The  Hebrew  cosmogony, 
like  that  of  Babylonians,  represents  the  world  to  be  produced  (see 
Bar)  by  the  spirit,  or  wind,  of  Elohim  brooding  on  chaos.  The 
primeval  matter  is  called  Tohu  and  Bohu  (the  Babylonian  Tiamat 
and  Baku)  or  *'  empty "  and  "  void."  Science  rejects  these  ancient 
cataclysms,  as  rude  early  speculations  (see  Nineteenth  Century 
Review,   January,  February    1886);    but    the    Book    of  Genesis   is 


1 34  Genesis 

invaluable  to  the  student,  in  spite  of  its  crude  "  kosmikal "  legends ; 
for  it  gives  us  glimpses  of  the  beliefs,  customs,  rites,  and  legends  of 
an  early  age  comparable  with  yet  older  folk-lore  of  kindred  races. 
The  Babylonians,  like  the  Hebrews,  represented  the  Tree  of  Life  and 
the  serpent  on  seal  cylinders,  and  they  believed  in  gods  who  appeared, 
and  spoke  with  men. 

Critical  scholars  suppose  the  Book  of  Genesis  to  consist  of  various 
documents  gathered  together  by  the  writer  of  Deuteronomy,  and 
edited  by  a  priest  in  or  after  the  Captivity  (see  Bible).  The  division 
of  the  "  Elohist  "  and  the  "  Jehovist "  was  first  pointed  out  in  the 
18th  century.  [Astruc  and  his  successors  base  their  distinction  od 
the  received  Hebrew  text :  the  occurrence  of  the  two  names,  in  the 
ordinary  text  of  the  Greek  Septuagint,  is  quite  dififerent.  Dr  Driver 
regards  the  two  documents  as  often  incapable  of  separation.  Bishop 
Colenso  thought  that  Samuel  was  the  Elohist :  but  the  first  chapter 
of  Genesis,  and  much  that  was  attributed  to  the  Elohist,  are  Donr 
attributed  to  P,  a  priestly  editor  of  about  600  to  500  B.C.  Critics 
have  assumed  the  superior  authority  of  the  Jewish  Massoretic  text> 
and  have  no  documents  earlier  than  916  A.c.  on  which  to  form  their 
opinions,  if  they  set  aside  the  Greek  version. — ^Ed.]  Some  idea  of 
the  date  of  the  original  documents  may  perhaps  be  obtained  from  the 
geography  of  Genesis  (x),  where  we  find  Japhet  representing  the 
"  fair  "  northern  race,  including  the  lonians,  and  Modes,  with  Gomer. 
The  lonians  were  known  to  Sargon  in  the  8th  century  B.C.  The 
Modes  were  first  met  by  Assyrians  about  820  B.c.  Gomer  appears 
on  their  texts  as  Gamri,  or  Girairai,  about  670  B.C.  [The  PersiaDS, 
who  appeared  in  the  west  about  560  B.C.,  are  unnoticed.  Aryans  are 
noticed  by  the  Egyptians  between  1300  and  1200  B.c.  (see  Egypt). 
—Ed.] 

Science  has  long  rejected  the  idea  of  specific  creations,  and  the 
supposed  order  of  appearance  of  the  various  phenomena  as  described 
in  Genesis,  plants  and  animals  having  been  produced  by  a  very  slow 
and  gradual  system  of  evolution.  Birds  were  differentiated  from 
reptiles  after  the  latter  had,  for  long  ages,  been  the  only  form  of 
vertebrates.  The  sun  was  certainly  formed  before  the  earth,  and 
the  moon  after  it.  It  is  impossible  really  to  reconcile  such  know- 
ledge with  Biblical  ideas.  Mankind,  we  learn,  were  first  made  as 
"  male  and  female "  in  the  likeness  of  Elohim.  This  led  tbe 
Rabbis  to  speak  of  Elohim  as  embracing  both  the  male  and  the 
female  sex ;  and  as  Eve  was  created  from  the  "  side "  of  Adaiu» 
they  said  that  the  pair  were  originally  joined  together — as  in  the 
Persian  legend  of  the  first  pair  (in  the  Bundahlsh) ;    but  Josephus, 


Geology  135 

Philo,  and  Maimonides,  regarded  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  as 
purely  allegorical.  The  six  days  of  creation  (also  noticed  in 
Persian  scriptures,  and  in  Etrnskan  tradition)  were  devoted  to  the 
making  of :  I.  Light ;  II.  the  Firmament — a  "  thin  plate "  or 
"  expanse,"  separating  the  heavenly  waters  above  from  those  below 
(the  Babylonians  and  Persians  supposed  it  to  be  in  the  form  of  a 
hollow  hemisphere,  resting  on  Ocean,  or  on  the  "  World  Mountain " 
surrounding  the  habitable  flat  earth  in  the  midst  of  Ocean)  :  III.  the 
appearance  of  dry  land,  grass,  herbs,  and  trees  :  IV.  Creation  of  sun, 
mooD,  and  stars  for  **  signs  and  seasons " :  V.  Fish  and  birds  are 
made  :  VI.  Beasts  and  creeping  things,  and  lastly  mankind — all 
"  male  and  female  " — are  created  :  VIL  The  Day  of  Rest 

The  second  chapter  is  a  distinct  document  (beginning  ii,  46),  by 
a  writer  who  uses  the  name  Yahveh-Elohim.  [In  the  Greek  it  is 
Tkeoa  only,  in  verses  7,  9,  18,  21,  22. — Ed.]  We  are  here  told  that 
'"  In  the  day  that  Yahveb-Elohim  made  the  heavens,  and  the  earth, 
and  before  any  plant  of  the  field  was  in  the  earth,  and  before  any 
herb  of  the  field  grew — for  Yahveh-Elohim  had  not  caused  it  to  rain 
upon  the  earth,  and  there  was  not  a  man  to  till  the  ground,  but  there 
went  up  a  mist  from  the  earth  and  watered  the  whole  face  of  the 
ground — Yahveh-Elohim  also  formed  man — dust  of  the  ground — 
and  breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath  of  life,  and  man  became  a 
living  soul."  Eden,  the  Garden  of  "Delight,"  was  then  made  "in 
the  east,"  includmg  the  "  Tree  of  Life "  and  the  "  Tree  of  the 
Knowledge  of  Good  and  Evil."  To  the  man  thus  made  all  animals 
were  brought  to  be  named,  but  no  "  help "  (*ezer)  was  found  for 
him  till  a  woman  was  created  from  his  "  side "  or  "  rib."  This 
account  apparently  conflicts  with  that  in  the  first  chapter,  if  "the 
Adam"  so  created  was  the  first  man,  and  not  merely  the  first  tiller  of 
the  ground  (see  Adam). 

Geology.  In  studying  the  history  of  man,  and  of  his  religious 
beliefs,  it  is  useful  to  remember  the  conclusions  now  drawn  from 
"  earth  study,"  and  the  evidence  that  man  first  existed  as  a  river* 
drift  hunter,  and  subsequently  as  a  cave-dweller;  and  that  the 
earliest  known  human  remains — in  Java  or  at  Neanderthal — are  more 
brutish  than  those  of  even  the  lowest  extant  savages.  In  the 
Miocene  age  (see  Darwin's  Descent  of  Man,  i,  p.  199)  the  hylobates 
— or  man-like  monkeys — living  in  Europe,  were  often  as  large 
as  men  now  are.  [We  must  not  forget  that  the  record  at 
present  is  most  imperfect  No  bone  caves  have  yet  been  explored  in 
W.  Asia  that  contain   any  human   remains.     In  Brazil,  out  of  800 


186  Geology 

caverns  examined,  only  six  contained  human  bones,  and  the  only  one 
in  which  they  were  associated  with  those  of  extinct  animals  showed 
disturbed  strata  (see  Dr  D.  G.  Brinton,  Myths  of  the  New  World, 
p.  35).  Recent  discoveries  in  Belgium  show  skidls  of  the  same  low 
type  as  that  at  Neanderthal  to  have  belonged  to  savages  who  used 
beads  for  necklaces;  and  Dr  Isaac  Taylor  points  out  that  these 
extraordinarily  flat  heads  (found  also  among  the  dolmen  builders  of 
Guernsey  who  were  in  the  polished  stone  stage)  even  exist  to 
the  present  day  among  Skandinavians.  The  evidence  of  bones  split 
to  extract  marrow,  and  of  wild  oxen  whose  skulls  have  been  smashed 
by  a  blow,  is  also  unsafe,  as  dogs  may  have  split  these  bones,  while 
the  bear  in  America  still  so  kills  the  bison.  The  Neo-lithic,  or 
polished  stone,  stage  in  Europe  lasted,  according  to  the  evidence  of 
the  Swiss  and  Italian  lake  dwellings,  as  late  as  1500  B.C.,  a  time 
.when  all  the  metals  were  in  use  in  W.  Asia.  Many  modem  savages 
are  still  in  the  Neo-lithic  stage.  Prof.  Virchow  has  warned  all 
students  of  anthropology  that  it  is  premature  to  form  theories  as  to 
the  races  of  mankind,  on  our  present  evidence  ;  and  although  no  man 
of  science  now  believes  that  man  was  created  6000  years  ago,  yet  his 
existence  before  the  close  of  the  latest  glacial  period  is  still  pro- 
blematical.— Ed.]  The  various  changes  in  the  level  of  the  ocean, 
with  floods,  and  changes  of  climate,  may  have  blotted  out  the  evidence 
of  races  that  connected  man  with  his  simian  ancestors.  Some  of  his 
"  rudestone  "  shrines  in  Brittany  have  been  submerged — and  even  the 
Temple  of  Esculapius  at  Puteoli  shows  us  such  variations  of  sea  level 
in  quite  recent  historic  times.  Quite  recently  also  Bennett  Island  has 
xisen  100  feet;  while  in  1884  Krakatoa,  which  was  a  mountain 
12,000  feet  high,  and  25  miles  in  circumference,  sank  into  the  sea 
with  effects  felt  all  over  Asia  and  Europe.  The  history  of  early  man 
must  have  been  affected  by  similar  changes,  and  by  the  existence  of 
the  great  central  Asian  Sea  (see  Aryans)  which  must  have  sensibly 
affected  climatic  conditions. 

During  the  Pleistocene — or  latest  tertiary — period,  there  is 
supposed  to  have  been  more  than  one  change  of  climate.  Prof.  J. 
Geikie  describes  the  "glacial  succession  in  Europe,"  in  1892,  from 
the  Pliocene  period  to  the  Pleistocene.  The  age  of  the  earliest 
glaciers  was  succeeded  by  that  in  which  Britain  was  joined  to  Europe, 
and  inhabited  by  elephants  and  hippopotami.  The  four  glacial 
periods  correspond  with  periods  when  the  land  was  depressed,  and  the 
warm  periods  with  those  in  which  it  was  elevated  [suggesting  a 
connection  with  the  *'  nutation  "  of  the  earth  on  its  poles,  and  con- 
sequent shifting  of  the  ocean  surfaces — Ed.].     The  last  change  in  the 


George  137 

Pleistocene  age  was  a  glacial  period,  when  the  land  sank  500  feet, 
and  Britain  became  iDSulated  as  at  present.  Dr  Geikie  (see  Scottish 
Geogr.  Mag.^  Sept.  1897),  would  place  the  appearance  of  Palaiolithik 
man  in  Europe  not  later  than  20,000  years  ago,  according  to  the 
evidence  of  the  thickness  of  the  strata  connected  with  the  "  prehistoric 
rock-shelter"  found  near  SchafFhausen.  Dr  Hicks  {British  Assoc., 
1886),  supposes  the  earliest  worked  flint  flakes  to  have  been  chipped 
not  later  than  80,000  years  ago.  Id  the  quarternary  age  the  remains 
of  man  have  now  been  known  for  half  a  century,  from  the  caves  and 
river  drifts  of  England,  France,  and  Belgium,  in  connection  with 
glacial  "  moraines,"  or  barriers  of  boulders,  boulder  clay,  and  sub- 
marine forests.  Prof.  Whitney  in  America,  and  Prof.  Capelli  in  Italy, 
•claim  that  man  existed  even  in  the  Pliocene  age. 

George.  The  English  saint  bears  a  Greek  name,  signifying  the 
*'  earth-tiller."  Some  say  that  he  was  George  of  Kappadokia,  who  was 
martyred  by  Diocletian  on  23rd  April  303  A.c.  Others  identify  him 
with  another  George  of  Kappadokia,  living  300  to  361  A.C.,  who,  for  his 
last  5  years  of  life,  was  an  Arian  bishop  of  Alexandria,  with  a  previously 
disreputable  record  as  an  imperial  purveyor  of  bacon  (Gibbon,  Decline 
<ind  Fall,  xxiii).  This  saint  appeared  to  the  first  Crusaders,  according 
to  later  historians,  and  was  seen  in  vision  by  Richard  I  in  Palestine, 
while  Edward  III  recognised  him  as  the  Patron  of  England,  Oxford 
having  appointed  his  festival  in  1222  A.c.  The  Pope  acknowledged 
the  martyr,  but  declined  to  accept  all  the  legendary  miracles — such 
as  that  of  his  war  with  the  dragon,  which  belongs  to  St  Michael. 
Si  George  became  the  successor  of  many  sun-heroes,  from  Marduk  of 
Babylon  to  Apollo  of  Delphi.  The  same  story  of  the  dragon  applies 
to  Krishna,  Herakles,  Buddha,  and  Daniel,  recurring  in  the  Book  of 
Bevelation.  For  Buddha  encountered  a  fiery  dragon  in  the  Lumbini 
garden  (Prof.  Beal,  Journal  Bl.  Asiatic  Socy.,  April  1884),  according 
to  the  Chinese  version'  of  his  legend  ;  and,  like  that  conquered  by 
Krishna  on  the  Yamuna  river,  it  was  a  black  and  poisonous  monster 
that  he  slew.  The  dragon  of  St  George  guarded  a  spring  while  men 
languished  lor  want  of  water.  The  saint  is  also  represented  to  have 
freed  a  princess  from  the  dragon,  as  in  the  story  of  Perseus  and 
Andromeda.  From  the  localisation  of  this  legend,  on  the  Syrian 
coast,  the  name  of  St  George's  Bay  at  Beirut  arose.  The  Christians 
of  the  East  identify  Mar  Jirjis  (or  St  George),  with  the  mysterious 
£1  Khudr  ("  the  green  one "),  mentioned  in  the  ^t^oran,  who  is  also 
Elijah,  and  personifies  the  spring  verdure.  He  was  sought  according 
to  the  Moslem  legend  by  Moses,  and   his  shrines  are  as  widely  dis- 


140  Gerda 

been  influeoced  by  Armenian.  The  western,  or  Abkhasian,  group  of 
Caucasian  dialects  is  regarded  as  agglutinative  or  Tartar,  and  the 
eastern,  or  Lesghian,  as  inflexional,  modern  Georgian  being  between 
these.  The  Armenian  king  Mesrop  decreed  a  new  alphabet  of  Greek 
derivation  in  406  A.c. ;  and  from  this  the  Georgian  king  Artchal 
{413-446  A.c.)  constructed  the  Georgian  alphabet  of  28  letters — see 
Dr  I.  Taylor,  Alphabet,  ii,  p.  270. — Ed.]  Printing  was  not  introduced 
into  Georgia  till  1720,  when  a  new  literature  arose,  but  Georgian 
books  are  chiefly  religious,  and  the  language  is  not  traceable  further 
back  than  the  Middle  Ages. 

Gerda.     See  Frey. 

Gezer.     [An  early  Amorite  city,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  about 
17  miles  S.E.  of  Jaffa,  in  Philistia.     It  is  now  Tell  Jezer,  a  large 
Qiound  with  a  small  modern  village.     The  name  signifies  ''cut  off," 
xhe  site  being  isolated  from  the  adjoining  spurs.      Gezer  is  mentioned 
in  the  15  th  century  B.C.  (see  Amarna)  as  held  by  the  Egyptians,  and 
attacked  by  the  'Abiri.      It  was  again  captured  by  Egypt  about  1000 
B.C.  (1   Kings  ix,  15,  16),  and  had  never  been  securely  held  by  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim  (Judg.  i,  29).     It  was  an  important  fortress  in  the 
time  of  the  Makkabees  (or  Hasmoneans),  and  continued  to  be  the 
«cene  of  contests  between  Christians  and  Moslems  down  to  the  end  of 
the    12th   century.     Excavations   here   undertaken   (Quarterly  Stat 
Pal,  Expl.  Fund,  1903-1905)  have  brought  to  light  remains  going 
back   to  an   early  period,  including  scarabs   of   the   12th  Egyptian 
-dynasty,  and  ancient  walls,  with  other  relics  of  all  ages  between  at 
least  2000  B.C.  and  the  Christian  5th  or  6th  century.     The  earlier 
interments  of  some  Semitic  race  present  the  cramped  position  of  the 
body   common   in   Egypt,   and   elsewhere,  among   primitive  peoples. 
Bodies  of  children  cremated  in  earthen  jars  have  also  been  discovered, 
And  a  row  of  rude  menhirs  running  N.  and  S.  (see  Gath),  on  a  pave- 
ment under  one  corner  of  which  a  brick  of  gold,  worth  £500,  had 
purposely  been  buried.     Mr  G.  Macalister's  latest  discovery  is  that  of 
two  local  cuneiform  commercial  tablets,  dating  649  B.C.,  which  is  of 
interest  for  the  history  of  writing  in  Palestine.     Here  too,  as  else- 
where, he  finds  seal  cylinders  like  those  of  Phoenicia  and  Babylon, 
which  may  represent  Canaanite  workmanship ;   and  jar  handles  with 
short  votive  texts,  in  early  Hebrew  characters,  giving  the  names  of  local 
Mcleks  (or  Molochs),  apparently  Canaanite  deities  named  after  towns. 
The  same  pottery  with  Cypriote  characters  is  found  at  Gezer,  and  at 
Lachish,   which   occurs    in   Egypt  before    1600   B.C.     Later  pottery 
resembles  that  of  the  Phoenicians  and  of  the  Greeks.     Weights  at  the 


Ghanta  14I 

Philistine  sites  of  Lachish,  Oath,  and  Gezer  establish  a  Hebrew  shekel 
of  about  320  grains  imperial.  The  excavations,  however,  have  not  yet 
resulted  in  showing  that  the  inhabitants  of  Qezer  were  a  literary 
people.  The  place  indeed  was  only  a  comparatively  small  town,  not  a 
city  as  large  as  Jerusalem,  Tyre,  or  Sidon. — ^Ed.] 

Ghanta.  Sanskrit:  ''a  bell/'  from  the  Aryan  root  Kan  "to 
sound." 

Ghata.  Sanskrit*,  "a  jar" — the  sign  Aquarius  (see  Zodiak). 
To  be  distinguished  from  the  Ghat^,  or  landing  place  with  steps  at 
a  ferry,  and  from  the  Ghata,  or  burning  place  for  corpses. 

Ghebers.  Fire  worshipers  of  Persia,  perhaps  connected  witb 
Giaur. 

Ghost.      See  Soul,  and  Spirits. 

Giaur.  A  Turkish  word,  used  also  by  Persians,  to  signify 
"  strangers "  and  "  infidels."  It  appears  to  be  the  Akkadian  Kv^^ 
"enemy"  or  "stranger." 

Gilbert  Island.  One  of  a  Melanesian  group  of  islands,  midway 
between  New  Guinea  and  S.  America.  The  inhabitants  sacrifice  on 
a  single  stone  inside  a  stone  circle.  Their  chief  god  is  Tapwar-iki, 
symbolised  by  a  clam-shell,  filled  with  water  and  measuring  30  inches 
by  18  inches :  this  is  found  only  in  temples,  the  household  god  being 
represented  by  a  wooden  pillar  4  or  5  feet  high,  on  which,  as  in 
India,  oil  is  poured  ;  and  offerings  usually  of  fish  and  cocoa  nuts  are 
made  to  it.  The  godesses  are  represented  by  stones  laid  flat,  as 
among  the  non-Aryan  Khasias  of  India.  Stones  placed  in  circles 
(Maoiis)  are  common.  Dr  Taylor  thinks  these  circles  were  once 
covered  in  to  form  temples.  Dolmens,  and  flat  stone  altars,  occur 
Dear  these  circles.  Erect  stones  denote  male  deities,  and  skulls  and 
bones  are  set  up  on  mounds. 

Giles.     The  Scottish  saint.     See  Bones,  Rood. 

Gilgal.  "  Circle  "  (see  Gal).  The  name  of  at  least  three  towns 
in  Palestine,  not  including  one  near  Mt.  Gerizim  according  to 
Samaritans.  These  retain  their  names  as  Jiljulieh,  but  no  traces  of 
the  circles  are  known  (see  Josh,  iv,  5-8,  20). 


Gil^amaS.  GilgameS.  Dr  T.  G.  Pinches  has  shown  clearly 
that  this  is  the  proper  reading  of  the  name  of  the  Chaldean  sun-hero, 
previously  read   Izdubar,  or  Gizdubar  (see   Proc,  Bib,  Arch,  Socy,, 


142  Gilgamas 

May  1903,  pp.  198,  199).  The  usual  signs  may  be  read  either 
An  Oil-ga-maSf  or  An  Iz-dhu-bar^  the  prefix  An  showing  that  the 
name  is  that  of  a  deity:  but  a  tablet  discovered  in  1890  equates 
tbis  with  the  spelling  An  Oi-U-ga-mea,  in  signs  which  cannot 
be  otherwise  read.  The  name  is  apparently  Akkadian,  signifying 
"  hero  of  light "  (gil  like  the  Turkish  chel  meaning  "  to  beam  ")  so 
that  Gilgamas  is  a  sun  hero.  The  name  of  Gilgamas  is  mentioned 
by  iElian  (see  Hist  Anim.,  xii,  2  ;  Bee.  of  Past  (1891),  v),  and 
his  legend  makes  him  the  child  of  a  daughter  of  Sakkhoras  king  of 
Babylon,  who  was  warned  by  diviners  that  his  grandson  would  slay 
him.  He  shut  up  his  daughter  (like  Danae)  in  a  high  tower,  to 
which,  however,  a  peasant  found  access.  Gilgamas  was  then  bom, 
•and  cast  out  on  a  high  mountain,  but  an  eagle  carried  the  babe  to  a 
garden,  and  the  gardener  nourished  it  till  at  last  the  prophecy  was 
fulfilled,  and  Gilgamas  ruled  in  Babylon.  The  story  recalls  not  only 
that  so  common  among  Aryans,  of  the  maiden  on  a  tower,  but  also  an 
Egyptian  legend  of  a  foreign  horseman  who  climbed  up  a  tower  to 
win  a  princess.  It  also  seems  connected  with  the  Babylonian  stoiy 
of  Etana  (see  Etana).  Gilgamas  is  equivalent  to  Perseus  in  Greece, 
who  slew  his  grandfather  Akrisios,  accidentally,  with  a  quoit  He 
was  born  to  Danae  in  her  tower,  and  cast  away  in  an  ark  on  the  sea 
(see  Danae  and  Perseus).  There  is  a  similar  tale  in  the  Jewish 
Midrash,  relating  how  Solomon  shut  up  a  beautiful  daughter  who 
wished  to  marry  a  low-born  Jew.  The  weary  youth  crept  into  the 
carcase  of  a  cow,  which  a  great  bird  carried  up  to  the  top  of  the  tower 
where  he  married  the  princess. 

The  Babylonian  epik  of  Gilgamas  consisted  of  12  tablets,  full 
of  legends  which  often  recall  those  of  Greece — such  as  the  stories  of 
Aktaion  and  Adonis,  Deukalion  and  Theseus — not  less  than  those  of 
Semitic  races.  The  twelve  episodes  are  twelve  labours  of  the 
Akkadian  Herakles.  The  first  tablet — which  may  have  included 
the  story  found  in  iElian — is  missing.  In  the  second  Gilgamas  is 
ruler  in  Erech  (Warka)  or  in  S.  Kaldea.  He  dreams  that  the  stars 
fall  on  him  from  heaven ;  and  that  a  demon  with  lion's  claws  and  a 
terrible  face  stands  over  him.  None  can  interpret  the  dream,  so 
Saidu  ("the  hunter")  is  sent  to  fetch  the  wise  bull-satyr  Ea-bani, 
who  undei*stands  visions  and  portents.  This  being  lived  in  the  woods, 
being  human  but  with  the  legs,  tail,  and  horns  of  a  bull :  no  man 
<;ould  catch  or  tame  him.  "  He  dwelt  with  the  cattle  by  day,  and 
with  the  gazelles  by  night :  he  ate  his  food  with  the  cattle  by  day, 
and  drank  his  drink  with  the  gazelles  by  night,  and  rejoiced  his  heart 
with  creeping  things  of  the  waters."     In  the  third  tablet  we  learn 


Gilgamas  143 

how,  all  else  having  failed,  Gilgamas  sends  the  two  sister  handmaids 
of  Istar  to  lure  £a-bani.  Their  names  were  Samkhat  ("  gladness ") 
and  Harimat  ("  devotion  "),  and  by  them  the  intoxicated  Minotaur  is 
induced  to  come  to  Erecb,  bringing  a  panther  to  test  the  courage  of 
Gilgamas,  of  whom,  when  so  conquered,  he  became  the  inseparable 
companion.  The  fourth  and  fifth  tablets  are  lost :  the  sixth  belongs 
to  the  month  preceding  the  autumn  equinox  (August-September) 
when  the  sun  is  at  its  hottest.  Istar  is  here  represented  to  be 
wooing  Gilgamas,  who  rejects  her.  She  promises  him  riches  and 
power,  and  a  chariot  of  crystal,  silver,  and  gold,  with  tribute  from  all 
kings  of  the  earth.  He  reproaches  her  with  the  fates  of  her  former 
lovers,  including  Tammuz,  who  bewails  his  enchantment,  the  eagle 
whose  wings  she  broke,  the  horse  whose  speed  and  strength  she 
destroyed,  the  shepherd  Tabulu  (compare  Tubal,  Gen.  iv,  22)  who 
sacrificed  to  her  till  she  was  weary  of  him  and  changed  him  into  a 
jackal,  so  that  his  kinsmen  drove  him  out,  and  his  own  dogs  (as  in 
the  story  of  Aktaion)  tore  him  in  pieces.  She  had  also  loved 
IsuUanu  (perhaps  the  "  tamarisk  ")  who  was  a  gardener,  and  changed 
him  into  the  sand  whirlwind  of  autumn  ("the  wanderer"):  "If  I 
yield  to  thee,"  said  Gilgamas,  "  I  shall  be  even  as  one  of  these."  The 
enraged  Istar  flies  to  Anu  and  Anatu,  god  and  god  ess  of  heaven,  and 
appeals  to  them  to  avenge  the  slight.  They  send  a  monster  in  the 
shape  of  a  winged  bull  to  destroy  Erech,  but  this  foe  is  conquered  by 
Gilgamas  aided  by  Ea-bani.  The  Babylonian  seal  cylinders  often 
represent  these  two  heroes  as  slaying  a  monster  wild  bull ;  and 
Gilgamas  is  often  represented  killing  a  lion  like  Herakles,  or  robed 
in  lion's  skin,  which  episode  may  have  been  described  in  the  missing 
tablets. 

But  as  the  autumn  goes  on  Gilgamas  becomes  leprous  and  feeble, 
and  sets  out  to  seek  immortality,  in  the  eighth  tablet.  He  journeys 
west,  and  finds  an  enchanted  garden  (like  the  Greek  Hesperides  or 
garden  of  "sunset")  where  is  a  tree,  covered  with  jewelled  fruit  and 
frequented  by  beautiful  birds.  It  is  guarded  by  scorpion  men,  and 
by  giants  whose  feet  are  in  Sheol,  and  their  heads  in  heaven.  From 
them  be  learns  that  Tamzi  only  can  cure  him.  Evidently  we  have 
reached  the  month  of  thunder  clouds,  and  of  the  scorpion  archer 
(Sagittarius)  represented  on  a  Kassite  boundary  stone.  In  the  9th 
tablet  Gilgamas  is  found  fighting  a  giant,  who  lived  in  the  dark  pine 
forests  in  Elam  (or  the  East),  and  was  named  Hum-baba — probably 
**the  father  of  darkness."  The  10th  tablet  includes  the  dirge  of  Ea- 
bani,  who  is  slain  by  the  Tambukki  (supposed  to  be  a  "  gad  fly  ")  by 
order  of  the  gods.     Gilgamas  goes  over  the  sea  to  find   him,  and  to 


144  Gipsies 

recover  from  bis  leprosy :  for  his  long  hair  has  fallen  off  (as  Samson  s 
was  shaved),  and  he  is  now  weak  and  ill.  He  is  ferried  over  the 
waters  of  death  by  Ur-Ea  (**  the  servant  of  Ea/'  the  ocean  god),  and 
reaches  the  abode  of  Tamzi,  "  the  sun-spirit." 

The  11th  tablet  contains  that  famous  flood  legend  which  so 
closely  resembles  the  Hebrew  story  in  many  details.  Tamzi  relates 
how  he  came  to  be  taken  away  to  his  resting-place  at  the  "  mouth  of 
the  rivers."  '  Ba'al  had  decreed  the  flood,  and  Tamzi  was  warned  by 
Ea  to  make  a  ship,  in  which  he  was  to  take  his  treasures,  and  the 
"  seeds "  of  living  things.  The  flood  is  poetically  described,  and 
Tamzi  seuds  out  a  dove,  a  swallow,  and  a  raven,  finally  emerging  from 
his  ship,  which  is  stranded  on  the  mountains  of  Nizir,  in  Gutiom 
(Jebel  Judi),  when  these  spring  migrants  show  him  that  the  winter 
flood  is  over.  Ba'al  is  angry  at  his  escape,  and  the  gods  take  him  and 
his  wife  away  from  earth.  This  part  of  the  epik  is  clearly  as  mythical 
as  the  rest.  Oilgamas  is  now  bathed  (like  Istar  in  Hades)  with  the 
''  water  of  life " ;  for  the  winter  solstice  is  past ;  his  skin  is  healed^ 
and  his  locks  (or  rays)  grow  again.  The  12th  tablet  is  unfortunately 
broken  but  (judging  from  other  fragments — see  Babylon),  Gilgamas 
crosses  the  desert  still  mourning  for  Ea-bani,  and  calling  on  the  god 
of  fate  to  restore  him.  The  faithful  Minotaur,  or  his  ghost,  appears, 
and  Gilgamas  comes  up  from  Hades  once  more  reaching  Erech.  [A 
seal  cylinder  in  the  British  Musaeum  (see  Guide,  1900,  plate  xxiii, 
No.  8)  perhaps  refers  to  this  episode.  Ea-bani  and  Gilgamas  are  seen 
ascending  out  of  a  well,  leading  from  the  lower  world.  Above  them 
are  Ann,  the  sky  god,  with  his  bow,  Istar  with  wings,  the  eagle,  £a 
(with  the  ocean  stream  full  of  fishes),  treading  on  the  bull ;  and  a 
double-headed  god  :  while  a  lion  stands  behind  Anu  on  the  left. 
This  "  seal  of  Adda  the  scribe  "  is  early,  and  probably  Akkadian.  It 
is  also  notable  that  the  story  of  a  friendly  Minotaur,  who  is  found  at 
a  well,  survives  in  Tartar  folk-tales  to  the  present  day  (see  Guber- 
natis,  Zool  Mythol.,  i,  p.  129). — Ed.]  This  legend  is  told  in  the  Semitic 
language  of  Babylonia,  and  the  existing  copies  are  only  of  about  the 
7th  century  B.C.  But  the  names  are  Akkadian,  and  the  myth  is  do 
doubt  of  Turanian  ori^n. 

Gipsies.  Our  English  word  is  a  corruption  of  '*  Egyptians " ; 
but  the  race  by  type,  custom,  and  language,  is  shown  to  be  of  N» 
Indian  origin.  They  are  mixed  tribes,  mainly  Jats  who  entered 
Europe  in  our  Middle  Ages.  The  Jats  prefer  a  wandering  life  in 
tents  and  jungles,  dancing,  conjuring,  stealing,  and  fortune-telling,  to 
any  settled  occupation.     They  are  workers  in  copper,  tin,  bronze,  and 


Gipsies  145 

iron ;  smiths  (Lohari)  and  makers  of  baskets  and  mats,  always  ready 
for  a  predatory  life.  They  are  popularly  identified  with  the  Dom  or 
Rom  tribes  (whence  perhaps  the  gipsy  name  Romani-ri,  or  **  Rom 
people ")  and  with  the  Brinjaris.  The  Jats,  Zuths,  and  Luris  ap- 
peared in  Persia  about  our  3rd  or  4th  century.  The  dialects  of  such 
tribes  are  Aryan  dialects  of  the  Panjab,  Sind,  and  Baluchistan.  The 
gipsy  language,  in  structure  and  vocabulary,  belongs  to  the  same 
stock,  though  much  mixed  with  loans  from  Greek,  Latin,  Arabic, 
Armenian^  Bulgarian,  Slav,  Magyar,  and  Keltik,  according  to  the 
countries  reached  by  these  migrants.  [The  Palestine  gipsy  women 
carry  the  child  on  the  hip  like  Hindu  women,  whereas  all  Arab 
women  carry  it  on  the  shoulder. — Ed.]  Firdusi  (Shah-Nameh,  about 
1000  A.C.)  speaks  of  the  Lurs  (probably  Lohdria,  or  "smiths")  as 
nomads  in  or  near  Persia,  who  roamed  about  stealing  by  day  and 
night,  and  associating  with  dogs,  and  wolves.  The  Lurs  in  Baluchistan 
are  still  notorious  for  stealing  children  and  cattle,  drinking,  dancing, 
pilfering,  and  leading  about  performing  bears  and  monkeys.  They 
have  a  king  and  queen  like  gipsies,  and  migrated  to  the  wilds  of 
Kurdistan,  where  they  became  more  settled. 

It  appears  that  a  horde  of  12,000  magicians  and  minstrels  was 
sent  in  420  A.C.  by  Shan-Kal  (as  the  Persian  account  calls  him)  the 
Maha  Raja  of  Kanoj,  to  Persia,  at  the  request  of  a  Sassauian  prince 
who  gave  them  land  and  cattle,  but  could  not  induce  them  to  settle 
down.  They,  however,  are  unknown  in  Persia  later,  when  in  the  7th 
century  the  Moslems  swept  over  W.  Asia ;  but  wandering  tribes  fied 
in  our  7th  and  8th  centuries  to  Armenia.  In  the  9th  century  there 
was  a  Jat  quarter  in  Antioch,  and  they  rose  in  810  A.C.,  and  were 
massacred  amid  the  marshes  of  Ehusistan  by  the  people  of  Baghdad 
in  834  A.C.  Mabmud  of  Ghazni  persecuted  all  such  tribes  who  would 
not  embrace  Islam,  from  998  till  his  death  in  1030,  and  the  Jats  fled 
K  and  W.  from  the  Indus,  and  beyond  the  Ozus  to  the  Caspian  and 
Black  seas,  where  their  black  tents  were  found  among  the  Tartars. 
About  1256  they  were  so  numerous  in  Poland  that  King  Boleslas  V 
granted  them  a  charter  :  they  were  called  Szalasu  or  "  tented  ones  "  ; 
and  were  enumerated  by  tente.  In  1260  also  special  laws  were 
passed  in  Hungary  concerning  them.  In  the  14th  century  they 
became  known  all  round  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  From 
1346  to  1386  they  held  a  fief  in  the  island  of  Corfu  under  the  name 
of  Cingani,  and  in  1387  the  prince  of  Corfu  regranted  "forty  tents" 
of  the  tribe  to  a  monastery.  They  were  protected  by  charter  in  the 
Peloponnesos  in  1398,  but  lost  all  rights  after  the  Turkish  conquest 
of  Greece.     They  were  thus  driven  further  west:  and  in   1422  were 


146  Gipsies 

numerous  in  Italy  (where  they  are  now  called  Zingari) ;  while  in 
1427  they  were  found  living  round  Paris.  Bavaria  included  maDy 
groups  of  these  gipsies  in  1433,  and  S.  and  Mid  Europe  knew  of  a 
Zindl  "king"  in  1438.  They  swarmed  on  the  Baltic  coast  where 
they  were  called  Guptis  (Kopts),  and  were  led  by  chiefs  popularly 
called  "  Egyptian  dukes."  They  were  outlawed  in  many  countries,  as 
they  refused  to  obey  laws  and  led  notorious  lives.  They  were  often 
legally  *'  shot  down  like  wild  beasts."  The  Turks  regarded  them  as 
spies  and  destroyed  them.  The  laws  of  Elizabeth,  in  the  16th 
century,  made  it  a  "  felony,  without  benefit  of  clergy,"  to  be  seen  a 
month  in  their  company.  In  1561  the  Orleans  government  declared 
"  fire  and  sword "  against  them.  In  Italy  they  were  forbidden  to 
remain  two  nights  in  one  place.  In  Spain  they  were  persecuted,  and 
accused  of  stealing  and  eating  Christian  children.  They  found  peace 
only  as  civilisation  advanced  in  Protestant  countries,  settling  in 
England  and  America,  where  they  are  fast  becoming  merged  in  the 
general  population. 

The  Germans  of  the  15  th  century  called  the  gipsies  Zigeuner: 
the  Venetians,  Segani — the  older  Cingani  (see  Dr  Miklosich's  learned 
work),  other  Europeans  called  them  Sintes  or  Sindes,  no  doubt  from 
their  old  home  in  Sind  (Scinde)  or  Sindhu  on  the  Indus.  The  word 
*' tinker"  applied  to  gipsies  is  probably  from  Zingar  or  Tchangar,  a 
Jat  tribe  of  the  Panjab,  which  the  Turks  converted  into  Chengain. 
They  were  popularly  regarded  as  Egyptians,  and  some  may  have  come 
thence,  as  they  are  still  found  among  Arabs  in  Syria.  The  gipsies 
held  many  strange  beliefs  which  Europe  could  not  understand,  but  are 
-even  said  to  have  spoken  of  "  an  incomprehensible  governor  of  the 
universe."  They  retained  their  ancient  symbols  and  customs,  conjuring 
with  serpents,  and  holding  superstitions  as  to  the  pine,  birch,  and 
hawthorn  (see  Mr  Groome,  Encycl.  Brit\  they  also  retain  lunar  and 
fire  rites,  with  "a  survival  of  phallic  worship."  Their  moon  god 
Alako  is  connected  with  witchcraft.  On  the  1st  of  May  they  draw 
water  from  rivers  or  from  the  sea,  sprinkling  it  on  little  altars  or 
shrines,  and  invoking  the  local  deity  as  they  drink  mysterious  potiooB. 

The  Archduke  Joseph,  commander  of  the  Hungarian  army,  wa«: 
much  interested  in  gipsies  about  1889,  and  knew  their  language. 
He  agreed  with  Grellmann  as  to  its  Hindi  origin.  According  to  these 
authorities  the  gipsies  call  earth  phno,  saying  it  has  existed  from 
eternity.  They  call  God  devel  (see  Deva),  and  the  Devil  is  heng: 
they  drive  away  demons  by  throwing  brandy,  or  water,  on  the  corpse 
or  the  grave.  They  swear  by  the  dead,  and  speak  of  Beng-ipe  as  the 
abode  of  the   devil.     They   pass  children   over  the  fire  (like  early 


Girdh  147 

Aryans — see  Fire),  even  when  subsequently  baptized  as  Christians. 
They  are  married  by  the  chief,  even  when  afterwards  wedded  in 
church  ;  and  he  can  also  punish  adultery  by  beatings,  and  pronounce 
divorce.  The  father  has  absolute  authority,  but  a  group  of  families 
will  elect  a  vajda  or  "  friend  "  as  their  magistrate.  In  Hungary  they 
number  about  76,000  souls.  The  total  number  in  Europe,  Asiatic 
Russia,  and  Turkey,  is  estimated  at  some  2,000,000  persons.  They 
are  most  numerous  in  Roumania  (250,000),  Transylvania  (79,000), 
and  Spain  (40,000),  being  few  in  France  and  Britain.  In  Russia 
and  Poland  they  are  variously  estimated.  In  Asia  we  find  some 
67,000  in  Persia  and  Turkey,  and  there  are  said  to  be  16,000  still 
in  Egypt. 

Girdh.  Keltik.  A  "kist-vaen,"  or  stone  box  for  ashes  and 
bones,  in  a  mound — an  "  enclosure  "  (see  Qard). 

Giri.  Girya.  A  name  of  Parvati  as  mistress  of  the  **  house  "  or 
**  enclosure  "  (see  Gar). 

Girvan.      Parvati's  mountain  abode  (see  Giri). 

Gisdhubar.  Izduban    See  Gilgamas. 

Glaill.  Glamr.  The  Skandinavian  name  of  the  moon  in  the 
Edda,  from  the  Aryan  root  gla  '*  to  shine."  Thus  "glamour"  is 
moonshine — deceptive  and  dim  light. 

Glastonbury.  "The  burgh  of  the  green  dune" — from  the 
Keltik  glds  ''  green  " — a  famous  islet  in  Somersetshire,  with  a  sacred 
thorn  tree,  and  a  holm  oak  called  Glastenen.  The  island  is  surrounded 
by  the  marshes  of  the  winding  river  Brue.  The  oldest  shrine  on  it 
was  said  to  be  a  chapel,  and  cells,  of  wattled  oziers,  built  by  Joseph 
of  Arimathsea,  who  was  sent  by  St  Philip  to  convert  the  natives, 
bringing  with  him  the  Holy  Grail — the  cup  or  dish  of  the  Last 
Supper.  The  miraculous  thorn  tree  was  said  to  blossom  at  Christmas, 
*'  mindful  of  our  Lord  "  (Tennyson).  A  larger  abbey  is  said  to  have 
been  enriched  by  Saxon  kings,  despoiled  by  Danes,  and  restored  by 
St  Dunstan.  The  present  ruins  date  from  1186,  St  Joseph's  chapel 
being  on  its  ancient  site.  It  was  despoiled  by  Henry  VIII,  and  the 
sacred  tree  was  cut  down  to  the  root  by  a  Puritan  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth.  It  was  at  Glastonbury  that  King  Arthur  was  buried,  after 
his  last  battle  with  Mordred  in  Cornwall  (see  Arthur).  The  Tor,  or 
mound,  was  probably  a  sacred  place  of  Keltik  Druids,  afterwards 
consecrated  by  early  monks.  The  fertile  land  below  was  called  the 
Isle  of  Avalon,  or  Aval-yn,  *'  the  apple  isle."     The  sacred  mistletoe 


148  Gled 

is  still  here  abundant.  To  Avalon  the  three  fairy  queens  are  said  to 
have  taken  Arthur  in  a  boat,  to  heal  his  wounds,  and  it  was  a  magic 
land  of  eternal  summer — the  apple  being  that  of  the  Greek  Hesperides 
garden.  In  1191,  we  are  told  (Notes  and  Queries,  12th  March  1887), 
a  coffin  marked  with  the  cross  was  found,  bearing  the  text — cut  in 
the  lead — "Hie  jacet  sepultus,  inclytus  rex  Arturius,  in  insula  Avalonia" 
The  Tor,  rising  500  feet  above  this  Eeltik  Eden,  is  conspicuous  in  the 
great  valley  bounded  by  the  Folden,  and  Mendip  hills,  on  which  the 
remains  of  many  dolmens,  menhirs,  and  circles  are  still  visible: 
the  mound  is  called  Werval  (perhaps  from  Var  "  enclosure ") :  the 
holy  thorn  was  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  staff  of  St  Joseph.  It 
suffered  from  Puritans  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I,  but  the  stump  wa^ 
still  visible  in  1715,  and  a  stone  was  then  placed  over  it  (Notes  and 
Queries,  25th  January  1890).  The  desecrator  of  course  came  to  a 
bad  end,  losing  his  eyes  and  limbs.  The  present  holly  tree  which 
replaces  it  is  still  superstitiously  regarded.  We  are  told  that  it 
"  becomes  covered  with  an  abundance  of  large  leaves  of  a  tender 
tone  of  golden  green,  in  December  and  January,  and  flowers  richly 
at  Christmas,  retaining  the  ripe  red  berries,  and  brown  dead  leaves 
of  the  preceding  year,  with  the  new  ones  and  the  brilliant  white 
flowers,"  being  a  double  holly  (Prcecas),  a  variety  of  the  Crafjobijtis 
oxyacantha.  It  is  said  to  be  capable  of  growing  out  of  nothing  as 
a  stake,  or  hanging  on  a  hedge  without  root,  such  a  specimen  having 
been  exhibited  before  a  horticultural  society  in  1834,  and  said  to 
produce  leaves,  flowers,  and  berries  every  year.  On  Saturday,  5th 
January  1884  (being  old  Christmas  Eve),  crowds  of  believers  came 
from  Weymouth  and  other  places,  and  saw  it  burst  suddenly  into  leaf 
and  blossom.  It  had  budded  during  the  day,  and  was  in  full  Hower 
by  midnight  (Notes  and  Queries,  2nd  February  1884).  Such  marvels 
are  sufficient  to  account  for  its  being  still  sacred. 

Gled.  Anglo-Saxon  ;  as  in  Gled-how,  *'  the  mound  of  sacrifice." 
From  the  Aryan  root  kal  to  "  kill." 

Gluskap.  See  Eskimo.  A  good  deity  of  the  Algonkin  Indians, 
and  Eskimo. 

GnOStiks.  Greek  Onostikoi,  "  knowing  ones,"  from  gnosis, 
"  knowledge "  or  "  wisdom  " — the  Aryan  gna,  "  to  know."  They 
were  the  Christian  philosophers  of  our  first  three  centuries,  who, 
being  learned  in  the  current  religions  and  supposed  scientific  ideas 
of  the  age,  sought  to  reconcile  the  primitive  Jewish  Christianity  with 
Greek  philosophy,  and  the  ideas  of  Eleusis,  of  Persia,  of  Egypt,  and 


Gnostiks  149 

of  Buddhism,  as  then  understood  in  the  West.  Qnostik  systems 
ranged  from  mystic  philosophy  aud  Platonism  to  the  lowest  demon- 
ology  of  Babylon,  Syria,  and  Egypt :  from  subtle  thought  to  conscious 
fraud*  Gnostiks  were  attracted  by  the  dualism  of  the  Mazd@an  creed, 
and  taught  that  the  Hebrew  Yahveh  was  a  being  inferior  to  the 
Supreme  Grod  —  a  Demiurge,  or  "  people  -  maker,"  author  of  evil. 
According  to  TertuUian  they  appear  to  have  regarded  the  Gospel 
stories  as  only  fit  for  women  and  children,  representing  an  exoteric 
creed,  suitable  for  the  masses  but  not  for  the  wise  and  initiated  (see 
CoL  Condor  in  Asiatic  Review^  January  1888).  Certain  terms  much 
used  by  Gnostiks — ^such  as  Pleroma,  or  "  totality,"  Aion  for  "  age  "  or 
*"  emanation,"  and  others,  are  used  by  Paul  in  his  Epistles  ;  and  the 
later  "  harmonisers "  attempted  to  reconcile  his  philosophy  with  the 
earlier  purely  Jewish  views  of  the  followers  of  Peter.  But  the  Gnostiks 
embraced  all  kinds  of  enthusiasts  and  impostors.  Thus  the  Cainites 
iiononred  Judas  Iscariot — apparently  as  having  been  the  instrument 
through  whom  prophecy  was  fulfilled — and  are  said  to  have  named  a 
gospel  after  him.  The  Adamites  (see  that  heading)  worshiped  naked. 
The  Markosians  placed  the  bust  of  Christ  beside  that  of  Plato  with 
others  ;  aud  their  leader  claimed  to  change  the  sacramental  wine 
miraculously,  by  aid  of  Kharis  or  "grace";  for,  when  poured  from 
a  small  into  a  larger  cup,  it  effervesced.  This  Markos  was  a  great 
deceiver  of  rich  women.    The  extravaorancies  of  these  sects  are  detailed 

o 

by  Irenseus,  TertuUian,  Theodoret,  and  Epiphanius.  But  the  true 
Onostik  aimed  at  attaining  the  inner  or  esoteric  wisdom,  and  the 
ecstatic  state  in  which  he  might  be  able  to  lay  hold  on  the  spiritual 
KLrestoB,  or  "  good  one,"  rather  than  on  the  Ehristos  or  "  anointed 
one."  They  held  that  the  Logos,  or  Wisdom  of  God,  had  appeared  in 
a  phantom  form  in  Palestine,  not  of  human  flesh  and  blood,  and  not 
really  suffering  death  on  the  cross — a  spiritual  body  such  as  Paul 
believed  to  be  the  Resurrection  body,  perhaps  of  Jesus  Himself  (1  Cor. 
XV,  35-54).  The  definite  statements  in  the  Fourth  Gospel,  as  to  Christ's 
body  and  death,  are  said  to  have  been  written  in  direct  contradiction 
of  this  theory. 

The  great  centre  of  Gnosticism  was  Alexandria,  where  many 
Onostik  works  were  penned  in  Greek,  including  such  Gnostik  gospels 
as  that  "  of  the  Egyptians,"  full  of  mystic  epigrams.  But  other  lead- 
ing Gnostiks  were  Samaritans,  followers  of  Dositheus,  and  of  his  pupil 
Simon  Magus,  the  "father  of  Gnostiks,"  whose  home  was  W.  of 
Shechem.  Among  these  were  Menander,  Cleobius,  Cerinthus,  and 
&tuminus.  Most  Gnostiks  believed  in  miracles  and  sorcery,  and 
mingled   the   philosophy  of  Alexandrian   Greeks  with  the  mysticism 


150  Gnostiks 

and  demoDology  of  the  East  Simon  Magus,  we  are  told  (Acts  viii, 
9-24),  bewitched  the  Samaritans,  and  was  regarded  as  the  "great 
power  (Dunamis)  of  God/'  He  was  baptised  as  a  Christian,  but  pro- 
claimed himself  a  divine  incarnation,  or  Messiah,  and  Jerome  (on  Mat4 
xxiv,  5)  states  that  he  said  :  *'  I  am  the  Word  of  God  ;  I  am  the 
beautiful ;  I  am  the  Paraclete  ;  I  am  the  Almighty ;  I  am  all  the 
things  of  God  " — which  Christians  naturally  regarded  as  blasphemous. 
Simon's  consort  Heleua  was  the  Ennoia,  or  "  Divine  Intelligence  * 
Later  legends  say  that  Simon  went  to  Rome,  where  Peter  opposed 
him,  but  where  a  statue  was  erected  to  **  Simoni  Deo  Sancto.*'  He 
appears  to  have  been  confounded  with  the  Etruskan  Sancus,  atui  a 
text  found  in  the  Tiber  is  dedicated  to  "  Deo  Sanco."  Cerinthus  was 
an  active  Syrian  Gnostik,  who  is  said  to  have  met  St  John  in  the 
baths  at  Ephesus,  but  we  know  no  more  of  him  than  of  the  Apostles 
from  any  contemporary  records.  He  appears  to  have  believed,  like 
others  (includiug  Muhammad)  that  Christ  was  a  man  born  like  other 
men,  on  whom  the  Holy  Spirit  descended  at  baptism,  leaving  him  on 
the  cross  when  Jesus  cried,  "  My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken 
me  " :  and  that  Jesus  died,  and  will  not  rise  again  till  the  last  day. 
Many  Gnostiks  denied  the  resurrection  of  any  of  the  dead,  saying  that 
Matter  is  evil  and  a  delusion,  and  cannot  dwell  with  God.  The  Soq 
of  God  must,  like  God,  be  a  spirit,  and  had  therefore  only  a  spiritual 
body. 

The  Gnostiks  regarded  Jewish  beliefs  as  very  crude.  Some  en- 
tirely rejected  the  Old  Testament  as  in  error  regarding  the  "'  Supreme 
and  Inefiable  God,"  being  only  inspired  by  Yahveh,  whom  they  called 
Ildebaoth  (El-di-bahoth,  **  God  of  the  Abyss "),  an  evil  creator  of 
Matter,  which  is  also  evil,  and  a  spirit  "  ignorant "  of  the  true  God, 
as  Ahriman  in  Persia  is  **  ignorant "  of  the  designs  of  Ahura- Mazda. 
Yahveh  from  the  first  opposed  the  "  divine  serpent "  of  knowledge 
and  wisdom.  He  was  a  fiend  rather  than  a  God,  and  only  one  of  the 
Aions,  or  emanations  of  the  Pleroma,  which  constituted  true  deitj. 
Thus  Gnosticism  was  opposed  alike  to  Judaism,  and  to  the  Judaic 
Christianity,  which  in  its  earliest  form  spoke  of  Jesus  only  as  a 
**  Servant  of  God,"  and  made  no  mystery  of  the  memorial  supper 
(see  Didache).  But  among  the  wilder  sects  the  search  for  the  "  cause 
of  causes"  gave  place  to  immoral  indulgences  (if  we  may  believe 
Christian  accounts),  and  the  dangerous  doctrine  (revived  later  by  some 
Puritan  fanatics)  was  taught,  that  those  born  of  the  spirit  could  not 
be  defiled  by  the  deeds  of  the  flesh,  any  more  than  gold  is  defiled  by 
being  covered  with  mud.  Crime  indeed  was  permitted  (we  are  told) 
on  the  plea  that,  by  experience  of  all   weaknesses  of  the  body,  the 


Gnostiks  1 6 1 

spirit  would  escape  from  any  further  probation  in  future  incarnations. 
These  sects  celebrated  ''spiritual  marriages,"  which  seem  to  have 
been  similar  to  the  rites  of  Indian  Sakti  worshipers  and  Tantraists 
(see  these  headings).  The  naked  worship  of  Adamites,  and  Prodi- 
cians,  survived  among  the  Beghards,  or  "  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit,'*^ 
even  in  our  13th  century.  The  Gnostik  Kharitas,  or  "kindness/*^ 
recalls  practices  of  hospitality  among  Turks,  Tartars,  and  Chinese,  as 
well  as  among  non-Aryans  in  India,  who  offer  their  wives  to  guests 
and  strangers.  Such  practices  are  described  by  Arab  writers  in  our 
10th  century,  and  still  survive.  ''Such  were  the  depths  of  degrada- 
tion," says  Col.  Conder,  "to  which  Gnostiks  sank  from  the  purer 
philosophy  of  Valentinus." 

We   must   not   forget  that  the   gospels   and    literature    of   the 
Gnostiks  (excepting  a  few  works  such  as  the  Poemandres,  or  "  Shep- 
herd of  Men,"  and  the  Pistis  Sophia  or  ''wise  belief")  were  destroyed 
by  the  triumphant  Catholics  of  the  4th  century,  so  that  "  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  obtain  more  than  an  incomplete  and  fragmentary  concep- 
tion  of   this   once   powerful   and    popular  movement."      Clement  of 
Alexandria,  though   believing  in  the  spiritual   body  of   Christ — not 
needing  nourishment  by  food — was  a  bitter  enemy  of  Gnostiks.     He 
accuses  one  sect  of  holding  their  wives  in  common,  saying  that  social 
laws  were   commanded  only  by  an  evil  deity.      The  *'Revealer"  at 
Gnostik  ceremonies  was  the  same  phallus  that  had  been  revealed  to 
Clement   as    an    initiate    at    Eleusis,   according   to   TertuUian.     The 
serpent  also  was  connected,   and   was  a  prominent   Gnostik  symbol 
lldebaoth  and  Abraxas  were  serpents,  with  the  head  of  a  lion  sur- 
rounded by  rays,  as  we  see  on  Gnostik  gems.      Jerome    says   that 
Abraxas    (mystically    365),    the    "supreme"    among    Gnostiks,    was 
Mithras  and    Khreistos.       He  was   also  Adoni,   "the  Lord,"   Samas- 
Alam  or  "  the  sun  of  eternity,"  Elohim,  and  lao-Sabao  (or  Yahveh- 
Sabaoth),    "the   Lord   of  Hosts."      He  appears  as  Harpocrates,  the 
child  Horus,  on  the  lotus  with  his  finger  to  his  mouth   (see  Fingers). 
He  again  has  the  head  of  an  ass  on  gems  and  on  a  Syrian  terra-cotta 
(see  Onolatria)  ;  and  Irenseus  himself  says  that  "  the  ass  mentioned  in 
the  Gospels  is  a  type  of  Christ "  ;   Epiphanius  calls  it  the  emblem   of 
Sabaoth,  and   Plutarch  tells  us  that  Set  in  Egypt   was  ass-headed. 
The  "supreme  one"  was  also  the  Agatho-daimon,  or  "good  spirit" — 
the  serpent  with  the  rayed  head  accompanying  the  names  lao    and 
Khnumis.     Such  gems  were  used  as  amulets,  like  many  others  that 
have  been  classed  as  Gnostik,  but  only  those  with  ^ell-known  Gnostik 
names  attached  can  be  so  described.     The  serpent  worshiping  Gnostiks 
included  Sethians,  Peratse,  Nicolaitans,  and  Nabasim  or  Ophites  ("  ser- 


152  Gnostiks 

pent  worshipers")  as  described  by  Hippolytus  (see  Rivera  of  Lifty 
ii,  p.  528,  fig.  334). 

Karpocrates,  and  his  sou  E[)ipbanes,  in  our  2nd  centurj, 
developed  doctrines  that  spread  among  other  sects,  including  Eocra- 
tites  or  "  abstainers  "  from  wine  (even  for  the  Eucharist),  Docetae  who 
spoke  of  Christ's  spirit-body,  Antitactes,  Markosians,  and  followers  of 
Tatian,  Yalentinus,  and  Bardesanes.  The  latter,  with  his  son  Har- 
monius,  appeared  in  Mesopotamia ;  but  the  most  famous  of  these  sects 
was  that  of  the  Manichseans,  followers  of  Manes,  who  was  executed  b 
our  3rd  century  in  Persia,  and  who  was  well  acquainted  with  both 
Mazdean  and  Buddhist  teachings.  The  Manichseans  were  specially 
detested  by  the  Catholics  of  the  4th  century,  but  their  ideas  spread 
to  Asia  Minor,  Bulgaria,  France,  and  Spain,  and  appear  as  late  as  the 
13th  century  among  the  Albigenses.  To  them  is  sometimes  attributed 
the  apochryphal  gospel  of  the  '*  Pseudo- Matthew/'  though  the  Markosians 
appear  to  have  claimed  it  as  the  work  of  their  leader  Markos.  Many  of 
its  legends  seem  to  be  borrowed  from  the  legend  of  Buddha,  such  as  the 
story  of  the  tree  that  bowed  to  Mary  in  Egypt  (as  the  Palisa  tree  bowed 
to  Maya,  mother  of  Buddha)  :  Christ,  like  Buddha,  astonishes  his  teachers 
at  school  by  inspired  knowledge  of  the  mystic  meanings  of  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet :  images  bow  down  to  him,  as  they  did  also  to  Buddha. 

Most  of  these  sects  sought  to  unite  men  by  a  vast  syncretic 
system,  like  the  later  Moslem  philosophers  and  mystics  (see  Druses) ; 
and  they  compassed  sea  and  land  to  make  proselytes.  Some  deified 
their  teachers,  and  Epiphanes — dying  young — was  so  worshiped. 
By  our  6th  century,  however,  they  had  been  all  more  or  less  stamped 
out  by  the  orthodox  emperors  and  bishops,  though  opinion  among 
Christians  still  remained  much  divided.  Some  were  severe  ascetiks, 
like  the  Encratites  and  the  Mesopotamian  Sabians  or  "  baptisers,'' 
oalled  later  "  Christians  of  St  John."  Many  taught  that  matter  was 
evil,  and  forbade  matrimony,  holding  Essene  beliefs  (see  Matt,  xix,  12). 
The  accusations  levelled  against  Manichseans,  as  regards  eating  babies, 
and  their  "  fig  ceremony "  (see  Fig),  were  repeated  later  about  the 
Templars  (see  King's  Gfnoatics,  pp.  192-198).  The  world,  in  Gnostik 
belief,  was  evil  and  material,  and  could  not  be  saved,  for  all  except 
the  few  elect  were  incapable  of  wisdom.  They  rejected  a  Saviour  of 
men,  and  were  in  consequence  much  persecuted.  Irenaeus  says  that 
John's  gospel  was  expressly  written  against  Cerinthus.  Simon  Magas, 
and  the  Ophites,  became  the  very  types  of  Satan.  Tatian,  Marcion, 
and  even  Paul  did  not  escape  condemnation  as  inclined  to  Gnosticism 
— all  according  to  the  later  Cleinentine  Homilies  were  "  followers  of 
the  great  magician."     Epiphanius  (in  the  Panarion)  about  400  A.C., 


Gnostiks  153 

describes  the  Manichseans  as  still  favouring  communism  as  regards 
wives,  and  holding  midnight  orgies,  when  the  Eucharist  was  con- 
secrated with  the  blood  of  a  babe,  or  infants  sacrificed  and  eaten. 
Markosians  and  others  prepared  love  philtres,  and  many  dark  rites 
were  celebrated,  like  those  of  witches  and  others  in  the  Middle  Ages 
(see  Ancient  Worship  of  Priapus,  Chiswick  Press,  1865). 

But  Basilides,  the  great  Gnostik  philosopher  (100  to  140  A.C.), 
was  a  learned  and  earnest  Christian — a  Syrian  taught  at  Alexandria, 
deeply  imbued  with  Platonic  ideas,  and  founding  a  great  school.  His 
writings  showed  knowledge  of  Mazdean  beliefs,  and  of  other  Eastern 
doctrines.  He  called  the  Supreme  Qod  "  the  unnameable,"  known 
ouly  through  his  emanations  or  energies — these  Aions  of  Pl6r5ma 
including  Christ,  and  the  Demiurge.  He  regarded  evil  (like  Buddha) 
as  being  imperfection,  and  believed  in  transmigration,  but  not  in 
resurrection  of  the  body.  His  system  personifies  various  virtues  as 
qualities  of  the  "  unknown  and  unborn  father."  The  Demiurge 
("  people  maker  ")  was  an  emanation  in  the  lower  heaven,  the  Arkhon 
or  "  ruler "  of  the  world,  whom  Jews  called  Yahveh,  the  creator  of 
earth,  but  not  of  wisdom,  justice,  or  piety.  Yalentinus  was  a  follower 
of  Basilides  (105  to  165  A.C.),  who  taught  philosophy  among  Christians 
in  Rome  about  140  A.C.  He  created  a  great  system  of  15  pairs  of 
Aions,  constituting  Pleroma,  or  "  The  All."  Col.  Conder  (Asiatic  Rev., 
Jan.  1888)  summarises  the  list  of  the  Aidns  as  follows  :  "  From  Depth 
aod  Silence  sprang  Mind  and  Truth  :  from  Word  and  Life  came  Man 
and  the  Church  :  from  these  the  Comforter,  and  Faith  :  whence  the 
Fathers  Hope  and  the  Mother's  Love :  thence  Eternal  Wisdom,  Light, 
and  Blessing ;  Eucharistic  Knowledge,  Depth  and  Mingling,  Endless 
Union,  Self-born  Temperance,  the  Only-begotten  Unity,  and  Endless 
Pleasure ;  such  is  the  reading  of  the  famous  riddle  of  the  thirty 
.£ons."  Irenseus  and  other  fathers,  from  the  2nd  to  the  4th  century, 
were  ignorant  of  the  meanings  often  concealed  by  Gnostiks  in  Semitic 
words,  and  unable  to  tell  us  the  truth  as  to  these  heresiarchs — as 
they  called  them — or  leaders  of  "  individual  opinions."  Yalentinus 
said  that,  from  the  passionate  striving  of  the  latest  Aion  "  wisdom  " 
(Sophia)  for  union  with  "  depth  "  or  "  insight "  (Bathus),  there  arose 
a  being  outside  the  Pleroma — or  "  all " — who  communicated  the  germ 
of  life  to  matter,  and  so  produced  the  Demiurge  or  creator  (see 
Brahma).  Then,  according  to  some  Yalentinians,  arose  two  Aions, 
namely  Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  restore  the  lost  balance  of  the 
Pler6ma ;  and  finally  from  all  the  Ai5ns  Jesus  as  the  Saviour  (Soter) 
was  produced,  and  united  at  baptism  with  the  Messiah  promised  by 
the  Demiurges.     Such  mystic  symbolism  is  of  little  importance  in  the 


154  Goats 

present  age.  Gnosticism  however  spread  far  and  wide,  and  ever^ 
reached  Turkestan.  Mas'udi  in  944  A.G.  speaks  of  the  religion  of 
Mani  as  powerful  between  Khorasan  and  China  among  Turkish  tribes. 
Col.  Conder  sees  traces  of  Manichaean  beliefs  among  the  Dnizes, 
Ism'ailiyeh,  and  Nuseireh — Moslem  mystics  originally — in  Syria,  in 
connection  with  "phallic  rites,  and  annual  orgies,"  "Islam."  he  says, 
**  far  from  remaining  a  distinct  system  is  tinged  with  colouring  deriveil 
from  Indian,  Zoroastrian,  and  Gnostic  teaching.  Even  MubamiiiJ^il 
drew  his  knowledge  of  Christianity  from  gospels  akin  to  those  used 
among  the  Markosian  Gnostics."  Such  skeptiks  "regarded  all  alike 
with  a  contemptuous  toleration /'  and  "  still  throughout  the  East  .  .  . 
the  spirit  of  Gnosticism  may  be  recognised  as  surviving  .  .  .  along 
with  profession  of  deep  religious  belief."  Gnosticism,  says  Principal 
Tulloch  {Encyclop,  Brit),  **  laid  the  foundation  of  Christian  science, 
and  of  the  Christian  schools  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria  ...  it  lost 
importance  in  the  middle  of  the  3rd  century,  but  lingered  on  till  the 
6th,  dominating  mostly  all  other  forms  of  Christianity  ...  It  burst 
forth  again  in  the  12th  century  as  Paulism  (the  Paulicians),  spreading 
from  its  old  centres  into  Greece,  Italy,  Germany,  and  France,  where 
for  a  time  it  almost  displaced  Catholic  Christianity."  It  was  stamped 
out  by  the  persecution  of  the  Albigenses,  and  its  mysteries  were 
discredited  through  the  birth  of  a  timid  rationalism  which  grew 
stronger  in  time ;  but  its  protean  forms  may  yet  appear  wherever 
spiritualism  and  mysticism  attract  the  ignorant. 

Go.   Gau.      Sanskrit :  '*  cow,"  from  ga  "  to  bellow  "  (see  Ga). 

Goats.  These  animals  became  emblems  of  creative  energy  ;  and 
Mendes,  the  goat  of  Memphis,  symbolised  the  ithyphallic  Ehem  in 
Egypt.  The  Jews  accused  the  Samaritans  of  saying  that  a  goat 
created  the  world  (ail  for  el)^  and  Mendes  was  worshiped  naked. 
The  Greek  Pan  and  the  Satyrs  were  goat-men,  famous  as  runners  in 
the  woods,  dancers,  and  licentious  spirits,  like  the  S'eirim  "  goats  "  or 
"  rough  ones  "  inhabiting  ruins  according  to  the  Hebrews  (Levit.  xvii,  7; 
Isaiah  xxxiv,  14)  though  the  Greek  Septuagint  renders  this  "onoken- 
taurs."  The  goat  was  sacrificed  to  Dionusos  as  a  destroyer  of  the 
vine  ;  and  the  scapegoat  bore  sins  (see  'Azazel).  St  James  in  Italy, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  the  goat  who  blesses  the  vines  (Prof  A.  de 
Gubernatis,  ZooL  MythoL,  ii,  under  "  Goat "),  and  to  him  an  eflSgy  of 
the  "  Lamb  of  God  "  is  offered  at  Easter.  The  Thuringians  also  used, 
like  the  Jews,  to  send  forth  a  goat  in  autumn,  chasing  it  till  caugbt 
and  then  sacrificing  it.  The  Aigis,  or  shield  of  Jove,  took  its  name 
from  *AiXf  "  the  goat,"  being  covered  with  goatskin  ^Herodotos    iv. 


Gobhan  165 

189).  The  sea-goat  is  an  emblem  of  the  ocean  god  (see  Ea).  The 
robes  of  priests  were  made  of  goat-skin  ;  and  the  Babylonian  gods 
seem  also  to  have  worn  such  hairy  garments  as  represented  on  bas- 
reliefs  and  seal  cylinders.  Capella  the  goat  star  was  highly  important 
to  sailors.  The  Norsemen  said  that  goats  drew  the  car  of  "  Thor  the 
stormy  charioteer  " — for  black  goats  represent  the  flocks  of  dark  clouds, 
80  that  Dionusos  himself  in  autumn  is  Melan-aigis,  or  clothed  in  black 
goatskins  (Pausanias,  ii,  35).  In  the  Rig  Veda  (iii,  4)  Pushan,  "  the 
primeval  one,"  guides  a  car  drawn  by  goats,  and  is  himself  Agas  "  the 
goat"  The  sacred  goat  Olene  suckled  Zeus,  she  being  the  sign  of 
"rainy  Capella"  (Ovid,  Fasti,  v,  113).  The  demon  goat,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  ridden  by  witches ;  and  Satan  takes  this  form  at  the 
Witches*  Sabbath  in  connection  with  phallic  rites. 

Gobhan.  Govan.  A  seer  and  poet  among  Kelts  in  Ireland, 
supposed  to  have  lived  before  the  Christian  era,  and  noticed  on  the 
Clon  Mac  Noise  Cross.  He  is  connected  with  tower  building,  but  was 
an  artizan  and  smith,  apparently  an  early  Keltik  Vulcan,  like  the 
English  Weyland  Smith. 

God.  It  is  remarkable  that  philologists  are  unable  to  decide 
the  origin  of  this  familiar  Teutonic  word.  They  are  agreed  that  it 
cannot  be  directly  connected  with  the  word  "  good."  The  Teutonic 
Gutha  (English  Ood,  German  Gott)  is  nearer  to  the  name  Goth  (see 
Out),  and  probably  signifies  "great"  or  "strong."  Most  names  for 
God  in  ancient  languages  signifiy  either  "  spirit "  or  "  power  "  (see  As, 
Dimir,  El,  Yahveh,  Nutera,  etc.),  and  sometimes  "  life  "  Or  "  light "  (see 
Bu,  Bagha,  Deva).  Early  gods  are  terrible  rather  than  good  (see 
Fear).  Nothing  can  be  more  important  (as  we  urged  in  1896,  see 
Short  Studies,  vii)  to  the  student  of  religions  than  to  understand  the 
radical  meaning  of  the  names  of  gods,  which  otherwise  would  convey 
no  sense  of  reverence,  unless  lisped  from  childhood.  The  gods  were 
spirits  or  phantoms,  immortal  and  powerful,  aud  dwelling  in  all  things 
(see  Animism).  But  the  pious  and  experienced  John  Wesley  con- 
victs the  world  of  natural  Atheism  when  he  says :  "  After  all  so 
plausibly  written  concerning  the  innate  idea  of  God  .  .  .  that  this 
is  common  to  all  men  in  all  ages  and  nations,  it  does  not  appear  that 
man  has  naturally  any  more  idea  of  God  than  any  beast  of  the  field. 
Man  has  no  knowledge  or  fear  of  God  at  all,  nor  is  God  in  all  his 
thoughts.  .  .  .  Whatever  change  is  wrought  by  grace,  or  education, 
man  is  by  nature  an  Atheist."     But  Dryden's  view  is  found  in  the  lines, 

''  The  priest  continues  what  the  nurse  began, 
And  thus  the  child  imposes  on  the  man." 


156  Gold 

So  great  is  the  terror  of  offending  a  god  that  Qreek  and  Jew 
alike  dared  not  touch  the  holy  emblems.  Uzzah  was  slain  for  touch- 
ing the  Ark,  even  to  prevent  its  falling,  and  the  touch  of  a  sacred  elk 
brings  evil  on  the  Omaha  Indian  in  America  (Frazer,  Golden  Bough, 
ii,  p.  56).  Only  the  consecrated  may  touch  holy  things.  But  gradu- 
ally, as  the  ideal  of  a  god  grew  more  noble,  justice,  and  mercy,  took 
the  place  of  wrath.  "  When  I  attempt/'  says  Prof.  Tyndall  {Frag- 
ments),  "  to  give  the  power  which  I  see  manifested  in  the  universe  an 
objective  form,  personal  or  otherwise,  it  slips  away  from  me,  declining 
all  intellectual  manipulation.  I  dare  not,  save  poetically,  use  the 
pronoun  *  He '  regarding  it.  I  dare  not  call  it  '  a  mind '  :  I  refuse 
to  call  it  even  a  *  cause.'  Its  mystery  overshadows  me,  but  it  remains 
a  mystery,  while  the  objective  frames  which  my  neighbours  try  to 
make  it  fit,  simply  distort  and  desecrate  it."  The  Qod  of  Ezekiel 
filays  all  who  do  not  bear  his  mark  (ix,  4-6) :  the  Qod  of  a  later 
prophet  is  the  only  Saviour  (Isaiah  xliii,  11).  The  knowledge  of 
God  is  too  wonderful  for  man  (Psalm  cxxxix,  6),  but  he  pervades  the 
universe  (verses  7  to  18)  as  Paul  also  taught  (Ephesians  iv,  6). 
These  allusions  serve  to  show  us  the  gradual  evolution  of  thought  as 
to  God,  from  the  early  times  when  Yahveh  came  down  to  see  the 
tower  (Gen.  xi,  5),  to  the  later  age  when  God  becomes  our  Father  in 
Heaven,  and  when  God  is  Love  (1  John  iv,  8-16). 

Gold.  The  use  of  gold  throughout  western  Asia,  and  in  Egypt, 
or  even  as  far  west  as  ilycense,  in  the  15th  century  B.C.,  was  common 
at  a  time  when  Europe  was  still  in  the  Neo-lithik  stage.  Gold  bad 
been  known  to  the  Akkadians  much  earlier,  as  ku-gin  *'  precious  Gin  " 
— the  Tartar  kin  for  "  gold."  The  Greeks  adopted  a  Semitic  word 
in  khru808  (from  khdru§  "  shining "  metal),  and  according  to  their 
legends  it  was  brought  from  the  Caucasus.  Herodotos  speaks  of  gold- 
fields  east  of  the  Caspian,  and  the  supply  may  have  been  from  the 
Altai  mountains,  but  the  Egyptians  obtained  gold  dust  from  Abys- 
sinia. The  eastern  Aryans  knew  it  (Sanskrit  Hiranya :  Zend  Zaranya) 
as  the  **  yellow  **  metal,  and  such  is  the  derivation  of  the  Teutonic 
gulth, 

Gonds.  A  widespread  race  of  Eolarian  origin  in  N.  India — 
akin  to  Dravidians — now  numbering  perhaps  124,000  persons  only. 
Their  first  home  was  Gondia  or  Kosala,  along  and  N.  of  the  rivers 
of  Oudh,  but  they  are  now  rude  forest  tribes  of  Gondivana  in  Central 
India.  The  name  is  probably  derived  from  Koh  or  Go  "a  hill" 
{the  common  ancient  word  ku  "  high  "),  which  is  the  base  of  Konda 
*'  mountain  " — a  word  found  in  all  languages  of  the  Kolarians.     The 


Gonds  157 

pare  Good  calls  himself  a  Koi-tar,  or  Ko-taa  or  "  bill-dweller."     The 
Gonds  came  from  Central  Asia,  and  Mr  Hislop,  who  was  learned  in 
the    dialects    of   Orissa,    says    that    '*  their    features    are    decide<lly 
Mongolic."     They  are  darker  than  most  Hindus,  round  headed,  wide- 
mouthed,  with  thick  lips  and  flat  nose,  and  lank  black  hair  which 
they   shave,    leaving    one    lock    as    a    top-knot    like    Arabs.      Like 
Mongols,  they  have  little  hair  on  the  face.     They  tattoo  their  bodies,, 
and  the  women  disfigure  their  faces  like  the  Kakyens  of  Barmah,  as 
do  most  Kols  and  Muns.     They  wear  shells  and  charms,  and  when 
the    climate    permits,  the    Gonds    go    naked.     They  eat  rats,  mice,, 
snakes,  and  ants,  and  are  filthy  in  person  and  habits,  licentious,  and 
fond  of  drink.     Their  coarse  phallic  deities  are  incarnations  of  Tari 
and  Buru-penu,  inchiding  Boda,   Bodil,   Baum,  and   Budu-Kol   (see 
Bud).     Like  Muns,  Kosis,  and  other  Kolarians,  they  are  great  tree 
worshipers,  holding  festivals  in  forest  clearings,  under  ancient  trees 
which  are  surrounded  with  stone  circles.     They  there  erect  little  cairna 
or  Chaityas,  especially  at  the  foot  of  trees  sacred  to  Yital  or  Betal 
(see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  193,  figs.  74,  75).     Each  group  of  hamlets 
has  its  holy  tree  with  its  quaint  charms,  stones,  and  small  lingama 
aod  Yonis ;    or  with   figures  of  Mamoji  as    a    horse,   with  phallus, 
usually  daubed  with  aandhur  red  paint.     At  the  beginning  of  the 
longed-for    rainy    season    they    propitiate    the    water    god,    by    the 
"sacrifice  of  the  holy  Karma  tree,"  which  rite  is  preceded  by  fasting 
— a  very  unusual  practice  among  poor  and  rude  tribes.     The  young 
of  both  sexes  then  go  (as  in  our  May  rites)  to  cut  down  a  young 
Karma  tree  in  the  forest,  and  bring  this,  or  a  branch,  home,  with 
music,  song,  and  dance.     It  is  planted  on  the  village  green  among 
the  ancestral   trees,  and   is   consecrated  by  a  Pahu  or  priest :  after 
certain  rites  the  whole  night  is  spent  in  dancing  round  it,  and  in 
revelry.     It  is  freshly  festooned  next  day,  and  loaded  with  charms, 
resembling    our    Christmas    tree.       The    daughters    of    the    village 
patriarch  reverently  adorn  it  with  "  Varuna's  corn,"  which  is  specially 
grown  for  the  purpose,  and  the  yellow  pink  petals  of  its  flowers  are 
distributed,  to  be  worn  by  all.     Wild  dances  follow,  and  finally  the 
tree  god  is  taken  to  a  stream  or  pool,  and  thrown  in  as  an  oflfering  to 
the  water  god.     This  boisterous  festival  is  usual  at  the  New  Year 
(see  Vana). 

The  Gonds  claim  to  have  been  the  first  colonisers  of  India,  and 
say  that  they  came  from  the  far  north  :  after  dwelling  long  by 
Devala-^ri,  one  of  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Himalayas,  and  thence 
descending  to  Kosala  along  the  Gogra  and  other  streams,  they  pushed 
further  south  ;  but  continued  within   historic  times  to  bury  the  dead 


168  Gonds 

with    their    feet    towards    Devala-giri,    which     they    still    remember 
lovingly,  with  their  Linga-wan-gad  at  the  foot  of  which  they  long 
to  rest.    The  Gonds  are  noticed  in  the  Rig  Veda  as  typical  aborigines — 
Dasyas  or  country  folk — which  also  points  to  their  northern  origin. 
The   Naga-Bunsi   Qonds  call  themselves  offspring  of   Delhi    Nagas; 
another  body  of  them  came  from  the  swamps  of  the   lower  Indus, 
through  the  Bhil  country ;  but  most  Gonds  came  from  Kolaria,  and 
from  Assam  or  the  East,  especially  the  Baiga  hunters  of  game,  who 
are  sorcerers  consulted  in  all  difficulties  as  to  land  (see  the  Settlement 
Reports,  1867-1869).     Mr  Hewitt,  in  1869,  speaks  of  Gond  traditions 
as  to  their  coming  from  Scythia  about  600  B.C.,  settling  as  Tugas,  or 
Takshaks,  at    Taxila    and    in    other    Naga    states.     These  probably 
brought  with  them  the  worship  of  the  sword  or  spear  common  among 
Kaur  Gonds ;  for  Attila's   Huns  belonged   to  a  kindred  stock,  and 
placed  a  sword   or  spear  on  a  mound  in  their  encampments.      This 
sword    cultus,    noticed     early    in    Scythia,    is    also    common    among 
Dravidiaus  of  the  Travankor  coast.     The  chief  Gond  gods,  however, 
are  now  known   by  A.ryan    names  adopted  in   Gond  speech,  such  as 
Bhuma-ji,  the  "  earth  god,"  and  Thakur-Deo   or  Bhaga-wan-ji,   who 
is  Siva  or  Lingo,  dwelling  on  Linga-wan-gad,  but  often  symbolised  as 
a  small  egg-shaped  stone  set  on  a  cubical  altar.     He  is  Buda-deva^ 
the   source  of  life,  called   also   Pharsa-pen  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Chanda,  according  to  Mr  Hislop.     He  is  commonly  represented   by 
''a  spherical  block  of  wood,  with  a  small  shaft  3^  inches  long  stuck 
into  it."     There  are  some    15   gods  in  all,  of  whom   only  half  the 
number  are  commonly  mentioned.      They  are  symbolised  by  cairns, 
menhir  stones,  and  posts  daubed  with  vermilion  and  worshiped  with 
libations  and  offerings,  sometimes  of  cows  but  usually  of  pigs,  goats, 
fowls,    fruits,    and    ardent    spirits,    without    full    use    of   which     no 
ceremony  can  proceed.      At   marriages   and   burials  general  licence 
is    permitted    as    among    other    savages  (Hislop,  in    Appendices   to 
Sir  Richard  Temple's  Reports) :  the  old  communistic   customs  are 
thus  retained  on  special  occasions. 

The  attributes  of  the  Pens,  or  gods,  do  not  vary  much  through- 
out the  vast  extent  of  the  basins  of  the  Narbada  and  Godavery 
rivers,  and  also  that  of  the  Krishna.  The  Buda  and  Kodo  who 
are  great  Gond  deities,  are  the  Bura  and  Kati  of  the  Khonds. 
Brahmanism  is  fast  converting  these  wild  races,  and  some  few  have 
accepted  Islam,  or  Christianity.  As  a  race  they  love  a  wild  life,  and 
are  skilful  with  bow  and  gun,  though  gradually  settling  down  to 
agriculture,  and  becoming  sharp  traders,  especially  the  two  higher 
classes  of  Goles  and  Koitaus,  who  are  considered  too  nearly  related  to 


Gondophares  169 

allow  of  intermarriage.  North  India,  invaded  by  stronger  and  more 
civilised  races,  was  no  place  for  such  broken  and  primitive  tribes : 
they  were  driven  to  the  southern  hills  and  forest  fastnesses,  forming  a 
highland  population  of  some  two  millions,  including  Gonds,  Khonds, 
and  others.  They  were  grievously  persecuted,  especially  about  360 
to  635  A.C.,  and  were  Hinduised  to  some  extent  through  Buddhist 
influence,  as  well  as  by  later  Brahmans  who  have  converted  the 
"  Baj-Gonds/' 

Gondophares.   Gundofores.   Gondafares.     A  king  of 

^*  India,"  according  to  Christian  legends  of  St  Thomas ;  but  in  such 

literature  "  India  "  means  any  country  E.  of  Mesopotamia.     According 

to  tbe  Legenda  Aurea,  he  ruled  about  60  A.C.,  when  Eanishka  (10 

A.C.  to  78  A.C.)  reigned  in  India  and  Afghanistan.     Gondophores  more 

probably  was  king  in  Baktria,  or  further  west.     Coins  bearing  this 

name  bave  been  found  in  Seistan,  I^^abul,  and  Kandahar,  in  Sind  and 

the  S.  Panjab,  according  to  which,  the  first  Gondophores  would  appear 

to  have  preceded  Eanishka.     His  exploits  are  noticed  on  a  stone  in 

the  Lahore  Museum,  and   he   appears   to  have  been   of  the   Sakya 

<lynasty.     Another  text  of  a  Gondofares  is  in  the  Woking  Museum. 

The  Legenda  Aurea  asserts,  on  the  authority  of  St  Gaudentius,  "  in 

his  MaHyrology"  that  St  Thomas  "  slept  in  the  city  Calamina,  which 

is  in  India,''  and  here  he  is  said  to  have  built  a  palace  for  Gondophorea 

*'  The  Lord  told  Thomas  that  Gondophores  wanted  masons :  that  he 

was  to  go  as  one  and  convert  all  India,  and  come  to  Him  by  the 

crown  of  martyrdom."     Thomas  obeying,  was  torn  in  pieces  by  dogs, 

"  because  he  refused  to  eat  and  drink  like  others."     Prof  G.  BUhler, 

in  describing  the  latest  Jaina  inscriptions  of  Mathura  (see  Academy, 

2Qd  May  1896),  places  the  reign  of  Gondophores  about  30  to  50  A.C. 

(see  Max  MtlUer,  Ivdia,  p.  293  ;  Beal,  Buddhism  in  Chinas  p.  135 ; 

and  Gen.  Cunningham,  Arch,  Survey  of  India,  ii,  p.  69). 

Goose.  In  Egypt  Seb — the  earth — is  a  goose,  "the  great 
■cackler"  who  lays  the  gold  egg — the  sun.  The  goose  was  early 
tamed  by  Egyptians,  though  they  had  neither  ducks  nor  fowls  as 
domestic  birds.  In  India  Brahma  rides  the  goose  (see  Hansa),  and  in 
mythology  it  is  often  confused  with  the  swan,  which  is  the  great 
emblem  of  white,  and  snow,  clouds.  The  goose  is  an  emblem  of  Frey, 
and  the  swan  of  Freya,  among  the  Norse.  The  swan  was  sacred  to 
the  sea  god  Niord.  Russian  folk-lore  abounds  with  tales  of  geese, 
swans,  and  ducks.  Wedding  gifts  always  include  geese,  which  are 
symbolic  of  conjugal  fidelity.  A  goose  is  carried  before  the  bride- 
groom's procession  to  fetch  home  the  bride.     She  is  borne  over  "  a 


160  Gopa 

brazier  of  fire "  (see  Fire),  and  worships  the  goose  with  her  bride- 
groom (Notes  and  Quei^ies,  6th  August  1898).  Dr  Morrison  {Didy., 
under  Marriages)  says  that  *'  wild  geese  have  in  every  age  been  an 
emblem  of  conjugal  fidelity  in  China."  In  the  Shi-King  classic  we 
read :  "  The  wild  geese  cackle  in  response ;  day  breaks  and  morning 
commences ;  the  bridegroom  has  gone  to  bring  home  his  wife  ere 
approaching  spring  shall  have  melted  the  ice.'' 

From  the  swan  egg  were  born  Helen — the  moon — and  the  two 
brethren — day  and  night — children  of  the  swan  Zeus,  who  thus 
answers  in  the  legend  to  Seb  the  goose  that  lays  the  sun-egg.  Leda, 
who  lays  the  egg,  is  apparently  the  darkness  (like  Latona  and  Lethe, 
from  Idt  "  to  hide  "),  and  in  tlie  Veda  also  the  Asvin  twins  have  a  car 
drawn  by  swans.  Cycnus  {Cignna  "the  swan")  is  the  brother  of 
Phaeton  ;  and  swans  and  geese  were  choristers  of  Apollo  in  spring, 
when  the  wild  geese  come  from  the  south.  The  swan  sang  also  at 
Delos,  when  Apollo  was  borne  by  Latona  (see  Callimmachus,  Hymns 
Delo8,  1111  ;  Bryant's  Mythol,  i.  p  367  ;  ii,  p.  360). 

Gopa.  Sanskrit :  "  cow  nourisher " — a  title  of  Krishna.  The 
Qopis  or  milkmaids  are  the  nymphs  with  whom  Krishna  sports. 

Gor.  Gaur.  in  Skandinavian,  the  harvest  month.  Compare 
Qauri  "  the  fair  one." 

Ghora.  Persian  :  "  horse,"  an  emblem  of  the  sun.  The  old 
Akkadian  kurra  is  "  horse,"  as  the  beast  that  runs  (Mongol  har  **  to 
gallop  "). 

GorgO.  Gordons,  in  the  Odyssey  only  one  Gorge  is  named, 
as  a  frightful  phantom  in  Hades.  She  is  one  eyed — darkness  with 
the  shining  moon.  [The  name  is  perhaps  Turanian — Turkish  gorga 
"  fear,"  which  she  typifies  :  see  Fear. — Ed.]  Hesiod  mentions  three 
Qorgons,  of  whom  two  were  immortal  and  terrifying — namely  Stheoo 
("  strong  ")  and  Eur-uale  ("  far  howling  ") ;  while  the  third  was  mortal 
and  called  Medousa  or  "  mad  "  fear.  Medousa  consorted  with  Poseidon 
in  a  temple  of  Athene  (Fear,  Ocean,  and  the  Dawn),  and  Athene 
being  enraged,  decreed  that  whoever  should  look  on  this  maddened 
Gorgon  should  be  turned  to  stone  by  fear.  Hence  Perseus,  the  sun, 
slew  her  without  seeing  her — cutting  off  her  head.  In  the  earliest 
representations  she  has  a  round  face  and  protruded  tongue.  The 
Qorgonian  head  appears  on  Etruskan  and  Greek  shields,  intended  to 
frighten  the  foe,  and  is  worn  also  by  Athene. 

Gosain.  Gossain.      These  are  saintly  followers  of  the  Vishnuva 


Gospels  1^1 

Brahman  (see  Chaitanya)  who  proclaimed  the  religion  of  love ;  but 
the  term  is  applied  to  any  Hindu  ascetik  of  Brahman  caste,  and 
Gauriya  Brahmans  are  many.  A  Gosain  may  be,  or  may  not  be,  a 
celibate  and  ascetik.  The  notorious  Yalabhacharyas  of  the  "  Bombay 
Maharaja"  trials  (see  ffiaty.  of  Mahdrajaa,  1865),  were  Gosains. 
Some  are  learned  and  wealthy ;  all  are  notorious  for  sensual  lives ; 
some  claim  rights  regarding  women  that  are  also  admitted  in  the  case 
of  Dervishes  among  Moslems.  As  brides  were  offered  to  Irish  chiefs 
(or  French  nobles),  so  too  the  old  communistic  right  is  claimed 
by  Gosains.  Usually  in  India  they  go  about  as  mendicants  (like 
Sanyasis),  often  naked  save  for  a  dirty  yellow  loin  cloth.  Their  hair 
is  long  and  matted,  their  bodies  are  covered  with  vermin ;  thousands 
of  such  Brahmans  are  scattered  over  India;  and  even  educated 
Hindus  pester  them  to  take  their  daughters,  even  in  nominal  marriage. 
They  say  that  Krishna,  as  the  Lord  of  Love,  has  given  to  them  rights 
over  all  females,  since  he  is  the  Gdpa  and  the  lord  of  Gdpi  nymphs 
(see  Gurus). 

Gospels.  The  English  word  "  God-spell,"  meaning  "  God's  news," 
is  a  rendering  of  the  Greek  "  £u-angelion,"  or  ''good  message"  (see  Bible, 
a^id  Christ).  We  possess  no  text  of  the  four  Canonical  Gospels  older 
than  the  4th  century,  and  no  really  reliable  notice  of  their  existence 
before  about  175  A.c.  (the  Muratorian  Canon  giving  a  list  of  New 
Testament  Books)  :  for  quotations  in  the  '*  Fathers  "  are  admitted  to  be 
untrustworthy,  owing  to  corruptions  in  the  texts  of  Patristic  litera- 
tare.  In  the  Canonical  Epistles — that  is  to  say  as  late,  at  least, 
as  63  A.C. — we  do  not  find  any  allusion  to  written  accounts  of  the 
life  of  Christ,  or  of  bis  teaching.  The  traditional  views  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  Gospels  rest  on  statements  made  by  Eusebius,  in  our 
•1th  century,  which  may  or  may  not  be  reliable ;  and  there  is  no 
earlier  evidence,  save  a  fragment  of  Matthew's  Gospel  found  in 
E^ypt,  on  papynis,  which  is  attributed  to  the  2nd  or  1\t6.  century. 
By  the  end  of  the  3rd  century  there  were  many  gospels,  and 
collections  of  Logia  or  ''-say logs"  of  Christ  (see  Apokruphlkl 
Gospels) ;  but  Celsus  objected  that  there  was  no  true  account. 
Papias  is  quoted  by  Eusebius  as  an  authority ;  but  even  he 
*' never  saw  the  Lord."  Justin  Martyr  does  not  speak  of  four 
Gospels,  though  he  is  supposed  to  have  quoted  them.  Irenseus 
is  the  first  (as  his  text  stands)  to  mention  the  four.  It  is  ad- 
mitted, by  those  who  are  aware  of  textual  studies,  that  certain 
passages  in  our  text  are  very  doubtful  (Luke  xxii,  43,  44  ;>  John  v, 
4;  viii,  1-11)  as  not  occurring  in  the  oldest  MSS. ;    and  t^he  saine 


162  Gospels 

applies  to  the  last  verses  of  Mark  (xvi,  9-20);  while  those  in 
Matthew  (xxviii,  16-20)  seem  also  to  be  a  later  addition  to  the 
original  book.  [Such  interpolations  naturally  gave  rise  to  the  view  that 
the  Gospels  were  written  late.  It  is  clear  that  the  concluding  passage 
in  the  Fourth  Gospel  (John  xxi,  24,  25)  could  not  have  been  written 
by  John  the  Apostle,  even  if  we  could  admit  that  a  Galilean  fisher- 
man was  likely  to  become  able  to  write  Greek,  and  to  understand  the 
philosophy  of  Plato  and  Philo.  On  the  other  hand,  the  expectation 
of  Christ's  return  during  the  lifetime  of  His  own  generation  (Uatt 
xxivy  34 ;  Mark  xiii,  30  ;  Luke  xxi,  32)  could  hardly  have  been  put 
in  writing  after  it  had  been  falsified  by  the  death  of  the  latest 
survivors.  The  passages  quoted  speak  so  clearly  of  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem  that  they  may  be  supposed  later  than  70  A.C. ;  but  they 
are  hardly  likely  to  be  much  later  than  100  A.C.  The  date  of 
"  Luke  "  is  not  really  fixed  (as  earlier  than  63  A.c.)  by  the  preface  of 
Acts ;  because,  though  the  two  works  may  be  by  the  same  writer,  who 
inserts  passages  in  the  first  person  taken  apparently  from  the  memoirs 
of  a  companion  of  Paul,  yet  we  have  no  evidence  of  the  date  when  he 
wrote,  or  of  his  having  been  named  Luke.  The  tradition  quoted 
by  Eusebius,  as  derived  from  Papias,  says  that  Matthew  wrote  in 
Hebrew,  and  that  "  every  one  interpreted  as  he  was  able."  We  have 
no  such  Hebrew  work  ;  and  the  passages  quoted  by  the  Fathers,  from 
a  "  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews"  which  has  not  been  recovered,  are  not  in 
Matthew,  since  they  include  a  fiery  baptism  in  Jordan,  and  the 
carrying  of  Christ  to  Mt  Tabor  by  his  **  mother  "  the  Holy  Ghost 
The  idea  that  Mark  wrote  in  Rome  is  probably  founded  on  a  single 
allusion  (Coloss.  iv,  10);  Papias  says  that  Mark  was  ''an  interpreter 
of  Peter  (who)  wrote  down  accurately,  though  not  in  order,  the  things 
that  were  said  and  done  by  Christ"  The  allusion  to  "  John  the 
Elder"  by  Papias  is  also  a  similar  deduction  (see  2  John  verse  1); 
and  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (248-265  A.C.)  was  the  first  to  remark 
that  the  Gospel,  and  Epistles,  attributed  to  John  were  in  a  style  so 
different  from  that  of  the  Revelation  that  tiie  same  author  could 
hardly  have  written  both.  It  is  quite  possible  that  Mark  and 
Matthew  were  gospels  used  by  the  Palestine  Church :  Luke  by  that  of 
Antioch  :  and  John  by  that  either  of  Ephesus  or  of  Alexandria,  after 
about  100  A.C.  The  Fourth  Gospel  was  written  by  one  who  knew 
Palestine,  and  who  correctly  calls  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem 
lavdaioi  (which  we  render  ^  Jews  ")  since  they  belonged  to  the  tribe 
of  Judah  ;  but  the  work  was  penned  especially  to  oppose  Gnosticism 
(see  Gnostiks),  and  claims  only  to  rest  on  the  authority  of  a  beloved 
disciple,  who  appears  to  have  been  John.     The  writer  knew  Hebrew ; 


Gospels  163 

but  whether  be  was  a  Jew  is  less  certain.  Luke  also  was  apparently 
a  Gentile ;  and  it  was  natural  that  the  Grospels  should  be  written  in 
Greek — the  great  literary  language  of  the  age,  used  also  by  Josephus 
— ^as  being  addressed  to  the  Roman  world.  All  we  can  find  through 
comparative  study  is,  that  Matthew  and  Luke  agree  generally  as  to 
matters  mentioned  by  Mark,  but  disagree  whenever  they  add  what  is 
not  there  given ;  while  the  Fourth  Gospel  is  an  entirely  independent 
work,  conflicting  with  the  other  accounts,  and  of  equally  uncertain 
<iate. — Ed.] 

The  disciples  of  Christ  (excepting  Judas  Iscariot  who  came  from 
Samaria)  were  Galileans,  and  mostly  fishermen.  They  were  Hebrews, 
and  knew  nothing  of  Greek,  being  no  doubt  strongly  opposed  to  all 
foreigners  whether  Greek  or  Roman.  Galilee  was  a  region  (according 
to  the  Rabbis)  remarkable  for  its  ignorance ;  and  the  Galilean  dialect 
was  not  that  of  Jerusalem,  as  we  know  from  the  Gospels.  Peter  and 
his  companions  had  little  sympathy  with  the  views  of  Paul,  who  was 
acquainted  with  the  semi-Greek  philosophy  of  the  Jews — as  repre- 
sented by  Philo.  The  Gospel  of  Mark,  and  that  of  Matthew,  appear 
to  have  been  written  by  Galilean  Hebrews ;  but  Luke  was  appar- 
ently a  Greek  companion  of  Paul,  while  the  author  of  the  Gospel 
*' after"  (or  "according  to")  John  was  more  probably  an  Alexan- 
drian Jew.  If  these  Gospels  had  been  known  to  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament  Epistles  they  would  probably  have  quoted  them  ; 
but  they  do  not  even  mention  any  of  the  "  Logia  "  therein  recorded  as 
spoken  by  Christ.  Dr  Davidson  (on  the  Canon  of  the  Fathera) 
remarks  that  none  of  the  bishops  knew  ''  either  the  authors  of 
the  Gospels,  or  the  date  of  the  writings  they  canonized."  These 
gospel  widters  make  no  claim  to  have  been  inspired  ;  and  would 
probably  have  beeo  amazed  by  the  idea  that  their  tractates  were 
written  by  dictation  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Canon  Westcott  (Faith 
<ind  Reason,  1896)  said  that  "the  canon  of  the  New  Testament 
cannot  be  proved  by  appeal  to  the  Patristic  writings  .  .  .  these 
allude  ouly  to  the  substance — not  authenticity — of  the  Gospels  "  ; 
that  18  to  say  that  they  do  not  vouch  for  their  being  contemporary 
records.  The  views  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  though  accepted  by 
Thomas  Aquinas,  are  admitted  by  Westcott  to  be  those  of  an  unknown 
person  at  Edessa  about  480  to  620  A.C. 

According  to  the  latest  critics  (Encydop,  Bib.,  1899)  Matthew 
was  penned  in  105  A.C.  ;  and  the  Fourth  Gospel  by  "John  the 
Presbyter "  (or  Elder) ;  while  Luke  could  not  have  been  written  by 
^ny  companion  of  Paul.  Dr  Davidson  supposed  that,  from  Hebrew 
I^fti  and  from  a  primitive  form  of  Hebrew  gospel,  came  that  of  Mark, 


164  Gospels 

on  which  those  *'  according  to "  Matthew  and  Luke  depended,  being 
contemporary  with  the  Didache.  In  Acts  (xx,  35)  Paul  is  reported  to 
have  quoted  Christ's  words,  ''  It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive'* 
— a  Logion  which  does  not  occur  in  any  of  the  four  Gospels.  Clement 
of  Rome,  and  Justin  Martyr,  laid  great  stress  on  the  '*  sayings  of  Jesus ''i 
but  the  "  Gospel  of  Peter  "  is  held  by  many  to  be  quite  as  early  (about 
115  A.C.)  as  the  canonical  gospels,  though  expressing  the  views  of  the 
Doceta3,  who  did  not  believe  in  the  material  nature  of  Christ.  [We 
do  not  even  know  whether  Paul  agreed  with  those  who  taught  that 
Jesus  rose  from  the  dead  in  his  material  body,  or  with  those  who  held 
that  he  rose  in  a  spiritual  body  (see  1  Cor.  xv,  35-54). — ^Ed.]  The 
miracles  recorded  in  the  "  Gospel  of  Peter  "  are  like  those  of  mediaeval 
legends ;  the  stone  rolls  itself  aside ;  the  cross  speaks  in  answer  to 
voices  from  the  sky ;  angels  whose  heads  are  lost  in  the  clouds  attend 
on  Jesus,  whose  head  also  rises  till  lost  in  the  heavens.  Reasonable 
men  in  the  past  rejected  these  marvels,  but  those  of  the  canonical 
gospels  are  not  less  incredible. 

Prof.  Ludwig  Paul,  as  an  advocate  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  revives 
Baur's  old  theory,  placing  the  synoptics  as  late  as  130  to  150  A.C 
He  thinks  that  "  Justin  (Martyr)  had  no  acquaintance  with  any  of  the 
synoptics."  Dr  Davidson,  however,  tJiought  that  the  Fourth  Gospel 
was  "written  in  150  (A.C.)  by  some  unknown  author";  and  another 
writer  {Encyclop,  Brit,^  1881)  says,  "by  some  Ephesian  elder  who 
knew  St  John.  ...  It  is  certainly  not  John's  composition."  According 
to  the  synoptics  the  ministry  of  Jesus  lasted  only  one  year,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  Fourth  Gospel  it  must  have  lasted  three  or  four.  The 
former  authorities  speak  of  his  death  as  occurring  on  the  day  after  the 
Passover,  but  the  latter  writer  as  taking  place  before  the  Passover  was 
eaten.  None  of  the  former  mention  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  on  which 
the  Fourth  Gospel  insists,  or  the  spearing  of  Christ  by  a  soldier,  which, 
according  to  the  Fourth  Gospel,  proved  that  he  died.  The  long  mystic 
discourses  in  the  Fourth  Gospel  present  to  us  Jesus  as  the  incarnate 
XiOgos,  and  have  no  counterpart  in  the  synoptics,  where  Jesus  is  recorded 
to  have  uttered  short  logia  and  parables.  These  discourses  remind  as 
of  the  philosophy  and  mysticism  of  Paul,  and  of  the  Gnostiks.  The 
Archon  of  the  world  (John  xii,  31)  was  the  Hebrew  Yahveh  according 
to  the  Gnostiks,  an  evil  deity,  like  the  devil  whom  Christ  called  the 
father  of  the  Jews  (John  viii,  44).  But  all  these  writers  alike  believed 
sincerely  in  miracles  attributed  to  Jesus,  which  are  quite  as  difficult  to 
believe  as  any  others  attributed  to  other  gods  or  heroes.  The  difficulty 
in  accepting  these,  felt  by  those  who  have  received  a  scientific  education, 
is  so  insurmountable  that  they  serve  to  discredit  the  whole  narrative: 


Gospels  166 

and  the  ethical  teaching  which  it  includes  is  thus  obscured  (see 
Miracles).  Christ  is  represented  as  believing  that  Moses  wrote  the 
Pentateuch,  and  David  even  Psalms  in  which  he  is  addressed  by  some 
other  poeL  [Jesus,  however,  often  is  made  to  refer  only  to  '*  those  of 
old  time."  The  documentary  evidence  shows  that  later  scribes  some- 
times inserted  the  name  of  a  writer  where  the  older  text  of  the  Qospel 
only  quotes  "  the  prophet " ;  and  they  did  this  incorrectly  (see  Matt, 
xxvii,  9  ;  Zech.  xi,  13). — Ed.]  No  doubt  the  writers  held  the  ordinary 
views  of  Jews  in  that  age  on  these  questions ;  and  Christ  may  have 
quoted  the  words  **  Tahveh  said  to  my  Adon "  (Psalm  ex,  1)  as  if 
spoken  by  David  (Matt  xxii,  43) ;  but  we  have  no  contemporary 
record  of  anything  that  he  said.  The  general  opinion  of  to-day  seems 
to  be  that  the  authors  of  the  Gospels  shared  the  common  beliefs  and 
superstitions  of  their  age,  and  repeated  oral  traditions,  and  the  contents 
of  earlier  writings  by  unknown  authors,  which  are  no  longer  known 
to  exist 

Setting  aside  all  apocryphal  writings,  and  the  Onostik  mysticism 
of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  we  may  suppose  that  a  residuum  of  fact  remains, 
which  even  historical  purists  can  admit  as  such  ;  that  about  the  com- 
mencement of  our  era  a  pious  Jewish  teacher  lived  in  Palestine,  and 
went  about  teaching  ethikal  truths  which  Hillel  and  others  also 
taught,  and  following  the  mode  of  life  that  was  customary  abo  among 
the  Essenes,  and  the  Jordan  baptists.  His  forerunner  had  proclaimed 
that  One  among  them,  whom  they  knew  not,  was  the  expected  Messiah ; 
and  the  followers  of  Jesus  proclaimed  him  to  be  such,  although  he  had 
forbidden  them  to  do  so  openly.  They  brought  him,  as  Messiah, 
triumphantly  into  Jerusalem,  where  he  was  arrested  by  the  frightened 
priests,  accused  of  blasphemy  and  sedition,  and  given  ovel*  by  the 
Roman  governor,  very  unwillingly,  to  be  crucified.  His  followers 
believed  that  he  died  on  the  cross  (see  Crosses),  and  they  found  the 
rock  tomb  in  which  he  was  laid  open  and  empty.  He  was  said  to  have 
appeared  to  them  afterwards,  both  in  Jerusalem  and  in  Galilee ;  and 
Paul,  though  apparently  not  an  eye-witness  of  any  of  the  events  of  this 
time,  believed  that  he  had  so  been  seen  (1  Cor.  xv,  3-7).  He  also 
believed  Jesus  to  have  instituted  a  memorial  rite  symbolic  of  his 
niartyrdom  (1  Cor.  x,  16,  17;  xi,  17-34),  which  already,  within  a 
generation,  had  become  a  "communion"  giving  rise  to  disorders 
among  the  converts.  The  believers  continued,  for  at  least  a  century, 
m  the  East,  to  expect  the  return  of  their  Master  at  the  end  of  the 
world :  for  he  had  said  '*  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world,"  and  had 
himself  predicted  such  a  return  in  the  clouds  of  heaven,  accompanied 
by  thousands  of  angels.     But  this  belief  died  away  among  the  Greek 


166  Gospels 

and  Roman  Gnostik  Christians  ;  and  even  in  Paul's  lifetime  Christians 
denied  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  (1  Cor.  xv,  12). 

After  about  100  a.c,  a  great  many  accounts  of  Jesus  and 
collections  of  his  sayings  were  written,  as  the  first  generation  of 
witnesses  died  out,  and  oral  traditions  began  to  be  set. down  in 
writing.  Some  of  these  followed  the  purely  Jewish  ideas  of  the 
original  disciples ;  others  followed  Paul,  in  whose  belief  Jesus  was  the 
pre-existent  Logos  ;  others  went  further  and  regarded  him  as  either  a 
divine  phantom,  or  as  a  holy  man  possessed  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  We 
learn  from  the  four  Gospels  themselves  (Luke  i,  1  ;  John  xxi,  25)  that 
many  had  already  written  accounts  of  what  was  believed  before  they 
were  penned;  but  by  about  170  or  180  A.C.,  these  four  bad  attained 
to  peculiar  estimation  ;  and  nearly  300  years  after  the  Crucifixion 
they  were  declared  to  be  the  "  only  authentic  Apostolic  records  of  the 
Lord,"  in  opposition  to  all  Gnostik  doctrines*  They  were  added  to  the 
collection  of  Epistles  by  Paul  and  other  teachers,  forming  the  new 
Bible  of  Christian  churches.  Finally  they  came  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
four  authors  on  whose  authority  they  were  believed  to  rest  (see  Dr 
Harnack's  History  of  Dogma  ;  and  Kenan's  History  of  Christianity), 
To  those  who  regard  the  traditions  as  incredible  it  is  a  matter  of  very 
little  importance  whether  they  were  written  in  the  1st  or  2nd 
century.  We  have  no  more  certainty  as  to  the  original  text  of  these 
writings  than  we  have  in  the  case  of  Old  Testament  books.  We  know 
that  small,  but  often  important,  alterations  were  made  in  the  wording 
by  scribes  of  our  4th  and  5th  centuries.  An  additional  copy  (supposed 
to  belong  to  the  8th  century)  was  found  by  Mrs  Lewis  in  1892,  at  the 
Sinai  Monastery,  and  transcribed  in  1893  by  Dr  Bensley.  It  is 
written  in  Syriak,  on  vellum,  having  been  effaced  in  779  A.c.  in  order 
to  reuse  the  parchment  to  record  the  legend  of  a  martyr.  From  this 
copy  we  learn  that  Jesus  was  the  first-born  son  of  Joseph — as  indeed 
appears  from  the  third  Gospel  (Luke  ii,  41,  43,  48)  according  to  the 
oldest  MSS.  though  later  scribes  substituted  (in  verse  43)  the  words 
"Joseph  and  his  mother"  for  the  words  "his  parents"  (see  Bible)L 
Prof.  Huxley  said  truly  that :  "  The  question  of  the  age  and  author- 
ship of  the  Gospels  is  not  of  much  importance,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  even  the  reports  of  eye-witnesses  would  not  suffice  to  justify  belief 
in  a  large  essential  part  of  their  contents ;  on  the  contrary  these 
reports  would  discredit  the  witnesses." 

An  interesting  discovery  was  made  in  1897,  at  Oxyrhynchtts, 
on  the  border  of  the  Libyan  desert,  about  120  miles  S.  of  Cairo.  It 
is  a  leaf  from  a  papyrus  book,  containing  eight  Logia  or  **  sayings  " 
attributed   to  Jesus.     It  is  written   in  the  Greek  characters  in  use 


Gotama  167 

perhaps  as  early  as  150  A.C.,  though  it  may  be  as  late  as  300  A.a 
The  writer  is  thought  to  show  the  influence  of  the  tract  On  the 
ContemplcUive  Life  ascribed  to  Philo  (30  to  50  B.C.),  and  of  the 
Jewish  Essenes  (see  AtheTicewm,  July  1897).  There  were  many  such 
Logia  (as  Papias  is  said  to  have  called  them),  besides  those  in  the  four 
Gospels,  some  of  which  however  are  evidently  of  Gnostik  origin,  like 
those  in  the  "  Gospel  of  the  Egyptians/'  No  less  than  61  such  sayings 
(many  of  very  doubtful  authenticity)  have  been  carefully  collected  (see 
Rev.  Dr  B.  Pick,  Ph.D.,  in  the  Chicago  Open  Cowrt,  September  1897) ; 
and  they  have  been  studied  with  great  scientific  and  literary  minute- 
ness. The  collection  suggests  the  existence  of  primitive  Gospels  now 
lost,  out  of  which  our  four  Gospels  grew. 

We  have  no  authentic  accounts  of  the  history  of  any  of  the  New 
Testament  writers,  or  of  the  later  actions  of  Peter  and  other  disciples. 
There  are  legends  to  be  found  in  Syriak  and  ^thiopik  fragments  (see 
Dr  Wallace  Budge,  History  of  the  Twelve  Apostlea);  but  these 
narratives  all  bear  the  stamp  of  romance.  The  Mariolatry  which 
characterises  such  accounts  is  itself  evidence  that  they  are  not  older 
than  our  5th  century.  As  regards  both  these  and  the  four  Gospels, 
the  foundations  of  the  faith  are  based  solely  on  tradition.  [From  the 
Gospels  themselves  we  gather  that  the  first  disciples  were  very  often 
vmable  to  understand  what  their  Master  said.  We  see  dimly,  in  the 
accounts  that  we  possess,  a  beautiful  and  loving  figure  of  one  who  had 
compassion  on  the  poor  and  ignorant,  and  who  laid  down  his  life  for 
his  friends :  who  knew  the  Hebrew  Scripture  from  boyhood,  and 
strove  to  free  the  spirit  of  its  noblest  conceptions  from  the  dead  letter 
of  Kabbinic  formalism.  The  power  of  early  Christianity  lay  in  this 
deep  sympathy  with  human  hopes  and  sorrows ;  but,  to  the  writers 
of  gospels,  the  wonders  in  which  all  men  then  believed  seemed 
more  important,  as  evidence  of  truth,  than  the  loving  words  of 
Jesus. — Ed,] 

Gotama.  Gautama.  Buddha  is  commonly  known  as  Gotama 
the  Muni  ("  teacher ")  of  the  Sakya  race,  but  his  family  name  was 
Siddartha  (see  Buddha).  Gotama  appears  to  have  been  a  clan  name. 
In  Tibet  it  becomes  Geontan,  in  Mongolia  Godam,  in  Siam  Eodom, 
and  in  China  Kiu-tan.  A  Gotama  is  said  to  have  founded  the  Nyaya 
school  of  philosophy,  and  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  Dharma 
Sastra — a  wise  hermit  who,  according  to  his  legend,  married  Ahalya  a 
daughter  of  Brahma.  Durga  is  also  called  Gotami ;  and  one  of  the 
12  great  lingams  of  India  was  named  Gotam-Isvara. 

Goths.     The. name  of  this  Teutonic  race  is  rendered  ''noble" 


I68r  Govan-Dana 

(Mr  Bradley,  Ooths)  or  ''mighty"  (see  Out).  They  are  found  S. 
of  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  East  of  the  River  Vistula,  from  the  4tb 
century  B.C.  (Pythias)  to  the  Ist  century  A.a  (Tacitus),  and  the  2nd 
(Ptolemy) :  they  were  widely  spread,  the  Visigoths  (or  "  west 
Croths  ")  being  led  to  oppose  the  Romans  by  **  Bal-things  "  or  "  bold '' 
kings,  and  the  Ostrogoths  (or  ''east  Goths")  by  Amalings  or 
**  mighty  ones."  Their  great  deity  was  Tiw  or  Teu — the  equivalent 
of  Deva — who  was  a  war  god ;  while  Helya  was  their  godess  of  the 
lower  world.  They  were  served  by  priests  and  priestesses.  Authentic 
history  of  the  Goths  begins  in  245  A.C.,  when  they  invaded  Moesia 
and  Thrakia.  They  slew  the  Roman  Emperor  Decius,  and  Gallas 
his  successor  had  to  buy  them  off.  Their  invasion  of  Greece  (253  to 
268)  led  to  the  sack  of  Athens.  Constantino  twice  defeated  them, 
but  in  330  a.c.  they,  in  turn,  defeated  his  armies  and  signed  a  peace 
for  30  years.  After  350  A.C.  they  were  driven  W.  and  S.  by  the 
Huns  from  Central  Asia ;  and  these  Turkish  armies  harried  them 
till  the  death  of  Attila  in  453  A.c.  The  east  Goths  were  then 
spread  all  over  Dacia  (now  Hungary),  and  in  410  A.C.  Alaric,  their 
leader,  sacked  Rome.  The  west  Goths  followed  the  Vandals  into 
Gaul  and  Spain  in  412  A.c. ;  and  for  32  years  the  great  Theodorik 
ruled  the  greater  part  of  S.W.  Europe.  In  476  the  western  Empire 
of  Rome  was  destroyed  by  Odoacer ;  and  the  Catholic  Church  would 
probably  have  succumbed  but  for  the  Frankish  victories — Clovis 
(480  A.C.)  driving  the  Goths  to  Spain,  where  they  mingled  with  other 
populations,  disappearing  as  a  distinct  race  about  650  A.C. 

The  Goths  received  Greek  civilisation  from  the  traders  of  Olbia, 
near  Kiev,  perhaps  as  early  as  the  6th  century  B.c.  Their  '^Ranes" 
were  Greek  letters  (see  Dr  Isaac  Taylor,  Alphabet^  ii,  p.  215).  They 
took  the  side  of  Arius  in  the  great  schism  of  325  A.C.,  having  been 
converted  to  Christianity  by  the  Greeks.  Thus  they  became  per- 
secutors of  the  Popes  in  Italy ;  and  the  triumph  of  Latin  Christianity 
in  W.  Europe  was  due  to  the  Franks,  who  opposed  the  Goths  and 
protected  the  Popes. 

Govan-dana.  The  sacred  hill  near  Mathura,  overlooking  the 
Jamna  River,  where  Ejrishna  sported  with  the  Gdpl  nymphs.  Human 
sacrifices  were  once  here  offered,  but  now  only  milk,  rice,  and  flowers, 
with  prayers. 

Govinda.  Krishna  was  so  called,  after  his  war  with  Indra,  as 
the  leader  of  the  Qopls. 

Grail.    Graal.    Greal.      Terms   in    old    French    for    a  dish 


Grain  169 

or  a  flat  bowl,  from  the  Low  Latin  grcUeUa  whence  gradcUe  and 
grcuKxlej  diminutives  of  crater,  *'  a  cup "  or  bowl.  The  Holy  Grail 
was  supposed  to  be  the  dish  (or  otherwise  the  cup)  of  the  Last  Supper, 
and  its  legends  are  akin  to  those  of  Buddha's  begging  bowl  in  India. 
Among  the  £elts  a  kaire  was  a  large  wooden  bowl,  such  as  are  found 
in  bogs  in  Ireland.  In  the  legend  of  the  battle  of  Magh-rath  (Moyra, 
'*the  great  fort")  in  637  A.C.,  the  sons  of  the  King  of  Scotland  pray 
the  Prince  of  Ulster  for  his  "  Caire  Ainsiun/'  which  ''  gives  to  each 
his  just  share,  and  sends  none  empty  away."  Whatever  was  put  in 
it,  it  boiled  just  enough  for  the  assembled  company  according  to  their 
rank.  Caires  were  bowls  for  milk  and  mead,  and  magic  cups  (see 
Century  Mag.,  April  1890,  p.  897).  According  to  the  legend 
(Prof.  Skeat  on  New  Testament  legends)  Joseph  of  Arimathea 
collected  the  blood  of  Christ  in  the  OraiL  Hence  arose,  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  false  etymology  which  converted  the  San-grail  into 
the  "  sang-real "  or  *'  true  blood,"  which  healed  sickness  and  wounds, 
made  the  old  young,  and  bestowed  rest  and  ineffable  delight  on  the 
pious.  Like  the  Soma  worship  this  cultus  sprang  originally  from  the 
consecration  of  intoxicating  wine.  The  Orail  disappeared  in  days  of 
unbelief,  but  when  Arthur  and  his  knights  established  Christianity  it 
was  seen  again,  and  became  the  object  of  their  "  quest,"  being  found 
in  the  safe  keeping  of  King  Peleas,  or  of  "brother  Pelles."  The 
Skandinavians  had  a  similar  legend  pf  the  ''dwarfs  cup,"  which, 
Uke  the  Soma  cup  of  the  Vedas,  was  the  source  of  poetry  and  wisdom  : 
for  wine  "cheereth  the  Elohim  and  man"  (Judg.  ix,  13).  The  term 
Grail,  according  to  Mr  Surtees  (Notes  amd  QuerieSy  9th  April  1887), 
came  to  be  applied,  as  a  general  term,  to  any  holy  thing. 

Grain.  Grian.  Keltik :  **  shining,"  "  yellow,"  "  green,"  the 
"  sun "  (see  Gar),  personified  (as  among  Germans)  as  a  female.  In 
Panjabi  Garav  is  the  sun  (Sanskrit  Gravdn),  and  the  Greeks  had  an 
Apollo  Grunaios,  the  sacred  river  Grunaios  also  flowing  from  Mt 
Ida.  Dolmens  in  Ireland  are  called  "  beds  of  Diarmed  and  Grain," 
and  the  legend  of  their  elopement  (see  Fin)  speaks  of  365  such  beds,  one 
for  each  day  of  the  year,  connecting  the  Dolmens  with  solar  worship. 

Granth.  The  Sikh  Bible  (see  Sikhs).  It  includes  the  Adi- 
Granth  of  Nanak  the  founder,  about  1540  A.C.,  and  the  second  Granth 
of  Govind-Singh,  his  9th  successor  (1675  to  1708  A.C.).  Nanak 
strove  to  unite  Moslems  and  Hindus  as  brothers ;  and  it  is  related  of 
him  that  a  Moslem  kicked  him  for  presuming  to  lie  with  his  feet 
towards  Makka  and  the  "  House  of  God,"  but  only  elicited  the  mild 
reply  :  '*  Pray  turn  them  in  any  direction  in  which  the  House  of  God 


170  Graphiel 

is  not."  The  second  Oranth,  which  departs  considerably  firom  Nanak's 
teaching,  is  called  the  "  Dasama  Padshah-ka  Granth "  or  "  Bible  of 
the  tenth  ruler."  It  includes  an  impassioned  account  of  the  trials, 
faith,  and  battles  of  the  Sikhs  or  '"disciples"  who,  under  Grovind. 
became  Singhs  (from  SimJia)  or  "  lions."  No  other  scriptures  were 
to  be  allowed,  yet  Nanak  had  said :  "  I  implore  you  to  read  other 
scriptures  as  well  as  your  own ;  but  remember  that  all  reading  is 
useless  without  obedience :  for  God  decrees  that  none  shall  be  saved 
except  he  perform  good  works.  He  will  not  ask  what  is  your  tribe 
or  belief,  but  *  What  good  have  you  done  ? '  Put  on  armour  which 
will  harm  none.  Let  thy  coat  of  mail  be  understanding.  C!oDvert 
thine  enemies  into  friends ;  fight  valiantly,  but  with  no  weapon  save 
the  Word  of  God." 

In  the  time  of  Govind-Singh,  Nanak  was  worshiped  as  he  still 
is,  but  this  Tenth  Guru  said  :  "  Whoever  shall  call  me  Param-eswara 
(the  Supreme)  shall  siuk  into  helL  ...  I  announce  what  God  speaks 
...  to  establish  virtue  and  to  exalt  piety  was  I  sent  into  this  world ; 
but  also  to  exterminate  vice,  and  wicked  irreligion."  "  Wherever  five 
Sikhs  (or  ''disciples")  are  assembled  there  also  shall  I  be  present" 
(see  Malcolm's  Sikha).  "  Singhs  must  not  keep  company  with  heretics, 
schismatics,  or  sectaries  who  intrigue  against  the  faith  ;  yet  they  must 
be  gentle  and  polite  to  all,  and  endeavour  to  attain  to  the  excellences 
of  their  Guru."  Temples  were  to  be  reverently  approached,  and  that 
at  Amritsa  especially  to  be  visited  in  order  to  secure  the  unity  of  the 
Khalsa  State,  the  interests  of  which  are  superior  to  any  others,  and 
even  to  life  itself.  Prayer,  and  the  reading  of  God's  Word,  are  the 
first  morning,  and  the  last  evening,  duties  of  the  Sikh. 

Graphiel.  A  spirit  in  l^abbalistik  enumerations  :  ''  The  might  of 
God  "  ;  answering  to  Gabriel. 

Grass.  Many  ancient  rites  are  connected  with  grass.  The  Kusa 
grass  was  early  sacred  to  Aryans  (see  Ag).  Grass  was  the  support  of 
the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  nomads.  It  used  also  to  be  connected 
with  Manx  rites  (Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  p.  441,  442),  and  many  grass 
rites  occur  among  American  Indians  (see  Capt.  Bourke,  Medici^^ 
Men  of  the  Apachea,  p.  527).  Rushes,  as  covering  for  rude  shelters, 
have  similar  importance.  The  married  pair  are  seated,  and  covered 
with  fresh  grass  as  an  emblem  of  productiveness  (Grihya  Sutras).  The 
Azteks  and  Apaches  believed  that  they  sprang  from  rushes,  over  which 
their  god  Napatekutli  presides.  They  scatter  the  pollen  of  flowering 
rushes  at  birth  and  marriage  festivals,  and  at  the  Eucharistic  rites  of 
Tlalok. 


Greeks  i7i 

Greeks.     The    *Qraikoi"  (see  Grote,  History  of  Oreece,  ii,  11) 

were  an  Illyrian  people  whose  name  meant  ''  mountaineers  " ;  and  the 

fiomans,  coming  first  into  contact  with  these  Oreci,  extended  the  title 

to  all  the  Hellenic  races,  known  originally  as  Danai,  Akhaioi,  Hellenes, 

Dorians,  and  others.     These  tribes  all  came  from  the  N.K,  following 

Thrakians,  Pelasgi,  and   other  early  Slav  or  Kelto-Latin   races.     All 

were  equally  rude,  and  learned  Asiatic  civilisation  from  the  Turanians  of 

Asia  Minor,  and  from  Babylonian  and  Phoenician  traders  ;  borrowing  also 

no  doubt  from  Egyptians  about  1300  B.C.  (see  Egypt).     At  Troy  and 

at  Mycenae,  about  1500  B.C.,  we  find  an  Asiatic  culture  among  a  people 

who  apparently  were  unable  to  write.     [The  Greeks  obtained   their 

syllabiuries  and  alphabets,  their  early  arts,  their  weights  and  measures, 

and   many  legends  and  names  of  gods,  from  Asia  Minor  (see  Edin. 

Seview,  July  1901,  pp.  28-48,  "Greece  and  Asia").    In   her  great 

age  (500  lo  300  B.c.)  the  Greeks  had  far  surpassed  their  early  teachers, 

and  their  infiuence  and  language  spread  over  Asia,  and  dominated  the 

Seleucid  and  Ptolemaic  empires  as  far  as  India  and  Upper  Egypt,  for 

two   centuries  more ;  but  the  basis  of  this  civilisation  is  found  in 

Babylonia. — Ed.]     As  the  Greeks  reached  the  coasts  of  the  jEgean, 

and  passed  over  into  Ionia,  they  came  in  contact  with  arts  then  quite 

unknown  in  Europe.    Only  about  800  to  700  B.c.  did  their  bards  begin 

to  weave  legendary  histories,  mythologies,  and  poetry,  out  of  the  oral 

traditions  of  their  own  race,  and  the  myths  of  Asiatics.     The  Greeks 

adopted   the  Asianic  syllabary,  and   the  early  alphabets  of  Karians, 

Lycians,  and  Phoenicians.     Dated  Greek  texts  in  alphabetic  writing 

go  back  only  to  about   600  RC.     The  early  Mgeaji  pottery,  marked 

sometimes  with  syllabic  signs,  is  similar  to  that  of  Kappadokia  and  of 

Palestine  (see  Jowmal  RL  Asiatic  Socy.,  1890,  p.  213).     There  is 

no  evidence  of  Aryan  speech  in  alphabetic  characters  E.  of  Phrygia 

before  about  700  B.c.     But  in  Asia  Minor  the  European  Aryans  met 

the  Iranian  current  (Medes  and  later  Persians)  which  flowed  W.  to  the 

shores  of  the  ^gean.    Almost  every  Hellenic  State,  as  Dr  Isaac  Taylor 

tells  us  {Alphabet,  ii,  pp.  4, 1 1 0),  had  its  own  alphabet,  borrowed  from 

Phoenicians  or  others ;  but  the  great  Ionian  alphabet  included   five 

final  letters  which  are  not  Phoenician,  but  are  used  by  early  Karians, 

Lydans,   and    Phrygians,   and   are    traceable   to  the  older    **  Asianic 

syllabary." 

The  modern  Greeks,  like  their  ancestors,  are  a  mixed  Aryan  race, 
having  much  Slav  blood  in  their  veins.  [The  pale,  dark-eyed,  dark- 
haired  Greek  of  to-day  is  very  different  from  the  golden-haired,  blue- 
eyed  Hellen,  or  the  red-haired  and  hazel-eyed  type  that  is  represented 
by  the  early  painted  statues  of  gods  at  Athens. — Ed.]     They  retain 


172  Greeks 


much  of  their  ancient  mythology — especially  in  the  Greek  islands — 
in  the  form  of  popular  folk-lore,  mingled  with  Christian  legends. 
St  Nicholas  has  inherited  the  worship  of  sailors  from  PoseidOn.  St 
Pemetrius  takes  the  place  of  D€-m6t6r  or  the  ''earth  mother/' 
Artemis  is  succeeded  by  the  unknown  St  Artemidos  (see  Bent's 
Inavlar  Oreek  GvMoma).  The  rites  and  superstitions,  among  even 
fairly  educated  Qreeks,  are  as  numerous  as  of  old.  As  in  the  days  of 
Herodotos,  the  handsomest  man  must  be  the  first  to  kiss  the  babe, 
and  the  wisest  woman  the  first  to  suckle  it.  The  most  beautiful 
woman  among  the  Spartans  had  been  the  ugliest  babe,  till  her  nurse 
took  her  to  the  temple  of  Helen.  In  Karpathos  the  child's  patron 
saint  and  name  are  determined  by  the  candle  bearing  it  being  the  last 
alight :  the  "  Father  of  Fate  "  is  invoked  to  bless  the  child,  with  au 
offering  of  bread  and  honey  in  a  bowl.  Greeks  go  up  the  mountains 
to  call  on  the  Fates,  and  hang  charms  on  their  children's  necks  to 
ward  off  the  evil  eye.  They  avoid  the  use  of  unpropitious  words, 
and  call  colic  "  sweetness,"  smallpox  "  praise,"  and  minor  ailments 
"  unintentionals."  A  naughty  child  is  said  to  have  Charon  for  a 
sponsor,  and  a  Nereid  for  dam ;  but  these  spirits  may  be  appeased 
by  spreading  a  tablecloth  on  a  cliff,  or  by  a  river  where  they  live, 
putting  on  it  bread,  honey,  wine,  and  knife  and  fork,  with  a  new 
candle  and  an  incense  censer.  In  the  island  of  Eeos  weakly  babes 
are  brought  to  St  Artemidos,  to  be  healed  at  his  hillside  shrine 
Throughout  the  islands  Charon  has  become  a  Satan — '*the  lord  of 
hell  " — a  giant  with  flaming  eyes,  riding  a  black  horse,  and  gathering 
the  dead.  Sometimes  as  a  beast,  or  bird,  he  darts  on  his  victims, 
whom  he  ferries  over  to  Hades,  where  his  palace  is  decked  with  human 
bones.  He  gives  the  dead  the  water  of  Lethe,  so  that  they  forget  the 
past  (see  £r)  ;  and  the  **  obelus  "  for  Charon  is  still  placed  in  the  hand 
or  mouth  of  the  corpse  ;  while  priests  place  in  the  coffin  a  wax  cross, 
with  the  letters  I.  X.  N.  (*'  Jesus  Christ  conquers  ").  St  Elias  has 
taken  the  place  of  Helios — the  sun  (see  Elijah),  and  is  a  giant  who 
requires  food  and  worship.  He  devours  his  own  parents  and  children, 
and  Eos,  who  is  the  virgin  opening  the  red  gate  for  the  Lord  of  Glory 
to  come  forth.  Eclipses,  according  to  these  Greeks,  are  of  evil  omen 
(as  in  China),  and  brass  kettles  should  be  then  beaten,  and  guns  fired, 
to  drive  away  the  demons.  The  winds  are  still  personified.  The  hated 
N.  wind  escapes  from  its  Thrakian  caves,  and  Michael  the  archangel 
binds  the  sons  of  Boreas  in  their  tombs  with  a  great  stone  over  them — 
as  Herakles  slew  Zetes  and  Kalais,  sons  of  Boreas.  All  winds  assemble 
at  certain  times  to  dance  together  on  mountain  tops. 

The   twelve   months,   the   islanders   say,   are    twelve    handsome 


Greek  Church  173 

youths,  but  one  is  fickle  and  untrustworthy — a  secret  friend  of 
Charon.  The  agriculturist  must  roast  goats  and  fowls,  and  pour 
out  wine,  before  the  first  sod  is  turned  in  ploughing.  At  Naxos 
St  Dionysius  must  be  honoured  if  the  vineyard  is  to  prosper.  In 
Paros  this  Dionysius  has  become  "  the  drunken  St  Qeorge/'  and 
orgies  occur  in  his  honour,  with  the  sanction  of  priests,  on  3rd 
November.  No  seed  is  sown  till  some  of  it  has  been  presented 
with  flowers  (especially  the  rose)  at  a  church.  Sir  Charles  Wilson 
(Asiatic  Quarterly ,  Jan.  1887,  "The  Greeks  in  Asia")  says:  "The 
superstitions  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Turks  are  the  same  .  .  .  both 
sects  reverence  the  skeleton  of  St  Gregory  .  .  .  the  Christians  and 
Moslems  own  a  church  in  common,  and  hold  in  equal  veneration 
a  box  of  bones,  said  by  some  to  be  bones  of  St  Mamas,  and  by 
others  of  Christ  .  .  .  these  superstitions  have  far  more  influence  over 
the  daily  life  of  the  Greeks  than  their  religion,  for  they  do  not 
imderstand  a  word  of  the  church  services,  and  look  upon  them  as 
mere  forms,  which  have  to  be  gone  through,  to  ensure  salvation.'^ 
Grood  deities  do  not  need  to  be  propitiated,  but  at  noon  and  at  dusk 
the  evil  Lamia,  and  Strigla  (the  Latin  Strix)  are  to  be  feared,  while 
Pan  and  Charon  rage  in  the  noonday  heat  and  in  the  darkness. 

Greek  Church.  [This  Church  is  the  second  in  importance  as 
regards  the  numbers  of  its  adherents,  in  Christendom ;  for  the  tenets 
of  the  Russian  Church,  under  the  Tzar,  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Greek  Orthodox  and  Catholic  Church.  The  Greeks  definitely  separated 
from  the  Latins  in  858  A.C.,  when  Fhotius  was  made  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Greek  Emperor  Michael  III.  The  two  Churches 
had  diflfered  as  to  the  question  whether  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeded 
only  from  the  Father,  or,  as  Latins  said,  from  the  Father  and  the 
Son,  and  as  to  the  use  of  images,  other  than  pictures,  in  churches ; 
but  the  separation  coincides  with  the  appearance  of  the  new  western 
empire  of  Charlemagne  and  his  successors,  which  was  inimical  to  the 
Greeks,  and  which  protected  the  Eoman  Pope.  The  breach  widened 
when  Latin  clergy  superseded  Greeks  in  Palestine  after  the  first 
crusade,  and  became  incurable  in  the  13th  century,  when  the 
Normans  established  a  dynasty  in  Constantinople.  No  council  of 
all  Catholic  Churches  was  possible  after  451  A.C.,  nor  of  combined 
Greeks  and  Latins  after  787  A.C.,  when  the  Iconoclasts  were  con- 
demned.— Ed.]  If  we  take  the  total  number  of  Christians  not  to 
exceed  500  millions,  the  Church  of  Rome  claims  some  240  millions 
or  nearly  haUl  Protestants  may  be  reckoned  as  not  exceeding  100 
millions,  and  the  Oriental  Churches  include  only  about  10  millions. 


174  Greek  Church 

The  Greek  Church  cannot  therefore  include  more  than  150  milliong 
of  nominal  adherents,  and  in  1880  it  numbered  less  than  90  millions, 
against  239  millions  of  Roman  Catholics. 

The  Greek  Church  differs  from  the  Latin  in  various  points, 
besides  the  *'  Filioque  Clause "  as  to  the  Procession  of  the  Holj 
Ghost.  It  has  the  same  seven  sacraments — ^baptism,  confirmation, 
penance,  the  £ucharist,  matrimony,  extreme  unction,  and  holy  orders. 
It  teaches  transubstantiatiou,  the  invocation  of  saints,  and  prayer  for 
the  dead,  as  do  the  Latins.  But  it  rejects  later  Roman  dogmas,  such 
as  Purgatory,  works  of  supererogation,  and  Papal  infallibility,  with  the 
immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin.  It  does  not  insist  on  celibacy 
of  the  clergy,  for  it  allows  all  priests  to  marry  before  ordination.  It 
celebrates  the  Eucharist  with  leavened  bread,  and  with  warm  water 
mixed  with  the  wine.  Baptism  it  administers  in  the  more  ancient 
manner  by  immersion,  and  not  by  sprinkling.  It  allows  priests  to  grow 
their  beards ;  and  its  bishops  wear  crowns  instead  of  mitres.  At  no 
time  in  history  did  the  Greek  Church,  as  a  whole,  ever  admit  the 
claim  to  supremacy  over  all  Catholics  which  the  bishops  of  Rome 
advanced  from  the  times  when  Christian  Rome  was  still  the  capital  of 
an  undivided  empire.  The  Greek  monks  follow  for  the  most  part  the 
'*  Rule  of  St  Basil,"  and  from  them  alone  are  bishops  selected.  They 
live  in  seclusion  and  gross  idleness  in  their  monasteries,  engaged  in 
an  endless  round  of  prayers  and  meditations,  like  those  of  Buddhist 
ascetiks.  According  to  Von  Maurer  (see  Mr  J.  Brown,  Oreek 
Chwrch),  "out  of  1000  priests  only  10  could  write  in  1832," 
and  few  know  anything  of  the  great  doctrines  which  have  divided 
the  Churches.  To  the  laity  religion  is  a  mere  round  of  fasts  and 
festivals,  which  have  a  semi-magical  importance.  Dean  Stanley  says 
that  for  a  thousand  years  the  Eastern  Church  has  never  moved,  as 
regards  either  theology  or  philosophy.  It  is  notorious,  among  all 
who  really  know  the  Levant,  that  the  grossest  immorality,  corruption, 
and  simony  characterise  the  Greek  clergy.  Ecclesiastical  rank  is 
bought  and  sold  almost  openly,  and  for  two  centuries  patriarchs 
have  rarely  held  office  for  more  than  about  three  years.  Jew  and 
Turk  alike  are  leagued  with  the  more  powerful  ecclesiastics,  in 
intrigues  for  dismissing  and  retaining  holders  of  sacred  offices — 
poor  ignorant  men  concerned  only  in  earning  their  daily  bread  by 
endless  services  and  visitations,  for  which  they  receive  fees,  fining 
their  iiocks  for  non-attendance,  and  other  sins.  They  frighten  them 
with  threats  of  excommunication,  social  ostracism,  and  hell  fire,  much 
as  the  Roman  clergy  also  do.  The  church  service,  as  far  as  the  laity 
are  concerned,  consists  in  listening  and  looking  on,  lighting  candles, 


Green  175 

and  repeating  again  and  again  *'  Have  mercy,  Lord,  have  mercy " — 
often  emphasised  by  striking  the  head  on  the  church  flagstones  so 
violently  as  to  be  heard  from  far  off.  The  liturgy  is  in  a  language 
which  even  priests  no  longer  understand  ;  and  the  reading  of  saintly 
legends  takes  the  place  of  any  attempt  to  educate  the  ignorant,  who 
are  kept  on  their  knees  before  pictures,  and  relics,  for  226  days  in 
the  year.  The  churches  are  full  of  untold  wealth,  in  the  useless  forms 
of  jewelled  lamps  and  vestments,  and  pictures  overlaid  with  gold. 
At  least  200  millions  sterling  is  annually  subscribed  by  the  laity, 
to  support  this  system,  yet  the  Greek  priests  are  both  hated  and 
despised. 

Green*  This  is  the  color  of  youth,  spring,  and  verdure  (see 
Colors).  The  mysterious  "  el  Ehudr  "  (the  '*  green  one  ")  was  sent 
(according  to  Moslem  legends)  to  fetch  the  Water  of  Life  from 
Paradise,  by  Dhu-el-Kamein  ("  he  of  the  two  horns  "),  or  Alexander 
the  Great.  After  much  toil  be  found  the  "  Fount  of  Youth  "  in  the 
*'Land  of  Darkness,"  and  drank  some  of  it.  But  the  fountain  dis- 
appeared for  ever,  leaving  el  Ehudr  immortal  and — according  to  the 
^oran — a  friend  of  Moslems.  So  also  Varuna,  lord  of  rainy  skies  in 
the  Veda,  rides  a  green  crocodile  ;  Surya  the  sun  has  green  attendants, 
and  rides  a  green  peacock.  Nearly  all  the  Saktis — or  female  counter- 
parts of  the  gods — are  colored  green  (see  Mr  Eodriquez,  Hindu 
Pantheon,  1841-1845,  colored  plates).  Kama  the  love  god  is 
green,  and  shoots  arrows  at  Siva  and  at  his  green  consort.  Green  is 
the  color  of  Nats  and  spirits,  of  elves,  fays,  and  dwarfs.  Satan 
even  is  sometimes  painted  green  by  Christians  ;  and  Christ  wears  a 
green  robe  when  rising  at  the  vernal  Easter.  To  Kelts  and  Skandi- 
navians  green  is  unlucky,  as  the  color  of  jealousy  and  of  "  green-eyed 
monsters."  The  cloak  of  death  is  green,  and  bad  women  wear  green 
stockings  in  Hell  (Notes  and  Qtieries^  24th  February  1900).  The 
*'  green  faction  "  of  Delphi  was  able  to  place  Claudius  on  the  imperial 
throne,  and  became  powerful  in  Constantinople.  In  the  1  2th  century 
the  Knights  of  St  Lazarus  at  Jerusalem  bore  a  green  cross — a  symbol 
still  used  in  1389  in  secret  rites  of  Swabia  and  Westphalia. 

Griha.  Sanskrit :  ''  house."  See  Gar.  The  Griha-Devas  are  the 
"household  gods"  or  manes,  in  niches  or  beside  altars  (see 
Salagrama), 

Glitta«  Grydat     Two  wives  of  Odin  (see  Gar  '<  to  shine"). 
Groves.     See  Asei^     The  worship  of  groves  is  intimately  con- 


176  Gubarra 

nected  with  that  of  single  trees,  but  the  word  as  a  translation  of 
Ash^rah  in  Hebrew  is  incorrect. 

Gubarra.  Probably  gvhara  "powerful,"  but  otherwise  read 
Dibbara,  or  Ura,  the  Babylonian  plague  god.  The  legend  is  found  on 
broken  tablets  which  origiually  numbered  five  in  all  (see  Brit.  Mu8, 
Ouide,  1900,  p.  74).  Gubara  slew  many  in  Babylon  and  ErecL 
Marduk  was  angry  and  Istar  wept ;  for  good  and  bad  were  alike 
sacrificed  to  him.  He  was  pacified  by  praises,  and  promised  to  spare 
all  who  adored  him.  Amulets  with  this  legend  were  bung  up  in 
houses  at  Nineveh  ;  and  a  scribe  informs  us  that  such  an  amulet  made 
the  house  safe  from  pestilence. 

Gud.     See  Gut 

Gug^g^a.  A  name  for  God  (Baghavan)  in  N.W.  India,  and  else- 
where— ^perhaps  ''  the  mighty  "  as  a  Turanian  word.  Also  the  name 
of  a  holy  man,  who  is  said  to  have  lived  in  our  10th  century, 
worshiped  by  the  humbler  classes  (Indian  Antiq.,  February  1882), 
and  supposed  to  be  an  Avatara  or  incarnate  deity. 

Guha.  Sanskrit :  "  secret " — a  name  of  Kartikeya,  the  "  mysteri- 
ous one,"  of  Siva,  and  of  other  gods,  just  as  Amen  was  the  **  hidden 
one  "  in  Egypt.  It  probably  comes  from  guha,  a  "  cave  "  or  secret 
place ;  and  Mithra  with  many  other  gods  issues  from  the  cave. 

GuL  Keltik  :  "  a  round  thing "  (see  Gal).  The  Irish  called  the 
round  towers  Gul,  as  also  the  eye,  and  hence  the  sun.  It  also  means 
sorcery,  second  sight,  and  the  month  of  August 

Gula.  An  Akkadian  and  Babylonian  godess.  She  appears  as 
one  of  the  brides  of  Samas,  but  is  distinguished  firom  Istar,  and 
appears  to  be  the  mother  and  the  earth.  She  is  represented,  on 
Kassite  boundary  stones  of  the  11th  century  B.C.,  seated  and  accom- 
panied by  a  dog.  She  was  one  of  the  most  important  godesses  of 
Babylonia. 

GuUer.  Gyler.  In  Skandinavian  mythology,  the  guardian  of 
the  horses  of  the  sun. 

Gune.     Greek  :  "  woman  "  (see  Gan). 

Guptas.  A  Royal  dynasty  of  W.  India  (see  Mr  V.  Smith, 
Jowrnal  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  January  1839).  Chandra-Gnpta 
(315-291  B.(\)  may  have  been  of  this  family.  The  coins,  and  the 
-tests  such  as  that  of  the  Allahabad  Lat,  or  pillar,  show  the  first  Gupta 


Guru  177 

Maharaja  to  have  reigned  about  300  to  315  A.C. ;  and  Skanda-Gupta 
from  452  to  480  A.G.  A  seal  from  Gbazipur  brings  Gupta  rule  down 
to  550  A.C.,  extending  from  the  E.  border  of  Napal  to  the  Gulf  of 
Eatch.  The  kingdom  was  broken  up  by  invasions  of  Hunas,  or 
Hunns,  who  overcame  Buddha-Gupta  son  of  Skanda-Gupta,  about 
500  A.c.  The  eastern  kingdom  was  held  by  Krishna-Gupta,  and  ten 
descendants,  from  500  to  720  A.c.  The  Gupta  capital  was  Patala- 
putra  (Patna),  and  afterwards,  till  500  A.C.,  Eanoj. 

Gum.  Sanskrit :  "  venerable  one,"  applied  however  not  only  to 
teachers  (as  among  Sikhs)  but  also  to  a  Pandaram  or  religious  mendi- 
cant Thej'  rank  in  nearly  all  Hindu  sects  much  like  mediseval 
abbots,  their  decisions  on  religious,  social,  and  even  political  questions 
being  final.  But  the  Guru  is  not  a  priest,  and  worships  in  temples 
like  others.  He  makes  progresses  in  almost  regal  state,  throughout  the 
region  where  his  disciples  live,  to  confirm  faith,  to  initiate,  and  to 
decide  causes,  or  points  of  doctrine.  A  Saiva  Guru  distributes  sacred 
ashes.  These  Maharajas,  as  they  are  called,  claim  the  same  privileges 
as  Gosains  in  regard  to  women.  We  have  seen  young  wives  going  to 
the  palace  of  the  Maharaja  of  Kangwali  in  Rajputana,  and  the  motives 
attributed  to  them  were  piety,  the  desire  to  receive  a  sacred  son,  and 
probably  old  tribal  rights.  The  Gurus  live  in  Maths  or  monasteries 
as  celibates,  and  are  rarely  seen  except  seated  on  the  Simhasina  or 
"  Uon  throne " ;  or  on  a  gorgeously  caparisoned  elephant,  surrounded 
— in  native  states — by  cavalry,  infantry,  musicians,  and  dancing  girls. 
A  herald  proclaims  the  approach  of  the  demigod,  before  whom  all 
fall  prostrate.  The  Guru  is  often  really  worshiped,  and  decked  with 
the  same  garlands  and  ornaments  as  the  temple  idol. 

We  have,  however,  known  learned  Gurus — pious  men  who 
adopted  the  Siddhanta  creed  of  Saivites,  accomplishing  severe  ascetik 
exercises  with  perfect  sincerity.  Some  become,  in  the  eyes  of  their 
disciples,  Jivan-muktas,  "  still  in  the  flesh,"  but  already  in  mystical 
union  with  God.  Such  Gurus  require  no  further  transmigrations 
before  the  soul  enters  bliss.  Dr  G.  U.  Pope,  the  respected  missionary 
and  Dravidian  scholar,  has  described  (Indian  Antiq.,  Dec.  1894),  a 
pious  Guru  whose  friendship  he  valued,  finding  him  *'a  model  of 
accurate,  painstaking,  self-denying,  and  conscientious  adherence  to 
the  letter  of  his  religion  ...  a  man  of  saintly  and  enlightened 
devotion,  full  of  repose,  and  gladly  awaiting  his  call  home.''  He 
believed  the  soul  to  come  from,  and  return  to,  Siva  after  many 
incarnations.  The  Guru  who  has  attained  to  this  reunion  is  worshiped 
as  the  image  of  God  on  earth. 


178  Gushtasp 

Gushtasp.  Kustaspi*  The  Hystaspes  of  the  Greeks,  ancestor 
of  the  first  kings  of  Persia,  and  father  of  Darius  I,  who  acceded 
521  B.G.  He  is  a  leading  figure  in  the  later  legends  of  the  Shah- 
nameh. 

Gut.  Gud.  Akkadian  :  "  mighty  one,"  "  buU "  :  Turkish  Kui 
"mighty"  ;  perhaps  connected  with  the  Indian  Khuda,  and  Teutonic 
Oott  **  God  "  ;  as  also  with  the  name  of  the  Goths. 

Gya,  or  Buddha-GEySL  The  most  sacred  spot  in  India,  where 
Buddha  took  up  his  station  under  the  Pipal,  or  Ficus  Religiosa,  in  the 
forest  of  Raja-griha  in  the  Bihar  province  of  Bangal,  some  55  miles 
S.  of  Fatna.  Here  he  attained  to  enlightenment,  and  to  the  Path. 
The  tree  is  about  5  miles  from  the  town  of  Gya,  near  which  is  the 
shrine  of  the  foot  of  Vishnu.  Gya  (see  Vayu  Purana)  is  said  to  have 
been  a  demon,  clothed  in  elephant's  hide,  whom  Vishnu  captured 
He  was  covered  with  a  stone,  but  would  not  lie  quiet  till  the  gods 
granted  that  any  who  worshiped  on  the  spot  should  escape  helL 
There  are  no  less  than  45  sacred  ''stations"  to  be  visited  io 
38  shrines,  which  it  needs  13  days,  and  much  money,  to  visit  Id 
Buddha's  time  the  forests  were  here  full  of  Naga  tribes,  and  serpent 
symbolism  still  survives  here.  In  the  adytum  of  the  Buddhist 
temple  itself  a  great  lingam  stone  shows  the  decay  of  the  pure 
faith  preached  by  the  gentle  ascetik.  Here  Hindus,  scowling  or 
scoffing,  will  now  even  spit  on  pious  Buddhists,  who  come  from  the 
steppes  of  Mongolia,  the  forests  of  Barmah  and  Siam,  or  the  cities  of 
China  and  Japan,  to  worship  at  the  holy  spot  (Dr  Waddell,  Journal 
Bl,  Bengal  Asiatic  Socy.,  i,  1892).  Thebau,  the  last  king  of 
Barmah,  here  built  a  rest  house  for  his  people.  Japan  sent  later 
a  valued  image  of  the  Master,  which  roused  the  jealous  ire  of  the 
Mahants,  or  Hindu  ruling  priests,  worshiping  the  footprint,  and  the 
phallic  lingam  in  the  Argha  The  Lamas  of  Darjiling  believe  that 
"the  holy  staff  of  Bod"  (Buddha)  has  now  rested  2400  years  at 
Gya,  being  their  Dorji  or  mace  (see  Dor-ji). 

Hiuen  Tsang,  the  Chinese  pilgrim,  described  Gya  in  637  A.C. 
He  found  the  holy  BOdhi  tree  (*'  tree  of  wisdom ")  in  a  comer  of  a 
square  platform  raised  to  its  N.E.  The  trunk  and  branches  are  now 
daubed  with  red  ochre,  as  is  usual  among  most  Hindu  sects.  The 
Pipal  tree  is  now  in  sad  decay,  and  its  vicinity  was  occupied  when 
Sir  Edwin  Arnold  saw  it  (see  Daily  Telegraph,  letter  in  February 
1893)  by  a  Brahman  and  his  disciples.  He  describes  the  temple, 
which  rises  as  a  pyramid  flanked  by  four  lesser  ones,  as  occupying  an 
area  equal  to  that  of  Bedford  Square,  the  site  being  full  of  terraces, 


Gya  179 

stone  images,  and  shrines.  From  the  great  plinth  on  which  the 
pyramids  stand  the  central  tower  rises  nine  storeys.  All  the 
exterior  of  the  temple  is  profusely  carved.  The  great  pyramid  is 
crovrned  with  a  pinnacle,  on  which  the  gold  finial  represents  an 
amalaka  fruit.  Over  the  E.  porch  is  a  triangular  opening  which 
admits  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun,  striking  on  the  gilded  image  of 
Buddha.  This  shrine,  according  to  a  Barmese  inscription,  is  the 
most  holy  of  *'the  84.000  stupas"  erected  by  Kiog  Asoka  ••218 
years  after  the  Lord  Buddha's  Nirvana."  This  shrine  the  Maha- 
fiodhi  society  of  India,  Barmah,  and  Japan,  were  then  arranging  to 
purchase ;  for  the  dark  pointed  leaves  of  the  Pipal  could  only  be 
obtained  by  a  gratuity  to  Brahman  attendants  chanting  the  praises 
of  Siva,  or  of  Vishnu,  or  engaged  in  rolling  little  pindas  ("  buns ") 
which  they  bake  and  bless  as  holy  bread.  Yet  the  great  railing  bears 
tbe  inscription  of  Asoka  (250  B.C.)  marking  the  palmy  age  of 
Buddhism ;  the  text  in  the  Mahants  College  (written  in  Barmese) 
as  above  noticed  (attributing  84,000  stupas  to  Asoka)  does  not, 
however,  agree  with  the  usual  date  (543  B.C.)  for  Buddha's  Nirvana. 
It  says  that  on  this  spot  he  "  tasted  milk  and  honey."  The  seven 
years  of  meditation  which  Qotama  here  passed  through  *' moulded 
(says  Sir  Edwin  Arnold)  the  life  and  religions  of  Asia,  and  modified 
a  hundred  Asiatic  histories."  What  site  in  India,  so  rich  with 
monuments  and  shrines,  can  be  compared  for  imperishable  associations 
with  this,  by  the  little  fig  tree  at  Buddha  Gaya  (India  Revis,  xiv, 
1886). 

At  every  important  Buddhist  site  there  is  always  a  representa- 
tive "  B5dhi  tree,"  but  this  Pipal  near  the  former  village  of  Uruvela 
is  the  great  original,  and  its  monastery  the  greatest  in  the  Buddhist 
world,  tbe  Maha-Bodhi  Sangharama.  The  stupa,  or  pyramid,  was 
repaired  and  plastered  by  the  Bangal  government  in  1879-81.  It 
is  170  feet  high  and  50  feet  square  at  the  base,  marking,  we  are  told, 
the  "exact  spot"  where  Buddha  sat  under  the  original  B5dhi  or  Bo 
tree.  The  original  temple  is  not  later  than  the  1st  century  B.C.,  but 
it  was  extensively  repaired  by  Barmese  monarchs  in  our  14th  century, 
and  again  in  1876.  It  is  of  burnt  bricks,  laid  in  mud  and  covered 
with  a  stone  facing  at  the  doors  and  angles,  like  many  temples  of 
Upper  Barmab.  The  level  of  the  whole  site  has  been  raised,  by  the 
accumulation  of  debris,  some  20  feet  above  the  natural  level  of 
Buddha's  time.  From  this  debris  memorials  of  various  ages  are 
constantly  exhumed.  The  fine  stone  railing  of  Asoka  was  among 
these.  He  here  erected  the  first  Vihara  or  monastery,  with  Lats,  or 
pillars,  bearing  his  wise  counsels  engraved  upon  them.     The  second 


180  Gymnosophists 

group  of  Viharas  is  believed  to  date  from  about  140  A.C.,  being  due 
to  the  Huvisbka  kings. 

Gymnosophists.  "  Naked  wise  men  " — a  name  applied  by 
the  Greeks  to  the  Indian  ascetiks  visiting  the  West,  about  350  to 
200  B.C.  They  astonished  all  men  by  their  austerities,  burnlQg 
themselves,  like  Kalanos  in  Persia,  as  well  as  fasting  and  praying. 
Bryant  (iii,  p.  220)  would  however  suppose  the  title  to  be  a  comip- 
tion  of  Shamano-sophists.  The  influence  of  such  ascetiks  on  the  West 
is  elsewhere  described  (see  Buddha,  Essenes,  Pythagoras). 


H 

The  English  letter  H  represents  both  the  soft  H  (Hebrew  Heh) 
which  interchanges  with  S  (as  in  the  Sanskrit  Soma  and  Zend  Hcuma, 
or  the  Hebrew  Hii  and  Assyrian  8u  for  "  he "),  and  also  the  hard 
H  (Hebrew  Kheth),  which  interchanges  with  strong  gutturals. 

Hab'al.    HobaL      The    principal    male    deity   of    Makka  and 

Arabia.     The  name  originally  appears  to   have   been  Ha-B'al,  "the 

Baal"  or  lord,  perhaps  confused  later  with  Habal — that  is  Abel — 

the   son  of  Adam.     The  statue  of  Habal  stood  outside  the  E'abah 

shrine,  with  the  360  Ansab  or  erect  stones,  which  probably  formed 

a  circle  round  it.     On  his  triumphant  return  to  Makkah  in  632  A.c.^ 

Muhammad  and  his  followers,  in  accordance  with  the  ancient  rite  (see 

Dancing),  solemnly  circumambulated  these  stones  seven  times,  and  od 

the  last  round  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed  "  the  Truth  is  come,'*  and 

to  have  pushed  over  the  statue  of  Habal.     The  deity's  consorts  in  the 

Hajaz  were  AUat  ("  the  godess  "),  and  Al-'Ozzah  ("  the  mighty  one ") : 

his  statue  stood  apparently  close  to  the  Zem-zem  (or  "murmuring") 

sacred  well  (as  stated  by  Sprenger),  behind  the  K'abah  or  "  square " 

temple  of  AUat.     Habal  was  the  special  patron  of  the  IS^oreisb  tribe, 

to   which   Muhammad  belonged,  as  they  were  the  guardians  of  the 

Makka  Haram.      They  claimed   that  their  ancestor  Khuzaima  first 

adopted  Habal,  preferring  him  to  the  older  gods,  Khalasa  ("  purity  "]♦ 

Nabik,  and   Mut'am  ("decider").      'Amr  of  the  'Amru  clan  is  said 

to  have  brought  the  statue  from  the  Belka  region,  which  is  the  countrr 

E.  of  Jordan,  in  the  3rd  century  A.c.     He  was  especially  revered  as 

sending  rain,  and  was  a  god  of  fate.    The  statue  was  of  red  stone,  but 

the  right  hand  was  of  gold,  and  held  the  seven  headless  "arrows  of 

fate  *'  used  in  casting  lots,  and  called  Azldm  Kiddah,  or  "  arrows  of 

divination."     There  was  a  similar  deity  at  Tebalah  who  was  consulted 


Hadad  181 

by  Azlam,  and  whom  Muhammad  also  destroyed  ;  but  he  was  there 
called  Dhu  el  Ehalasah,  or  "  he  of  purity."  Habal  was  represented 
as  an  old  man  with  a  long  beard.  Sir  W.  Muir  {Life  of  Muharamad, 
iv,  p.  128)  says  that  Abraham  was  represented  on  the  wall  of  the 
K'abah  in  the  act  of  divining  with  arrows.  Probably  this  statement 
of  later  Arab  writers  really  points  to  a  picture  of  Habal. 

Hadad.  In  Hebrew,  for  Ha-dad  ("  the  father")  see  Dad.  This 
Syrian  god,  called  Addu  in  kuneiform  texts  as  early  as  the  15th 
century  B.C.,  was  the  chief  deity,  otherwise  called  Rlmmon  ("  the  most 
high"),  a  god  of  air  and  storm,  and  a  thunderer.  The  kings  of 
Damascus  who  bore  the  name  Ben-Hadad  ("son  of  Hadad")  were 
named  after  him,  and  the  king  of  Gebal  in  the  15th  century  B.C.  (see 
Amarna)  was  named  Rib- Adda  ["  child  of  Hadad,"  Rib  in  Aramaik 
signifying  a  child — Ed.].  According  to  Macrobius  (Satumal,  i,  23), 
he  was  "  the  one,"  the  god  of  light,  fire,  and  sun,  resembling  Reseph 
(a  thunder  god),  and  Zeus. 

Hadramaut.  Arabia  "  The  enclosure  of  death "  or  desert 
E.  of  Yaman  (see  Arabia),  the  Hebrew  Hasar-maveth  (Gen.  x,  26). 
In  this  region  some  of  the  Babylonian  gods  were  worshiped,  and 
stepped  pyramids  like  those  of  Babylonia  were  made  (see  Arabia). 


A  demon,  or  screech  owl,  in  Teutonic  mythology,  answer- 
iog  to  the  Latin  "  fury "  (see  Erinues) :  whence  the  English  "  hag," 
and  old  English  hagge.  The  Teutonic  Hagdessen  were  Truds  (see 
Druids)  or  "  wizards." 

Hag^g^adah.  Hebrew  :  "narrative."  That  part  of  the  Mid  rash, 
or  *'  teaching  "  concerning  the  Jewish  scriptures,  which  deals  with  the 
legendary  history  of  their  heroes,  as  contrasted  with  the  Halaka  or 
"exposition"  of  the  law.  The  Jews  regard  the  Haggadafa  as  *'a 
comfort  and  blessing,"  its .  stories  being  regarded  as  allegories  often 
with  a  moral. 

Haidas*  A  race  found  in  the  Queen  Charlotte  islands,  and  in 
some  200  islands  of  this  Melanesian  group  E.  of  Australia.  They 
were  first  known  in  1790,  and  are  considered  to  have  drifted  from 
the  S.E.  of  Asia.  They  believe  in  two  great  gods  of  a  generally  good 
character,  rulers  of  the  upper  and  lower  world.  Shanungetta-gidas 
is  their  Zeus,  and  Hetgwaulana  is  their  Pluto,  who  loves  darkness, 
peace,  and  slumber.  The  first  named,  or  light  god,  quarrelled  with 
the  latter,  and  cast  him  out  of  heaven,  which  became  full  of  other 
gods — mostly  hurtful  to  man,  as  producing  fever  and  other  ailments. 


182  Haidas 

and  requiring  therefore  to  be  propitiated  with  offerings  of  fish  and 
fruits.  Such  offerings  are  cast  to  the  good  sea  god,  who  is  asked  to 
intercede  for  men.  The  descending  cloud  spirit,  also  called  the 
''cannibal  god/'  devours  men,  first  drawing  out  their  spirits,  and  tbeQ 
seizing  the  bodies  as  they  go  in  quest  of  the  lost  soula  He  is  evea 
known  to  eat  souls.  The  wicked  souls  are  given  over  to  him,  and  are 
sent  to  Hetwange,  or  Hades,  the  region  of  their  Pluto  beneath  ocean. 
There  they  live  forever  naked  and  cold,  amid  storms,  darkness,  and 
misery.  The  light  god  is  invoked  to  grant  blessings  through  the 
mediation  of  the  sun,  or  of  the  ocean  god.  The  dark  god  is  invoked 
to  send  curses  on  foes,  with  offerings  of  fish.  Those  who  have  been 
good  on  earth  go  up  at  last  to  Shatuge,  or  heaven — a  land  of  the 
blessed,  and  of  light,  where  there  is  no  more  hunger  or  thirst,  but 
plenty,  and  rest  among  friends :  there  all  love  each  other,  and  enjoy 
feasts  and  dancing. 

The  greatest  sin  man  can  commit,  according  to  the  artful  Saagas 
or  priests,  is  to  disregard  the  wishes  of  those  by  whose  intercession 
alone  welfare  can  be  obtained,  and  whose  curse  condemns  a  man  to  helL 
The  soul  remains  with  the  cloud  spirit,  or  with  death,  for  12  months^ 
and  learns  many  mysteries.  If  good  it  becomes  the  essence  of  pure 
light,  and  so  acceptable  to  the  light  god,  who  is  assured,  by  the  spirit 
of  death,  that  it  no  longer  is  a  part  of  the  depraved  earthly  body. 
But  the  soul  has  the  power  of  revisiting  friends  on  earth.  There  is 
no  possible  salvation,  or  atonement,  for  the  wicked.  To  increase 
their  punishment  they  are  kept  within  sight  of  their  earthly  friends, 
and  they  are  ever  longing  to  speak  with  them.  Some  wicked  souls 
do  revisit  earth,  but  they  are  visible  only  to  the  Saagas,  who  caution 
the  living  to  hide,  lest  by  seeing  such  a  ghost  disease,  or  death,  should 
ensue.  Very  wicked  souls  are  sent  into  the  bodies  of  animals  and 
fish,  to  be  there  tortured,  by  disease  and  death.  They  are  found  iu 
bears,  and  in  the  whale  which  upsets  boats,  also  in  mice  which  destroy 
food ;  and  they  are  the  cause  of  bowel,  and  liver  diseases. 

The  islands  peopled  by  the  Haidas  are  believed  to  have  bi-en 
created  by  Yetlth  the  raven  god,  sent  by  the  dark  god  to  see  what 
the  light  god  was  doing.  The  raven  formed  clouds  by  beating  the 
water  with  his  wings,  and  afterwards  rocks  and  earth ;  and  then  womao, 
as  his  slave,  was  made  out  of  clam  shells.  Women  complained  of 
their  lone  condition,  and  so  man  was  made  out  of  a  limpet  There 
are  many  legends  of  the  raven,  and  of  the  eagle  that  stole  the  sud- 
child  and  the  firestick  by  which  all  warmth  in  heavens  and  earth  is 
created.  These  the  eagle,  being  pursued,  dropped  into  the  sea,  but 
recovered  them,  and  was  kindly  allowed  by  the  light  god  to  keep 


Haihayas  188 

them,  others  being  made  for  heaven  which  were  purer.  The  sun- 
babe  grew  into  a  handsome  man,  and  ran  off  with  the  raven's  wife, 
hiding  in  the  bush  where  she  concealed  him  with  the  firestick  in  a 
cedar  box — clearly  a  phallic  myth. 

Haihayas.  Haihai-bunsis.  Gonds  of  the  Panjab  and  of 
Oudh  (see  Gonds).  Ha\  a  is  a  "  horse."  They  are  said,  in  the  Mahfir 
bharata,  to  be  descended  from  Ila,  grandson  of  Nabusha — a  snake 
deity,  who  had  contended  with  Indra — which  suggests  a  connection 
with  the  Semitic  Haiyah  "  snake."  In  early  hymns  of  the  Eig  Veda 
the  Haihayas  or  Iravatas,  appear  as  a  busy  people  on  the  Sutlej  and 
Iravati  rivers.  [The  word  Haiyah,  from  the  root  "  to  live,"  is  used  in 
Arabic  to  mean  '*  a  tribe  "  or  "  clan." — Ed.]  They  are  called  children 
of  Ila  or  Ira — their  god  who  founded  the  shrine  of  Soma-nath.  This 
site  is  identified  vdth  Veraval  or  Ila-pur,  where  the  Pahlava  prince 
Krishna  built  a  fort  and  shrine  in  720  A.G.  which  '*  astonished  the 
immortab."  It  stands  on  a  headland  washed  by  the  sea,  and  over- 
looked by  the  sacred  hills  of  Ravataka.  In  the  Mahabharata  we  read 
that  Kama  slew  the  Haiyahas,  who  made  war  on  Indra  and  annoyed 
IndranL  They  were  driven  S.  by  the  Kurus  into  Cental  India,  where 
we  find  Haihaya  dynasties  ruling  till  the  Mahratta  conquest  of  1741  ; 
and  both  Dravid  and  Aryan  chiefs  in  S.  Bangal  still  hold  fiefs  from 
Haihaya  Gonds. 

Hair.  From  the  earliest  times  hair  was  an  offering  to  the  fire, 
or  by  fire  to  the  sun,  and  to  other  gods.  It  was  a  symbol  of  self- 
sacrifice.  Men  shaved  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow.  The  Japanese  still 
shave  the  head  when  mourning,  and  Arab  women  hang  plaits  of  their  hair 
on  graves.  Even  in  the  12th  century  the  hair  of  Frank  maidens  was 
cut  off  and  offered,  in  the  Cathedral  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  during 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin.  The  nun's  hair  is  so  cut  off  by 
Koman  Catholics. 

In  the  16th  century  B.C.  we  see  Phoenicians  with  shaven  heads 
represented  among  tribute  bearers  to  Egypt.  Absalom  cut  off  his 
hair  and  weighed  it  (2  Sam.  xiv,  26),  the  weight  being  about  4  lbs. 
It  was  usual  to  make  an  offering,  or  to  give  alms,  on  shaving  the  head, 
to  the  amount  of  the  weight  of  hair.  The  hair  of  the  head  and  of 
the  feet  (or  phallus),  with  the  beard,  was  shaved  in  deep  mourning 
(Isaiah  vii,  20)  by  men  and  women  (Jer.  vii,  29).  Jewish  women 
shave^  or  carefully  conceal,  the  hair  of  the  head  after  marriage, "  because 
of  the  angels,"  and  of  the  Shedim,  or  demons,  who  sit  in  the  tangles  of 
women's  hair  (see  1  Cor.  xi,  1 0).  The  Nazirite  (or  "  separated  one  ") 
preserved  his  hair  untouched,  until  shaving  it  in  accomplishment  of 


184  Hair 

his  vow.  No  Samaritan  can,  or  could,  be  made  a  priest  if  his  hair 
had  been  cut,  after  which  they  cut  it  every  fortnight  The  Moslem 
(like  the  Qond)  shaves  the  head,  leaving  only  the  Shueheh  or  "  top 
knot,''  by  which  the  angel  Gabriel  is  to  hold  him  as  he  crosses  the 
narrow  Sirat  bridge  to  heaven  (see  Bridges).  Virgil  says  that  the 
hair  of  the  head  was  sacred  to  the  infernal  gods.  Greeks  of  both 
sexes  used  to  cut  off  their  hair  a  few  days  before  marriage,  and  wore 
the  hair  of  those  thev  loved.  Christian  Greeks  cut  three  locks  from 
the  babe's  head,  devoting  tbem  to  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost, 
by  placing  them  in  the  font  at  baptism.  Hair  was  also  torn  in  sigo 
of  mourning  by  many  races.  The  monk  or  the  priest  is  marked  by 
his  tonsure  ;  and  St  Augustine  in  England  disapproved  of  the  shape 
of  the  Culdee  tonsure,  which  was  probably  like  that  of  the  Greek, 
and  not  of  the  Eoman,  Church.  St  Gregory  of  Tours  said  that  a 
king  in  France  would  only  cut  his  son's  hair  if  he  intended  to  exclude 
him  from  the  succession  :  for  the  early  Frankish  kings  were  long 
haired.  The  Chinese  suffered  martyrdom  rather  than  cut  their  hair, 
•  when  ordered  by  the  Manchu  Conquerors  to  adopt  the  Tartar  pigtail 
The  Kelts  equally  objected  to  shave  like  Christian  Normaos,  and 
could  only  be  induced  to  sacrifice  their  beards  as  late  as  1100  A.a 
In  the  Middle  Ages  a  godfather  only,  or  an  honoured  frieud,  was 
allowed  to  cut  the  child's  first  hair,  "after  which  it  must  forever  be 
beholden  to  him."  The  Emperor  Constantino,  father  of  Heracleus, 
sent  his  son's  hair  to  the  Pope.  Among  the  Malagasy  the  first  cutting 
of  hair  is  an  important  festive  rite.  They,  and  the  Siamese,  do  Dot 
allow  children  to  be  educated  till  the  hair  is  cut  (see  Academy^  24th 
November  1877  ;  Journal  Anthrop,  /nsttf.,  August,  November  1881). 
Many  Indian  tribes  associate  the  first  cutting  of  the  child's  hair 
with  the  naming  rite.  The  Chinese  consider  it  the  most  sacred  rite 
of  infancy,  occurring  when  the  infant  is  three  months  old.  Nero 
consecrated  his  youthful  beard  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus  (according  to 
Suetonius),  depositing  it  in  the  Capitol  in  a  gold  box  set  with  gems. 
In  the  16  th  century  gentlemen  wore  their  beards  in  gold  leaf  as  a 
sign  of  mourning.  At  the  funeral  of  Patroclus  (according  to  Homer), 
Achilles  cut  off  his  golden  locks,  which  his  father  had  dedicated  to 
the  river  god,  and  threw  them  into  the  stream.  Lucian  says  that  the 
hair  of  youths  and  maidens  was  offered  to  the  Dea  Syria.  The 
young  men  let  it  grow  till  reaching  manhood,  and  placed  it  in  the 
temple  in  a  gold  or  silver  vase,  inscribed  with  the  worshiper's  name,  as, 
says  Lucian,  **  I  myself  did  when  young."  In  Polynesia  the  Sandwich 
Islanders — though  professing  Christianity — still  cut  off  their  hair,  to 
offer  it  to  Pele  and  other  fire  gods  (Miss  Gordon   Cumming,  Fire 


Haj  185 

Fountai7i3,  i,  pp.  7,  8).  Just  so  Queen  Berenice  (220  b.g.)  sacrificed 
her  hair  to  Venus,  praying  for  victory  for  her  husband.  The  tresses 
are  said  to  have  been  taken  by  Zeus,  and  formed  the  constellation  of 
"Berenice's  Lock."  At  the  Liberalia,  in  Rome,  a  procession  passed 
through  the  streets  at  the  vernal  equinox,  ascendiug  by  the  Forum 
to  the  Capitol  with  songs ;  and  the  young  then  offered  their  hair  in 
connection  with  the  assumption  of  the  Toga  Virilis  (see  Smith's  Diet, 
of  Antiq,y  articles  "  Impubes  *'  and  "  Toga  ").  The  growth  of  hair  was 
the  sign  of  maturity.  The  Arabs  of  £dom  still  offer  to  ancient  deities 
the  hair  of  babes,  with  blood  of  circumcision  (see  Rev.  R  Smith, 
Kinship  and  Marriage,  p.  152), 

It  is  generally  considered  unlucky  to  leave  hair,  or  nail  parings, 
on  the  ground  :  for  demons  get  hold  of  them.  The  hair  is  also  used 
by  witches,  in  making  images  of  persons  who  are  to  be  tortured  by 
maltreating  the  wax  effigy,  which  may  be  melted  or  stuck  full  with 
pins  (an  ancient  form  of  sorcery  in  Egypt) :  for  some  part  of  the 
victim's  body — a  hair  or  nail  paring — must  be  in  the  effigy  to  give  it 
reality.  Jewesses  also  hide  nail  parings  in  cracks  of  the  wall,  and  put 
a  hair  or  two  of  their  own  in  the  husband's  pudding,  to  be  eaten  by 
him,  and  so  secure  his  love.  The  Flamen  Dialis,  in  Rome,  saw  that 
hair  and  nail  parings  were  burned  under  a  lucky  tree.  The  Parsis 
have  a  formal  ritual  at  burials  in  this  connection  (Yendidad). 

In  mythology  the  hair  of  gods  is  a  symbol  of  rays  of  light  (see 
Gilgamas) ;  and  the  infant  Horus  in  Egypt  wears  a  single  side  lock, 
as  did  the  Libyans.  The  strength  of  Samson  (Shamash,  '*  the  sun  ") 
was  in  his  locks,  which  were  at  last  shaved  when  he  became  blind, 
but  grew  again,  when  his  strength  returned.  Among  the  holy  men 
of  India  none  are  more  sacred  than  those  with  long  hair.  Camping 
in  the  jungles  we  have  often  passed  days  in  company  with  filthy 
Yogis  while  enquiring,  with  youthful  zeal  for  information,  as  to  their 
ideas,  and  were  told  that  they  had  **  the  power  of  their  god  on  their 
heads  "  in  the  uncut  hair,  never  having  cut  their  matted  locks,  but 
continually  anointing  these,  and  their  malodorous  bodies,  which  they 
were  proud  to  show  us  alive  with  vermin. 

Haj.  Hajj.  Arabic  :  *'  a  going  round  "  or  "  visiting,"  and  "  cir- 
cumambulation,"  commonly  understood  to  mean  a  ''pilgrimage"  to 
Makka,  like  the  Hebrew  Hogg  applied  to  the  great  festivals  of  the 
Jewish  year  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Hajr-el-Aswad.  "  The  black  stone  "  at  Makka,  built  into  the 
wall  of  the  K'abah  at  one  corner — a  small  fragment  of  an  ancient 
lingam  stone,  sacred  in  the  time  of  Muhammad  according  to  later 


186  Hakm 

writers,  and  supposed  to  have  been  worshiped  for  400  years  on  the 
Persian  Gulf  (see  Makka). 

Hakm*  In  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  signifies  "  wise."  Hebrew  Hole- 
mail  (divine)  "  wisdom."  Arabic  Hakim,  a  "  wise  man  "  or  doctor, 
Holcm  "wise  decision,"  and  "government"  Hakim-bi-*Amr-Allah 
was  a  mad  Kbalifah  worshiped  as  an  incarnation  of  God  (see 
Druses). 

Hala.  Sanskrit:  "ploughing."  Hala  is  "ploughed  earth." 
Hali  is  Sita  "  the  furrow,"  or  Indian  Proserpine.  Siva  is  also  Haloa 
the  "  plougher,"  and  Bala- Rama  is  Hal-dar  the  "  plough  bolder." 
The  ploughshare  was  a  mark  of  Indian  chiefs. 

Halaka.  Hebrew :  "  exposition."  That  part  of  the  Jewish 
Midrash,  or  "  teaching,"  which  is  concerned  with  exposition  of  the  law. 
It  is  of  three  kinds — Peshat  or  "  extension,"  that  is  to  say  commeDt : 
Deruah  "  lesson  "*or  application  ;  and  Lot  "  hidden,"  or  esoteric  mystical 
meaning. 

Haldis.  Aide.  An  Armenian  god  noticed  near  lake  Van,  by 
Sargon  of  Assyria,  about  713  B.C.  [The  language  of  the  region  was 
apparently  Medic,  and  the  name  may  be  from  the  Aryan  root  Hal 
"  shining." — Ed.] 

Hallow- Even.  A  popular  British  festival  on  the  eve  of  the 
31st  October,  when  new  fires  should  be  lighted,  by  chiefs  or  priests 
The  Church  made  it  the  feast  of  All  Souls.  Among  Irish  Kelts  it 
was  the  feast  of  Samh-suin  or  **  the  end  of  summer."  Torch-light 
processions  were  made,  and  new  fires  lighted,  the  sacred  ashes  of  the 
old  fires  beiog  carefully  gathered  and  strewn  on  fielda  A  feast 
followed,  and  after  it  apples  were  floated  in  large  tubs  of  water,  or 
hung  on  strings,  to  be  caught  in  the  mouth  without  using  the  bands. 
This  is  still  the  custom  at  the  season  in  Ireland,  and  large  numbers 
of  apples  are  required  for  the  day.  The  revellers  sought  to  discover 
their  future  fortunes  by  various  "  sortes,"  or  means  of  divination,  cas^ 
ing  lots  by  nuts  and  crackers.  Maidens  went  into  gardens  to  seek 
for  cabbage  stalks  symbolising  future  husbands.  In  Scotland  (as 
Bums  describes)  they  went  in  the  dark  to  barns,  and  other  outbuild- 
ings, where  the  future  husband  would  appear.  The  rites  often  were 
not  less  savage  than  those  of  Australians  (see  Journ.  Anthirop.  InsiiU 
Nov.  1894).  The  great  sun-image  of  the  Krom-kruach  was  specially 
worshiped  at  this  season,  as  were  boats,  ploughs,  and  farm  implements: 
these  were  sprinkled  with  "  fire-spoken  water  "  (Brand,  Pop,  Antiq-^ 


Ham  187 

or  water  consecrated  by  passing  it  over  fire.  The  Kelts  near  the  sea 
coast  went,  says  Brand,  "  at  the  Faalan-tide  and  sacrificed  to  the  sea-god 
Shony "  (as  Neapolitans,  and  natives  of  Bombay  and  Madras  alike, 
worship  the  sea  in  autumn) ;  and  the  people  of  St  Kilda  used  to  eat 
a  triangular  cake  on  the  seashore,  in  honour  of  their  ocean  godess 
Shony. 

HeiII.  The  ancestor  of  a  race  in  W.  Asia  and  in  Egypt  (Gen.  x, 
6),  which  apparently  included  the  Akkadians  of  Kaldea  and  other 
Turanians.  It  is  usually  rendered  "black/'  as  his  son  Eush  is  sup- 
posed to  mean  "  dark,"  but  is  perhaps  better  rendered  "  hot "  or  **  sun- 
burnt." From  the  same  root  (Hamm)  comes  the  name  of  the 
Hammanim  or  **  sun  images "  (Levit.  xxvi,  30 ;  Isa.  xxvii,  9). 
It  has  also  been  compared  with  the  name  of  the  Egyptian  god  Ehem, 
and  with  Khemi  the  name  of  Egypt  itself.  [Possibly  it  is  a  Turanian 
word  from  the  root  Kham  "  to  move,"  to  "  push  forward,"  as  a  con- 
quering people. — Ed.] 

Hamar.  Arabic:  "ruddy  brown."  The  Hamyar,  Himyar.  or 
Homerites  of  S.  Arabia  were  thence  named  (see  Arabia). 

Hamath.  Hebrew  :  "  fortress,"  "  sanctuary."  The  chief  city  of 
central  Syria,  where  the  first  Hittite  texts  were  found  (see  Kheta). 

Hammer.  This  emblem,  originally  phallic,  is  the  weapon  of 
Thor  among  Skandiuavians,  often  represented  by  the  Fyl-fot,  or  Crux 
Ansata,  and  also  as  a  three-legged  object  (see  Sir  G.  Cox,  Aryan 
Mythol.,  ii,  p.  115),  or  simply  as  a  stone  axe,  being  the  "thunder 
bolt."  It  awakens  maidens  to  become  the  brides  of  kings  {At^yan 
Mythol,^  i,  p.  265)  being  akin  to  the  Akm5n  or  "anvil"  of  Zeus 
(p.  359).  Thor's  hammer  remained  nine  months  in  the  earth,  and 
then  returned  to  him  in  As-gard,  or  heaven.  It  is  variously  de- 
scribed as  a  hammer,  spear,  arrow,  or  club,  which  when  cast  returned 
to  him  ;  or  as  a  rock  hurled  at  giants  in  cloudland  (p.  380).  It  was 
found  with  the  maiden  Freya  (see  Freya)  when  held  by  the  giant, 
being  brought  out  "  to  consecrate  the  bride."  Miolner  (the  hammer) 
"  lay  on  the  maiden's  lap."  The  Japanese  god  Dai-ko-ku,  the  patron 
of  wealth,  also  holds  the  "  hammer  which  contains  seven  precious 
things."  It  is  also  the  weapon  of  the  Vedik  Maruts  or  "  storm  "  gods, 
"the  crushers"  (see  Hephaistos  and  Svastika). 

Hammurabi.  'Ammurabi.  Ammurapi.    The  sixth  king 

of  Babylon,  and  the  first  to  found  an  empire  independent  of  Elamite 
suzerainty.     He  acceded  probably  in   2139  B.C.,  and  ruled  for  43  or 


188  Hammurabi 

45  years.  [Becent  discoveries  have  added  much  to  our  knowledge  of 
this  kiug,  especially  that  of  the  stela  of  laws  found  at  Susa  E.  of  the 
Tigris.  We  have  some  texts  by  him  in  Akkadian,  one  referring  to 
his  Elamite  conquests,  another — ^a  bilingual — recording  his  victories 
in  poetical  form  (No.  73,  Brit  Mue.  Caty  1900,  p.  83).  His  chronicle 
is  unfortunately  much  damaged,  in  the  Babylonian  chronicle  of  the 
Ist  dynasty,  which  is  also  written  in  Akkadian.  His  great  canal,  we 
learn,  was  dug  in  the  9th  year  of  his  reign,  and  his  contest  with 
Elam  appears  to  have  begun  in  his  30th  year.  We  possess  also  47 
letters  which  he  wrote  to  Sin-idinnam,  a  subordinate  ruler  in  S.  Baby- 
lonia. These  show  the  most  elaborate  system  of  civilised  and  centralised 
power.  'Ammurabi  gives  orders  as  to  all  kinds  of  arrangements  for 
trade,  irrigation,  taxation,  local  crovernment,  the  calendar,  farming, 
and  grazing,  punishment  of  officials  for  taking  bribes,  accounts,  navi- 
gation, rents,  debts,  religion,  slaves,  trials,  and  appeals ;  they  indicate 
that  Assyria  as  well  as  Babylonia  was  under  his  rule.  From  the 
opening  clauses  of  the  Susa  law  tablet  we  learn  aJso  that  he  ruled 
over  Babylon,  Ur,  Sippara,  Erech,  Cutha,  Borsippa,  Zirgul,  Agade, 
and  inany  other  cities,  including  Ninua  or  Nineveh.  .  The  bas-relief 
above  this  text  represents  him  worshiping  the  sun  god.  He  wears  a 
round  cap  like  that  worn  by  the  Akkadian  prince  Gudea,  at  Zirgul, 
yet  earlier.  He  is  bearded,  but  the  features,  with  short  nose  and 
round  head,  are  not  at  all  distinctively  Semitic. 

There  is  some  dispute  as  to  the  nationality  of  this  great  ruler. 
He  used  both  the  Akkadian  and  the  Semitic  Babylonian  in  his  texts. 
There  is  no  reason  for  supposing  that  he  was  an  Arab,  and  the  dynasty 
according  to  Berosus  was  Medic,  and  according  to  some  scholars  was 
Kassite.  The  name  has  been  found  by  Dr  T.  Q.  Pinches  (see  Proc 
Bib.  Arch.  Socy,,  May  1901,  p.  191)  spelt  4m-mu-ra-jt)i,  which 
would  not  be  a  Semitic  title.  The  later  Babylonians  translated  it  by 
Kimti'Vapastum  ("  my  family  is  large  "),  which  suggests  that  it  is  a 
Turanian  name,  Ara  "  family,"  mu  "  my,"  rdpi  "  increases."  The 
nationality  of  the  monarch  is,  however,  not  very  important,  as  it  is 
clear  that  he  ruled  a  mixed  Turanian  and  Semitic  population.  We 
have  as  yet  no  reliable  account  of  any  conquests  made  by  him  io 
countries  W.  of  the  Euphrates,  two  supposed  records  of  his  reign 
being  admitted,  by  specialists,  to  have  been  erroneously  translated,  one 
being  a  tablet  of  the  7th  century  B.C.,  and  the  other  (a  letter  by 
Hammurabi)  containing  no  real  historical  allusions.  But,  as  his  pre- 
decessors  and  successors  invaded  Syria,  it  is  probable  that  so  victorious 
a  ruler  did  the  same  (see  Abraham). 

The  celebrated  laws  of  Hammurabi  have  been  translated  by  Father 


Ij^ammurabi '  189 

Schie]   (see  also  ThR  Oldest  Code  of  Laws  in  the  World,  hj  Rev.  C. 
H.  W.  Johns,  M.A.,  1903).     They  have  been  eagerly  compared  with 
the   laws   of   the  Pentateuch,  to   which   they   often   present   marked 
similarities.      They  also  serve,  in  several  cases,  to  explain  the  customs 
of  the  Patriarchs — Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob— according  to  Genesis, 
suggesting    familiarity    with    Babylonian   laws   on    the    part    of   the 
Hebrew  writer ;  and  these  laws  we  find  in  existence  more  than   600 
years  before  the  age  of  Moses.     The  laws  number  about  280  in  all, 
and  are  special  cases,  not  general  propositions ;    they  do  not  contain 
any  Ten  Commandments,  or  any  universal  principles.     They  are  con- 
cerned with  cases  of  witchcraft,  the  bribing  of  witnesses,  theft,  slaves, 
robbers,  royal  officials,  tenants,  irrigation,  trespass  by  animals,  gardens, 
merchants'  agents,  women  who  kept  wineshops,  debts,  and  storage  of 
property.     They  define  the  duties  of  wives,  husbands,  and  children  ; 
divorce  is  regulated,  and  the  rights  of  women ;    breach  of  promised 
marriage,    wills,    inheritance,    and    adoption.        They    then    treat    of 
assaults,  of  doctors,  of  rent,   and    builders'  liabilities,   of   boat -hire, 
damage    to   cattle   or   by  cattle,   loans  to  cultivators,  the  duties  and 
liabilities  of  herdsmen,  and  the  wages  payable  to  such,  and  to  labourers. 
In  no  case  is  there  any  evidence  that  Hebrew  literature  directly 
borrowed  the  wording  of  any  law  of  Hammurabi.      The  influence  of 
the  ancient  code  on  Hebrews  is,  on   the  other  hand,  very  evident, 
suggesting  that  the  Hebrews  were  Babylonian  subjects ;   and  probably 
that,  as  their  own  traditions  stated,  they  came  from  Babylonia  about 
the  time  of  Ammurapi.     The  penalties  of  the  Babylonian  code  are 
much  more  severe  than  those  of  the  Hebrew  Law,  and  are  usually 
different      Most  of  the   laws  deal  with  conditions  of   trade  and   of 
settled  government,  unknown  to  early  Hebrews  of  the  desert.     None 
of  the  merciful  provisions  of  Deuteronomy,  or  of  other  passages  in  the 
Pentateuch,  have   any  parallel  in  Hammurabi's  laws,   which  are  all 
intended  to  safeguard  property,  and  to  keep  slaves  and  the  poor  in 
subjection.     In  about  60  cases  only,  out  of  280  laws,  is  there  any 
parallel  between  the  Babylonian  and  the  Hebrew  codes.     In  16  other 
cases  the  Babylonian  law  is  different  from,  or  opposite  to,  the  Hebrew. 
In  all  cases  the  punishment  is  barbarously   severe   in  Hammurabi's 
code.     The  sanction  of  his  laws  was  the  formula  '*  As  God  (or  a  God) 
has  commanded,"  which  has  some  resemblance  to  the  often  repeated 
Hebrew  heading  ''Yahveh  spake  to  Moses";    but  it  is  abundantly 
shown  by  the  list  of    temples  which,  in   the  Susa  law-tablet  itself, 
Ammurapi  claims  to  have  built  for  various  deities,  that  he  was — like 
all  other  Babylonian  kings — a  polytheist.     Much  has  been  written  as 
to  the  comparative  study  of  this  remarkable  code,  but  the  facts  are 


190  Han 

as  above  summarised  ;  showing  only  a  family  likeness  between  its 
enactments  and  those  of  the  Pentateuch. — Ed.]  The  letters  to  Sin- 
idinnam  (see  Mr  L.  W,  King,  Inscriptions  of  Hammurabi,  1899)  show 
that  Prof.  Sayce,  Prof.  Hommel,  and  even  Dr  Pinches,  have  "  misread 
the  tablets/'  and  that  the  kings  noticed  with  Amraphei  (Gen.  xiv)  are 
never  mentioned  in  any  text  of  this  Babylonian  monarch.  [Father 
Schiel  had  read,  in  one  of  Ammurapi's  letters  to  this  official  or  king, 
the  words  Um  Ku-dur-la-akk-gamir,  and  supposed  it  to  mean  "  the 
day  of  Chedorlaomer."  But  the  third  syllable  is  tv/i\  not  dvur,  and 
the  fourth  is  nu,  not  la :  nor  is  there  any  reason  to  suppose  that  a 
personal  name  is  to  be  here  recognised.  The  letter  salutes  Sin- 
idinnam,  wishing  him  success  against  some  foe  through  the  protection 
of  deities,  and  the  words  Um  kutwr  nu-vJch  gamir  apparently  mean 
"  now  that  rest  (peace),  which  was  expected,  is  come  to  an  end." — Ed.] 

Han.      Egyptian  :  the  phallus,  *'  strength  "  (see  An  "  t^  be  "). 

Hand.  The  hand,  in  hieroglyphic  systems,  stands  for  "power," 
*'  taking,"  *'  giving,"  and  "  attestation."  It  is  a  sign  very  commonly 
found  on  door  posts  or  doors,  and  indicating  a  god's  power  to  bless  or 
to  smite.  In  Moslem  literature  '*  God's  hand "  means  the  divine 
"  essence  "  (see  Rev.  T.  Hughes,  Diet  of  Islam,  under  "  Standards  '*). 
Most  solar  gods  are  symbolised  by  a  hand,  often  of  gold  (see  Habal), 
or  of  silver,  as  on  the  cross  of  Clon  MacNoise  (compare  Rivers  of  Life, 
ii,  p.  434,  fig.  288);  and  Savitar,  in  the  Vedas,  is  the  "golden 
handed "  sun.  Zoroaster  is  also  *'  golden  handed  **  in  Persia ;  and 
Horace  speaks  of  the  '*  red  right  hand."  The  fingers  and  thumb 
had  phallic  significance  (see  those  headings),  and  the  hand  is  a  com- 
mon luck  mark  on  ancient  monuments  and  amulets,  especially  on 
votive  texts  at  Carthage.  Among  Hebrews  also  the  Yad  or  "  hand  " 
meant  a  memorial  monument.  Saul  **  set  him  up  a  hand,  and  went 
round,  and  passed  over,  and  went  down  to  Qilgal"  (1  Sam.  xv,  12), 
meaning  apparently  that  he  perambulated  this  monument  near  Karuiel 
of  Judah,  S.  of  Hebron.  Absalom  also  ''set  himself  up  an  erect 
stone,"  which  was  called  ''Absalom's  hand"  (2  Sam.  xviii,  18). 
Modern  Jews  suppose  this  to  be  the  tomb  called  "  Absalom's  tomb " 
in  the  valley  E.  of  the  Jerusalem  temple,  and  cast  stones  at  it  in 
consequence ;  but  this  monument  is  not  older  than  Greek  or  Roman 
times.  Yahveh  also  is  said  to  have  sworn  the  destruction  of  Amalek 
(Exod.  xvii,  16)  by  Yad  'al  Kes,  usually  rendered  "hand  on  throne": 
Kes,  however,  in  Arabic,  is  a  common  term  for  the  phallus,  or  the 
Kteis,  as  meaning  "  concealed  "  or  pudenda ;  and  this  recalls  similar 
oaths  in  the  Bible  (Gen.  xxiv,  2). 


Hand  191 

The  haud  and  the  foot  are  still  common  symbols  in  Palestine  (see 
"iiiarteviy   Stat.  Pal.    Expl   Fuvd,    July   1882;    July  1883),  Col 
Conder  finding  the  red  hand  od,  and  over,  doors  of  Jews,  Samaritans, 
iod  Moslems.     The  Jews  call  this  "  Yad-ha-Ehazak  "  or  the  "  Hand 
of  Might "  ;    and  the  **  strong  hand  "  is  the  emblem  of  the  Irish  King 
Brian  Boru,  and  of  his  descendants   the  O'Briens.     Syrian  Christians 
have    also    the  emblem  Keff  Miriam^  or  *'  Mary's   palm,"   the  hand 
of  the  Virgin.     The  Jews  (Mishnah,  'Abodah  Zarah,  see  Hershon's 
Treaawrea  of  Talimvd,  p.  163)  destroyed  all  pagan  monuments,  but 
not  such   as  had  a  hand  on  them  '*  for  all  worship  these/'  including 
as  we   see  themselves.     The  hand  however  often  accompanies,   or  is 
interchanged  with,  the  phallus  as  an  emblem   of  strength.     It  is  a 
common  amulet  at  Pompeii ;  and  coral  hands  are  worn  in  S.  Italy,  as 
charms  against  the  evil   eye  (see  Eye).     Youths  are  often  punished, 
in  India,    for  having  made  certain   gestures  of  the  hand  which  are 
insulting  when  understood.        On  the  pillar  at  St  Sophia,  in  Con- 
stantinople, a  red  hand  is  painted  as  an  auspicious  sign. 

Stevens  (YuccUan)  says:  ''the  Red  Hand  stared  us  in  the  face 

over  all  the  ruins  of  the  country  " ;  and  Leslie  says  :  "  the  sacred 

hand  is    a  favourite  subject  of  art    in    most  of   the  old  shrines  of 

America."       It  is  also  used    in    Central  Asia  all  along  the  Oxus  ; 

and  the  '*  Silver  Hand  "  is  a  charm  in  Persia,  whence  it  has  become 

the  crest  of  one  of  our  Panjabi  regiments  in  India.     The  red  hand 

is  also  the  badge  of  baronets  at  home.      It  is  common  in  Central 

and  Southern  India,   in    Arakan,  Barmah,  and  Java,  as  well  as  in 

Siam  (see  our  paper  in  Jourmal  Bl.  Asiatic  Socy,,  Jany.   1895); 

and  Mr  Vining  notices  it  in  Mexico  (see   also  Jowmal  RL  Geogr. 

Socy.,  Septr.  1884,  p.  504),     Orimm  says  that  the  Teutonic  deity 

Tyr  is  powerless    when    the  wintry    wolf   has  bitten  off    his  hand. 

Siva  s  blood-red  hand  is  found  on  temple  doors  in  India,  for  he  is 

the  "Lord  of  the  door"  (see  Door).        The  ''Red  Hand  of    Erin" 

is    the    same   {Journal,   Ulster  Archoeol.  Socy.,  title-page).       The 

"  golden    hand    of    Anu "    was  placed    on    the    pyramid  of    Bel  in 

Babylon ;     the    Romans    used    the    hand   on    standards ;     and   the 

Saracens  marked  it  in  the  courts  of  Grenada.     The  "  Hand  of  'Ali " 

was  an  emblem  of  Persian  Moslems  ;  and  the  "  Hand  of  Fatimah," 

his  wife,  is  found  at    the  sacred  city  of  Eairwan,  and  elsewhere  in 

Tunisia,  originating  in  Egypt  and  "  common  throughout  the  Moslem 

world"  (Sir  R.  Burton,  Travels  in   Tunisia,  1888,  title-page).     In 

the  Persian  mosk  of  Mesh-hed  'Ali,  the   "  Hand  of  'Ali "  is  on  the 

keystone  of  the  entrance  gate.     It  is  found   with   the   key  in   the 

'*  Hall  of   Justice ''  of  the  Al^amra,  or   "  red "   palace  of   Spanish 


192  Hansa 

SaraceDs ;  while  it  is  the  emblem  of  Nawabs  of  Arkot,  and  of 
Moghul  princes.  Ancient  priests,  among  Parthians  and  others,  often 
raised  the  whole  hand  in  blessing  (see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  139, 
fig.  222).  Captain  Galway  found  it  even  among  negroes  in  Benin 
{Journal  Rl.  Oeogr,  Socy,,  Feby.  1893).  In  all  cases  it  is  the 
emblem  of  power  and  good  fortune. 

HanSSL  The  sacred  goose,  swan,  or  duck  of  Brahma  (see  Goose) 
on  which  he  rides.  It  was  sent  by  Siva  and  Vishnu  to  awake  him  to 
creative  work  when  he  slept.  The  eggs  of  the  Hansa,  in  Sanskrit 
literature,  are  said  to  be  full  of  ambrosia.  They  swim  on  the  waters, 
and  the  Hansa  is  said  to  be  "  drunk  with  love.'*  He  is  the  goose 
that  lays  the  gold  and  silver  eggs  (sun  and  moon),  and  also  a 
"  messenger  of  love."     The  goose  betokens  conjugal  fidelity. 

Hanuman.  The  Hindu  monkey  god,  child  of  the  wind.  He 
is  sometimes  red,  sometimes  golden.  He  could  tear  up  trees,  or  even 
the  Himalayas,  and  spring  over  the  sea  lashing  its  waves  to  fnrj. 
He  set  Lanka  (Ceylon)  on  fire  with  his  burning  tail,  and  commanded 
his  monkeys  to  build  the  bridge  for  Rama  to  reach  the  island.  He 
is  sometimes  a  giant,  sometimes  ''  only  the  size  of  a  thumb/'  and  the 
friend  of  Bharata  or  India.  He  was  the  son  of  Pavana  {"  the 
breeze"),  and  of  the  Virgin  Anjana,  who  was  married  to  the 
monkey  Kesare.  As  a  babe  he  playfully  seized  the  chariot  of  the 
sun,  but  fell  to  earth  disfiguring  himself  and  breaking  his  jaw.  He 
aided  to  recover  Sita — the  Indian  Proserpine.  He  is  a  joyous  and 
popular  demi-god,  round  whose  shrines  the  peasantry  love  to  dance 
and  sing. 

Haoma.      See  Homa. 

Hapi.  Egyptian.  The  primary  meaning  of  such  names  as  Hapi, 
Apis,  and  Hapu  (the  Nile),  according  to  Renouf,  is  "  to  overspread." 
Hapi  is  the  child  of  Horus,  the  overshadowing  spirit  of  creation. 
He  carries  the  ankh  or  emblem  of  life,  and  is  bull-headed  with  a 
conical  head-dress.  The  sky,  and  the  Nile,  alike  spread  over  earth. 
The  Nile  god  is  represented  as  androgynous — male  and  female  at 
once :  he  is  Hapi  or  Hapu,  a  somewhat  corpulent  red  deity,  who 
pours  water  from  his  vase. 

Haran.  Harran.  A  city  of  Mesopotamia,  the  home  of 
Abraham,  where  the  worship  of  Sinu  the  moon  god  survived  till  the 
time  of  Greek  writers,  with  that  of  Baalshemin  *'the  god  of  the 
heavens,"    as  mentioned    by    St    James  of    Seriij    about    500    A.C. 


Hare  193 

Hermes  was  here  adored  as  a  conical  stone,  surmounted  by  a  star. 
The  name  is  probably  the  Akkadian  Kharran  '*  road/'  for  the  city 
was  on  the  great  trade  route  to  the  Euphrates  at  Earkemish  (Jerablus), 
the  Hittite  capital. 

Hare.      In  mythology  the  hare  is  usually  the  moon,  and  is  also  a 

common   form  for  witches.     The  Aryan  name  Sasin,  ISasa,  or  Hase, 

means   "  the    swift."     It  is  also  found   in   Finnic  speech  ;    and  the 

Akkadian    Kazinna  is    the    ''  hare,"    from  the    old    root  Kaa    "  to 

run."     The  gods  gave  hare's  flesh  to  Indra,  as  it  was  supposed   to 

arouse  love    and    passion ;    and    loose  women    in    India    are  called 

''hares."        Among  many  primitive  tribes  (as  among  the  Hebrews) 

the  hare  is  not  eaten,  apparently  because  it  is  a  timid  animal,  and 

the  qualities  of  food  are  reproduced  in  the  eater.     Some  only  allowed 

it  to  women.     In  Hindu  literature  the  hare  is  said  to  dwell  in  the 

lake  of  the  moon ;    and  Yingaya-datta,  the  funeral  god,  is  the  "  Hare 

King"  living  in  the  lunar  disk.     In  China   also  Yu,   the   hare  or 

rabbit,  is  the  moon.     Neither  Saxons,  nor  Scottish  or  Irish  Kelts, 

would  proceed  on  a  journey  if  a  hare  crossed  the  path  (Folk-Lore 

Review,  Deer.   1892,  p.  452).      The  hare  is  "uncanny"  because  it 

is  a  witch,  or  warlock,  and  Russians,  like  N.  American  Indians,  see  in 

hares  *'  accursed   spirits,  and  flitting  white  ghosts."     "  Spectral  and 

three-legged  hares,"  which  can  never  be  caught  when  hunted,  have 

been  the  terror  of  Europe,  being  either  "ghosts  of  the  damned,"  or 

dangerous  spirits  of  mountain,  stream,  forest,  or  corn  field,  where  they 

hide  till  the  last  "  corner  of  the  field  "  is  reaped.     At  Easter  however 

the  bare  was  placed  on  sacrificial  cakes  or  buns ;    and  Teutons  say 

that  the  hare  lays  the  Paschal  eggs,  so  that  German  peasants  still 

make  a  nest  for  it  at  Easter.      For  this  reason  perhaps  the  hare  was 

sacred  food,  forbidden  to  all  Kelts,  Germans,  and  Lapps — in  fact  from 

Greenland  to  ^ypt  and   Arabia,  and  among  the  Jews  and  Chinese 

alike.       Yet  Finns,  and   the  ancient   Irish  kings    of   Tara,    highly 

esteemed  the  flesh.     The  Kaffirs  in  Africa  call  it  "  the  timid  and 

alert,  crafty  little  swift  one  " — the  guardian  of  children — pointing  to 

the   conclusion   that  its  timidity  renders  it   unfit  for   food.       The 

Russians  and  Chinese  connect  it  with  the  "  water  of  life  '*  (the  dew 

from  the  moon);    for    Soma    (the  moon)    is    the    holder    of    divine 

ambrosia.      The  hare  is  said  to  outwit  the  wisest  and  strongest  of 

beasts — the  elephant,  and  the  lion,  whom  it  entraps  into  a  well.     The 

''  Somnus  Leporinus,"  among  Latins,  was  sleep  with  open  eyes,  like 

a  hare,  when  the  upper  lids  were  too  short  to  close.     The  Greeks 

called  such  persons  "  hare  eyed."     In  China  the  hare  sits  in  a  bush. 


194  Har-hut 

with  the  moon  above.  The  Japanese  also  make  the  moon  a  hare,  or 
rabbit,  pounding  rice  in  a  mortar.  The  moon  and  hare  are  stamped 
on  cakes  also  in  Central  Asia. 

Dr  Brinton  (Myths  of  the  N&w  Worlds  p.  179)  finds  this  hare  in 
Manibogh,  or  Michabo,  "The  Great  Hare," — ^**a  sort  of  wizard,  half 
simpleton,  and  full  of  pranks  and  wiles."  Originally  he  was  the 
"  highest  divinity,  in  power  and  beneficence."  His  house  is  at  the 
eastern  horizon.  To  the  Chipeway  Indians  he  is  Manito-wabos,  *^  the 
divine  hare,"  and  Wapa  is  "the  dawn."  The  godess  Eostre  (the 
east)  was  changed  (among  Teutons)  from  a  bird  into  a  hare :  hence 
hares  lay  eggs,  as  above  shown,  at  Easter  (Folk-Lore  Journal,  i,  p.  121, 
in  1883).  In  Egyptian  Un  is  the  "hare,"  and  Un-nut,  or  the  **8ky 
hare,"  is  the  godess  of  Denderah.  The  hare  was  sacred  to  Thoth,  and 
appears  as  a  mummy  god  like  Osiris  (Renouf,  Proc.  Bib.  Arch.  Soqi,, 
April  1886).  For  Un  means  "to  spring  up,"  and  hence  the  rising 
sun  was  Un  or  On,  which  is  the  name  of  the  sun  city,  Heliopolis. 

Har-hut.  **  Abode  of  Horns."  The  symbol  of  Horus  in  Egypt— 
the  winged  disk  of  the  sun  with  its  Ursei  snakes. 

Hari.  Sanskrit :  "  green,"  "  verdant"  Siva  and  Agni  are  Hara, 
Vishnu  is  Hari,  all  being  yellow,  or  light  green,  gods  of  fertility  and 
light.  The  Harits  are  the  horses  of  the  sun.  The  sun  and  moon 
are  Hara  and  Hari ;  and  Hari  is  the  ass-lion  on  which  Indra  rode 
(see  Prof.  A.  do  Gubernatis,  Zool.  MythoL.y  i,  p.  376  ;  ii,  p.  98).  The 
Hari-dvar  or  *'  gate  of  verdure,"  is  the  gate  of  the  Ganges  where  it 
leaves  the  mountains. 

Haris-Chandra.  A  devotee  of  Siva  who  is  called  ''the  Hindu 
Job  "  (on  accoimt  of  his  troubles),  and  the  Eshatriya  Raja.  In  return 
for  marvellous  and  long-continued  austerities  Varuna  ("heaven") 
promised  him  a  son,  on  condition  that  the  son  should  be  sacrificed  to 
Varuna  when  attaining  manhood.  This  son  Rohita  was  claimed  in  due 
time ;  but  Haris-Cfaandra  excused  himself,  as  Rohita  had  fled  beyond 
his  control.  After  six  years  Rohita  returned,  his  father  having  been 
smitten  by  Varuna  with  disease,  and  brought  the  son  of  a  Rishi  (see 
Suna-sepha)  as  his  substitute.  The  poor  Brahman  had  been  paid  100 
cows  to  consent,  and  Varuna,  accepting  the  substitute,  ordered  him  to 
bind  his  son  Suna-sepha.  The  Rishi  demanded  100  more  cows,  and 
yet  100  more  if  he  was  himself  to  slay  his  son.  By  prayers  to  all  the 
gods  Varuna  was  induced  to  save  the  life  of  Suna-sepha.  The  trials 
of  Haris-Chandra  continued,  on  account  of  disputes  among  the  gods. 
He  had  a  house-priest  named  Visva-Mitra.     The  god  Indra  was  adcing 


Har-makhis  195 

Yahifihta- — a  famous  Brahman — whether  he  knew  a  single  man  who 
had  never  lusted  or  lied ;  'and,  on  Vahishta  naming  Haris-Chandra 
as  such,  Yisva-Mitra  laughed.  Vahishta  retorted  that  he  would  forfeit 
all  his  merits  if  Haris-Chandra  the  Raja  had  failed  in  a  single  in- 
stance. The  gods  then  decreed  his  temptation.  He  was  the  trustee 
of  enormous  wealth  belonging  to  the  Rishi,  which  he  was  now  called 
on  to  restore  with  compound  interest.  He  had  to  sell  his  kingdom 
province  by  province,  to  sell  his  wife  Saivya,  his  only  son  Rohita,  and 
himself  as  a  slave.  He  was  degraded  to  become  a  burner  of  corpses. 
His  son  died  and  he  had  to  bum  him,  while  his  wife  hod  to  carry  the 
corpse.  He  recognised  her  by  her  marriage  Tali,  or  badge,  which  she 
had  refused  to  give  up.  She  was  seized  by  royal  messengers,  and 
accused  of  stealing  a  young  prince.  She  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  Haris-Chandra  was  ordered  to  behead  her.  But  his  sword  was 
changed  into  a  flower,  and  his  son  sprang  up  again  alive  :  his  kingdom 
was  restored  to  him,  and  he  and  his  were  taken  up  to  heaven.  They 
fell  again  through  pride,  but  repented  as  they  fell :  and  Hindus  say 
they  often  see  Haris- Chandra's  city  in  the  air.  He  is  commended 
for  his  righteousness  by  Manu  the  Lawgiver  as  follows : — 

"  Our  Virtue  is  the  only  friend  that  follows  us  in  death, 
All  other  ties,  and  friendships,  end  with  departing  breath. 
Nor  father,  mother,  wife,  nor  son  beside  us  then  can  stay, 
Nor  kinsfolk.    Virtue  is  the  one  companion  of  our  way. 
Alone  each  creature  sees  the  sun  :  alone  the  world  he  leaves — 
Alone  of  actions  wrong  or  right  the  recompense  receives. 
Like  log  or  clod,  beneath  the  sod,  their  lifeless  kinsman  laid 
Friends  turn  round  and  quit  the  ground.    But  Virtue  tends  the  dead. 
Have  then  a  hoard  of  Virtue  stored,  to  help  the  day  of  doom. 
By  Virtue  led  we  cross  the  dread  immeasurable  gloom/' 

Har-makhis.  Egyptian.  "Horus  on  the  horison" — symbolised 
by  the  Sphinx,  which  was  old  even  in  the  time  of  the  4th  dynasty. 
Thothmes  III  built  a  temple  between  its  paws  (see  Egypt). 

Harp.  The  harp  was  well  known  in  Egypt,  and  the  Beni  Hasan 
picture  shows  Edomite  Asiatics,  one  with  a  ten-stringed  lyre.  In 
mythology  the  harp  is  the  wind.  Apollo  is  the  great  harper  in  heaven, 
like  Odin,  as  a  god  of  vernal  weather ;  and  Siva  is  also  a  harper  in 
India  Harps  of  14  strings,  and  lyres  of  17  strings,  are  as  old  as  the 
18th  dynasty  in  Egypt. 

Har-pa-krut  Harpocrates.    The  child  Horus  in  Egypt, 

usually  seated  on  a  lotus  with  its  finger  to  its  mouth  (see  Fingers). 
It  wears  the  side  lock  (see  Hair).    He  is  represented  also  as  surrounded 


196  Harpy 

by  dangers  ia  the  form  of  monsters.  He  stands  on  two  crocodiles 
(those  of  £.  and  W.),  and  B^s  (see  Bas)  holds  snakes  over  him.  He 
is  the  sun  in  Hades,  or  among  the  winter  clouds,  still  weak  before  the 
equinox.  He  also  carries  a  goose  under  his  left  arm,  and  grapes  in  hi» 
right,  or  the  staff  and  cornucopia,  as  the  vernal  sun,  child  of  Osiris 
and  Isis.  The  festival  of  Harpocrates,  as  Hermes  Trismegistos,  wsu* 
forbidden  at  Rome  on  account  of  its  licentious  character.  For  the 
child  Horus  became  a  Cupid. 

Harpy.  The  Harpies  were  "snatchers"  or  robbers,  represented 
on  a  Lycian  tomb  (about  500  to  400  B.c.)  as  vultures,  with  the 
heads  and  breasts  of  women.  [The  soul  was  a  human-headed  bird  in 
Egypt,  and  the  Harpies  apparently  ghosts  of  the  evil  dead  who  caused 
tempests. — Ed.]  The  names  of  the  three  Harpies  were  Aello  ("  bowl- 
ing "),  Kalaino  (**  crying  "),  and  Okupet^  (**  fast  flying")  :  they  emitted 
evil  odours,  and  defiled  everything  when  they  appeared.  But  Hesiod 
speaks  only  of  two  (Kalaino  and  OkupetS)  who  were  fair-haired  winged 
maidens,  swifter  than  winds  or  birds.  Aiskhulos  makes  them  vulture- 
like women,  with  bear's  ears,  long  claws,  and  faces  pale  with  hunger. 
They  carried  off  the  daughters  of  King  Pandareus,  whom  they  gave  as 
slaves  to  the  furies  (see  Erinues).  The  gods  sent  them  to  torment 
Phineus  (*'  the  fair  "),  who  was  the  blind  king  of  Arkadia  in  Greece, 
because  he  had  revealed  the  secrets  of  Zeus.  They  stole  his  food,  and 
defiled  his  table.  But  the  sons  of  Boreas  (the  N.  wind),  aiding  lason, 
drove  them  away.  Hesiod  calls  them  daughters  of  Thau  mas  (*' wonder  " 
or  Tammuz)  by  the  ocean  nymph,  the  "  bright "  Elektra.  They  were 
also  daughters  of  Neptunus  and  Terra  (^'sea*'  and  "  land  ''),  whose  home 
was  in  Thrakia.  In  Egypt  the  evil  winds  of  May  (the  Kharrmn,  or 
"fifty  day"  hot  E.  wind)  were  called  Harops,  bringing  flies  and  locusts. 

HarseL     The  Suabian  moon  (see  Ursel,  Ursula). 

Harsha.  Sanskrit :  "  joy "  ;  the  son  of  Kama  ("  love ")  and 
Nandi  (''pleasure").  This  was  the  name  also  of  the  Buddhist 
monarch  said  to  have  established  the  Samvat  era  of  56-57  A.C.  He 
is  also  called  Sri-harsha,  Sil-Aditya,  Yikram-Aditya,  and  Harsha- 
Yardhana :  and  he  was  famed  for  patronage  of  learning.  Hiuen 
Tsang  visited  his  court  (629  to  645  A.C.),  and  says  he  found  there  the 
Nava-ratna,  or  "nine  gems"  of  literature.  His  history  is  obscured 
by  romance,  but  he  appears  to  have  ruled  in  Than-esvar  (or  Stan- 
Jsvara)  in  the  Panjab,  as  early  as  607  A.C.,  and  afterwards  at  Eanoj 
as  emperor  of  N.  India.  He  fell  in  battle  (in  648  A.c.)  fighting  Sail- 
vahana,  king  of  the  south  (Dakahin),  having  failed  to  conquer  Maha- 


Har-si-Ast  197 

rashtra.  Though  son  of  King  Qardha-billa,  he  is  said  to  have  been 
only  a  Vaisya,  and  ruled  when  Buddhism  was  fast  waning  in  India. 
His  conqueror  is  said  to  have  founded  the  Saka  era  of  7S  A.c. 

Har-si-Ast.  Har-Si-Amen.  Names  of  Horus,  son  of  Isis  and 
Amen  (see  Har-pa-krut). 

Haruspices.  The  Aru-spex  was  the  diviner  by  entrails  of 
beasts  and  birds,  the  most  famous  of  these  soothsayers  being  Etruskan. 
The  Arvix  is  said  to  have  been  a  sacrificed  ram. 

Harvest.  All  nations,  in  temperate  climates,  have  celebrated 
harvest  festivals  in  late  summer,  or  autumn,  and  in  hotter  countries  as 
early  as  March  or  April.  In  Rome  the  young  colonists  assembled  at  the 
Capitol  in  August,  and  the  Pontifex  Maximus  purified  them  with 
incense,  and  smoking  torches  (Tcedce)  as  they  knelt — a  custom  retained 
by  Christians.  Dressed  in  white,  crowned  with  flowers,  and  carrying 
in  their  hands  wheat,  barley,  beans,  and  first  fruits,  they  went  up  to 
the  temples  of  Jupiter,  Apollo,  and  Diana,  on  the  Aventine  mount, 
chanting  hymns,  and  adoring  the  images  everywhere  exposed  for 
worship.  Three  nights  were  devoted  to  worship  especially  of  infernal 
powers :  a  black  bull  was  sacrificed  tp  Pluto,  and  a  black  cow  to 
Proserpina.  Holy  fires  were  lighted  throughout  the  city,  and  consuls, 
with  priests,  slew  three  lambs  beside  the  Tiber,  and  sprinkled  all 
present  with  the  blood.  On  the  second  day  a  white  bull  was  sacrificed 
to  Jupiter,  and  a  white  heifer  to  Juno,  with  music  and  rejoicings ;  and 
theatrical  entertainments  were  given  at  the  Capitol,  in  honour  of 
Apollo  and  Diana.  Games  at  the  circus,  and  gladiatorial  shows 
followed :  at  night  prayers  were  offered  to  the  terrible  Parcae  or 
"fates"  (see  Fors),  whose  victims  were  sheep,  and  a  black  goat. 
On  the  third  day  the  women  went  with  songs  to  the  temples,  and 
prayed  for  the  nation's  prosperity.  The  Parcse,  with  Juno,  and 
Lucina,  were  besought  to  aid  them  in  child  birth.  Games  followed, 
and  a  black  hog  and  black  sow  were  offered  to  Tellus  "  the  earth  " 
(see  Durga,  Holi,  Kali). 

Ijlasan.  Hosein.  The  two  sons  of  Fatimah  only  daughter  of 
Mu^mmad,  wife  of  'Ali  the  4th  Khalifah  ('*  successor  "),  cousin  of  the 
prophet,  ruling  a  rebellious  Islam  in  35  to  40  after  the  Hijira.  'Ali 
was  murdered  by  means  of  a  poisoned  sword  in  660  A.C.,  at  Kufa, 
while  at  war  with  Muawiya,  the  son  of  Muhammad's  old  enemy  Abu 
Sofian,  who  established  the  independent  Khalifate  of  the  Ommeiya 
family  at  Damascus.  [The  political  schism  was  that  of  the  two 
parties  Arab  and  Persian,  following  Muawiya  and  'Ali  respectively  ; 


198  IjLasis-adra 

and  the  religious  schism  that  of  Sunni  or  purely  Semitic  Islam,  and 
of  the  jS>A'i'a/i  ("  sectarians")  influenced  by  the  old  Mazdean  faith  of 
Persia. — Ed.] 

Tradition  has  entirely  departed  from  true  history,  and  gives  a 
mystic  character  to  'Ali,  Hasan,  and  Hosein,  the  first  martyrs  and 
Saiyids  ("  masters  '*),  as  the  descendants  of  ' Ali  are  called  in  Persia. 
The  two  brothers  are  mourned  with  rites  like  those  of  Tammuz,  and 
symbolised  by  the  sacred  Tabut  arks  borne  in  procession.  Plays  are 
acted  representing  the  tragedy  of  the  fatal  field  of  Earbala,  and  the 
execution  of  Hosein  by  Shamer,  the  demon  with  boar's  teeth.  But, 
as  a  fact,  Hasan  succeeded  his  father  as  Khalifah  in  Persia,  and 
abdicated  six  months  later  in  favour  of  Muawiya  (in  661  A.C.).  He 
lived  in  retirement,  and  was  poisoned  (in  667  A.c.)  by  his  wife,  at  the 
instigation  of  Yazid  the  son  of  Muawiya ;  but  he  left  1 5  sons,  and 
5  daughters,  from  whom  many  Saiyids  are  descended.  His  brother 
Hosein  (bom  in  626  A.C.)  fell  in  battle  against  Tazld  at  Earhala 
("anguish"),  on  the  10th  day  of  Mubarram,  in  the  61st  year  of  the 
Hijira  (680  A.C.),  so  that  he  was  not  a  boy  as  the  legend  represents. 
The  Mubarram  festival  celebrates  his  death.  It  is  even  observed  in 
the  docks  in  London,  where  the  Tabut  arks  can  be  seen  at  the  rite 
called  "Hobson  Jobson" — a  corruption  of  "Hasan  wa  Hosein." 
Karbala  has  become  a  sacred  city  to  Persian  Moslems,  who  make 
pilgrimages  to  its  ruined  tombs,  and  are  buried  there,  or  take  thence 
earth  for  their  graves.  It  is  a  sanctuary  for  criminals  and  for  the 
oppressed. 

The  "miracle  play"  celebrating  the  death  of  Hosein  (see  Sir 
R.  Polly's  translation,  1879)  excites  the  most  extraordinary  hysterical 
emotion  among  the  spectators  as  they  cry  "  Ya  'Ali !  Ai  Hasan !  Ai 
Hosein  !  Hosein  Shah  ! "  beating  their  breasts,  with  tears  and  groans. 
It  occupies  the  first  10  days  of  the  month  (Mubarram  or  "most 
consecrated  "),  and  each  day  the  excitement  increases.  The  life  of  a 
Sunni  would  be  unsafe,  and  fanatics  rush  out  of  the  processions  to 
attack  the  police.  Naked  men,  painted  as  tigers,  leap  about  and 
brandish  swords,  clubs,  and  spears,  amid  the  general  lamentations  of 
the  crowd. 

I^asis-ddra.  This  is  one  reading  for  the  name  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Noah  (see  Gilgamas)  and  supposed  to  be  the  Xisuthrus  of  the 
Greek  version  of  the  legend.  [It  is  otherwise  read  UTn-napisturt^ 
as  a  Semitic  name,  and  Tam-Zi  ("sun  spirit")  as  an  Akkadian  term: 
the  latter  seems  the  most  probable. — Ed.]  This  mythical  personage 
relates  the  Flood  legend  to  the  Babylonian  Hercules.     He  was  livinf 


Hasis-adra  199 

in  a  city  on  the  Euphrates,  called  Suripak,  and  was  warned  by  the 
ocean  god  Ea  that  the  great  gods  Anu,  Adar,  and  B'el  were  displeased 
and  about  to  drown  mankind.  As  commanded  he  built  a  ship 
600  cubits  long  and  60  cubits  broad  and  high,  to  contain  his  family 
and  slaves,  his  silver  and  gold,  seeds  of  all  kinds,  cattle  and  beasts 
of  the  field  :  it  was  smeared  over  with  bitumen  within  and  without 
Tamzi  entered  and  shut  the  door,  and  a  pilot  took  charge  when  the 
rain  began.  The  pilot  is  called  "the  servant  of  the  great  spirit'' 
(probably  to  be  read  Ur-Ea) :  at  dawn  a  black  cloud  came  up. 
Rimmon  thundered,  Nebo  and  Marduk  went  before  it,  Uragal 
("the  great  hero")  tore  up  the  anchor,  Adar  (or  Ninip)  led  the 
storm,  and  the  ''earth  spirits"  flashed  torches.  The  gods  cowered 
like  hounds  in  the  heaven  of  Anu.  Istar  wept  for  her  children,  who 
filled  the  sea  like  the  spawn  of  fishes.  On  the  7th  day  the 
tempest  was  spent,  and  the  sea  became  calm.  Tamzi  looked  out  on 
the  waters,  and  called  aloud ;  but  no  man  was  left :  he  wept,  for 
there  was  no  land  visible.  On  the  12th  day  land  appeared,  and  the 
ship  struck  on  the  mountain  of  Nizir:  after  7  days  more  he  sent 
out  a  dove  which  found  no  resting  place  and  returned  :  then  he  sent 
a  swallow  which  in  like  manner  came  back  :  and  then  a  raven  which 
did  not  return.  Tamzi  then  came  out  of  his  ship  on  to  the  mountain, 
and  offered  sacrifice.  The  gods  swarmed  round  it  "  like  flies."  Istar 
besought  that  B'el  should  not  come,  as  he  made  the  flood ;  but  B'el 
saw  the  ship  and  was  wroth  that  any  man  should  have  escaped. 
Adar  said  that  it  was  the  doing  of  Ea;  and  Ea  reproved  B'el  for 
general  destruction,  saying :  "  On  the  sinner  lay  his  sin,  and  on  the 
transgressor  his  transgression,  but  let  not  all  be  destroyed."  He 
ordained  that  beasts,  famine,  and  pestilence  should  in  future  slay 
mankind,  but  not  any  flood  in  future.  B'el  forgave  Tamzi  and  his 
wife,  saying  "  Let  (them)  be  as  we  who  are  gods ;  and  let  them  dwell 
afar  off  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers." 

This  legend,  in  the  11th  tablet  of  Gilgamas,  is  known  from  a 
copy  in  the  library  of  Assur-bani-pal  at  Nineveh  (about  650  B.C.). 
It  is  preserved  in  Semitic  Babylonian  language,  but  the  original  was 
probably  Akkadian.  It  is  quite  possible  that  large  vessels  were  built 
very  early,  and  caulked  with  bitumen  from  Hit  on  the  Euphrates, 
fiiver  floods  in  the  valley  are  also  common,  and  the  Tigris  often  rises 
20  to  30  feet  causing  great  inundations,  so  that  nothing  could  be 
seen  save  water,  and  the  high  range  of  Nizir  (Jebel  Judi)  on 
the  N.K  But  the  story  forms  part  of  a  purely  mythical  cycle.  The 
later  legends,  recorded  by  Berosus  in  Greek  in  the  4th  century  B.C., 
exaggerate  the  wonders  of  the  original.      The  ark  is  made  five  stadia 


200  Hastina-pur 

in  length,  and  was  said  to  be  still  extant  on  the  Gordean  mountains 
(see  Floods). 

Hastina-pur.  The  capital  of  the  Earns,  the  ''city  of  eight" 
subject  cities,  or  otherwise  of  the  sun  (QenL  Cunningham,  Journal 
Bl.  Asiatic  Socy.,  April  1889,  pp.  217,  338).  This  capital  is 
recognised  at  Hastinagar  on  the  Swat  river  (see  India).  A  second 
Hastina-pur,  in  the  old  bed  of  the  Ganges  in  the  Mirat  district,  is  foand 
still  in  ruins. 

Hat-hor.  See  Athor.  The  Egyptian  dawn  godess  enshrined 
beside  Isis  in  the  pjrramid  of  Cheops. 

Hate.  The  Skandinavian  winter  wolf,  which  pursues  godesses, 
and  (as  Sk5ll)  pursues  the  sun. 

Haubas.     The  male  sun  among  Hamyar  tribes  of  Arabia. 

Haug.  Hawr.  Hau^.  in  Skandinavian,  a  "  howe  "  or  high 
place,  mound  or  barrow  (see  Stones). 

HawaiL  The  main  island  of  the  Sandwich  group,  west  of  the 
coast  of  Mexico.  The  inhabitants  (called  Kanakas)  are  Polynesians 
— of  mixed  Negrito  and  Malay  stocks.  A  century  ago  they  are  said 
to  have  numbered  300,000,  but  are  reduced  to  40,000,  sufferiLg 
from  leprosy  and  from  diseases  introduced  by  Europeans.  Their 
legends  often  recall  those  of  Hebrews  and  other  Asiatics,  including 
the  creation  of  light  and  darkness,  of  animals  and  men,  and  the  story 
of  a  great  flood.  Fornander  considers  that  these  stories  had  a 
common  origin,  and  reached  Hawaii  after  our  1st  or  2nd  century, 
when  the  Malays  invaded  Polynesia.  The  Kanakas  reached  this 
island  in  our  5th  or  6th  century  passing  through  Samoa ;  but  they 
are  little  known  before  the  11th  century.  Their  supreme  god  Kane 
(see  Gan)  is  symbolised  by  a  rude  menhir,  engraved  with  a  trident 
like  the  Trisul  of  India.  They  have  also  a  sea  god,  and  believe  in 
departed  spirit&  The  creation  was  due  to  Lono  and  Lol,  '*  gods  of 
heaven  and  eartlu"  They  were  lovers,  and  Lono  is  ever  darting 
kisses  (rays)  at  Lol.  Both  warred  with  the  evil  spirit  of  night  called 
Atua.  Wan,  the  sea  god,  woos  Lol  in  the  absence  of  Lono,  casting 
gems,  pearls,  gold,  silver,  and  corals  before  her ;  but  she  leaves  them 
lying  scattered  He  then  tries  to  submerge  her,  but  she  builds 
ramparts  which  resist  his  waves.  He  deceives  her  in  a  calm  night 
by  wearing  the  mantle  of  Lono,  who  suddenly  appears  and  drives 
Wan  back  to  the  sea,  whit^e  with  rage  and  fear.  Lol  is  ashamed  and 
sinks  into  the  depths.      All  men   would    have    been    drowned,  but 


Hawk  201 

Paumakea,  a  friend  of  Lono,  saves  some  in  a  great  canoe.  Lol 
then  bears  her  firstborn  Hawaii,  red  and  glowing,  who  is  the  flaming 
volcano  (Mauno-lea)  14,000  feet  high — -a  peak  of  Mauna  Eilea 
which  rises  18,700  feet,  and  is  covered  with  clouds  and  snow.  It 
was  here  that  the  survivors  of  the  flood  landed,  and  spread  thence 
over  Polynesia. 

The  Kanaka  Trinity  consists  of  Kan6,  Eu,  and  Lono,  who  made 
light,  and  inhabited  three  heavens,  being  said  to  have  "  sat  with  earth 
for  their  footstool."  They  next  created  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  with 
other  spirits,  and  lastly  man  in  the  likeness  of  Ean6,  all  three  gods 
breathing  life  into  him.  They  then  took  from  him  a  bone  (lalo- 
puhako),  and  made  it  into  a  woman.  This  pair  would  have  been 
immortal,  but  the  foolish  angel  Eanaloa  also  made  a  man  and  could 
not  vivify  him  :  he  therefore  cursed  the  race  created  by  Kane,  so  that 
all  must  in  time  die.  Men  have  two  souls,  one  of  which  roams  about 
and  is  immortal,  but  the  other  dies  forever  with  the  body. 

In  1819  the  severities  of  the  religious  Tabu,  on  which  the 
Kanaka  priests  insisted,  drove  the  young  king  and  his  strong-minded 
queen  with  their  nobles  to  revolt,  and  the  gods  were  set  at  defiance. 
Their  Heians,  or  temples,  their  images  and  property,  were  burned  and 
destroyed.  The  influence  of  European  sailors  had  something  to  do 
with  this,  but  they  unfortunately  also  introduced  drink  and  vice. 
The  priests  and  their  followers  rose  in  rebellion,  but  in  1820 
American  missionaries  appeared,  and  by  aid  of  sailors  and  fire-arms 
the  old  religion  was  crushed  out,  and  Christianity  established.  The 
Kanakas  seem  only  to  miss  their  ancient  Pu-uhonuas,  or  **  sanctuaries 
of  refuge,"  where  the  oppressed  and  the  criminal  were  safe,  being 
defended  by  priests  who  after  a  time  sent  them  forth,  free  and  washed 
from  sin. 

Hawk«  In  Egypt  the  hawk  (Bak)  is  the  emblem  of  Horus,  the 
rising  sun  (see  Eagle).  The  chariot  of  the  Vedik  Asvins  (the  twins), 
is  drawn  by  hawks.  Parvati  takes  the  form  of  falcons,  vultures,  and 
grifons ;  and  Indra  as  a  hawk  stole  the  thunderbolts  of  heaven,  and 
the  *'  luminous  virgin  Amrita  "  (the  ambrosial  drink).  This  Amrita 
fell  from  the  hawk,  and  was  swallowed  by  the  fish  (Arika  or  Girika) 
of  the  Jamuna  river  (Prof.  A.  de  Gubematis,  Zool.  MythoL,  ii,  pp. 
181,  182).  The  N.  American  Indians  value  the  dust  in  which  a 
hawk  is  seen  to  bathe  itself  (like  fowls  and  sparrows) ;  for  when  tied 
to  the  body  in  a  linen  cloth,  with  red  string,  it  cures  fevers,  and  other 
evils  (Capt.  Bourke,  Medicine  Men  of  the  Apaches,  1892).  Similar 
ideas  of  the  life-giving  power  of  hawks  are  found  in  ancient  Europe 


202  Hayti 

(Brand's  Pap,  Antiq.).  Among  the  Greeks  the  hawk  was  the  spy  of 
Apollo,  and  the  migratory  hawk  betokened  spring  (Aristotle,  Birds, 
502).  It  sat  on  the  sacred  Mt  Ida,  as  the  hawk  or  eagle  of  Skandi- 
navians  sat  on  the  branches  of  the  world-tree  Yggdrasil,  and  the  Persian 
Simurgh  on  the  summit  of  Elburz,  waiting  (like  the  Oaruda)  to  swoop 
down  on  serpents  and  demons,  and  to  bear  behests  of  heaven  to  men. 

Hajrti.     See  Voduns. 

Head.  The  head  in  mythology  is  the  sun  (Eephalos),  and  also 
the  top  of  the  phallus.  The  foundations  of  any  city  could  be  rendered 
secure  by  either  a  head  or  a  phallus  (Mr  D.  Ferguson,  Indian  Antiq,^ 
Feb.  1S84)  ;  and  those  who  may  doubt  the  connection  should  see  the 
Vatican  bronze  of  the  cock-crested  head  (Payne  Knight,  Essays  on 
Ancient  Worship,  1865,  p.  10,  plate  ii).  The  torso  of  this  figure 
bears  the  Greek  words  SoUr  Kosmou,  "  the  saviour  of  the  world." 

Heart.  The  Egyptians  had  a  heart  emblem  (see  Ait.  aad 
Abraxas),  which  hung  from  the  sacred  bull  It  is  a  common  symbol 
of  passion.  In  the  temple  of  Prometheus  ("  fire  "),  above  its  gateway, 
were  carved  an  eagle  and  a  heart  The  latter  apparently  (Ait)  was 
the  hieroglyphic  for  Aetos,  "  the  eagle  "  (Bryant,  Mythol.,  i,  p.  18). 
The  Egyptian  names  Ab,  and  Hat,  for  the  heart  signified  (says 
Renouf)  that  which  leaps  or  throbs,  as  do  the  Aryan  names  from  the 
root  Krad  "  to  quiver "  (Greek  Kardia,  Latin  Cardia,  Sanskrit 
Hrid,  Zend  Zaredhaya,  Teut.  Hairto,  Kelt.  Cride :  see  Proc.  Socy. 
Bib.  Arch,  May  1887  :  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  500;  ii,  p.  516).  The 
heart  charm  is  still  common,  and  the  **  sacred  heart,"  with  its  flames 
bursting  out  from  above,  is  a  Roman  Catholic  symbol  (see  Agnostic 
Journal,  14th  Oct.  1899).  Irish  bishops  distribute  a  written  prayer 
illustrated  with  this  heart  in  which  are  the  Virgin  and  a  kneeUng 
man  and  woman  :  this  is  "  to  be  attached  to  the  inner  door  of 
houses  in  order  that  the  inmates  may  be  preserved  from  cholera,  and 
all  other  misfortunes."  In  the  prayer  the  Virgin  is  besought,  by  her 
immaculate  conception,  to  save  the  house  from  "  pestilence,  cholera, 
fire,  water,  thunder,  tempests,  earthquakes,  thieves,  schisms,  heresies, 
and  sudden  death."  In  ancient  Egypt  it  is  the  heart  that  is  weighed 
in  the  balances  (see  Amenti).  The  heart  of  Siva,  in  India,  is  called 
the  Nadi-chakra,  the  "  vital  spirit  which  drives  life  through  the  tubes" 
(or  Nadis),  The  heart  resting  on  the  sun  is  also  a  sacred  symbol  in 
ancient  sculptures ;  and  snakes  issue  from  the  heart,  while  three 
hearts  form  a  trinity,  or  a  wheel,  in  mediaeval  symbolism  (see  Riv&rs 
of  Life,  ii,  plate  ii,  fig.  2). 


Heaven  203 

The  heart  plays  an  importaDt  part  in  the  mysticism  of  the 
"philosopher's  stone"  (see  De  Lapide  Sap.  Prdctica,  1618,  by  Father 
B.  Valentine,  a  Benedictine  monk).  In  Clavis  lY  a  queen  holds  a 
heart  before  an  altar,  and  from  it  spring  7  roses,  while  a  rampant  lion 
and  the  sun  are  combined  with  this  figure ;  and  Cupid  shoots  at  the 
heart  in  front,  while  a  satyr-like  man  stands  behind,  blowing  fire  at 
the  queen  with  a  bellows.  In  Clavis  Y  a  "  still "  beside  the  queen  is 
drawn  from  a  furnace,  fed  by  a  man  with  a  trident ;  and  a  double 
Janus  head  blows  into  another  opposite.  Above  these  are  the  sun, 
the  moon,  and  a  swan.  In  Clavis  YI  two  women  ride  lions  whose 
jaws  are  inter-locked,  and  hold  hearts  whence  spring  the  sun  and 
moon.  Yenus  reclines  under  a  tree :  a  Cupid  on  her  arm  points  at 
her ;  and  two  others  support  a  heart  The  interpretation  of  all  this 
is  clearly  intended  to  refer  to  passion. 

Heaven.  The  heaven  idea  is  the  logical  outcome  of  the 
speculative  doctrine  that  men — if  not  all  animals — have  immortal 
souls ;  an  idea  now  commonly  believed  to  be  bom  of  dreams,  the 
untutored  savage  observing  that  when  the  body  lay,  as  it  were  dead, 
in  sleep  his  spirit,  mind,  or  intelligence  was  active,  and  often  wandered 
amid  strange  scenes.  Bad  souls  then  naturally  went  down  into  dark- 
ness or  Sheol,  and  good  souls  upwards  to  dwell  with  the  "  spirits  of 
life"  in  heaven — ^speculations  which  ignored  the  hard  facts  as  to  a 
rapidly  revolving  and  advancing  little  globe. 

The  idea  of  going  to  heaven  is  however  modem,  compared  with 
the  long  past  of  man,  and  is  a  weak  and  varied  growth.  The  ancients 
hardly  recognised  it,  and  in  the  Hebrew  scriptures  no  such  after  life 
is  formulated,  or  apparently  longed  for.  The  Hebrew  deity  dwelt 
above  a  "firmament"  over  the  waters,  to  which  Hebrews  thought 
that  Babylonians  strove  to  build  a  tower.  From  the  windows  of  this 
firmament  came  rains  and  a  great  flood,  and  from  it  God  talked  with 
patriarchs  and  prophets.  An  early  Christian  saw  this  heaven  opened, 
and  Jesus  standing  at  God's  right  band  (Acts  vii,  55,  56).  As  it 
must  have  been  made,  a  creator  was  also  pre-supposed — a  lord  of  souls 
or  spirits  who  must  provide  them  for  his  whole  world.  He  is  the  Lord 
of  Heaven,  and  the  enemy  of  the  "  Prince  of  the  Power  of  the  Air," 
who  ruled  hosts  of  spirits  in  Hades  or  Sheol — another  logical,  though 
fanciful  creation.  But  many  wise  teachers  called  on  the  ignorant  to 
remember  that  these  great  conceptions  were  based  on  our  hopes  and 
fears,  on  dreams  and  insufficient  reasonings.  So  our  immortal  bard 
seems  to  have  thought  when  he  said  :  **  We  are  such  stuff  as  dreams 
are  made  of,  and  our  little  life  is  rounded  with  a  sleep." 


204  Heaven 

Nevertheless  these  ideas  of  Heavens  and  Hells  assumed  a  grossly 
materialistic  aspect,  and  were  more  or  less  accepted  by  I^yptians  and 
Babylonians  some  5000  years  ago,  by  writers  of  Vedas,  and  Zero- 
astrians,  about  3000  years  ago,  and  by  Greeks  and  W.  Asiatics  as 
early  as  the  age  of  Pythagoras  and  Sophokles,  as  also  by  Hebrew 
Psalmists.  Vainly  have  spiritualists,  whether  Mazdean,  Hindu,  or 
Christian,  condemned  materialism  :  man  can  grasp  no  phenomenon, 
whether  god  or  ghost,  heaven  or  hell,  save  through  material  concep- 
tions bom  of  consciousness,  or  knowledge  gained  through  his  five 
senses.  The  more  devout  the  priest  or  pietist  the  more  materialistic 
do  we  find  his  ideas  to  be.  Heaven  becomes  a  very  real  Mt  Mem, 
with  an  Olympian  Zeus  in  the  circling  skies — ^the  Hebrew  Shemim  or 
"  heights,"  the  Chinese  Tien  round  which  the  sun  makes  his  diurnal 
journey.  It  is  the  Vedik  Varuna  and  Greek  Ouranos  ("  the  covering  "), 
and  the  Latin  Camera  or  Kymrik  Kamvios,  *'  the  arch  "  or  "  vault" 

Our  English  word  heaven  (Anglo-Saxon  Hebhen ;  German 
Him/meC)  is  evidently  connected  with  the  idea  of  "that  which  is 
lifted,  heaved,  or  heaped  up  "  :  for  many  rude  races  believed  the  sky 
was  forced  up  from  the  earth,  when  the  darkness  ceased  and  the 
Devas  or  "  bright  ones "  arose  to  rule  in  heaven.  [These  Aryan 
words  are  also  from  the  same  root  Kam  "  to  bend,"  found  as  above  in 
Kamuloa. — Ed.]  Other  words  also  mean  "  swelling  up  "  (Russian 
Nebo  ;  Polish  Niebo ;  Bohemian  Nebe\  or  **  bright "  (Livonian  dehbee ; 
Hindu  dibi).  The  Babylonian  Samami  means  ''  heights " ;  the 
Akkadian  E-anfia  **  the  abode  on  high  " ;  the  Kassite  Tur-hi  *'  the 
high  abode,"  and  in  Finnic  Tanym  is  heaven. 

The  Asiatic  ideas  of  transmigration,  and  expiation  in  future  lives, 
were  not  recognised  by  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  or  Hebrews.  In 
Sheol  (the  "hollow"),  according  to  Hebrew  ideas  about  7o0  B.C.. 
dwelt  both  the  holy  and  the  unholy.  Samuel  ascends  from  Sheol 
(1  Sam.  xxviii,  13,  14,  15,  19).  Yet  the  Psalmist  says  (Psalm  xvi, 
10)'*  Thou  wilt  not  leave  my  soul  (or  self)  for  Sheol,  nor  suffer  thy 
pious  ones  to  see  destruction  " — ^a  text  whence  Hebrews  aud  Christians 
alike  have  concluded  that  the  body  is  to  be  resurrected.  Sheol  (or 
Abaildou,  that  is  "  destruction  ")  became  later  a  '*  bottomless  pit,"  into 
which  Yahveh  cast  his  emng  angel,  once  a  visitor  to  heaven  (Job  i,  ii), 
but  chained — or  otherwise  he  might  still  be  falling  forever  more. 

The  early  beliefs  of  Christians,  as  to  heaven  and  hell,  are  seen  in 
writings  attributed  to  Peter  and  Nicodemus.  Christ  is  said  (1  Peter 
iii,  19)  to  have  "preached  to  the  spirits  in  safe  keeping"  (phillake): 
Micod  em  us  devotes  ten  chapters  to  describing  Christ's  visit  to  Hell: 
for  two  of  the  dead   (Karinus    and    Leucius)    were    induced,    when 


Heaven  205 

they  rose  from  their  graves  after  the  Crucifixion,  to  write  what  they 
had  seen.  This  unfortunately  is  lost,  but  perhaps  we  should  not 
have  believed  them  (see  Er).  These  legends  recall  the  descent  of 
Gilgamas  (the  sun)  and  of  Istar  (the  moon)  into  Sheol.  The  Greeks 
had  similar  tales,  perhaps  from  the  same  source,  as  to  the  diurnal  or 
annual  descent  of  the  sun  into  Hades. 

The  heaven  life  of  the  Egyptians  was  a  glorified  existence  as  on 
earth.     The  pious  ate  the  choicest  viands  at  the  table  of  Osiris  (see 
E^pt),  the  climate  was  exquisite,  and  there  was  only  such  amount  of 
healthy  labour  as  was  necessary  to  sweeten  repose :  men   ploughed, 
sowed,  and  reaped  the  fields  of  Aalu,  which  yielded  crops  never  seen 
on  earth  (see  Amenti).     These  descriptions  were  even  exaggerated  by 
Rabbis  and  by  early  Christian  Fathers.     The  corn  grew  seven  cubits 
long,  the  grapes  were  two  cubits  across.     The  Egyptians  said  that  the 
Osiris  of  the  dead  man,  or  saint,  could  at  will  transform  himself  into 
beast,  bird,  or  flower,  or  even  into  a  god,  and  so  traverse  the  universe. 
But  the  heaven  of  Paul  is  indefinite  :  he  quotes  (1  Cor.  ii,  9)  the 
saying :  *'  Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  hath  it  entered 
into  the  heart  of  man  "  to  conceive  the  future  of  those  who  love  Ood, 
though  seers  were  supposed  to  have  seen  heaven.     The  Satan  could 
once  enter  it  (Job  i,  6 ;  ii,  1) :  it  was  opened  when  the  Holy  Ghost 
descended  (Mark  i,  10) ;  and  Stephen  saw  it  open  also  (Acts  vii,  56), 
in  spite  of  the  swift  revolution  of  this  little  globe,  which  makes  such 
words  meaningless,  and  destroys  belief  in  inspiration.     Hebrew  seers 
saw  Yahveh  on  his  throne  in  heaven,  with  its  hosts  standing  before 
him  (1  Kings  xxii,  19  ;  2  Chron.  xviii,  18),  and  Jesus  said  that  the 
spirits  of  little  ones  do  always  behold  the  face  of  God  (Matt  xviii,  10). 
The  Hebrews,  nevertheless,  seem  to  have  believed,  like   Jesus 
(John  iii,  13),  that  no  man  has  ascended  into  heaven ;  not  even  the 
pious  David  so  ascended  (Acts  ii,  34),  which  is  confusing  when  we 
recall  Enoch  and  Elijah.     Some  texts  point  to  the  throne  of  God  as 
"enduring  forever";  but  Job  said  that  man  does  not  rise  till  "  the 
heavens  be  no  more"  (xiv,  12).     In  the  second  Epistle  attributed  to 
Peter  we  read  that :  "  the  heavens  being  on  fire  shall  be  dissolved,  and 
the  elements  shall  melt  with  fervent  heat"     Ezekiel  (i,  22-28)  saw  a 
firmament  (or  platform)  supported  on  "  living  creatures,"  which  was 
like  crystal,  having  on  it  a  sapphire  throne,  on  which  sat  the  "  like- 
ness of  a  man  "  with  rainbow  colours.     The  author  of  Revelation  is 
equally  definite.    His  idea  is  that  of  an  Eastern  court  or  of  a  gorgeous 
cathedral   in   full   worship.     The   door   of  heaven   was   opened,   and 
immediately  he  was  in  the  spirit  (Rev.  iv),  and  saw  one  seated  on  a 
throne,  who  was  "  like  a  jasper  and  a  sardine  stone,  and  a  rainbow 


206  Heaven 

round  about  the  throne  in  sight  like  an  emerald "  (verses  2,  3). 
Before  the  throne  were  the  seats  of  24  elders,  clothed  in  white,  with 
gold  crowns,  and  seven  burning  lamps  with  a  crystal  sea,  and  *'  four 
beasts  full  of  eyes."  The  whole  description  seems  to  be  of  Mazdean 
origin  (compare  the  city  of  Ahuramazda  as  described  in  the  Pablavi 
Bv/ndahlsh).  The  lamb  with  seven  horns  and  seven  eyes  takes  a 
book  with  seven  seals  from  "  him  that  sat  on  the  throne  "  (v,  6,  7). 
There  is,  moreover,  a  temple  or  tabernacle  (Rev.  xiv,  17  ;  xv,  5 ; 
xvi,  17),  and  an  altar  (vi,  9)  in  this  heaven.  But  the  conceptioDS  of 
the  6th  century  B.C.,  and  of  the  Ist  century  A.C.,  expand  also  into  the 
vision  of  "Abraham's  bosom"  (Luke  xvi,  22),  which  was  in  sight  of 
Sheol — a  subject  on  which  many  Rabbis  wrote.  [The  BabyloDians 
had  a  place  of  rest  *'  under  a  bright  sky  "  in  Sheol  for  the  pious — 
like  the  Greek  Elysium  adjoining  Hades  among  the  Greeks. — £d.] 
Christians  accepted  heaven  as  a  palace  in  cloud-land,  which  poets  like 
Dante  or  Milton  have  described  as  a  sweet,  dreamy  abode  of  hymning 
and  chanting,  where  no  increased  powers,  knowledge,  or  virtues  can 
be  of  future  use.  Paul  pictures  a  heaven,  not  for  flesh  and  blood, 
where  we  shall  be  ''  all  changed,"  yet  "  know  even  as  we  are  known " 
— ideas  seemingly  incongruous  of  which  he  is  "  fully  persuaded  "  in 
his  own  mind,  from  feeling  that  Christ's  resurrection,  and  ascension, 
were  historical  facts.  Nay,  men  were  assured  that  within  that 
generation  Christ  would  come  down  again,  "  in  like  manner  as  ye  saw 
him  ascend,"  which  involves  his  being  yet  in  his  lacerated  body — 
materialistic  ideas  common  to  all  religions. 

Paul  insisted  on  resurrection  to  an  eternal  hell,  as  well  as 
to  an  eternal  heaven  (2  Thess.  i,  8,  9).  To  the  majority  the  future 
is  a  "  resurrection  to  damnation "  (John  v,  29  ;  Jude  7).  The 
gospels  fully  warrant  this,  and  the  Churches  have  preached  it  for 
18  centuries  (Matt,  xiii,  42;  xviii,  8;  xxv,  46;  Mark  iii,  29;  ix, 
44-47),  for  Christ  is  made  to  insist  that  the  wicked  are  cast  into 
everlasting  fire,  and  that  the  good  inherit  eternal  life.  These  are 
mutual  complements,  and  fundamental  tenets  of  the  faith,  for  if  there 
be  no  damnation  why  did  God's  only  Son  die?  Why  preach 
''  atonement "  by  a  Saviour  who  never  saved  ?  No  explaining  away 
of  the  Gai-Hinnom  ("valley  of  groans*' — the  Moslem  Jehannum  or 
hell)  as  a  place  where  the  refuse  of  Jerusalem  was  burned,  will  satisfy 
believers  in  the  fall  of  Adam,  and  in  salvation  by  the  son  of  David. 
The  Greeks  believed  that  H^rakl^  descended  into  Hades  to  visit  the 
"  mighty  dead,"  like  Odusseus ;  but  Akhilleus  (according  to  Homer) 
would  rather  have  been  a  hireling  on  earth  than  a  king  in  the  world 
of  ghosts.     Adam  in  Sheol  had  not  only  the  Satan  as  his  companion, 


Heaven  207 

but  Samuel  also,  apparently  in  unchanged  earthly  form  ;  and  Chrifitians 
at  first  held  similar  beliefs.  Only  Christ  and  his  apostles,  with  the 
few  who  were  the  "  salt  of  the  earth,"  would  go  to  heaven,  though  at 
the  millenium  the  pious  were  to  dwell  in  the  heavenly  Jemsalem  let 
down  from  heaven.  A  poetic  vagueness  pervades  these  descriptions, 
and  the  Churches  were  wise  at  first  in  not  insisting  (as  Irenseus  shows) 
on  the  millenium,  or  on  the  doctrines  now  current  as  to  immortal 
life,  which  Mr  Gladstone,  as  a  learned  theologian,  held  to  be  only 
certain  for  the  good  believer  in  Christ. 

Tet,  many  centuries  before  Christ,  shrewd  and  pious  meta- 
physicians in  the  East  had  thought  out,  and  for  the  most  part  had 
rejected,  the  legendary  joys  of  all  popular  heavens.  Their  speculations 
as  to  the  eternal  rest,  after  toils  on  earth  followed  by  sundry  trans- 
migrations, or  other  states  of  existence  necessary  for  the  attainment 
of  purity,  are  fairly  summed  up  in  the  story  of  the  pious  sage 
Mugdala,  as  found  in  the  Maha-bharata.  Owing  to  his  holy  life, 
good  works,  and  wise  words,  and  after  severe  trials  of  temper,  and 
patient  endurance  of  all  that  the  gods  decreed  to  test  his  faith,  they 
declared  that  he  must  ascend  to  heaven  in  a  celestial  car :  but 
Mugdala  hesitated.  He  asked  first  that  the  "holy  ones"  should 
make  clear  to  him  the  advantages  of  heaven  over  earth  where  he  was 
so  busy  in  good  and  useful  works.  A  long  debate  ensued  (see  Muir's 
Orig,  Sanskrit  Texts,  v,  342-346),  and  heaven  was  described  as  the 
blest  abode  where  there  is  no  hunger,  thirst,  weariness,  heat,  or  cold  ; 
no  desire,  labour,  suffering,  pleasure,  or  pain  ;  no  passion  good  or 
evil :  no  fear  or  joy ;  but  *'  rest  in  a  perfect  celestial  repose,  amid 
gardens  glorious  and  delightful,  fragrant  and  unfading,  near  golden 
Mem  with  its  silvery  cascades."  There  free  from  troubles  the  glorified 
ethereal  "  bodies  of  the  blessed  move  on  aerial  cars,  amid  scenes  of 
perfect  purity,  feeding  on  the  divine  ambrosia  with  the  eternal  gods." 
"  To  such  a  place,"  said  the  divine  messengers,  "  do  the  gods  invite 
thee,  0  Mugdala,  as  a  reward  for  thy  faith  and  good  deeds.  No  more 
faith  or  works  are  required  of  thee — nay,  none  can  be  wrought ;  for 
no  reward  can  spring  from  any,  all  being  perfection."  To  this  the 
sage  gravely  answered  :  "  Then  I  desire  no  such  heaven.  It  cuts  off 
at  the  root  all  sources  of  true  happiness — the  blessing  of  working  and 
of  doing  good,  and  all  those  high  gratifications  of  heart  and  mind 
which,  in  a  thousand  ways,  rise  therefrom.  Go  blessed  ones,  and 
leave  me  in  the  daily  practice  of  virtue.  I  desire  to  remain,  as  far  as 
possible,  indifferent  to  praise  or  blame,  till  my  Nirvana  shall  come — the 
time  for  absorption  into  the  essence  of  Brahm." 

The  epik  writer  continues,  in  the  same  trenchant  manner,  to 


208  Heaven 

criticise  popular  ideas  of  heaven.  Tudishthira  arrived  at  the  celestial 
gates,  but  his  faithful  friends,  and  dog,  were  forbidden  to  approach 
and  consigned  to  helL  One  by  one  wife  and  brothers  had  sunk  down 
in  the  weary  pilgrimage  on  earth,  and  now  found  heaven  indiffereDt 
to  their  cries.  The  ''  eternal  one  "  at  the  gate  welcomed  Tudishthira 
only.  But  this  good  man  and  true  looked  back  on  his  fallen  friends, 
and  exclaimed  in  anguish  :  ^  Nay,  not  so,  thou  thousand-eyed  one.  god 
of  gods  !  Let  my  brothers  come  with  me :  without  them  I  seek  not 
even  to  enter  heaven."  After  much  debate,  and  equivocal  arguments 
by  the  gods,  Yudishthira  was  assured  that  his  friends  were  already  in 
heaven.  Then,  gazing  on  his  faithful  dog,  he  urged  that  this  dumb 
companion  of  his  joys  and  weary  wanderings  must  also  accompany 
him  wherever  he  went.  "  Not  so,"  was  the  stem  reply,  "  this  is  no 
place  for  dogs."  The  good  sage  (more  merciful  than  the  gods) 
turned  aside  murmuring  that  duty  forbade  him  to  forsake  even  a 
dumb  friend  :  and  the  reproof  pricked  the  conscience  of  henvea : 
great  Indra  appeared  and  urged  that,  as  he  had  left  his  brothers  b? 
the  way,  so  now  he  might  consent  to  leave  his  dog  at  the  gates  of 
heaven.  To  this  Yudishthira  haughtily  replied  :  "  I  had  no  power 
to  bring  them  back  to  life :  how  can  there  be  abandonment  of 
those  who  no  longer  live  ? "  At  last  the  capricious  deity  and  the 
just  man  are  reconciled,  the  former  finding  that  the  dog  is  a  saint  in 
disguise,  and  even  the  father  of  a  righteous  prince — a  celestial 
equivocation  needful  to  reconcile  justice  and  mercy.  But  wben  man 
and  dog  enter  heaven  another  diflSculty  arises :  no  brothers  are  found, 
and  Yudishthira  sees  them,  to  his  horror,  enduring  torments  in  hell 
below.  Incensed  at  the  deceitfulness  of  heaven  he  insists  to  be 
permitted  to  go  to  his  brothers,  and  to  share  their  misery.  This  is 
too  much  for  the  gods,  whose  principles  are  changed  to  accord  with 
the  eternal  laws  of  justice,  truth,  and  loving  kindness.  And  so 
doubtless  will  a  new  heaven  again  be  evolved  as  our  culture  advances, 
one  full  of  science,  art,  music,  and  song — better  perhaps  than  the  old 
one,  but  quite  as  fanciful :  while  our  Hades  will  fade  into  a  sublimated 
Purgatory. 

To  the  Moslem  as  to  the  Hiudu,  heaven  was  a  garden.  "  Who- 
soever," said  MuUammad,  "  performs  good  works  and  believes,  men, 
and  women  as  well,  shall  enter  paradise  "  (^j^oran,  xl,  43  ;  see  also 
xiii,  23  ;  xvi,  99  ;  xlviii,  5) :  and  in  its  tents  the  modest  Huris  hide 
— the  Valkyries  of  the  Moslem.  We  have  said  above  that  the  idea  of 
heaven  is  based  on  that  of  the  soul's  immortality — both  soothing  to 
the  fears  of  humanity.  Such  fancies  have  slowly  grown  to  be  part  of 
our  heredity,  and  have   thus    been   almost   unquestioned   throughout 


Hebe  209 

many  ages.  Wise  and  pious  thinkers  have  argued  that  the  very 
gods  must  be  thought  unjust  unless  they  hereafter  .  recompense 
goodness,  and  compensate  us  for  the  miseries  and  inequalities  of  life : 
unless  there  be  reward  for  virtue  and  punishment  for  vice— crude 
ideas  truly,  which  cut  at  the  roots  of  moral  action  (see  Conscience). 
In  spite  of  science,  in  spite  of  actual  inward  belief,  men  cry  as  of  old, 
in  crowded  churches,  *'I  believe  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body/' 
well  knowing  that  it  crumbles  to  dust,  and  is  eaten  by  worms,  that 
it  is  converted  into  earth  nourishing  vegetation,  and  dissolved  in 
gases  in  the  air.  No  educated  man  of  science  now  asserts  that  any 
soul  exists  apart  from  some  form  of  matter :  in  spite  of  creeds,  and 
solemn  chants,  the  old  belief  which  enabled  the  martyrs  to  endure  the 
fiery  stake,  or  to  face  the  devouring  lion,  has  all  but  vanished  away  in 
Europe  and  America.  Life  is  perhaps  more  dear,  and  more  endurable, 
than  it  was  of  old,  though  no  angel  voices  are  now  heard  calling ;  no 
crown  of  glory,  palaces  of  gems  and  crystal,  or  streets  of  gold,  await  us. 
Irenseus  said  that,  at  the  millenium  "  the  vines  have  each  ten  thousand 
branches,  each  with  ten  thousand  lesser  branches,  each  with  ten 
thousand  twigs ;  and  every  twig  has  ten  thousand  clusters  of  grapes, 
every  one  of  which  yields  276  measures  of  iine  wine."  Tet  hear  the 
wise  old  Persian  'Omar  the  Tentmaker,  who  calls 

'^  Heaven  but  the  vision  of  fulfilled  desire 
And  Hell  the  shadow  of  a  soul  on  fire, 
Cast  on  the  darkness  into  which  ourselves 
So  late  emerged  from  shall  so  soon  expire.'' 

Hebe.  Greek  :  the  "  downy "  representative  of  youth  and  of 
tender  herbage,  a  daughter  of  H6re  or  "  earth,"  and  of  Zeus  or 
"heaven,"  and  sister  of  Ares  the  "storms"  of  spring.  She  is  the 
Zend  Yavya  "  young  "  (Sanskrit  yavan,  Latin  juvenia).  She  could 
restore  youth  and  vigour  with  Ambrosia,  and  so  became  cup-bearer 
to  the  gods,  and  is  even  called  Ganumeda  (see  GanumedSs).  She 
was  wedded  to  Herakles  the  sun,  and  bore  to  him  Alexi-ares  Q'  the 
most  powerful  ")  and  A-niketos  ("  the  unconquerable  "),  harbingers  of 
spring. 

Hebrews.  Hebrew :  ^Ebrlm,  or  "  those  who  have  crossed " 
some  river,  whether  Tigris,  Euphrates,  or  Jordan.  The  term  applies 
to  others  besides  the  tribes  who  entered  Palestine  (Gen.  x,  24 ; 
xi,  15):  Arabs  called  those  N.E.  of  the  Euphrates  'Ebrim,  before 
they  crossed  S.W.  It  is  a  geographical  not  a  racial  name.  As  far 
as  the  evidence  of  texts,  and  monuments,  is  concerned  we  know 
scarcely  anything  of  Hebrews  before  the  9th  century  B.C.,  if  we 
0« 


210  Hebrews 

except  the  disputed  identification  of  the  'Abiri  invaders  of  the  15tb 
century  b.g.  (see  Amarna),  and  the  notice  of  Israel  in  Palatine 
about  1260  B.c.  (see  Egypt):  for  the  first  Hebrew  king  mentioned 
by  the  Assyrians  is  Jehu,  who  gave  tribute  to  Shalmaneser  II  in 
840  B.C. ;  after  whom  we  read  of  Menahem,  Pekah,  and  Hoshea  of 
Samaria,  and  of  Azariah,  Ahaz,  Hezekiah,  and  Manasseh  of  Judah  as 
tributaries  in  the  8  th  and  7  th  centuries.  [The  most  definite  notice 
is  that  by  Sennacherib  in  702  B.c.  ''As  for  Hezekiah  of  Judaih,  who 
did  not  submit  to  my  yoke :  forty-six  of  his  cities,  strong  forts,  and 
villages  of  their  region  which  were  unnamed,  I  took  ...  I  made 
spoil  of  200,150  people  small  and  great,  male  and  female;  of  horses, 
mules,  camels,  oxen,  and  flocks  innumerable.  He  shut  himself  up 
like  a  bird  in  a  snare  in  Jerusalem,  his  royal  city :  he  raised 
ramparts  for  himself;  he  was  forced  to  close  the  gate  of  his  town. 
I  cut  off  the  cities  I  sacked  from  his  fortress.  I  gave  them  to 
Mitinti  King  of  Ashdod :  to  PadI  King  of  Ekron  ;  and  to  Sil-b'el 
EjDg  of  Gaza.  I  made  his  land  small.  Beyond  the  former  tribute 
— their  yearly  gift — I  imposed  on  them  an  additional  gift  of  sub- 
jection to  my  government  Fear  of  the  glory  of  my  rule  overcame 
Hezekiah.  The  priests,  the  trusty  warriors  whom  he  had  brought 
in  to  defend  Jerusalem,  his  royal  city,  gave  tribute.  Thirty  talents 
of  gold,  800  talents  of  molten  silver,  mauy  rubies  and  sapphires, 
chairs  of  ivory,  high  thrones  of  ivory,  skins  of  wild  bulls,  weapons 
of  all  kinds — a  mighty  treasure — and  women  of  his  palace,  slaves 
and  handmaids,  he  caused  to  be  sent  after  me  to  Nineveh,  my  royal 
city,  giving  tribute;  and  he  sent  his  envoy  to  make  submission." 
—Ed.] 

Euneiform  tablets  were  used  in  Palestine  as  early  as  the  lotb 
century  B.C.,  and  down  to  649  B.c.  (see  Gezer) ;  and  we  know  that 
the  Hebrews  used  tablets  in  writing  in  the  same  age.  But  we  have 
no  allusion  to  their  having  written  iu  kuneiform  characters ;  and  the 
earliest  alphabetic  text  is  the  Moabite  Stone,  about  900  B.C.,  in  a 
dialect  very  like  Hebrew.  In  this,  Yahveh  appears  as  the  tribal  god 
of  Israel.  The  Siloam  text  (about  700  B.C.  according  to  Dr  Isaac 
Taylor)  is  written  in  a  variety  of  the  same  Phoenician  letters  used 
by  the  Moabites,  and  in  pure  Hebrew.  We  also  possess  weights 
of  about  the  same  age,  which  are  inscribed,  and  represent  the  Hebrew 
shekel  of  about  320  grains  inaperial.  We  have  seals  said  to  come 
from  Jerusalem,  which  are  equally  early,  bearing  names  compounded 
with  that  of  Yahveh ;  and  one  of  these  has  on  it  a  winged  sun. 
We  have  also  many  handles  of  pitchers,  bearing  the  same  characters 
in  texts  which  dedicate  them   to  the  Meiek  or   Moloch  of  various 


Hebrews  211 

S.  Palestine  towns,  and  to  '' Melek-MarashatL"  [Probably  the  deity 
presiding  over  "  what  is  drawn  forth  ** — ^that  is  to  say  the  water  in 
the  pitcher. — Ed.]  After  the  Captivity  we  have  many  seals,  with 
Hebrew  names  compounded  with  Tab  or  Yahveh.  We  have  a 
complete  series  of  coins  at  least  as  early  as  the  time  of  Simon 
the  brother  of  Judas  Makkabeeus,  and  down  to  the  reign  of  Herod 
the  Great.  We  have  texts  at  Gezer  probably  as  old  as  the  age  of 
the  Makkabees ;  and  one  at  'Arak:  el  Emir  (E.  of  Jordan)  of  about 
176  B.a  We  have  a  boundary  stone  of  Herod's  Temple  in  Greek ; 
and,  about  50  B.C.,  the  square  Hebrew  appears  at  Jerusalem  on  the 
tomb  of  the  Beni  Hezir  priests.  De  Saulcy  also  found  a  sarcophagus 
of  a  "  Queen  Sarah "  in  the  tomb  of  the  kings  of  Adiabene,  N*  of 
Jerusalem,  probably  of  the  same  age.  The  supposed  "  coins  of  the 
revolts "  are  forgeries,  imitating  those  of  Simon,  on  defaced  Roman 
coins ;  but  we  have  Hebrew  texts  on  the  Galilean  synagogues  of  the 
2nd  century  A.a ;  and  Col.  Conder  notices  one  at  Umm  ez  Zeinat  on 
Karmel,  which  bears  the  name  of  ''Eli'azer  Bar  'Azariah,"  which  is 
that  of  a  well-known  Rabbi  about  135  A.C.  A  semi-Phoenician  text, 
found  by  M.  Clermont  Ganneau  in  the  village  of  Siloam,  appears  to  be 
ancient  and  perhaps  important,  but  it  is  illegible;  and  another  at 
Joppa  is  doubted  as  perhaps  not  genuine.  These  are  all  the  texts 
at  present  known,  in  Syria,  which  are  of  Hebrew  or  Jewish  origin 
down  to  our  2nd  century. 

The  dispersion  of  the  race  is  witnessed  by  Eju:aite  tombstones, 
in  the  Krimea,  of  probably  the  2nd  century  A.c. ;  and  a  fragment  of 
a  papyrus  from  Egypt,  with  the  Ten  Commandments  (see  Proc,  Bib. 
Arch.  Socy.,  Jany.  1903,  pp.  39  to  56),  is  supposed,  by  Mr  Stanley 
A.  Cook,  to  belong  to  about  the  same  age,  being  the  oldest  known 
text  of  any  part  of  the  Old  Testament  in  existence.  The  mosaic  on 
the  tomb  of  Galla  Pocida  (built  432  to  440  A.c.)  is  the  oldest  known 
Jewish  text  in  the  West  (see  JourTial  Bl.  Asiatic  Socy.,  May  1882). 
The  oldest  Samaritan  MS.  at  Shechem  (never  collated)  cannot  be  older 
than  our  6th  century,  the  characters  being  apparently  the  same  used 
in  a  text  on  a  stone  of  the  old  Samaritan  synagogue  at  the  same  site, 
which  belongs  to  that  period  (about  the  time  of  Justinian). 

As  regards  language,  we  have  no  evidence  before  700  B.c. ;  and 
the  Moabite  dialect  in  the  9th  century  ac.  is  not  pure  Hebrew.  We 
have  Aramaik  texts  (on  a  Jerusalem  tomb  and  in  Bashan)  older  than 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  70  A.C. ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that, 
in  the  time  of  Christ,  Hebrew  was  a  dead  language  only  known  to 
priests,  and  Aramaik  (as  we  see  also  in  the  Gospels)  the  ordinary 
language  of  Jews,  to  many  of  whom  however  Greek  was  also  known. 


212  Hebrews 

Greek  texta  of  the  period  being  common  in  Bashan,  though  rare  in 
other  parts  of  Palestine.  None  of  these  Hebrew  and  Aramaik  texts 
have  any  "  points  " :  nor  were  such  used  before  our  6  th  century ;  so 
that  as  Dr  Isaac  Taylor  says  (Alphabet,  i,  p.  282) :''  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  the  old  pronunciation  is  now  lost  beyond  recovery."  [All  that 
we  know  is  that  the  present  pronunciation  of  words,  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, is  not  the  same  as  that  represented  by  the  Greek  Septuagint 
translators  in  the  case  of  proper  names  and  other  nouna — Ed.] 
;Hebrew  was  not  perfectly  known  to  the  Greek  translators  for  (as 
Dr  F.  Delitzsch  says)  '*  the  Jewish  writers  of  those  days  failed  to  grasp 
the  meaning  of  difiBcult  passages,  and  for  200  years  even  the  most 
learned  Jews  wrote  in  Aramaik. .  .  .  The  Greek  Septuagint,  some  portions 
of  which  were  written  in  the  3rd  century  B.G.,  shows  similar  defective 
knowledge  of  Hebrew,  and  the  translators  often  only  guess  at  the 
meaning.''  From  the  2nd  or  3rd  century  A.C.,  learned  Jews  at 
Tiberias  laboured  to  create  a  standard  text  of  their  Bible  ;  but  their 
knowledge  of  the  true  pronunciation  of  "  unpointed "  texts  was 
imperfect,  and  their  conclusions  were  often  very  manifestly  wrong. 
''  There  is  ample  room,"  says  Dr  Ginsburg,  *'  for  many  readings, 
for  the  words  are  not  always  distinctly  separated,  nor  the  characters 
properly  formed." 

As  regards  literature,  besides  the  Bible  the  Jews  possess  a  vast 
number  of  works  ranging  from  about  150  to  800  A.C.,  and  later. 
These  include  the  Midrash  or  Commentary  (see  Haggadah,  Halaka, 
and  Midrash)  :  the  various  Targums  (from  our  4th  century  downward) 
or  Aramaik  paraphrases  of  Bible  books  ;  the  vast  Talmud  with  its 
Hebrew  text  (Mishnah),  and  two  commentaries  thereon  (see  Gemara) ; 
and  the  Jg^abbala  or  mystic,  and  sometimes  magical  literature,  supposed 
to  have  originated  in  our  2nd  century,  but  only  extant  in  mediaeval 
works  which  pretend  to  greater  antiquity.  All  these  valuable  writings 
require  study  by  any  who  would  wish  really  to  understand  the  ideas, 
customs,  and  legends,  of  the  Jews,  from  the  time  of  their  final  dispersios 
(after  135  A.C.)  down  to  our  Middle  Ages. 

With  respect  to  the  earlier  religion  of  the  Hebrews,  Kuenen 
(Religion  of  Israel^  i,  p.  223)  says  :  **The  polytheism  of  the  Hebrew 
masses  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  subsequent  innovation.  On  the 
contrary  everything  is  in  favour  of  its  originality."  It  was  only  by 
very  slow  degrees,  during  and  after  their  captivity  in  Babylon,  that 
they  began  to  adopt  the  Monotheism  of  their  prophets  and  psalmists. 
To  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  Yahveh  was  only  the  god  of  Israel,  who  was 
conquered  by  Chemosh  the  god  of  Moab.  The  whole  nation,  like 
those  around  it,  was  steeped  in  superstition  though,  about  the  time 


Hebrews  218 

of  Alexander,  great  skeptiks  like  ^oheleth  appeared  amoDg  Jews  (see 
Ecclesiastes).  How  far  such  views  have  now  advanced  we  may  judge 
from  a  passage  recently  published  in  the  Jewish  World,  in  London. 
"  The  substantial  difference  between  Judaism  and  Christianity  is,  that 
the  one  desires  to  teach  us  how  to  live,  and  the  other  how  to  die ; 
Judaism  discourses  of  the  excellence  of  temporal  pleasure  and  length 
of  days,  whilst  Christianity  emphasises  the  excellence  of  sorrow  and 
the  divinity  of  death."  "  Judaism  now  cares  not  for  the  results  of 
Old  Testament  exegesis  one  iota,  if  the  Old .  Testament  records  be 
proved  false  from  beginning  to  end,  the  Bible  personages  veritable 
sun  myths,  and  the  exodus  from  Egypt  an  astronomical  allegory.  .  .  . 
Judaism  knows  nothing  of  faith,  and  requires  from  its  adherents  no 
form  of  belief.  ...  It  only  notices  what  man  does.  .  .  .  Jews  had 
no  words  even  to  express  our  present  ideas  '  faith '  and  '  belief.'  All 
true  religion  must  be  independent  of  the  authority  of  any  set  of  books  " 
{Jewiah  World,  January  1885).  This  however  is,  as  yet,  only  the 
opinion  of  the  highly  educated  Jews. 

In  regard  to  the  legendary  account  of  the  sojourn  of  the  Hebrews 
b  Egypt,  and  of  their  Exodus  thence  (see  Exodus)  long  and  close  study 
of  the  subject  has  convinced  the  author  that  no  reliance  can  be  placed 
on  the  Hebrew  narrative,  whether  that  residence  extended  only  to 
three  generations,  or  to  430  years.  We  cannot  reject  such  parts  of  the 
story  as  do  not  appear  to  fit  with  actual  history,  and  accept  such 
portions  as  seem  more  probable.  We  cannot  ignore  all  the  miracles 
{ind  plagues,  in  Egypt  and  in  the  desert,  or  the  assertion  that  a 
population  of  some  three  millions — men,  women,  and  children — left  the 
country  in  a  single  night.  It  is  very  generally  acknowledged  now 
that  the  story  consists  merely  of  traditions  mingled  with  myths. 
Hebrew  prophets  of  the  8th  century  B.C.  (Amos  v,  26  ;  Hosea  ii,  15 ; 
Micah  vi,  4)  believed,  it  is  true,  that  their  ancestors  were  led  by 
Moses  and  Aaron  from  Egypt  into  the  wilderness,  where  they  lived  for 
forty  years  ;  but  they  wrote  eight  centuries  later.  The  difficulties  are 
such  as  to  lead  scholars  to  ask,  with  the  Rev.  O.  H.  Bateson  Wright,  D.D., 
''  Was  Israel  ever  in  Egypt  ? "  and,  in  his  work  bearing  this  title,  he 
says  that :  "  there  is  no  true  history  of  Israel  till  David's  time  " :  "  the 
patriarchal  traditions  are  due  to  conjectural  etymologies  of  the  names 
of  places  and  persons" — a  view  which  he  illustrates  as  follows,  in 
accordance  with  the  simple  style  common  to  many  early  histories. 
"  Now  King  Cetus  took  to  himself  a  wife  Belga,  and  she  bore  him 
three  daughters,  Hibemia,  Caledonia,  and  Britannia ;  and  the  sons  of 
Hibemia  were  these :  Ulster,  Munster,  Leinster,  and  Connaught ;  and 
Leinster  was  the  father  of  Dublin.  .  .  .  Now  the  sons  of  Teuton  were 


214  Hebrews 

these:  Anglua,  Saxo,  Juta,  Danus,  and  Horsa.  And  to  Saxo  were 
born  four  sons,  Essex,  Middlesex,  Wessex,  and  Sussex."  Such  a 
parallel  easily  explains  the  genealogies  of  the  10th  chapter  of  Genesis, 
referring  to  early  tribes  of  W.  Asia. 

Neither  later  statements  of  the  prophets,  nor  the  Egyptian  records 

of  any   age,  including   the    reign    of  Merenptah  (Mineptah)  about 

1270  B.C.,  serve  in  any  way  to  confirm  the  marvels  of  the  Exodus 

story.     It  is  clear  from  the  Bible  chronology  that  Moses  was  supposed 

to  live  about  1600  B.C.,  in  the  time  of  the  18th  dynasty  of  Egypt.   But 

Egyptian  history  could  not  have  been  entirely  silent  as  to  the  existence 

of  two  or  three  millions  of  Hebrews  in  the  Delta,  while  noticing  so  many 

much  smaller   foreign  tribes   (see  Egypt),     i^ptian  residents,  and 

merchants,  in  the    15  th  century  B.C.,  were  found   everywhere  from 

Naharaim    and    the   Taurus   to    Philistia,    Edom,   and    the    Sinaitic 

peninsula.     In    their   correspondence  we  find   no  allusions  to  great 

plagues  and  disasters  ;  nor  any  in  Egyptian  records  at  alL    They  speak 

it  is  true  of  certain  Habiri  or  'Abiri  in  the  S.  of  Palestine,  whom  some 

scholars  regard  as  Hebrews  (about  1480  b.g.  or  later),  and  others  as 

Hebronites,  or  as  **  confederates  " :  [the  word  is  geographical,  for  '^  the 

country  of  the  'Abiri "  is  noticed  (see  Amarna) — Ed.]  ;  but  they  never 

say  that  these  marauders,  who  killed  many  Canaanite  chiefs  at  Gezer, 

Lachish,  Askalon,  and  other  places,  came  from  Egypt.     It  is  difficult 

to  believe  that  Hebrews  could  have  gone  into  the  Sinaitic  desert :  for 

it  contained  the  precious  mines  of  copper  and  bluestone  (mafka),  which 

were  protected,  according  to  the  texts  extant  on  the  spot,  by  a  gaard 

of  Egyptian  soldiers.     These  mines  were  known  in  the  time  of  Senefru 

(3rd  or  4th  dynasty),  and  worked  in  the  time  of  the  12th  dynasty. 

We  have  a  text  of  Queen  Hatasu,  of  the  18th  dynasty,  in  this  region ; 

and  the  mines  were  also  worked  under  Bameses  III,  of  the  20th 

dynasty,  about   1200  B.a     [There  are  however  no  texts  known  in 

this  region  in  the  time  of  Tbothmes  IV,  of  Amenophis  III,  or  of 

Amenophis  IV. — Ed.]     Wherever  the   Hebrews  went    in   Palestine 

they  must  have  encountered  the  Egyptians ;  though  we  see  from  the 

Amarna  tablets  that  there  was  rebellion,  and  a  weakening  of  Egyptian 

rule,  in  the  days  of  Amenophis  III  and  Amenophis  lY,  when  raids  on 

Philistia  by  the  Habiri  occurred.     It  is  of  course  possible  that  border 

tribes  of  Beni  Israel  may,  like  the  Edomites  in  the  time  of  the 

1 2th  dynasty,  have  entered  the  Nile  delta,  under  Hyksos  rule,  in  time 

of  famine,  and  may  have  worked  as  slaves,  and  have  again  fled  to  the 

desert,  pursued  by  Egyptian  troops ;  and  it  is  possible  that  out  of  such 

events  the  wondrous  legend  of  the  Exodus  grew  up  in  time.    If  Moses 

lived — as  represented  in  the  Old  Testament — about  1500  B.C.,  and  the 


Hebrews  215 

Hebrew  records  were  edited  by  scribes  like  Ezra  in  the  Persian  age, 
the  small  nucleus  of  fact  might  have  had  ample  time  to  grow  into 
these  portentous  developments  .of  Hebrew  tradition.   .  A  writer  in  the 
Jewish    World  (Ist  March    1883)  said  sadly:  "In  vain  do  we  look 
for  some  record  of  the  400  years  our  ancestors  are  said  to  have  dwelt 
in  Egypt.     It  is  a  long  period  in  the  history  of  a  nation,  and  surely, 
iluring  so  long  a  stay,  some  reference  to  Hebrews  must  have  been 
made  on  papyrus,  tomb,  stele,  or  monument.     At  present  we  know  of 
Doae.     The  history  of  Israel  in  £gypt  is  simply  a  blank  " — and  so  it 
remains  up  to  the  present  time.     Some  have,  in  the  past,  seen  in  the 
pictures  of  the  Beni  Hasan  tombs  a  "  representation  of  Joseph  and  bis 
brethren "    (see    Beni    Hasan) ;    but   the  inhabitants   of   Seir   there 
represented   arrived   in   the  time  of  Amen-em-bat  II,  of  the   12th 
dynasty — a  thousand  years  before  the  date  when  Joseph  is  supposed 
to  have  been  in  Egypt.     Some  have  supposed  the  names  Jacob-el, 
and  Joseph-el  to  occur  as  those  of  deified  patriarchs  in  the  reign  of 
Thothmes  III,  but  these  words  are  the  names  of  towns  in  Fhilistia. 
[The  correct  readings,  given  by   Mariette,  are  Isphxir  (Saphir)  and 
'Akbar  (now  *Ohbwr)  places  very  well  known  in  this  region. — Ed.] 
Such  suggestions  have  never  been   accepted  by   impartial  scholars. 
[The  notice  of  Israel  as  a  people  in  Palestine  under  Mineptah,  while  it 
shows  us  that  he  could  not  have  been  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  is 
Aot  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  history  of  the  Hebrews  under  their 
Judges ;  but  it  does  not  prove  that  Israel  ever  was  in  Egypt.     In  the 
ancient  song  of  Deborah  the  Hebrew  opening  verse  (Judg,  v,  2)  reads  : 
"  Praise  ye  Yahveh  :  for  the  Pharaohs  tyrannised  (6i  pher'a  Phar'aoth) 
in  Israel,  when  the  people  devoted  themselves'' ;  and  this  indicates  con- 
tact with  i^ypt  after  the  time  of  Joshua's  raids  throughPalestine. — Ed.] 
In  the  12tb  century  B.C.,  the  decay  of  Egyptian  power  allowed  the 
Hebrew  chiefs  to  shake  themselves  free,  and   to  become  independent 
in  their  mountains,  even  raiding  the  Philistine  plain  from  about  1150 
to  960  B.C.     Egypt  had  too  many  home  anxieties  to  allow  of  her 
troubling  about  Judea,  and  probably  felt  it  an  advantage  that  an 
allied  buffer  state  should  exist,  as  a  protection  against  Assyria ;  but 
even  in  Solomon's  reign  a  Pharaoh,  to  whom  he  was  allied  by  marriage, 
is  said  to  have  burned  Gezer  (see  Oezer).     On  his  death  Shishak,  of 
the  22nd  dynasty,  attacked  the  weak  Rehoboara,  and  claims  victories 
over  133  towns  of  Judea  and  Galilee   (see  Egypt).      The  king   of 
Judah   was  glad    to   become   an    Egyptian   vassal;    and   a  rival   at 
Samaria  was  supported.      From  that  time  down  to  670  B.C.  the  kings 
of  Israel,  and  Judah,  constantly  sought  Egyptian  aid  against  the  grow- 
ing power  of  Assyria. 


216  Hebrews 

The  discrepancies  in  our  present  text  of  the  Book  of  Kings  are 
such  that  scholars  are  unable  to  fix  their  dates  within  20  years^  Dr 
J.  Oppert  (Proc.  Bih.  Arch.  Socy,^  Jan.  1898),  in  his  recent  attempt 
to  settle  definitely  this  chronology,  is  obliged  to  suppose  a  break  in 
the  Assyrian  canon  ;  alterations  of  the  Old  Testament  statements ;  an 
interregnum  of  ten  years  in  the  history  of  Israel ;  two  'Azariahs,  and 
two  Menahems,  unnoticed  in  Scripture.  This  chronology,  from  the 
time  of  Jehu's  tribute  to  Assyria  in  840  B.C.,  must  be  settled  by 
referenccf  to  Assyrian  ascertained  dates  (see  Col.  Conder,  Bible  avd 
the  East,  p.  161);  and  the  limits  of  error  do  not  appear  to  exceed 
about  20  years.  JeMrish  history  and  beliefs  are  now  weighed  in  the 
balance  of  actual  historic  records  ;  and  the  results  were  placed  before 
the  learned,  ten  years  ago,  by  Mr  Cust,  a  distinguished  Indian  ad- 
ministrator (Oriental  Oougress  at  Geneva,  1894),  who  says,  ''It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that,  for  long  centuries,  Judaism  has  had  the  mono- 
poly in  the  mind  of  Europeans.  ...  It  has  now  been  reduced  to  its 
proper  position,  as  only  one  of  the  factors  in  the  composition  of  the 
dominant  religious  conceptions.  .  .  .  An  importance,  during  cen- 
turies of  European  ignorance,  has  been  attributed  to  the  Hebrews, 
which  they  never  deserved.  Compare  their  tiny  geographical  area,  and 
few  millions  of  population,  with  India  and  China.  .  .  .  Their  sovereigns 
were  never  more  than  petty  Rajas,  at  the  mercy  of  the  rulers  of  the 
Nile,  and  the  Euphrates.  .  .  .  Hebrew  literature  came  into  exist* 
ence  between  the  9th  and  the  oth  centuries  B.c.  .  .  .  Up  to  the 
9th  century  the  Hebrew  was  a  monolator,  rather  than  a  monotheisti 
for  he  seems  to  have  admitted  the  existence  of  other  gods  for  other 
tribes.  ...  No  moral  condemnation  can  be  severer  than  that  which 
their  own  prophets  poured  on  Hebrews.  At  the  beginning  of  our 
era  the  spirituality  of  the  Hebrew  conception  had  all  but  disappeared. 
It  has  been  the  great  misfortune  of  Europe  that,  for  17  centuries,  it 
had  but  one  type  presented  to  it  of  an  ancient  religion :  one  only 
volume  was  available  ...  of  an  Asiatic  conception  of  the  relation 
between  Gk>d  and  man.  Athenian  philosophy  had  destroyed  the 
Greco-Roman  conceptions.  The  wisdom  of  Egypt  was  buried  in 
tombs  .  .  .  and  of  Persians,  and  the  sages  of  India  and  China, 
nothing  was  known."  Nor,  we  may  add,  of  Babylon,  Assyria,  or 
Syria. 

Since  the  fall  of  the  Jewish  temple  in  70  A.c,  the  Jews  have  every- 
where suffered  persecution.  More  civilised  nations  hated  and  despised 
them,  scorned  their  circumcision,  and  detested  their  exclusiveness,  and 
their  assertion  that  they  were  a  "  chosen  people."  The  Jews  naturally 
retaliated   when  they  were  able.     In  Cyprus,  in   117   A.C.,  they  are 


Hebrews  817: 

said  to  have  massacred  260,000  persons :  upwards  of  a  million  of 
them  are  supposed  to  have  perished  during  the^war  against  Vespasian, 
and  half  a  million  in  the  revolt  under  Bar-Kokeba  in  135  A.C.  They 
had  been  banished  from  Bome  by  Claudius,  and  now  they  were  forbidden 
to  enter  Jerusalem,  even  to  weep  over  their  ruined  temple.  In  our 
5th  century  they  were  banished  from  Egypt,  and  in  the  6th  a  Jewish 
revolt  in  the  East  cost  another  half  million  of  lives.  Some  of  their 
fiercest  persecutors  were  those  who  believed  in  their  Yahveh,  and 
called  a  Jewess  the  "  Mother  of  Ood."  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages 
their  history  is  one  of  wrong  and  massacre  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  and 
of  undying  belief  in  the  appearance  of  Messiahs  (see  under  Christ). 
They  were  plundered  and  banished ;  and  some  states — such  as  France 
— recalled  them  and  again  robbed  and  expelled  them,  when  they 
became  rich.  In  Spain  a  million  were  forced  to  become  renegades, 
and  three  quarters  of  a  million,  including  helpless  women  and  children, 
were  driven  out,  having  no  land  to  which  to  flee.  Dr  Goldschmidt 
(History  of  Jews  in  England,  1886)  thinks  that  they  entered  Britain 
before  the  Norman  Conquest,  some  even  in  Boman  times.  Many 
French  Jews  came  with  William  of  Normandy,  and  Henry  II  allowed 
them  a  burial  ground.  They  were  '^  the  King's  Jews  "  ;  but  a  Jewish 
oath  or  deed  was  not  valid  against  Christians.  They  were  however 
protected,  and  even  friendly  to  the  monks  of  Canterbury  besieged 
by  the  sheriff,  until  the  accession  of  Bichard  I  (1189  A.C.),  when 
terrible  massacres  followed  false  accusations,  and  excitement  about  his 
crusade.  Greed  and  fanaticism  embittered  their  fate,  till  they  were 
banished  by  Edward  I,  and  only  again  allowed  to  settle  freely  in 
England  by  CromwelL  For  some  generations  now  the  abatement  of 
ecclesiastical  tyranny,  and  increased  education,  have  led  to  greater 
tolerance  towards  English  Jews ;  and  since  December  1847  they  have 
been  allowed  all  rights  of  British  subjects.  Alien  marriages  have 
consequently  increased,  and  are  increasing ;  and  the  advance  of  thought 
among  educated  Jews  shows  us  that,  when  left  to  themselves,  they 
produce  many  amiable  humanitarians,  moralists,  and  theists ;  though 
Renan  bitterly  says  of  them  that :  "  they  who  gave  God  to  a  world 
now  believe  in  him  least." 

[The  history  of  the  Jews  in  other  countries  shows  that  they  early 
prospered  among  all  races  save  those  who  were  Christians.  About 
the  Christian  era  they  were  divided  into  Saddukim  ("  pious ")  who 
held  the  old  Semitic  beliefs  as  to  temporal  rewards  for  piety,  and 
endless  life  in  Sheol,  and  Pharisees  (Perushim,  "  separators ")  whose 
traditions  were  deeply  tinged  with  Mazdean  beliefs  in  the  resurrection 
of  the  just  and  the  coming  of  a  divine  king.     But  only  part  of  the 


218  Hebrews,  Epistle  to 

nation  had  returned  with  Ezra,  and  the  schools  of  Babylonia  were 
held  in  high  estimation.  The  Mishnah,  and  nearly  all  the  later  Jewish 
literature,  we  owe  to  the  Pharisees ;  but  from  the  Sadducees  sprang 
the  Karaites  of  Mesopotamia,  who  were  never  more  than  a  minority. 
The  dispersion  of  the  race  carried  these  Karaites  through  the  Caucasas, 
even  to  the  Krimea,  in  our  2nd  century ;  and,  near  the  Caspian,  the 
*  Tarkhans  "  of  the  Khozar  Turks  had  Jewish  prime-ministers  :  while 
even  Jewish  kings  there  ruled  about  our  4th  century.  The  Jews  early 
reached  Abyssinia  as  Falashas  :  they  were  powerful  in  N.  Arabia  in 
our  7th  century  :  they  spread  as  "  black  Jews  "  to  Ceylon,  and  reached 
China  some  time  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  1160  A.c.  Rabbi  Benjamin  of 
Tudela  found  many  in  Egypt,  but  only  a  few  poor  Jewish  dyers  in  Pales- 
tine. In  Palmyra  6000  warlike  Jews  held  the  trade  route;  and  tbey 
were  many,  and  rich,  in  Moslem  countries  further  east — Babylonia  and 
Persia — and  busy  in  trade  throughout  Baktria.  In  France  on  the 
other  hand  (see  Hallam's  Middle  Ages,  1871,  p.  97)  the  Jews  are 
said  to  have  held  half  Paris,  in  1180,  under  Philip  Augustus.  He 
released  all  Christians  from  liability  for  Jewish  debts,  but  kept  a  fifth 
of  the  spoil  for  himself  when  he  expelled  the  Jews.  They  returned 
and  were  again  expelled  by  Charles  VI ;  and  no  statute  in  their 
favour  was  afterwards  made  till  Napoleon  reorganised  their  status. 

Distinctive  as  is  the  Jewish  type  it  is  everywhere  modified  by 
that  of  the  general  population.  The  Polish  Jew  is  fair  and  blue- 
eyed  :  the  Spanish  Jew  has  a  tinge  of  Latin  blood  ;  the  Ceylon  Jew 
is  dark  as  the  Hindu,  Climate  alone  will  not  account  for  difierences 
due  to  a  greater  proportion  of  mixed  marriages  than  Jews  are  willing 
to  admit.  The  nation  is  held  together  by  its  religion  alone  ;  but  the 
tyranny  of  Talmudic  prescription,  and  of  Babbinical  fanaticism,  is  so 
great  that  the  highly  educated  are  everywhere  repelled,  and  more 
and  more  seek  to  escape  from  bondage  to  the  Law.  Their  leaders 
know  well  that  the  nation  will  be  merged  among  the  Gentiles  if 
once  they  cease  to  believe  in  Moses  and  the  Messiah.  Some  now 
desire  to  form  a  Jewish  State  in  Palestine,  where  the  number  of 
Jews  has  increased  tenfold  since  the  Russian  persecutions  of  1833, 
and  where  Jewish  vine-growers  and  orange-gardeners  lead  a  some- 
what precarious  life  iu  their  settlements,  but  are  said  to  have 
materially  improved  in  physical  type  through  a  country  life.  The 
majority  however  have  no  desire  to  abandon  the  pursuit  of  wealth  in 
Europe,  to  which  they  were  driven  by  unjust  land  laws. — Ed.] 

Hebrews,   Epistle  to.     This    Epistle,   which    is   remarkable 
for  allegorising  the  Old  Testament  (vii),  and  for  belief  in  the  pre- 


Hebrides,  New  219 

existent  Messiah  (i),  was  not  generally  accepted  by  the  Eastern 
Churches  till  about  250  A.C.  It  was  written  apparently  before  the 
Temple  services  had  ceased  (viii,  4),  and  while  Levites  still  received 
tithes  (viiy  9).  It  represents  Jesus  as  learning  obedience,  and  being 
so  made  perfect  (v,  8,  9) :  many  Christians  rejected  it  as  late  as 
370  A.a  It  has  been  attributed  to  Paul,  ApoUos,  Clement,  and 
Barnabas.  Origen  thought  that  it  represented  Paul's  views  though 
not  written  by  him.  Luther  called  it  "  an  Epistle  of  straw,  which 
ApoUos  seems  to  have  written."  It  appears  to  belong  to  the  school 
of  Philo,  the  Jewish  philosopher  of  Alexandria.  Dr  Davidson  says : 
"  the  eleventh  chapter  (on  Faith)  is  almost  verbatim  from  Philo " 
(Westminster  Rev.,  July  1868).  Dr  Overbeck  (Prof,  of  Theol,  Basle) 
says  that  it  was  forced  into  the  Canon  as  Pauline,  with  emenda- 
tions (Academy^  5th  Feby.  1881).  It  is  very  difiBcult  to  suppose 
that  Paul  would  have  written  the  appeal  to  *'  them  that  heard  " 
Christ  (Heb.  ii,  3;  see  GaL  i,  15-23;  ii,  1-13).  The  Pauline 
authorship  was  rejected  by  Irenaeus,  Hippolytus,  and  Tertullian. 
Eusebius  had  doubts  as  to  its  being  admitted  into  the  Canon.  Dr 
Westcott  (Epistle  of  Heh.y  1889)  is  certain  that  neither  Paul  nor 
ApoUos  wrote  it;  and  Dr  Sanday  (Academfiy,  loth  March  1890) 
thinks  that  perhaps  Barnabas  was  the  author. 

Hebrides,  New.  A  group  of  islands,  E.  of  Australia,  covering 
5000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  70,000  persons ;  discovered 
by  Captain  Cook  in  1774.  Little  is  known  of  these  Melanesian 
islands,  on  account  of  the  ferocity,  treachery,  and  cannibalism  of  the 
inhabitants  ;  but  they  are  said  now  to  include  1000  Christians.  The 
Rev.  J.  Lawrie  (Scottish  Oeogr,  Mag,,  June  1892)  says  that  they  are 
a  mixture  of  Papuans,  coffee-coloured  with  frizzled  hair,  and  of 
Western  PolyiMaiana,  Some  are  pure  Polynesians  with  straight 
hair,  and  the  light  tint  showing  their  Malay  admixture.  They 
have  little  shrines,  and  stone  circles  called  Marums  (see  Maoris); 
and  erect  stones  of  all  sizes,  some  engraved  with  figures  of  the  sun 
aud  moon,  the  fish  and  turtle.  Smooth  stones  of  various  sizes 
Btand  under  sacred  trees.  "  Priests  and  sorcerers  harangue  their 
flocks  in  peripatetic  fashion,  walking  from  the  circumference  to  the 
centre  of  the  circles,  emphasising  their  words,  which  are  chanted,  by 
flourishing  a  club."  These  sorcerers  can  produce  rain,  wind,  and 
fruits  of  the  earth  ;  and  can  prevent  sickness  and  death.  But  they 
have  no  real  gods,  believing  only  in  spirits  ;  and  no  symbols  except 
the  Marums.  On  the  N.  side  of  Oneityum  is  a  basalt  stone  "38  ft. 
long  and  13  ft.  high,"  sacred   to  the   sun  and   moon  as  husband  and 


220  Hebron 

wife :  it  is  covered  with  emblems  "  like  yams  and  bread-fruit "  which 
were  carved  by  "  no  one  knows  whom." 

[The  inhabitants  have  mock  combats  at  weddings,  and  after  due 
resistance  the  bride  is  dragged  by  female  friends  to  the  bridegroom's 
house — Ed.]  :  on  the  death  of  their  chiefs  widows  and  servants  are 
strangled,  and  a  fire  is  lighted  that  they  may  comfortably  reach  Umatmss, 
the  abode  of  the  dead,  near  the  setting  sun.  The  people  speak  of 
Inhujaraing  as  the  chief  spirit,  "  the  discoverer,  but  not  the  creator, 
of  the  islands."  None  may  pronounce  his  holy  name  (as  in  the  case 
of  Yahveh  among  Jews) :  he  has  many  spirits  under  him  whom 
sorcerers  invoke.  There  are  shrines  in  sacred  caves,  the  sides  of 
which  are  carved  with  figures,  and  there  are  huge  wooden  figures  of 
men,  and  altars  on  which  pigs  are  sacrificed. 

j^ebrdn.  Hebrew  :  *'  the  confederacy '! :  said  in  Genesis  (xiv,  13 ; 
xxiii,  3)  to  have  been  inhabited  by  both  Amorites  and  Hittites,  as  well 
as  *Anakim  (Num.  xiii,  22),  being  built  seven  years  before  Zoan  in 
Egypt.  It  was  also  a  city  of  Arb'a  (Josh,  xiv,  15)  a  son  of  'Anak,  and 
facing  it,  in  Mamre  Q'  the  fat "  land)  with  its  oak  trees  (or  terebinths), 
under  one  of  which  Abraham  pitched  his  tent — Gen.  xiii,  18  ;  xviii,  4 
— was  the  cave  of  Makpelah  ("  the  double  "  or  *'  the  locked  ")  in  a  field 
with  trees,  where  the  patriarch  purchased  a  tomb.  Thus  Hebron  counts 
with  Jerusalem,  Tiberias,  and  Safed,  as  one  of  the  four  sacred  cities 
of  modern  Jews.  Kaleb  ("  the  priest ")  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  received 
it  as  his  lot  after  expelling  the  sons  of  'Anak.  The  Arabs  now  call 
it  El  KhalU — **  the  friend  "  of  God — after  Abraham.  It  was  famous 
for  its  grapes,  and  still  has  good  vineyards.  The  King  of  Hebron 
was  one  of  those  leagued  together  as  Amorites  against  Joshua 
(Josh.  X,  5).  The  city  is  on  the  mountains  20  miles  S.  of  Jeru* 
salem.  "  Abraham's  oak,"  the  most  famous  tree  in  Palestine,  is 
now  shown  W.  of  the  city,  at  "  Ballutet  Sabta,"  the  '*  oak  of  rest" 
— an  ancient  oak  tree  now  fast  decaying.  [In  the  4th  century  this 
oak  was  shown  at  Beit  el  KhalU  ("Abraham's  house")  close  to 
Bdmet  el  KhalU  ("  Abraham's  tank ")  N.  of  Hebron.  Jerome  says 
that  the  stump  was  visible  when  he  was  a  boy,  but  Constantine  cut 
the  tree  down,  because  it  was  adored  by  the  peasantry,  Josepbus 
places  the  site,  in  his  time,  nearer  apparently  to  the  town  than  either 
of  these  two  traditional  sites.  The  present  tree  was  flourishing  some 
twenty  years  ago,  but  in  the  14th  century  it  was  a  "  dry  tree."  So  we 
see  that  this  tree  has  often  been  renewed  in  different  positions. — Ed.] 
The  Jews  said  that  Adam  lived  and  died  at  Hebron,  after  expul* 
sion  from  Eden.  In  the  Middle  Ages  Christian  pilgrims  here  ate  the 
red  earth  of  which  he  was  made.    In  the  Hebron  Haram  enclosure  his 


Heel  221 

footprint  is  still  shown.  Christians  however  (according  to  Origen) 
said  that  he  was  buried  at  Golgotha.  The  Haram  is  a  very  sacred 
enclosure,  of  large  masoniy  exactly  like  that  of  Herod's  temple  ramparts 
at  Jerusalem.  Under  it  is  a  rock  cave,  in  which  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  Sarah,  Rebekah,  and  Leah,  were  said  to  be  buried.  Benjamin 
of  Tadela  says  he  went  into  the  tomb  about  1160  A.C. ;  but  no  one 
has  been  in  it  since.  In  the  1 2th  century  the  Crusaders  built  a  church 
in  the  Haram  :  later,  Moslems  turned  it  into  a  mosque,  which  few 
Europeans  have  ever  entered. 

HeeL  See  Pad.  The  "heels"  appear  to  be  an  euphuism  for 
the  phallus  (Jer.  xiii,  22),  like  ''feet"  (Isa.  vii,  20).  Many  gods 
and  heroes  are  wounded  in  the  heel — such  as  Akhilleus,  H^raklSs, 
Krishna. 

HegesippUS.  A  writer  whom  Eusebius  claims  as  a  Christian, 
thought  to  have  been  a  Hebrew  living  about  180  A.C.  He  is  quoted 
{Hist,  Eccles.,  iv,  11)  as  an  authority  for  bishops  of  Home,  from  Peter 
and  Paul  to  Anicetus,  "  who  had  a  deacon  Eleutherus  *  as  his  successor 
in  175  A.C.,  under  whom  Irenseus,  bishop  of  Lyons,  wrote  "  his  extant 
work."  Hegesippus  is  said  to  have  written  five  books  of  commentaries ; 
but  the  quotations  by  Eusebius  refer  to  context  not  now  extant,  in  his 
account  of  Irenaeus  (Bishop  Dunelm.,  Academy,  2l8t  May  1877). 
Hippolytus,  writing  on  the  same  subjects,  never  mentions  him ;  and 
Hegesippus  apparently  makes  all  his  Boman  bishops  rule  12  years 
each. 

Heifer.  The  sacrifice  of  the  Bed  Heifer  (Num.  xix,  2-13)  was  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  the  Jews,  since  its  ashes  alone  could  purify 
from  defilement  by  the  dead  ;  so  that,  since  the  supply  failed,  all  Israel 
has  remained  unclean.  The  Romans  used  ashes  of  a  heifer  sacrificed 
to  Yesta  for  purifications.  The  Mishna  (2nd  century  A.C.)  devotes  a 
whole  tract  to  the  Parah  or  '^  Heifer."  Boys  bom  in  the  Temple  rode 
on  cows  to  Siloam — carefully  avoiding  contact  with  defiled  ground,  or 
passing  over  a  hidden  tomb— to  fetch  water  which  was  mixed  with  the 
ashes.  A  wooden  bridge  led  straight  E.  (see  Bridges)  from  the  Holy 
House  to  Olivet,  where  a  pyre  of  cypress,  and  fig  wood,  was  erected. 
The  high  priest  here  burnt  the  heifer  (on  a  few  historic  occasions)  at 
dawn,  on  the  summit  of  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Hyssop  bunches,  tied 
with  red  wool,  were  used  to  sprinkle  the  blood  and  ashes  (see  Hyssop), 
as  holy  water  and  **  barsom "  twigs  were  used  by  Mazdeans.  It  is 
however  doubtful  if  this  account  is  historical. 

Hekate.     Greek.     One  of  the  phases  of  the  moon  (see  Baubo). 


222  Hel 

In  Sanskrit  Ekata  is  called  "  the  watery  one,"  who  rose  from  sacri- 
ficial ashes  which  Agni  threw  into  the  waters.  She  is  a  **  queen  of 
night/'  daughter  of  Astoria  (the  ''starry"  sky),  and  connected  with 
dogs  who  howl— or  bay  at  the  moon.  She  is  an  aspect  of  the  *'  Tri- 
form "  Diana,  giving  peace  or  war,  and  watching  (at  night)  over  men 
and  flocks.  She  holds  the  torch,  but  is  cold,  spectral,  and  mysterious. 
She  has  the  three  heads  of  serpent,  horse,  and  dog,  issuing  from  the 
cave  of  darkness.  She  witnessed  the  rape  of  Proserpine  by  Pluto,  and 
was  the  sister  of  Hekatos,  being  originally  a  Thrakian  deity,  and  a 
Titan  (Artemis-Hekate)  whose  strange  rites,  at  Samothrace,  were  per- 
formed by  Rur^t^,  and  by  Kabeiroi  ("great  ones"),  including  the 
sacrifice  of  black  female  lambs,  and  dogs,  with  honey.  Her  statue 
stood  at  cross  roads,  in  gardens,  and  before  houses. 

Hel.  Hell.  The  root  Hel,  or  Hoi,  in  Teutonic  speech,  means 
"  to  hide  "  (Latin  cdare)  ;  and  Hell  was  the  "  hole  "  or  "  hollow,"  like 
the  Hebrew  Sheol  "  hollow,"  hidden  under  earth.  Hel,  or  Hela,  was 
the  Skandinavian  ''godess  of  hell,"  described  as  a  hideous,  old,  black 
woman,  riding  the  "  Hell  horse."  She  was  the  daughter  of  Loki  the 
evil  "fire,"  and  had  two  brothers,  Fenrir,  the  winter  wolf,  and  the 
serpent  of  Ifing.  The  world  tree  Yggdrasil  has  its  roots  in  Hell :  its 
trunk  grows  up  above  Mid-Gard,  or  earth,  round  which  is  the  river 
Ifing  (the  ocean)  in  which  the  serpent  lives :  this  is  never  frozen ;  and 
to  reach  Asgard  (heaven)  one  must  cross  it  by  the  "  quaking  bridge  ** 
Bifrost  (the  rainbow),  which  is  of  three  colours,  and  is  guarded  by  the 
virgin  spirit  Mod-gudhr.  As-gard  is  the  home  of  Grod,  above  the  tree 
on  which  sits  the  divine  hawk.  Loki  and  his  children  were  cast  out 
of  As-gard,  to  the  dark  under-world,  at  the  roots  of  Yggdrasil,  called 
Nifl  or  Nebel  ("  dark,"  like  the  Greek  nephele,  whence  the  Nibelungs — 
children  of  the  underground  dwarf — are  also  named) :  in  Nifl-beim, 
**  the  home  of  darkness,"  all  "  those  dying  of  age  or  sickness "  were 
doomed  to  remain :  for  Norsemen  despised  such  deaths.  Here  Hel, 
"the  queen  of  death,"  ruled.  "Her  dish  was  Hunger,  her  knife 
Starvation,  her  bed  Disease  draped  with  misery."  Those  who  crossed 
the  bridge  of  hell  to  her  abode  came  not  back  ;  even  Baldur,  the 
"  light  giving  "  sun,  hardly  escaped  (see  Baldur) :  it  was  separated  from 
this  world  by  a  dark  forest,  high  peaked  mountains,  and  a  river  or 
lake.  It  was  a  land  of  darkness,  ice,  and  fire,  like  Dante's  HelL  But 
(as  with  Pluto  and  Plutus)  its  caves  were  places  whence  came  riches, 
arts,  magic,  cunning  work,  and  wizards.  Its  lord  was  a  subtle  crafts- 
man, and  smith,  who  wrought  in  the  fire.  Thus  Hell  had  its  Elysium, 
as  among  Kelts :  the  '*  isle  of  birds  " — of  St  Brandan — was  near  the 


Hel  223 

icy  rock  where  Judas  is  punished — a  Hesperides,  like  the  "  Land  of 
Cockayne/'  where  all  was.  feasting  and  hospitality.  Even  Christians 
long  retained  this  belief,  which  recalls  the  Greek  Erebos  and  Latin 
Erebus  ("  the  west "),  including  both  Tartarus  and  Elysium — the 
Egyptian  Amenti  with  its  pits  of  flame  and  demons,  and  its  "  Fields 
of  Aalu  " ;  or  the  Babylonian  Sheol  (Sualu)  where  there  was  also  a 
place  of  rest  "  under  a  bright  sky/'  Good  and  bad  went  alike  to  the 
underworld,  whence  heroes — ^Norse  or  Greek — were  carried  up  to 
heaven.  All  must  be  judged,  and  cross  the  river  of  hell  (the  Styx) ; 
and  from  the  border  river  Hraunn  they  passed  to  Nifl-heim,  over  the 
rugged  forest-clad  mountains.  It  became  the  HoUe  or  Hohle,  of 
Germans ;  "  the  hole  "  or  grave  into  which  men  sink  at  death. 

[The  Akkadians  called  this  underworld  Ki-gal  **  the  dead  land  " 
(Turkish  Khal :  Finnic  Kuol  "  to  die  "),  and  Nu-ga  "  no  return."  Its 
lord  was  Ner-gal  ("  prince  death "),  Ir-Kalla  ("  the  strong  one  of 
death^"  called  by  Babylonians  "the  great  devourer"),  En-ge  "lord 
below/*  or  En-lil  "  the  chief  ghost"  He  was  lion-headed  (see  Bas), 
and  his  consort  was  Nin-ki-gal  "  lady  of  dead-land,"  who  also  was 
lion-headed,  and  suckled  lion  cubs.  She  is  represented,  on  a  bronze 
plaque  from  Palmyra,  kneeling  on  the  "  hell  horse"  or  "death  horse" — 
as  among  the  Norse — in  her  boat  on  the  infernal  river,  approaching 
offerings  on  the  bank. — Ed.] 

The  Babylonians  knew  this  dark  abode  of  Irkalla  (see  Babylon), 
with  its  feathered  ghosts.  Gilgamas  (like  Odusseus,  or  ^neas,  or 
Herakl^)  visited  it.  The  story  of  Istar's  descent  is  an  evident 
lunar  myth.  She  entered  successively  its  seven  gates,  at  each  of 
which  a  porter  despoiled  her :  at  the  1st  of  her  crown  by  order  of  the 
hell  queen — for  she  had  threatened  to  break  it  open,  and  to  let  free 
the  dead  to  devour  the  living  if  not  admitted — at  the  2nd  of  her 
earrings,  at  the  3rd  of  her  necklace,  at  the  4th  of  her  diadem,  at 
the  5th  of  her  girdle,  at  the  6th  of  her  bracelets  and  anklets,  and 
at  the  7tb  of  her  garment  The.se  were  the  presents  she  received 
from  Tammuz  on  her  wedding  day — the  lights  of  a  waning  moon — 
and  so  she  stood  before  the  hell  queen,  who  smote  her  with 
diaeasa  Tet  afterwards  (the  dark  nights  past)  she  was  washed  in 
the  water  of  life,  and  issued  again  through  the  seven  gates,  receiving 
back  at  each  her  ornaments,  till  she  shone  once  more  a  full  moon, 
in  heaven. 

[In  another  legend  (from  the  Amama  collection)  we  find  the 
sister  of  the  gods  as  the  "  bride  of  hell,"  tortured  by  her  lord  Ner-gal 
in  flames,  but  saved  by  the  gods,  who  besiege  the  hell  gates  until  he 
grants  her  desire  te  return,  for  a  time,  to  heaven*     In  another  it  is 


224  Hel 

the  sun  who  lingers  in  this  Hades,  fed  with  poisoned  food,  till  the 
prayers  of  men  cause  heaven  to  restore  him.  This  Sheol  was  reached 
by  passing  under  the  ocean,  where  Ea  judges  men.  One  of  his 
names  is  Tar-tar  (**  he  who  causes  judgment/'  in  Akkadian)  perhaps 
the  origin  of  Tartaros  for  hell,  in  Greek,  used  also  once  in  the 
Epistle  (2  Peter  ii,  4).  The  pious  man  is  led  by  the  sun  god,  and  by 
Istar,  before  this  judge.  So  also  in  Job  we  read  (xxvi,  5),  *'  Ohosts 
flit  under  the  waters  where  they  dwell";  and  again  (xxxvi,  30,  31), 
"He  hides  the  depths  of  the  waters,  for  in  them  judge th  he  the 
tribes."  The  Persian  legends  are  also  comparable  with  Bible  ideas. 
The  soul  sits  three  nights  in  the  grave  till  the  good  angel,  created  by 
good  words,  thoughts  and  deeds,  comes  to  take  him  to  the  "bridge 
of  the  gatherer "  ;  but  the  evil  soul  is  blown  to  darkness  by  a  foul 
wind — ideas  borrowed  in  the  Talmud,  and  in  Moslem  legends  as  to 
the  trial  of  the  soul,  in  its  grave,  by  the  angels  Munker  and  Nakir 
("  hewer  and  hewing ")  ;  while  the  Koran  is  full  of  the  horrors  of 
many  pits  of  flame  and  boiling  water,  and  of  the  "  bitter  tree  "  in  hell 
So  in  Job  the  wicked  is  not "  gathered,"  but  "  blown  away  by  a  tempest " 
(Job  xxvii,  19  :  see  Psalm  i,  4) :  but  all  these  are  later  ideas. — Ed.] 

The  Hebrew  Sheol  was  not  originally  a  place  of  torment  (see 
Heaven),  but  only  the  dark  world  of  the  grave  where  men  might  rest 
(Job  iii,  17-19).  Life — as  one  of  the  Rephaim  "weak  ones"  or 
shades — was  eternal  but  hopeless.  None  praised  Grod  in  Sheol,  or — 
in  the  first  ages — ^hoped  for  any  release  therefrom,  save  in  special 
cases.  It  was  not  till  the  later  days  of  the  Pharisees  that  Sheol  was 
called  Ge-Hinnom  ("  valley  of  groans  " — whence  the  Grehenna  of  the 
New  Testament)  in  memory  of  the  old  worship  of  Moloch  in  that 
valley  (Josh,  xv,  8).  Sheol  was  a  prison-house  to  which  the  dead 
king  of  Babylon  goes  down,  to  find  other  kings  lying  on  their  couches 
as  Rephaim  (a  term  used  also,  of  ghosts,  on  the  Phoenician  coffin  of 
Eshmuu'azar  of  Sidon  in  the  3rd  century  6.a) ;  and  they  salute  him 
saying,  "Art  thou  become  weak  as  we?"  (Isaiah  xiv,  9-11).  Here 
the  dead  lie  with  their  swords  beneath  their  heads  (Ezek.  xxxii,  18-31). 
Samuel  was  wroth  when  called  up  from  his  rest  in  this  underworld 
(1  Sam.  xxviii,  16).  The  Pharisees,  borrowing  the  Persian  concep- 
tion of  a  hell  of  torment,  quoted  a  later  prophet  (Isaiah  Ixvi,  24) : 
"  For  their  worm  shall  not  die,  neither  shall  their  fire  be  quenched  " 
(see  Mark  ix,  44,  48).  Sheol  was  only  eternally  hopeless  (Job  xir, 
12),  and  insatiable  (Isaiah  v,  14  ;  Habak.  ii,  5).  The  terrors  of 
hell  increased  with  time,  till  now  Christians  shrink  from  an  idea  which 
they  cannot  reconcile  with  that  of  a  loving  Father  in  Heaven.  Yet 
Christ,  we  are  told,  drew  the  picture  of  a  hell  of  torment  where  even 


Hel  225 

a  drop  of  water  was  to  be  denied  to  him  who  was  **  tormented  in  this 
flame"  (Luke  xvi,  24).  Dante  and  Milton  alike  drew  from  sources 
other  than  the  Bible  (from  Asia  and  from  the  Norse  Hel)  their 
terrible  pictures,  as  when  the  former  reads  on  Hell  gates :  ''  Through 
me  men  pass  to  a  city  of  woe  .  .  .  before  me  nothing  was  save  the 
eternal  things ;  and  I  endure  for  even" 

'*  Lasciate  ogni  speranza  voi  ehe  entrate  " 
**  Leave  every  hope,  O  ye  who  enter  in." 

Can  we  wonder  then  that  men  should  now  say  with  Mr  Boss 
{The  BottoYnleas  Pit)  that  "  Many  of  the  noblest  and  truest  have  had 
their  lives  blighted  ...  to  the  sincere  and  sensitive  hell  has,  for 
long  painful  centuries,  been  a  cancer  of  fire  that  has,  as  life  advanced, 
eaten  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  heart  ...  it  is  not  the  worst  that 
hell  has  affected,  but  the  best."  The  pious  Agnostik  Ingersol  said, 
shortly  before  his  death,  "  I  insist  that  if  there  be  another  life,  the 
basest  soul  that  finds  its  way  to  that  dark,  or  radiant,  shore  will  have 
the  everlasting  chance  of  doing  right  Nothing  but  the  most  cruel 
ignorance  .  .  .  ever  imagined  that  the  few  days  of  human  life  spent 
here  .  .  •  fixed  to  all  eternity  the  condition  of  the  human  race."  So 
among  Hindus  and  Brahmans,  many  and  terrible  as  are  their  hells 
they  are  not  more  eternal  than  their  heavens ;  and  there  is  escape 
from  them  for  those  who  strive  to  do  better.  Infinite  punishment  is 
not  discipline,  but  savage  and  useless  revenge.  The  savage  saw  the 
flames  in  the  west  at  sunset,  and  thought  that  a  great  furnace  under 
earth  or  sea  produced  them.  Even  later  Babbis  said  these  fiery  lights 
were  flames  from  hell,  as  the  blush  of  dawn  was  that  of  the  roses  of 
Eden.  '*The  whole  idea  of  hell  was  born  of  ignorance,  brutality, 
fear,  cowardice,  and  revenge."  Such  cruel  dogmas  were  very  ancient 
Yama,  according  to  Hindus,  was  the  first  of  mortals,  and  thus  the  first 
to  enter  the  dread  land,  tended  by  his  dogs  (see  Dog),  to  become  the 
lord  of  death.  In  later  Puranas  this  Vedik  idea  is  enlarged,  and 
men  were  told  *'  that  there  existed  for  all  a  capacious  hell,  with  walls 
a  hundred  miles  thick,  wherein  they  would  lie  to  all  eternity,  ever 
BuflTering  new  and  indescribable  torments." 

Luther  and  Calvin  accepted  the  picture  that  they  found  in  the 
Oospels ;  but  the  majority  of  Christians  were  glad  to  find  refuge  in 
that  mitigation  of  horror  presented  to  them  by  the  Bomanist  doctrine 
of  Purgatory,  though  the  Protestants  rightly  said  it  was  *'  un«- 
scriptaral."  Broad  Churchmen  waxed  bolder  in  denial  when,  in  1863, 
Canon  Farrar  (who  quotes  Psalms  vi,  5  ;  Ixxxviii,  10-12,  as  represent- 
ing the  older  ideas)  called  •"  God  to  witness  that,  so  far  fVom  regretting 

p2 


226  Hel 

the  possible  loss  of  aeons  of  blisd,  •  •  •  I  would  on  my  knees  ask  God 

that  I  might  die  as  the  beasts  that  perish,  and  forever  cease  to  be, 

rather  than  my  worst  enemy  should  endure  the  tortures  ascribed  by 

TertuUian,  or  Minucius  Felix,  Jonathan  Edwards,  Dr  Fusey,  Messrs 

Fumiss,  Moody,  or  Spurgeon,  for  a  single  year  *' — to  which  most  good 

and  reasonable  men  say  Amen.     Mr  John  Morley  ¥nrote :  "  Eternal 

punishment  is  the   most  frightful  idea  that  has  ever  corroded  the 

human  character/'     Annihilation,  Purgatory,  transmigration  of  the 

soul,  are  any  of  them  infinitely  preferable  ideas,  and  quite  as  likely 

(see   Mr   Stephens'    ''Dreams   and   Realities,"   Fortnightly   Beview, 

September   1878).     The  Churches  have  burned  and  tortured  tboee 

who  would  not  believe  such  horrors,  for  1500  years  ;  yet  the  Churches 

themselves  have  come  to  disbelieve  in  them,  though  vouched  for  by 

the  Bible.     Priests  may  denounce  those  who  judge  of  Cod's  justice  by 

human  reason,  but  science  knows  of  no  *'  hollow "  under  earth,  or 

firmament  above.     We  have  come  to  agree  with  Koheleth :    "  Who 

knoweth  that  the  spirit  of  man  goeth  upwards,  and  that  the  spirit 

of  the  beast  goeth  downwards  to  the  earth?"  (Ecclesiastes  iii,  21). 

Even  devout  Catholics,  like  Mr  St  George  Mivart,  have  gone  back  to 

the  old  idea  of  "  happiness  in  Hell "  ;  and  have  also  experienced  the 

old  penalties  of  excommunication.     But  what  said  TertuUian,  at  the 

close  of  our  second  century,  when  denouncing  Pagan  theatres  ?    *'  I 

shall  have  a  better  opportunity  then  of  hearing  tragedians  louder  voiced 

in  their  misery:    of   viewing  actors  in   dissolving  flames:    choruses 

glowing  in   chariots    of  fire ;    and   wrestlers  tossing  about  in  fiery 

billows  "  {De  SpectacvZia,  xxx).    The  burning  of  souls  he  thought  to  be 

assured  by  the  words  of  Christ,  '*  there  shall  be  weeping  and  gnashing 

of    teeth."       Justin    Martyr,    Irenseus,   Athenagoras,    Cyprian,    and 

Augustine,  were  equally  sure  as  to  hell  fire.     Origen  was  condemned, 

when  be  raised  his  voice  in  the  cause  of  mercy,  by  the  later  Council  of 

Carthage  (398   A.c.)  which  discarded  his  views,  then  no  longer  in 

fashion.     The  descriptions  given  by  Christians  of  fancied   torments 

are  almost  as  fiendishly  ingenious  as  those  of  Chinese  pictures  of  hell : 

darkness,  poisonous  thorns,  serpents,  red-hot  metals,  birds  and  dogs  for 

ever  gnawing  human  flesh,  devils  who  saw  their  victims,  and  spear,  or 

roast,  yet  never  kill  them — it  is  to  be  hoped  these  devils,  dogs,  birds, 

and  reptiles,  are  happy  in  hell.     But  if  we  abandon  hell  and  heaven, 

the  sin  of  Adam  and  the  fall  of  Satan,  what  room  is  there  for  a 

Saviour  from  such  fancied  ills  ?     The  whole  system  crumbles  when  one 

stone  is  taken  from  the  foundation.     Man  makes  his  own   bell  or 

.heaven,  even  on  earth,  and  needs  only  the  wise  and  tender  teacher, 

who  shall  show  him  ways  of  peace  and  love. 


Hel  227 

HeL  [An  ancient  root  "  to  shine/'  as  in  the  Greek  HAios  ''sun/' 
Hebrew  Helel  **  bright "  (star  or  moon),  and  Finnic  Hel  "  bright." 
The  soft  H  interchanges  with  S ;  and  in  other  languages  Sal,  or  8U, 
is  the  same :  Latin  Sol  "  sun  " :  Akkadian  and  Turkish  Sil  ''  shine." 
This  root  gives  several  names  that  follow^  such  as  Helena,  and 
Selene. — Ed.] 

Helde.  A  title  ("brilliant/'  *' noble")  of  the  Skandinavian 
Norns,  and  Valkyries — ^fates  and  clouds — who  chose  those  worthy  of 
As-gard  or  heaven, 

Heleios,  See  Helios*  A  demi-god,  son  of  Perseus  and 
Andromeda. 

Helene.  Greek  :  "  the  bright "  or  "  fair  "  Helen,  heroine  of  the 
Trojan  war.  Ate  having  thrown  down  the  apple  which  Paris  pre- 
sented to  Aphrodite,  that  godess  promised  him  the  fairest  of  women. 
Paris,  son  of  King  Priam  of  Troy,  was  a  beautiful  youth,  but — as  his 
name  indicates  (see  Bar) — was  a  firebrand,  and  a  dissolute  seducer. 
He  became  the  guest  of  Menelaos,  king  of  Argos,  to  whom  the 
beaatiful  Helen  was  married  ;  she  and  Paris  were  aided  by  Aphrodite 
to  flee  together.  Helen  was  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Leda,  bom 
from  the  swan's  egg,  and  sister  of  the  divine  twins,  and  of 
Clutemnestra ;  she  had  one  daughter  Hermione,  Menelaos  and  his 
allies  besieged  Troy,  and  Paris — called  also  Alexander  ('*  the  choicest 
of  men  ") — after  escaping  from  the  wronged  husband  in  a  cloud  spread 
over  him  by  Aphrodite,  was  finally  slain  by  the  arrow  of  Herakles. 
Helen  is  said  to  have  then  married  his  elder  brother  Deiphobos ;  but, 
after  the  fall  of  Troy,  she  was  taken  back  by  Menelaos  to  his  palace 
at  Argos,  which  "  shone  in  splendour  like  the  sun  and  moon."  Paris 
indeed  is  equally  a  mythical  deity  of  light  with  Helen.  Like  other 
sun-heroes  he  had  been  exposed  (on  Mt  Ida)  and  nourished  by  a  she- 
bear  and  a  shepherd. 

Later  legends  (in  Euripid^)  say  that  Paris  and  Helen  were 
driven  by  storms  to  Egypt,  on  their  way  to  Troy :  that  she  was  here 
held  by  the  king,  and  afterwards  recovered  by  Menelaos  when  return- 
ing from  Troy,  he  also  being  driven  to  Egypt  by  storms :  so  that  only 
a  spectral  Helen  actually  accompanied  Paris  to  Troy.  Helen  is  also 
said  to  have  been  carried  to  Attika  (or  otherwise  to  Hades)  by 
Theseus,  and  to  have  been  rescued  by  her  brothers — which  recalls 
Babylonian  myths  (see  Hel)  and  the  Keltik  Diarmed  and  Graine. 
Again  she  is  made  the  mother  of  Iphigeneia,  whom  the  Taurians 
sacrificed  to  Artemis  when  Helen  went  there.      But  the   tombs   of 


228  Helenos 

Helen  and  Menelaos  were  shown  at  Therapne,  a  little  to  the  N.  of 
Argos.  Helen  in  Hades  is  married  to  Akhilleus  (Achilles),  another 
solar  figure.  Helen§  was  a  name  for  the  moon.  At  Bhamnus  she 
was  worshiped  as  daughter  of  Nemesis  (Fate ;  or  dawn  according  to 
Kubn) :  at  Argos  as  deity  of  the  temple  of  Ilithuia,  presiding  over 
child  birth ;  and  at  Sparta  in  connection  with  a  sacred  tree. 

Helenos.  A  son  of  Priam  and  of  the  Phrygian  Hekab§,  called 
also  Hellenes,  and  Skamandrios  from  the  river  Skamander.  He,  like 
his  sister  Kassandra,  was  able  to  prophesy — a  magic  serpent  having 
licked  his  ears  as  a  baba  He  was  wounded  by  Menelaos,  and  retired 
to  the  shrine  of  Apollo  on  Mount  Ida,*  refusing  to  fight  after  the 
murder  of  Hektor,  whose  widow  Andromakhe  he  mamed.  He  ruled 
in  Epeiros,  where  he  entertained  iEneas,  and  was  buried  in  Argos. 
The  legend  is  that  of  a  sun  oracle  and  priest. 

Heliades.  Descendants  of  Phaeton,  or  of  Apollo,  by  Rhod$ 
("rose"),  daughter  of  PoseidOn  (that  is  of  the  sun,  and  the  dawn  rising 
from  the  deep).     They  were  "  seven  bright  ones  " — the  seven  planets. 


Helios.  Heelios.  Qreek  :  the  ''  shining  *'  sun  god  (see  Heleioe): 
he  was  the  son  of  Huperion,  the  " rising  "  sun,  and  of  Theia  (''divine"), 
or  Euruphassa  ("  far  enlightening  "),  and  he  sails  in  a  golden  boat,  or 
drives  a  golden  car,  in  heaven.  To  him  (in  times  of  trouble)  children 
were  sacrificed,  but  usually  white  rams  and  white  bulls,  and  especially 
— in  later  times — white  cocks.  He  also  walks  the  water,  and  is  bom 
of  L^to  ("  darkness  ")  in  the  island  of  Delos,  his  mother  embracing  the 
palm.  Thetis  gave  him  ambrosia  to  drink,  and  his  golden  locks  were 
never  shorn  (see  Hair).  He  guided  the  ark  of  Deukalion  to  Delphi, 
and  his  son  Apollo  was  the  first  to  spring  ashore  after  the  Flood. 
When  his  cattle  were  stolen  (like  those  of  Indra),  he  threatened  Zeus 
that  he  would  leave  the  heavens,  and  shine  only  on  the  dead  in  Hades. 
He  had  many  loves  among  cloud  maidens,  and  those  of  dawn  and 
sunset 

HelL     See  Hel. 

Helle.  The  ''bright"  daughter  of  Athamas  (Tammaz)  and 
Nephele  ("cloud"),  sister  of  Phrixos  ("the  beaming"),  with  whom 
she  was  condemned  to  be  a  sacrifice,  but  fled  with  him  on  the  magie 
ram  of  Hermes  ("  the  wind  ")  ;  recalling  many  stories  given  by  Grimm 
from  Teutonic  folk-lore,  where  the  sister  and  brother  fly  from  the 
witch.  Helle  fell  from  the  ram,  into  the  sea  called  after  her  the 
Helles-pont,  or  "  sea  of  Helle."    Phrixos  reached  Eolkhis,  and  sacrificed 


Hellen  229 

the  ^Iden  ram  to  Zeus,  while  its  skin — the  golden  fleece — was  fastened 
to  a  sacred  tree,  in  the  grove  of  Ares  the  storm  god.  These  myths 
belong  to  the  uncertain  April  days. 

Hellen.  Greek  :  "  bright "  or  "  fair  "  :  the  father  of  the  fair  Hel- 
lenik  race,  as  distinguished  from  the  Pelasgi  who  preceded  them  in 
Hellgnik  states.  Hellen  was  the  son  of  Deukalion  and  Purrha,  and 
succeeded  his  father  as  king  of  Phthia  in  Thessaly.  His  son  Aiolos  ("the 
wind")  was  borne  by  Orseis,  a  mountain  nymph.  Some  called  Hellen  the 
son  of  Zeus  and  Dorippd,  others  of  Prometheus  and  Elumene,  which 
makes  him  the  brother  of  Deukalion.  But  the  historic  Hellenes 
included  several  Aryan  tribes,  in  and  round  Attika,  coming  from  the 
north,  and  first  civilised  by  contact  with  Asia  Minor  (see  Greeks). 

Henir.  Hoenir.  The  second  of  the  Skandinavian  triad,  with 
Odin  and  Lodur :  these  three  were  "  air,  water,  and  fire."  Henir  was 
given  as  hostage  to  the  Yanir,  or  water  gods  (see  Vana),  in  exchange 
for  Niord.  Odin  gave  breath,  Henir  gave  reason,  and  Lodur  blood 
and  fair  color,  to  man.  Henir  reconciled  the  Yanir  with  the  gods ; 
he  never  spoke  save  when  prompted  by  Mimir  or  **  memory."  He  is 
represented  by  Yilli,  who  sets  matter  in  motion ;  and  o£ferings  will  be 
made  to  him  in  the  world  to  come,  so  that  apparently  worship  is  to 
continue  in  the  Norse  heaven. 

Heno-theism.  A  useful  term  introduced  by  Prof.  Max  MtQler 
to  signify  belief  not  in  a  sole  but  in  a  single  god,  one  of  many,  worshiped 
as  supreme,  either  always  or  in  turn  with  others.  This  is  a  feature  of 
Egyptian,  and  of  Yedik,  faiths.  When  Indra  is  adored  as  supreme 
Agni  seems  forgotten :  or  Yaruna  and  Mitra,  though  unnoticed,  may 
be  understood  (see  Prof.  Whitney,  Indian  Antiq,,  1882),  as  the 
Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost  may  be,  when  praying  to  the  Son  as  God. 
But  in  the  Yeda  we  read,  in  an  address  to  the  Maruts :  **  There  is 
none  that  is  small,  that  is  young ;  all  are  great  indeed  " ;  and  this  is 
the  true  and  primitive  polytheism  whence  Henotheism,  or  Katbenoisro, 
arose,  slowly  changing  into  Monotheism  and  Pantheism. 

HeOS.  A  prince  who  fought  at  Troy,  called  Rhododaktulos  or 
"rosy  fingered."  He  is  apparently  connected  with  Eos  ("dawn") 
mother  of  Memnon,  since  he  was  an  Aithiopian. 

HfiphaistOS.  The  Greek  Yulcan,  god  of  fire  and  of  smiths, 
represented  as  a  bearded  man  (sometimes  stunted,  as  on  Etruskan 
vases),  holding  a  hammer  (see  Tvashtri).  He  was  the  son  of  Zeus 
and  HSrS  ("  heaven  "  and  **  earth  "),  and  split  the  head  of  Zeus  with 


230  Her 

bis  hammer  when  Ath§D&— the  dawn — sprang  from  it.  He  was  also 
the  subterranean  fire  that  splits  the  volcanic  mountains.  Zeus  flang 
him  as  fire  from  heaven,  and  he  fell,  becoming  a  lame  god  like  all  fire 
deities  (see  Asmodeus)  :  he  lighted  on  volcanic  Lemnos,  and  earth  was 
glad  to  receive  him.  He  held  Herg  in  a  golden  chair,  cunningly  made, 
demanding  to  know  his  father's  name  ;  but  Dionusos  released  her.  He 
returned  to  heaven  to  build  a  brilliant  palace  (the  aurora),  and  aided 
the  gods  to  reconcile  Zeus  and  H^re— for  he  is  like  Agni  the  sacrificial 
flame.  Small  uncouth  images  of  this  lame  stunted  god  were  placed  in 
houses,  beside  the  sacred  fire,  among  Greeks.  H^phaistos  wedded 
Aphrodite,  the  dawn,  who  was  false  to  him  when  Ares — the  storm 
cloud — wooed  her.  But  he  himself  was  fickle  in  his  loves,  and  hates, 
pleasing  and  offending  both  gods  and  men.  He  is  represented  with 
the  conical  hat — the  cone  being  a  fire  emblem. 

Her.  Herr.  A  Teutonic  root,  to  be  distinguished  from  har 
**  bright "  (see  Ar),  and  connected  with  the  Armenian  Ayr^  and  Latin 
Vir,  as  meaning  a  ''powerful"  man.  These  two  roots  are  much 
confused  :  Her-man  in  Teutonic  speech  is  the  "  noble  man " ;  but 
Her-man-sul  is  a  sun  deity. 

Hera.  Here.  Greek.  The  sister  and  bride  of  Zeus,  and,  as 
such,  the  queen  or  consort  of  heaven.  The  origin  of  the  oame  is 
disputed.  [Probably  the  '*  earth  "  who  is  the  great  godess,  and  wife  of 
heaven,  in  all  other  mythologies  (see  Earth).  She  watches  heaveo 
jealously,  because  of  changing  weather ;  and  heaven  sets  Argus — ^the 
"  shining "  star  sky  to  watch  her  at  night,  Argus  being  fitly  repre- 
sented by  the  dark-blue  peacock's  tail,  with  its  many  bright  eyes. — 
Ed.]  H§rg  presides  over  marriage  and  birth,  and  other  earthly 
matters,  and  punishes  those  who  desecrate  marriage,  and  forget  their 
vows,  and  the  fees  payable  to  her  priests  at  weddings.  She  is  jealous 
and  quarrelsome — a  daughter  of  Kronos  and  Rhsea  ("  time "  and 
"  earth ") ;  and  is  said  to  have  been  swallowed  by  her  father,  but 
restored.  The  Arkadians  said  that  Temenos,  son  of  Pelasgos, 
nourished  her  in  childhood.  When  she  married  Zeus,  Ge  ("earth") 
gave  her  a  tree  with  golden  apples,  guarded  by  the  nymphs  of  the 
Hesperides  garden,  and  by  Lad5n  the  dragon  (see  Rivers  of  Lifo, 
i,  p.  133,  fig.  51).  Here  herself  was  symbolised  by  a  pear  in  Aigos 
—  a  heart  shaped  fruit  (see  Heart).  She  is  sometimes  virgin,  and 
childless ;  but  also  the  mother  of  Hebe  (the  young  grass),  H^phaistos 
(the  underground  fire),  and  Ares  (the  storm) ;  in  statuary  she  appears 
robed,  or  veiled,  with  diadem,  and  sceptre,  and  the  peacock  beside 
her.     Ixion  tempted  her,  but  embraced  Nephele,  and  was  bound  to 


Herakles  231 

the  fiety  wheel  in  hell.     She  has  been  called  the  night  sky,  being 
mistress  of  heaven  ;  but  was  especially  the  mother  and  bride. 

Herakles.  Hercules.  The  Greek  and  Latin  names  of  the 
san-hero.  As  an  Aryan  name  it  may  be  rendered  ''the  admirable 
man"  (see  Her),  many  Greek  names  ending  in  "kles"  (see  Greek 
KcMae,  "  fine/'  "  beautiful,"  "  admirable/'  and  Kleos,  "  glory  ").  But 
possibly  it  is  a  borrowed  name,  from  the  Akkadian  £r-gal  ("  big  man  ")» 
since  the  hero,  in  his  lion-skin,  is  found  in  Babylonia,  and  his  myth 
is  very  similar  to  those  of  Gilgamas  and  Samson.  The  Turanian 
Etruskans  had  their  Erkle  (see  Etruskans) ;  and  from  them,  rather 
than  from  the  Greeks,  the  lAtins  may  have  taken  their  legends. 
According  to  Fisk  {Myth,^^.  117)i  Hercules  was  not  a  sun  god,  bat 
''  a  peaceful  domestic  deity,  watching  over  households,  and  enclosures, 
and  nearly  akin  to  Terminus."  He  was  the  emblem  of  strength  to 
Bomans.  The  Italian  legends  came  from  Asia  Minor,  and  included  a 
variant  of  that  of  Herakles  and  Geru5nes«  Cacus  (supposed  to  be 
Kakos  ^  bad/'  or  Ccbcus  "  blind ")  was  son  of  Vulcan,  and  a  three- 
headed  monster  in  a  cave.  He  stole  the  cows  of.  Hercules  (as  the 
Panis  stole  those  of  Indra)  from  their  pasture  in  the  Forum  Boarium, 
or  "  cow  market/'  near  the  Porta  Trigemina,  and  carried  them  to  his 
cavern  on  the  Aventine,  dragging  them  backwards  by  their  tails.  Her- 
cules heard  them  lowing  (as  thunderclouds),  and  broke  into  the  cave  kill- 
ing Cacus.  The  Latins  then  erected  the  shrine  of  Jupiter  Inventor  ("  the 
finder"),  whom  Sabines  called  Sancus  (''the  strong" — see  Etruskans) :  for 
Herakles  was  also  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Alexi-kakos,  an  averter  of  evil. 
There  were  many  gods  and  heroes  who  bore  the  name  Heraklte. 
Diodorus  speaks  of  3,  Cicero  of  6,  and  others  of  43  in  alL  But  the 
legend  of  the  Theban  hero  is  the  best  known.  He  was  the  son  of 
Zeus  ("  sky  "),  by  Alkmene  ("  the  brightening  one  "),  wife  of  Amphi- 
truon  ("  the  very  trusting "),  king  of  Tiruns,  an  exile  at  Thebes,  in 
Greece.  The  daylight  ceased  for  three  days  and  nights  when 
Herakl^  was  begotten.  The  jealous  Herd,  sitting  cross-legged  at  the 
gate,  prolonged  the  mother's  labour,  so  that  Eurustheus,  the  enemy 
of  H^raklSs,  was  born  before  him,  and  became  a  cruel  king  who 
imposed  "12  labours"  on  the  sun-hero,  by  permission  of  Zeus; 
till  at  length  on  Mt  OSta  in  Euboia  the  flaming  pyre  was  kindled,  in 
which  Herakles  sacrificed  himself,  after  he  had  worn  the  poisoned 
garment  of  Nessos  the  kentaur  (see  Eentaur)  or  cloud.  Herakles,  Uke 
Akhilleus  and  other  heroes,  is  also  wounded  in  the  foot  (see  Heel), 
and  so  loses  power  (see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  461,  fig.  178). 

The  basis  of  the  myths  of  Hercules  is  found  in  the  Babylonian 


232  Herakles 

legend  of  the  12  labours  of  Gilgamas;  and  it  compares  with  those  of 
Samson,  and  with  episodes  in  the  Yedik  myths  of  Indra.  When  he 
died,  Juno  (H6r$)  was  reconciled,  and  his  new  life  begins  in  Hades 
where  he  weds  HsbS,  the  emblem  of  spring.  Josephus  refers  to  tbe 
festiyal  of  H^rakl^  at  Tyre  ;  and  he  appears  on  Tyrian  coins,  with 
the  two  ambrosial  stones — the  pillars  of  Hercules  (see  Bethel).  His 
Phcenician  name,  at  Tyre  and  Carthage,  was  Melkarth.  [The  spelliDg» 
as  on  Carthaginian  votive  texts,  seems  to  render  the  usual  explanatioD 
Melek-^lS^ariath,  or  "city-king,"  impossibla  The  word  may  be 
Akkadian  originally,  as  MuUKara,  '*  the  shining  lord  "  :  in  Greek  it 
became  Melikertes. — Ed.]  The  "  Pillars  of  Hercules "  were  in  the 
br  west,  being  the  two  pillars  between  which  Samson  dies,  and  the 
two  ''ambrosial  stones"  under  the  sea  at.  Tyre.  [One  of  these  was 
Atlas  ("  not  to  be  shaken  ") ;  and  Herakles  here  supports  heaven  like 
the  giant — see  Atlas — whose  place  he  took  when  going  to  the  western 
garden. — Ed.]  Like  Samson  he  slays  a  lion,  and  is  deluded  by  a 
£alse  woman,  breaks  through  gates,  and  is  stronger  than  all  others. 
Herodotos  says  that  his  Tyrian  temple — as  Melkarth — ^was  built  about 
2750  B.C.  (ii,  45).  He  is  also  a  harper,  who  calls  up  the  soft  Aiolian 
wiuds,  and  is  called  Ogmion,  being  eloquent,  and  a  patron  of  music. 
Iteither  women  nor  boars  might  enter  his  Tyrian  shrine,  for  he 
sufifered  from  both.  He  is  often  crowned  with  white  poplar,  his 
favourite  tree.  He  is  subject  to  fits  of  fury,  destroying  all  that  he 
produces,  and  killing  with  his  fiery  arrows,  or  darts.  His  two  stones, 
or  two  pillars,  are  the  signs  of  his  strength  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  i, 
p.  279,  fig.  181).  His  weapon  is  the  club  (see  Danda) ;  and  his 
symbols  the  apple,  and  the  cornucopia,  all  equally  phallic.  He  wears 
the  lion's  skin,  as  Kudra  (the  violent  Siva)  is  also  Krith-vasa  or  '*  he 
with  the  skin."  In  India  Bala-Rama  is  the  local  Heraklds,  connected 
also  with  skin  coverings,  and  dogs.  His  dalliance  with  Omphal^ — 
the  Lydian  queen — recalls  that  of  Samson  with  Dalilah,  and  his 
seizing  the  Kestos  of  the  Amazon  has  also  a  phallic  meaning. 
HSraklgs  was  the  solar  energy,  never  wearied  or  really  dying,  but 
sinking  at  times  into  ocean  or  Hades,  to  rise  again,  producing,  slaying, 
and  healing ;  triumphant  over  darkness  and  sterility.  Eurustheus,  the 
tyrant  ("  the  wide  founded "),  who  opposes  him  is  an  immutable 
power  of  opposition,  and  Nessos  (Nas,  "  illness  ")  is  his  foe  in  winter, 
whom  he  pierced  with  his  arrow  in  summer. 

His  twelve  famous  labours  were :  I.  Killing  the  lion  of  Nemea 
or  of  Eithairon  ("the  harp  mountain") — as  Gilgamas  and  Samson 
slew  the  lion,  whence  came  ambrosia :  for  Herakles  was  then  tending 
cow   clouds,   whence  come   rains.     II.   Killing  the  Lemaian  Hudra 


Herakles  233 

('*  water "),  ^^^^  3  or  7  heads,  as  Marduk  slew  the  dragon  of  Chaos. 
IIL  CaptuiiDg  the  s¥rift  hind  or  stag  of  Arkadia  ("light"),  the 
Hebrew  ''  hind  of  dawn,"  which  has  golden  horns  (rays)  and  brazen 
hoofis.  lY.  Slaying  the  boar  of  Erumanthos  or  of  Kaludon  (see  Boar), 
y.  Cleansing  the  Aug^n  stable — the  wintry  mud  of  the  cloud  cows. 
VI.  Slaying  the  flesh-eating  birds  of  Lake  Stumphalis,  also  cloud 
emblems.  YII.  Catching  the  wild  bull  of  Krete,  as  Gilgamas  also 
slew  the  mnged  bull — a  yet  stronger  power  of  darkness.  VIII.  Tam- 
ing the  wild  man-eating  mares  of  Diom^es,  in  Thrakia,  connected 
with  Eentaurs,  whom  he  also  slew.  IX.  Taking  off  the  girdle  of 
Hippolute  ("  horse  slain "),  the  Amazon  queen  whom  he  wedded. 
X.  Slaying  Oeruones  ("  the  old  man  ")  of  Gades  ("  the  holy  place  "),- 
defended  by  the  two-headed  dog  (see  Dog),  when  he  brought  back  to 
Argos  the  cows  that  fed  on  human  flesh.  XI.  Visiting  the  garden  of 
the  Hesperides  ("  the  west "),  in  his  boat,  to  slay  the  dragon  and  pluck 
the  golden  apples — like  Qilgamas.  XII.  Dragging  from  Hades  the 
three-headed  dog  Kerberos,  the  demon  of  darkness,  when  he  set  free 
Perithous  and  Thgseus,  sun-heroes  who  were  his  friends. 

He  freed  Thebes  from  tribute,  wearing  the  armour  of  Athens 
(dawn),  the  sword  of  Hermes  (the  wind),  the  golden  coat  of  mail  and 
bronze  club  of  Hephaistos  (flame),  and  the  bow  and  arrows  of  Apollo 
the  sun  god.  Yet  Here  (earth)  made  him  mad,  and  he  slew  his 
children  by  Magara  (the  earth  mother) :  for  the  summer  heats  destroy 
the  children  of  earth.  He  is  called  Alkides  ("  brilliant  by  race  "),  as 
son  of  AlkMOS,  son  of  Perseus,  himself  a  sun  god.  He  is  also  voracious 
in  appetite,  eating  an  ox  at  a  single  meal,  when  sacrificed.  He  was 
father  of  the  Tbespiades  by  the  50  daughters  of  Thespios.  [Perhaps 
the  Eassite  Tessub  for  the  sun  in  clouds. — Ed.]  He  was  naturally  a 
patron  of  hot  springs,  where  he  was  said  to  rest.  Among  Sabines  he 
abolished  human  sacrifice  (only  needfu]  when  he  was  wroth),  and  was 
known  as  Recaranus,  to  whom — as  a  fire  god — round  temples  were 
built,  like  that  between  the  Circus  Maximus  and  the  Tiber.  He  was 
called  Victor,  and  his  Sabine  priests  Cupeni.  Diodorus  said  he  lived 
10,000  years  before  the  Trojan  war,  and  the  Thebans  said  17,000 
before  Amasis  of  Egypt.  He  is  ever  a  benefactor  of  men,  and  his  foes 
are  winter  and  storm.  The  Boiotians  called  him  Kharops  (''  seizor  "), 
and  erected  a  shrine  on  the  spot  where  he  rose  dragging  Kerberos  after 
him.  The  Hyperboreans — or  northeners — called  him  Kbronos,  and 
said  that  he  walked  on  the  waters,  and  was  seen  in  boats,  and 
swallowed  by  a  fish  like  Jonah  (see  Fish),  being  again  cast  out.  (See 
Fabers  Cahiri,  i,  p.  25().)  His  pillars  were  Abula  in  Africa  and 
Ealpe  in  Spain  :  HSraklea  (or  Tartessus)  being  near  the  latter.     At 


234  Hermes 

Carthage,  as  Mel^rth,  he  had  human  sacrifices  till  Boman  times ; 
and  in  a  time  of  trouble  300  citizens  walked  willingly  into  his  fires, 
while  200  children  of  the  best  families  were  sacrificed  to  him.  At 
Kades  in  Spain  ("  the  holy  city '')  pillars  alone  represented  him,  but 
Melikertes  wore  the  golden  belt  of  Teucer  and  Pugmalion — ^the  circle 
which  we  so  often  see  surrounding  the  winged  archer  sun  god  in 
Babylonia  (Rivera  of  Life,  i,  p.  213;  ii»  p.  64).  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  might  well  say  that  in  every  land  they  found  their  Hercules. 
[He  learned  the  lyre  from  linos  when  young,  that  being  the  windy 
season.  He  made  his  famous  choice  between  light  and  darkness.  He 
conquered  Kuknos  (**  the  swan  "),  according  to  Euripides,  this  being  a 
common  emblem  of  the  snow  cloud*  He  freed  the  sea  from  monsters 
— or  storms — in  summer.  Hesiod  says  he  freed  Prometheus — ^the 
fire.  The  poisoned  garb  was  given  him  by  his  wife  Deiaaeira 
("husband  destroyer"),  whom  he  had  rescued  from  the  Kentaur 
cloud.  She  was  jealous  of  lole,  the  violet  sunset,  whom  he  loved  ;  and 
his  charioteer  is  lolaos.  He  takes  part  in  the  expedition  of  the  Argo, 
to  fetch  the  golden  fleece :  and  wrestles  with  Antaios,  the  giant  bom 
of  ocean  and  earth,  as  Gilgamas  fights  a  giant  also.  He  is  called 
Daphne-phoros  ("  dawn  bringer  "),  and  above  all  Soter,  "  the  saviour." 
—Ed.] 

Hermes.  The  Greek  god  of  stones,  stoneheaps,  and  boundaries, 
also  the  swift  messenger.  [Like  the  Vedik  Sarama — ^the  messenger 
dog — the  word  seems  to  come  from  ear  "  to  go,"  "  to  issue,"  and 
hence  an  "  extent "  or  boundary. — Ed.]  The  original  Hermes  was  a 
heap  or  karn  of  stones,  or  an  erect  stone  around  which  a  karn  was 
made  by  visitors,  each  leaving  a  stone  as  a  memorial  (see  Gale'ed). 
He  answered  to  the  Latin  Mercurius,  and  to  other  messenger  gods 
such  as  Nebo,  and  had  the  winged  hat  and  winged  sandals,  with  the 
caducous  or  snake  rod,  and  the  scrotum  or  bag,  as  he  appears  on  a 
vase  found  by  M.  Clermont  Ganneau  at  Jerusalem  (Quarterly  Stat 
Pal.  EocpL  Fund,,  October  1874).  He  was  naturally  worshiped  by  all 
messengers  and  travellers,  commercial  agents,  and  those  who  went  by 
sea.  For  he  was  the  swift  wind,  and  so  the  thief  who  stole  light 
things,  and  thus  the  patron  of  thieves,  holding  the  bag  or  purse.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  thief  Cacus  (see  Herakles),  and  as  the  wind 
he  was  also  a  harper,  having  found  the  shell  of  a  turtle  whence  he 
made  the  lyre.  He  is  the  soft  breeze,  and  plays  his  lyre  as  he  goes. 
But  the  Latins  called  him  "the  universal  column  supporting  all 
things."  He  answered,  according  to  them,  to  the  Teutonic  Tmsko 
(see  Rivera  of  Ufe,  ii,  pp.   219,   384;  figs.   237,   281).     He  also 


Hertha  236 

appears  as  Hermes  Kriopheros^  "  the  ram  bearing  Hermes " :  for  on 
his  golden  ram  the  twins  fled  (see  Heile) ;  and  as  such  he  became  the 
type  of  Christ  bearing  the  lamb,  in  catacomb  pictures. 

Hertha.  Aertha.  The  Teutonic  earth  godess  specially 
worshiped  at  Shrove-tide  when  the  ploughs  were  carried  in  proces« 
sion  (see  Bertha).  She  was  the  mother  of  the  gods  (see  Earth) ; 
and  Tacitus  visited  her  shrine  in  groves  by  the  ocean  (see  Sir  Q. 
Cox,  Ar.  Mythol.,  p.  355 ;  and  Grimm,  Deutch.  Mythol.).  Euripides 
makes  Alkestis  pray  to  the  earth-mother:  ''0  godess,  mistress  of 
the  house,  for  the  last  time  I  bow  before  thee :  to  thee  I  pray  as 
1  am  about  to  descend  to  the  house  of  the  dead.  Watch  over  my 
motherless  children :  give  my  son  a  tender  wife,  my  daughter  a  noble 
husband.  Let  them  not  die  before  their  time  like  me,  but  enjoy  life 
and  happiness  "  (see  Hera), 

Hesi.  Egyptian.  Hes,  or  Mau-bes  ''the  lion  Hes,"  was  a  son 
of  Ra  and  of  Bast  (see  Bas)  with  a  feline  head.  He  carries  a  sword, 
and  wears  three  plumes,  with  Ursei  or  serpents  (see  As). 

Hesiod.  The  Greek  poet  of  Boiotia  bom  about  700  B.c.  (Fisk, 
Reconstructed  Heaiod).  His  father  migrated  from  Eum^  in  Aiolia, 
to  Boiotia,  and  Hesiod  died  at  Orkhomenos,  being  born  at  Askra  near 
Mt.  Helikon.  His  poems  are  among  the  earliest  sources  for  Greek 
mythology,  with  some  sprinkling  of  myths  from  Egypt,  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Babylon.  They  include  the  Theogony  or  "  birth  of  gods  " ; 
and  the  '*  Works  and  Days  "  describing  the  year.  But  the  one  is  said 
to  be  in  the  sacred  dialect  of  Delphi,  and  the  other  in  the  Aiolik 
of  Eume.  He  also  wrote  on  **  Justice,"  and  the  "  Five  Ages."  His 
work  was  edited  by  later  lonians  of  the  6th  century  B.c.  He  is  said 
to  have  claimed  descent  from  Apollo,  through  Orpheus,  and  Linos ; 
and  his  bones  were  worshiped  and  wrought  miracles.  In  "  Works 
and  Days  "  we  read — 

"  O  kings  who  bribes  devour, 
Make  straight  your  edicts  in  a  timely  hour. 
For  Zeus'  all-seeing,  and  all-knowing  eye, 
Beholds  at  pleasure  things  that  hidden  lie, 
Pierces  the  walls  which  gird  the  city  in. 
And  on  the  seat  of  judgment  blasts  the  sin.' 

Hesperides.  The  garden,  in  the  west,  of  the  four  daughters  of 
Hesperos  (Vesperus)  or  "sunset,"  who  were  called  the  Hesperidos. 
They  were  sweet  singers,  watching  the  tree  with  golden  apples  guarded 
by  the  serpent,  or  dragon,  Laddn  ("the  hider").     The  garden  lay 


286  Hestia 

near  Libya  and  Atlas,  in  the  extreme  west  To  the  Greeks  Italy 
was  Hesperia,  and  to  the  Latins  Spain  (see  Apples,  Herakl^,  Trees). 
Hesperos  was  the  star  of  sunset  and  of  the  west,  a  child  of  Phoibos 
("  bright "),  and  brother  of  Eos  ("  dawn  ").  The  Hesperides  were  also 
daughters  of  Adas  and  Hesperis.  Their  garden  was  an  Eden  *'  where 
were  the  springs  of  nectar  which  flowed  by  the  couch  of  Zeus." 

Hestia.  Greek.  The  Latin  Yesta  (from  the  Aryan  root  us  or 
was  "  to  shine/'  '*  burn  "),  she  is  the  godess  of  the  hearth-fire,  said 
to  have  been  the  first  bom  of  Rhsea — the  earth  (see  Agora).  Her 
fire  was  sacred,  and  must  never  be  allowed  to  go  out  Zeus,  Poseidon, 
and  HSstia,  form  a  triad  ("  air,"  "  water  "  and  "  fire  "),  and  she — like 
Agni — was  a  messenger  of  the  gods.  Yesta  was  adored  in  Alba  where 
four  Yestals  presided,  before  Servius  Tullius  raised  the  number  to  six, 
and  established  her  famous  shrine  in  Bome,  which  still  remained  sacred 
down  to  our  4th  century.  These  vestals  were  ruled  by  the  Virgo 
Yestalis  Maxima,  but  they  were  all  under  the  Pontifex  Maximus. 
The  vestal  abbess  had'  a  great  position,  and  her  influence  was  appealed 
to  as  the  last  hope  of  peace,  in  revolution  or  civil  war  (see  Sig.  R. 
Lanciani,  Academy,  2nd  Feb.  1884).  A  remarkable  object,  said  to 
be  a  mill,  was  found  in  the  Atrium  Yestse  at  Rome,  which  seems  very 
much  like  an  Indian,  *'lingam  in  an  argha,"  perhaps  a  symbol  of  the 
fire  drill 

Het.     Egyptian.     The  godess  of  fire. 

Hijirah.  Arabic  :  "  flight"  The  "  Hejira  Era,"  as  it  is  usually 
called,  dates  from  the  night  of  the  16th  of  July  622  A.C.  (see 
Muhammad). 

Hillel.  Hebrew:  "brilliant."  A  celebrated  Rabbi  of  the  sect 
of  the  Pharisees,  whose  teaching  "  made  light "  the  Law — being  liberal 
and  merciful — in  contrast  with  the  severity  of  the  school  of  Shammai 
(also  a  Pharisee),  who  "  made  the  Law  heavy."  He  came  from  Babylon 
to  Jerusalem  when  40  years  old,  and  was  regarded  as  a  '*  second  Ezra." 
He  said  that  "  the  true  Pharisee  is  he  who  does  the  will  of  his  Father 
in  Heaven  because  he  loves  him."  Gamaliel,  at  whose  feet  Paul  sat, 
was  the  grandson  of  Hillel,  who  is  said  to  have  ''  instructed  500  in 
the  wisdom  of  the  Greeks,  and  500  in  the  Law.*'  He  sufiered  greatly 
from  poverty  iu  youth,  and  one  tradition  says  that  he  was  found 
insensible,  covered  with  snow,  outside  the  window  of  a  school,  listening 
to  the  lessons  which  he  could  not  pay  for  inside  it.  Another  story 
says  that  an  unbeliever  asked  to  be  taught  the  whole  Law  while  he 
stood  on  one  foot,  and  Hillel  epitomised  it  in  the  golden  rule.    **  Do 


Hima  237 

nothing  to  others  that  thou  wouldst  not  have  done  to  thee."  Tet 
Hillel  was  a  great  supporter  of  the  Law,  and  of  all  the  tenets  of  his 
race  that  he  could  find  thereby  justified.  He  died  about  10  A.c. : 
and  some  have  attempted  to  identify  him  with  the  Simeon  of  the 
3rd  Gospel.  The  prayers  of  the  synagogue  in  Hillel's  time — according 
to  later  accounts — must  have  contained  much  that  is  supposed  charac- 
teristic of  the  New  Testament  only.  "  Our  Father  who  art  in  Heaven 
proclaim  the  unity  of  thy  name,  and  establish  thy  kingdom  forever. 
Let  us  not  fall  into  sin  •  .  .  lead  us  not  into  temptation.  Thine  is 
greatness  and  power  .  .  .  Thy  will  be  done  in  heaven  .  .  .  Give  us 
bread  to  eat  and  raiment  to  put  on  .  .  .  Forgive  all  who  have 
offended  thee"  (Prof.  Toy's  QiM)t<ition8,  New  Testavient). 

Hima.  Sanskrit:  "cold,"  *'snow,"  whence  the  Himalayas  or 
"  snowy  "  mountains.  These  were  the  sacred  abode  of  Parvati,  the 
mountain  mother,  consort  of  Siva,  and  the  Parnassos  of  India. 
Himaji  the  pearly  (t^arvati,  or  the  lotus)  was  the  consort  of  Himavat, 
the  cold  white  hill,  who  was  husband  also  of  Mena,  who  bore  him 
Uma  C'  the  mother "),  and  Ganga ;  for  the  rivers  are  bom  of  snow. 
Himavat  in  an  early  Brahmana  is  Indra,  but  in  the  Puranas  is  usually 
Siva,  the  lord  of  Mt  Railasa,  where  dwells  also  Kuvera,  the  lord  of 
riches,  at  his  abode  called  Gana-parvata  (the  spirit  mountain),  or 
Rajatadri — a  silver  mountain  by  the  sacred  lake  Manasa.  Mt  Everest 
(29,000  feet),  the  highest  mountain  in  the  world,  appears  to  be  the 
Hindu  Gauri-sankar,  Siva's  virgin  wife  (see  Kanchin-janga)  and 
"  I^y  of  the  World." 

Himyar.     See  Arabia. 

Hindi.  Hindira.  The  godess  Durga,  and  a  pomegranate,  as 
her  emblem  in  the  character  of  Ceres. 

Hindi.  The  Hindi  dialect  of  Bangal  is  descended  from  the 
Magadha  and  Bih&ri  dialects  (Prakrits)  of  the  Sanskrit  family.  Mr 
Grierson  {Indian  Antiq,,  July  1885)  says  that  it  took  1000  years 
to  develop  this  into  the  form  assumed  under  the  Sena  dynasty  of 
1066  A.C.  (see  Prakrit),  while  after  the  Moslem  victory  over  these 
kings,  in  1203  A.C.,  it  became  fully  developed.  [The  grammar  is 
Aryan  and  the  foundation  is  Sanskrit,  but  it  is  full  of  foreign  words — 
Persian  and  Arabic  —  introduced  by  the  conquerors. — Ed.]  Mr 
Grierson  (Journal  Bl,  Asiatic  jS>oc^.,  April  1886)  calls  it  "an  off- 
spring of  the  Braj-basha  (Braj  '*  speech ")  the  language  of  Western 
Baiswari."  '*  The  book  Hindi  of  to-day  did  not  exist  till  the  English 
conquest,  and  was  really  manufactured  by  order  of  Government,  out 


238 

of  Urdu,  by  the  substitution  of  Sanskrit  for  Arabic  and  Persian  words. 
.  .  .  Nowhere  is  it  a  vernacular,  and  it  is  radically  di£ferent  &om 
Bih&ri,  the  language  of  East  Baiswari." 


Hinduism.  See  Brahma,  India,  Yedas.  The  pre- 
sent Hindu  faith  is  that  Neo-Brahmanism  which  arose  out  of 
Buddhism  (see  Buddha)  about  the  7th  to  the  12th  century  A.c.  It 
embraced  the  Vedik  faith  an(i  philosophy  purified  by  Ootama,  but  in- 
corporated the  older  nature  worship  of  non-Aryan  India.  The  growth 
of  literature  and  art,  and  the  writing  of  mediaeval  Puranas,  crystal- 
ised  the  oral  legends  which  they  somewhat  refined,  and  filled  the 
temples  with  statues  and  carved  symbob,  or  reliefs  representing 
mythical  scenes.  The  faith  became  hydra-headed,  and  knit  up  with 
caste  usages,  sanctioned  by  codes  like  that  of  Manu,  restoring  all  that 
Buddha  had  upset  Eighteen  sacred  books,  of  various  date,  included 
all  the  myths  of  India,  and  the  oral  teaching  of  earlier  Brahmans 
superseding  the  little  known  Vedas.  The  great  epiks  (Mabahharata 
and  BAmayana)  retained  their  hold  on  the  afifections  of  the  Hindus. 
Qods  like  Krishna  may  be  traced  to  Vedas,  others  like  Bhagavau 
were  Aryanised  conceptions  based  on  older  Turanian  Bhuts  aod 
spirits.  As  we  first  wrote  io  1880  the  Aryans  appropriated  the 
legends  of  Turanian  rulers,  who  did  not,  as  Prof.  Oppert  (BharcUa' 
Varaha,  1893)  supposes,  "gain  access  to  the  Aryan  pale,"  for  they 
were  not  likely  to  care  much  for  the  ideas  of  uncivilised  nomads  (see 
Aryans).  The  mixed  system  attracted  the  earlier  natives  of  India; 
and  the  bonds  of  caste  became  ever  more  rigid,  until  only  some  60 
or  70  out  of  300  millions  of  Indian  Turanians  remain  now  non- 
Hindus.  Hinduism  is  not  the  work  of  any  single  founder  of  a 
religion :  it  is  the  name  given  by  us  to  the  beliefs  of  those  dwelling 
on,  and  east  of,  the  Sindhu  or  Indus  river :  it  includes  the  faiths  of 
all  India,  save  Moslem,  Christian,  and  Pars!  creeds,  or  the  superstitions 
of  the  rude  tribes  not  yet  Hinduised.  It  is  (like  our  constitution)  a 
growth,  patched,  enlarged,  and  inlaid,  with  a  great  variety  of  ideas, 
without  unity  of  design,  but  marked  by  considerable  tolerance  and 
receptivity,  insisting  only  on  the  rules  of  caste.  The  old  figures  of 
Turanian  nature  worship  it  regards  as  divine  incarnations  or  attributes, 
which  it  assimilates,  knowing  the  words  to  be  only  descriptive  titles. 
Gotama  denied  the  gods  and  inspired  writings  of  his  day,  and  Brahoians 
consequently  persecuted  his  disciples.  But  India  had  always  favoured 
the  ascetik  idea  of  retirement  from  an  evil  world  for  communion  with 
Qod;  and  this  lies  at  the  root  of  all  later  Hindu  philosophy  and 
mysticism,  however  pantheistic  or  fatalistic. 


Hindus  239 

The  Bev,  Dr  Fope-^professor  of  Dravidian  languages  at  Oxford 
— showed  that  the  fundamental  Indian  idea  is,  that  all  action  and 
energy  are  evil :  external  phenomena  being  mere  illusions ;  and 
that  liberation  from  such  illusions  is  thought  only  possible  through 
profound  abstract  meditation,  with  suppression  of  every  passion  and 
affection.  It  is  still  believed — as  it  was  2400  years  or  more  ago — that 
the  **  chief  good  "  is  the  attainment  of  non-existence,  or  self-extinction, 
by  re-absorption  with  the  eternal,  impersonal,  and  universal.  Hence 
pessimism  is  the  undertone  throughout — a  belief  in  the  vanity  of  all 
things  that  belong  to  the  Bhava-chakra,  or  "  wheel  of  existence,"  or 
the  endless  recurrence  of  decay  and  reproduction.  Like  some 
Christians,  the  Hindus  often  despise  the  body,  regarding  it  as  a 
hindrance  to  the  freedom  of  the  souL  Hence  history  and  chronology 
did  not  interest  Indians,  as  Babylonians  were  interested,  and 
patriotism  had  no  meaning  to  Hindus,  who  were  looking  for  a 
better  land,  having  no  abiding  city  here.  The  ever-present  idea 
among  the  Hindu  pious  is  sacrifice  of  self,  of  time,  money,  and  all 
comforts,  in  order  to  please  the  gods,  or  to  propitiate  some  evil 
power  which,  like  their  own  sins,  weighs  them  down  continually. 
We  have  often  heard  the  Hindu  marvelling  at  our  idea  of  a  good 
and  almighty  Qod  creating  and  maintaining  this  world,  with  all  its 
sins  and  sorrows,  crime  and  injustice.  He  thinks  it  vain  to  ask 
why  these  things  are,  and  believes  that  we  worship  mainly  through 
fear,  or  to  please  powers  over  which  we  have  no  control. 

Hinduism  very  early  embraced  the  idea  of  Metempsychosis,  or 
transmigration  of  the  soul  from  one  body  to  another — the  Atma  or 
"'  self"  remaining  an  individuality,  through  a  series  of  births  de- 
pending on  conduct  in  preceding  lives.  Sivaite  philosophers  look  on 
the  universe  as  including ;  1st,  Siva — the  Life  or  Great  Soul  whence 
all  comes,  and  to  which  all  returns  ;  2nd,  the  aggregate  of  souls ;  and 
3rd,  the  bond — Matter  or  Delusion — which  surrounds  them,  and 
which  creates  the  need  of  Karma  or  **  conduct "  whereby  all  will 
be  judged.  At  the  beginning  of  a  Kalpa,  or  world-age,  these  three 
are  separate,  and  souls  are  then  burdened  with  matter,  each  becoming 
responsible,  by  the  deeds  of  the  body,  for  its  Karma  or  conduct 
whether  good  or  evil.  Until  this  Karma  is  accepted,  or  the 
results  of  former  Karma  are  cancelled  by  improved  action,  the 
Atma  or  "self"  cannot  return  to  the  Maha-Atma  or  "great  soul," 
the  Father  of  Life,  who  is  Siva;  for  this  is  not  a  Yishnuva 
doctrine.  But  Siva,  through  love  for  his  creatures,  gives  grace 
through  his  Sakti  or  power,  the  compassionate  female  aspect  of  his 
being ;  and  she,  as  a  spirit  of  knowledge  (the  Qnostik  Sophia)  gives 


240  Hindus 

desire  and  energy,  so  that  dead  souls  are  awakened,  and  the  universe 
of  phenomena  is  evolved,  for  good  purposes.  All  living  creatures, 
demons,  and  vegetables,  play  their  allotted  parts,  under  the  supreme 
power,  and  can  all  work  out  their  own  salvation  through  Karma. 
The  sooner  this  entanglement  with  matter  ends  the  better  for  the 
Koul,  and  it  is  the  desire — not  always  the  practice — of  the  pious 
Hindu,  as  of  some  Christians,  to  escape  from  the  world,  the  flesh,  and 
the  devil,  in  order  to  obtain  union  with  God,  and  to  escape  from  a 
prolonged  series  of  re-incarnations.  Long  life  means  a  long  period  of 
struggle  to  create  merit  by  Karma  or  '*  deeds " — a  purgatorial  pre- 
paration for  atonement,  or  reconciliation  with  Gk>d.  Thus  Buddha 
was  not  heretical  in  his  teaching  as  to  Karma. 

No  people  are  more  regular  and  devoted  in  religious  observances 
than  the  Hindus,  none  carry  religion  more  into  the  daily  duties  of  life, 
none  are  more  docile,  courteous,  or  respectful  to  age,  to  parents,  to 
rulers,  or  to  the  learned,  more  faithful  in  domestic  service — as  we 
knew  well  during  thirty -three  years  in  their  midst,  in  solitary  places 
and  in  dangerous  exigencies  during  the  long  trying  period  of  tbe 
Mutiny  in  1857-8.  A  Hindu  writes  in  an  English  journal :  "Hindus 
are  superior  in  goodness,  godliness,  and  happiness  to  ChristiaDs. 
Your  poorer  classes,  from  Italy  to  Britain,  and  especially  in  towns, 
are  infinitely  more  wretched,  godless,  vicious,  degraded,  and  barbarous 
than  Indians."  Perhaps  he  is  right ;  but  at  any  rate,  in  face  of  the 
promise  to  those  who  do  justly  and  love  mercy,  it  is  wrong  for 
Christians  to  disturb  the  religious  beliefs  of  Hindus. 

The  thoughtful  Hindu,  like  the  thoughtful  Christian,  passes 
through  the  barriers  of  faith,  and,  discarding  his  evil  gods,  loves  to 
imagine  a  single  great  and  good  Qod  in  whose  presence  he  may 
dwell,  or  into  whom  he  may  be  absorbed.  He  sees  no  way  to 
approach  him,  or  to  lead  others  to  him,  except  that  of  the  rites  and 
customs  of  his  people.  He  advocates  the  conservative  policy  of  not 
breaking  with  the  past,  for  the  sake  of  his  children  and  for  bis 
own  sake.  So  the  most  skeptikal  Brahmans  have  often  argued,  in 
conversation  with  us,  when  we  deprecated  their  teaching  their 
children  the  old  rites  and  dogmas  which,  to  the  parents,  have 
become  mere  superstitions  :  "  the  young,''  they  plead,  "  must  find 
out  the  truth  by  following  the  same  paths  their  fathers  have 
trodden" — a  false  plea  if  advance  in  truth  is  ever  to  be  made. 
We  must,  they  say,  be  practical,  and  since  reason  does  not  influence 
the  masses  they  must  be  attracted  by  symbols  and  images  of  deity, 
by  ritual,  and  by  exciting  fear  and  love :  the  devout  must  be  com- 
forted in  trial  and  sorrow,  and  the  wicked  must  be  restrained — ^it  is 


Hindus  241 

the  old  argament  of  Qreek  philosophers,  Qnostiks,  and  all  others  who 
disbelieve,  but  do  not  hope  that  men  in  general  should  ever 
understand. 

Hinduism  has  never  laid  stress  on  any  definite  creed,  or  belief 
in  a  founder.  It  has  no  Christ,  and  no  Muhammad.  It  relies  on  the 
teachings  of  many  Rishis  said  to  have  been  inspired,  and  of  ancient 
discourses  attributed  to  incarnate  heroes,  or  gods,  like  Krishna.  Thus 
it  is  ready  to  absorb  all  views,  and  to  agree  with  all  local  cults,  as  did 
the  ancient  world  before  the  three  faiths  claiming  universality  ap- 
peared. The  pantheon  is  ever  increasing,  for  Hinduism  is  essentially 
pantheistik,  seeing  God  in  all  things  whether  organic  or  inorganic. 
It  permits  to  the  rudest  tribes  their  tutelary  gods,  stocks,  and  stones, 
recognising  the  Creator  in  every  creative  agent. 

But  while  it  welcomes  eveiy  attempt  of  man  to  know  and  serve 
the  Unknowable  One,  its  intelligent  vqtaries  freely  acknowledge  that 
the  deity  is  not  to  be  conciliated  by  sacrifices,  nor  do  they  believe 
that  sins  can  be  washed  out  by  the  merits  of  a  Saviour,  or  by  the 
intercessions  of  a  priest.  Indeed  neo-Hinduism  knows  nothing  of 
priest  or  sacrifice,  but  only  of  gifts  and  rites  betokening  penitence,  or 
creating  a  pious  frame  of  mind  to  which  they — like  Christians — think 
that  their  ordinances  conduce,  so  reconciling  us  with  Qod.  They  are 
outward  and  visible  signs  of  feelings  which  the  untutored  cannot 
otherwise  express.  To  the  many  the  image  is  the  form  actually  pos- 
sessed by  an  indwelling  divine  spirit,  but  to  the  instructed  it  becomes 
only  a  symbol  of  the  highest  ideal  that  the  poor  nature- worshiper  can 
grasp.  Dr  Pope — himself  long  a  missionary — showed  that  we  must 
not  suppose  ail  Hindus  to  be  gross  idolaters.  They  believe  that  Qod 
is  found  wherever  Avahanam  ('*  consecration ")  has  been  duly  per- 
formed, for  this  is  the  '*  bringing  in  "  to  the  image,  of  the  god  whom  it 
represents ;  and  it  is  he — not  the  image — who  is  adored.  Hence- 
forth the  symbol,  or  the  idol,  is  ever  regarded  as  the  token  of  the 
divine  presence,  and  is  therefore  enshrined,  and  adorned  with  costly 
jewels.  This  in  no  way  differs  from  the  ideas  of  Christians  who  use 
imagea  In  the^dead  of  night  voices,  they  say,  are  heard  coming  from 
the  image,  or  a  hand  of  it  may  be  sometimes  extended  to  receive  an 
offered  flower,  the  devout  worshiper  being  greeted  with  a  smile.  The. 
offered  gifts  of  fruit  or  food  are,  they  believe,  actually  consumed,  and 
in  return,  rich  gifts  are  sometimes  found  in  the  worshiper's  home 
when  he  returns  from  the  temple.  Always  the  divinity — Siva  the 
Blessed — is  surely  there  to  help  in  time  of  trouble.  "  I  believe,"  said 
one  Hindu  to  Dr  Pope,  "  all  that  you  believe,  but  I  also  trust  that  he 
who  fills  and  pervades  ...  all  space  .  .  .  condescends  also  to  abide 

q2 


242  Hindus 

with  me  in  this  form.     I  worship  him  as  dwelling  here."     What  is 
this  but  to  say  as  we  also  say — 

"Come  to  me,  come  to  me,  O  my  Ood, 
Come  tx>  me  everywhere. 
Let  the  trees  mean  Thee,  and  the  grassy  sod, 
And  the  water,  and  the  air.'' 

The  Indian  hymns  are  full  of  such  ideas,  as  Dr  Pope  has  shown 
from  the  early  Tamil  literature.  The  sincerity  and  devout  thought 
of  the  people  are  shown  by  their  austerities,  as  are  their  longings  for 
purity,  and  their  fears  of  offending  deities  to  whom  they  believe  they 
owe  many  blessings.  Hinduism  includes  a  transcendental  belief,  pro- 
found and  subtle  enough  to  attract  the  intellectual  and  the  spiritnallj- 
minded,  and  a  Pantheism  which  satisfies  the  philosophical.  No  subtler 
system  exists  than  that  of  the  *'  divine  lay "  (Bhagavad-gita)  or  the 
discourses  of  Vishnu  (**  Laws  of  Vishnu  "  in  Sacred  Books  of  the  East), 
and  the  educated  Hindu  finds  here  the  highest  code  of  ethiks,  aud 
can  put  aside  the  accompanying  myths  as  of  no  consequence.  Hindu- 
ism receives,  but  does  not  seek  for,  converts:  if  they  consent  to 
attend  the  rites  and  hear  the  priests,  they  are  admitted  to  the  lower 
castes  and  can  in  time  climb  to  the  higher.  Various  sects  must  make 
mutual  concessions,  and  that  which  survives,  if  not  perhaps  the  best, 
is  at  least  that  which  best  meets  the  wants  of  the  people  and  the 
circumstances  of  the  time.  Old  ideas  and  rites  die  hard,  and  even 
among  ourselves  there  are  many  strange  survivals  which  we  now  regard 
as  popular  *'  folk-lore." 

Leading  Brabmans,  Gurus,  and  ascetiks  may  claim  to  be  incarna- 
tions of  deity,  but  those  who  have  most  influence  over  Hindus  are 
their  Pujaris  or  Purohits — the  family  priests,  who  are,  as  a  rule,  unfor- 
tunately too  ignorant  to  understand  the  thought  and  teaching  of 
Rishis  and  Pandits,  to  be  found  in  great  schools  and  temples.  In  all 
troubles  and  anxieties  the  people  go  to  these  priests  (though  less  so 
as  education  spreads),  who  are  immersed  in  the  routine  of  endless 
rites ;  and  have  neither  time  nor  inclination  to  study  the  advanced 
thought  of  their  age  and  people — -just  like  so  many  of  our  Christian 
pastors.  Their  chief  duty  is  to  ward  off  the  evils  due  to  demons  and 
evil  deities.  They  teach  that  safety  and  happiness  depend  on  due 
performance  of  rites,  and  on  preservation  of  ancient  customs,  especially 
as  regards  caste,  marriage,  and  birth  and  death  :  for  through  these 
customs  priests  live — or  starve — botb  at  home  and  in  India.  The 
old  Vedik  ritual,  and  sacrifices,  are  no  longer  observed,  but  festivals, 
pilgrimages,  gifts  to  priests  and  shrines  are  still  insisted  on  as  indis- 


Hippolutos  243 

peosabla  In  early  morning,  aided  by  pious  volunteers,  priests  sweep 
out,  wash,  and  cleanse  the  shrine  and  adorn  the  idols.  Then  wor- 
shipers come  to  visit  their  favourite  shrines,  and  join  in  any  ceremony 
going  on.  Some  officials  lead  strangers  and  visitors  round,  and 
instruct  the  ignorant  how  to  worship  aright,  directing  them  where  to 
go  to  hear  Yedas  and  Mantras  explained.  Advanced  thinkers  will 
then  be  told  that  all  now  demanded  by  God  is  a  flower  or  a  fruit, 
with  bread  for  his  anointed  priests  (see  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  xii, 
p.  59).  The  Hindu  is  better  than  his  creed.  He  no  longer  believes 
that  only  through  blood  is  there  redemption  for  man.  Creeds  stand 
still,  but  human  intelligence  moves  on. 

Hippolutos.     See  Aricia. 

Hippos.  Greek  :  "  horse."  The  name  occurs  in  mauy  Aryan 
languages,  and  is  not  a  borrowed  word,  showing  early  acquaintance 
with  the  horse  (Zend  aspa  :  Sanskrit  asva :  Lithuanian  aszua  (fem.)  : 
Latin  equus  :  Irish  ech  :  Anglo-Saxon  eoh  :  Gaulish  epos).  The  horse 
existed  in  Europe  from  the  earliest  ages  of  man's  existence.  Palaio- 
lithik  man  appears,  in  the  West,  to  have  fed  chiefly  on  the  small  wild 
horses  roaming  over  Europe.  There  are  huge  heaps  of  horses'  bones 
in  front  of  Sicilian  caves  at  Olmo ;  in  the  Isola  dei  Liri  in  Italy ;  in 
Germany,  and  in  many  parts  of  Switzerland :  one  heap  at  Ma9on  in 
France  is  10  ft.  deep,  and  must  have  included  bones  of  3000  horses 
(Dr  Isaac  Taylor,  Contempy,  Review,  August  1890).  The  Aryans 
must  have  learned  to  eat,  sacrifice,  and  even  worship,  the  horse  in 
Europe  ;  and  it  has  an  early  mythological  importance  (see  Horse). 
Hippa  is  the  cloud-bearer,  and  a  nymph.  Poseiddn  is  the  "  sea  horse." 
Uippion  is  a  mariner  who  rides  the  "  white  horses,"  as  we  still  call  the 
waves.  So  too  the  ship  Argo  was  called  Hippodameia  ''the  horse 
tamer."  The  word  means  "swift"  (Aryan  is  "speed  "),  and  the  Hippo- 
griflf  is  the  winged  horse.  The  horned  horse  of  Alexander  the  Great 
was  called  6u-kepbalos  or  "bull  headed."  The  horseman  Hippomenes 
conquered  Atalanta  by  means  of  golden  apples ;  and  the  stallion  becomes 
a  phallic  symbol 

Hitopadesa.  The  Anwar-i-Suhaili  of  Persians,  or  "  Book  of 
Counsels,"  is  an  ancient  and  very  popular  work  read  especially  in  India 
and  Persia,  and  now  one  of  our  college  standards.  It  has  been  called 
the  "  Father  of  Fables"  (see  Esop),  but  its  oldest  parts  (the  poetry  and 
proverbs)  are  said  to  come  from  its  parent  the  Pancha-Tantra  (see  that 
heading),  with  which  the  Hitopadesa  is  often  confused.  The  prose 
portions  are  held  to  be  not  older  than  200  B.C.,  or  about  the  age  of  the 


244  Hittites 

Book  of  Ecclesiastes.  The  present  compilation  dates  firom  oar  5th 
century.  The  Panchra-Tantra  portions  are  of  great  antiquity,  and 
include  some  Buddhist  Jataka  or  "  birth  "  tales.  The  Hitopadesa  w&s 
originally  written  in  Sanskrit,  including  quotations  from  the  Vedas 
and  Mahabharata.  The  Emperor  Nushirvan,  in  our  6th  century,  caused 
it  to  be  translated  into  Persian  :  it  appeared  in  Arabic  in  850  A.a^ 
and  shortly  afterwards  in  Hebrew  and  Greek.  The  Emperor  Akbar 
used  to  translate  it  to  his  prime  minister  'Abd-el-Fadl,  and  called  it 
the  "Criterion  of  Wisdom,"  often  quoting  such  proverbs  as:  "Learn- 
ing changes  not  the  wicked,  nor  will  bitter  pasture  destroy  the  cow's 
milk." 

Hittites.     See  Kheta. 

Hiuke.  Yuke.  The  Skandinavian  moon  god  (see  Agu).  From 
the  root  Ak ''  bright." 

H'nos.     The  Norse  Venus,  daughter  of  Freya. 

HobaL     See  Habal. 

Hod.  Hodhr.  The  Norse  god  of  winter,  the  "hider"  of  the 
sun,  a  strong,  blind,  son  of  Odin  (heaven),  who  slew  the  fair  Baldur 
("  light  giver  "),  and  was  slain  by  his  youngest  brother,  Vali  the  archer, 
when  Vali  was  only  a  day  old,  at  the  new  year  in  spring  (see  Baldur)L 
Hod  shot  at  Baldur,  with  the  mistletoe  provided  by  Loki,  and  killed 
him.  But  both  Hod  and  Baldur  are  to  live  in  Odin's  ball  hereafter, 
and  talk  over  the  past. 

Hoeg.     See  Haug,  a  sacred  mound  or  *'  height" 

Hogmanay.  New  Year's  Eve  in  Scotland.  [Perhaps  "mid- 
winter commemoration,"  from  hoku  and  Ttina, — Ed.] 

Holda.  Hulda.  HuUe.  The  "bright"  moon  among  the 
Skandinavians  (see  Hel,  Hellen§),  who  has  also  (like  HekatS)  an  evil 
aspect.  She  commands  the  completion  of  work  at  the  end  of  the  old 
year  (see  Bertha),  and  used  to  be  burned  on  the  eve,  or  day,  of 
Epiphany,  at  the  feast  once  called  Berchten-nacht  (Bertha's  night), 
when  the  good  Bertha  expels  the  wicked  old  Holda,  the  winter,  and 
the  old  moon.  Hulda  was  feared  as  a  sorceress,  and  was  a  washer- 
woman whose  soapsuds  were  the  melting  snow.  She  flies  with  all  her 
myrmidons  through  trackless  wastes,  in  the  cold  night  and  blackness. 
She  is  slighted  by  her  children,  yet  cheers  them  when  angry  gods  are 
scowling.  When  the  moon  shines  she  is  said  to  be  combing  her  hair. 
when  snow  falls  she  is  making  her  feather-bed.     She  loves  lakes  anii 


Holi  245 

fountains,  where  she  can  see  her  face ;  and  through  them  mortals  can 
reach  her  dwelling.  She  is  borne  through  heaven  on  a  car  whence 
chips  of  gold  drop  down ;  but  she  is  ugly,  long-toothed,  with  shaggy 
hair ;  and  unbaptised  babes  are  taken  by  Odin  and  Holda. 

Holi.  The  great  Hindu  spring  festival:  see  Dola-Yatri.  The 
cruel  swinging  rites  belong  to  this  fSte,  which  is  held  in  honour  of 
Krishna,  as  the  spring  sun  god.  It  begins  at  the  full  moon  of  March, 
and  lasts  nine  day&  It  is  also  called  Dol§,  whence  pious  Hindus 
r^ard  it  as  a  duty  to  '*  swing  "  from  a  hook  passed  through  the  muscles 
of  the  back :  this  is  called  Ghakrapuja  or  ''  the  wheel  rite."  The 
season  is  sacred  especially  to  Eama-jl,  or  Kama-deva,  the  god  of  love ; 
and  loose  talk,  songs,  and  jests,  are  interchanged  by  the  sexes,  leading 
to  drunkenness  and  licence,  especially  among  the  well-to-do  city  crowds. 
Respectable  heads  of  families  begin  the  season  with  prayer,  fasting,  and 
the  lighting  and  worship  of  new  fires,  adoring  small  images  of  Krishna 
which  must,  together  with  themselves  and  their  families,  be  sprinkled 
with  abira,  a  red  powder,  or  a  pink  liquid,  typifying  fertility,  which  is 
personified  as  a  woman  called  Doll  or  Holi,  about  whom  there  are 
many  legends,  intended  to  explain  the  reason  of  the  rites.  According 
to  one  legend  the  rejoicings  are  because  the  Bakshasas,  or  **  demons," 
of  winter  are  overthrown ;  and,  in  N.  India,  winter  is  personified  as 
the  female  Rakshasi,  Dundhas — "  the  destroyer  of  many,"  associated 
with  the  giant  Mag-dasur,  "  who  disturbs  the  prayers  and  praises  of 
gods  and  men."  Another  legend  relates  that  Prahlada,  the  son  of 
Hiranya-E^ipa,  deserted  the  worship  of  Siva  for  that  of  Vishnu,  which 
80  enraged  his  father  (sometimes  called  Hamakas),  who  was  a  Daitya 
to  whom  Siva  had  granted  the  sovereignty  of  the  three  worlds,  that 
with  aid  from  his  sister  Holi  he  persecuted  and  tortured  Prahlada,  till 
Vishnu  issued  from  a  fiery  iron  pillar — some  say  as  a  "  man-lion  " — 
and  tore  in  pieces  the  father.  Holi  then  tried  to  burn  Prahlada  and 
herself;  but  neither  fire,  snake  poison,  nor  anything  else,  could  scathe 
him.  Holi  had  tried  previously  to  poison  the  babe  Krishna  by  giving 
him  her  deadly  nipples  to  suck,  so  that  she  was  a  godess  of  winter. 

As  a  centre  for  the  games  and  other  rites  of  Holi-tide,  a  stout 
high  pole,  or  a  branch  of  a  large  tree,  is  erected — like  our  maypole 
(see  also  Gonds) ;  and  it  is  decked  with  flags,  and  has  a  sugar  cone  at 
the  top,  with  fruits  and  sometimes  coins.  Venturesome  youths  try  to 
climb  up,  and  are  belaboured  by  women  while  so  doing.  Near  this 
pole  is  always  placed  an  image  of  the  winter  demon,  made  of  sticks 
and  straw  (like  Guy  Fawkes) ;  and  this,  in  due  time,  is  burned  with 
joyous  shouts  and  music.     The  story  relates  that  so  Krishna  burned 


246  Holi 

the  giant  fiend  for  the  salvation  of  men.  The  remaining  emblems 
are  those  denoting  fertility,  often  grossly  phallic,  including  huge 
lingams  on  which  women  hang  garlands,  and  which  they  anoint. 
This  is  the  symbol  of  Kama-ji,  Lal-ji,  Putani,  and  Holika ;  of  the  god 
of  love  and  spring.  Much  romping  between  the  young  of  both  sexes 
accompanies  their  songs  and  jests,  and  they  belabour  each  other  with 
hands  and  sticks,  and  often  wrestle  and  roll  in  the  dusty  road  or  in 
the  bare  field.  All  night,  and  long  after  sunrise,  this  goes  on,  followed 
by  bathing  and  worship.  Mr  Crooks  {Popular  Religion  of  Northern 
iTuiia,  1894,  p.  392)  says  that  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  human 
sacrifice,  and  promiscuous  intercourse,  were  necessary  parts  of  the 
worship  of  the  spring  deities.  "  The  compulsory  entry  of  the  local 
priest  into  the  sacred  fire,"  on  which  the  people  still  insist,  at  Holi 
rites,  and  those  of  Eclipse  (Ketu),  is,  Mr  Crooks  things,  a  survival  of 
human  sacrifice ;  and  the  "  unchecked  profligacy  which  prevails  at 
the  spring  Holi,  and  the  Kajali  in  autumn,"  may,  he  thinks,  be 
intended  to  aid  in  repelling  failure  of  hskrvests,  and  of  fertility.  So, 
too,  when  rain  is  wanted,  nude,  indecent  dances  by  women  are 
prescribed,   and  are  carried  out  joyfully. 

The  great  phallic  poles  being  erected  at  cross  roads,  or  on  the 
village  green,  in  tope  or  grove,  or  by  a  gateway,  sacred  fires  are 
lighted,  and  all  dance  round  the  pole  laughing,  jesting,  and  adorning 
it  with  additional  ornaments.  The  elderly  and  staid  may  be  seen 
wheeling  in  the  giddy  maze,  while  reciting  mantras,  prayers,  and 
confessions,  such  as :  "  I  am  consumed,  0  Lord,  by  thy  fires.  0 
Kama,  in  memory  of  thee  I  sprinkle  over  myself,  and  my  family,  my 
flocks,  and  all  my  possessions,  the  abira  (red  powder),  and  I  pray  thee  to 
exert  thy  manifold  powers,  in  loving  increase  of  family,  flocks,  and  crops/' 
Groups  of  small  villages  and  hamlets  usually  combine  to  take  a 
field  which  has  yielded  an  abundant  crop,  in  order  there  to  celebrate 
Holi.  The  sacred  fire,  the  pole,  and  the  other  figures,  are  placed  in 
the  centre,  and  many  sally  out  to  collect  valuables  to  cast  into  the 
fire.  They  often  seize  costly  articles  of  furniture  ;  and  once  these  are 
brought  to  the  sacred  pile  none  may  withdraw  them,  for  they  are 
consecrated.  Polo,  and  other  ball  games,  are  played ;  tin  balls  are 
collected  round  the  fire,  and  when  they  burst,  sprinkle  the  players 
with  red  powder.  The  scene  becomes  at  times  a  pandemonium 
(see  Carnival),  and  the  dresses  of  the  revellers  are  grotesque,  and 
gaily  colored,  and  smeared  with  red.  Embers  from  the  holy  fire  are 
wildly  flung  about — as  at  Italian  candle-feasts — and  balls  of  mock 
comfits  which  break  and  discharge  liquids.  The  unwary  are  soused 
with  disgusting  fluids,  or  sent  on  bootless  messages,  like  April  fools 


Holy  247 

in  Europe.  Tbe  Holika  images  and  poles^  with  all  their  gay 
trappings,  are  finally  committed  to  the  sacred  flames ;  and  all  rush 
frantically  to  secure  embers,  as  at  the  Jerusalem  fire  feast  of  Easter. 
Indian  women  at  this  season  are  apt  to  play  practical  jokes  on  lone 
males  in  lone  places,  as  we  had  once  reason  to  know ;  and  stripping 
is  regarded  as  a  permissible  assault,  for  all  is  now  merriment,  and  all 
is  done  **  for  the  love  of  Kama."  The  Ehasia  tribes  (says  Mr  Atkinson, 
Journal  Bengal  Rl,  Asiatic  8ocy.,  Jany.  1884),  afiSx  the  phallic 
Trifiuly  or  trident  of  Siva,  to  the  Holi  poles,  praying  to  them  especially 
for  ofispring  bom,  or  expected,  during  the  past  year ;  and  priests  go 
round  to  affix  a  special  Tika,  or  mark,  on  the  foreheads  of  donors  to 
these  rites.  Mr  Atkinson  regards  these  as  pre-Yedik.  In  Bangal 
the  Yishntivas  and  the  Sakti  worshipers  who  celebrate  the  licentious 
rites  of  Durga  and  Kali,  are  among  the  most  ardent  Holi  worshipers ; 
and  this  fSte  is  the  greatest  of  the  year  at  Jaganath.  Siva  then 
offers  to  forego  all  his  merits  for  love  of  Lakshmi,  and  even  Brahma 
bums  with  passion.  Such  are  the  excesses  which,  in  many  lands, 
accompany  emotional  faith. 

The  Holi  corresponds  to  the  Roman  Liberalia,  with  worship  of 
Venus  Hilaria,  and  of  Fortuna  Yirilis :  or  the  old  Christian  rites  of 
the  "  abbot  of  unreason,"  and  "  Feast  of  Fools,"  our  April  Fool's  Day 
and  the  "  gowks'  day  "  of  Kelts  (see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  425).  It  was 
also  Cuckoo's  Day  according  to  Sir  Walter  Scott  (see  Cuckoo).  The 
follies  and  extravagancies  of  the  season  are  endless.  We  have  seen 
Hindus,  Moslems,  and  Christians,  alike  racing  down  a  hill  in  the  early 
morning  to  '*  catch  the  sun."  Native  Christians  said  that  this  was 
done  "  in  imitation  of  Peter  and  John "  racing  to  the  sepulchre  of 
Christ  on  Easter  day.  For  it  is  the  season  when  the  sun  god  leaves 
his  cave  of  death  and  again  appears  in  the  world. 

Holy.  This  word  originally  means  "  whole,"  "  wholesome,"  hence 
"perfect,"  and  so  "  sacred  "  (Bivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  36). 

Homo.  ilBOttiSL  Zend.  This  answers  to  the  Sanskrit  Soma, 
the  sacred  drink  which  is  the  essence  of  Krishna  (Bhagavad  Gita),  a 
mystic  sacrifice  to  Yedik  deities  (see  Soma).  The  rites  of  Homa 
require  the  use  of  five  sacred  woods,  and  of  Eusa  grass  (or  Barsom 
twigs  in  Persia),  and  should  precede  marriage  and  the  investiture 
with  the  sacred  Kosti  necklace.  [The  drink  is  now  made  from  the 
Asclepias  Adda,  and  a  few  drops  sufiSce  for  each.  There  is  dispute 
as  to  the  original  drink,  but  Prof.  Max  Mliller,  comparing  the  extant 
customs  of  Ossetes  in  the  Caucasus,  thinks  the  original  Soma  was  a 
kind  of  dark  beer  or  porter. — Ed.] 


24a  Homer 

Homer.  The  blind  bard  of  Khios,  like  Hesiod  the  shepherd 
poet  of  Mt  Helikon,  is  important  to  all  who  study  early  Aryan 
mythology  (see  Hesiod).  Homer  appears  to  have  preceded  Hesiod  by 
a  generation  or  more.  The  one  is  the  epik  poet,  singing  heroic  deeds 
of  a  young  race ;  the  other  is  the  Greek  Virgil,  singing  the  praises  of 
rural  life  and  religion.  As  many  ages  have  claimed  the  Homeric 
poems,  as  cities  claimed  "  great  Homer  dead."  It  is  enough  for  our 
purpose  that  these  poems  were  written  about  800  to  600  B.C.  But 
the  picture  they  present  accords  with  the  civilisation  of  Troy  and 
MycensB,  recovered  in  remains  supposed  to  be  sometimes  as  old  as 
1500  B.C. :  and  the  conclusions  of  former  critics  are  now  modified,  in 
part,  by  the  discoveries  of  Schliemann. 

Honix.      A  name  of  Vili  the  brother  of  Odin. 

Honover.  Pahlavi — the  Zend  Ahuna  Vairya,  or  word  of  Ahura- 
mazda,  which  was  incarnate  in  King  Qushtasp  and  others,  as  the  Logos 
was  incarnate  according  to  the  4th  Gospel. 

Hor.  Horus.  Har.  The  Egyptian  god  of  the  rising  sun,  a 
name  connected  with  Hru  "day."  He  is  exactly  equivalent,  says 
Benouf,  to  the  Greek  HuperiOn,  the  ''rising"  sun.  He  is  the  son  of 
Osiris  and  Isis,  the  avenger  of  his  father,  and  conqueror  of  Set  the 
dark  god.  But  Set,  as  a  black  boar,  swallows  the  "  eye  of  Horus," 
and  the  double-headed  figure  Set-Hor  represents  the  brothers  day  and 
night     The  hawk  is  the  chief  emblem  of  Horus  (see  Hawk). 

Horns.  These  are  universal  emblems  of  power  (see  Btyant, 
Mythol.,  ii,  p.  530).  The  sun,  the  moon,  and  all  river  gods  have 
horns,  like  Dionusos,  or  like  Moses.  They  stood  for  rays ;  but  the 
horn  is  also  the  phallus,  and  the  "  horn  of  plenty "  is  the  YonL 
Apollo  Karneios  is  thought  to  mean  "  the  homed  Apollo,"  from  the 
Greek  Keraa  "horn."  His  festival  was  the  Kereneia,  or  Karneia; 
his  priest  was  Karnas,  he  is  the  Latin  Granus  and  Keltik  Graine  (but 
see  Graine).  The  altar  of  Yahveh  had  horns ;  and  he  fills,  exalts,  or 
anoints  the  horns  of  those  he  favoura  The  temple  of  Diana,  on  the 
Aventine,  was  hung  round  with  horns  of  bulls  and  cows,  and  these 
sometimes  declared  divine  behests,  as  when  Marcellus  defeated 
Hannibal,  or  Scipio  subdued  Spain  ;  for  the  sound  of  the  horn  is 
prophetic.  From  Tbrakia  to  Egypt  we  find  wine  drunk  from  bulls' 
horns,  at  weddings,  and  other  feasts — they  were  the  earliest  cups  of 
man.  From  Italy  to  India  we  find  women  setting  up  horns,  as 
charms  against  the  evil  eye,  with  horse  shoes,  and  eggs,  on  doors,  and 
wells,  and  at  cross  roads.     In  Babylonia  Anu,  and  other  gods,  wore 


Horas  249 

horned  headdresses — seen  also .  on  Akkadian  seal  cylinders — and  at 
Ibreez,  near  Tyana,  in  Asia  Minor,  the  giant  figure  of  a  horned  god, 
bearing  com  and  grapes,  is  accompanied  by  Hittite  texts.  Horned 
helmets  are  also  represented  in  Egyptian  pictures  and  iEgean  vases,  as 
worn  by  the  Danau,  and  other  fair  faced  tribes  of  the  north.  Horned 
iigurea  are  very  common  in  ruins  excavated  both  in  W.  Asia  and  in 
Europe.  The  witch  dances  used  to  take  place  round  horns,  or  horn 
in  hand,  round  rams,  goats,  and  cocks.  The  "  sacred  horn  of  Tibet  '* 
{Graphic,  19th  May  1888)  is  only  a  lingam.  Many  such  symbols 
have  we  seen,  beside  circles  at  woodland  shrines,  together  with  small 
terra-cotta  lingams,  and  eggs  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  i,  fig.  1).  Dr  N.  W. 
Taylor  (Arch.  Jownud,  December  1887)  describes  the  like  beside  the 
barrows  of  Wynad  in  India. 

Strange  horn  rites  were,  till  quite  recently,  celebrated  at  the 
"Horn  Church"  of  Charlton,  near  London;  and  *'horn  dances"  are 
still  practised  among  us  {Folk-Lore  JoumcU,  April  1893).  The 
vicar  of  Abbot's  Bromley  is  quoted  as  saying  that,  for  a  century,  the 
vicars  had  known  "horn  dances"  still  surviving  on  the  day  after 
Wake's  Sunday — the  Sunday  next  to  the  4th  September — a  period 
when  harvest  homes  were  celebrated  (see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  427). 
Mr  Ordish  says  that  the  Abbot's  Bromley  dances,  for  200  years,  had 
taken  place  in  the  churchyard  after  morning  service.  Such  dances 
were  common  in  Stafibrdshire  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  : 
they  had  peculiar  figures  and  tunes.  The  Bromley  church  still 
possesses  *'  six  pairs  of  horns,  a  bow  and  arrow,  hobby-horse  frame,  and 
curious  old  pots  with  a  wooden  handle,  in  which  money  was  collected 
from  the  dancers  by  a  kind  of  Maid  Marian."  The  under  jaw  of  the 
hobby-horse  was  loose,  and  clanked  in  time  with  the  music.  The  lad 
with  the  bow  was  a  rude  jester,  accompanied  by  six  men  each  with 
a  pair  of  reindeer  horns :  ten  performers  in  all  (lanced  a  traditional 
measure.  The  hobby-horse,  even  now,  is  said  to  figure  in  May-Day 
festivities ;  and  evidently  old  Norse  rites  are  preserved.  There  is 
even  a  tradition  that  the  hobby-horse  is  Odin's  Sleipner,  one  of  the 
steeds  of  As-gard  (see  also  Mr  Elsworthy's  Horns  of  Honov/r,  1900). 
The  horn  among  Hebrews  was  *^  exalted "  in  prosperity :  it  also 
betokened  strength  and  light  (Exod.  xxxiv,  29;  Deut  xxxiii,  17; 
Hab.  iii,  4).  In  the  first-cited  passage  the  Hebrew  reads  (as  the 
Latin  Vulgate  understands)  that  ^*  Moses  wist  not  that  the  skin  of  his 
face  was  a  horn " :  see  Michael  Angelo's  horned  Moses.  In  the 
poetic  psalm  of  Habakkuk  the  Hebrew  also  reads  "  His  brightness 
was  as  light ;  horns  from  his  hands."  The  horn  of  Odin  among  the 
Norse  is  wind,  or  thunder. 


260  Horse 

Horse.     See  Asvins  and  Hippos.     [The  horse  was  called  kwra 

(Mongol  Kar   '*  to  galop ")  by  the  Akkadians ;    and  the  horse  aad 

chariot  were  used  before  1500   B.C.  in  W.  Asia.     The  old   Semitic 

name  was  Sus,  and  the  Egyptians  borrowed  this  and  other  Semitic 

names  for  the  horse,  as  well  as  the  Semitic  Merkebeh  for  "  chariot " ; 

for  they  apparently  had  no  horses  before  they  were  introduced  into 

Egypt  during  the  Hyksos  period,  just  as  they  had  no  camela,  which 

they  also  knew  by  the  Semitic  name  Kamal.     Asia  Minor  was  a  great 

centre  for  horse  dealing,  and   the  horse  is  still  found   wild   in  E. 

Turkestan. — Ed.]     To  Hindus  the  horse,  like  the  bull,  was  sac^. 

But  they  will  drink  out  of  a  horse-trough,  yet  not  where  a  sacred 

bull  or  cow  has  drunk.     The  great  sacrifice  was  that  of  the  horse  (see 

Asva-medha),  and  it  was  performed  when   the   birth   of  a  son  was 

desired.     The  horse  drew  the  chariot  of  the  sun,  and  sacred  horses 

were  kept  in  temples.     Miss  North  (liecoUectiana  of  a  Happy  Lift,  i, 

p.  217,  1892)  found  one  of  these  at  Kobe  in  Japan,  in  a  temple  shrine : 

it  was  piebald,  with  blue  eyes,  and  a  pink  nose,  and  "  always  stood 

there  in  case  the  deity  came  down."     A  stufifed  horse  also  stoo<l  in  a 

shed  near,  lest  the  living  horse  should  die.     To  touch  a  stallion  caused 

maidens  to  bear  children,  and  the  Asvins  as  great  riders  had  sacred 

horses.      The   head   of  the   horse   also   produces   ambrosia,  and    the 

Indian  Mamojl  is  a  phallic  stallion.     The  horses  of  Frey  and  Sigurd 

are  famous  among  Skandinavians.     The  neighing  of  the  horse  is  its 

"  laughter."     [In  Job  we  read  "  Hast  thou  endowed  his  throat  with 

a  thunder-noise,"   xzxix,  19. — Ed.];  and  it  is  (as  when  the  "bull 

speaks  ")  an  emblem  of  thunder,  like  the  braying  of  Indra's  ass  in 

heaven  (Prof.  A.  de  Qubernatis,  Zool.  Mythol,,  ii,  p.  346).     The  son 

of  Dronas  is  said,  in  the  Maha-bharata,  "  to  laugh,  and  have  strength 

in  his  horse,  which   neighed   as  soon   as  it   was  bom."     Herodotos 

relates  the  legend  of  Darius  whose  horse  gave  him  power.     [Riding 

on  horses  is  only  noticed   much  later ;  we  have  figures  of  riders  in 

Assyria  in  the  7th  century  Ra,  and  in  Lycia  a  century  or  so  later; 

but  all  the  older  monuments  merely  show  the  horse  as  driven  in  a 

chariot.     The  Hittite  king  of  Kadesh  (1580  B.c.)  had  a  wild  horse, 

but  all  Syrians  were  using  chariots  like  the  Akkadians,  earlier  than 

the  Egyptians.     The  horse  of  Caesar  also  foretold   his  fortunes.     The 

**  death-horse  "  is  an  ancient  symbol  long  before  the  "  pale  horse  "  of 

Revelation ;  for  Nin-ki-gal,  the  queen  of  hell,  is  represented  kneeling 

on  a  horse  (see  Hel) :  it  was  a  well-known  Norse  and  Danish  figure ; 

and  Grimm  gives  the  story  of  the  horse's  head  over  a  gate,  which 

warns  the  heroine  of  the  future.     The  winged  horse,  Pegasus,  is  found 

at  Nineveh,  and  on  coins  of  Carthage.     Its  hoof  mark  was  shown  in 


Horsel  251 

Greece.  The  name  is  perhaps  Semitic,  meaning  ''  flying  horse " 
(Hebrew  pavak  "  to  sway»"  "  to  wave/'  and  8vs  •'  horse  "),  and  it  also 
carries  an  Assyrian  god. — Ed.] 

HorseL     See  Ursel,  Ursula.     The  Swabian  moon  godess. 

Hospitals.  These,  as  practical  indications  of  ethikal  ideas, 
require  notice.  It  is  a  common  error  to  suppose  that  the  first  hos- 
pitals were  Christian.  Western  Europe  in  this,  and  many  other  such 
matters,  was  far  behind  Asia.  Indeed  it  would  seem  that  Christ 
needed  no  hospitals,  nor  his  church  as  long  as  they  claimed  to  heal 
the  sick  miraculously,  or  by  anointing  them,  with  prayers  (Mark  xvi, 
18  ;  James  v,  14).  The  medical  art  was  very  ancient  in  Egypt  (see 
Egypt),  and  seems  to  have  been  publicly  organised  by  1100  B.c. 
[The  Babylonians  sought  to  cure  disease  by  charms,  as  the  result  of 
demoniac  possession;  but  the  laws  of  Hammurabi  (Nos.  215  to  225) 
lay  down  the  scale  of  fees  for  doctors,  and  their  responsibilities.  If  a 
freeman  died  from  an  operation  (Law  218)  the  doctor's  hand  was  cut 
off. — ^Ed.]  Among  Greeks  there  were  hospices  for  the  sick  close  to 
the  temple  of  AsklSpios  (see  that  heading) ;  and,  in  the  5th  century 
B.C.,  Greek  physicians  were  elected  and  paid  by  the  citizens ;  but 
even  earlier  we  read  of  public  hospices  for  the  sick,  with  other 
charities.  In  India  rest-houses  on  the  roads  existed  as  early  as  500 
or  400  B.C.,  where  the  sick  and  weary  were  charitably  received; 
and  in  Ceylon,  at  the  great  Naga  capital  Anuradha-pur,  a  chari* 
table  establishment  for  the  sick  is  said  to  have  adjoined  the  palace 
of  Pandu-kabhay :  in  350  B.C.,  before  Asoka's  missionaries  arrived 
a  century  later,  a  king  called  Buddha-dasa  is  said  to  have  studied 
medicine,  and  to  have  granted  lands  throughout  his  Ceylonese 
dominions  for  medical  charities.  Asdka  (about  250  B.C.)  in  his 
inscriptions  says :  "  Is  any  sick,  the  physician  is  his  father.  Is  he 
weU,  his  friend.  Is  his  health  restored,  his  guardian "  (see  '*  Pre- 
Christian  Hospitals,"  Westminster  Review y  Oct  1877).  Sir  Monier 
Williams  concludes  that  "  the  first  hospitals  for  diseased  persons  of 
which  we  have  historic  record,  were  those  of  Buddhists,  where  also 
dumb  animals  were  treated  medically  and  kindly  nourished."  These 
were  maintained  as  late  as  700  A.c.  To  the  same  source  we  probably 
may  trace  the  charitable  institutions  of  the  Mexican  monasteries. 
Prescott  says  that  the  Spaniards  "  found  hospitals  established  in  the 
principal  cities  for  the  cure  of  the  sick,  and  as  permanent  refuges  for 
disabled  soldiers  .  .  .  superintended  by  experienced  surgeons  and 
nurses,  established  by  the  Government,  but  supported  by  the  rich  and 
charitable"  (Bancroft's  Native  Races,  ii,  pp.  595-567). 


252  Hotra 

Tacitus  says  that  when  50,000  persons  were  killed  and  maimed 
by  the  fall  of  the  amphitheatre  at  Fidense,  the  doors  of  the  great  were 
opened,  and  medicines  and  necessaries  were  supplied,  as  was  usual  also 
after  the  battles  of  the  Empire  (Ann,,  iv,  65).  From  early  times 
Roman  governors  appointed  physicians  in  every  city  in  proportion  to 
population,  and  these  were  paid  from  the  public  treasury.  The  Greek 
Noso-komeia  had  nothing  to  do  with  Xenodokheia  or  "  rest  houses " 
Ptokho-tropheia  or  '*  poor  houses,"  Gerontokomeia  or  ''  alms  houses " 
for  the  aged.  They  were  "  sick  houses "  or  hospitals.  As  r^iards 
Christian  buildings  of  the  kind,  Jerome  says  that  Paula  his  friend 
*'  first  of  all  established  a  Nosokomeion  "  in  Rome,  and  "  submitted 
to  the  humiliating  penance  of  ministering  to  the  sick  with  her  own 
hands."  The  Emperor  Julian  was  a  fellow-student  of  St  Basil  in 
Greece,  and  speaking  of  such  establishments  said  they  were  founded 
*'  by  impious  Galileans,  who  thus  gave  themselves  to  this  kind  of 
humanity :  as  men  allure  children  with  a  cake  so  they,  starting  from 
what  they  call  love  .  .  .  bring  in  converts  to  their  impiety."  So  that 
the  idea  of  Medical  Missions  is  not  modem.  But  Basil's  establishment 
at  Csesarea  in  Kappadokia  was  only  called  a  Ftokhotropheia  or  "  poor 
house,"  connected  with  the  good  bishop's  own  house.  The  poor  and 
sick  were  cared  for,  and  lepers  treated  by  Therapeutai,  who  had  to 
investigate  their  disease.  Basil  himself  came  of  a  family  of  physicians, 
and  suffered  from  ill-health  during  his  lifetime.  [Justinian  in  the 
6th  century  established  a  hospital  for  sick  pilgrims  at  his  chui*ch  of 
the  Virgin  in  Jerusalem.  The  hospice  of  Charlemagne  (800  A.C.)  in 
the  same  city  became  a  Dominican  hospital,  and  in  it  sick  pilgrims 
were  also  treated.  In  the  1 2th  century  the  Order  of  St  Lazarus  was 
founded  by  the  Norman  kings  of  Palestine  to  tend  lepers. — £d.] 
Mr  Lecky  says  that  the  Christian  asylum  for  the  insane  at  Grenada, 
in  1400  A.C.,  was  founded  700  years  after  one  established  by  Moslems. 
A  great  institution  for  the  sick  was  founded  by  other  Moslems  at  Fez 
in  1304  A.C.  But  Europe  remained  intensely  ignorant  of  medical  art, 
and  of  public  hospitals,  till  after  the  Crusades. 

Hotra.  Sanskrit:  a  "burnt  offering."  The  priest  who  offers 
such  is  a  Hotri. 

Houris.  Arabic :  Huriyeh.  The  nymphs  of  paradise  mentioned 
in  the  ^^oran.  They  are  the  Persian  Hurani  Behisht — heavenly 
maidens  like  the  Vedik  Apsaras.  They  welcome  the  heroes  slain  in 
battle,  like  the  Valkyries  of  the  Norsemen  ;  and,  together  with  the 
"  swan-maidens  "  of  European  folk-lore,  they  were  originally  beautiful 
white  clouds. 


Hu  253 

Hu«     A  very  early  Egyptian  god. 

Huakas.  Guacas.  Ancient  deities  in  Peru  called  'Hhe  gods 
who  speak."  The  sun  was  Huaka,  and  his  high  priest  (see  Eusko) 
was  the  Huaka-villak  or  "  converser"  (see  Hibbert  Lecta.,  1884  ;  and 
Bradford,  Amer.  Antiq.,  p.  356).  The  Huaka-koal  was  a  "  Huaka 
stone,"  and  the  Peruvians  had  such  in  private  houses  which  they  called 
Kanopas.  Every  Dravidian  village  in  India  has  its  kod,  or  lingam 
stone,  which  points  to  the  probable  derivation  of  Peruvian  speech  from 
languages  of  S.  India,  with  which  also  the  Polynesian  dialects  are  now 
known  to  be  connected.  The  Huaka  of  Rimak  was  celebrated  as  the 
"  revealer  of  secrets,"  and  was  a  god  older  than  the  time  of  the  sun 
worshiping  Inkas  in  Peru,  respected  by  them,  while  Huaka-villak 
ranked  above  all  priests  next  to  the  Inka  himself.  The  great  temple 
of  the  mountain  lake  Titikaka,  probably  the  oldest  shrine  in  Peru,  was 
named  after  Deo- Huaka,  or  Tio-Huanaka.  It  is  a  stupendous  ruin  at 
a  height  of  13,000  feet :  one  of  its  stones  measures  38  feet  in  length. 
It  had  statues  of  the  mother  and  child,  and  the  buildings  cover  a  space 
as  large  as  that  on  which  Westminster  Abbey  and  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment stand.  The  ground  is  strewn  with  debris  of  the  temple  for  a 
mile  round,  and  with  fragments  weighing  140  to  200  tons,  the  nearest 
quarry  being  15  miles  distant.  The  massive  doors  are  carved  with 
human  forms,  birds,  and  serpents.  There  are  no  remains  of  any 
temple  roof  (see  Mr  Inwards,  Temj)le8  of  the  Andes).  Garcilasso 
says  the  Peruvians  worshiped  a  serpent  which  grows  to  a  length  of 
30  feet. 

Huitzilo-poktli.  Huitzilo-Mexitli.  The  Aztek  god  of  war 
in  Mexico.  He  was  bom  after  his  mother,  Koatli-kue,  had  placed  in 
her  bosom  a  glittering  ball  of  feathers  which  floated  in  the  air.  He 
had  a  tuft  of  green  feathers  on  his  head,  a  spear  in  his  right  hand, 
and  a  shield  in  his  left.  Bancroft  calls  his  mother  the  godess  of  plant 
life,  and  his  three  great  festivals  were  in  the  middle  of  May,  the  middle 
of  August,  and  at  the  end  of  December.  The  Huitzla  is  a  ''  thorny 
plant "  and  the  Meod  is  the  valued  agave  whence  Mexico  was  named  : 
pochdi  signifies  a  ''  youth,"  and  the  name  so  explained  by  Mr  Vining 
is  more  probable  than  any  connection  with  a  *'  humming  bird  "  (see 
Inglorious  Columbus^  p.  380).  The  worshipers  of  this  god  dressed 
in  green  :  the  king  wore  a  dark  green  tunic  and  a  green  veil  orna- 
mented with  skulls  and  bones  ;  he  also  wore  green  sandals  (see 
Colors).  The  May  festival  followed  that  of  the  god's  brother 
Tezkatli-poka,  when  the  silk  of  the  year  was  spun  from  cocoons,  and 
the  harvesting  of  the  agave  and  preparation  of  its  fibres  took  place. 


I 


264  Huli 

Two  days  before  his  feast  an  image  of  Huitzilo-poktli  was  made  out 
of  corn-meal  and  honey,  reminding  us  of  Tibetan  practices  (see  also 
Azteks  and  Cross). 

Huli.     See  Holl 

Hume.     The  great  Scottish  philosopher  David  Hume  (1711  to 
1776)  strove  in  bis  own  solid  and  perfervid  manner  to  do  for  Britain 
what  Diderot  was  doing  for  France  more   brilliantly,  and   perhaps 
more  effectively,  as  he  more  openly  appealed  to  the  masses.     Diderot 
was    not    unknown    to    Hume    who    was    the    friend    of    the    more 
timid  encyclopaedists  D'Alembert,  and  Turgot,  while  in  Paris   from 
1763  to  1766,  as  secretary  of  the  British  ambassador  Lord  Hertford 
The  philosopher  was  well  connected  by  birth  on  both  sides  of  his 
family,  and  from  youth  was  a  calm  student  and  severe  metaphysician, 
ambitious  only  of  excelling  in  literature  and  study  of  the  old  Stoiks  and 
of  human  nature.     He  was  intended  for  the  law,  but  settled  on  account 
of  bad  health  at  La  Fl^che  in  1737  ;  and  at  this  place,  where  Descartes 
had  shone,  he  issued — before  he  was  25  years  old — ^his  Treaiiae  on 
Human  Natv/re,  perhaps  the  most  unassailable  of  his  works.     It  was 
fresh  and  vigorous,  but    too  scholarly  and    severely  logical  to  be  a 
popular  success.     He  was  disappointed  by  its  failure,  but  he  never  in 
after  writings  abandoned  the  views  it  contained,  or  added  much  to      | 
them.     In  1741  he  published  his  famous  Essays,  being  then  at  Nine-      > 
wells.     Butler  "  highly  recommended  "  them,  though  Hume  therein      j 
says  that :  "  a  rational  view  of  the  existence  of  God  can  only  be 
vaguely  described  as  an  a  priori  view  of  conscience  .  .  .  resting  on 
ethical  grounds."     In  1744  he  was  all  but  elected  to  the  chair  of       \ 
Moral  Philosophy  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  but  his  opponents 
accused  him  of  '*  heresy,  deism,  scepticism,  and  theism."     He  then 
accepted  the  post  of  tutor  to  the  Marquis  of  Annandale,  and  afterwards 
went  as  secretary  with  General  St  Clair  to  Vienna  and  Turin.     In  1748 
he  issued  his  Inquiry  Concerning  the  Human  Understanding,  and 
returning  home  next  year  settled  down  for  twelve  years  at  Edinburgh, 
writing  his  Dialogues  Concerning  Natural  Religion,  which  were  not 
published  till  1779.     In  1751  he  became  Librarian  to  the  Advocates' 
Library,  and  was  very  popular  with  literary  ladies.    He  studied  political 
economy,  then  a  popular  subject  as  set  forth  in  the  Wealth  of  Nations 
by  his  friend   Adam   Smith.     In    1763   he  began   his  History  of 
England  from  the  time  of  James  L     He  was  then  in  very  poor  cir- 
cumstances, yet  "  very  contented  though  assailed  with  reproach,  and 
even  detestation."     But  450  copies  of  the  first  volume  of  the  history 
sold  in  a  few  weeks,  and  by  1755  his  comforts  increased.     The  second 


Hume  255 

volume,  and  further  developments  of  Natural  Religion  occupied  him 
in  1756,  and  the  history  was  finished  in  1761.  It  was  "the  first 
attempt  at  depicting  the  literary  aspects  of  a  nation's  life"  (Frof, 
Adamson).  He  alarmed  the  orthodox  by  declaring  Polytheism  to  be 
the  first  sts^e  in  the  natural  development  of  religions,  and  Deism  or 
Theism  a  product  of  reflexion  on  experience.  In  1763  he  went,  as 
above  explained,  to  Paris  for  three  years,  after  which  he  was  secretary 
to  General  Conway  in  London  for  two.  Finally  he  returned  to  Edin- 
burgh at  the  age  of  57  years,  with  an  income  of  £1000  a  year.  He 
had  renounced  high  Tory  views,  and  the  pessimism  of  his  attacks 
on  Society  in  1756,  with  his  dislike  of  the  English.  But  he  still 
denounced  a  hollow  and  licentious  society,  and  the  stupidity  and 
ignorance  of  the  nation. 

He  insisted  on  perfect  freedom  of  thought,  and  his  influence  in 
uprooting  the  foundations  of  Faith  was  very  great  Yet  his  eloquence, 
gaiety,  gentle  nature,  and  cordial  manner,  endeared  him  to  all  in  spite 
of  natural  awkwardness,  and  a  somewhat  obese  and  grotesque  figure. 
He  came  to  be  considered  a  patriarch  of  literature,  and  his  house  was 
the  centre  where  learned  men  and  women  met.  He  enjoyed  life,  but 
especially  the  Nirvana  of  calm  retirement  in  his  study.  He  bore  a 
serious  illness  in  1775  with  cheerful  fortitude,  and  died  peacefully  on 
the  25th  of  August  1776,  maintaining  to  the  last  his  views  as  to  the 
deity. 

The  orthodox  belief  in  God  was  in  his  days  regarded  as  the 
safest  bulwark  against  infidelity,  but  he  upsets  it  by  showing  that 
our  finite  faculties  cannot  grasp  the  incomprehensible  nature  of  any 
"  unconditioned "  being.  The  deists  of  the  school  of  Locke,  who 
relied  on  the  argument  from  Design,  fared  no  better  at  his  hands,  as 
he  concluded  that  no  proof  of  God's  existence  was  possible  (see 
Atheism  and  Design).  Prof.  Adamson  says  that  the  philosophy  of 
J.  S.  Mill  is  not  further  advanced  than  that  of  Hume,  and  posthumous 
works  of  the  former  follow  exactly  Hume's  lines  of  argument.  Hume 
was  not  only  the  first,  but  the  most  severely  logical  and  powerful 
exponent  of  such  philosophy — a  Pyrrhonist,  but  greater  than  Pyrrho. 
He  feared  not  to  write  all  that  he  felt  honestly  to  be  true.  Yet  he 
never  sneered  at  solemn  creeds.  His  style  was  colorless  and  cold 
perhaps,  but  lucid  and  clear.  He  nursed  no  pleasant  illusions,  but 
sought  Truth,  not  terrified  by  any  gulf  of  night  He  raised  the 
banner  of  Descartes;  and  free-thinkers  of  the  18th  century,  following 
him,  established  his  ideas  more  firmly.  He  believed  in  a  spiritual 
torce  (or  substance)  as  well  as  in  matter,  but  not  in  memory  surviving 
death.     He  entirely  denied  the  credibility  of  any  *'  miracles,"  regarding 


256  Huns 

the  accounts  of  such  as  traditions  belonging  to  times  of  ignorance  and 
credulity. 

Huns.  A  Turkish  race  of  Mid- Asia  who  burst  into  Europe  more 
than  once,  and  attacked  India  (200  A.c.)  and  China,  overrunning 
Persia.  They  were  absorbed  by  the  old  Sakya  stock  in  India,  but  in 
our  5th  century  they  invaded  Hung-ar  ("Hun-land")  or  Hungary 
under  Attila  (At-ila  "high  chief"),  and  threatened  the  Byzantine 
empire  (see  Goths).  They  were  at  length  defeated,  in  451  A.C.,  by 
the  Franks  near  Chalons ;  but  later  Hungarian  troublers  of  Europe 
were  of  the  same  stock.  The  excavation  of  Huns'  graves  in  Hungary 
suggests  a  greater  civilisation  among  them  than  is  credited  to  them 
by  historians  (see  Gibbon's  account  of  Attila's  court,  from  Ammianus, 
Jordanis,  and  Prisons). 

Hur.      Hebrew  :  "  hole."     The  caves  whence  Horites  were  named. 

Hura-kan.  The  mysterious  creator  among  the  Quiche  Bed 
Indians  :  the  Hushtoli  of  Choktaws  :  he  is  the  "  stormy  wind  "  adored 
in  Peru  by  kissing  the  air  :  the  Spanish  hurricano  or  *'  hurricane." 

HyksoS.  The  foreign  rulers  of  Egypt  belonging  to  the  15th 
dynasty  (see  Egypt).  The  name  is  supposed  to  be  Hikshasu  in 
Egyptian,  or  '•  Chief  of  Nomads,"  and  they  are  the  "  shepherd  kings  " 
of  Greeks.  [Josephus  makes  them  rule  511  years  (Agat.  Apion, 
i,  14,  15),  and  gives  six  names  of  their  first  kings  during  260  years. 
The  present  text  of  Manetho  gives  the  names  differently,  and  the  period 
as  284  years  in  all.  These  names  are  not  Egyptian,  nor  are  they 
Semitic,  but  may  be  Turanian,  including  Saites  (Salatis),  Beon, 
Pakhnan  (Apakhnas),  Staan,  Arkhles,  Apophis,  and  according  to 
Josephus,  after  him  lanias  and  Assis. — Ed.]  The  Apophis  of  these 
lists  is  mentioned  in  Egyptian  history  as  a  worshiper  of  the  Hittite 
god  Sutekh. 

Hypnotism.  From  the  Greek  hupnos  "sleep,"  a  state  of 
unconsciousness  which  is  easily  produced,  in  nervous  subjects,  by 
gazing  on  some  object  close  to  the  eyes.  The  Indian  Ydgis  hypnotise 
themselves  by  gazing  at  the  tip  of  their  noses,  as  some  Christian 
hermits  did  by  staring  at  their  navels  till  they  saw  the  "  light  of 
Tabor  "  issue  thence.  The  patient  can  be  assisted  by  an  operator  of 
strong  personality,  who  rubs  the  forehead,  or  makes  passes  with  his 
hands,  and  suggests  the  condition,  till  closing  his  eyes  the  hypnotic 
subject  answers  questions  in  apparent  unconsciousness,  according  to 
suggestion.     The  Magi  in  Persia,  and  the  Eastern  Christians  down  to 


Hypnotism  257 

the  lltb  century,  had  " mysteries"  due  to  hypnotic  trance.  Between 
1600  and  1670,  Maxwell  in  Scotland,  and  Santanelli  in  Italy,  became 
famous  as  hypnotisers.  Mesmer  of  Vienna  interested  Europe,  but 
mingled  his  facts  with  deceits  or  delusions  as  to  ''  animal  magnetism," 
using  magnets  as  objects  to  stare  at.  His  magic  powers  consisted 
only  in  the  action  of  a  strong  will  aided  by  the  ancient  methods. 

Dr  Braid  of  Manchester  in  1841  began  the  scientific  examination 
of  the  question,  and  other  physiologists  on  the  Continent  soon  dispelled 
the  popular  illusions  as  to  "  spirits ''  and  "  vital  force."  Science 
found  no  "  occult  influences,"  or  any  inexplicable  forces.  Hypnotism 
is  only  a  cerebral  condition  induced  by  straining  the  sight  till  the 
optic  nerve  is  aflfected  and  the  brain  partially  paralysed,  when  the 
patient  becomes  a  fit  subject  for  suggestions  generally  involving 
contact  Man  is  not  peculiar  in  this  respect,  for,  when  the  attention 
is  strained,  rabbits  and  snakes  appear  to  be  easily  hypnotised,  as  birds 
are  also  by  serpents.  The  Indian  juggler  will  gently  stroke  the  neck 
of  the  snake  with  a  wand,  and  the  creature  becomes  rigid  like  the 
mesmeric  patient  in  his  trance. 

In  1866  M.  Liebault  started  what  is  called  the  Nancy  or  the 
"  suggestion  "  system — a  school  still  extant,  teaching  many  errors  with 
foundations  in  facts  capable  of  explanation.  In  1878  M.  Charcot 
exhibited,  in  theatrical  fashion,  phenomena  of  hypnotic  influence  on 
trained  and  untrained  patients,  in  the  Paris  hospital  of  the  Salp^triere 
similar  to  those  with  which  itinerant  hypnotists  long  ago  have  made 
us  familiar.  Charcotists  relied  entirely  on  some  small  bright  object 
held  close  to  the  eyes ;  but  Nancyists  relied  on  passes  with  the  hands 
and  on  urgent  suggestion,  such  as  the  '*  thought-reader  "  receives  from 
bis  guide.  Braidists  said — ^as  do  the  Indian  Yogis  who  are  self- 
hypnotisers — that  a  small  dull  object  is  quite  as  effective  as  a  bright 
one:  the  same  result  is  obtained — that  of  straining  the  vision,  and 
paralysing  the  optic  nerve :  a  revolving  mirror,  and  even  a  banging 
noise,  suffice  to  induce  the  hypnotic  condition.  The  important  point 
is  to  concentrate  vision,  and  attention,  on  some  one  object.  Idiots, 
who  cannot  so  concentrate  attention,  skeptiks,  and  unwilling  subjects, 
or  persons  of  strong  will,  can  rarely  be  hypnotised,  while  the  weak, 
hysterical,  diseased,  or  emotional  are  good  subjects.  Terror  hypnotises 
when  birds  or  rabbits  gaze  on  the  dreaded  snake.  Three  conditions 
are  distinguishable — the  cataleptic,  lethargic,  and  somnambulistic  ;  but 
in  the  last  only,  according  to  M.  Charcot,  does  the  patient  remember 
what  he  has  done  during  the  mesmeric  sleep.  It  was  once  hoped  that 
hypnotism  would  be  useful  for  the  performance  of  painful  operations ; 
and  the  author,  while  Superintending  Engineer  at  Calcutta,  was  called 


258  Hypnotism 

OD  by  the  Government  of  Bangal  to  build  a  mesmeric  ward  for  the 
city  hospital  But  it  was  soon  found  that  no  reliance  could  be  placed 
on  the  continuance  of  the  trance,  and  that  only  a  few  could  be 
hypnotised. 

Since  1865  the  police  have  watched,  and  have  sometimes  pre- 
vented, hypnotism ;  for  the  practice  is  liable  to  become  criminal, 
advantage  being  taken  of  it  to  influence  the  making  of  wills,  and  even 
to  suggest  shooting  at  relatives.  It  was  thought  that  hypnotism  might 
be  used  for  the  detection  of  crime,  and  the  discovery  of  unknown  fiacts; 
but  the  unwilling  cannot  be  influenced,  nor  can  the  replies  go  beyond 
the  knowledge,  or  fancies,  of  the  suggesting  agent.  Nancyites  claim 
to  have  cured  inebriates,  and  morbid  tendencies ;  and  we  can  believe 
that  hypnotism  may,  by  suggestion,  influence  nervous  subjects,  whose 
diseases  are  due  to  fears  and  self-suggestion.  But  the  action  on  the 
brain  is  dangerous,  causing  disturbances  as  yet  not  well  understood 
(but  similar  to  the  phenomena  of  epilepsy),  and  loss  of  brain  power  from 
such  causes.  Hypnotism  has  been  of  some  service  in  connection  with 
excitement  due  to  sleeplessness  or  monomania.  Dr  Clouston,  in  an 
annual  report  on  the  Edinburgh  Asylum  for  the  Insane,  considered  the 
phenomena  often  similar  to  those  of  certain  forms  of  insanity.  Dr 
Robertson,  after  visiting  Paris,  and  Nancy,  found  that  in  Scotland 
results  such  as  French  physicians  claimed  were  not  attainable,  the 
patients  being  less  excitable  than  the  French — especially  hysterical 
Frenchwomen  in  Paris.  Epilepsy,  he  reported,  was  not  cured,  though 
the  headache  and  confused  feeling  of  which  epileptics  complain  could 
be  removed  by  hypnotic  suggestion.  The  greatest  blessing  so  obtain- 
able is  sound  sleep,  and  in  one  case  a  calm  slumber  for  six  hours 
was  obtained  when  the  most  powerful  narcotics  had  failed.  But  it  is 
clear  that  hypnotism  is  no  cure  for  insanity  due  to  brain  lesions.  Far 
from  its  being  necessary  that  the  patient  should  be  of  weak  will,  he 
reports  ''  that  a  power  of  steady  attention,  a  vivid  imagination,  and  a 
readiness  to  receive  impressions,  are  important  qualifications  for 
success.  It  is  also  necessary  to  have  confidence  in  the  power  of  the 
hypnotiser."  "  Many  persons  have  delusions  about  mysterious  and 
occult  powers,  such  as  thought-reading,  magnetism,  telephones,  and 
electricity.  .  .  .  (and)  believe  that  a  headache,  that  a  pain  in  the 
elbow,  or  noises  in  the  ears,  have  been  produced  in  them,  through  the 
agency  of  mesmerism,  by  some  one  having  an  ill-will  towards  them." 
Hypnotism  shows  the  influence  of  the  mind— or  of  another  mind — 
upon  the  body,  and  clearly  indicates  that,  in  the  waking  state  also, 
every  mental  suggestion  towards  recovery  assists  in  the  cure  of  a 
patient. 


Hyssop  259 

Hyssop.  Hebrew  Azub  :  Arabic  AdhoLb,  The  plant  which  has 
always  been  supposed  to  be  intended  (Exodus  zii,  22  :  1  Kings  iv,  33) 
is  still  used  in  Palestine  for  sprinkling  and  purification  as  of  old.  It 
is  a  kind  of  Origany  (Origamum  Marw)  called  Miriamin  by  Syrian 
Christians — a  labiate  with  hairy  leaves — which  grows  from  ruined 
walls,  and  is  sold  in  markets.  It  was  tied  with  red  wool  into  bunches, 
and  used  to  sprinkle  the  blood  of  the  Passover  Lamb,  and  of  the  Red 
Heifer  (see  Heifer).  Its  use  answered  to  that  of  the  Barsom  twigs  in 
ceremoDies  of  the  Mazdean  ritual. 


I 

The  English  I  is  both  short  and  long,  and  stands  for  the  Qreek 
Ai  and  Ei,  as  well  as  for  the  sound  e  in  other  languages. 

I :  "shore."  See  Ey.  Apparently  an  ancient  word,  found  in  Eeltik 
speech  for  "  island." 

I  or  Ya:  "bright."  [Akkadian  i  "bright":  ya  "brilliant"  (see 
A).— Ed.] 

lal.  ler.  See  Ayanar.  This  god  is  said  to  be  a  son  of  Siva 
by  Mohina — a  feminine  Vishnu — ^and  is  called  Hari  Hara-putra,  or 
"Vishnu  son  of  Siva."  He  has  the  symbols  of  both  gods — the 
lingam  of  Siva,  and  the  yoni  of  Vishnu. 

lao.  laeuo.  The  name  of  Yahveh,  or  Jehovah,  in  Qreek 
letters  on  Qnostik  gems,  giving  some  indication  of  the  pronunciation 
of  the  name  in  the  1st  or  2nd  century  A.C.  (see  Jehovah). 

Iberes.  Ivemi.  Hibernia.  An  Aryan  tribal  term,  generally 
stipposed  to  mean  "  the  Westerns."  The  Iber^  of  the  Caucasus  were 
Georgians,  W.  of  the  mountains.  In  Italy  the  Iberes  were  on  the  W., 
and  in  Sicily.  Spain  was  Iberia  to  the  Italian  tribes.  Tacitus  speaks 
of  Iber§s  in  the  W.  of  England  (Cornwall),  who  may  have  come  from 
Spain  ;  but  the  term  seems  to  be  geographical  rather  than  racial  The 
Iverni  were  "westerns,"  and  Ivemia,  or  Hibernia  (Ireland),  was  a 
western  island  (see  Ireland). 

The  Ib6r6s  of  Spain,  on  the  river  Ebro,  were  connected  with  the 
Ligarians  of  N. W.  and  W.  Italy  (see  Ligurians) ;  Iberia  included  N.E. 
Spain  and  S.  Qaul  to  the  Rhone  eastwards ;  the  race  being  that  of 
neolithik  times  in  Europe,  about  3000  to  1500  B.C.  Ib^r^  followed 
the  valley  of  the  Danube,  and  also  entered  Thrakia.     They  reached 


260  Ibis 

Sicily  long  before  the  Siculoi  (see  Sikani) ;  and  Tbucydides  says  that 
the  Western  Ibemians  expelled  the  Sikanii  ''  from  the  river  Sikanos  in 
Iberia."  [But  it  has  to  be  proved  that  the  term  is  racial  (see 
Britain). — Ed.]  They  appear  geographically  on  the  lower  Volga  and 
Don  about  200  B.c. 

Ibis.  A  sacred  bird  in  Egypt  (Ibis  religioaaX  with  white  plumage 
and  black  head,  neck,  and  legs.  It  migrates  from  lower  Egypt  as  the 
Kile  falls,  and  thus  becomes  a  sign  of  coming  fertilisation  by  the  river. 
It  was  regarded  as  a  friend,  destroying  snakes  and  scorpions,  and  was 
the  bird  of  Thoth  the  god  of  literature  and  of  wisdom,  represented 
with  the  head  and  long  bill  of  the  ibis  (see  Benouf,  Hibbert  Lects.^ 
1879). 

Ibn  Batuta.  A  great  Moslem  traveller  (1304-1378  A.c),  whose 
journeys  lasted  28  years,  and  extended  over  75,000  miles,  from  Spain 
to  China  and  from  Mid-Asia  to  the  E.  coast  of  Africa.  He  describes 
the  Chinese  tra£Sc  in  the  Red  Sea,  which  was  already  ancient  in 
his  time. 

Ida.  A  name  often  interchanging  with  Ira  and  Ila,  and  applying 
to  mountains  in  Phrygia  and  Krete,  which  were  sacred.  Idaios  was 
a  son  of  Dardanos  and  of  Khruse,  who  migrated  to  Samothrake  with 
his  father,  and  established  the  mysteries  of  the  Phrygian  Kubel€.  His 
consort  Idalia  became  the  godess  of  Idalion  in  Cyprus.  The  Bomans 
obtained  the  sacred  "  black  stone "  of  Ida  from  Attalos,  king  of 
Pergamos,  in  205  B.c.  (Livy,  XXIX,  x,  11) ;  and  EubSlg  herself  was 
called  Idaia  or  Idalia,  being  connected  with  many  mountains.  On 
Ida,  in  Krete,  Zeus  was  nurtured  by  the  nymphs,  and  guarded  by 
Idaian  Daktuloi,  or  Kouretes,  in  the  Diktaian  cave  (see  Ejrgte).  In 
the  Vedas  Ida  and  Ira  are  names  for  the  earth  godess,  the  wife 
of  Budha  or  Mercury.  She  trespassed  in  a  grove  sacred  to  Parvati^ 
and  Siva  decreed  that  Ida,  or  Ila,  should  be  male  and  female  in 
alternate  months.  As  a  male  Ida  had  three  sons,  and  as  a  female 
was  the  mother  of  the  Purus.  In  the  Rig  Veda  Ida  is  connected  with 
food,  worship,  and  speech,  as  a  child  of  Mitra-Varuna. 

Idol.  Greek  Eidolon,  ''image"  (see  Doll).  The  representation 
of  a  deity  by  a  form  usually  leads  to  the  adoration  of  the  image,  aa 
being  the  abode  of  a  divine  spirit.  The  Hindu  speaks  of  the  sun  as 
the  Murti  ("  body "  or  "  image ")  of  the  supreme  deity,  and  would 
consider  it  blasphemous  to  make  an  image  of  the  supreme  Brabm, 
the  ''  absolute,  ineffable,  and  eternal,"  as  Hebrews  consider  it  blas- 
phemous to  represent  Yahveh.     The  name  of  Brahm   may  only  be 


les  261 

wluspered,  and  he  is  not  even  to  be  directly  invoked.  With  closed 
eyes  and  ears,  and  with  hands  upraised  to  heaven,  the  worshiper — 
without  moving  the  tongue,  and  after  subduing  every  worldly  thought 
— ^may  only  say  inwardly,  "  Om.  I  am  Br&hma  "  ;  for  the  soul  truly 
is  part  of  the  Supreme  (see  Wilford,  Jowmal  Bl.  Aiiatic  Socy,^ 
xi,  125).  In  this  sense  the  Hindu  is  no  more  an  idolater  than  the 
Christian  or  the  Hebrew. 

les.  A  name  or  title  of  Bakkhos — the  ''  living  one."  The  three 
letters  were  afterwards  taken  as  initials  for  ISsous  (Jesus),  or  for 
"Jesu  Hominum  Salvator"  in  Latin. 

Ifa.  A  god  of  the  Yorubas  in  W.  Africa,  the  name  signifying 
"  fire  "  (see  Yorubas). 

Ignatius.  An  early  Christian  father  supposed  to  have  seen  the 
apostles  ;  but  all  legends  and  epistles  connected  with  him  are  untrust- 
worthy, being  of  late  origin,  or  at  best  works  that  have  been  garbled 
by  late  writers.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp,  but  two 
references  in  Origen's  works  may  be  interpolations.  Eusebius  {Chnmi- 
con)  makes  him  bishop  of  Antioch  in  71  A.C.,  and  a  martyr  in  109  A.C., 
but  elsewhere  {Hist,  Eccles.)  says  *'  as  the  story  goes."  Eight  of  his 
supposed  epistles  are  acknowledged  forgeries,  seven  others  appear  in 
Syriak,  Greek,  and  Latin,  in  various  discordant  recensions  ;  and  the 
earliest  allusion  to  these  seven  is  in  Eusebius.  Bishop  Lightfoot 
expends  much  learning  on  the  defence  of  these  letters.  Dr  Killen 
concludes  that  they  are  ''forgeries,  and  the  arguments  of  Polycarp 
and  Irenseus  thereon  weak  and  inconclusive."  The  intention  of  the 
writers,  and  of  the  later  interpolators,  was  the  maintenance  of  sacer- 
dotal pretentions. 

Ig^is.  Latin  :  "  fire  "  (see  Ag).  Ignis  was  the  son  of  Manus  or 
"man,"  the  mythical  father  of  Teutons.  The  Eabeiroi  were  called 
Ignetes,  and  Vulcan  was  Igni-potens,  to  Bomans. 

Ijhdaha.  Sanskrit  Aja-gar, ''  goat-eater  " :  a  great  python  enemy 
of  gods  and  men — a  term  applied  in  N.  India  to  various  dreaded 
serpents. 

Ikshvaku.  The  "sugar-cane  people,"  or  ruling  family  of  the 
Sakya  race  in  Oudh  (see  Brahma).  The  first  king  was  ''  son  of  Manu- 
vaivasta,  son  of  the  sun,"  who  sprang  from  the  nostril  of  Manu.  He 
lived  in  the  second  Yuga,  or  world  age,  and  had  100  sons,  the  eldest 
being  Vikukahi,  whose  son  Nimi  founded  Mithila  or  Tirhut  The  Rig 
Veda  once  mentions  the  Ikshvaku  race  as  "a  people  ou  the  lower 


262  Ikhthus 

Ganges/'  which  indicates  a  late  age  for  the  written  (as  distinguished 
from  the  oral)  Yedas.  One  of  the  Ikshvaku  kings,  "  Triaruna,  son  of 
Trivrishnau/'  was  accused  of  murdering  a  Brahman  youth,  but  pleaded 
that  the  family  priest  Yrisha  accidentally  drove  over  him.  Vrisba 
displeased  the  Ikshvakus  by  restoring  the  Brahman  to  life,  since  he 
had  not  so  treated  those  of  lower  caste.  Their  fires  then  lost  power, 
till  Agni  pardoned  them.  This  story  is  in  the  Satyayana  BrahmaDa, 
supposed  to  be  as  old  as  Buddha's  time  (6th  century  B.a),  indicating 
objections  to  caste  in  that  age.  The  sister  of  the  first  Ikshvaku  (Ila) 
married  a  Buddha  (or  Budha — that  is  Mercury),  the  child  of  Soma 
the  moon,  and  of  Tara  the  star.  The  Ikshvaku  king  sided  with 
Yisva-mitra  in  the  long  war  .between  priests  and  warriors  (see  Suna- 
sepha)  as  described  by  Muir  (Sanakr.  Texts,  i,  p.  426). 

Ikhthus.     Greek  :  "  fish."     See  Baptism. 

II.  Ilu,     Babylonian :  "  God."     See  El. 

Ila.  See  Ida.  We  doubt  however  if  these  two  are  the  same.  Ua 
was  the  ancestral  snake-god  of  Kolarians,  who  are  the  Ua-putras,  or 
Elapathas  of  the  Big  Veda,  founders  of  Ela-pur,  or  Soma-nath,  in 
the  peninsula  of  BaJabhi  —  the  sacred  centre  of  Krishna  worship 
in  Surashta.  Ila  or  Ela  is  the  Siva  of  Ela-pur,  and  of  Elora  (see 
Elora). 

Ilion.  The  fortress  of  Troy,  supposed  to  be  named  from  Ilos 
(see  Trojans). 

Ilinaka.  A  god  of  the  Himyarites  of  S.  Arabia,  probably  "  the 
smiter." 

IloS.  Son  of  Tros,  and  founder  of  Ilion^  on  the  hill  where  a 
speckled  heifer  which  he  followed  rested,  and  where  a  sacred  stone 
was  dropped  from  heaven  by  Zeus.  In  the  Greek  version  of  Phoenician 
mythology  Ilos  stands  for  Ilu,  the  Babylonian  god  of  heaven  (see  £1). 

IlvaS.  Eluvas.  A  widespread  Indian  race,  including  Farias, 
or  Paravas,  Nulias,  Thandas,  Shanars,  and  other  d^raded  tribes. 
In  Travankor  there  are  half  a  million  of  Ilvas,  incorrectly  called 
Ilvars  since  r  is  the  plural.  They  are  supposed  to  have  come  thither 
from  Ceylon,  bringing  with  them  the  cocoa-nut  and  other  palms  which 
the  Shanars  cultivate.  They  worship  the  spirits  of  woods,  groves, 
gardens,  or  single  trees,  as  well  as  serpents,  and  a  fierce  form  of  the 
godess  Kali.  They  erect  stones  and  pillars,  and  make  niches  for  holy 
lights  which  must  never  be  allowed  to  go  out.    Karns  (or  stone  heaps) 


Im  263 

over  graves  are  sacred,  especially  those  marking  the  spot  where  a 
virgin  died,  or  on  the  scene  of  a  murder — where  a  ghost  is  to  be 
feared.  Members  of  the  same  Ilam,  or  clan,  may  not  intermany. 
The  Uvas  use  caste-marks,  and  recognise  various  Hindu  gods.  The 
dot  and  horizontal  line  of  Siva's  devotees  is  marked  on  their  foreheads 
and  chests.  We  have  known  instanoBB  of  human  sacrifice  reported 
among  them,  and  youths  circumambulate  their  shrines  gashing  them- 
selves with  sharp  irons,  which  they  run  through  muscles  in  the  side, 
and  afterwards  insert  piapes  of  cane  into  the  wound  (see  Bev.  S.  Mateer, 
Travancore,  p.  98). 

IlXL  One  of  the  Akkadian  names  of  the  god  of  storms,  called 
Bimmon  by  Semitic  races. 

Immortality.  Primitive  peoples  do  not  appear  to  have  had 
any  conception  of  what  we  now  call  ''Immortality,"  namely  the 
eternal  life  of  an  individual  spirit.  Their  gods  even,  like  them- 
selves, were  born,  lived  and  died,  though  later  poets  called  them 
immortaL     Byron,  pondering  on  ruined  nations,  says: — 

"  Even  gods  must  yield  :  religioos  take  their  turn  : 
Twas  Jove's :  'tis  Mahomet's,  and  other  creeds 
Will  rise  with  other  years,  till  man  shall  learn 
Vainly  his  incense  soars,  his  victim  bleeds, 
Poor  child  of  doubt  and  death,  whose  hope  is  built  on  reeds." 

The  belief  in  a  soul,  spirit,  or  self,  surviving  the  body  is  involved  in 
this  doctrine  of  immortality.  Miss  Naden,  in  her  "  Song  of  Immor- 
tality," expresses  the  more  modem  idea : — 

*'  Though  thou  shalt  die,  these  the  immortal  forces 
That  meet  to  form  thee,  live  for  ever  more. 
They  hold  the  suns  in  their  eternal  courses 
And  shape  the  long  sand-grasses  on  the  shore. 
Be  calmly  glad,  thine  own  true  kindred  seeing 
In  fire  and  storm,  in  flowers  with  dew  empearled. 
Bejoice  in  thine  imperishable  being. 
One  with  the  essence  of  the  boundless  world." 

To  the  ancients  the  soul  after  death  dwelt  forever  in  the  world 
of  ghosts  (see  Hel).  They  did  not  look  forward  with  any  pleasure 
to  such  a  future.  Akbilleus,  in  the  Odyssey,  would  rather  be  a  slave 
on  earth  than  a  king  in  Hades.  The  Hebrew  philosopher  (Eccles. 
iz,  4,  5)  says :  ''  It  is  better  to  be  a  living  dog  than  a  dead  lion,  for 
the  living  know  that  they  shall  die ;  but  the  dead  know  not  anything^ 
neither  have  they  any  more  a  reward,  for  the  memory  of  them  is 
forgotten  "   [or :   their  "  memorial  is  forgotten  " — Ed.].     This  is  the 


264  Immortality 

Hebrew  creed  from  the  first,  and  down  to  the  latest  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  '*  Dust  thou  art,  and  unto  dust  shalt  thou  return  "  (Gen. 
iii,  19):  "  All  go  unto  one  place,  all  are  of  dust  and  all  turn  to  dost 
again"  (Eccles.  iii,  20).  "While  I  live,"  says  the  Psalmist,  "I  wiU 
praise  Yahveb  "  (Psalm  cxlvi,  2),  for  there  is  no  remembrance  of  him 
after  death.  The  Jew  of  to-day  (see  Jewish  World,  8th  May  1885) 
recognises  this :  "Judaism  knows  no  belief  in  reference  to  the  state  of 
the  soul  hereafter.  It  has  no  dogmas  in  respect  to  any  life  after  the 
body  is  committed  to  the  grave.  ...  Its  sages  have  but  speculated 
and  pondered,  like  the  votaries  of  all  creeds,  on  the  conditions  of 
Divine  judgment ;  and  Rabbinical  views  have  never  been  other  than 
speculations.  .  .  .  The  question  has  been  considered  a  morbid  one, 
and  of  no  practical  importance.  .  .  .  The  eupeptic  man  is  likely, 
hereafter,  to  deride  as  ludicrous  such  speculative  discussions  as  '  Is 
salvation  possible  after  death '  ?  These  can  tend  to  no  earthly  good  ; 
are  wholly  and  solely  visionary  and  incapable  of  the  least  proof;  and 
often  lead  to  mischievous  results  such  as  spiritualism  in  all  its  vagaries, 
which,  with  like  religious  teachings,  have  unhinged  the  mind  of  scores 
of  unfortunate  peopla"  These  remarks  are  in  the  same  tone  that 
characterised  the  teaching  of  Buddha  2400  years  ago.  The  Pharisees 
however  became  acquainted  with  Persian  ideas,  according  to  which 
the  pious  followers  of  a  reincarnate  prophet,  having  in  them  "  the  fire 
of  life,"  were  to  be  in  future  reborn  on  earth,  as  his  companions  in  a 
millenium.  The  Sadducees,  representing  the  better  educated  upper 
class,  never  accepted  this  belief,  and  remained  content  with  the  teach- 
ing of  their  ancient  scriptures  in  the  matter. 

The  Hebrew  who  saw  no  certainty  that  the  soul  of  man  differed 
from  that  of  a  beast  (Eccles.  iii,  21)  would  have  agreed  with  Bishop 
Butler  that  immortality  must  be  supposed  to  apply  to  all  living  things, 
if  logically  possibla  Francis  Newman  declares  that  "the  argument 
breaks  with  its  own  weight  when  thus  carried  to  completeness,  and 
gives  very  imperfect  relief  to  the  terrible  strain  on  our  faith  caused 
by  the  many  miseries  of  life."  But  the  strain  is  here  due  to  the 
assumptions  of  this  good  Theist.  Even  the  Pharisee,  though  he  held 
(according  to  the  Mishnah)  that  "all  Israel"  had  a  portion  in  the 
"  life  to  come,"  never  included  any  of  the  Gentiles  :  for  they  were 
^like  the  beasts  that  perish." 

Speculation  on  Immortality  always  gives  way  before  imminent 
crises  of  human  life,  and  has  thus  had  but  small  influence  on  the 
actions  of  either  savage  or  civilised  man  ;  the  latter — especially  if 
educated  in  science — puts  aside  the  question,  as  dependent  on  the 
unanswered    problem    of   the   souL     The    savage    equally   expresses 


Immortality  266 

ignorance,  as  Sir  C.  Lyall  makes  the   Indian  woodman  say  to   the 
missionary : — 

"  Thou  aayest,  I  have  a  soul  that  never  will  die. 
If  He  was  content  when  I  was  not,  why  net  when  I  pass  by  ?" 

"Past  and  future  alike/'  says  Tylor  (Prtm.  CuU.),  "fade  into 
utter  vagueness  as  the  savage  mind  quits  the  pursuit  The  measure 
of  months  and  years  breaks  down  even  within  the  narrow  span  of 
human  life,  and  the  hazy  survivors  thought  that  the  soul  of  the 
departed  dwindled  and  disappeared  with  the  personal  memory  that 
kept  it  alive.  .  .  •  Even  among  those  who  accept  the  doctrine  of 
a  surviving  soul  this  acceptance  is  not  unanimous.  ...  In  savage 
as  in  civilised  life,  dull  and  careless  natures  ignore  a  world  to  come 
as  too  far  off,  whilst  sceptical  intellects  are  apt  to  reject  it  as  want- 
ing in  proof." 

But  though  we  may  not  build  up  creeds  on  dreams  and 
assumptions,  we  may  still  hope.  We  may  rejoice  while  we  confess 
with  Hezekiah  (Isaiah  xxxviii,  18);  "The  grave  cannot  praise  Thee, 
death  cannot  celebrate  Thee,  they  that  go  down  into  the  pit  cannot 
hope  for  Thy  truth."  Hezekiah  lived  some  700  years  B.C.,  and  the 
writer  of  this  passage  held  the  ordinary  Hebrew  belief  expressed  by 
the  ''Preacher"  (Eccles.  ix,  10):  "For  there  is  no  work,  nor  device, 
nor  knowledge,  nor  wisdom,  in  Sheol  whither  thou  goest"  Isaiah 
makes  even  the  gods — other  than  Yahveh — to  perish  (Isaiah  zxvi, 
13,  14);  and  Job  says:  "The  cloud  is  consumed  and  vanisheth 
away ;  so  he  that  goeth  down  to  Sheol  shall  come  up  no  more " 
(Job  vii,  9).  The  Hebrew  scriptures  make  no  allusion  to  general 
immortality,  and  the  Jews  expected  rewards  and  punishments  to  be 
bestowed  by  God  on  men,  in  this  life,  according  to  conduct.  We 
find  the  doctrine  of  a  future  life  only  in  the  later  work  of  the  2nd 
century  B,c.,  ascribed  to  Daniel  (Dan.  xii,  2) :  "  Mauy  of  them  that 
sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth  shall  awake,  some  to  everlasting  life, 
and  some  to  shame,  and  everlasting  contempt."  Yet  Isaiah  (xxvi,  19) 
wrote  to  his  nation :  "  Thy  dead  shall  live :  the  corpses  shall  arise. 
Awake  and  sing  dwellers  in  dust  Thy  dew  is  as  dew  on  herbs,  and 
earth  shall  cast  out  the  ghosts  "  (Rephalm).  We  cannot,  however, 
quote  the  Psalmist  (xvi,  10),  as  believing  in  immortality  when  he 
says :  "  Thou  wilt  not  leave  my  soul  for  Sheol,  nor  suffer  thine  holy 
ones  to  see  destruction  " :  for  he  is  only  speaking  of  continued  pro- 
tection in  life,  and  of  '*long  enduring  pleasures"  on  earth.  The 
slow  growth  of  such  ideas  had,  by  the  time  of  Christ,  developed 
helief  in   a  Hell  of  torment.     They  were  bom  of  Hope  and  Fear ; 


266  Immortality 

but  Paul  rejoiced  in  belief  that  "  Light  and  Immortality "  had  been 
brought  to  men  by  Christ :  for  he  rested  in  faith  on  the  resurrectioii 
of  Jesus  (either  in  his  actual  or  in  some  spiritual  body),  con6rming 
the  Pharisaic  dogma. 

Our  own  great  genius  of  the  Avon  (Tempest,  iv,  1),  does  not 
delude  us  when  he  says  : — 

^  The  cloud  capp'd  towers,  the  gorgeous  pfti^^^^ 
The  solemn  temples,  the  great  globe  itself, 
Tea,  all  which  it  inherit,  shall  dissolve. 
And,  like  this  insubstantial  pageant  faded, 
Leave  not  a  rack  behind.    We  are  such  stuff  - 
As  dreams  are  made  on  ;  and  our  little  life 
Is  rounded  with  a  sleep." 

Or  again  he  sums  up  his  thoughts  as  Hamlet  (iii,  1). 

**  To  die — to  sleep 
No  more — and  by  a  sleep  to  mj  wt  end 
The  heart-ac^M^and  the  thousand  natural  shocks 
^lat  flesh  is  heir  to— 'tis  a  consummation 
Devoutly  to  be  wished.    To  die — to  sleep. 
To  sleep  !  perchance  to  dream : — ay,  there's  the  rub : 
For  in  that  sleep  of  death  what  dreams  may  come, 
When  we  have  shuffled  off  this  mortal  coil, 
Must  give  us  pause.    There's  the  respect 
That  makes  calamity  of  so  long  life ; 
....  the  dread  of  something  after  death — 
The  undiscovered  country,  from  whose  bourn 
No  traveller  returns — puzzles  the  will." 

Col.  IngersoU  (born  11th  August  1833,  and  dying  2l8t  July 
1899),  said  at  the  grave  of  his  beloved  brother  in  1886:  ''life  is 
a  narrow  vale  between  the  cold  and  barren  peaks  of  the  two  eternities. 
We  strive  in  vain  to  look  beyond  the  heights.  We  cry  aloud  and 
the  only  answer  is  the  echo  of  our  wailing  cry.  From  the  voiceless 
lips  of  the  unreplying  dead  there  comes  no  word.  But  in  the  nigbt 
of  death  Hope  sees  a  star,  and  listening  love  can  hear  the  rustle  of 
a  wing.  •  .  .  We  have  no  fear  of  death.  .  .  .  Our  religion  is  Help 
for  the  living,  and  Hope  for  the  dead."  Again  he  writes  :  "  All  hope 
to  meet  again  the  loved  and  lost.  In  every  heart  there  grows  this 
sacred  flower.  Immortality  is  a  word  that  Hope,  through  all  tbe 
ages,  has  been  whispering  to  Love.  Like  a  sea  it  has  ebbed  and 
flowed  in  the  human  heart,  with  its  countless  waves  of  hope  and 
fear,  beating  against  the  shores  and  rocks  of  time  and  fate.  It  was 
not  bom  of  any  book,  nor  of  any  creed,  nor  of  any  religion,  but  was 


Immortality  267 

born  of  human  affection,  and  it  will  continue  to  ebb  and  flow,  beneath 
the  mists  and  clouds  of  doubt  and  darkness,  as  long  as  love  kisses 
the  lips  of  death.  .  .  .  We  do  not  know,  nor  cannot  say,  whether 
death  is  a  wall  or  a  door ;  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  a  day ;  the 
spreading  of  pinions  to  soar,  or  the  folding  for  ever  of  wings :  the  rise 
or  the  set  of  a  sun,  or  an  endless  life  that  brings  the  rapture  of  love 
to  every  one.  .  .  .  Our  myths  were  bom  of  hopes  and  fears,  of 
tears  and  smiles,  touched  and  colored  by  all  there  is  of  joy  and  grief 
between  the  rosy  dawn  of  birth,  and  death's  sad  night  They  clothed 
even  the  stars  with  passion,  and  gave  to  gods  the  virtues,  faults,  and 
frailties  of  the  sons  of  men  .  .  .  few  there  are  who  do  not  long 
for  a  dawn  beyond  the  night  And  this  longing  is  born  of,  and 
nourished  by  the  heart.  Love  wrapped  in  shadow,  bending  with  tear- 
filled  eyes  above  the  dead,  convulsively  clasps  the  outstretched  hand 
of  Hope." 

Seven  weeks  before  his  own  death,  in  his  poem  called  ''The 
Declaration  of  the  Free,"  the  same  writer  in  the  last  stanza  says  : — 

^'  Is  there  beyond  the  silent  night 
An  rndlfini  day  ? 

Is  death  a  door  that  leads  to  light  ? 
We  cannot  aay. 

The  tongueless  secret  locked  in  fate 
We  do  not  know.    We  hope  and  wait." 

Such  are  the  humble  thoughts  of  Agnostiks,  which  are  now  moulding 
those  of  this  cultured  and  religious  age.  No  apology  is  needed  for 
presenting  them  to  thoughtful  readers. 

The  Egyptian,  perhaps,  was  the  first  to  crystallise  as  dogma  the 
vague  beliefs  of  his  age  (see  Egypt),  and  to  conceive  of  a  heaven  where 
the  good  dwelt  with  Gk>d  (see  Heaven).  Savage  races,  as  well  as 
civilised  ones,  have  however  been  found  to  believe  at  times  in 
immortality  ;  and  the  cold  philosophic  metaphysician  as  well  as  the 
perfervid  Theist  It  was  the  interest  of  savage  "  medicine  men  "  to 
point  to  portals  before  which  they  stood  as  well-paid  sentinels.  But, 
in  all  ages,  thoughtful  men  have  stood  apart  from  the  multitude,  as 
they  still  do,  in  silence,  because  unable  to  affirm,  and  unwilling  to 
deny,  an  idea  that  brings  comfort  to  their  fellows ;  yet  doubting  how 
the  individual  soul  or  life  can  exist  apart  from  the  individual  brain 
and  body.  They  found  no  parallel  in  the  case  of  the  insect  emerging 
from  its  chrysalis  :  no  argument  in  the  indestructibility  of  matter  ;  but 
recognised  that  the  general  longing  for  immortality  has  given  birth  to 
our  various  beliefs  thereon.  Granted  that  there  is  "  an  energy  behind 
the  phenomena,"  man  has  neither  the  power  nor  the  knowledge  to  say 


268  Immortality 

one  word  more ;  no  inspiration  can  teach  us  what  we  cannot  under- 
stand; and  the  wise  think  of  a  soul  as  only  a  complex  group  of 
activities  and  memories,  a  product  of  matter  and  of  sensations  imparted 
by  outside  forces — ^not  (like  Kant)  as  an  unity  with  an  objective  and 
independent  existence.  The  higher  and  more  complex  the  organism, 
the  more  probable  appears  to  be  its  resolution  into  its  elements. 
Indestructibility  of  matter,  or  of  energy,  does  not  imply  indestructi- 
bility  of  individuality.  But  belief  in  such  a  "  self  "  or  "  ego  "  is  the 
basis  of  belief  in  its  immortality,  without  which.  Theism  falls  back  on 
the  Sadducean  doctrine  of  reward  and  punishment  on  earth. 

The  teaching  of  Grotama  Buddha,  and  of  the  Eleatiks,  24O0 
years  ago  (see  Skeptiks  and  Sophists)  was  purely  Agnostik.     Grotama 
shunned  discussion,  but  apparently  had  no  belief  in  a  soul  independent 
of  the   body.     He   regarded  animals  and  vegetables  alike,  as  mere 
bubbles  in  a  stream,  floating  for  a  short  time,  and  again  absorbed  or 
dried  up  by  the  sun.     Such  ideas  have  contented  millions  of  mankind 
for  thousands  of  years,  when  they  do  not  strive  against  the  inevitable; 
and  we  cannot,  therefore,  think  of  belief  in  immortality  as  a  necessary 
feature  of  religion  or  of  ethiks.    The  Buddhist  urges  us  to  be  practical, 
and  not  to  waste  our  time  in  vain  striving  after  the  unattainable,  or 
discussion  of  what  can  never  be  more  than  a  hope.      Buddhist  priests, 
in  reply  to  the  author's  anxious  arguments  on  the  subject,  answered 
calmly — yet    with    amazement :    "  Why    do   you    Christians    agitate 
yourselves  so  much  about  the  hidden  future,  if,  indeed,  such  future 
there  be  ?     Go  forth  to  your  duties,  assured  that  while  acting  up  to 
the  light  that  your  minds  can  perceive,  and  while  leading  the  best  life 
that  you  can,  your  goodness  (karma  or  deeds)  will  be  diffused  in  the 
world,  to  renovate  it,  and  perchance  to  secure  some  happy  future  for 
alL"     Beuan,  in   1883,  in  the  fulness  of  intellectual  vigour,  wrote: 
"  The  infinite  goodness  I  have  experienced  in  this  world  inspires  me 
with  the  conviction  that  eternity  is  pervaded  with  a  goodness  not  less 
infinite."     Like  the  Agnostik,  however,  he  was  content  to  wait,  and 
more  or  less  to  trust,  careful  only  of  the  higher  life  on  earth.     Some 
are  willing  to  say  with  Cicero — in  opposition  to  the  spiritual  teaching 
of  Plato — that :  "  If  my  soul  existed  previously — as  to  which  I  know 
and  care  nothing — why  should  I  care  about  its  supposed  life  hereafter, 
when   my   individualism    is  also   gone  ? "     Cato,   Seneca,   EpictStus, 
Servius  Sulpicius,  Marcus  Aurelius,  all,  like  the  Hebrews,  spoke  of 
death  as  the  final  end,  and  offered  to  the  bereaved  no  comfort  save 
the  idea  of  "  eternal  rest"     They  had  no  belief  in  either  the  Tartarus, 
or  the  Elysian  fields,  of  popular  religion,  any  more  than  the  educated 
of  our  own  day  who  cast  aside  the  heaven  and  hell  of  the  Bible. 


Immortality  269 

Euripides  denounced  the  desire  of  immortality  as  a  '<  foolish  aspira- 
lion."  Prof.  F.  Newman  says  that  "  it  is  the  fruitful  and  fatal  per- 
verter  of  the  sense  of  duty,  by  which  alone  theology  becomes  beneficiar' 
(Thecl,  Rev.,  Jany.  1879).  He  adds  that  "  the  result  of  all  my  studies 
devoted  to  these  subjects,  during  a  long  life,  convinces  me  that 
immortality  has  been  to  the  Christian  Churches,  either  a  noxious 
doctrine  or  a  dead  faith,"  In  1886  (Palinodia — Life  after  Death) 
he  writes :  "  I  always  regarded  as  trash  Plato's  arguments  for 
immortality,  as,  I  make  no  doubt,  Cicero  did.  Therefore,  as  soon  as  I 
ceased  to  trust  the  Scriptures  of  the  New  Testament  as  a  divine 
revelation,  my  acceptance  of  a  future  life  as  a  dogma  at  once  fell 
away.  But  knowing  so  many  holy  souls  had  devoutly  believed  it,  and 
that  ostensibly  it  had  ennobled  their  devoted  lives,  I  held  it  with  a 
loose  hand,  feeling  assured  that  if  the  Supreme  Lord  judged  it  better 
for  them,  or  for  me,  he  would  bestow  a  second  life  without  our  asking; 
but  if,  on  the  contrary,  for  good  reasons  of  his  own,  he  did  not  grant 
it,  then  I  was  sure  that  that  was  best  for  us.  .  .  .  For  me  to  be 
anxious  as  to  my  state  after  death  I  felt  was  wrong  if  I  believed 
myself  a  child  of  God.  In  this  spirit  I  write  the  closing  chapter  of 
my  book  on  The  Sotd,  and  on  that  simple  basis  I  continue  to  rest.  It 
entirely  satisfies  me." 

Only  the  Lord  of  Lords  "hath  immortality"  according  to  one 
Christian  writer  (1  Tim.  vi,  16);  and  general  immortality  seems  not 
to  have  been  expected  by  Paul,  being  only  with  difficulty  "  attained  " 
(Philip,  iii,  11).  Christ  and  Paul  alike  (Luke  xx,  36;  1  Cor.  xv, 
40-54)  taught  that  the  future  life  would  be  one  in  **  spiritual  bodies  *' ; 
and  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church  men  freely  discussed  the  possi- 
bility of  three  futures  for  men,  namely.  Annihilation,  Restoration,  and 
Retribution.  The  first  of  these  was  termed,  in  our  3rd  century, 
"  Conditional  Immortality " — to  be  "  attained,"  as  Paul  had  said  : 
good  and  believing  men  would  live  again  through  God's  grace  and 
Christ's  death.  The  second  condition  was  that  of  those  who  had 
fallen,  yet  could  be  restored  to  righteousness  by  Christ,  and  who — 
after  purgation — might  attain  to  eternal  bliss.  The  third  condition 
was  that  of  the  impenitent  wicked,  condemned  to  an  eternal  hell. 
Athanasius  said  that  mortal  man  differed  only  from  the  brutes  by 
being  in  the  image  of  God,  and  only  attained  to  immortality  by  the 
grace  (or  kindness)  of  Gk>d,  having  lost  his  original  immortality  by  sin. 
The  Church  never  regarded  immortality  as  an  inherent  property  of 
the  soul.  Mr  W.  E.  Gladstone  (see  ReminiaceTicea  by  Mr  W.  E. 
Russell)  shortly  before  his  death  "  stated  his  belief  that  the  human 
soul  is  not  necessarily  indestructible,  but  that  immortality  is  the  gift 


270  Immortality 

of  God  in  Christ  to  the  believer "  :  which  belief  gives  little  hope  for 
the  majority  of  mankind  who  have  never  heard  of  Christ  at  all. 
Goethe  was  wiser  when  he  said  that  Immortality  is  only  a  subject  for 
the  well-to-do,  and  for  *'  women  who  have  nothing  to  do,  to  chat 
about." 

Seneca,  the  wise  tutor  of  Nero,  said,  "  Death  puts  an  end  to  our 
misery.      Beyond  that  our  misfortunes  go  not     That  places  us  in  the 
same  tranquillity  as  before  birth.     If  anyone  would  grieve  for  those 
who  are  dead  he  ought  to  do  so  for  the  unborn."     Athanasius  and 
others  asserted — ^like  Brahmans  and  Buddhists — that  eventually  man 
"  loses  his  life  in  God  "  ;  but  Paul  said  that  we  are  even  now  in  God, 
through  whom  we  live.     The  idea  of  a  resurrection  of  the  dead  body 
is  discarded  by  all  cultivated  men  educated  in  modem  science,  though 
it  is  still  daily  asserted  in  creeds,  with  other  things  in  which  men  have 
no  real  belief.     Man  still  however  clings  to  the  idea  of  the  immortality 
of  a  self,  or  Ego,  ever  at  war  with  the  body  during  life.     Yet — ^accord- 
ing to  the  famous  Finsbury  lecture  of  Sir  G.  Stokes,  President  of  the 
Eloyal  Society,  delivered  in   1890 — this  "has  always  been  rather  a 
philosophic  than  a  Christian  doctrine."     The  orthodox  President  sees 
indications  in  Scripture  of  "an  energy  which  may  lie  deeper  down 
than  even  the  manifestations  of  life  and  thought,"  and  confines  himself 
to  "the  immortality  of  this  energy "  ;  which  seems  to  prove  only  the 
"  Conservation  of  Force  "  which  no  man  of  science  disputes.      Such 
energy,  whether  latent  or  otherwise,  is  however  common  to  man  and 
to  the  "  beasts  that  perish  " — nay  matter,  even  inorganic,  is  also  full 
of  such  energy.      "Life  and  thought,"  says  Sir  G.  Stokes,  "are  the 
results  of  interaction  between  the  fundamental  individualised  eneigy 
and  the  organism  "  :  which  would  apply  equally  to  all  organisms — to 
a  tree  or  a  moUusk  :  for  the  words  mean  no  more  than  that  the  living 
thing  is  alive.     He  argues  that  as  this  energy  remains  even  when  the 
body  faints  or  sleeps,  so  it  may  remain  when  the  body  is  dissolved. 
The  old  familiar  name  soul,  or  spirit,  might  just  as  well  be  used  as 
the  term  "  individualised  energy,"  but  there  seems  to  be  a  clear  dis- 
tinction between  the  interruption  of  action  on  the  motor  nerves  during 
sleep  or  faint,  and  the  persistence  of  an  individual  mind  when  the 
body  has  ceased  to  exist,  and  the  stored  memories  of  the  brain-cells 
no  longer  can  be  set  again  in  action.     The  President,  and  the  learned 
bishops  who  supported  him,  clearly  argued  under  a  heavy  burden  of 
traditional  assumptions.     They  remembered  Paul's  words  (1  Cor.  xv, 
12),  "  Now  if  Christ  be  preached  that  he  rose  from  the  dead,  how  say 
some  among  you  that  there  is  no  resurrection  of  the  dead  ?  "    Paul's 
answer  is  unmistakable,  though  he  had  never  apparently  verified  the 


Immortality  271 

assertion  on  which  he  staked  his  faith.  ''If  Christ  be  not  raised 
your  faith  is  vain  .  .  .  if  in  this  life  only  we  have  hope  in  Christ  we  are 
of  all  men  most  miserable."  The  President  and  the  bishops,  abandon- 
ing belief  in  a  resurrection  of  the  body»  and  silent  as  to  an  immortal 
soaly  yet  suppose  the  immortality  of  "something  .  .  ,  with  a  con- 
tinuity of  consciousness."  This  assumes  the  very  point  in  dispute ; 
but  as  to  the  body  Paul  himself  proclaims  a  "  mystery.  We  shall  not 
all  sleep,  but  we  shall  all  be  changed  •  .  .  this  mortal  must  put  on 
immortality"  (1  Cor.  xv,  51).  There  is  no  uncertainty  in  his  mind, 
but  it  seems  clear  that  he  never  expected  the  heathen  to  rise,  either 
to  immortal  bliss  or  for  eternal  damnation, 

Plato  thought  that  every  living  being  had  an  eternal  spirit,  in 
which  case  the  oyster  becomes  co-eternal  with  God.  Yet  if  the  soul 
had  formerly  inhabited  some  other  body  this  detracts — as  Prof.  F. 
Newman  remarked — ^from  the  moral  importance  of  immortality,  and 
suggests  that  the  soul  might  have  no  more  remembrance  of  its  human 
life  than  of  those  preceding — as  Cicero  seems  to  have  also  thought. 
Plato  said  the  soul  must  be  immortal  because  sin  did  not  destroy  it ; 
but  Cicero  thought  that  Plato  did  not  always  clearly  know  what  he 
meant  himself  (see  Akademy).  Jewish  philosophers  taught  (see  !^ab- 
bala)  that  the  soul  was  divisible  into  male  and  female  elements,  which 
sought  each  other  during  earthly  life.  Most  transmigration  theories 
guard  against  the  objection  that  the  soul  loses  individuality,  by  asserting 
that  it  is  always  conscious  of  the  memories  of  its  former  lives.  This 
is  clear  in  the  Indian  Jataka  tales,  and  in  mediaeval  or  other  legends 
of  dogs,  hares,  and  doves  who  reminded  their  persecutors  of  kindnesses 
shown  to  them  in  former  lives  by  their  present  victims.  The  writer  of  the 
fourth  Gospel  seems  to  have  held  the  belief,  then  common,  in  previous 
existences  (ix,  2),  which  Sokrat^  shared  with  other  Greeks.  If  this 
theory  were  true  we  must  suppose  ourselves  surrounded  by  multitudes 
of  spirits,  incarnate  not  only  in  man,  but  in  "  all  existing  species  of  all 
creatures  that  have  ever  lived."  We  must  account  for  the  "  individual- 
ised energy"  of  the  fossils  in  Laurentian  rocks,  and  in  the  ocean  sludge, 
buried  millions  of  years  ago  in  the  crust  of  earth.  The  soul  of  every 
nautilus  that  spread  its  sails  on  Silurian  seas  must,  somewhere,  continue 
its  immortal  existence  in  some  other  body  (see  Soul).  Physical  science 
sees  no  breach  of  continuity  between  man  and  beast ;  and  analogy 
suggests  that  (as  Koheleth  thought)  there  is  no  difference  between 
them  in  death.  "  Analogy,"  says  Prof.  Newman,  "  must  prevail  till 
very  solidly  disproved.  .  .  .  The  physical  reasoner  insists  that  a  dis- 
embodied spirit  is  a  chimsera — a  form  of  existence  of  which  we  have 
no  specimen,  and  no  proof :  therefore  we  cannot,  with  any  sound  logic. 


272  Immortality 

introduce  it  into  a  hypothesis  for  the  satisfaction  of  our  moral  aspira^ 
tions."  Even  if  we  supposed  a  divine  spirit  which  "animates  sdl 
matter  "  to  exist  apart  from  matter,  he  (or  it)  would  not  be  a  specimen 
of  disembodied  soul — being  unique— and  a  "divine  energy"  without 
matter  in  which  to  act  is  equally  inconceivable.  Universal  belief  in 
souls  is  no  logical  argument  in  favour  of  their  existence,  for  we  know 
that  the  masses  are  usually  wrong  in  their  conceptions,  their  minds 
being  swayed  by  hopes,  fears,  and  ancient  custom.  Physical  laws — 
such  as  that  of  gravitation — are  known  to  be  true,  though  most  men 
never  understand  them.  We  have  shown  also  (Rivers  of  Life,  ii, 
p.  591)  that  some  56  per  cent  of  the  whole  population  of  the  world 
may  be  regarded  as  Agnostik  concerning  any  future  life. 

It  is  again  argued  that  belief  in  immortality  produces  a  good  life, 
through  expectation  of  future  reward  or  punishment,  and  affords  con- 
solation under  sorrow.  This  indeed  is  the  foundation  of  the  whole 
fabric ;  yet  mankind  tacitly  acknowledge,  in  the  actual  presence  of 
death,  how  little  as  a  rule  they  are  influenced  by  any  expectation  of 
immortality.  We  do  our  best  to  live,  and  we  bewail  the  dead  wbo 
have  left  us.  We  fear,  in  fact,  the  unknown  future.  Between  the 
finite  and  the  infinite  there  could  be  no  real  communion,  for  "  absorp- 
tion in  deity  "  can  only  mean  individual  annihilation,  and  also  implies 
that  we  are,  as  individuals,  not  such  as  ''live  and  move  and  have  our 
being "  in  the  Infinite  Power.  [Even  when  the  Buddhist  speaks  of 
the  **  drop  absorbed  in  the  ocean,"  he  seems  to  have  no  clear  concep- 
tion :  since  the  matter  of  which  the  drop  consists  is  indestructible, 
though  it  may  be  redistributed,  and  is  as  much  in  the  ocean  now  as 
in  future. — Ed.] 

The  ancient  Egyptians  variously  believed  in  souls  that  might 
return  to  the  mummy,  or  migrate  into  other  forms,  or  dwell  with  (or 
in)  Osiria  But  none  of  those  beliefs,  any  more  than  those  of  Eleatik, 
Epicurean,  or  Stoik  philosophers,  or  of  the  Sadducee?,  or  of  Hebrew 
psalmists  and  philosophers,  in  any  way  countenance  the  idea  of  a  dis- 
embodied immortal  spirit.  Those  who  choose  to  rely  on  the  vast 
systems  of  ancient  and  modern  theologies,  or  on  their  *'  feelings,''  and 
imaginations,  will  find  ample  support  in  the  fancies  of  every  a^- 
Emerson  says  :  "  there  is  a  hint  of  immortality  in  that  happy  state  of 
mind  which  loves  life,  and  exclaims,  '  What  is  good  let  it  endure/ 
and  in  our  insatiable  desire  to  learn  and  know  ...  we  feel  in  a 
manner  wronged  if  there  is  to  be  nothing  more."  Goethe  exclaims  : 
"  Nature  is  bound  to  give  me  another  term."  But  who  is  she — the 
awful  destroyer  of  life  organic  and  non-organic — ^that  we  should  trust 
her  ?     How  is  this  new  life  to  begin,  and  are  we  to  conceive  it,  as 


Immortality  273 

Emerson  asks,  as  "  a  fUte  champdtre,  or  an  evangelical  pic-nic  whose 
prizes  will  be  delivered  to  virtuous  peasants?"  [Yet  if  Seneca  is 
right  we  have  no  cause  to  fear :  the  woes  of  50  or  70  years  are  hardly 
worth  lamenting ;  and  punishment  is  not  vengeance,  but  only  the  rod 
that  guides  us  for  a  few  short  years  on  earth. — Ed.]  Harriet  Martineau 
looked  forward  to  annihilation,  and  longed  to  sleep ;  but  her  opinions 
were  influenced  by  long  years  of  sickness.  The  hard  facts  of  the  death- 
bed do  not  countenance  the  tales  of  joyful  anticipation  on  the  part  of 
the  dying  ;  as  a  rule  they  are  fond  illusions  of  the  mourner,  and  their 
minds  are  generally  occupied  by  their  immediate  physical  wants. 
When  the  strong  sane  judgment  of  mature  healthy  life  is  ebbing  away, 
we  must  not  think  that  any  weak  death-bed  words  of  repentance,  or  of 
recantation,  can  efface  the  good  or  the  evil  done  in  the  past,  or  the 
consequences  that  follow  therefrom.  According  as  we  have  lived  we 
have  left  our  mark,  for  good  or  for  evil.  The  law  is  stern  but  right. 
There  is  no  recall :  no  Elisha  whose  bones  can  bring  back  the  dead 
to  life  (2  Kings  xiii,  21):  no  Jesus  to  bid  us  "come  forth"  like 
Lazarus :  none  to  roll  away  the  stone  from  our  tomb :  all  these  things 
are  l^ends,  like  those  of  Greek  heroes,  or  like  Plato's  Er  son  of 
Arraenius,  belonging  to  ages  of  credulity  and  ignorance.  Equally  must 
we  question  the  mystic  who  dreams  of  being  "  absorbed  into  deity  " — 
the  "  great  unknown  from  whom  we  came " :  for  that,  were  it  true, 
means  not  new  life,  but — to  the  individual — eternal  death,  with  the 
loss  of  every  fond  or  sad  memory  of  the  past.  Pessimistic  Buddhists 
have  indeed  regarded  this  as  the  highest  future  bliss.  The  cry  of  the 
weary  in  Europe  is  much  the  same :  **  If  from  Thee  we  came,  then  to 
Thee  let  us  return  " ;  but  this  absorption,  whether  into  a  personal  Qod 
or  into  Infinity — ^into  a  timeless,  spaceless,  unconditioned  state,  with- 
out memories,  fears,  or  hopes — presents  little  comfort  to  most  men. 
This  only  we  know  :  that  no  theories  of  ours  will  affect  the  inevitable  ; 
and  that  fear  of  the  future  has  no  foundation  in  the  realities  of  exist- 
ence— ^it  is  only  the  instinct  of  self-preservation,  which  we  see  to  be 
necessary  in  nature.  Let  us  then  face  the  inevitable  as  best  we  may, 
with  hope  and  trust.  Let  us  not  shrink  from  enquiry,  or  fear  research 
into  those  horrors  which  the  minds  of  priests,  in  all  ages,  have  conjured 
up.  Tnith  may  be  bitter  and  hard  to  digest,  but  it  is  always  better 
than  delusion :  better  than  the  fictions  and  fancies  of  ignorant  monks 
and  anchorites,  or  the  threats  of  priests  scheming  to  gain  power  over 
the  timid  through  their  tenderest  affections.  All  truth  is  safe  and 
sacred ;  and  he  who  keeps  truth  back  from  men,  through  motives  of 
expediency,  is  either  a  coward  or  a  criminal. 


8 


2 


274  In 

^^  Why  soothe  one  with  vain  words  when  after  coming  light 
May  prove  them  to  be  false.    Truth  is  forever  right." 

Wise  men  must  do  the  thinking  of  the  world.     They  must  never 
-even  if  they  do  not  tell  the  whole  truth — utter  an  untrue  word. 


Truth  is  usually  the  contrary  of  that  which  is  generally  believed. 
The  wise  man  does  not  hasten  to  decide,  but  must  be  content  with 
his  horizon.     He  must  doubt  and  ponder,  even  though  told. 

"  Faith  never  murmurs  *  Why '  ? 
For  to  think  is  to  be  tempted  :  to  reason  is  to  die." 

In.  En.  Hen.  Words  in  various  languages  signifying  "  one," 
"  individual,"  **  he,"  from  the  old  root  An  "  to  exist"  In  Akkadian 
N  and  M  are  demonstrative  pronouns  (see  An). 

Incubi.  Latin :  "  liers  over."  See  Deuce,  and  Spirits.  The 
idea  of  Incubi  (male)  and  Succubse  (female)  is  part  of  the  general 
belief  in  spirits  that  seek  intercourse — like  the  Hebrew  Beni-Elobim 
— with  human  beings,  and  is  connected  with  the  dread  of  "night- 
mares" and  evil  dreams.  The  fairy  wives  and  husbands  of  Eeltik 
folk-lore  belong  to  the  same  order  of  ideaa 

India.  Hind.  Sind.  The  populations  and  religions  of  India 
are  the  subjects  of  special  articles  (see  Hindus),  and  we  here  deal 
generally  with  the  earlier  ethnological  and  religious  questions,  concern- 
ing Hindustan  or  the  "Land  of  Hindus."  The  earliest  name  of 
upper  and  central  India  was  Kolaria  or  the  land  of  the  Kols,  and  the 
term  India  properly  refers  to  regions  near  the  Indus  river.  The  Kols 
have  generally  been  supposed  to  have  preceded  the  Dravid  ra^es, 
entering  India  from  the  N.K,  and  not  like  Dravids  from  the  N.W.; 
but  this  view  presents  difficulties  in  regard  to  the  ancient  Kolarian 
kingdom  of  Kosala  (see  Kols).  Little  trust  can  be  placed  in  the 
claims  to  Aryan  blood  and  belief  by  the  non-Aryans  of  the  present 
time,  though  they  have  mingled  with  Aryan  stocks.  It  is  evident, 
from  the  1 0th  chapter  of  the  Manu-Shastra,  supposed  to  have  been 
written  about  the  time  of  our  era,  that  Aryans  and  non-Aryans  were 
then  already  coalescing,  and  but  for  the  tightening  of  caste  rules,  which 
the  laws  of  Manu  prescribe,  the  two  races — Aryan  and  Turanian — 
might  now  be  hardly  distinguishable.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  Kughis, 
Raj-Bhansis,  and  Bhanga-Eshatriyas  of  Bangal,  in  spite  of  Aryan 
titles,  preserve  the  rites  and  customs  of  an  ancient  Turanian  peopla 

The  questiim  of  race  is  best  illustrated  by  the  anthropometric 
researches  undertaken  by  the  Government  of  India  (see  Mr  H.  fl. 
Kisley,  K.C.S.I.,  Jov/mal  Anthrop,  Instit,,  Feby.  1891).    The  anthro- 


India 


275 


pological  survey  began  with  the  census  of  1881,  and  leads  Mr  Risley, 
after  ten  years  of  study,  to  regard  the  measurement  of  the  nose  as  the 
best  racial  indication,  such  measurements  having  been  taken  through- 
out the  three  governments  of  Bangal,  the  N.W.  Provinces,  and  the 
Panjab,  all  in  N.  India.  The  Paujab  Aryans  (Brahmans,  E^yasts, 
and  Bajputs)  are  the  most  leptchrhine  or  '^  thin  nosed " ;  and  *'  the 
social  position  of  a  caste  varies  inversely  as  its  nasal  index  " — that  is  to 
say  that  those  with  the  most  delicate  noses  are  of  the  purest  Aryan 
stock,  and  of  the  highest  social  position — just  as  among  Arabs,  the 
purest  blood,  and  the  aquiline  nose,  belong  to  the  families  of  ruling 
chiefs.  The  proportion  of  width — outside  the  nostrils  at  the  base  of 
tlie  nose — to  height  measured  at  the  bridge,  is  expressed  by  a  per- 
centage ;  and  the  population  studied  is  divided  into  four  classes,  as 
follows : — 


(1)  Ultra-Leptorhine 
Hyper- 

(2)  Leptorhiue 
Mesorhine 


(3)  Platorhine 


(4)  Hyper-Platorhine 
Ultra- 


40  or  less 
40  to  55 

55  to  70 
70  to  85 

85  to  100 


100  to  115 
115  and  over 


{High  caste  Brahmans,   Rajputs, 
and  Kayasts,  Aryans. 
Qugars,  Lepchas,  Pathans,  Sikhs, 
Beluchis,      Kayasts,      Bangal 
Brahmans,  Sikhim,  and  Tibet 
tribes. 
/Hill  Malis,  Santals,  Munds,  Eols, 
(      Kharwars. 

Mughs,  Lepchas,  Bhutanis,  Na- 
wars,  Munds,  Oraons,  Bhumis, 
Kakis,  Kharwars,  Bhuiyas, 
Khatris,  Malis,  Santals,  Belu- 
chis, Pathans,  and  some  Sikhs. 

This  classification  indicates  the  various  fusions  of  Aryan,  Turanian, 
and  original  Negrito  stocks.  The  nasal  measurement  being  taken  into 
consideration  with  the  usual  measurements  of  the  head,  and  with  the 
color  of  the  complexion,  Mr  Risley  remarked  (1)  that  the  Leptorhine 
peoples  (40  to  70  nasal  percentage)  are  tall,  fair,  and  long-headed 
men,  with  a  high  facial  angle,  and  are  found  especially  in  the  Panjab, 
where  the  exogamous  groups  (that  is  those  marrying  out  of  the  tribe) 
bear  still  the  names  of  Yedik  heroes ;  (2)  the  Mesorhine  people  (70 
to  90  nasal  index)  are  of  the  middle  height,  broad-headed,  sturdy,  and 
of  yellowish  complexion,  with  a  low  facial  angle  ;  they  are  Mongoloid 
tribes  of  the  N.  and  E.  frontiers  of  Bangal,  who  have  never  advanced 
far  into  the  interior;  (3)  the  Platorhine  class  (85  to  100  nasal  index) 
are  thickset,  and  of  low  stature,  long-headed,  very  dark,  and  with  a 
low  facial  angle,  representing  the  Kolarian  type  of  Bangal  and  Central 


276  India 

India ;  (4)  the  remamder  with  the  broadest  noses,  and  usually  darkest 
complexions,  are  mingled  with  Aborigines  (see  Dravids).  The  3rd 
class  are  usually  called  Dravids,  but  Mr  Risley  says  that  the  difference 
between  Dravids  and  Kolarians  is  one  of  language,  and  that  the  two 
stocks  are  really  of  one  origin — ^a  view  which  explains  difficulties  as 
to  the  occurrence  of  Kolarian  names  in  the  Fanjab  (see  Malis).  The 
two  langui^es  themselves  are  both  Turanian,  being  classed  as  formiog 
the  "  Himalaic  "  division  of  Turanian  speech.  The  succession  of  races 
begins  with — (1)  Aborigines,  such  as  Yeddahs,  etc.;  (2)  Kolarians; 
(3)  Dravidians ;  (4)  Vedik  Aryans ;  (5)  Persians ;  (6)  Greeks ;  (7) 
Huns,  Tartars,  and  Sakas ;  (8)  Arabs  and  Turks ;  (9)  Mongols ;  all 
entering  India  from  the  north  between  2000  B.C.  and  1400  A.C.— 
with  exception  of  the  Aborigines,  and  perhaps  of  the  Kolarians,  who 
came  yet  earlier. 

[The  actual  history  of  India — ^if  we  except  the  legendary  wars 
of  Kurus  and  Pandus — is  not  traceable  earlier  than  the  age  of  Peisian 
empire.  No  cuneiform  or  other  hieroglyphic  character  seems  to  have 
been  ever  used  in  India,  and  the  oldest  script  was  derived  from  the 
Aramean  alphabet  of  the  Persian  age.  The  art  and  architecture  of 
India  are  also  acknowledged  to  owe  much  to  Persian  and  Qreek 
influences ;  and  claims  to  very  early  civilisation  are  as  unproven  in 
India  as  they  are  in  China.  The  leading  dates  of  Indian  chronology 
may  be  here  tabulated,  as  serving  to  explain  more  clearly  the  general 
deductions  of  the  author  from  racial,  linguistic,  and  religious  data. 
—Ed.] 

Qotama  Buddha  .... 

Persian  Satrapy,  N.W.  India 

Alexander  crosses  the  Indus 

Maurya  dynasty  of  Magadha 

Megasthenes  is  sent  by  Seleucus  to  form  alliance  with 
Chandra-gupta  of  the  Maurya  family    . 

Asdka,  of  this  dynasty,  emperor  of  India.  Buddhism 
of  the  "  lesser  vehicle  "  type  prevails   . 

Invasion  by  Yue-chi  Tartars 

Kushan  dynasty 

Su  Tartars  conquer  Baktria,  and  invade  the  Panjab  .  126  6.C. 

Samvat  era.  Vikram-aditya  of  UJjain  defeats  Scy- 
thians .  .  .  .  .  56   tf 

Kanishka,    emperor.      Buddhism    of    the    ''  greater 

vehicle "   type  prevails,  about  .        10-78  A.c 

Invasion  by  Jats,  or  Getae  .  .  .  .75 


623- 

543  B.C. 

520- 

327  ,. 

,  327 

n 

.   316- 

292  ,. 

i 

.     306- 

298  „ 

.  263- 

225  „ 

.   165 

)> 

165  RC. 

-226  A.C. 

Dynasty  of  Sayid  emperors 

Baber,  descended  from  Timur,  emperor 

Akbar,  grandson  of  Baber,  emperor 

Jebanjir,  emperor 

Shah  Jaban,  emperor 

Aurangzeb,  emperor 

Decay  of  the  Mughal  dynasty,  Shah-'Alam  I, 

Nadir-Shah  the  Persian,  emperor     . 

Battle  of  Panipat,  fall  of  Delhi  to  British 


.  1398-1450 
.  1625-1630 
.  1566-1605 
.  1605-1627 
.  1627-1658 
.  1658-1707 
emperor  1707-1738 
.  1739 
.  1761 


India  277 

Saka  era  .....       78  A.c. 

Oupta  era  .....      320 

Gaptas  overthrown  by  White  Huns  .     466-  500 

Yalabbi  dynasty  in  Kutch,  N.W.  of  Bombay.     Cha- 

lakyas  powerful  in  Qujerat,  about     .  .      480 

Sakas  and  Huns  expelled  from  N.  India       .  .644 

Valabhis  overthrown  by  Arab  Moslem  invaders  .     664 

Mubammad    ]E^iin»   under    the    Khalif   Walid    I, 

conquers  Scinde        .  .  .711 

Expulsion  of  the  Moslems  .  .760 

Mubammad  of  Ohazni  accedes         .  .  .998 

Seventeen  campaigns  follow,  till  the  victory  in  the 
Peshawar  VaUey,  leaving  the   Panjab  Moslem 
till  now        .....   1001 
Death  of  Muhammad  of  Ghazni      .  .  .1030 

Gbor  Afghans  rule  Ohazni  .  .  .1152 

Two  Rajput  States  at  Eanoj  and  Delhi  established. 

Muhammad  Ghori  invades  N.  India     .  .   1172-1206 

^atub-ed-Din,  a  slave  of  Muhammad  Ghori,  estab- 
lishes the  ''  slave  dynasty"  of  Delhi    .  .   1206-1288 
Slave  dynasty  conquered  by  'Ala-ed-Din  Khilji,  in 
Delhi,  who  expels  the  BajputB,  and   plunders 
Mahrattas,  and  Central  India,  the  Dekkan  and 
Gujerat         .....  1294-1316 
Tughlak  establishes  a  Turkish  dynasty  in  the  Panjab  1321-1398 
Timur,  a  Turkish  Moslem  ruling  Mongols  of  Central 

Asia,  takes  Delhi  .1398 


If 

»> 
>» 

n 


» 


f> 
»» 


It  is  at  present  impossible  to  say  when  Aryan  nomads  first  began 
to  drop  into  India  ;  but,  on  the  assumption  that  Vedik  hymns  are  purely 
Aryan,  and  are  as  old  as  usually  stated,  we  may  suppose  the  singers 
to  have  appeared  near  Taksila  about  1600  B.C.,  and  that  Aryans 
gradually  increased  in  numbers  in  the  extreme  N.W.  of  India  during 


278 

the  next  thousand  years.  Their  religion  was  akin  to  that  of  the 
Persian  Mazdeans  of  Iran,  though  distinct.  They  were  fire  worshipers 
who  gradually  adopted,  in  India,  the  older  tree,  stone,  and  serpent  rites 
of  Turanian  Naga  trihes,  whom  they  found  established  in  India.  But 
if  they  gradually  became  de-Aryanised  they  also,  to  some  extent, 
Aryanised  the  older  populations.  The  Aryan  element  was  also  rein- 
forced in  the  6  th  century  B.C.  under  the  rule  of  Darius  I  of  Persia, 
and  again  when  the  Y&vana  (Ionian)  hosts  of  Alexander  the  Great 
crossed  the  Indus,  and  the  Greek  empire  of  Seleucus  (312  to  286  RC.) 
was  established  in  Baktria,  on  the  N.  borders  of  the  Panjab.  They 
then  became  rulers  of  the  Ganges  Valley,  and  the  first  Sakya,  or 
Maurya  ("peacock")  dynasty — ^represented  by  Chandra-gupta,  who 
successfully  maintained  his  independence — ^bore  Aryan  names,  though 
probably  not  of  pure  Aryan  blood.  To  this  Sakya  or  Scythic  race 
(probably  of  mixed  Aryan  and  Turanian  stock,  the  two  races  having 
then  long  lived  together  in  Baktria)  Gotama  Buddha,  the  Sakya  Huni, 
is  said  to  have  belonged.  It  is  a  recognised  fact  that,  in  our  own 
times,  the  European  Aryan  cannot  long  maintain  his  family  in  India; 
and  Dr  Isaac  Taylor  (Origin  of  Arycma)  says  that  "  the  Dravidian 
types  have  now  almost  swallowed  up  the  Aryans  throughout  India." 

The  Sakyas,  Skuthi,  Huns,  and  Tartars,  had  indeed  probably 
been  invading  and  colonising  India  from  Central  Asia  long  before 
Yedik  Aryans  arrived,  or  at  least  before  the  appearance  of  PersianSi 
Jats,  and  others,  on  the  Indus  in  the .  6th  century  B.C.  These 
Turanians  possessed  a  rude  civilisation  derived  originally  from  the 
Akkadians  of  Babylonia.  They  continued  to  pour  in,  between  the  5th 
and  15th  centuries  A.C.  as  Huns,  Turks,  and  Mongols.  The  ''slave 
dynasty  "  of  Delhi  (1206-1288  A,c.)  was  of  Turkish  origin,  and  the 
great  Mughal  emperors  (1398-1738)  were  Turko-Mongols.  They 
were  however  nearly  annihilated  by  the  valour  of  Aryan  Mah-rattas, 
at  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Aurangzeb.  In  spite  of  all  these  inroads 
of  Turanians,  Aryans,  and  Arabs,  little  efiect  has  been  produced  on 
the  great  non-Aryan  masses  of  Indian  population  ;  and  neither  Islam 
nor  Christianity  has  prevailed  over  the  mixed  system  of  native  religion 
described  under  "  Hindus."  This  native  system  has  indeed  developed 
and  advanced  wonderfully,  under  the  tolerant  and  sympathetic  rule  of 
the  British  race. 

The  Turanians,  we  must  remember,  from  the  dawn  of  history 
were  rulers  of  Western  and  Central  Asia ;  and  to  our  own  days  they 
rule  all  over  Eastern  Asia,  dominate  Semitic  and  Aryan  races  throagh- 
out  the  Turkish  empire,  and  are  now  showing  their  superiority  rf 
civilisation  in  the  victories  of  purely  Turanian  Japanese  over  Bassiao 


India  279 

Aryans.  From  monarch  to  village  chief,  high  and  low  in  India  still 
boast  of  their  Turanian  blood,  in  spite  of  Brahmans  and  other  Aryans 
proud  of  Iranian  descent.  The  Aryans  are  few,  and  their  great 
influence  in  the  north  is,  in  a  measure,  due  to  our  own  racial  connec- 
tion with  the  Vedik  races.  In  ancient  days  these  gradually  encroached, 
till  the  old  Turanian  Naga-pur  ("  snake  city  ")  became  Indra-prastha, 
and  the  later  Delhi.  The  Aryan  hordes  of  the  Panjab  princes  first 
perhaps  saw  the  "Holy  Ganges"  about  800  B.C.,  and  began  to  spread 
in  E[andj  and  other  cities  of  Fanchala — capitals  of  those  Turanians 
whom  they  called  Ahi-Eshatras,  or  "  serpent  kings."  A  period  of 
comparative  peace  followed,  as  the  ideas  of  Buddhism,  and  the  influence 
of  India's  great  apostle  Gotama,  tended  to  the  amalgamation  of  races, 
and  the  discouragement  of  caste  distiuctioDS,  about  500  B.c.  The 
researches  of  scholars  as  to  Medic  population  round  lake  Van  show 
that  Aryan  influence  in  Persia,  and  in  Armenia,  is  not  traceable  much 
before  800  b.c.  ;  and  we  find  no  indication  of  any  Aryans  on  the 
Ganges  before  about  the  same  period.  To  the  Yedik  bards  this  great 
river  was  unknown,  though  the  Aryan  immigrants  seem  to  have  taken 
sides  in  the  wars  of  Kurus  and  Pandus,  perhaps  as  early  as  1200  or 
1000  B.C.,  according  to  the  later  literature  of  the  epiks  written  in 
Aryan  speech.  To  this  age  we  may  attribute  the  gradual  education  of 
Aryan  nomads  by  the  Turanian  and  Semitic  races  of  Asia.  They  did 
not  begin  to  commit  their  hymns  and  legends  to  writing  till  about 
Grotama's  time,  and  then  borrowed  alphabets  of  Semitic  origin,  as  did 
the  Western  Aryans  also.  No  doubt  they  learned  much  in  India 
itself,  from  the  Turano-Dravid  ruling  race,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Ganges.  Their  literature  became  classic  through  the  labours  of  such 
scholars  as  Panini  (5th  century  B.C.),  and  Patanjala  (2nd  or  3rd  century 
B.C.),  and  other  Aryan  grammarians.  Both  Aryans  and  Turanians, 
while  spreading  from  Central  Asia,  must  early  have  been  aware  of 
the  ancient  civilisations  of  the  West ;  but  the  Vedik  Aryans  were 
evidently  rude  nomads  whose  earliest  hymns  (like  the  early  Yendidad 
of  Persians)  include  no  mention  of  coin,  but  refer  only  to  the  barter  of 
cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  horses,  their  earliest  beliefs  including  the 
worship  of  elemental  deities  and  especially  of  fire.  In  the  Vedas  we 
have  no  allusions  to  writing,  pens,  or  paper,  and  no  notice  of  caste. 
Cows  were  then  eaten,  and  ardent  spirits  were  drunk,  quite  as  much 
by  Aryans  as  by  the  thirsty  Turanian  Malis  and  Eols  of  to-day.  The 
Aryan  hymns  allude  to  these  as  Takshas,  Asuras  ('' godless  ones"), 
BhCjas  ("  cattle  owners  "),  Bhars,  Eathas,  and  Yadus,  holding  the  lands 
of  India  where  they  had  built  great  fortresses  of  stone  or  even,  it  is 
said,  of  '*  iron/'  and  possessing  weapons  of  iron  and  brass,  and  chariots 


280  India 

of  wood,  often  adorned  with  gold  Their  valour  and  civilisation  atmck 
the  ruder  Aryans  with  awe.  They  are  described  as  merchants,  sailors, 
travellers  by  land  and  sea,  and  by  rivera  which  the  Aryans  found 
thronged  with  vessels,  including  probably  those  of  Sabean  Arabs. 
They  were  worshipers  of  trees,  and  of  snakes,  of  sun  and  moon,  as  the 
names  Ahi,  Na^  or  Bar,  given  to  them  by  the  Aryans,  denote. 

The  Aryan  Bharata-varsha  seems  then  only  to  have  extended  to 
the  Yamuna  or  Jumna,  and  the  invaders  must  have  passed  through 
many  severe  struggles  before  reaching  Indra-prastha  or  DelhL  They 
found  it  held  by  Naga  worshipers  called  Nishadas ;  and  everywhere 
they  encountered  Kolarian  and  Dravidian  races — Takas  at  Taksila, 
Madras  and  E^athis  on  the  Cheniab  river,  Malis  on  the  Iravati  (BaptiX 
Tugras  on  the  Sutlej,  and  Rambhojas  on  the  Indus.  These  Panjab 
races  opposed  Alexander  on  the  last  named  river :  and,  in  spite  of  his 
victories  on  the  Jhelam  and  at  Sangala,  they  forced  him  to  abandon 
the  conquest  of  India.  Arrian  says  that  at  Sangala  the  Kathai  lost 
17,000  slain,  and  30,000  prisoners,  and  they  were  not  the  strongest 
Indian  nation.  The  task  that  was  beyond  the  great  Macedonian  could 
hardly  have  been  performed  by  any  Vedik  heroes.  India,  already 
civilised  and  possessing  written  records  in  the  4th  century  RC,  was 
still  in  the  main  Dravidian  or  Turanian. 

In  the  map  of  India  (Rivera  of  Life,  vol.  ii)  we  have  shown 
the  old  races  and  their  chief  seats  of  power ;  but  we  have  still  to  learn 
the  history  of  non-Aryan  Kolaxia.  Modem  authorities  have  been 
educated — as  we  also  were — in  the  belief  that  there  is  nothing  worth 
knowing  about  pre- Aryan  India :  that  the  Aryans  conquered  it  all 
about  1200  or  even  2000  B.C.,  and  gave  to  the  country  civilisation 
and  religion,  though  we  have  no  knowledge  of  any  native  Aryan 
civilisation  in  the  West.  Nothing  could  really  be  more  wide  of  the 
mark,  as  a  study  of  other  articles  in  this  work  shows.  India  was 
Kolarian  down  to  about  1500  B.a ;  and  was  then  Dravidian,  and 
may  indeed  still  be  called  so  from  the  highlands  S.  of  the  Ganges 
to  Cape  Kumari.  But  long  before  the  advent  of  either  Aryan  or 
Turanian  strangers  it  contained  a  yet  earlier  population,  now  repre- 
sented by  the  Yeddahs  of  Ceylon,  and  by  the  savages  of  the  Palny 
and  other  forests  of  S.W.  India,  who  are  connected  with  the  Negritos 
of  the  Polynesian  archipelago,  and  with  the  Australians,  by  anthro- 
pologists— a  Negrito  race  of  wild  men,  like  those  whom  the  Malays 
called  Ourang-utan  or  "men  of  the  woods."  They  are  now  very 
scarce,  but  as  a  young  surveyor  the  author  made  acquaintance  with 
them  in  their  forests  about  1846  to  1850.  They  were  poor,  smsll, 
naked,    untameable  creatures,  living   none   knew  where   in   densely 


India  281 

wooded  hilly  tracts,  sleeping,  we  were  told,  in  caves  and  holes,  or  in 
summer  on  ma/njdna  or  platforms  lightly  made  in  thick  lofty  trees. 
We  were  only  occasionally  able  to  get  within  30  or  40  yards  of 
them,  after  sending  away  the  Aryan  officials  whom  they  justly  feared, 
for  the  Hindus  used  to  shoot  them  as  they  would  not  shoot  monkeys, 
fearing  to  be  contaminated.  The  author  took  bread,  fruits,  and  gaily 
coloured  clothes  with  him,  when  alone,  waving  these  at  them,  laying 
them  down  in  the  path,  and  then  retiring :  the  wild  men  then  used 
cautiously  to  approach,  jabbering  suspiciously  like  monkeys.  One  of 
them  was  captured  by  our  Dravidian  cbainman,  and  was  sent  to  a 
German  mission  on  the  Cochin  coast;  but  he  was  found,  after  long 
trial,  to  be  quite  incapable  of  instruction  beyond  learning  the  alphabet, 
and  the  reading  of  a  few  easy  sentences,  and  eventually  be  escaped 
to  his  native  fastnesses.  Most  continents  and  islands  have  legends 
or  traditions  of  such  aborigines,  who  may  be  recognised  also  perhaps 
in  the  bushmen,  and  dwarf  races,  of  Africa.  The  Yeddahs  of  Ceylon 
are  now  recognised  as  a  branch  of  the  Continental  aborigines  from  the 
S.W.  of  India.  In  Madagascar  the  Behoses,  and  Yizambas,  are  similar 
wild  peoples,  of  whom  traces  are  also  found  in  China,  even  as  lat«  as 
the  time  of  the  Han  dynasty  in  the  2nd  century  B.c.  Wallace  and 
other  men  of  science  suppose  tbat  a  great  Lemurian  continent  once 
occupied  part  of  the  Indian  seas ;  Madagascar  on  the  west,  with  the 
Maldives,  Ceylon,  Java,  and  on  the  east  Papuan  New  Guinea,  being 
the  present  remains  of  it  above  sea  level.  This  may  have  been  the 
original  home  of  the  Negrito  races  of  Asia  and  Africa,  which  racially 
and  by  language  show  some  remote  connection.  Ceylon,  in  that  age, 
would  have  been  connected  with  India  by  the  isthmus  now  repre- 
sented by  ''  Adam's  Bridge,"  as  the  S.  Arab  sailors  called  it.  Indian 
legends  seem  to  refer  to  such  a  period,  in  connection  with  fairy  con- 
tinents and  islands,  near  Cape  Kumari,  which  no  longer  exist. 

With  this  Negrito  stock  the  early  Mongoloid  populations — 
Eolarian  and  Dravidian — mingled,  and  the  dark  color  of  the 
Himalaic  Turanians,  together  with  much  in  their  languages  which 
connects  them  with  Polynesia  and  Australia,  may  be  regarded  as  due 
to  such  admixture.  The  Aryans  thrust  out  all  the  weaker  mixed 
tribes  to  the  extremities  of  their  empire,  as  the  early  Kelts  were 
thrust  westwards  by  stronger  races  in  Britain.  The  Eolarians  were 
the  first  rudely  superior  race  of  India,  followed  by  the  Takas,  Madras, 
E^this,  and  others  above  noticed,  who  descended  from  the  N.W., 
and  are  classed  as  Dravidians.  These  again  were  followed  by  the 
Yue-chi,  Su,  and  other  Turko-Mongols  of  Central  Asia.  The  non- 
Aryans  are  mentioned  in  special  articles  (see  especially  under  Malis) : 


282  India 

in  all  cases  the  trend  was  first  towards  the  lower  Granges,  and  after- 
wards  to  the  south,  until — in  our  own  times — ^the  Madras  provinces 
contain  a  population  of  some  46,000,000  Dravidians,  while  man; 
millions  of  Kolarians  still  people  the  forests  and  uplands  of  Central 
India.  Mr  Hewitt  ("  Early  India,"  Jowmal  Bl.  Asiatic  Society,  1888- 
1889)  traces  the  Dravids  even  from  Babylonia,  by  their  rites,  archi- 
tecture, and  customs.  They  came  from  the  highlands  of  Earmania, 
Arakhosia,  Baktria,  and  Sogdiana,  to  the  plains  of  the  Indus;  aod 
linguistically  they  were  connected  with  the  early  non-Aryan,  non- 
Semitic,  tribes  of  Susiana,  whose  speech  Darius  I  preserved  at 
Behistun,  showing  its  ultimate  connection  with  the  Akkadian.  The 
tree  worship  of  the  Bars  (see  Bhars),  in  the  land  of  Bharata^  was 
characteristic  of  this  population,  and  is  common  also  in  W.  Asia, 
as  is  the  snake  worship  of  the  Kolarians  (see  Kols) :  the  wan  of 
Pandns,  or  "  pale  faces,"  with  Kurus  may  represent  the  early  history 
of  such  races  in  Aryan  literature.  The  wilder  tribes  were  driven  from 
the  N.W.,  while  others  like  the  Bhdjas  settled  down  to  become  rich, 
as  herdsmen  and  agriculturists.  They  followed  the  pasture  lands  of 
the  great  rivers,  and  the  fertile  valleys  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
where  the  wild  men  found  refuge  in  forests.  Others,  like  the  Abhirs 
(see  Ophir),  reaching  the  western  river-mouths  became  merchants, 
and  traded  with  the  Arabs  and  Assyrians.  Strabo  speaks  of  the 
Eam-Bhojas  or  Siva-Bhojas  (Sibai)  on  the  upper  Indus,  between 
Mali-tana  and  Taksila,  as  one  of  1 8  tribes ;  and  their  congeners  were 
the  Bhdjas  of  the  Sutlej — the  Tugras  of  the  Rig  Veda.  They  estab- 
lished the  kingdom  of  Kam-Bhoja,  stretching  from  the  Indus  to  the 
gulf  of  Earn  bay  which  was  named  from  them,  and  as  far  as  the  Nai^ 
bada  or  Munda  river. 

The  race  of  the  Sakas  or  Sakyas,  from  whom  sprang  Chandra- 
gupta  in  the  time  of  Seleucus,  ruled  the  lower  Indus  and  founded 
the  kingdom  of  Magadha,  conquering  Eosala,  and  fixing  their  capital  at 
Saketa  in  Oudh.  The  Sakya  emperor,  As5ka  (3rd  century  B.C.),  speaks, 
in  his  5th  edict,  of  Yona-kambhoja-gandharas  as  his  neighbours, 
meaning  perhaps  by  Yona  only  "  foreigners,"  and  not  Yavanas  or 
Greeks.  The  Aryans  spoke  of  Danu  as  the  mother  of  Vrithra,  the 
serpent  of  drought  whom  Indra  conquered  ;  and  the  Danavas  were  said 
to  be  ruled  by  a  great  serpent  king  (Salya  or  Ajaka)  the  lord  of  the 
Takas.  These  non-Aryan  serpent-worshiping  Danavas  were  the 
sculptors  of  the  Elora  caves  (see  ElOra),  and  of  other  rock-temples» 
full  of  phallic  and  serpent  symbolism  which  was  detestable  to  Aiyan 
Brahmans.  The  Eolarian  and  Dravidian  tongues  still  show  a  marked 
affinity,  in  both  vocabulary  and  grammar,  to  the  Turanian  languages 


India  283 

of  Central  Asia,  though  borrowing  in  later  times  from  both  Aryan  and 
Semitic  speech.  The  mixture  of  these  distinct  classes  of  language  is 
seen  in  the  dialects  of  the  Panjab,  Sinde,  and  Qujerat,  and  even — as 
is  now  recognised — in  Bangali  (see  Bangal).  But  time  has  not 
effaced  the  physical  or  mental  distinctions  which  separate  the  pure 
fair  Aryan  from  the  tawny  southern  Dravid.  The  sacred  Sanskrit, 
and  the  later  Pali,  became  the  languages  of  literature ;  but,  in  the 
empire  of  the  Nandas  (in  Magadha),  the  Pali  was  used  by  a  dynasty 
of  Drayidian  origin. 

In  reading  ancient  accounts,  from  Herodotos  down  to  Eusebius 
or  Chrysostom,  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  the  name  of  India 
is  very  vaguely  used  to  mean  countries  beyond  Persia,  including 
Afghanistan.  The  first  known  use  of  the  name  is  in  Aiskhulos  (about 
the  5th  century  B.C.),  and  even  in  Herodotos  the  lands  beyond  the 
Indus  are  not  of  necessity  intended  in  his  account  of  the  Persian 
empire.  He  speaks,  however,  of  the  Aithiopes,  or  "  dusky  faced " 
race  of  Asia,  as  distinguished  from  the  Aithiopes  of  Africa  by  having 
straight  hair,  and  this  lank  black  hair  still  characterises  the  Eolarians 
and  Dravids  of  India.  St  Thomas  visiting  India  (see  Gondophares) 
or  Pantainos  about  200  A.c.  (Eusebius,  Hist,  Ecdes.,  v,  10),  may  only 
have  reached  Eastern  Persia.  Neither  IrensBus  nor  TertuUian  speak 
of  India  as  Christian  in  their  enumeration  of  nations.  Augustus 
(Angora  inscription)  speaks  of  embassies  from  Indian  kings ;  but  the 
Romans  knew  little  of  India,  in  spite  of  Roman  coins  there  found,  for 
the  trade  was  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  Sabean  Arabs.  Arrian 
relied  on  earlier  Greek  accounts,  and  many  marvellous  tales,  as  to 
Central  Asia  and  India,  grew  up  after  the  Parthians  had  closed  the 
way  to  the  Romans. 

We  may  now  attempt  to  recapitulate  the  main  periods  of  early 
Indian  racial  and  religious  history,  including :  I,  The  Kola/rian- 
Dravid  age — say  from  5000  to  1500  B.C.,  when  Turanian  -  tribes 
dominated  India,  coming  first  from  Assam  and  Tibet,  as  Mongoloid 
Kols,  Gonds,  Khonds,  Malis,  Munds,  Mens,  or  Mughs,  described  under 
these  heads.  They  settled  on  the  lower  Ganges  in  Gandwana,  or 
Malli-desha,  and  spread  west  down  the  Indus,  and  over  the  Panjab. 
They  went  south  from  the  Jumna  to  Malwa,  driven  down  by  stronger 
Turanians  from  the  N.W.,  including  Dravidian  Eosis,  Ehasyas, 
Takhsas,  Bhojas,  Madras,  Saurs,  Kathis,  Yadavas,  and  Kalingas,  who 
swept  across  the  Indus,  and  advanced  chiefly  through  Gandhara  and 
Hastinapur.  These  people  found  apparently  only  the  small  wild 
Veddah  negritos  to  oppose  them  as  they  moved  gradually  to  the 
south.      11.   The    Vedik-Brdhman   age  (about    1500    to    600    B.c.) 


284 

when  the  Aryans  followed  the  Dravidians  across  the  Indus,  bringing 
hymns  and  rites  of  their  own,  but  possessing  no  native  alphabet  or 
script,  though  Western  Asia  and  China  had  already  then  become 
civilised.  A  period  of  struggle  ensued,  represented  by  the  wars  of 
Kurus  and  Pandus.  The  growth  of  philosophy  in  India  marks  the 
close  of  this  age.  III.  The  Buddhist  age  (600  B.c.  to  800  A.c.) 
marked  by  revolt  from  the  growing  tyranny  of  Brahman  law,  and  of 
caste  restrictions.  The  advent  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  establisbmeDt 
of  their  rule  in  Baktria,  added  to  the  forces  in  &vour  of  the  Aryan 
supremacy ;  and  the  influence  of  Qreek  ideas  became  traceable  iu 
architecture,  writing,  and  perhaps  philosophy.  They  drove  the 
Turanians  from  the  Indus,  and  Aryans  prevailed  to  the  Ganges  and 
Jumna.  Much  new  civilisation  was  di£fused  even  in  Central  and 
Southern  India,  Barmah,  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  through  Buddhist 
influences.  IV.  The  Neo-Brdhmcm  or  Purcmik  age,  from  800  A.a 
onwards,  represents  the  decay  and  corruption  of  Buddhism,  and 
reaction  to  the  mixed  Vedik-Puranik  superstitions  and  mythologies. 
Slothful  monks  had  forgotten  the  ancient  philosophy,  and  left  the 
masses  a  prey  to  the  gross  nature- worship  represented  by  Puranik 
legends,  and  by  the  art  of  the  cave  temples  of  India.  Indra,  Varuna, 
Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  resumed  their  sway  ;  and  Krishna,  or  even 
the  self-denying  Buddha,  were  converted  into  divine  Avataras  or 
incarnations.  Id  time  the  influence  of  Islam  added  to  the  elements 
of  new  thought,  and  the  appearance  of  the  Portuguese  and  English 
brought  Christianity  to  notice.  Progress  in  liberal  thought  was 
perhaps  most  marked  about  1860  (see  Arya-Somaj  and  Brahmo- 
Somaj),  but  the  inter-action  of  religions  which  produced  the  Sikh 
faith  under  Nanak,  contiuues  to  modulate  the  history  of  Indian 
religions  to  the  present  day.  Theism,  Agnosticism,  indifference,  the 
loosening  of  caste  restrictions,  and  a  tendency  to  Materialism,  contrast 
with  the  superstitions  of  the  masses,  who  remain  content  with  the 
coarse  old  phallic  symbolism,  and  are  ignorant  of  the  ancient  philo- 
sophic speculations  on  which  that  symbolism  often  depends.  Chris- 
tianity spreads  only  among  the  lower  orders :  Moslem  belief  advances 
rapidly  ;  but  Brahmanism,  founded  on  the  Vedas,  makes  yet  greater 
progress  (see  Christ).  Tet  the  ancient  belief  in  the  Vedas  is  sapped, 
and,  like  the  holy  city  of  Sarasvati,  it  is  disappearing  under  the  sands 
of  time.  The  proportions  in  1890  were  as  follows,  including  Ceyloo, 
Barmah,  and  the  Andamans  : — 

Hindus  .     206,732,000  Buddhists  and  Jains      13,373,000 

Moslems  55,134,000  Sikhs     ,  .  .         1,009,000 


India  285 

ChristiaDS      .  2,049,000  Parsis    .  .  85,400 

Various  .  8,120,000         Jews      .  .         .  13,200 

With  regard  to  the  scripts  used  in  India,  the  Sahean  Arabs  (see 
Arabia)  are  believed  to  have  introduced  their  alphabet  about  600  B.c,, 
from  which  what  is  called  the  "  South  As5ka  **  script  developed.  It 
appears  that  Nearkhos — the  admiral  of  Alexander  the  Great — ^found 
Indians  writing  on  cloth,  in  some  non-Greek  script,  about  327  B.C. 
The  North  Asoka  script  of  the  next  century  was  an  Indo-Baktrian 
character,  originally  derived  from  the  old  Aramean  characters  adopted 
by  Persians.  It  is  found  on  Asdka's  edicts  (264-223  B.c.)  at  Kapur- 
di-giri,  and  on  coins  of  the  princes  of  Ariaua  and  India  down  to  126 
B.C.,  as  well  as  on  Sakya  coins  from  120  B.c.  to  79  A.C.  Maurya 
coins,  from  319  B.C.,  exhibit  Greek  types,  and  those  of  the  Sab  Kings 
of  Gujerat  have  even  Greek  legends.  The  alphabet  was  gradually 
developed  to  include  symbols  for  Gh^  Dh,  and  Bk,  needed  in  Sanskrit, 
and  increased  from  22  to  upwards  of  40  letters  in  time.  The  three 
original  types,  whence  all  Indian  alphabets  have  grown,  were  the 
Nagari  used  for  Sanskrit,  and  the  later  forms  employed  for  Pali,  and 
for  Dravidian.  Dr  Isaac  Taylor  recognises  seven  families,  including 
the  Maurya  script  (250  B.C.),  the  Turushka  (Indo-Scythic)  of  the  Panjab, 
that  of  Sah  Kings  on  the  W.  Coast,  that  of  the  Guptas  (319  A.c.)  in 
Magadha,  the  Valabhis  (480  A.C.)  in  Kathiawar,  the  Ghera  or  Venghi 
on  the  Kistna  and  Godavery  rivers,  and  the  Chalukya  script  (490  a.c.) 
in  the  Dekkan  (Alphabet,  ii,  pp.  258-324).  To  India  we  owe  the 
great  invention  of  cyphers,  or  numerals,  which  is  popularly  ascribed  to 
the  Arabs,  who  brought  these  signs  westwards  in  our  8th  century. 
Dr  Bumell  showed  that  they  resembled  those  used  in  texts  of  the 
Venghi  dynasty  (4th  and  5th  centuries  A.C.),  and  Dr  Taylor  (Academy^  \ 

28th  Jany.  1882)  proved  that  these  signs  were  the  initials  for  the 
Indian  Aryan  names  of  the  numhers  (see  Alphabet^  ii,  p.  263).     "The 
,  distinct  alphabets  of  India,"  says  Dr  Taylor,  "  outnumber  all  the  other  I 

alphabets  of  the  world,  and  many  are  among  the  most  elaborate  ever 
devised."     Yet  the  absence  of  all  notice  in  the  Yedas,  and  in  their  i 

commentaries  of  earlier  date,  of  any  form  of  writing,  of  books,  pens,^ 
ink,  pencils,  or  engraving  styli,  shows  how  late  the  use  of  any  script 
must  have  reached  the  Aryans.  The  Persians  by  538  B.c.  already 
knew  of  the  kuneiform  character,  and  probably  of  the  Aramean 
alphabet ;  but  kuneiform  emblems  seem  never  to  have  reached  India. 
The  earliest  monumental  texts  consist,  as  Dr  Taylor  says  (Alph,,  ii, 
p.  289),  of  "a  magnificent  series  of  primitive  inscriptions.  .  .  .  (the 
alphabet)  of  Asoka  and  others  standing  unrivalled  in  the  alphabets  of 


286 

the  world.  .  .  .  Not  even  modern  phonologists  liave  ever  proposed  an 
alphabet  so  ingenious,  exact,  and  comprehensive."  This  is  found  on 
the  six  pillar  edicts,  and  on  many  rocks,  caves,  and  boulders,  such  as 
the  Gimar  rock  in  Gujeiut,  where  the  writing  extends  75  feet  along 
the  boulder,  the  lines  occupying  a  height  of  12  feet.  Five  edicts 
belong  to  236  B.C.,  and  fourteen  others  to  251  B.C.  This  Gimar  text 
was  written  by  a  Su  satrap  named  Skanda-gupta  (see  Indra-putra) 
under  Turuksha,  a  Persian  ruler  of  the  Panjab,  of  a  family  that  held 
its  own  till  the  3rd  century  A.C.  The  laws  of  Manu  refer  apparently 
to  Turuk-shas  (or  Turk  shahs),  as  "  out  castes "  and  *'  long-bearded 
warriors"  (Kshatriyas),  "children  of  fortune" — ^apparently  of  the 
mixed  Turko-Aryan  race  of  Parthia — who  sprang  from  the  tail,  or 
from  the  breath,  of  Yahishtha's  cow — that  is  from  earth. 

[As  regards  the  languages  involved  in  this  study,  the  question  su 
to  whether  Sanskrit  was  a  spoken  language  has  recently  been  raised 
by  Mr  E.  J.  Bapson  (Journal  RL  Aaidtic  Socy,,  July  1904,  pp.  435- 
456),  the  general  result  of  the  discussion  being  apparently  that  it  may 
be  compared  thus:  (1)  Vedik  Sanskrit  to  the  English  of  Wyclif's 
Bible ;  (2)  Classic  Sanskrit  to  Johnsonian  English ;  (3)  Pali  to  our 
colloquial ;  and  (4)  the  Prakrits  to  our  own  "dialects."  The  alphabets 
in  like  manner  all  become  more  cursive  as  the  language  becomes  later, 
in  its  forms  and  sounds. — Ed.] 

We  have  yet  to  discover  the  historic  records  of  the  great  Valabhi 
or  Balabhi  kings  of  Kathiawar,  and  the  lower  Indus  (480  to  664  A.C.), 
whom  the  first  Moslem  invaders  attacked,  and  who  succeeded  the 
Ikshvaku  or  "sugar-cane"  race.  With  exception  of  coins,  however, 
we  are  equally  ignorant  of  Parthian  history,  as  we  remarked  previously 
{Rivera  of  Life^  ii,  p.  139),  and  as  Canon  Rawlinson  says  in  his 
history:  for  historic  texts  are  still  wanting.  Kshatriya,  or  "warrior" 
satraps  of  Pei'sian  rulers  might  have  been  either  worshipers  of  Krishna, 
or  Buddhists,  or  Jains,  and  the  holiest  shrine  of  Siva  was  built  near 
Dvarka,  "the  door"  of  India  on  the  N.W.  (by  which  its  conquerors 
entered),  at  Elapur,  on  the  south  slope  of  the  beautiful  hills  of  Juna- 
garh.  This  region  became  the  home  of  three  sects,  Vishnuvas 
worshiping  Vishnu  and  his  incarnation  as  Krishna,  Eadha-Valabhis 
adoring  Badha  his  wife,  and  Krishna-Badhas  who  adored  both  deities. 

A  very  powerful  Dravidian  dynasty — the  Chera  or  Venghi — 
ruled  Eastern  India  from  the  Godavery  to  the  Kistna  river,  till  sub- 
dued about  our  5th  century  by  the  Chalukyas  (see  that  heading). 
The  western  origin  of  the  Venghis  is  shown  by  their  use  of  the 
"  we«tern-cave  character,"  as  found  at  Elora.  The  Chalukyas,  who 
founded  Maharashtra — the  home  of  later  Mah-rathas,  or  Mah-rattas, 


India 


287 


bad  formed  two  branches  by  this  time,  and  were  absorbing  all  weaker 
tribes,  from  the  Qodavery  river  to  the  Mysore  highlands.  They  were 
at  first  Buddhists  or  Jains,  and  afterwards  Puranik  Hindus  by  religion. 
Their  texts  are  found  in  the  Buddhist  ruins  of  Amravati,  written  in 
what  is  now  called  the  Kistna  alphabet,  which  is  however  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  western  caves.  In  the  inscription  of  Yaisala, 
which  he  wrote  at  Kutila — the  very  cradle  of  Buddhism — we  find 
another  ancient  character  which  is  known  as  Bareli. 

Among  other  non-Aryan  tribes  we  may  mention  those  of  the 
Brahma-putra  river  in  Assam,  which  are  noticed  under  their  names 
elsewhere.  These  include  Nagas,  Garos,  Khasias,  Mikirs,  Bors  or 
Abors,  Mishmis,  Singphos,  Kukis  or  Kuchis,  Kamptis,  Kurmis,  Kacharis, 
and  Muns.  The  first  five  occupy  the  river  valley,  and  the  remainder 
are  in  the  surrounding  hills,  with  an  aboriginal  race  claiming  descent 
from  the  Shan  or  Tai  rulers  (see  Asam),  The  Muns  or  Mughs  worked 
south  to  Arakan  (see  Barmah),  and  Assam  may  be  said  to  be  dominated 
by  Naga,  or  "  serpent"  tribes.  Although  Tibet  is  said  to  have  had  a 
cursive  script  by  our  9th  century  in  common  with  Assam,  the  Passep 
or  K'chab  writing  which  thence  developed,  and  in  which  much  valuable 
Buddhist  literature  is  preserved,  is  not  traced  earlier  than  our  13th 
century.  The  earlier  Buddhists — appealing  to  the  populace — used 
the  familiar  Pali  language,  and  the  Deva-nagari  characters  (see 
Deva-nagari,  and  Kharoshthi).  But  Asoka  did  not  confine  himself  to 
any  dialect  or  script,  desiring  to  be  understanded  of  the  people  in  all 
parts  of  his  empire  (see  As5ka). 

Philologically  Indian  languages  may  be  classed  as  follows,  a 
population  of  about  300  millions  in  1890  speaking  78  languages; 
and  out  of  this  103  millions  speak  Dravid  tongues;  105  millions  use 
various  Prakrits  ("  dialects  ") ;  10  millions  speak  Mongolian  tongues; 
another  1 0  millions  Urdu,Persian,and  Arabic;  and  77  millions  the  Hindi 
language,  which  is  Aryan  with  admixture  of  Turanian  and  Semitic  words. 


Aryan. 

;ieK»CB  UJL 

Dravid^ 

tan,  etc. 

Hindi 

77  millions. 

Telagu 

20  millions. 

K  Bangali  . 

45 

>i 

Mahrathi     . 

20        „ 

Prakrits 

50 

}> 

Panjabi 

20        „ 

XJriya           . 

10 

» 

Tamil 

16        „ 

Urdu 

5 

9» 

Qujerati 

11        „ 

Barmese 

9 

n 

Kanarese 

10        „ 

Shan . 

1 

9t 

nillions. 

Malayalam  . 

Total 

6        „ 

Total     , 

,     197  t 

.     103  millions. 

288  Indra 

The  language  used  does  not  however  imply  the  purity  of  the 
race ;  S.  and  Central  India,  racially,  is  dominated  by  Turanians,  and 
the  Aryan  or  Aryanised  Prakrits  are  confined  in  great  measure  to 
the  N.W.  Vedik  writers,  and  later  historians  alike,  seem  to  have 
known  little  of  the  history  of  the  Dr&vidians  further  south,  or  of  the 
kingdoms  even  of  S.E.  Bangal.  Only  about  the  time  of  Seleucus  do 
the  Aryans  seem  to  have  attained  power,  when  Chandra-gupta  (the 
Sandra-cottus  of  classic  writers)  usurped,  in  315  B.C.,  the  throne  of  the 
old  Nanda  dynasty  of  Magadha.  Asoka  himself  appears  to  have  been 
partly  a  Greek,  since  Seleucus  gave  a  daughter  to  his  ally  (see  Asoka). 
Yet  Ghandra-gupta  claimed  also  to  be  connected  with  the  Mali  dynasty, 
having  married  a  Mali  princess,  which  seems  to  indicate  an  admixture 
of  non-Aryan  blood.  The  actual  history  of  India,  as  learned  from  her 
monuments,  begins  with  Asoka,  and  her  influence  on  the  world  dates 
from  the  time  that  his  Buddhist  missionaries  were  sent  out  east,  and 
west,  and  south.  With  the  allusions  to  contemporary  rulers  of  the 
West,  in  his  texts,  we  first  come  into  the  full  light  of  history  io 
India. 

Indra.  Indrani.  Sanskrit :  "  the  rainer,"  and  his  wife ;  from 
Irvdu  a  **  drop."  They  are  the  sky  gods  of  Aryans.  Indra  is  the  sod 
of  Dyu  or  "  day,"  and  the  ruler  of  the  thunder,  clouds,  and  rain — a 
Jupiter  Pluvius,  the  guide  and  guardian  of  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
according  to  his  pleasure,  and  with  due  regard  to  bis  children  on  earth, 
the  herdsmen,  to  whom  rain  was  so  important  But  he  was  not  a 
model  parent,  and  was  a  fiery  and  jealous  god.  Gradually  he  relapsed 
into  the  second  rank,  as  Dyaush  {"  the  bright "),  and  Varuna  (the 
"wide"  heaven)  superseded  him  as  supreme.  Indra,  says  Mr  Grierson 
(Indian  Antiq.,  Jany.  1889),  does  not  belong  to  the  original  Aryan 
pantheon  ;  some  Orientalists  connect  the  name  with  indh  ''to  be  clear/' 
as  representing  the  first  light  of  dawn  before  the  spread  of  the  aurora, 
when  the  stars  are  still  in  the  sky  and  harness  his  chariot.  Light  and 
darkness  are  then  struggling  together,  and  Indra  conquers  Susbna  the 
demon  who  holds  the  light  imprisoned  (see  Prof.  A.  de  Gubematis, 
ZooL  MythoL,  i,  pp.  18,  89).  Indra  is  also  called  Soma-patam,  ''the 
drinker  of  Soma,"  which  he  sprinkles  on  all  creation.  He  is  the  owner 
of  the  cow  clouds  (see  Herakles)  which  the  Fanis  stole  and  hid  in  a 
cave,  as  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  legends.  He  strikes  the  cows  with 
the  triple  Vajra  (the  thunder  bolt)  to  make  them  yield  their  milk — 
as  the  Germans  still  strike  cows  with  rods  to  make  them  fruitful  He 
was  a  Mid-Asian  deity,  but  in  the  Mazdean  system  of  Persia  he 
becomes  a  demon,  with  other  Devas  of  the  Vedik  Aryans.    The  legend 


Indra  289 

of  Indra's  slaughter  o{  the  serpent  Ahi  (or  Vritra)  compares  evidently 
with  the  Persian  legend  of  Thraetdna  and  the  serpent  Azi-dabak,  as 
well  as  with  that  of  Apollo,  or  Marduk,  or  any  of  the  other  dragon 
slayers,  including  Krishna  who  slays  KaJya  the  "  deadly  "  snake  of  the 
Jamuna.  Indra  dwells  among  the  waters,  and  is  borne  by  Airavata — 
an  elephant,  which  was  the  first  being  created  from  the  chaotic  ocean, 
and  apparently  symbolises  a  cloud.  One  of  Indra's  symbols  is  thus  the 
Ankvs  or  elephant  goad.  He  also  carried  a  lance  or  dart,  a  ray  of 
light  or  flash  of  lightning.  He  is  constantly  connected  with  the 
peacock,  symbolising  the  dark  blue  sky  (Argus)  with  all  its  luminaries, 
and  is  thus  called  Mayur-Isvara,  a  name  also  given  to  Siva,  Kama,  and 
Skanda.  The  Ceylon  Balis  said  that  Indra  was  Sakra,  a  god  ruling 
the  hosts  of  heaven,  and  all  fairies  and  demons. 

Indra  indeed  assumes  many  forms,  and  became  the  hero  Kavya- 
ukana.  His  struggles  and  "  labours "  were  numerous.  He  is  a 
wanderer  seeking  his  lost  cows,  a  hunter,  and  a  god  who  pours  water 
on  dry  places,  and  makes  the  wilderness  rejoice  (see  Sir  G.  Cox,  Arya/ih 
Mythd,,  i,  p.  339).  Indra  Sthatar  answers  to  Jupiter  Stator,  who 
was  symbolised  by  the  erect  stone.  A  Pandit  of  the  Gorakh-pur 
district  (Proc.  Bombay  Anthrop.  Socy.,  28th  October  1896)  describes 
his  worship  in  connection  with  an  obelisk,  24  ft.  high,  near  the  village 
of  Majbauli.  The  Brahman  Bhadra-Som  who  erected  it,  inscribed  it 
saying  that  he  offered  sacrifices  to  this  great  god  of  rain,  and  "  has  set 
up  five  images  of  Indra  as  high  as  mountains,"  meaning  five  lofty, 
stones,  one  being  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas  not  far  from  Kapila- 
vastu,  one  at  Bhagal-pur,  and  the  others  at  Sara,  Betuja,  and  Kahan- 
wa-gaon. 

Indra  is  said  to  chase  the  dawn-maiden  Ahana,  and  to  shatter 
the  chariot  of  Ushas,  breaking  up  the  aurora.  He  seduced  Ahalya 
the  first-born  daughter  of  Brahma,  and  wife  of  the  Bishi  Gotama  :  she 
was  a  *'godess  of  the  shades  of  night"  (Max  MtLller,  Science  of  Lang,, 
p.  502).  The  moon  as  a  cock  or  peacock,  Krika-vaka,  roused  Gotama 
for  his  devotions,  and  Indra  took  his  place  in  Ahalya's  couch.  They 
were  discovered,  and  Gotama  turned  the  false  wife  into  stone,  while 
Indra  was  marked  all  over  with  the  Yoni  mark,  and  therefore  called 
Sa-YonL  But  these  marks  the  pitying  gods  turned  into  eyes,  and  his 
lost  phallus  was  replaced  by  that  of  a  ram — ^an  ancient  nature  myth 
with  very  primitive  symbolism.  He  is  therefore  often  invoked  to 
restore  lost  powers  {Zool.  MythoLy  ii,  pp.  155,  280).  In  the  Rig 
Veda,  on  the  other  hand,  Indra  is  said  thrice  to  purify  the  maid 
Ahalya  with  his  chakra  or  **  wheel " — the  sun  appearing  from  the 
darkness.      The  Rig  Veda  is  full  of  praises  of  Indra,  and  records  his 

•p  2 


290  Indra 

prowess  and  glories,  as  "  begotten  of  a  vigorous  god  and  of  a  heroic 
godess/'     From  Indra  sprang  Arjuna  the  "  shining  *'  Apollo  of  India, 
for  whom  he  stole  the  divine  coat  of  mail  from  Kama ;  and  Arjuna 
was  called  Aindri,  while  his  son  by  Ulupl  (the  serpent  princess)  was 
Iravat,  perhaps  connected  with  Airavata,  or  Indra's  elephant.      The 
arms  of  Indra  reach  all  over  the  earth,  and  his  Protean  forms  are  end- 
less.    He  is  a  "  ruddy  god  "  drawn  by  two  ruddy  or  tawny  horses,  with 
flowing  manes  and  tails — apparently  clouds  tinged  with  the  colors  of 
dawn.     He  alone  can  conquer  Ahi — ^the  cloud   snake  which   causes 
dearth  by  swallowing  the  rains.      He  has  also  a  hook,  and  a  net  ia 
which  he  entangles  his  enemies — as  Mars  was  caught  in  Vulcan's  net. 
He  defeats  the  Asuras,  or  ungodly,  and  the  Panis ;   and  "  broke  down 
the  high  stone-built  cities  "  of  these  foes.     He  goes  forth  drunk  with 
Soma,  or  Amrita,  an  armed  warrior  at  whose  beck  hosts  of  Maruts 
("crushers"  or  winds)  spring  up.     Vishnu  is  his  "comrade"  in  the 
Vedas,  but  supersedes  him  later.     The  great  triad  of  the  Rig  Veda  is 
that  of  Indra,  Agni,  and  Surya  ("  rain,  fire,  and  sun  "),  while  the  legend 
of  Ahalya,  which  discredits  Indra,  belongs  to  the  later  age  of  the  epiks, 
in  which  also  Bavana — the  Sakshasa  or  demon — invades  the  heaven 
of  Indra,  and  is  so  called  Indra-jit,  **  the  conqueror  of  Indra,"  till  him- 
self conquered  by  Rama.     He  refused  to  release  Indra  until  Brahma 
promised  immortality  to  the  Dasyu,  which  indicates  a  non-Aryan  oon* 
nection.     In  the  Maha-bharata  Indra  is  a  drunken  and  licentious  god, 
as  King  Nahusha  pleaded  when  trying  to  gain  Indra's  wife.     In  the 
Puranas  Krishna  is  the  successful  rival  of  Indra,  who  deluged  the 
pastoral  Vrajas  with  rain  till  Krishna  raised  over  them,  for  protection, 
the  mountain  Govandana.     The  two  gods  met  and  fought  when  Krishna 
tried  to  carry  off  the  sacred  tree  Parijata  from  Indra's  Paradise — Indra- 
loka.     Krishna  conquered,  and  bore  it  away — an  incident  celebrated 
at  the  festival  called  the  Sakra-dhvajot-thaua,  or  "  raising  of  Indra's 
standard"  (see  Rivers  of  Life,  ii,  p,  154).     The  Daityas  also  con- 
quered Indra  and  reduced  him  to  beggary,  but  through  over  confidence 
allowed  the  "  thunderer  "  to  regain  all  his  power. 

Indraui,  Sachi,  or  Aindri,  "  the  ever  blooming,"  was  the  wife  of 
Indra,  and  the  Queen  of  Heaven,  She  is  pictured  in  the  Indrani 
cave  at  Elora  seated  on  the  tiger.  Like  Devaki,  mother  of  Krishnsi, 
she  carries  on  her  knee  the  infant  son  of  Indra — Arjuna  "  the  bright," 
who  became  the  heroic  friend  of  Krishna.  He  is  usually  known  as 
Chitra-putra  "the  son  of  brightness,"  and  Jaya  or  Jayanta  who  is 
said  to  have  been  born  of  a  cow :  for  Indrani  herself  is  ever  viigin, 
and  a  virgin  mother.  Yet  she  had  also  a  daughter,  Deva-sena  or 
Tavishi,    otherwise   called    Jayani   or   Jayanta      Indrani    is  not   a 


Indra-putra  291 

promineDt  figure  in  the  Vedas,  and  is  decidedly  a  phallic  deity  at 
Elora  (see  Asiatic  Res.,  vi,  p.  393). 

India  stopped  the  chariot  of  the  sun  like  Joshua,  and  divided 
the  sea  like  Moses,  but  the  more  spiritual  idea  of  a  god  who  reads 
the  thoughts  of  the  heart  attached,  not  to  Indra,  but  to  Yaruna. 

Indra-putra.  Sanskrit :  *'  Indra's  child."  An  ancient  city,  now 
a  mound  measuring  850  feet  N.  and  S.,  by  1250  feet  E.  and  W., 
haying  on  it  a  small  village,  Indor  or  Ind-Khera.  A  copper  plate 
here  discovered  determines  the  date  of  a  Skanda-gupta  (see  India),  as 
either  146  or  224  A.C. 

Indriya.  Aindriya.  Sanskrit:  "sap,"  "power."  The  palm, 
sacred  to  Siva,  is  called  the  Trina  Indriya. 

Indu.  Indhu.  Sindhu*  Sanskrit.  A  name  of  the  full  moon, 
as  the  "  shining  one,"  connected  also  with  indu  for  "  drop,"  as  the 
moon  was  the  cup  which  held  the  ambrosial  dew  or  Soma. 

Infallibility.     See  Bible,  Inspiration,  Miracles,  Prophecy. 

Innish-Muir.   Inish  Murray.    A  sacred  islet  off  the  W. 

Sligo  coast,  also  called  Inish-Kea.     It  is  about  5  miles  from  the  land, 
and  contains  a  remarkable  temple  (see  Muri). 

Ino.  The  nurse  of  Dionusos,  and  a  sea  godess.  Near  the 
Phoenician  Kuthera  there  was  an  ancient  temple  and  oracle  of  Ino, 
beside  a  sacred  rock  that  overhangs  the  sea ;  and  *from  this  rock  she 
was  said  to  have  leapt  She  appears  to  be  connected  with  Juno- 
Matuta,  as  carrying  the  infant  sun  Dionusos. 

Inspiration.  "  In-breathing " :  the  suggestion  by  a  god  to 
some  holy  man.  All  Bibles  have  been  regarded  at  some  time  or 
other,  by  their  readers,  as  due  to  inspiration.  Sometimes  the  prophet 
or  poet  claims  to  speak  in  the  god's  name,  or  to  relate  a  divine  vision. 
Even  Hammurabi  prefaces  his  laws  with  the  formula,  "as  Ood  has 
commanded."  Sometimes  the  writing  has  only  come  to  be  regarded 
as  inspired  long  after  the  author's  death,  or  the  writer  refers  to  a 
traditional  past  in  such  words  as  **  The  Lord  spoke  to  Moses." 
According  to  Hindus,  inspiration  is  of  two  kinds,  Sruti  ("heard")  or 
Smriti  ("  remembered ") :  that  is  to  say,  that  they  agree  with  the 
Council  of  Trent  that  "  tradition  is  equally  the  Word  of  God."  But 
all  inspiration  is  usually  regarded  as  the  revelation  by  God  of 
infallible  truth ;  and  it  is  only  in  quite  recent  times  that  the  word 
has  been  more  loosely  used,  as  when  we  call  a  poet  "  inspired."     It 


292  Inspiration 

is  clear,  however,  that  no  deity  could  so  inspire  any  man  as  to  cause 
him  to  understand,  or  to  utter,  things  past  human  understanding  ;  so 
that  Ezra  can  only  publish  the  law  (see  Ezra),  and  Daniel  must  seal 
the  book  (Dan.  xii,  4),  while  the  sayings  of  the  seven  thunders  are 
not  to  be  written  (Rev.  x,  4).  Yet  in  speaking  of  Christianity 
Tolstoi  now  tells  us :  "  It  is  necessary,  in  reading  the  Christian 
Gospels,  to  remember  that  they  have  passed  through  a  multiplicity  of 
compilations,  translations,  and  transcriptions,  and  were  composed  18 
centuries  ago,  by  poorly  educated  and  superstitious  persons."  "  They 
are  no  infallible  expressions  of  divine  truth,  but  the  work  of  many 
minds  and  hands,  and  full  of  errors.  .  .  .  Let  us  respect  the  truth  by 
correcting  the  errors  we  find  in  them." 

A  great  change  has  come  over  the  attitude  of  learned  men  after 
long  study  of  an  open  Bible.  But  if  infallibility  is  no  longer  claimed, 
it  is  difficult  to  understand  what  they  now  mean  by  inspiration.  The 
revelation  of  error  by  God  cannot  be  supposed ;  and  if  the  Scripture 
is  corrupted  it  is  no  longer  a  revelation  of  perfect  truth.  The  boldest 
and  most  virile  of  our  churches  is  known  as  the  "  United  Free  Church 
of  Scotland  " ;  and  their  opponents — the  conservative  *'  Free  Church  " 
— have  been  at  the  pains  of  collecting  various  dicta  of  the  more 
advanced  school,  under  the  title  "  What  is  the  Doctrine  of  the  New 
Church  ? "     A  few  of  these  may  be  considered. 

Dr  Boss  Taylor  as  Moderator  declares  that  "  evolution  holds  on 
its  way  with  upward  impulse  and  beneficent  result  ...  a  restless, 
uneasy,  uncertain  feeling  in  regard  to  religious  truth  is  abroad.  .  .  . 
The  whole  trouble  arises  from  a  mistaken  assumption  that  the  opening 
chapter  of  Genesis  was  meant  to  be  an  authoritative  account  of  the 
method,  and  order,  of  the  creative  work — it  is  not  prose,  but  poetry; 
the  great  Creation  hymn."  Prof.  Denney  {Studies  in  Theology)^ 
says  :  "  The  plain  truth — and  we  have  no  reason  to  hide  it — is  that 
we  do  not  know  the  beginnings  of  man's  life,  of  his  history,  of  his 
sin  :  we  do  not  know  them  historically  on  historical  evidence,  and  we 
should  be  content  to  let  them  remain  in  the  dark,  till  science  throws 
what  light  it  can  on  them."  Prof.  Martin  (The  AtUhority  of  the 
Bible)  says :  "  All  human  ingenuity  could  not  clear  the  Bible  of 
mistakes  on  points  of  science,  history,  and  morals — such  as  the 
scriptural  account  of  creation,  the  m^iking  of  woman,  and  the  Fall  .  .  . 
all  good  things  were  of  God  ...  in  that  indirect  sense  the  Bible 
was  the  Word  of  God."  Prof.  Marcus  Dods  (sermon,  "What  is  a 
Christian?"  29th  Septr.  1890)  says  again:  "We  need  not  be 
seriously  disturbed  in  spirit  if  we  find  we  cannot  accept  what  is 
known  as  the  orthodox  theory  of  the  Atonement  ...   we  must  not 


Inspiration  293 

too  hastily  coDclude  that  even  a  belief  in  Chriflt's  divinity  is  essential 
to  the  true  Christian."  As  regards  the  Book  of  Jonah,  Prof.  G.  A. 
Smith  exclaims  :  '*  How  long,  0  Lord,  must  Thy  poetry  suffer  from 
those  who  can  only  treat  it  as  prose — pedants,  quenchers  of  the 
spiritual,  creators  of  unbelief."  Tet  Christ  is  represented  in  the 
Gospels  as  having  believed  Jonah  to  have  been  three  days  in  the 
belly  of  the  fish.  Prof.  A.  B.  Bruce  writes :  "  Cannot  we  see  for 
ourselves,  without  voices  from  heaven,  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  as 
revealed  in  His  recorded  works  and  acts,  is  a  Son  of  God,  if  not  in 
the  metaphysical  sense  of  theology,  at  least  in  the  ethical  sense  of 
possessing  a  God-like  spirit." 

A  similar  movement  has  now  begun  to  be  manifest  even  in  the 
Church  of  England,  due  no  doubt  to  the  influence  of  Renan,  and  of 
such  German  writers  as  Harnack.  The  Rev.  Dr  G.  A.  Smith 
(Modem  Criticiam,  1901)  says:  "The  religion  of  Israel  was  poly- 
theistic until  the  age  of  the  prophets  .  .  .  the  writings  that  follow 
are  to  a  large  extent  derived  from  Babylonian  myth  and  legend, 
whilst  the  patriarchal  narratives  are  of  a  fanciful  and  parabolic  char- 
acter ** :  "  the  Messianic  prophecies  are  treated  (by  himself,  as  he  says) 
in  a  naturalistic  manner " ;  and  he  goes  on  to  question  "  the  whole 
Old  Testament  sacrificial  system,  and  the  nature  of  vicarious  suffering 
even  in  its  relation  to  the  substitutionary  sacrifice  of  Christ."  [Such 
views  attracted  little  attention  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  when  Rivers 
of  Life  and  Bihls  Folk-Lore  were  written. — 'Ed,]  We  cannot  wonder 
that  other  churches  should  hold  this  to  be  "  subversive  of  the  history 
and  truthfulness  of  large  portions  of  Holy  Scripture,  its  authority,  and 
inspiration.'' 

But  if  these  views  are  correct,  as  far  as  they  go,  it  is  surely  time 
to  drop  the  ancient  dogmas  of  infallibility  and  inspiration  altogether, 
not  quibbling  over  words,  or  attempting  to  give  them  new  meanings. 
Such  adjustments  have  always  misled  ancients  and  moderns,  diverting 
their  thoughts  into  a  thousand  paths  that  lead  nowhere.  The  meaning 
of  the  ancients  is  clear.  Abraham  believed  in  his  call  when  he  pre- 
pared to  sacrifice  Isaac,  as  the  Hindu  Kuruba  did  in  1901  (see 
Sacrifice)  when  he  cut  off  his  child's  head  in  the  temple  saying,  **  I 
offer  this  to  the  bestower  of  all  blessings ;  may  he  give  them  to  me, 
and  restore  my  boy."  Eoruba  died  a  willing  martyr  to  the  faith  that 
was  in  him.  He  believed  himself  inspired  as  truly  as  any  convert  of 
Scotland  or  Wales  (see  Conversion).  Inspiration  has  always  been 
taught  by  priests,  and  has  always  been  accepted  by  the  masses,  who 
are  ever  willing  to  follow  them.  Ignorance  and  impatience  are  always 
seeking  short  cuts  to  truth.     The  majority  of  mankind  live  in  a  daily 


294  Inspiration 

atmosphere  of  miracles^  and  infallibility  is  a  mighty  weapon  in  the 
hands  of  those  who  desire  to  rule  them.  It  enables  the  interpreters 
of  the  Word  of  God  to  threaten  the  thunders  of  heaven.  ''  By  Thy 
terrors,  O  God,  do  we  persuade  men."  "  Fear  Him  who  hath  power  to 
cast  into  hell."  "  It  is  a  fearful  thing  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  God.** 
The  people  are  ever  crying,  *'  Tell  us  what  to  believe,  what  the  Lord 
demands  of  us:  we  will  obey,  and  will  listen  to  no  other  god  or  teacher.** 
But  even  apart  from  fear  men  love  dogma ;  they  hate  doubt ;  and 
they  are  averse  to  sustained  thought  and  enquiry.  They  are  ever 
ready  to  listen  to  the  man  who  speaks  with  confidence  and  eloquence. 
If  men,  searching  for  truth  and  fairly  educated,  could  calmly  and 
reasonably  choose  their  leader,  as  they  would  choose  an  adviser  in  the 
ordinary  affairs  of  life,  they  would  perceive  that  neither  church  nor 
man  can  establish  the  reality  of  infallible  inspiration.  If  indeed  any 
could  prove  himself,  or  another,  to  be  so  inspired,  then  all  Bibles  might 
equally  be  accepted.  Our  faith  is  only  a  geographical  accident,  due  to 
the  history  of  races.  Faith  in  all  lands  is  strong  among  those  who 
know  nothing  of  the  history  of  their  Bibles,  or  of  the  difficulties  and 
complexities  which  special  study  of  them  reveals. 

Man's  craving  for  a  "  Word  from  Heaven  "  has  long  been  intense, 
and  the  cry  has  produced  the  answer,  much  to  the  detriment  of  our 
intellectual  progress.  Failing  an  infallible  book  men  create  for  them- 
selves infallible  men —  Shamans  in  Tartary,  the  Lama  at  Lhasa,  the  Pope 
at  Bome.  The  dark  history  of  the  past  shows  us  that  the  results  are 
discord,  misery,  and  bloody  persecutions.  ^The  belief  in  inspiration^ 
and  in  infallibility,  has  been  a  fatal  nightmare,  and  has  produced  every 
form  of  mental  and  physical  slavery.  It  has  deluged  the  world  with 
blood,  and  fostered  cruelty  and  sorrow.  It  is  a  sword  which  is  set 
between  parents  and  children,  tribes  and  nations.  Christ,  we  would 
fain  believe,  never  intended  to  send  it  on  earth,  though  he  is  siud  to 
have  foreseen  it  The  belief  is  due  partly  to  fear,  partly  to  thirst  for 
truth  suoh  as  should  always  inspire  us  ;  but  it  has  quenched  truth  in 
blood,  and  has  darkened  counsel  Advance  is  impossible  until  this 
cardinal  error  in  our  views  about  ancient  priests,  and  their  writings, 
hais  been  recognised.  He  who  thinks  that  the  truth  he  has  attained 
is  complete,  and  final,  knows  nothing  about  his  subject — nay  is  in 
most  grievous  bonds  of  ignorance,  and  very  far  from  the  road  that 
leads  to  the  heaven  of  Truth.  He  must  go  back  to  Doubt :  he  most 
question  first  principles :  he  must  learn  the  ways  of  science — that  is 
of  real  knowledge.  He  must  seek  Truth  not  once  but  continually, 
without  bias,  and  severely  investigating  every  statement  placed  before 
him,  being  assured  only  of  his  own  ignorance,  and  deeming  neitlier 


Inspiration  t295 

himself  nor  any  other  man  infallible  on  any  subject.  Let  him  be  ever 
ready  to  test,  again  and  again,  all  that  he  has  hitherto  taken  for 
granted  as  proven,  as  his  insight  becomes  deeper.  Let  him  keep  in 
memory  the  bias  which  he  has  inherited,  through  birth  and  education, 
or  through  circumstances — the  swaddling  bands  wound  round  him  in 
infancy,  and  the  affections  and  memories  to  which  he  clings.  Let  him 
follow  every  sign  of  Truth,  though  he  knows  not  where  it  will  lead 
him,  remembering  that  ''  the  wisest  are  those  who  know  that  they 
know  not."  Let  him  pause  when  he  can  find  no  firm  ground  on 
which  to  tread,  but  not  even  then  rest  content :  for  what  we  know 
to-day  is  but  a  small  part  of  that  which  we  have  still  to  learn,  especi- 
ally as  regards  the  dark  ways  of  the  Unknown,  who  is  perhaps 
unknowable.  Divine  communications,  whether  through  man  or  by 
book,  we  cannot  establish  as  realities :  nor  may  we  trust  the  asser- 
tions of  those  who  thus  strive  to  solve  all  problems,  not  even  when 
they  refer  us  to  "  ages  of  Faith,"  or  to  "  millions  of  believers  "  :  for  we 
everywhere  see  that  the  blind,  through  blindness  or  through  self- 
interest  and  prejudice,  have  led  the  blind,  especially  in  matters  of 
superstition  and  supernatural  wonders. 

The  idea  of  inspiration  was  taken  up  by  the  Jews  from  the  time 
of  Ezra  ;  and  they  became  acquainted  in  the  East  with  others  who 
claimed  inspiration  for  the  Yedas,  or  the  Avesta.  No  words  were 
more  common  in  the  mouths  of  priests  and  prophets  than  **  Thus  saith 
the  Lord/'  But  all  ancient  scriptures  claim,  or  have  been  claimed,  to 
be  inspired,  in  spite  of  all  their  irreconcileable  statements  and  contradic- 
tions. It  was  in  vain  that  the  Christian  wrote  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
(2  Tim.  iii,  16),  "all  scripture  is  given  by  inspiration  of  Gk)d."  He 
was  not  including  his  own  or  any  other  work  of  the  New  Testament, 
for  the  claim  that  these  were  inspired  is  unnoticed  till  more  than  a 
century  afterwards.  It  was  not  till  after  70  A.c.  that  the  Rabbis  of 
Jamnia,  or  of  Tiberias,  settled  their  canon  and  finally  declared  it 
complete  and  infallible.  The  old  conventional  "  thus  saith  the  Lord  " 
then  obtained  a  new  meaning,  such  as  we  attach  to  the  idea  of 
inspiration  ;  and  Christians  followed  the  Jewish  example  a  century 
or  so  later.  None  of  the  New  Testament  writers  claim  to  be  inspired 
themselves ;  and  Paul  when  giving  advice  to  converts  only  "  thinks  " 
he  is  led  by  God  so  to  do.  The  misquotations  of  these  writers  are 
now  explained  by  scholars  as  probably  due  to  different  recensions  of  the 
Scriptures  that  they  quote  ;  they  often  appear  to  be  the  blunders  of  later 
scribes,  who  added  to  the  words  of  their  originals  ;  but  we  have  shown 
{Short  Sivdies,  chapter  ix)  that  no  correct  version  now  exists.  An 
inspired  writer  (1    Cor.  x,  8)  would  hardly  have   differed  from   his 


296  Inverness 

authority  (Num.  xxv,  9)  in  a  simple  question  of  numbers.  Caoon 
Driver  (in  1900),  addressing  the  New  College  at  Hampstead,  is 
reduced  by  conscience  to  say  that,  though  "  the  writers  of  all  sacred 
books  were  in  a  sense  inspired — that  is,  had  a  divine  afflatus  or 
illuminative  spirit — ^yet  our  Biblical  writers  had  this  gift  in  a  special 
and  miraculous  measure,  though  not  so  as  to  confer  upon  them 
immunity  from  error."  He  concludes,  therefore,  that  the  Hebrew  and 
Christian  Bible  "  is  not  strictly  the  Word  of  Qod,  but  only  contains  the 
Word  of  God."  We  are  thus  left  to  pick  our  way  in  painful  uncertainty, 
with  a  very  fallible  guide — a  book  which  has  continually  become 
more  full  of  errors  in  passing  through  the  hands  of  generations  of 
compilers,  and  of  copyists  more  or  less  ignorant  and  prejudiced.  This 
was  not  what  the  Christian  writer  meant  when  he  said  (2. Peter  i,  21) 
that :  "  Holy  men  of  Qod  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy 
Ghost."  Dr  Driver  says  that  "  the  historical  books  are  now  seen  to 
be  no  longer  the  works  of  Moses,  Joshua,  or  Samuel  .  .  .  some 
of  the  principal  stories  are  fabulous."  Yet  it  is  recorded  of  Christ 
(Luke  xxiv,  27)  that  ''beginning  at  Moses,  and  all  the  prophets.  He 
expounded  unto  them,  in  all  the  Scriptures,  the  things  concerning 
Himself."  To  give  this  up  is  to  give  up  the  Bible,  and  Christianity 
as  popularly  believed. 

Inverness.     See  Stones,  as  to  the  Elach-na-kud3. 

lo.  A  cow  godess  and  bride  of  Zeus,  said  to  have  been  chained 
to  an  olive  tree  in  the  grove  of  HSre  at  Mukenai.  Hermes,  guided 
by  Zeus  in  the  form  of  a  bird,  slew  Argus  who  watched  her,  and  she 
wandered  in  Arkadia,  Euboia,  and  Egypt.  The  name  may  mean 
"  bright "  (see  /,  and  A).  She  was  a  daughter  of  Inakhos  the  first 
king  of  Argos,  and  became  a  white  heifer.  Juno  sent  a  gadfly  to 
torment  her,  but  she  found  rest  on  the  Nile  where  her  son  Epaphus 
was  bom. 

Idnid*.  Eidnes.  The  colonists  of  Ionia — the  shores  K  of  the 
Aigean  Sea — were  Greeks  from  the  W. ;  and  Attika  itself  was 
originally  called  Ionia.  The  Yavanu  of  the  Assyrians,  the  Tavan 
of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  Yavana  of  Hindu  tradition,  were  loniaos. 
[The  name  may  perhaps  come  from  /  or  Ai  "  shore,"  as  meaning 
"  shore-dwellers." — Ed.]  According  to  Greek  tradition  Kodros,  King 
of  Athens,  sent  his  younger  sons  Neleus  and  Androkl^s,  to  Ionia  about 
1050  B.C.  Ionia  was  conquered  by  the  Medes  and  Persians  under 
Harpagos  in  545  B.C. 

lor.      Welsh  :  the  sun. 


lord  297 

lord.     SkaDdinavian.     The  earth,  daughter  of  Nott  or  night 

IravatcL  Iravati.  The  base  of  this  word  is  the  Sanskrit  ir 
*'  to  go  ^' ;  and  Iravati  is  a  stream  or  river.  [In  Turanian  speech  the 
meaning  is  the  same,  ir  and  ri  signifying  to  "  go  "  or  "  flow."  Akkadian 
Or-rvoL  "  water-flow,"  or  river  ;  Turkish  irmak  "  river." — Ed.]  Iravat, 
or  Airavata,  is  the  cloud  elephant  of  Indra;  and  a  great  Naga  tribe 
of  Kolarians  was  known  as  Iravats.  Iravat  was  also  the  son  of  Arjuna 
(see  Indra).  The  Haihayas,  or  Qonds,  were  especially  called  Iravats 
on  the  river  Iravati,  now  called  Rapti,  or  Erapatha  in  Pali  speech. 
The  western  Iravati  river  (our  Ravi)  was  the  "  river  of  Purus." 

Ireland.     The  leme  of  Aristotle,  and  of  Claudian,  the  Hibernia 

of  Csesar,  Tacitus,  and  Pliny,  probably  "  western  "  (see  Iberds),  and 

locally  known  as  Innis-fiod  ("  the  isle  of  woods "),  or  Ir-fala  ("  green 

land  "),  was  also  called .  Iberin,  Irene,  Ioum6,  and  Erin.     It  was  never 

conquered  by  Home,  and  we  have  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever  visited 

by  Phoenicians,  or  ever  inhabited  by  non-Aryans.     Place  names  are 

however  said  to  indicate  an  early  Eastern  language  (Prof.  Mackinnon, 

and    Mr  J.  Stadling  in  Contempy.  Review,  January  1901).     [Irish 

legendary  history  is  preserved  in  later  works  of  Christian  times,  and 

is    often   influenced   by  Biblical    teachings.      The   Irish  claim   early 

civilisation  on  the  evidence  of  their  famous  MSS. ;  but  these  belong 

to  our  8th  century,  while  Augustine  brought  the  civilisation  of  Rome 

to    the   Saxons  before   600  A.a      Ireland   is  said   to  have   received 

Christianity  from   Patricius,  a   nephew  of  St  Martin  of   Tours,  in 

432  A.G.     He  is  popularly  regarded  as  an  Irishman,  which  is  entirely 

wrong  if  his  usual  history  be  accepted.     It  is  remarkable  that  he  is 

never  mentioned  in  Bede's  history.     Tacitus  and  Claudian  say  the 

island  was  colonised  by  Britons.     Camden  thinks  by  Qauls,  Germans, 

and    Spaniards.     The  Erse,  or  Irish  language,  is  full  of  loan  words 

from  Christian  Low-Latin,  Norman  French,  and  even  from  Teutonic 

languages,  showing  that  the  Irish  Kelts  were  civilised  by  these  nations. 

The  population,  from   early  times,  has  been  very  mixed,  including, 

besides  the  Goidel  Kelts,  Danes,  Frisians,  Norwegians,  Swedes,  and 

Livonians,  as  early  as  our  9th  century.     It  still  includes  mixed  races : 

Danes  in  the  islands  and  on  the  shores :  semi-Teutonic  Scots  in  the 

north  ;  and  a  Spanish  element  of  the  1 6th  century  A.c.  in  the  south  ; 

together  with  some  Dutch,  Walloon,  and  similar  stocks,  even  in  the 

far  west;  as  also  a  Norman  element  since  the  arrival  of  Strongbow 

in  1170.     The  round  towers  for  which  Ireland  is  famous  were  then  in 

existence  (see  Fidh),  but  perhaps  not  very  old.    The  Ogham  characters 

— used  also  by  Kelts  in  Wales  aud  Cornwall  in  Roman  times — ^are 


298  Irenaeus 

perhaps  the  earliest  indications  of  rude  civilisation,  connected  with 
menhirs  and  dolmens  of  Keltik  origin.  The  Irish  legends  begin  with 
Partolan  (otherwise  Bartholomew)  and  his  followers,  who  fought  the 
Fomorian  giants  (perhaps  "big  beings"),  followed  (according  to 
Gerald  of  Cambray,  writing  in  1190  A.c.)  by  Cessair  the  grand- 
daughter of  Noah,  and  by  Nemed  from  Spain,  who  also  fought 
their  way  after  the  first  immigrants  had  died  of  plague.  About 
the  9th  century  A.C.  the  Fion-gael  and  Dubh-gael  were  ''fair 
strangers  "  and  ''  black  strangers."  The  Firbolgs  under  9  chiefs,  ruling 
for  80  years,  were  also  "  fair  men  " — perhaps  Belgae  (see  Kelts).  The 
Tuatha  Dedanaan  were  an  unknown,  and  semi-mythical  people  some- 
times supposed  to  have  been  Danes.  The  Milesian  Scots,  sometimes  said 
to  have  also  come  from  Spain,  migrated  from  N.  Ireland  to  the  Scottish 
lowlands.  Their  two  leaders,  Heber  and  Heremon,  were  brothers : 
the  latter  survived  and  defeated  Picts  and  Britons.  The  first  shadowy 
king  of  Ireland  is  Olam  Fodla,  whose  wife  Hugony  was  French,  and 
his  capital  the  famous  hill  of  Tara.  The  later  history  includes  the 
election  of  Malachy  King  of  Meath  in  846  A.c.  as  King  of  all  Ireland, 
and  the  war  of  Hugh  VI  with  Danes  in  863,  when  new  Skandinavian 
colonies  were  settling  in  Dublin,  Waterford,  and  Limerick.  The  Danish 
Kings  of  Limerick  gained  power  over  most  of  the  south  of  Ireland. 
The  wars  and  dissensions  continued  till  the  accession  of  Brian  Bom 
{Boirumhe)  in  1002  A.C.,  and  till  long  after  the  conquest  of  the 
eastern  provinces  by  England  in  1170.  The  character  used  in 
writing  Irish  is  equally  indicative  of  foreign  influences.  It  is  not 
of  Keltik  origin,  but  derived  from  the  Latin  minuscule  alphabet 
of  the  5th  century,  brought  in  by  the  missionaries  from  Gaul  and 
Eome. — Ed.] 

Irenaeus.  Greek  EvrETiaioa^  "  peaceful."  A  Christian  father 
who  wrote  a  work  of  which  the  original  Greek  text  is  known  only 
through  quotations  of  the  first  book.  In  1526  Erasmus  edited  a 
barbarous  Latin  translation,  using  three  MSS.  which  have  since  been 
lost.  Tertullian  thought  that  Irenseus  lived  as  late  as  220  A.C.,  and 
calls  him  *'  a  person  most  accurate  in  all  doctrines,"  but  does  not  call 
him  a  bishop.  Eusebius  {Hist,  Ecclea,,  v,  20)  supposed  him  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Smyrna,  bom  about  120  to  140  A.C.,  and  dying  about 
202  A.C.  He  was  a  mediator  between  the  Boman  bishop  and  those  of 
Asia,  in  the  question  of  the  celebration  of  Easter  {Hist  Ecdes.,  v,  1), 
when  Pope  Victor  nearly  caused  a  schism.  He  also  suffered  in  the 
persecution  by  Marcus  Aurelius  about  177  A.C.  {Hist.  Eccles.,  v,  24), 
and  is  supposed  to  have  known  Polycarp.     Some  say  he  was  only  14 


Irish-Ki-Gal  29 » 

when  he  accompanied  Fothinus  as  a  missionary  to  Oaul ;  and  on  the 
death  of  the  latter  in  177  A.c.  he  is  supposed  to  have  succeeded  him 
as  bishop  of  Lyons — the  early  Christianity  of  Gaul  being  thus  derived 
from  Ephesus  (or  Smyrna),  and  not  from  Rome,  which  accounts  for  the 
differences  between  Augustine  and  the  Culdee  monks  of  Britain  (see 
Kil),  since  they  were  sent  originally  by  the  Church  of  Gaul,  and 
followed  the  rites  of  the  Oriental  churches. 

Irenaeus  is  chiefly  known  as  the  author  of  a  work  in  five  books, 
directed  against  the  Ebionites  and  Gnostiks,  and  especially  against  the 
Valentinians ;  but  his  very  existence  has  been  doubted  by  Judge 
Strange  and  others;  and  the  attribution  of  the  work,  as  we  now  have 
it,  may  be  considered  uncertain.  The  writer,  whoever  he  was,  was  an 
humble  minded  and  somewhat  ignorant  man,  who  believed  Christ  to 
have  lived  to  the  age  of  50  years.  He  says  (according  to  the  Latin 
text):  "  It  is  not  possible  that  the  Gospels  can  be  either  more  or  fewer 
in  number  than  they  are  :  for  there  are  four  quarters  of  the  earth,  and 
four  winds ;  and  therefore  there  should  be  four  pillars  and  grounds  of 
truth.  .  .  .  the  living  creatures  are  four-formed."  He  knew  appar* 
ently  of  four  Gospels,  with  the  Acts,  13  Epistles  of  Paul,  the  1st 
Epistle  of  John,  the  Apocalypse,  and  other  works  such  as  the  gospel 
of  the  Hebrews  and  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas.-  Irenseus  is  also  the 
authority  for  the  names  of  bishops  of  Rome,  **  successors  of  Paul," 
down  to  Eleutherus.  Cyprian  knew  of  him  apparently  in  the  3rd 
century,  but  Tatian,  Athenagoras,  and  other  early  writers,  do  not  mention 
him :  so  that  he  appears  to  have  been  known  in  the  West  earlier  than 
in  the  East.  He  shared  the  belief  of  the  pseudo-Petrine  Gaspel  and 
Epistle,  saying  that  Christ  **  descended  to  preach  forgiveness  of  sins, 
and  to  loosen  the  chains  of  the  righteous.  .  .  .  prophets  and  patriarchs 
lying  in  Hell "  (Adv.  Hoeres,,  IV,  xxvii,  2). 

Irish-Ki-Gal.     See  Hel,  Hell. 

Ir-Kalla.     Akkadian.     ''  The  great  devourer."     See  Hel. 

Ish.  Aish.     Hebrew  :  "  man,"  "  male."     See  As. 

Isaac.  The  legendary  son  of  Abraham,  the  Hebrew  I^-hak  Q*  he 
laughed  "),  named  from  the  laughter  of  the  parents  when  his  birth  was 
foretold  (Gen.  xvii,  17  :  xviii,  12,  13,  15).  He  is  said  to  have  married 
his  cousin  Rebekah  at  the  age  of  40,  but  to  have  been  60  when  his 
two  sons  were  bom  (Gen.  xxv,  20,  26).  The  legend  of  Sarah  and 
Abraham  in  Egypt  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Rebekah  and  Isaac  at 
Gerar  in  Philistia  (Gen.  xii  and  xxvi).  The  story  of  Abraham's  sacrifice 
of  Isaac  is,  by  Eusebius,  compared  with   the  Phoenician   myth  (see 


300  Isaiah 

Coiy,  ATicient  Frag.\  according  to  which  Eronos  (Saturn)  offered  up 
Tahid  (leoud),  the  *^  only  son,"  to  his  father  Ouranos  (HeavenX  and 
established  circumcision,  like  Abraham,  to  prevent  general  ruin  of  the 
world.  Jewish  tradition  makes  Isaac  an  angel  of  light,  created  before 
the  world,  and  afterwards  incarnate  as  one  of  the  three  sinless  ones, 
over  whom  death  had  no  power.  Shem  instructed  him ;  and  while 
Abraham  was  the  first  to  offer  prayer  at  dawn,  and  Jacob  at  night, 
Isaac  instituted  the  evening  prayer — Rabbinical  deductions  from 
passages  in  Genesis  as  to  the  lives  of  these  patriarchs. 

Isaiah.     Hebrew  :  "  Yah  saves  "  :  the  famous  son  of  Amos  (Amoz), 
living  late  in  the  8th  century  B.a  ;  of  whom  we  however  know  nothing 
but  what  we  are  told  in  the  Bible.     The  book  which  bears  his  name, 
we  are  now  informed  by  Prof.  Duhm  and  Dr  Cheyne,  not  only  includes 
the  work  of  two  or  more  authors,  but  also  "  interpolations  going  down 
to  the  close  of  the  2nd  century  B.C."  {Academy,  24th  Deer.  1892). 
The  learned  and  cautious  Dr  A.  B.  Davidson  (Temple  Bible^  1901) 
^ays :   ''  Only  the  first  part  of  this  book  is  written  by  I$aialL  ... 
nor  is  the  editing  of  these  writings  his  work,  but  that  of  scribes — 
collectors  and   arrangers  of  the  scattered   fragments    of   the  sacred 
literature  of  their  day.  .  .  .  Chapters  xl  to  Ixvi  cannot  be  by  Isaiah, 
but  mostly  belong  to  the  time  of  the  exile."     This  is  by  no  means  a 
new  view,  aud  it  was  held  a  century  ago  by  Gesenius  and  others. 
Prof.    Davidson    cannot   say   who    is  intended    by   the    ''servant  of 
Jehovah,"   who   is  a  well-known   figure   in   the  later  chapters,:  and 
apparently  discards  the  explanation  in  the  Gospel  applying  the  words 
to  Christ.    The  references  to  Cyrus,  and  to  the  Hebrews  as  in  captivity 
and  just  about  to  return  to  Jerusalem,  in  the  second  part  of  the  book, 
were  brought  to  the  notice  of  Europe  only  in  1790.    But  the  discussiou 
as  to  the  Virgin  Mother  is  traced  back  to  the  2nd  century,  when 
Trypho  (Rabbi  Tarphon)  discarded  the  opinion  of  Justin  Martyr  as  to 
the  correct  translation,  on  the  same  grounds^  that  modem  critics  urge. 
Prof.  Duhm  (JDds  Buck  Jeaia,  1892)  thinks  that  chapter  Ix  was  the 
close  of  the  composite  book  about  540  B.C.,  and  that  chapters  Ixi  to 
Ixv  were  added  later  by  three  different  writers,  while  the  "  Deutero- 
Isaiah "  was  an  author  living  near  the  Lebanon,  and  responsible  for 
chapters  xl  to  Iv  "  exclusive  of  later  insertions."    The  poetical  passages 
(xlii,  1-4;  xlix,  1-6  ;  1,  4-9;  lii,  13  ;  liii,  1-12)  with  respect  to  the 
persecuted  "  Servant  of  Yahveh  "  are  by  this  Deutero-Isaiah  of  540 
B.C. ;  while  chapters  Ivi  to  Ix  are  (by  Duhm)  thought  to  have  been 
written  in  Jerusalem  about  430  b.o.     Even  the  first  thirty-five  chapters 
contain  corrupt  additions  by  some  later  writer  of  the  2nd  century  B.c. 


Isaiah  301 

[These  speculations,  like  others,  may  however  be  considered  as  un- 
certain as  the  views  of  older  critics  which  they  aim  at  superseding. 
Dr  Davidson's  more  generally  accepted  views  have  long  been  those 
held  by  educated  scholars;   but  in   detail  critical  assumptions  have 
sometimes  been  proved  to  be  unfounded.      Thus   chapter    xiii    was 
supposed  once  to  be  late  because  it  notices  (verse  17)  the  Medes 
whom  we  now  know  to  have  been  encountered  by  the  Assyrians  as 
early  as  840  ii.c. ;  and  the  destruction  of  Babylon  in  698  b.g.  (chapter 
xiv),  is  also  now  historically  established  by  the  records  of  Sennacherib 
(see  also  xxi,  2,  9).    The  early  part  of  Isaiah  (to  chapter  xxxix  inclusive) 
is  full  of  political  allusions,  now  illustrated  by  the  monumental  notices 
between  720  and  700  B.C. — Ed.]     It  is  well  known  that  the  word 
'Almah  (vii,  14)  does  not  mean  a  "  virgin  "  in  Hebrew  ;  but  it  is  clear 
that,  during  ages  of  oppression,  the  Hebrews   looked   forward   to   a 
Messiah  or  ''anointed  king" — a  ''branch"  of  the  stem  of  Jesse,  and 
a  descendant  of  David  (Isaiah  iv,  2  ;  xi,  1  :  Jeremiah  xxiii,  5  :  Hosea 
iii,  5  :   Ezekiel  xxxvii,  24,  25  :  Zech.  iii,  8  ;  vi,  12).     The  "Servant 
of  Tahveh  "  (Isaiah  xlix,  5,  6)  appears  to  be  the  writer  himself.     The 
Messiah  could  not  have  been*  expected  to  be  a   "  man  of  sorrows  '^ 
despised  and   rejected  (liii,  3),  and  the  figure  stands  apparently  for 
Israel  generally  (xliv,  1).     The  writer  refers  to  the  "former  things'* 
as  having  been  fulfilled  (xlii,  1-9),  apparently  with  reference  to  the 
older  chapters,  then  known  for  nearly  200  years.     The  application  of 
such  passages  to  the  history  of  Christ's  death  is  forced  and  difficult. 
He  was  not  blind  (xlii,  19),  nor  was  he  "  taken  from  prison  and  from 
judgment "  (liii,  8),  neither  had  he  any  sons  (verse  1 0),  nor  were  his 
days  "  prolonged."     He  did  not  even  himself  claim  (as  far  as  we  are 
told)  to  die,  or  to  be  smitten,  for  the  sins  of  others.     The  epithets 
applied  to  the  expected  Messiah  (ix,  6)  are  all  applicable  to  a  human 
prince,  since  the  words  "  mighty  God  "  and  "  everlasting  father  "  may 
be  better  rendered  :  ["  his  name  shall  be  called  Wonderful,  counselled 
by  God,  hero,  father  of  ages,  lord  of  peace." — Ed.]    The  predictions  of 
the  first  part  of  the  book  refer  to  events  just  about  to  happen  in  the 
8th  century  B.C.    Isaiah  was  wroth  with  his  people  for  their  cowardice 
and  corruption,  and  they  resented  or  laughed  at  his  denunciations. 
The  whole  work,  as  Dr  Davidson  remarks,  is  based  on  the  belief  that 
Yahveh  the  God  of  Israel  is  the  only  true  God,  but  one  declaring 
vengeance  against  the  Hebrew  nation,  for  their  sins  and  neglect  of  his 
service,   and   even   commanding  the  prophet  (vi,   10):    "Make   the 
heart  of  this  people  fat,  and  make  their  ears  heavy,  and  shut  their 
eyes ;    lest  they  see  with  their  eyes,  and  hear  with  their  ears,  and 
understand  with  their  heart,  and  convert  and  be  healed." 


302  Isdhubar 

No  doubt  a  historic  Isaiah  may  have  seen  visions  and  had 
moments  of  ecstasy,  believing  that  he  saw  what  he  describes.  He  often 
gives  utterance  to  noble  thoughts  in  beautiful  language ;  but  these 
things  are  familiar  to  those  who  have  witnessed  the  exaltation  of 
living  nahia  or  "  prophets  "  in  the  East.  They  wander  still  all  over  Asia, 
and  frequent  the  holy  places  of  India,  clad  in  sackcloth,  or  even  quite 
naked  when  this  is  permitted.  They  are  still  religious  politicians,  and 
prophets  whose  predictions  are  not  sdways  fulfilled.  They  have  caused 
us  much  trouble  in  India,  and  in  Egypt  alike.  The  reports  of  their 
miracles  and  visions  spread  far  and  wide  among  the  masses,  and  they 
have  often  incited  Messiahs  and  Mahdis  (''guided  ones")  to  their  own 
destruction  after  terrible  bloodshed  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  p.  597). 
Like  most  of  them  Isaiah  believed  only  in  his  own  inspiration,  and 
condemned  others  who  wore  hairy  garments  and  deceived  the  people, 
speaking  falsely  in  the  name  of  Tahveh,  that  priests  might  bear  rule. 
Unable  to  decide  between  the  opposite  predictions  of  such  prophets 
the  Hebrews  rejected  them  all,  as  we  should  do.  But  the  noble 
language  of  Isaiah  has  caused  his  words  to  remain,  while  others  are 
forgotten. 

Isdhubar.     See  Gilgamas. 

Isernia,  an  ancient  Italian  city  45  miles  S.E.  of  Naples,  where 
phallic  rites  were  described  as  late  as  1781  by  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
then  British  Minister  at  Naples.  He  describes  charms  still  worn  (see 
Eye)  including  the  hand  and  phallus.  The  priests  were  then 
endeavouring  to  suppress  these  emblems,  and  the  Friapian  cultus.  At 
the  fete  of  Saint  Cosmo  and  St  Damian  they,  however,  still  blessed 
phallic  emblems,  to  be  set  up  in  gardens  under  the  name  of  '*St 
Cosmo's  toe  " ;  and  women  presented  ex-votos  to  this  saint  of  phallic 
significance.  Any  affected  organ  was  uncovered  that  the  priest  might 
anoint  it  with  "  St  Cosmo's  oil." 

Isis.  Egyptian  Aai  or  Uaai,  probably  "  the  spirit "  (see  As) ;  the 
feminine  of  Aa-ir  or  Uaair  (Osiris)  the  male  spirit.  She  is  also  Maut 
"  the  mother,"  and  the  godess  of  the  moon,  of  the  ark,  and  of  water. 
Isis  and  Nephthys,  the  two  wives  between  whom  Osiris  stands,  are 
regarded  by  Benouf  as  godesses  of  dawn  and  sunset.  Isis  is  the 
mother  of  Horus  the  rising  sun. 

Islam.  Arabic :  from  the  root  SaZam  meaning  *'  to  be  safe," 
"  peaceful,"  "  healthy."  Muhammad  instructed  his  followers  to  call 
themselves  Muslim  (plural  MualiTmn),  and  said  that  Abraham  was  a 
Muslim.     [The  correct  rendering  of  Islam  appears  to  be  '*  salvation," 


Israel  303 

and  the  Muslim  is  one  "  saved."     But  it  is  usually  rendered  "  submis- 
sive," or  '*  at  peace  "  with  Grod. — Ed.] 

Israel.  Hebrew:  ''God  commanded."  In  Genesis  (xxxii,  28) 
there  is  a  play  on  the  word,  making  it  to  mean  "  he  commanded  God," 
as  applied  to  Jacob  (see  Hebrews). 

Israfil.  Israphel.  The  angel  who,  according  to  Moslems,  is 
to  blow  the  trumpet  at  doom's  day.  The  word  signifies  the  Seraph, 
or  "  burning  one,"  of  God, 

Istar.  Akkadian :  "  light  maker "  (see  'Astar).  The  moon 
godess,  bride  and  sister  of  Tam-zi  ("  sun  spirit "),  who  was  adopted  by 
Semitic  Babylonians  as  lataru,  and  by  Phoenicians,  Canaanites,  and 
many  Hebrews,  as  'Ashtoreth.  On  the  Moabite  stone  we  find  a  dual 
god  'Astar-Kamush.  Among  Arabs,  however,  the  sun  was  sometimes 
female  (as  with  Germans),  and  'Atthar  became  a  male  god.  Istar  was 
also  a  Venus,  represented — from  Nineveh  to  Ionia — as  a  naked 
godess,  holding  her  breasts  whence  she  nourishes  creation.  These 
early  figures,  of  ivory  and  pottery,  are  generally  grossly  phallic ;  and 
'Ashtoreth  was  so  represented  at  Gaza  down  to  400  A.C.  Sex  is  a 
matter  of  no  moment  among  primeval  deities ;  Istar  is  called  in 
Semitic  texts  "  the  daughter  of  Sinu  "  (the  male  moon) ;  but  devotees 
— recognising  the  original  meaning  of  the  name  — would  find  no  diffi- 
culty in  a  male  Venus.  She  bore  many  other  names  in  Akkadian  (or 
Turanian)  speech,  such  as  Nin-ka-si  ("  lady  horn-face  '*),  Nin-si-anna 
("  lady  eye-of-heaven  "),  Nin-kar-zi-da  ("  lady  of  the  (temple)  house  of 
the  spirit "),  Nin-kharak  {"  mountain  lady "),  and  Nin-khar-sagga 
C'lady  of  the  mountain  top"),  being  also  among  Assyrians  a  fiery 
godess  of  war,  armed  with  the  bow.  She  is  probably  also  Nina  or 
Nana  "  the  mother,"  represented  with  the  infant  sun  god  in  her  arms. 
The  Greeks  identified  her  with  Artemis,  and  Athene,  as  well  as  with 
Aphrodite. 

Istio.  The  Teutonic  patriarchal  deity,  son  of  Manus,  ¥^ho  was 
son  of  Tuisko. 

Isvana.  Sanskrit  A  form  of  the  sun  or  fire  (se^  As)  ;  from  the 
old  root  Is,  Us,  to  "  bum  "  or  "  shine,"  common  to  Aryan,  Turanian, 
and  Semitic  speech. 

Isvara.      Sanskrit :  '*  being  "  (see  As). 

ItU.  Idu.  Akkadian:  "moon"  or  "month."  [The  Etruskan 
idu8  "  full  moon,"  and  Turkish  Yede  "  month." — Ed.] 


304  Italy 

Italy.  The  ethnical  anil  religious  questions  connected  with  the 
peninsula  are  treated  in  special  articles  (see  Etruskans,  Fors,  Iberes 
Oskans,  Rome,  Sabines,  and  Umbri).  The  meaning  of  the  name  is  very 
doubtful  ;  some  connect  it  with  Tales  as  meaning  ''sunny  land  "  some 
with  Itul  or  Vetul  for  "  cattle  "  (Latin  vitviua  "  calf  ")  ;  Diodoros  says 
that  Samnium,  or  S.  Sabellia,  was  called  Talium  or  Italium ;  and  in 
the  Timaeus  of  Plato  Italy  is  called  "  the  land  of  cattle."  [These 
ancient  etymologies  seem  however  doubtful,  and  I-iAJil  may  simplj 
mean,  as  an  Aryan  or  as  a  Turanian  word,  "the  long  shore-land." 
—Ed.] 

The  ancient  names  of  Italy  included  Saturnia,  Ausonia,  Opicia, 
Argessa,  Jaoicula,  Tyrrhenia,  and    Oinotria  or   the   land  of  "  wine 
makers."     The  country  has  always  been  populated  either  from  the 
north  by  land,  or  from  the  south  by  sea.     Thus,  in  addition  to  the 
Turanian    Etruskans    and    the    Pelasgi,    it   was    invaded    by   Eeltik 
Umbrians  and    Oskans  from    the  north  ;  and    Greek   colonies  were 
early  established  in  Magna  Grecia  on  the  south.     The  Aryan  tribes 
whose  names  end  in  jY,  including  Sabini,    Latini,  and   others,  are 
believed  to  have  formed  a  distinct  stock,  though  akin  to  Kelts  and 
Greeks.     The  Latin  race  owed  its  civilisation  partly  to  the  Etruskans 
and  partly  to  early  Greeks.     The   Etruskans  encountered  not  only 
Pelasgic  tribes,  but  the  Ligurians,   whose  capital  was  at  Pisa,  and 
whom  Roman  authors  call  *'  one  of  the  most  ancient  nations  of  Italy.** 
They  bad  conquered  the  Iberian  coasts,  the  island  of  Eurnus  (Corsica), 
and   apparently   Sardinia,    with    Sicania  and    Latium :   some  r^[ard 
them  as  ancestors  of  Latins,  and  the  Umbri  as  forefathers  of  the 
Romans ;  but  all  the  various  races  were  no  doubt  much  mixed.     The 
Sabellians    occupied   provinces    E.    and  S.  of  Etruria,   and  bore  an 
European  Aryan  name.     They  were  gradually  driven  south  by  the 
stronger  races  about  1200  B.C.,  or  later.     The  Ligurians  also  appear 
to  have  been  driven  south  by  tribes  from   the  Alps,  called  Taurini 
(near  Turin),  Rhetae,  and  Eugani,  who  (according  to  Livy)  "  were  once 
great  and  powerful  over  all  the  country  from  the  Alps  to  the  sea," 
These  tribes  may  have  been  descended  from  the  neo-lithik  uncivilised 
people  whose  "lake  dwellings"  (about  3000   to   1500  B.C.)  are  found 
along  the  rivers  and  coasts  in  the  **  terra-mare  "  of  N.  Italy.     These 
Aryan  savages  received   metals  and   pottery,  in   the  later  ages  (1500 
B.C.  and  onwards),  from  Phoenician  and  Greek   traders.     The  Veneti, 
or  Oueneti,  were  "  fen-dwellers  "  of  unknown  race,  in   the  vicinity  of 
Venice,  who  were  opposed   to  the  Keltik  tribes  to  their  north — such 
as  the  Carni — and  they  seem  to  have  been  an  Istrian  or  Danubiau 
race,  probably  also  Aryan. 


Ivashtri  305 

When  the  Romans,  in  the  6th  century  B.a,  began  to  become  a 
nation,  of  mixed  Latin  and  Etruskan  origin,  N.  Italy  was  constantly 
receiving  Teutonic  immigrants  and  Gauls.  About  500  B.C.,  we  find 
Greeks  occupying  Calabria,  and  extending  to  the  gulf  of  Tarento. 
lapygia  was  not  then  known  as  Italia,  and  was  the  true  Oinotria,  or 
"  wine-makers "  land,  west  of  the  Appenines.  The  Greeks  said  that 
the  early  inhabitants  of  this  region  were  Felasgi,  who  came  from 
£piru8  and  Arkadia ;  and  Pausanias  regarded  these  as  *'  the  first 
colonisers  of  Italia."  They  may  have  been  the  Osci  and  Opici.  The 
Osci  occupied  Apulia,  Samnium,  Campania,  and  Latium,  having 
Lucanians  to  their  south.  This  was  before  the  establishment  of 
Umbrian  and  Sabine  kingdoms.  Italy  received  all  its  alphabets  from 
the  Turanians  and  the  Greeks  of  Ionia.  The  migrants  from  this 
region  would  be  acquainted  witli  the  great  island  of  Euboia,  which 
was  then  called  Italika.  [Dr  Isaac  Taylor  (Alphabet,  ii)  describes  the 
various  alphabets  —  Etruskan,  Oskan,  Umbrian,  and  Latin  —  from 
extant  texts  of  the  8th  and  later  centuries  B.C.  The  Caere  alphabet 
is  Etruskan,  and  distinct  from  the  Latin  which  originated  in  Chalcis. 
The  CumsB  colony  was  Euboian,  and  that  of  Syracuse  was  Corinthian. 
In  addition  to  these  immigrants,  Lenormant  supposes  that  the 
Phcenicians  of  Tyre  had  founded  settlements  on  the  coasts,  and  in 
the  islands  of  Italy,  long  before  the  Carthaginians  entered  Sicily. — Ed.] 

Ivashtri.      Sanskrit:  "the  maker"  or  "creator,"  the  Dhatir  of 
the  Vedas. 

Ixidn.  Iksidn.  Greek,  from  the  root  Ik  or  Ag,  and  the 
secondary  Aka,  meaning  "  burn "  or  "  shine."  He  was  the  son  of 
Ares  or  of  Fhleguas,  by  Dia  the  daughter  of  Dionusos.  He  threw 
his  mother  into  a  pit  of  fire.  Zeus  favoured  him  till  he  attempted  to 
seduce  H^re,  when  a  cloud  was  substituted  for  her,  whence  the 
Kentaur  was  born.  Hermes  (the  wind)  chained  Ixlon  to  a  wheel 
which  was  sent  rolling  through  space ;  and,  in  confession  of  his 
ingratitude,  he  was  condemned  to  cry  in  Hades,  "  Benefactors  should 
be  honoured."  We  have  here  the  usual  mythical  figures  of  sun, 
dawn,  wind,  earth,  and  cloud.  At  Khodes,  Ixion  was  identified  with 
Apollo,  and  his  fiery  wheel  is  a  common  sun  emblem  in  Asia.  The 
Hindus  said  that  Dyaush  snatched  it  from  the  grasp  of  night.  It 
bad  usually  four  spokes,  but  the  three-legged  symbol  of  Sicily,  and  of 
the  Isle  of  Man,  is  the  same  as  the  fylfot  or  "  flying  foot "  (see  Fylfot 
and  Svastika).  The  torments  of  Ixion  are  the  labours  of  H^rakl^s, 
and  akin  to  that  of  Sisyphus,  who  rolls  the  great  stone  to  the  zenith, 
only  to  see  it  fall  back  to  Hades  by  night. 


306  Jacob 

J 

The  English  J  sound  is  the  same  as  in  Syrian  Arabic  and  id 
Sanskrit,  but  the  symbol  was  originally  used  for  long  I,  as  it  still  is 
in  German.  Hence  Y'alj:ob  in  our  Bible  is  written  Jacob,  and  Tnseph 
is  written  Joseph.     The  J  sound  interchanges  with  G. 

Ja.  Sanskrit,  "  conquering "  ;  from  the  Aryan  root  gi  or  ga,  to 
"bend"  or  "subdue."  Hence  Jaya-nat,  "the  conquering  lord" — a 
title  of  Jaganat. 

Jacob,  Hebrew :  Y*akob,  "  he  followed."  The  son  of  Isaac. 
The  craft  of  Jacob,  according  to  our  modem  ethiks,  makes  him  a 
despicable  character ;  but  the  author  who  records  his  history  regarded 
him  as  specially  favoured  by  God  (see  Heel)* 

Jacobites.  The  Syrian  Christians  are  so  called,  as  followers  of 
Jacob  Baradseus,  a  Syrian  monk  of  the  6th  century,  who  maintained 
the  doctrines  of  Eutych§s  (coodemned  at  Chalcedon  in  451  B.a), 
attributing  a  single  divine  nature  to  Christ.  He  influenced  not  col; 
the  Syrian,  but  the  Koptik,  and  Armenian  churches,  which,  though 
distinct,  agree  in  this  Monophysite  doctrine.  Most  of  the  Syrians, 
though  accepting  the  decisions  of  previous  councils  (see  Councib), 
rejected  that  of  Chalcedon,  and  continued  ever  after  to  form  a 
separate  church.  The  minority  were  called  Melchites,  or  those  of 
the  *^  royal "  party,  agreeing  with  the  Greeks  who  taught  the  double 
nature  of  Christ,  and  with  the  Emperor.  The  Syrians  are  now  few, 
having  a  patriarch  of  their  own  in  Jerusalem  (at  the  monastery  of  St 
Thomas),  and  ancient  monasteries  in  the  Lebanon  where,  and  in  4 
neighbouring  villages,  the  old  Syriak  language — which  was  that  of  the 
Syrian  church  in  the  4th  century — is  still  spoken. 

Jaga-nat.  Sanskrit :  "  lord  of  creation,"  a  title  of  Krishna,  who 
is  also  Jaya-nat,  "  the  conquering  lord."  His  great  shrine  in  Orissa 
has  become  world  famous ;  and  the  region  is  called  Utkala-desa,  or 
the  land  that  ''efiaces  sin,"  being  sacred  for  20  miles  round  the 
shrine.  Brahmans  traverse  all  India  to  urge  pilgrimage  to  this 
temple,  where  "  the  granter  of  all  wishes,"  bestows  offspring,  and  heals 
every  ailment.  To  bathe  in  the  sacred  waters  of  Puri,  and  to  pray 
on  its  sandy  shores,  is  to  obtain  remission  of  the  most  dire  sins. 
Fervent  piety,  human  and  divine  love,  have  here  been  manifested  by 
myriads  of  pilgrims.  The  Rev.  T.  Maurice  tells  us  that  Capt. 
Hamilton  found  the  symbol  of  this  shrine  to  be  '*  a  pyramidal  black 


Jaga-nat  so  7 

stone."  The  two  chief  festivals  at  the  site  are  the  Snana-yatra,  or 
"bathing"  of  the  god,  in  the  end  of  May,  and  the  Batha-yatra  or 
*'car"  festival  in  June,  when  the  deity,  accompanied  by  his  brother 
Bala-mma  and  his  sister  Su-bhadra.  is  dragged  in  a  huge  car  by 
hundreds  of  devotees,  from  his  temple  to  one  adjoining  it,  and  back 
again.  The  Snana  fete  is  a  baptismal  ceremony  for  the  god  and  his 
worshipers,  in  preparation  for  the  later  ceremony.  The  legend  says 
that  Krishna  died  in  a  distant  land,  slain  by  Jara  ("  cold  ")  ;  and  his 
body  lay  uncared  for,  and  wasted  away  ere  pious  persons  gathered  the 
bones  in  an  ark.  Vishnu  directed  the  good  king  Indra-dyumna  to 
make  an  image  of  Jaga-nat,  and  to  place  the  bones  in  it.  Yisva* 
Karma  (or  Hephaistos)  undertook  to  make  the  image  if  left  undis- 
turbed, but  after  15  days  the  king  visited  him  before  he  had  finished 
the  hands  and  feet:  he  therefore  left  the  image  in  this  unfinished 
state,  and  Jaga-nat  is  now  so  represented ;  but  Brahma  consented  to 
make  it  famous,  and  himself  to  act  as  priest  at  its  consecration,  when 
he  bestowed  on  it  eyes  and  a  soul. 

The   shrine  is  very  ancient,   and    caste    distinctions    are    there 

ignored.        All  are    equal   in   the   eyes   of  the   creator,   and    though 

Hindus  there  attempt  to  preserve  caste  at  the  fStes,  all  are  supposed 

to  eat  from  the  same   dish,  and   the  sexes   mingle  only  too  freely 

during  the   hot  nights  when   pilgrims  lie  in   the  open,  on  the  sands, 

or  in  the  low  jungle  scrub  round  the   shrines.     The  "  World  Mother," 

Jaga-mata,  is  Devi  (or  Himavat),  wife   of  Siva,  whose  second    name 

points   to   the   home  of  Krishna  in  the  north.        In  May   and  June 

200,000  to  400,000  pilgrims  assemble  on  the  Fun  river,  and  3000 

or  4000  priestly  families  minister  to  them,  while  probably  as  many 

missionaries  are  sent  out  all  over  India,  in  the  spring  months,  urging 

the  sick,  the   sorrowful,  and   the  barren,  to  perform  this  pilgrimage. 

The  area   of    650  square  feet  occupied    by   the    shrine  is  specially 

sacred.     A  tower  184  feet  high  (28   feet  square)  covers  the  shrine 

where  the  three  images  stand.     The  shrines  are  all  pyramidal,  and 

older  than   1200  A.C.        They    are  covered  with    elaborate  carving, 

the    figures    being  very  indecent :    at    the    entrance    rises    a  basalt 

block  35  feet  high,  with  1 6  faces,  highly  ornamented  and  set  on  a 

pedestal — this  being  the  liogam  of  the  site,  in  front  of  the  ark  or 

shrine ;    as  the  pillar  of    Zeus    stood    before    the    symbolic  cave  of 

Delphi.        Various  statues    surround    this    pillar,  in  the  quadrangle 

which  includes  the  shrines.      These  represent  heroes  of  the  Maha- 

bbarata   and   Ramayana   epiks.     The  rite  of  dragging  the   car  over 

prostrate    devotees    has    now    been   suppressed.        Similar    car  rites 

belong  to  all  temples  of  Jaganat  in  every  part  of  India. 


308  Jaga-isvar 

Jaga-isvar.  Sanskrit :  "  spirit  of  the  universe."  This  is  one 
of  Siva's  most  beautiful  shrines  in  Banaras,  where  rich  and  poor, 
ignorant  and  literary,  alike  worship,  beating  their  heads  on  the 
threshold,  and  prostrating  themselves  on  the  temple  floor,  or  wearily 
perambulating  holy  objects.  In  the  central  porch  sits  the  sacred 
bull  (Nanda),  and  within  the  shrine  is  a  lingam  of  polished  black 
stone,  6  feet  high,  and  1 2  feet  in  circumference ;  water  trickles  on 
it  perpetually  from  the  roof,  as  at  Tilubhand-isvar,  where  the  bull 
kneels  before  a  lingam  4^  feet  high,  and  15  feet  in  circumference. 

Jahveh.  The  German  spelling  for  Yahveh,  which  they  suppose 
to  be  the  correct  sound  of  the  name  (see  Jehovah). 

Jains.  See  Yati,  and  Short  Stvdiea,  i  and  ii.  [The  name  Jaio 
comes  from  Jina  "  being,"  as  they  are  believers  in  24  Jinas  (called  also 
Tirthankars)  or  successive  ancient  saints.  The  Jains  are  followers 
of  Maha-vira  (or  Vardha-mana)  the  contemporary  of  Gbtama  Buddha, 
whose  predecessor  they  recognise  in  Farswa,  probably  about  700  6.C. 
They  include  (1)  Digambaras,  ''sky-clad,"  or  naked  ascetics,  called 
Niganthas  in  Buddhist  Pitakas,  and  in  the  edicts  of  Asoka ;  and 
(2)  Swetambaras  or  ''white-robed"  ones,  who  date  from  our  Gib 
century.  The  Jinas  are  always  naked  when  represented  by  statues, 
and  Nigantha  means  "  free  from  bonds."  But,  among  modem  Jaius, 
only  the  Yati  ascetics  are  naked,  and  the  laity  (Sravakas  or 
"disciples")  are  clothed.  The  Jain  scriptures  include  45  Agamas 
in  Jain  dialect,  namely,  11  Angas,  12  Upangas,  10  Pakinnakas, 
6  Chedas,  4  Mula-sutras,  and  2  other  books.  The  Jains  aim 
at  Nirvana,  but  now  worship  spirits  and  have  caste  distinctions: 
their  charity  extends  to  the  creation  of  hospitals  even  for  animals. 
Maba-vira,  however,  was  a  metaphysician  rather  than  a  practical 
philanthropist  such  as  Qotama  became  in  the  second  stage  of  his 
career,  and  Jains  have  not  gone  beyond  what  he  also  taught  in  hi» 
first  stage  (see  Encyclop.  Brit). — Ed.] 

Jambu.  Sanskrit.  The  name  of  a  tree  of  life  and  knowledge, 
which  grows  in  the  centre  of  Jambu-dvipa,  the  Hindu  paradise  (see 
Meru).  The  Jambu  fruits  were  elephants,  which  fell  on  the  moun- 
tains. Godesses  became  productive  through  eating  these  apples. 
The  elephant  (see  Indra)  here  represents  the  cloud  which  fertilises  the 
earth. 

Jamdiya.     The  Persian  fire-stick,  or  candle  of  Agni. 

James.     A  corruption  of  the  Greek  lakobos,  and  Hebrew  Y'akob. 

JameSi   Hpistle  of.     Since  our  4th  century  this  tractate  has 


James  309 

been  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  James  the  brother  of  Christ,  of 
whom   however  the  author  only  calls  himself  a  servant     The  author  of 
the  4th  Qospel  (John  vii,  5)  says  that  the  brethren  of  Jesus  (that  is 
James,  Joses,  Judah,  and  Simon)  did  not  believe  in  him.    Jesus  is  twice 
mentioned  in  the  Epistle  of  James  (i,  1  ;  ii,  1)  as  the  Messiah,  and 
the  Messiah  of  glory  :    and  it  is  addressed  to  the  1 2  scattered  tribes, 
or  Jews  out  of  Palestine.       The  unknown  author  writes  an  epistle 
such   as  Hillel  might,  in  other  respects,  have  penned.       He  was  a 
pious  Jew,  who  believed  (v,  17)  that  Elias  or  Elijah  had  been  able 
to  restrain  the  rains  by  his  prayers.        James  the  brother  of  John, 
and   son   of  Zebedee,  was  slain  by  a  Herod  probably  about  44  a.c. 
(Acts  zii,  1) ;    and  James  the  son  of  Alphseus  (Matt  x,  2)  was  an 
apostle.     The  name  was  naturally  very  common  among  Jews.     But 
the  Churches  believed  in  the  4th  century  that  James,  the  brother  of 
Jesus,   who  was  alive   about    39  A.C.   or  later  (Gal.   i,   19),  became 
bishop  of  Jerusalem.     Eusebius,  quoting  Hegesippus,  relates  doubtful 
traditions  about  his  being  thrown  from  a  pinnacle  of  the  temple ;  and  a 
passage  in  Josephus  (perhaps  a  later  interpolation)  would  make  this 
happen  about  64  A.C.     Hebrew  Christians  seem  to  have  looked  on 
James  as  little  inferior  to  his  brother.     Hegesippus  is  said  to  have 
recorded  that  "  he  has  been  surnaraed  the  Just  by  all,  from  the  days 
of  our  Lord  till  now.  .  .  .     He  was  consecrated  from  his  mother's 
womb  ...  he  drank  neither  wine   nor  strong  drink,  and  abstained 
from  animal  food.     No  razor  ever  came  on  his  head.     He  was  never 
anointed  with  oil,  nor  used  a  bath.     He  was  in  the  habit  of  entering 
the  sanctuary  alone,  and  was  often  found  on  his  knees,  interceding 
for  the  people.  ...     In  consequence  of  his  exceeding  great  righteous- 
ness he  was  called  the  Righteous,  and  the  protector  of  the  people " 
(Euseb.,  Hist.  Ecclea.,  ii,  23).     He  appears  to  have  been  a  Nazarite ; 
and   many  passages  in   the  Epistle  of  James  suggest  an   Essene  or 
Ebionite  writer.     He  inculcates  peace  (i,  19),  and  speaks  of  the  piety 
of  the   poor  (ii,    5-8) :    the  wisdom   from   above   is  gentle   he  says 
(iii,  17,  18),   and  he  forbids  evil  speaking  (iv,    11).      The  rich  will 
suffer  hereafter   (v,    1-3),   and  the  Christians   must   not  swear,   but 
confess  sins    mutually,  while  elders    are   to  anoint  the  sick   with  oil 
(v,  12-16),     Some  early  writers  place  this  Epistle   in   the   reign  of 
Domitian  (81-96   A.c),  yet  tradition  makes  James  older  than  Jesus, 
and  (if  he  be  the  author)  it  may  be  earlier  than  70  A.C.,  supposing 
that  the  son  of  a  Hebrew  carpenter  is   likely  to  have  been   able  to 
write  Greek  which,  according  to  Bishop  Alford,  is  "  too  pure,  and  too 
free  from  Hebrew,  and  Aramaic,  words  to  have  been  written  by  any 
Palestinian  "  :    or  our  present  version  may  be  a  translation.      Origen, 


310  Jan 

according  to  Dr  Mayor,  is  "  the  first  who  cites  the  Epistle  as  scripture^ 
and  as  written  by  James";  but  critics  say  {AthencBum,  27th  Hay 
1893)  that :  "  There  is  really  no  information  of  a  trustworthy  nature, 
regarding  the  Epistle,  which  can  be  assigned  to  the  first  three 
centuries."  Eusebius  in  the  4th  century  says  that  it  was  then 
used  "  in  a  few  churches,  but  was  held  by  many  to  be  spurious " 
{Hist  Eccle8,f  ii,  23 ;  iii,  25),  probably  because  it  was  too  Ebionite  in 
tendency  to  be  accepted  by  the  Nicene,  or  High  Church,  party. 

The  Epistle  nevertheless  was  evidently  written  by  a  good  and 
sensible  man,  intent  on  urging  his  brethren  to  rely  on  good  works 
rather  than  on  faith  alone — an  ethikal  teaching  superior  to  most  of 
that  found  in  the  Hebrew  or  Christian  scriptures,  and  equally  advo- 
cated in  the  same  age  by  Buddhists  and  Stoiks,  as  it  had  been  in 
Jewish  books  such  as  Ecclesiasticus  and  Wisdom.  The  Church  of  the 
4th  century  was  not  in  sympathy  with  this  purely  ethikal  tone  {see 
i,  27),  or  with  the  secondary  position  assigned  to  faith — "  the  devils 
also  believe"  (ii,  19).  But  the  spirit  of  Christ's  address  to  the  poor, 
as  recorded  in  the  Gospels,  is  found  in  this  Epistle  of  James. 

Jan.  Jin.  Common  words  for  "  being  "  (see  Ga,  Gan),  as  in  the 
Chinese  Navrjdnf  and  Nu-jdn  (or  male  and  female  life,  and  the  Arabic 
Jin  (plural  Jdn)  for  a  spirit  (see  Jin). 

Janaka.  The  patriarch  of  Mithila  (Tirhut  in  India),  and  a 
common  name  for  its  princes,  meaning  the  one  ''  unborn,"  or  "  without 
a  father."  The  legend  says  that  Janaka  was  produced  from  the  body 
of  his  predecessor  by  rubbing,  and  by  the  prayers  of  sages,  twenty 
generations  before  Sita,  the  wife  of  Bama,  whose  father  was  Janaka; 
and  she  was  called  Janaki.  Janaka  was  also  the  ploughshare  which 
scratches  the  soil,  and  so  connected  with  Sita  the  "seed"  in  the 
furrow.  The  plains  of  India  were  bestowed  on  Janaka,  and  by  him 
on  Bama  as  the  strongest  (see  Dowson's  Hindu  MythoL,  p.  133). 

JangamS.  The  name  given  to  priests  who  wear  the  lingam,  as 
well  as  to  shrines  of  Siva.  Such  priests  may  be  seen  driving  the 
Nandas,  or  sacred  bulls,  which  are  covered  with  bells  and  shells,  the 
tinkling  sounds  serving  to  attract  the  gods,  and  to  drive  away  the 
demons. 

Jani-varai  or  Janvi.  The  sacred  cord  of  Brahmans,  which 
symbolises  "new  birth,"  given  to  the  young  Hindu  at  the  rite  of 
Upa-nyana.  It  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  cotton  threads  twisted 
together  (like  the  Persian  Kosti),  the  cotton  being  plucked  and  woven 
only  by  high  caste  Brahmans.     It  passes  over  the  left  shoulder  and 


Janus  311 

rests  on  the  right  thigh.  It  is  put  on  on  the  12th  birthday  of  a 
Brahman  boy,  when  a  wafer  of  cummin  seed  and  sugar  is  stuck  to 
the  forehead »  and  the  boy  (like  Siva)  then  becomes,  mentally  and 
physically,  the  Upa-nyanam,  or  "  extra-eyed."  Until  this  is  done  he 
is  classed  only  as  of  Sudra  caste  (Iiidian  Antiq,,  June  1892).  (See 
Upa-nyana.) 

Janus.  The  Etruskan  god  of  gates,  adopted  by  Bomans,  the 
name  probably  coming  from  the  Turanian  gan  or  gin  "  to  be."  Ovid 
(Fasti)  says : 

"  Why  is't  that  though  I  other  gods  adore 
I  first  mast  Janus'  deity  implore  ? 
Because  he  holds  the  door  by  which  access 
Is  had  to  any  god  you  would  address." 

The  Etruskans  called  Janus  the  father  of  the  twelve  great  gods, 
whose  12  altars  belonged  to  12  months.  He  was  the  sun,  and  Jana 
his  consort,  was  the  moon.  Macrobius  (400  AC.)  calls  him  the  "god 
of  gods."  He  was  bisexual  like  other  creators,  and  represented  as 
two-headed«  The  Latins  compared  Janus  and  Jana  to  Dianus  and 
Diana  (sun  and  moon) :  he  was  also  Patulcius  and  Clusius — ^the 
"  opener "  and  the  **  shutter " — and  bore  in  one  hand  the  rod  or 
lituus  (crozier),  and  in  the  other  the  key.  For  he  was  the  master  of 
the  door  q£  life  (see  Door),  which  he  could  shut  or  open  at  will.  The 
doors  of  his  temple  were  closed  in  peace  time,  and  opened  in  war  time. 
He  is  thus  called  Deus  Clavigerus,  and  "  Cselestis  janitor  aulse,"  or 
*'  doorkeeper  of  the  celestial  hall,"  or  of  Paradise.  All  doors,  caves, 
and  passages,  were  sacred  to  him,  and  symbolised  Jana.  She  was 
the  '*  queen  of  secrets,"  and  (like  Hekate)  of  witches,  or  Janaras. 
Siva  in  India,  in  like  manner,  is  Dvarka-nath,  "  the  Lord  of  the  door." 
The  first  month  of  the  year  was  called  January  after  Janus,  for  he — 
like  Siva — is  Eala  or  "time,"  and  is  denoted  by  the  365  days.  The 
cock  was  sacred  to  Janus  as  a  bird  of  dawn.  Many  of  his  legends  were 
transferred  to  Peter  by  the  Roman  Christians,  and  Peter's  symbols 
include  the  cock  and  the  key.  The  Janiculum  hill  W.  of  the  Tiber 
(the  Etruskan  side)  was  named  from  Janus.  The  doors  of  the  temple 
were  closed  only  for  the  third  time,  by  Augustus,  in  29  B.c.  Ovid 
says:  "Thou  alone,  0  two-headed  Janus — origin  of  the  year— canst 
see  thine  own  back."  But  two-headed  figures  are  found  also  in 
Lydia,  and  in  Egypt,  and  the  Indian  Brahma  has  four  heads. 

Japan.  The  Japanese  empire  extends  over  162,665  square 
miles,  including  the  four  large  islands,  and  a  total  of  4223  islands  in 
all.     The  Kurile  group  was  annexed  as  late  as   1875.     The  popula- 


812  Japan 

tion,  according  to  the  latest  ceDSUs,  includes  44,260,606  persons:  in 
1872  it  was  only  33,110,825  persons,  and  it  is  apparently  doubling 
itself  within  a  century.  It  is  generally  held  that  the  aboriginal  races 
of  China  and  Japan  were  quite  distinct,  and  that  the  languages  of  the 
two  countries  show  great  philological  differences,  though  both  belong 
to  the  Turanian  family  (see  Ainos).  However  this  may  be  it  is  dear 
that  the  great  Asiatic  continent  must,  very  early,  have  been  the  source 
of  the  race,  language,  and  legends  of  Japan,  just  as  the  European  cod- 
tinent  is  the  source  of  population,  language,  faith,  and  superstition, 
whence  Kelts,  Angles,  Jutes,  Saxons,  Latins,  and  Normans,  came  to 
the  British  Isles.  Many  indications  point  to  the  Japanese  proper 
being  descendants  of  the  Samoyed  Mongols  of  N.W.  Asia,  and  ulti- 
mately connected  with  the  small  Lapp  race  and  the  Finns.  The 
Samoyeds  (as  the  Russians  call  them)  of  N.W.  Siberia  are  an  honest 
and  peaceful  people,  who  possess  much  of  the  artizan  ability  of  the 
Japanese.  They  are  now  separated  by  the  Turkish  Yakuts  from  the 
branch  that  was  driven  east  to  Korea.  The  Koreans  still  preserve  the 
Samoyed  custom  of  not  giving  names  to  women  {JowmaX  of  Anthrop. 
Instit,  Feby.  1895,  p.  234).  Travellers  have  often  remarked  the 
resemblance  between  the  small  Japanese  (averaging  5  feet  4  inches  in 
height)  and  the  Lapps  of  Norway,  as  contrasted  with  the  Chinese 
type  (see  Proc.  Viking  Socy,,  Feby.  1895:  Academy,  16th  Fefay. 
1895).  Dr  Wiuckler  {Daily  Chronicle,  Slst  Jany.  1896)  says: 
^'  The  Japs  are  shown  to  be  closely  allied  to  the  Ural-Altaic  stock, 
which  includes  Samoyeds,  Finns,  Magyars,  and  in  a  less  degree  the 
Tunguse." 

The  Japanese  account  of  the  Creation  appears  to  be  derived  from 
that  of  the  Mongols,  as  found  in  China.  In  China  the  original  chaos 
included  the  male  and  female  elements  {Yan-Yin:  see  China)  as  yet 
undistinguished  ;  and  so  in  Japan  these  elements,  0  and  Me,  were 
conjoined  with  water,  earth,  and  air,  but  were  separable  to  the  eye  of 
wisdom,  as  the  yolk  is  distinguished  from  the  white  of  an  egg.  Iii 
time  the  earth  sank  down,  and  the  water  surrounded  it,  while  air 
floated  in  immeasurable  space.  In  China  we  hear  that  Pwan-Koo,  the 
first  man,  then  appeared,  whom  the  Japanese  call  Pan-ko>si.  The 
name  Pan  (as  in  Greece,  or  in  Italy  where  we  find  Faunus  and  the 
Penates)  appears  to  come — like  the  Mongol  hani — from  an  ancient 
word  meaning  a  "  spirit "  or  "  being."  The  Japanese  legend  describes 
the  world  as  having  been  ''  a  fine  soft  mud,  like  oil,  floating  on  the 
water  " ;  and  out  of  this,  in  due  time,  sprang  up  "  a  rush  called  Asi," 
from  which  came  forth  the  "  earth-former  " — a  god — and  after  him  a 
godess,  who  together  kneaded  mud  and  sand  into  a  paste.     These  two 


Japan  813 

were  called  Iza-na-gi  and  Iza-na-mi — from  gi  ''  male "  and  mi 
"  femala"  The  divine  pair,  resting  on  a  bridge  ojr  a  ship,  caused  the 
dry  land  to  appear  as  continents  and  islands,  and  then  descended  on  a 
lovelj  region,  where  they  gave  themselves  up  to  love  (a  passion  of 
which  Japanese  poetry  is  full)  :  they  met  at  the  "  Imperial  Column  " 
(a  strange  term,  unexplained  but  suggestive);  and  a  child  was  bom  to 
them  which  had  to  be  hidden  away»  because  (says  the  legend  of  the 
Ko-zi-ki  or  Ko-ji-ki)  the  godess  was  the  first  to  speak.  It  was  "  set 
adrift  in  an  ark  of  reeds"  (like  Sargina  of  Agadh^,  or  Moses  in 
Egypt,  or  any  other  of  the  heroes),  and  was  regarded  as  *'of  evil 
presage  "  (see  Mr  Tatui  Baba — a  Japanese  writer  on  the  Ko-zi-ki — 
as  followed  by  Dr  Tylor,  Journal  Anthrop.  Instit,  28th  March 
1876). 

The  Japanese,  like  Arabs,  Teutons,  and  others,  make  the  sun  a 
female ;  and  the  moon  according  to  them  was  her  sister.  They  had  a 
very  troublesome  brother,  Soosana-ono-mikoto  "  the  god  of  winds," 
who  is  generally  mild  and  gentle,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  but  who  if 
thwarted  becomes  furiously  destructive  of  all  the  beauties  of  earth.  His 
breath  moisture  and  fire  ruin  the  work  of  the  two  sisters,  Ama-terasu- 
Do-kami  the  sun,  and  Tsuki-no-kami  the  moon.  The  original  parent 
deities  had  condemned  the  storm  god  to  Hades,  after  he  had  blasted 
the  fruits  and  flowers  of  earth.  As  he  departed  he  trampled  on,  and 
blew  about,  the  new  seed  that  the  kind  sister  sun  (called  also  Ten- 
shu-dai-sin  "the  heaven-enlightening  great  spirit")  had  planted. 
Like  his  Egyptian  prototype  Set,  the  Japanese  storm  god  returned 
from  Had^es,  and  his  sun  sister  was  forced  to  take  refuge  in  "a 
cavern  in  the  sky,"  where  she  closed  the  opening  with  a  great  stone, 
leaving  the  world  in  darkness.  "  Distressed  at  this  "  (says  Dr  Tylor, 
8till  quoting  the  Ko-zi-ki)  "the  800,000  gods  devise  means  to  bring 
her  out :  they  light  a  fire  outside."  Various  joyous  proceedings,  such 
as  all  early  peoples  observed  to  usher  in  the  spring,  then  followed, 
including  dances,  singing,  processions,  with  jewelled  banners  and 
emblems  such  as  "the  sacred  mirror,  and  peculiarly  cut  pieces  of 
paper,"  with  torches  and  colored  lights.  The  sun  godess  was  induced 
to  listen  at  the  door  of  her  cave,  wondering  why  men  and  birds  were 
so  mirthful,  and  could  sing  and  dance  in  a  world  which  she  had  left 
dark.  Her  curiosity  led  her  slowly  to  "  push  the  great  stone  a  little 
on  one  side,  and  to  peep  out."  The  god  on  guard  then  opened  the 
door,  by  .completely  removing  the  stone.  All  then  joined  in  per- 
suasive plaints,  regretting  the  tyranny  of  the  storm  god,  who  was  sent 
back  to  Hades.  The  sun  godess  issued  forth,  and  the  joyous 
worshipers  "  stretched  a  cord  across  the  cave's  mouth  "  to  prevent  her 


314  Japan 

again  escaping  from  their  sight.  The  whole  legend  is  very  clearly  a 
myth  of  summer  and  winter.  The  wind  god  is  however  not  always 
evil,  for  we  read  that  he  ''  descends  to  earth,  and  slays  the  eight 
headed  and  eight  tailed  serpent  (Oroti)  who  is  about  to  destroy  the  lady 
of  the  young  rice  "  ;  by  which  we  may  understand  the  February  winds 
drying  up  the  floods.  The  heavenly  mother  godess,  Iza-na-mi  (already 
noticed),  "  falls  from  her  high  estate,**  and  descends  to  Hades,  where 
she  tastes  food  (like  Proserpine)  and  is  unable,  or  unwilling,  to  return ; 
she  is  followed  by  her  lord  Iza-na-gi  who  seeks  to  bring  her  back,  but  to 
him  she  says  "  Thou  art  too  late,  for  I  have  eaten  of  the  food  of  this 
world" — an  idea  held  also  by  New  Zealanders  (Tylor,  Jowmal 
Anthrop.  Inatity  VI,  i,  57-59).  In  Babylonian  myths  also  the  sun 
is  said  to  eat  poison  in  Hades,  which  delays  his  reappearance,  whereas 
Istar  in  Hades  drinks  water  of  life  and  is  restored.  The  cut  paper 
above  mentioned  (6o-hei),  and  the  mirror  (Kami),  will  be  noticed  again. 
They  serve  to  connect  Chinese  and  Japanese  symbolism ;  and  the 
mirror  is  regarded  as  a  defence  against  demons  in  China.  The  Go-hei 
papers  are  diamond  shaped,  and  are  often  built  up  in  a  pyramidal 
form  at  praying  places. 

The  Japanese  took  their  written  characters  also  from  China ;  hut 

simplified  the  system  of  innumerable  emblems  into  two  syllabaries, 

apparently  about  our  9th  or  10th  century.     The  Kata-katui  syWabaij 

is  cursive,  and  is  derived  from   the  Chinese  Kyai-ahu^  or  "model 

character."     The  HirorJcavxt  syllabary  is  derived  from  the  5r«itt-sA« 

or   "grass   character"  of  China  (see  Dr  Isaac  Taylor,  Alphabet,  i, 

p.    14).     The    sacred    Japanese    writings    include    the     Kojiki    (or 

Ko-zi-ki),   completed   in   711    A.c. ;  and  the  Nihon-ki,  completed  in 

720  A.C.     They  will  never  rank  with  older  Bibles,  though  not  more 

full    of   mythical   matter.     They    are    both    almost    unreadable,  the 

phonetic   characters   used   being  said  to   have  been  introduced  into 

Japan  in  the  reign  of  Ojin  about  270  to  310  A.C.     The  first  of  these 

books  seems  to  have  been  preserved  orally  for  some  time,  through  ''a 

woman  of  extraordinary  memory  who  repeated  all  the  old  traditions " 

(Reed's  Japan,  i,  p.  22).     In  the  Nihon-ki  we  find  patriarchs  living 

140,  and  in  one  case  350,  years.     The  Kojiki  mentions  "three  gods 

of  the  gate  "  ;  but  "  the  three  are  one";  whereas  now,  at  the  Mikado's 

Court,  two  separate  gods  of  the  gate  are  venerated.     These  ancient 

annals  are  known  from  Mr  Chamberlain's  translation,  and  from  essays 

by  Sir  E.  Satow  (see  Shin-to). 

Religious  toleration  prevails  in  Japan  ;  and,  in  addition  to  the 
national  Shin-to  ("  way  of  the  gods  "  or  "  divine  rites  "),  the  race  has 
been  influenced  by  Buddhism,  Confucianism,  Taoism,  and  (in  a  lesser 


Japan  816 

degree)  by  Christianity.  The  religion  of  the  peasant  and  that  of  the 
educated  differ  as  much  in  Japan  as  elsewhere,  and  Shin-to  beliefs 
permeate  Buddhist  ritual.  The  most  distinctive  features  of  Japanese 
religion  belong  to  the  original  Animistic  beliefs,  to  which  the  name 
Shin-to  is  given.  Mr  Brownell  {Heart  of  Japan^  1903)  separates 
the  deities  usually  adored  into  two  classes,  (1)  the  Kamii  or  Shin-to 
godSf  worshiped  in  a  Miya  temple ;  and  (2)  the  HotaJce  or  Buddhist 
deities,  in  a  Tera  or  monastery.  These  temples  are  approached 
through  avenues,  with  huge  symbolic  gateways,  recalling  the  gate 
which  is  used  in  China  (see  Door)  for  "  passing  through "  to  cure 
sickness.  According  to  the  Japanese  Buddhists  of  Ise  the  creator 
produced  Ama-terasu  (the  sun)  from  his  left  eye,  and  Susa-noo 
(the  wind)  from  his  right  eye,  after  his  return  from  pursuing  his 
wife  to  Hades. 

Among  other  gods  (according  to  Mr  Brownell)  are  to  be  mentioned : 
(1)  Marishiten,  an  eight-armed  godess,  thought  to  be  of  Indian  origin, 
who  guides  the  sun  and  moon  from  her  throne  in  the  constellation  of 
the  Great  Bear :  (2)  Kishi-Bcjin,  a  sweet-faced  lady,  the  protectress 
of  children,  whose  lap  is  full  of  dolls,  bibs,  and  caps,  offered  by  women 
whose  children  she  has  called  away.  She  has  become  a  Buddhist 
deity ;  for,  according  to  her  legend,  she  had  determined  to  destroy 
Buddha,  but  was  turned  into  a  dragon  or  serpent,  and  then  produced 
500  children,  whom  it  was  decreed  bv  heaven  she  should  eat — one 
every  day  :  but  Buddha  had  mercy  on  her,  and  restored  her  to  woman- 
hood, whereupon  she  became  a  nun,  and  now  sits  in  monasteries  with 
a  pomegranate  in  her  hand  :  (3)  SaTa-biki-Zaru  is  a  triune  monkey 
god,  who  presides  over  Kcjin — the  hearth  or  kitchen  deity ;  for  the 
three  monkeys  are  Iwa-Zaru  who  is  dumb  with  hand  to  mouth,  Kita- 
Za/rw  who  is  deaf  holding  his  ears,  and  Mi-Zaru  who  is  blind  with 
hands  over  his  eyes  ;  these  three  refuse  to  speak,  hear,  or  see,  any 
evil :  (4)  Kompira  (or  Kotohira)  is  a  god  of  sailors,  worshiped  by 
Buddhists  for  12  centuries  till  recently,  in  a  temple  at  the  foot  of 
Zozu-san-shi-koku  ;  his  form  is  that  of  a  huge  crocodile  1000  feet 
long,  with  1000  limbs  and  1000  heads;  his  fSte  was  on  the  11th 
October ;  but  when  the  Shin-to  worshipers  obtained  power,  some 
3  0  years  ago,  his  Tera  was  pulled  down,  and  a  Miya  shrine  built 
over  him  instead,  the  sectaries  saying  that  "  he  had  been  their  god 
froai  of  old  "  :  (5)  Fvdo  (Budha)  is  the  god  of  wisdom,  with  a  fierce 
ugly  countenance,  usually  seated  on  a  fiery  throne,  holding  a  sword 
in  his  right  hand,  and  a  noose  in  his  left ;  he  binds  the  wicked  and 
ignorant,  handing  them  over  to  (6)  Emma-o  or  *'  awful  wisdom,"  the 
regent  of  the  hells,  who  judges  them ;  his  scribe  records  their  deeds. 


316  Japan 

and  punishment  is  decreed  accordingly  ;  but  Emma-o  was  once  a  great 
Chinese  general,  and  a  lover  of  truth  wiser  than  heaven,  to  whom  also 
Chinamen  sacrifice  a  cock  when  taking  vows.  Finally  there  are, 
besides  these  gods,  seven  pleasant  looking  deities  of  good  luck,  called 
Shichi-Fukurjin. 

The  late  Mrs  Bishop  (Miss  Bird),  in  her  interesting  account  of 
the  wilder  parts  of  Japan,  describes  the  Aino  worship  (see  Aino),  and 
the  Gohei  paper  emblems,  which  are  attached  to  a  white  rod,  forming 
a  kind  of  Thyrsus  (like  that  of  Bakkhos)  very  similar  to  the  Tarao 
emblem  of  Polynesia  (see  Rivers  of  Life,  ii,  p.  231,  fig.  244).  The 
Ainos  offer  libations  of  Saki  to  this  emblem,  and  drink  it  also  in 
honor  of  the  god,  who  is  often  thus  too  much  worshiped.  The  cult 
of  sun  and  moon  seems  gradually  to  have  replaced  an  older  worship 
of  beasts,  birds,  and  snakes — especially  of  the  bear.  Even  the  Ainos 
have  now  rude  temples,  and  Miss  Bird  was  taken  to  a  wooden  shriue, 
and  told  on  no  account  to  tell  the  Japanese  anything  about  it  It 
was  a  dismal  cell  containing — as  she  understood — the  image  of  a 
revered  Japanese  leader,  Toshit-suni,  who  had  been  kind  to  the  Ainoa 
It  was  built  on  an  almost  inaccessible  hill,  and  contained  also  some 
Gohei  rods,  brass  candlesticks,  and  a  Chinese  picture  of  a  junk.  When 
asked  about  a  future  life  these  Ainos  replied  :  *'  How  can  we  know  ? 
No  one  ever  came  back  to  tell  us " ;  and  when  told  that  one  God 
made  us  all  they  refused  to  believe  it,  saying  :  "  How  is  it  then  that 
you  are  so  different — ^you  so  rich  and  we  so  poor  "  ?  These  are  words 
we  all  might  well  take  to  heart.  The  Japanese,  according  to  this 
author,  have  sacred  fox-images  of  Inari :  they  say  these  beasts  pursae 
men,  and,  taking  the  form  of  beautiful  women,  steal  their  senses; 
while  badgers  in  the  form  of  "  loveable  men  "  also  seduce  the  affections 
of  women  (Miss  Bird's  Japan^  i,  pp.  71,  381  ;  ii,  p.  95).  The  fox  is 
also  a  great  figure  in  early  Chinese  mythology. 

Other  details  of  belief  and  custom  may  be  found  in  the  account 
by  Mr  Heam  (Glimpses  of  UnfamUiar  Japan),  though  the  ethiks 
which  he  attributes  to  the  Shin-to  faith  appear  more  properly  to  be 
derived  from  Buddhism,  and  the  teaching  of  Confucius.  He  notices 
Uchi-no-Kami  as  a  god  of  the  house  or  home,  whose  shrine  (or  Kavii- 
dana)  is  a  "god-shelf"  facing  S.  or  E.  or  SE.  and  never  N.  or  W. 
which  is  the  direction  for  female  deities  (i,  p.  400).  The  dead  are 
buried  facing  N.,  and  all  that  is  connected  with  death  is  impure.  Fire 
also  is  subject  to  impurity,  and  must  be  renewed  with  flint  and  steel, 
or  from  the  sun's  rays,  in  order  to  purify  houses.  A  sacred  lamp  must 
always  burn  beside  the  Kami-dana,  or  if  poverty  forbids  this,  must  at 
least  be  lighted  on  the  1st,  15th,  and   28th   of  each  month,  specially 


Japan  817 

sacred  to  the  gods.  The  lesser  gods,  or  spirits  of  the  dead,  are 
worshiped  in  a  separate  chamber  called  the  Mitamaya,  or  "spirit 
chamber/*  or — ^by  Buddhists — the  Butsu-dan  or  family  shrine  (p.  404). 
The  Buddhists  and  Shin-toists  often  worship  together ;  and  even  the 
Shin-shu  sect,  which  adores  Amida-Buddha,  respects  the  family  Lares 
and  Penates.  The  first  duty  at  dawn  is  to  place  a  cup  of  tea  before 
the  Butsu-ma,  or  Butsu-dau  ;  and  on  the  7th  of  March,  at  the  "  all- 
souls"  festival  (Bonku),  special  offerings  must  be  made.  Ancestor- 
worship  is  foreign  to  true  Buddhism,  but  both  in  China  and  Japan 
Buddhists  pray  that  their  ancestors  may  help  them  (pp.  412-415). 
Phallic  worship  appears  to  have  belonged  to  the  Shin-to  system,  and 
was  put  down  after  the  revolution,  some  20  or  30  years  ago,  by  the 
Imperial  orders.  Mr  Hearn  (ii,  p.  348)  found  everywhere  sacred 
stones,  believed  to  be  haunted  and  to  possess  miraculous  powers,  or 
variously  called  the  woman's  stone,  nodding  stone,  death  stone,  wealth 
stone,  etc.  The  Shin-to  worshiping  masses  still  cling  to  their  very 
ancient  rites  and  symbols.  Mr  Hearn  (i,  p.  392)  quotes  Sir  E.  Satow 
(on  the  Revival  of  Pure  Shin-to)  as  saying:  "all  moral  ideas  are 
(believed  to  be)  implanted  by  the  gods,  and  are  of  the  same  nature  as 
the  instinct  to  eat  or  drink." 

Japanese  customs  depend  on  such  beliefs.  Marriages  are  cele- 
brated in  a  tent  on  a  mound,  where  is  the  bride's  idol,  with  eight 
lamps.  She  ascends  the  hill  from  one  side,  and  the  bridegroom  with 
his  relations  from  the  other.  The  pair  hold  torches,  lighted  from 
altar  fires,  in  their  hands.  A  Bonzi  blesses  and  unites  them,  amid 
joyful  shoutings ;  and  grain  is  thrown  over  them.  The  bride's  play- 
things are  then  burned,  and  a  spinning  wheel  with  flax  is  presented  to 
her.  She  is  led  home ;  and  two  oxen  with  some  sheep  are  sacrificed 
in  honour  of  a  god  with  a  dog's  head.  The  Japanese  bum  the  dead 
(i,  p.  390),  setting  up  the  corpse  in  the  attitude  of  prayer,  clothed  in 
white,  with  a  paper  pa.sted  on  giving  the  name  of  the  deity  worshiped 
by  the  deceased.  The  pit  in  which  the  body  is  placed  is  filled  with 
wood,  and  covered  with  a  cloth.  Tables,  with  meats  dressed  in  bloody 
and  with  perfumes,  are  set  round  :  the  friends  touch  the  corpse,  and 
invoke  its  god  :  the  Bonzi  waves  a  lighted  torch,  and  throws  it  away  : 
the  nearest  relatives  seize  it,  and  stand  east  and  west  of  the  body, 
finally  lighting  the  pyre  which  is  drenched  with  oils  and  perfumed 
essences.  Letters  are  often  burned,  and  answers  are  expected  from 
the  other  world.  On  the  following  day  the  ashes  are  collected,  and 
placed  in  the  family  chamber.  Mourning  continues  for  seven  days, 
and  the  remains  are  then  buried  in  a  cemetery  outside  the  town,  and 
over  them  a  monument  is  erected. 


318  Japan 

The  gods  in  Japan  are  often  represented  by  beaatiful  images, 
such  as  that  of  Sikuani,  who  is  covered  with  stars,  and  seated  on  a 
lotus,  holding  a  scimitar,  a  rosary,  a  child,  and  a  crescent ;  or  the  god 
Jene,  with  4  arms,  and  4  heads  under  a  seven-rayed  glory.  The 
Japanese  say  that  sun-worship  came  to  them  from  China  and  Siam 
(M,  Aymonier,  Royal  Asiatic  Society  Journal,  October  1894);  and 
at  the  great  temple  in  Sakai  is  a  dedication  to  "  all  the  deities  of 
Arakan,  Pegu,  Eambodia,  Java,  Cochin-China,  Siam,  Borneo,  the 
Philippine  Islands,  Korea,  and  China," 

Among  very  ancient  customs  is  that  of  devoting  girls  (Geishas)  to 
the  service  of  Venus  (like  the  Kodeshoth  of  Hebrews,  Phoenicians,  and 
Babylonians,  or  the  Deva-dasis  of  India),  and  at  such  temples  phallic 
emblems  are  found  (Capt  De  Fonblanque,  Niphxm,  p.  141,  published 
in   1862).     The  great  centre  of  pilgrimage  is    the    ''shrine  of  the 
gods"  on  Fuji-yama,  the  sacred  mountain  (12,370  feet  above  the  sea), 
with  a  crater  1800  feet  deep.     But  the  last  festival  here  was  cele- 
brated in  1861.     The  Japanese  god   of  wealth    (Dai-ko-ku)  has  a 
hammer  as  his  chief  weapon,  which  lies  on  his  lap,  with  balls  of  rice 
and  seven  precious  things.     This  again  has  probably  a  phallic  connec- 
tion, like  the  symbolic  gateways  (see  Torii).     The  Japanese  emblem 
of  the  Tortoise  (as   in   China    and   India)    signifies   "longevity  and 
happiness"  (Mrs  Solwey,  J.«ia<ic  Qtuirterly,  October  1894),  and  is 
called  Eame  (see  Turtle).     The  butterfly  is  also  an  important  emblem 
(see  Butterfly)  called  Cho,  and  representiiig  the  soul :  it  is  connected 
with  the  fan  (Ogi)  which  symbolises  air ;  and  also  with  a  crystal  ball 
or  disk — the  jewel  Hcjin-nO'tama,  which  typifies  the  soul,  and  is 
suspended  over  the  dead.     A  group  of  these  stones  '*  denotes  eternity  " 
(see  Rivera  of  Life,  i,  p.  167).     The  mirror  is  as  important  as  it  was 
in  W.  Asia  and  Egypt,  and  is  the  emblem  of  woman — the  Kagami — 
while  the  "  accusing  mirror  "  occurs  in  the  Hell  of  Japanese  Buddhists, 
as  a  record  of  sins.     The  Lotus  also  is  as  much  revered  as  in  India,  or 
in  ancient  Egypt,      The  Kaan-nO'Eara,  as  this  flower  is  called,  is 
(according  to  Mrs  Solwey)  "creative  power,  and  world  growth  .  .  . 
eternity,  and  a  trinity  .  .  .   symbol  of  Spirit  and  Form  " ;   for  its  calyx 
is  a  triangle,  whose  base  is  a  circle  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  i,  p.  47).  The 
Chinese  Yan  and  Yin  (male  and  female)  appear,  according  to  this 
account,  to  answer  to  Yoi  and  Ye,  ''  represented  as  two  colossal  red  and 
green  figures  at  temple  entrances.  .  .  .  They  typify  the  two  elements 
of  life,  male  and  female,  and  are  also  emblems  of  perfect  strength." 

The  three  emblems  of  national  importance  in  Japan — fonning 
the  Palladium  of  the  empire — are  the  Mirror:  the  Sword  of  Miya: 
and  the  stone  Maga-Tama,  of  which  we  have  no  description,  but  which 


Japan  319 

is  otherwise  a  *'  ball/'  perhaps  typifying  the  mundane  egg,  or  the  soul 
(Hojin-no-tama)  as  already  noticed.  The  Maga-Tama  was  the  most 
revered  object  in  Japan  for  more  than  2500  years,  down  to  the 
Revolution  of  1868,  and  was  always  in  the  keeping  of  the  Mikado. 
The  three  objects  so  described  were  in  the  royal  palace  till  the  time  of 
the  great  Mikado  Sugin  in  97  B.c. ;  after  which  the  Mirror  and  the 
Sword  were  placed  in  special  temples.  In  3  B.C.  the  Mirror  was  finally 
placed  at  Ise,  in  the  Aji  temple  of  the  sun  god,  which  has  repeatedly 
been  rebuilt  every  ten  years  in  scrupulous  imitation  of  the  original 
shrine.  The  Sword  is  placed  in  the  famous  Atsutu  shrine  of  the  city 
Ndgoya,  and  can  be  seen ;  but  the  original  Mirror  is  never  shown  to 
anyone :  for  in  Shin-to  temples  (says  Sir  £.  Eeed)  "  there  are  no 
visible  objects  of  worship  "  :  though  at  Naiku  "  the  representation  of 
the  deity  is  in  the  hidden  sacred  mirror."  The  spirit  of  deity  is, 
in  general,  enshrined  in  some  concealed  object  known  as  the  "  august 
spirit,"  or  "God's  seed"  (Keed's  Japan,  ii,  pp.  248-256).  Even  the 
chief  priest  himself  "  does  not  for  years  together  even  see  the  case  con* 
taining  the  sacred  Mirror,  and  no  other  priests  are  admitted  into  the 
building  without  good  cause."  The  sacred  Sword  is  called  Kussanagi- 
no-metzurugi — "  the  grass  mowing  sword  "  :  three  veils  before  this 
emblem  are  looped  up  to  allow  worshipers  to  see  it,  whereas  the  veils 
in  front  of  the  casket  of  the  sacred  Mirror  are  never  raised.  The 
Sword  (says  Sir  E.  Beed)  is  "  the  object  of  veneration  to  millions,  who 
have  come  day  and  night  to  bow  before  it"  (ii,  p.  267):  it  was  pro- 
duced from  the  tail  of  the  serpent  defeated  by  the  wind  god,  as  already 
described :  it  accompanied  the  monarch  to  war,  and  to  quell  a  confla- 
gration— perhaps  meaning  a  revolution.  It  was  so  withdrawn  from 
its  first  shrine  in  the  2nd  century  A.C. ;  and,  after  victory,  was  replaced 
and  has  never  since  been  moved. 

The  Chinese  godess  Kwan-yin  (see  Avalokit-Isvara)  is  worshiped 
as  Kwan-on  in  Japan,  and  described  by  Miss  Bird  as  "a  rude 
block  of  rock  shaped  like  a  junk."  Sir  E.  Beed  states  that  she  is 
bisexual  (as  elsewhere),  and  has  1000  arms,  being  honored  alike  in 
Shin-to  and  Buddhist  temples.  She  is  especially  "  Our  Lady  of  the 
sea  and  of  seafarers  "  (like  the  Boman  Virgin,  Stella-maris),  and  on  one 
occasion  she  warned  a  prince  of  a  coming  flood,  whereby  he  escaped 
while  all  others  perished.  A  fine  bronze  statue  of  this  deity  was 
erected  on  the  spot,  and  is  still  to  be  seen  on  a  high  conical  granite 
hill  under  which  runs  the  high  road  round  Fujiyama.  Buddhists 
and  Shin-to  worshipers  alike  adore  Kwan-on. 

Shin-to  is  called  Kami-nO'Tnichi  or  "the  way  of  the  superior 
ones "  (Kami),  and  is  described  by  Mr  Bates  (Assistant  Secretary  of 


320  Japan 

the  Boyal  Geographical  Society — see  JovAifud,  vol  v)  as  ''a  sort 
of  politico-moral  faith,  combined  with  the  worship  of  ancestora." 
The  chief  deity  is  the  great  ancestress  of  the  emperor,  the  godess 
Ama-terasu  (or  the  sun) :  the  most  important  of  Shin-to  festivals  (or 
MaUoori)  takes  place  in  the  6tb  month,  when  young  and  old,  rich 
and  poor,  attend.  It  is  on  this  occasion  that  the  offerings  to  the 
dead  are  sent  out  in  boats  to  be  burned  at  sea  (see  Bridges).  The 
Shin-to  priests  are  believed  to  hold  communion  with  the  deity,  but 
images  are  not  commonly  used,  while  the  ethikal  teaching  inculcates 
purity  of  thought,  word,  and  deed,  and  honesty  in  dealing  with  others. 
The  persistence  with  which  nations  adhere  to  their  ancient  ideas  is 
illustrated  by  the  national  coinage  of  the  "  third  year  of  peace  and 
enlightenment"  (1870).  In  the  centre  of  the  reverse  is  the  mirror, 
above  which  is  the  "  wheel "  with  six  divisions,  and  below  the 
KiH  tree,  while  the  sun  appears  on  a  standard  to  the  right,  and 
the  moon  on  one  to  the  left :  the  whole  is  surrounded  by  wreaths  of 
chrysanthemums  and  Kiri  leaves :  the  obverse  bears  a  dragon,  and 
the  legend  "Great  Nipon" — that  is  **east"  or  "rising  sun." 

About  250  B.G.  Buddhism  began  to  spread  beyond  India,  and  was 
established  in  China  by  60  A.c.  (see  China ;  and  Reed's  Japan,  i, 
p.  75):  but  it  was  not  preached  in  Japan  till  about  550  A.C.,  or  a 
thousand  years  after  the  death  of  the  founder  Gautama  the  Sakya 
(see  Buddha),  who  is  called  Shaka  by  the  Japanese.  They  date  bim 
(like  the  Chinese)  as  early  as  949  B.C.,  whereas  543  fi.c.  is  the 
generally  accepted  date  of  his  death.  The  semi-barbarous  EoreaDS 
received  a  corrupt  form  of  Buddhism,  and  sent  to  the  Japanese  monarch 
Elimei  some  statues,  banners,  and  altars.  The  new  faith  took  root, 
but  at  first  every  epidemic  was  attributed  to  it.  By  605  A.G.,  royal 
edicts  appear  to  have  been  issued  under  Buddhist  influence ;  and  a 
little  later  a  Japanese  empress  gave  up  hunting,  as  being  contrary  to 
the  Buddhist  scruples  as  to  taking  animal  life.  Within  a  generation 
or  two,  beautiful  shrines  began  to  be  erected  all  over  the  islands; 
and  in  our  8th  century  every  province  was  ordered  to  maintain  a 
Buddhist  temple,  while  endowments  were  increased,  and  monasteries 
and  nunneries  established.  The  master  stroke  of  the  creed  came  in 
the  9th  century,  when  Kobo — a  learned  Japanese  priest — declared 
that,  as  a  result  of  foreign  travel,  he  found  the  old  gods  of  Japan  to 
be  manifestations  of  Buddha.  Patriotism  and  piety  were  thus  united, 
and  the  old  Shin-to  beliefs  paled  before  the  rising  sun  of  Buddhism, 
which  had  its  "golden  age"  in  our  13th  century.  Intoxicated  bj 
power  Buddhists  then  forgot  their  ancient  humility  and  unworldliness : 
the  priests  defiled  their  hands  with  gold ;  and,  as  in  India,  the  faith 


Japan  821 

decayed.     Its  rites  and  temples,  in  Japan,  can  now  hardly  be  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  Shin-to  worship,  and  in  its  highest  form  it 
becomes  only  a  kind    of   emotional   Confucianism.     The    extremely 
logical   character   of   the    teaching  of  Confucius  has  impressed   the 
educated   classes,   especially  as  taught   by   the   Chinese  philosopher 
Chu-he.     Thus    Miss    Bird    found    Buddhist    temples   deserted,  and 
falling  into  ruins  (though  this  is  not  alwajrs  the  case,  even  in  1900 
A«c.).     Once  freed  from  dogma,  and  belief  in  the  supernatural,  the 
course  of  thought  becomes  rapid,  especially  when  the  results  of  science 
have  been  studied  ;  and  Japanese  students  now  prefer  the  teaching  of 
Mill,  Huxley,  and  Herbert  Spencer,  to  Buddhism  or  Confucianism. 
Since  the  great  Reformation  of  1868,  and  the  calm  consideration  of 
Christianity,   the   Japanese   Qovernment    has  decided   on   a    neutral 
attitude,  tolerating  all  creeds,  and   nominally  accepting  the  ancient 
Shin-to  system  which  suits  the  social  and  political:  traditions  of  the 
reigning    family.       Confucianism    pursues    its    ancient    path    (see 
Confucius),  as  a  rational  system,  glad  to  accept  all  who  are  true  to 
reason  ^nd  good  conduct,  standing  apart  from  the  wayward,  or  the 
excessively  religious.     Miss  Bird  {Japa/a,  i,  p.  8)  thought  that  the 
educated  upper  class  accepted  the  Buddhist   ideals  as  distinguished 
from  the  religious  development  which  has  become  corrupt,  and  she 
regarded  them  as  materialistic  and  skeptikal,  while  the  masses  were 
still  influenced  by  Shin-to  beliefs  tinged  with  Buddhist  (Maha-yana) 
doctrines.      The  more  advanced,  ''  though  tired  of  the  old  religions, 
did  not  want  a  new  one"  (p.  378):  "the  throne  of  the  gods,"  they 
said,  "  was  in   the  heart  (or  brain)  of  the  righteous    man."     When 
Miss    Bird    asked    the  directors  of  the  Educational  Department  at 
Kubota,  in  W.  Japan,  if  they  taught  religion   they  replied  :  "  We 
have  no  religion,  and  all  your  learned  men  know  that  religion  is  false  " 
(p.  306),  meaning  thereby  the  legends  to  which  the  name  religion  is 
given.     [The  religion  of  the  Buahi  in  Japan,  in   1904,  is  an  ethical 
system  in  some  respects  not  unlike  the  ideal  of  chivalry,  or  of  our  own 
upper  class. — Ed.] 

Buddhism,  however,  even  when  corrupt,  as  in  Japan,  instils 
teaching  which  precludes  the  acceptance  of  the  Christian  dogma  that 
"without  shedding  of  blood  there  can  be  no  remission  of  sin ''  (Miss  Bird's 
Japan,  i,  pp.  208-211).  The  people  refuse  to  believe  in  "original 
sin";  and  not  only  do  they  not  fear  to  die  (as  we  have  seen  in  1904), 
but  they  even  exclaim  "  if  you  hate  a  man  let  him  live " :  [as  the 
Quanchos  of  the  Canary  Islands  also  said  "  let  him  live  and  feel  the 
evils  of  fate  " — Ed.].  They  have  ever  before  them  the  teaching  of 
the  great   Master,    and  the    practical   ethiks  of    China:    and    Miss 


322  Japan 

Bird  gives    us   an    extract   from    a   sermon   preached   on  Buddha's 
words : 

"  That  which  is  evil,  be  it  small,  do  not. 
The  good,  be  it  but  small,  fail  not  to  do." 

In  this  sermon  a  very  practical  lesson  is  taught,  as  to  the  necessity 
that  our  Yea  be  yea  and  our  Nay  nay;  the  preacher  conduding 
with  the  words,  *'  Peace  in  a  household  is  like  joyous  musia"  Miss 
Bird  complains  that  Japanese  children  pose  Christian  missionaries  bj 
such  questions  as :  "  What  was  the  name  of  God's  wife  ?  "  :  ^  When 
Christ  was  God  on  earth,  to  whom  did  men  pray  ? " :  ''If  Jesus  did 
not  understand  prophecy  why  was  the  meaning  not  sought;  what 
could  be  the  use  of  it  if  hidden  so  long  from  so  many  godly  persons?" 
Buddhism  has  its  High,  its  Broad,  and  its  Evaugelical  schools, 
like  Christianity :  its  extreme  Protestants ;  and  its  Ranters,  Sir  £. 
Seed  describes  the  Nicbiren  sect  as  numerous,  powerful,  violent,  aod 
noisy  in  their  rites;  intolerant  and  dogmatic  in  all  things;  much 
given  to  pilgrimage,  revivals,  proseljrtism,  and  frantic  excesses.  Their 
founder  was  Nicbiren  ("  the  Sun-Lotus ")  who  was  miracoloualv 
conceived  by  the  sun  godess.  He  was  dissatisfied  with  Chinese  and 
Japanese  Buddhism ;  and,  after  much  study  of  Chinese  and  of 
Sanskrit,  he  discarded  the  prayer  (or  "  aspiration  after "  the  eteraal 
Buddha)  in  favour  of  a  mere  exclamation :  "  Hail  to  the  salvatioD- 
bringing  Book  of  the  Law."  He  is  said  to  have  attacked  bitterly  all 
other  sects,  and  to  have  been  condemned  to  death :  the  sun  however 
interfered,  blinding  the  eyes,  and  shivering  the  sword,  of  the 
executioner.  So  that  Nicbiren  died  finally  in  peace,  protesting  that 
only  through  his  teaching,  and  by  his  book,  could  salvation  be  secured. 
The  followers  of  Nicbiren  devote  themselves  to  the  making  of  converts; 
and  they  revile  and  proscribe  other  sects :  yet  Sir  E.  Reed  attributes 
their  success  to  their  exclusive  teaching,  and  directness  of  speeoL 
Though  persecuted  at  first  this  sect  has  **  produced  a  great  number  of 
brilliant  intellects  ;  uncompromising  zealots  ;  and  nnquailing  martyrs ; 
as  well  as  of  relentless  persecutors."  In  the  Nicbiren  sect  (our  author 
adds)  we  find  a  spirit  "  not  by  any  means  alien  to  some  bodies  of 
Christians,  and,  in  common  with  them,  they  appear  to  esteem  a  Book, 
or  a  Bible,  before  and  above  everything."  The  census  returns  of  1872 
showed  128,123  Shin-to  temples,  and  89,914  Buddhist  shrines,  in 
Japan,  giving  some  idea  of  the  proportionate  numbers  of  the  tvo 
creeds — the  total  of  218,037  places  of  worship  being  served  by 
225,000  priests,  generally  ignorant  and  confident  When  allowing 
Christian  missions  in  the  west  of  the  country  the  officials  said  that 


Japan  323 

tbey  would  "  find  the  land  sunk  in  Buddhism  "  ;  and  they  might  have 
added  ^  and  Buddhism  sunk  in  Shin-to  "  (see  Miss  Bird's  Japan,  i, 
p.  199). 

In  his  report  on  the  shell  mounds  of  Japan,  in  1879,  Prof. 
£.  S.  Morse  states  that  the  early  inhabitants  were  cannibals.  Human 
bones  were  found  in  the  Omori  mound,  with  those  of  deer,  boars, 
wolves,  monkej^s,  and  dogs,  all  equally  scratched,  cut,  split,  and 
fractured,  in  order  to  obtain  the  marrow.  These  remains  show  the 
presence  of  man  long  before  Japanese  history  begins  about  25 
centuries  ago.  The  Japanese  themselves  speak  of  the  aborigines  as 
having  been  a  wild  hairy  people  (like  the  Ainos),  speaking  a  jargon 
which  no  one  else  could  understand.  Modem  Japanese  is  a  tongue 
distinctively  Turanian,  being  agglutinative.  [It  is  distinguished  from 
Chinese  by  possessing  the  letter  r,  but  not  I :  whereas  the  latter  has 
the  I,  but  no  r  sound — Ed.].  The  Japanese  era  dates  from  the 
11th  February  660  B.O.:  the  first  Emperor  Jimmu-Tennu — fifth  in 
descent  from  the  sun  godess — then  came  from  heaven  on  to  Mount 
Kiri-Shima  (in  the  S.  Island  of  Eiushiu),  being  in  his  50  th  year  of 
age.  He  conquered  the  country,  and  fixed  his  capital  near  Kioto. 
The  present  Mikado  (bom  on  3rd  November  1852,  and  acceding'on 
13th  February  1867)  is  the  125th  successor  of  Jimmu;  but  really 
authentic  history  is  supposed  not  to  go  back  further  than  about 
400  B.C. 

After  Jimmu,  the  first  famous  emperor  was  Ojin  (270  to  310  A.C.) 
— "the  '*  Mars  of  the  Morning  Land."  His  mother,  the  warrior  empress 
Jingu,  is  said  to  have  delayed  his  birth  a  long  time  till  she  had  finished 
the  war  with  Korea,  begun  by  her  husband  Chuai  in  192A.C.  The 
legend  adds  that  she  brought  back  books  and  writings  to  Japan,  and 
promoted  learning.  Ojin  introduced  Chinese  literature ;  but  a  script 
had  already  been  brought  from  Korea  by  Okara  in  157  B.a,  during 
the  reign  of  Tenu  Kaikua :  on  his  death,  in  97  B.C.,  writing  was 
farther  encouraged  through  the  visit  of  a  Korean  prince  to  Japan, 
and  continued  to  be  studied  ever  after.  Jimmu,  and  Ojin,  are  now 
deified  in  temples,  and  their  history  obscured  by  myths — Ojin  being 
regarded  as  an  incarnation  of  Buddha.  His  tutor  Ajiki  (or  Anaki), 
according  to  some  was  an  envoy  from  the  Korean  king,  and  brought 
over  with  him  weavers,  sempstresses,  and  brewers,  with  weapons, 
horses,  and  mirrors,  so  introducing  civilisation.  He  also  brought 
the  "  Confucian  Analects  and  Thousand  Characters,"  so  that  the 
foundation  of  Japanese  philosophy  was  laid  about  300  A.C.  Japan 
was  first  made  known  to  Europe  by  Marco  Polo  in  the  13th  century. 
He    calls    it  Zipango,  which,  to   the  Chinese   and   Portuguese    was 


324  Japan 

Jih-pon  or  *'  sun-source  "  (tbe  East) :  the  Portuguese  reached  it  after 
establishing  themselves  in  India,  first  appearing  in  1543;  and  they 
were  followed  by  Xavier  as  missionary  in  1550.  The  Christians 
were  expelled  again  in  1638.  The  Dutch  in  turn  established  a 
factory,  and  two  centuries  of  Japanese  ill-fortune — during  which 
time  Europeans  are  said  to  have  extracted  100  millions  in  gold  from 
the  country — culminated  in  1853,  when  an  American  fleet  appeared 
in  the  harbour  of  Tedo  and.  extorted  a  treaty. 

Europe  then  became  aware  that  the  Mikado  was  a  sacred  and 
secluded  monarch,  deified  and  worshiped  after  death,  according  to  the 
Shin-to  creed.     The  rise  of  the  Tai-kun  (or  "  great  chief")  to  the 
position   of  actual   ruler  appears   to  have  been  originally  due  to  a 
Mikado    in    85    B.C.,    who.  appointed    one   of   his   sons   Shiogun,  or 
commander    in    chief.      In    our    12th   century   the    Mikado   Eoniei 
attempted  to  curb  the  increasing  power  of  the  Daimios  or  nobles, 
whom  the  common  people  called  "  lords  of  our  heads."      The  Taikun 
however  thus  attained  to  the  temporal  headship,  and  the  Mikado  was 
secluded  until  the  great  reform  of  1868.     Tbe  ''Era  of  Jtfeiji"  then 
commenced,  the  youthful  Mikado  recovering  liberty  of  action,  as  leader 
of  the  Samurai,  or  gentle  class,  which  had  long  groaned  under  the 
tyranny  of  the  Taikun,  and  of  the  feudal  nobles,  who  were  now  obliged 
to  relinquish  their  privileges.     The  Mikado  had  been  always  regarded 
as  tbe  source  of  honour,  and  had  a  nominal  veto  over  the  Taikun  or 
Shiogun,  whom  he  used  to  honour  by  an  annual  visit :  for  tbe  two 
rulers  lived  300  miles  apart.     The  rapid  increase  in  prosperity  which 
followed  this  reformation  is  represented  by  the  statistics  of  1903,  when 
Japan  had  £5,000,000  of  imports,  and  £26,000,000  of  exports,  a 
small  surplus  of  revenue  over  expenditure,  and  (in  spite  of  war)  a  debt 
of  only  £55,000,000.     In  the  same  year  Mr  Okakura's  book,  Ideals 
of  the  East,  became  known  in  England  (see  Athenccum,  21st  March 
1903) ;   and  this  Japanese  scholar  gives  reasons  for  the  advance  made 
by  his  country  in  the  last  30  years.     The  reviewer  says  that  ''this 
work  of  the  President  of  the  Bijutsu  In  {Academy  of  Fine  Arts) 
is   in   many  ways   a  remarkable  and  significant  book."     The  author 
traces  the  reforms  to  the  influence  of  tbe  Confucianism  of  the  earij 
Tokugawa  period,  and  to  that  of  Moto()ri,  who  revived  Shin-to,  and  to 
whom   Confucianism  was  an  abomination.     He   feared    the  Western 
encroachments  witnessed  in  India  and  China ;  while  the  clans  of  the 
south  and  west  had  long  hated  the  Eastern  Tokugawa  (Taikun)  power. 
Loyalty  .to  the  Mikado  became  the  keynote  of  the  new  system,  soJ 
a  protection   against  Western   invasion.     The  writer  is  no  lover  of 
democracy  or  of  foreigners.     "  It  must  be  from  Asia  itelf,*'  he  saj>» 


Japan  325 

• 

**  along  the  ancient  roadways  of  the  race,  that  the  great  voice  shall  be 
heard,  Victory  from  within  or  a  mighty  death  without."  [The  resalts 
of  this  loyal  patriotism  we  are  now  witnessing ;  and  Europe,  ignorant 
of  the  native  culture  due  to  Confucian  ethics,  which  teach  obedience 
and  patriotism,  sees  with  astonishment  the  daring  of  a  race  who 
believe  themselves  to  be  ruled  by  one  whose  "  merits,"  in  this  and 
in  former  lives,  give  victory  and  prosperity  to  his  country — a  race 
that  fears  not  death,  since  the  result  of  duty  done  will  be  a  future 
life  happier  than  the  present.  Japan,  while  adopting  the  science 
and  inventions  studied  for  many  years  in  Europe,  is  attracted,  not 
by  our  creeds  but  only  by  our  philosophy.  She  is  indifferent  to 
Christianity,  but  appreciates  Darwin  and  Herbert  Spencer.  She 
is  not  to  be  schooled  by  those  whom  she  regards  as  less  advanced 
in  thought  than  herself ;  but  she  is  ready  to  absorb  all  new  ideas  that 
commend  themselves  as  useful  to  her  statesmen  and  soldiers. — Ed.] 

When  Francis  Xavier  reached  Japan  in  1550  A.C.  (see  Venn's 
^if^  of  Xavier)  he  was  plied  with  such  questions  as  this :  ''  If  we 
have  souls,  have  they  power  of  utterance :  will  they  return  to  this 
world  and  tell  us  all  things — what  they  saw,  and  what  we  should 
do?"  But  out  of  nine  religious  sects  Xavier  found  only  one  that 
denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  All  alike  had  deeply  meditated 
about  the  future,  but  they  had  learned  from  Buddha,  and  from 
Confucius,  to  regard  such  speculations  as  "  vain  and  unprofitable." 
The  Rev.  Father  Venn  says :  "  It  is  strange  to  find  Xavier  rejoicing 
over  his  prospects  in  Japan  because  all  told  him  he  would  find  the 
Japanese  willing  to  accept  and  obey  Reason  "  (p.  168).  It  was  Faith 
not  Reason  that  he  required.  "  A  convert  told  him  that,  if  he  trusted 
to  Reason,  the  people  from  king  to  commoner  would  cling  to  the  new 
prophet  (Christ)  :  for  all  follow  Reason."  But  he  could  only  offer  them 
rites,  symbols,  pictures  of  saints,  crosses,  virgins  and  babes,  which  some 
accepted  as  charms.  Theological  discussions  and  sermons  fell  on  deaf 
ears.  The  Bonzes  however  were  alarmed,  and  appealed  to  the  Govern- 
ment. Xavier  and  his  friends  were  ordered  to  leave  Japan,  and  bloodshed 
followed  (see  Dr  Klsempfer's  Japan,  published  in  1797).  KsBmpfer 
wrote  about  1700  A.C.,  after  a  two  years'  residence  in  the  country, 
half  a  century  after  all  Christians  had  been  exterminated.  He  says  : 
^  This  new  religion,  and  the  great  number  of  persons  of  all  ranks  who 
were  converts,  occasioned  considerable  altercations  in  the  churches, 
prejudicial  in  the  highest  degree  to  the  heathen  clergy."  Mosheim 
{Chv/rch  History)  says  that :  "  An  incredible  number  of  Christians 
were  found  in  Japan  towards  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  and 
the  Government  feared  a  repetition  of  the  misery  and  bloodshed  and 


326  Japan 

rebellion  that  Xavier  and  others  had  previously  caused.  It  was  re- 
membered that  after  proclamations  were  issued  in  1586  persecutions 
began,  which  for  a  time  caused  an  increase  of  Christians.  After 
thousands  had  been  put  to  death,  and  the  churches  had  been  closed 
or  destroyed  in  1592,  say  the  Jesuits,  the  converts  had  risen  to 
12,000  in  number."  In  1616  the  young  emperor  Fide  Jou  was 
put  to  death  by  his  tutor  Ijejas,  who  usurped  the  throne,  and  was 
suspected  of  being  a  Christian;  and  Japanese  writers  own  that  his 
court  and  soldiers  professed  Christianity  (Venn,  p.  297).  Much 
cruelty  was  inflicted  on  these  converts  during  the  ensuing  struggles. 
In  1635  the  Dutch  captured  letters  from  a  Captain  Moro,  leader  of 
the  Portuguese  in  Japan — a  native  who  was  a  zealous  Christian: 
these  being  traitorous  were  sent  to  the  emperor,  and  ''in  1637  an 
imperial  proclamation  was  issued  by  which  Japan  was  shut  to 
foreigners.  Five  hundred  pounds  were  offered  for  a  priest,  and  for 
every  Christian  in  proportion :  '  All  persons  who  propagate  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Christians,  or  bear  this  scandalous  name,  shall  be  im- 
prisoned in  the  common  jail  of  the  town :  the  whole  race  of  the 
Portuguese,  with  their  mothers,  nurses,  and  whatever  belongs  to  them, 
shall  be  exiled  to  Macao.'"  Some  40,000  Christians  held  a  fortress 
near  Simahara,  but  were  bombarded  by  the  Dutch  as  allies  of  the 
Japanese  emperor :  for  they  were  Romanists,  and  hateful  to  the 
Protestant  Hollanders.  The  place  was  taken  by  assault,  and  the 
defenders  barbarously  put  to  death.  "  The  name  of  Christ  became 
an  object  of  shame  and  terror  throughout  Japan  ...  its  very  mentioD 
would  bate  the  breath,  blanch  the  cheek,  and  smite  with  fear  as  with 
an  earthquake  shock.  It  was  the  synonym  of  sorcery  and  sedition, 
and  all  that  was  hostile  to  the  purity  of  home,  and  the  peace  of 
society."  The  "  Jashiu-Mon  "  signified  "  corruption,"  and  the  "  Kirishi- 
tan  "  faith  was  "  an  awful  scar  on  the  national  memory."  The  only 
results  of  a  century  of  Christianity  and  of  foreign  intercourse  were, 
according  to  Mr  Griffis  (The  Mikado's  Empire)— the  introduction  of 
gunpowder,  tobacco,  sponge  cakes,  and  a  few  foreign  words  and  new 
diseases,  with  "  one  scourge  that  must  be  nameless  "  (see  Heed's  Japan^ 
i,  p.  229). 

Recent  missionary  labours,  according  to  Mr  Heam  (Ovt  of  the 
East,  1894),  include  those  of  800  Protestants,  92  Roman  Catholics, 
and  3  Greeks,  expending  £200,000  a  year.  The  result  is  a  popala- 
tion  of  50,000  Protestants,  and  50,000  Romanists,  or  less  than  3  per 
cent  of  the  population.  The  Japanese  Government  ordered,  not  long 
ago,  an  inquiry  by  a  Commission  charged  to  report  on  the  value  of 
Christianity,  and  its  influence  as  a  check  on  crime  at  home  or  abroad. 


Jara-Sandha  327 

Bat  the  report  was  entirely  unfavourable.  The  Commission  decided 
against  all  faiths  of  the  West,  as  unsuited  to  the  East,,  and  as  ethikally 
inferior  to  the  Japanese  standard.  The  early  Romanist  missionaries 
haJi  succeeded^  it  is  said,  in  converting  600,000  persons — ^mainly  by 
approximating  their  language  to  that  of  Buddhism  (according  to  Mr 
Griffis) ;  but  Christianity  has  now  no  better  prospect  in  Japan  than  in 
China  or  India. 

The  Marquis  Ito»  Prime  Minister  of  Japan,  said  in  1896  :  '*  The 
educated  Japanese  prefer  to  live  by  reason,  science,  and  the  evidence 
of  their  senses :  I  have  secured  absolute  toleration  for  all  religions, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  I  would  encourage  a  spirit  of  religion  ;  but  I 
regard  religion  itself  as  quite  unnecessary  for  a  nation's  life.  .  •  * 
Science  is  far  above  superstition,  and  what  is  any  religion  but  super- 
stition, and  •  •  »  therefore  a  source  of  weakness  to  a  nation  1  .  »  • 
I  do  not  regret  the  tendency  to  free  thought  and  Atheism,  which  is 
almost  universal  in  Japan,  because  I  do  not  regard  it  as  a  source  of 
danger  to  the  community  :  so  long  as  they  are  educated  they  will  be 
moral ;  and  Shintoism,  which  for  centuries  has  been  the  religion  of 
the  upper  classes,  has  always  taught  that  right  living  will  secure  the 
protection  of  the  gods  without  prayer  to  them." 

"  For  modes  of  faith  let  senseleaa  bigots  fight, 
His  can't  be  wrong  whose  life  is  in  the  right/' 

(See  Shin-shu  and  Shin-to.) 

Jara-Sandha.  "  The  ancient  joiner,"  or  first  king  of  Magadha, 
who  welded  the  Magh  people  with  the  Eusika  or  tortoise  Aryan  tribe. 
Bribad-ratha,  father  of  Jara-Sandha,  had  according  to  the  legend  two 
queens,  who  each  bore  half  a  boy,  through  the  influence  of  Chandra- 
Kusika  of  the  Gotama  clan  of  the  "  cow."  Brihad-ratha,  aided  by  an 
old  Bakshasi  or  female  demon,  joined  the  pieces  ;  and  the  boy  became 
strong,  and  was  aided  by  Siva  to  conquer  many  kings.  He  attacked 
Krishna  18  times,  and  made  him  fly  from  Mathura  to  Dvarka,  the 
"  door  of  India."  Krishna  came  back  with  Bhima  and  Arjuna,  and 
Jara-Sandha,  fighting  Bhima,  was  slain. 

Jasher.  Hebrew  ;  Yasher  "  upright."  The  Book  Ha-Yasher  is 
sometimes  supposed  to  mean  Ha-Shir  ("  of  the  song  "),  and  to  be  the 
"  book  of  the  ode  "  noticed  in  the  Greek  Septuagint  (1  Kings  viii,  53). 
It  was  an  ancient  collection  of  songs,  apparently  not  older  than  the 
time  of  David  or  of  Solomon,  and  quoted  as  authority  in  Hebrew  books 
of  the  Bible  (Joshua  x,  13 :  2  Sam.  i,  18).  Babbi  Levi  ben  Gershon 
asserted  that  it  was  lost  during  the  captivity.     The  word  Yasher  has 


32S  Jason 

also  been  compared  with  Teshuron  (Jeshuron  "the  upright")  a  title 
applied  to  Israel 

Two  books  called  Yasher  were  written  by  Rabbis  in  1394  aad 
1644  A.G.,  and  a  third  (supposed  to  have  been  written  by  a  Spanish 
Jew  about  1250)  appeared  in  1625  A.C.  But  the  best  known  work 
of  the  name  Jasher  was  that  of  Flaccus  Albinus  Alcuinus,  British  abbot 
of  Canterbury  :  it  was'  supposed  to  come  from  Gaza,  or  from  Ghazoa  (in 
Persia),  apparently  Ghazni.  It  was  printed  in  1-751  ;  and  it  mentions 
the  name  of  "Wycliffe" — perhaps  the  reformer  of  about  1380 — 
in  a  note.  He  '*  approves  it  as  a  piece  of  great  antiquity  and  curiositj, 
but  cannot  assert  that  it  should  be  made  part  of  the  canon  of  Scripture." 
Alcuin  died  in  804  A.C.  He  was  induced  by  Charlemagne  to  go  to 
France,  and  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
His  Jasher  is  noticed  in  an  edition  of  his  works  printed  in  Paris  in 
1600.  He  had  been  three  years  in  Persia,  we  are  told,  with  Thomas 
of  Malmesbury  and  John  of  Huntingdon,  and  first  heard  of  this  Jasher 
at  Kabin,  near  Baghdad.  It  appears  to  be  a  Jewish  paraphrase  of 
Old  Testament  history,  Jasher  receiving  information  "  from  Caleb  his 
father,  Hezron  his  grandfather,  and  Azubah  his  mother."  It  b^ns 
with  the  creation,  and  goes  down  to  his  own  time.  Before  death 
Jasher  commanded  all  the  records  of  Israel  to  be  placed  in  an  Ark. 
This  work  is  however  now  pronounced  to  have  been  forged  by  the 
printer.     (See  Notes  and  Queries^  19th  Jan.  1889.) 

Jason.  Greek  laaon  (from  the  old  root  as,  is,  us^  or  vas,  "  to 
shine"  or  "burn"),  a  sun  hero  who— like  others — underwent  per- 
secution. Pelias,  king  of  lolkhos,  was  warned  against  a  "one-sandaled" 
man  ;  and  Jason  so  appearing  at  his  city  he  sent  him  to  Eolkbis  (at 
the  E.  end  of  the  Black  Sea),  to  fetch  the  "  golden  fleece  "  of  the  ram 
of  Hermes  (see  Helle).  Jason  is  fabled  to  have  set  out  from  Fegasai 
in  the  ship  Argo,  with  many  other  heroes  as  Argonauts.  The  ram  is 
also  said  to  have  been  the  offspring  of  Poseidon  and  Theophan^ — the 
ocean  and  the  east.  The  ship,  or  ark,  was  guided  by  a  dove  through 
straits  with  moving  rocks  (icebergs) ;  and  in  Eolkhis  (Colchis)  Ring 
Aietes  exposed  Jason  to  all  the  terrors  of  dragon  men  and  fierce  bulls^i 
which  guarded  the  fleece  (see  Gilgamas) ;  but  he  was  aided  by  the 
king's  daughter,  the  witch  princess  MedSa.  The  accounts  of  the 
return  journey  are  confused  and  various  (see  Faber's  (Jabiri,  ii,  70, 
122-124,  140),  some  saying  that  the  Argo  was  wrecked  on  the  African 
coast,  others  that  it  was  carried  by  river,  and  dragged  by  land,  to  the 
Northern  Ocean.  The  heroes  were  repelled  from  Krete  by  Talos  the 
•brazen  man,  but  finally  reached  Pegasai  once  more.     Strabo  speaks  of 


Jata  820 

Jasonia,  as  shrlDes  of  Jason  in  Armenia,  on  the  Caspian,  in  India,  and 
on  all  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Med^,  having  murdered  Pelias, 
and  her  own  children  by  faithless  Jason,  is  also  said  to  have  fled  to 
Media,  which  was  named  after  her.  But  her  name  may  come  from  a 
root  Mad  for  "  mad/'  Jason  is  called  a  grandson  of  Poseidon,  or  of 
King  Kretheos,  and  deserted  Med§a  for  Glauk6  ("  the  blue  "),  daughter 
of  Kredn,  king  of  Eorinth.  He  was  worshiped  as  a  deity,  and  (like 
other  sun  gods)  had  as  a  child  been  placed  in  an  ark,  and  reared  by 
KheirOn,  the  kentaur,  in  a  cave. 

JsASL     A  name  of  Siva  as  the  "  hairy  "  one. 

Jati.     Caste  or  "birth."     From  the  root  Oa  **to  be  born." 

JatakaS.  Sanskrit :  *'  birth  "  stories.  Fables  connected  with  the 
theory  of  transmigration  of  the  soul,  and  its  successive  incarnations 
{see  Esop).  It  is  a  Buddhist  collection  of  550  stories,  in  the  Ehud- 
dak -Nikaya,  a  part  of  the  Sutta-Fitaka.  By  this  series  of  parables 
Gotama  appears  to  have  attempted  to  enforce  good  morals,  piety,  and 
self-sacrifice  for  others.  Hindus  believed  that  the  tales  represented 
actual  facts,  and  belonged  to  a  former  Kalpa,  or  world  age.  The 
Dhamma-pada  commentaries,  of  about  our  4th  century,  include  423 
Jataka  stories ;  others  are  found  earlier  in  the  Chinese  version  of  the 
Lalita  Yistara,  or  legend  of  Buddha.  These  tales  spread  all  over  Asia 
and  Europe.  Prof.  Fausboll  of  Copenhagen  spent  twenty  years  (187 7- 
1897)  in  translating  them,  and  produced  7  volumes.  The  Ceylon 
Buddhists  claim  that  some  go  back  to  the  remote  age  of  the  Eassapa, 
or  even  to  the  Dipam-kara  period,  yet  the  morals  are  applicable 
still. 

The  Jataka-thavan-nama,  as  we  now  have  it,  belongs  to  our  5th 
century.  Some  incidents  however  are  represented  in  the  early  sculp- 
tures of  Bharahut,  and  Sanchi,  in  the  3rd  century  B.C.  They  represent 
conditions  preceding  the  foundation  of  the  Magadha  empire.  They 
were  included  in  the  Buddhist  canon  settled  by  the  Council  of  Yaisali 
in  377  B.C.,  and  were  written  in  Pali.  Some  attribute  them  to  Parsva, 
the  Jain  saint  of  about  700  B.c.  Mahinda,  son  of  Asoka,  appears  to 
have  brought  them  to  Ceylon  ;  and  they  reappear  in  the  work  of 
Buddha-ghosha  later.  His  text,  given  by  Dr  Fausboll,  is  the  oldest  we 
have;  but  a  selection  of  34  such  stories  in  Sanskrit  (Prof.  Speyer, 
Cambridge  Univ.  Press)  goes  back  to  our  Ist  century.  I-tsing,  the 
Chinese  pilgrim  of  our  7th  century,  saw  some  of  them  dramatised  on 
.the  stage  in  Java.  They  include  one  fable  known  to  Plato  ('*  the  ass 
in  the  lion's  skin"),  and  one  known  to  Esop — "the  two  birds."     The 


330  Jats 

leading  idea  of  the  collection  is  the  Ka/rmar-Ma/rga  or  ''path  of 
deeds  "  :  but  rites  and  sacrifices  are  noticed,  pointing  to  Jain  beliefe. 
The  Jatakas  describe  the  customs,  follies,  and  festivals,  of  early  India, 
the  Sura  libations,  the  worship  of  demons,  and  trees :  they  describe 
kings'  palaces  as  built  only  of  wood;  but  they  refer  also  to  private 
and  official  correspondence,  legal  and  forged  letters,  tablets  of  metal 
and  wood,  bonds  to  be  paid  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  and  other 
civilised  idea&  They  exhort  men  not  to  commit  suicide  as  Yogis  and 
Sanyasis  used  to  do :  and  Buddha  also  forbade  this  (in  the  6th 
century  RC.)  according  to  the  Parajika  section  of  the  Tripitaka, 
while  Jains  did  so  perhaps  yet  earlier. 


A  large  non- Aryan  population  of  N.  India.  One  of  the 
5  divisions  of  the  Tadus  (see  Gipsies).  They  were  nomads  without 
caste,  fond  of  animals,  especially  horses,  goats,  and  snakes.  They  now 
devote  themselves  to  the  work  of  farriers,  to  the  mending  of  iron  pots, 
and  the  making  of  baskets,  like  gipsies ;  and  also  like  them  to  fortune 
telling,  cheiromancy,  dancing,  drinking,  and  stealing.  They  are  strong 
and  clever,  and  light  colored  for  Indians,  with  long  black  hair.  They 
are  unchaste,  and  care  nothing  about  what  they  eat,  whether  carrion 
or  not  They  are  good  tanners,  and  flay  and  carry  corpses  like  the 
Doms,  Kanjars,  and  Nats ;  and  thus  become  indispensable  in  towns. 
They  are  the  Yati-dhanas  of  the  Rig  Veda,  classed  with  *'  the  godless 
Dasyus,  and  Bakshasas  •  •  .  prayerless,  fierce,  inhuman,  eaters  of  horse 
flesh,  with  superhuman  powers." 

Java.      See  Boro  Budur. 

Jehovah.  See  Bible,  Christianity,  Hebrews.  [As  regards  the 
pronunciation  of  the  name  now  reading  Yehovak  in  Hebrew,  scholars 
usually  prefer  Yahveh,  and  consider  that  the  '^  points,"  or  short 
vowels,  of  the  name  Adonai  (which  is  always  read  by  Jews  instead  of 
the  written  Yehovah)  have  been  given  to  the  originals  But  we  do 
not  know  that  ancient  Hebrew  had  a  V  sound  at  all,  any  more  than 
modem  Arabic  has,  and  Yehuah  would  perhaps  be  better.  We  know 
for  certain  (Taylor  cylinder)  that  the  Assyrians  pronounced  the  name 
Yahu,  which  is  nearer  to  the  "  lao "  of  Gnostik  gems.  The  root 
means  "  to  breathe,"  as  in  the  Arabic  hawa  "  breeze  "  (Babylonian  ait 
"  wind ") ;  and  Jehovah  means  "  he  is,"  or  the  "  spirit"  Moses  is 
instructed  to  pronounce  the  name  Akiah  ("  I  am ")  to  the  people 
(Exod  iii,  14),  which  apparently  (vi,  3)  was  the  older  form.  In 
cuneiform  the  signs  used  can  sometimes  be  read  either  Ahu  or  Yahv* 
— Ed.]     This  Semitic  name  has  no  connection  with  the  Akkadian  A(i 


Jemshid  33 1 

or  At  "  moon/'  or  with  Ea  (see  these  headings).  Jehovah  is  represented 
as  a  god  of  wrath  in  many  passages  (1  Sam.  zv,  3  :  Isaiah  Ixiii,  3  ; 
xlvii,  3  :  Jer.  ziii,  14  :  Ezek.  viii,  18),  but  is  also  said  to  show  mercy 
to  thousands  of  generations. 

Jemshid.  An  Iranian  hero  of  the  Shah-nameh,  written  about 
1000  A.C.  (see  Yima). 

Jerahmeel.  Hebrew  YeraJf^meel,  or  "God  has  pity."  The 
brother  of  Ram,  and  son  of  Hezron  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron. 
ii,  9).  The  Jerahmeelites  lived  in  the  "  south "  {Negeb  or  "  dry 
land")  near  the  Eenites  (1  Sam.  xzvii,  10).  Dr  Cheyne  would  make 
them  a  pre-Israelite  N.  Arab  people,  but  they  are  not  otherwise 
noticed. 

Jeremiah.  Hebrew  Yeremiah  "Jehovah  raises  up."  This 
prophet  of  the  6th  century  B.a  is  sometimes  regarded  as  the  4th 
author  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  writer  of  parts  of  Deuteronomy. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  from  about  630  to  587  B.a,  being  the 
son  of  Hilkiah  the  High  Priest,  and  a  native  of  Anathoth  (now 
'Anata)  near  Jerusalem  on  the  N.E.  He  is  also  supposed  to  have 
compiled  the  Books  of  Kings.  The  text  of  his  prophecies  in  the 
Greek  Septuagint  Version  differs  greatly,  in  arrangement  of  the 
chapters,  from  the  Hebrew,  and  nearly  a  third  of  the  Hebrew  work  is 
missing  in  the  Greek.  He  declared  to  his  people  that  Jehovah  had 
commanded  them  not  so  much  to  offer  sacrifices,  as  to  obey  his  voice, 
when  he  brought  them  out  of  Egypt  (Jer.  xi,  4) :  and  though  a  priest 
he  seems  to  have  either  known  nothing  of  the  Levitical  laws,  or  to 
have  cared  little  for  them.  We  know  nothing  of  him  except  what  is 
found  in  his  writings.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  visionary  from 
childhood  (i,  6).  He  was  regarded  as  a  traitor,  because  he  exhorted 
the  people  of  Jerusalem  not  to  oppose  the  Babylonian  conqueror,  and 
predicted  their  failure.  His  fame  as  a  prophet  was  established  long 
after  his  death,  when  he  was  believed  to  have  accurately  predicted 
captivity  for  "  seventy  years  " — from  607  to  538  b.c.  (see  Jer.  xxv,  11  : 
Dan.  ix,  2).  He  went  about  with  a  yoke  on  his  neck  (Jer.  xxvii,  2  ; 
xxxiii,  10-12)  like  many  a  modern  Fakir,  or  Yogi,  some  of  whom 
wear  a  halter  and  ask  men  to  pull  it  tight.  Jeremiah  says  that  self- 
made  prophets  are  mad  (xxix,  26).  He  went  in  danger  of  his  life  in 
599  B.C.  (xxxvii,  13)- yet  four  years  later  he  withstood  Hananiah,  who 
predicted  Babylonian  defeat  within  two  years  (xxviii,  1-1 7).  He  was 
set  free  by  the  Babylonians,  whose  friend  he  was,  and  endeavoured  to 
persuade  the  remnant  of  Judah  to  stay  quietly  in  their  land  ;  but  after 


332  Jerome 

the  murder  of  the  Babylonian  governor  they  were  afraid  to  do  so,  and 
seem  to  have  carried  Jeremiah  with  them  to  Egypt  (xliii,  7-9  ;  xliv,  1). 
Some  traditions  say  he  was  stoned  at  Tahpanhes  in  Egypt,  but  Josephus 
is  silent,  and  other  Jewish  accounts  would  make  him  live,  with  his 
friend  Baruch,  to  a  good  age  in  Babylon.  These  stories  however  are 
probably  guesses  founded  on  the  Bible  statements.  One  legend 
(2  Mace,  ii,  4-7)  says  that  he  carried  the  ark,  tabernacle,  sacred  fire, 
and  incense  altar,  to  the  mountain  where  Moses  "  talked  with  God  " — 
either  Sinai  or  Nebo — and  hid  them  in  a  cave,  the  way  to  which 
could  never  after  be  found,  though  the  cave  mouth  was  *'  stopped  up 
by  the  altar  of  incense."  His  prophecies  were  concerned  with  the 
events  of  his  time.  Some  Jews,  in  later  ages,  expected  his  return  as 
a  forerunner  of  the  Messiah  ;  and  Christ  was  believed  to  be  his 
reincarnation  (Matt,  xvi,  14),  among  other  views  of  his  personality. 

Jerome.  Eusebius  Hieronymus,  now  known  as  St  Jerome,  was 
a  monk  of  Dalmatia,  who  was  born  about  346  or  350  A.c,  and  died 
at  Bethlehem  on  30th  Septr.  420  A.c.  His  parents  lived  at  Stridon, 
in  easy  circumstances — that  is  probably  at  Aquileia  at  the  head  of 
the  Adriatic ;  and  as  a  boy  he  went  to  Rome,  and  studied  Latin, 
Qreek,  and  classic  philosophy  as  a  pupil  of  Donatus :  he  was  there 
baptised,  the  parents  also  being  Christians,  and  he  afterwards  traveUed 
in  Gaul.  He  remained  at  Trdves  some  time  to  copy  commentaries  on 
the  Psalms  by  Hilarius.  In  370  he  wrote  his  .first  theological  essay 
at  Aquileia,  and  in  373  he  went  to  Antioch,  where  he  saw  visions, 
and  felt  his  "  call."  He  put  aside  secular  studies,  and,  in  374,  became 
a  hermit  at  Calchis  (Einnesrin),  east  of  Antioch.  For  four  yeais  be 
diligently  studied  Hebrew,  and  annotated  the  Scriptures :  he  also 
took  part  in  the  fierce  theological  disputes  of  the  age,  and  in  379  he 
returned  to  Antioch  to  advocate  the  views  of  the  Western  Church. 
For  three  yeai*s  after  this  he  was  in  Constantinople,  and  he  perfected 
himself  in  Greek,  enjoying  the  society  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzen.  He 
translated  the  chronicles  and  other  works  of  Eusebius,  and  was 
selected  as  secretary  of  the  Papal  Council  at  Rome,  where  he 
endeavoured  to  quiet  the  disputes  na  to  Faulinus,  and  became  a  friend 
of  Pope  Damasus,  who  set  him  the  grand  task  of  revising  the  Latin 
version  of  the  Bible.  He  became  popular,  and  was  very  jealously 
regarded  by  other  ecclesiastics.  In  384  A.c.  Pope  Damasus  died, 
and  his  successor  Siricius  was  less  favourable  to*  Jerome,  who  in  his 
own  works  draws  a  terrible  picture  of  the  pride  and  luxury  of  the 
Roman  Church.  Writing  afterwards  at  Bethlehem  {Epit.  PatdcB)  he 
does  not  scruple  to  apply  to  that  Church  the  title  of  the  ''  Scarlet 


Jerusalem  338 

Woman."  He  was  assailed  with  calumnies  in  public,  and  in  disgust 
he  left  for  Antioch,  where  he  was  joined  later  by  Paula,  a  rich  and 
pious  widow,  and  by  her  daughter  Eustochium.  With  these  and 
others  he  travelled  all  over  Palestine,  and  in  386  A.c.  they  settled  at 
Bethlehem,  where  Paula  built  three  nunneries.  Paula  died  in  1404, 
but  Jerome  continued  to  live  in  Bethlehem  (in  a  cave  it  is  said),  and 
to  labour  at  his  translation  of  the  Bible  till  death.  His  later  years 
were  distracted  by  Pelagian  heresy,  and  by  the  violence  of  the  Greeks 
and  Latins  (see  Epiphanius)  :  his  controversial  tone  is  violent,  and  he 
quarrelled  with  his  old  friend  Augustine  about  Peter  and  Paul.  His 
monastery  was  attacked  in  1416  A.C.,  and  he  had  to  flee  to  a 
mountain  cave  or  other  hiding  place  for  two  years  (see  Prof.  Bamsay, 
Smith's  Dicty,  of  Christian  Biogr,),  Jerome's  great  work  was  the 
Latin  Vulgate  (see  Bible),  which  was  only  accepted  by  the  Church 
after  1000  JLC.  He  appealed  to  the  Jewish  authorities  as  to  the 
correctness  of  his  Old  Testament  version,  and  received  instruction 
from  Rabbis  of  Judea,  and  of  Tiberias.  This  version  is  specially 
interesting,  because  it  is  earlier  than  the  time  when  the  Masorah  was 
finally  settled.  Many  of  his  renderings  are  valuable,  and  he  had  a 
minute  knowledge  of  Palestine,  while  he  was  one  of  the  best  Latin 
writers  and  linguistic  scholars  of  his  day. 

Jerusalem.  The  name  as  spelt  in  the  Amama  tablets  of  the 
15  th  century  B.C.  is  UnLsalim,  "  the  city  of  safety."  It  was  also  called 
YebUs  (Jebus)  by  its  early  inhabitants.  [Perhaps  the  Akkadian 
Eb-ua  "  house  of  safety." — Ed.]  Its  population  consisted  of  Amorites 
and  Hittites  (Ezek.  xvi,  3,  and  45).  The  Jebusites  held  their  own 
till  the  time  of  David ;  for  armies  with  chariots  avoided  the  moun- 
taina  Yet  an  Egyptian  force  of  bowmen  appears  to  have  been 
stationed  at  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  Amenophis  III.  The 
inhabitants  derided  the  Hebrew  chief,  setting  the  lame  and  the 
blind  on  the  walls.  Even  after  taking  the  upper  city  by  assault 
David  appears  to  have  left  Jebusites  undisturbed,  and  purchased  the 
site  for  his  altar  on  the  eastern  hill  from  their  king  Araunah  or 
Oman.  From  the  Tell  Amama  correspondence  we  learn  that  the 
Egyptian  hold  on  Palestine  was  loosened  in  the  reigns  of  Amenophis 
III  and  Amenophis  IV,  and  Joshua  then  probably  led  the  'Abiri  or 
Hablri,  as  Col.  Conder  supposes  (Letters  139,  141,  Berlin  collection) 
from  the  'Abarim  or  mountains  of  Moab,  into  southern  Palestine. 
But  he  was  unable  to  take  so  strong  a  city  as  Jerusalem.  The  name 
of  the  Amorite  king  in  Urusalim  is  variously  rendered  Arad-Ehiba 
and  'Abd-sadak,  and  he  appeals  to  Egypt  for  help,  the  garrison  having 


334  Jerusalem 

been  withdrawn,  and  describes  the  general  havoc  wrought  by  the 
'Abiri  in  the  surrounding  country.  There  seem  to  have  been  then 
no  Egyptian  stations  in  the  Hebron  and  Jerusalem  mountains,  nor  do 
the  letters  mention  any  towns  of  Central  Palestine,  except  Zabuha 
and  Megiddo  in  the  plains  of  lower  Galilee. 

The  building  of  a  temple  by  Solomon,  on  the  ridge  £.  of  the 
city,  was  carried  out  by  aid  of  Phoenician  masons :  this  altered  the 
whole  character  of  the  city,  necessitating  the  extension  of  its  walls  to 
the  east  so  as  to  enclose  this  sanctuary.  It  became  the  political 
capital  of  Palestine  and  of  S.  Syria ;  and  Solomon  allied  himself  by 
marriage  with  the  Pharaoh.  But  on  his  death  Shishak  plundered  the 
city  of  the  wealth  accumulated  during  Solomon's  reign  ;  and  Senna- 
cherib in  702  B.a  also  exacted  a  heavy  toll  (see  Hebrews)  firom 
Heze]h:iah — facts  which  are  established  by  monumental  evidence.  The 
sacred  centre  of  the  city  was  that  "  Eben-hash-Shatiyeh,"  or  "  stone  of 
foundation,"  on  which  the  temple  was  built.  It  was  known  about 
330  A.C.  as  the  "Lapis  Pertusus"  or  ''holed  stone,"  and  is  now 
called  the  Sakhrah  or  "  Eock,"  under  the  Dome  of  the  Bock.  This 
rock  has  in  it  a  cave,  and  is  **  pierced  "  by  a  kind  of  chimney  in  the 
roof  of  the  cave,  while  below  the  marble  floor  there  is  said  to  be  a 
well  called  Bvr  d  Anodh  ("well  of  spirits")  leading  to  Hades. 
Jewish  legends  as  to  the  rock  have  been  adopted  by  Moslems,  who 
believe  it  to  float  without  foundation  over  the  abyss,  and  to  be  an 
original  "Bock  of  Paradise"  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  i,  p.  181,  fig.  64). 
Arab  writers  say  that,  in  the  future,  "  Paradise  is  to  be  brought  to 
this  holy  place."  The  Ka'aba,  with  its  black  stone,  will  come  as  a 
bride  to  the  Sakhrah.  Dr  Adler  says  that  the  latter  is  "  believed  to 
be  suspended  in  air,  but  touching  a  palm  tree,  below  which  is  the 
Well  of  Souls,  where  all  souls  rest  till  the  Besurrection."  Mediaeval 
tradition  wrongly  connected  the  site  with  the  stone  of  Jacob  at 
Bethel.  Mu^iammad  is  fabled  to  have  prayed  in  the  cave,  and  to 
have  ascended  through  the  shaft  in  its  roof  to  heaven.  His  footstep 
is  shown  on  it  (but  in  the  12th  century  Christians  called  this  a 
footstep  of  Christ) ;  with  the  finger  marks  of  Gabriel,  who  held  down 
the  Sakhrah  when  it  would  have  followed  the  prophet  to  the  skies. 
To  its  north  is  a  flagstone  with  nails  driven  into  it,  and  when  all 
these  have  dropped  through  the  stone,  into  the  abyss,  the  world  will 
come  to  an  end.  Many  other  sacred  sites  are  found  here — the 
praying  places  of  Abraham  and  David  in  the  cave,  and  the  "  Dome  of 
the  Chain  "  to  the  E.,  where  a  magic  chain  from  heaven  once  decided 
cases  of  dispute.  Further  south,  in  the  enclosure  of  the  Haram  or 
Sanctuary,  is  the  Jami'a   el    Aksa  or  "  distant  mosk,"  traditionall; 


Jerusalem  335 

supposed  to  be  noticed  in  the  Koran.  But  the  whole  legend  of 
Muhammad's  ''night  journey"  is  unnoticed  in  any  of  his  writings. 
Here  we  find  the  *'  footstep  of  Christ/'  the  tomb  of  the  sons  of  Aaron 
(an  old  Templar's  monument),  the  shield  of  Hamzah  (a  beautiful 
Persian  shield  once  shown  in  the  Dome  of  the  Sock),  the  pillars 
between  which  men  must  squeeze  if  they  would  go  to  Paradise,  the 
black  slab  in  the  porch,  to  touch  which  with  closed  eyes  gives  the 
same  bliss,  and  the  ''  Well  of  the  Leaf,"  down  which  a  Moslem  is  said 
to  have  descended,  finding  himself  in  the  Garden  of  Paradise.  On 
the  east  wall  of  the  Haram  enclosure  we  find  the  "  Cradle  of  Christ " 
— ^an  old  Roman  niche  for  a  statue  in  the  vault  at  the  S.E.  corner — 
the  pillar  whence  the  *'  Bridge  "  will  stretch  to  Olivet  (see  Bridges)  ; 
and  the  "  Throne  of  Solomon "  further  north,  where  his  dead  body 
was  seated,  so  that  the  demons  thought  him  still  alive,  till  the  staff 
supporting  it  decayed.  In  another  shrine  is  preserved  the  "  fragment 
of  the  Sakhrah  "  which  is  like  the  original  (Herr  K.  Schick,  Qaarterly 
Stat.  Pal.  Expl  Fund,  April  1897).  The  My  rock  itself  has  a 
pillar  projecting  southwards,  called  its  "  tongue,"  wherewith  to  speak 
in  the  future. 

Solomon's  temple  was  a  comparatively  small  shrine,  standing  on 
this  sacred  site.  It  was  only  about  80  or  90  feet  long,  30  feet  wide, 
and  40  or  50  feet  high.  Its  ornamentation  with  metal,  and  its  cedar 
roof,  resembled  the  description  of  Babylonian  temples,  in  texts  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar and  of  yet  earlier  times.  Nothing  is  known  about  its  outer 
courts ;  for  Herod  removed  the  ancient  foundations,  and  doubled  the 
area  of  the  surrounding  enclosure  (Josephus,  Wars,  I,  xxi,  1  ;  V,  v) ; 
and  the  masonry  at  the  base  of  the  present  ramparts  is  his.  The 
style  is  that  of  Greek  masonry,  and  a  few  letters  (as  mason's  marks) 
occur  on  the  foundation  stones,  being  in  the  character  of  his  time. 
The  stones  are  of  great  size,  but  they  are  only  half  the  dimensions 
of  the  largest  stones  hewn  by  Romans  in  the  3rd  century  A.G.  at 
Ba'albek.  The  style  generally  resembles  that  of  the  Palace  of 
Hyrcanus  ('Arak  el  Emir)  in  Gilead,  built  about  176  B.c.  The 
enclosure  now  includes  35  acres,  but  the  N.E.  part  seems  to  be 
later  than  Herod's  time.  In  1871  M.  Clermont  Gkmneau  discovered 
a  Greek  text  forbidding  Gentiles  to  enter  the  inner  courts  (see  Ant, 
XV,  xi,  5 ;  Wa/rs,  V,  v,  2).  Herod's  temple  had  no  ark  in  it ;  but 
the  table  of  shewbread,  and  the  altar  of  incense,  became  the  spoil  of 
the  Romans  in  70  A.C.,  and  are  represented,  with  the  trumpets  of 
Jubilee,  on  the  arch  of  Titus.  The  Jews  (not  accepting  the  legend 
noticed  under  **  Jeremiah  "),  believe  the  Ark  to  be  hidden  somewhere 
in   the  sacred   enclosure.      Dr   Adler  (Lecture,  Jews'  College,  Jan. 


336  Jerusalem 

1886)  quotes  the  Misbnah  (Ydma,  see  also  2  Chron.  xxxv,  3)  as  to 
the  hollows  which  were  made  under  the  ark,  and  other  sacred  spots, 
to  secure  purity  from  auy  coDtaminatiou  by  a  "  tomb  of  the  depth," 
or  hidden  grave ;  whereas  the  altar  must  stand  on  bare  rock  according 
to  the  Law.  He  relates  also  the  Talmudic  legend  of  a  priest  who 
looked  into  a  cavity  under  a  loose  flagstone,  and  fell  dead  before  he 
could  reveal  the  secret  of  what  he  saw  ;  but  others  concluded  that 
here  the  ark  lay  buried. 

The  sacred  water  for  the  temple  (see  Heifer)  came  from  the 
Pool  of  Siloam  to  the  south,  where  in  1880  was  discovered  (in  the 
rock  aqueduct  leading  to  the  pool  from  the  spring  of  Gi^on  to  the 
north)  the  only  ancient  Hebrew  text  as  yet  known,  dating  probably 
about  703  B.C. 

The  temple  site  remained  in  ruins  after  70  A.C.,  and  no  building 
was  erected  over  the  Bock  itself  till  692  A.C.  (72  jlh.),  when  the 
Damascus  Ehalif  'Abd  el  Melek  built  the  present  '*  Dome  of  the 
Rock/'  to  which  chapel  additions  were  made  later;  and  in  the  12th 
century  it  became  the  Templar  chapel  till  recovered  and  purified  by 
Saladin  in  1187.  Justinian  however,  about  530  A.C.  restored  the 
outer  enclosure,  built  the  Aksa  Mosk  as  a  Church  of  the  Virgin 
(which  was  enlarged  by  the  Templars  whose  Hospice  adjoined  itX 
and  erected  a  small  chapel  of  St  Sophia  still  existing  in  the 
Barracks  on  the  site  of  Antonia,  which  bounds  the  Haram  on 
N. W.  The  "  golden  gate "  on  the  E.  wall  belongs  to  this  period. 
Other  ancient  gates  on  the  S.  and  W.  date  back  to  Herod 

The  question  of  the  exact  site  of  the  "  City  of  David  "  has  been 
much  discussed.     Some  scholars  would  place  it  on  the  small  ridge  of 
Ophel  (some  20  acres  only  in  extent)  S.  of  the  Temple,  but  Josephus 
very  clearly  states   that  the  S.W.  hill  of  the   Upper  City  was  that 
enclosed  by  David  and  Solomon  (Wars,  V,  iv,  1),  and  describes  Akra 
— or  the  lower  city — as  lying  to  the  north.     These  represented  the 
original  town.     Solomon's  palace  (see  1  Kings  iii,  1  ;  ix,  24)  include* 
ing  that  of  his  queen,  was  not  in  the  City  of  David   but  apparently 
(Neh.  iii,  25)  on  Ophel,  and  from  its  dimensions   must  have  covered 
the  greater  part  of  that  spur.  .  The  "  Tombs  ,of  the  Kings  "  (Neh.  iii, 
16),  or  some  of  them,  were  in  the  valley  close  to  Siloam  beneath  this 
palace.     The  city  at  its   largest  occupied  about  300  acres,  and  the 
present    walled    town    200    acres.        The    detailed  account   of  the 
temple  from  the   Uishnah,  and  from  later  Jewish  sources,   such  9» 
the  "  Beth-ha-bekhereh,"  or  "  chosen  house,"  of  Maimonides  has  been 
carefully  worked  out  by  Dr  T.  Chaplin  (Quarterly  Stat.  Pal.  ^spl. 
Fund,  1885).     The  question  of  the  "Holy  Sepulchre"  remains  one 


Jesus  887 

of  controyersy,  some  accepting  Constantine's  site  covered  by  the 
present  cathedral — though  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  tradition 
having  existed  to  be  found  in  writings  earlier  than  326  A.c, 
while  othera  accept  the  site  for  Calvary  N.  of  the  city,  at  the 
Jewish  traditional  site  of  the  Beth-has-Sakilah,  or  "  place  of 
stoning/'  a  remarkable  knoll  in  which  is  the  cave  now  called  the 
**  Grotto  of  Jeremiah*"  Becent  excavations  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
city  have  added  only  a  few  coins  and  engraved  signet  rings  to  our 
materials  for  history.  The  old  walls  seem  here  to  have  been 
destroyed,  and  only  those  of  the  5th  century  A.C.,  and  of  the 
Crusaders,  remain ;  but  the  rock  scarps  indicate  the  ancient  lines  of 
defence.  In  the  time  of  Hadrian  (135  A.C.)  Jerusalem  was  rebuilt 
as  a  Roman  colony,  and  a  temple  to  Venus  is  said  to  have  then 
covered  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  "  Church  of  the  Resurrection." 
The  temple  rock  was  then  adorned  with  a  statue  of  Jove  and  one 
of  the  Emperor,  which  Jerome  appears  to  have  seen.  The  inscrip- 
tion of  this  statue  (in  Latin)  is  built  upside  down  in  the  S.  wall  of 
the  Haram,  and  the  head  of  Hadrian's  statue  was  picked  up  by  a 
peasant  in  1874  on  the  stony  road  N.  of  Jerusalem. 

Jesus.  Greek  leaoua,  corrupted  from  the  Hebrew  Yehoshu'a 
"Jehovah  has  saved,"  a  common  Jewish  name.  Jesus  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Joseph  the  carpenter* of  Nazareth,  and  of  Mary  his 
wife,  and  had  four  brothers  (Matt  xii,  46  ;  xiii»  55)  who  did  not 
believe  in  him  (John  vii,  3-5).  Jesus  (according  to  the  Gospels)  said 
that  he  did  nothing  of  himself:  that  the  end  for  which  he  was 
born  was  to  bear  witness  to  the  Truth  :  that  no  one  was  good  but 
God,  who  was  a  Spirit  whom  no  man  had  seen.  He  also  upbraided 
the  Jews  for  seeking  to  kill  him — '*  a  man  who  hath  told  you  the 
truth  which  I  have  heard  of  God  "  (John  viii,  40).  His  message  to 
the  world  was  that  we  should  believe  in  God,  and  love  one 
another.     [An  unfinished  article  (see  Christ  and  Gospels). — Ed.] 

JezreeL  Hebrew :  yezr*e^el,  "  God  sowed."  An  ancient  town 
on  the  N.W.  slope  of  Mt.  Gilbo'a,  in  lower  Galilee,  one  of  the  royal 
residences  of  Ahab  and  his  successors,  and  a  centre  of  Ba'al  worship 
under  the  influence  of  Jezebel  (Aizabel)  the  Tyrian  daughter  of  Eth- 
ba'al,  and  wife  of  Ahab.  Some  scholars  have  proposed  to  read  Jezreel 
instead  of  Israel  in  the  famous  text  of  Mineptah  (see  Egypt  and 
Hebrews),  which  refers  however  to  a  *'  people."  [The  Egyptian  spell- 
ing does  not  favour  this. — Ed.] 

Jews.       See    Hebrews.       The    Greek    Iovdaio8   represents    the 

y2 


338  Jin 

Hebrew  yehndah  (*'  praiae  **)  and  the  word  properly  applies  (as  in  the 
4th  Cloepel)  only  to  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  bat  the  Romans  used  the 
name  Judea  more  loosely. 

Jin.  Arabic :  jinni,  plural  jdn,  feminine  jinniyeh^  pL  jinniyat, 
a  word  perhaps  borrowed  from  non-Semitic  speech  (see  Gian  and  Jan)L 
Jins  are  spirits  male  and  female,  with  airy  bodies,  half  human  in 
nature,  half  spiritual,  and  able  to  change  their  shapes,  and  to  become 
diminutive  or  gigantic.  Some  are  pious  Moslems,  and  good  spirits, 
some  are  eviL  Some  have  married  mortals,  like  the  Beni  EUohim 
(Gen.  vi,  2).  They  live  in  the  air  or  underground,  frequent  ovens, 
and  lie  under  thresholds :  they  eat  food  and  have  children.  Thej 
often  rush  into  houses  after  morning  prayer,  but  will  not  go  near 
salt,  and  are  afraid  of  iron  (see  Lane's  Mod.  Egtns,).  They  include 
*EfrU8  or  evil  ghosts,  OhovZa  (Turkish  "  fiend  ")  who  live  in  caves  and 
eat  corpses,  and  Kerdd,  "  monkeys  "  or  "  goblins."  A  man  possessed 
by  a  Jin  is  said  to  be  Majnun  in  Arabic,  which  is  usually  rendered 
''  mad."  Moslems  have  many  tales  (taken  from  the  Talmud)  about 
the  Jins  who  obeyed  Solomon. 

Jingo.     Basque  :  jincoa  "  god  "  (see  Qan  and  Jan). 

Jisti.      Sanskrit.     The   father    of   the   androgynous    being  first 
created  (see  Arda-nar-isvara). 

Jiv.     Sanskrit :  "  life  "  (see  Ga).    Siva  is  called  Jiva-dar  "  the  life- 
giver." 

Jiya.     Sanskrit:  "conquering."     See  Ja. 

Job.     Hebrew  :  Ayob  "  afflicted."     The  beautiful  legend  of  Job  is 
perhaps  very  ancient.     His  name  was  known  about  600  ac.  (Ezekiel 
xiv,  14) :  but  there  is  much  controversy  as  to  the  date  and  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  "  Book  of  Job."     Benan  says  "  the  7th  century  B.a,** 
and  Dr  Cheyne  (in  1886)  supposes  it  to  be  written  by  a  Hebrew 
about  550  B.C.     Job  and  his  friends  (except  Elihu  of  the  family  of 
BAm-— a  clan   of  Judah)  are  represented  as  Edomites.     The  book 
refers  to  no  law,  or  temple,   or  Hebrew  ritual     It  mentions  the 
Easdlm    or   Babylonians,  as    raiders    in    a   time    of   great   trouble. 
[This  perhaps  points  to  a  period  about  607  to  588  B.a  as  that  in- 
tended.— ^Ed.]     Modem  critics  suppose  the  prose  story  to  be  distinct 
from  the  poetic  chapters,  especially  as  using  the  name  Yahveb  not 
used  in  the  poem  :  [this  however  does  not  apply  to  the  Qreek  ver- 
gion — ^Ed.],  and  regard  the  speeches  of  Elihu  also  as  later  additions. 
[Some  of  the  latest  critical  writers  however  accept  the  int^ity  of  the 


Job  839 

book.  It  is  the  most  admired  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  perhaps  the 
worst  translated.  The  Greek  translators  were  often  unable  to  under- 
stand it.  The  idiom  is  very  terse ;  and  the  language,  though  com- 
paring with  the  Hebrew  of  Amos,  is  full  of  Aramaik  words — recalling 
the  dialect  of  the  "Moabite  stone" — with  others  which  Jerome  called 
Arabic,  probably  Nabathean.  The  problem  of  the  book  is  that  of 
the  righteous  man  in  affliction,  and  the  argument  is  simple.  God 
determines  (after  the  report  of  the  Satan  or  accusing  angel)  to  try 
Job's  sincerity,  and  all  his  children  and  wealth  are  destroyed,  while  he 
is  smitten  with  disease.  His  friends  are  convinced  that  he  has  sinned ; 
but  Job  knows  his  own  innocence,  and  refuses  to  be  a  hypocrite. 
Elihu  suggests  that  he  is  being  tried.  Yahveh  finally  speaks  to  him 
from  the  cloud,  neither  revealing  the  cause  of  his  affliction  nor  even 
alluding  to  it,  but  pointing  to  Providence  in  nature  as  reason  for  trust 
in  God's  wisdom  and  goodness.  Job  is  humbled  and  convinced,  say- 
ing "  I  uttered  that  I  understood  not :  things  too  wonderful  for  me 
which  I  knew  not  "  (xlii,  3),  and  on  his  interceding  for  his  friends  his 
trial  is  ended.  The  poem  is  both  beautiful  and  thoughtful,  and  its 
descriptions  apply  with  exactness  to  the  scenery  of  Edom  ;  but  some 
details  are  much  obscured  by  bad  translation. — Ed.] 

The  book  attempts  to  solve  the  insoluble  problem  of  misery,  and 
expresses  the  revolt  Arom  trite  dogmas  of  the  age.     Job's  friends  are 
shocked  by  what  they  consider  to  be  his  blasphemous  irreverence,  and 
even  Elihu  reproves  him.      But  the  famous  exclamations  "  though  he 
slay  me  yet  will  I  trust  him,"  and  "  I  know  that  my  redeemer  liveth," 
are  questioned  by  the  modern  critical  scholar.      [The  word  goel  in 
Hebrew  means  both  a  "  redeemer "  and  an  "  avenger,"  and  the  pas- 
sage (xix,  25-27)  appears  to  read,  "  I  know  my  goel  is  living,  and  one 
hereafter  will  rise  over  the  dust ;  and,  after  these  things  have  de- 
stroyed my  body,  from  my  flesh  I  shall  see  God — and  not  a  foe." — 
Ed.]     Job  has  no  hope  of  any  future  resurrection  on   earth.      The 
tree,  he  says,  may  sprout  again  when  it  is  pruned,  but  man  lies  down 
to  rise  no  more  (xiv,  12).     He  attributes  to  God  the  destruction  of 
good  and  bad  alike,  and  denies  that  evil  is  punished  in  this  world, 
or  that  the  wicked  will  care  if  the  punishment  falls  on  his  children 
(xxi).     He  is  confident  that  with  a  fair  trial  his  innocence  could  be 
proved,  but  he  can  see  God  nowhere  (xxiii,  8,  9)  and  does  not  know 
who  has  accused  him  or  why  (xxxi,  35).     God  is  able,  and  he  thinks 
determined,  to  make  him  appear  guilty,  and  he  wonders  if  his  name 
will  in  future  be  a  bye-word.     He  cannot  understand  why  God  is 
bringing  general  misery  on  the  nation,  and  allows  robbers  and  wicked 
persons  to  go  unpunished.     Elihu  says  it  is  because  the   time  for 


840  John 

punishment  has  not  yet  come.  Job  questions  the  whole  moral  govern* 
ment  of  the  world ;  and  while  admitting  that  Ood  is  powerful,  he 
doubts  if  he  is  just.  Christian  legends  placed  Job's  country  in 
Bashan,  where  an  old  monument  of  Rameses  II  is  still  shown  as 
*'  Job's  stone  "  ;  but  scholars  generally  agree  that  the  scene  is  laid  in 
Edom. 

John.      Hebrew    Yohanan,    "  He    has    caused    mercy " :     Arabic 
YvJia/nna:  Greek  loannid.     The  festival  of  St  John  (23rd  JuDe) 
represents  the  survival   of  ancient  fire   f<gtes   of  pre-Christian  ages. 
In   Bretagne  youths  still  adorn   themselves  with  green  wheat,  &d(1 
maidens   with  flax  blossoms,  dancing  with    songs   and  jests    round 
menhirs    and    dolmens,    and    seeking    to    divine    their    married    lot. 
Within    30    miles    of   Paris  (see  Academy,   6th    July    1884)    thev 
celebrate  the  "  Saint  Jean "  on  the  borders  of  Normandy,  gathering 
at  early  dawn  the  blue  com  flowers  from  the  wheat,  with  poppies, 
to  adorn  "  St  John's  Tree,"  "  a  slim   young  poplar,"   uprooted  and 
replanted   in   the   ''place"   of  the  village.     In   the   evening  fiaggots 
were  piled  round  it,  and  the  village  elders  "  with  bared  heads  formed 
a  circle,  and  the  head   man  stepped  forward  and  applied  a  lighted 
torch  ;  and  when  the  fire  burned  up  they  paced  slowly  round  and 
round,  in  solemn  silence,  and  the  women  joined  in  widening  circles." 
This  is  the  Pradakshina  of  the  Hindu,  and  the  cyclic  dance  of  the 
Greeks.     "  As  the  flames  darted  and  leapt  up  the  Normandy  mothers 
made  a  feint  of  swinging  their  babes  through  the  smoke  ...  to  ward 
off  disease,  or  misfortune."     Youths  took  flying  leaps  through  the  fire, 
and  as  it  subsided  "  snatched  glowing  brands  which  each  strove  to  cany 
off,  in  order  to  relight  the  fires  "  in  the  village  dwellings  :  "  every  piece 
of  charred  wood  was  carefully  treasured  "  till  the  next  eve  of  St  John. 
Near  Home,  and  Naples,  similar  rites  accompany  the  "  blessing  of  the 
pink  flowers  "  in  the  sacristy  of  San  Giovanni  of  the  Lateran  (Qtieen 
newspaper,  1881).     "The  pinks  dried,  and  arranged  in  small  packets, 
are  ranged  on  a  table  on  each  side  of  a  white  cushion,  before  a  crudfix 
under  a  miniature  bcddacchino,    A  curious  paper  carpet  laid  down  has, 
in  the  centre,  a  picture  of  the  Madonna  and  Child,  on  a  white  Maltese 
cross  on  a  blue  ground,  surrounded  by  heraldic  devices,  with  a  border 
of  variegated  flowers  gummed  on  different  shades  of  color.     Sound 
this  carpet  the  priests  range  themselves,  while  the  officiating  cardinal 
(Cardinal  Chigi),  supported   by  two  bishops,  chants  the  benediction 
previous  to  sprinkling  with  holy  water,  and  incensing,  the  flowers." 

On  the   29  th  June  also  girls   called    "Amantole"   march    in 
procession   through   this  church  of  St  John,   "loosely  clothed,  and 


John  341 

with  hooded  robes,  corded  at  the  waist  bat  enveloping  the  whole 
person,  and  stuck  all  over  with  pins."  Pure  white  veils  cover  them^ 
and  they  are  Uessed  as  they  pass  the  altar.  The  Host  is  elevated, 
and  they  receive  a  gift  in  a  white  silk  purse,  with  a  candle.  In  the 
Evening  they  gather  in  the  square,  which  glows  with  colored  lanterns 
and  torches,  to  indulge  in  revelry  till  daybreak.  The  crowd  camps 
in  booths,  or  sleeps  on  the  church  steps,  and  feasts  on  figs,  and  snails 
seasoned  with  garlic,  decked  with  carnations  and  lavender.  They  dance 
and  singy  and  make  music  with  pipes,  and  trumpets,  and  drums,  to 
drive  away  evil  spirits,  and  witches,  who  are  feared  at  this  season 
when  the  summer  has  passed.  Many  carry  lights  on  their  heads, 
and  scatter  rice  and  salt,  for  witches  must  pick  up  and  count  the 
graina  Mothers  whisper  prayers  into  the  ears  of  infants,  and  black 
cats  are  hunted.  It  is  the  old  festival  of  Concordia,  and  the  25  th 
of  June  was  that  of  Ceres — the  "Ambarvalia"  or  perambulation  of 
the  fields,  when  the  sacrifice  of  a  bull,  sheep,  or  cow  was  known  as  the 
*'  ambarvalis  hostia,"  offered  to  the  twelve  brothers  Arvales,  descended 
from  Acca-Larentia  the  Etruskan  nurse  of  Romulus. 

The  holy  fire  (see  Beltein)  should  at  this  season  be  lighted,  as 
in  Charlemagne's  days,  and  peasant  dwellings  still  show  the  holes  in 
door  posts,  into  which  a  stick  was  thrust  and  whirled  by  a  rope  till 
tow  was  lighted  by  this  fire  drill  of  the  house,  barn,  or  stable.  Bon« 
fires,  torches,  and  trusses  of  hay,  were  thence  lighted,  and  fire  was 
carried  round  the  houses  and  the  cattle  in  the  fields,  or  floated  down 
rivers  to  drive  away  evil  beings  (Notes  and  Qaeriea,  26th  January 
1895).  An  English  visitor  to  Rome  in  1899  describes  again  the 
feast  of  San  Giovanni  on  the  23rd  June,  as  one  of  general  jollity, 
when  bells  were  worn,  and  the  stems  of  seeding  garlic  carried,  with 
which  men  touched  women  and  girls,  without  rebuke.  With  various 
wines  they  washed  down  the  viands — fish,  and  pork  or  the  "  sacred 
pig  of  midsummer"  (see  Boar).  The  whole  fSte  partook  of  the 
character  of  the  ancient  licentious  Bacchinalia. 

The  29th  June  is  also  St  Peter's  day,  when,  as  Brand  says, 
''boats  each  with  a  mast  gaily  garnished,  and  prows  painted,  are 
carried  about  the  fields,  and  sprinkled  with  good  liquor."  French 
youths  at  this  season  sing : 

**  Que  de  feuz  brulans  dans  lea  aers, 
Qu'ils  font  une  douce  harmonie. 
BedoubloDS  cette  melodie. 
Par  noB  dances,  par  nos  concerts." 

St  Antony  of  Padua  has  also  been  connected  with  St  John's  day  as 


342  John,  Gospel  of 

the  ''Protector  of  Fires/'  and  domestic  animals  are  blessed  at  this 
season  (Academy,  26th  July,  16th  August  1884).  In  some  countries 
maidens  stripped  and  ran  naked  in  the  woods  like  Bacchinals  to  seek 
love  tokens  in  plants  and  flowers,  such  as  the  arum  (the  French  **  vis 
de  chien  "),  and  the  ^  dog  (or  goat)  stones  "  called  **  couillon  de  pr&tra" 
Fern  seed,  and  maiden-hair,  were  equally  lucky  (see  Ancient  Worsfiip^ 
1866).  In  Venice  such  festivals  were  held  after  1577  on  the  3rd 
Sunday  in  July,  called  the  **Festa  del  Bacchinale  del  Kedentore"; 
the  "  Redeemer "  being  so  connected  with  the  "  Bacchinalia."  The 
Venetians  then  feasted  in  arbours  decked  with  lamps  throughout  the 
night,  and  at  sunrise  rushed  naked  into  the  sea  with  shouts  of  joy — 
a  rite  also  found  at  Naples  (see  Baptism). 

John,  Gospel  of.  See  Gospels.  Dr  Martineau  was  of 
opinion,  like  German  critics,  that  it  is  not  older  than  about  140  a.c. 
The  Rev.  C.  Hargrove  thought  it  had  three  sources,  (1)  a  theological 
work  similar  to  the  1st  Epistle  of  John,  (2)  certain  discourses  of  Jesus, 
and  (3)  a  traditional  narrative  of  Christ's  life  and  miracles.  Dr 
Samuel  Davidson  {Introd.  to  New  Test^  says  :  "  It  is  remarkable  that 
a  legendary  account  of  the  gospel's  origin  should  have  come  into  ex- 
istence soon  after  the  production  itself,  suggesting  to  us  the  idea  of 
the  slow  acceptance  which  the  gospel  met  with  .  .  .  any  attempt  to 
bring  out  of  it  even  a  nucleus  of  real  history  must  be  conjectaraL" 
Dr  Martineau  thus  discusses  it :  *'  That  a  constant  companion  of  the 
ministry  of  Jesus  should  shift  it  almost  wholly  to  a  new  theatre ; 
should  never  come  across  a  demoniac,  and  never  tell  a  parable ;  should 
remember  nothing  about  the  '  Kingdom  of  Heaven '  and  the  '  Coming  of 
the  Son  of  Man ' ;  should  have  forgotten  the  last  Passover  of  the  '  little 
flock,'  with  its  institution  of  the  Communion,  and  have  occupied  those 
festival  hours  with  the  crucifixion  instead ;  should  have  lost  the  Master's 
terse  maxims  and  sweet  images  of  life,  thrown  out  in  homely  dialogue,  and 
have  fancied  in  their  place  elaborate  monologues,  darkened  with  h&rsh 
and  mystic  paradox,  is  so  utterly  against  nature  as  to  forfeit  the  rank 
of  an  admissible  hypothesis."  [Yet,  if  this  be  the  work  of  the  author 
of  John's  epistles,  we  must  not  forget  that  the  writer  especially  dwells 
on  the  love  of  one  another  which  was  the  Master's  great  doctrine. — 
Ed.] 

The  existence  of  this  gospel  shows  us  that,  in  the  2nd  century, 
there  existed  a  mass  of  mystical,  and  legendary  material  unrepresented 
by  the  Judean  synoptics.  The  writer  speaks  of  a  witness,  aod  of 
"  we  "  who  can  attest  his  authority,  with  an  "  I "  who  adds  the  last 
word — unless  this  be  the  note  of  a  later  scribe  (see  xix,  35  ;  xxi,  24» 


Jonah  843 

25).  The  text  of  the  oldest  MSS.  does  not  contain  all  that  we  now 
have  (v,  4;  viii,  2-11)  and  in  some  versions  the  latter  episode  is 
found  in  Luke  instead.  Mr  Hargrove  thinks  that  the  absence  of  the 
common  particle  ov/a  in  chapters  ziv  to  zvii  serves  to  distinguish  these 
later  discourses  from  other  parts  of  the  work,  and  to  connect  them 
with  the  1st  Epistle  of  John  {Socy.  Hist.  Theol,  l7th  Nov.  1892). 
According  to  this  gospel  Christ  calls  Andrew  and  Peter  at  Bethabara, 
not  by  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  travels  by  Cana  and  Capernaum  to 
Jerusalem,  teaching  before,  not  after,  John  the  Baptist  was  thrown 
into  prison.  The  synoptics  appear  to  represent  Jesus  as  never  enter- 
ing Jerusalem  before  the  last  fatal  visit  John  and  the  synoptics 
are  at  variance  as  to  the  day  of  the  crucifixion — whether  after  the 
Passover  or  before  it.  In  John's  gospel  Jesus  is  still  in  the  judgment 
hall  in  the  sixth  hour  (xix,  14),  whereas  Mark  says  he  was  crucified  in 
the  third  hour  (xv,  25).  John's  accoimt  of  the  Besurrection  is  also 
quite  different  (see  Christ  and  Gospels),  and  the  raising  of  Lazarus, 
like  the  spearing  of  Christ  on  the  cross,  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
synoptic  gospels. 

Jonah.  Hebrew  :  Yonah  "  dove."  The  son  of  Amittai  a  native  of 
Gath-Hepher  (now  El  Mesh-hed)  in  Galilee,  is  said  to  have  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Joash  King  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xiv,  25)  about  800  B.C. : 
but  the  Book  of  Jonah  is  probably  a  late  work  of  Ezra's  age.  Christ 
is  said  to  have  believed  in  the  legend  of  Jonah  and  the  fish  (Matt, 
xii,  40  ;  Luke  xi^  29)  which  reminds  us  of  that  of  H6rakles  swallowed 
by  a  whale,  or  of  Areion  saved  by  a  dolphin.  Vishnu  in  India  is 
represented  issuing  from'  the  fish's  mouth,  and  Kama  also  was  swallowed 
by  a  fish  :  the  Red  Indian  Hiawatha  again,  is  swallowed  by  a  sturgeon 
whose  heart  he  stabs :  it  floats  to  shore,  and  birds  picking  the  bones 
release  the  hero.  Jonah  composed  a  psalm  in  the  fish's  belly,  and 
was  vomited  out.  The  remaining  miracles  are  equally  incredible. 
The  expression  "  God  of  heaven "  (i,  9)  is  one  that  appears  never  to 
have  been  used  before  the  captivity. 

Joseph.  Hebrew :  Yoseph  "  he  increases  "  (Gen.  xxx,  24),  other- 
wise Yehuaeph  (Psalm  Ixxxi,  5)  or  "  Yahveh  increases."  The  son  of 
Jacob,  a  dreamer  as  a  boy,  is  a  diviner  by  a  magic  cup  when  a  man. 
His  story  is  a  beautiful  and  pathetic  one — a  legend  with  a  moral;* 
and  the  writer  is  thought  to  show  acquaintance  with  Egypt  by  certain 
words,  as  well  as  by  the  personal  names  which  he  gives.  The  story  of 
Joseph  and  Potiphar's  wife  reminds  us  of  that  of  Peleus,  of  Bellerophon, 
or  of  Hippolutos  and  the  wife  of  Theseus.  The  same  incident  occurs  in 
the  Tale  of  the  Two  Brothers  in  Egypt  (see  Egypt),  but  the  remainder 


344  Joseph 

of  that  story  is  a  fantastic  myth,  having  no  relation  to  the  Hebrew 
story  of  Joseph. 

Joseph.  The  father  of  Jesus  Christ,  sod  of  Heli  (or  otherwise  of 
a  Jacob)  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  The  descent  of  Christ  from  David  is, 
in  both  Matthew  and  Luke,  traced  through  Joseph.  He  is  thought 
to  have  died  before  the  Crucifixion.  Legends  about  him  are  numerous, 
Especially  in  the  Oospel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary,  a  work  of  about 
our  5th  ceutury  (see  Jesus). 

Josephus.  It  has  been  said  that  without  the  aid  of  this  learned 
Jewish  historian  we  should  have  no  history  of  New  Testament  times. 
Great  importance  has  also  been  attached  to  short  allusions,  now  found 
in  his  text,  to  Jesus,  James,  and  John  the  Baptist  (see  Christ).  But 
these  are  now  generally  regarded  as  corrupt  interpolations.  Dr 
Edersheim  (Smith's  Bih.  Dicty.)  reminds  us  that  our  text  is  traceable 
only  to  our  middle  ages,  and  has  been  '*  extensively  corrupted,  corrected, 
and  interpolated." 

Josephus  was  bom  about  37  to  39  A.C.,  and  died  about  100  A.C. 
He  called  himself  Flavins,  after  the  Flavian  emperors  who  befriended 
him,  but  was  the  son  of  Matthias  the  priest,  of  the  High  Priests' 
family,  and  so  connected  with   the  Sadducees.      Matthias  was   the 
grandson  of  Annas,  High  Priest  in  6  to  15  A.C.;  and  by  his  mother's 
side  Josephus  was  descended  from  the  royal  Hasmonean  house.     He 
learned  Greek,  and  also  studied  the  tenets  of  the  Essenes  and  of  the 
Pharisees.     He  joined  a  hermit  in  the  desert  at  the  age  of  16  years, 
and  three  years  later  returned  to  Jerusalem.     In  63  or  64  A.a  he 
visited  Rome,  to  plead  for  priestly  friends  sent  prisoners  there  by  the 
Procurator    Felix ;    he    was    wrecked    on    the    way,    and    so    made 
acquaintance  with   a  friend  of  the  Empress  Poppsea  wife  of  Nero, 
procuring  through  her  the  release  of  the  captives,  and  receiving  from 
her  valuable   presents.     On  the  outbreak  of  the  Jewish  revolt,  in 
66  A.C.,  he  was  placed  in  command  in  Galilee;  and  in  his  Life  he 
gives  a  detailed  account  of  his  attempts  to  withstand  the  Bomans, 
noticing  many  towns  and  villages  easily  traced,  but  not  noticed  by 
other  writers.     He  put  down  risings  in  Tiberias,  and  elsewhere,  of 
those    who    desired    to   make  peace,  but  was  taken   prisoner  when 
Jotapata — a  strong  hill  fortress  of  Galilee  which  he  defended — was 
taken  by  Vespasian  ;  and  he  says  that  he  prophesied  to  the  latter  bis 
approaching  election  as  emperor.     He  then  gave  up  the  cause  of  the 
Jews  as  hopeless,  and  when  taken  by  Titus  to  Jerusalem  tried  to  persuade 
the  fanatical  defenders  of  the  city  to  save  it  by  yielding  to  Rome.     His 
wife  and  parents  were  made  prisoners  by  the  zealots.     He  took  as  a 


Josephus  345 

second  wife  a.  Jewish  captive  in  the  camp,  but  she  left  him,  when  he 
took  a  third  whom  he  divorced,  and  then  a  fourth — a  rich  Jewess  of 
Krete  by  whom  he  had  two  sons.  When  Jerusalem  fell  to  Titus,  in 
August  70  A.C.,  Josephus  was  granted  the  lives  of  some  50  friends, 
and  also  the  Temple  copy  of  the  Scriptures  which  he  sent  as  a  present 
to  Vespasian,  who  had  become  emperor  in  July  69  A.C.  He  was 
granted  lands  in  Palestine,  and  made  a  Roman  citizen,  prospering 
under  Titus  and  Domitian.  He  is  last  heard  of  in  the  3rd  year  of 
Trajan,  100  a.c. 

His  history  pf.  the  Wars  was  written  in  Aramaik,  and  trans- 
lated into  Greek.  It  is  said  to  have  been  corrected  by  Vespasian, 
Titus,  and  Agrippa,  and  is  of  high  value.  His  later  work  the 
AiUiquitiea  was  written  probably  in  Rome  about  93  A.C.,  and 
dedicated  to  a  courtier  named  Epaphroditos.  In  this  work  he  adopts 
the  standpoint  of  a  Jewish  philosopher,  and  explains  away  some  of  the 
Hebrew  legends — ^like  Philo — as  being  allegorical.  He  says  that 
*'  Moses  speaks  philosophically"  about  the  serpent  in.ijden.  But  like 
Jesus,  and  all  other  Jews,  he  believed  in  demoniacal  possession  and 
other  superstitions  (see  Wa/rn,  YII,  vi,  3).  His  latest  works  included 
the  interesting  tractates  Against  Apion,  and  his  own  Life,  in  which 
he  vindicates  his  conduct. 

Whiston's  translation  is  defective,  and  taken  from  corrupt  MSS. 
of  the  16th  century.  In  all  such  matters  as  numbers,  dates,  distances, 
weights  and  measures,  the  chief  passages  have  been  garbled  so  that 
they  are  now  discordant.  Yet  there  is  only  one  short  allusion  to 
Christ,  which  Dean  Farrar  reluctantly  discards  as  an  interpolation.  It 
is  first  noticed  by  Eusebius  about  330  A.C.;  but  Chrysostom  (347-407 
A.C.)  though  often  quoting  Josephus  does  not  mention  it,  nor  does 
Photius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (9th  century),  though  thrice 
noticing  Josephus.  Indeed  in  speaking  of  "  Justus  of  Tiberias  "  this 
author  says  that  the  Jewish  historian  "  has  not  taken  the  least  notice 
of  Christ."  Justin  Martyr,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Origen,  never 
appeal  to  this  testimony.  Origen  says  that  Josephus  mentioned  John 
the  Baptist,  but  did  not  acknowledge  Christ  (Agst  CelaiLs,  I,  xxxv). 
The  other  two  allusions,  to  John  the  Baptist  (Ant,  XVIII,  v.  2),  and  to 
James  "  the  Lord's  brother  **  (Ant,,  XX,  ix,  1 )  were  unfortunately  in  that 
part  of  the  Palatine  Codex  (9th  or  10th  century)  which  is  missing: 
but  Dr  Edersheim  remarks  that  the  sentences  are  Christian  and  not 
Jewish  in  tone,  besides  interrupting  the  context. 

In  relating  Bible  history  Josephus  appears  to  follow  the  Septua- 
gint  Greek  version,  or  at  all  events  one  more  like  it  than  our  present 
Hebrew  text.     He  adds  some  curious  passages,  such  as  his  account  of 


346  Joshua 

the  campaign  of  Moses  as  an  Egyptian  general  in  Nubia.  He  speaks 
highly  of  Philo,  and  of  his  useAil  mission  to  Caligula  in  40  B.G.  He 
imitates  him  also  in  allegorising  the  Pentateuch,  calling  the  Tabernacle 
the  symbol  of  the  world,  and  connecting  the  shewbread  with  the  12 
months,  and  the  golden  candlestick  with  the  7  planets.  The  God  in 
whom  he  (like  Paul)  believed  was  a  pure  Essence,  permeating  the 
whole  world — much  as  Plato  and  the  Stoiks  taught ;  and  he  does  not 
object  to  the  Platonic  Logos,  which  Philo  also  accepted.  Tet  he  says 
that  22  books  of  his  Bible  contain  "  the  full  and  accurate  account  of  all 
past  time,  and  are  justly  to  be  believed  divine  .  .  .  since  written  by 
prophets  who  learned  what  was  origiaal  and  most  ancient  by  inspira- 
tion of  God,  and  chronicled  what  happened  in  their  own  time."  The 
five  books  of  the  Pentateuch  were,  he  says,  "  written  by  Moses  even  to 
his  death,  and  embrace  a  period  of  3000  years  (that  is  4500  to  1500 
B.C.)  •  .  .  the  Prophets  wrote  what  was  done  in  their  days  in  13  books 
.  .  .  and  the  remaining  4  books  contain  hymns  to  God  and  rules  of 
life  for  man.  .  .  .  from  Artazerxes  to  our  own  time  the  same  authority 
does  not  attach  to  the  books  "  (Agst.  Apion.,  i,  8).  He  speaks  of  the 
writers  as  "  being  seized  by  the  divine,  so  that  they  could  not  be 
silent."  Prophecy  ceased,  he  thought,  some  two  centuries  before  he 
was  born,  yet  some  Essenes,  he  says,  prophesied  much  later,  and  he 
even  claims  to  have  prophesied  himself. 

Joshua.  Hebrew :  Yehoahu'a,  "  Yahveh  has  saved."  The  son 
of  Nun  (Assyrian  Nvmu  "  prince  "),  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  He  was 
a  great  raider,  and  a  worshiper  at  stone  circles  (see  Gilgal),  according 
to  the  account  of  his  wars  written  Dot  earlier  than  the  time  of  Solomon 
(see  Jasher)  or  of  Behoboam — that  is  some  500  years  after  this 
Hebrew  hero  lived.  The  conquest  of  the  hills  might  take  place  when 
Egyptian  power  was  weakened  (see  Amama,  Egypt,  Hebrews,  Jerusalem), 
but  this  does  not  substantiate  the  drying-up  of  the  Jordan,  or  the 
standing  still  of  the  sun  and  moon,  at  Joshua's  command. 

Josaphat.  See  Barlaam  ;  apparently  a  corruption  for  Bodasapb 
(Bodhisattva),  the  Budha-sap  of  the  Chronicle  of  ATicierU  Nations, 
by  El  Biruni,  noticed  by  Sir  H.  Yule.  Thus  Buddha  became  a  ChristLin 
saint,  as  the  Portuguese  historian  D.  de  Couto  recognised  three  centahcs 
ago,  when  he  was  told  that  the  Salsette  caves  were  cut  by  the  father 
of  St  Jehosaphat,  who  was  a  great  Indian  king.  "  It  may  well  be,"  be 
says,  "  that  he  was  the  very  Budao  of  whom  they  relate  such  marvels " 
(see  Academy,  1st  Septr.  1883  ;  Indian  Antiq.,  Octr.  1883).  We 
have  much  to  learn  of  the  influence  of  Buddhism  on  Christiaoity  (see 
the  author's  articles,  Open  Court,  August  and  Septr.  1887). 


Jude  847 

Jude*  The  short  Epistle  of  Jude  claims  to  be  by  the  brother  of 
James  (see  James),  and  shows  apparent  acquaintance  (verse  14)  with 
the  Book  of  Enoch  (see  Enoch) :  it  denounces  the  scandals  due  to  the 
*'  feasts  of  charity  "  (verse  12).     See  Agapse. 

Judges.  A  fragmentary  continuation  of  the  Book  of  Joshua  (see 
Joshua),  which  includes  the  solar  legends  of  Samson  (see  Samson),  as 
well  as  the  story  of  Jephthah's  daughter,  which  shows  human  sacrifice 
among  Hebrews,  and  reminds  us  of  the  Greek  legend  of  Iphigeneia 
(see  Hebrews). 

Jupiten  Latin.  The  Sanskrit  Dyaus-pitar,  and  Greek  Dio- 
pater,  or  Zeu-Pat€r,  the  "  father  of  light "  (see  Dyaus,  and  Zeus). 

JustifiCEtion.  This  word  means  properly  *' showing  to  be  right" ; 
and  the  Egyptians  spoke  of  those  who  passed  the  ordeal  of  the  balance 
(see  Amenti)  as  "justified,"  according  to  Mariette  and  Naville,  as 
early  as  the  time  of  the  6th  dynasty  (see  Bonwick's  Egtn.  Belief, 
p.  408). 

Justin  Martyr.  The  existence  of  this  father,  and  the  authen- 
ticity of  his  writiugs,  have  beeu  questioned  by  Judge  Strange  and 
other  writers.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Prisons,  son  of 
Bacchius,  born  near  Shechem  in  Palestine  (ApoL,  I,  i),  and  converted 
by  witnessing  Christian  constancy  under  persecution  {Apol.^  II,  xii), 
and  by  the  influence  of  a  stranger  (Trypho,  ii).  He  had  been  a  Stoik, 
a  Feripatetik,  a  Pythagorean,  and  a  Platonist.  His  dispute  with 
Trypho  (thought  to  be  Rabbi  Tarphon)  is  traditionally  supposed  to  have 
occurred  at  Ephesus  ;  and  his  quarrel  with  Crescens  the  Cynic  at  Borne 
led  (as  Eusebius  asserts  or  guesses)  to  his  martyrdom.  He  makes 
Christ  to  be  the  Son  of  God  and  the  Logos,  and  gives  an  interesting 
account  of  the  simple  rites  of  Christians  in  Palestine,  which  then 
involved  neither  a  priesthood  nor  a  ritual  His  conversion  is  supposed 
to  have  occurred  in  132  A.C.,  and  his  martyrdom  under  Antoninus 
Pius  in  167  A.a  Yet  he  is  supposed  to  have  addressed  his  2nd 
Apology  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  saying  that  "now  the  pious  are  per- 
secuted as  they  never  were  before,"  which  perhaps  disposes  of  earlier 
persecutions  (see  Donaldson's  Histy.  of  Christian  Literature,  iii,  p.  230). 
Dr  Sanday  says  that  "  not  one  half  of  the  writings  attributed  to  him 
are  genuine."  He  is  said  to  have  converted  Tatian  (see  Tatian),  and 
he  believed  that  Christ  was  born  in  a  cave  (see  Bethlehem).  He 
received  a  good  education  in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  is  said  to  make 
100  citations  from  the  New  Testament;  yet,  as  now  known,  only 
seven  of  these  agree  with  our  text,  and  only  two  are  identical  according 


348  Ka 

to  Bishop  Wescott.  Justin  notices  the  Meraaira  of  the  ApastUs  (see 
Didache),  and  speaks  of  Jesus  as  descended  from  David  throogh 
Mary  (see  Joseph)  :  he  was  acquainted  apparently  with  other  non- 
canonical  Christian  books,  and  speaks  of  the  Jordan  as  catching  fire 
at  Christ's  baptism.  The  evidence  of  such  works  as  the  Apology^  as 
affecting  the  age  and  text  of  the  Bible,  is  now  admitted  to  be  of  very 
doubtful  value  (see  Bible). 


K 

In  Semitic  speech  two  K  sounds  are  distinguished.  The  soft  K 
(Hebrew,  Caph)  interchanges  with  the  soft  Ch  (as  in  "  church  ") ;  and 
the  guttural  T^  (Hebrew,  Koph)  with  hard  G :  it  is  the  Latin  Q,  and 
the  Greek  Koppa^  which  soon  dropped  out  of  Greek  alphabets.  In 
Turkish  the  nasal  K  has  the  sound  ng.  The  KH  is  a  guttural  (the 
German  c^,  and  the  Greek  hhi)  which  interchanges  with  the  guttural 
gh^  and  the  hard  H. 

Ke.  [An  ancient  root  meaning  "  to  call " :  Akkadian  ka 
"mouth,"  "word":  Egyptian  A»"cry":  Aryan  agh  "speak/*  gu 
"  bellow  "  :  Hebrew  g'dh  "  bellow  "  :  Mongol  ge  **  say  "  :  Finnic  Jcai 
"  cry,"  ki  "  speech  "  :  Chinese  kiu  "  call." — ^Ed.] 

Ke.  "  Being."  See  Ga,  From  this  root  comes  the  relative  pro- 
noun [Akkadian  ka,  I^ption  okK  Aryan  ka^  ki,  "  who  " :  Turkish  hi 
"  that  which  "  :  Hebrew  fci  "  as  " — Ed.].  In  Egypt  the  Ka  is  the 
genius  or  spirit  which  resides  in  the  statue  placed  in  the  outer 
chamber  of  the  tomb.  The  sign  represents  two  arms  raised  to 
heaven  (see  Ka  "  to  cry  ") ;  but  the  "  determinative/'  or  pictorial  key 
to  the  meaning,  placed  beneath  these  when  the  Ka  spirit  is  intended, 
is  a  phallus — showing  the  meaning  to  be  "  life  "  (see  M.  Revillout, 
Trams.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  VIII,  i:  Brugsch's  Diet,  1435).  Miss  A.  R 
Edwards  {Academy,  5th  May  1888)  says  that  "she  fails  to  fathom 
the  full  meaning  of  the  Ka/'  "  usually  in  close  association  with  the 
Ankh,"  or  symbol  of  life  (see  Ank)  ;  "  it  answers  to  the  vital  principle, 
and  like  the  Ankh  stands  for  life/'  The  bull  in  Egyptian  is  also 
called  Ka  [see  ka  "  call,"  gu  "  bellow/'  whence  the  Aryan  kau  "  cow  "* 
— Ed.].  *'  The  Egyptian,"  says  Renouf,  "  gave  to  man's  personality  a 
purely  material  form  which  exactly  corresponded  to  the  man."  ^  In 
countless  representations,  subsequent  to  1800  B.C.,  we  see  the  kiog  in 
presence  of  the  gods,  while  behind  him  stands  his  Ka,  as  a  little  man 
with  the  ruler's  own  features."     "About  1500  (b.c.)  they  had  com- 


Kab  34» 

pletely  separated  the  personality  from  the  person,  and  we  see  the 
king  appear  before  his  own  personality  which  carries  the  ruler's  staff 
and  emblem  of  life."  The  king  prays  to  his  Ka  or  genius,  and  has 
sometimes  7  Eas.  The  word  Ea  also,  in  Egyptian,  is  an  affix  of  per- 
sonality as  in  other  languages  (see  Proc,  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  March 
1884).  *'  There  are  numerous  representations  of  the  king  propitiating 
his  own  Ka,  and  it  was  customary  to  swear  by  the  Ea  of  the  king,  or 
by  the  Kau  of  kings,  as  Bomans  swore  by  the  genius  of  the  Emperor  '^ 
(see  Gan).  The  Hebrews  also  swore  by  the  Yerek  or  phallus  (Gen. 
xxiv,  2).  "  Even  the  Egyptian  gods  themselves,  and  local  societies, 
had  their  favourite  Eas.  From  the  time  of  Rameses  II  victory, 
wealth,  and  other  divine  gifts,  were  personified  and  worshiped  under 
the  name  of  the  14  Eas."  Dr  Birch  says  that  these  facts  explain 
''  the  abstract  idea,  and  mystical  meaning,  of  the  Ea  in  the  Ritual  of 
the  Dead  "(Trans.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  VI,  ii).  In  the  Ritual  the  Ea 
is  '*  the  ever  living,"  yet  an  object  to  which  offerings  are  made.  The 
phallic  emblem  of  the  Ea  is  called  "  the  embodied  soul "  (see  Ba). 

In  a  Georgian  dialect  we  find  Ea,  Ee,  or  Ehe,  for  God  as  an 
invocation  heading  letters  and  documents,  like  the  Arab  Alef  (see  A). 

Kab.  Kheb.  Khef.  Egyptian  words  for  round  and  hollow 
objects.     See  Gab. 

K'ab.  Ka'aba.  Arabic:  "square."  The  cubical  cell  of  the 
Haram,  or  "  sanctuary,"  at  Makka  in  Arabia.  It  was  already  ancient 
when  it  was  rebuilt,  and  the  "  black  stone  "  replaced  in  its  wall,  in 
the  youth  of  Mubammad.  The  shrine  was  surrounded  by  365  men- 
hirs, and  the  statue  of  the  god  of  fate  stood  near  it  (see  Hab'al)» 
The  well  Zemzem  ("  murmuring  ")  was  hard  by.  Tradition  said  that 
here  Ishmael  thirsted,  and  here  he  was  prepared  as  a  sacrifice  by 
Abraham  whose  footstep  was  shown  near  the  "  black  stone  "  (see  Hajr 
el  Aswad),  the  surface  of  which  was  worn  by  the  kisses  of  devotees, 
like  St  Peter's  toe  at  Rome.  The  MustajaJb  ("  wonder  working ") 
was  another  upright  red  stone,  in  the  S.W.  angle  of  the  Ea'aba,  and 
was  also  much  reverenced.  The  building  was  already  covered  by  a 
Eisweh  ("veil"),  which  appears  to  have  been  red,  in  the  time  of 
Mubammad — this  being  the  Moslem  female  color,  and  belonging  ta 
Allat  the  Venus  of  Makka — and  the  Eisweh,  now  renewed  annually,, 
is  known  as  the  "  holy  carpet." 

Kabbala.  Cabbala.  Hebrew  -.  "  reception  "  or  "  tradition,"  a 
mystic  philosophy  of  the  later  Jews  (see  Dr  Ginsburg's  KabbcUa,  186«5)» 
It  is. distinguished  as  including  the  Figurative,  Speculative,  Practical,. 


350  Kabbala 

and   Dogmatical  ^bbalas ;  and  the  word  is  used  to  mean  divining 
by  numbers  and  magic  squares.     The  Figurative  Cabbala   attaches 
mystic  values  to  the  22  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  to  their  numerical 
meanings :  they  are  classed  under  three  ''  mother  letters/'  seven  double 
letters,  and  twelve  single.     From  words,  numerical  values  (and  also 
anagrams)  are  thus  derived.      The  Practical  J^bbala  teaches  the  art 
of  preparing  talismans — magic  figures  with  letters.     The  Dogmatic 
!^abbala  is  concerned  with  the  story  of  creation,  with  good  and  evil 
spirits,   and   with   the   magical   power  of   the   "ineffable    name"  of 
Yahveh.     It  also  teaches  the  32  ways  of  Wisdom,  and  the  50  gates 
of  Prudence.     The  oldest  i^abbalists  appear  to  have  taught  (as  in  the 
Talmud)  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  or  transmigration  of  the  soul, 
which  Mubammad  also  adopted  from  the  Rabbis.     The  title  "  God  of 
the  spirits  of  all  desh  "  was  believed  to  "  intimate  that  metempsychosis 
takes  place  in  all  flesh,  in  beasts,  fowls,  and  reptiles."     Dr  Gaster 
(Lecture,  Jew's  College,  London,  March  1886)  says  that  the  ^S^bbala 
claims  to  be  "  a  philosophy  and  a  science,  which  has  systematised  and 
solved   the  eternal   question   of  life,  and   penetrated  into   the  inner 
mystery  of  that  mechanism  by  which  all  things  material  are  bound 
together,  as  well  as  shown  their  relation  to  a  higher  world."     But  the 
world  in  general  does  not  believe  such  a  i^abbala  to  have  been  handed 
down  from  Adam  by  patriarchs.     It  seems  to  have  arisen  in  the  time 
of  Maimonides  (13th  century  A.C.),  when  the   Midrash  was  almost 
as  sacred  as  the  Scriptures,  and  when  the  marvels  of  the  latter  were 
explained  allegorically  by  rationalists.     The  i^bbalists  held  that  God 
was  the  Ain-Sv/ph  ("  without  limit "),  from  whom  the  universe  eman- 
ated, these  emanations,  or  modes,  being  the  Sephiroth  ("  orders  "  or 
*'  numbers  "),  which  were  his  qualities. 

This  philosophy  is  contained  in  two  works,  Ye^rah  ("  creation  ") 
and  Z6ha/r  (''  light "),  of  the   Middle  Ages,  which  were  claimed  as 
representing  the  teaching  of  Rabbi  Simeon  bar  Yochai  (70  to  110  kjo.\ 
whose  tomb  at  Meirun  in  upper  Galilee  is  visited  annually  in  spring 
by  Jews  who  bum  shawls  and  other  objects  of  value  as  offerings.    The 
Cabbala  seems  to  have  been  systematised  in  the  south  of  Franca 
The  book  Zohar  is  the  more  important ;  and,  as  it  contains  references 
to  events  occurring  in  570,  1099,  1187, 1264,  and  1306  A.o.,its  late 
date  is  very  evident     We  here  learn  that  the  Ain-Suph,  or  ''  Infinite," 
produced  a  prototype  of  creation,  a  bisexual  being  (as  in  India  or 
China)  having  10  Sephiroth  or  qualities:  (1)  The  Crown;  (2)  the 
head :  Wisdom  ;  (3)  Intelligence  ;  (4  and  5)  the  two  hands,  Love 
to  the  left  being  female,  and  Justice  to  the  right  male,  proceeding 
from   2   and   3 :    (6)   Beauty,   the   breast,  from  4   and   5 ;    (7  and 


Kabeiroi  851 

8)  Firmness  and  Splendour,  the  legs,  from  6  ;  (9)  Foundation,  the 
navel,  from  6;  and  (10)  the  Kingdom,  which  is  the  earth  on  which 
the  being  stands.  This  being  (the  Ain-suph  incorporate),  called  also 
the  "  king  and  queen,"  produced  the  Adam  Kadmon  or  *'  old  Adam," 
and  the  throne  of  the  Metatron  (or  angel  of  the  throne),  whence  came 
the  10  Sephiroth  of  Te^irah  (''creation"),  constituting  the  world 
of  spirits  and  angels.  Thence  came  the  material  world,  also  with 
1 0  degrees  of  badness  or  grosser  Sephiroth,  1  of  Chaos,  2  of  Darkness, 
and  7  of  the  seven  Hells.  These  were  ruled  by  Samael  and  his 
consort,  who  together  are  the  Beast.  From  the  Adam  !^admon  man 
was  produced,  having  a  Neshemah  (spirit),  RuaJch  (soul),  and  Nephesh 
(self),  which  tripartite  principle  of  life,  in  each  case,  is  both  male  and 
female,  but  bom  into  the  world  in  two  halves,  so  that  throughout  life 
the  male  soul  seeks  its  female  complement  The  book  Zohar  also  sees 
in  the  words  "  Yahveh  our  Elohim  is  one  Yahveh "  (Deut.  vi,  4)  a 
Trinity  in  unity,  of  Yahveh,  Elohim,  and  Akhad. 

Such  mysticism  is  found  also  in  the  Gnostik  systems  of  the  Aidns 
(see  Gnostiks)  in  our  2nd  century,  and  recalls  the  Ideas  of  Plato,  while 
similar  language  occurs  in  Indian  allegories  (see  Brahma). 

Kabeiroi.  Kabili.  Greek  Kabeiroi.  The  Babylonian  Kabvri 
or  "  great  ones  "  is  a  term  applied  in  texts  to  the  principal  gods.  In 
Oreco-Phcenician  mythology  (Sanchoniathon ;  see  Cory's  Frag,)  there 
were  7  Kabeiroi,  with  Eshmun  as  the  8th ;  or  otherwise  12  of  these 
chief  deities.  Hephaistos  (fire)  was  the  father  of  all  Kabeiroi  according 
to  some  Greeks,  his  son  Kadmos  (Kedem  *'  old  "  or  "  eastern  ")  being 
the  first,  and  a  guardian  of  flocks,  herds,  and  sailors.  In  Krete  the 
Kabeiroi,  or  Daktuloi,  were  symbolised  by  an  iron-colored  (red)  stone 
'Mike  a  man's  thumb"  (Littleton,  Lai.  Diet).  Varro  and  others  say 
that  Dardanos  transported  these  gods  from  Samothrace  to  Troy ;  and 
JBneas  carried  off  these  Penates  for  Lavinium,  including  the  statues 
of  Neptune,  Apollo,  and  Jupiter,  Vesta,  and  other  gods  and  godesses 
(see  Bryant,  MythoLy  ii,  pp.  342,  451). 

There  are  other  accounts  according  to  which  the  "  great  gods  " 
were  two  only — the  Twins  of  Day  and  Night,  Kastor  and  PoUux  (see 
Asvins)  who  are  incarnate  in  the  "  St  Elmo's  Fire,"  seen  on  the  masts 
of  ships,  and  were  adored  in  Lemnos,  Imbros,  Samothrace,  and  Troy, 
during  the  ages  of  the  Persian  wars  and  of  the  Komans.  The  parents 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  later  Greeks  and  Komans,  were  initiated 
into  the  mysteries  of  Samothrace.  Arsinoe  (276-247  B.c.)  founded 
there  an  asylum  for  fugitives,  and  the  site  was  explored  by  the 
Austrian  expedition  of  1874.     Such  rites  at  Lemnos  lasted  9  days 


352  Kabir 

(Strabo,  x,  437).  Camillus,  or  Gasmillas,  a  son  of  H^phaistos,  is 
also  father  of  Kabeiroi,  connected  with  the  EourStes,  Eombantes, 
and  Daktuloi.  The  names  of  the  Kabeiroi  are  again  given  as  Ajderos, 
Axiokersa,  Axiokersos,  and  Kadmilos  or  Kasmilos.  They  are  some- 
times three — Dardanos  (or  Poseidon  or  Ouranos),  Jasion  (or  Apollo, 
or  Oe  "  the  earth  "),  and  Harmonia  their  sister  who  married  KAdmo& 
These  appear  to  be  of  Phoenician  origin.  The  Etroskans  recognised 
the  pair  of  brothers  with  a  sister  (the  Eour^tes  or  ^*  children  "  of  the 
Greeks)  answering  to  Eastor,  Pollux,  and  their  sister  Helen,  bom  of 
the  egg  of  Leda  (see  Helene).  They  were  usually  gods  who  wielded 
thunder,  and  connected  with  fire. 

Kabin     A   pious  weaver  of  Banaras,  a  Moslem   whose  mother 
was  a  Brahman!  woman.     He  was  the  most  famous  of  the  disciples 
of  Bamanand,  who  taught  in  1380-1420  A.c.  (see  Bamanand),  and 
aimed  at  reconciling  Islam  with  Yishnuva  belief.     His  headquarters 
were  at  the  well-known  Kabir-Chaura  at  Banaras,  and  he  travelled  all 
over  the  mid-Gktnges  region  to  preach.    He  became  the  teacher  of  Nanak 
(see  Sikhs),  whom  he  met  while  yet  only  a  Fa|pr  or  SanyasL      Kabir 
taught  that  the  god  of  Moslems  and  Hindus  was  the  same,  **  The 
Inner,"  whether  invoked  as  'Ali  or  as  Bama  ('Ali  being  deified  by 
Persian  Moslems)  ;  and  in  the  "  Yijak,"  by  one  of  Eabir's  disciples 
named  Bhagodas  (see  Imp.  Gazetteer,  India),  we  read  that  "  to  'Ali 
and  Bama  we  owe  our  life  .  .  .  that  tenderness  should  be  shown  to 
all   that   lives  ...  it  avails  not  to  count  beads  or  bathe  in   holy 
streams  .  .  .  bow  at  temples,  mutter  prayers,  and  go  pilg^mages, 
while  in  the  heart  remains  any  deceit  or  evil.  .  .  .  The  Hindu  fasts 
every  eleventh  day,  and  the  Moslem  in  Bamadan  ;  but  why  so  ?    Who 
made  the  other  months  and  days  ?    If  the  Creator  dwells  in  tabernacles, 
whose  dwelling  is  the  universe  ?     Who  has  ever  seen  Bama  among 
images  or  pilgrim  shrines?     Every  person  that  has  ever  been  bom 
is  of  the  same  nature  as  yourself ;  and  He  is  One,  my  guide  and 
my  priest."     Beligious  differences  are  only  Maya  or  "  illusion,"  and 
emancipation  is  gained  by  meditating  on  the  Supreme,  and  on  the 
holy  names  of  "  Hari,  Bam,  Govind." 

The  best  known  of  Eabir's  writings  are  the  Sukh-nidban  and 
the  Sabda-bali,  or  ''Thousand  Sayings,"  showing  the  emancipation 
from  caste  and  from  superstition  attained  in  India  about  1400  A.a ; 
with  the  revival  of  Vedanta  doctrines,  and  of  Jain  or  Buddhist 
philanthropy ;  and  with  the  Yishnuva  monotheism  first  preached  by 
Eamarila  and  Bamanuja,  in  the  6th  and   7th  centuries  A.a 

KabyleS.     Arabic  :  Kabllah  a  "  clan."    A  mingled  race  in  N.W. 


Kachchk-pa  853 

Africa,  so  called  by  Arabs ;  fair  haired  and  blue  eyed — a  cross  between 
Berbers  (akin  to  Eopts),  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  Bomans,  Vandals,  and 
Arabs,  congregated  £.  of  Algiers  and  S.  of  Cherchel.  Their  language 
is  much  mixed,  but  of  Berber  origin  akin  to  ancient  Egyptian  (see 
Prof.  Francis  Newman's  Grammar,  1836,  and  the  later  researches  of 
French  scholars). 

Kachcha-pa.     Sanskrit :  ''  the  feeder  on   the   seashore "  (see 
Turtle).     The  Maha-Eachcha  is  the  ocean  shore,  or  Yaruna,  "  expanse.** 

Kachins.  Kakins.  Kakhyens.  "The  male  beings"  (see 
Ka  and  6an).  A  wild  race  £.  and  N.K  of  the  British  Barmah 
frontier,  called  Sings,  or  Sinphos,  in  Assam — a  loose  tribal  con- 
federacy in  mountain  regions,  between .  Bhamo  on  the  Iravadi  river 
and  the  N.E.  Assam  frontier.  They  dislodged  the  Shans  in  our  11th 
century,  forcing  them  from  Magaung  in  their  Pong  states  to  the 
Salween,  Menam,  and  Mekong,  thus  creating  new  states  of  Laos  and 
Siamese.  As  Chins,  or  Shus,  the  Kachins  spread  down  the  broad 
valley  of  the  Chin-duen  (or  Kyen-dwen)  to  its  junction  with  the 
Iravadi  near  Ava,  and  along  the  Yoma  range  of  Arakan,  beyond 
Prome,  where  the  author  became  well  acquainted  with  them  as  road- 
makers.  Though  feared  by  the  Barmese  we  found  them  steady, 
honest  workmen,  if  left  to  their  own  devices.  They  are  very 
independent,  and  fierce  fighters  when  roused,  having  hardly  passed 
beyond  the  raiding  stage.  They  bum  the  forests  in  the  hot  season, 
and  sow  maize,  and  hardy  cereals.  After  the  crops  are  reaped  and 
hidden,  they  proceed  to  plunder  the  Barmese  and  the  rich  Shan 
traders.  The  many  dialects  of  their  language  have  not  yet  been 
reduced  to  writing.  Each  independent  tribe  has  its  tutelary  deity. 
They  say  that  they  sprang  firom  101  eggs,  laid  by  Hli  the  supreme 
deity :  the  last  egg  produced  a  man  and  woman,  but  the  man  pre- 
ferred a  bitch,  and  Hli  had  to  help  the  woman  to  drive  her  away, 
when  she  married  her  brother  the  man. 

The  dog  is  conspicuous  in  Eachin  rites,  and  is  sacrificed  to  Hli, 
who  listens  to  the  plaints  of  his  children  through  the  angel  Nga- 
Thein,  or  Moung-Sein,  who  reports  to  Hli,  and  so  obtains  happiness  or 
misery  for  all  living  creatures.  The  Kachins  make  agreements  by 
killing  a  bufialoe,  and  dipping  their  arms  in  the  blood  mixed  with 
spirits,  vowing  vengeance  against  any  who  go  back  from  the  oath  then 
made.  It  is  very  difficult  to  deal  with  them,  as  the  chiefs  can  only 
influence  them  by  example,  and  each  man  expects  to  be  dealt  with 
separately  in  making  oaths. 

The  Kakins,  Kakhyens,  or  Ching-paws  (Sinphos)  near  BhamO, 


864  Kachias 

between  upper  Assam  and  China,  are  of  the  Karen  stock  (Dr 
Anderson,  Mandalay  to  Mcmien  —  a  narrative  of  Sir  EL  Sladen's 
Expedition  of  1868).  They  include  the  Mari,  Lataung,  Lepie, 
Karine,  and  Maran  clans,  with  the  N'kun  who  are  perhaps  the 
strongest  tribe.  They  own  communal  lands,  under  chie&  called 
Tsaubwas,  who  are  paid  in  kind;  and  they  cultivate  rice,  maize, 
cotton,  indigo,  and  opium,  trading  also  in  indiarubber,  amber,  and 
minerals.  They  wear  little  clothing  except  in  the  hills,  or  in  winter, 
but  are  adorned  with  nose-rings,  ear-rings,  bracelets,  and  anklets. 
They  bury  the  dead,  excepting  those  killed  by  shot  or  steel,  and 
women  who  die  in  child-birth.  The  latter  are  thrust  away  in  the 
jungle.  Those  who  die  naturally  are  clad  in  their  best,  cleaned,  and 
laid  in  coffins,  which  are  hollowed  out  of  tree  stems,  and  consecrated 
by  the  blood  of  a  cock,  or  a  boar,  or  (for  women)  of  a  sow,  or  hea 
Food,  spirits,  and  a  coin  to  pay  the  ferry-man  at  crossings  of  rivers, 
are  laid  by  the  body,  which  is  buried  3  feet  deep.  A  shed  is  raised 
over  the  grave,  and  a  trench  about  2  feet  deep  is  dug  round,  with  a 
diameter  of  30  or  40  feet  The  mourners  dance  round,  and  eat  part 
of  the  sacrifice,  drinking  spirits  to  propitiate  the  Nats  or  ftfunlas 
(spirits),  and  the  Tuhsais  (ghosts),  which  are  the  fear  of  their  lives ; 
while  the  needful  Tumsas,  or  witch  doctors,  are  a  constant  burden  on 
the  existence  of  Kakhyens. 

Though  they  believe  in  spirits  they  have  no  idea  of  immortality, 
or  of  God,  such  as  we  hold  ;  yet  there  is  a  "  very  big  Nat " — Shin- 
grawa — over  the  innumerable  ghosts  and  spirits  in  which  they  have 
faith.     He  is  thought  to  have  created  all  things ;  "  the  good  dead  go 
to  a  place  called  Tsoja;  and  the  bad,  with  those  who  die  violent 
deaths,  generally  go  to  Marai,  but  of  these  places  they  know  nothing." 
Sinla,  the  sky  spirit,  gives  or  withholds  rain  and  corn,  and  the  kindly 
Elring-wan  watches  over  agriculture ;  but  malignant  Nats — such  as 
Masu,  and  Eajat — must  be  propitiated  when  sowing  crops,  or  clearing 
forests,  by  sacrifices  of  buffaloes,  pigs,  and  fowls.     The  sun  (Chan  or 
San)  and  the  moon  (Sada,  or  Shita)  are  worshiped  as  great  male  and 
female  Nats,  especially  at  harvest  and  clearing  seasons.     The  offerings 
include  fowls  (red  cocks  for  San),  fish,  eggs,  boiled  rice,  bread,  liqaor, 
and  garments  (of  men  to  San,  and  of  women  to  Sada).     The  earth 
Nat  (Ngka,  or  Bumi-nat)  is  adored  by  the  whole  village,  when  groond 
is  first  tilled  or  annually  sown.     No  work  may   then  be  done  for 
4  days,  and  the  same  rule  applies  to  the  rites  of  Sharuva,  and  Modai- 
pronga,  the    "king   and   queen   of   the  gods,"  and  to  those  of  the 
Nun-shan  Nats,  or  village  genii.     The  S^akhyens  also  worship  Ngkhn- 
Nat  a  god  of  the  home,  and  of  ancestors,  invoked  in  sickness,  and 


Kadambas  355 

before  migration.  Ndong-Nat  is  a  god  of  the  outside,  a  protector 
against  outside  dangers,  war,  flood,  and  wild  beasts.  There  are 
many  other  spirits  of  the  air,  mountains,  fields,  and  gardens,  forests, 
rice,  eta  Mo-Nat  ("the  heaven  spirit")  is  called  the  "chief" 
(Tsaubwa),  to  be  met  after  death. 

Kadambas.  An  important  dynasty  of  Hindu  Brahmans,  or 
Jains,  one  of  whom  (Mayura-Sarman)  seized  Eanchi  (Conjeveram) 
from  its  Palava  rulers  about  150  A.a  He  was  called  a  Sarman,  and 
his  son  Kanga  took  the  title  of  Yarman.  A  poet  named  Kubja  wrote, 
in  high  flown  Kavya,  a  text  preserved  on  stone,  dating  about  420  A.C., 
in  honour  of  Kakustha- Yarman,  who  gave  a  tank  to  a  temple  of  Siva 
at  Sthana-Kundara,  which  his  son  Santi- Yarman  completed  ;  and  this 
gives  the  Kadamba  history.  They  were  Brahmans  of  the  Manavya 
clan,  and  the  poet  says  they  were  named  from  a  sacred  tree  near  their 
home — the  Kadamba  of  Mt.  Meru,  which  yields  the  drink  of  the  gods. 
Yarious  land  grants  point  to  Kadambas  as  Jains  by  creed,  but  others 
adored  Siva  who  was  always  worshiped  in  Kanchi-pur  (see  Dr  Biihler, 
Jov/mal  Bl.  Asiatic  Society,  October  1895). 

Kadesh.   iCedesh.     Hebrew :  "  holy."     The  name  of  4  cities 
in    Palestine,  two— Kadesh  Bame'a  ('*of  wanderings")  and  Kadesh 
further  W. — in   the  south ;  Kedesh  in  the  plain  of  Issachar ;  and 
Kcdesh  Naphtali ;  besides  Kadesh  on  the  Orontes  (Kades)  occupied 
by  HitUtes  at  least  as  early  as  the  15  th  century  B.C.  (see  Egypt).     The 
Kodashim,  and  Kodeshoth,  of  Canaanites  and  Hebrews,  were  "  conse- 
crated "  persons  of  either  sex,  the  latter  resembling  the  Deva-dasis, 
or  temple   women  of  India.     They  were   devotees  of  the  licentious 
'Ashtoreth,  who  were  found  as  late  as  our  4th  century  at  Apheka  in 
Lebanon  (see  Adonis),  at  Daphne  near  Antioch,  and  at  Faphos  in 
Cyprus.      Herodotos    mentions   them    at   Babylon ;  and  the  '*  Sicca 
Veneria,"  or  "  booths  of  'Ashtoreth  "  at  Carthage,  like  the  Succoth- 
Benoth  ("booths  of  girls")  in  the  Bible,  were   places  where  they 
congregated.     They  are  found  in  China  and  Japan,  and  all  over  Asia 
(see  AaicUic  Rea,,  i,  p.  166,  and  Inman's  Ancient  Faiths,  ii,  p.  168). 
In  Deuteronomy  (xxiii,  17,  18)  such  Kodeshoth,  are  denounced,  and 
•connected  with  Kalbim  rendered  "  dogs,"  but  more  properly  "  priests." 
They  are  noticed  in  the  laws  of  'Ammurabi,  and  were  regarded  as 
being  consecrated,  or   brides  of  gods — as  in   India  (see    also   Gen. 
xxxviii,  21).     In  Egypt  a  godess  called  Kadash  (a  foreign  importa- 
tion) is  represented  naked,  with  an  Egyptian  ithyphallic  god  to  her 
right,    and    the    Semitic    Reseph   (the  god  of  rain  and  thunder)  to 
her  left. 


S56  Kadmos 

KadmOS.  Cadmus.  Hebrew  :  ^edem  *'  the  east " ;  a  PbiB- 
nician  mythical  hero  adopted  by  the  Greeks,  and  said  to  have  taught 
them  writing,  and  other  arts.  He  was  the  brother  of  Europa  *"  the 
west "  (see  Europe). 

Kadru.  The  daughter  of  Daksha,  wife  of  Kasjapa,  and  mother 
of  serpents  such  as  Sesha,  and  Yasuki. 

Kafir.  Arabic :  "  villager/'  used  with  the  same  signification  as 
the  Latin  Paganua,  **  peasant "  or  "  pagan."  The  Cafires  of  S.  Africa 
were  so  called  by  the  Arabs,  as  Eufar  or  "pagans."  In  the  N.W. 
comer  of  India,  from  the  Swat  valley  westwards  to  the  Hindu  Kush, 
the  tribes  called  Kafirs,  by  Afghan  Moslems,  have  retained  ancient 
superstitions  of  an  Indo-Aryan  character.  They  have  rude  square 
temples  with  sacred  stones  and  images ;  their  chief  god,  or  Deo-gan, 
being  called  Imbra.  They  offer  cows  and  goats  to  him,  to  ^'keep 
them  from  fever,  increase  their  stores,  kill  the  Moslems,  and  take  all 
Dards  (as  they  call  themselves)  to  Paradise."  They  fear  to  enter 
temples  except  when  robed  in  dark  garments,  whence  they  are  called 
Siah-posh.  These  temples  are  dark  cells  built  of  heavy  timbers,  little 
used  save  at  funerals :  for  all  coffins  must  be  brought  to  them,  and 
sacrifices  then  offered.  These  Dards  are  usually  jovial  robbers  and 
murderers,  who  sing,  drink,  and  dance,  and  requite  the  murderous 
cruelty  of  Moslems  when  they  can.  Some  tribes  however  are  Shi'ah 
(Persian  Moslems).     Their  language  is  akin  to  Persian. 

Kahan.  Arabic  :  "  a  wizard."  It  is  the  Hebrew  Kohen  "  priest,'* 
but  by  the  time  of  Mul^ammad  denoted  a  degraded  class  of  magicians 
in  Arabia,  supposed  to  be  possessed  by  spirits  usually  eviL 

Kailasa.  The  great  primeval  lingam  of  Indra,  and  the  heaven 
of  Siva,  from  which  eleven  other  lingams  proceeded.  The  Greeks 
called  it  Roilos ;  and,  like  the  Latin  Coelus,  it  may  mean  "  the 
vault."  Ruvera  god  of  riches  dwelt  there,  and  all  prosperity  came 
thence.  The  actual  peak  is  in  the  Himalayas,  near  the  sources  of  the 
Indus  and  Sutlej.  The  summit  of  the  cone  was  said  to  be  a  table- 
altar  like  a  lotus,  marked  with  a  triangle — typifying  Parvati  It  was 
said  to  radiate  light  all  over  India. 

Kain.  Cain.  The  eldest  son  of  Adam.  As  a  Semitic  word  it 
means  **  spear,"  and  the  Ij^enites  were  probably  "  spear  men."  But 
Eve  said  at  Cain's  birth  (Gen.  iv,  1)  ''I  have  gotten  a  man  from 
Yahveh,"  so  that  it  may  be  the  Akkadian  Oin  ''man"  (see  Gan), 
representing  a  non-Semitic  race,  as  Abel  (Ablu  "  son  "  in  Assyrian) 


Kakos  357 

denotes  the  Semitic  race.  Cain  was  a  tiller  of  the  soil,  and  Abel 
a  shepherd.  Cain  is  driven  out  to  the  land  of  Nod  ("  exile  "),  ^^^ 
founds  a  city  Un-ug  (see  Enoch).  The  "  mark  "  set  on  Cain,  accord- 
ing to  the  Rabbis,  was  a  horn  (verse  15.  See  Bereshith,  Rabba^  22), 
and  he  is  supposed  to  have  been  slain  by  Lamech.  His  descendant 
Tubal-^ain  is  a  smith,  and  the  race  appears  to  have  originated  civilisa- 
tion, as  did  the  Akkadians. 

Kakos.  CaCUS.  Son  of  Vulcan  and  Medusai  a  three-headed 
monster  living  on  men's  bones  and  filth,  in  the  cave  of  the  Aventine 
at  Rome  (see  Herakles). 

Kakud.  Sanskrit.  The  hump  of  the  sacred  bull,  which  is  adored 
and  anointed,  as  symbolising  Daksha  (see  Daksha) ;  and  it  was  the 
seat  of  Indra.  The  Kakud-stha  is  sacred  to  Siva,  Vishnu,  and 
Krishna ;  and  any  hilly  place,  or  rounded  object,  is  a  Kakunda 

Kala.   Kalu.  -  Tamil :  ''  a  stone."     See  Qal. 

Kala.  Sanskrit :  "  time,"  "  fate,"  "  death,"  "  black,"  a  name  of 
Yuma  the  "  Restrainer,"  and  "  god  of  the  dead  with  whom  dwell  the 
spirits  of  the  departed."  He  is  not  a  devil  though  much  dreaded, 
for  Yama  (the  Persian  Yima)  was  the  first  man,  and  hence  the  first 
to  dia  He  may  have  been  first  called  Eala  as  ruling  in  "dark- 
ness," or  as  lord  of  fate,  or  a  man's  *'  time " :  he  is  Antaka 
(Death),  and  the  judge  of  the  dead.  He  ruled  all  worlds  till 
Brahma  drew  them  from  chaos.  Maha-Eala,  and  his  bride  Eall, 
are  the  destructive  powers  of  nature  (see  Eali) ;  and  Siva  is  Eala, 
in  his  destructive  mood,  and  "  Lord  of  all  "  :  being  also  (by  Sata-hrada) 
the  father  of  the  man-eating  Rakshasa  demon  Viradha  Kala  was 
also  one  of  the  eleven  Rudras,  or  primeval  deities  ;  and  Vishnuvas 
call  him  "  Time  without  end  or  beginning,"  uniting  matter  with  life. 

Kalah.  Calah.  Hebrew  :  **  ancient " — an  Assyrian  city  (Gen. 
X,  11-12)  now  NimrUd  near  Nineveh  on  the  S.S.E.  It  was  rebuilt 
by  Shalmaneser  I  about  1300  B.C.:  and  again  by  Assur-nasir-pal 
about  885  B.C.,  and  had  temples  of  Assur  and  of  Marduk,  on  a 
platform  by  the  city  wall.  The  famous  "  Black  Obelisk  "  of  Shal- 
maneser II  (858-820  B.C.),  comes  from  Kalab*  recording  victories  in 
Syria  and  Palestine  (including  the  tribute  of  Jehu),  and  tribute  from 
the  East,  of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  Baktrian  hounds  and 
camels,  with  monkeys,  indicating  trade  with  India 

Kaldea.  Chaldea.  The  inhabitants  of  S.  Babylonia,  from  the 
dth  century  B.C.,  are  mentioned   in  Assyrian  texts  as  Kaldi.     The 


358  Kaledonia 

word  Chaldeans  in  the  English  Bible  represents  the  Hebrew  Easdim, 
rendered  Khaidaioi  in  the  Greek  version.  Herodotos,  and  later 
classic  writers,  called  the  Babylonians  generally  Khaidaioi ;  but,  on 
account  of  their  reputation  as  magicians  and  astronomers,  the 
term  came  to  be  applied  to  Babylonian  'priests  and  divinerai 
There  were  other  Khaidaioi  in  Armenia  (according  to  Lenormant, 
Lettres  AaayriologiqueaX  who  may  be  named  from  the  Vanoic 
deity  Khaldis.  But  this  has  no  connection  with  the  Kaldi,  or 
with  the  Kasdim  (see  Abraham,  and  Kasdim).  Strabo  calls  tbe 
Khaidaioi  "teachers  of  religion  and  astronomy"  (xvii,  1).  Hero- 
dotos makes  them  also  warriors  (viii,  63),  and  Diodorus  Siculos 
compares  them  to  Egyptian  priests.  Later  Byzantine  writers  only 
follow  these  notices,  and  the  Greek  text  of  the  Bible ;  bnt  do 
monumental  notice  of  the  Kasdim  exists  to  show  that  tbey  were 
Kaldi. 

Kaledonia.  Caledonia.  Classic  writers  grouped  the  Cale- 
donii  (apparently  a  fair  Keltik  people  with  red  or  yellow  hair)  with 
Belgse,  Parisii,  Attrebates,  and  Cantii — the  latter  in  Kent,  and  the 
Parisii  near  Petuaria  on  the  Humber:  a  township  in  Lincolnshire 
was  known  as  Paris  as  late  as  our  13th  century.  The  Caledoniass 
are  thought  to  have  been  "  woodmen,"  or  tree  worshipers  (Irish  and 
Gaelic  Coil,  CuiUean ;  Welsh  and  Cornish  Celyn ;  Armoric  Kekn ; 
"  wood  "),  CoU-daoine  signifying  *'  wood-people  "  ;  but  the  subject  is 
difficult,  and  other  explanations  are  proposed  connecting  Caledonians 
with  Gauls,  Gaels,  gillies,  and  gallants,  as  "  brave  men."  Scodand 
north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde  was  Albin  ("the  Alpine  land")  and 
Kaledonia;  and  the  Greek  Kaludon  may  have  been  also  a  ''forest'* 
region  where  the  boar  was  hunted. 

Kali.  Sanskrit :  "  black  "  (see  Kala).  The  "  blue-black  one,"  a 
cruel  and  gross  godess,  wife  of  Siva,  represented  (see  Divali)  dancing 
on  his  white  body,  with  a  long  tongue  dripping  blood,  her  hair  of 
serpents ;  while  like  Siva  she  wears  a  necklace  of  skulls,  and  h&s  four 
arms.  She  is  also  Durga  or  "  fate "  (see  Durga),  and  is  marked  on 
the  forehead  with  the  Yoni,  and  the  crescent.  She  presides  over 
death  and  funeral  pyres,  and  sometimes  dances  with  a  babe  in  her 
arms.  She  delights  in  bloody  sacrifices  which,  among  wild  non-Aiyan 
tribes,  are  still  sometimes  of  human  victims.  Calcutta  (Kali-ghat)  is 
named  after  her,  and  she  is  known  also  as  Bhavani  ("creatress"), 
though  an  infernal  godess  to  whom  the  Thugs  dedicated  their  victims, 
representing  Kali  with  claws,  snake  locks,  and  skull  ornaments. 

Kali-dasa,     The   famous    Indian    poet   and    dramatist,  whom 


Kalil  369 

Lassen  places  about  170  A.C.,  but  Prof.  Petersou  in  our  1st  century 
(Journal  KL.  Asiatic  Socy.,  April  1891).  Dr  Daji,  and  Mr  V. 
Smith  think  he  lived  several  centuries  later.  Mr  Pathak,  B.Ai 
{Bombay  M.  Asiatic  Socy.,  April  1894),  shows  that  the  mention  of 
the  '*  White  Huns "  by  Eali-dasa,  as  ruling  in  the  Panjab  and 
Kashmir,  points  to  about  530  A.C. ;  aud  tradition  in  Ceylon  makes 
him  the  contemporary  of  King  Kumara-dasa  about  515  A.C.  He  is 
not  mentioned  in  Indian  literature  before  about  600,  and  was  famous 
in  634  A.C.,  as  shown  by  the  Aiholi  inscription*  He  is  said  to  have 
been  one  of  the  "nine  gems  that  adorned  the  Court  of  Vikram- 
Aditya " ;  which  however  shows  popular  confusion  according  to  Mr 
Pathak.  Kali-dasa  is  immortalised  by  his  Sakuntala  ("The  Lost 
Ring")i  a  maiden  who  became  mother  of  Bharata.  Later  writers 
often  borrowed  his  name. 

KaliL  KalliL  Tamil :  see  Kala  "  stone  " — a  natural  lingam  on 
a  sacred  hill  six  miles  R  of  Cochin  in  Travankdr.  The  shrine  is  like 
that  of  the  Kaiktyo  mountain  in  Barmah  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  p. 
314^  fig.  266).  A  conical  shrine  in  both  cases  is  built  on  a  conical 
rocky  the  Barmese  rock  being  marked  by  a  Toni  emblem,  and  that 
at  Kalil  by  a  "  figure  of  Brahma "  (Mr  N.  Sunkuni,  Indian  Antiq., 
March  1892).  Pilgrims  to  Kalil  must  be  careful  not  to  see  Devi 
before  Siva  in  the  shriue,  or  they  will  die  before  the  moon  changes ; 
they  therefore  often  go  blind-folded,  and  never  in  the  evening  when 
prayers  and  offerings  are  accepted  at  the  house  of  the  Pishardtis 
(temple  servants),  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  They  must  worship  very 
early,  and  sleep  therefore  near  the  shrine,  especially  on  the  eve  of  the 
New  Year,  in  April,  when  the  good  or  evil  fortune  of  the  year  is 
determined.  The  sacred  rock,  thought  hardly  to  rest  on  earth  (see 
Jerusalem,  where  this  legend  applies  to  the  Sakhrah),  has  according 
to  living  elders  been  known  to  soar  upwards  when  its  walls  were 
touched  by  intruders,  beasts  or  birds. 

Kalinda.  Probably  "  Kali's  Biver,"  as  an  old  name  of  the 
Jumna.     Kalindi  is  a  daughter  of  Kalkin,  a  form  of  Vishnu. 

Kalinga.  The  land  of  the  Trilingas  (see  Tellingas),  a  race 
ruled  by  a  King  Kalinga  of  warrior  caste  (see  Dr  Wilson,  Sanskrit 
Lity  p.  57).  India,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  to  below  the 
Kistna,  was  ruled  by  Kalinga  people  (Telagus),  mingled  with  Bangas, 
Angas,  Sunhas,  and  Pundras.  Ptolemy  calls  the  mid  region  of  the 
Indian  R  coast  ''Regie  Calingarum,"  its  capital  being  Kalinga- 
patnam.     The  Klings  of  Barmah,  and  throughout  the  K  archipelago. 


860  Kalisto 

with    Talings    or    Talains,   are    of    this    stock,    being   enterprising 
colonists. 

Kalisto.  CailistO.  Greek  (probably  ''most  fair").  A  form 
of  Artemis,  and  a  huntress,  symbolised  by  a  bear :  daughter  of  tbe 
Lukaian  Zeus,  and  mother  of  Arkas,  and  Arkadiaus,  her  mother  being 
Maya.  [Perhaps  Arktos  "bear"  was  popularly  confused  with  Arg 
*'  to  shine." — Ed.]  She  was  deified  as  Arktos  "  the  bear,"  and  said 
to  have  been  accidentally  shot  as  such  by  Artemis.  Pausanias  says 
that  Artemis,  as  Kallisto,  had  a  tomb  and  temple  by  the  fountaio 
of  EjTuni,  and  that  the  tomb  of  Arkas,  near  Juno's  temple,  was  called 
*'  the  altar  of  the  sun  "  (II,  viii,  9,  36).  Kallisto  also  appeared  at 
Delphi  in  a  bear's  skin.  Midler  makes  her  the  constellation  of  the 
"great  bear." 

Kaliya.  Sanskrit :  "  the  killer."  A  five-headed  serpent,  slain  by 
Krishna,  in  a  "deep  pool  of  the  Yamima"  It  ''laid  waste  the 
country,  vomiting  fire  and  smoke,"  and  would  have  strangled 
Krishna  in  its  folds  but  for  his  strong  brother  Bala-Bama.  It  is 
the  usual  legend  of  the  solar  dragon  slayer. 

Kali-yUga.  The  present  age  of  the  world,  which  began  3101- 
3102  B.C.,  and  is  to  last  432,000  years  from  that  date  according  to 
Hindus,  or  1200  divine  years — each  being  360  human  years,  re- 
presenting multiples  of  60  (the  Babylonian  unit).  The  four  Yugas, 
or  ages,  are  of  1000,  2000,  3000,  4000  years  respectively,  each  with 
a  "  twilight  "  of  a  tenth,  added  before  and  after,  making  our  age  1200 
divine  years  (see  Kalpa).  The  Yishnuvas  make  the  present  Tuga 
to  begin  400  years  after  Kama's  conquest  of  Ceylon,  or  in  1370  &c. 
{Asiatic  Res,,  x,  p.  83).  Righteousness  will  only  survive  for  a 
quarter  of  the  Kali-yuga,  and  Yedik  rites  will  gradually  be  n^lected 
as  goodness  decays.  Dire  calamities,  disease,  and  famines,  will  then 
prevail,  though  many  will  still  seek  to  acquire  merits,  and  will  reap 
the  reward.  This  prediction  seems  to  belong  to  an  age  when  com- 
merce was  spreading,  and  the  usual  evils  due  to  basting  to  become 
rich  accompanied  it.  Kali  is  personified,  by  Hindus,  as  the  spirit  of 
bad  luck — the  black  ace  in  dicing,  the  cause  of  all  mischief  and 
quarrels.  He  possessed  the  body  of  Nala  as  the  spirit  of  gamUing 
till  expelled,  when  he  took  refuge  in  the  Yibhitaka  berries,  which 
none  touch  lest  Kali  should  attack  them — sec  the  story  of  Nala  and 
Damayanti  in  the  Maha-bharata.  After  Nala's  death  Kali  remained 
so  imprisoned  during  the  age  of  Krishna,  but  ventured  out  in  that 
of  King  Pari-kshit,  a  grandson  of  the  Pandus  who,  however,  nearly 


Kallisto  36 1 

destroyed  him,  mother  earth  having  discovered  his  presence  in  the 
spread  of  injustice,  cruelty,  and  vice.  Kali  was  then  assigned  certain 
places  of  abode  by  this  king,  namely  battle  fields  and  other  places 
of  slaughter,  harlot's  houses,  and  abodes  of  drinkers  and  gamblers. 
He  was  also,  at  his  own  request,  allowed  to  abide  in  gold :  and  all 
these  abodes  of  Kali  must  be  avoided  by  any  who  wish  for  peace  and 
happiness.  The  Kali-yuga  began  on  the  death  of  Pari-kshit,  bring- 
ing strife,  poverty,  famine,  war,  and  vice,  which  must  remain  till 
Kalki  (the  10th  incarnation  of  Vishnu)  appears.  The  ''time  of 
trouble "  is  also  found  in  the  eschatology  (or  "  latter  day "  pre- 
dictions), of  Persians,  Jews,  and  Christians. 

Kallisto.     See  Kalisto. 

n 

Kalki.  The  future  10th  Avatara  of  Vishnu  will  descend  in  fire 
from  heaven,  riding  a  winged  white  horse,  and  bearing  a  flaming 
sword  wherewith  to  destroy  the  sinners  of  the  Kali-yuga  (see  above), 
establishing  a  kingdom  of  righteousness  over  which  this  Hindu 
Messiah  will  rule.  He  will  purify  and  strengthen  the  good,  and  teach 
them  all  things  past  or  to  come.  His  name  means  the  "  Conqueror 
of  Kali  "—the  Hindu  devil. 

Kalneh.  This  ancient  city  (Gen.  x,  10)  according  to  Rabbinical 
writers  was  Nipur,  where  many  ancient  Akkadian  texts  of  the  first 
age  of  Babylonian  civilisation,  and  later  records  of  the  Kassites,  have 
been  unearthed  by  American  explorers  (see  Babylon  and  Nipur). 

Kalpa.  Sanokrit :  ''  a  measure "  or  "  rule,"  as  in  the  Kalpa- 
Sutra  (one  of  the  Vedangas)  which  is  a  string  of  precepts  or 
"  ceremonial  rubric."  As  a  measure  of  time  a  Kalpa  is  a  "  day  of 
Brahma''  which  is  1000  years,  or  a  divine  year  of  360  human  years. 
There  are  4  Kalpas,  at  the  end  of  which  the  world  is  destroyed  by 
water,  wind,  earthquake,  and  fire.  [Peruvians  had  two  such  ages 
with  destruction  by  famine  and  flood :  the  Mayas  of  Yukatan  spoke 
of  two  destructions  by  plague,  one  by  hurricane,  and  a  fourth  by 
flood.  The  Azteks  knew  of  four  such  ages  before  the  present  one, 
when  the  world  was  destroyed  by  water,  wind,  fire,  and  famine  (see 
Brinton's  Myths  of  the  New  World,  p.  229). — Ed.]  Each  Kalpa  is 
worse  than  the  preceding  one,  and  shorter  in  its  duration.  The 
Krita  age  was  4800  divine  years ;  the  Treta  was  3600  ;  the  Dvapara 
2400;  and  the  present  Kalpa,  or  Kali-yuga,  is  to  be  1200  divine 
years  to  the  coming  of  Kalki  (see  Kali-yuga,  and  Kalki).  The 
total  Hindu  astronomical  cycle  consists  of  4,320,000  human  years, 
based    on    multiples    of   the    Babylonian    unit    of   60,   and    on    the 


362  Kalpa-Vriksha 

coincidecce  of  lunar  and  solar  years  (see  Sir  K  Phillips,  Millian  of 
Facts).  The  lunation  is  thus  made  to  be  it8  days,  12  hours,  44',  2^, 
47'".  36'"';  and  the  solar  year  366  days,  5  hours,  31',  31",  24'". 
The  four  Kalpas,  being  in  ibe  proportion  of  4,  3,  2,  and  1,  constitute 
this  Maha-yuga  or  ^' great  age/'  each  divine  year  being  360  human 
years :  lor  (4800  +  3600  +  2400  +  1200)  360  =  4,320,000. 

Kalpa-Vriksha,  or    Mula-Vriksha.     The   sky  tree  of 

paradise,  of  knowledge,  and  of  life,  sometimes  represented  with  wings 
(see  Prof.  A.  de  Gubernatis,  Zool.  MythoL,  ii,  p.  168).  At  Sivas 
request  Brahma  sent  it  to  earth  (see  Jambu)  as  the  tree  of  Ganesa 
(see  Dvlpa,  and  Trees). 

Kain.  Khain.  An  ancient  root  for  fire.  [Egyptian  kheint 
"fire,"  kem^  khem,  "black":  Akkadian  gun  "bright":  Hebrew 
Ham/m  "  burning  "  :  Assyrian  Jcatnu  **  to  burn  "  :  Turkish  kun^  gun 
"bright,"  "sun,"  "fire":  Chinese  kan  "dawn." — Ed.]  In  Gipsy 
language  Eam  is  the  sun,  and  Kem  the  moon  (see  Kemi  in 
Japan). 

Kama.  The  Indian  Cupid  (see  Gam)  who  has  a  bow  strung  with 
bees,  and  arrows  pointed  with  flowers,  and  who  rides  on  the  love-bird 
or  lory,  a  kind  of  parrot  called  the  Rameri.  He  imparts  the  Madan 
which  falls  from  heaven  to  earth,  or  which  issues  as  a  parrot  from  tLe 
lingam  {Indian  Antiq,,  October  1882,  p.  290),  namely,  the  dew  of 
life.  Kama  is  the  son  of  Vishnu,  and  of  Maya  ("  delusion  "),  or  of 
Rukmini,  a  form  of  LakshmL  Kama  is  also  said  to  issue  from  a 
Brahman's  heart.  The  word  signifies  "  love,"  "  inclination,"  "  kind- 
ness " :  but  the  lingam  is  called  the  "  love-bird,"  and  the  Kumari 
("youthful")  fairies  carry  Kama's  banner — a  fish  on  a  red  ground 
His  five  arrows  appear  to  be  the  five  senses.  Kama  disturbed  Siva's 
meditations,  and  was  reduced  to  ashes,  but  revived  as  a  son  of 
Krishna.  The  Italian  Camillus  was  a  god  of  love,  whose  name 
comes  from  the  same  root.  The  material  significance  of  the  original 
idea  of  Kama  as  "  desire,"  or  "  passion,"  or  "  fire,"  has  been  eclipsed, 
as  poetry,  the  love  of  beauty,  religion,  and  ethiks  have  played  round 
his  figure.  All  that  is  lovely  in  nature,  and  in  religion  itself,  has 
been  vivified  by  the  touch  of  love;  till  gods  of  fear  became  the 
saviours  of  men,  and  man  was  taught  kindly  sympathy :  till  men 
learned,  from  the  scriptures  of  Buddha,  Confucius,  and  Christ,  that 
"  Love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  Law,"  and  that  "  God  is  Love."  This  is 
a  departure  from  the  idea  of  love  among  the  ancients ;  and  the  ancient 
Agapse  have  become  spiritualised.     The  ancient  Greeks  pictured  their 


Kama-dhenu  363 

deities  in  the  most  beautiful  of  human  forms,  and  learned  to  love  what 
was  noble  and  fair  in  man  and  in  woman.  Love  filled  the  home  with 
melody,  and  the  whole  world  with  joy.  It  changed  worthless  things 
into  delights,  and  first  dreamed  of  immortality.  Passion  became 
devotion,  duty,  humble-heartedness,  and  patience — ^the  perfume  of  the 
heart.  > 

Kama-dhenu.  A  common  image  of  the  earth-cow  in  Indian 
bazaars. 

Kama-lata.  The  "bindweed  of  love" — the  phallus, aooonliiig 
to  Prof.  Angelo  de  Gubematis  (Mythol,  dea  Flaadea,  i,  p.  13S),  one  of 
many  shrubs  and  flowers  aaccBd  to  Kama. 

Kamaon.  The  Almora  district,  in  the  Himalayas  in  N.W. 
India,  full  of  the  rude-stone  monuments  and  serpent  shrines  of 
Khasias  and  other  non-Aryans. 

Kamarila.  A  teacher  of  Yedas,  a  Bhatta  Brahman  of  Behar. 
Hiuen-Tsang  in  our  7th  century  called  him  a  "  dangerous  Brahman 
enemy  of  Buddhista"  Mr  Justice  Telang  places  him  about  590  to 
650  A.C. ;  and  Mr  Fleet  makes  his  contemporary  Sankar-acharya  to 
live  635  to  655  B.C.,  but  Mr  Pathak  places  him  later  (see  Jov/mal 
BoTubay  RL  Asiatic  Society,  1892,  xliic).  He  is  said  to  have  perse- 
cuted Jains,  and  Buddhists,  from  the  Himalayas  to  Adam's  Bridge,  or 
throughout  India  (see  Subandha) :  they  revolted  against  the  Mimansa 
system,  and  the  neo-Brahmanism  of  the  age,  but  the  persecution  was 
not  an  actual  war  of  soldiers.  Mr  Pathak  points  out  that  Kamarila 
(in  his  Tantra  Yartika)  often  quotes  Bhartri-hari  (author  of  the 
Yakyapadiya)  who  died  in  650  A.C.,  and  was  famous  as  a  grammarian 
a  century  later.  The  question  of  date  is  important  in  the  history 
of  the  decline  of  Buddhism,  and  Mr  Pathak  thinks  that  both  Kamarila, 
and  Sankar-acharya  lived  about  700  to  750  A.a ;  and  Surisvara  750 
to  838  A.C.  Sir  W.  Hunter  (Imp.  Oaz,  India^  iv,  298)  says  that 
Kamarila  journeyed  in  S.  India  "  in  the  8th  century "  A.C.,  and 
"  commanded  princes  and  people  to  worship  one  God."  This  is  the 
earliest  notice  of  Theism,  coming  from  the  great  source  of  Hindu 
learning — the  uplands  of  Mathila  or  N.  Behar.  Tradition  magnified 
into  general  persecution  the  attack  on  the  Jains  by  Kamarila,  in 
Siva's  town  or  Budra-pur,  as  seen  in  the  8th  or  9th  century  in 
Sankara  literature.  In  Hindu  theology  Kamarila  "  figures  as  a 
teacher  of  the  later  Mimansa  philosophy,  which  ascribes  the  universe 
to  a  divine  act  of  creation,  and  assumes  an  all-powerful  Ood  as  the 
cause  of  the  existence,  continuance,   and   dissolution  of  the  world." 


864  Kama-nipa 

The  ''  one  existent  and  universal  soul "  is  Advaita,  or  **  without  a 
second " — as  opposed  to  the  bisexual  system.  Saukar-achaiya  was 
the  disciple  of  Kamarila,  who  19  said  to  have  committed  his  own  body 
to  the  flames  in  his  presence.  [The  date  suggests  that  such  mono- 
theism in  India  may  have  been  due  to  Moslem  influences.  See 
Sikhs.— Ed.] 

Kama-rupa.  Kamrup.  Now  Oauhati  with  its  surrounding 
province,  at  the  foot  of  the  Bhutan  mountains :  an  Indo-Mongolian 
state  full  of  non- Aryan  and  of  Hindu  shrines,  the  principal  of  these 
being  Hajo,  and  Sal-kusa  (see  Rusa-nagar).  Tibetans,  misled  by  the 
latter  name,  thought  that  here  Buddha  died.  It  is  the  seat  of  Tantra 
and  Sakta  worship  (see  those  headings)  between  the  Brahma- putra 
near  Gauhati,  and  the  Ehasi  country  (see  Journal  Bengal  Rl.  Asiaiie 
Socy.,  1892,  i).  On  the  summit  of  the  cone  of  Hajo  is  a  shrine  of 
Siva  called  Eedar-nath,  with  a  dark  pool — '*'  Siva's  pool " — where  he 
brewed  an  aphrodisiac  potion  by  aid  of  a  snake.  The  great  image 
is  here  called  a  Buddha  by  Tibetans,  and  the  Mddhab  by  Brahmana. 
There  are  other  figures  of  the  Tibetan  Hung,  and  of  Sambhava  as  the 
"  holder  of  the  Dorje,"  or  sacred  mace  of  Tibet 

Kamatta.     Sanskrit     See  Vishnu  and  Turtle. 

Kamban.  The  author  of  a  Tamil  epik  '*  relating  the  immortal 
story  of  Kama,  and  Sita,  in  language  which  none  of  our  European 
poets  have  ever  surpassed  "  (Rev.  Q.  U.  Pope,  Indian  Mag.,  Sept 
1888).  The  poem  translated  by  this  scholar  belongs  to  our  7th  or 
8  th  century. 

Kamiila.  Camilla.  In  Virgil's  ^neid  this  Amazon  is  the 
counterpart  of  Atalanta,  in  the  wars  of  iEneas  and  Turnus.  She  was 
dedicated  to  Diana,  by  her  father  the  prince  of  the  Volscians.  M.  E. 
Maury  regards  her  as  a  Gallic  godess.  The  name  may  come  from  the 
root  Kam  '*  fire "  [or,  as  the  Latin  C  was  at  first  a  G,  from  Gam 
"conquering,"  0am  "to  run,"  or  Gavi  "love" — Ed.].  She  is  the 
feminine  of  Camillus  or  Camulus.  The  Camillas  were  virgin 
priestesses  of  Diana  (see  next  article). 

Kamillus.  Camillus.  An  Italian  deity.  He  is  called  a  sod 
of  Hephaistos  or  "  fire  "  (see  Kamilla).  The  Flamen-dialis  in  Rome 
was  also  called  a  Camillus,  and  Servius  says  that  the  Roman  Camilli 
were  "  the  priests  of  the  great  gods." 

Kammp.     See  Kama-rupa. 
.    Kamsa.      See  Krishna. 


Kana'an  865 

Kana'an.  Canaan.  Hebrew  :  from  Kcm'a  "  to  be  low."  The 
lowlands  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  including  the  sea  plains  and  the 
Jordan  Valley.  The  Amama  tablets  (15th  century  B.c.)  call  the 
inhabitants  Kan'ai,  In  later  times  the  word  "  Canaanite  "  came  to 
mean  *'  merchant/'  as  the  plains  were  the  mercantile  regions.  The 
religion  of  Canaan  is  treated  in  articles  on  the  gods,  such  as  Ba'al, 
Ba'alath,  Tammuz  (Adonis),  Istar  ('Ashtoreth),  Dagon,  Hadad  (Bimmon), 
Reseph,  Eshmun,  the  Patoeci  (see  under  Bas),  and  AshSrah.  The 
population,  from  the  17th  century  B.C.,  is  known  to  have  been  a 
mixed  Turanian  and  Semitic  race,  of  which  the  Hittites  and  Amorites 
are  the  chief  tribes  noticed  on  the  monuments. 

Kanaka-MunL  The  second  Buddha  (see  under  Buddha).  His 
body  was  ^*  of  pure  gold/'  He  is  called  Konagamana  in  Pali,  and 
Konak-mune  at  Bharahut.  As  "  men,  in  his  day,  lived  30,000  years 
.  .  .  he  converted  many."  He  was  "born  in  a  town  leas  than  a 
yojana  (8  miles)  N.  of  Napei-kea,  the  birthplace  of  the  first  Buddha 
Kraku-chandra  (Beal's  Fa-hien).  In  Ceylon  he  is  generally  placed 
2000  or  1500  years  before  Gotama  Buddha.  Major  Forbes  saya 
about  2099  B.C.  The  tradition  is  of  Asoka's  age  (Hardy,  Eastern 
MoThochiam,  p.  274),  Kraku-chandra  being  placed  about  3100  B.G.,. 
and  Easyapa  the  third  Buddha  about  1014  B.C.  Eanaka-muni  was 
one  of  the  24  Jinas,  or  saints  of  the  Jains.  The  three  Buddhas  pre- 
ceding Gotama  appear  in  the  sculptures  at  Bharahut,  at  the  Bhilsa 
topes,  and  on  the  Sanchi  Gates  (see  Rev.  Spence  Hardy,  Manual  of 
Bvddhiam,  chap,  iv :  and  Major  Forbes,  Jov/mal  EL.  Asiatic  Socy., 
June  1836,  p.  89).  Buddhists  say  that  E5naga-mani,  in  a  previous 
existence  as  *'  King  of  Parwata,"  said  of  Gotama  in  one  of  his  previous 
lives :  **  this  person  will  become  a  supreme  Buddha "  (Manual  of 
Buddhism"  p.  98).  EOnaga-mani's  chief  disciples  were  Sambahula 
and  Uttara ;  his  attendant  was  Sortthi-jana,  and  his  female  disciples 
Samudda,  and  Uttara.  His  "  water  dipper "  is  a  sacred  relic  buried 
under  the  Shwe-dagon  pagoda  at  Rangun  (Hardy's  Eastern  Monach.^ 
p.  219  ;  Aaiaiic  Res,,  xvi,  Manual  of  Buddhism,  p.  199).  Dr  Ftihrer, 
archffiologist  to  the  Indian  Government,  writes  in  1896  that :  "  Kdnaka- 
mana's  magnificent  tomb  is  at  the  village  of  Nijliva  in  the  sub- 
Himalayan  borders  of  Napal.  It  is  .  .  .  surrounded  with  vast  brick 
ruins  of  monasteries,  half  a  mile  in  extent  ...  in  the  centre  of 
which  stands  an  Asdka  pillar  still  erect  with  an  inscription  to  com- 
memorate the  Buddha"  (see  Eapila-vastu). 

Kanchin-janga.     The   third   highest  mountain   in  the  world 
(28,176  feet)  on  the  borders  of  Tibet — "The  Virgin,"  or  according 


866  Kanchi-piir 

to  Tibetans  KaTig-chen-dzonga,  **  the  five  treasure  chests  of  snow," 
In  this  chain  Hindus  adore  Gauri-sankar  as  ''  Siva's  Virgin  "  ;  but  the 
dome  of  Choma-kankar,  the  "  Lord  of  snows/'  is  the  most  holy  to 
Tibetans — ^the  Lep-echyi  of  Buddhists,  and  the  Napalese  Jomo-kang- 
kar,  or  "Lady  of  the  white  glacier."  Dr  Waddell  says  that  this 
chain  of  holy  mountains  is  known  as  Lap-chi-kang, 

Kanchi-piir.  The  old  sacred  capital  of  the  Palavas,  now  Conje- 
veram,  about  35  miles  S.W.  of  Madras.  Its  temples  exhibit  the  finest 
examples  of  Dravidian  architecture,  and  it  is  famous  for  its  beautifol 
temple  girls,  Devadasis,  Eanchanis,  or  Pallakis.  The  Palavas  thence 
ruled  S.  India,  from  about  the  Christian  era  till  the  11th  century, 
but  lost  territory  to  the  Chalukyas  in  our  5  th  century.  Hiuen-Tsang, 
in  July  639  A.C.,  found  in  Eanchi-pur  300  Buddhist  monks  on  pil- 
grimage  from  Ceylon ;  but  neo-Brahman  stone  temples  were  then 
arising  (see  Jov/mal  El,  Asiatic  Socy.,  Jany.  1884). 

Kandara.  Sanskrit :  "  a  cave  "  or  hollow.  One  who  dwells  in 
a  cave  is  a  Eandarpa  (see  Eund). 

Kandasa.      Hindi.     A  lingam. 

KandL  Kandra.  Chandra.  Sanskrit:  the  moon  as  the 
*'  white  "  light.  The  Ceylon  Balis  said  that  Kandu  carried  a  cornu- 
copia to  be  filled  by  her  lord  Brahas-pati ;  and  Eandi-kumara  ("  young 
Eandi")  is  a  male  light-god  of  this  people,  bearing  a  sword  (see 
Chandra). 

Kane.  Tane.  The  chief  light  god  of  Hawaii  in  Polynesia. 
He  ascended  into  heaven,  leaving  the  rainbow  as  a  token  of  his  ever- 
lasting remembrance  of  mankind.  "  The  east  is  his  highway,  and  the 
west  his  great  road  of  death " — the  Hades  into  which  he  sinks  to 
slumber.  He  dwells  in  sun  and  moon,  and  in  all  things,  and  is  sym- 
bolised as  a  flying  bird,  and  adored  in  stone  circles,  or  Maraes,  as  the 
sun  god  La  or  Ba  (Fornander,  Polyn.,  i,  pp.  42,  62).  His  brother 
Oro,  Olo,  or  Eoro,  is  the  war  god  of  the  Society  Islands.  The  Hawaii 
triad  (see  Hawaii)  includes  Eane,  Eu,  and  Lono,  who  are  equal  but 
distinct  Eu-kau-akapi  (''Euwho  stands  alone")  is  conjoined  with 
Eane-oi-e  ('*  Eane  the  supreme  ")  in  whose  image  man  was  created, 
of  red  earth  and  the  spittle  of  Eane,  the  head  of  white  clay  being  pro- 
vided by  Lono.  The  triad  together  breathed  life  into  his  nostrils, 
and  woman  was  made  of  his  bone.  According  to  other  legends  Tn- 
mata-uenga  (see  Tu)  was  the  progenitor  of  man. 

Kanishka.     The  best  known  and  probably  the  first  pure  Sakya 


Kanishka  367 

monarch  (see  India)  and  Buddhist  emperor  of  N.W.  India,  succeeding 
his  brothers  Huvishka  and  Hushka,  neither  of  whom  seem  to  have 
shaken  off  the  old  worship  of  serpents  and  fire,  though  both  of  them 
are  said  to  have  built  Yiharas  or  Buddhist  monasteries.  Huvishka 
reigned  at  ^bul  in  Afghanistan,  but  appears  to  have  been  forced  by 
the  Qreeks,  or  by  the  Tue-chi  Tartars,  into  Kashmir,  whence  his 
conquests  extended  into  India  as  far  as  Mathura  where  he  built  a 
monastery,  Alexander  Polyhistor  (about  60  or  80  A.c.)  speaks  of 
Samanaioi  (Buddhist  Shamans)  in  Baktria  (Lassen,  as  quoted  by  Dr 
Rhys  Davids,  Bvddhiam,^  p.  238).  Kanishka  is  believed  to  have 
begun  to  reign  in  10  A.C.,  and  to  have  been  crowned  as  emperor 
about  70  or  75  A.C.  (Beal,  in  Indian  Antiq.,  Dec.  1886).  He 
ruled  from  |$[abul  to  the  Hindu  Kush  and  Bolor  mountains,  in  Yark- 
and,  Khokand,  Kashmir,  Ladak,  the  Panjab,  in  N.W,  India  to  Agra, 
and  in  Bajputana,  Sind,  and  Gujerat  His  Kashmir  capital  at  Kanik- 
pur  (now  Kampur)  was  10  miles  S.  of  Srinagar.  In  our  7  th  century 
Hiuen-Tsang  relates  that  Kanishka  assembled  a  council  of  500  learned 
Buddhist  monks,  under  Yasubandhu,  who  drew  up  three  Tripitaka 
commentaries,  though  they  did  not,  it  seems,  settle  the  Buddhist 
canon  of  Scripture,  Their  work,  engraved  on  copper  plates  and  buried 
in  a  Dagoba,  has  yet  to  be  discovered,  perhaps  at  the  Manikyala  tope 
of  which  Kanishka  is  the  reputed  builder,  and  which  cannot  according 
to  Dr  Max  MUller  (India,  pp.  293-297)  be  older  than  43  B.c.  at 
most.  The  order  of  the  Sakya  kings  according  to  Max  Mtiller  is 
different,  but  Kanishka  was  undoubtedly  followed  by  Ooerki,  and 
Bazadeo  (or  Yasa-deva)  who  reigned  in  178  A.C.  The  Buddhist  pro- 
paganda seems  to  have  ceased  on  Kanishka's  death,  but  revived  with 
Megha-Yahana,  king  of  Kashmir  about  104  to  144  A.C.  The  latter 
conquered  the  Ganges  valley,  and  as  far  as  Orissa,  where  one  of  his 
inscriptions  inculcates  the  ethiks  of  Buddha.  His  influence  is  said  to 
have  extended  to  Ceylon  (Dr  Ehys  Davids,  Buddhism,  p.  241). 
Prof.  Beal  (in  Indiom  Antiq.,  Dec.  1886)  says  that  Parsva  presided 
over  Kanishka's  council,  and  '*  was  succeeded  by  Punya-yasas,  Asva- 
ghosha,  Kapila-mala,  and  then  Nag-arjuna "  (see  Naga-sena) ;  but 
he  shows  that  two  Nagas  are  confused.  In  Chinese  accounts  Kan- 
ishka of  Gandhara  is  called  Chandan-kanika,  and  is  said  to  have  had 
"  three  friends,  Asvaghosha  his  spiritual  adviser,  Mochalo  (Madra)  his 
prime  minister,  and  Chay-lo-kia  (perhaps  Jurka)  his  chief  physician. 
Coins  of  Kanishka  and  Huvishka  were  found  by  Mr  W.  Simpson,  in 
the  Alim-posh  tope,  with  coins  of  Domitian,  Trajan,  and  Sabina  (the 
wife  of  Hadrian)  which  may  point  to  the  tope  dating  as  late  as  130 
or  140  A.C.     Princep  also  found  Indo-Skuthic  coins  of  Kanaahki  and 


368  Kanjars 

Ooeahhi  with  Shoo,  or  Shiona/noshao  ("  king/'  or  '*  king  of  kings ") 
on  the  revene,  according  to  M.  Stein  {Academy,  10th  Sept  1887). 
These  facts  indicate  the  date,  and  the  Persian  connection  of  die 
Sakya  dynasty,  established  in  N.  India  about  24  B.C.,  and  having  its 
imperial  era  in  78  A.C. 

Kanjars.     A  low-caste  nomadic  Indian  race,  like  the  Jats,  who 

work  baskets  of  bamboo  and  grass. 

Kandj.  An  ancient  Indian  capital,  called  in  the  Puranas  Ejioya- 
kubja  ("crooked  maid"),  and  by  Ptolemy  (140  A.c.)  Eanojiza. 
Fa-hien  (400  A.c.)  calls  it  a  *'  great  city  on  the  Ganges,"  and  Hiuen- 
Tsang  (634  A.C.)  gives  it  a  river  frontage  of  3^  miles,  its  width 
being  |  of  a  mile  within  the  ditch  and  walls.  It  lay  at  the  junction 
of  the  Kalindri  and  Qanges,  but  has  now  been  swallowed  up  by  the 
latter.  From  606  to  648  A.C.  it  was  the  £.  capital  of  the  N.  Indian 
empire,  and  it  was  ''  unequalled  in  strength  "  as  late  as  1016  accord- 
ing to  Muhammad  of  Ghazni. 

KandpOS.  The  pilot  of  Menelaos  as  a  Greek  hero.  The  Canopic 
vases  in  Egypt  were  the  four  in  which  the  viscersF),  brain,  etc.,  of 
the  corpse  were  preserved.  The  star  Can5pus  was  also  observed 
in  Egypt. 

Kant*  Immanuel  Kant  the  celebrated  philosopher  (1724  to 
1804)  was  the  son  of  a  saddler  at  E5nigsburg,  where  he  spent  his 
life.  His  grandfather  was  a  Scotsman,  the  family  name  being 
originally  Cant,  and  he  was  brought  up  among  the  evangelicals  of 
the  E.  Prussian  capital.  He  was  at  first  a  writer  on  science,  and 
took  to  metaphysics  about  1781,  when  he  published  his  Kritik  of 
Pure  Reason  ;  he  had  then  risen  high  in  public  estimation,  and  wa^s 
greatly  valued  in  the  best  society  for  his  knowledge  and  conversational 
powers.  Students  flocked  to  the  class-room  of  this  thin  diminutive 
teacher,  who  used  to  ask  others  to  suggest  to  him — even  to  his  last 
hour — ^any  good  action  left  undone.  He  was  persecuted  in  an  age 
when  Prussia  dreaded  the  results  of  the  French  Revolution,  and,  in 
1793,  King  Frederic  William  II  was  induced  to  forbid  his  writing 
or  lecturing  on  any  subject  affecting  religion.  On  the  king's  death 
Kant  held  himself  to  be  freed  from  the  undertaking,  in  1797  ;  but  it 
was  too  late  to  resume  academical  teaching,  from  which  he  retired. 

Kant  held  that  practical  study  of  science,  and  of  the  universe, 
could  only  be  founded  on  the  accumulation  of  facts.  He  regarded 
knowledge  as  furnished  partly  by  the  subject  and  partly  by  the  intellect 
itself.     He  believed  in  a  non-sensuous  intuition,  as  distinguished  from 


Kantaka  369 

actual  phenomena ;  but  as  regards  a  supreme  reality  (or  Ood)  he  thought 
that  we  have  no  power  to  reach  conclusions :  "  so  far  as  human  know- 
ledge is  concerned  such  a  god  must  remain  a  mere  transcendental  idea." 
He  was  equally  explicit  as  regards  immortality,  free-will,  and  the  soul 
or  spirit,  as  ideas  "  perhaps  useful  in  practical  life  but  certainly  not 
warranted."  He  declared  certain  antinomies,  or  contradictions,  as 
arising  in  the  attempt  to  investigate  facts  beyond  human  experience 
— as  for  instance  (2%m8,  i)  "that  the  universe  has  a  beginning  in 
time,  and  is  also  enclosed  within  limits  of  space,"  or  "  that  the  universe 
has  no  beginning,  and  no  limits  in  space :  it  is  eternal  in  time  and 
infinite  in  space."  [Kant's  weakness,  as  indicated  by  Fichte  and 
others,  lies  in  his  tacit  assumption  of  a  personal  unity,  or  Ego, 
independent  of  the  body.  He  is  said  to  confuse  the  description  of 
the  machinery  by  which  thoughts  are  communicated  to  the  mind, 
or  brain,  with  proof  of  the  existence  of  such  an  individuality,  which 
be  never  regards  as  the  result  of  the  received  and  repeated  impres- 
sions from  the  outside  world.  He  in  fact  accepts  Aristotle's  assumption 
of  innate  ideas. — Ed.] 

Kantaka.  Sanskrit :  "  a  thorn,"  a  wicked  person.  Kantakita 
C'  bristling ")  is  connected  with  the  thorn  god,  and  the  sting  of 
passion. 

Kantha.  Sanskrit:  "throat" — as  in  NUa-Kcmtha  "the  blue 
throated  "  (see  Siva). 

iCanya.     Sanskrit :  "  virgin."     Kanyaka  is  the  Ganges. 

Kappadokia.  The  KcU-pad-uka  of  inscriptions  [probably  "  great 
north  region  " — Ed.],  between  Pontus  and  Kilikia,  the  Halys  Eiver  and 
the  Euphrates.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  skncieut  monuments  of  Eati 
and  similar  Hittite  tribes,  and  for  its  kuneiform  tablets  in  their 
language,  and  also  others  in  that  of  Semitic  Babylonian  traders  of 
about  2000  fi.c.  (see  Col.  Conder,  Times,  10th  October  1899,  and 
under  Rati).  The  Greek  Septuagint  supposes  the  Philistines  to  come 
from  Kappadokia  (see  Raptor). 

Kapalin.  Sanskrit.  Siva  as  bearer  of  the  Rapala  (Greek 
Kephalas)  or  "  skull." 

iCapila.  A  celebrated  Indian  Rishi  and  philosopher,  living  about 
700  to  600  B.C.  after  whom  Kapila-vastu,  the  home  of  Buddha,  was 
named.  He  is  specially  identified  with  the  Sankhya  philosophy  (see 
Darsanas)  as  a  writer  of  aphorisms,  and  of  the  Pra-vachana  ("  preface  ") 
which  defined  "  the  chief  end  of  man " :  he  recognised  spirit  and 
2  A« 


370  Kapila 

matter  in  the  Universe  but  no  Supreme  Spirit,  as  contrasted  with 
Theistic  opinions  (see  Patanjali).  According  to  the  Hari-vansa,  EapiU 
was  the  son  of  a  royal  sage  Yitatha,  but  he  was  regarded  as  an 
incarnation  of  Agni  Q*  fire  "),  or  of  Vishnu.  In  the  legend  of  Sagara's 
Asva-medha  Q*  horse  sacrifice ")  King  Sagara  sends  his  youngest  son 
to  Eapila  who  gives  him  the  missing  horse.  The  elder  brothers  had 
found  him  irradiating  Patala  (hell)  in  deep  meditation,  and  rushed  on 
him  as  the  thief,  when  they  were  at  once  reduced  to  ashes.  In  writings 
of  Kapila  there  is  no  allusion  to  Buddhism,  though  the  ideas  recall 
those  of  Buddha's  "  Second  Stage  "  of  doctrine  (see  Max  Mtiller,  Chips, 
i,  p.  328).  Kapila's  moral  teaching  is  good,  though  he  sets  aside  the 
religion  of  his  age  in  favour  of  "  highly  matured  knowledge." 

There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  he  was  the  author  of  the 
"  Preface "  above  noticed,  which  was  one  of  the  earliest  philosophic 
attempts  to  account  for  the  order  of  the  Universe,  and  to  describe 
the  misery  and  happiness,  evils  and  virtues,  of  life.  This  feature 
of  Kapila's  teaching  attracted  the  kindly  Qotama  as  a  young  prince, 
but  he  declined  finally  to  follow  this  master  in  speculation  as  to  man's 
origin  and  destiny,  being  intent  rather  on  practical  alleviation  of  sorrow. 
India  has  produced  no  more  powerful  expositions  than  those  of  KapUa 
and  his  school ;  but,  as  in  other  cases,  they  are  based  on  the  assumption 
of  the  existence  of  souls,  though  the  existence  of  a  supreme  spirit  was 
not  directly  asserted.  From  Prakriti  ("matter")  spring  23  Tatvas 
(atoms  or  entities)  according  to  the  Sankhya  system,  as  milk  from 
the  cow  and  cream  from  milk :  "  into  these  Tatvas  Purusha  (a  soul) 
is  instilled,"  of  the  production  of  which  we  have  no  cognisance. 
Buddha  wisely  declined  to  be  led  into  such  a  maze,  especially  when 
the  philosophers  went  on  to  say  that  "  the  soul  and  matter  develop 
8  guTUis  or  qualities,  5  principles,  8  producers,  and  16  products, 
from  11  organs." 

Kapila  was  not  an  Atheist  in  the  sense  of  denying  the  existence 
of  a  Supreme  Being  ;  he  only  discarded  the  popular  deities — especially 
Isvara  the  lord  of  the  Yogins  or  mystics,  because  they  claimed  actually 
to  see  Qod  in  trance.  He  said  the  Supreme  was  either  absolute 
(Mukta)  or  conditioned  (Baddha,  "  bound  "),  but  if  absolute  then  firee 
from  the  conditions,  and  progressive  desires,  of  a  Creator.  Even 
orthodox  Yedantists  admitted  such  argument,  though  believing  in  the 
Yedas  as  the  "  instruments  of  knowledge."  But  Buddha  threw  over 
all  ''  Revelation "  and  speculation  alike.  Kapila  said  that  "  the 
universe  must  be  an  emanation  from  a  Brahma  who  was  all,  and  in 
all"  (as  Paul  also  said  later);  and  that  ''our  ideas  of  phenomena 
betrayed  ignorance,  which  we  should  perceive  when  the  spirit  became 


Kapila-vastu  371 

free,  since  they  are  but  passing  impressions  produced  by  nature  on 
spirit,"  He  urged  that  if  we  no  longer  believed  in  a  soul,  we  had  no 
right  to  speak  of  higher  aims  to  man  (Chips,  i,  p.  229).  The 
Brahmans  so  revered  Eapila  as  to  assert  that  the  gods  had  named 
after  him  a  hill  in  Meru  (Paradise),  a  serpent  king,  a  sacred  river,  and 
a  sacred  city. 

Kapila-vastu.  Kapila-nagar.  See  Eapila  and  As6ka. 
Till  1896  this  '*city  of  Eapila,"  near  which  Buddha  was  born  in  the 
Lumbini  garden,  was  placed  on  the  borders  of  the  Chandra-tal  or 
''moon-lake"  (see  Short  Studies,  p.  11),  but  it  is  now  found  near 
Nijliva  on  the  border  of  Napal  in  the  N.W.  corner  of  Eosala  or  Oudh, 
beside  the  tomb  of  EOnaga-mana,  the  2nd  Buddha.  The  previously 
accepted  site  was  fixed  by  General  Cunningham,  from  the  itineraries  of 
the  Chinese  pilgrims  whose  accounts  of  distance  and  direction  prove 
to  be  inaccurate,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Asdka's  inscription  at 
the  true  site.  The  author  visited  Chandra- tal  in  1875,  but  this  site 
(see  Introduction  to  our  Short  Studies)  must  now  be  given  up 
(p.  xvii),  though  Hiuen-Tsang  describes  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of 
SuddhOdana  and  his  statue  with  that  of  his  queen  Maya— >Buddha's 
mother — as  800  li  S.K  of  Sarasvati,  instead  of  far  away  to  the  N.E. 
by  east.  E^pila-vastu  was  the  capital  of  the  Sakya  dynasty,  built  by 
Eing  Virudhha  (or  Vaiduriya),  son  of  Eing  Prasenjit,  who  was 
Buddha's  friend  (Beal's  Fa-hien,  pp.  63,  64).  In  410  A.C.  Fa-hien 
found  it  in  ruins,  with  only  two  poor  families  on  the  spot  The  name 
had  been  tortured  to  mean  "  city  of  beautiful  virtue,"  as  Buddha's 
birthplace,  and  the  name  of  the  Lumbini  garden  to  mean  "  place  of 
liberation,"  by  the  *'  Rohini  stream,"  as  connected  with  Buddha's 
words  on  crossing  the  stream  when  he  fled  from  his  palace :  "  Father, 
though  I  love  thee  a  fear  possesses  me,  I  may  not  stay." 

Buddha's  mother  visited  the  Lumbini  garden  or  grove  for  quiet 
rest,  or  to  visit  her  parents  at  the  village  of  Eoli ;  and  Fa-hien  says : 
*'  She  walked  out  of  the  garden  tank  (which  still  exists)  on  the  north 
side  about  twenty  paces,  and  grasping  hold  of  the  branch  of  a  tree, 
having  her  face  to  the  east,  gave  birth  to  the  heir  ...  he  immedi- 
ately walked  seven  paces,  when  celestial  dragons  took  him,  and 
wasbed  his  body  with  the  holy  and  heavenly  waters."  Fa-hien 
noticed  several  "  wells  here,  to  which  the  pious  came  from  far  and 
near  to  be  purified  by  their  waters  .  .  .  but  the  country  was  a  vast 
solitude  infested  with  wild  animals."  He  found  many  images  of 
Buddha  and  of  his  mother  Maha-Maya,  with  stupas  connected  with 
episodes  in  Qotama's  life,  after  this  birth  in  the  "hall  of  impregnation 


372  Kapt-or 

of  the  immaculate  virgin/'  from  whom  he  was  bom  as  a  white 
elephant  (Beal,  Fa-hien,  pp.  64,  65  ;  Hiuen-TaaTig,  p.  95).  Maya 
bad  DO  other  son.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Anu-Sakya,  Raja  of  Kofi, 
and  of  Tasodhara  the  aunt  of  Suddhodana  her  husband.  The  Asoka 
pillar,  fixing  the  site  where  she  bore  Grotama  in  the  garden,  was 
found  in  1897  (Mr  Vincent  Smith,  Tirnes,  12th  April  1898),  as 
already  stated  (see  Asoka)  :  "  The  pillar  stands  on  the  western  edge  of 
a  mound  of  ruins  about  a  hundred  yards  in  diameter ;  and  on  the 
south  side  of  this  mound  is  the  tank  in  which  the  child's  mother 
bathed."  Another  discovery  which  was  made  in  a  stupa,  or  brick 
tumulus,  close  to  the  British  frontier,  is  that  of  relics  of  Buddha 
himself. 

Kapt-or.  Cdiphtor.  The  region  whence  the  Philistines  came 
originally  (Gren.  x,  14 ;  Deut.  ii,  23  ;  1  Chron.  i,  12  ;  Amos  ix,  7). 
In  Egyptian  keh  was  the  "  north,"  and  the  Eaft  or  Keft  were  the 
Phcenicians,  perhaps  connected  with  the  Gubt  or  Kopts,  from  whom 
Egypt  was  named.  [The  Greek  Septuagint  translators  render  it 
"  Eappadokia " ;  and  Kaft-wr  may  mean  the  "  seaside  Kaft."  The 
Philistine  god  Dagon  was  worshiped  in  both  Phoenicia  and  Babylonia, 
and  the  Philistines  probably  came  from  N.  Syria. — Ed.] 

Kar.  An  ancient  root  *'  to  do "  or  '*  make "  (see  Gar).  In 
Barmah  and  Pegu  horo  is  **  man,'*  like  the  Dravid  kwri  in  India. 

Karabos.     Greek  :  "  crab."     The  sign  Cancer  (see  Zodiak). 

Karaites.  Hebrew :  from  kara  "  to  read."  Readers  of  the 
Scriptures  (see  Dr  Neubauer's  Lecture,  London  Jews'  College,  Novr. 
1886).  Dr  Neubauer  says  that  l^araite  authors  deny  the  derivatioD 
of  the  sect  from  the  Sadducees,  and  that  we  have  no  authentic  account 
of  its  origin,  which,  however,  is  said  to  date  back  to  the  1st  century 
B.C.,  before  the  time  of  HilleL  The  i^^raites  reached  the  Krimea^ 
where  their  tombstones  have  been  found,  by  our  2nd  century.  They 
are  historically  supposed  however  to  date  from  the  days  of  Hanan  ben 
David  (750  A.c),  according  to  their  own  account,  confirmed  by 
Rabbinical  chronicles,  and  from  Arabic  sources.  Hanan's  favourite 
saying  was,  "  search  diligently  in  the  Law,"  whence  a  better  ex^esis, 
based  on  study  of  grammar  and  words,  was  to  be  derived  than  that 
of  Pharisaic  schools.  The  !^araites  are  very  strict  in  Sabbath 
observance,  and  the  prohibition  of  fire,  or  artificial  light,  on  that  day 
makes  their  teaching  unbearable  in  cold  climates.  They  do  not 
observe  Rabbinic  customs  in  the  use  of  TefiUin,  ZizUhy  or  the 
Mezuzah  (phylacteries,  fringes,  and  the  charms  attached  to  doon;). 


Karas  373 

none  of  which  are  distinctly  inculcated  in  the  Law.  In  the  time  of 
Christ  phylacteries  were  evidently  as  yet  uncommon.  !^raites  say 
that  they  remained  in  Babylonia,  few  going  to  Palestine  (with  Ezra), 
and  had  little  intercourse  with  that  country  for  some  centuries.  In 
1874  there  were  some  6000  of  them  in  S.  Russia.  They,  in 
common  with  the  Sadducees,  entirely  reject  the  traditions  and  non- 
Hebrew  customs  of  the  Pharisees,  and  are  in  fact  a  sect  that  relies 
on  the  words  of  the  Law  only. 

Kaxas.  Egyptian  :  "  to  anoint."  The  Earast  was  the  mummy, 
or  embalmed  body. 

Kardama.  Sanskrit :  a  hero  or  patriarch  who  was  the  son  of 
Brahma,  marrying  Deyahuti  daughter  of  Daksha. 

Kar-dunias,  A  name  for  Babylonia  among  the  Kassites  :  "  the 
region  (or  city)  of  the  god  Dunias." 

Karens.  Tribes  of  the  Mongolic  stock  (see  Siam)  in  and  round 
Barmah,  very  distinct  from  other  stocks  in  both  appearance  and 
character.  They  are  divided  into  Red  (Sagan)  and  White  (Pyu) 
Karens.  The  latter  have  for  ages  been  a  down-trodden  people,  who 
have  gladly  accepted  the  rule  and  faith  of  Christians ;  yet  they  were 
once  a  terror  to  their  neighbours  (see  Prof.  T.  de  la  Coup^rie ;  and 
Mr  H.  S.  Hallet,  Proc.  Royal  Geog.  Socy.,  November  1883).  They  are 
Nat  ("spirit")  worshipers,  who  used  to  occupy  S.W,  China,  ruling  in 
Youe-chang  and  part  of  Kambodia  in  our  4th  century,  but  driven  out 
by  Mongols  and  Chinese.  The  Sagan  Karens,  and  the  Khyens,  prey 
on  the  settled  population,  and  on  Shan  traders  still,  but  the  White 
Karens  are  a  quiet  and  timid  race  whom  the  Christian  missionaries 
are  educating.  The  Red  Karens  have  sacred  legends  very  like  those 
of  Christians  and  Jews,  and  may  have  been  influenced  by  early 
Nestorian  missionaries  after  500  a.c.  Their  supreme  god  is  Yuvah, 
to  whom  they  sing  hymns,  but  they  are  afraid  (as  were  the  Jews  in 
relation  to  the  sacred  name  Yahveh)  to  use  this  name,  and  they  call 
him  Kutra,  or  "  creator,"  and  Pu  or  '*  father."  They  say  that  "  his 
countenance  shines  like  the  sun,  and  his  glory  lights  the  heavens." 
He  existed  before  the  world,  and  is  unchangeable,  eternal,  and  all- 
knowing,  ever  ready  to  hear  those  who  cry  to  him.  He  created  sun, 
moon,  and  stars,  and  man  out  of  earth,  woman  also  firom  the  rib  of 
man.  He  breathed  his  life  into  them,  and  created  all  animal  and 
vegetable  life  for  their  sustenance.  He  placed  them  in  a  garden  with 
seven  kinds  of  fruit,  one  of  which — "  the  Yellow  Fruit  of  Trial " — 
they  were  warned  not  to  eat,  lest  they  should  grow  old  and  die.     The 


374  Karkas 

evil  one — ^a  great  dragon  able  to  take  human  shape — ^persuaded  £a 
and  Thanai  to  eat  They  then  at  once  ceased  to  believe  in  Yuvah, 
who  turned  his  back  on  them.  There  was  a  "  tree  of  life "  and  & 
''  tree  of  death/'  and  Yuvah  withdrew  the  former  when  Kuplan  ("  the 
deceiver")  or  Yau-Eau,  deceived  this  couple.  Yau-Eaa  means 
"  trodden  on/'  and  Euplan  was  a  fallen  angel.  Thus,  if  these  legends 
belong  to  the  Sagan  Karens,  we  must  conclude  that  they  were  brought 
into  S.W.  China  by  the  Jews,  who  reached  Herat  in  our  6th  century, 
or  by  Nestorian  Christians,  or  Manichaean  heretics.  If  by  Christiaiis, 
however,  we  should  have  expected  some  story  of  Christ  to  appear 
among  them. 

Karkas.  Sanskrit :  *'  crab."  The  sign  Cancer  (see  Zodiak). 
The  sun  is  called  Earkata  as  moving  sideways  on  the  horison,  like 
a  crab. 

Karkemish.  The  Hittite  capital  at  tbe  fords  of  the  Euphrates, 
where  many  of  their  monuments  occur,  called  later  HierapoUs  wheooe 
tbe  modern  name  Jerdblus.  [The  name  is  perhaps  Kar-garrUs  ''citj 
of  conquest,"  or  Kar-kwmis  "capital  dty,"  in  Turanian  or  Hittite 
speech.  It  is  often  connected  with  Kemosh  the  god  of  Moab,  whose 
name  is  supposed  to  mean  "  subduer/' — Ed.] 

Karli.  The  celebrated  Buddhist  cave  here  looks  down,  from  the 
high  mountain  crest,  on  the  plains  of  Bombay,  near  Poena.  An 
inscription  on  the  base  of  the  fine  "lion  pillar,"  in  the  porch, 
ascribes  the  excavation  to  Maha-Bhuti,  or  Deva-Bbuti,  who  according 
to  the  Puranas  reigned  in  78  B.c.  It  is  a  hall  of  pillars  with  a  Dagoba 
or  relic  shrine.  A  prayer-wheel  is  thought  to  have  been  once  placed 
over  the  four  lions  of  the  "  lion  pillar." 

Karma.  Sanskrit:  "doing,"  "conduct,"  "result."  A  virtuous 
person  is  a  Karma-dJiarmi,  or  one  who  recognises  the  "  duty  of  deeds." 
Oriha-kamui  is  "household  work,"  and  Qrama-karma  is  sensual 
conduct.  In  Pali  it  becomes  Kama  (see  Buddha,  and  Hindus).  The 
idea  is  bound  up  with  that  of  transmigration,  though  Gotama  pro- 
bably never  taught  this.  All  who  are  not  yet  fit  to  become  Arahats 
must,  according  to  later  Buddhists,  be  bom  once  more,  in  another 
state  or  world,  in  accordance  with  their  Karma  or  conduct  here  on 
earth.  The  result  of  a  good  or  bad  action  is  inevitable,  though  it  may 
be  delayed.  We  can  only  escape  from  rebirth  by  escaping  its  cause, 
and  by  entering  the  "  four  paths."  Some  Buddhists  regard  misfortune 
and  suffering  as  gain,  because  the  penalty  of  an  evil  Karma  in  the  past 
has  thus  been  paid.    The  idea  of  Karma  includes  heredity,  and  is  thus 


Karma  375 

at  variance  with  that  of  persoDal  responsibility,  as  taught  by  Buddhism 
and  Christianity.  The  Karma  (or  the  A-karma)  of  ancestors  makes  us 
what  we  are,  and  ages  are  needed  to  efface  the  effect  of  such  Karma 
on  millions  of  descendants.  Karma  and  Transmigration  were  derived 
by  Jains,  and  Buddhists,  from  Yedanta  philosophy,  which  taught  that 
no  act  was  indifferent,  as  leading  to  or  preventing  union  with 
Brahma — which  was  not  Buddha's  doctrine.  One  fancy  created 
another,  and  Hindus  went  on  to  teach  that  "even  those  passing 
through  animal  forms  remembered  their  former  existences  .  .  .  that 
the  flame  of  life  did  not  expire,  but  merely  passed  on,  as  it  were,  to 
a  new  lamp.  .  .  .  Bodies  are  but  torches  which  burn  out,  while  the 
living  flame  passes  throughout  the  organic  series  unextinguished." 
These  are  the  wild  ideas  which  modem  Theosophists  strive  to  revive 
(see  Evolution  of  Sex,  by  Qeddes  and  Thomson). 

Hinduism  is  full  of  the  doctrine  of  "  merit  and  demerit "  (Kusala 
and  A*kusala),  ever  at  work  in  all  that  lives,  and  tending  on  the 
whole  to  improvement,  to  man's  greater  happiness  though  the  unfit 
must  fail.  All  inherit  the  past,  and  aid  to  make  the  future  of  the 
race,  for  the  blended  Karmas  of  all  forever  move  on.  The  son  may 
resemble  the  father,  but  gradually  the  law  of  heredity  works  itself 
out,  and  the  resemblance  is  fainter  as  generations  pass.  The  tendency 
of  nature  unguided  by  mind  is  to  weeds  and  degeneration — reversion, 
as  we  call  it,  to  the  wild  state.  So  the  East  has  long  taught ;  and  so 
the  West  now  thinks,  as  we  see  in  G.  Meyer's  Chorus  of  the  Dead. 

"  We  dead,  yea  we  dead,  greater  armies  we  be 
Than  you  on  the  land,  and  than  you  on  the  sea. 
With  ottr  actions  we  dead  have  ploughed  the  earth's  plain 
And  all  we  completed  and  all  weVe  begun 
Still  feeds  yonder  fountains  that  flash  in  the  sun. 
And  lo  1  all  our  love,  our  hatred,  and  pain 
Still  pulses  and  throbs  in  each  live  mortal  vein 
And  what  we  laid  down  erst,  as  valid  and  right 
Still  hinds  mortal  men  with  immutahle  might." 

The  ordinary  Buddhist  however  cannot  throw  off  his  individuality, 
and  the  practical  result  was  not  contemplated  by  Buddha.  The  good 
Barmese  mother  tries  to  find  out  the  history  of  her  babe  in  the  un- 
known past,  believing  the  future  to  depend  thereon.  She  attributes 
bad  habits  to  former  demerits,  and  therefore  feels  excused  from  correct- 
ing them,  lest  she  should  anger  the  Nats  (or  spirits),  and  cross  the 
decrees  of  Nature.  Tet,  they  are  light  hearted  as  they  repeat  their 
Lord's  words :  "  Perform  good  deeds  if  you  would  lay  up  merit,  and 
weave  a  link  in  the  chain  of  immortality.  .  .  .  Sow  alike  thoughts 


376  Karmel 

And  deeds  that  will  not  die.'*  This  nevertheless  has  the  oommerdal 
tone  of  other  religions,  teaching  the  doing  of  good  for  selfish  reasons, 
which  idea  Buddha  abhorred.  The  object  should  be  to  spare  suffer- 
ings to  others  here  and  hereafter.  Not,  to  be  good  for  our  own  sakes, 
but  for  the  eventual  happiness  of  all,  is  the  true  doctrine  of  Karma.  It 
is  one  that  almost  destroys  personality :  we  are  the  result  of  past 
deeds,  aud  must  suffer  for  the  faults  of  the  dead,  and  those  following 
may  suffer  for  ours.  Goethe  wrote  :  "  Nothing  may  perish :  though 
here  for  a  day.  ...  we  stamp  on  the  clay  a  part  of  ourselves  tJiat 
may  never  die."  But  there  is  much  in  these  speculations  of  which 
Gotama  Buddha  would  not  have  approved. 

Karmel.  Hebrew  :  "  vineyard  of  God."  The  name  of  a  town  S. 
of  Hebron,  and  of  a  mountain  ridge  projecting  into  the  sea  S.  of  Acre. 
Tacitus  says  that  the  name  also  applied  to  the  god  worshiped,  as  well 
as  to  the  mountain  itself.  It  was  the  scene  of  Elijah's  slaughter  of 
the  priests  of  Ba'al ;  and  a  monastery  stands  over  his  supposed  cave 
on  the  promontory,  the  scene  of  his  sacrifice  being  at  the  other  end  of 
the  ridge,  15  miles  S.E.,  at  the  cliff  now  called  BH  MakraJca,  *' the 
place  of  burning."  The  20th  July  is  the  feast  of  Elijah,  when  pil- 
grims both  Christian  and  Druze  visit  the  cave,  and  the  wooden  statue 
of  Elijah  in  the  chapel.  The  rites  begin  at  midnight,  conducted  by 
the  Carmelite  monks,  who  are  Roman  Catholics  mostly  from  Italy. 
Dancing,  and  the  firing  of  guns,  continues  till  9  a.m.  Jamblichus  re- 
garded the  mountain  as  sacred,  and  as  the  abode  of  Pythagoras. 
Monks  settled  here  in  the  4th  century,  and  the  present  order  in  the 
12th,  all  the  Latin  Carmelites  being  massacred  by  Moslems  in  1238 
A.C.  To  the  S.  of  the  monastery  is  the  ruined  convent  of  St  Margaret, 
near  which  are  shown  "  Elijah's  melons,"  petrified,  and  called  by  geolo- 
gists ^'geodes."  The  legend  says  Elijah  turned  them  to  stone  to 
punish  a  churlish  peasant,  who  refused  to  let  him  eat  his  melons. 
Elijah's  "  olives  "  are  fossil  spines  of  the  echinus,  and  his  "  apples  "  are 
the  shells  of  the  Cidaris  Glandifera.  The  Druzes  (see  Druz)  venerate 
Elijah's  statue,  and  live  in  two  villages  on  the  mountain  (see  Laurence 
Oliphant,  Haifa,  p.  9).  [This  author  has  copied  the  account  of  Car- 
melite history  from  Col.  Condor's  Tent  Work  in  Palestine** — Ed.] 
According  to  Tacitus  Vespasian  visited  Carmel  to  consult  the  oracle  of 
its  god. 

Karil.  Ca^irn.  See  Gar  *'  circle."  A  round  or  pyramidal  heap  of 
stones,  among  Kelts  and  other  Aryans,  such  as  are  common  memorials 
all  over  the  world. 

KamE.      Sanskrit :  "  ear."     The  leader  of  the  Kurus  though  half- 


Karnak  377 

brother  of  the  Pandus.  His  mother  Pritba  bore  him  to  Surya  (the 
sun)  before  she  married  tbe  Pandu  (see  Brahma).  She  remained  a 
virgin — through  the  power  of  the  sage  Durvasas — though  bearing 
children  to  various  gods,  according  to  the  Mahabharata  (see  EVof.  A. 
de  Oubematis,  Zocl,  Mythol.,  i,  p.  254).  She  was  nevertheless 
ashamed  of  this  child,  and  he  was  abandoned  (like  other  solar  heroes)  : 
the  charioteer  of  King  Dhrita-rashtra  found  the  babe  on  the  banks  of 
the  Jamunlft,  and  his  wife  Radha  (or  Krishni)  nursed  it  Kama  was 
then  called  Sadheya,  and  also  Vasusena,  and  later  on  Anga-Baja, 
having  conquered  part  of  Bangal.  Indra  gave  him  vast  strength,  but 
he  fell  before  the  crescent-shaped  shaft  of  Arjuna.  He  had  given  his 
coat  of  mail  to  Indra  for  Arjuna,  and  had  received  a  javelin.  The 
coat  however  had  to  be  cut  from  his  body  (see  Arjuna). 

Kamak.  The  great  temple  site  W.  of  the  Nile,  at  Thebes  in 
Upper  Egypt,  opposite  the  islet  of  Philse — the  tomb  of  Osiris.  The 
Elamak  of  Brittany  in  France  is  famous  for  its  rude-stone  monuments, 
dolmens,  circles,  and  alignments  of  menhirs  or  standing  stones,  mostly 
of  the  granite  found  on  the  coast.  The  dolmens  here  (as  in  the  island 
of  Guernsey)  appear  to  be  tombs :  ashes,  bones,  vases,  and  stone  axes, 
have  been  found  in  or  near  them.  They  may  have  been  re-used  for 
such  purpose  by  a  later  race  than  that  of  the  builders ;  but  all  early 
peoples  have  buried  or  burned  the  dead  near  sacred  sites. 

Kaxtika.  Kaxtikeya.  The  Hindu  month  (about  15th  Oct. 
to  15th  Nov.)  named  from  the  Indian  Mars,  who  was  "  produced  without 
a  mother "  by  Rudra  and  the  Oanges.  Kartikeya  was  found  in  the 
reeds  by  the  sacred  river,  and  fostered  by  the  Krittikas,  daughters  of 
King  Kritika,  who  were  the  Pleiades.  His  reed  cradle  was  called 
Sara-bhu ;  he  became  a  champion  of  those  sufifering  from  the  Daitya 
tyrant  named  Taraka.  He  is  pictured  as  riding  a  peacock,  and  hold- 
ing a  bow  and  arrow.  He  is  called  the  Sakti-dhara,  and  was  twelve- 
handed  ;  he  is  also  Kumara  "  the  youthful,"  Guha  **  the  mysterious," 
and  Maha-sena  the  ''  great  leader  "  ;  or  Siddha-sena  as  "  leader  of  the 
heavenly  host"  He  has  sometimes  only  six  hands,  and  he  spends  two 
months  in  turn  with  each  of  his  nurses — the  six  Pleiades.  He  is  a 
celibate  god,  and  a  favourite  deity  of  the  Devadasis,  or  temple  women 
of  India,  as  Su-brahmanya.  His  day  is  Tuesday,  as  with  the  Teutonic 
and  Latin  Mars. 

Karubars.     See  Kurumbas. 

KaS.  An  ancient  root  meaning  *'  to  divide."  [Akkadian  Kas 
**two":  Turkish  Koah  "pair":  Aryan  Ohaa  "cleave,"  "wound." — 


378  Kasandra 

Ed.]     Hence  perhaps  the  Arabic  and  Hebrew  Kus  for  the  pvdenda 
[usually  supposed  to  mean  *•  covered  " — Ed.]. 

Kasandra.  Cassandra.  See  Helenos.  She  and  her  brother 
were  both  diviners.  She  was  also  called  Alexandra,  the  fairest 
daughter  of  Priam  and  HekabS.  She  resisted  Apollo,  whose  priestess 
she  was,  and  he  cursed  her  with  the  gift  of  prophecy  never  credited  by 
those  who  heard  her.  Even  Priam  shut  her  up  as  mad.  She  was 
seized  by  Ajax  at  the  foot  of  Athgng's  statue  when  Troy  feU,  and 
carried  by  Agamemnon  to  Muk^nai,  where  she  was  murdered  by  his 
queen  Klutemnestra,  together  with  himself. 

Kasdim*  Hebrew.  [See  the  Assyrian  Kasadu  "  to  conquer."— 
Ed.]  This  is  rendered  '^  Chaldeans ''  in  our  Bible,  following  the 
Greek  (see  Kaldea).  The  term  applies  in  the  Bible  to  the  conqueriog 
Babylonians.  In  the  Book  of  Daniel  it  has  the  same  meaning  (i,  4 ; 
V,  30 ;  ix^  1);  but  the  Aramaik  form  Kaadai  is  also  used  in  that 
book  to  mean  Babylonian  diviners,  much  as  the  word  Khaldaioi  was 
used  by  Greek  writers.  The  Kasdim  are  not  noticed  on  any  monu- 
mental texts  yet  found 

Kasi.  Kassi.  The  Kassites  of  Babylonia,  whose  language  was 
Akkadian  (see  Babylon).  Many  of  their  texts  occur  at  Nipur,  and 
they  erected  boundary  stones  in  the  12th  and  11th  centuries  EO, 
which  give  valuable  historic  notices.  The  later  Kassites  used  the 
Semitic  Babylonian  language.  They  are  the  Kissaioi  of  Greek 
historians.  [The  Eassite  name  lists  (see  Proc.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  Jany, 
1881)  as  well  as  the  Nipur  texts  determine  the  language,  and  give 
us  the  names  of  some  of  their  gods,  including  Kit  (the  sun),  Varus 
(Ba'al),  Khali  (Gula),  Iskhara  (Istar),  Sumu  (apparently  Rimmon),  and 
others. — Ed.] 

Kasyapa.  Sanskrit.  A  name  of  the  sun,  and  of  the  tortoise 
(see  Turtle),  a  form  of  Brahma  as  the  creator  (see  Praja-pati),  also  a 
son  or  a  grandson  of  Brahma  by  Maridrl.  In  later  Aryan  mythology 
he  becomes  a  Rakshasa,  or  demon,  son  of  Taraka,  killed  by  Rama. 
Kasyapa,  or  Kassapa,  also  appears  as  *'  the  father  of  gods  and  men.'* 
and  the  patriarch  of  Kasya-pur  in  N.  W.  Gandhara.  He  is  said  to  ha?e 
married  the  13  daughters  of  Daksha  (13  lunar  months)  or  otherwise 
Aditi  ("  the  boundless "  heaven),  who  bore  him  the  1 2  Adityas,  in- 
cluding Indra,  Vivasvat,  Manu,  and  the  "dwarf"  Vishnu.  His 
descendants  were  the  first  smiths  and  potters.  He  also  (as  the 
nocturnal  sun)  produced  demons,  and  loathsome  creature&  He  was 
the  tortoise  who  stirred  up  the  waters  of  chaos  at  creation  (see  Vishnu) ; 


Kasyapa  379 

and  a  wise  sage  originating  agriculture ;  his  children  being  Euchis  in 
E.  Bangal,  and  Chasas  near  Orissa. 

Kasyapa.  The  third  Buddha  immediately  preceding  Gotama. 
traditionally  about  1000  to  1020  B.C.  He  is  possibly  the  23rd  Jain 
saint,  Parsva  (sometimes  placed  700  B.C.).  He  seems  to  have  belonged 
to  the  Mongolic  province  of  Ehandan  (Ehoten),  of  which  the  capital 
was  Wu-then  (or  Lualden,  or  Noden,  the  Aryan  Pancha-vati).  He 
was  buried  beside  the  chorten  of  Qumasala,  at  Lyul,  by  the  sacred  lake 
of  E^nsa-desa,  which  dried  up  when  Qotama  visited  it  (Mr  S. 
Chandra-das,  Journal  Bengal  Rl.  Asiatic  Socy.,  1886  :  LV,  i  and  iii). 
Fa-hien,  and  Indian  Buddhists,  say  that  Kasyapa  was  born  at  Tu-wei, 
50  li  (400  miles)  N.W.  of  Sahara-mahat  (Sarasvati),  which  General  Cun- 
ningham places  at  Tadwa,  9  miles  W.  of  Sarasvati ;  but  he  is  popularly 
supposed  to  have  been  bom  at  Banaras,  called  E^asi  and  thus  connected 
with  Kasa-pa.  His  name  is  usually  rendered  "  swallower  of  light  *' — 
one  who  fed  on  light  or  wisdom.  He  was  buried  under  the  great 
mountains  N,  of  Sarasvati,  and  Asdka  ia  said  to  have  reared  a  tower 
''  over  his  entire  skeleton."  His  father  is  said  to  have  been  a  Brahma- 
datta,  and  his  mother  a  Dhamma-vati  (in  Pali  dialect) :  his  queen  was 
Sunanda,  and  his  son  Wiji-ta-sena.  His  sacred  tree — the  banian — 
is  represented  with  him  in  the  Bharahut  sculptures.  His  chief  disciples 
were  Tissa  and  Bharad-vaja,  and  his  female  disciples  Uruveta  and 
Urula  (see  Hardy,  Manual  of  Buddhism,  pp.  95  to  99  ;  Beal,  Far- 
hien,  p.. 51  ;  Rhys  Davids,  Birth  Stories,  p.  51).  Stupas  (or  topes) 
were  erected  to  mark  the  spots  where  Kasyapa  met  his  father,  and 
where  he  attained  to  Pari-Nirvana,  as  in  the  case  of  other  Buddhas. 
The  legend  relates  that,  though  cremated,  the  skeleton  of  Kasyapa  was 
untouched  by  the  fire,  which  burned  only  the  flesh,  and  the  Jains  who 
worshiped  round  the  pyre.  The  Saint  is  believed  still  to  be  repre- 
sented by  this  perfect  skeleton  (see  Buddha). 

Kati.  A  people  of  Kappadokia  (Kat-pad-uka),  invaded  by  Assyrian 
kings  in  1130  and  850  B.c.  They  are  mentioned  in  a  tablet  found 
by  M.  Chantre  in  Kappadokia  (see  Col.  Conder,  Times,  10th  Octbr. 
1899),  which  was  addressed  from  the  "Royal  city  Arinas"  (probably 
IreTiez,  W.  of  Mazaka  in  Kappadokia)  "against  the  Governor  who 
bears  sway — a  stranger  in  this  place,  an  Assyrian,"  to  various  Aims 
(Turkish  Aim  "tribe")  apparently  in  N.  Syria  at  'Ezzaz,  'Ain  Tab, 
Ekbiz,  and  Tsakarlu,  etc.,  ''cities  far  off  of  the  Kati,"  by  tribes  of 
Tokat,  Alatis,  Amanus,  Tennib,  Zembus,  and  Tell  Allin  :  thus  the 
letter  seems  to  represent  a  Turanian  league  against  Assyria,  perhaps  as 
late  as  850  B.c.     M.  Chantre  found  in  all  12  kuneiform  texts  in  this 


880  Katis 

noQ-Semitic  language  as  translated  in  the  same  communication  to  the 
TiToes.  The  name  Kati  seems  to  come  from  Kat  for  ^  left  hand " 
or  North  :  other  tribes  of  the  same  stock  included  the  names  Sa 
("south"  or  "right  hand"),  Kit-tu  ("westerns"),  Khattinai  ("easterns"), 
Kui  ("  highlanders"),  and  Eati  ("  lowlanders  "),  all  apparently  speaking 
a  language  like  the  Eassite  and  Akkadian.  Dr  Sayce  (JProc.  Bib. 
Arch.  Socy.y  June  1899)  regards  the  Eati  as  akin  to  the  Ehatti  or 
Hittites.  [They  might  be  the  Eeteioi  of  Homer  (Odys,  xi,  516-521); 
but  the  latter  had  a  chief  with  the  apparently  Aryan  name  Eurupulos, 
or  "  broad  spear." — Ed,] 


KatiSy  and  Kathi-awar.  The  E&tis  or  Eathis  gave  their 
name  to  Cutch  ;  and  Eathi-awar  was  the  ancient  Surashtra  (see  Rivers 
of  Life,  Map  of  India).  The  region  is  full  of  shrines,  ruins,  and 
sculptured  caves,  with  inscribed  rocks  like  that  of  Gimar  (see  India). 
The  Indo-Skuths  are  believed  to  have  conquered  it  about  190  to  144 
B.C.,  and  the  Eathis,  who  had  some  of  the  same  blood,  overran  it 
about  500  or  600  years  ago,  and  settled  down  three  centuries  ago  in 
villages,  though  still  preferring  nomadic  life  as  rearers  of  cattle,  goats, 
and  horses.  They  worship  the  sun,  but  are  not  very  religious,  and  do 
not  pray.  They  have  priests  who  conduct  funeral  rites  and  give 
omens.  Marriage  is  still  connected  with  sham  fights  for  the  bride, 
which  often  entail  dangerous  trials  of  strength.  The  widows  remarrv, 
and  they  have  the  custom  of  the  Levirate  (like  Jews),  the  brother 
being  obliged  to  marry  the  widow  of  a  deceased  elder  brother. 

Katso.     In  old  English  the  phallus.     Spanish  Cazzo. 

Kaukasia.  Caucasus.  [The  Scythian  name,  according  to 
Pliny  (Hist.  Nat^  vi,  17),  was  Qraucasus,  and  meant  "white  with 
suow." — Ed.]  Perhaps  Eoh-Easia  or  ''Mount  of  the  Easi."  We 
have  still  a  great  deal  to  learn  regarding  the  remnants  of  races 
in  this  ancient  cradle-land.  The  rites  and  beliefs  of  the  modem 
inhabitants  are  often  very  ancient,  and  Iranian  peoples  (such  as  the 
Ossetes  and  Iron)  are  mingled  with  Turanians  (such  as  the  Laz 
Tartars),  while  the  mountains  have  been  the  refuge  of  Christians 
and  Jews  who  fled  from  the  Mazdeans,  and  Moslems.  The  Ossetes 
believe  in  ancient  pagan  gods  (see  Athencjev/nfi,  30th  June  1883,  on 
the  work  of  the  Russians)  whom  they  confuse  with  Christian  heroes. 
The  thunder  god  Uat  is  connected  with  Elijah,  and  when  he  strikes 
any  one  the  body  must  be  placed  in  a  cart  drawn  by  two  young 
bullocks,  and  buried  wherever  they  may  stop,  by  day  and  not  at 
night,  for  Barastyr — the  god  of  the  dead — shuts  his  door  at  sunset. 


Kaumari  381 

This  god  visits  and  rele&ses  souls  tormented  by  devils.  Falvara  is  the 
Ossete  protector  of  sheep.  Tutyr  is  the  patron  of  wolves.  Aminou — 
once  a  robber — is  a  hag  who  sits  on  the  single  plank  by  which  the 
dead  pass,  and  by  a  blow  on  the  lips  she  hurls  the  wicked  thence  into 
hell  (see  Bridges).  Kurdalagou  is  the  Ossete  Vulcan.  Safa  is  invoked 
by  fathers  on  .the  birth  of  a  child,  when  they  grasp  the  chain  over  the 
fireplace.  Doubetyr  rules  over  the  waters.  Alardy  is  the  god  of  small- 
pox. Mady  Mairam  (Mother  Mary)  is  the  protectress  of  women,  whose 
symbol  is  a  large  stone  to  which  all  brides  are  brought  to  offer  sticks 
and  stones  with  prayers  for  offspring.  [The  Iron  tribes,  or  Iranians^ 
offer  the  Soma  or  Haoma  in  the  form  of  beer,  and  expose  the  dead 
(see  Dead),  afterwards  preserving  the  bone^  in  bags,  which  agrees  with 
the  Persian  custom  as  described  by  Herodotos. — Ed.] 

Kaumari.  Kuinari.  A  fierce  Sakti,  or  female  energy,  of  Siva 
as  Bhairava,  from  whom  the  Cape  of  India  is  named  (see  Kumari). 

Kausambi.  Kusamba.  An  ancient  city  built  by  Eusa,  a 
descendant  of  Rama. 

Kausikas.  Kusikas.  Descendants  of  Visva-Mitra.  The 
Eausika-gotra  is  a  royal  Brahman  caste,  and  Kausiki  is  said  to  have 
been  the  mother  of  many  ancient  tribes,  Eusis  or  Easis  (see  Eusa). 

Ked.  Ket.  The  (Teres  of  the  Eelts,  a  mother  godess  also 
called  Annis,  to  whom  caves  were  dedicated,  and  human  victims 
offered,  as  to  the  Greek  Dg-mdt€r  or  "  mother  earth/'  Eed  lurked 
in  woods,  clefts  of  rocks,  and  caves,  to  catch  children  and  suck  their 
blood  (see  English  Country  Folk-Lore,  1895,  i,  p.  7). 

Kekt.  Egyptian.  A  god  of  darkness,  enemy  of  the  gods  of  light 
[In  Akkadian  also  Oig  means  "  evil "  and  "  dark." — Ed.] 

Kelde.  Teutonic,  and  Anglo-Saxon  :  "  a  spring  of  water,"  whence 
Hali-chelde,  or  **  holy  spring,"  in  Yorkshire. 

Kelts.  Under  this  name  are  usually  included  the  two  divisions 
of  the  Goidel  and  Brython  Gaelic  races,  the  Gauls,  Ealedonians,  Belgse, 
and  Cymri ;  the  Cymbri,  and  the  Gaels,  as  well  as  the  Erse  or  Irish. 
The  Greeks  and  Bomans  spoke  loosely  of  Eeltai,  or  Celtse,  as  Aryan 
hordes  such  as  Gauls  and  Gaels.  The  meaning  of  the  word  is  disputed. 
Prof.  Rhys  connects  it  with  the  Teutonic  Held  "  hero,"  but  notices  the 
Lithuanian  Kalti  "  to  hammer  "  or  '*  strike,"  whence  perhaps  the  stone 
axe  came  to  be  called  a  celt.  Another  possible  derivation  is  the 
Eeltic  word  Ceil  or   Coil  "a  wood,"   the   Eelts  being  dwellers  in 


382  Kelts 

forests ;  as  the  (joidels  also  may  be  named  from  the  Welsh  Koed 
"  a  wood."  In  our  islands  (see  Britain)  these  invaders  from  the  east, 
and  south,  came  under  different  names  at  different  periods.  The 
cradle-Iand,  on  the  Volga,  was  the  same  for  Iberes  in  Cornwall 
(according  to  Tacitus),  and  Oumri  or  "  comrades  "  in  Wales  (see  the 
IberSs  and  Kumri),  or  for  Picts  (Peckt  "small")  N,  of  the  Tay, 
whose  chiefs  bore  Aryan  names  according  to  Bede.  The  Gaels — 
according  to  the  Irish  language — ^were  "strangers"  (see  Gaels). 

The  monuments  and  legends  of  these  Kelts  still  survive  among 
us,  as  at  Druid-gird,  by  the  Olach-braith  or  "  stone  of  judgment" 
Mr  Mackay  describes  some  of  the  ancient  customs  in  the  parish  of 
Urquhart  and  Glen-moristoh,  in  Scotland,  where  charms  and  incan- 
tations, the  Bible,  or  an  iron  bar,  protect  the  young  mother  and  babe 
from  elves ;  and  the  rowan  or  ash  tree  is  still  a  protection.  Oblations 
of  milk  were,  till  quite  recently,  poured  out  at  "  fairy  knowes,"  and 
half  a  century  ago  a  cock  was  buried  alive  at  Lewistown  as  a  peaoe- 
offering  to  the  spirit  of  epilepsy.  Lambs  used  to  be  buried  at  the 
thresholds  of  houses  and  cow-huts,  as  a  protection  against  demons; 
and  corn  was  guarded  from  evil  by  carrying  blazing  torches  through 
it  on  the  eve  of  St  John  the  Baptist  (see  John).  The  holy  weUs  of 
the  Temple,  and  of  St  Columba,  cured  pilgrims  and  protected  them 
against  the  devil.  The  hand-bell  was  rung,  seventy  years  ago,  before 
the  coffin  at  funerals  to  frighten  demons,  which  was  regarded  as  a 
relic  of  Popery,  but  was  older  than  the  Pope,  or  than  Christianity 
itself.  [Legends  common  to  Wales  and  Ireland  might  be  added,  sach 
as  that  of  the  fairy  cow  disappearing  into  a  lake  with  all  its  calves,  when 
ill-treated — still  told  near  Berehaven  in  Kerry,  and  near  Aberdovey 
in  Wales.  The  old  Ogham  character,  used  by  Kelts  in  Roman  times, 
is  also  common  to  Cornwall,  Wales,  and  Ireland. — Ed.] 

Pliny,  Dionysius  of  Helicarnassus,  Florus,  and  other  classic 
writers,  call  the  Sabines  and  Umbri  Celtse  (see  Italy).  Celt-Iberia 
was  Hispania  Citerior,  between  the  Ebro  and  the  Tagus,  where  coins 
in  a  very  ancient  character  occur  (see  Krete).  The  Keltai  were  also 
a  Danubian  peopla  The  Cimri  were  said  to  have  founded  the  orade 
of  CumsB  in  Italy  {JElian.  Var.  Hist,  iii,  1) ;  and  the  Gauls  who 
plundered  Delphi  are  called  Cimbri  by  Appian,  while  Zonaras  calls 
them  Gomari  or  Cimmerians.  Aiskhulos  (450  B.C.)  makes  the  Cimri 
or  Cimmerians  live  along  the  S.  shores  of  Russia.  Rome  was  terrified 
in  111  B.C.  by  300,000  Cimri  and  Gauls,  whose  chief  told  her  "that 
what  she  had  won  by  the  sword  she  must  hold  by  the  sword."'  These 
tribes  passed  through  Upper  Thrakia,  and  into  Gaul,  probably  about 
2000  B.C.,  and  must  have  reached  Britain  by  about  1500  RC.    In 


Kelts  383 

503  A.a  the  Irish  Scots  invaded  Argyleshire  under  Fergus  who  settled 
at  Kintyre,  and  his  brother  Angus  who  settled  in  Islay  and  Lome. 
The  region  was  soon  known  as  Dal-riada  which  (see  Prof.  Mac-Kinnon, 
Led,,  Oct.  1897)  dates  back  to  Cairbre-Pighfada  the  "  tall  king  "  of  the 
2nd  century  A.C.,  before  the  Picts  were  driven  from  the  firths  of  Clyde 
and  Moray,  and  Kenneth  became  first  king  of  Scotland.  Dr  Skene 
recognises  Brythonic  Kelts  from  Wales  on  the  Clyde  (see  Arthur,  and 
Columba)  besides  the  Goidel  Gaels,  and  Irish  Scots.  There  was  no 
distinction  in  custom  or  belief  between  these  two  great  branches  of  the 
Keltic  race.  They  adored  sun,  moon,  and  fire,  sacred  trees  and  stones. 
In  Anglesea,  and  in  parts  of  Derbyshire,  there  is  a  stone  shrine  to 
every  8  or  9  square  miles.  The  number  known  in  Wales  and  Ireland 
is  probably  yet  greater  in  any  given  area.  The  Keltic  languages 
however  are  divided  (see  Britain)  into  the  Goidel  or  K  dialects  (using 
kink  for  '*  five  "),  and  the  Brython  or  P  dialects  (in  which  pemp  is 
''  five "),  much  as  the  Latins  (who  said  quinque  for  five)  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Greeks  (among  whom  pente  is  "  five "),  the 
rule  running  through  many  other  original  words  of  each  dialect,  as 
ken-ail  "  the  head  "  in  Gaelic  for  pen-guaU  as  the  same  Eoman  wall 
was  called  (according  to  Bede  in  700  A.C.)  by  the  Picts,  who  preceded 
the  Scots — Scath  or  Scoth  *'  warriors  "  (O'Davoren,  Glossary). 

The  Greeks  first  heard  of  the  KassiteridsB,  or  '*  tin  islands,"  from 
the  Carthaginians,  and  from  Herodotos,  about  450  b.g.  Aristotle  in 
34<5  B.G.  mentions  ''Albion  and  leme  lying  beyond  the  Keltai," 
by  which  he  means  Gaul.  Polybius  (about  160  b.g.)  is  familiar  with 
the  subject.  Pytheas  of  Marseilles  had  reached  the  Baltic  by  the 
time  of  Alexander  (about  330  B.O.),  and  apparently  describes  these 
islanders  as  "  good  agriculturists,  with  plenty  of  wheat,  and  good  beer." 
Diodorus,  writing  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  invasion  of  Britain  (1st 
century  B.C.)  calls  the  Druids  Saronidse,  and  mentions  in  Britain  war- 
chariots,  good  ships,  arms  of  bronze  and  stone,  axes,  spears,  hammers, 
spades,  shields,  swords,  arrows,  and  trumpets,  fortified  earthworks, 
and  burial  mounds  with  sacred  stone  circles.  The  Belgse,  from  N.E. 
Gaul,  had  then  settled  in  S.E.  Britain ;  and  Caesar,  arriving  in  55  B.C.^ 
speaks  well  of  this  people  (see  Druids),  and  of  their  philosophy.  The 
Druids  taught  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  its  migration  through 
several  bodies,  and  the  destruction  of  the  world  by  fire  and  water  (see 
Kalpa  and  Karma).  The  Britons  had  an  extensive  trade  with  Gaul, 
and  a  metallic  currency.  They  wore  all  kinds  of  jewelry,  but  were 
only  clad  in  skins,  tatooing  the  body,  or  painting  it  with  woad.  The 
Kamutes  or  French  Kelts,  at  Chartres,  held  a  feast  of  the  *'  Virgo 
Pariturse  *' ;   and  the  winter  solstice  was  the  Frankish  Tioel  feast,  the 


384  Kemdsh 

Irish  ndagh,  the  Annorikan  runidek,  the  Cornish  nadelig,  and  the 
Gaelic  noUig.  The  former  and  the  latter  festivals  surrived  as 
Christinas  in  later  ages,  though  connected  originally  with  sao 
worship. 

Kemdsh.  Chemosh.  The  Hebrew  Eem5sh :  the  name  of 
the  god  of  Moab.  On  the  Moabite  stone,  about  900  B.C.,  we  find 
"  'Astar-Kemosh "  as  the  national  deity — perhaps  a  divine  pair. 
Gesenius  connects  Kem5sh  with  Kebesh,  *'  trampling  "  or  "  conqueriBg," 
as  a  Semitic  word.  [As  however  Astar  is  Istar — an  Akkadian  word— 
Kemdsh  may  stand  for  the  Akkadian  Oam-us  "  Lord  of  Victory. "— 
Ed.]  Earkemish  is  sometimes  connected,  as  meaning  ''  the  city  of 
Chemosh  "  (see  Karkemish). 

Ken.  Egyptian.  The  naked  Venus  called  also  Kadash,  who 
stands  on  a  lion  and  holds  serpents  and  the  budding  lotus  (see  Riven 
of  Lifey  i,  p.  521)  a  foreign  godess  (see  i^desh).  The  name  may  be 
from  the  root  Gan. 

Kentaur.  A  very  ancient  word,  probably  Turanian,  from  Qan 
"  man  "  and  Tor  **  beast,"  as  in  Finnic  and  in  Akkadian  speech,  accord- 
ing to  Colonel  Conder.  The  Eentaur  was.  akin  to  the  Gandharva  (see 
that  heading)  and  was  the  offspring  of  Ixion  (the  sun)  and  the  cloud. 
They  were  armed  with  bows,  having  a  horse's  body  (if  a  Hippo* 
Kentaur)  or  that  of  an  ass  (if  an  Ono-Eentaur),  with  the  head,  arms, 
and  trunk,  of  a  man  in  front.  The  most  famous  Eentaar  was 
Kheiron.  Nessus  a  Eentaur  was  slain  by  the  sun  (see  Herakles),  and 
in  mythology  they  seem  clearly  to  represent  clouds. 

Kephalos.  Greek  :  "  the  head."  A  sun  hero  who  was  the  son 
of  Hermes  ("  the  wind  "),  and  of  Hers^  ("  the  dew  "),  loved  and  pursued 
by  Eos  ("  the  dawn  '*) :  after  slaying  Prokris  "  the  dewy  "  (see  Eos) 
he  leapt  into  the  sea,  in  sorrow,  from  Cape  Leukos  ("  light ").  See 
Prokris. 

KeralE.  The  ancient  name  of  a  great  part  of  S.  India,  inhabited 
by  the  Cherus  (see  Chera). 

Keres&sp.  Karasasp.  The  Iranian  Herakl^  as  to  whose 
entry  into  heaven  there  are  many  legends  (see  Sacred  Books  of  ^e 
EaM,  xviii:  and  Mills,  Imp.  Aaiaiic  Quarterly,  April  1897). 
Ahura-Mazda  thrice  rejected  his  soul  saying  "Stand  off:  thou 
shouldest  be  hideous  in  my  sight,  because  the  fire,  my  son,  was  put 
out  by  thee,  and  no  care  taken  of  it"  "  Nay,"  pleaded  Eeresasp's 
soul,  "  forgive,  and  grant  me  Garodman  (the  highest  heaven),  for  I  slew 


Kerberos  385 

the  serpent  Srobar  ,  .  .  else  had  all  thy  creatures  been  annihilated. 
I  slew  Gandarep,  who  devoured  thy  twelve  provinces,  killed  my  horses, 
seized  my  wife,  father,  and  nurse  .  .  .  yet  I  brought  back  all  from 
the  sea :  and,  had  I  not,  Ahriman  would  surely  have  got  the  upper 
hand  of  thee."  Still  Ahura  refused,  and  the  Fire  (Agni)  cried  "  I  will 
not  let'  him  enter  heaven."  But  at  length  Ahura  relented,  and  told 
Zoroaster,  '*  that  but  for  Keresasp  none  of  you  all,  whom  I  created^ 
would  have  remained." 

Kerberos.  Cerberus.  Pluto's  dog  guarding  the  gate  of 
Akheron  ("  the  west,"  or  "  the  hereafter  "),  that  is  of  Hades.  He  was 
usually  three-headed,  though  Hesiod  gives  him  50  heads.  He  had  a 
mane  of  snakes,  and  a  serpent  for  a  tail.  He  is  a  son  of  Typhon 
{Sephon  "  the  dark  "  or  north)  and  of  Ekhidna  (*'  the  seizer  ").  He 
answers  to  Indra's  or  Yama's  dog  (see  Dog),  but  Yama  has  two 
(Savala  the  "  speckled "  and  Syama  "  the  dark ")  commonly  called 
"  Day  and  Night."  Both  sun  and  moon  are  called  **  heavenly  dogs " 
(Divyah-sva),  but  Kerberos  is  infernal.  [The  name  apparently  is 
from  an  Aryan  root,  and  means  "  gripper  "  or  "  grabber." — Ed.] 

Ker-neter.  Egyptian  .*  "  the  land  of  the  gods,"  including 
Hades  and  the  Egyptian  Paradise. 

Kerub.  Cherub.  This  word  is  explained  by  the  Assyrian 
Kirubu,  applying  to  the  great  man-headed  and  winged  bulls  of  Nineveh, 
It  means  **  a  guardian,"  and  applies  to  other  figures  that  guard  the 
Assyrian  Asberah,  or  tree  of  life.  Some  are  bearded  angels,  some 
eagle-headed  men  (Nisr-uku),  others  are  gryphons.  Yahveh  rides  on 
the  Kerub,  as  an  Assyrian  god  (Rimmon)  stands  on  the  winged  bull, 
while  Persians  said  that  Ahura- Mazda  "  rode  on  the  winged  bull " 
(TraTis.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.  VI,  ii,  p.  586,  and  Proc.,  May  1884).  In 
Egypt  also"  the  ark  is  flanked  by  winged  guardians  {Rivera  of  Life, 
ii,  p.  587,  fig.  338)  The  "anointed  Kerub  that  protects"  (Ezek. 
xxviii,  13,  14)  and  that  walks  in  Eden  the  garden  of  Qod  (as  also  in 
Gen.  iii,  24),  is  called  the  "  King  of  Tyre " ;  and  such  Kerubs  are 
common  on  Phcenician  seals  flanking  the  tree  of  life.  They  are 
connected  with  those  seen  by  Ezekiel  (i,  x)  four  of  which  stood 
under  the  ''firmament,"  or  wheeled  platform  of  Yahveh's  throne, 
each  having  four  heads,  and  wings.  They,  like  the  wheels,  were 
"  full  of  eyes "  [or  of  "  colors "  according  to  a  common  meaning  of 
*Ain  in  Hebrew :  that  is  of  prismatic  colors. — Ed.]  All  temples 
appear  to  have  had  such  guardians  before  or  in  the  shrine,  whether  in 
Egypt,  Palestine,  Babylonia,  India,  or  Japan ;  terrible  demons  being 
sometimes  represented. 

2  B« 


386  Kestos 

KestOS.  CestUS.  Greek:  "girdle."  Herakles  is  said  to 
have  taken  off  the  magic  Kestos  of  Hippolutg  queen  of  the  Amazons^ 
and  the  Eestos  of  Aphrodite  enchanted  the  gods.  It  may  he  con- 
nected with  the  Persian  Kosti,  or  sacred  girdle,  and  so  with  the 
Brahman's  thread  (see  Jani-vara),  which  betokens  his  being  "bom 
again."  The  Latin  Casta  was  applied  to  one  whose  virgin  girdle 
had  not  been  loosed  by  a  husband,  and  she  became  in-cincta  or 
*'  ungirt."     The  Eestos  in  fact  is  an  euphemism  for  the  Yoni. 

Ket-ket.     Egyptian  :  The  seven  spirits  of  the  creator. 

Key.  The  opener  of  the  door  (see  Door,  and  Janus).  Persea, 
the  unconquerable  huntress,  in  Orphic  poetry,  is  called  "  the  world's 
keybearer,"  her  lord  Perseus  being  the  sun,  the  source  of  life.  The 
key  is  often  the  phallus,  but  the  keys  of  heaven  were  taken  by  Peter 
and  the  Popes  from  Janus.  The  older  meaning  attaches  to  the 
Italian  Chidve  ("  key  "),  and  to  the  Hindu  Chave,  which  is  fiistened 
to  the  shroud  of  the  dead  (S.  G.  Bose,  Hindus,  p.  260).  In  the 
Alb&nira  at  Oranada  'Abd-er-Babman,  the  first  Ehalif  in  Spain, 
placed  a  key  and  a  hand  as  symbols  over  a  horse-shoe  shaped  arch, 
in  his  "  gate  of  Justice."  The  above  is  confirmed  by  the  meaning 
of  the  Italian  "  chiavare "  (see  Leland,  Etruakan  Boman  Remavfis, 
p.  304).  The  same  imagery  occurs  in  the  Song  of  Solomon  (Cant 
V,  5). 

Kha.     Egyptian.     The  mummy. 

Khairdn.  A  son  of  Apollo  who  founded  the  Khair6neia  (see 
Eheirdn). 

KhaldaioL  See  Ealdea.  The  Ehaldaioi  of  Armenia  have  no 
connection  with  either  Babylon  or  Ealdea ;  but,  if  their  existence  is 
accepted,  were  named  rather  after  Ehaldis  (or  Aldis)  a  god  noticed  in 
the  kuneiform  tablets  of  Lake  Van,  with  Teisbas  and  Ardinis  (Dr  Sayce, 
Journal  Rl,  Asiatic  Socy.,  July  1882).  Sargon  speaks  of  Ehaldia 
and  Bagvastu  as  gods  whom  he  carried  away  from  this  region.  The 
latter  name  ("  god  of  the  city  ")  is  clearly  Aryan,  and  the  Medes  had 
been  known  in  this  region  more  than  a  century  before  Sargon.  [The 
Vannic  texts  appear  to  be  Aryan  (see  Bhaga),  as  are  the  names  of 
Vannic  kings. — Ed.] 

Khalifah.  Arabic:  "successor" — ^that  is  of  Muhammad.  The 
Shi'ah  ('*  sectaries ")  or  Persian  Moslems  do  not  recognise  Abu  Bekr, 
'Amr,  and  'Othman,  the  first  three  Ehalifs,  but  only  'Ali  the  fourth. 
His  son  (see  Qasan)  abdicated  in  favour  of  the  family  of  Muamya, 


Khalisah  387 

who  ruled  in  DamaBCus.  The  office  was  not  hereditary,  but  due  to 
election  by  the  faithfuL  Any  prince  elected  to  rule  Islam  by  the 
general  consent  of  Moslems,  especially  of  the  Sherif,  or  '^ noble" 
religious  leader  of  Makka,  would  be  a  true  Ehalifah,  even  if  not  an 
Arab,  and  especially  if  he  is  the  practical  "  Hami  el  Haramein  ** 
{''  guardian  of  the  two  sanctuaries " — Makka  and  Jerusalem)  ;  but 
from  the  first  the  succession  was* not  unanimously  recognised,  and 
Khalifahs  ruled  at  the  same  time  in  different  countries.  The 
Osmanli  Sultans  claim  to  have  been  recognised,  as  leaders  of  Islam, 
by  the  last  of  the  Egyptian  Khalifs  of  the  15th  century  A.C. 

Khalisah.  "  Purity."  The  Arab  godess  so  named  appears  to 
have  also  been  adored  at  Khalisah  (Elusa)  in  the  desert  S.  of  Beer- 
sheba  {Qiumi.  Stat.  Pal.  Expl.  Fund,  July  1883).  Pococke  {Hist 
Aral).,  p.  106)  speaks  of  her  temple  at  Tabala  in  Yaman,  which 
was  so  famous  as  to  be  called  the  "Ea'aba  of  Yaman"  (or  S.W. 
Arabia).  She  had  also  a  stone  at  Makka  between  the  hills  Safa 
and   Marwah. 

Kharis.  Greek  :  "  grace,"  "  kindness  " — the  Latin  gratia.  The 
three  Kharites,  or  Oratise,  were  the  daughters  of  Zeus  and  H§r3,  or 
of  Apollo  and  Aigle.  They  bad  their  festivals  and  rites,  especially 
in  Boiotia.  Their  names  were  Euphrosune,  Aglaia,  and  Thaleia^ 
Hgphaistos  is  also  said  to  have  wedded  Ebaris,  who  was  often 
identified  with  Aphrodite. 

Khariyas*  A  small  tribe  of  Kols,  mainly  found  in  the  S.W. 
€omer  of  the  Loharda  district  of  S.E.  Bangal.  Some  in  the  Sinj-bhum 
districts  are  pure  savages.  Their  traditions  point  to  their  being  out- 
castes  of  the  Bhils  and  Mundas.  They  worship  spirits  of  the  sun,  air, 
hills,  rivers,  and  those  of  ancestors.  They  pay  attention  only  to  evil 
or  dangerous  spirits.  Their  Pahams,  Baigas,  or  priests,  are  continually 
sacrificing  goats,  pigs,  fowls,  and  buffaloes,  which  they  all  eat,  though 
seldom  eating  the  cow.  Some  wear  the  Javdo  or  '*  thread  "  (see  Jani- 
yara).  All  must  marry  in  their  own  tribe,  but  in  a  different  gotor 
{gotra  or  "  clan  "),  and  if  the  wife  is  barren,  or  becomes  lame,  or  blind, 
her  sister  is  taken  as  second  wife. 

Kharon.  Charon*  The  aged  ferryman  who  carried  the  dead 
over  the  river  Styx  (see  Bridges  and  Etruskans). 

Kharoshthi.  See  Deva-Nagari.  This  script  is  the  second  in 
antiquity  of  Indian  alphabets,  and  was  used  in  Afghanistan,  N. 
Panjab,  and  Gandhara,  from  about  400  B.c.  to   200  A.c.      It  was 


388  Kharvars 

written  from  right  to  left,  which  shows  its  derivation  from  the  Ara- 
mean  alphabet  coming  through  Persia,  as  early  as  Darius  I,  or  5O0 
B.C.  (see  Alphabets,  Arabia,  India).  The  early  Greco-Indian  coins^ 
and  the  texts  of  Asoka's  N.  alphabet,  show  that  this  alphabet  was 
already  ancient  in  250  B.C.,  and  had  then  developed  as  many  as  19 
divergent  forms,  according  to  Prof«  Buhler  (see  Athenceum,  27th  April 
1901).  The  Brahmi  character,*  from  left,  to  right,  like  modem 
Sanskrit,  was  due  no  doubt  to  Greek  influence,  as  all  Ajsiati<^  scripts 
were  originally  written  from  right  to  left  (including  the  earliest  kuDei- 
form),  the  Greeks  alone  using  an  alphabetic  script  written  from  left  t4> 
right — though  later  kuneiform  syllabic  writing  follows  the  sAme  rule. 
The  Aramean  alphabet  is  supposed,  by  some  scholars,  to  have  reached 
Baktria  as  early  as  800  B.C, ;  and  the  S.  Arab  characters  reached  India 
by  600  B.C.  (developing  into  the  S.  Asoka  script)  in  the  opinion  of 
Dr  Isaac  Taylor. 

Kharvars.  KhorawSXS.  An  ancient  race  probably  Knrumbas, 
spreading  from  Chutia-Nagpur  to  Rewa  in  Central  India,  through 
Sontali.  They  are  now  a  dark,  short  people,  wild,  and  somewhat  lazy, 
but  once  a  busy  building  race.  They  worship  trees,  and  sacrifice 
bufifaloes  and  goats  to  Kali,  having  also  phallic  rites  connected  with 
Mother  Kuria.  In  other  parts  of  India  they  are  called  Eoravas  or 
Eairvars.     The  name  may  come  from  Kuru  a  "  sheep." 

Khasis.   Kosis.     A  race  that  long  held  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Brahma-putra,  Ganges,  Jamuna,  and  Gogra  rivers.      In  the   llanu- 
Sastra  the  Ehasas  are  said  to  be  of  Eshatrya  rank  (the  soldier  caste), 
but  the  race  adheres  to  its  ancient  tree,  and  serpent,  cults ;  and  every 
year  they  celebrate  horrible  orgies  (see  Sakta).     They  have  a  dog 
instead  of  a  "  scapegoat "  (see 'Azazel).     Mr  Atkinson  (on  "  Beligions 
of  the  Himalayas,"  see  Bengal  Bl,  Asiatic  Socy.  Journal,  1884,  i> 
regards  them  as  being  the  Dasyus  of  the  Vedas  who  sacrificed  men 
and  animals,  and  ate  fish  and  flesh  and  drank  wine,  indulging  also  in 
licentious  orgies.      The  upper  grade  of  the  Khasis  now  claim  Bajput 
blood,  but  they  all  are  of  Mongolic  type,  especially  in  the  north. 
They  adore  Pasu-pati,  "lord  of  flocks,"  and  Bhutesa,  "lord  of  Bhuts** 
(spirits),  and   place  lingams  under  the  sacred  bar  or  banian  trees. 
Col.  Godwin  Austen  says  that  their  upright  stones  symbolise  the  male 
principle,  and  flat  stones  beside  them  the  female.     They  have  also^ 
Tnansmai  or  "oath    stones,"  before   which   they  worship  (Journal, 
Anthrop.  Inatit,  1871,  p.  122):  their  sacrifices  are  offered  at  the 
solar  seasons.     They  have  no  Vedik  rites  or  regular  castes,  but  offer 
to  Siva,  and  to  Kali,  young  bufifaloes,  male  kids,  and  cocks.    They 


Khasis-adra  3^9 

.would  still  sacrifice  youths  and  maidens,  if  permitted  by  Government, 
in  spring  and  autumn  to  Bhairava,  Naga-raj,  Bhagavant,  or  Durga. 
Their  great  Saiva-Sakti  fetes  are  in  the  months  Chait  and  Asoj,  and 
their  Naga,  or  iingam,  feasts  (Dasara  and  Naga-panchami)  in  Jeth  (see 
Zodiak). 

The  Khasia  hills  (popularly  called  Cossiyah)  abound  in  ancient 
and  modern  rude  stone  monuments.  They  know  of  a  supreme  spirit, 
but  worship  spirits  of  hills,  forests,  and  rivers,  who  require  much  pro- 
pitiation, and  they  study  omens  and  practice  divination.  Missionary 
efforts,  including  the  introduction  of  the  Eoman  alphabet,  have  not 
been  successful  in  converting  them  to  the  Calvinism  of  Wales  and  of 
Scotland ;  they  have  preferred  Islam  and  Hinduism  which  has  at 
least  benefited  them  in  the  matter  of  cleanliness.  The  Khasis  are 
of  medium  height,  dark  in  complexion,  lazy,  yet  brave  and  athletic,  a 
martial  and  jovial  race,  usually  moderate  in  eating  and  drinking  and 
well  conducted :  like  the  Barmans  they  will  not  eat  butter  or  drink 
milk.  The  customs  of  the  E.  Khasis  point  to  their  being  an  offshoot 
of  the  Kamaon  Khasis.  The  marriage  tie  is  very  loose,  polyandry  was 
once  very  common,  and  inheritance  goes  by  sister's  children.  They 
burn  the  dead,  and  put  the  ashes  under  large  stones  or  dolmens ;  and 
at  funerals  they  howl,  feast,  dance,  and  fight,  as  the  Irish  once  did  at 
wakes.  They  love  a  nomad  life  in  the  woods,  as  herdsmen  or  sports** 
men,  and  ask  only  for  a  black  blanket,  a  little  rice,  or  an  old  musket, 
in  addition  to  their  bows  and  arrows.  They  are  recognised  by  anthro- 
pologists as  belonging  to  the  Tibeto-Barmese,  or  Mongolic  stock. 

Khasis-adra.     See  Hasisadra,  and  Oilgamas. 

ICheirdn.  The  instructor  of  heroes  such  as  Akhilleus,  H^rakles, 
and  Peleus — a  Kentaur  and  immortal,  becoming  a  constellation.  He 
was  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Artemis,  the  foster  father  of  Askl^pios.  a 
harper,  and  a  surgeon :  others  called  him  a  son  of  Kronos,  and  of 
Philura,  daughter  of  Ocean,  who  was  changed  into  a  mare  on  account 
of  her  persecution  by  Khaea  wife  of  Kronos.  He  was  father  of  Men«- 
hippa  "  the  moon  mare."  He  taught  Jason,  and  other  Argonauts,  as 
youths,  in  his  cave  on  Mt.  Pelion.  At  the  wedding  of  Peleus  and 
Thgtis  he  gave  the  former  his  lance ;  he  was  wounded  by  an  arrow  in 
the  foot  by  himself,  or  by  Herakles.  [Like  other  Kentaurs  he  is  con- 
nected with  the  wind  and  cloud. — Ed.]  His  name  suggests  a 
derivation  from  kheir  a  ''hand,"  as  he  was  skilful  in  handicrafts. 
The  horse's  body  denoted  his  swiftness :  [compare  khora  **  horse "  in 
non- Aryan  speech — £d.]  ;  and  he  was  wise  as  well  as  strong,  having 
a  human  head.     In  the  Vedas  the  twin  brothers  who  are  horsemen 


39  0  Khem 

(see  Asvins)  are  said  to  have  been,  like  Kheiron,  surgeons  of  the  god& 
He  was  also  an  archer,  and  hunter ;  and  the  Kentaurs  all  shot  arrowB 
(hail  or  lightning)  on  earth. 

Khem*  Egyptian  :  ''  dark  "  (see  Earn).  A  god  represented  as 
a  mummy  yet  representing  the  male  power  in  nature :  called  also 
Min,  and  rendered  "  ruler."  He  carries  a  scourge  and  a  crook  (for 
the  evil  and  the  pious  respectively)  and  was  the  god  of  Koptos — a  form 
of  Amen  according  to  Prof.  Tiele,  as  the  ''  hidden  one." 

Kheper-ra.  Egyptian :  "  the  creator  sun "  or  midday  sun 
whose  emblem  is  Jcheper  the  scarabseus  (see  Beetle). 

Kheta.  The  name  given  by  Egyptians  to  a  Syrian  people,  called 
Qeth  in  Hebrew,  and  Khatti  by  Assyrians,  or  Hittites  in  the  English 
version  of  the  Bible.  This  name  perhaps  survived  in  that  of  the 
Khitai  of  central  Asia — a  Turko-Mongolian  people  very  powerful  in 
our  9th  century,  and  after  whom  China  came  to  be  called  Cathay  by 
mediaeval  travellers.  The  Chinese  are  still  Khitai  in  Russian  speech. 
These  Khitai  are  said  to  have  ruled  Manchuria  till  conquered  by  the 
Kin  C'gold")  Tartars  about  1100  A.c.  The  Kara-khitai  (''black 
Khitai "),  further  W.  in  central  Asia,  were  the  tribe  of  Tung-khan 
(Prester  John)  who  was  defeated  by  Tchengiz-kban  the  Mongol  about 
1200  A.C.  They  joined  the  latter  (whose  son  married  a  dauj^hter  of 
Tung-khan)  in  attacking  China  in  1220  A.c.  Chinese  accounts  make 
their  monarch  to  have  been  then  named  Telin-linko,  whose  army  of 
100,000  men  covered  100  Chinese  square  miles  with  tents  (see  Sir 
H.  Howarth,  Indian  Antiq,,  May  1883):  this  monarch  ratified  his 
oath  to  Tchengiz-khan  by  breaking  an  arrow,  and  sacrificing  a  white 
cow  and  a  horse.  The  Khitai  king  (or  aira,  *'  commander  ")  was  then 
established  by  the  suzerain  at  the  capital  Chung-king  (''central 
city  "). 

In  1877  we  suggested  {Rivers  of  Life)  that  these  Chinese 
Khitai  were  connected  with  the  Kheta  of  W.  Asia.  Other  accounts 
speak  of  them  as  civilised  in  our  9  th  century,  having  war  chariots, 
and  a  written  character.  Scholars  have  since  confirmed  the  view  that 
China  received  its  earliest  civilisation  from  Babylonia  (see  China). 
It  is  now  very  generally  admitted  that  the  Kheta  were  not  a  Semitic 
people,  though  from  the  Bible  we  may  conclude  that,  in  S.  Palestine, 
they  had  mingled  extensively  with  the  Semitic  population.  [The 
origin  of  the  name  is  unknown.  As  a  Semitic  word  Heth  means 
'*  fear  "  ;  but  as  a  Turanian  name  khat  is  either  "  sunrise  "  (the  east) 
or  else   "joined,"  "related,"   "confederate." — Ed.]      The   Kheta   or 


Kheta  391 

Khatti  appear  in  history  as  early  at  least  as  1600  B.G.  (see  Egypt) 
being  then  established  in  Syria^     They  became  independent  during 
the  revolts  of  the  time  of  Amenophis  III  and  of  his  son,  and — though 
defeated  by  Eameses  II — ^finally  made  peace  on  equal  terms.     They 
were  reduced  to  subjection  by  Sargon  about  711  B.c. ;  yet  we  hear  of 
Khatti  princes  in  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar  as  late  as  600  B.C.     In 
the  account  of  the  treaty  inscribed    on  a  silver  plate,  which   was 
accepted  by  Bameses  II  in  Egypt  from  Eheta-sar  ("  the  Kheta-king  ") 
ruler  of  il^adesh  on  the  Orontes,  the  Eheta  are  said  to  have  worshiped 
Istar  and  Set  (or  Sutekh),  with  gods  of  hills  and  rivers,  the  sea,  the 
wind,  and  the  clouds — Set  being  "  the  great  ruler  of  heaven  "  (see 
Records  of  tlie  Pasty  Old  Series,  iv,  p.  25).     The  great  Eheta  cities 
were  Hamath,  Eadesh,  and  E^arkemish,  in  Syria.     In  the  Bible  the 
Hittites  appear  as  far  south  as  Hebron  and  as  early  as  about  2150  B.0» 
(see  Gen.  x,  15  ;  xxiii,  3-18  :  Josh,  i,  4  :  Judg.  i,  26  :  1    Kings  ix, 
20  ;  X,  29  :  2  Kings^  vii,  6).     In  Assyrian  texts  we  find  notice  of 
"  twelve  kings  of  the  Khatti " ;  and  they  appear  to  have  formed  con- 
federacies in  Syria  like  those  of  the  Etruskans  (see  Etruskans  and 
Kati),  and  of  other  Turanian  racea     On  Egyptian  monuments  they 
are  represented  as  a  light-colored  people,  with  black  hair  worn  in  a 
pigtail  (a  Tartar  custom),  slanting  eyes,  hairless  chins,  and  a  Tartar 
physiognomy.     They  wore  conical  hats  like  those  worn  by  Turks  till 
quite  recent  times,  and  they  possessed  wax-chariots  and  scribes.     The 
remarkable  script   of  N.   Syria  and   Asia   Minor,   with   its   archaic 
accompanying  sculptures,  is  now  generally  called  *'Hittite.''      The 
accompanying  emblems  of  the  sphynx,  the  double-headed  eagle,  and 
the  winged  sun,  are  all  found  in  use  in  Babylonia,  and  in  connection 
with  Akkadian  texts.     The  first  clue  to  their  language  was  found  in 
the  bilingual  text  of  *'  Tarkutimme,  king  of  the  land  of  Erime,"  on  a 
silver  sceptre-head  discovered  at  Smyrna  about  1859.     It  has  now 
disappeared,  but  an  electrotype  exists  in  the  British  Museum.     The 
text  is  in  kuneiform  and  in  Hittite  characters.     A  seal  in  the  Ash- 
molean  Museum  also  bears  four  Hittite  emblems  and  an  early  kunei- 
form  text,  stating  it  to  be  that  of  ''Indilimma,  son   of  Sirdamu, 
worshiper  of  Iskhara."     This  godess  is  known  to  have  been  adored 
also  by  Kassites,  who  spoke  Akkadian  (see  Ptoc.  Bib.  Arch.  8ocy,y 
March   1899,  pp.  117^131).     The  inscriptions  on  rocks,  stones,  and 
seals,  in  this  character  now  number  about  80  in  all,  two  having  been 
found  in  Babylon.     It  is  agreed  that  the  writing  represents  a  sylla- 
bary of  about  160  emblems,  and  that  these  (like  the  Akkadian)  are 
arranged  under  each  other — two  or  three  within  the  line — while  the 
lines  read  alternately  from  right  to  left  and  from  left  to  right,  the 


392  Khnum 

emblems  being  reversed  in  alternate  lines.  The  Hittite  monuments 
occur  chiefly  in  N.  Syria  and  Kappadokia,  but  specimens  are  found  in 
Armenia  and  at  Nineveh,  in  Ionia  to  the  west,  and  as  far  south  as 
Lachish  in  Philistia.  [The  author's  suggestion  that  the  Kheta  men 
Turanians  agrees  with  the  opinions  of  Rawlinson,  Birch,  and  other 
scholars.  Dr  Sayce  calls  them  "  Mongols "  in  his  short  popular 
account  of  this  people :  see  Col.  Gender's  Hittites  and  their  Language, 
1898.  The  reasons  for  regarding  the  texts  as  written  in  a  dialect 
similar  to  the  Akkadian  of  Babylonia,  to  the  later  Kassite,  to  tbe 
language  of  Mitani  in  Armenia  (15th  century  B.C.),  and  to  that  of 
the  Rati  of  Kappadokia  (about  1100  B.C.,  or  later),  are  very  simple. 
Dr  Isaac  Taylor  {AlphaJbet,  i,  p.  114)  showed  in  1883  that  the 
''  Asianic  Syllabary "  used  by  the  Greeks  in  Gyprus  and  Erete,  was 
derived  from  Hittite  emblems.  Gol.  Gonder  in  1887  remarked  that 
the  sounds  so  recovered  for  about  60  emblems  were  the  Akkadian 
names  of  the  emblems,  and  he  further  compared  these  emblems  with 
the  oldest  forms  of  Akkadian  hieroglyphics,  thus  obtaining  further 
sounds.  This  system  also  satisfies  the  bilinguals,  and  it  is  confirmed 
by  the  language  of  a  letter  in  kuneiform,  written  to  tbe  Pharaoh 
in  the  15th  century  B.C.,  by  Tarkhundara,  king  of  the  Hittites,  which 
is  admitted  to  show  marked  connection  with  the  Akkadian.  The 
later  work  of  Drs  Sayce,  Hommel,  and  Jensen,  has  (according  to  CoL 
Gender's  view)  done  little  to  advance  the  question.  These  three 
scholar^  are  entirely  at  variance,  and  they  have  neither  defined  the 
language  which  they  suppose  to  be  used,  nor  have  they  made  any  use 
of  the  comparative  method,  or  of  the  sounds  actually  known  through 
tbe  decipherment,  by  G.  Smith,  of  tbe  Greek  texts  written  in  Gypriot'e 
characters.  The  discovery  of  a  Hittite  monument  in  situ  in  Babylon 
agrees  with  the  supposition  that  the  Khatti  came  from  this  region. — En.] 

Khnum.     See  Knepb. 

Khoda.  Khuda.  Persian  «  god,"  "  lord,"  "  master  "  (see  God) 
In  Pahlavi  it  is  Hutai  or  Khutai,  supposed  to  be  the  Zend  Kordatta : 
Sanskrit  8wa-daMa,  "  self-given  "  {Notes  and  Queries,  5th  June  1884); 
but  probably  the  Teutonic  Gutha  is  the  same.  In  many  central  Asian 
tongues — perhaps  from  a  Turanian  source — it  appears  as  Khndai, 
Khutai,  Kutai,  Kut,  and  Khutka  or  Kvika,  In  three  dialects  of 
the  Gaucasus  (see  Kaukasia)  we  find  Khudai,  Khutsau,  and  Khtsau 
*'  god  "  :  the  Kurdish  Khudi  or  Khudo.  In  modem  Persian  Kkidiv 
means  "  king,"  whence  the  title  of  the  Khedive  in  Egypt.  In  ordinary 
speech  Khuda  means  "  your  honour  "  or  *'  lord  "  ;  and  in  old  Irish  also 
Chodia  is  *'  god  "  ;  all  these  words  meaning  "  power." 


Khonds  393 

IChonds.  Khands.  A  wild  Dravid  race  (see  Dravidians)  in 
the  Gumsur  highlands  of  India.  The  word  is  supposed  to  mean 
"mountaineers''  (from  ko  or  go  "hill":  see  Oonds).  They  call 
themselves  Kui  or  "  men "  (see  Akkadian  vk  "  man  " :  Finnic  ku), 
but  they  worship  the  Khanda  or  "  spear,"  whence  perhaps  their  name 
Khand.  We  have  seen  the  spear,  or  sword,  stuck  up  on  cairns  and 
mounds,  in  Chutia-nagpur,  as  Herodotos  describes  the  sword  worship 
of  the  Skuths,  or  Scythians  (see  Mr  Hewitt,  Jov/mai  M.  Asiatic  Socy., 
April  1893):  the  spear  is,  with  them  as  with  Scythians,  the  emblem 
of  the  war  god,  creator  of  this  warrior  race  (see  Sword).  The  Khonds 
are  a  division  of  the  Gond  family,  and  are  also  called  Koi-tor  or  "  hilL- 
men«"  Their  chief  deities  are  Bura-penu,  and  Tari-penu  (or  Tado- 
pennor),  answering  to  "  heaven  "  and  "  earth."  To  them  they  used  to 
sacrifice  human  victims  at  the  Meriah  rites.  These  were  captured, 
or  bought,  and  cherished  carefully  (as  in  Peru  also)  till  the  day  of 
sacrifice.  They  were  then  intoxicated,  and  beaten  or  pierced  till  dead, 
or  fixed  to  huge  revolving  wooden  elephants  and  hacked  in  pieces,  the 
flesh  being  distributed  over  the  lands.  The  votaries  cut  off  this  flesh 
even  before  death,  to  bury  in  the  bosom  of  Tari-penu  or  earth  (see 
Genl.  Campbell,  Wild  Tribes  of  Khondistcm,  1864).  This  officer 
was  employed  for  nearly  twenty  years  (1836  to  1854)  in  suppressing 
these  horrible  rites,  which  led  to  two,  or  three,  small  wars.  The 
Khonds  are  found  in  the  hills  above  the  fertile  plains,  from  the 
Godavery  to  the  Mahanadi  river.  Much  careful  diplomacy  was  needed 
in  dealing  with  them,  as  interference  with  religious  rites  was  apt  to 
produce  sympathy,  and  active  help,  throughout  Central  India  among 
Gonds.  Finally  they  were  persuaded  to  sacrifice  swine,  or  goats, 
instead  of  the  Meriah  (about  1845  to  1850),  but  they  continued  long 
after  to  propitiate  their  deities  in  the  old  way. 

These  rites  of  human  sacrifice  are  thus  described.  A  pit  was 
dug  near  a  sacred  stone,  or  "  sacrificial  post,"  or  beside  three  erect 
stones  called  Zakar6-penu.  A  priest  (or  Janni)  then  sacrificed  a  hog, 
the  blood  running  into  the  pit.  A  well  fed  youth — a  Khond  or 
Zumba — was  led  forward,  decked  with  garlands,  and  more  or  less 
intoxicated,  and  was  tied  to  the  post,  the  devotees  dancing  and 
praying  round  him.  His  head  was  thrust  down  into  the  bloody 
pit,  and  he  was  so  suffocated.  The  yelling  crowd  hacked  off  his 
flesh  even  before  death.  The  victim's  cries  were  drowned  by  noisy 
music.  The  post  itself  denoted  Bura  (the  male  heaven),  and  the 
pit  Tari  (the  female  earth).  Capt.  MacViccar  (engaged  in  suppressing 
these  rites  in  1845)  sees  in  the  Durga  fStes  of  Hindus  a  survival 
of  the  same  customs,  though  a  goat  has  taken  the  place  of  the  Meriah, 


394  Khonds 

Khond  mothers,  says  General  Campbell  (p.  199),  used  to  view  "  with 
pride  and  satisfaction  the  sacrifice  of  their  ofifspring  ...  as  selections 
by  the  gods/'  but  when  once  the  spell  was  broken  maternal  courage 
was  devoted  to  saving  the  children. 

The  Khonds  are  divided  into  two  sects,  one  chiefly  adoring  Bura 
and  the  other  Tari.  The  former  say  that  Bura-penu,  as  a  sun  god, 
created  Tari-penu  the  earth  godess  as  his  consort,  but  she  sinned  and 
created  evil  men,  and  is  held  in  constant  constraint  by  Bura.  From 
him  alone  they  say  can  any  good  come ;  but  Tari,  and  other  gods, 
may  be  associated  with  him  in  worship.  According  as  Bura  or  T&ri 
is  invoked  the  Meriah  victim  is  a  youth  or  a  maiden.  The  ritual 
of  this  ghastly  sacrifice  is  long  and  elaborate,  and  even  beautiful  and 
pathetic  in  parts  (Ludlow,  Brit  India,  1858):  the  author  says  that 
it ''  bears  unconscious  witness  to  the  heart-truth  of  Christ's  gospel  that 
there  is  no  redemption  for  mankind  but  in  the  sacrifice  of  man."  This 
is  still  the  belief  of  all  Qond-wana,  among  Bhils,  Mairs,  and  others  (see 
Sacrifice). 

After  the  ordinary  sacrifices  the  Ehond  priest  exclaims:  ''0 
Bura-penu,  O  Tari-penu,  and  ye  other  gods,  hear  our  cries.  Thou, 
0  Bura,  who  hast  created  us  with  attributes  of  hunger,  making  fields 
and  corn  a  necessity  to  us,  and  hast  bestowed  these  on  us,  and  hast 
instructed  us  in  ploughing  and  sowing  (else  could  we  not  worship 
thee)  grant  that  when  we  rise  in  the  darkness  to  labour  we  stumble 
not ;  and  be  the  tiger,  and  the  snake,  kept  from  our  paths.  May 
our  seed  appear  to  be  stones  to  the  denizens  of  earth  and  air.  May 
the  grain  spring  up  quickly,  and  be  abundant  as  a  golden  sea,  so  that, 
when  we  have  reaped,  enough  may  remain  in  earth  to  cover  it  again 
with  another  year's  harvest.  We  have*  lived  by  thy  favour.  Continne 
it  to  us,  remembering  that  increase  of  our  produce  gives  increase  for 
thy  worship." 

Capt.  Macpherson  (Journal  RL  Asiatic  Socy,,  1852,  xiii)  gives 
interesting  details.  The  Ehond  priest  says :  "  The  ancestors  of  the 
Khonds  at  first  knew  only  the  form  of  worship  necessary  for  them* 
selves,  not  that  necessary  for  the  whole  worship  .  .  .  the  whole 
burden  of  worship  has  lain  upon  us,  and  we  discharge  it :  the  world 
was  thus  made  happy,  and  the  relations  of  father  and  mother,  wife 
and  child,  with  the  bonds  between  ruler  and  subject,  arose.  Then 
came  cattle,  trees,  hills,  and  pastures,  fields  and  seeds,  suitable  for  all, 
iron  and  ploughshares,  arrows  and  axes,  the  juice  of  the  palm,  and  love 
which  formed  new  households.  And  hence  arose  the  sacrificial  rites. 
It  is  necessary  therefore,"  he  adds,  turning  to  the  victim,  "  that  the 
earth  godess,  and  the  whole  world  should  have  sacrifices :  the  tiger 


Khonds  395 

rages^  the  snake  poisons,  fevers  afflict  the  people :  shall  this  victim — 
one  pampered  and  cared  for  long — alone  be  exempt  from  ill? 
When  he  shall  have  given  repose  to  the  world  he  will  become  a 
god." 

The  victim  then,  according  to  Mr  Ludlow,  asks  whether  his 
people  have  no  enemies,  or  ''no  useless  or  dangerous  members  to 
sacrifice  in  his  stead.  He  is  told  that  such  sacrifices  would  be  of  no 
avail :  the  souls  of  such  would  never  become  gods.  His  parents  gave 
him  as  freely  as  one  gives  light  from  a  fire :  let  him  blame  them. 
'  Did  he  share  the  price '  ?  he  asks.  *  Did  he  agree  to  the  sale  ? 
•  .  •  O  my  fathers  do  not  destroy  me ! '  The  village  chief,  or  his 
representative,  now  answers :  '  This  usage  is  delivered  down  to  us 
from  the  first  people  of  the  first  time.  They  practised  it.  The  people 
of  the  middle  time  omitted  it  The  earth  became  soft.  An  order 
re-established  the  rite.  O  child  we  must  destroy  you.  Forgive  us. 
You  will  become  a  god  ! '  The  victim  declares  that  he  knew  nothing 
of  their  intention  " ;  and  pleads  in  vain,  at  last  cursing  the  priest 
The  dialogue  continues  between  the  Janni  or  priest  and  the  victim. 

The  Janni.  ''The  deity  created  the  world,  and  everything  that 
lives  ;  and  I  am  his  minister  and  representative.  Ood  made  you  :  the 
MtUlika  (village  chiefs)  bought  you :  and  I  sacrifice  you.  The  virtue 
of  your  death  is  not  yours,  but  mine,  but  it  will  be  attributed  to  you 
through  me." 

The  Victim.  "  My  curse  be  on  the  man  who,  while  he  did  not 
share  in  my  price  is  first  at  my  death.  Let  the  world  even  be  on  one 
side,  while  he  is  on  the  other.  Let  him,  destitute  and  without 
stored  food,  hope  to  live  only  through  the  distress  of  others.  Let  him 
be  the  poorest  wretch  alive.  Let  his  wife  and  children  think  him 
foul.  I  am  dying.  I  call  on  all — upon  those  who  bought  me,  on 
those  whose  food  I  have  eaten,  on  those  who  are  strangers  here,  on  all 
who  will  now  share  my  flesh,  let  all  curse  the  Janni  to  the  goda" 

The  JannL  "  Dying  creature  do  you  contend  with  me  ?  I 
shall  not  allow  you  a  place  among  the  gods." 

The  Victim.  "  I  in  dying  shall  become  a.  god,  and  then  you  will 
know  whom  you  serve." 

The  form  of  sacrifice  here  described  is  equally  awful.  The 
victim's  throat  is  held  in  the  rift  of  a  branch,  cut  green  and  cleft  for 
several  feet  He  is  fixed  to  a  short  post  between  four  larger  ones. 
The  cleft  is  bound  round  with  cords ;  and  the  priest,  with  one  or  two 
elders,  pull  them  tight,  to  close  it  at  the  open  end.  The  priest  then 
wounds  the  victim  slightly  with  his  axe,  and  the  crowd  throws  itself 
on  the  sacrifice,  stripping  the  flesh  from  the  bones ;  for  a  strip  of  such 


396  Khonds 

flesh  ensures  participation  in  the  merits  of  the  rite.  Tari-penu  is 
then  invoked  as  follows. 

"  Tou  have  afflicted  us  greatly,  you  have  brought  death  to  onr 
children  and  our  bullocks,  and  failure  to  our  com — ^but  we  do  not 
complain  of  this.  It  is  your  desire  only  to  compel  us  to  perform 
your  due  rites,  and  then  to  raise  up  and  enrich  us.  Do  you  now 
enrich  us  I  Let  our  herds  be  so  numerous  that  they  cannot  be 
housed  ;  let  children  so  abound  that  the  care  of  them  shall  overcome 
their  parents,  as  shall  be  seen  by  their  burned  hands ;  let  our  heads 
ever  strike  against  the  brass  pots  innumerable,  hanging  from  our 
roofs  :  let  the  rats  form  their  nests  of  shreds  of  scarlet  cloth  and  silk : 
let  all  the  kites  in  the  country  be  seen  in  the  trees  of  our  village, 
from  beasts  being  killed  there  every  day.  We  are  ignorant  of  what 
it  is  good  to  ask  for.  You  know  what  is  good  for  us.  Give  it 
to  us." 

Since  our  officers  have  become  known  to  the  Khonds  they  have 
begun  to  distrust  their  priests,  and  to  worship  gods  of  peace,  such  as 
Zaro-penu  the  sun,  with  the  moon  and  other  spirit  Unfortunately 
they  now  drink  spirits  stronger  than  the  beer  they  brewed  from 
the  fragrant  Mahwa,  and  other  trees ;  and,  though  still  faithiul 
to  their  promises,  they  are  drunken,  unchaste,  and  wild,  leading  a 
hunter's  life.  The  young  of  either  sex  live  apart  in  rude  barracks, 
away  from  the  eyes  of  their  elders  (see  Africa).  Marriage  is  by  a 
sham  seizure  of  the  bride,  all  the  girls  pelting  and  abusing  the 
abductor  till  he  reaches  the  future  home.  Divorce  is  easy  if  the 
husband  can  pay,  and  it  is  no  disgrace  to  an  unmarried  woman  to 
have  a  child. 

The  Khonds  are  fairer  in  complexion  than  the  Gonds,  and  of  a 
yellow  hue.  Among  themselves  they  usually  go  naked,  especially  in 
the  hot  months.  They  are  dirty,  and  often  abominable,  in  their 
habits.  The  women  wear  only  a  petticoat  to  the  knees,  but  delight 
in  beads,  shells,  and  massive  metal  armlets,  and  anklets.  Schools 
have  been  introduced  among  them  by  Government,  in  which  the 
Uriya  character  is  used.  The  various  clans  have  "totems "  or  badges, 
such  as  the  peacock,  serpent,  bamboo,  or  a  tree.  They  acknowledge 
Gonds,  Sourahs,  Kols,  and  other  non-Aryans,  as  of  the  same  original 
stock  with  themselves ;  they  use  the  word  vuUiah  for  a  "  hill "  tract, 
which  is  the  Nair  mali^  connecting  the  N.  and  S.  non-Aryans  as 
related  originally  (see  Malis).  They  used  to  destroy — perhaps  as 
sacrifices — their  female  infants,  like  Arabs  or  even  Aryans ;  but  few 
tribes  did  so  to  male  infants  (General  Campbell,  Wild  Tribes  of 
Khondiatdn^  p.  147).     They  depend  greatly  on  the  prognostications 


Khonsu  S97 

of  the  Desaury,  or  Astrologer :  be  sticks  a  bone  stylus  into  a  leaf  covered 
with  hieroglyphics,  and  the  fate  of  the  babe  depends  on  the  indication 
given  by  the  sign  to  which  the  stylus  points,  much  after  the  fashion 
once  prevailing  of  divining  by  the  Bible.  As  yet  we  know  little 
about  Khond  mythology ;  but  each  village  has  its  sacred  tree  under 
which,  in  sheds,  are  images  of  which  neither  people  nor  priests  have 
given  any  intelligible  account.  [Capt.  Macpherson  says  that  their 
creed  denounces  9  great  sins  :  inhospitality  ;  breaking  an  oath  ;  lying, 
save  to  protect  a  guest ;  breaking  a  pledge  of  friendship ;  or  an  ancient 
law  or  custom  ;  incest  ;  debt  which  ruins  the  tribe  who  have  collective 
responsibility ;  cowardice  ;  betraying  a  public  secret  (see  Hutchinson's 
Living  BaceSy  p.  192). — Ed.] 

Khonsu.  Egyptian.  A  name  of  the  male  moon  god,  a  form  of 
Amen  and  of  Ptah.  In  the  triad  of  Thebes,  Amen  and  Maut  (the 
mother),  appear  with  Khonsu  their  son.  He  is  called  Nefer-Hotep^ 
the  deity  of  "  good  repose,  who  originally  reigned  over  the  souls  of  the 
dead^  the  revealer  of  the  will  of  the  hidden  god  of  night."  He  was 
carried  in  an  ark,  and  is  a  youthful  god  bearing  the  lunar  disk.  He 
is  only  once  noticed  in  the  Egyptian  Ritual.  He  is  also  Eha-un,  ''  the 
glory  of  the  rising  sun  " ;  and  Ehonsu-Ptah  appears  as  a  mummy  form 
(like  Ehem,  or  Osiris)  wearing  the  great  feathers  of  Amen  on  his  head, 
and  holding  (like  Ehem)  a  scourge,  and  a  sceptre.  Rameses  XII 
built  a  magnificent  temple  of  Ehonsu  at  Thebes. 

Khrio.     Greek  :  *'  I  anoint."     See  Chrisma,  and  Christ 

IChu.  An  Egyptian  amulet.  The  root  in  many  languages 
signifies  "  bright "  or  "  illustrious."  [Egyptian  kha,  "  glory,"  "  noble  "  : 
Akkadian  Jdia,  khan,  khu,  khun^  ku,  kwn,  "  prince,"  ''  illustrious "  : 
Turkish  khan  "  prince " :  Chinese  chu,  ku  "  prince " :  Zend  kai 
"  prince  "  :  Ugric  ko,  kho  "  illustrious." — Ed.] 

Ki,  Akkadian :  "  place,"  "  earth."  Compare  the  Greek  ge 
"  earth  "  :  see  Eissaros. 

Kiblah.  Arabic:  '*in  front."  The  direction  in  which  to  face  in 
prayer  among  Moslems :  now  that  in  which  they  face  towards  Makka. 
Mulj^ammad  attached  no  importance  to  the  matter.  It  was  probably 
an  old  custom  in  his  time.  He  is  said  to  have  first  ordered  his 
followers  to  face  towards  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards  towards  Makka. 
The  !]B^blah  in  mosks  is  marked  by  a  small  apse  or  recess,  usually 
flanked  by  candlesticks. 

In  Irish  is  derived  from  the  Latin  cella,  a  "  cell,"  and  has 


398  Kimbri 

Come  to  mean  a  chapel  or  church.  Dun-keld  is  the  "town  of  celled" 
(priests)  ;  and  the  Culdees  may  also  be  "  celled  "  monks.  [The  tenn 
Culdee  is  not  used  early,  or  by  Bede,  but  applied  to  monks  in  Ireland 
and  Scotland,  belonging  to  the  early  confraternities  founded  by  Patrick 
(from  France)  and  by  Columba,  and  found  also  in  the  N.  of  England 
When  Augustine  came  to  Kent  (see  Christ)  he  disputed  with  such 
monks  about  600  A.C.  on  the  subject  of  the  proper  date  for  observing 
Blaster,  and  because  their  tonsure  differed  from  that  then  customary  at 
Rome.  The  earlier  customs  were  apparently  those  of  the  Church  of 
Oaul,  said  to  have  been  based  on  Greek  rather  than  on  Romao 
teaching  (see  Irenaeus). — Ed.]  Eillen  in  Irish  also  applies  to  a 
cemetery  near  a  Eil,  and  Eel  is  a  "  well/'  all  these  words  like  cella 
(and  the  Oreek  koUos)  signifying  "  hollow." 

Kimbri*  See  Eumri.  We  are  told  to  distinguish  the  Cimbri 
from  the  Cimmerians  and  from  Gomer,  though  Strabo  appears  to 
regard  them  as  of  the  same  stock  ;  we  however  consider  that  the 
ancient  authorities  were  right,  and  that  the  Welsh  Cymri,  and  the 
Kelts  of  Cumberland  were  also  the  same  as  the  Cimbri  who  attacked 
Italy  (see  Kelts).  Prof.  Khys  connects  the  name  of  the  Cymri  with  a 
Keltic  word  meaning  '*  kinsman/'  like  the  English  '*  cummer "  for 
**  comrade."  We  are  however  not  satisfied  with  this  derivation  for 
the  Cimbri ;  and  the  word  may  rather  be  derived  from  cvnn  or  comber 
the  Keltik  term  for  a  "valley."  In  early  times  of  trouble  (as  for 
instance  about  620  B.C.)  wild  Kelto- Asiatic  tribes  issued  from  the 
Caucasus,  attacking  the  Medes  and  spreading  over  W.  Asia,  after  the 
death  of  Assur-bani-pal,  being  known  as  Cimmerians  or  Gimirri  (the 
Gomer  of  the  Old  Testament  who  are  derived  from  Japhet,  representing 
Aryan  races  of  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor),  and  they  are  connected,  by 
M.  F.  Lenormant  and  others,  with  the  Kimri,  or  Kimbri. 

Their  great  invasion,  which  led  to  the  fall  of  Nineveh  to  the 
Medes  and  Babylonians  some  years  later,  was  only  checked  on  ihe 
borders  of  Egypt ;  but  Gamri  or  Gimirai  had  been  defeated  by  Esar- 
haddon,  on  the  N.  borders  of  Assyria,  as  early  as  675  B.c.  In  the 
middle  of  the  7th  century  they  had  established  themselves  at  Sardis  in 
Lydia,  but  were  unable  to  take  its  citadel.  Kallimakhos  calls  them 
**  milkers  of  mares,"  and  they  moved  about  with  tents  and  herds  like 
other  Sakyas  or  Scythians.  Herodotos  says  that  the  Kimmerians  were 
driven  from  their  homes  between  the  Tanais  and  the  Borysthenes  (or 
Don  and  Dnieper  rivers)  by  other  tribes,  and  they  thus  reached  the 
delta  of  the  Ister  or  Danube.  Herodotos  also  speaks  of  the  tombs  of 
Kimrik  kings  on  the  Tyras  or  Dniester :  they  passed  through  Thrakia, 


King  399 

and  in  the  2nd  century  B.c.  they  defeated  six  Roman  armies,  and  were 
only  repelled  by  crushing  defeat  in  101  b.g.  This  led  apparently  to 
their  migration  into  Gaul  and  Britain,  where  we  find  them  in  Wales 
holding  the  W.  coasts,  up  to  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  as  Brythonic  Kelts. 
They  were  finally  separated  from  their  kinsmen  of  Cumberland  (or 
"  Vale  land  ")  by  Danish  and  Teutonic  populations,  the  Welsh  Cymri 
thus  dividing  from  the  Cumbrians  and  Cambrians,  after  the  great 
slaughter  of  613  A.C.  In  the  8th  century  they  were  yet  further 
restricted  by  the  dyke  of  King  Oflfa  reaching  from  the  Dee  to  the  Wye. 
They  were  always  worshipers  of  elemental  gods,  whether  in  Thrakia 
or  in  Wales.  Plutarch  speaks  of  their  carrying  with  them  a  brazen 
bull  as  an  emblem  of  the  sun  (see  Britain,  Kelts,  and  Skuths). 

King.  The  Teutonic  Kuning,  or  Konig,  is  perhaps  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  old  root  Ku,  Kun,  "  high "  or  "  illustrious "  (in 
Akkadian).     See  Khu. 

Kingfisher.  The  Halcyon  (Alcido),  in  mythology  builds  its 
nest  on  the  calm  sea.  The  blue  color  (see  Colors),  may  have 
suggested  it  as  an  emblem  of  fair  weather. 

Kin-naras.  Sanskrit:  "Kin  men"  who  were  the  Indian 
Kentaurs,  represented  as  hunoan  forms  with  horses'  heads,  or  some- 
times with  horses'  legs  (see  Kentaurs). 

Kinuras.  A  son  of  Venus  and  Pygmalion  (see  Kupros)  other- 
wise the  grandfather  of  Adonis.  [He  was  apparently  a  Phoenician 
hero,  and  the  name  might  be  connected  with  the  KinnUr  or  "  harp  " 
(see  Hermes). — Ed.] 

Kira.  Sanskrit:  "worm,"  whence  perhaps  the  name  of  the 
Kirates  or  low  castes. 

Kirana.  Sanskrit:  "a  ray  of  light"  Hence  probably  the 
name  of  the  Kamean  Apollo. 

Kish.  One  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Babylonia  (see  Proc,  Bib.  Arch, 
Socy.y  Jany.  1895). 

KissaXOS.  in  the  Greco-Phoenician  myths  of  Sanchoniathon 
and  Philo  of  Byblos  (Cory's  Ancient  Frag,),  preserved  by  Eusebius, 
Kissaros  and  Assaros — children  of  Apason  and  Tauthe  (Bahu  and 
Tamti)  according  to  Berosos  of  Babylon — are  represented  by  Ai5n 
and  Protogonos,  children  of  Kolpias  ("  the  voice  of  the  wind  "),  and 
Baau  (Bahu),  who  were  the  Phoenician  Eve  and  Adam.  Kissaros  and 
Assaros  are  now  known,  from  the  Babylonian  Creation   legend,  as 


400  Kitu 

Ki-sar  and  An-sarf  the  "host"  or  the  "ruler"  of  "earth,"  and  of 
"  heaven  "  respectively — ^the  first  children  of  the  great  gods.  Ki-sar 
(see  Ki),  may  also,  as  an  Etruskan  word,  be  the  true  origin  of  the 
Latin  Caesar,  meaning  a  "  ruler  of  the  place,"  or  "  of  earth."  These 
two  names  appear  to  be  Akkadian,  and  not  Semitic. 

Kitu.  Sanskrit:  "mark,"  "banner,"  "tail"  (see  Rahu).  He 
was  symbolised  by  the  palm,  Talu-ketu  (see  Rivera  of  Life^  ii,  p. 
481,  fig.  314). 

Kit-tu.     Akkadian  :  "  sun-down,"  the  west  (see  Kati). 

ICiun.  Chiun.  Hebrew.  Arabic  Kiwdn  the  planet  Saturn. 
Amos  (v,  26),  says  that  Israel,  who  worshiped  Yahveh  for  40  years 
in  the  desert,  also  adored  this  deity :  "  and  ye  have  borne  the  booths 
of  your  Moloch,  and  Kiun — ^your  idols :  the  star  your  god,  which 
ye  made  for  yourselves."  The  Greek  Septuagint  translation  is  how- 
ever different,  reading :  "  the  tent  of  Moloch,  and  the  star  of  year 
god  Raiphan,  the  idols  of  these  that  ye  made  for  yourselves."  Among 
Kopts  Kaun  is  thus  identified  with  Raiphan  or  Remphan.  In  the 
Zend-Avesta  Chevan  is  Saturn.  [The  word  is  perhaps  originally 
Akkadian,  Ki-un  "  earth  lord." — Ed.] 

Kla«  In  Ashantee  speech,  in  W.  Africa,  means  "soul,  life,  or 
breath."  The  male  Kla  is  a  demon,  the  female  Kla  persuades  to 
goodness.  The  Kla  survives  the  death  of  the  body,  and  is  then 
called  the  Sisa. 

Klachan*  Gaelic  for  a  stone  circle :  from  the  old  KaZ,  or  Gal, 
for  "  stone  "  (see  Gal  and  Kala). 

Klogha.  Gaelic  :  "  bell."  The  word  is  a  loan  from  Latin,  like 
our  "  clock,"  and  the  round  towers  of  Ireland  (see  Fidh),  are  called 
Clogher  as  having — it  is  supposed — ^been  used  as  bell  towers. 

Kneph.  See  Knuphis.  A  Greek  form  of  the  Egyptian  Khem 
or  Ehnum,  also  confused  with  Eanopos  (see  Eanopos,  and  Khem). 

Knots.  These  are  important  in  folk-lore,  both  as  the  "love- 
knot,"  and  the  knots  tied  as  protections  against  witches,  who  must 
untie  them  and  are  so  delayed. 

Knuphis.  Khnoubes.  Khnoumis.     See    Kneph.     This 

name  on  Gnostik  gems  accompanies  the  figure  of  the  Agatho-daimon 
("  good  spirit "),  represented  as  a  serpent,  with  a  lion's  head  surrounded 
by  rays  of  light :  the  name  Abraxas  often  applies  to  the  same  good 
serpent.  Khnuv,  Khnum,  or  Khnuf,  was  the  spirit  of  Amen  (see 
Khem)  in  Egypt,  ram-headed  and  crowned. 


Kochs  401 

Kochs.     See  Euchis, 

Koed.     Welsh  :  "  forest ''  (see  Kelts). 

Kols.   Kolarians.     See  India.     This  is  a  widespread  Turanian 

race   in  India  inclading  Bhils,  Gtonds,  Malis,  Mugs,  Muns,  eta,  as 

noticed  in  the  articles  on  these  tribes.     The  word  (fix>m  the  root  Ku\ 

appears  to  mean  "men,"  whence  Kulis  (coolies),  are  labouring  men. 

About  half  a  million  of  the  Kob  live  in  Chutia-nagpur — ^the  hill 

region  of  S.W.  Bangal,  including  the  valleys  of  the  Maha-nadi  and 

Dammuda  rivers.    Kolaria  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  oldest  names 

of  India. .   Mr  Hewitt,  who  was  a  commissioner  in  the  Eol  region^ 

agrees  with  Col.  Dalton  that  they  are  ''  Mongoloid  tribes  of  Malayan 

affinities,  who  entered  India  from  the  East " ;  and  he  distinguishes 

them  from  the  Dr&vids,   to  whom   Polynesians  and  Australians  are 

supposed  to  be  akin,  and  who  came  from  the  N.W.     The  Eols  appear 

to   have  been  the  first  to  reach  India,  from  central  Tibet.      Their 

earliest  capital  was  at  Sarasvati,  whcAce  they  worked  S.,  and  S.E.,  to 

Videha,  with  a  capital  at  Yaisali  overlooking  the   Ganges.      Even 

Chandira-gupta's  descendants*  (after  300  B.C.),  had  Eol  blood  in  their 

veins  as  he  married  a  Mali  maiden.     In  Eosala  they  mingled  with 

Dravids  and  with  Aryans  (see  Jownud  Bl.  AaicUic  Socy.,  April  1889, 

p.  236).     The  Eols  are  now  coolies  and  hewers  of  wood  or  drawers 

of  water,  in  Aryan  towns,  but  still  roam  their  jungles  as  a  tall,  manly, 

and  independent  race — a  brave  people  whom  we  have  oflen  watched 

striding  fearlessly  through  deuse  and  dangerous   forests,  even  alone 

and  naked,  but  armed  with  bows  and  arrows,  and  with  sharp  knives. 

They  are  easily  excited,  and  rather  sensitive  to  rebuke,  but  for  the 

most  part  generous,  and  rarely  deceitful,  ever  ready  to  confess,  but 

resenting  injustice.      They  are  good  hearted,  and  fond  of  dancing; 

but  become  indecent  in  word  and  act  when  drinking  to  excess.    They 

choose  their  own  wives,  and  are  rarely  polygamous.     The  bride  is 

taken  to  the  bridegroom's  house,  aud  seated  on  a  bag  of  rice ;  oil  is 

poured  on  her  head,  and  the  couple  drink  together,  and  then  dance 

with  their  friends  in  the  sacred  grove  of  the  village.     After  three 

days  the  bride  tests  the  affections  of  her  lord  by  running  away,  but 

is  recaptured  as  though  by  force.     When  installed  as  house  mistress 

she  proves  the  harder  worker  of  the  pair,  for  the  Eol  men  are  lazy, 

and  unclean,  as  we  had  reason  to  know.     Both  sexes  are  fond  of 

wearing  heavy  metal  ornaments,  and  charms.      They  have  no  caste 

prejudices  as  to  food,  but  often  feign  Hinduism,  when  they  refuse 

offers  of  meat,  especially  beef,  and  throw  away  food  if  a  stranger's 

shadow  rests  on  it.     They  call  their  solar  god  Sing-Bonga,  and  say 

2  c« 


402  Konsus 

that  the  moon  is  his  wife,  and  the  stars  his  children.  The  Sama  is 
their  sacred  grove  or  tree,  and  tree  spirits  are  said  to  intercede  witb 
the  powers  of  heaven.  The  favour  of  Sing-Bonga  (or  Sri-bong&X  is 
attained  by  being  true  and  just  to  all  on  earth.  [CoL  Dalton  de 
scribes  the  Eols  as  copper-colored,  with  very  black  straight  hair. 
They  include  the  Santals,  Munds,  Ehana,  Mal-paharia,  Juang,  Gadaba, 
•Korwa,  Eurku,  Mehto,  Savaru,  and  Bhils  (Hutchinson,  Living 
Races,  pp.  177,  183,  184).— Ed.] 

Konsus.  ConsUS.  The  god  invoked  by  Romulus  when  stealing 
the  Sabine  women  (see  Gan), 

KoptS.  Copts.  The  native  race  of  Egypt  which  was  the 
Ai-gupti  or  *'  shore  land  of  the  Gupt "  (see  Eaptor).  They  now  only 
number  about  600,000,  out  of  7  millions  of  Egyptian  population. 
They  have  been  Christians  from  an  early  period,  and  the  Abona 
(Arabic  "  our  father  ")  or  patriarch  is  chosen  by  8  or  9  monks  of  the 
desert  monastery  of  St  Anthony.  They  have  an  era  (284  A.a)  which 
they  call  the  '*  Era  of  Martyrs,"  when  Diocletian  established  paganism 
for  a  time.  After  451  they  separated  from  the  Western  Chnstians 
(see  Councils)  as  Monophysites.  They  were  conquered  by  Islam  in 
630  A.C.,  but  from  642  to  700  A,c,  they  enjoyed  religious  freedom, 
since  which  date  Moslem  laws  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  to 
restrict  their  liberty,  and  they  suffered  in  the  revolts  of  722  and 
1354  against  Moslem  rule. 

The  Eopt  alphabet  was  taken  from  the  Greek,  including  24 
letters.  To  this  they  added  7.  for  Sh,  F,  Ch,  ff,  J,  Tsk,  and  Ti 
The  last  is  the  Semitic  Tau,  though  differentiated  fit>m  T.  The 
remaining  six  are  said  to  come  from  the  old  Egyptian  Demotic 
character,  but  are  more  probably  from  the  Arabic.  Eoptic  literature 
is  preserved  in  five  dialects,  Achmemic,  Sahidic,  Memphitic,  Fayouniic, 
and  Boheiria  Of  these  the  second  and  fifth  are  the  most  important 
Eoptik  is  the  descendant  of  the  popular  Egyptian  language  of  the 
time  of  the  26th  dynasty,  or  7th  century  B.C.,  when  many  Semitic 
words  had  entered  the  old  Egyptian  language.  Greek  terms  also 
were  added  in  and  after  the  3rd  century  B.C.,  and  especially  in  early 
Christian  times. 

Koran,     Arabic  :  "  reading  "  (see  Mubammad), 

Korea.  Europe  became  first  acquainted  with  this  peninsula  £. 
of  China  in  1653  A.C.,  when  shipwrecked  Dutchmen  found  a  fellow 
countryman  who  had  been  imprisoned  for  25  years.  But  at  the  end 
of  the  16th  century  a  Spanish  missionary  had  accompanied  an  invading 


Korea  403 

Japanese  army  to  Korea.    Christians  became  numerous  between  1777 

and  1835  through  the  Roman  Catholic  missions  in  China.     In  1866, 

three  out  of  their  five  bishops,  and  nine  out  of  sixteen  missionaries, 

with  thousands  of  converts  were   massacred.     France  failed  in  the 

attempt  to  avenge  them,  and  the  United  States  failed  in   1871  to 

open   up  intercourse  with   the  people,  with  whom,  however,  Japan 

entered  into  treaty  relations  in   1876,  followed  by  Britain,  Germany, 

Russia,   and  Italy  (Vice-Consul  Carles,  Proc  Bl.  Oeog.  Socy.,  May 

1886).     The  population  was  then  8  millions  in  90,000  square  miles, 

^' There  are  historical  proofs  that  Korea  was  inhabited^  in  the  12th 

century  B.C.,  when  a  Chinese  noble  Ki-tszi,  of  the  royal  dynasty  of 

Shang-yu,  established  himself  as  king,  and  named  the  country  Tchao* 

Sien,  or  '  Morning  Serenity,'  popularly  the  land  of  the  '  Morning  Sun.' " 

The   name   Korea  (Kao-li)   was   that  of  the    N,W.  province.     The 

following  are  the  chief  events  of  Korean  history  : — 

Tchao-Sien  ruled  by  King  Ki-tzsi        •  .     1200  B.c. 

Korea  pays  tribute  to  China  .  .  .  30    „ 

Korean  king  independent       .  .  ,  20    „ 

Tribute  imposed  by  China      .  •  ,32  A.C, 

Chinese  Buddhism  spreading .  .  •       372    „ 

Wooden  moveable  type  in   use,   according  to 

native  historians  .  •  .        550    „ 

The  Chinese  invasion  under  the  Emperor  Tang 

repelled  •  •  •  ,       600    ,, 

Belies  gathered  in  Korean  monasteries.     Con- 
fucianism and  Taoism  taught       .  .        650    „ 
Korea  accepts  Chinese  suzerainty         .  .       668    „ 
An  alphabet  of  14  consonants  and   14  vowels 
reaches  Korea  from  India  through  Anam 
and  Java           .              .              .              .680 
The   T'ang  dynasty   of   China  desolate  Korea 

about  .  •  •  .  ,        800 

A  Buddhist  priest  chosen  as  king  becomes 
independent,  and  moves  the  capital  from 
Ping-yang  to  Kai-chow  .  ,  ,905 

Moveable  copper  type  used  for  printing  in 
Korea :  the  Chinese  having  used  such 
type  (of  porcelain)  some  centuries  earlier.  1317 
Song  Mao  assassinated  by  an  official  named 
Li-chang-gwi,  who  founded  the  present 
dynasty  at  Seoul.     The  present  king  is 


» 


n 


404  Korea 

said    to    be    the    24th    of   the    dynasty. 

Buddhism  fell  into  disrepute        .  .  1392  A.a 

Japan  wastes  Korea,  but  obtains  new  ideas  of 

art  and  civilisatioD  .  .  1592    „ 

Japan  makes  a  treaty  with  Korea  1876    „ 

War  of  Russia  and  Japan  in  Korea      .  •  1904    ,, 

Little  is  as  yet  known  of  the  aborigines  of  Korea;  but  the 
race  resembles  the  Manchu  Mongols,  mingled  with  other  Asiatics. 
Travellers  say  that :  "  there  is  often  found  here  the  English  face,  with 
round  cheeks,  small  aquiline  nose,  well  cut  mouth  and  chin,  e?ak 
bright  blue  eyes,  and  hair  by  no  means  invariably  black."  Koreans 
are  devoted  to  the  worship  of  spirits  ;  Shintoism,  Taoism,  and  a  very 
corrupt  Buddhism,  are  mingled  with  some  little  Confucian  philosophy. 
Little  shrines  to  the  spirits  of  mountains,  rivers,  and  forests,  are 
everywhere  numerous,  with  small  rude  stone  piles,  and  cones  like 
the  Tartar  Obos,  on  lone  paths  and  strange  rocks,  or  by  sacred 
streams.  There  are  many,  stone  circles,  dolmens,  and  menhirs,  round 
which  lie  quaint  charms,  of  shells  and  fossils,  to  which  wayfarers  add 
continually.  Bits  of  white  paper,  float  as  streamers  from  bambo(» 
near  all  sacred  spots  :  or  .from  straw  ropes  stretched  across  dangerous 
paths,  to  ward  off  the  evil  influences :  these  are  called  Sbime-nawa. 
Smooth  stones,  and  little  carved  figures,  called  Syou-sal-maki,  are  set 
up  on  mounds,  or  in  hollow  tree  trunks,  on  rocks  or  in  caves,  all  these 
being  tended  by  Taoist  priests.  Buddhists  are  forbidden  the  capital. 
and  are  liable  elsewhere  to  penalties.  Tet  their  temples  and  rest- 
houses  abound  on. beautiful  hills,  in  secluded  vales,  or  in  woods,  where 
monks — ^popularly  regarded  as  not  very  moral — dream  away  useless 
lives.  Their  great  centre  is  in  the  Kang-Shang  or  "  Diamond  Moun- 
tains," where  a  temple  of  Chaug-an-Sa  is  said  to  date  from  520  A.C., 
and  to  hold  relics  of  the  Tsaug  period  (618-907  A.C.),  see  Mr 
Campbell's  account  (Proc.  Bl,  Geog.  Socy.,  March  1892),  and  Mr 
Saunderson  (Journal  Anbhrop,  IvMit,  Feby.  1895).  This  mountain 
contains  "some  40  shrines  tended  by  300  or  400  monks,  a  few  nuns, 
and  a  host  of  lay  servitors.  .  .  .  Few  know  much  of  iheir  religion  or 
historyi  and  none  «ould  explain  the.  purport  of  the  books  used  at  their 
services,  which  were  most  perfunctory.  .  .  .  The  debased  existence 
they  mostly  lead  was  a  constant  topic  among  Koreans."  The 
monasteries  contain  generally  a  large  figure  of  Buddha ;  or  on  some 
rock  hard  by  he  is  carved,  in  a  trinity  with  Manjusri  and  Samanta- 
bhadra.  This,  according  to  Mr  Saunderson,  betokens  the  Ten-dai-shu 
form  of  Buddhism,  favoured  also  in  China  and  Japan.     Figures  of 


Koreish  405 

Indian  type,  withoat  altars,  were  also  supposed  to  represent  Dharma 
and  Kwan-yin. 

Other  strange  half-length  human  figures  are  carved  in  stone,  one 
at  Un-jin  being  62  ft  high.  It  is  like  a  Buddhist  idol,  but  a  cap 
10  ft,  high  supports  a  flat  oblong  slab,  whence  rises  a  small  column 
covered  by  a  smaller  slab :  from  these  slabs  hang  bells  at  the  four 
comers  :  the  cap  may  be  either  round  or  square,  typifying  respectively, 
according  to  Mr  Aston,  ^  the  male  and  female  elements,"  or  Heaven 
and  Earth.  Prof.  T.  de  la  Coup^iie  regards  these  **  Miriyek  "  figures 
as  relics  of  a  former  religion  (Jov/mal  Rl.  Asiatic  Socy.,  Octbr.  1887). 
The  Un-jin  figure  stands  between  a  Ziyat,  or  open  prayer  house,  and 
a  temple  cell  in  front  of  a  cave :  Miri-yek  means  "  a  stone  man«" 
Buddhism  has  prevailed  at  Un-jin,  Ko-yang,  and  Pha-ju  (all  in  the 
Pek-tsi  province)  since  our  5th  century  (4>20  to  478  A.C.),  and  maritime 
communication  between  Japan  and  Indo-China  is  traced  to  our  Srd 
century. 

The  Dutch,  in  1670,  found  Korea  prosperous,  and  as  civilised  as 
it  is  to-day.  The  people  believed  in  transmigration  of  the  soul,  and 
bodies  were  sealed  in  co£Sns  for  3  years  before  burial.  Marriage 
was  by  -free  choice,  and  women  walked  about  unveiled.  This  is  not 
now  the  case,  women  being  little  considered  and  (it  is  said)  having  no 
names.  They  only  venture  out  between  8  P.M.  and  3  A.H.,  when  men 
are  forbidden  to  be  abroad.  Girls  are  shut  up  in  the  women's  apart- 
ments, from  8  years  of  age  till  married  about  16  or  17,  after  which 
the  wife  never  sees  any  man  but  her  husband.  The  bridegroom  goes 
to  the  bride's  house  with  a  goose,  as  a  symbol  of  fidelity  (see  Goose), 
the  idea  originating  in  the  use  of  geese  as  guards  of  the  house,  instead 
of  watch  dogs.  The  pair  bow  several  times  to  each  other  over  the 
goose,  and  all  present  drink  the  loving  cup.  The  bride  is  then  led  to 
her  new  prison  house.  In  Korea  (as  in  China)  public  works,  mining, 
and  art,  are  hindered  by  fear  of  offending  the  spirit  of  Pung-siu 
(Chinese  Feng-shui)  "the  dragon"  presiding  over  wind  and  water. 
A  structure  once  erected  must,  for  the  same  reason,  not  be  destroyed. 

Koreish.  Arabic.  The  tribe  who  were  .guardians  of  the 
Ka'aba  at  Makka,  and  from  whom  the  prophet  was  descended  (see 
Mubammad). 

Koromandel.  The  narrow  strip  of  E.  coast  in  India,  named 
from  Cheras  or  Cholas,  as  the  CheramandcduTn  (see  Chera). 

Korubantes.  Corybantes.  The  Greek  plural  of  Korubas. 
[As  they  are  connected  with  i^ubele  and  the  J^abeiroi,  they  may  be  of 
Semitic  origin ;  and  Corybas  may  mean  **  guardian  ".  (see  Kerub). — 


406  KOS 

Ed.]  There  were  said  to  be  9  of  them,  and  Eorubas  established  rites 
at  Mt.  Ida  in  Krete.  When  the  infant  Zeus  was  being  sodded  by 
the  goat  in  the  Kretan  cave,  the  wild  songs  and  music  of  the  Kora* 
bantes  prevented  Eronos  from  hearing  the  cries  of  the  babe.  The 
Eorubantes,  like  the  Kour^t^,  leapt  and  danced  and  blew  boms,  they 
clanged  brazen  shields,  and  played  with  swords  and  spears  like  the 
Roman  Salii,  or  dancing  priests  of  Mars.  They  were  attendants  of 
the  sun  and  moon,  connected  with  the  Daktuloi;  and  apparently — 
like  Gandharvas — they  were  spirits  of  wind  and  cloud  They  could 
change  their  forms  at  will ;  could  reveal  the  secrets  of  heaven ;  and 
could  heal  or  inflict  disease,  by  magic  stones  and  charms. 

Korubas  was  the  son  of  lasion,  the  son  of  Zeus,  and  was  father  of 
Eorubantes.  He  is  called  a  form  of  Phanes  the  "first  bom"  in  Orphic 
hymns  ;  and  Orpheus  bids  Musseus  to  offer  frankincense  at  the  altar  of 
this  deity  as  a  form  of  the  male  moon  (see  Kour^t^). 

KoS.  Koze.  Josephus  notices  l^oz&  as  an  Idumean  deity ;  and 
among  Nabatheans  we  find,  in  various  inscriptions,  the  names  Kd5- 
natan,  ilS^ds-malak,  l^os-g^r,  and  !^o8-gabri.  The  word  ^os  means  a 
"  bow  "  in  Arabic.     Eozab  was  a  deity  of  the  Arabs  of  Makka. 

Kosa.  Kosala.  The  Eosis  held  two  great  states  called 
Eosala,  one  including  modem  Oudh,  and  having  its  capital  at  Saras- 
vati  near  the  lower  spurs  of  the  Himalayas;  the  second,  or  Maha- 
Eosala  kingdom,  being  Central  India.  The  capital  of  the  latter  was 
at  Eusa-Sthali  (or  Eusa-vati),  said  to  have  been  built  by  Eusa,  son  of 
Kama — perhaps  1000  or  1200  B.C.  He  was  a  descendant  of  the 
Yedik  hero  Pururavas,  and  his  son  forced  Indra  by  his  austerities  to 
become  incarnate  as  Gadhi,  son  of  Eusamba  (see  Yisva-mitra).  Easa- 
dhvaja  was  an  old  king  of  Banaras,  uncle  of  Sita,  Rama's  wife. 
Prasenjit,  king  of  Eosala,  was  related  to  Bimbesaro,  king  of  Hagadha 
— of  Naga  race.  Eosis  appear,  according  to  Sir  H.  Elliot,  to  hare 
been  Dravidians :  and  their  land  was  Naga-pur  (see  Eols)  or  *'  snake 
region."  These  indications  are  important  in  connection  with  the  story 
of  the  Indian  epiks. 

KosmaS.  Saints  Eosmas  (Cosmo)  and  Damian  seem  to  have 
been  two  Arabian  brother  physicians,  who  worked  miracles  without 
any  mercenary  motives  about  300  A.C.  They  are  said  to  have  been 
martyred  at  -^ea,  and  their  feast  is  the  27  th  September.  This  festival 
is  described  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton  (see  Isemia)  in  1781  (R  Payne 
Enight,  Worship  of  Priapua,  1865);  and  phallic  rites  survived  in 
connection  with  their  shrine. 


Kotus  407 

iCotUS.  KotuttO.  CotyS.  A  Thrakian  Godeas  with  licentious 
rites.  The  devotees  were  called  Baptai  ("  baptised  ").  See  Dulaure 
{Hist.  d€8  CuUes,  i,  p.  427). 

Kouretes.  Greek  :  "youths."  Persephong  is  called  KorS  ("girl"). 
They  were  connected  with  the  twins  (Kastor  and  Pollux),  and  with  the 
Korubantes,  as  dancers  and  singers  (see  Eorubantes).  They  are  in« 
yoked  in  Orphic  hymns  (Mr  T.  Taylor,  HyTrms  of  Orpheus,  1787, 
pp.  166,  168). 

"  Leaping  Kourttes,  who  with  dancing  feet, 
And  circling  measures,  arm^d  footsteps  beat, 
Whose  bosoms  mad  fanatic  transports  fire. 
Who  move  in  rhythm  to  the  sounding  lyre, 
Kouretes,  Korubantes,  ruling  kings, 
Whose  praise  the  land  of  Samothrakia  sings 
From  Jove  descended.  .... 
Aerial  formed,  much  praised,  in  heaven  ye  shine 
Two  fold  in  heaven,  all  lucid  and  divine. 
Blowing  serene,  from  whom  abundance  springs 
Nurses  of  seasons,  fruit-producing  kings. 

•  ••••• 

Brass-beating  Sabeans,  ministers  of  Mars 
Who  guard  his  arms,  the  instruments  of  wars. 
Whose  blessed  frames  heaven,  earth,  and  sea  compose, 
And  from  whose  breath  all  animals  arose." 

Kox-kox.  The  Aztek  Noah  (see  Floods),  called  also  Teo-kipaktli, 
or  the  "  sea  god."     He  stood  for  Capricorn  in  the  Aztek  zodiak. 

Kraku-Chandra.  In  Pali  Eaku-chanda.  The  first  of  the  three 
Buddhas  before  Gotama  (see  Buddha) :  with  him  began  the  Bhadra- 
Kalpa  or  "age  of  excellence."  He  is  traditionally  placed  therefore 
in  3100  B.C.  Erakn  ("  he  who  solves  doubts")  had  his  niche  in  the 
Bbilsa  Tope,  according  to  General  Cunningham,  with  his  successors 
Konaga,  Easyapa,  and  Qotama,  each  of  the  four  guarding  one  of  the 
cardinal  points.  The  names  are  inscribed  at  Barahut  where  the  four 
Buddhas  appear,  each  with  his  sacred  tree  (JBhilsa  Topes,  p.  182: 
Barahut,  pp.  19,  20).  Fa-hien  says  that  Eraku-chandra  was  bom  at 
Nabhiga,  about  84  miles  S.E.  of  Sarasvati  in  N.  India  (otherwise 
Mekhala  ;  or,  according  to  Eitel,  Gan-ho).  In  his  time  men  lived  to 
a  great  age,  and  he  himself  to  the  length  of  40,000  years  (Beal's 
Fa-hien). 

Kranog.  From  the  Eeltic  Kran  "  tree  "  :  a  lake-dwelling,  on 
piles  in  an  island.  The  logs  and  fascines  were  weighted  with  stones 
and  gravel.     The  Eranog  is  also   sometimes    said    to   float     Such 


MS  Krathis 

habitations  are  still  built  by  fisher  races.     They  were  common  in  N. 
Italy,  and  in  Armenian  lakes. 

Krathis.  A  river  in  Akhaia,  sacred  to  the  earth  godess'  wbo 
had  a  famous  temple  and  wooden  statue,  with  Vestals  who  underwent 
bloody  ordeals.  In  her  shrine  (Puronia)  on  Mt.  Krathis  an  everlasting 
tire  burned. 

KratU.  Sanskrit :  "  power,"  "  sacrifice  "  (Greek  Kraios).  Also  a 
creator  (Praja-pati),  and  a  mind-bom  son  of  Brahma.  Indra  is  called 
Vara-Kratu. 

Kr6t€.  Crete.  The  great  island  off  Greece,  where  Zeus  was  fos- 
tered by  the  goat  in  the  Diktaian  cave  ;  where  Minos  son  of  Zeos 
ruled  ;  and  where  Theseus  slew  the  Minotaur  or  "  man-bull,"  in  the 
Labyrinth.  It  is  about  160  miles  long,  and  10  to  30  broad,  and 
Mt.  Ida  rises  8000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  early  inhabitants  were 
"barbarians,"  Pelasgi  and  Eteokr^t^s  (Odya.,  six,  175),  followed  bv 
Akhaians,  and  by  Dorians  ;  and  Erete  early  sent  colonies  to  Cyrene  on 
the  N.  African  coast.  The  modem  name  of  Candia  applied  originally 
to  the  Turkish  capital,  called  Ehandak  Q'  the  fosse "  or  ''  ditch "),  u 
transformed  by  the  Venetians  to  mean  "  white."  The  inhabitants  had 
an  evil  reputation  (Titus,  i,  12),  and  were  great  pirates,  aiding  Mithri- 
dates  against  Bome,  and  conquered  by  Metellus  in  67  b.c.  The 
Moslem  conquest  dated  from  823  A.C.  The  Venetians  ruled  from 
1204  to  1669  A.C.,  when  the  Turks  finally  established  their  power  in 
Erete.  The  Ejretan  social  customs,  including  that  of  eating  in  common 
at  public  tables,  resembled  those  of  Sparta. 

The  discoveries  of  Mr  A.  Evans  at  Enossos,  since  1893,  have 
cast  much  light  on  the  early  civilisation  of  the  island  (which  is  similar 
in  its  character  to  that  of  MycensB  and  Troy),  especially  in  his  recovery 
of  clay  tablets — once  enclosed  in  wooden  sealed  boxes — ^belonging  to 
the  later  age  of  the  palace  (which  was  destroyed  by  fire),  and  inscribed 
with  charactera  which  he  recognises  to  be  akin  to  those  used  (as  late 
as  300  B.C.)  by  the  Greeks  in  Cyprus,  and  which  were  derived  from 
Hittite  symbob  (see  Kheta).  Mr  Evans  found  seals  and  amulets, 
some  with  the  same  characters  on  them,  others  with  early  local  forms 
whence  they  were  derived.  The  art  and  mythology  appear  to  be 
Greek  ;  but  the  type  represented  in  frescoes  on  the  palace  walls, 
though  apparently  Aryan,  represents  a  dark  haired  peopla  In  addition 
to  the  Knossos  palace  other  sites  have  been  explored,  and  the  Diktaian 
cave  has  been  excavated  by  Mr  Hogarth,  in  1900.  In  it  were  found 
votive  axe-heads  (such  as  Kassites  also  dedicated  in  Babylonia) ;  and 


Krish  409 

the  "  Labarys/'  or  double  axe,  is  a  Eretan  emblem  of  Zeus,  found  also 
in  Karia  on  coins,  and  yet  earlier  on  the  Hittite  monument  of  Boghaz 
Eeui  in  Pontus.  An  early  Egyptian  statue,  and  an  inscribed  libation 
table  like  those  of  Egypt,  and  of  Phoenicia,  were  also  found  in  this 
cave. 

[The  characters  of  the  Eretan  script  not  only  agree  with  those  of 
the  **  Asianio  syllabary,"  found  in  Cyprus,  Asia  Minor,  and  Mycenae, 
but  also  with  letters  of  the  Lycian  and  Earian  alphabets,  and  with 
those  of  the  Eelt-lberian  coinage  of  Spain.  These  characters  survived 
very  late  in  Cyprus.  The  Eretan  masonry  is  better  squared  than  at 
My  cense,  and  the  representation  of  the  peacock  on  a  fresco  suggests  a 
somewhat  late  period.  Col.  Conder  (Times,  3rd  April  and  16th 
April  1901)  translates  an  ancient  text  in  early  Greek  characters 
from  Prsesos,  and  some  of  the  clay  tablets  also,  as  written  from  left 
to  right  in  Greek.  The  early  statues  resemble  archaic  examples  at 
Athens  and  elsewhere.  The  broken  text  on  the  libation  table  may 
read  He  tou  topou  Hiera,  "  tbe  holy  one  (godess  or  priestess)  of  the 
place."  The  tablets  appear  often  to  contain  lists  and  numerals,  and 
the  word  BaaUev^  (Greek  "  king ")  is  written  just  as  in  Cyprus. 
One  tablet  gives  a  very  rude  sketch  of  a  chariot  and  horse,  the  text 
perhaps  reading  Evaristo  M.  xx,  "Twenty  minahs  to  Euaristos," 
which  (if  of  silver)  represents  about  £100.  The  materials,  and  the 
designs,  of  the  gems  found  indicate  a  foreign  trade ;  and  the  camel, 
which  is  not  foutid  in  the  island,  is  represented — indicating  an  Asiatic 
connection,  as  this  animal  seems  not  to  have  been  known  early  in 
Egypt.— Ed.] 

Krish.  Sanskrit :  "  to  plough,"  "  tear,"  "  crush.*'  The  rising  sun 
is  said  to  Krish  when  it  pierces  the  earth  on  the  horizon. 

Krishna.  The  Indian  sun  god  :  the  8th  Avatara,  or  incarnation, 
of  Vishnu,  and  the  8th  child  of  Vasu-deva  and  of  DevakL  The  name 
signifies  "  dark,"  and  by  his  mother's  side  he  was  a  cousin  of  Eansa, 
king  of  the  Bhojas  (''  cattle  herds ")  of  Mathura,  who  were  Malis 
and  not  Aryans.  His  father  was  a  son  of  Sura,  descended  from 
the  Yadavas  who  were  of  mixed  Aryan  and  Dravid  race  (Mr 
Hewitt,  ''Early  India,"  Journal  RL  Asiatic  Socy.,  1888-1889). 
Erishna  appears  to  have  been  a  dark  ruler  of  the  dark  Yadus,  at 
their  N.  capital  of  Mathura,  but  brought  up  according  to  his  legend, 
by  cowherds — Nanda  and  his  wife  Yasodha.  In  the  Vishnu  Purdna 
we  read  :  "  Who  shall  enumerate  the  tens  of  ten  thousands,  and 
hundreds  of  hundred  thousands,  of  the  Yadava  race  ?  "  Erishna — the 
incarnation  of  the  dark  blue  Vishnu — became  "  Eing  of  all  Yadavas," 


410  Krishna 

at  Mathura,  after  the  slaying  of  King  E^ansa  the  tyrant.  His  dark 
consort  is  Durga,  or  Ejrishna  ;  bat  his  name  may  have  another 
meaning  (see  Eiish),  for  a  Kriahnaka  is  a  *' ploughman.^  Kama 
in  like  manner  (another  solar  hero)  was  the  ^plongfaer,**  and  his 
wife  Sita  was  the  "sown"  grain  in  the  furrow.  Krishna,  and  his 
son  Samba,  are  said  to  have  made  pilgrimages  to  the  "son  grove," 
of  Mnltan,  where  Samba  (like  Gilgamas  in  Babylonia)  was  cared  of 
leprosy*  In  old  Irish  we  find  Creeshna  as  a  name  for  the  sun; 
and  sun  legends  thus  gathered  round  the  figure  of  a  Kolarian,  ot 
Dravidian,  hero.  The  Linga-Purana  is  full  of  praises  of  Krishna,  aznl 
Aryans  extolled  him  as  the  victor  over  their  foe  "the  tyrant  Kanss." 
But  we  must  remember  that  his  history  is  the  growth  of  a  long 
period 

The  chief  source  for  his  legend  is  the  Maha-bhaiata  epik, 
in  which  the  Bhagavad-gita  (**  Song  of  Gkxlhead  '^  is  included,  giving 
the  later  philosophy  connected  with  his  name.  He  appears  also  later, 
in  the  Bhagavat  and  Vishnu  Puranas.  In  the  Gita  above  noticed 
Krishna  is  the  charioteer  of  Arjuna  ("  the  bright "),  with  whom  he 
discourses  on  philosophy,  religion,  and  ethiks.  Theism  and  Pantheism. 
The  Puranic  legends  often  recall  those  of  the  Grospels. 

Vasu-deva  had  eight  sons  including  Krishna,  who  filled  all  India 
with  offspring.  The  **  wicked  King  Kansa "  slew  the  first  six,  bat 
Ejrishna  afterwards  recovered  them  by  descending  into  HelL  Kansa 
had  been  told  by  a  diviner  that  one  of  Devaki's  children  would  slay 
him,  and  he  watched  her  jealously.  The  7th  child  was  Bala-Bama, 
conceived  by  Devaki,  but  borne  by  Bohini  the  second  wife  of  Vasu- 
deva.  Again  at  midnight  Devaki  bore  a  black  babe,  and  Vasu-deva 
fled  with  him  from  Mathura,  and  gave  him  to  the  care  of  Nanda 
and  Yasodha^  to  whom  a  child  had  just  been  bom  (see  Kuras).  The 
changeling  was  carried  back  instead,  and  Devaki  was  released  by  the 
tyrant,  who  however — discovering  the  escape  of  the  in&nt  Krishna — 
ordered  a  massacre  of  "  every  strong-looking  male  child."  The  escape 
of  father  and  child  had  been  favoured  by  the  gods,  who  overpowered 
the  guards  with  sleep,  and  opened  the  doors  of  the  prison  in  which 
the  babe  was  bom.  They  marked  its  breast  with  the  Sri-txUaay  or 
looped  cross  (see  Rii-ers  of  Life,  i  ;  pUte  ii,  2).  Krishna  was  bom 
at  the  vernal  equinox,  and  celestial  choirs  sang  hymns  of  joy,  while 
many  moons  shone  in  the  four  quarters  of  the  midnight  sky.  All 
hearts  were  filled  with  delight  The  winds  were  hushed,  and  the 
waters  flowed  soflly,  when  the  "  god-man  "  appeared,  and  all  nature 
adored,  while  the  stars  deviated  in  their  courses  to  greet  him.  The 
Gandharvas,  or  heavenly  musicians,  hovered  over  the  babe ;  and  sages 


Krishna  41 1 

who  had  longed  for  him  recognised  him  by  the  Sri-yatsa  mark  above 
mentioned.  As  a  boy  he  argued  with  learned  Rishis,  and  when  a 
youth  he  slew  demons,  such  as  Kaliya  the  snake,  or  Arishta  the  bull- 
fiend,  or  Eeshin  the  horse  demon.  He  sported  too  with  the  G5pi  milk- 
maids  (see  Govan-dana).  But  he  was  at  last  wounded  in  the  heel 
by  Jara  (cold,  or  old  age),  whom  he  forgave  as  "  not  knowing  what  he 
did,"  and  whom  he  sent  to  heaven  in  his  own  chariot  He  died  in 
the  far  west,  and  his  bones  were  carried  far  east  by  command  of  Vishnu, 
when  King  Indradyumna  enshrined  them  by  the  sands  of  Puri,  where 
all  India  now  adores  him  (see  Jaga-nath). 

The  Maha-bharata  is  acknowledged  to  be  "not  later  than  the  6th 
century  B.c."  in  the  main  (Sir  Monier   Williams),  and   Prof.  Weber 
supposes  that,  as  we  now  have  it,  it  is  as  early  as  the  1st  century 
B.G.      Krishna  also  is  noticed  in  the  EhS.ndogya  Upanishad  on  the 
Sama-Veda  (see  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  i,  p.  52),  which  commen- 
tary is  older  than  the  Christian  era.     *'  Krishna  son  of  DevakI "  is 
here  said  to  have  been  instructed  by  Ghora-Angerasa.     He  appears 
also  in  the  Vrihad  Aranyaka  of  the  White  Yagur  Veda,  and  Prof. 
Weber  (Hiat.  Indian  Lit)  regards  him  as  a  military  chief,  deified 
in  connection  with  Indra.     The  Heri  (Hari)  of  Ptolemy,  at  ''  Matura 
Deorum  "  ("  Mathura  of  Gods  "),  appears  to  be  Krishna  or  Vishnu ; 
and  yet  earlier  Megasthenes  (3rd  century  B.c.)  spoke  of  an  Indian 
HeraklSs   whose  only  daughter    was    PandaiS    (connected    with  the 
Pandus),  which  again    suggests  that   Krishna-^- who  was  engaged  in 
the  Pandu  war — is  meant.     It  is  clear  therefore  that  any  resemblances 
between  the  legend  of  Ejrishna  and  those  of  Christians  cannot  be  due 
to  borrowing  on  the  part  of  the  Indian  epiks.        A  Buddhist  pillar 
inscription,   supposed  by  Sir    William   Jones  to  date   67   A.c.  (see 
Wilkins    in    Asiatic   Rea.^  i,  p.    131),    mentions    "the    adopted    of 
Yasodha" ;  and  "  Krishna  son  of  Devaki "  is  invoked  on  the  Bhitari 
pillar,  in  our  1st  or  2nd  century,  as  the  "  god  of  the  golden  rays,  and 
conqueror  of  enemies  "  (see  Dr  Mill,  Journal  Bengal  Rl.  Asiatic  Socy., 
Jany.  1837  ;  and  Mr  E.  C.  Bayley,  vol.  xxiii,    1857).     These  texts 
are  sufficient,   even  if   we  could  suppose  Hindus  to  have  borrowed 
their  mythology  from    Christians,  which    it  is    impossible  to  credit 
seeing  the  contempt  of   Brahmans  for  all    other    creeds    and  races. 
Mr  Senathi  Raja  shows  ("  Pre-Sanskrit  Tamil,"  Journal  RL  Asiatic 
^ocy,,  XIX,  iv)   that  Krishna  was  early  worshiped  by  Dravidians,  as 
Kar-Uppan  "the  dark  one,"  among  the  S.  Indian  pastoral  tribe  of 
the  Mullai-mak  :    being  himself  a  pastoral  deity.       He   thinks  that 
the  absence    of   Krishna's    name    in    the  Vedas    is  due  to  his    not 
^ing  originally  an    Aryan   god.       He    is    however    mentioned    by 


4ri2  Krishna 

Panini  (IV,  iii,  87)  not  later  than  the  4th  century  B.a ;  and  Barth 
{Religiona  of  India,  pp.  218-223)  with  Dr  Muir  (Metrical  Trana, 
p.  145)  and  Sir  Monier  Williams  {Indian  Wisdom,  p.  153)  are 
quoted  in  favour  of  the  priority  of  Krishna's  legend  to  the  Gospels : 
though  Prof.  Weber  says  that  "  he  declines  "  to  believe  this  "  without 
additional  evidence"  [the  Puranic  accounts  being  late — Ed.]. 

The  Rev.  T.  Maurice,  in  1798,  startled  his  brethren  by  compar- 
ing the  story  of  Krishna  with  that  of  Christ,  though  not  very  correctly. 
Mr  Higgins  in  1836  (Christianity  before  Christ,  and  Cradldands) 
pursued  the  subject     Both  these  authors  were  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  Sanskrit  literature ;  and  the  legend  of  Krishna's  crucifixion  has 
not  been  substantiated,  though  Dr  Oldfield  found  figures  of  Indra  with 
outstretched  arms  erected  round  Kathmandri,  the  cajHtal.  of  Napal,  at 
the  festival  of  autumn  (September) :  see  Sketches  in  NapaL  (1880,  ii,  p. 
314).     Looking  broadly  at  the  coincidences  of  legend  (not  of  doctrine^ 
and  remembering  others  in  the  story  of  Qotama  (see  Buddha),  we  see 
that  they  represent  ideas  common  to  many  faiths,  and  legends  such 
as  gather  round  the  names  of  all  divine  heroes.     They  include  the 
birth  of  a  god-man  in  fulfilment  of  prophecy :  his  greeting  by  herald 
angels  :  his  recognition  by  wise  men :  his  persecution  by  a  tyrant : 
and  the  massacre  of  infants  whence  he  escapes  by  aid  of  deities.     He 
is  called  a  "  saviour  of  the  world,"  and  descends  into  hell  to  return 
once  more  incarnate  in  the  future.     The  parallels,  as   ProC  Weber 
remarks  (Lecture  at  Berlin,  March  1854),  often  are  most  marked  in 
the  writings  of  Gnostiks  who  (especially  the  Manichaeans)  were  weU 
acquainted  with  Buddhism.     Krishna  in  the  lap  of  DevakI  resembles 
not  only  the  Christian  virgin  and  child,  but  many  other  figures  of 
the  mother  godess,  in  Egypt  or  Babylonia,  or  among  the  Hittites  in 
Syria,  as  well  as  in  Rome  and  in  Peru  (see  Rivers  of  Life,  plate  xiv 
and  (for  Indian!)  iv  ;  figs  101,  167-170,  192,  210,  265):  so  aUo 
HerS,  or  Juno,  is  represented  suckling  the  infant  Dionusos,  or  Jove 
(see  Fors).     The  sun  god  is  everywhere  bom  in  a  dark  cave,  perse- 
cuted, abandoned,  nourished  by  shepherds,  or  by  poor  persons,  and 
nursed  by  a  goat,  a  bitch,  or  a  wolf  (see  Kuras  and  Romulus),  but 
finally    triumphs   over    demons   and    foes.     Cyrus    is  even  said  by 
Diodorus  to  have  been  crucified  in  Scythia.     Similar  tales  relate  to 
the  birth  of  AsklSpios,  and  of  our  own  Arthur.     PoseidOn  was  hidden 
away  by  Rhsea,  and  was  nursed  among  the  flocks.     Mithra  issues  from 
the  cave  (compare  Bethlehem),  and  the  stable  of  the  Gospels  finds  ite 
parallel   in  the    Go-kula,   or    "cow-stall,"   where  Krishna  was  born 
according  to  one  legend.    Dionusos  is  called  Liknites  from  the  "  basket " 
in  which  he  was  cradled  like  Erekhtheus ;  and  Christ  appears  in  a 


Krishna  413 

basket  in  the  cattle-stall,  as  shown  on  a  well  known  bas-relief  of  the  4th 
century  from  Rome.  Sun  heroes  are  always  connected  with  cattle,  as 
is  Indra  in  the  Vedas,  or  HSrakles,  or  Hermes.  The  Egyptian  picture 
represents  Thoth,  as  messenger  of  the  gods,  announcing  to  a  maid  the 
approaching  birth  of  the  deified  King  Amenophis  III.  Eneph,  as  the 
creator,  is  his  father,  and  priests  hold  up  to  the  infant  the  holy  cross» 
emblem  of  life.  The  Messiah  was  to  eat  "  butter  and  honey,"  and 
on  such  ambrosia  Themis  fed  Apollo,  though  the  "  milk  and  butter  "  of 
the  "  mystery  of  infants  "  were  suppressed  by  the  Council  of  Carthage 
in  691  A.C.  as  belonging  to  a  pagan  rite  (see  also  Baptism).  The 
legend  of  Krishna's  being  carried  as  an  infant  over  the  river  has  been 
also  compared  with  the  legend  of  St  Christopher — the  "  Christ-bearer  " 
— who  by  night  carries  the  divine  child  over  a  river. 

Like  other  sun  gods  Krishna  is  said,  in  the  Padma  and  Bhagavat 
Puranas,  to  have  descended  into  the  abyss  of  the  western  ocean,  and 
to  "the  infernal  city  Yama-pur."  Kasya  the  wife  of  his  Qura 
("  teacher  ")  besought  him  to  restore  her  children,  and  Tama  with  his 
dogs  was  terrified  by  the  sound  of  Krishna's  conch  shell,  and  yielded 
them  up  (Moor,  Hindu  Pantheon).  So  Herakl6s  brought  back  the 
dead  heroes  from  Hades,  and  Orpheus  recovered  £uridik6.  Christ 
and  Osiris  alike  visited  hell,  as  did  the  Baldur  of  the  Norse.  Krishna 
is  also  a  dragon  slayer  (see  Kalya),  and  dances  among  the  "  living 
creatures,"  as  Apollo  charms  them  with  his  harp.  They  are  the 
zodiakal  beasts  of  heaven.  He  appears  in  the  Hindu  Rasi-jatra 
among  the  Qopi  nymphs,  as  Zeus  is  nursed  by  nymphs;  and  the 
Vishnu  Purana  gives  him  16,000  wives,  and  180,000  sons.  His 
**  milk  maids  "  surround  their  dancing  shepherd  lover,  who  is  trans- 
figured gloriously  on  the  mountain.  He  is  Govinda,  son  of  Nanda 
(the  shepherd  child  of  the  bull),  incarnate  in  seven  preceding  forms 
of  his  father  Hari-Narayana,  and  even  as  Budra.  The  parallels,  as 
Davies  says  (Bhagavad  Glta),  are  "coincidences  which  occur  in  all 
religions,"  so  that  it  matters  little  whether  this  "  Divine  song "  be 
later  than  the  rest  of  the  Maha-bharata  epik.  It  is  inserted  to  prove 
that  the  Incarnate  Word — the  God  who  is  in  all — existed  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world,  and  dwelt  for  a  time  among  men  (see 
Bhagavad- Gita).  The  Rig  Veda  was  recited  some  3000  years  ago, 
and  in  it  we  read  :  "  Thou  art  ours,  and  we  are  thine  .  .  .  Light  of 
Light,  and  Far  from  Darkness,  is  thy  name  .  .  .  O  Indra  we  wise 
ones  have  been  in  thee  .  .  .  We  0  gods  are  in  you  .  .  .  These 
worlds  would  perish  if  I  did  not  work  my  work."  In  the  Gita  Krishna 
says :  "  Those  who  worship  me  are  in  me,  and  I  in  them  .  .  .  Repose 
thy  mind  and  understanding  on  me,  and  thou  shalt  hereafter  dwell 


414  Krita 

with  me"  (see  John  v,  17  ;  xv,  7  :  1  John  i,  5).  SoLaotze  in  China 
said,  '*  I  am  the  way,  the  way  of  life/'  before  Christ  Krishna 
(Bhagavad  Qita)  says  also :  "  Foolish  men  despise  me  as  in  hnman 
form,  being  ignorant  that  I  am  the  lord  of  all  beings  ...  on  me  the 
universe  is  woven  as  gems  on  a  string  .  .  .  Imperceptibly  I  pervade 
all  things.  I  am  the  flavour  in  water,  the  light  in  the  sun."  Even 
Buddhist  writers  (Lalita  Vistara)  speak  of  Elrishna  as  combining  the 
attributes  of  Indra,  Surya,  Chandra,  Kama,  Budra,  Kuvera,  Yaisravena, 
and  other  gods  ;  and  in  one  gatha  ('*  song  ")  as  Hahat  Saha»  "  capable 
of  great  things  " — a  phrase  also  in  the  Maha-bharata  (see  Academy, 
28th  Aug.  1880). 

The  story  of  Krishna  and  Kansa  was  known  to  Patanjali  (Maha- 
bhashya)  about  200  B.C.,  and  Prof.  Weber  confesses  that  his  worship 
'^  must  be  put  much  further  back  than  hitherto  deemed  admissible " 
(Ind.  Stvdien,  xiii,  pp.  354-357 ;  and  Prof.  Bbondarkar,  Indian 
Antiq.,  iii,  16).  Even  if  the  Gita  belongs  to  our  1st  or  2nd  century 
— *or  yet  later — the  legend  of  Krishna  is  ancient,  and  it  takes  a  long 
time  for  such  stories  to  grow  up  round  a  hero's  name,  till  he  becomes 
— ^like  Krishna — ^''the  one  without  a  second,  the  self-existent,  and 
eternal,"  as  in  the  Gita.  Each  generation  added  to  his  glories,  and  to 
his  allegoric  representations.  He  conquers  Indra  (see  Indra),  and 
steals  the  Pari-jata  or  tree  of  life  from  Paradise.  We  do  not  usually 
say  that  Hindus  borrowed  from  Phrygia  the  legends  which  compare 
with  their  own,  nor  did  they  borrow  those  of  Krishna,  or  their  Pan- 
theistic Qita,  from  Christians. 

Krita.     See  Kalpa. 

Kritanta.  A  name  of  Tama,  god  of  the  dead.  His  messengers 
are  said  to  hover  over  the  dying,  waiting  to  take  them  to  Patala  or 
Hades. 

Krittika.  Sanskrit:  a  lunar  mansion.  The  great  equinox 
occurs  when  the  moon  is  in  the  4th  Visakha,  and  the  sun  in  this 
mansion.  The  Krittikas,  or  Pleiades,  were  the  six  nurses  of  Karti- 
keya  (see  Kartika). 

Kroda.     Sanskrit     Saturn,  who  is  also  Ara,  Kona,  and  Saura. 

Krom-kruach.  A  celebrated  old  Irish  idol,  in  the  Magh-sleacht 
or  "  field  of  adoration,"  in  the  M'Govem  territory  of  Tullyhaw.  It 
was  said  to  be  a  gilt  or  silvered  figure,  beside  12  stones  (General 
Valiancy,  Col.  Hihem,  iii,  p.  457).  St  Patrick  is  said  to  have 
destroyed  it  in  the  reign  of  King  Leary.     The  word  hrom  meant 


Krom-lech  415 

apparently  the  "  sun  "  (from  the  root  Gar  *'  to  shine  "),  and  Eruth  or 
Cruaith  was  a  deity  to  whom  all  the  first-bom  were  offered. 

Krom*lech.  Keltik:  "sun  stone"  or  "round  stone."  The 
term  Cromlech  is  often  applied  to  a  Dolmen,  but  appears  to  signify  a 
stone  circle  also. 

KronOS.  Khronos.  A  primeval  Greek  deity.  The  name 
Eronos,  according  to  Euhn,  comes  from  Krdna  "  creating  "  (see  Gar, 
and  Earma),  and  he  was  a  god  of  "  sowing "  seed  (Proc.  Bib.  Arch. 
Socy.,  February  1887).  He  was  identified  with  the  Roman  Saturn 
("  sower ")  and,  as  a  god  of  time,  became  Ehronos  ("  time  ")  or  the 
'^  Ancient  of  Days."  Preller  also  connects  his  name,  as  a  harvest  god, 
with  the  Greek  Kraino.  He  carries  the  sickle ;  and  like  Agni  or  the 
sun,  he  devours  his  own  children.  Early  savage  legends  attach  to  him 
among  Greeks,  and  in  the  Greco-Phoenician  mythology  of  Philo  of 
Byblos  (Cory,  ATicient  Frag.),  the  ideas  perhaps  reaching  the  Aryans 
from  Turanian  or  Semitic  sources  (Mr  Lang,  Academy,  5th  January 
1884).  He  swallowed  a  stone  instead  of  his  son  Zeus;  and,  as  a 
horse,  he  pursued  the  cloud-mares  (see  Eheiron).  Among  bushmen 
even,  there  is  a  "devourer,'*  Ewai-Hemam,  who  swallows  the  mantis  god; 
and  similar  ideas  are  found  among  Zulus,  or  Australians,  who  say  that 
the  moon  swallowed  his  creator  the  eagle  god.  So  Set  swallows  the 
eye  of  Horus  in  Egypt,  and  the  stars  are  swallowed  by  the  daylight 

KshatriySL  The  Hindu  second  caste — royal  and  military — 
springing  from  the  breast  or  heart  of  Brahma  (compare  the  Persian 
Khdhatriya  *'  royal ").  Soldiers,  charioteers,  and  guards,  still  belong 
to  this  caste  in  India.  Brahmans,  Eshatriyas,  and  Yaisyas,  were  all 
considered  **  twice  bom  "  or  "  regenerate  " ;  but  the  latter  two  are  now 
regarded  as  Vama-Sanhra,  or  mixed.  Fierce  wars  were  waged  in 
the  past  by  Eshatriyas  opposing  Brahman  pretensions. 

Kteis,     Greek  :  "  comb."     The  Yoni  (see  Comb). 

Ku.     An  old  root  meaning  "  high  "  and  "  bright "  (see  Ehu). 

Ku«  In  Hawaii,  the  second  god  of  the  triad  Eane,  Eu,  and  Lono 
(see  Hawaii).  He  is  god  of  light,  and  called  also  Ea-pao  (Fornander, 
Pclyn.^  i,  71,  72),  and  Atea  (see  Jov/mal  Bl.  Asiatic  Socy.,  January 
1885). 

Kua«  Akkadian.  A  name  of  Marduk,  or  of  his  oracle.  The 
symbol  also  reads  KJia  **  fish,"  "  prince  "  (see  Eu). 

Kubelc,     See  Cyb3le.     This  great  Phrygian  godess  was  perhaps 


416  Kuchs 

Semitic.    She  was  also  called  Ma,  as  mother  earth,  and  was  represented 

riding  a  lion.     She  is  called  "the  altar  of  the  heavens  and  earth,'' 

and  was  the  Greek  D6-m@t6r,  the  Thrakian  Bendis,  and  Rhaaa  wife 

of  Kronos  (see  Earth).     She  taught  mysteries  to  Dionusos  in  Phrjgia, 

and  in  Krete  where  she  had  a  great  shrine  at  Knossos.     She  bore 

Zeus  in  the  Diktaian  Cave  (see  Erete)  ;  and,  at  Pessinus  in  Gialatia, 

her  image — like  the  Palladium  of  Troy — was  said  to  have  fallen  from 

heaven,  as  was  that  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus.     The  Romans  captured 

this  idol  (see  Ida)  and  pla^ced   it  on  the  Palatine,  regarding  her  as 

"  Ops  the  mother  of  Jove."     Romulus  and   Numa  built   a  temple 

to   Ops,  between  the  Palatine  and  the  Capitoline  hills.     She  wears 

the  tower  crown,  and  carries  corn  ears  in  her  right  hand,  and  a  key 

in  her  left.      She  is  often  seated,  carrying  a  kind   of  drum.      Her 

many-colored   robe  denoted  the  flowers  on   earth.      She  unites  the 

qualities  of   many    other    godesses,    such    as    Ceres,  Juno,  Minerva, 

Thetis,   Diana,  Venus,  Hekate,  and    Fors    (see    Friensheim's    Livy, 

Hist,  XXIX,  X,  14).    She  protected  children,  and  the  sick,  and  taught 

music,  and  the  dance.     She  is  "  mother  of  the  gods,"*  and  "  the  great 

mother,"  presiding  over  the  spring  games  in  March,  or  in  early  April 

She  was  brought  to  Rome  from  Pessinus  as  early  as  160  or  205  B.c. 

Her  priests  were  called  Oalli  (see  Gal),  and  were  eunuchs,  or  otherwise 

Korubantes  (see  Atus).     She  is  also  called  mother  of  Sabazius,  a  title 

of  Dionusos.     Her  image  appears  on  Phrygian  coins,  and  the  oak  was 

sacred  as  her  emblem.       She  was  adored  by  night  in  dark  groves, 

in  Lemnos  and  other  islands.     At  Tegea,  in  Arkadia,  she  had  sad  or 

joyful  rites  according  to  the  season,  like  D^m^ter.     She  was  a  ''  child 

of  the  mountain " — as   her  name   perhaps  means — like  the   Indian 

Parvati.       Diodorus   Siculus  calls    her   daughter  of   Meon,  King  of 

Phrygia,  and    of  Dundime,  nourished  by  a  lioness  on   Mt.  Kubele, 

where  she  met  the  luckless  shepherd  Attus.     Her  statues  have  lions 

and  leopards  at  the  base ;  and  Roman  ladies  used  to  dance  round  her 

idol  (Augustine,  City  of  Ood,  ii,  4),  till  the  licentious  rites  of  the 

Matralia,  and  Hilaria,  were  suppressed.     Some  of  her  devotees  gashed 

themselves,   and    the  Galli   sprinkled   the  blood.      At   Boghaz  Eeui 

(Pterium),  on  the  W.  border  of  Pontus,  the  chief  godess  stands  erect 

on  a  lioness,  and  probably  represents  Ma  or  Kub^le — this  bas-relief 

being  of  Hittite  or  of  Kati  origin.     The  Egyptian  godess  Ken,  and 

others  in  Babylonia,  also  stand  erect  on  the  lion. 

Kuchs.  Kochs.  Cachar.  An  important  Indo-Chinese  stock, 
at  the  base  of  the  Himalayas  from  Kuch-Behar  to  Eamrup  in  Assam, 
extending  S.  into  Cachar,  and  appearing  as  Kukis  in  Arakan,  where 


Kuetzal-Koatl  417 

they  number  about  half  a  million  (see  Eukia).  It  is  rare  to  meet  the 
primitive  Pani-Euchs,  as  they  keep  in  deep  jungles,  much  resembling 
the  Qaros  in  their  customs  (see  Garos).  Those  in  the  plains  are 
agriculturists  as  a  rule,  and  (like  the  Chinese)  they  rear  swine.  They 
claim  descent  from  Hira  wife  of  a  patriarch  Hajo.  She  was  beloved 
by  Siva,  to  whom  she  bore  Bisva-Sinh,  the  first  king  of  Euch-Behar 
(or  Nij-Behar).  The  second  king,  Nar-Narayau,  extended  his  rule 
into  Bhutan,  and  Assam,  about  1550  A.G.,  and  built  shrines  to  Siva. 
His  independence  was  not  admitted  by  the  Mughal  emperots  of  India. 
We  now  recognise  their  Kaja  in  Euch-Behar,  and  he  is  still  called 
Narayan,  or  "  divine  lord,"  and  has  peculiar  rights  to  all  women  of 
the  tribe  (see  Oosains).  The  Euchs  serve  (like  Jacob)  for  their  wives, 
and  do  not  marry  them  till  about  15  years  old.  The  men  live  as 
bachelors  in  barracks  (see  Ehonds),  and  the  girls  often  propose  to 
them.  We  have  seen  the  women  laying  out  walls,  and  terraces, 
on  the  hills,  while  the  men  carried  the  stonea  They  allow  no  land 
to  lie  waste  if  capable  of  terracing  and  irrigation,  which  is  again 
a  Chinese  trait  of  character.  (See  Mr  C.  Johnston,  "  Yellow.  Men  of 
India,"  in  Asiatic  Quarterly,  January  1893.)  The  race  is  distinguished 
by  the  slanting  Mongolian  eye,  broad  flat  face,  high  cheek  bones,  short 
wide  nose,  and  large  ears,  thus  resembling  many  of  the  Eols.  They 
however  desire  to  be  called  Kaj-bansis,  and  profess  to  be  Hindus,  or 
Moslems.  Ages  of  mixture  with  Dravids  and  Aryans  have  affected 
the  type.  They  are  usually  worshipers  of  spirits  ;  and  traces  of 
corrupt  Buddhism  may  be  recognised  among  them;  but  they  eat 
most  kinds  of  flesh,  and  drink  spirits  to  excess.  They  acknowledge 
an  all-powerful  spirit,  Puthen — a  deity  who  deputes  power  to  his  son 
and  son's  wife.  They'  believe  in  spells,  witches,  and  the  exorcism  of 
diseases ;  in  charms,  and  sacrifices  of  buffaloes,  goats,  pigs,  and  fowls, 
the  flesh  of  which  they  devour.  They  make  frequent  offerings  to  the 
Grama-devas,  or  **  household  gods."  They  think  of  heaven  as  a  happy 
hunting  ground,  with  fine  lands,  plenty  of  male  and  female  slaves,  and 
power  to  kill  enemies.  They  bury  or  burn  the  dead,  sometimes  keeping 
them  in  sheds  till  the  fixed  annual  day  of  burial,  and  they  set  fruits 
and  cloths  beside  the  corpse,  with  other  food,  as  a  mark  of  respect  to 
the  soul,  or  to  lay  the  ghosts  which  they  think  are  mischievous.  They 
regard  Hindu  gods,  like  Vishnu  and  Siva,  as  emanations  of  the  older 
Bishwa,  as  are  mountains  and  streams,  and  nature  generally.  The 
Euch's  promise  is  inviolable,  and  we  used  to  fear  offending  him  by 
asking  any  confirmation  in  writing. 

Kuetzal-Koatl.     The  Mexican  '*  green  feathered  serpent "  :  a 
2  D« 


418  Kuetzal-Koatl 

sky  god.     The  Euetzal  is  a  bird  with  an  eDormously  long  green  tail, 
and  about  the  size  of  a  small  dove  {Trogon  Paradiaeus) :  green  was 
the  color  of  life  and  vegetation.      The  god  was  represented  as  an 
aged  white  man,  with  fair  or  black  hair,  and  a  well-trimmed  bnsbj 
beard ;  with  large  eyes  and  forehead.      His  long  white  garments  were 
strewn  with  black  flowers,  and  his  outer  robe  with  black  or  red  cross^ 
Venerated  chiefs  were  named  after  the  Euetzal,  such  as  Bochicha, 
whom  the  Tolteks  knew  about  800  A.C.,  and  whose  name  appears  to 
be  the  Sanskrit  Pach-cheko  (or   UpdnSaka)   *'for  a  sage"  (Vining, 
Ingloriua  Colwmhua,  chaps,  xxx,  xxxi).     This  deity  among  Tolteks 
received  only  offerings  of  fruit  and  flowers,  and  shut  his  ears  to  the 
idea  of  war.     He  appears  to  have  commended  moderation,  and  to 
have  inculcated  prayer  and  fasting.       His  priests  vowed   perpetual 
chastity,  and  his  priestesses  were  nuns.     The  priests  practised  painful 
rites  (like  those  of  Siva  in  India),  piercing  the  tongue  and  drawing 
through  it  a  barbed  cord.     The  original  ascetik  thus  represented  seems 
to  have   brought  four  others   to   Mexico,  having  separated   (Inglor. 
Columb.y  p.  543)  from  Hoei-Shin,  the  Buddhist  traveller  who  came  to 
Mexico  from  Fu-Sang  in  450  A.c,  and  returned  to  China  (pp.  28, 
61)  in  499  A.G.,  claiming  to  have  converted  the  Mexicans  who  then 
adored  only  gods  of  dawn  and  evening,  and  no  longer  waged  war. 
Kuetzal-Eoatl  and  his  followers,  according  to  the  Tolteks,   reached 
Mexico  from  the  East,  having  apparently  come  by  laud  from  Alaska, 
the  other  party  coming  by  sea  from  the   West.       He  is  confused 
with   Wixi-pekocha,  whom  Mr  Vining  thinks  to  be  *'  Hoei-Shiu  the 
Bhikshu."     Similar  features  are  found  in  the  Yirakocha  of  Peru,  and 
among  Muysaka  gods  of  the  Bogota  plateau ;    or  in  Payzone,  who 
appears  to  be  the  Buddha  of  Brazil     Bochicha  was  understood  to 
mean  a  "divine  white  man"  (Bradford,  American  ArUiq,,  pp  301, 
396),  though  probably  an  Upasaka,  which  is  now  at  Madura  a  class 
of  "Scripture  readers,"  or  lay  brethren,  who  wear  white,  and  not 
yellow  as  do  Bhikshus.      The  Muysakas  have  traditions  of  the  "  visits 
of  a  white  stranger " ;    and   Humboldt   noticed  among  them  *'  the 
Japanese  cycle  of  60  years,  and  institutions  analogous  to  those  of 
Japanese  Buddhists  "  in  S.  America.      Japanese  words  still  exist  in 
their  language  (Inglor.  Columbus,  pp.  60-63,  560). 

The  largest  Cholula  pyramid  (see  Cholula)  is  sacred  to  Kuetzal- 
Koatl,  round  whose  name  many  sun  myths  have  gathered.  He  was 
symbolised  by  the  Chal-chi-huitl,  a  sacred  stone  in  Mexico,  as  green 
jade  is  sacred  in  China  {Inglor.  Cotumhus,  p.  416).  Chal  is  a 
"  stone  "  (see  Gal),  and  chi-huiU  is  "  turquoise,"  and  also  the  name  of 
a  plant     The  god   represents  both  "air"  and  wisdom:  he  taught 


Kukis  419 

agriculture,  religion,  laws,  metallurgj,  and  other  arts,  the  seasons  and 
the  calendar,  and  he  "  cleared  the  way  for  water "  (Bradford,  Antiq., 
p.  375).  Heart  symbols  of  green  stone  were  placed  under  the  upper 
lips  of  the  dead,  as  his  emblems ;  and  he  was  also  one  of  a  trinity, 
resembling  the  three«headed  Bochicha  of  the  Muysakas,  or  the  ''  three- 
browned"  god  at  Palenque  (Bradford,  Antiq.^  p.  385)  who  recall  the 
Indian  Tri-murti,  or  "  three-formed  "  triad.  In  his  Mexican  shrines 
Kuetzal-Koatl  is  connected  with  serpents,  tigers,  eagles,  and  mystic 
birds  (see  Baudelier,  Mexican  Evplorationa^  Arch,  Instit.  of  America). 
Not  only  did  Buddhist  figures  thus  appear  in  America,  and  the  "  lion 
throne"  of  Buddhist  art,  but  Humboldt  finds  the  ''ancient  cult  of 
Kali"  in  the  Mexican  godess  of  hell — - Mik-tlan-ci-huatl  {Inglor, 
ColumbvjS,  p.  545).  Col.  Stolberg  compares  the  rites  of  Peru  with 
those  of  Vishnu  and  Siva ;  and  M.  VioUet  le  Due  compares  the  ideas 
of  the  Popul-Vuh,  or  Bible  of  the  Quiches  in  Central  America,  with 
those  of  Brahmans.  The  images  of  Kuetzal-Koatl  resemble  those  of 
the  Buddhas  sesbted  cross-legged,  with  solar  aureoles  on  the  heads,  and 
having  remarkably  long  ears  (see  Buddha),  as  shown  by  Vining  in 
Mexico  (Inglor.  Colnmhua,  p.  595).  A  statue  in  the  "  House  of  the 
Monks"  at  Uxmal  (p.  594)  with  others  (see  Uxmal)  is  Hindu  in 
character.  At  Tula  however  this  god  has  a  hideous  aspect.  At 
•Cholula  he  has  a  man's  body  and  the  head  of  a  red-beaked  bird.  The 
figure  is  probably  Toltek,  as  the  cruel  Azteks  preferred  Tez-katli-poka, 
the  god  of  war,  worshiped  with  bloody  rites.  Elsewhere  the  god  of 
peace  is  a  bird  (symbolising  the  air) ;  and  in  the  south  a  serpent 
{Inglor,  Columbus,  p.  198).  His  sacred  footprint  (see  Foot)  was 
4shown  in  many  places.  His  shrines  were  round,  domed  buildings, 
whereas  (p.  604)  other  Mexican  temples  were  quadrangular.  The 
palace  of  Kuetzal-Koatl,  according  to  Mexican  tradition,  had  four 
balls  facing  the  four  cardinal  points :  one  of  gold  to  E. ;  of  emerald 
and  turquoise  to  W. ;  of  silver  and  bright  sea  shells  to  S. ;  and  of  red 
jasper  and  shells  to  N.  Another  temple  was  adorned  with  feathers : 
the  E.  hall  yellow ;  the  W.  hall  blue ;  the  S.  white ;  the  N.  red 
(p.  616),  recalling  the  use  of  colors  in  the  temples  of  China  and 
Japan  (see  Colors). 

Kukis.  See  Euchs.  The  Kukis,  Eungyes,  or  Ehojains,  are  a 
branch  of  the  Kuch  race,  in  the  hills  of  E,  Kuchar,  and  N.E.  Tipera, 
S.W.  of  Manipur  and  in  the  Lushai  hills.  They  say  they  came  from 
the  "  far  far  north,"  and  they  include  many  tribes,  ruled  by  Pudhams. 
They  have  neither  temples  nor  priests,  but  make  prayers,  and  sacrifices 
of  goats,  to  Shem-sak,  who  mediates  with  the  supreme  god  Puthen  or 


420  Kukus 

Putiang.  He  is  represented  in  hunian  form  by  wooden  figures  under 
sacred  trees.  The  heads  of  the  slain — whether  men  or  beasts — ^must 
be  laid  at  his  feet,  especially  at  lunar  feasts ;  for  the  Kukis  worship 
the  moon.  Ghum-vishve  is  a  malignant  deity  ;  and  local  gods  named 
Tavoe  and  Sangron  receive  offerings  of  fowls,  pigs,  and  liquor.  Msdv 
spirits  frequent  the  hills,  dales,  and  streams ;  and  the  houshold  god  is 
symbolised  by  a  short  post  or  lingam. 

The  chief  Eaki  doctrine  is  that  of  "  blood  for  blood"  Be  it 
man  or  beast,  or  even  a  rock,  tree,  or  stream  that  has  injured  a  Euki, 
it  must  suffer :  for  a  spirit  dwells  in  each.  A  tree  that  falls  on  a 
brother  is  cut  into  chips,  which  are  scattered  to  the  four  winds.  A 
whole  tribe  will  rise  to  retaliate  if  the  injured  man  is  unable  to  do  so, 
and  after  taking  vengeance  will  hold  a  drunken  feast  Caste  is 
unknown,  and  Eukis  will  eat  or  drink  anything.  When  they  shift  a 
dwelling — which  they  do  every  few  years — they  bum  or  remove 
everything,  lest  some  evil  spirit  should  get  hold  of  what  is  left,  and 
so  injure  the  owner. 

Each  man  keeps  a  pile  of  human  heads,  to  show  his  valour  in 
war,  and  they  are  always  anxious  to  increase  the  number.  They  are 
a  very  hardy  race,  short,  muscular,  and  with  thick  Mongolian  lips  and 
flat  fa.ce,  not  darker  than  a  swarthy  European.  They  are  given  to 
the  chase,  but  live  by  agriculture,  burning  large  tracts  of  valuable 
forest  land  for  virgin  soil  and  ashes.  They  scratch  up  the  ground, 
and  sow  various  seeds,  reaping  each  crop  as  it  ripens.  They  are 
subject  to  serious  famines,  but  always  ready  to  help  each  other,  never 
failing  to  repay  what  is  lent.  They  are  cruel  in  war,  murdering  and 
burning,  but  kindly  at  home  and  fond  of  their  children.  Each  man 
has  one  wife,  and  as  many  concubines  as  he  can  afford  or  obtain ;  for 
the  bard  work  is  done  for  the  most  part  by  the  women.  They  punish 
adultery  by  death.  They  keep  the  dead  bodies  long  exposed,  and 
then  burn  them ;  but  chiefs'  corpses  are  dried,  and,  after  a  long  time, 
are  distributed  among  the  tribesmen. 

Kukus.  A  very  strict  sect  of  Sikhs,  foUowers  of  Ram-Singh  of 
Ludiana,  a  carpenter  who  worked  in  our  arsenal  at  Feroze  in  1861, 
and  gave  much  trouble  to  Government  down  to  1872.  He  was  bom 
in  1815,  and  served  in  the  Sikh  army  (1844-1846),  then  becoming 
the  disciple  of  Udasi — ^a  hermit— -at  Rawal.  He  began  to  proselytise 
in  1858,  and  became  leader  in  1860,  when  his  spiritual  instructor 
died  ;  but  he  continued  to  work  at  his  trade.  His  divine  mission 
was  attested  when  a  beam,  in  a  house  on  which  he  was  engaged, 
lengthened  itself  by  a  foot  to  suit  its  place ;  and  in  a  single  day  he 


Kutal  421 

found  himself  the  leader  of  500  devoted  followers,  who  called  them- 
selves Kukus  from  the  "whisper"  of  faith:  or  Eokus,  as  "crying" 
out  in  ecstasy.  They  attacked  the  Moslems  as  "beef  eaters"  in 
1872;  and  some  8000  men  were  needed  to  quell  the  outbreak. 
Bam-Singh  was  deported  to  Barmah.  His  is  only  one  instance  of 
many  religious  leaders  who  constantly  appear  in  the  East  (see 
JouT^Tud  Bl,  Asiatic  Socy.,  1869,  pp.  95-97).  ' 

ICulal.  A  divine  name  in  Yaman  or  S.W.  Arabia.  Probably 
meaning  "the  voice  of  God." 

Kula-devas.  Tribal  or  family  deities  of  the  Hindus,  like  the 
Italian  Lares  and  Penates. 

KulL  See  Kols.  In  Tamil  a  "labourer"  (compare  the  Turkish 
kill  "  slave  ") ;  but  in  Sanskrit  "  a  heretic  "  or  "  a  pig  "  (Jcoli).  Hence 
our  word  "coolie," 

Kulins.  Kullens.  One  of  the  wildest  Dravidian  hordes  in  S. 
India,  thieves,  hunters,  and  desperadoes,  who  levied  blackmail  on 
traders  till  lately,  unless  some  of  them  were  engaged  as  guards.  They 
are  hard  workers,  and  intelligent  when  employed.  The  men  paint  the 
red  and  white  mark  of  Vishnu  (the  trisvZ  or  trident)  on  their  fore- 
heads, breasts,  and  arms ;  but  women  only  wear  bangles  and  the  Tali 
(see  Tali).  They  settle  all  family  and  tribal  disputes  among  them- 
selves, and  accept  the  decisions  of  European  officers  in  other  cases  ; 
but  they  prefer  important  matters  to  be  arranged  by  a  court  of 
several  persons,  for  they  say  that  "  Qod  is  then  present."  The  witness 
when  swearing  must  hold  up  his  child  in  both  hands.  At  weddings  a 
Kulin  official  plants  a  sacred  tree  at  midnight,  or  sets  up  a  large 
branch  (usually  of  the  Margosa)  before  the  bridegroom,  and  with  his 
cloth  ties  to  it  a  rice  mortar.  The  bridegroom,  when  the  bride 
reaches  his  hut,  is  expected  to  pull  up  this  tree  or  branch,  and  is 
laughed  at  if  he  faila  Even  after  20  years  of  British  rule  in  Madura 
(see  Mr  Fawcett,  Folk-Lore  Quarterly,  March  1894)  "g.  Kulin, 
entering  the  house  of  a  farmer,  demanded  a  meal  and  his  host's  wife; 
and  so  great  is  the  fear  of  this  tribe  that  he  was  not  refused."  Eulius 
are  polygamous,  and  even  polyandrous;  and  divorce  is  easy,  while 
widows  may  remarry.  The  W.  Eulins  circumcise  boys  between  7  and 
12  years  of  age,  this  being  the  only  Indian  instance  of  the  rite  among 
non-Moslems :  for  Kulins  resent  the  imputation  of  such  influence, 
being — as  their  indelible  marks  (above  described)  show — worshipers 
of  Vishnu. 


422  Kttlins 

Kulins*  A  small  high  caste  sect  of  BaDgal  Brahmans.  The  title 
Eoulinya  was  first  conferred  on  5  Kanoj  Brahmans,  distingaished  for 
learning  and  piety^  by  Ardisur,  king  of  Bangal.  King  BaUai-seo 
(1066  to  1106  A.C.)  found  56  Eulin  families,  and  selected  from  them 
8  persons  as  possessing  the  required  qualifications :  (I)  good  condnct, 
(2)  meekness,  (3)  learning,  (4)  good  repute,  (5)  many  pilgrimages 
made,  (6)  faith  in  God,  (7)  good  marriage  connections  {Abritii), 
(8)  contempIatiVeness,  and  (9)  charitableness.  Originally,  however,  it 
is  said,  peaceful  conduct  stood  in  place  of  (7)  Abritti,  and  the  latter 
gradually  gave  occasion  for  unbounded  licence  (see  Qosains),  all  parents 
desiring  for  their  daughters  such  lords,  while  the  Kulins  sold  their 
consent,  and  did  not  live  with,  or  support,  such  wives.  Any  who  could 
pay  the  price  could  however  obtain  such  a  nominal,  and  divine,  son-in- 
law.  The  selected  8  were  to  be  called  "  pure  Kulins,"  the  remaining 
families  "Srotryas  and  Qounas,"  or  inferior  Kulins.  They  are  still 
represented  by  Banarjis,  Chaterjis,  Mukerjis,  and  others. 

In  the  16th  century  Devi-bara  tried  to  classify  Kulins  again,  but 
selected  those  of  high  birth,  requiring  them  to  marry  only  in  their  own 
rank,  which  reduced  them  in  time  to  poverty,  when  all  the  evils  of  the 
Abritti  system  reappeared.  Various  Kulins  are  now  found  who  have 
from  5  to  85  wives  in  different  villages,  and  they  have  become 
worthless  libertines  as  a  rule. 

Kulmu.  The  Etruskan  god  of  tombs,  who  carries  shears  and 
torchs.     In  Finnic  speech  kuol  means  "  to  die  "  (see  Etruskans). 

Kumara.  Sanskrit :  ''  a  youth,"  a  title  of  Skanda  (Mars)  and 
Agni  (Fire) :  in  the  Vishnu  Furana  4  Kumaras  are  "  mind-bom " 
sons  of  Brahma,  who  remained  ever  innocent  boys.  Kumari  was  Sita, 
or  Durga,  as  a  maiden,  whence  the  name  of  Cape  Comorin.  The 
Panch-Kumar  ("  five  youths  ")  is  a  5-faced  lingam  of  Siva,  at  Munger 
in  Behar  on  the  hill  of  his  temple. 

Kumbha-kama  or  Kumbha-pati.  Indra  as  the  drowsy 
giant,  whom  Havana  strove  to  rouse.  Kama  cut  off  the  head  of 
Kumbha.  The  modern  Khumbu-pati  sect  of  rude  theists  worship 
Alakh  (see  Alakh). 

Kumri.  See  Kimbri.  The  Welsh  Cymry  were  "kins-folk" 
(Prof.  Rhys,  Celtic  Britain,  p.  275),  as  the  Brythons  were  "brothers'* 
(see  Britain).  Prof.  Rhys  thinks  the  name  unconnected  with  that  of 
the  Kimbri,  or  with  that  of  the  Cimmerians. 

Kund.  In  many  Indian  languages  a  "  hollow,"  "  cave,"  or  **  well  * 
(see  KuntiX 


Kuneiform  42a 

Klineiform.  Cuneiform.  The  name  given  to  the  script  of 
Babylonia  and  Aflsyria,  derived  from  the  original  "  linear  '*  hieroglyphs 
of  the  Akkadians.  These  were  sketched  on  clay  by  the  later  scribes, 
with  a  stylus  which  produced  *'  wedge  shaped  "  strokes.  [See  Babylon. 
The  original  characters  read  from  right  to  left,  with  two  or  three 
emblems  below  each  other  in  the  line.  There  were  about  150 
emblems — natural  objects  or  human  inventions — which  were  com- 
bined, making  300  including  the  compounds.  The  later  .Semitic 
scribes  increased  the  number  of  compound  signs,  making  a  total  of 
about  550.  The  clay  tablets  were  read  sideways,  and  thus  gradually 
from  left  to  right.  The  kuneiform  shapes  were  reproduced  on  stone 
in  Assyria,  and  placed  horizontally  instead  of  vertically;  but  in 
Babylon  the  older  linear  forms  continued  to  be  used  down  to  600  B.c. 
Tlie  characters  were  still  in  use  in  Babylon  in  81  A.C.  The  original 
hieroglyphs  often  resemble  those  of  the  Hittites  (see  Kheta);  and 
there  is  a  gradual  change  in  the  conventional  signs  (as  in  Egypt 
also),  the  number  of  strokes  being  continually  reduced.  The  age  of 
texts  on  clay  can  thus  now  be  judged  roughly  by  the  character. — Ed.] 

Kunt3.1a.  Ancient  central  India  from  the  highlands  of  Nasik, 
Ajanta,  and  Chanda,  to  the  latitude  of  the  lower  Krishna  river: 
including  Lata,  and  Maha-rashtra  on  W. :  Tellingana  and  Andra-desa ; 
with  N.  Earnatika.  It  was  ruled  by  many  Dravid  races :  the  W. 
Chalukyas  called  themselves  (1st  to  6th  centuries  A.C.)  the  "  Lords  of 
Kuntala  "  (see  Chalukyas).  Eurumbas,  Palavas,  Kattas,  and  Yadavas, 
also  ruled  in  Kuntala. 

Kunthos.  Cynthus.  A  sacred  hill  in  Delos,  covered  with 
thick  forests :  the  abode  of  Apollo  and  Artemis  (Cynthia).  See 
Rivera  of  Life,  i,  p.  173, 

Kunti.  Sanskrit:  "woman"  (see  Kund).  The  wife  of  the 
Pandus  (see  Brahma).  She  was  the  bride  of  many  gods ;  and  "  ever 
virgin."  Prithu,  8on  of  Venn,  was  also  her  lord.  Madri  (also  "  ever 
virgin  ")  was  Pandu's  second  wife,  and  bore  Nakula,  and  Saha-deva,  to 
the  Asvins.  She  burned  herself  on  her  husband's  funeral  pyre ;  and 
Kunti  cherished  the  children  till  herself  burned  in  a  forest  fire.  The 
two  are  perhaps  originally  the  same.  Kunti  was  "  mother  earth,"  and 
otherwise  a  daughter  of  Sura  (perhaps  Surya,  "  the  sun "),  called  a 
kinsT  of  the  Yadavas  of  Sura-sena.  He  is  also  said  to  have  been 
brought  up  by  Kunti-Bhdja,  and  reigned  in  Mathura. 

Kup.      Sanskrit :  "  hollow."     See  Gab. 

Kupria.      AphroditS  as  the  "  Cyprian."     [The  name  Kvrpar  in 


^4  Kupros 

Akkadian  means  ^  bright  white/'  or  **  bright  color/'  and  may  be  the 
origin  of  that  of  Cyprus — a  white  limestone  country.  Ku-bar  is  also 
"copper"  in  this  language. — Ed.] 

Kupros.  Cyprus.  The  nearest  island  to  the  Phcenidan  coast, 
where  the  population  included  Semitic  Phoenicians,  Egyptians,  and 
Greeks,  and  perhaps  earlier  Turanians.  [It  is  about  4000  square  miles 
in  area.  Its  history  is  little  known.  It  appears  to  have  been 
conquered  by  the  18  th  dynasty  of  Egypt  The  Greeks  said  that 
Salamis  in  Cyprus  was  founded  by  Teucer  and  Ajax.  Sargon  (722- 
705  B.C.)  set  up  a  stela  at  Idalion,  now  in  the  .British  Museum. 
EsarhaddoB,  about  670,  mentions  Itu-dagon  of  Paphos,  apparently  a 
Phoenician,  with  other  kings  in  Cyprus  evidently  Greeks,  such  as 
Aigisthos  of  Idalion,  Puthagoras  of  Kitioh,  Eurualos  of  Soli,  and 
Damasos  of  Kurion.  Cyprus  was  conquered  by  Amasis  of  E^ypt  in 
the  6th  century  B.a  (Herodotos,  ii,  182):  but  the  Cyprians  revolted, 
and  became  tributaries  of  Persia  in  525  B.c.  In  500  B.a,  they 
however  took  part  in  the  Ionian  revolt  against  Persia,  and  were 
reduced  10  years,  later  (Herod.,  vii,  90).  Evagoras  of  Salamis  was 
independent  after  the  peace  of  387  B.c. ;  and  the  Cyprian  kings 
declared  for  Alexander  in  333  B.c.  Ptolemy  was  driven  out  of  the 
island  by  Demetrius,  son  of  Antiochus,  in  306,  but  recovered  it  in 
295  B.C. ;  and  it  remained  under  Egypt  till  occupied  by  the  Komaos 
about  60  B.C.  The  great  Jewish  revolt  (see  Hebrews)  occurred  in 
117  A.C.  The  Moslems  conquered  Cyprus  in  646  A.C.,  but  the  Greeks 
recovered  it  two  years  later.  Harun  er  Rashid  held  it  about  802  A.a; 
Isaac  Comnenos  seized  it  in  1184,  and  Sichard  of  England  in  1191, 
when  it  was  given  to  Guy  the  deposed  king  of  Jerusalem.  It 
remained  under  the  Lusignan  kings  till  it  was  purchased  by  Venetians 
in  1487,  and  finally  conquered  by  the  Turks,  under  Selim  II,  in 
1571  A.C.  .  Many  Greek  statues,  with  texts  in  the  "Cypriote 
characters"  (see  Kheta),  have  been  found,  including  a  bilingual  in 
Phuenician  and  Greek  (320  B.G.),  and  others  of  Melekiathon,  and  of 
his  son  Puniathon  (ruling  332  to  312  ac.  according  to  Athetums, 
iv,  03).     The  latest  Phoenician  text  dates  from  254  b.c. — Ed.] 

Paphos  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  colony  in  Cyprus;  and, 
according  to  Ovid,  it  was  founded  by  a  son  of  Venus  (see  Kinuras). 
The  symbol  of  Aphrodite  in  this  temple-— as  shown  on  coins — was  a 
cone.  The  island  is  called  Kittim  (Chittim)  in  the  Bible  [probably 
Kit'im,  "  west  region,"  &s  an  Akkadian  term — Ed.]  :  it  seems  to 
have  been  subject  to  Tyre  about  700  B.c.  according  to  Isaiah  (xxiii, 
8,  12).     The  Phoenician  kings  of  Kition  and  Idalion  included  the 


Kur  425 

following,  according  to  Mr  Pierides  of  Lamaka  {Academy,  7th  May 
1887):  Ba'al-malak  (about  450  to  420  B.G.),  'Az-Ba'al  (till  400), 
Ba'al-ram  (till -380),  Malak-iatbon  (till  350),  Funiatfaon  (till  312 
B.C.)-  There  are  remarkable  holed  stones  to  be  still  found  in  the 
island  {Cesnola,  pp.  189,  214),  some  ef-  which  appear  to  have 
belonged  to  oil  mills.  They  are  connected  with  superstitions,-  as  in 
ether  lands,  and  maidens  place  in  them  their  earrings  and  jewelry 
with  candles,  praying  for  lovers.  The  arch-priest  of  Paphos,  who 
claimed  descent  from  Einuras,  was  said  to  have  brought  rites  and 
mysteries  from  **  Aithiopia  of  A&ia  "  (see  Eus). 

Kur.     In  old  Persian  "  the  sun  "  (see  Gax  "  bright "). 

Kuras.  Cyrus.  Probablynamed  from  Eur  the  "8un,"as  solar  myths 
have  invaded  his  history.  According  to  the  legend  Astyages  (Istuvegu) 
King  of  Media  dreamed  that  his  daughter,  MandanS,  would  bear  a 
child  who  would  destroy  his  kingdom.  He  married  her  to  Cambyses 
(Kambujiya),  a  Persian,  of  low  birth;  and  he  ordered  his  general 
Harpagos  to  kill  her  child.  But  Harpagos  gave  the  infant  to  Mithra- 
data  the  herdsman  to  be  destroyed,  and  the  latter  with  his  wife 
substituted  their  own  dead  child :  the  wife's  name  was  Spaka  ("  the 
bitch  ")  in  Medic  speech,  and  she  nourished  the  infant  Cyrus — as  the 
wolf  nourished  Romulus,  a  story  also  found  among  Tartar  legends. 
The  boy  displayed  his  great  qualities,  becoming  the  "king"  of  the 
boys  in  the  village,  who  were  punished  for  not  obeying  him.  He  thus 
came  to  the  notice  of  Astyages,  and  his  birth  was  discovered. 
Harpagos  was  punished  by  being  made  to  eat  the  flesh  of  his  own 
child — which  he  avenged  later  by  deserting  to  Cyrus.  The  magi  held 
that  the  prophecy  had  been  fulfilled  by  the  "  boy  king,''  but  Cyrus 
returned  to  Persia  (Herod.,. i,  95).  According  to  Diodorus,  Cyrus  was 
finally  crucified  after  being  defeated,  in  Scythia,  by  the  Amazon 
queen  Tomyris  of  the  Massagetse.  The  legend  of  Cyrus  thus  presents 
parallels  to  others  related  of  sun  heroes  (see  Mr  J.  Robertson,  Christ 
and  Krishna,  1890). 

The  actual  history  of  Euras,  or  Kurus,  as  recovered  from  his  own 
records  and  from  those  of  Nabu-nahid  (Nabonidus),  the  last  king  of 
Babylon,  is  very  difierent  Cyrus  was  king  of  Anzan  (Susiana)  and 
a  Persian,  a  son  of  Eambujiya  (Cambyses),  a  grandson  of  a  Euras, 
and  a  great  grandson  of  Teispes,  being  thus  of  the  same  royal  family 
from  which  Darius  I  records  himself  to  have  descended.  He  attacked 
Istu-vegu  of  Media  about  532  B.C.  A  Babylonian  text  says :  '*  Miarduk, 
who.  journeys  among  all  peoples  wherever  found,  visited  the  men  of 
^umir   and    Akkad    (Babylonia)  whom    he    loves   as    himself.      He 


426  Kuras 

granted  pardon  to  all  peoples :  he  rejoiced  and  fed  them.  Ue 
appointed  also  a  prince  who  should  guide  aright  the  wish  of  heart 
which  his  hand  upholds — even  Euras  the  king  of  the  city  of  Anzan. 
He  has  proclaimed  his  title :  for  the  sovereignty  of  all  the  world  be 
remembered  his  name.  •  •  •  To  his  city  of  Babylpn  he  summoned  his 
march.  Like  a  friend,  and  a  comrade,  he  went  at  his  sida  The 
weapons  of  bis  vast  army,  whose  numbers — as  waters  of  a  river — 
could  not  be  knowu,  were  marshalled  in  order,  spread  at  his  side. 
Without  fighting,  or  battle,  Marduk  caused  him  to  enter  Babylonia. 
He  spared  his  city  Babylon.  He  gave  to  his  hand,  from  a  hiding 
place,  Nabo-nahid,  who  revered  him  not" 

The  account,  by  Nabo-nahid  himself,  of  the  earlier  history  may 
be  contrasted :  "  Marduk  communed  with  me,  Nabo-nahid,  King  of 
Babylon,  saying,  *  Come  up  with  thy  horses  aud  chariots,  and  build  the 
walls  of  the  glorious  temple,  and  raise  up  in  it  the  throne  of  Sinu  the 
great  lord.'  I  spoke  reverently  to  the  lord  of  gods :  '  This  temple  will 
I  build.  Terrible  is  the  power  of  the  Ma&da  (or  Median)  boat' 
Marduk  said  to  me :  '  The  Manda  host,  of.  whom  thou  hast  spoken, 
shall  cease  to  be,  and  the  kings  marching  with  it.*  In  the  third  year 
(552  B.C,),  in  its  course,  he  sent  forth  Euras,  king  of  Anzan,  his 
little  servant,  with  his  strong  army.  He  swept  away  the  Manda  host 
He  captured  Istuvega,  king  of  the  Manda  host.  He  took  the  treasures 
of  his  land." 

After  the  conquest  of  Media  was  complete,  Euras,  "  Eing  of  the 
Parsu,"  crossed  the  Tigris  below  Arbela  in  549  B.C.  According  to 
Herodotos  he  first  attacked  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  whom  he  defeated 
at  Pterium,  and  crossing  the  river  Halys,  marched  to  the  Lydian 
capital  of  Sardis,  which  he  took  in  546  B.C.  His  general,  Harpagos, 
was  left  to  subdue  Ionia,  Lycia,  and  Earia.  The  arms  of  Cyrus  were 
then  turned  to  the  East,  and  he  conquered  Parthia,  Sogdiana,  and 
Arakhosia.  According  to  Pliny  he  burned  Kapisa,  thought  to  be 
Eafshan  on  the  upper  Indus.  He  then  turned  to  the  conquest  of 
Babylon :  crossing  the  Tigris  at  Opis  in  539  B.C.,  he  took  Sippara 
without  fighting,  and  Nabo-nahid  fled  to  Borsippa,  the  royal  suburb  of 
Babylon.  On  the  16th  Tammuz  Qubaru  (or  Qobrias)  of  Gutium  (in 
Media)  arrived  at  Babylon  with  the  invadiog  army,  and  Nabo-nabid 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Borsippa.  The  army  watched  the  gate  opposite 
the  temple  called  E-Sagil,  and  Cyrus  joined  it  on  the  3rd  of  Mar* 
chesvan.  On  the  14th  of  Marchesvan  Gubaru  made  an  assault,  and 
slew  the  "  king's  son  "  (Bel-sar-usur),  who  thus  appears  to  have  been 
besieged  by  Gubaru  for  nearly  4  months  in  Babylon.  Cambysffi,  the 
son  of  Cyrus,  was  made  king  of  Bahylon,  under  his  father  as  "King 


Kuris  427 

of  Kings,"  Various  accounts  of  the  death  of  Cyrus,  after  this  victory, 
which  occurred  in  538  B.C.,  are  given  by  classic  writers,  but  it  appears 
that  he  fell  in  war  in  Scythia,  being  succeeded  by  Cambyses  about 
530  B.C. 

The  dates  given  on  commercial  tablets  found  in  Baby loixia  (especially 
those  of  the  Egibi  merchant  family)  show  clearly  that  Cyrus  succeeded 
Nabonabid  immediately.  [The  succession  of  the  kings  of  Babylon 
(counting  the  **  succession  years  "  which  are  additional  to  the  "  first " 
year  of  a  reign),  is  clear,  from  the  accession  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  607 
B.C.,  to  the  17th  of  Nabonahid  in  538  B.c. — Ed.]  There  never  was  an 
independent  "  Empire  of  the  Modes  " ;  and,  after  the  fall  of  Nineveh 
about  610  B.C.,  the  W.  of  Asia  was  divided  between  Medes,  Lydiaus, 
and  Babylonians.  Cyrus  was  the  first  to  establish  a  non-Semitic 
empire,  and  he  was  a  Persian  and  not  a  Mode.  This  is  important  in 
connection  with  the  criticism  of  the  Book  of  Darnel.  Cyrus  was 
not  apparently  a  Mazdean,  or  at  all  events  he  tolerated  other  religions. 
Darius  I,  in  his  texts,  speaks  of  Ahura-mazda  as  the  Supreme  God ; 
but  the  Babylonian  tablet  of  Cyrus  represents  him  as  a  worshiper  of 
Marduk,  Bel,  and  Nebo ;  the  Egyptian  texts  speak  of  Persian  kings  as 
adoring  Egyptian  gods  ;  and  the  Jews,  who  were  permitted  to  return 
to  Jerusalem  in  the  first  year  of  Cyrus  (537  ac),  profited  by  this 
general  tolerance,  and  regarded  Cyrus  as  "  anointed "  by  Yahveh 
(Isaiah  xlv,  1),  and  as  his  "  shepherd."  [This  notice  is  now  regarded 
as  fixing  the  date  of  the  passage  in  question — unless  the  name  "Cyrus" 
is  an  interpolation  by  some  later  copyist :  the  reference  seems  clearly 
to  be  to  a  non-Hebrew  Messiah,  as  appears  (verse  5)  in  the  words 
"  Though  thou  hast  not  known  me." — Ed.] 

Kuris.  Latin  Quiris  "  spear " :  the  symbol  of  the  war  god 
from  Scythia  to  India,  as  well  as  at  Rome,  where  the  Quirites  were 
worshipers  of  Mars  (see  Khonds). 

Kurks.  Korkus.  CoorgS.  A  branch  of  the  Indo-Mongol 
race  (see  Kols).  From  personal  knowledge  of  the  Korkus,  and  Korwas, 
of  the  Sat-pura  and  Maikul  hills,  and  Tapti  valleys,  in  Central  India, 
we  can  confirm  Mr  Driver's  account  (Journal  Bl,  Bengal  Asiatic  Socy,, 
1892,  Ixi).  They  are  of  a  coppery  yellow  hue,  and  now  peaceable 
cultivators,  herdsmen,  and  woodmen.  They  are  fond  of  jingling  orna- 
ments, beads,  and  amulets,  as  they  believe  their  gods  to  be  also.  They 
have  adopted  caste  customs  from  the  Hindus.  They  serve  (lik^^  Jacob) 
for  their  wives,  if  unable  to  buy  them,  and  they  have  the  Levirate 
custom  (like  Hebrews),  the  younger  brother  marrying  the  widow  of  the 
elder.     They  regard  Sunday  (sacred  to  Qomorj)  and  Friday  (the  day 


42S  Kurma 

of  Venus)  as  most  propitious  for  marriage.  A  week  after  a  Inrth  ihej 
hold  a  feast  with  sacrifices  and  dances,  naming  the  infant  after  some 
ancestor,  or  ghost,  whom  the  parent  has  seen  in  a  dream.  They  believe 
in  many  spirits,  of  whom  the  sun  and  moon,  and  Kala-Bhairam,  are 
the  greatest  They  sacrifice  goats  to  the  great  gods,  and  cocks,  ^^i 
and  fruits  to  the  lesser ;  all  deities  being  apparently  represented  by 
stones  and  by  posts  {Mundas)  erected  over  graves,  and  carved  over 
with  suns,  and  moons,  and  horses.  Before  these  they  sacrifice,  with 
music  and  dances. 

The  race  wandered  south  in  prehistoric  times,  settling  in  the 
S.W.  highlands  which  overlook  the  Eananur  coast.  They  divided  the 
lands  into  twelve  provinces  (like  Etruskans),  ruled  by  Nayaks,  or 
independent  chiefs,  who  were  in  time  united  under  a  Lingajat  leader 
(of  the  Haleri  Pohjars),  whose  dynasty  was  expelled  by  the  British  in 
1834.  The  words  Kurg  and  Kodagu  signify  "mountaineer"  (Akka- 
dian and  Mongol  Kur  "  hill ") ;  but  the  upper  class  (Imp,  Oazetter  of 
India)  claim  Kshatriya  caste,  and  speak  of  a  holy  land  in  the  &r 
north — the  Euruka-Eshatra,  which  was  the  cradle  of  the  Bharata 
race.  They  appear  to  be  of  the  Mah-ratta  stock.  The  Eurks  as  a 
race  are  tall,  strong,  and  broad  chested  ;  very  manly  and  independent ; 
they  wear  a  picturesque  costume  like  that  of  Eeltik  Highlanders ;  and, 
like  them,  they  erect  karns,  dolmens,  mounds,  circles,  menhirs,  and 
kist*vaens  or  chambered  tumuli,  on  which,  and  on  sacred  rocks,  their 
Lingayat  symbols  are  carved.  Out  of  200,000  Eurgs  180,000  now 
observe  Hindu  rites,  140,000  being  Siva  worshipers  (see  Eurus). 

Kurma.     See  Turtle. 

Kunnis.  Non-Aryan  Eols  in  India,  no  doubt  named  as  wor- 
shipers of  Eurma  the  "  turtle."  We  have  met  them  in  S.  Oudh» 
Central  India,  Behar,  and  S.W.  Bangal,  especially  near  the  Dammuda 
in  the  land  of  the  Munds.  They  are  generally  quiet  cultivators  of  the 
soil,  and  tree  worshipers.  They  are  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the 
Eumbhis,  of  Gujerat  and  Maharashtra;  they  are  numerous  about 
Jabal-pur,  and  Sagor,  along  the  Narbada,  and  in  Malwa.  Some  tribes 
are  very  dark,  and  some  are  fair.  They  are  recorded  to  have  moved 
S.  from  the  Duab  about  1 620  A.c.  Like  ancient  Italians,  Tartars,  and 
others,  they  claim  descent  from  virgin  trees  (as  Adonis  was  also  bom, 
and  the  ancestor  of  Manchu  emperors) :  they  worship  in  sacred  grores 
(see  Col.  Dalton,  Ethnog,  Gloss,  of  Bengal,  i);  and  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  are  each  separately  married,  early  in  the  morning,  to 
mahwa,  and  mango,  trees  (see  also  Basivis);  they  are  decked  with 
garlands  from  the  tree — the  mango  for  the  man,  and  the  mabwa  for 


Kural  429 

the  brido — and  they  walk  seven  or  nine  times  round  the  tree,  and  sit 
at  its  foot,  when  a  relation  binds  the  right  band  and  ear  to  it,  and 
they  chew  its  leaves :  lights  are  then  lighted,  and  all  present  worship 
the  tree. 

Kural.     The  great  Tamil  poem.     See  Tiruvalluvar. 

Kunimbas.  The  singular  is  Kurumba,  and  the  plural 
Kvjrambar.  The  Dravidian  name  of  a  pastoral  Yadu  race,  on  the 
lower  Indus,  in  the  Abiria  region  of  Ptolemy  the  geographer  (see 
Elliot's  Numism.  Orient).  They  covered  most  of  the  S.  region  of 
Dravidia  (called  sometimes  Kurumba-bhumi,  or  "  Eurumba  land  '*) 
from  central  Euntala  to  the  Malabar  coast,  as  energetic  traders,  mostly 
Jains  by  faith.  Till  recently  a  Ealikut  state  was  ruled  by  a  Eurumba, 
and  a  Taluk  of  Malabar  is  called  by  this  name.  The  Eurumbas  are 
numerous  in  the  plains  of  S.W.  India,  and  in  its  mountains,  as  foresters, 
and  Yadus  or  herdsmen.  They  are  expert  potters,  weavers,  and  agri- 
culturists, but  much  despised  by  Hindus  and  Moslems,  though  remark- 
ably truthful.  We  saw  much  of  them  in  remote  parts  of  Tamil  pro- 
vinces, and  Sir  W.  Elliot  says  that  they  go  occasionally  to  Madras  to 
sell  garden  produce.  Throughout  Maisur  a  Eurumba  is  required  to 
turn  the  first  furrow  in  the  fields  in  spring:  "the  proud  Toda,  who 
exacts  tribute  from  all  other  classes,  presents  an  offering  of  first  fruits 
to  the  despised  and  hated  hill  Eurumba.  He  dreads  his  magical 
powers,  and  sometimes  inflicts  on  him  secretly  a  bloody  retribution  for 
visitations  of  cholera,  and  small  pox,"  which  are  attributed  to  Eurumba 
spells.  The  Eurumba  is  important  at  the  festival  of  the  village 
Grama-deva,  or  household  god,  the  older  race  then  taking  precedence 
of  its  social  superiors.  Caste  is  ignored,  for  the  rites  are  older  than 
the  Yedas ;  and  Brahmans  may  be  seen  humbly  following  the  dreaded 
Pariahs,  Eurumbas,  or  Dhangars,  who  join  in  the  bloody  sacrifices,  but 
who  next  day  revert  to  their  usual  social  status. 

The  rulers  of  the  Vijaya-nagar  state  claimed  Eurumba  descent 
(1334  to  1488  A.G.)  ;  and,  in  our  4th  century,  a  Eurumba.  Elaja 
declared  himself  independent  when  the  extreme  S.W.  of  India  (Eerala) 
threw  off  the  Chera  yoke.  The  Eurumbas  once  held  the  E.  coast, 
N.  of  the  Palar  river,  "  some  hundred  years  before  our  7th  century  " 
(Elliot,  Numiam.  Orient^  p.  36).  They  were  dili<yent  traders,  with 
ships,  mines,  and  colonies,  but  were  persecuted  as  Jains.  They  were 
the  literary  class  (according  to  Dr  Caldwell),  whose  statues  of  the 
Tirthankars,  or  saints,  wonderfully  carved  in  polished  basalt,  still 
amaze  the  traveller :  they  included  many  Hindu  gods  as  Digambara 
figures.      Sir   W.   Elliot  (Intemat   Prehistoric   Congreaa^  p.   252), 


430  Kurumbas 

attributes    the    rude-stone   monuments   of  the  Shidai  mountains  to 
Kurumbas,  Todas,  and  Badagas,  who  say  that  the  lingam  stones  repre- 
sent "  Kuru  gods  '*  (Mr  Walhouse,  **  Stone  Mon./*  Journal  ArUhrop. 
Inatit,   Aug.  1877,  p.  23;    Fergusson,  Rude-stone  Mon.,  p.  476 X 
The  degradation  of  the  race  accompanied  the  corruption  of  Jainism  by 
ancient  nature  worship :   but  the  proud  Aryan  still  seeks  the  poor 
Kurumba  in  his  forest,  and  makes  him  come  to  bless  his  fields.      Mr 
Walhouse  says  that :  ''  the  aborigine  then  comes  and  seats  himself  at 
nightfall  on  the  capstone  of  a  dolmen,  with  heels  and  hands  drawn 
together,  and  chin  on  knees;  and  there  awaits  the  dawn/'     He  is 
usually  **  a  poor  starved  dwarfish  outcast"     They  now  mark  the  grave 
by  small  smooth  stones  long  or  ovate  (for  the  lingam,  or  for  the  yoni), 
which  they  place  in  caves  or  mounds,  and  call  Fandu-Kulis.     A  dolmen 
at  Melkunda  was  found  by  Mr  Walhouse  **  filled  up  to  the  capstone 
with  such  pebbles — the  accumulation  of  generations  " ;  which  recalls 
the  memorial  pebble  cairns  of  our  own  ancestors,  and  those  of  Jews  and 
Arabs  in  Syria,  where  each  visitor  adds  his  stone.     So  also,  at  Brahman 
funerals,  the  chief  mourner  decorates  three  stones  (one  for  the  deceased, 
one  for  Yama,  and  one  for  Rudra)  on  the  3rd  day,  at  the  burning 
ghat.     They  are  adorned  with  flowers,  and  sacrifices  are  offered  to 
them:  they  are  taken  home,  and  the  rite  is  repeated  on  the  10th 
day  after  the  death,  when  the  mourner  walks  to  his  neck  in  the  river, 
and  facing  the  sun  prays  that,  under  the  form  of  these  three  liiigs  (or 
"essences"),  the  deceased  may  be  received  in    heaven.     The    three 
stones  are  then  cast  behind  the  back  of  the  worshiper,  in  conclusion  of 
the  mourning  rites.     This  clearly  shows  the  Indian  beliefs  as  to  such 
symbols  (see  Fetish  and  Stones). 

The  Irulas,  or  Eurumbas  of  the  Nilgiri  hills,  are  called  ''  children 
of  darkness."  [They  are  extremely  degraded  according  to  Mr  King, 
Aborig.  Tribes  of  NUgiris,  1876. — Ed.]  They  worship  Ranga-swami 
— a  form  of  Vishnu — .in  shrines  on  the  summits  of  the  mountains,  in 
**  circles  of  stones  each  enclosing  one  upright  stone  representing  the 
deity.  One  circle  is  of  recent  date "  (Mr  Walhouse,  Stone  Mon,,  p. 
32).  This  deity  (see  Yetal)  is  solar,  and  is  called  "  the  healer  of  the 
nations  "  (see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  384 ;  ii,  p.  274).  We  have  seen 
the  blood  of  goats  and  cocks  dashed  on  many  such  stones,  and  on 
rocks,  by  the  wilder  Indian  tribes,  in  lieu  of  human  blood ;  which  is  a 
full  answer  to  the  views  of  Mr  Fergusson  (Rudestone  Mon.,  p  468). 
Sir  W.  Hunter  (Orissa,  i,  p.  95),  says  that  every  hamlet  still  has  its 
shapeless  phallic  stone,  adored  with  simple  rites,  by  the  civilised  Aryan 
and  the  wild  Dravid  alike.  Survivals  of  such  rites  are  common  also 
in  Europe. 


Kurus  431 

KurUS.  The  race  that  ruled  in  Hastinapur,  after  expelling  their 
"  pale "  cousins  the  Pandus,  according  to  the  Maha-bharata  (see 
Brahma).  They  are  not  noticed  in  the  Vedas.  Their  Panjab 
capital  still  stands  at  Ktiru-kheter.  Kuru  was  descended  from 
Nahusha,  grandson  of  Soma ;  and  Gandhari  was  the  mother  of  Eurus 
(see  Oandhara). 

ICUS.  KOOS.  A  very  fierce  and  wild  race  in  the  N.  of  Arakan, 
who  are  naked  save  when  wearing  war  armour  of  split  canes,  painted 
red.  They  drink  blood  from  the  pierced  sides  of  the  Gycd  or  wild  ox, 
and  will  eat  anything  they  can  get. 

ICUS.  ICush.  This  name  applies  in  the  Bible  both  to  the  race  of 
Babylonia  and  Armenia  (Gen,  ii,  13  ;  x,  7),  of  which  Nimrod  was 
the  hero;  and  also  to  Upper  Egypt  or  Aithiopia.  [It  is  usually 
rendered  "  dark/'  as  a  Semitic  word ;  but  on  Babylonian  tablets 
Ku8  is  Eappadokia,  and  the  term  may  be  only  the  Akkadian  Ku8, 
for  "  sunset "  and  the  "  west,"  which  would  apply  equally  to  Asia 
Minor  and  to  Egypt. — Ed.]  The  Kosis  of  N.  India  (see  Kosa)  may 
have  been  of  this  "  Cushite "  stock  from  Babylonia,  which  appears 
to  answer  historically  to  the  Akkadians  (see  Akad).  We  are  content 
to  see  that  scholars  are  coming  round  to  the  opinions  which  forced 
themselves  on  us  more  than  25  years  ago,  when  studying  Aryan 
and  Turanian  questions  connected  with  India.  The  language  of  the 
Kassites,  Eosseans,  or  Eissaians  (see  Eassites),  was  Turanian.  [This 
name  however  seems  to  be  distinct,  being  always  spelt  Ifassu  in 
Semitic  texts. — Ed.] 

KUSE.  Sanskrit  The  sacred  grass  of  India,  sweet-scented  and 
medicinal  {Poa  cynoauroides).  It  is  thought  to  destroy  malaria. 
It  has  a  long  leaf  with  a  sharp  point,  whence  a  clever  person  is  said 
to  be  ''  like  a  point  of  Eusa."  It  is  used  in  most  sacrificial  rites  in 
India  (see  Ag),  and  is  revered  even  by  Buddhists,  since  Gotama  is 
said  to  have  sat  on  it  under  the  Bodhi  tree,  and  because  it  covered 
his  sacred  corpse,  at  Kusa-nagar  (see  Grass).  The  Eas-kas,  or  Ehus- 
khus,  is  the  grass  used  for  tattis,  or  blinds,  in  India  {Calamus 
Aromaticua).  The  Kaaa  is  another  fragrant  grass  {Saccharum 
Spontanema).     These  words  may  have  the  same  origin. 

Kusa-nag^ar :  or  KvsiTtdra  in  Pali  speech.  The  scene  of 
Buddha's  death.  The  site  is  still  doubtful.  General  Cunningham, 
following  the  geography  of  Chinese  Buddhist  pilgrims,  fixes  on  Easya 
(see  our  Short  Studies,  map,  p.  11)  between  the  great  and  little 
Oandak  rivers,  about  120  miles  N.E.  of  Banaras.     He  found  this,  in 


432  Kushan 

1875,  to  lie  in  a  grassy  wilderness  on  the  banks  of  the  Nairajana, 
and  thought  the  name  connected  vrith  the  Eusa  grass ;  but  it  is  more 
probably  connected  with  that  of  the  Eusa  race  (see  Eosa).  The 
question  is  affected  by  that  of  Buddha's  birthplace  (see  Eapila-vasta), 
in  N.K  of  Oudh.  Hiuen-Tsang  said  that  Eusa-nagar  was  the  aite  of 
*'a  stupa  erected  by  Asoka,''  and  places  the  Sala  grove  in  whicli 
Buddha  died  three,  or  four,  li  to  the  N.W. :  where  was  Aaokas 
great  tope,  "  two  hundred  feet  high,  but  without  date ;  and  here 
Gotama  was  burned,  and  eight  kings  divided  his  relics."  The 
Bhutan  Buddhists  say  that  he  died  in  Mt.  Hajo  (see  Eama-rupa), 
which  is  400  miles  £.  of  the  newly  found  site  of  Eapila-vasta. 
It  is  however  a  very  sacred  site. 

Kushan.  See  India.  Mr  Vincent  Smith,  the  Indian  numis- 
matist (Lecture,  Feby.  1902)  states  that  this  Indo-Scythian  djnastj 
ruled  from  165  B.c.  to  320  A.c.  preceding  the  Gupta  dynasty.  The 
Eushan  dates  are  referable  to  the  Laukika  era,  not  then  confined 
to  Eashmir;  and  70  dated  Eushan  texts  thus  range  from  128  to 
223  A.a 

Kusko.  CuSCO.  A  sacred  city  of  Peruvian  Inkas.  The  name, 
according  to  Prescott,  meant  *' golden  wedge  "  :  [compare  the  Akkadian 
Kuski  "  gold,"  and  Ku  "  pyramid  " — Ed.]  :  a  golden  cone  such  as  was 
sacred  to  the  sun  (see  Manko-kapak). 

Kut.  Kuta.  In  Tamil  a  "  spike  '*  or  "  peak,"  an  emblem  of 
Siva.  The  Maha-kuta  is  a  group  of  cave  temples  in  the  Badama  hills 
oi  ^lyk^wc  {Indian  Antiq.,  Jany.  1890)  where  Chalukyan  monarchs 
adored  the  "  Lord  of  the  great  peak."  The  inscription  on  a  pillar 
here  says  that  the  king  ''  desired  to  erect  a  pillar  on  the  Ganges,  to 
record  the  conquests  of  his  race  over  Vanga,  Anga,  Ealinga,  Vathura 
(Mathura),  Magadha,  Ganga,  and  Chola"  (see  Chalukyas), 

Kutha.  Cutha.     An   ancient  city  W.  of  the  Tigris,  and  KE 
of  Babylon  (see  2  Eings  xvii,  30),  where  Nergal  was  worshiped. 

Kuvera.  The  Hindu  Pluto  and  Plutus,  god  of  Hades,  and  of 
wealth  :  the  son  of  Pulasty,  and  the  father  of  Visravas.  In  N.  India 
he  carries  a  club,  and  has  an  ornamental  crown,  but  is  a  deformed 
white  figure  with  3  legs  and  8  teeth.  He  lives  in  Alaka,  part 
of  Siva's  paradise  of  Eailasa,  near  Mt.  Meru,  and  is  attended  by 
Eentaurs  (see  Einnaras).  He  is  never  worshiped,  but  all  who  die  in 
the  pursuit  of  gain  are  said  to  be  absorbed  in  Euvera,  or  in  Eu-tana  a 
"  vile  body."     In   S.   India  he  is  called   '*  the  7th  guardian  of  the 


Kwan-yin  438 

world,"  a  "king  of  raen,"  a  "friend  of  Siva,"  and  '*  regent  of  the 
north."  He  has  8  kinds  of  wealth  {Lakshmi)^  and  9  treasuries 
{Nidi).  The  self-moving  car  (Push-paka)  was  given  him  by  Brahma  ; 
and,  in  S.  India,  he  is  a  golden  youth  on  a  grey  horse,  brandishing  a 
scimitar  (like  Kalki),  and  adorned  with  flowers.  He  was  driven  from 
Lanka  (Ceylon)  by  Ravana. 

Kwan-yin.  K wan-yon.  See  Avalokit-Isvara  :  a  deity  both 
male  and  female.  As  a  godess  she  is  sometimes,  according  to  Dr 
Kaemfers,  covered  with  babies  growing  from  her  hands,  and  forming 
an  aureole  round  her  head.  She  is  the  merciful  mother  (see  Rivers 
of  Life,  plate  xvii),  and  holds  the  Chakra  wheel  of  Vishnu,  the  Book 
of  Brahma,  the  bud,  the  cock,  and  the  hare,  with  the  vase  of 
>ambrosia.  Prof.  Beal  shows  that  the  Chinese  Kwan-she-yin  was 
adopted,  even  by  Buddhists,  as  the  "  god  who  looks  down  "  in  mercy 
from  the  Sumana-kuta  or  heavenly  peak,  even  at  Adam's  Peak  in 
Ceylon.  The  Chinese,  about  our  era,  adored  Kwan-yin  as  "  the 
<;ompa8sionate  "  and  "  hearer  of  prayer  "  (see  Amidas),  like  Ardvhi- 
sura  Anahita  (in  Persia)  the  "  high,  pure,  and  strong."  He  or  she  is 
said  to  have  proclaimed  to  a  Chinese  Buddhist  adorer:  "Never 
will  I  seek  individual  salvation  or  enter  final  peace  alone,  but  ever 
and  everywhere  will  I  strive  for  the  redemption  of  every  creature 
throughout  the  worlds  until  all  are  delivered.  I  will  not  leave  the 
world  of  sin  and  sorrow,  but  remain  where  I  am." 

Kwetzal-koatl  or  Quetzal-COhuatl.      See  EuetzaUkoatl. 


The  letter  L  in  Semitic  and  Aryan  tongues  interchanges  with  N. 
In  Egyptian  and  African  speech,  and  in  the  E.  Turanian  languages,  L 
and  R  are  interchanged,  and  with  i^  or  T  as  well.  Thus  in  African 
Bantu  dialects  Z,  R,  and  D  are  indistinguishable ;  and  the  Turkic  T 
stands  for  the  Finnic  L,  There  is  no  R  in  Chinese,  and  no  L  in 
Japanese. 

La.  The  Aryan  roots  La  and  lci8  mean  "  to  love."  Hence  the 
Lycian  lade,  "  loved,"  for  "  wife."  La  or  Lha  in  Tibet  is  the  name  of 
Amitabha-Buddha  {Jov/mal  RL  Asiatic  Socy,,  January  1891,  p.  188). 
See  Tibet. 

Labanim.     See  Chrisma.      The    standard   of   Constantino,   on 
which  was  the  monogram  said  to  be  that  of  Christ.     Later  legends 
2  E« 


434  Labrus 

said  that  it  appeared  in  the  sky  with  the  words  "Hereby  conquer" 
(see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  fig.  53  ;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fcdl,  iii,  pp. 
258.2t)2). 

Labrus.  LabryS.  The  two-headed  axe,  a  sacred  symbol  in 
Krete,  Karia^  and  Lydia  (see  Krete). 

LaburinthoS.  Labyrinth.      A  rock-cut  cave  with  complicat^i 

passages,  in  Krete,  where  the  Mino-taur  ("  man-bull ")  lived.  TLe 
word  is  probably  connected  with  Labrus,  "  axe,"  and  with  the  name 
of  the  Karian  Zeus  Labranda  (**  axe  bearer  '*),  as  meaning  a  "  hewn  " 
excavation. 

Lad.  Lud.  An  ancient  root  meaniug  "  to  grow."  [Egyptian  hft 
"flourish":  Aryan  Itidh  "grow,"  lad  "growing":  Hebrew  yaW 
"  produce  "  :  Assyrian  littu  "  offspring  "  :  Arabic  weled  "  boy." — Ed.] 

Lada.  A  Roumanian  god  worshiped  at  the  Koleda,  or  Kolinda, 
fetes  at  Christmas  time. 

Lagamar.  An  Elamite  deity  noticed,  by  Assur-bani-pal  of 
Assyria,  as  conquered  with  others  at  Susa  (Shushan)  in  the  7th 
century  B.C, 

Lakish.  Lachish.  A  city  of  Philistia  represented,  on  a  has* 
relief  of  Sennacherib  (702  B.C.),  as  near  rocky  ground  with  trees  and 
vines.  The  name  means  "  impregnable."  The  site  was  fixed  in  1875 
by  Col.  Conder  at  Tell  el  Hesy  ("  mound  of  pebbles  ")  between  Hebron 
and  Gaza.  In  the  Amarna  letters  the  name  of  Zimrida  occurs  as  that 
of  the  governor  appointed  by  the  Pharaoh  at  Lakish  in  the  loth 
century  B.C.,  who  was  afterwards  murdered  by  slaves.  At  Tell  el 
Hesy  a  kuneiform  tablet  was  found  by  Dr  Bliss,  which  is  addressed  to 
this  Zimrida  from  Egypt.  The  identification,  which  rested  on  the 
description  of  position  by  Eusebius  {Onomaaticon),  is  thus  confirmed. 
The  city  was  raided  by  Joshua  (Josh,  x,  31),  and  taken  by  Sennacherib 
(2  Kings  xix,  8),  being  then  a  chariot  city  (Micah  i,  13).  It  was  re- 
occupied  by  Jews  in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh.  xi,  30),  and  was  still  a 
villa  or  "  town "  in  our  4th  century.  Excavations  at  the  site  (see 
Quarterly  Stat  Pal,  Explor.  Fund,  1893)  by  Dr  F.  Petrie  and  Mr 
Bliss  have  brought  to  light  remains  dating  from  about  2000  B.a  down 
to  the  4th  century  A.c.  Besides  the  tablet  already  noticed,  seals  of 
Queen  Teie,  ^vife  of  Amenophis  III,  were  found  low  down  in  the 
mound  ;  and  one  which  appears  to  bear  Hittite  and  Egyptian  emblems 
together.  At  higher  levels  were  found  Gfeek  pottery  and  a  Greek 
inscription  probably  of  the  Byzantine  age. 


Lakhmu  435 

LaJchmu.  According  to  the  Assyrian  creation  tablets :  "  The 
gods  were  made  :  the  god  Lahmu,  the  god  LcUiaimt  were  created  "  (see 
Dr  E.  Schrader,  Cuneif.  Inacript  and  Old  Test,  i,  p.  2).  These,  the 
first  of  gods,  appear  to  signify  *'  flesh  and  food  " — the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms  :  Hebrew,  lahm  "  bread  "  or  "  food,"  Icihum  "  flesh." 

LakshE.      Sanskrit :  "  a  luck  mark  "  :  Laksluina  a  "  lucky  sign." 


LakshmailcL      The  half-brother,  and   special  friend,  of  Rama- 
Chandra.      He  was  Rama's  comrade  in  all  his  trials,  and  Anally  sacri- 
ficed himself  in  stopping  Bama's  final  conference  with  Time,  who  was 
sent  to  summons  him  to  heaven.     The  two  brothers  ascended  together 
from  the  holy  Sarayu,  or  Gogra,  river.      Lakshraana  was  son  of  Dasa- 
ratha  the  king,  by  Sumitri,  his  twin  brother  being  Sutragna.     Other- 
wise he  was  an  incarnation  of  the  serpent  Sesha,  and  had  one-eighth 
of  the  nature  of  Vishnu.      He  protected  8lta,  Rama's  wife,  and  dis- 
figured a  Rakshasi,  or  female  demon,  who  tried  to  supplant  her  in 
Rama's   aflections.        He    married    Urmila,    Sita's    sister.       His    son 
Angada  ruled  near  the  Himalayas,  and  his  second  son,  Chandra-ketu, 
was  a  serpent  eclipsing  the  moon  (see  Rahu). 

LrEkshmi.      The  consort  of  Vishnu  :  the  "  lucky  one,"  presiding 
over  wealth  and  prosperity  (see  Laksha).     The  word  Lakahml  is  used 
in  the  Rig  Veda  for  "  good  luck  " :  in  the  Atharva  Veda  there  are  two 
Lakshmis,  for  good  and  bad  luck.     Aditya  (the  sun)  had  two  wives 
(see  Taittiriya  Sanhita),  Lakshml  and  Sri  ("  excellence "),  the  latter 
issuing  from   Praja-pati  (the    Creator)    according    to   the    Satapatha 
Brahmana.     These  become  one  (Sri-Lakshml)  in  later  literature,  and 
she  is  the   mother  of  E^ama  or  Love.     She  rose  from  the  "  Sea  of 
Milk  "  at  Vishnu's  creation,  on  the   12th  day  of  the  month  Eartika 
(end  of  October),  on  the  Padma  or  lotus.     She  was  Kamala,  the  flower 
of  love,  when   Vishnu  was  the  dwarf  (Vamana) ;  and  was  the  fair 
Rukmiui  when  he  was  Krishna.      She  hid  in  the  calyx  of  the  lotus 
when  the  giants  led  by  Bali  fought  for  her  with  the  gods.     She  is 
robed  in  yellow  or  gold,  and  is  offered  the  corn  measure  filled  and 
adorned   with   flowers.     She   holds   the  rosary,  and  the  sacred  cord 
(pdsa) :  Indra  is  said  to  have  worshiped  her  "  water-pot,"  and   she 
appeared  on  the  Eshiroda  and  Pari-jata  trees  as  a  flower  (see  Trees). 
Before  Vishnu,  as  a  boar,  raised  earth  on  his  tusks,  she  was  the  con- 
sort of  Vahni  (or  Agni),  and  bore  him  the  "  three  Agnis  "  (or  three 
fires).     When  Vishnu  is  spiritualised  as  Righteousness  and  Under- 
standing, she  becomes  Devotion  and  Intellect.      But  she  is  also  Lala, 
or  "  seduction,"  and  a  fickle  godess  of  "  luck." 


436  Lalan 

Lalail.  The  Etruskan  Mars — otherwise  Laran(see  Lars).  [Perhaps 
**  spirited  "  (see  Lilith). — Ed.]    Represented  as  a  bold  armed  yoat^ 

Lalita-Vistara.  Sanskrit :  "  cherisheii  details."  The  legendary 
life  of  Gotama  Buddha.  The  Chinese  version,  supposed  to  date  from 
about  100  A.c,  is  translated  by  Prof.  Beal ;  and  a  Tibetan  version  of 
about  our  6th  century  by  M.  Foucaux.  Hiuen-Tsang  appears  to 
refer  a  Pali  original  to  the  Council  of  Eanishka  in  1st  century  i.c. 
Many  books  of  this  kind  seem  then  to  have  existed  (Dr  Rhys  David>, 
Hihbert  Lect,  1881).  It  consists  of  gathas,  or  "songs,"  inserted 
into  a  later  prose  work,  and  is  written  in  fulsome  praise  of  Buddha, 
including  a  series  of  incredible  legends.  The  legend  of  Gotama  s  birth 
resembles  that  of  Krishna  (see  Buddha),  and  the  infant  visits  temples 
where  the  gods  bow  to  him :  he  has  miraculous  knowledge  of  64 
alphabets,  and  of  the  mystic  meaning  of  each  letter  (as  in  the 
apocryphal  "  Gospel  of  the  Infancy,"  see  Christ).  The  shadow  of  the 
tree  under  which  he  sits  never  moves :  he  is  tempted  and  transfigured, 
and  heavenly  spirits  attend  him  from  the  moment  of  birth  when  a 
stream  of  heavenly  water  descends  to  wash  the  babe.  The  Chinese 
version  also  contains  Jataka  tales  and  fables  with  a  moral  Dr  R 
Mitra  (Bib,  Indica,  1877)  maintains  the  orthodox  view,  according  to 
which  the  Lalita-Vistara  was  written  during  Gotama's  lifetime,  or  (in 
some  parts)  150  years  after  his  death. 

Lainas.  L&maisin.  The  monks  of  Tibet,  who  teach  a  form 
of  Buddhism  corrupted  by  the  ancient  Shaman  superstitions  of  Mongol 
paganism,  are  popularly  called  Lamas,  and  their  chief  is  the  Dalai- 
Lama,  or  '*  Universal  Lama " — a  spiritual  and  secular  ruler,  supposed 
never  to  die  but  to  renew  his  youth  when  he  disappears,  in  a  babe 
chosen  by  the  College  of  Lamas.  Till  of  late  the  unhappy  Dalai-Lama 
has  usually  been  murdered  before  he  was  18  years  old,  to  prevent  his 
ever  becoming  a  political  leader.  The  ofiSce  is  confirmed  each  time  bj 
the  Chinese  Emperor  (see  Tibet).  The  Lamas  are  the  old  priests 
(see  Bon),  and  their  religion  is  demon  worship  (Dr  L.  A.  Waddeli, 
Asiatic  Quarterly,  January  1894).  Dr  Waddell,  after  studying  the 
subject  among  the  monks  on  the  borders  of  Tibet,  says  that  no  one 
seems  to  have  realised  that  Lamaism  is  essentially  a  "  demonolatry/' 
with  a  thin  varnish  of  Buddhism.  Even  the  purer  sect  (Ge-lug-pa, 
or  **  yellow  caps  **)  are  devil- worshipers,  and  value  the  Maha-yaoa  (or 
High  Church)  Buddhism  as  giving  them  power  over  the  malignant 
demons  of  disease  and  disaster.  Such  a  Lama  when  waking  in  the 
morning  must,  before  he  leaves  his  room,  assume  the  spiritual  guise 
of  the  demon  king — his  fearful  guardian — named  Vajra-Bhairava,  or 


Lamas  437 

Sambhara,  who  is  coerced  into  investing  the  Lama  with  his  own 
dreadful  form  by  certain  Mantras  (charms),  from  the  legendary  sayings 
of  Buddha  in  the  Mahayana  Tantras.  Thus  inferior  demons  are  afraid 
to  assault  the  Lama  so  disguised.  Dark  sorcery  forms  the  bulk  of 
Lamaism.  There  are  two  orders  of  Lamas,  the  Nying-ma-pa  (''  red 
caps "),  and  the  Ge-lug-pa  ("  yellow  caps  "),  who  were  non-Buddhists 
down  to  630  A.C.,  when  Srong-tsan-gampa,  an  energetic  Tibetan  ruler, 
made  war  on  China  and  Napal,  and  married  princesses  of  their  royal 
houses.  They  induced  the  prince  to  bring  Buddhist  teachers  and 
books  from  India,  and  the  Mahayana  doctrine  was  nominally  accepted, 
with  all  its  philosophy,  asceticism,  speculative  Theism,  and  good  words 
rather  than  good  deeds :  with  its  meditations  and  visions,  instead  of 
the  practical  teaching  of  Gotama. 

The  word  Lama,  according  to  Dr  Waddell,  means  a  '*  superior," 
and  strictly  speaking  applies  only  to  the  abbots  of  the  monasteries ; 
but  the  title  is  given  by  courtesy  to  all  the  priests.  Buddhism,  in 
630  A.C.,  was  represented  by  only  a  few  monks  from  India,  China, 
and  Napal,  and  by  a  few  small  shrines.  But  Indian  characters  being 
employed  to  reduce  the  Tibetan  language  to  writing,  King  Thi- 
srong-de-tsan  really  established  the  faith  in  747  A.c.  His  Chinese 
mother,  when  he  was  only  13  years  old,  obtained  (while  regent)  from 
the  Indian  Buddhist  schools  of  Nalanda,  a  Lo-pon,  or  tutor,  named 
Padma-sam-bhava,  the  "  lotus-born,"  for  her  son.  This  wizard  priest, 
as  Dr  Waddell  calls  him,  was  born  in  Udyana  (between  Kashmir  and 
Ghazni)  and  became  a  Tantric  Yogi  (or  mystic) :  he  was  said  to  have 
miraculously  vanquished  all  the  devils  in  Tibet,  thereby  attracting  the 
Shamans.  The  king,  aided  by  another  Indian  monk  named  Santarak- 
shita,  built  the  first  Tibetan  monastery,  and  made  the  Lo-pon  the  first 
Lama.  The  Tantra  and  Sakta  mysticism,  or  nature  woi-ship,  had 
existed  in  India  for  more  than  800  years,  and  found  a  ready  footing 
in  Tibet.  In  899  A.c,  King  Lang-darma  tried  to  suppress  it,  burn- 
ing Buddhist  monasteries  and  books  ;  but  he  was  at  once  murdered  by 
a  Lama,  and  a  priestly  government  was  established  at  Lhasa.  The 
Dalai-Lama  then  became  second  only  to  Adi-Buddha — the  **  ancient 
wise  one,"  or  creator,  called  "the  supreme  soul"  in  the  Kah-gyur  or 
Tibetan  canon.  This  deity,  as  Kala-shakra  ("  wheel  of  time  "),  belongs 
to  a  Tantric  system  which  "  attempts,"  says  Dr  Waddell,  *'  to  explain 
creation,  or  the  secret  powers  of  nature,  by  the  union  of  the  terrible 
Kali  not  only  with  Dhyani  Buddhas,  but  even  with  Adi-Buddha.  .  .  . 
He  evolves  a  procreative  energy  by  which  Sambhara,  and  other 
dreadful  Dakkini  fiendesses.  .  .  obtain  spouses  as  fearful  as  themselves, 
yet  reflexions  of  Adi-Buddha,  and  of  the  Dhyani  Buddhas."     These 


438  Lamas 

beings,  called  by  the  Aryan  names  Ealashakra,  Heruka,  Achala,  Vajra, 

etc.,  having  powers  not  inferior  to  those  of  the  celestial  Buddhas,  must 

be  conciliated  by  worship  of  themselves,  and  of  their  demon  consorts, 

or  female  energies,  with  charms,  offerings,  and  spells,  in  magic  circles. 

In   1038  A.C.,  Atisha — an  Indian  Buddhist  monk — while  still 

clinging  to  Yoga  and  Tantra  rites,  attempted  a  reformation  or  return 

to  purer  Mahayana  Buddhism,  enforcing  celibacy,  and  higher  moralitj, 

and  discouraging  diabolic  arts.      New  sects  arose,  and  scholarly  Lamas 

taught  and   translated    the    Buddhist   canon   and    its   commentaries. 

Under  Tsong-khapa    however,  about    1 400    A.C.,    they  became   less 

ascetik,  and  more  ritualistic,  being  then  known  as  Ge-lug-pa  ("  yellow 

caps)",  and  having  been   ever  since  the  dominant  sect     The  older 

school    ("red    caps")    kept    to    the    old    ways,   teaching   Ter-ma,  or 

"  hidden  revelations  "  of  the  **  great  Guru  "  (or  teacher),  said  to  have 

been  discovered  in  caves  to  the  number  of  30  books.     The  Ter-tu 

C'revealer")   Lamas,  who  probably  composed   the  Ter-ma,   professed 

to   be  re-incarnations  of  this  Guru's  25  disciples,  and  said  that  there 

were  108  Ter-mas  in  all,  treating  of  Bon-pa,  and  other  demoniacal 

Lama  rites.     Their  various  sects,  in  time,  each  adopted  some  special 

image  in  their  temples  to  the  deified  founder  whom  they  acknowledged, 

while  the  "  yellow  caps  "  also  set  up  images  of  Tsong-kha-pa.     These 

latter  were  bidden  to  observe  the  235  rules  of  the  Vinaya  discipline, 

and  were  known  in  time  as  Dul-wa  Lamas,  who  wore  patched  yellow 

robes,    and    carried    the    begging   bowl  (called    Zla-gam  or    '*  moon 

symbol  "),  with  a  prayer  carpet.     Besides  these,  and  the  "  red  caps  " 

(or  older  sect),  the  Bon-pa  Lamas — who  are  still  earlier — wear  black 

caps.       The    "yellow    caps"    call    Adi-Buddha    the    Doije-dhara,   or 

"holder   of   the   mace"   (see  Dor-je),  but   their   tutelary  Buddha  is 

Vajra-Bhairava,  which    is    the   old   name  of    a  fierce  form  of  Sira. 

They  claim  to  possess  inspiration  from  Maitreya  (the  future  Buddha) 

through   their  founder  Atisha.       In   1640  the  Dalai-Lama  obtained 

temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  power  under  the  Chinese  emperor,  and 

the  fifth  of  these  had  his  royal  palace  on  the  steep  hill  of  Potala, 

above  Lhasa.     He  was  regarded  as  the  incarnation  of  Avalokita  (the 

god  who  "  looks  down "  in  mercy),  otherwise  Kwan-yon  in  Chinese. 

Before   this    dread   judge,  at    Potala,  all    must    appear  after  death. 

Potala  is   the   name  of  Parvati's  hill  in  Indian  sacred   sites,  which 

connects  the  semi-Buddhism  of  Tibet  with  India,  the  rise  of  Lamaism 

coinciding  with  the  triumph  of  Siva  worship  (1070  to  1370  A.c.)over 

Buddhism  in  India.     From  this  account  it  will  be  seen  that  Lamaism 

has  little  to  do  with  the  pure  Buddhism  of  Ceylon  and  Barmah,  nor 

is  the  Dalai-Lama  recognised  by  true  Buddhists. 


J 


Lamba  439 

Lamba.     A  demon  daughter  of  Daksha. 

Lambans.  Wild  migratory  tribes  like  Brinjaris  in  India.  They 
a.re  very  dirty,  and  have  scant  clothing.  They  wear  bone  ornaments, 
shells,  and  flowers,  with  balls  hanging  from  their  matted  locks. 

Lamb-maSS.  Lammas.  The  feast  of  1st  August,  when  the 
flocks  used  to  be  blessed  (as  they  still  are  in  Italy)  in  the  churches. 

Lamech.  A  Hebrew  patriarch  (Gen.  iv,  19  ;  v,  26)  who  had 
two  wives  'Adah  ("ornament"),  and  Silah  ("shade").  His  father 
was  Methuselab  (*'  sent  forth  ''),  son  of  Enoch  (or  otherwise  a  descend- 
ant only),  but  the  name  Lamek  is  apparently  not  Semitic,  but  means 
either  "  strong  "  (Akkadian  la/ni),  or  perhaps  "  ploughman,"  from  the 
Akkadian  lam  '*  plough  "  (see  Enoch,  which  is  also  Akkadian). 

Lamia.  Lamma.  Akkadian  :  lamma  "  strong,"  "  giant  "  : 
otherwise  called  An-dan  "  strong  god."  In  Assyrian  the  larama  be- 
comes larruissu.  The  word  appears  to  be  the  Chinese  lang  "  strong  "  ; 
and  the  lung  is  the  dragon  who  represents  the  refreshing  wind. 
From  this  source  perhaps  came  the  name  of  the  Lamia  among  the 
<Treeks — a  monster  said  to  tear  children  to  pieces,  and  to  devour  the 
raw  flesh.  The  female  Lamia  was  a  serpent,  dragon,  or  demon.  In 
Krete  Lamia  aud  Aukhesia  were  said  to  be  two  virgins  from  Troizene, 
adored  with  Eleusinian  rites.  The  Epidaurians  were  commanded  by 
an  oracle  to  raise  statues  to  them  during  a  dearth.  Homer  speaks  of 
Lamiae  as  giants,  children  of  Poseidon  and  of  Lamia,  queen  of  Libya. 
Lamia,  beloved  of  Zeus,  became  the  mother  of  the  sibyl  Herophile ; 
and  as  SkuUa  (Scylla,  the  demon  of  the  rock)  she  is  also  the  daughter 
of  Belos.  The  Lamii  were  represented  as  goats  with  horse's  hoofs, 
and  Lamia  had  the  head  and  breasts  of  a  woman,  with  a  serpent's 
body  and  tail,  in  Africa.  The  Lamise  allured  strangers  (and  hence 
came  the  legend  of  Melusina  and  her  human  lover),  but  finally  de- 
voured those  whom  they  deluded.  The  Latin  Vulgate  (Isaiah  xxxiv, 
14)  renders  the  Hebrew  Lilith  by  Lamia,  as  a  female  monster  (see 
Lilith),  and  among  Christians  the  Lamia  was  a  witch,  and  Diana 
herself  was  a  Lamia. 

LangfUag^eS.  The  question  of  language  is  discussed  in  each  case 
under  the  country  or  race  concerned.  [The  author's  view  of  the 
origin  of  languages  is  also  shown  by  the  study  of  monosyllabic  roots — 
see  Subject  Index — and  the  comparisons  have  been  carried  by  Mr 
Greg,  and  other  scholars,  into  the  African,  American,  and  Polynesian 
languages.     The  African  languages,  in  grammar  and  vocabulary,  are 


•  t 


440  Lanka 

connected  with  the  ancient  Egyptian,  and  so  with  the  Seniitia 
The  Polynesian  show  marked  connection  with  Malay  and  Dravidian 
speech.  The  American  languages  are  equally  allied  to  the  Mongolic. 
The  single  origin  of  all  human  speech  begins  therefore  to  be  a 
scientific  probability. — Ed.] 

Lanka.  See  Ceylon.  The  name  perhaps  is  connected  with  that 
of  the  LangcUas  or  palm  trees. 

Lao-tze.  See  China,  and  our  article  in  ShoH  Studies  (v,  pp.  275- 
300).  As  in  the  cases  of  Buddha,  Christ,  or  Muhammad,  we  depend 
on  late  accounts  for  our  information  as  to  this  "  old  teacher  "  (as  his 
name  signifies),  author  of  the  Tao-teh-king  (Book  of  the  Right 
Way),  and  founder  of  the  third  greatest  religion  of  China.  He  is 
said  to  have  belonged  to  the  Barmese  tribe  of  Le ;  and  was  bom  of 
poor  parents  in  Tsu  (Honan),  under  the  Emperor  Ting  of  the  Kau 
dynasty,  the  usual  date  being  605  6.c.  Buddhists  say  that  he  was 
taught  by  Gotama,  which  seems  improbable,  though  he  may  have  learned 
from  the  teaching  of  the  Jain  Maha-vira  (598to528  B.C.).  He  was  well 
educated  and  filled  important  offices  in  the  Record  Department.  He 
was  first  a  philosopher,  and  then — disgusted  with  the  world — became 
a  pessimist.  In  539  B.C.,  he  resigned  his  work,  and  retired  to  a 
monastery,  dying  (perhaps  in  515  B.C.)  in  an  unknown  place.  He  is 
said  to  have  once  met  Confucius  (in  517  B.C.),  who — as  a  younger 
man — listened  with  respect,  but  was  not  convinced  by  his  mystic 
doctrines.  It  is  difficult  to  judge  what  is  his,  and  what  the  work  of 
later  disciples,  in  his  book,  which  was  sacred  from  an  early  period  in 
N.  and  Central  China :  for  it  was  burned,  like  all  other  writings,  in 
220  B.C.,  and  reappeared  under  the  Han  dynasty.  Its  great  exponent 
was  Chuang-tszu  (350  to  300  B.C.). 

The  system  of  the  Tao,  or  "  way,"  attracted  many  who  were  un- 
satisfied by  the  dry  logic  of  Confucius,  on  account  of  its  mysticism. 
Temples  to  Lao-tsze  were  erected  by  the  Emperor  Hiwan  (147-168 
A.C.),  and  by  Tai-ho  (477-500  B.C.);  but  Wu  (566-578  A.C.)  finally 
classed  Taoism  as  third,  after  Confucianism  and  Buddhism.  Many 
legends,  miracles,  and  gods,  were  added  by  later  Taoists ;  and  the 
faith  developed  a  ritual,  with  images  and  monasteries,  temples,  and 
sacrifices,  beliefs  in  purgatory,  heaven,  and  hell,  in  "pills  of 
immortality,"  and  alchemy. 

Lao-tsze  claimed  (see  Dr  Legge,  Sacred  Books  of  East,  xxxix> 
three  precious  things  (Tao-teh,  chap.  Ixvii) — Compassion,  Thrift,  and 
Humility.  Yet  he  said,  "  I  am  the  way  of  life."  Tao  is  the  mystic 
name  for  the  Unconditioned,  not  a  personal  god,  but  answering  to  the 


Laps  441 

idea  of  the  Logos  of  Plato,  as  the  **  cause  "  of  all.  Union  with  Tao 
is  the  aim  of  contemplation.  Tao  is  the  "  way,"  truth,  and  light :  it 
is  heaven  (Tien),  and  before  heaven  it  existed.  It  is  the  Rita  of 
Yedas,  and  the  Asha  of  the  Avesta.  We  must  imitate  Tao,  and  ac^ 
without  thought  (chap.  Ixiii).  We  must  not  resist  evil  (chap,  xlix),  a 
doctrine  which  Confucius  combatted,  saying  we  should  meet  evil  by 
Justice.  Lao-tsze  denounces  the  wisdom  of  those  who  seek  justice, 
benevolence,  integrity,  and  **  propriety "  (that  is  to  say,  Confucian 
ethiks),  and  insists  on  personal  salvation  by  contemplation  (see  Hyp- 
notism). He  taught  that  all  things  sprang  from  a  formless  essence^^r 
but  this  was  not  Tao ;  and  he  was  Agnostik  as  to  the  meians  of  such 
creation  (chaps,  xix-xx),  speaking  however  of  Tao  as  the  "  great  mother." 
The  Tao-teh-king  was  first  translated  into  Latin  in  1788,  and  has 
since  been  studied  by  several  great  scholars.  See  details  in  our 
Short  Studies.  , 

LrSipS.  Lapps.  Lapland  is  now  the  N.  coast  of  Sweden,  ad- 
joining Finland  which  lies  S.E.  of  it.  The  Lapps  are  Turanians  like 
the  Finns  (see  Japan),  coming  probably  in  pre- historic  times  from 
Central  Asia  They  are  now  said  to  number  only  27,000  to  30,000, 
and  are  much  mixed  with  Finns  and  Aryans.  The  pure  Lapp  is  short 
legged,  rather  dark,  and  with  a  very  short  head,  high  cheek  bones, 
deep-set  small  eyes,  and  scanty  but  glossy  waving  hair.  They  are 
classed  as  fisher,  mountain,  and  forest  Lapps.  They  do  not,  however, 
use  this  name,  which  is  Swedish  for  "  enchanter,"  but  call  themselves 
Same-lats,  and  their  country  Same — perhaps  the  Finnish  Stwrne  for 
"  swamp."  They  came,  according  to  their  own  tradition,  from  the 
flast,  and  they  may  be  Samoyeds ;  they  have  rude  legends  of  conflicts 
with  the  Norsemen  on  the  W.,  and.  the  Karelians  on  the  E.  [The 
early  Neolithik  race  of  Auvergne  in  France  resembled  the  Lapps,  and 
like  them  had  tamed  the  reindeer  and  probably  the  dog. — Ed.]  The 
word  lappah  signifies  a  "  cave,"  and  they  have  been  regarded  as  pre- 
historic cave  men  :  but  lappi  means  "  the  end,"  and  they  were  a 
people  who  had  reached  the  land's  end  in  Europe.  Their  civilisation 
was  mainly  derived  from  the  Skandinavians.  Christianity  was  pressed 
on  them  in  our  13th  century,  and  they  are  now  reckoned  as  Lutheran 
Protestants,  being  under  Sweden.  The  Lapp  language  is  of  the  same 
stock  with  Finnish,  and  like  it  has  become  full  of  Aryan  loan  words, 
while  retaining  its  Turanian  grammar.  It  was  reduced  to  writing  in 
our  l7th  century,  when  the  songs  and  sagas  of  the  Lapps  were  found 
to  be  much  like  those  of  the  Finns.  In  one  saga  (or  "  saying  ")  about 
'  Pishan  son  of  Peshan  "  there  is  said   to  be  a  distinct  reference  to 


442  Lar 

'*  Lake  Baikal  and  the  Altai  mountaiDS  "  (see  Encydop.  Brit),  The 
Lapps  have  always  been  famous  as  enchanters,  holding  ecstatic  meet- 
ings like  other  Asiatics,  and  using  the  Eana  or  divining  drum  (see 
Drums).  This  has  been  adopted  by  Finns  (see  Folk-Lore  Quarterly, 
March  1893):  it  is  square  shaped,  and  hung  with  charms,  tufts  of 
wool,  teeth,  and  claws.  The  surface  is  divided  into  three  parts 
celestial,  terrestrial,  and  human.  The  sun  is  represented  by  a  square ; 
and  Thor  (borrowed  from  the  Aryans)  by  two  crossed  banners.  The 
figures  of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  are  now  added. 
An  Arpa,  or  divining  rod,  is  laid  on  a  definite  part  of  this  drum, 
which  is  then  struck  with  Thor*s  hammer.  Any  grown  person  may 
strike  the  drum,  when  desiring  to  divine.  The  Lapps  worship  earth 
as  Mada  (Akkadian  Mad  "  earth  "),  and  have  many  other  deities  good 
and  evil,  such  as  the  wise  god  of  the  meadows  (Gied-degoes-galggo), 
and  the  foolish  but  beautiful  Njavis-oedne,  who  was  deceived  by  Hakis : 
she  was  the  daughter  of  the  sun,  and  her  story  is  connected  with  the 
taming  of  the  reindeer. 

Lar.  Lars.  Lares.  In  £truskan  Lars  (from  the  root  Lar  < 
meant  "  Lord "  ;  and  the  Roman  Lares,  or  ancestral  spirits,  were  of 
Etruskan  origin.  [In  the  Eassite  texts  the  Akkadian  word  2ar  is 
rendered  H'elu,  "  lord  "  in  Semitic  speech. — Ed.]  The  Etruskan  lan- 
guage was  Turanian,  and  Acca-Larentia  (see  Aka)  thus  signifies 
"  mother  of  Lars,"  or  "  noble  mother,"  being  the  name  of  the  nurse  of 
Romulus.  The  Lares  were  represented  by  small  human  images 
(Teraphim)  such  as  are  equally  common  in  W.  and  E.,  and  still  used 
in  many  death  rites :  they  may  be  seen  in  niches  in  Hindu  houses, 
especially  near  the  hearth,  as  images  of  household  gods.  They  are 
usually  of  baked  clay  (like  those  found  in  Babylonian  and  Phoenician 
tombs)  and  are  brought  out,  and  cleaned  for  worship,  at  festivals  of 
Siva.  Mania  in  Etruria  was  also  mother  of  Lares,  and  of  the  Manes. 
The  poppy  was  a  common  offering  to  the  Lares,  and  sacred  to  Venus. 
They  were  also  "children  of  Mercury'*  (see  Hermes  and  Mercury)  the 
god  of  the  stone.  In  Rome  the  Sacellum  Larum  or  "  Lar  shrine  * 
adjoined  the  Compitum  on  the  Via  Sacra  ;  and  the  I^ar  images  stood  in 
every  important  street  and  market  place,  just  as  in  India  to-day. 
They  were  classed  as  Lares-Viales  (in  roadways),  Lares-Compitales  (in 
meeting  places),  Lares  Eurales  (in  fields),  and  Lares  Urbani  (in 
towns),  everywhere  connected  with  the  Penates.  The  Lares  Familiares 
were  household  gods  connected  with  the  Lemures  (see  Lamia),  or  good 
ghosts,  as  distinguished  from  Larva?  or  evil  spectres.  The  name  of 
the  Penates  is  usually  derived  from   Penes  {Penitus  "  within  ").  ^^ 


Las  443 

might  come  from  Penis :  but,  like  Lar,  it  may  have  a  Turanian  origin 
iPan  "spirit"  :  see  Penates).  Lalara  ("the  babbler")  was  popularly 
said  to  have  borne  the  Lares  to  Zeus,  who  deprived  her  of  speech 
(Ovid's  Fasti,  ii,  600).  Macrobius  calls  Janus  the  Lars  presiding  over 
roads  and  doors  (see  Janus) :  Diana  and  Mercury  are  also  called  Lares. 
The  Etruskans  no  doubt  brought  their  Lares  from  their  home  in 
Lydia  (see  Lud),  and  the  eldest  son  of  every  Etruskan  family  was 
called  a  Lar.  Their  god  Mai*s  was  also  Laran  (Akkadian  Lar-an 
or  "  Lord  God  "),  and  royal  cities  were  named  Laranda  and  Larissa. 


Lasa  Rakuneta  is  the  title  of  Etruskan  deities  who 
accompanied  the  dead,  bearing  cosmetics  and  writing  materials. 
[Probably  from  the  Akkadian  la  to  "present,"  and  Rak  or  Rik 
"  value,"  meaning  "  presenters  of  valuable  things." — Ed.]  Laz  is  a 
deity  mentioned  by  Tiglath  Pileser  II  of  Assyria  in  the  8th 
century  B.C. 

La^t.  In  Sanskrit,  and  Pali,  is  a  ''  staff,"  "  pillar,"  or  lingam  :  an 
obelisk  for  inscriptions  (see  Asoka).  In  addition  to  the  important 
As5ka  Lats  of  the  3rd  century  B.C.,  there  are  others  of  much  interest 
in  India.  The  Iron  Lat  at  Delhi  is  22  ft  high,  but  is  said  to  be 
sunk  to  an  equal  depth  below  the  surface  (44  ft.  in  all),  and  till 
recently  had  its  guard  of  honour  as  the  Palladium  of  empire.  The 
original  short  inscription  says  that  it  was  erected  by  King  Dava,  a 
worshiper  of  Vishnu,  in  317  A.c,  to  commemorate  a  victory.  On  the 
heights  close  by  is  the  beautiful  ^utub  Minar  ("  Kutub  s  tower  ")  a  relic 
of  the  worship  of  Turanian  Moslem  conquerors,  one  of  whom  placed  the 
Firuz-Shah  Lat,  named  after  him,  but  made  by  Asoka,  on  the  top  of 
his  palace  as  the  Savalik-Lat,  brought  from  the  Savalik  range — above 
the  Jamuna — at  great  expense,  and  erected  as  a  lingam  between  two 
domes  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  i,  p.  337,  fig.  186)  :  in  its  western  temple 
it  bad  been  known  as  Minar-Zarin,  or  "  tower  of  gold,"  but  Timur 
stripped  off  the  gold  plates  that  covered  it :  it  is  a  cylindrical  column 
of  hard  red  sandstone,  37  ft.  high,  tapering  from  a  base  10  ft.  4  in. 
in  circumference.  On  it  are  several  texts  besides  the  original  one,  the 
latest  being  written  in  Sanskrit  characters,  and  dated  9th  April  1164 
A.c,  to  record  how  the  Bajput  king  Visala-deva  had  "  exterminated  all 
Mlechchas,"  or  "heretics,"  meaning  Mughals  or  Turanian  Mongols. 
The  inscription  on  the  Palian  Baoli  Lat,  dating  from  1393  a.c, 
again  records  the  history  of  Delhi,  as  anciently  called  Hari-Yanaka,  and 
ruled  by  Tomaras,  and  then  by  Chahamauas  led  by  Visala-deva ;  and 
it  speaks  of  the  conquest  of  the  city  by  the  Ghorian  dynasty  (see 
India). 


444  Law 

Law.     Anglo-Saxon:    Hlawe  *' mound,"  or  "dune,"    as    in   the 
Ringing-Law,  or  "  mound  of  the  circle." 

Laz.     See  Las. 

Lc.      See  Li  and  Lu.     In  Akkadian,  and  in  Hittite,  the  emblem 
fe  is  a  bull's  head  symbolic  of  "  power." 

Leach.   Lech.      Keltik  :  a  "stone."     It  is  still  used  of  shingle 
(leek)  in  Scotland. 

Lemures.      See  Lamia,  and  Lar. 

Lent.  The  name  of  this  fast  in  spring  comes  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Lencten  (German  Lenz  ;  Dutch  Lente)  for  "  spring,"  when 
the  days  begin  to  *'  lengthen."  The  fast  begins  with  Ash  Wednesday 
(the  day  when  men  repented  in  the  ashes),  and  ends  with  Elaster 
(see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  pp.  436  to  444).  The  carnival  (see  that 
heading)  ends  with  Shrove  Tuesday,  when  men  are  ''  shriven "  of 
their  sins,  as  Lent  begins  with  penitence  next  day,  in  sackcloth  and 
ashes,  and  with  abstinence  for  40  days  from  all  flesh  save  fish.  The 
old  custom  of  the  *'Jack  o'  Lent,"  round  which  Christians  danced 
before  throwing  it  into  a  pond,  resembled  the  Roman  Lupercalia, 
when  little  ozier  figures  of  men  were  thrown  from  the  Milvian  bridge 
into  the  Tiber — ^a  relic  of  human  sacrifices  to  the  river.  The  Jack  o' 
Lent,  or  Jack  in  the  Qreen,  was  called  Judas  Iscariot  by  priests ;  and 
his  figure  is  still  exploded  with  fireworks  in  the  Easter  rites  of  Greek 
Christians,  in  Cyprus  and  elsewhere,  or  is  cast  into  a  river  (see 
Quarles,  ShephenVs  Oracles,  1646,  p.  188;  Xotes  and  Qtieries, 
4th  August,  1st  September  1888).  In  S.  Italy  scarecrows  are  hung 
up  at  cross-roads,  and  in  streets,  adorned  with  six  black  feathers  and 
sundry  white  ones.  A  white  and  a  black  feather  are  pulled  out  each 
Sunday  in  Lent,  and  one  white  one  on  Easter  Sunday.  The  evil  thing 
is  then  blown  up  with  gunpowder.  Lenten  sports,  as  late  as  the  time 
of  George  I  in  England,  included  "cock-fighting,  cock-crowing,  and 
cock-throwing."  The  cock  was  tied  te  a  stake,  and  youths  and  maidens 
pelted  it,  while  others  went  about  crowing  like  cocks  (Brady, 
Calenclaria). 

The  custom  of  mourning  in  ashes  was  common  in  the  East  (as 
mentioned  in  the  Bible),  and  the  sprinkling  of  ashes  in  India,  on 
Wednesday,  as  the  day  of  the  ascetik  ash-covered  Siva,  still  is 
practised.  Ash  Wednesday  was  established  by  Pope  Gregory  in 
1091  A.C.,  as  the  Dies  Cinerum  ("  day  of  ashes"),  when  all  men  were 
ordered  to  sprinkle  ashes  and  to  repent     Sundays  in  Lent  were  not 


Lesbos  445 

to  be  counted  in  the  Fast,  to  which  Pope  Felix,  in  487  a.c.,  therefore 
^ded  four  days.  If  fasting  is  advantageous  to  health  it  should  be 
recommended  by  the  physician,  and  not  by  the  priest.  It  is  not  for 
the  latter  to  grant  "  indulgences  "  to  those  who  are  sick,  or  weak,  and 
unfit  for  fasting  :  though  even  Church  of  England  priests  now  grant  such 
indulgences,  on  the  understanding  that  so  many  penitential  psalms  are 
read,  or  church  rites  attended,  forgetting  that  the  fast  originated  in 
pagan  days,  when  men  were  afraid  lest  the  sun  should  not  recover  its 
powers,  and  endeavoured  to  pacify  the  gods  by  their  austerities. 

LrCSbos.  A  triangular  island  S.  of  Troy,  close  to  the  W.  coast  of 
Mysia,  anciently  known  as  Issa,  Pelasgia,  or  Aithiopg.  Since  the 
Middle  Ages  it  has  been  called  Metelino  or  Mitylene.  Diodorus 
believed  that  the  inhabitants  had  written  laws  200  years  before  the 
Trojan  War,  or  about  1400  B.C.  It  was  peopled  by  the  Pelasgi,  and 
famous  from  early  times  for  wines,  beautiful  women,  music,  and 
religion.  Phallic  worship  is  denoted  by  Lesbian  coins  (Payne  Knight, 
Priaptis,  p.  105). 

Lcthem.  An  Etruskan  god  appearing  with  Tina  and  Menerva. 
fPerhaps  from  the  Akkadian  Lat  "  mountain  "  :  Finnic  Lada  "  peak," 
or  from  Akkadian  Lit  **  moon  "  :  Mongol ic  Lah, — Ed.] 

Leviathan.  .  Hebrew :  "  the  coiling  monster.''  In  Job  the 
-crocodile  is  so  called  (xli,  1-32),  and  Leviathan  appears  to  be  also  a 
mythical  dragon  (iii,  8) :  for  Job,  cursing  his  birthday,  says :  "  Let 
them  speak  evil  of  it  who  curse  a  day,  who  shout  at  Leviathan  "  ;  as 
the  Chinese  and  others  try  to  frighten  the  dragon  about  to  devour  the 
sun  or  moon  in  an  eclipse  (see  Isaiah  xzvii,  1). 

Levi.  LevitCS.  The  root  in  Hebrew  means  "  to  join,"  to 
""  bind  "  (see  Lui-than  "  snaky-monster  "),  as  understood  by  the  author 
who  speaks  of  Levi,  son  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxix,  34).  In  a  Minaean 
Arab  text,  however  (Dr  Sayce,  Contempy,  Review,  Deer.  1890),  the 
Laivdn  appear  as  early  priests  or  magicians ;  and  Goldziher  regards 
the  Levites  as  originally  serpent  priests,  like  modern  Dervishes  who 
charm  snakes.  The  serpent  Nebushtan  ("  snake  monster ")  was 
worshiped  in  the  Jerusalem  temple  (2  Kings  xviii,  4)  with  incense, 
and  was  traditionally  said,  about  726  B.C.,  to  be  the  copper,  or  bronze, 
serpent-symbol  made  by  Moses  in  the  desert :  Moses  himself  being  a 
Levite.  [The  word  Levi  may  also  signify  a  "band"  or  "order"  of 
priests. — Ed.]  We  are  told  (Num.  iii,  6-10)  that  the  Levites  were 
^'wholly  given"  to  Aaron  as  assistants  (viii,  19),  and  they  were  thus 
consecrated  as  Nethinvm  or  "  given  ones,"  instead  of  the  first  born. 


446  Leviticus 

who  were  "redeemed"  (Exod.  xiii,  13)  from  the  fate  of  sacrifice 
(verse  15)  :  they  were  "  wholly  given  "  (Num.  viii,  16)  for  this  purpose, 
according  to  the  later  legislation.  In  the  awful  chapter  on  the  fate  of 
Midian  (Num.  xxxi),  we  learn  that  32  persons,  "the  Lord's  tribute,'* 
were  "given"  to  Eleazar  the  priest  (verses  40,  41).  But  the  Levitt 
were  helped  by  Hivite  **  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water  "  (Josh. 
ix,  27)  ;  and,  after  the  captivity,  by  certain  subordinate  Nethinim, 
who  superseded  these  (Neh.  x,  28),  who  lived  in  Ophel,  "  the  knoll " 
south  of  the  temple  (iii,  26);  and  who  were  then  believed  to  have 
been  appointed  by  David  (Ezra  viii,  20). 

Leviticus.  This  division  of  the  Pentateuch  in  the  Hebrew  is 
named  from  the  words  "  and  He  (the  Lord)  called  " :  it  is  devoted  to 
the  rites  of  the  Levites,  and  is  now  generally  regarded  as  containing 
laws  framed  during  and  after  the  captivity :  "  a  writing  of  Ezra's  time 
— ^a  law  framed  by  priests  and  matured  during  exilement,  and  in 
which  the  ethical  teaching  of  the  prophets,  though  not  contradicted,  is 
overladen  with  ritual."  The  so-called  " Law  of  Holiness"  (xvii-xxv 
inclusive)  is  believed  to  be  rather  earlier  than  the  time  of  Ezekiel 
(600  B.C.),  but  the  book  as  a  whole  to  belong  to  the  Babylonian 
"  ghetto,"  being  a  priestly  manual,  as  Genesis  was  the  compiled 
account  of  national  traditions.  No  poor  desert  wanderers  could  have 
elaborated  so  complex  a  system  of  rites,  when  they  were  wandering 
among  the  stony  wadies  near  Sinai.  They  originated  rather  in 
Babylonian  ritual,  as  known  to  Ezra,  whose  book  Dr  Driver  puts  "  after, 
rather  than  before  300  B.c."  (see  our  Shori  Studies,  p.  345). 
In  Leviticus  we  find  all  details  of  the  bloody  sacrifices  required  by 
Yahveb.  [Such  is  the  ordinary  critical  view.  But  Dr  Hommel,  and 
other  scholars,  point  out  that  the  language  of  this  book  is  not  that  of 
Ezra's  age,  nor  of  300  B.C. ;  but,  like  the  rites  described,  such  as  the 
charms  (xiv,  52)  ;  the  scapegoat  (xvi,  26) ;  Moloch  worship  (xviii,  21}, 
and  the  booths  (xxiii,  34  ;  Hosea  xii,  9),  represents  ancient  conditions, 
such  as  may  have  been  prevalent  under  Solomon.  It  seems  unlikely 
that  Hebrews  would  have  elaborated  a  ritual  when  they  had  no 
temple ;  and  the  Assyrian  tablets  show  the  early  existence  of  similar 
rites  and  customs.  These  laws  were  known  only  to  priests,  and  were, 
apparently,  never  generally  observed  by  the  Hebrews  in  any  age. — Ed.] 

Lhasa.  The  sacred  capital  of  Tibet  (see  Lamas).  [During  the 
British  expedition  of  1904  this  city  was  reached,  and  the  great  Potaia 
monastery,  on  the  hill  above  the  town  and  its  sacred  parks,  was  visited. 
Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  discovery  was  that  of  a  precipice  beside 
the  river  (described  by  the  Twies  correspondent),  on  which  are  some 


447 

20,000  images  of  Buddha — votive  offerings  of  all  sizes. — Ed.]     See 
Til>et. 


The  phallus  in  Barmese  speech  :  Chinese  lik  (see  Le). 

Soman  **  libertine  "  festivals,  in  March  and  in 
October,  when  men  and  women  rejoiced  in  unseemly  fashion.  The 
fetes  were  those  of  Bacchus,  and  the  phallus  was  then  borne  in 
procession  by  naked  men  to  the  temple  of  Venus,  outside  the  CoIIine 
gate,  where  women  met  it  with  songs  and  dances. 

Libra.     The  "  balance  "  :  in  the  Greek  zodiak  this  was  represented 
by  the  "  claws  "  of  Scorpio  (see  Zodiak). 


The  unlettered  adherents  of  young  and  uncultured 
faiths  have  never  liked  a  more  ancient  literature.  Christians  called 
Greek  learning  "  foolishness  " :  for  God  had  revealed  to  babes  what 
was  hidden  from  the  wise  and  prudent.  Mubammad  was  **  unlearned,'^ 
though  he  loved  to  listen  to  other  religious  teachings  than  those  of 
the  ignorant  !^oreish.  It  is  improbable,  however,  that  the  Ehalif 
'Omar  actually  ordered  the  burning  of  the  Alexandrian  library.  The 
Ptolemaic  library  of  the  Serapeum  was  accidentally  destroyed  in  47 
B.C.  by  fire,  when  Julius  Caesar  conquered  the  city.  'Amr,  the  Moslem 
general,  who  won  it  for  the  Ehalif  'Omar  in  641  A.C.,  is  said,  by  the 
historian  Ibn  Ehaldun,  to  have  given  orders  as  to  the  books  of  the 
library  then  extant,  saying :  "  Throw  them  into  the  water.  If  they 
contain  anything  which  can  guide  men  to  the  truth,  we  have  received 
from  God  what  will  guide  us  much  better.  If  they  contain  errors  we 
shall  be  rid  of  them,  thank  God"  (see  Quarterly,  July  1895  ;  Fort- 
nightly Review,  Octr.  1895).  'Amr's  destruction  is  such  as  we  might 
expect  from  an  ignorant  Arab  of  the  age ;  and,  in  like  manner,  the 
first  Crusaders  in  1109  A.c.  destroyed  the  valuable  library  of  later 
Moslems  at  Tripoli.  The  Christians  of  the  age  of  Hypatia  (412  A.c.) 
also  tore  up  every  Greek  philosophik  work  on  which  they  could  lay 
hands. 

Libu.  Libyans.  The  Libu  known  to  the  Egyptians  (see 
Egypt)  included  fair  tribes  akin  to  the  Aryans  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Greece  (see  Erete),  who  were  probably  colonists,  like  those  Dorians 
whom  Battos,  about  640  B.C.,  afterwards  led  to  Cyrene  (Pindar, 
Pythian  Ode,  v,  69-98).  The  Romans  penetrated  into  Libya  as  far 
as  the  sources  of  the  Niger  Eiver,  which  they  named.  Recent 
explorations  show,  in  Libya,  a  civilisation  similar  to  that  of  Egypt. 

Ligues.    Ligurians.      The    Ligures   are    noticed,    by    Roman 


448  Lilith 

writers,  on  the  Gulf  of  Genoa  or  Ligusticus  Sinus  (see  Italy,  Rome, 
Umbrii) :  they  were  a  maritime  people  dominating  the  W.  coasts  of 
Italy,  as  far  as  Massilia  (Marseilles)  in  (jaul,  and  the  islands  as  far  as 
Sicily,  before  the  Siculi  arrived.  They  were  perhaps  akin  to  the 
Lingones  who,  even  in  Roman  times,  held  all  the  S.  bank  of  the  lower 
Po  from  the  Adriatic  to  Mantua,  and  who  appear  to  have  been  Kelts. 
They  fraternised  in  historic  times  with  the  Taurini  of  Turin,  and 
along  the  Ticinus  (Ticino)  River ;  but  fought  the  RhoBti,  Engones,  and 
other  Alpine  tribes.  Strabo  says  that  they  were  neither  Iberi  nor 
Gauls  ;  but  neither  he,  Dionysius,  nor  Cato,  knew  who  they  were, 
though  they  were  regarded  as  "one  of  the  most  ancient  people  of 
Italy."  Hesiod  speaks  of  Ligues  with  Scythians  and  Aithiopes.  They 
may  have  been  akin  to  the  Ligues  of  the  Taurus  in  Kappadokia.  In 
an  Amarna  tablet  of  the  15th  century  B.C.,  the  Laki  appear  near 
Alasiya  (Elishah  or  Cilicia),  and  the  Leku  are  noticed  in  the  same 
region  in  later  Egyptian  texts ;  being  apparently  the  Ligues  of  Hero- 
dotos  (vii,  72)  who,  according  to  CoL  Conder  (Tell  ATnamia  TabletA 
bordered  on  Matiene  the  kingdom  of  the  Turanian  King  Dusratta. 
They  were  known  to  Thothmes  III,  and  to  Rameses  II ;  and  Hero- 
dotos  speaks  of  them  as  "  adjoining  the  Matienians."  They  may  also 
have  been  connected  with  the  Lukians  or  Lycians.  [This  name  h^ 
been  supposed  to  come  from  LvJcoa  ''wolf";  and  in  Akkadian  lig  is 
*' dog"  (as  also  in  some  American  languages);  but  perhaps  a  better 
derivation  is  from  the  Aryan  root  Lag  "  to  lie,"  "  to  be  low,"  whence 
the  Keltik  lagan,  "  low  land." — Ed.] 

• 

Lilith.  A  female  monster  in  Hebrew,  and  in  later  Jewish, 
tradition.  The  word  is  usually  connected  with  the  Semitic  lilith 
"  night "  ;  but  the  Assyrian  lilitu  is  borrowed  from  the  Akkadian  lU 
(Vogul  HI,  Hungarian  lUak,  Esthonian  liel,  Livonian  Idol),  meaning 
"spirit  "or  "ghost."  The  Latin  Vulgate  (see  Lamia)  connects  this 
word  rendered  ''screech  owl"  (Isaiah  xxxiv,  14)  with  such  spirits, 
though  the  Greek  reads  only  "  onokentaurs."  Lilith  is  the  terror  of 
parents ;  and  modern  Jews  write  the  words  "  avaunt  Lilith  "  on  the 
walls  of  a  room  where  there  is  a  new  born  babe.  If  the  in£BLnt  smiles 
in  its  sleep  Lilith  is  present,  and  the  child  must  be  smitten  thrice  on 
the  nose,  with  the  words  "  Away  cursed  Lilith,  thou  hast  no  place 
here."  According  to  Talmudists,  Lilith  sinned  in  refusing  to  be  sub- 
missive to  man,  saying  that  she  was  created  with  Adam,  and  that  he 
should  not  rule  her.  She  learned  the  holy  "  name  "  (of  Yahveh),  and 
so  obtained  wings,  and  flew  from  Paradise  :  angels  found  her  hovering 
over  the  Red  Sea.     She  refused  to  return  to  Adam,  and  the  curse  on 


Lily  449 

her  was  pronounced  to  be  that  every  child  she  bore  should  die  in 
infancy.  She  tried  to  destroy  herself,  and  God  then  granted  her 
power  over  all  infants  till  8  days  old,  save  those  protected  by  the 
angels  Sanoi,  Sansenoi,  and  Sanmangalaph.  The  Jews  therefore  hang 
to  the  necks  of  infants  amulets  marked  "  Sen,  Sam,  San,"  that  Lilith 
may  make  no  mistakes.  She  has  special  powers  over  illegitimate 
<rhildren,  and  over  all  babes  on  the  1st  of  the  month,  and  on  Sabbath 
evenings.  She  snares  youths  with  amorous  kisses,  giving  them 
pleasant  dreams,  but  (as  with  the  Lamia,  and  the  Succuba)  they  die 
afterwards  of  vain  longings.  Lilith  became  the  consort  of  Samael  (see 
Cabbala),  and  together  they  are  *'  the  Beast,"  and  the  producers  of 
evil  beings.  She  appears  as  the  richly  robed  bride  of  this  evil  angel, 
captivating  men  with  her  sparkling  eyes  of  love,  and  her  beauty,  and 
niaking  the  home  unhappy.  Hence  she  is  called  "  the  harlot,"  and 
she  was  the  spirit  of  jealousy,  hating  Adam,  and  his  meek  consort  Eve, 
and  introducing  the  apple  of  discord.  She  appeared  on  the  tree  of 
life — as  a  human  headed  serpent — in  mediaeval  missals  (Conway, 
DeTnonoL,  ii,  pp.  96,  301). 

Lily.  See  Fleur-de-lys.  Lilies  flowered  on  the  staflf  of  St  Joseph 
when  he  became  the  Virgin's  husband  (see  Oospel  of  the  Nativity  of 
Mary),  as  Aaron's  rod  also  budded. 

Lingam.  Sanskrit  ling  "  essence  "  :  '*  pith  "  :  the  "  phallus." 
No  idea  of  indecency  attached  to  its  worship  in  India :  for  the 
Saivites,  and  Siva  himself,  are  strict  ascetiks,  unlike  the  Vishnuva 
worshipers  of  the  Yoni.  In  Sanskrit  grammar  the  word  lingam  is 
used  for  gender  in  nouns,  and  Hindu  scriptures  speak  of  the  worship 
of  this  emblem  as  "  spiritual  and  mystical,  and  the  object  is  liberation 
from  carnal  passions,"  though  austerities  like  those  of  Sanyasis  and 
Yogis.  Lingam  shrines  are  built  in  groups  of  6,  8,  or  12,  or  in 
multiples  of  these  numbers,  such  as  the  108  built  by  the  Raja  of 
Bardwan,  at  Ealma.  They  are  all  much  alike,  with  a  square  cell 
having  a  symbolic  pyramidal  roof,  adorned  by  a  sloping  flagstaff  with 
streamers.  A  small  lamp  burns  in  the  cell,  and  before  the  lingam 
of  white  or  grey  stone  or  of  marble  for  Siva,  or  of  blue  black  adorned 
sometimes  with  gold  lines,  for  Krishna.  The  lingam  may  rise  from 
an  Argha,  called  Bhaga-Sakti  ("  the  female  power  of  God  "),  or 
Adhara-Sakti  (see  Argha) ;  and  a  serpent  is  often  carved  in  the  Argha 
(see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  123,  fig.  42).  A  specimen  of  such  a 
"  Lingam  in  Yoni "  has  been  sketched  by  the  author  from  the  outside 
of  a  mission  school  near  Lucknow,  to  which  emblem  the  children  bowed, 
and  oifered  flowers  as  they  passed.  Such  gifts  are  laid  on,  and  round, 
2  f2 


450  Lingam 

the  Argha  which  is  also  called  Bhavani  ('*  female  existence  " — ^a  consort 
of  Siva)  as  the  receptive  principle  of  nature.  The  Argha  is  usuallv 
filled  with  ghee  (melted  butter),  spices,  flowers,  grains,  and  holy  water, 
which  drip  from  its  spout,  before  which  kneels  often  the  sacred  Nandi 
bull,  carved  to  represent  "power."  The  worshipers  anoint  them- 
selves with  this  exudation.  The  lingam  itself  is  anointed,  or  water  is 
allowed  to  trickle  over  it  from  above.  Such  anointed  stones  were  used 
also  by  Hebrews  (see  Bethel).  Gorius  {EtrxLScan  Antiq.,  ii,  p.  144; 
figures  two  phalli  very  like  those  of  India.  The  "  Ruber  Porrectiis " 
of  Horace  was  imitated  by  the  phalli  of  red  leather  worn  by  clowos, 
and  actors  (according  to  Suidas  who  calls  them  ''  ithyphallic  ")  modi 
as  they  are  worn  by  Hindus  at  the  Holi  fStes  to-day.  Those  desiring 
offspring  anoint  their  own  phalli  from  the  Argha. 

There  are  many  **  stations  "  round  lingam  shrines — as  in  Christiao 
holy  places — ^including  sacred  wells,  footprints,  etc.     The  pious  Siva- 
worshiping  pilgrims  must  visit  them  all.     At  Banaras  there  are  47 
main  objects  of  devotion,  with  hundreds  of  others,  constituting  the 
"  lesser,"  and  the  "  greater  round  "  (see  Banaras).     The  Tri-linga,  or 
"  three-lingas,"  typifies  the  Triune  Siva,  as  creator,   preserver,  and 
destroyer.     The  lingam  is  also  the  "  pillar  of  fire,"  and  the  "  tree  of 
life  "  ;  and  all  tree  stems  are  sacred  to  Siva.     Lingaites  prefer  indeed 
"  natural  lingams,"  such  as  trees,  or  pointed  rocks  and  stones,  to  those 
made  artificially.     Ancient  graves  also,  like  those  of  modem  Ho8lem!^. 
or  even  of  Buddhists  at  Buddha-gya,  or  beside  the  Kamaon  temple, 
or  the  great  Naga  shrine  of  Banaras,  where  priests  were  buried,  and 
not   burned,   are   marked   by  a  lingam.      Poles  and  pillars  outside 
temples  have  the  same  significance ;  and  to  these  even  Vishnuvas  and 
Buddhists  kneel  (especially  when  praying  for  offspring)  as  specimens  of 
the  "  Davja  Stambh,"  or  "  holy  pillar  "  which  is  found  in  every  shrine. 
We  have  seen  women  lying  stark  naked  before  such  a  pillar  in  the 
Cbandra-gutha    temple    in    N.W.    Mysore.      Mr    Nara-simmiyen-gar 
(Indian  Antiq,,  May  1882)  describes  such  worship,  often  leading  to 
immorality.     At  Deo-garh  (see  that  heading)  we  were  assured  that 
women   anxious  for  offspring  sometimes    strip  in   their  homes,  and 
smearing  themselves  with  pigments  go,  in  troops,  naked  to  the  shrines, 
lying  before  the  sacred  pillars  and  poles  till  priests  and  attendants 
give  them  an  ablution,  and  garments  in  which  they  rise  to  worshipi 
This  rite  is  a  form  of  "  sitting  Dharna,"  or  self  "  murder "  (Hatya), 
since  they  die  if  neglected,  when  punishment  is  infiicted  by  Govern- 
ment on  all  concerned.     The  reputation  of  a  temple  suffers  if  such 
devotions  do  not  result  in  the  desired  boon,  and  priests  do  their  best 
to  avoid  this. 


Lingam  451 

When  the  Tartars,  and  the  Moslems,  invaded  India  they  despoiled 
the  rich  lingam  shrines,  and  especially  the  ''  Twelve  great  Lings,"  after 
the  three  greatest  of  which  the  Tri-linga,  or  Telagu  land  was 
named.  Some  of  these  symbols  were  very  large  (see  Banaras),  and 
in  this  sacred  city,  at  the  Baidya-nath  temple,  some  300,000  persons 
will  assemble  on  "Siva's  night"  (14th  of  Phalgun),  to  celebrate  his 
"  enlargement "  when  he  became  an  infinite  column  (see  Bengal  Bl. 
Asiatic  Socy,  Journal,  LIT,  i :  and  Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  p.  475).  The 
twelve  great  lingams  of  India  are  noticed  in  the  Kedara  Ealpa  (of  the 
Nandi  Upa-Purana),  in  which  Siva  says,  ''  I  am  omnipresent,  but 
especially  in  these   12  forms,  and  places": — 

1.  Soma-ndtha,  in  Surashtra  (Gujerat):  destroyed  by  Mahmud 

of  Ohazni,  but  restored. 

2.  MaUikdrjuna,  in   Sri-saila  ("  Mount   Sri ")  on  the  upper 

Krishna  river. 

3.  Mahd-kala,  at  Ujjain.     Taken  to  Delhi,  but  destroyed  in 

1231   A.C.  by  the  Emperor  Altaraash. 

4.  Orfi-ka/ra,  said  to  be  at  Om-kala-mandata,  perhaps  Amar- 

esvara  in  Ujjain. 

5.  Keddra-ndth,  in  the  Himalayas,  a  natural  lingam,  or  shape- 

less mass  of  rock. 

6.  Bhlma-sankaray  at  Dakini,  perhaps  Dracharam. 

7.  Viav-esvara  :  "  the  universal  being,"  at  Banaras — the  Jyotir 

lingam. 

8.  Triambdka,  on  the  banks  of  the  Gotami,  called  also  Tri- 

aksha  or  "  three  eyed." 

9.  Vaidya-ndtha :  "  lord  of  physicians,"  at  Deogarh ;  a  stone 

only  4  inches  high  and  5  feet  across. 

10.  Ndj-eaa,  at  Dvarka,  in  N.W.  India. 

1 1.  Rdm-eavara,  "  the  being  of  Ram,"  at  Setu-bandha,  in  the 

island  of  Ram-isa,  or  Rama,  near  Ceylon,  said  to  have  been 
set  up  by  Rama. 

1 2.  Ohuarin-eaa,  in  Sivalaya. 

When  once  a  lingam  is  established  on  mother  earth  it  must 
never  be  removed  for  any  non-religious  reason.  The  author  had  to 
make  expensive  deviations  of  roads  and  canals,  to  avoid  some  tiny 
lingam,  or  fragment  of  a  lingam,  all  the  more  sacred  for  its  antiquity, 
however  neglected  the  shrine  may  appear.  He  once  offered  in  vain 
to  build  a  far  more  sumptuous  house  for  the  god,  in  order  to  save  such 
a  deviation  :  he  was  told  that  it  would  be  sacrilege ;  and  inspired 
writings  were  quoted  as  denouncing  any  who  removed  this  lingam. 


452  Lingam 

NoDe  were  to  worship  it  if  the  shrine  were  removed,  and  it  must  be 
cast  into  some  holy  tank,  or  river.  It  is  commendable  to  restore  or 
enlarge  such  a  temple,  but  no  part  must  be  pulled  down.  Thb 
objection  was  however  overlooked  when  Aurangz^b  desecrated  the 
Visv-esvara,  and  MaJiiimud  of  Ghazni  that  at  Soma-nath,  because  of 
the  great  renown  of  these  lingams,  though  their  desecrations  were 
lamented.  There  is  no  objection  to  the  removal  of  an  image  to  a  new 
temple  ;  but  a  lingam  is  immovable. 

The  lingam  and  the  Toni  are  indispensable  emblems  at  weddings, 
especially  in  S.  India  (see  Bev.  S.  Mateer,  Jou/mal  Anthrop.  InstiL, 
February  1883,  p.  294),  and  they  are  marked  on  the  ground  bef<»% 
the  couple.     Some  lingam  stones  are  naturalistic  in  design,  others  are 
conventional,  like  the  "  five  faced "  type  (Bivera  of  Life^  ii,  p.  464, 
fig.  14,  plate  xvi),  or  that  of  Ucbah   near  Banda,  also  ''five  faced*' 
(Journal  Bl.  Asiatic  Socy,,  xvii,  pp.  177-198  ;  Ivii,  October   1882)l 
Indian  lingams  are  of  all  sizes  and  shapes,  the  four  commonest  being: 
(1)  the  Human,  (2)  the  Horse,  as  at  Elora  where  Indra  is  the  seven- 
headed  horse  of  the  sun,  (3)  the  Bull,  and  (4)  the  Ovate  lingam  as  at 
Elora  also.      A  smooth  stone  from  the  brook  (see  Isaiah  Ivii,  6)  makes 
a  temporary  lingam  for  the  daily  offering  of  meal  or  rice  by  the 
hamlet,   such   egg   stones   being  usually  set   with   the  pointed  end 
downwards.     In  the  Buddhist  age  lingams  were  disguised  as  tusks  or 
teeth,  like  the  Tooth  of  the  Salsette  caves,  or  that  at  Danta-pura  on 
the  Krishna  river  ;  or  others  at  Puri,  and  in  Ceylon.    Linga  worshipers 
wear  teeth  (usually  of  tigers)  as  charms,  and  the  smaller  the  lingam 
the  more  sacred  it  seems  to  be,  as  in  the  case  of  the  so  called  "  toe  of 
Siva  "  (see  Abu)  which  he  graciously  stretched  out  to  steady  the  quaking 
earth,  in  a  region  still   subject   to  earthquakes.      The   height  and 
diameter    have  no  prescribed   proportions :  the  Deo-Garh   lingam  is 
5  feet  in  diameter,  but  only  4  inches  high  above  the  Argha  base.    The 
Delhi  lingam  is  tooth-like ;  this  we  were  never  able  to  see  as  it  was 
secreted  by  ladies  of  the  Moslem  court.     The  last  emperor,  as  the 
author's  state  prisoner  in   Barmah,  confessed  in  prison  that  he  had 
never  seen  it,  though  he  had  often  beard  of  it  among  the  ladies.     It 
was  a  gem,  studded  with  diamonds  and  rubies,  seized  by  ^^utab-ed- 
Din  when  he  plundered  Delhi  in  1193  A.C.,  having  been  adored  in  it^ 
temple  for  a  thousand  years,  as  a  sure  cure  of  sterility.     It  was  sold 
later  to  Messrs  Phillips  in  London  (Times,  6th  December  1888)  and  is 
described  as  a  cats-eye  fixed  in  a  topaz,  and  mounted  on  a  pyramidal 
base  studded  with  precious  stones,  and  made  of  solid  gold.     The  base 
is  2^  inches  high,  and  at  the  point  of  the  pyramid — which  is  set  with 
diamonds — ^is  a  topaz  about  2  inches  by  ^  inch  in  measurement :  this 


Linga-puja  458 

forms  a  horse-shoe  or  Argha,  Id  which  the  cats-eye  stands,  being  nearly 
an  inch  in  height,  shaped  like  a  pear,  and  of  a  dark  brown  color  with 
an  opalescent  light  in  it.  The  gems  on  the  base  include  a  diamond, 
a  ruby,  a  sapphire,  a  cats-eye,  a  coral,  a  pearl,  a  hyacinth  garnet,  a 
yellow  sapphire,  and  an  emerald — nine  in  all,  besides  those  at  the 
base  of  the  pyramid  itself.  Such  was  the  remarkable  lingam-jewel 
seized  by  Moslems  when  !^utub-ed-Din  destroyed  27  Hindu  shrines. 

All  Saivites  wear  lingam  symbols  of  stone,  bone,  ivory,  or  silver, 
secreted  on  their  persons ;  but  Vira-Saivites  especially,  as  an  ascetik 
sect,  wear  it  in  a  gold  or  silver  case  on  the  neck  or  arm.  They  say  it 
symbolises  the  invisible  world.  Badagas  wear  a  small  black  cone 
concealed,  and  will  not  touch  meat.  Such  Lingaites  need  no  priest, 
but  claim  direct  intercourse  with  deity.  Coins  struck  by  the  Lingaite 
rulers  of  Ealayana  date  from  1160  A.C.,  having  the  lingam  on  one 
side  with  a  snake  coiled  on  it ;  and  on  the  other  the  Lingam  in  Toni 
(Dr  Bidie,  Bengal  RL  Asiatic  Socy.  Journal^  Jany.  1883).  The 
lingam  was  given  to  the  lower  castes  in  the  11th  or  12th  century  (see 
Basava). 

Linga-puja.      Sanskrit :  "  lingam  worship  "  (see  Lingam).     The 

lingam  is  adored,  like  any  other  image,  as  being  the  abode  of  a  god  : 

on  certain  occasions  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth  are  marked  on  its  summit, 

with  the  favourite  local  tilaka  or  "  caste  marks."     This  adornment  is 

done   by  a   priest  behind  a  curtain,  none  being  allowed  to  see  the 

lingam  touched  :  the  marks  are  made  with  sandal  wood  paste,  and 

spices,  by  the  second  and  fourth  fingers  of  the  priest's  right  hand. 

The  service  then  begins  at  sun-rise,  when  the  ahxink  or  conch  shell  is 

blown,  and  the  temple  bells  are  rung.     Trumpets  and  drums  are  also 

used  on  special  occasions.     The  shrine  is  opened  for  the  priests :  the 

lamps  are  lit :  food  for  the  day  is  given  out,  including  a  large  quantity 

for  poor  worshipers,  or  for  those  who  come  from  afar,  and  cannot  cook 

for  themselves.     The  priest  on  duty  for  the  day  prostrates  himself 

before  the  curtain,  or  the  closed  door  concealing  the  lingam,  praying 

for  pardon  and  grace.     He  washes  the  shrine  with  holy  water,  brought 

in  a  gold  or  silver  vessel  by  an  attendant.      It  has  been  brought  from 

the  Ganges,  or  from  some  holy  stream  or  well,  on  a  camel  or  elephant. 

Hymns  and  text«  are  next  chanted  with  equal  reverence,  and  after  this 

the  doors  are  opened  to  the  public,  the  musicians  and  dancing  girls 

play  their  parts,  and  the  priest  cries :  "  Awake,  Lord  of  the  Universe, 

the  world's  joy,  giver  of  all  good  ;  and  accept  our  daily  service  of  song 

and  praise."     Priests  and  attendants  meanwhile  prepare  incense,  and 

offer  fruits,  ghee,  honey,  curds,  rice,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  leaves  of  the 


454  Linga-puja 

betel  nut :  they  purify  sacred  vessels ;  and  they  perform  strange  rites 
with  the  Dub,  or  Durva,  grass,  the  roots  of  which  are  specially  protected 
by  Siva,  as  without  it  cattle  in  India  could  not  live  through  the  hot 
season.  Strands  of  this  grass  are  reverently  placed  by  the  lingam,  or 
*' waved"  before  it — ^as  Hebrews  and  Babylonians  waved  offerings. 
Qum  benzoin,  and  other  sweet  essences  and  herbs,  are  waved  in  like 
manner.  The  temple  floor,  the  vessels,  offerings,  and  sacred  Nandl 
(the  image  of  the  bull  that  kneels  before  the  lingam),  are  respectfully 
incensed  with  a  swinging  censer,  as  well  as  the  foremost  worshipers, 
just  as  in  Boman  Catholic  churches :  sticks  of  camphor  are  often 
placed  in  these  censers.  Leaves  of  the  Bel,  and  of  other  sacred  trees, 
are  used  for  lustrations,  and  are  spread  with  garlands  round  the  lingam 
and  its  Argha :  but  nothing  is  placed  on  the  lingam  itself  unless  the 
doors  have  been  first  closed.  A  small  portion  of  each  offering  is  pla(%d 
before  the  god.  The  worshipers  lie  prostrate,  with  joined  palms, 
repeating  the  prayers  they  hear,  or  uttering  ejaculations  on  their  ovn 
behalf.  Various  prayers  and  chants  are  peculiar  to  each  offering  (as 
among  Christians),  with  various  rites.  The  floors  are  often  adorned 
with  beautifully  colored  diagrams ;  and  when  grain  is  strewn  it  is 
carefully  arranged  in  the  forms  of  marigolds,  daisies,  roses,  etc.,  com- 
bined with  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  mango,  and  with  Kusa  grass,  or 
Dub  grass,  the  attendants  singing  joyfully  meantime,  and  ever  and 
again  clasping  their  hands,  and  turning  their  eyes  to  the  deity. 

Many  of  the  temple  vessels — especially  the  ganta  or  bell — are 
also  worshiped,  with  all  symbols  that  can  drive  away  evil  spirits  (see 
Bells).  A  mystical  rite  is  connected  with  the  Pancha-gavya  or  "  five 
cow  products  "  :  these  are  placed  in  cups — milk  in  the  centre,  cow's 
urine  to  the  north,  ghee  or  butter  to  the  south,  curds  to  the  east,  and 
cow-dung  to  the  west  Each  of  the  five  is  invoked,  the  priest  turning 
in  the  direction  required.  There  are  also  special  rites  for  the  offering 
of  rice,  grain,  and  various  flowers.  Scrupulous  cleanliness  of  person, 
and  frequent  changes  of  garments,  are  required  ;  and  when  approaching 
the  deity  the  breathing  must  be  repressed,  and  the  mouth,  nostrils,  and 
ears  incensed  aud  covered  over.  The  meaning  of  the  lingam  is  well 
understood  by  all,  and  we  have  seen  respectable  elderly  women,  before 
joining  in  the  worship,  salute  the  phallus  of  a  sacred  naked  mendicant 
in  a  temple  porch.  The  same  rite  has  been  described  in  Egypt  among 
modern  Moslems  (Proc.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  Jany.  1886,  p.  78).  But 
neither  the  Hindus  nor  their  lawgivers  see  anything  offensive  or  obscene 
in  this  worship  of  sex  (see  Sir  W.  Jones,  Works,  ii,  p.  311),  and  both 
men  and  women  see  in  the  lingam  only  the  symbol  of  an  universal 
creative  power,  not  connecting  it  with  any  licentious  ideas  at  any  time, 


Liod  465 

and  hoirified  that  common  names,  and  vulgar  language,  should  be  used 
about  the  sacred  emblem.  Saivites  are  ascetiks,  and  the  lingam  is 
Svayam-hhv,  "  the  self-existent,"  or  Aiaandi  **  without  beginning/' 
It  is  the  "  Pillar  of  Fire "  that  burns  but  is  never  consumed  {Siva 
Pnnrdna,  i). 

The  elaborate  and  ornate  rites  require  holy  water,  holy  fire, 
fruits,  flowers,  songs,  music,  dances,  prayers,  and  prostrations,  to  pro- 
duce illusion.  After  such  rites  a  voice  was  heard  crying  "  Om,  Om, 
Om ! "  and  Siva  burst  out  of  the  temple  pillar  as  a  column  of  fire 
(Linga  Pv^rdna,  ch.  16). 

Liod.     Anglo-Saxon  :  "  people  "  (see  Lad). 

Lion.  In  mythology  the  lion  is  an  emblem  of  the  sun  in  full 
strength  at  midsummer.  It  is  a  frequent  symbol  on  early  Hittite 
monuments ;  and  the  pillar  flanked  by  two  lions  is  found  at  Mycenae, 
and  also  at  eight  other  sites  in  Asia  Minor.  The  Akkadian  Nergal 
was  lion-headed,  and  the  Babylonian  Gilgamas  conquered  the  lion  like 
Herakles  or  Samson,  and  wore  its  skin.  Bes  and  Bast  in  Egypt  are 
also  lion-headed.  The  lion  still  existed  as  far  N.W.  as  Thrace  in  the 
time  of  Herodotos.  It  is  the  type  of  the  fierce  sun  that  slays  his  own 
children.  But  be  is  also  the  *'  waterer,"  because  he  fills  the  rivers 
with  melted  snow :  hence  honey  issues  from  the  lion  (see  Bees),  and  a 
lion's  head  is  considered  appropriate  at  a  fountain,  the  water  issuing — 
like  the  bee — from  its  mouth.  The  lion  is  also  an  emblem  of  sterility, 
the  lioness  being  supposed  to  bear  only  one  cub,  and  the  fierce  summer 
heat  drying  up  the  waters.  The  crowing  of  cocks  was  thought  to 
frighten  lions,  and  they  could  not  endure  garlic,  which  is  a  charm 
against  the  evil  eye.  In  the  Florentine  Gallery  the  lion  may  be  seen 
sculptured  as  bearing  the  mundane  phallus,  hung  round  with  types  of 
animal  creation.  The  lion  is  also  a  Christian  emblem  for  both  Christ 
and  Satan. 

Lodur.  A  form  of  Loki  among  Skandinavians  ;  otherwise  Hlodr 
or  Lodder,  a  fire  god,  represented  helmeted  and  sword  in  hand.  He 
imparts  blood  and  ruddy  complexion  to  mankind,  aiding  Odin  and 
Henir  in  their  creation.  Lodur  will  also  finally  consume  the  world 
with  fire. 

Logos.  Greek:  "word,"  ''reason,"  "method,"  "cause."  It 
answers  to  the  Hebrew  Ddba/r,  "  word,"  "  method,"  *'  act."  In  the 
Zendavesta  (see  Bee)  Honover  is  the  personified  word  of  God,  which 
was  incarnate  in  Gushtasp.  This  term,  as  used  in  the  New  Testament, 
came    to    educated    Jews    from    Greek    philosophy ;    and   the  Logos 


466  Logos 

answered  to  their  conception  of  wisdom  (Hokmab),  as  uttered  by  God^ 
and  existing  in  God  from  the  beginning.  The  author  of  the  fourth 
Gospel  was  a  Jew  acquainted  with  Palestine;  but,  whether  writing 
from  Ephesus  or  from  Alexandria,  was  also  acquainted  with  Platonic 
philosophy.  He  begins  his  gospel  by  a  philosophic  paraphrase  of  the 
first  chapter  of  Genesis,  seeking  (like  Philo  or  Josephus)  to  reconcile 
Jewish  and  Greek  conceptions,  and  identifying  his  Lord  as  the  Incar- 
nate Cause,  Word,  or  Wisdom  of  God.  Philo  had  already  called  tlte 
Logos  "  Thought,  Expression,  the  Energy  of  Wisdom  ;  a  manifestation 
of  intelligence,  secret,  remote,  and  wonderful :  a  pure  influence  flowing 
from  the  glory  of  the  eternal :  Brightness  and  everlasting  Light :  the 
unspotted  mirror  of  the  power  of  God,  and  the  image  of  his  goodness : 
incarnated  spirit  (or  spirituality) ;  and  the  companion  and  propitiator.*' 
The  Logos  was  in  fact  the  Holy  Ghost  who  inspired  Jesus  (see  further 
Spirits). 

Pythagoras  spoke  of  a  '*  spirit,  light,  or  life,  pervading  all  things ; 
a  god  vivifying  the  universe — a  light  of  heaven,  and  father  of  all« 
producing,  and  giving  motion  to  his  own  immensity/'  Parmenides 
(500  B.C.)  speaks  of  the  Logos  as  a  deification  of  Reason,  in  which  he 
urged  men  to  trust  rather  than  in  the  senses  or  the  imagination  (Prof. 
L.  Mills,  RL  Asiatic  Socy.  Jotimal,  Oct.  1902).  Anaxagoras  (460 
B.G.)  is  said  by  the  Greeks  to  have  been  the  first  to  recognise  the 
Logos.  Herakleitos  of  Ephesus  (450  B.C.),  and  others,  spoke  of  the 
Logos  as  a  powerful  and  eternal  heat  or  fire,  without  which  there  is 
no  life  or  motion.  He  regarded  it  as  the  Beason,  and  eternal  Law,  of 
motion  in  the  strife  of  the  elements,  dividing  and  uniting.  By  such 
strife  alone  life  becomes  possible.  The  Logos  as  Cause,  Fate,  Creator, 
or  Reason,  directs  all  such  conflict  The  term  was  familiarised  by  the 
writings  of  Plato  about  350  B.C. :  and  his  philosophy  was  adopted  by 
Philo  (50  B.C.)  the  Alexandrian  Jew.  Philo  knew  the  idea  of  an 
Incarnate  Diviue  One  (see  Philo)  who  would  ''mediate  between  God 
and  man."  "  The  head  and  sum  of  propitiation,"  he  said,  "  resides  in 
the  holy  Logos,  in  which  when  one  dwells  one  does  not  directly  reach 
the  Infinite  God,  as  he  is  in  essence,  but  one  sees  him  as  from  afar.  The 
divine  Logos,  manifesting  itself  on  a  sudden,  brings  an  unexpected  joy, 
as  being  about  to  become  way-companion  to  the  desolate  soul."  Jast 
.so  does  a  Christian  canon  say  "  Christ  is  one  with  God — the  com- 
panion and  friend  of  man."  Philo  adds  •  "  The  man  who  follows  Qod 
does  of  necessity  enjoy,  as  the  companion  of  his  way,  the  words  {Logoi) 
which  are  his  attendants,  whom  we  are  wont  to  call  angels.  .  .  .  Those 
who  are  unable  to  bear  the  sight  of  God  regard  his  image— bis  Mes- 
senger or  Logos — as  himself." 


Logos  467 

These  teachiogs  then  shed  light  on  the  opening  paragraph  of  the 
fourth  Gospel  (John  i,  1-15).  "In  the  beginning  was  the  Cause 
(Logos),  and  the  Cause  was  with  Qod,  and  God  was  the  Cause.  This 
was  first  with  God.  All  things  were  made  by  it,  and  without  it 
nothing  that  was,  was  made.  In  it  was  life,  and  the  life  was  the  light 
of  men ;  and  the  light  shone  in  the  darkness,  and  the  darkness  did 
not  surround  it.'*  The  word  Logos  occurs  194  times  in  the  four 
Gospels  and  Acts,  generally  meaning  "  word/'  but  in  some  cases 
"  reason,"  or  "  cause,"  or  "  method.'*  Tyndale  in  his  prologue  to  the 
fourth  Gospel  said,  in  our  1 6th  century :  ''  The  Word  or  Thing  was 
at  the  beginning.  ...  It  was  made  flesh  :  that  is  to  say  became 
very  man,  and  dwelt  among  us,  and  we  saw  his  glory." 

Zeno  (in  the  3rd  century  B.c.)  wrote  about  the  "  Logos  through 
all  things  "  ;  and  Virgil  {Jin.,  vi,  724)  believed  in  an  "  animus-mundi,"^ 
or  soul  of  the  world,  of  which  (says  Dr  Bryce  in  his  notes,  p.  146) 
"  the  human  soul  was  held  to  be  an  emanation — a  spark  from  the 
parent  fire."  Inasmuch  as  the  Logos  was  thus  regarded  as  a  fire,  or 
a  light  (the  fire  of  immortality  which,  according  to  the  Persian  scrip- 
tures, brings  the  pious  dead  again  to  life)  it  is  perhaps  not  remarkable 
thai  our  own  ancestors  appear  to  have  confused  the  Logos  (brought  to 
them  by  Greek  monks)  with  their  own  deity  Loki,  the  god  of  fire 
and  light ;  and,  according  to  the  Earl  of  Southesk,  the  '*  Priest  of 
Lug  "  on  the  Newton  stone  represents  this  confusion  (Socy.  of  Antiq. 
Scotland  Proc.,  1885,  p.  33).  "The  revived  Druidism,''  he  adds, 
"  which  appears  in  its  final  struggle  .  .  .  after  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Roman  legions  (in  400  A.C.)  as  set  forth  in  the  Poems  of  Taliesin  of 
the  7th  century,  is  a  religion  offering,  in  many  points,  a  wonderful 
analogy  to  the  ancient  Persian  tenets." 

Mr  A.  Lang  (Longman's  Mag,,  December  1901,  p.  191),  gives 
a  peculiar  instance  of  these  mixed  ideas.  A  north  Lincolnshire  farmer 
used,  when  a  boy,  to  be  sent  by  his  mother  to  dispense  quinine  to 
rheumatic  neighbours  (about  the  middle  of  the  19th  century);  but 
one  old  dame  rejected  it  for  her  grandson  with  scorn,  and  showed 
him  her  own  prescription  at  the  foot  of  the  bed.  *'  On  the  bottom 
board  were  fixed  three  horseshoes — points  upwards,  with  a  hammer 
laid  '  sloshways '  over  them.     Taking  it  in  her  hand  she  said — 

•  Fey ther,  Son,  an'  Holy  Qhost 
Naale  t'owd  divvel  tow  this  poast. 
Thrice  I  stroikes  with  holy  crock. 
With  this  mell  I  thrice  da  knock. 

One  for  God 

An'  one  for  Wod 

An'  one  for  Lok,' " 


468  Logos 

Mr  Lang  says  that  this  is  "  an  extraordinary  mingle-maDgle  of  old 
Norse  Paganism  and  Christianity — Thor's  Mell  (or  hammer),  and 
Christ's  Cross ;  the  Christian  Trinity,  and  Thor,  Woden,  and  Loki." 
[The  author  supposes  that  Lok  may  here  refer  to  the  Logos,  a 
word  derived  from  the  Aryan  root  lAig  "  to  call " :  since  the  Logos 
was  also  the  fire,  heat,  and  light,  of  the  world;  while  Loki  is 
from  the  Aryan  root  LvJc,  whence  "  light,"  and  the  Latin  luks  or 
lux. — Ed.] 

The  Jews  of  the  3rd  century  B.C.,  identified  the  Wisdom  of  the 
Book  of  Proverbs,  and  Job,  with  the  Logos,  as  we  see  in  the 
"  Wisdom  of  Jesus  Ben  Sirab,"  where  we  read  (ix,  1),  that  God  made 
ail  in  his  Logos — or  wisdom — and  that  wisdom  made  man.  Jerome 
believed  this  work  to  have  been  written  by  Philo  (which  is  hardly 
confirmed  by  the  discovery  of  the  Semitic  original);  but  even  the 
'earliest  date  is  later  than  the  time  when  Buddha  said  that  wisdom 
<iivides  darkness  from  light.  The  Logos  was  a  masculine  noun, 
whereas  Wisdom  was  feminine  in  both  Hebrew  and  Greek  (see 
Contemporary  Review,  May  1876);  but  the  Holy  Ghost  is  re- 
presented as  either  masculine  or  feminine  (see  Spirits).  In  the 
Talmud  the  Logos  (Dabar  or  "  word  "),  becomes  a  **  tower  of  light "  (see 
Mimra) ;  and  Wisdom  (see  Adam  Eadmon),  is  one  of  the  emanatious 
of  Deity  (Franks,  La  Cabbala,  p.  178),  The  Alexandrians — Greek  and 
Jewish — knew  much  that  is  now  lost  to  us  as  to  this  symbolism  ;  and 
Paul,  like  the  author  of  the  fourth  Gospel,  might  gather  much  from 
the  philosophers  of  Tarsus,  and  Ephesus,  or  from  Philo.  The  com- 
parison between  the  views  of  this  Jewish  philosopher  and  the 
language  of  the  New  Testament  has  been  clearly  stated  by  the  Rev. 
J.  W.  Lake ;  and  according  to  Baur  the  writers  of  the  Targums  (4th 
century  A.C.  and  later),  identified  the  "  word  of  Yahveh "  with  the 
Shekina  or  "  presence  "  of  God. 

PhUo,  New  TeitameiU, 

The  Logos  is  the  most  ancient  of  beings.    The  first  horn  of  all  creation.    Colos.  i, 

15. 
The  first  begotten  of  God.  The  first  hegotten.    Heb.  i,  6. 

The  image  and  likeness  of  €rod.  The  image  of  the  invisible  God.    Coiod. 

i,  15. 
-Superior  to  the  angels.  Better  than  the  angels.    Heb.  i,  4. 

The  instrument  by  which  the  world  was    By  whom    also    he  made    the  vorlds. 

created.  Heb.  i,  2  (1  Cor.  viii,  6). 

The  Light  of  the  World.  The  true  light    John  i,  9. 

The  Logos  only  can  see  Grod.  He  hath  seen  the  Father.    John  vi,  46. 

The  Logos  is  esteemed  the  same  as  (rod.     The  Logos  was  God.    John  i,  1  (see  Heb. 

i,8). 


Loh  459 

It  is  without  sin  :  the  Christ  without  spot.    Heb.  iz,  14  : 

Seal  of  God«  Christ  the  Seal.     Gphes.  i,  13  (see  John 

vi,  27). 
The  source  of  immortal  life.  In  him  is  life.    John  i,  4. 

The  true  high  priest.  Christ  the  high  priest.   Heb.  iv,  14  ;  vii, 

26. 
The  Companion  and  Propitiator,   who    The  Holy  Spirit  is  the  Paraclete,  or 
stands  between  man  and  Grod,  whom  Comforter  (John  xiv,   26),   or  the 

no  man  can  understand.  Advocate  (1  John  ii,  1). 

The  Logos,  in  short,  was  the  Jewish  philosophical  conception 
which  harmonised  their  idea  of  divine  wisdom  with  the  Greek  idea 
of  a  reason  or  cause. 

Loh.  The  ruined  city  of  Tdl-Loh  ("  tablet  mound  "),  represents 
the  ancient  Zirgul,  the  name  of  which  survives  hard  by  in  the  village 
of  ZirghuL.  It  stands  on  the  Shat  el  Hai,  between  the  Tigris  and 
the  Euphrates,  S.E.  of  Babylon.  It  was  excavated  by  M.  de  Sarzec 
in  and  after  1887  ;  and  the  fine  granite  statues  of  Gudea,  covered  with 
Akkadian  texts  of  historic  value,  were  brought  thence  to  the  Louvre. 
Door  sockets  of  diorite,  statues  of  alabaster,  tablets,  and  other  re- 
mains, were  also  found  in  the  ruins,  which  include  the  remains  of  a 
great  Ziggurat,  or  stepped  pyramid,  of  burnt  brick  like  the  Birs 
Nimrud  at  Borsippa,  outside  Babylon. 

According  to  the  Babylonians  of  the  6th  century  B.C.,  Dungi, 
King  of  Ur,  lived  about  2800  B.C.  The  Zirgul  texts  show  that  Gudea 
was  his  contemporary,  being  a  Patesi,  or  subordinate  ruler,  the  oflSce 
being  apparently  hereditary,  and  probably  given  to  princes  of  the 
royal  house:  for  Urban,  father  of  Dungi,  appears  both  as  a  Patesi 
and  also  as  a  king  of  Ur.  Other  names  of  princes — or  perhaps  titles 
— occur  at  Zirgul,  at  Nipur,  and  at  Susa,  which  have  been  supposed 
to  represent  an  ancient  dynasty;  but  the  dates  and  succession  of 
these  are  at  present  uncertain,  as  no  list  resembling  that  of  the 
Babylonian  kings  is  known  to  exist.  [These  names  or  titles  include 
Ur-nina  ("servant  of  Nina"),  A-kur-gal  ("son  of  the  great  Lord"), 
Ba-du  ("  the  one  who  causes  work  "),  Urukagina  ("  hero  of  the  world  "), 
Entena  ("  lord  of  the  shrine  "),  En-annadu  ("  the  heaven-sent  prince  "), 
Nam-uru-ni  ("  of  heroic  appearance  "),  Urban  ("  worshipper  of  Ban  "), 
Gudea  ("spirit  of  power"),  and  Ur-ninib — the  servant  of  the  god 
•called  Adaru  by  Babylonians.  As  in  the  case  of  Maanistusu  (men- 
tioned at  Susa  and  elsewhere),  it  is  often  doubtful  if  these  names  are 
to  be  considered  personal. — Ed.]  Fragments  from  a  temple  of 
E-annadu  ("  the  house  sent  from  heaven  "),  exist  in  the  Louvre,  on  which 
texts  A-kur-gal  appears  as  the  name  of  the  king.     The  Zirgul  texts 


460  Loka 

are  treated  by  Col.  Conder  (Quarterly  Stat.  Pal.  Expl.  Fund,  April 
1893),  and  they  show  that,  in  the  reign  of  Dungi,  the  power  of  Ur 
extended  over  N.  Syria,  while  granite  was  brooght  from  Magan 
(probably  Sinai)  in  ships,  and  gold  dust  from  Melukhkha  (probably 
Upper  Egypt) :  Oudea  prince  of  Zirgul  represents  himself  as  ruliog 
from  the  "sea  of  the  high  land"  {A-ahha  Siniynr-ta),  to  the  ''lower 
sea'*  {A'ohba  Sigga),  perhaps  meaning  from  the  Caspian  to  the 
Persian  Qulf ;  or  otherwise  "  from  the  sea  of  Elam  to  the  sea  of 
sunset,"  which  would  be  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Mediterranean. 
The  granite  of  his  statues  is  the  same  diorite  found  in  SinaL 

Urban  and  his  son  Dungi  built,  at  Zirgul,  a  temple  to  Nin-gir-su 
(or  Ningirsir),  a  title  of  doubtful  meaning :  [perhaps  "  lord  of  the 
pyramid,"  or  perhaps  "lord  of  the  long  sword" — ^En.].  The 
dedication  tablet  is  to  "  Nin-gir-su  the  mighty  power,  king  of  the 
deep.  I  the  faithful  servant  of  Nina,  receiving  power  from  Ningirsa : 
I  the  Fatesi  favoured  by  Aku  and  Istar  (moon  deities),  by  the  lad?  of 
the  tree  of  life,  the  lady  of  the  mountain  top,  the  lady  of  the  silver 
bow,  the  home-blesser,  by  Dumzi  (the  sun),  by  the  lady  of  sunset 
(inscribe  this),  to  En-lil,"  that  is  to  the  "spiritual  lord,"  usually 
identified  with  Ba'al.  Prince  Gudea,  in  other  texts,  records  the 
bringing  of  cedars  from  Lebanon,  gold  from  Mount  Khakhum,  hard 
stone  from  Magan,  gold  dust  from  Melukhkha,  building  stone  from 
the  Minya  mountains,  marble  from  the  west,  copper  and  silver  from 
Ka-gal-adda,  which  seems,  from  the  Susa  texts,  to  have  been  in  Elam. 
His  ships  must  have  circumnavigated  Arabia,  and  the  artistic  and 
building  capacity  of  these  Turanians  is  clearly  indicated.  The  hairless 
faces,  high  cheek  bones,  and  slanting  eyes,  on  statues  and  bas-reliefs, 
show  the  Mongol  character  of  the  race  equally  with  the  language  of 
the  texts,  in  an  age  when  Semitic  tribes  had  not  as  yet  attained  to 
power  in  Babylonia.  Gudea  also  relates  his  vision,  his  founding  of 
the  temple  on  soil  not  rendered  impure  by  any  tomb,  and  the  endow- 
ments which  he  established  for  the  maintenance  of  the  shrine  (see  M. 
Amiaud*s  translations,  Rec.  of  Past,  New  Series,  ii,  pp.  78-109). 
One  statue  has,  on  the  lap  of  the  seated  figure,  a  plan  of  the  city, 
with  a  scale  attached,  which  was  no  doubt  intended  as  a  standard. 
This  scale  probably  gives  the  length  of  the  cubit  used  by  the 
Akkadians,  which  the  Babylonians  may  have  adopted,  and  of  their 
foot  of  10*53  inches. 

Loka.      Sanskrit :     "  the    world "    (see    Latin    locwm   "  place "). 
Every  Hindu  god  has  his  Para-loka  or  heaven. 

LokL      The  Skandinavian  god  of  fire.     [From  the  old  root  Luk. 


Lokman  461 

• 

Akkadian  lakh  '*  bright " :  Egyptian  lekhu  ''  fire " :  Aryan  Ink 
"*  shine":  Hebrew  lavakh,  Arabic  lah,  "shine/* — Ed.]  He  is 
generally  an  evil  god,  though  in  Soemund's  Edda  Loki  reminds  Wodin 
of  his  former  blood  covenant  saying :  "  Dost  thou  forget  Odin  when, 
in  early  days,  we  blended  our  blood  together/*  He  is  a  devouring 
fire,  and  is  to  arise  in  the  day  of  Ragnarok  (see  Edda),  to  consume 
the  wicked.  He  is  the  enemy  of  the  sun  god  (see  Baldur),  and  allied 
to  the  powers  of  hell. 

Lokman.  The  traditional  founder  of  the  empire  of  the  Ad 
people,  who  established  the  great  irrigation  tank  of  M'arib  (see 
Arabia,  and  Esop).     Fables  are  attributed  to  him  by  Arabs. 

Lono.  The  third  of  the  Polynesian  triad — Kane,  Ku,  and  Lono 
(see  Hawaii):  he  controls  thunder,  rain,  and  darkness.  In  1778 
Oapt.  Cook  found  him  to  be  symbolised,  at  Hawaii,  by  a  pole  with  a 
knob  at  the  top,  placed  on  a  mound. 

LOSIIE.  A  form  of  Luna,  "  the  moon,"  in  ancient  Italy. 
Probably  from  the  same  root  Luk  (see  Loki).     Otherwise  Lucna. 

Lotus.      See  Pad  ma. 

Love.     See  Kama. 

Lox.     A  deity  of  American  Indians  (see  Eskimo). 

Lu.  An  ancient  term  for  "man."  Akkadian  lu,  Barmese  lu 
■**  man " :  Mongol  ulvi  "  people."  Perhaps  connected  with  the 
Turkish  root  ol  "to  be."  In  Etruskan  also,  lu-cumo  means  a  "noble" 
[Akkadian  lii  "  man,"  gum  **  ruler." — Ed.] 

LucillE.  Latin  :  "  bright."  A  godess  who  is  now  represented  by 
Santa  Lucia.  She  protected  the  blind,  and  brought  babes  to  light. 
Her  festival  was  on  the  13th  of  December,  but  that  of  Sta.  Lucia  is 
now  held  about  the  20th  December.  She  is  represented  holding  a 
babe,  and  she  was  a  form  of  Juno,  and  of  Diana.  Santa  Lucia  also 
has  a  day  on  the  15th  of  September,  when  none  must  work  at  night, 
•or  their  work  will  be  found  undone  again  in  the  morning.  The  red 
"  lady  bird "  is  her  emblem  (see  Beetle),  and  also  sacred  to  St 
Nicholas  (see  Prof.  A.  de  Gubernatis,  Zool.  MythoL,  i,  pp.  212-214). 

Lucretius.  The  famous  Soman  philosopher,  T.  Lucretius  Carus, 
was  bom,  according  to  later  accounts,  about  94  B.c. :  but  earlier  if  he 
was  44  when  he  died  from  the  effects  of  a  love  philtre,  administered 
to  him  apparently  about  55  B.c.     He  is  known  as  the  founder  of  the 


462  LUCUS 

"  atomic  theory/'  which  however  was  known  earlier  about  420  U, 
in  Greece  (see  Demokritos),  and  to  the  "laughing  philosopher "  (ser 
Empedokles),  and  the  **  poor  schoolmaster  of  Samos  "  (see  Epikouros. 
The  great  poem  of  Lucretius  ('*  De  Rerum  Natura,"  or  **  On  the 
Nature  of  Things")  was  written  200  years  after  the  death  (& 
Epikouros.  It  urges  the  abandonment  of  superstition,  and  reliance 
on  the  laws  that  govern  all  things.  Lucretius  insists  that  "  ex  nihilo 
nihil  fit/'  or  "  nothing  is  the  only  product  of  nothing/'  and  that  what 
is  once  existent  can  never  become  nothing.  All  things  consist  of 
atoms  which  are  indestructible,  which  form,  separate,  and  reform 
according  to  affinities  governed  by  laws.  Prof  Tyndall  (at  Bel&st  io 
1874)  said  that  Lucretius  "  combatted  the  notion  that  the  constitution 
of  nature  has  been  in  any  way  determined  by  intelligent  design/' 
believing  that  infinite  time  alone  was  needful  to  render  every  kind  of 
combination  possible,  as  far  as  the  affinities  allow ;  and  that  all  tbiiigs 
come  about  spontaneously,  or  mechanically,  without  the  inter- 
ference either  of  gods  or  of  chance.  "  His  vaguely  grand  conception 
of  atoms  falling  eternally  through  space  suggested  the  nebular 
hypothesis  to  Kant,  its  first  propounder."  He  recognised  no  forces 
separate  from  matter,  and  was  thus  a  Monist,  regarding  "mind" 
as  a  function  of  matter,  but  denying  any  conscious  continuity  ud- 
connected  with  cellular  individuality,  in  passing  from  life  to  death. 
He  said  : 

'*  This  All  consists  of  Body  and  of  Space. 
This  moves,  and  that  affords  the  movement  place. 
But  some  dull  souls  think  matter  cannot  move 
Into  fit  shapes  without  the  Powers  above. 
And  therefore  fancy  that  the  gods  did  make, 
And  rule  this  All.    How  great  is  their  mistake  ! " 

'*  'Tis  death  alone  dissolves  and  breaks  the  chain. 
Scattering  all  things  to  their  first  seeds  again. 
Tis  plain  that  souls  and  minds  are  born  and  grow, 
And  all,  by  age  or  accident,  decay  as  bodies  do." 

LuCUS.  Latin  :  "  a  wood."  The  origin  of  the  word  is  uncertain 
(see  Lu  "  to  be,"  and  Lad  or  Ludh  "  to  grow  "). 

Lud.  Lydia.  The  Ludim  of  the  Old  Testament  (Gen.  x,  13) 
were  probably  inhabitants  of  Luden  or  Ruten,  the  Egyptian  name  for 
Palestine  and  Syria;  but  Lud  (verse  22)  appears  to  be  Lydia,  on  the 
E,  shores  of  the  Aig^an  Sea,  opposite  Greece.  The  Lydian  kings 
(called  Heraklidai)  claimed  descent  from  Ninus  son  of  Bel  (Herod.,  i,  7), 
which  suggests  a  Babylonian  origin,  such  as  is  supposed  for  Lud  in 


Luk  46a 

the  Bible.  Yet,  earlier,  the  Etruskans  set  out  from  Lydia  (i,  94)^ 
and  many  rude  Hittite  monuments,  with  Hittite  seal  cylinders  are 
found  in  Lydia  (see  Etruskans).  The  Lydians  also  had  temple  women 
(i,  93)  like  the  Babylonians  (see  Kadesh),  and  used  brick.  Their 
later  coins  (of  electrum,  or  gold  mixed  with  silver)  were  commensurate 
with  Babylonian  weights  ;  and  votive  double  axes  are  found  in  Lydia,. 
as  well  as  in  Karia,  in  Rrete,  and  among  Hittites  (see  Erete).  Lydian 
history,  however,  begins  with  the  Aryan  dynasty  of  Gyges,  who  is^ 
mentioned  by  Assur-bani-pal  of  Assyria  about  660  B.c.  as  Gugu  of 
the  Ludi,  who  was  a  tributary  of  Assyria.  Lydian  power  increased 
with  the  decay  of  Nineveh ;  and  Gyges  was  followed  by  Ardys, 
Sadyattes,  Alyattes,  and  finally  by  Crcesus,  who  was  famous  for  his 
wealth  and  power,  meeting  Cyrus  on  the  Halys  river  in  546  B.C., 
when  he  was  defeated,  having  till  then  ruled  over  nearly  the  whole  of 
Asia  Minor  (see  Kuras).  The  population  of  Lydia  seems  to  have  been 
first  Turanian  (as  represented  also  by  the  "  short-headed  "  skull  in  the 
lowest  strata  at  Troy),  and  afterwards  partly  Semitic.  Some  Lydian 
words  are  non- Aryan,  and  apparently  Turanian,  others  are  Aryan,  and 
the  later  kings  worshiped  the  Phrygian  Attys  (see  Atus). 

Luk.      An  ancient  root  for  "  light "  (see  Loki). 


\.  LryCSeUS.  A  title  of  Apollo,  and  of  Pan,  worshiped 
on  sacred  Lukaian  hills.  [The  root  may  be  Luk  '*  light/'  or  othervdse 
connected  with  Lucus  a  "  grove." — Ed.]  Those  who  entered  the  cave- 
shrine  of  Pan  must  remain  a  year,  or  were  stoned  and  hunted  as  stags. 
They  were  said  to  lose  their  shadows,  which  connects  the  name  with 
the  idea  of  "  light." 

Lrllkaon.  Lycaon.  A  son  of  Pelasgos,  or  of  Argeus,  at  Luko- 
soure,  changed  into  a  wolf  (lukos),  because  he  offered  human  flesh  to 
Zeus.     From  him  sprang  the  Titan  enemies  of  the  gods. 

LukEStOS.  A  son  of  Minos  and  Itone  in  Erete.  He  was  fabled 
to  have  married  Mt.  Ida,  and  Lukatos  in  Erete  is  connected  with  his 
name,  which  may  come  from  the  root  Luk  for  *'  light." 

LukCi  Gospel  of.  The  Greek  Loukas.  He  is  traditionally 
the  author  of  the  third  gospel,  "  according  to  Loukas,"  and  identified 
with  Loukios  of  Eurene  (Acts  xiii,  1),  a  companion  of  Paul  (Rom.  xvi,, 
21),  and  with  Loukas  (Colos.  iv,  14)  "the  beloved  physician,"  also  a 
comrade  of  Paul  (2  Tim.  iv,  11 ;  Phil.  24).  The  writer  who  addresses 
Tbeophilos  in  the  first  verses  of  Acts,  and  of  the  third  gospel,  does  not 
give  his  name ;  and  if  the  two  books  be  by  the  same  author,  yet  the 


464  Luke 

inclusion  in  Acts  of  passages  written  by  a  companion  of  Paul  wonld 
not  suffice  to  settle  the  date  of  either  composition.  The  writer  doe& 
not  claim  either  inspiration  or  early  date :  he  says  that  as  '*  maoy 
have  taken  in  hand  to  set  forth  in  order  a  declaration  of  thoee  things 
which  are  most  surely  believed  among  us,  even  as  they  deliv^ed 
them  unto  us,  which,  from  the  beginning,  were  eye-witness^  and 
ministers  of  the  word ;  it  seemed  good  to  me  also,  having  had 
perfect  understanding  of  all  things  from  the  very  first,  to  write  to 
thee  in  order"  (Luke  i,  1,  2).  He  appears  therefore  to  wish  to  sifr 
the  traditions,  and  to  state  those  most  commonly  believed  (see  (JospekV 

It  is  waste  of  time  to  consider  legends  common  to  many  rude 
peoples,  and  which  educated  persons,  as  Bacon  said,  *'only  believe 
that  they  believe."  Luke  and  Matthew  agree  best  when  stating 
matters  to  be  found  in  Mark.  They  both  believed  in  the  Virgin 
birth  of  Christ,  but  their  traditions  are  contradictory.  In  Lake  we 
find  the  story  of  the  shepherds  and  other  legends — ^like  those  of  the 
Annunciation  and  of  the  walk  to  Emmaus — peculiar  to  this  gospel 
Marcion,  however,  seems  to  have  had  a  copy  which  did  not  include 
the  first  chapter — perhaps  a  later  addition  conflicting  with  other 
passages  (ii,  41 ;  iii,  23).  The  legend  of  Virgin  birth  attaches  to 
Zoroaster,  Buddha,  Plato,  Alexander,  and  many  other  heroes,  as  well 
as  to  Christ,  and  is  abandoned  even  by  dignitaries  of  the  Church  of 
England  (see  Tirnea,  3rd  to  23rd  November  1902). 

St  Luke  has  the  bull  as  his  emblem,  and  at  Charlton,  near 
London,  a  ''  horn  fair  "  is  still  held  on  St  Luke's  day.     (See  Marcion.) 

Lrllke.  Lyce.  A  child  of  Artemis  Lukeia,  to  whom  Hippolutos, 
son  of  Theseus,  built  a  mountain  shrine  at  Troizene  in  Aigolis  (see 
Loki). 

LukiE.  LyciE.  A  small  promontory  in  the  S.W.  of  Asia- 
Minor,  well  sheltered  on  the  land  side  by  almost  inaccessible  moun- 
tains, and  suited  for  a  brave  race  extending  its  commerce  seaward. 
Herodotos  speaks  of  the  original  inhabitants  as  Milui,  with  legends  of 
a  Lukos  and  a  Sarpedon.  These  were  replaced  by  the  Tremilse  or 
Termilae,  mentioned  also  in  the  great  inscription  of  Xanthos — their 
seaport — written  about  400  B.C.  Homer  speaks  of  Lukians  with 
Solumoi,  and  with  Bellerophon.  They  are  thought  to  have  been 
originally  Semitic  (see  Lud).  The  region  is  famous  for  its  rock-cat 
tombs,  and  its  bas-reliefs  of  Greek  type,  including  the  "  Harpy  tomb " 
near  Xanthos.  The  Kuklopes  (or  "  round  faced  "  people)  from  Lycia 
were  said  to  have  built  the  walls  of  Mycenas,  which  are  of  that 
**  Cyclopean  "  (unsquared)  masonry,  found  also  in  Etruria  and  through- 


Lukos  465 

out  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  and  still  in  use  even  in  Roman  times. 
Apollo,  and  bis  mother  L^to,  had  a  great  shrine  at  Xanthos ;  and 
Greeks  borrowed  much  from  the  Ljcians.  The  Lycian  custom  of 
tracing  descent  from  the  mother,  instead  of  the  father,  is  one  found 
chiefly  among  Turanians,  in  India  and  elsewhere.  The  character  of 
their  later  art  may  be  seen  from  the  remains  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  Chimsera,  with  its  three  heads  of  goat,  dog,  and  lion,  is  con- 
spicuous in  Lycian  mythology.  The  language  of  the  TremilsB  is 
discussed  by  Col.  Conder  {Journal  EL.  Asiatic  Socy.y  October  1891), 
who  establishes,  by  comparative  study  of  grammar,  inflexions,  and 
vocabulary,  and  by  aid  of  Greek  bilinguals,  the  fact  that  it  is  an 
Iranian  dialect.  He  compares  it  with  the  Yannic,  Medic,  and  Persian, 
establishing  the  £.  Aryan  affinities  of  the  race,  which  was  mingled 
with  the  Greeks  before  the  conquest  of  Lycia  by  Harpagos  (see  Kuras). 
[The  meaning  of  the  name  Lukia  is  uncertain.  Possibly  ''  low  lying  " 
(see  Ligues). — Ed.] 

Lukos.  LyCUS.  Lupus.  A  "  wolf,"  in  Greek  and  in  Latin. 
There  is  often  a  confusion  between  this  word  and  words  for  **  light "  and 
for  "  grove  "  (see  Loki  and  Lucus),  or  else  a  play  on  the  resemblances 
of  sound.  [Lukos  may  be  connected  with  the  Akkadian  Lig  "  dog," 
from  the  old  root  meaning  "  to  lick " :  and  Lupus  from  Lah  **  to 
loll " ;  both  referring  to  the  distinctive  lolling  tongue  of  canine 
species. — Ed.]  In  classic  mythology  wolves  are  both  good  and  bad. 
The  she-wolf  of  the  Lupercal  cave  nourished  the  twins  Bomulus  and 
Remus,  and  the  legend  is  told  of  Tartar  heroes,  while  Cyrus  also  is 
nourished  by  a  bitch.  In  India  the  belief  in  wolf-nourished  children 
still  survives.  An  iron  wolf  stood  before  the  altar  (called  Lukoreia) 
of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  Deukalion  founded  the  shrine,  being 
guided  by  the  howling  of  wolves  (see  Floods).  More  usually  the 
wolf  is  an  emblem  of  darkness,  winter,  and  hunger.  His  ears  loom 
on  dark  horizons ;  his  shadow  is  fatal  to  women  with  child.  Horace 
records  that  the  wolfs  glance  turned  men  to  stone  (with  terror) ;  and 
the  wolf  was  a  favourite  form  taken  by  wizards  and  evil  spirits. 
Hence  arose  the  dread  of  the  "  lycanthrope,*  or  "  wolf-man,"  common 
in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  especially  in  the  16th  century  in 
France.  [Italian  peasants  still  believe  in  the  '' uomo-cane,"  or 
"  man-dog,"  with  a  shining  forehead,  whom  dogs  howl  at  by  night 
But  in  the  Norman  tale  of  "  William  and  the  Wolf,"  about  1200  A.C., 
the  "  were- wolf "  is  beneficent  to  the  hero. — Ed.]  The  fox,  and 
jackal,  are  allied  to  the  wolf,  all  hating  the  dog  who  is  man's 
friend.  The  Norse  Edda  relates  that  two  wolves  vowed  to  devour 
2g« 


466  Lukumo 

the  sun  and  moon,  and  were  pacified  only  by  the  gift  of  the  sans 
daughter.  Wolves  will  take  the  forms  of  sheep,  of  shepherds,  of 
priests,  or  of  penitents.  The  wolf  in  the  old  woman's  house 
deceives  and  devours  ''Bed  Riding  Hood/'  who  is  however  rescned 
from  its  belly — a  myth  of  darkness  and  of  the  aurora.  The  priesu 
of  Ceres  were  called  wolves ;  and  pious  wolves,  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
aided  the  Inquisition  by  devouring  heretics.  They  could  be  exorcised 
and  would  then  go  about  singing  psalms,  and  shepherding  the  flocks 
Strong  heroes  were  proven  by  resisting  the  wolfs  bite,  and  the  Aurora 
was  said  to  clothe  herself  in  the  wolfs  skin«  A  bad  woman  wbs 
called  "  lupa  "  or  "  she-wolf,"  and  everywhere  the  wolf  was  the  type 
of  treachery  and  violence. 

Lukumo.     See  Lu. 

Luna.  LunUS.  The  female  and  male  moon,  in  Latin,  from  the 
root  Luk  (see  Loki)  :  for  Lucna,  see  Losna. 

Lupercalia.  The  great  Italian  festival  first  of  Pan,  afterwards 
of  Jove,  Apollo,  or  Luciua  It  began  in  the  middle  of  February,  at 
the  season  of  the  first  ploughing.  The  Luperci  priests  then  sacrificed 
goats  to  Apollo,  and  smeared  the  blood  on  the  feuses  of  young  men 
to  make  them  strong.  The  elders  next  gave  them  wool  dipped  in 
the  blood,  and  in  milk,  with  thongs  of  hide ;  and  the  youths  ran  stark 
naked  through  town  and  country,  whipping  all  the  women  they  met — 
brides  especially  were  pleased,  as  the  beating  was  supposed  to  ensure 
offspring.  The  women  then  offered  sacrifices  to  Juno,  and  to  Luperca 
the  godess  of  pregnancy.  Cicero  accused  Antony  of  so  running  naked 
when  he  was  a  consul ;  and  Augustus  forbade  any  lad  over  14  years 
of  age  to  perform  these  rites. 

Luzi.  The  Persian  name  for  Gipsies,  first  given  to  wandering 
minstrels  and  conjurors  who  were  sent  (according  to  Firdusi)  from 
India  about  420  A.C.,  as  a  present  to  Shah  Behram  Ciaur  (see 
Gipsies). 

Luther.  Martin  Luther,  the  famous  son  of  a  miner,  was  bom 
at  Eisleben  in  Thuringia,  10th  November  1483,  and  became  a  student 
at  Erfurt  in  1501.  Shocked  by  a  comrade's  death  he  retired  to  an 
Augustine  monastery,  in  1505.  Studying  the  Bible  he  found  it 
impossible  to  get  a  complete  copy.  In  1507  he  was  made  a 
Professor  in  the  new  Wittenberg  University,  and  his  lectures 
became  fetmous.  Visiting  Rome  he  was  disgusted  with  the  greed, 
immorality,  ignorance,  and  tyranny,  of  the  Roman  Church  of  which 


Luther  467 

«11  Europe  was  then  complaining.     In   1512  he  received  the  degree 

of  Doctor  of  Divinity.    His  study  of  the  Latin  Bible  had  led  him  to 

the  belief  that  the  Christian  faith  had  become  corrupted.     In  1517 

Xieo   X,  intent  on  building  the  great  cathedral  of  St  Peter,  issued 

indulgences   which  were    sold    in   Germany   by  Tetzel,  a   shameless 

mountebank,  and  a  Dominican.     Luther  denounced  the  traffic  in  a 

thesis  which  received   very  general    popular  approval,   though  con- 

•demned  by  the  emperor  and  the  clergy.     Leo  X — a  highly  educated 

Medici  of  liberal  views,  who  bad  caused  the  Psalms  to  be  translated — 

did  not  understand  the  critical  conditions  of  Qerman  thought  as  to 

Church  scandals.     He  ordered  Luther  to  Rome;    but  the  bold  monk 

refused  to  enter  the  lion's  den,  and  compared  Leo  himself  to  "  Daniel 

among  the  lions."     At  Augsburg,  in  1518,  Luther  was  charged  not 

only   with  opposing  the  indulgences,  but  also  with  declaring  that 

obe^lience  without  Faith  was   not  enough    to  secure  the  benefits  of 

the    communion.       The  Bull  issued    against  him  in    Rome,  on  the 

15th  of  June,  was  publicly  burned  by  Luther  at  Wittenberg  on  the 

10th  December  1520.     He  was  summoned  before  the  Diet  of  Worms 

in  January  1521,  under  safe  conduct  from  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 

[Luther's  contention  is  clearly  explained  in  the  last  words  of  his  Latin 

speech  at  Worms.     "  I  cannot  submit   my  faith   to  either  Pope  or 

-Councils,  since  it  is  as  clear  as  day  that  they  have  fallen  into  error, 

and  even  into  great  contradictions  with  themselves.     If  then  I  am 

not  convinced  by  testimonies  of  scripture,  or  by  evident  reasons  :    if 

I  am  not  persuaded  by  the  very  passages  I  have  cited :    and  if  my 

conscience  is  not  made  captive  by  the  Word  of  God ;  I  can  and  will 

retract  nothing.     For  it  is  not  safe  for  a  Christian  to  speak  against 

his  conscience."     To  this  he  added  in  Qerman  :  "  Here  I  stand.     I 

<»n  no  otherwise.     God  help  me.     Amen." — Ed.] 

The  emperor  denounced  him,  as  the  Pope  had  done,  calling  him 
**  not  a  man  but  Satan  himself."  On  leaving  Worms  he  was  carried 
away  to  a  castle  of  the  friendly  Elector  of  Saxony.  He  appeared  in  a 
year's  time  at  Wittenberg,  with  a  complete  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  German.  He  had  been  accused,  at  Worms,  of  denying  not  only 
the  Pope's  authority,  but  also  the  Papal  doctrine  of  Free-will ;  and 
Erasmus — the  friend  of  princes — controverted  his  view  in  1524  (see 
Free-will).  On  11th  June  1525  he  married  Catherine  von  Bora,  an 
escaped  nun,  to  the  horror  of  priests.  The  great  "  Protest "  dates  from 
1526,  and  the  '' Confession  of  Augsburg"  was  drawn  up  by  his  peace- 
able friend  Melancthon  (Schwartz-erde)  in  1530.  In  1535  Luther's 
German  Bible  was  published,  and  Protestantism  was  tolerated  at  the 
Diet   of   Spires  in    1544,   when  the    emperor  was  in  sore  need  of 


468  Lycia 

Protestant  aid  against  the  invading  Turks,  Pope  Leo's  attempt  to 
rouse  a  Crusade  having  entirely  failed.  Luther  lived  to  see  the 
calling  of  a  Council  which  he  had  always  demanded,  and  died  on 
18th  February  1546.  But  the  Council  was  not  representative  of 
anything  but  Roman  Christianity.  Neither  Protestants  nor  anj 
Eastern  Christians  were  represented.  It  met  at  Trent  on  13tk 
December  1545,  and  it  lingered  on  till  4th  December  1563,  when  it 
endorsed  Papal  dogmas  (see  Creeds),  thus  stereotyping  Roman  teaching. 
[Don  Francisco  Vargas,  a  good  Catholic,  wrote  to  a  bishop  aboat  tbi» 
Council  as  follows :  "  Words  and  persuasions  do  signify  but  little  in 
this  place,  and  I  suppose  are  not  of  much  greater  force  at  Rome; 
these  people  having  shut  their  eyes,  vrith  a  resolution,  notwithstanding 
all  things  should  go  rack,  not  to  understand  anything  that  does  not 
suit  with  their  interests." — Ed.] 

Luther  set  up  an  infallible  Bible  against  an  infallible  Pope.  He 
insisted  on  Faith  because  Works  had  come  to  mean  taxation*  He 
agreed  with  Paul  that  the  Will  was  enslaved  by  sin,  while  Aristotle — 
who  said  that  it  was  free — ^was  followed  by  Erasmus  and  the  Pope. 
He  distrusted  Reason,  and  even  said  it  should  be  destroyed  in  every 
Christian.  He  believed  in  miracles  and  in  devils,  and  threw  his  ink 
bottle  at  Satan  on  one  occasion  when  he  saw  him.  He  was  dogmatic 
as  a  theologian,  and  violent  in  language;  and  he  had,  naturally 
enough,  no  knowledge  of  true  science.  But  he  fought  on  the  side  of 
freedom.  Cardinal  Newman  on  the  other  hand  said  to  his  flock: 
'*  Avoid  inquiry,  it  will  lead  you  where  there  is  no  light,  no  peace,  do 
hope  .  .  .  only  into  the  black  pit  where  is  perpetual  desolation." 
Mrs  Besant  said  to  Dr  Pusey :  "  I  must  find  out  for  myself  what  is 
true  " ;  and  his  reply  was :  ''  It  is  not  your  duty  to  ascertain  the  truth. 
The  responsibility  is  not  yours,  so  long  as  you  accept  what  the  Church 
has  laid  down."     (But  see  Church.) 

Lycia.     See  Lukia. 

Lydia.     See  Lud. 

M 

The  letter  M  interchanges  with  N,  L,  and  F :  and  when  joined 
to  these  is  often  not  sounded. 

Ma.     See  Am.     An  ancient  word  for  "  mother  "  and  "  being," 

Ma.     A  name  of  Kubel6,  or  "mother  earth":  Akkadian  Ma, 
Finnish  ma  "  abode,"  "  earth." 


Mace  469 

IMace.  See  Danda,  Dor-jS,  Rods.  A  club,  originally  carried  by 
those  who  guarded  officials  :  the  club  of  Hercules  is  often  an  euphuism 
for  the  phallus :  French  mache^  mcissue  :  Latin  nuitea  "  mallet" 

Madagascar.     See  Malagasis. 

Madai.  Medes.  See  Ekbataua,  and  Euras.  The  Med^  are 
noticed  N.  of  Assyria,  by  Shalmaneser  II,  as  early  as  840  B.C.  (seie 
Oen.  X,  2  :  Isa.  xiii,  1 7).  We  know  little  of  them,  except  that  Medic 
names  are  Aryan,  as  are  Medic  words  such  as  Bag  "god,"  and 
Spaka  "  bitch."  They  are  said  to  have  been  very  luxurious,  and  to 
have  painted  their  faces.  They  already  held  the  lands  S.W.  of  the 
Kaspian  in  the  reign  of  Tiglath  Pileser  II  of  Assyria,  about  735  6.C. 
In  this  region  however  Darius  I  set  up  his  Behistun  text  in  three 
languages,  Persian,  Semitic,  and  Turanian.  Hence  Dr  Oppert  supposes 
the  *' Proto-Medes "  to  have  been  a  Turanian  race,  akin  to  the  old 
population  of  Susa  further  south,  and  to  the  Akkadians.  They  never 
appear  to  have  formed  any  empire,  or  to  have  ruled  outside  Media ; 
for  Cyrus  was  a  Persian. 

Madhavacharya.  This  great  Brahman  was  a  Yishnuva 
reformer  about  1200  A.c. ;  he  was  born  at  Udupi,  60  miles  N.  of 
Mangalor,  and  there  educated  by  priests  of  Anant-isvara.  He  opposed 
the  Pantheistic  doctrine  of  A-dvaita  ("  not  dual "),  then  taught  by  the 
great  Yedik  scholars  Yyasa,  and  Sankaracharya  :  he  called  Vishnu  the 
**  supreme,"  and  regarded  man's  soul  as  part  of  that  of  God.  He  was 
long  prime-minister  of  the  Kaja  of  Yijaya-nagar,  and  had  a  dis- 
tinguished brother  who  shared  his  views.  They  opposed  the  Saivite 
sects,  and  some  of  their  views  were  so  near  to  Christian  doctrines  as  to 
be  thought  derived  from  the  West ;  but  both  wrote  commentaries 
on  the  Yedas,  and  studied  the  Hindu  philosophies  of  the  6th  and  7th 
centuries  B.c. 

Madava.     Sanskrit :  ''  mad,"  a  title  often  of  Siva  and  KalL 

Madhava.     Krishna  as  slayer  of  a  demon  Madhu. 

Madhneh.  Arabic  :  "  place  for  hearing."  The  proper  term  for 
a  Mindrahy  "  li^t-tower  "  or  minaret,  as  being  the  place  whence  the 
Muedhdhin  ("  he  who  causes  to  hear ")  chants  the  call  to  prayer  for 
Moslems  (see  Minaret), 

Madra.  A  familiar  Dravid  name  for  Siva,  or  for  one  of  his  four 
^ons,  whence  the  name  of  Madras. 

Mag.     An  ancient  word  for  "  great."    [Akkadian  Makh  "  great "  ; 


if 
I* 


470  Magadha 

Turkish  makh  **  noble  "  ;  Aryan  magh  **  great "  ;  Hebrew  moH 
"noble";  Assyrian  maJchkhu  "great." — Ed.]  Herodotos  speaks  of 
Magoi  as  a  Medic  tribe ;  but  in  the  great  inscription  of  Darius  the 
Magi  appear  as  priests.  Darmesteter,  in  his  introduction  to  the  Zend 
Avesta  {Sacred  Books  of  East,  iv),  says  that  the  word  Magus  is  con* 
nected  with  the  Yedik  MagJia,  and  with  godliness,  whence  Magos  in 
Greek  meant  a  priest. 

Magadha.  The  land  of  the  Ikshvaku  or  "  sugar-cane  "  dynasty 
from  Patala  on  the  Indus,  in315or312  B.c.  The  main  events  con- 
nected with  this  region  are  fairly  ascertained  as  follows  : — 

Accession  of  Palaka  in  Gujerat,  and  death  of 

Maha-Yira  the  Jain  saint  .  .        527  B.a 

Death   of  Palaka,  who  was  followed   by  nine 

Nanda  princes  (155  years)  .  .       467 

Accession  of  Cbandra-gupta  the  Maurya  316 

Accession  of  Asoka,  grandson  of  the  last  263 

End  of  the  Mauryas  .  .  .  .207 

Puspa-Mitra,    Bala-Mitra,    and    Nara-Vapana, 

kings  of  Gujerat  and  the  West,  for  130 

years  till  .  .  .74 

Death    of    Garda-bhilla,    successor    of    Nara- 

Yapana.    Scythians  enter  India  .  61 

Samvat  Era.     Eramaditya  expels  the  Saka  or 

Scythians  .  ,  .  .  56     „ 

Eramaditya,  King  of  Ujjain,  is  succeeded  by  his 

son       .  ... 

Saka  Era.     Eanishka,  emperor 
Bala-Mitra  "  the  pious  "  accedes 
The  Chauras  attain  to  power  . 
Chalukyas  attain  power  first  under  King  Mula- 

raja  (who  reigned  55  years) 
Chalukyas  move  South 

Magadha  was  a  Buddhist  empire  from  260  B.C.  till  our  9tb 
century.  This  was  indeed  still  the  state  religion  of  Mahi-Pala  in  1026 
A.C. ;  or  till  the  Moslem  conquest  according  to  General  Cunningham  (see 
India).  In  1199  "the  monasteries  were  destroyed,  and  the  monks  put 
to  death."  Buddhist  texts  in  mediaeval  characters  attest  this  view 
(see  Arch.  Survey  Report^  iii,  p.  119  ;  and  Dr  Waddell,  Beng,  Boyd 
Asiatic  Socy.  Journal,  Jan.  1892).  Local  tradition  at  Uren,  near 
Mungir,  attributes  the  destruction  of  the  temples  to  Patban  soldien  in 


fp 


*» 


29 

A.C. 

78 

>> 

128 

»» 

228 

99 

941 

99 

1241 

■  • 

Ma-gan  471 

1195.  Befaftr  traditions  point  to  the  dominance  of  non-Arjan  Cherus 
in  Magadha  in  the  same  age  (Mr  Edgar,  Fortnightly  Rev.,  June 
1880). 

Ma-gan.  Akkadian :  "  ship  enclosure."  Apparently  a  port 
whence  Qudea,  about  2800  B.C.,  brought  granite  to  Zirgul  (see  hob). 
In  later  Assyrian  texts,  of  the  7th  century  KC,  it  is  placed  on  the 
borders  of  Egypt,  and  may  have  been  at  Suez. 

Maggie*  In  mythology  a  bird  of  omen,  whence  the  common 
saying:  "One's  joy:  two's  grief:  three's  a  wedding:  four's  death." 
Teutons  regarded  it  as  a  bird  of  evil  omen,  to  be  killed  between 
Christmas  and  Epiphany.  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  ii)  says  that  they  some- 
times die  if  they  are  unable  to  speak ;  and  Italians  call  the  bird  gazza, 
as  the  '*  publisher  "  of  secrets.     They  were  sacred  to  Bacchus. 

Mah.   Mas.     The  moon  as  *'  measurer  "  in  Aryan  speech. 

Maha.     Sanskrit :  **  great "  (see  Mag). 

Maha-bali-pur.  **  Great  Bali  town  "  (Mr  Chambers  in  Asiatic 
Res.,  i :  Muir's  Sanskrit  Texts,  iv,  p.  133  :  Indian  Antiq,,  Feb, 
1881).  A  city  connected  with  the  war  of  Vishnu  in  his  5tb  Avat&ra 
against  Bali,  and  noticed  in  the  Ramayana,  and  in  the  Bhagavat 
Purana.  It  is  now  best  known  as  the  ''Seven  Pagodas,"  having 
remains  of  celebrated  rock-cut  temples.  It  lies  35  miles  S.  of  Madras, 
It  was  a  sacred  place  down  to  our  2nd  century,  traditionally  founded 
by  Ban-asura,  son  of  Bali.  Siva  guarded  the  gates  of  this  monarch's 
capital  when  war  was  caused  by  the  seduction  of  Bali's  daughter  by 
the  grandson  of  Krishna.  But  Krishna  cut  off  "  the  thousand  arms  of 
great  Bali,  all  save  two,"  and  he  died  at  Dvara,  while  prince  Mali-* 
Cheren  seized  Maha-Bali-pur,  and  restored  its  magnificence.  It  was 
independent  till  conquered  by  the  Palavas  in  our  7th  century.  The 
chief  Jain  and  Buddhist  shrines  belong,  according  to  Mr  Fergussoui  to 
about  this  period,  the  inscriptions  being  in  Sanskrit,  and  not  in  Tamil, 
as  they  would  have  been  later.  The  peculiarly  long  apses  of  these 
temples  connect  them  with  those  of  Barhut,  as  early  as  the  2nd 
century  B.C.  One  bas-relief  is  covered  with  Naga  serpents,  and 
measures  90  feet  in  length  by  40  feet  in  height.  The  later  name 
Ma-mala-pur — if  not  merely  a  corruption — may  mean  "great  Mala 
town"  (see  Bev.  W.  Taylor,  Madras  Govt.  Publications,  Historical 
Papers,  1869 — the  Seven  Pagodas,  pp.  111-117).  The  Malas  came 
S.  in  502  A.C.  (see  Malis). 

Maha-Bharata.     "  Great  Bharata."     The .  Hindu  epik,  named 


472  Maha-Bharata 

after  Bbarata,. ruler  of  Bbarata-VarBha  or  India.  In  addition  to  the 
fierce  wars  described,  it  presents — as  we  now  have  it — ^a  pictore  of 
social  and  political  life,  with  profound  religious  speculations  (see 
Bhagavad-Qita,  and  Krishna).  It  is  a  great  source  for  history,  tradi- 
tion, and  folk-lore.  Bharata  was  an  incarnation  of  Yisva-Mitra,  a 
warrior  (Kshatriya)  who  ''worked  his  way  up  to  Brahman-hood.*' 
The  epik  is  mentioned  in  the  Asvata-Yama  Sutra,  and  in  the  writings 
of  Fanini— or  about  the  5th  or  6th  century  RC;  and  is  called  "the 
Fifth  Veda."  Dr  John  Muir  says  that :  "  The  date  of  the  ancient  epic 
.  .  .  cannot  be:  determined  with  certainty,  and  it  is  no  doubt,  in  its 
present  form,  made  up  of  materials  dating  from  very  different  periods. 
Prof.  Lassen  is  of  opinion  (Indiache  AUerthums  Kvmde,  i,  589,  2Dd 
edit.)  that,  with  the  exception  of  pure  interpolations,  which  have  no 
real  connection  with  the  substance  of  the  work,  we  have  the  old  storr 
of  the  Maha-bharata  before  us  in  its  essential  elements,  as  it  existed 
in  the  pre- Buddhist  period,  i.e.  several  centuries  before  Christ.  The 
subsequent  additions  he  considers  to  have  reference  chiefly  to  the 
exclusive  worship  of  Vishnu,  and  the  deification  of  Krishna,  as  an 
incarnation  of  that  deity  (p.  58G).  .  .  .  Prof.  Qoldstttcker  {Chambers's 
Cyclopcedia)  has  the  following  remarks.  *  That  this  huge  oomposition 
was  not  the  work  of  one  single  individual,  but  a  production  of  successive 
ages,  clearly  results  from  the  multifariousness  of  its  contents,  from  the 
difference  of  style  which  characterises  its  various  parts,  and  even  from 
(^ntradictions  which  disturb  its  harmony.' " 

Hindus  believe  that  it  was  known  in  3000  ac,  and  represents 
the  India  of  that  time.  The  language,  like  that  of  the  earliest  Rama- 
yana,  is  said  to  be  that  of  Vedik  writings — but  these  also  were  not 
written  down  till  about  500  B.C.  No  exhaustive  study  has  however 
been  yet  scientifically  carried  out  of  its  contents.  Throughout  the 
^pik  a  strong  tone  of  priestly  prejudice  and  of  dogmatic  Brahmanism 
is  to  be  noted,  inculcating  restraints  especially  as  regards  food,  drink, 
and  female  freedom.  The  old  polyandry  is  condemned ;  for  though 
Draupadi  marries  the  five  Pandu  princes,  it  is  against  her  will,  as  she 
is  lauded  for  virtue  and  wisdom.  It  is  however  clear  from  the  last 
book  (Hari-Yansa)  that  the  sexes  mixed  fireely  in  public ;  they  feasted, 
and  danced,  and  bathed  together ;  they  ate  buffalo  meat,  if  not  cow's 
flesh,  as  well  as  venison  and  birds ;  and  drank  strong  drink.  Com* 
munal  feasts  resembled  those  of  Sparta  and  Erete,  and  such  conditions 
of  society  were  quite  unknown  in  the  time  of  Buddha.  Yet  in  other 
parts  of  the  work  we  find  accounts  of  a  superior  civilisation  on  the 
plains  of  the  Ganges  and  Jamuna,  with  study  of  philosophy  and 
mystical  religious  speculation.      The  supposed  author  (or  compiler) 


Maha-Deva  473 

Vyasa,  says  that  he. gleans  from  ancient  and  later  discourses,  tales,  and 
legends.  He  introduces,  with  King  Indra-prasta,  a  sage  who  teaohes 
logic  and  philosophy  from  six  treatises.  We  need  not  then  wonder  at 
Vyasa's  having  accomplished  a  poem  of  215,000  lines — a  work  20 
times  the  length  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  or  7  times  as  long  as  the 
Iliad. 

The  hero  of  the  poem  is  Hari,  incarnate  as  Krishna ;  and  Hari 
was  known  to  Megasthenes,  the  Greek  ambassador,  about  300  B.C. 
The  9th,  or  Buddha,  incarnation  of  Vishnu  is  never  noticed.  Brah- 
manism  throughout  'exalts  itself  above  other  castes,  whereas  in 
Buddha's  age  it  aimed  only  at  piety  and  good  life.  The  latest  critic, 
Dr  Dahlemann  (1895),  places  the  composition  of  the  epik  as  late  as 
the  5th  century  B.c.  The  Bhagavad  Gita  is  regarded  as  still  later. 
Krishna,  after  much  metaphysical  discourse,  is  made  to  prophecy  that 
*'  in  the  latter  days  Truth  will  fail :  Atheists  will  abound  :  the  life  of 
man  will  be  shortened,  class  rising  against  class,  father  against  son, 
and  wives  against  their  husbands:  that  the  temples  will  be  ruined: 
that  low  castes  will  preach,  and  Brahmans  be  their  followers ;  but 
that  when  sin,  ignorance,  and  misery  prevail  there  will  be  floods,  signs 
in  the  heavens,  and  then  a  mighty  fire  will  consume  all,  and  on  the 
ruins  a  new  world  will  arise,  aud  Kalki  appear  on  his  white  horse  " 
{see  Elalki).  This  recalls  the  beliefs  of  Persians  and  Jews,  about  500 
B.C.,  or  later,  but  in  some  respects  may  be  ancient,  tracing  to  a  common 
Aryan  belief  (see  Loki). 

Maha-Deva.     "  Great  god,"  a  name  of  Siva. 

•  -  * 

Maha-nama.  A  king  of  Ceylon  (410  to  432  A.C.,  according  to 
Tumour)  very  celebrated  in  Buddhist  history  (see  Maha-vansa  and 
Buddha-ghosha)/ 

Maha-rajas*.     See  Gosains  and  Yallabhacliarya. 

'    Maha-rattas.      See  Rattas. 

Maha-sena.  "Great  leader":  a  name  of  Siva's  warrior  son 
^artikeya:  also  of  a  king  of  Ceylon  (275  to  302  A.C.)  famous  in 
Buddhist  history  (see  Max  MuUer,  Buddha-ghosha' a  Parables, 
Introd.,  si).     See  Maha-vansa. 

Maha-at.  Mahat.  Sanskrit :  "  the  great  one,"  Brahma  ;  and 
a  form  of  the  first  divine  man  (see  Purusha). 

•    Maha-atma.    •  Sanskrit:  '* great  soul,"  or  "noble-minded."'    A 
title  for  Yogi  or  SanySsi  ascetiks. 


474  Maha-vansa 

Maha-vansa.  Sanskrit:  ''^ great  genealogy/'  a  Buddhist  sacred 
history  in  Pali  speech.  The  first  part,  down  to  the  reign  of  Haba- 
sena  (275  to  302  A.a),  was  written  by  Maha-nama,  King  of  Ceylon 
(410  to  432  A.C.),  beginning  with  the  first  known  king  of  the  idaod 
in  540  B.C.  (see  Anuradha-pur).  The  second  part  was  begun  by  order 
of  King  Pra-krama-bahu  in  1266  A.C.,  and  continued  down  to  1728 
A.C.,  when  Buddhist  history  in  Ceylon  ceases.  The  epik  (as  Prof. 
Weber  calls  it)  opens  with  the  landing  of  Prince  Vijaya  with  700 
men  in  Lanka — or  Ceylon — he  having  been  banished  by  his  fistther, 
Siha-bahu,  King  of  Lala.  Vishnu  appeared  to  him  sitting  under  a 
tree,  as  Upala-vana,  the  deity  of  Ceylon,  in  the  form  of  an  ascetik, 
who  baptised  the  prince  and  his  followers  with  water  from  his  own 
pitcher,  and  then  vanished,  after  tying  threads^  as  charms,  round  their 
arms.  The  followers  of  Vijaya  however  were  b^uiled  by  Taksha 
(or  Naga)  females,  who  shut  them  up  in  a  cave  ;  for  Kuvera  then  ruled 
Lanka  (see  Kuvera) :  the  prince  obtained  their  release  by  aid  of 
Vishnu,  and  married  the  beautiful  chief  Yakshini,  and  also  a  daughter 
of  Pindava,  king  of  Madura,  whom  the  Yakshini  slew. 

Maha-vali-pur.     See  Maha-BaU-pur. 

Maha-vira.  "The  great  man":  the  last  of  the  Jain  Tir- 
thankaras  (see  Jains),  whose  real  name  was  apparently  Vardhmana. 
He  is  frequently  mentioned  with  Gotama  Buddha  in  Gaura  Sanskrit 
inscriptions  of  caves  sacred  to  Nag-Arjuna,  which  date  from  about  150 
B.C.  to  the  2nd  century  A.C.  The  Jain  legend  represents  his  soul  to 
have  passed  through  six  lives,  being  bom  finally  of  the  virgin  Trisala 
affianced  to  Siddhartha,  of  the  Ikshvaku  dynasty — a  prince  of  Bavana 
He  would  appear  to  have  been  born  (about  598  B.C.)  near  Vaisali,  the 
capital  of  Videha,  and  to  have  been  related  through  his  mother  to 
the  ruling  dynasty  of  Magadha^  He  appears  to  have  lived  at  home 
till  the  death  of  his  parents,  when  his  elder  brother,  Nandi-Vardhana, 
succeeded  as  a  prince.  At  the  age  of  28  he  became  an  asoetik, 
and  led  a  life  full  of  austerities  for  12  years  under  a  Sal  tree  on 
the  bank  of  the  Biju-paliku  river,  where  he  maintained  complete 
silence  for  the  first  9  years,  and  after  the  first  went  completely  naked* 
Thus  he  attained  to  Kevala,  or  "perfect  knowledge,**  and  then 
wandered  as  a  teacher  of  Jain  philosophy  even  among  the  wild  tribes 
of  the  land  of  Badha.  He  was  rq^arded  as  omniscient,  and  called  a 
Jina  or  a  Maha-vIra,  titles  also  given  to  Gotama  Buddha.  He 
exhorted  all  to  purity  of  heart  and  life,  and  suppression  of  all  passions. 
He  bade  them  not  to  hurt  anything  that  has  life,  whether  beast»  bird, 
fish,  insect,  or  even  plant :  not  to  resist  evil  or  to  retort  abuse,  but  to 


Maha^Vira  475 

overcome  evil  with  good.  He  was  believed  to  have  fasted  for  several 
months,  sitting  in  silence  with  his  eyes  fixed  on  his  nose  (see  Hyp- 
notism) :  during  this  time  Indra  posted  a  Yaksha,  or  angel,  beside  him 
to  watch  over  his  safety  and  to  speak  for  him.  He  disapproved  of 
self-torture,  but  was  willing  to  submit  to  tortures  inflicted  on  him  by 
others.  After  many  years  Indra,  and  Sakra,  visited  him  under  the 
tree,  and  set  a  pulpit  there  from  which  he  might  preach,  a  model  of 
which  appears  in  several  Jain  temples.  He  called  the  world  an  ocean, 
into  the  depths  of  which  our  bodies  (Jiva)  are  continually  sinking, 
because  of  our  ignorance  and  impurity :  our  spirits  however  can 
ascend  if  we  are  assiduous  in  virtuous  life,  harmless,  and  cherishing 
others  rather  than  ourselves. 

liaha-vira  was  in  fact  a  Jain  Buddha,  and  is  mentioned  in 
Buddhist  works,  under  his  well-known  name  of  Nata-putta,  as  the 
head  of  Jains  or  Nirgrantbas  (Pali  Nigantas),  and  as  a  rival  of  his 
contemporary  Qotama  Buddha.  Like  Qotama  he  combatted  the 
Brahmans  of  Magadha,  or  won  ihem  to  his  teaching.  The  canonical 
books  of  the  Jains  mention  his  victory  over  Qosala,  son  of  Makkhali, 
and  call  the  place  where  he  died,  at  the  age  of  70  years,  Papa — a 
small  town.  He  spent  the  rainy  seasons  in  M&gadba,  but  travelled 
as  far  N.W.  as  Sravasti,  and  to  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas.  The 
names  of  the  11  Ganadharas,  or  apostles  of  the  faith,  are  given  in  the 
Kalpa  Sutra.  The  legend  says  that  Sakra,  and  other  deities, 
performed  his  funeral  rites  burning  his  body ;  and  that  they  built 
the  shrine  where  his  disciples  placed  his  ashes,  bones,  and  teeth.  At 
his  death  many  miracles  occurred,  and  his  whole  life  is  transformed 
into  a  legend.  We  have  often  tried  to  ascertain  real  facts  from 
learned  Jains,  about  this  fanatical  but  no  doubt  good  YOgi.  He  is 
called  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  24  Jinas,  or  Tirtbankars,  but  we 
learn  nothing  about  the  others.  In  the  Ramayana,  Eama-Chandra 
stigmatises  the  precepts  of  Rishi  Jabali,  as  those  of  Arhats  or  Jainas 
(see  AnjuTnavri'Panjdb  Journal,  21st  Aug.  1885)  which  may  indi- 
cate a  date  before  500  B.C. ;  and,  in  the  Bhagavat,  Rishabha,  the  first 
Jina  is  said  to  have  been  an  incarnation  of  deity  respected  by  all 
Hindus.  Buddha  himself  seems  to  have  come  under  Jain  influence, 
though  he  advanced  beyond  their  ideas.  Both  Jains  and  Buddhists 
believe  in  the  approach  to  a  divine  life  through  abstraction,  and 
intense  thought  (see  Yoga).  The  complete  legend  of  Maba-vira  is 
given  in  the  Maha-bir-charita,  answering  to  the  Buddhist  Lalita- 
Vistara.  Both  masters  founded  ascetik  orders,  but  Jains  never 
attained  to  the  second  stage  of  Buddha's  teaching  (see  Pref.,  Sacred 
Books  of  the  Eadf  xxii,  by  Dr  Hermann  Jacobi).     The  Jains  believe 


476  Maha-yana 

that  Siddartha — father  of  Maha-vira — was  a  powerful  monarch,  but 
be  appears  to  have  been  no  more  than  a  provincial  ruler,  allied  to 
Gbetaka,  King  of  Vaisali,  by  his  marriage.  The  later  extension  of  the 
empire  of  Magadha  permitted  the  rapid  spread  of  both  the  Jain  and 
the  Buddhist  systems  (about  260  B.C.)f  and  As5ka  in  early  edicts 
proclaims  toleration  of  all  sects.  Maha-vira's  followers  were  specially 
numerous  in  Yaisali,  which  is  equally  famous  in  the  history  of  Buddha 
But  we  must  remember  that  Jain  books  may  have  incorporated 
Buddhist  traditions. 

Maha-yana.  Pali:  "great  vehicle."  The  later  High  Church 
Buddhism  of  the  reign  of  Ejinishka  (10  to  78  A.C.),  when  the  original 
simplicity  was  corrupted,  by  ritualism  and  pagan  superstition. 
Tibetan  Buddhists  of  this  school  teach  that  neither  matter,  spirit, 
nor  conduct  (Karma)  is  self-created :  they  are  all  properties  of  the 
One  and  unchangeable  being,  the  living  force  being  never  separated 
from  some  form  of  matter.  They  speak  of  countless  Buddhas  who 
have  become  Tathagatas  ("gone  on  the  way"),  and  have  attained 
"  perfect  purity,"  which  is  one  meaning  of  Nirvana  (see  Buddha). 

Mahdi.  Arabic :  "  guided  one."  The  name  of  the  religious 
guide — ^a  Moslem  Messiah — who  is  expected  to  appear  in  the  last 
days,  and  will  be  *'  guided  "  by  God. 

Mah^Endra.  Maha-Indri.  Names  for  the  Sakti  (female 
power,  or  consort)  of  Indra,  delighting  in  sacrifices  of  blood,  and  in 
wine,  thus  indicating  the  influence  of  older  nature  worship  on  the 
cultus  of  the  Vedik  Indra. 

Mah-esha.  Sanskrit.  "Great  being.''  A  demon  in  bafialo 
form  destroyed  by  the  godess  Durga. 

Mah-eshvara.  Mah-Mandala;   ''gre^t  spirit."   Titles  of 

Siva  as  Creator.  Near  Serampur  we  have  mingled  with  100,000 
of  his  devotees  at  the  Jaga-nath  festivals ;  but  Asoka  is  said  to  have 
made  40,000  converts  to  Buddhism  at  his  temple  in  Maha-mandala, 
the  ancient  capital  on  the  Narbada  river. 

Mahi.  Sanskrit ;  "  great  one  "  (feminine)  :  the  "  great  mother," 
or  earth. 

Mahila.  Sanskrit :  the  "  great  round  one  "  ;  a  title  of  P&rvati, 
wife  of  Siva, 

Mahina.  The  son  of  the  Emperor  Asoka,  and  the  first  great 
Buddhist   missionary  (see  Asoka),  is  said    to   have   gone   with  his 


Maia  477 

sister  SaDgha-mitta-(" friendly  to  the  order")  to  Ceylon  in  260  B.c.9 
converting  princes  and  peoples,  and  translating  into  the  Ceylon 
language  the  scriptures  of  northern  Buddhists.  Mahina's  principal 
work  was  the  At-tha  E[atha,  or  "  Commentaries " ;  and  be  is  said 
to  have  planted  the  Bo  tree  of  Ceylon  (see  Anu-radha-pur).  He  was 
probably  converted  as  a  child  in  Ujjain,  when  his  father  was  as  yet 
only  a  Viceroy :  with  him  he  went  to  the  court,  at  Patali-putra,  when 
10  years  old,  and  at  20  he  joined  the  Sangha  or  "order"  of  Buddha, 
leaving  shortly  after  for  Ceylon  as  an  ascetik  (Beal,  Bvd,  Lit.^  p.  46). 
The  faith  seems  to  have  been  already  known  in  the  island  (Oldenberg, 
Bud.^  p.  75).  This  prince  was  severely  ascetik;  and  magnificently 
carved  caves  are  believed  to  have  been  hewn  for  him  by  the  king  and 
nobles  of  Ceylon* 

Maia.  A  name  for  Eub€lS  as  "  mother  earth  "  (see  Ma).  She 
is  also  variously  called,  in  classic  mythology,  a  mother  or  a  daughter 
of  Hermes,  a  wife  of  Hephaistos,  and  one  of  the  Pleiades  beloved  by 
Zeus  (see  Maya). 

Maimonides.  The  Greek  form  for  Ben-Maimon,  the  name  of 
the  great  Jewish  rabbi  and  philosopher  Babbinu  ("  our  lord "),  or 
Kambam,  Moshe,  son  of  Maimon.  He  is  called  ''  the  second  Moses," 
and  the  "  second  Ezra " ;  he  was  bom  at  Cordova  in  Spain  (then  a 
great  centre  of  Moslem  learning)  in  1135  A.C.  (30th  March) :  and  he 
died  at  Cairo  in  Egypt  in  1204  (12th  Dec).  He  is  also  known  as 
had-Daiydn  or  **  the  judge."  Maimonides  is  said  to  have  professed 
Islam  at  one  time,  to  avoid  persecution  :  he  was  a  very  broad  minded 
man,  and  a  philosopher  of  the  school  of  Philo  or  Josephus  (as  regards 
the  allegorical  treatment  of  Bible  miracles  and  legends),  greatly  influ- 
encing the  schools  of  the  ^bbala  in  the  13th  century.  He  was  a 
mathematician  and  an  astronomer,  as  well  as  a  physician  of  great 
repute,  and  author  of  several  medical  works.  This  led  to  his  receiv- 
ing a  lucrative  appointment  as  physician  to  the  court  of  Saladin  in 
Egypt  about  1170  A.c.  Even  while  studying  medicine,  at  the  age  of 
22  years,  he  is  said  to  have  brought  out  an  elaborate  work  on  the 
calendar.  He  was  a  great  linguist,  and  wrote  about  Greek,  and  Arab 
philosophy,  and  on  "technical  terms  of  logia"  He  commented  on 
the  Hebrew  Mishnah  in  Arabic ;  and  his  Ouide  for  the  Perplexed 
(Moreh-han-Nebukhim)  is  an  attempt  to  reconcile  Scripture  with 
philosophy. 

His  great  work  was  the  Mishnah-Torah,  a  commentary  on  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  embracing  all  thai,  could  be  found  in  the  Talmud, 
and   in  other  earlier  works  of  repute  among  the  Babbis.     Jewish 


478  M'ain 

scholars  constantly  quote  *'  Bambam/'  especially  those  of  Yaman  or 
Arabia,  and  it  is  still  a  mark  of  erudition  to  refer  to  his  opinion  as  to 
any  difficulty  in  either  the  Torah  or  the  Mishnah.  In  the  Ouide 
for  the  Perplexed,  Maimonides  (like  the  school  of  Averroes)  speaks  so 
highly  of  Aristotle  that  many  Jews  were  disgusted,  and  even  burnt 
the  book,  saying  that  Aristotle  was  made  greater  than  Moses  by  the 
author.  Yet  it  is  an  immortal  work,  which  still  aids  the  Jew  who 
comes  in  collision  with  other  systems  of  religion  :*  Maimonides  therein 
treats  fully  of  the  Moslem  l^lam  (or  theology  as  to  the  "  Word,"  or 
Logos) ;  and  the  whole  is  regarded  as  a  marvel  of  pious  scholarehip 
for  its  age  (Prof.  Friedlander's  translation,  1885).  Followers  of  Ram- 
bam  were,  however,  often  excommunicated,  in  the  13th  and  14tfa 
centuries,  for  maintaining  that  the  early  scriptural  history  was  merely 
allegoric.  While  Christian  churches  were  disputing  as  to  the  nature 
of  their  Trinity,  Maimonides  was  teaching  that ''  the  idea  of  deity  was 
altogether  inconceivable  by  the  human  intellect,"  which  indeed  is  the 
teaching  of  every  creed  that  calls  God  the  Incomprehensible,  or  the 
Unknowable. 

M'aln.     Arabic  :  "  place  of  springs  "  (see  Arabia). 

MainyO-i-Kard.  Minokhired.  A  sacred  commentary,  ia 
Pahlavi  dialect,  on  the  Zend  Avesta  of  Persia,  composed  after  the 
reign  of  Shapur  II  (309-380  A.C.). 

Maitra-Varuna.  These  two  deities  (sun  and  sky)  produced 
the  sage  so  named  (or  Agastya)  as  a  small  fish  (mdTia)  in  a  water 
jar,  and  he  is  said  to  have  written  many  hymns  of  the  Big  Yeda,  as 
the  great  Eishl  Agasti. 

Maitli.  Sanskrit :  « love,"  "  kindness."  The  god  Mithra  ("  the 
friend  ")  is  named  from  the  same  root 

Maitri.  Maitreya.  The  Buddha  who  is  yet  to  come,  and  the 
last  of  five.  When  Qotama  was  dying  he  is  said  to  have  given  his 
yellow  robe  to  a  favourite  disciple  Maha-kasyapa,  that  he  might  here- 
after become  Maitri  (Beal,  Buddhism,  ii,  p.  142):  he  vras  fabled  to 
have  met  this  disciple  in  a  former  life  in  the  Tushita  heaven,  where 
Maitri  is  now  awaiting  his  future  return  to  earth ;  in  which  happj 
age  a  thousand  thrones  are  to  be  made  ready  for  all  the  Buddhas. 
Ootama  related  Maitri  s  history  in  a  discourse  called  the  Anagata- 
vansa.  He  is  the  incarnation  of  love,  pity,  and  maternal  tenderness, 
now  in  Tushita  "  the  joyful  place." 

Maka*  Makka.     The  capital  of  Islam  45  mUes  east  of  the 


Maka  479 

port  of  Jeddah  on  the  W.  central  coast  of  Arabia  (see  Arabia,  Habal, 

Ka'aba,  Mubammad).     The  scenery  and  rites  are  fully  treated  in  our 

Short  StvdieSf  x.     [The  meaning  of  the  name,  as  a  Semitic  word,  is 

unknown.      It  may  be  an  ancient  term,  like  the  Akkadian  MvJc 

**  building "  ;  and  the  site  was  an  early  caravan  station,  the  Ka'aba 

being  already  ancient  in  the  time  of  Muhammad.     The  feasts  at 

'Arafat,  ^ozai).,  and  Makka,  were  held  in  the  travelling  season ;  but 

Muhammad  changed  the  calendar  to  one  purely  lunar,  so  that  the 

year  now  loses  11^  days  annually,  and  the  month  Dhurel-hijja  ('*  that 

of  the  pilgrimage  "),  like  the  others,  goes  slowly  round  the  seasons  of 

the  solar  yean     Makka  stands  in  very  barren  mountains  occupying — 

as  said  in  the  IS^oran  (xiv,  10) — a  sterile  valley,  to  the  E.  of  which, 

about  6  hours  distant,  the  isolated  Mt.  'Arafat  rises .  in  a  plain  (see 

'Arafat).     The  hills  of  Safa  and  Marwah  (where  two  lovers  were 

turned  to  stone,  according  to  the  legend,  for  having  desecrated  the 

JSIa'aba)  are  S.E.  of  the  Haram  (''  sanctuary  "),  and  one  of  the  customs 

of  the  place  is  that  of  rushing  from  one  of  their  platforms  across  a 

valley  to  the  other.     The  "  Valley  of  Mena  "  leads  to  the  pass  whereby 

Makka  is  reached  from  'Arafat,  and  here  is  the  Jamrat  d  ^Akabak 

("  end  of  the  ascent ")  with  its  cairn  of  stones.     These  are  the  sacred 

places  of  the  holy  region,  in  addition  to  those  of  the  Haram  itself 

including  the  small  fragment  of  the  "black  stone,"  the  sacred  well 

Zemzem  and  other  wonders  (see  Ea'aba). 

The  rites,  as  reformed  by  Muhammad,  have  been  reduced  to 
visits  for  prayer  to  the  sacred  spots.  The  population  of  Makka  is 
about  60,000,  and  the  number  of  pilgrims  is  about  the  same  in  addi- 
tion. The  Ka'aba  however  is  still  apparently  the  scene  of  rites  belong- 
ing to  the  old  worship  of  AUat  the  Arab  Venus  (see  J^^adesh),  as  in 
the  days  of  Burckhardt  who  says :  ''  The  holy  Ka'aba  is  the  scene  of 
such  indecencies,  and  criminal  acts,  as  cannot  with  propriety  be  here 
more  particularly  noticed,  .  .  ,  They  are  not  only  practiced  with 
impunity  but  .  •  .  almost  publicly  .  .  .  and  passing  spectators  merely 
laughed  ...  in  spite  of  my  expressed  indignation" 

The  pilgrim  having  assumed  the  Ihra/m^  or  "  sacred  "  dress,  before 
entering  the  limits  of  the  sacred  territory,  proceeds  to  visit  the  holy 
sites.  Leaving  the  city  at  midday  he  reaches  'Arafat  in  the  evening, 
and  on  the  9th  of  Dhu-el-Hijja,  after  a  night  spent  in  prayer,  he  takes 
his  stand  on  the  mountain  at  dawn,  and  there  recites  texts  and  prayers 
till  sunset.  The  pilgrims  then  rush  westwards  with  utmost  haste  to 
Muzdalifa,  where,  before  dawn  on  the  10th,  they  go  in  procession  with 
torches  round  the  mosk.  This  is  the  great  ''  day  of  the  sacrifice  " — 
the  only  one  in  the  year  on  which  some  Moslems  taste  flesh.     The 


480  Makara 

pilgrims  proceed  to  Mena  where  each  must  cast  seven  stones  at  the 
cairn — as  if  at  Iblis  (Satan)  according  to  their  modern  ideas.  Bat  of 
the  orthodox  Moslem  sects  (the  four  Sunni  sects,  Shafi,  Hanbali, 
Malaki,  and  Hanifi,  who  differ  in  minor  points)  the  Shafi  will  cast  49, 
and  the  Hanifi  70  (both  multiples  of  the  seven),  and  these  stones 
must  include  7  brought  from  Muzdalifa,  the  rest  being  from  the  Mena 
valley,  and  all  being  washed  seven  times.  The  victim  is  then  slain  at 
Mena,  and  a  sacrificial  feast  follows,  some  of  the  flesh  (often  of  a 
camel)  being  dried  to  distribute  to  the  poor.  After  this  the  pilgrim 
shaves,  and  the  rites  are  concluded.  They  rush  back  to  Makka,  and 
perform  the  Towaf  or  7  ''  perambulations  "  of  the  Ka'aba  (see  HabalX 
going  back  to  Mena  for  the  night  There  are  two  other  cairns  in  the 
valley  of  Mena  at  which  also  stones  must  be  thrown.  The  origin  of 
this  rite  appears  to  be  the  leaving  of  a  memorial  pebble  at  a  cairn 
round  a  menhir^  which  is  common  to  Moslems  and  Jews  in  Palestine, 
and  practiced  also  by  Kelts  and  others.  Every  Moslem  shrine  in 
Syria  has  round  it — at  the  first  place  on  any  road  where  it  becomes 
visible — a  group  of  Meahdhid  or  '*  witness  '*  pillars,  consisting  of  small 
stones  piled  on  each  other.  The  Jews  cast  stones  at  "Absolom's 
pillar,"  but  also  pile  them  up  at  the  tomb  of  Simon  the  Just  at 
Jerusalem. — Ed.] 

Makara.  The  marine  monster  on  which  Vishnu  rides — his 
Vdhana  or  "  bearer."  It  has  the  head  and  forelegs  of  a  deer,  and  the 
body  and  tail  of  a  fish  [as  also  on  Kassite  boundary  stones  in  Babylonia 
— ^Ed.],  being  the  Capricomus  of  the  Hindu  zodiak.  It  is  also 
called  "  black  teeth,"  "  water  form,"  and  Kantika, 

Mala.  Sanskrit :  **  strong,"  *'  excellent,"  applied  to  a  cup,  a  woman, 
and  a  rosary.  From  this  root  may  come  Malum  (Latin),  Melon 
(Greek),  for  "  apple,"  Mains  «  mast "  (Latin),  Mains  "  evil "  "  violent " 
(Latin),  and  MaZw  the  Polynesian  god  {Journ,  ArUhrop.  Instit., 
Aug.,  Nov.  1898). 

Mala-bar.  The  "Mala  coast,"  a  word  of  Arab  origin  (bam 
**  outland  "),  for  the  coast  of  the  Malis  in  India. 

MalagasL  The  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Madagascar,  which 
is  the  thinl  laigest  in  the  world,  extending  some  980  miles  N.  and  S., 
by  350  miles  at  its  greatest  width,  or  230,000  square  miles  in  all 
The  population  is  probably  of  3^  million  persons.  Madagascar  appears 
in  the  geography  of  Ptolemy  (2nd  century  A.C.),  and  Arab  traders 
reached  it  perhaps  as  early ;  but  to  Europe  it  was  unknown  till  1506 
A.a,  when  the  Portuguese  discovered  it     English  traders  reached  it 


Malagas!  48 1 

in  the  l7th  century  but  abandoned  their  settlement  on  the  N.W. 

coast  after  a  few  years.     The  inhabitants  are  of  African,  Arab,  and 

Malay  origin:  the  first  colonists  being  probably  the  Sakalavas  now 

found  on  the  N.W.,  who  appear  to  have   belonged  to   the  African 

pigmy  (or  bushman)  race,  resembling  the  Wazambas  of  the  Congo, 

and  called  Vazimbas.     They  were  probably  driven  before  the  Malay 

Hovas,  and  are  now  only  found  in  a  few  villages.     The  Hovas  first 

established  a  regular  government  in  the  central  granitic  highlands  of 

Im^rino,  from  their  capital  of  Antananarivo.     In  1880  they  claimed 

to  rule  the  whole  island.     Hovas  (now  subject  to  France)  are  divided 

into   three   classes ;    Andriana,   or   nobles ;    Hovas,    or   commoners ; 

and    Andevos,   or   slaves,    who    are   usually   captives   or    criminals. 

All   speak    the   Hova   language   which   is    Malay   (as   shown    very 

clearly  by  the  numerals,  which  are  always  a  very  distinctive  feature  of 

any  speech)  including  some  Indian  and  Arab  words.     It  is  said  that, 

in  the  16th  century  A.C.,  they  possessed  some  form  of  pictorial  script ; 

but  in  1820  English  missionaries  introduced  the  European  alphabet. 

The  religion  of  the  island  is  a  form  of  Fetishism,  with  charms,  divina« 

tion,  and  stone  emblems.     The  Hovas  believe  in  one  ^  great  spirit," 

called  Andria-ma-nitra,  who  is  the  Zanahary  or  "  creator."     The  Rev. 

J.  Sibree  says  that  before  1865  thousands  of  victims,  mostly  innocent, 

perished  every  year,  by  poison  ordeals.     Sacrifices  propitiatory,  or  as 

thanksgivings,   consist   of  cattle,  sheep,  and  fowls,  offered  at  sacred 

stones,  and  tombs,  which  it  is  customary  to  anoint  vrith  blood  and  fat. 

These  include  tombs  of  the  Vazimbas  who  claimed  rule  over  the  island 

till  the  19th  century:  their  graves  still  represent  the  abode  of  the 

ancestral  spirits  of  the  island.     Circumcision  used  to  be  a  Malagasi 

rite  before  the  introduction  of  Christianity.     Cattle  were  only  killed 

for  religious  rite& 

The  great  fSte  is  that  of  the  new  year,  when  all  bathe  ceremonially, 
whence  it  is  called  Fandroona,  or  "  bath."  The  circumcision  rites  are 
licentious  (see  Australians),  occurring  every  few  years,  and  ending  in 
drunkenness  and  immorality  :  yet  as  a  rule  the  Malagasi  are  as  truthful, 
kind,  and  hospitable  as  other  peoples.  From  1820  to  1835  Chris- 
tianity was  tolerated,  but  the  Hova  queen  RaLa-Yalona  then  declared 
it  illegal,  dismissing  the  missionaries  and  killing  about  200  Hova 
Christians  :  others  were  degraded,  fined,  and  imprisoned.  On  her  death 
in  1861  her  son  Badama  I  tolerated  all  religions  and  traders,  which 
probably  led  to  his  assassination  in  1861.  His  queen  ruled  till  1868, 
when  her  cousin  became  Rana-Yalona  II,  and  this  queen  was  baptised 
with  her  husband,  the  native  shrines  and  idols  being  then  destroyed. 

Since  1868  the  Hovas  have  advanced  in  civilisation  round  the 

2  H* 


482  Malak 

capital.  Polygamy  and  licence  tiave  been  repressed :  education  and 
literature  have  improved :  laws  have  become  less  arbitrary ;  aui 
divorce  less  easy.  Judges  and  officers  received  salaries  (before  the 
French  conquest)  and  Hova  power  was  extended. 

The  island  abounds  in  rude-stone  monuments  (Itev.  J.  Sibree, 
Journal  Anthrop.  /iwft^.,  February  1892):  these  vary  from  10  to 
20  ft.  in  height  of  the  stones,  which  are  called  Yatolahy  (*'mal^ 
stones ") ;  and  ''  the  shape  of  the  stones  may  indicate  phallic 
worship " :  they  are  also  called  Teza,  or  "  firm  upright  things." 
Those  near  Im^rino  are  of  blue  undressed  rock,  and  those  in  Betsileo 
of  fine  white  granite — recalling  the  dark  lingams  of  Krishna,  and 
the  white  ones  of  Siva,  in  India.  Malagasy  words,  such  as  Eaoa 
for  "  queen "  (Hindu  Rani\  also  suggest  Hindu  influence,  and  the 
sacred  tree  of  the  Malagasy  grows  out  of  a  rude-stone  altar  as  among 
Hindus  and  Buddhists.  Cattle  also  are  sacred  (as  in  India)  and  the 
stones  are  adorned  with  heads,  and  horns,  of  bulls :  the  king  too  was 
called  Ombelahy  or  ''  bull."  Mr  Sibree  figures  ornaments  like  thos€ 
of  India,  and  a  sacred  stone  surrounded  by  four  lesser  ones  (see 
Khonds)  is  surmounted  with  vases  of  budding  flowers.  [Malays  are 
not  exclusively  found  (in  this  part  of  the  world)  in  Madagascar. 
Moslem  Malays  are  numerous  at  the  Cape,  and  the  Hottentots  appear, 
by  type  and  by  mythology  and  customs,  to  represent  a  mingled  Malay- 
Bushman  stock.  The  Hovas  have  a  list  of  at  least  35  kings,  so  that 
their  arrival  may  date  back  to  700  A.C.  The  language  is  said  to 
compare  with  early  Malay  speech,  having  few  Sanskrit  loan  words 
— ^according  to  Prof.  Keane — but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Hova  tvpe 
is  not  pure  Malay,  and  indicates  not  only  African  admixture  but  verv 
clearly  also  a  Hindu  strain.  The  Hovas  were  among  the  adventurous 
Malay  sailors  who  sailed  all  over  Polynesia  and  the  western  ocean,  and 
the  Hova  kings,  it  is  said,  used  to  be  buried  in  a  silver  canoe  (like 
the  canoe  coffin  of  the  Sakalavas)  which  points  to  their  maritime 
character. — Ed.] 

Malak.  Moloch.  Milcom.  The  Hebrew  Mdek  means  "  an 
adviser/'  ''  ruler,"  or  ^  king,"  and  from  it  the  names  of  Molocb,  and 
Milcom,  are  usually  derived.  In  Amos  (v,  26)  we  read  of  the 
"booths"  of  Moloch,  resembling  the  shrines  in  which  Assyrian 
deities  were  carried  abroad.  [Moloch  was  a  Ba'al,  or  god  of  earth 
and  hell,  and  the  name  may — as  Lenormant  thought — come  from 
the  Akkadian  Mul-ge  or  '*  lord  below." — £d.]  According  to  Rabbinical 
accounts  Moloch  was  represented  as  bull-headed,  with  outstretched  arnis. 
The  body  of  this  brazen  idol  was  hollow,  with  seven  divisions,  one  for 


Malays  483 

each  of  the  seven  planets.  It  was  made  hot  and  filled — the  Ist 
division  with  fine  flour :  the  2nd  with  bones :  the  3rd  with  a  sheep : 
the  4th  with  a  ram:  the  5th  with  a  calf:  the  6th  with  an  ox:  while 
in  the  7th  a  child— the  peculiar  victim  of  Ba'al  and  Moloch — was 
offered  as  a  burnt  offering.  In  Yukatan  the  Americans  in  like 
manner  (especially  the  Itzaek  tribe)  immolated  human  beings  in 
conical  cases  of  metal,  and  the  Kelts  down  to  Christian  times  burned 
men  inside  huge  ozier  idols.  Babes  cremated  in  jars,  in  Palestine, 
are  thought  to  have  been  so  ofifered  (see  Gezer)  at  shrines  where 
the  name  of  Moloch  occurs  in  the  dedicatory  texts  of  pottery  vase- 
handles.  In  Carthage  as  many  as  200  children  were  offered  at  one 
time  to  Melkarth  (see  H^rakles).  The  valley  of  Tophet  (Isa. 
XXX,  33)  was  an  ancient  shrine  of  Moloch  ("the  king"  in  our  version) 
where  these  horrible  rites  were  performed  just  S.  of  Jerusalem,  and 
the  name  is  supposed  to  mean  "a  pyre."  Milcom  is  noticed  in  a 
Phoenician  text  in  Cyprus,  and  David  apparently  took  the  crown  of 
Milcom  from  such  an  idol  (2  Sam.  xii,  30),  at  Rabbath  'Ammon. 

Malays.  See  Mali.  The  Malays  are  of  Turanian  stock,  and 
include  Malays  proper,  and  others  in  Java,  the  Celebes,  the  Philippines, 
Formosa,  and  Madagascar  (see  Malagasy).  They  are  connected  with 
the  Dravidians,  and  widely  spread,  even  to  Easter  Island  and  Peru. 
They  are  the  great  civilisers  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  include 
(1)  Orang  Bennu,  ''men  of  the  soil,"  (2)  Orang  Laut,  ''men  of  the 
sea,"  and  (3)  Orang  Outan,  "  men  of  the  woods,"  who  are  however 
Negritos  chiefly.  [It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  two  distinctive  Malay 
customs — head-hunting,  and  the  use  of  the  blow-pipe  for  shooting — 
are  found  widely  spread  in  the  regions  thus  indicated  as  reached  by 
Malays.  Thus  the  use  of  jade,  and  of  the  blow-pipe,  is  found  among 
Papuans,  and  the  latter  also  in  S.  America  with  the  "  Couvade " 
custom^  which  is  also  Turanian.  Polynesian  and  Australian  languages 
also  compare  with  the  Malay  very  closely. — Ed.]  The  Malays  seem 
evidently  connected  with  the  Mali  non- Aryans  of  India.  The  Malay 
annals  (Sejara  Malayu,  Raffles,  History  of  Java,  ii,  pp.  108-112) 
begin  by  tracing  the  Malas  of  regions  K  of  India,  as  descendants  of 
Alexander  the  Great  by  the  daughter  of  the  great  Baja-Eideh-Hindi. 
This  account  however,  according  to  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  dates  only 
from  our  I7th  century.  The  princess  had,  we  are  told,  a  son  Aristan 
Shah,  whose  dynasty  endured  about  600  years,  or  to  280  A.c,  when 
the  ruling  Raja-Suren  set  out  to  subdue  China,  marching  down  the 
Ganges  and  then  S.  to  the  land  of  the  "  Klang  Kins "  (probably 
Klings),  and  settling  at  Bis-Nagar — no  doubt  our  Vijra-nagar.     These 


484  Malays 

Malas  were  probably  the  £.  Ghalukyas,  who  reached  Tellingana  aboot 
the  same  time.  Bija  Saren's  eldest  son,  Bechatrow^  was  dissatisfied 
with  his  share  of  the  empire,  and  on  his  father's  death  fitted  out 
a  fleet  of  twenty  vessels,  determined  to  carve  out  a  kingdom  for 
himself  £.  of  India.  A  storm  scattered  the  ships ;  but,  with  a  few 
followers,  he  reached  Palembang,  where  he  found  an  Indian  prinee 
who,  with  his  people,  did  him  honour.  This  prince's  daughter  he 
married,  and  succeeded  him  probably  about  340  A.C.,  ruling  loDg  in 
Java  and  elsewhere,  and  known  as  a  descendant  of  **  Sult&n  Sdcaoder," 
or  Alexander  the  Great  This  tradition  serves  at  least  to  connect  tbe 
Malays  with  N.W.  India,  according  to  their  own  account 

The  Malays  appear  to  have  been  always  unsettled  and  piratical, 
as  they  still  are,  being  bold  sailors  who  explored  all  the  Pacific  Oceao. 
They  established  a  state  at  Singa-pur  ("  Lion«town ")  in  1160  A.C, 
and  preyed  thence  on  the  maritime  traders,  until  Maja-pahit»  a  power- 
ful King  of  Java,  drove  out  their  king  Sri-sin-derga  (whose  name  is 
clearly  Indian),  and  founded  the  Malay  state  of  Mala-ka,  or  Malacca^ 
In  1276  the  race  accepted  Islam  through  Arab  influence;  but,  till 
recently,  they  knew  very  little  of  its  tenets.  In  features,  complexioo, 
and  temper,  the  Malay  shows  his  Mongolic  origin,  though  with  Hindu 
and  Arab  admixture,  and  (in  some  regions)  a  Negrito  strain,  doe  to 
inter-breeding  with  Melanesians  such  as  the  Papuans.  Custom, 
religion,  and  language,  tell  the  same  story.  He  has  been  the  virtual 
ruler  of  the  S.  Archipelago  since  at  least  our  4th  century.  Though 
he  seems  to  have  had  no  literature  till  our  Middle  Ages,  his  language 
has  been  the  common  speech  of  all  these  widely  scattered  regions  for 
at  least  1500  years.  He  brought  with  him  the  worship  of  trees, 
serpents,  and  lingams.  Other  Qnjerat  races  from  N.W,  India  followed, 
and  the  Sabean  traders  of  S.W.  Arabia  traded  with  them  from  tbe 
Roman  age,  followed  by  Arab  Moslems,  who  introduced  a  religion 
which  has  always  appealed  to  Malays  on  account  of  its  simplicitv. 
The  Malays  of  Cape  Town  adorn  their  tombstones  with  Arab  Moslem 
inscriptions.  Mr  Crawfurd  (EasteTm  Archipelago,  ii,  p.  267)  describes, 
however,  Malay  Moslems  who  did  not  even  know  the  name  of 
Muhammad.  They  retain  their  early  superstitions ;  and  chaima,  or 
idols,  are  hung  in  cages,  or  shrines,  from  the  centre  of  the  house  roofs, 
these  shrines  representing  small  canoes,  and  aahiis  {sukkotk  or 
*'  booths,"  as  among  Hebrews)  in  which  the  spirits  are  said  to  dwell. 
or  to  move  about  These  charms  avert  the  evil  eye,  and  appease 
spirits  of  whom  heaven,  earth,  seas,  rivers»  trees,  and  rocks  are  said  to 
be  full,  most  of  them  being  ill-disposed  beings.  For  this  reason  small 
altars  are  erected,  and  food,  wine,  and  tobacco  ofiered  on  them  to  tbe 


Mali  485 

spirits,  with  prayers  to  the  good  beings.     These  altars  occur  in  groves, 

aod  under  shady  trees,  and  the  shrines  are  sometimes  hung  up,  while 

little  ladders  of  oocoanut  fibre  are  stretched  from  the  tree,  that  angels 

may  ascend  and  descend  as  they  did  on  Jacob's  ladder  at  Bethel    But 

'the  Sakits,   or  shrines,  are   places  dangerous   to   man,  only    to   be 

approached  with  awe  and  reverence.     Souls  of  men  and  animals  are 

believed  to  quit  the  sleeping  body,  or  to  leave  it  at  death,  and  must 

be  captured  by  wizard  priests  well  paid.     Sometimes  the  soul  returns 

At   once  when  the  priest  sings,  whistles,  or  dances,  or  if  he  waves 

Attractive  colored  cloths.     If  this  fails  the  cloth  is  put  on  a  spear, 

a.nd  a  sacred  image  above  it :  the  enchanter  waves  it  madly  as  he 

rushes  about,  till  the  high  priest — ^by  a  mystic  sign — declares  the 

soul    to  be  in  the  image.     A  priestess  then  stealthily  approaches, 

and  wraps  it  in  the  colored  cloth,  placing  it  over  the  patient's  head, 

and   anxiously  awaiting  the  result     If  after  a  time    he   does   not 

recover  consciousness  he  is  abandoned,  because  the  soul  has  gone  to 

fais  forefathers ;  and  elaborate  funeral  rites  then  follow.    Angry  spirits 

are  enticed  into  the  Sakits  by  offerings  of  goats,  fowls,  or  pigeons ; 

and  the  shrines  are  then  removed,  weighted  with  stones,  and  sunk  in 

deep  water.     Sometimes  the  ghosts  may  be  seen  rowing  about  in 

small  vessels;  and  food  should  then  if  possible  be  sent  to  them,  to 

keep  them  away.     When  great  epidemics  prevail  special  boats,  gaily 

garnished,  and  well  provisioned,  are  pushed  out  to  sea,  with  clamour 

and  shouts,  bidding  the  spirits  to  "  go  away  to  another  land  " :  and 

the  noise  is  kept  up,  day  and  night,  till  the  poor  ghosts  can  endure  it 

no  longer,  but  board  the  boats  and  sail  away.     Men,  women,  and 

children,  then  bathe,  and  return  to  their  homes  with  confidence.    Some 

diseases  require  that  a  white  cock  should   peck  the  body   of  the 

patient ;  other  rites  are  phallic  or  solar. 

Mali,  MallcL  The  Malis,  or  Malavas,  are  a  widespread 
Turanian  race,  entering  India  from  the  N.W.  and  N.  through  the 
passes  of  the  Him&layas.  The  word  is  often  rendered  "  men,"  but 
may  come  from  the  Dravidian  term  mcUa  "mountain":  for  the 
MiUayalis  are  still  a  considerable  people  in  the  central  highlands  of 
India.  Mala  tribes  mingled  with  the  Kolarians  (see  Kols),  and  settled 
by  the  4th  century  B.C.,  at  the  ''Mons  Malleus"  of  Latin  writers 
(Paris-nath).  Thence  some  established  Mali  states  in  the  valley  of 
the  Ganges,  and  on  the  M&lini  or  Mali  River,  the  sources  of  both 
being  near  each  other :  they  extended  over  Behar  and  to  Banaras,  and 
over  Rohil-kand,  the  Mala  kingdom  thus  embracing  some  60,000 
square  miles.     From  Delhi  they  proceeded  to   Mala-tana  (Multan), 


486  Mam 

Malwa,  and  the  Mala-bar  coast.  Their  central  capital  in  the  nortb 
was  Sravastiy  while  on  the  S.W.  at  Malani  they  occupied  the  rich 
province  of  Jodh-pur,  bordering  on  the  Ran  of  Katch.  The  deity  c<f 
this  branch  was  Mala-nath-ji.  The  Yavana-Malis  {'*  foreign  "  Malis) 
lived  along  the  Rapti  and  Sutlej  rivers.  Nine  Mala  tribes  confedentec 
with  nine  Dravidian  Likchavis  (Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  zxii,  p.  266. 
against  the  kings  of  Kosala  and  Magadha,  founding  the  Videba  king- 
dom, with  its  capital  at  Yaisala,  overlooking  Patali-putra  (Patna); 
but  they  were  finally  absorbed  in  the  Buddhist  empire  of  the  3ri 
century  B.C.  (see  Mr  Hewitt's  Map,  Journal  RL,  Asiatic  Socy,,  Jalj 
1889).  Thence  probably  they  moved  into  Malwa,  holding  Ujjaint 
and  as  far  S.  as  the  Narbada  River  :  or  they  may  have  reached  Malwa 
from  the  Dammuda.  That  the  Malis  came  from  N.  of  Delhi  is  showL 
by  the  notice  in  the  Maha-bharata,  where  (say  about  500  B.c.)  de 
Multanis  are  called  "  Southern  Malis."  The  Western  Ghats  abou: 
Bombay  are  still  called  Malayan  mountains.  The  Malis  were  serpent 
worshipers,  and  tree  worshipers,  and  (like  other  Turanians)  hard  work- 
ing agriculturists.  A  gardener  is  called  a  Mali  in  India — Mai  meaning 
a  **  flower."  Fusion  of  the  Turanian  and  Aryan  stocks  is  traceable  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Buddha  (Gth  century  B.C.),  as  when  PraseDJiu 
king  of  Banai-as,  married  Mallika  a  Mali  maiden. 

Mam.  Muma.  Moumis.  A  Babylonian  word  for  "water" 
rendered  moumia  by  Greek  writers.  It  answers  to  the  Hebrew  Mm, 
'*  waters,"  "  sea " ;  and  comes  from  the  old  word  ma  or  rva,  which 
here  has  the  ''mimmation  "  or  demonstrative  th,  added.  [Mongol  nm, 
Malay  wa,  American  via,  Polynesian  wai,  Keltic  77ia,  Egyptian  tna, 
African  onay  Semitic  me,  mi  "  water." — Ed.]  The  Babylonian  creation 
tablet  (Dr  E.  Schrader,  Cuneif,  Inacript  arid  Old  Test,  i,  p.  2)  ssl\s 
"  Muminu  tiamat  gave  birth  to  all,"  that  is  to  say  "  the  waters  of  the 
deep." 

MamitU.  The  Babylonian  translation  of  the  Akkadian  Sag-ba, 
meaning  a  "vow."  [Compare  the  Hebrew  Emeth  "faitL" — EdJ 
One  of  the  bilingual  magic  texts  reads  :  "  The  vow  !  the  vow  !  The 
aid  of  the  gods  is  an  everlasting  help :  the  aid  of  Heaven  and  Earth 
never  fails.  God  only  is  unchanging.  God  is  not  understood  by 
men.  The  snare  for  the  wicked  is  not  removed :  an  impassable 
decree  is  set  against  the  sinner  "  (see  Col.  Conder,  Hittites  and  their 
Language,  1898,  p.  123). 

Man.  Several  distinct  roots  are  often  confused  having  similar 
sounds:  (1)    Man,  Maen,  "stone,"  as  among  Kelts,  or  in  the  Poly- 


Man  487 

xiesian  meni  for  a  "  stone  "  :  (2)  MaUf  **  being/'  "  mao/'  and  "  mind." 
[Akkadian  m€7i  "be,"  Egyptian  men   "  create,"  Aryan  man  **  man " 
X^atin  mens  "  mind,"  Arabic  mdna  "  meaning/' — Ed.]       Hence   in 
£gypt  Men    or    Min    is    the    creator,   and  Mani    is    Horus :    while 
lU^enes,    Manu,    Minos,   and    others    are   the    first    "  man,"    among 
Egyptians  and    Aryans :    (3)    Man    "  measure,"   whence  the   Greek 
titene,  Lithuanian  menu^  and  English  mx)on  for  the  "measurer"  of 
the  month  ;    and  the  Babylonian  manah  (a  measure  of  weight),  and 
Hebrew  Meni  a  deity  of  fate— the  Arab  Manat  in  the  valley  of  Mena 
nt  Makkah  :  and  the  Minyeh  of  Moab,  a  place  where   stone  shrines  of 
great  antiquity  are  found.     The  Egyptian  m.en  for  "  shaft,"  or  obelisk^ 
may  come  from  the  first  of  these   roots,  but  the  connection  between 
the  upright  stone  and  the  idea  of  creation  is  easily  understood  when 
the  phallic   origin  of  these  monuments  is  remembered.       It  is  not 
probable   that  rude  tribes  like  Kols,  or  others,  would  have  derived 
the  name  of   man  from  the  abstract  idea    of    "  mind " :    Man  "  to 
be  "  is  connected  with  tyw,  "  parent "  (usually  "  mother,"  but  in  some 
languages  "  father "),  and  with  an   "  to  breathe "  (see  An  and  Ma). 
The  word  Tnanifia^  and  the  Arabic  mann  for   "  sperm,"  may  also  be 
ultimately   connected  with  ma  ''  to  make "  (see  Manna).     In  India 
mana  or  Tnani  is   a  "  gem  "  (from  man  "  stone  "),  and   a  charm,  or 
divine  emblem  like  the  Polynesian  maTiava,     The  Mani  stones  may 
vary  from  a  few  inches  to  4  or  5  feet  in  diameter  (see  Mr  Knight^ 
Where  Three  Empires  Meet,  1893,  pp.  144,  194).     This  writer  says 
that  on   approaching  Leh  "  the  whole  road  was  lined  with  chortens, 
manis,  and  cairns."     In  literary  Sanskrit  the  roots  are  distinguished 
by  different  letters  for  the  final  n  ;    but  such  distinctions  are  com- 
paratively late  refinements.     The  Sarpa-mani,  or  "  snake-stone,"  is  a 
jewel  in  the  head  of  the  phallic  serpent,  and  Manis  are  everywhere 
set  up  in    fields,  forests,  or    at    dangerous  defiles,  to  ward  off    the 
evil  eye.     Even  in  the  Yedas  we  find  the  god  Budra  appearing  as 
a  Mane,  and  Mr  Aynsley  (Indian  Aniiq,,  May   1886)  follows  the 
author's  view  {Rivers  of  Life)  when  he  says  that  *'  ManS  is  but  an 
augmentation  of  men  or  maen,  stone."     The  American  Indians  of 
Dakota,  who  set  up  and  anoint  lingam  stones,  call  a  spirit,  or  a  wizard, 
a  Manitu  or  "  Great  Mani "  (see  Prof.  K  B.  Tylor,  Journal  Anthrop. 
Instit,  Feb.  1892)  :  and  among  Algonkins  every  nature — good  or 
bad — superior  to  that  of  ordinary  human  beings  is  a  Manitu.     The 
Bev.  Dr  Codrington    (Melan^sians,   1891)    says  that,  in  Polynesia, 
Mana   is    "  the   universal    power,  force,   and  influence,  supernatural 
and    physical,  which    it    essentially  belongs    to    personal  beings  to 
originate,  but  which  may  act  through  the  medium  gf  water,  a  stone. 


488  Manaf 

or  bone,  and  be  conveyed  to  any  thing,  p^son,  or  spirit,  disembodied, 
or  BupernaturaL"  "  The  Melanesian  religion  consists  in  getting  this 
mana  for  one  s  self  .  •  •  this  is  the  object  of  all  sacrifices,  prayen, 
and  rites."  [In  the  Turanian  languages  man  also  means  **  first,"  or 
''principal,"  as  in  the  Akkadian  vnan  "king,"  and  Turkish  mamip 
"  chief."— Ed.] 

The  connection  of  the  moon  (Lydiau  men,  Phrygian  manerm) 
with  the  idea  of  measurement  may  go  back  (like  Meni  the  deity  of 
*'  number,"  and  of  "  fate  ")  to  the  older  idea  of  "  that  which  is  " — ^the 
reality ;  and  the  idea  of  the  "  mind  "  is  again  founded  on  that  of  life 
and  existence,  created  by  the  mann  or  living  sperm,  and  symbolised 
by  the  titaen  or  erect  stone. 

Manaf.     An  Arabian  sun  god.     [Probably  the  ''  fierce.*' — Ed.] 

Manak-meya.  The  name  of  an  ancient  sacred  book,  in  Java, 
describing  the  creation  of  the  first  man.  The  supreme  god.  Sang- 
yang,  created  an  egg  or  sphere  (see  Eggs),  whence  issued  the  sun, 
moon,  and  man  (Fomander,  Polyn,j  i,  p.  213). 

Manasa.  A  name  of  Vishnu  as  "lord  of  water."  He  is  especially 
the  deity  of  the  Kulin  Brahmans  of  Dakka ;  but  all  castes  in  lower 
Bangal  worship  him  on  the  5th  and  20th  days  of  the  four  rainy 
months — ^from  mid  June  to  mid  October — especially  at  the  Nag- 
Panchami,  or  snake  feast  of  the  latter  half  of  August  (see  Naga), 

Manasarawar.  An  ancient  Paradise  near  Mt  Meru  at  the 
sources  of  four  rivers.  Thence  the  Brahma-putra  flows  east,  the  sacred 
Sarayu  (or  Oogra)  and  the  Malinda  (or  "  Mala  river ")  break  through 
the  Sravasti  gorge  to  central  Oudh,  and  the  mighty  Indus  goes  forth 
1800  miles  westwards  (see  Meru).  The  four  rivers  of  this. Eden  are 
said  to  issue  from  the  mouth  of  a  cow,  a  horse,  an  elephant,  and  a 
tiger  respectively  (see  Prof  Beal,  Records  of  Western  Countries,  i, 
p.  12  ;  Asiatic  Res,,  vi,  p.  488). 

Manchus.  Mantchus.  A  branch  of  the  Tunguse  (see  Tud- 
guse),  occupying  Manchuria,  a  region  which  stretches  firom  China  to 
the  Amur  river,  embracing  400,000  square  miles.  They  became 
distinguishable  in  our  1 3th  century,  organising  various  rude  nomad 
tribes  who  are  first  noticed  in  the  time  of  the  Chinese  Kan  dynasty 
(1122  to  1225  B.C.)  as  Sushin  (Tunguse  proper),  Tih-lo,  Niichin, 
K'etan,  etc  Before  1100  ac  the  Sushin  were  attaining  power  io 
N.W.  China.  In  the  1st  century  aa  the  Chinese  conquered  Mukden, 
the  Manchurian  capital,  and  Korea,  and  in  263  and  291  A.a  Tunguse 
ambassadors  were  sent  to  the  Tsin  emperor  at  Nanking,    The  Chinese 


Manda  489. 

only  droTe  back  theae  Tartars  from  their  lands  about  470  a.c,  and  the 
historian  Tso  says  that  they  were  the  strongest  race  in  Tartary  in  the 
6tfa  century  aa  The  E'etans  established  their  dynasty  in  K  China 
about  920  A.c  (see  Eheta),  and  this  lasted  200  years,  till  overthrown 
by  the  Nii-chin  Tunguse,  who  are  the  direct  ancestors  of  Manchus. 
They  founded  the  Kin  or  ''  gold  "  dynasty  (see  China),  and  after  the 
Mongol  conquest  the  Manchus  recovered  power,  finally  founding  the 
present  dynasty.  The  Manchus  use  a  form  of  the  Mongol  alphabet, 
which  is  derived  from  that  of  the  early  Uigur  Turks,  who  learned  the 
use  of  letters  from  the  Nestorian  missionaries.  It  is  thus  traceable  to 
the  Syriak  (Dr  Isaac  Taylor,  Alphcibet,  i,  pp.  297-304). 

Manda.  Mandap.  Sanskrit  A  temple  or  shrine,  also  called 
Mandir,  and  signifying  a  *'  core  "  or  **  essence,"  and  also  a  "  bower." 

Manda.     See  Kuras. 

MandsanS.  A  Gnostik  sect  in  Babylonia,  who  included — as  late 
as  the  17th  century — some  20,000  families,  now  reduced  to  800  or 
less.  They  were  Sabians  or  "  baptisers "  (the  SahiUn  noticed  as 
'*  people  of  a  book  '*  in  the  Kor&n)  called  consequently  in  the  Middle 
Ages  *'  Christians  of  St  John,"  and  also  Nazarenes,  being  descended 
from  the  early  sect,  so  called,  of  Judaic  Christians  (see  Ebionites), 
They  are  more  properly  called  MansBans,  after  the  celebrated  Gnostik 
(see  Manes),  or  from  their  god  M&na-rabba  "  the  great  intelligence," 
the  '*  god  of  life  and  light,"  or  '*  Mana-rabba-di-ekara,"  the  "  great  mind 
of  glory."  He  is  the  first  of  three  great  Aions,  the  second  being 
P^ra  or  Fir  *'  the  old,"  and  the  third  Ayarziva  "  the  shining  ether." 

The  Mandseans,  or  Mendaites,  also  say  that  this  god  Mana  had 
a  female  emanation  called  Damutha  ("  appearance  "  or  '* likeness").  His 
**  messenger  of  life  "  was  the  Aidn  named  Yu-ShamSn  (** Yahveh  of  the 
heavens"),  who  strove  for  mastery  over  Mana  (as  the  Gnostiks  taught 
also  regarding  the  Jewish  Yahveh  and  their  Supreme  God),  and  was 
consequently  degraded  to  the  "  world  of  inferior  light"  Mana  was 
himself  incarnate  as  Abel  (Hibel),  Seth,  Enos,  and  John  the  Baptist. 
The  Mendaite  creator  of  matter — or  Demiurge — is  called  Ptah-il 
{'*  the  sculpturing  god "),  who  answers  to  the  Gnostik  Il-de-baoth 
{"  god  of  the  depths ").  The  Mendaites,  according  to  Prof.  Eessler, 
**  represent  the  older  type  of  Gnostik  Ophites  or  Nabassenes  "  (serpent 
worshipers),  but  preserve  Christian  rites  including  repeated  baptisms 
in  running  water,  and  an  eucharist  of  bread  and  wine.  They  have 
six  annual  festivals,  and  they  sacrifice  doves  at  the  consecrations  in 
their  churches.     The  Mendaites  have  an  Aramean  alphabet,  and  their 


490  Mandala 

sacred  language  is  Aramaik   like  that  of  the  Talmud.     In  this  tbej 
preserve  the  Sabian  Book  of  Adam,  (see  Sabians.) 

Mandala.   Mander.      S.  Tamil  words  for  a  cairn,  or  sacrificWi 

circle  (see  Manda). 

Mandara.  The  great  stone  or  mountain  with  which  Vishnu 
churned  the  ''sea  of  milk  "  (see  Vishnu),  by  means  of  the  Yasuka,  «'r 
serpent  rope  (see  Journal  SI.  Asiatic  Socy.,  zi,  p.  133). 

Mandrakes.     See  Dudalm. 

Manes.  The  founder  of  the  Manichaean  sect  [See  Gnostiks. 
This  was  one  of  the  most  important  attempts  to  found  an  universal 
religion,  and  to  reconcile  the  Christian,  Buddhist,  and  Mazdean,  \rith 
the  Greek  philosophy.  It  presented  the  same  syncretic  ideas  foand 
later  among  Moslem  Druzes,  and  among  Sikhs.  It  failed  in  the  £ast 
because  Islam  presented  a  much  simpler  system,  and  in  the  West 
because  Christianity  was  already  developing,  in  the  time  of  Manes, 
a  religion  which  aimed  at  reconciling  the  paganism  of  Italy  and  of 
Gaul  with  the  ethics  of  Christ,  thus  presenting  a  simpler  and  more 
familiar  faith. — Ed.]  Manes  was  a  notable  philosopher  and  religions 
teacher,  born  about  216  A.C.;  and  he  was  crucified  and  flayed  alive  by 
the  Persian  Magi,  under  Bahram  I,  in  277  A.C.  Has  Persian  name 
was  Shuraik,  rendered  Cubricus  in  Latin.  He  was  of  high  birth,  and 
a  native  of  Ekbatana  ;  he  became  a  gTBat  traveller,  and  a  voluminous 
writer,  having  studied  the  religions  of  Trans-Oxiana,  India,  and 
W.  China.  He  was  carefully  educated  by  his  learned  and  picas 
father,  at  Ctesiphon ;  and  they  appear  to  have  belonged  to  the  Sabian 
or  "  baptising "  sect  of  Mesopotamia  (see  Mandseans).  He  was  thus 
well  acquainted  with  Gnostik  Christianity.  As  a  boy  he  seems  to  have 
seen  visions,  and  to  have  early  shown  a  keenly  critical  spirit.  In 
242  A.C.  he  proclaimed  a  new  religion  at  the  court  of  Sapor  I  (see 
Prof.  Harnack,  En  cyclop,  Brit).  His  "  Acta  Archelai "  became  the 
Manichaean  Bible,  with  sundry  added  epistlea  He  taught  the  Maz* 
dean  dualism  of  the  powers  of  light  and  darkness,  as  representing  good 
and  evil  beings,  and  an  asceticism  which  aimed  at  the  control  of  all 
passions.  The  spirit  of  God  is  Light,  according  to  Manes,  radiant  witii 
the  virtues  of  love,  faith,  fidelity,  high  mindedness,  wisdom,  meekness, 
knowledge,  understanding,  mystery,  and  insight.  The  first  man  was 
armed  with  five  pure  elements  (apparently  the  five  senses),  but 
deceived  by  Satan,  and  falling  into  the  abyss,  till  God  redeemed  him 
and  set  him  in  the  sun.  The  second  Adani  was  begotten  by  Satan  in 
his  own  image  (or,  as  Gnostiks  said,  by  the  Demiurge,  who  is  the 


Manes  491 

father  of  Satan,  and  also  the  Hebrew  Yahveh) ;  and  Adam  therefore 
was  full  of  passion  and  sin,  and  seduced  by  Eve.  But  good  spirits, 
or  Aions,  were  set  to  guard  the  race,  and  became  ineamations  of  God  : 
among  these  Christ  was  one,  and  sent  to  aid  man  in  resisting  sensual 
sin,  and  to  teach  the  true  Gnosis,  or  knowledge  of  God  and  of  nature. 
This  Christ — as  Jesus — was  not  truly  incarnate,  but  a  phantom 
"  impassible,"  and  never  suffering  or  dying  when  on  the  cross — a 
Gnostik  belief  which  Muhammad  appears  also  to  have  taken  from 
the  Sabians.  Jesus  was  succeeded  by  Mani  (Manes)  himself,  as  the  last 
and  greatest  of  prophets,  and  of  divine  emanations — the  Paraklete  or 
"  advocate,"  and  the  ambassador  of  Light.  Without  such  a  redeemer 
none  can  see  light,  yet  he  too  must  be  purified  after  death. 

Severe  asceticism,  fasts,  and  prayers,  were  enjoined  by  Manes, 
who  established  two  orders,  one  of  this  Elect  or  perfect  (the  initiated), 
and  the  other  of  Hearers  or  probationers — the  masses  who  had  no 
time  or  ability  to  perfect  themselves.  The  aim  of  all  was  self-salvation. 
All  pleasures  were  forbidden ;  and  marriage  even  was  prohibited :  nor 
might  the  life  of  any  being  be  taken.  The  Manichsean  Church  had 
its  festivals,  rites,  and  symbols,  its  priests  and  bishops,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  teach  the  Hearers.  Sunday  was  devoted  to  prayer,  fasting, 
and  ceremonies.  The  Elect  were  half-worshiped  by  the  Hearers  :  in 
March  (on  the  day  on  which  Manes  was  crucified)  his  later  followers 
established  a  commemorative  rite  of  the  Bema  or  teacher's  chair. 
This  was  placed  on  a  platform  with  five  steps,  and  after  long  fasting 
all  were  permitted  to  kneel  before  it,  in  adoration  of  the  unseen 
Master.  Baptism  and  the  Eucharist  were  celebrated  in  spring. 
Manes  repudiated  Judaism,  and  (like  the  Gnostiks)  regarded  Yahveh 
as  an  evil  god.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  was  acquainted  with 
Buddhism,  and  he  speaks  of  **Baddas"  by  name.  The  Manicbseans 
were  more  feared  and  hated  by  Catholic  Christians  than  any  other 
early  sect.  They  were  still  in  existence,  in  spite  of  constant  persecu- 
tion, as  late  as  our  10th  century;  and  their  influence  was  felt  from 
China  to  Spain  and  Gaul :  it  still  lingers  in  Asia ;  and,  among  the 
"Christians  of  St  Thomas"  in  Madras,  it  survived  till  the  15th 
century.  St  Augustine  had  listened  for  nine  years  to  Manes ;  but  the 
Soman  empire  felt  the  force  of  this  system  chiefly  in  280  A.c.  The 
Romans  knew  it  in  330  A.c. ;  and  Faustus  became  its  missionary 
among  them.  Many  clung  to  the  Manichaean  belief  till  440  A.C., 
when  Leo  the  Great  found  that  he  must  stamp  it  out,  if  the  Roman 
creed  was  not  to  be  extinguished.  It  was  the  basis  of  Paulician 
heresy,  and  of  that  of  the  Albigenses,  in  the  S.  of  France,  which  was 
only  quenched  by  blood  in  the  13th  century* 


492  Manes 

Manes.     See  Man  and  Lar.     <'  Minds/'  *"  souls." 

ManethOy  or  Men-Thoth,  the  celebrated  Eg]rptian  historian,  was 
a  priest  at  Heliopolis  about  270  B.C.,  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  IL  He 
compiled  his  account  from  earlier  materials  (such  as  the  Turin 
historical  papyrus),  but  his  authorities  are  so  far  unknown  to  ua 
beyond  a  few  fragments.  Extracts  from  Manetho  are  found  in 
Josephus,  Julius  Africanus,  Eusebius,  and  Geoi^  the  Syncellus  (cr 
monk),  from  the  1st  to  the  9th  centuries  A.c. ;  but  our  present  text 
in  each  case  is  corrupt.  Benouf  {Hihbert  LecL,  1880)  says  :  "  There 
is  not  the  slightest  reason  for  questioning  the  fact  that  Manetho  had 
access  to  authentic  historical  records.'*  But  Dr  Hinks  has  pointed 
out  a  series  of  deliberate  falsifications  of  the  lists.  [The  names  and 
numerals  are  often  entirely  in  disaccord  with  those  of  the  Turin 
Papyrus. — Ed.] 

ManL  Sanskrit  A  great  serpent  borne  by  Kadru,  daughter  of 
Daksha,  identified  with  Eanda  the  moon  god  of  Balis,  in  Ceylon.  The 
name  is  connected  with  that  of  the  "  moon  "  (see  Daksha,  Eadru,  and 
Man). 

Mania.  See  Etmskans.  A  moon  godess,  and  among  Greeks 
the  daughter  of  night,  evoked  from  Tartaros,  and  sprung  from  the 
blood  of  Ccelus  (heaven) ;  whom  Juno  converted  into  a  Gk>rgon. 
Among  the  Etruskans  she  was  the  honoured  mother  of  Lares  and 
Manes.  But  she  was  a  maddening  godess,  probably  to  those  who 
were  **  moon  struck "  by  sleeping  in  moonlight ;  and  the  heads  of 
children  were  offered  to  Mania  till  the  time  of  Junius  Brutus,  when 
the  sleep-giving  poppy  was  substituted  as  an  offering. 

Manichseans.     See  Manes. 

MankO-kapak.  ManCO-CapaC.  The  Peruvian  divine 
teacher  of  religion,  agriculture,  weaving,  and  civilisation.  His  sacred 
capital  was  at  Eusko  (see  Peru),  and  he  became  the  deity  of  the  four 
quarters  of  earth.  Some  said  that  he  was  the  eldest  of  two  brothers, 
and  two  sisters,  who  came  out  of  a  rock  at  Kusko  ;  and  with  his  sister- 
wife,  Mama-Oello,  he  was  guided  by  a  "golden  wedge"  (like  the 
Persian  Yima's  gold  wedge),  which  stuck  fast  in  the  earth,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Yuka  river,  where  the  city  of  Eusko  was  founded. 

Manna.  This  mysterious  food  from  heaven  (Exod.  xvi,  15)  bore 
a  name  {mom)  which  the  writer  apparently  did  not  understand,  as  he 
renders  it  man-hu  ("  what  is  it  ? ").  [The  name  is  applied  now  to 
the  product  of  an  insect  like  the  cochineal  insect  (Cocctia  manniparu$)y 


Manth  493 

inrbich  punctures  the  tamarisk  bush  (^Tamarix  7nannifera\  causing  a 
gummy  secretion  which  hardens  and  drops,  being  collected  for  sale. — 
!Ed.]  It  is  described  as  like  white  coriander  seed,  tasting  like  a 
honeyed  wafer.  In  Egypt  a  substance  called  Toen  was  used  for 
incense.  The  mythical  nltona  appears  to  be  the  dew,  which  dis- 
appears when  the  sun  becomes  hot.  It  is  thus  connected  with  the 
Arabic  word  mann  for  "  sperm  " ;  and  Talmudic  legends  state  that  a 
rain  of  manna  will  fertilise  the  bone  Luz  (Os  coccygis)  for  those  who 
are  to  rise  in  new  bodies  at  the  last  day. 

Manth.  Sanskrit :  "  the  borer  "  (see  Arani,  Mandara,  Pramatha, 
and  Prometheus). 

Mantra.  Sanskrit:  a  "charm,"  hymn,  or  prayer,  which 
'*  reminds ''  the  deity  (see  Man). 

Manu.  The  "man."  Hindus  say  that  14  Man  us  preside  over 
every  Ealpa  or  age.  The  present  age  is  that  of  the  7th  Manu  (see 
Kalpa).  Manu  was  saved  from  the  flood  by  Vishnu  (see  Floods). 
The  first  Manu  was  the  "  self  existent,"  when  Brahma  divided  himself 
(see  Brahma)  calling  up  Ida  as  his  consort  from  the  waters,  and 
producing  the  ten  Praja-patis,  or  creators. 

Manu  -  shastra.      The   **  Laws  of  Manu " ;    attributed    to   a 
mythical    legislator,  like  the  Hebrew  Law.      The  age   of  the  code 
is   equally  doubtful  in  both   cases,  both    having  been  manipulated 
by   later  priests,  and  modernised  to  suit  later  ideas.     Sir  William 
Jones,  the    first    translator  of  the  code  of  Manu,   thought  that  it 
originally  belonged  to  the  Yedik  age  about  1200  B.C.     Later  writers 
suppose  that,  as  it  now  exists,  it  belongs  to  the  4th  century  A.C. 
Many  of  the  laws  appear  to  have  been  known  to  early  Buddhists,  and 
Indian  philosophers.     Others,  like  Dr  Max  Mtlller,  and  Dr  Burnell^ 
place  it  as  a  whole  about  the  Christian  era  (see  Sacred  Books  of  the 
East,  xxv).     Megasthenes,  in  the  4th  century  B.C.,  said  that  no  written 
laws  were  known  in  India.     But  many  British  rulers  pass  half  a  life- 
time in  India  knowing  nothing  of  such  literature,  nor  are  the  laws  of 
Manu   recognised  by  Dravid   races  in  the  south.     The  authors  were 
Manava  Brahmans  of  N.  India,  who  formed  the  Dharma  Sutra  or 
"  book  of  duty,"  whence  the  code  of  Manu  is  supposed  to  have  arisen. 
Their  great  authority  was  the  Black  Yajur  Veda.     Half  at  least  of  the 
work  is  late,  but  the  older  part  is  noticed  in  the  Maha-bbarata  epik,. 
or  at  least  some  laws  of  the  kind.     The  Manu  code  never  mentions 
Sati  (Suttee)  or  the  self-immolation  of  the  widow,  but  on  the  contrary 
(ix,  4)  directs  the  son  to  protect  the  widowed  mother.     There  are 


494  Manu-shastra 

many  allusions  to  tormentB  in  hell ;  and  the  wife  occupies  a  subordinate, 
or  enslaved,  condition,  women  being  regarded  as  quite  untrustwortbv. 
These  indications  seem  to  point  to  early  ages.  Our  legislators,  un- 
fortunately, have  appealed  to  many  of  the  disgracefully  tyrannous  laws 
of  the  code,  exalting  the  power  of  Brahmans.  The  author  himself 
commanded  part  of  a  large  force  which  surrounded  the  gibbet  on 
which  a  Brahman  murderer  was  hanged;  but  our  rulers,  influenced 
by  the  Laws  of  Manu,  have  not  always  dared  such  a  deed.  In  this 
code  Brahmans  are  called  ''  lords  of  the  world  "  ;  the  Kshatriya  or 
warrior  caste  is  to  defend  them  ;  the  Vaisya  caste  to  collect  wealth 
for  them ;  the  Sudra  caste  to  perform  for  them  menial  offices. 
Kings  are  only  useful  as  conferring  gifts  on  Brahmans.  The  great 
epiks  are  unnoticed  in  these  laws,  as  are  the  gods  Siva  and  Vishuu, 
Vedik  deities  alone  being  noticed.  The  account  of  the  four  castes 
resembles  that  in  Sutras  of  the  Yajur  Veda,  compiled  perhaps  as  early 
as  500  B.C.  The  Manu  Shastra  is  described  (Scotsman,  Dec  1884) 
as  recording  the  creation  of  the  •world,  the  origin  of  the  four  castes,  the 
duties  of  the  householder,  student,  and  ascetik,  family  relations,  laws 
of  property,  rules  for  kings,  and  the  sins  and  crimes  of  all  classes, 
with  their  punishments,  and  means  of  expiation.  "  There  is  nothing 
omitted  from  this  remarkable  code— from  birth  to  marriage,  on  to 
death ;  from  hell  to  heaven ;  from  the  breaking  of  the  moral  law 
down  to  the  breaking  of  the  axle  of  a  cart ;  from  the  beginning  of 
time  till  the  absorption  in  the  universal  essence.  The  Brahman — 
who  proceeded  from  the  mouth  of  God — is  the  lord  of  all  castes  .  .  . 
for  him  life  is  easier,  privileges  are  greater,  punishments  are  lighter — 
as  with  the  noblesse  in  France  before  the  Revolution.  If  a  Sudra 
— ^the  lowest  order — speak  violently  against  any  of  the  higher  castes 
his  tongue  is  cut  out ;  while  if  a  Brahman  insult  a  Sudra  he  pays  no 
penalty  at  all,  and  only  50  panas  if  he  insult  one  of  the  caste  nearest 
his  own.  The  highest  posts  on  earth,  the  highest  places  in  heaven, 
are  his.  .  .  .  There  is  no  distinction  between  moral  sins  and  ceremonial 
crimes — it  bears  with  as  heavy  a  hand  on  the  man  who  overturns  a 
pot  of  ghee  as  on  him  who  murders  and  slanders.  .  .  .  The  Brahman 
practices  the  same  penance  for  killing  a  daw,  a  frog,  or  a  lizard,  as  for 
killing  a  Sudra.  We  find  in  these  laws  a  spirit,  and  practice,  of  savage 
unproportioned  cruelty,  difficult  to  harmonise  with  traces  of  a  high 
civilisation,  and  elevated  ideas  of  ethics.  .  .  .  Every  part  of  life,  every 
attitude,  every  act  of  existence  however  slight,  is  the  subject  of  these 
inquisitorial  laws  ...  it  is  diflScult  to  see  how  a  Brahman  could 
walk,  eat,  sit,  or  lie  down,  without  falling  into  some  sin  or  breaking 
some  minute  law.     How  these  laws  arose  is  a  strange  problem.     [But 


Manu-skihar  495 

the  same  is  found  among  Jews  and  Persians,  while  traces  of  such  class 
legislation  are  as  old  as  2100  B.C.  in  the  Laws  of  'Ammurabi. — £d.] 
That  many  were  originally  begun,  like  Jewish  laws,  for  sanitary 
purposes  ...  is  evident :  that  many  are  survivals  of  superstitions 
IV  hose  origin  is  lost  in  the  remote  past  of  the  Aryan  race,  or  from 
contact  with  other  races,  is  also  clear :  that  others  are  additions,  to 
hedge  and  safeguard  the  law,  as  was  done  by  Pharisees,  and  to  exact 
more  sacrifices  and  fines,  as  was  done  by  priests,  may  be  believed 
readily."  Metempsychosis  as  purgatorial  is  taught  in  minute  particulars. 
The  whole  picture  of  social  tyranny,  due  to  religious  beliefs,  is  full  of 
importance  to  the  student. 

IVIanu-skihar.     A  term  now  often  applied  to  a  teacher  among 

Persian  Mazdeans,  but  especially  applied  to  a  celebrated  high  priest 

in    Pars,  and  Kirman,  who  wrote  in  Pahlavi  certain  epistles   called 

Dadistani-i-Dinik   or   "Doctrines   of  Religion."      These   include   the 

whole  priestly  doctrine  of  Zoroastrians  (Sacred  Books  of  the  East, 

xviii).     From  the  3rd  Epistle  we  learn  that,  about  881   A.C.,  this 

author  was  attempting  to  answer  92  questions  put  to  him  by  Mitro- 

kurshed,  an  ecclesiastic  who  had  doubts,  on  matters  that  no  one  has 

ever  been  able  to  explain  in  some  of  the  cases.     The  doubter  asked 

why  a  righteous  man  is  better  than  any  other  creature  in  the  sight 

of  heaven :    why  the  righteous  were  created,  and   how  they  should 

act :  how  their  temporal  troubles  are  to  be  explained ;  and  why  the 

good   often  suffer  more  than  the  bad :   why  all  men  were  created ; 

and    how  all   should    conduct    themselves    towards    him   who    made 

them  :   what  is  to  be  the  retribution   or  fate  of  men  after  death  : 

what  are  the    pleasures    of  heaven,   and   what  the  pains   of   hell : 

should  we,  and  do  the  angels,  grieve  and  rejoice  at  the  death  of  good 

and  bad  men :    are  good  and  evil  spirits  to  war  together  till   the 

Resurrection :    what    will    then    become    of   the   world ;    and    what 

advantage  will  it  be  to  a  good  man  to  have  credit  for  good  works 

beyond  what  are  absolutely  required.     In  reply  much  stress  is  laid 

on  ritual  and  ceremonies,  and  on  the  proper  wearing  o^  the  sacred 

girdle  (Kosti),  and  the  distance  from  which  the  sacred   fire  should 

be  addressed ;  on  the  use  of  a  lamp ;    and  on  the  proper  order  of 

propitiatory  dedications  in   consecrating  a  sacred  cake.      The  high 

priest  is  asked  also  if  it  is  lawful  to  buy  corn  and  keep  it,  in  order 

to  gain  profit  from  a  rise  in  price,  and  whether  a  trader  must  fulfil 

his  contract  at  famine  prices :   whether  a  man  without  a  son  can 

leave  property  to  his  daughter  on  his  deathbed,  with  other  questions 

as  to  laws  of  inheritance  and  adoption.     Other  questions  are  scientific, 


496  Mao 

referriDg  to  the  cause  of  the  rainbow,  of  the  phases  of  the  moon, 
eclipses,  river  beds,  the  material  nature  of  the  sky,  and  how  ocean 
water  becomes  rain.  The  teacher  in  reply  often  goes  beyond  his 
depth.  As  to  the  end  of  the  world  he  says :  "  Near  to  the  time  of 
the  Renovation  the  bodily  existences  desist  from  eating,  and  live 
without  food ;  and  the  offspring  who  are  bom  from  them  are  im- 
mortal, for  they  possess  durable  and  bloodless  bodies.  Such  are  they 
who  are  the  bodily  existing  men  that  are  in  the  world  when  men 
passed  away,  rise,  and  live  again."  Regarding  the  evil  power  of  the 
fiend  we  learn  that  the  creator  allows  it  only  for  a  time,  and  that  it 
is  certain  that  he  will  prevail  over  this  devil,  by  the  aid  of  his  army 
of  angels.  Mr  West,  in  his  Introduction  to  the  three  Epistles  trans- 
lated in  the  volume  above  cited,  says:  "The  reader  will  seardi  in 
vain  for  any  confirmation  of  the  foreign  notion  that  Maada  worship 
is  decidedly  more  dualistic  than  Christianity  is  usually  shown  to  be 
by  orthodox  writers,  or  for  any  allusion  to  the  descent  of  the  good 
and  evil  spirits  from  a  personification  of  *  boundless  time,'  as  asserted 
by  strangers  to  the  faith.  No  attempt  is  made  to  account  for  either 
spirit ;  but  the  temporary  character  of  the  power  of  the  evil  one,  and 
of  the  punishment  in  hell,  is  distinctly  asserted." 

Comparing  the  older  books  of  the  Zend  Avesta  we  find  that 
these  doctrines  were  in  existence  probably  as  early  at  least  as  500 
B.C.,  in  Persia.  Manu-skihar's  epistles  were  due  to  complaints  from 
Mazd^ans  of  Sirkan,  directed  against  his  own  younger  brother  Z&d- 
sparam,  who  was  a  high  priest,  but  regarded  as  heretical  in  matters 
of  ritual.  The  first  epistle  is  addressed  to  these  MazdSans,  the 
second  to  the  brother,  and  the  third  to  all  the  fiuthful.  The  brother 
is  mildly,  but  firmly  condemned,  as  Mr  West  says :  *^  with  the 
moderation  and  tact  of  a  statesman,  the  burning  zeal  of  a  well  in- 
formed priest,  and  the  a&ection  of  a  brother.*' 

Mao.  Maonh.  Mah.  The  moon  among  the  Mazd^ans  in 
Persia,  and  in  Baktria  where  the  word  occurs  on  the  Kan^rki 
coinage  of  Hushka,  about  65  to  15  B.C.  In  the  Tasna,  Mao  is  said 
to  guard  the  "  seed  of  Mithra "  (the  god  of  light),  as  Soma — ^the 
Hindu  moon — guards  the  ambrosia,  or  dew. 

MaoL  Maulagh.  Eeltik:  ^'a  hill"  or  **higfa  place"  (see 
Mali),  like  the  Indian  mala  '*  hill." 

Maoris.  Marae.  The  Maories  are  New  Zealanders;  and 
among  Polynesians  generally  Mara^  means  a  "stone  circle."  Maori 
worshipers  are  differentiated  finom  the  Negrito  Fionas  or  P&pa-langis, 


Maoris  497 

who  are  regarded  by  the  former  as  foreigners,  and  pagans,  being 
earlier  inhabitants  of  Melanesia.  In  the  island  of  Oroa  (Fomander, 
ii,  pp.  51,  52),  the  Marae  circles  were  dedicated  to  Oro,  and  Ma-ori 
may  mean  "  the  people  of  Oro."  "  A  ma/rae  dedicated  to  Lono  was 
a  solid  pile  of  stones  40  by  20  feet  base,  and  14  feet  high,  with  a 
flat  summit  for  sacrifice,  all  railed  round,"  and  comparable  (see 
Fomander,  ii,  p.  174),  to  the  sacrificial  pyramids  of  Canadian  Indians 
(see  Stones).  Mr  Ellis  (see  Miss  Gordon  Camming,  Fire  Fountains), 
noticed  such  a  shrine  at  Eawaihai,  in  the  Hawaii  group  of  islands, 
the  base  measuring  224  by  100  feet,  and  the  enclosing  wall  being 
1 2  feet  thick  and  20  feet  high  :  it  was  erected  by  King  Eamehameha 
to  the  war  god  Tairi.  Here  sacrifices  were  offered  in  security,  in 
presence  of  idols — which  are  usually  of  wood  and  adorned  with 
feathers  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  p.  230,  fig.  31),  being  placed  in  inner 
chapels  or  courts.  On  the  altars  of  the  chief  gods  human  victims 
were  offered  as  well  as  hogs,  dogs,  grain,  fruit,  and  flowers ;  and 
diviners  foretold  future  events  by  inspection  of  the  victim's  entrails, 
uttering  oracles  from  beneath  a  pyramidal  frame  work.  The  human 
victims  were  usually  prisoners,  or  sinners  who  had  broken  the  laws 
of  Tapu  (or  Tabu)  "  custom,"  as  established  by  priests. 

At  Rua-pua  the  Marae,  or  Heiau,  was  150  by  70  feet,  and  at 
Pakiha  270  by  21  feet,  at  the  base ;  many  such  shrines  were  in  sacred 
groves;  and  one  200  feet  square  was  in  a  sacred  pond,  used  for  ablu- 
tions and  baptisms.  All  were  made  of  huge  well-carved  blocks  of  lava, 
and  they  are  attributed  to  "  a  very  ancient  race  who  came  from  the 
west" — no  doubt  Malays  or  Malas  (see  Short  Stvdiea,  i),  as  the 
Polynesian  race  is  a  mixed  Malay-negrito  stock.  Papuans  here  and 
there  resisted  the  invaders,  and  refused  to  marry  the  brown  men,  but 
they  conquered  New  Zealand  and  all  the  Chatham  group  of  islands, 
500  miles  further  east,  spreading  all  over  the  Pacific.  The  comparison 
of  Polynesian  and  Malay  speech  agrees  philologically  with  the  evidence 
of  racial  type.  The  New  Zealand  Maori  affirms  that  Tonga  grew  out 
of  a  sacred  stone,  which  "  his  ancestors  brought  in  a  canoe,  and  fixed 
there,  in  the  beginning  of  time."  All  agree  that  these  ancestors  came 
from  Hawaiki — otherwise  Arawa — which  is  perhaps  a  name  connected 
with  that  of  Hawaii  in  the  Sandwich  group,  far  away  N.E.  Tonga  is 
the  chief  island  of  the  Friendly  group,  N.  of  New  Zealand.  [The 
populations  of  the  Pacific  are  divided  by  anthropologists  into  three 
classes:  (1)  Malays  on  the  W. ;  (2)  Melanesians  further  S.  and  E. ; 
(3)  Polynesians,  as  far  as  New  Zealand  on  S.,  and  the  Sandwich 
Islands  in  the  far  N.E. :  of  these  the  Melanesians  are  much  more 
purely  negrito  (including  the  Australians)  than  are  the  brown  Poly- 

2  l« 


498  Maoris 

nesians. — Ed.]  The  Maoris  speak  of  their  ''Hawaiki  father,"  or 
"Tonga  parent,"  as  Tapu  or  "holy"  (Mr  K  NichoUs,  Journal  Anthnjp, 
Insiit.y  Novr.  1885).  The  time  at  which  the  Maoris  invaded  the 
earlier  Melanesians  of  New  Zealand  has  been  variously  supposed  to  be 
3000,  or  only  600,  years  ago.  Tradition  says  that  a  chief  named 
Ngahue  was  driven  from  Hawaiki,  and  discovered  the  N.  island  of 
New  Zealand.  He  went  back,  taking  with  him  jade,  and  bones  of  the 
now  extinct  Moa  ostrich,  and  induced  many  to  emigrate,  in  canoes 
filled  with  seeds  of  sweet  potatoes,  gourds,  berries,  dogs,  parrots,  rats 
and  sacred  red  paint. 

The  Maori  religion  is  animistic,  with  fire,  water,  serpent,  and 
phallic  rites.  All  beings,  including  sun,  moon,  stars,  and  wind,  have 
Aitu8  or  "  spirits,"  some  being  Atuas^  or  divine  souls  who  most  be 
propitiated  by  sacrifices  and  religious  services.  **  The  great  spirit  is 
said  to  haunt  the  forest  depths,  and  mountain  tops :  he  floats  in  the 
air,  in  rivers  and  lakes ;  rides  in  the  storm ;  and  works  all  good  and 
evil."  Only  the  Tohunga  high-priest,  or  his  ministers,  can  treat  with 
this  spirit.  Two  stone  Atuas  were  brought  from  the  fatherland  in  a 
canoe,  the  chief  one  being  Matua  Tonga  ("  the  Tonga  father  "),  whose 
symbol  was  recently  dug  up  on  the  island  of  Mokoia,  by  the  lake 
Rotoma,  representing  a  man  squatting  on  his  haunches  with  the  knees 
drawn  up  against  the  breast,  on  which  rests  the  palm  of  one  hand, 
while  the  other  supports  his  chin.  The  whole  figure  is  about  4  feet 
high,  and  6  feet  in  girth.  Mr  Nicholls  gives  the  names  of  other 
Maori  gods.  Matas  turned  the  world  upside  down :  Maui  fished  up 
the  N.  island  from  the  sea :  Papa  is  god  of  sea  and  rivers,  and  Ru  of 
lakes,  rivers,  and  earthquakes :  Eanika  placed  "  the  seed  of  fire "  in 
trees :  Maru  is  god  of  the  great  Whanganui  river :  Irawaru  of  dogs, 
rats,  and  reptiles ;  Patiki  protects  infants :  Tangaroa  is  the  fish  god : 
Taue  god  of  birds :  Tol€  of  sudden  death :  Tu  of  the  wind :  Tau- 
potiki  is  the  creator  of  sun,  moon,  and  stars:  Rehua  is  god  of  the 
sick,  and  ever  demanding  prayers  and  sacrifices :  Rongomai  is  god  of 
war,  and  the  chief  deity  of  Taupo. 

The  first  man  Tiki  also  became  a  deity.  There  is  no  lack  of  evil 
demons  called  Taniwhas — ^fierce  monsters  usually  of  lizard  or  serpent 
form,  frequenting  dark  caves,  waters,  lone  mountains,  or  dangerous 
rivers,  and  ever  seeking  to  devour  mankind.  The  gods  are  satisfied 
with  Mata^  or  first  fruits,  or  by  an  occasional  cock ;  but  the  Taniwhas 
demand  burnt  offerings  and  bloody  sacrifices.  Tet  even  among  Maoris 
unbelievers  are  said  to  have  always  existed,  who  thought  only  of  "  fat 
pork  and  potatoes."  Lingam  worship  is  clearly  indicated  (Taylor,  Ktw 
ZeiUand,  p.  72)  by  "a  small  image  about  18  inches  long,  resembling 


Mar  499 

a  carved  head,  with  a  fillet  of  red  parrots'  feathers  under  the  god's 
chin,  held  by  a  bandage  of  sennet  tied  in  a  peculiar  way."  *'Tbe 
Atua,  or  divine  spirit,  is  believed  to  enter  into  this  image  when  it  is 
stuck  into  the  ground  ;  and  the  Karakia — a  powerful  prayer — is  then 
offered  up  ;  and  the  symbol  vibrates,  a  sitting  priest  having  hold  of  a 
string  attached  to  the  neck.  The  jerking  is  supposed  to  arrest  the 
god's  attention."  "  This  god  made  use  of  the  priest's  tongue  in  giving 
replies,  and  the  divine  afflatus  (atua)  was  only  supposed  to  enter  the 
image  for  the  occasion  ;  it  was  not  always  worshiped,  and  only  used  as 
a  mode  of  approaching  the  deity." 

The  Maoris  say   that   they   knew,  before  Christianity  reached 
them,  of  a  superior  being  presiding  over  their  destinies,  and  of  a 
beautiful  and  peaceful  heaven  (Reinga),  the  gate  of  which  is  at  the  N. 
cape  of  the  N.  island.    Here  all  ghosts  assemble,  and  float  peacefully 
away  to  a  home  where  there  is  no  war,  or  trouble,  or  want,  but  sun- 
shine, joy,  and  rest.      Maoris  lament  the  dead,  and  have  a  sacred 
dance  (Tanji)  over  the  grave.     After  a  time  they  disinter  the  corpse, 
and    place  the  bones    in    caves  which    are   strictly  Tapu,  or    holy. 
Christianity  was  first  introduced  among  them  in   1814.     In   1864 
they   are  described   as  chanting,  shouting,  and   ejaculating  as  they 
circumambulated  an  upright  pole  reared  in  the  centre  of  a  circle. 
The  Maoris,  like  the  Malays,  are  skilled  designers,  carvers,  and  builders  ; 
and  they  had  schools  of  art  before  Europeans  knew  them  (Hamilton, 
New  ZealaTid  iTistit,  1897-8).     Such  exquisite  taste  as  is  shown  by 
their  delicate,  and  elaborate,  work  is  now  mainly  devoted  to  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  figureheads  and  sternposts  of  canoes,  to  door  posts,  porches, 
and  agricultural  instruments,  usually  in  illustration  of  popular  mytho- 
logy.    Mr  Hamilton  says  that  "  some  of  the  subjects  must  have  taken 
years,  if  not  generations,  to  complete,  and  .  .  .  though  peculiar  to  New 
Zealand  they  agree  in  many  features  with  South  Sea  and  Polynesian 
art  in  general."     Many  Maoris  are  still  in  the  communistic  stage,  but 
they  are  exogamous,  though  having  no  name  for  family.     They  speak 
only  of  the  offspring  of  a  tribe  or  islet ;  but  they  pay  most  respect  to 
the  first  born,  regarding  such  as  often  possessing  supernatural  powers 
{see  Mr  Best,  Jov/mal  Anthrop,  Instity  Jany.-June  1902,  p.  184). 

Mar.  [Two  roots  are  to  be  distinguished  :  (1)  Mar  "to  shine," 
Aryan  mar:  Assyrian  amar  "see"  (also  Ar,  Var,  and  Bar):  (2) 
Mar  to  "  crumble  "  or  "  decay  "  :  Egyptian  Mer  "  die  "  :  Aryan  mar, 
mal,  "  to  rot,"  "  melt,"  "  die  "  (also  Mat\  whence  perhaps  the  Egyptian 
mer,  and  Latin  mare,  for  "  sea,"  as  being  putrid :  Hebrew  marr 
*•  bitter." — Ed.] 


500  Mara 

Mara.     Sauskrit  *' death"  (Latin   Mors),  a  mighty  demon, 
devil,  who  tempted  Buddha  under  the  tree  (see  Lalita  Vistara). 


or 


Marcion.  A  very  influential  heretic  of  our  2nd  centuir, 
mentioned  by  Justin  Martyr,  Irenieus,  and  Tertullian.  He  was  & 
Pauline  (as  contrasted  with  the  Judaic)  Christian*  His  father  is  said  to 
have  been  a  bishop  at  Sinope  in  Pontus,  where  he  was  bom  about 
130  A.C, — or  earlier,  as  he  visited  Home  about  140  A.C.,  where  he  was 
taught  by  Cerdo  the  Syrian,  whom  Judean  Christians  regarded  as 
a  heretia  Polycarp  is  said  to  have  regarded  Marcion  with  horror. 
He  made  use  only  of  the  third  Gospel,  but  of  a  text  apparently  not 
including  the  tirst  chapter  about  the  virgin  birth  of  Christ.  He  died 
about  163  or  180  A.C.,  and  was  acquainted  with  the  Pauline  epistles 
(Supernal.  Bdig.,  ii,  p.  81),  including  that  to  Philemon,  but  not 
those  to  Timothy  and  Titus.  We  however  only  hear  of  his  gospel 
from  the  accounts  of  his  enemies^  and  later  Marcionites  attributed  it 
to  Paul.  His  sect  spread  from  Italy  to  W.  Asia  and  Egypt,  and  was 
numerous  down  to  250  A.C.,  surviving  even  till  the  5th  century,  when 
it  was  stamped  out  by  the  Catholic  emperors  of  Byzantium. 

Marcion — ^like  many  Gnostiks  —  believed  in  two  gods  (see 
Mandaeans),  the  creator  of  man,  from  huU  (**  matter  "),  being  a  god  of 
justice  and  wrath.  The  higher  god  was  "  love,"  unknown  until  he 
sent  his  son — a  divine  phantom — ^to  earth,  where  he  was  crucified  by 
the  Demiurge,  or  god  of  wrath.  Christ  being  glorified  compelled  this 
god  to  deliver  up  the  souls  of  the  good  to  the  higher  god. 

The  Marcionites  were  severe  ascetiks,  who  refrained  from  meat 
and  wine,  and  who  forbade  marriage.  They  would  not  baptise  any 
married  person,  or  accept  them  as  pupils :  they  said  that  they  did 
this  for  love  of  the  God  of  Love,  whom  they  desired  to  resemble  (see 
Essenes  and  Gnostiks).  Marcion  celebrated  the  Eucharist  without 
wine ;  he  allowed  fish  to  be  eaten :  and  he  fasted  on  the  Jewish 
Sabbath,  observing  the  next  day  as  the  Lord's  day  of  rest  He  did 
not  attempt  to  reconcile  Jewish  law  with  the  teaching  of  Paul.  He 
held  that  there  was  no  resurrection  of  the  dead  body ;  but  the  soul 
returned  to  the  true  God.  The  idea  that  "  God  is  Love,"  or  the  com- 
mand '*  love  your  enemies,"  he  thought  to  be  quite  inconsistent  with 
the  character  of  the  Hebrew  Yahveh — the  Demiurge — a  deity  of 
limited  intelligence  as  shown  by  his  asking  Adam,  '*  Where  art  thou  ? " 
He  did  not  deny  the  truth  of  Hebrew  prophecy,  but  saw  no  connection 
between  the  son  of  the  true  God  and  the  Hebrew  Messiah.  There 
were  many  angels  ministering  to  the  Demiurge,  and  beneath  all  was 
Hule  (**  matter  "\  a  female  principle  through  which  creation  became 


Marduk  501 

possible.  Hulg  made  man,  and  the  Creator  breathed  his  spirit  into 
him,  forbidding  him  to  touch  Hule.  She  then  in  wrath  produced 
many  gods  and  many  devils.  Adam  fell,  and  was  cast  into  hell,  but 
was  redeemed  3000  years  later  by  the  son  of  the  true  God,  who 
however  saved  !^ain,  Esau,  Eorah,  and  others,  whom  the  Demiurge 
hated,  but  not  the  saints  who  await  the  spiritual  resurrection  in 
Hades.  Marcion  observed  the  old  rite  of  baptism  with  unction  (see 
Baptism),  and  held  that  it  ought  to  be  repeated  after  any  had  fallen 
into  some  great  sin.  If  the  catechumen  died  before  baptism  some 
other  person  might  be  baptised  in  his  stead  (see  1  Cor.  xv,  29).  Such 
variations  of  belief  did  not  interest  the  early  philosophers :  for  Cicero 
said  that  **  mankind  are  mostly  fools,  and  their  general  opinions 
folly." 

Marduk.  Merodach.  The  Babylonian  name  of  the  sun  god, 
apparently  from  the  Akkadian  Amar-vdviky  or  ''  sun  disk."  He  is 
the  son  of  the  ocean  god  Ea,  represented  as  the  creator,  aud  as  the 
champion  who  defeated  Tiamat  the  demon  godess  of  chaos.  He  is 
armed  with  lightning  and  a  sickle  (see  Babylon). 

IVIari.  Sanskrit :  "  death  "  (feminine.  See  Mara).  Marl-ama, 
or  ''  mother  death  "  is  the  godess  of  diseases,  especially  infectious 
ones.  She  is  usually  represented  at  defiles,  or  in  hills  and  woods, 
with  four  hands,  and  holding  the  tri-svl,  or  ''  trident "  of  Siva  as  god 
of  death,  with  a  skull,  a  rope,  and  a  drum-like  object — the  Damaru. 
Her  festival  lasts  eight  days,  with  dances  and  rejoicings  intended  to 
please  or  pacify  her. 

MarL  Maree.  MourL  An  ancient  Keltik  deity  adored  in 
the  N.W.  of  Scotland  in  connection  with  sacred  wells,  trees,  and 
stones ;  and  enshrined  in  the  islet  of  Maree  (Loch  Maree,  or  as  High- 
landers pronounce  it,  Mouri ;  see  Folk-Lore  Quarterly,  Deer.  1893). 
Miss  Godden  gives  in  this  serial  an  interesting  account  of  the  later 
worship  of  Saint  Mulrubha,  who  came  from  Ulster  about  G70  to  640 
A.c. ;  and  Mr  Hartland,  of  the  "  pins  and  rags  "  which  were  affixed  to 
an  oak,  or  thrown  into  the  well  of  Maree,  as  emblems  of  visits  by 
devotees.  The  well,  now  neglected,  is  only  a  hole  overgrown  with 
vegetation ;  but  the  "  wishing  oak "  is  a  bare  trunk  the  clefts  in 
which  are  full  of  coins  and  bits  of  iron  still  brought,  though  the 
priests  and  Presbytery  of  Dingwall  began  "  to  utter  bitter  anathemas 
against  the  worship  from  the  middle  of  the  10th  century."  Till  the 
close  of  the  17th  century  bulls  were  here  sacrificed,  with  processions 
and  libations  of  milk,  near  small  kils  (chapels)  and  sacred  stones : 


502  Mari 

some  of  the  latter  bad  in  them  holes,  into  which  the  sick,  and  lovers, 
or  those  desiring  offspring,  thrust  their  heads.  The  margin  of  the 
well  used  to  be  smeared  with  red  paint — as,  in  India,  the  Yoni  stones 
of  Parvati  are  still  painted.  The  site  was  famous  along  50  miles  of 
coast,  as  consecrated  to  Rufus  Mul-rubha  (Mulray),  whose  day  was 
the  28th  of  August,  or  otherwise  the  21st  of  April.  He  was  said  to 
have  been  martyred  by  Norsemen  in  722  A.a,  and  buried  in  a  moand 
(Claodh  Mari),  the  earth  of  which  cured  many  ills.  Till  the  I7th 
century  lunatics  used  to  be  rowed  round  the  sacred  island,  and  were 
thrown,  with  a  rope  round  them,  into  the  holy  water  at  intervals. 
The  well  dried  up  because  desecrated  by  a  mad  dog.  Queen  Victoria 
wrote  {Life  in  Highlands,  1884,  p.  352)  that:  ''After  scrambling 
through  thickets  we  came  upon  the  well — nearly  dry  (Septr.  1875), 
celebrated  for  the  cure  of  insanity.  We  hammered  some  pennies  into 
the  old  oak  tree  which  stands  close  to  the  well,  for  it  has  been  the 
custom  from  time  immemorial  to  insert  copper  coins  into  the  bark 
as  a  sort  of  offering  to  the  Saint  Maol-ruabh,  or  Mulray,  who  lived 
here  in  the  8th  centurys"  Rags  and  ribbons  are  also  tied  to  the  tree^ 
just  as  to  so  many  sacred  trees  in  Asia. 

MetL  Latin  {mas,  gen.  maris)  a  grown  person  (compare  Ar), 
whence  the  maritiis  or  bridegroom,  and  the  niarita  or  bride.  Dr 
Westermark  says  {History  of  Human  Marriage,  1891)  that  the 
institution  is  derived  from  the  pairing  of  animals  which  is  necessary 
for  preservation  of  the  young.  Marriage  is  still  temporary  among 
many  rude  peoples.  The  preference  for  wives  outside  the  family  is 
believed  to  be  due  to  the  desire  to  preserve  the  purity  of  family  life, 
but  may  also  be  founded  on  observation  of  the  evils  of  inbreeding. 
Among  Australians  and  Maoris  no  such  objections  were  felt  [The 
rites  which  are  classed  as  the  survival  of  "  marriage  by  capture  '* — or 
the  raiding  for  wives  on  other  tribes — are  sometimes  better  explained 
(as  among  Arabs)  by  the  reluctance  which  is  considered  modest  by 
brides  (see  Badawi). — Ed.] 

Maiicha.  A  Daitya  who,  in  the  disguise  of  a  gazelle,  tempted 
Rama  to  pursue  him,  while  Ravana  was  carrying  away  Sita.  He  was 
a  form  of  Mara,  or  the  Hindu  Satan. 

Mark.  Eusebius  says  that  the  "  gospel  according  to  Mark  "  was 
written  by  Marcus  a  Latin,  who  was  the  **  interpreter  of  Peter."  He 
is  supposed  to  have  gone  to  Some — apparently  because  of  a  single 
allusion  (2  Tim.  iv,  11),  and  of  a  forced  identification  of  Rome  with 
Babylon  (1  Pet.  v,  13).     He  is  otherwise  represented  as  a  Hebrew 


Markand  503 

(Acts  xii,  12  ;  xiii,  5,  13),  who  left  Paul  and  afterwards  rejoined  him 
(Colos.  iv,  1 0),  his  native  name  being  John.  The  final  passage  in 
this  gospel  (xvi,  9-20)  is  absent  from  the  earliest  known  MSS.  which 
end  with  the  words  ''  they  were  afraid."  Mr  Bent  found  a  highly 
prized  codex  of  Mark  in  the  monastery  of  St  John  at  Patmos,  but 
this  is  yet  more  imperfect  (ending  with  xv,  22).  This  gospel  begins 
with  the  baptism,  and  has  no  allusion  to  the  birth  of  Christ  The 
Greek  is  rude,  and  it  can  *'  scarcely  be  called  a  book,  but  rather  a 
collection  of  graphic  anecdotes  "  (Rev.  Dr  Abbott,  Encydop.  Brit), 
Luke  and  Matthew  are  most  in  accord  when  they  relate  details  found 
in  Mark,  and  the  second  gospel  is  very  generally  regarded  as  being 
nearest  to  the  common  source  of  synoptic  tradition  (see  Qospels). 
The  Church  dedicates  the  25  th  April  to  St  Mark,  a  season  when 
animals  are  said  to  converse,  and  foretell  the  future,  as  at  Christmas 
also.     The  emblem  of  the  saint  is  a  lion. 

Markand.     A  fine  group  of  temples  on  the  banks  of  the  Wain- 
ganga,  in  Central  India. 

Markata.      A.  name  of  the  sun  (Amen-ra)  in  Egypt 

IVtarkulim.  Apparently  a  corrupt  pronunciation  of  the  Latin 
Mercurius  among  the  Jews  of  our  2nd  century.  In  the  Mishna 
(Abodah  Zarah — "  strange  worship  " — iv,  1).  Markulim  is  symbolised 
by  three  stones — ^apparently  a  dolmen  ;  and  an  image  of  this  idol  was 
found  at  Sidon  under  a  tree,  by  a  gal  or  stone  heap  (see  Hermes), 
where  the  idolatrous  object  was  declared  to  be  the  image,  and  not 
the  tree  (see  Col.  Conder,  Quart.  Stat  Pal.  ExpL  Fund.,  April 
1882,  p.  84).  Stone  heaps  (see  Makka)  are  commonly  connected 
with  Arab  and  Jewish  superstition.  Jerome  finds  the  custom  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible  (Prov.  xxvi,  8)  where  the  Vulgate  reads  "  as  one 
who  casts  a  stone  on  the  stone  heap.''  The  cairns  were  often  gradu- 
ally formed  round  a  central  Hermes  or  menhir. 

Maronites.  The  Christians  of  the  Lebanon,  followers  of  a 
patriarch  John  Marun  (680  to  707  A.C.).  They  were  Monothelites 
believing  in  the  "single  will"  of  Christ,  but  in  1182,  when  the 
power  of  the  Latins  was  at  its  greatest  height  in  Syria,  they  re- 
nounced this  tenet,  and  were  reconciled  with  Rome,  the  Pope  conceding 
to  them  the  right  to  retain  a  married  clergy,  the  priests  (as  among  the 
Greeks)  being  married  before  ordination.  They  claim  a  yet  earlier 
origin  as  disciples  of  Mar  Marun,  a  hermit  of  the  6th  century  A.C. 
His  celebrated  hermitage — a  labyrinth  of  rock-cut  caves,  immediately 
E.  of  the  main  sources  of  the  Orontes,  as  described  by  Col.  Conder 


504  Mars 

{Heth  and  Moah) — is  still  much  revered  though  deserted.  The 
Maronites  w^e  massacred  by  the  Druzes  in  1860,  which  led  to  the 
establishmeut  of  the  Christian  "Province  of  the  Lebanon"  where 
they  now  form  the  large  majority  of  the  population  (see  Druzes).  In 
1584  a  Maronite  college  was  established  at  Borne.  It  is  said  that 
some  8000  of  the  Maronites  (or  1  in  30  of  the  population)  are  eith^ 
priests,  monks,  or  nuns.  The  slopes  of  Lebanon  are  covered  with 
their  monasteries  and  churches.  After  legal  enquiry  in  1766  (see 
Mr  Bliss,  Quart.  Stai.  Pal,  Expl.  Fund,  April  1892)  the  Bomao 
propaganda  reported  "infamous  scenes  of  debauchery,  and  horrid 
cruelties  "  in  this  region.  The  Church  now  owns  a  sixth  of  the  lands, 
and  the  monks  lead  a  useless  and  idle  life,  while  the  priests  are  little 
esteemed  by  the  laity.  Many  curious  superstitions,  charms,  and 
legends,  survive  among  Maronites,  in  connection  with  St  Antony,  and 
Mar  Marun.  They  light  fires  on  the  hillsides  in  autumn  (see  John) 
as  a  religious  custom. 

Mars.  Latin.  See  Ares,  Mar,  and  Maruts.  He  is  the  "  crusher," 
and  god  of  war  and  of  storm,  among  Bomans. 

Martan.  Martand.  Matan.  A  lingam  temple  near  Islam- 
abad, at  the  foot  of  the  Takt-i-Suleiman  ("  Solomon's  throne  ")  which 
overlooks  Sri-nagar.  On  the  summit  of  the  mountain  (or  throne  of 
Solomon)  is  a  square  platform,  with  a  pillar  at  each  augle,  and  a 
lingam  in  a  Yoni  in  the  centre,  all  these  being  of  rock.  The  temple 
of  Martand  is  roofless,  but  the  central  lingam  is  covered  by  a  dome, 
aud  is  daily  anointed.  Arab  inscriptions  speak  of  Mughal  worship  at 
the  site.  Gen.  Cunningham  thinks  that  the  shrine  is  as  old  as  about 
370  A.C.  It  stands  in  a  quadrangle  measuring  220  by  124  feet,  and 
the  black  marble  pillars  are  fluted,  and  carved  with  quaint  figures. 

MartU.  Akkadian :  "  way  down,"  or  "  west."  The  name  of  a 
deity  who  presided  over  the  west  The  word  was  rendered  Akharu 
(*'  west ")  in  Semitic  speech,  and  the  god  was  identified  with  the 
Semitic  Rimmon,  as  deity  of  the  west  wind,  and  of  storms. 

Maruts.  Sanskrit:  "the  crushers"  or  "pounders"  (see  Mars), 
who  were  stormy  winds  (see  Oanesa)  :  they  were  sons  of  Kasyapa  (the 
sun),  and  of  Diti — moist  air.  They  were  separated  in  the  womb  bj 
Indra,  and  aided  him  in  his  wars  (see  Yritra)  armed  with  lightning. 
They  are  also  called  "  Rudras,  fierce  impetuous  rain  gods,  sons  of  ocean 
and  earth."  Siva  is  said  to  have  found  them  as  "  shapeless  births  of 
Diti,"  and — at  the  request  of  Parvati — to  have  changed  them  into 
comely  boys,  and  worshipers  of  Agni. 


Mary  505 

f/Lsry.   Miriam.     As  a  Semitic  name  this  has  no  true  deriva- 
tion,   though    it   has    been   connected    with    Marah    **  bitter."     [As 
Egyptian,  however,  Meri-aTnu  may  mean  "  mother's  love,"  and  Miriam 
the  sister  of  Moses,  after  whom  Mary  was  called,  has  been  thought  to 
bear  an  Egyptian  name. — Ed.]     St  Jerome  (who  was  fond  of  playing 
on  words)  calls  her  ''Stella  Maris"    or  ''star  of  the  sea."     Roman 
Catholics,  delighting  in  mysticism,  call  her  the  "  gate  of  heaven,"  and 
the  "  mystic  rose  "  (see  the  Oloriea  of  Mary  ;  and  Waterton's  Pietas 
Mariana  Britannica,  1879).     She  stands  on  the  crescent  moon,  and 
treads  on  the  serpent  (Gen.  iii,   13  ;  Rev.  xii,  1).     She  carries  the 
iqfant  deity  (like  so  many  pagan  mother-deities) ;  and,  in  a  famous 
picture,  Christ  offers  her  the  apple,  no  longer  that  of  sin  but  of  holy 
fruit  (Waterton,   p.  231).     The  mother  and  child  are  often   shown 
within  the  Vesica  Piscis  or  oval  nimbus — which  at  York  Minster  is 
supported  by  four  angels.     In  Fownhope  church  (Waterton,  p.  237)  she 
rises  like  Aphrodite  from  a  shell,  and  is  "  known  as  the  new  Eve  when 
on  a  globe,  a  boat,  or  a  crescent  moon  "  (see  Rivera  of  lAfe^  i,  p.  202, 
fig.  81).     She  rests  one  foot  on  earth,  and  the  other  on  a  tortoise,  and 
appears  crowned  with  stars.     St  Bridget  heard  Christ  say  that  Mary 
could  obtain  Qod's  grace  even  for  the  devil.     Nicephorus  assured  the 
faithful  that  God  might  refuse  our  direct  prayers  to  himself,  but  would 
grant  them  on  the  intercession  of  Mary.     St  Damian  said  that  "  God 
would  not  have  become  man  without  Mary's  consent  "  {Oloried  of 
Mary,  pp.  95,  106).     But,  like  Ceres,  Mary  is  the  Mater  Dolorosa, 
mourning  her  child,  &s  'Ashtoreth  also  was  the  ''  mourning  Venus  "  of 
Apheka  on  Lebanon.     The  legend  of  virgin  birth  was  at  least  as  old 
as  the  2nd  century  A.c.  among  Christians ;  but  Buddha,    Zoroaster, 
Plato,  Alexander,  and  even  Tartar  emperors  and  Pharaohs,  were  called 
the  children  of  virgins  by  some  god,  as  well  as  Christ. 

[Muhammad — following  the  Guostiks — supposed  Miriam,  mother 
of  Aisa,  to  be  a  reincarnation  of  Miriam,  sister  of  Moses.  The  legend 
of  the  Virgin's  life  is  chiefly  taken  from  the  apocryphal  "Gospel  of 
the. Nativity  of  Mary,"  famous  in  the  5th  century,  which  tells  how  she 
span  scarlet  and  purple  in  the  temple,  and  how  Joseph  was  chosen  as 
her  husband  because  his  rod  flowered  with  lilies,  and  a  dove  sat  on  it. 
— Ed.]  Dr  Dollinger  says  that  "  the  adoration  of  Mary  only  began  to 
take  root  in  the  Middle  Ages."  But  she  was  called  the  Theotokos,  or 
*'  mother  of  God,"  in  the  east  by  the  5th  century  ;  and  the  doctrine  of 
her  "  perpetual  virginity  "  was  doubtfully  held  by  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria in  the  2nd  (Strom.,  vii,  16).  According  to  Brady  (Clar,  Col,, 
ii,  p.  305),  "  public  prayers  were  offered  up  to,  and  through  her,"  at 
Antioch  and  Constantinople,  by  order  of  Bishop  Gnapheus,  in  480  A.c. 


506  Mary 

The  C!ollyridian'  Christians  in  Arabia  were  so  named  from  the  twisted 
cake  (KoUuria)  which  they  offered  to  Mary,  as  the  Hebrews  offered 
cakes  to  the  "  Queen  of  Heaven"  (see  Bans). 

In  Europe  the  Virgin  was  very  frequently  represented  by  a  black 
image  ;  and  mystics  who  connected  the  Song  of  Solomon  with  Christ's 
love  for  the  church,  quoted  the  words  "  I  am  black  but  comely."  So 
also  Isis,  Hekate,  Artemis  at  Ephesus,  or  in  Rome,  Juno,  Metis,  Ceres, 
or  Kubele,  were  represented  by  images  of  black  basalt.  Thousantis 
still  flock  to  adore  the  black  Virgin  of  Loreto,  in  S.W.  Italy.  In  the 
Cathedral  of  Moulins,  at  Augsberg,  Genoa,  Pisa,  Madrid,  in  the 
Borghese  chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore ;  in  the  Pantheon  ;  and  in  a 
small  chapel  at  St  Peter  s  in  Rome,  there  were  other  black  virgins ; 
but  yet  further  east,  at  Moscow,  the  huge  black  Madonna  is  borne  to 
the  dying,  by  black  horses,  and  a  black  escort  "  Black  Madonnas 
swarm  in  all  countries  of  the  Eastern  Church,  and  are  included  in  the 
holy  eikons  (images)  in  every  place  where  the  Russian  and  Greek 
images  are  sold'*  (Notes  and  Queries^  12th  and  15th  Nov.  1898). 
Some  of  these,  however,  are  paintings  which  have  become  black  with 
age.  In  the  Cardiff  Museum  is  preserved  a  black  Madonna  whose 
infant  has  negro  features  and  woolly  hair,  the  painting  being  apparently 
Abyssinian.  Pilgrims  who  wear  an  oval  emblem  (the  Vesica  Piscis) 
visit  the  black  Virgin  of  Amadou  in  France  (Dr  Inman,  Ancient 
Faiths,  i,  p.  159  ;  ii,  pp.  262-266);  and  100,000  persons,  annually, 
are  said  to  worship  the  black  babe  in  the  abbey  on  Lake  Zurich. 
Notre  Dame  at  Paris  was  the  shrine  of  an  ancient  black  Isis. 

Many  emblems  of  the  ancient  godesses  have  become  those  of 
Mary.  The  '*  lady-bird  "  was  once  Freya's  (see  Beetle)  :  the  Speculum 
Veneris  is  "  Our  Lady's  glass "  :  the  Pecten  Veneris  is  "  Man's 
comb."  Even  the  milk  of  the  Virgin  is  supposed  to  have  tinged  the 
walls  of  the  "  milk  grotto  '*  at  Bethlehem,  and  the  chalk  rock  is  sold 
as  a  charm. 

As  the  mother  of  God  it  became  needful  to  suppose  for  Mary 
also  an  "  Immaculate  Conception,*'  and  this  feast  was  founded  about 
1100  A.C.  on  the  8th  of  December,  though  the  dogma  was  not  fully 
authorised  till  the  1 9th  century  :  Mary's  birthday  on  the  8th  of 
September  was  however  kept  as  early  as  695,  and  regularly  established 
in  1244  A.C.  The  15th  of  August  is  the  date  of  her  death,  or  rather 
of  her  Assumption  or  Ascension  (according  to  the  spurious  legend) :  for 
her  body  remained  on  earth  in  its  tomb  till  40  days  later.  The 
Assumption  festival  dates  from  the  8th  century,  and  was  decreed  Id 
813  A.C.  Other  feasts  connected  with  Mary  include  those  of  the 
Annunciation  on  25th  March,  of  the  Visitation  (the  meeting  of  Mary 


Marwah  5or 

and  Elisabeth)  on  the  2nd  July,  and  of  the  Nativity  on  the  25th  of 
December,  on  which  the  others  depend.  As  regards  the  true  history 
of  Miriam,  or  Mariam,  wife  of  Joseph,  we  know  nothing  beyond  the 
gospel  notices  and  legends,  for  she  is  never  mentioned  in  the  Epistles 
(see  Joseph). 

Marwah.     See  Makka. 

Mas.  Akkadian  :  rendered  **  warrior "  and  '*  bull  "  in  Assyrian. 
A  name  for  certain  spirits,  and  heroes,  and  an  element  in  Hittite 
proper  names. 

Masa.  Sanskrit :  **  moon."  Persian  mas  or  mahi  from  a  root 
meaning  to  "  shine  "  (see  Mithra). 

Mass.  The  "  offering  of  the  mass  "  is  that  of  the  Hostia,  "  host," 
or  "victim"  (see  Eucharist).  The  Rev.  W.  C.  King  (Onostika,  p.  53) 
says  that  it  is  "  absurd  in  the  extreme  "  to  think  that  Mass  stands  for 
missa  (*'  dismissed  ")  ;  and  that  *'  the  object  sacrificed  gives  its  name 
to  the  rite."  Whether  the  Latin  words  "  Ite  missa  est "  ("  Go  thou 
away,  it  is  dismissal")  end  the  rite,  or  should  occur  before  it  when  the 
unbaptized  were  sent  out  of  the  church,  the  orthodox  explanation  is 
equally  unsatisfactory.  The  missa  might  be  the  "  cake "  (from 
ma^aein  "  to  knead ") ;  or  more  probably  the  word  is  the  Hebrew 
nxa^f^h  for  the  "  unleavened  cake  "  of  the  Passover.  In  Egypt  the 
meat  cakes  offered  to  Osiris  were  similar  emblems  of  the  god  of  corn 
and  bread.  They  were  also  offered  to  Mithra,  with  the  sacred  Haoma 
drink.  The  mass  in  fact  is  a  "  mass "  of  paste.  The  celebration  of 
Mass  in  England  is  first  noticed  in  680  A.C.,  and  in  1201  A.C.  all  were 
required  to  prostrate  themselves  when  the  Host  was  elevated — which 
properly  speaking  is  done  only  at  consecration^  while  the  sun  is  still 
not  past  the  zenith.  No  priest  should  celebrate  it  more  than  once  a 
day,  and  this  not  after  midday,  though  he  may  begin  at  midnight  at 
feasts  such  as  Christmas,  or  Easter,  provided  that  the  wine,  and  the 
wafer,  are  not  touched  till  after  midnight.  But  any  number  of 
celebrations  may  go  on,  at  different  altars  in  the  same  church,  at 
one  time. 

Massebah.  Hebrew :  "  a  monument "  or  erect  stone  (see 
Bamah) :  otherwise  Neseb  "  post." 

MaSSOrah.  MaSOrah.  Hebrew :  "  tradition,"  the  orthodox 
exposition  of  the  Old  Testament  by  the  Massoretic  scholars,  who  were 
Rabbis  of  Tiberias  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  through  whose  labours  the 
received  canon  and  text  were  finally  established  about  550  tO'650  A.c. 


508  Mast 

The  traditional  pronunciation  of  the  Hebrew  was  then  marked  by 
"  points  " — that  is  dots  and  lines  to  represent  the  short  vowels  and 
other  grammatical  niceties.  Such  points  had  been  used  as  early  as 
370  A.C.;  but  the  Massoretic  system  dates  only  from  the  end  of  our 
6th  century  (Dr  Isaac  Taylor,  Alphabet,  i,  p.  280)  ;  and  the  variations 
of  the  Greek  Septuagint  (as  seen  in  personal  names)  show  that  there 
was  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  precise  sound  of  many  words ; 
while  it  is  clear,  from  the  blunders  of  the  Massoretes,  that  the  origiDai 
meaning  had  at  times  ceased  to  be  intelligible  to  these  erudite  Babbis. 
They  divided  the  books  into  portions  convenient  for  reading ;  but  the 
present  Hebrew  chapters — independent  of  these  sections — are  Dot 
always  the  same  as  ours,  and  the  Samaritans  divide  Genesis  into  150 
sections  (see  Bible).  Dr  Ginsburg,  in  his  edition  of  the  Masorah, 
founds  himself  mainly  on  the  labours  of  Jacob  ben  Chayim  (1524  A.C.), 
while  collecting  all  available  Massoretic  commentaries.  It  is  becoDiing 
clear,  however,  that  actual  progress  in  the  critical  study  of  the  Old 
Testament  cannot  be  reconciled  with  the  assumption  that  the  authority 
of  the  Masorah  is  to  be  taken  as  indisputable. 

Mast.     See  Arks,  and  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  361. 

Mat.  Egyptian  :  "justice,"  represented  by  a  feather  in  the  scale 
(see  Amenti). 

Mat.  Maut.  Egyptian :  "  mother."  A  name  of  Isis.  The 
symbol  of  Maut  is  the  vulture.  [Compare  the  Arabic  Rdkra  for 
"pity,"  "womb,"  and  "vulture." — Ed.] 

Materialism.  This  word,  often  misused  to  mean  either  a  non- 
belief  in  the  existence  of  anything  but  Matter,  or  again  to  denote  love 
of  material  pleasures,  and  selfishness,  means  properly  the  recognition 
that  no  perceptible  phenomena  exist  apart  from  matter,  and  that  what 
we  commonly  call  "  spirit "  is  force  or  movement  in  matter.  Goethe 
claimed  to  be  a  Theist,  but  he  said  :  "  There  is  no  spirit  without 
matter,  and  no  matter  without  spirit,"  evidently  meaning  by  "  spirit " 
a  power  inherent  in  organic  and  inorganic  matter  alike,  though,  in  the 
former,  men  confuse  it  with  the  idea  of  some  unknown  "soul"— the 
individuality  being  created  by  the  fact  that  the  organism  is  limited  and 
distinct  This  imaginary  "soul"  has  ever  rendered  unsound  the 
arguments  of  the  past,  and  has  stood  in  the  way  of  scientific  research. 
Plato  wandered  among  the  stars,  following  the  imaginations  of  Anaxi- 
mander  (570  B.C.),  but  Aristotle  attempts  to  qualify  his  teaching,  and 
to  define  the  nature  of  the  mind.  The  older  philosophers  sought  to 
explain  life  by  study  of  "elements."     Thales  (600  B.c.)  thought  that 


Materialism  509 

water  was  the  origin  of  all  matter:  H^rakleitos  said  air  (495  B.C.); 
and  others  added  earth  and  fire.     [We  still  talk  of  "  elements/'  for- 
getting that  water  is  a  chemical  compound,  air  a  mechanical  mixture 
of  gases,  earth  a  yet  ruder  mixture  of  chemical  modes  of  matter,  and 
fire    not   matter  at   all,   but   a  force  in   matter. — Ed.]      But  such 
speculation  brings  us  to  the  old  Hindu  question :  **  If  earth  be  sup- 
ported on  an  elephant,  on  what  does  the  elephant  stand  ?  "     The  old 
mystery  was  embodied  in  the  ancient  statue  of  Isis  (Plutarch,  lais  and 
Osirns)  with  its  inscription  :  "  Behold  I  am  everything  that  has  been, 
that  is,  and  that  shall  be :  nor  has  any  mortal  been  able  to  discover 
what  is  under  my  veil."     She  remains  to  us,  as  to  the  Hindu,  "  Maya  " 
or  "  illusion,"  ever  described  anew  yet  without  any  true  approach  to 
reality.     Matter  is  the  Sanskrit  Prakriti,  the  "all  receptive,"  never 
dying,  but  instinct  with  universal  energy  also  imperishable,  and  ever 
producing   new  forms  or  combinations.     Matter  not  only  exists   in 
visible    outward    phenomena,   but    equally    controls    what   we    call 
"  mental "    phenomena,    and    "  emotions " ;    the   effects    of    material 
heredity ;  and  every  action  and  thought.     Hence  early  philosophers 
thought  of  the  earth,  and  of  all  heavenly  bodies,  as  being  living  things. 
The  poverty  of  language,  and  scientific  ignorance,   have    prevented 
mankind  from  expressing,  or  recognising,  the  infinitely  delicate  modes 
of  material  motion  ;  but  we  no  longer  think  of  matter  as  dead  because 
inorganic,  knowing  it  to  be  full  of  sensibility,  such  as  we  may  study 
in  chemical  attractions  and  repulsions.     For  matter  is  never  stable  or 
unchangeable — like  the  gods,  or  sometimes  like  the  ideas  of  man. 
She  is  in  ceaseless  motion,  ever  creating  not  only  new  forms  but  new 
forces  of  thought,  by  the  repetition  of  former  sensations  or  movements. 
It  is  the  complexity  of  her  action  which  puzzles  us,  especially  in  our 
rude  classification  of  the  organic  and  inorganic. 

The  minutest  cell,  or  even  the  white  corpuscle  of  the  blood,  has 
purpose  in  it  when  it  rejects  or  selects  matter  that  presents  itself  from 
without.  It  is  in  vain  that  we  attempt  to  separate  the  action  of 
mind  or  thought  from  that  of  matter :  all  within  her  is  forever 
wrestling  for  new  life  and  varied  modes  of  being.  Hence  Materialism 
is  better  named  Monism — the  recognition  of  ''singleness"  in  ever 
moving  matter — the  denial  of  any  faith  or  philosophy  that  seeks  to 
establish  a  dualism  of  spirit  and  matter,  or  which  regards  force  and 
spirit,  as  in  some  sense  another  kind  of  matter. 

Yet  though  we  cannot  acknowledge  any  such  separation  as  a 
scientific  possibility,  we  may  accept  as  a  poetic  term — necessitated  by 
the  rudeness  of  human  language — the  idea  of  the  '*  soul-force,"  which 
even  Goethe  imagines  (though  laying  down  the  axiom,  "  No  matter  no 


510  Materialism 

force  *'),  especially  when  we  speak  to  those  not  scientifically  educated. 
But  to  accept  the  assumptions  of  the  theologian,  or  of  those  who 
believe  in  personal  gods  and  disembodied  spirits,  is  not  science ;  and 
it  involves  us  in  false  logic.  If  we  speak  of  such  spirits,  we  mnst 
either  explain  the  how,  why,  and  where,  or  we  must  admit  that  we 
are  unable  to  understand  what  we  mean.  Asserted  visions  are  of  no 
value  to  those  who  see  them  not.  We  are  at  once  forced  to  materialise, 
for  if  a  spirit  is  perceived,  it  tnust  be  perceived  by  one  or  more  of  onr 
senses.  [Imperceptible  matter  and  force  are  easily  conceivable,  but  of 
such  we  could  have  no  perception. — ^Ed.]  Beyond  the  testimony  of 
the  senses  we  cannot  advance  a  single  step  even  in  imagination. 
Science  can  only  deal  with  matter  as  studied  in  its  molecniar 
movements,  watching  its  attractions  and  repulsions ;  for  as  Huxley 
says  (Lay  Sermons),  all  phenomena  of  life  "are  in  their  ultimate 
analysis  questions  of  molecular  physics.  What  we  call  the  operations 
of  the  mind  are  but  functions  of  the  brain,  and  all  the  materials 
of  consciousneas  are  but  products  of  cerebral  activity  "  (p.  5).  Force 
and  matter  are  but  words  to  describe  the  properties  of  the  single 
thing  that  fashions  alike  all  that  we  call  alive,  and  all  that  we  call 
dead,  or  '*  inanimate " :  it  is  a  difference  not  of  kind  but  only  of 
degree — ^a  difference  between  the  active  and  the  latent,  as  we  say  in 
speaking  of  the  motion  called  heat  Descartes  said  a  century  ago : 
''  It  is  no  more  necessary  to  suppose  that  there  is  a  soul  in  our  bodies 
than  in  a  clock  " — words  which,  as  Huxley  says,  "  might  be  taken  as 
a  motto  for  any  treatise  on  modem  physiology  ...  all  living  bodies 
are  machines,  the  operations  of  which  will  sooner  or  later  be  explained 
on  physical  principles  ...  all  states  of  consciousness,  in  man  and 
brutes  are  immediately  caused  by  molecular  changes  in  the  brain 
substance."  The  nerve  centres — of  brain  and  spine — are  agitated  by 
new  impressions,  producing  the  repetition  of  old  combinations,  till 
memories  and  thoughts  are  produced.  How  these  phenomena— 
internal  to  the  individual,  and  external — act  and  react  on  one  another, 
is  the  great  mystery  as  yet  not  comprehended,  and  therefore  not 
explained.  We  may  be  on  the  right  track  when  we  measure  con- 
sciousness in  terms  of  heat,  as  Prof.  Lombard  measured  the  beat 
thrown  off  during  various  mental  operations ;  which  may  startle  us, 
but  is  only  disturbing  to  those  who  prefer  ancient  assumptions  which 
are  fated  to  be  disproven  by  a  knowledge  as  yet  in  its  infancy.  For 
true  science  is  but  of  yesterday,  and  few  even  now  care  to  speak 
plainly,  discarding  the  trammels  of  old  beliefs.  We  are  still  haters  of 
ideas,  which  Plato  said  is  worse  than  to  be  haters  of  men  {Phoedr.r 
i,  p.  467,  Dr  Jowett's  translation). 


Materialism  51 1 

CoDsciousness  grows  from   a  mere  glimmer  to  the  full  light, 
through  repetition  of  sensations,  and  fluctuates  with  the  conditions  of 
the  body,  in  health  or  sickness,  in  full  maturity  or  in  imperfection, 
and  with  the  body  it  decays.     [Consciousness  must  be  defined  there- 
fore as  the  result  of  sensitive  power.     The  force  being  a  constant,  the 
matter  is  more  or  less  able  to  receive  its  impression — the  friction  is 
greater  or  less,  the  elasticity  of  the  organism  differs,  as  we  say  when 
speaking  of  simpler  forces. — £d.]     The  study  of  matter  is  overturning 
all  older  assumptions  concerning  spirit,  and  leads  to  the  connection  of 
intellectual  action  with  other  actions  or  movements  of  the  universe. 
Prof.  Tyndall  said  :  "  I  am  a  physical  philosopher,  and  as  such,  a  pure 
materialist,  acknowledging  that  all  mental  manifestations — of  which 
the  brain  is  the  great  source — depend  on  physical  conditions  alone.'' 
He  says  again  (Weale's  Series,  1885) :  "I  believe  now  as  firmly  as  I 
did  in  1874,  that  we  have  in  matter  the  promise  and  potency  of  all 
terrestrial  life.     I  believe  in  the  nebular  theory,  and  that  the   life 
which  we  now  see  upon  the  earth  is  the  development  of  a  power 
resident  in  matter  before  it  shaped  itself  into  worlds."     This  idea  of 
Bio-genesis  (or  development  of  organic  life  without  any  sudden  origin) 
is,  according  to  Prof.  Huxley,  "  victorious  along  the  whole  line,  with 
some  expressed  limitations."     The  progress  of  science  means  extended 
knowledge  of  matter  and  of  causation,  and  the  banishment  of  what  is 
called  ''spontaneity"  from  all  regions  of  human   thought.     To  the 
theologian  Prpf.  Tyndall  says :  "  Keep  to  the  region  of  the   human 
heart,   which    I   willingly  confess   is    the   region   of   man's    greatest 
nobleness  and  sublime  achievements ;  cultivate  this.  .  .  .  Love  and 
manhood    are  better   than  science,  and  they   may  render  you  less 
unworthy  than  many  of  those  who  possess  three  times  your  natural 
knowledge.     But,   unless   you  come  as  a   learner,   keep  away  from 
physical  nature  ...  at  present  you   are  ill-informed,   self-deluded, 
and   likely   to  delude  others.     Farewell."    (Fortnightly  Bev.^  June 
1867.)     But  elsewhere  he  adds:  ''Let  us  reverently  but  honestly 
look  the  question  in  the  face.     Divorced  from  matter  where  is  life  ? 
Whatever  our   faith    may  say,   our   knowledge  shows    them    to    be 
indissolubly  joined.     Every  meal  we  eat,  and  every  cup  we  drink, 
illustrate  the  mysterious  control  of  mind  by  matter." 

"  It  is  idle,"  says  Prof.  Karl  Pearson,  "  to  postulate  unknowables 
behind  the  real  world  of  sense-impressions."  Such  unknowables  (or 
imperceptibles)  do  not  aid  us  to  understand,  being  practically  non- 
existent to  us.  "  We  cannot  pass  from  the  known  to  something 
entirely  unlike  it  in  the  unknown."  Science  cannot  help  us,  and  the 
mind  cannot  pass  the  wall  created  by  the  senses.     It  is  only  the  savage 


512  Materialism 

who  thioks  the  reflexion  in  the  mirror  to  be  a  man,  or  a  god,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  glass.  Materialism  is  only  a  term  used  in  coDtnu^t 
to  ordinary  ideals  as  to  spirits,  just  as  Monism  is  opposed  to 
Dualism,  or  Naturalism  to  Supematuralism.  It  is  not  the  name  of  a 
creed,  or  of  a  science,  or  of  any  attempt  to  solve  the  problem  of 
matter.  The  term  will  die  out  when  the  philosophy  of  science  is 
more  generally  understood ;  and,  having  been  given  a  bad  meaoiug 
by  those  opposed  to  progress  in  knowledge,  it  is  now  better  replaced 
by  the  term  Monism.  Neither  science  nor  any  "  ism "  can  fully 
explain  the  facts  of  the  universe,  and  true  knowledge  knows 
neither  creed  nor  finality.  Those  who  are  led  by  faith,  fears,  or 
priests,  ignore  the  dry  facts  of  nature,  and  they  describe  the  begio- 
ning  and  end  of  all  things,  disregarding  the  eternity  of  matter  and 
of  force.  Ontology  (the  study  of  being)  thus  becomes,  as  Mr 
Justice  Stephen  well  says,  ''a  barren  -region  haunted  by  shadowy 
chimaeras — spectres  which  have  not  life  enough  in  them  even  to 
be  wrong  .  .  .  nonentities  veiled  under  dexterously  woven  masses 
of  verbiage "  {Science  and  Ethics,  p.  447).  Those  who  believe  like 
Paley  in  virtue,  truth,  and  goodness,  and  also  in  such  chimseras,  resort 
as  this  writer  says  to  "  the  driving  wheel  of  material  torment"  They 
are  forced  to  materialise,  and  seek  to  lead  men  by  hope  and  fear. 
They  create  a  '*  posthumous  prison  "  answering  to  those  of  earth,  and 
Paley  appeals — as  do  earlier  religions — to  selfish  motives,  to  "a 
thorough-going  egoism,  or  disbelief  in  the  efficacy,  or  reality,  of 
unselfish  motives."  If  we  are  not  quite  sure  of  retribution  in  this 
world  we  must  be  made  quite  sure  of  it  in  the  next 

Only  through  the  five  senses — the  material  organs  and  their 
impressions — do  we  attain  to  memory  of  experiences,  and  thus  to 
thought.  The  wise  man  pauses,  being  diffident  as  to  the  unex- 
perienced :  how  much  more  then  should  those  who  have  little  or 
no  scientific  education,  or  accurate  knowledge,  pause  in  the  attempt 
to  solve  problems  of  the  spiritual  world.  If  we  understand  not  what 
we  experience,  how  can  we  understand  what  we  have  never  experi- 
enced at  all  ?  The  enquirer  should  have  no  preconceived  theory  to 
support,  whether  philosophical  or  religious.  We  have  not  discovered 
the  origin  of  life,  nor  do  we  know  what  follows  when  it  ceases  to 
animate  the  body.  It  represents  the  operation  of  some  inscrutable 
power  but,  as  Prof.  Tyndall  says  :  "  So  far  as  the  eye  of  science  has 
hitherto  ranged  through  nature,  no  intrusion  of  a  purely  creative 
power  into  any  series  of  phenomena  has  ever  been  observed."  [Ii> 
other  words  no  inconsistency  or  caprice. — Ed.]  Arbitrary  action- 
mere  display  of  power — is  contrary  to  all  our  ideas  of  a  great,  uniform. 


Materialism  £18 

unchangeable,  Law  Giver.  For  the  present  at  least  we  must  accept 
the  fact  that  we  are  not  capable  of  comprehending  what  is  evidently 
behind  appearances  in  the  comiog  and  going  of  life.  Yet  we  need 
not  sit  idle  with  folded  hands,  though  it  is  well  to  be  silent,  rather 
than  incur  the  danger  of  misleading  the  ignorant  The  truth  of 
Materialism  is  founded  on  facts  patent  to  all,  nor  need  it  raise  a 
shudder  in  the  most  timid.  Nature  is  matter  in  ever  rhythmic 
motion,  forming  ever  new  life  from  that  which  has  gone  before,  and 
not  "  creating  out  of  nothing."  That  which  is  indestructible  can 
never  have  been  made  or  created,  and  we  know  of  no  power  apart 
from  matter,  nor  could  we  perceive  such  if  it  existed.  We  only 
repeat  vain  words  when  we  speak  of  the  "  incomprehensible,"  '*  the 
unknown,"  the  "  first  cause  " ;  for  though  there  is  much,  no  doubt,  that 
is  incomprehensible  and  unknown,  we  are  only  in  fjEtct  seeking  to 
understand  the  ultimate  nature  of  matter — though  Mr  Herbert 
Spencer  declares  that  this  is  "absolutely  inconceivable"  (First 
Principles,  I,  iii,  16). 

By  matter  we  now  understand   only  that  of  which   we  have 
cognisance  through   perceived  phenomena.     We  cannot   understand 
infinity,  of  either  matter,   space,  or  time,   or  any  matter  not  per- 
ceptible by  our  organs  of  sense.     We  cannot  think  of  any  existence 
apart  from  matter,  since  existence  means  the  action  of  something — 
that  is  of  some  matter.     We   only  think  that  we  define  a  cause  when 
we  separate  such   existence  from   matter,  but  if  we  suppose  a  First 
Cause  we  still  require  to  know   how  it  arose,  and  what  preceded  its 
appearance ;  all  this  being  far  beyond  our  powers  of  thought  as  being 
outside   any  phenomena  known  to  our  experiences ;    and  even  these 
we  fail  to  understand  correctly  except  by  aid  of  a  very  high   culture. 
The  spirit  is  like  the  yeast  that  stirs   the  dough,  but  it  is  only  by 
the  action  of  matter  on  matter  that  the  highest  forms  of  life,  and 
of  thought,  are  produced.     There  are  dark  mountains  on  our  path, 
but  the  light  is  increasing ;  some  heights  v^e  have  already  scaled  ;  and 
in  the  end  men  may  perhaps  understand  how  it  was  that  life  first 
appeared  in  a  world  of  strange  and  terrible  forces,  amid  stormy  thermal 
conditions.     We  are  told  that ''  there  are  properties  inherent  in  the 
elements  of  protoplasm  which,  under  certain  special  circumstances,  will 
not  only  combine,  but  that  the  products  of  their  combination  will 
live"  (Archbishop  Temple,  Religion  of  Science,  p.   198);  but  this 
means  only  that  life  is  inherent  in  matter,  and  that  the  gap  between 
what  was  once  called  living,  and  dead  matter — a  gap  not  always  very 
marked — has  yet  to  be  bridged.    There  is  an  ultimate  affinity  between 
the  foruKition  of  the  crystal,  and  that  of  the  cell,  both   producing 
2  K« 


6 1 4  Materialism 

definite  forms  through  natural  action.     But  the  nature  of  the  cell 
nuclei  still  escapes  us.     The  ultimate  unit  of  consciousness  has  been 
called  a  "  shock  or  tremor,"  like  the  shock  of  heat  or  light     AU  we 
really  know  is  that  the  two  parent  cells  bestow  on   the  cell  that 
springs  from  their  union — whether  animal  or  vegetable — an  indescrib- 
able energy  and  power  of  growth.     Thus  "  man's  soul  is  derived  from 
an  hereditary  source " ;  and  his  power  of  understanding  depends  on 
the  energy  which  forms  a  brain  more  or  less  deeply  convoluted.     We 
can  only  conclude  that  his  intelligence  is  inseparable  from  matter. 
Apart  from  some  such  connection  no  experience,  or  thought  based  on 
knowledge,  is  conceivable.     When  Kapila  argued  that  God  must  be 
either  absolute  or  conditioned  (see  Kapila),  we  see  that  like  us  be 
thought  of  a  material  deity ;    but  as  our  vision  widens  the   gods 
retire  into  the  unknown,  where  alone  they  can  range  at  wilL     The 
chemistry  of  protoplasm,  shows   us   that  organic  life  is   peculiar  to 
a  combination  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  carbon,  ever 
present  in  what  we  call  living  matter.     No  other  material  produces 
organisms,  any  more  than  a  piece  of  glass  becomes  a  magnet     But 
we  can  as  little  conceive  life  without  matter,  as  magnetism  without 
a  magnetic  substance. '    If  we  could   understand   the  nature  of  this 
power  in  the  cell  nucleus  we  might  be  able  to  create  life,  as  we  do 
create  chemical  compounds.     We  do  not   attribute   a   supemataral 
origin  to  that  which  we  can  ourselves  create.     But  we  as  yet  hardly 
understand  more  of  the  causes  that  act  so  invariably  in  the  formation 
of  crystals  than  we  do  of  those  which  act  in  the  yeast  plant,  or  in  the 
amoeba.     We  do  not  speak  of  a  "  bile  spirit,"  as  controlling  the  action 
of  the  hepatic  cells  (aa  a  savage  might  do),  or  of  a  *'  brain  spirit '' 
ruling  the  brain.     The  how  we  may  trace ;  the  cause  is  unknown ; 
and  the  cause  of  life  may  remain  for  ever  uninteUigible  to  our  limited 
understanding.     The   Theist  speaks  of  two  existences — bodily  and 
disembodied — which  is  a  speculative  belief.     The  Bealist — called  a 
Materialist — speaks  of  one,  namely  of  ever   moving   matter.     Both 
refer  to  the  same  phenomenon — the  unknown  thing  which  is  only 
perceptible  through  our  material  organs.     Reason  asks  for  a  basis  to 
connect  all  phenomena,  but  it  does  not  demand  two  bases :  it  is  satis- 
fied by  the  two  aspects  of  the  single  thing,  as  explaining  both  what 
is  objective — or  outside  the  individual  organism — and  what  is  sub- 
jective or  internal  to  that  oiganism :  while  that  which  is  unknown 
— or  unperceived — cannot  really  be  divided  into  two.     We  are  but 
parts  of  an  infinite  being,  and  were  that  being  limited  it  must  be 
limited  by  some  other.     Whether  we  call  it   Qod    or   Nature  the 
Infinite  must  be  single.    We  must  leave  it  to  those  who,  like  Cardinal 


Matsya  515 

Newman,  seek  rest  in  the  old  faiths  and  assumptions,  to  prove  the 
contrary :  for  it  is  evident  that  unless  proof  of  some  reality  uncon- 
nected with  matter  can  be  adduced  the  ancient  religions  will  die  out. 
Only  through  the  healthy  action  of  the  nerve  centres  can  realities  be 
perceived  by  any,  and  when  this  fails  madness,  delusion,  and  incon- 
sequence, are  the  only  real  results.  Even  in  health  we  are  not  fully 
conscious  of  reality,  when  the  brain  cells  act  imperfectly  through  the 
slower  circulation  of  the  blood.  Hence,  at  the  moment  of  reawakened 
consciousness,  we  see  visions  and  dream  dreams  which,  to  the  ancients, 
^seemed  as  real  as  the  facts  of  waking  life.  Our  love  and  hate,  our 
fear  and  expectation,  depend  on  nervous  action ;  our  mind,  soul,  or 
life,  depends  on  our  body.  [Jewish  philosophers  conceived  the  idea 
{see  !^abbala)  that  our  individuality  may  be  but  part  of  one  that 
existed  before :  so  that  we  seek  its  complement  on  earth,  and  may  be 
reunited  therewith  after  death. — Ed.] 

Sir  Noel  Paton,  in  his  picture  "  Faith  and  Reason,"  portrays  the 
latter  as  a  man  fully  armed,  testing  the  ground  under  his  feet  as  he 
moves  slowly  forward,  holding  back  his  star  gazing  sister  who,  heedless 
of  the  pitfalls  dug  by  ages  of  error,  attempts  a  flight  into  the  un- 
known. 

Matsya.     See  Vishnu  and  Fish. 

Matthew.  The  first  gospel — that  "  according  to  Matthew  " — 
is  traditionally  ascribed  to  the  "  publican,"  or  tax-gatherer,  who  was 
an  apostle  (Matt,  x,  3).  The  Greek  Matthaios  represents  the  Hebrew 
Mattithiah  (1  Chron.  xxv,  3,  21)  "given  by  Yahveh";  but  the  story 
of  his  call  (Matt  ix,  9)  is  elsewhere  told  of  Levi,  son  of  Alphaeus 
(Mark  ii,  14 :  Luke  v,  27).  Eusebius,  in  our  4th  century,  says  that 
Papias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis,  said,  in  the  2nd  century,  that  **  Matthew 
composed  the  oracles  in  the  Hebrew  tongue,  and  that  everyone 
interpreted  them  as  he  was  able."  Irenaeus  also  says  the  gospel 
was  originally  in  Hebrew  ;  and  other  fathers — Clement  of  Alexandria^ 
Origen,  Jerome,  and  Epiphanius,  said  the  same,  if  we  may  trust  the 
text  of  their  writings.  But  the  canonical  Greek  Matthew  is  not 
thought  to  show  any  traces  of  having  been  translated  from  Hebrew 
(or  from  Aramaik)  on  which  we  can  rely ;  and  the  quotations  from 
a  "  gospel  of  the  Hebrews,"  preserved  by  the  Christian  Fathers,  show 
at  least  that  it  contained  things  not  in  the  Greek  Matthew  (see 
Gospels).  Jerome  speaks  of  this  as :  "  The  Gospel  according  to  the 
Hebrews  which  I  recently  translated  into  Greek  and  Latin "  (Agat 
PelagiuB,  iii,  1),  and  again  he  says  (on  Matt  xii,  13):  "In  the 
gospel    which    the    Nazarenes   and   Ebionites   use,    which   I   lately 


516  Matuta 

translated  from  Hebrew  into  Greek,  and  which  is  called    by  verv 

many  the  original  Gospel  of  Matthew,  the  man  with  the  withered 

hand  is  described  as  a  mason."    Epiphanius,  in  376,  says  {Her.^  xxz,  13 1 

that  the  Ebionite  gospel,  *'  called  the  Gospel  according  to  Matthew," 

was  falsified  and  mutilated,  and  called  by  them  the  Hebrew  Gospel 

Origen  (230  A.C.)  asserts  that,  in  the  Hebrew  Gospel,  the  brethren 

of  Jesus  (Matt,  xiii,  55)  were  said  to  be  sons  of  Joseph  by  a  former 

marriage.     Clement  of  Alexandria  (200  A.C.)  says  {Strom,,  II,  is): 

''  So  also  in  the  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews  it  is  written."     Irenaeus  states 

(185  A.C.,  Her,,  i,  26)  that  the  Ebionites  "  use  the  Gospel  of  Matthew 

only,  and  repudiate  Paul "  :  and  again  (Her,,  v,  1,  3)  that  these  Jewish 

Christians  "  asserted  that  Jesus  was  begotten  by  Joseph,"  and  *'  do  not 

choose  to  understand  that  the  Holy  Ghgst  came  upon  Mary."     Even 

Eusebius  relates  (Hist.  Eccles,,  iii,  39)  that  Papias  "also  gives  a  story 

of  a  woman  who  was  accused  of  many  sins  before  the  Lord,  which 

is  to  be  found  in  the  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews."     It  seems 

that  the  Hebrew  Gospel  included  also  the  statements  that  Christ  was 

baptised  with  fire  in  Jordan,  and  that  his  "  mother  the  Holy  Ghost  ** 

carried  him  by  a  lock  of  his  hair  to  Mt  Tabor.     Hence  it  appears 

that  the  Hebrew  Gospel  (whether  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaik)  contained 

no  account  of  the  Virgin  Birth  of  Christ,  and  was  not  identical  with 

our  text  of  the   Gospel  according  to  Matthew  in  Greek.     Jerome 

was  a  sound   scholar,   but   evidently  regarded   the   Hebrew  Gospel 

as  uncanonicai.     Some  scholars  are  now  disposed  to  agree,  not  with 

Epiphanius,   but  with    the   Ebionites,  and   to  regard    the   first  two 

chapters  of  the  Greek  Matthew  as  later  additions.     The  genealogy 

of  Christ  in  this  gospel  is  quite  different  to  that  in  the  third  Gospel, 

though  both  trace  his  descent  from  David  through  Joseph.     Nothing 

is  known  of  Matthew  beyond  what  is  to  be  found  in  the  Gospels  and 

Acts,  and  we  have  np  text  (save  a  short  fragment  of  our  2nd  century 

on  a  papyrus  in  Egypt)  that  dates  earlier  than  our  4th  century,  so 

that  the  question  of  text  and  language  remains  in  great  doubt.     The 

account  of  Christ's  childhood  disagrees  with  that  in  Luke,  and  that 

of  the  Resurrection  is  equally  different.     In  Matthew  alone  do  we  hear 

that  the  graves  then  opened  and  the  dead  came  out  (xxvii,  52),  and 

here  only  are  the  Logia  or  sayings  of  Christ  arranged  as  a  single 

"Sermon  on  the  Mount"     The  old  Syrian  version  recently  recovered 

reads  (i,  16) :  "Jacob  begat  Joseph,  and  Joseph  b^at  Jesus,  by  Mary 

a  virgin." 

Matuta.     A  title  of  Juno,  apparently  as  godess  of  "  morning." 
King  Servius  (579  to  635  B.C.)  erected  a  temple  to  her,  which  the 


Mau  517 

Dictator  Camillus  restored  in  395  B.C.,  when  he  captured  the  Etruskan 
city  of  Yeii.  Mater  Matuta  ("  mother  dawn  ")  is  noticed  in  connection 
with  the  festival  of  the  Matralia,  on  11th  June,  and  her  rites  resembled 
those  of  Leukothea  the  *'  light  godess  '*  of  the  Greeks. 

Mau.     Egyptian  :  "  cat "  (see  Bas). 

Mau.  The  god  of  sky  and  light  among  Polynesians  and  New 
Zealand  Maoris.  He  was  baptised  in  the  waters,  but  was  vulnerable 
like  other  sun  gods,  and  died  in  the  lap  of  his  ancestress  Hine- 
niu-tepo,  the  "woman  of  night/'  Another  ancestress,  Muri-ranga- 
whenna,  gave  him  a  jawbone  as  a  weapon,  wherewith  he  wounded  the 
"  great  man  sun,"  making  him  move  slowly ;  he  also  fished  up  with  it 
the  island  of  New  Zealand,  which  is  still  called  Te-ika-a-Maui  or 
*'  Man's  fish."  He  once  grasped  fire  and  sprang  into  the  sea,  when  the 
world  became  dark  ;  but  at  dawn  he  rose  again  like  a  fish.  He 
bums  in  the  volcanoes,  and  brought  new  fire  to  earth,  at  the  request 
of  his  mother  Mahuika,  or  Ta-ranga.  His  father  made  an  error  in 
the  baptismal  prayer,  which  is  the  cause  of  most  of  the  evils  in  the 
world.  He  was  the  youngest  of  four  brothers,  each  of  whom  is  called 
a  Maui.  He  hid  himself  till  night,  seeing  his  mother  rise  at  dawn  ; 
and  then  crept  out  and  closed  every  crevice,  so  that  Ta-ranga  slept 
till  he  was  high  in  heaven.  When  Mau  (or  Maui)  was  very  little  he 
was  aided  by  Ru — the  dawn — to  lift  the  sky,  or  the  covering  of 
darkness,  off  the  earth  :  when  this  was  partty  done  he  killed  Su,  and 
scattered  his  bones,  which  are  found  in  the  hills  and  vales  of 
Maugaia.  The  murdered  Ru  was  his  father  (Gill,  Polyn.  Myths,, 
p.  71). 

Maut.     See  Mat. 

May.  May- poles.  This  month,  regarded  as  unlucky  for 
marriage,  was  called  '*'  the  month  of  bastards,"  in  consequence  of 
the  liberties  which  were  then  allowed  between  the  sexes.  It  was 
sacred  to  Flora  ;  and  the  Floralia  or  "  flower  feast "  was  held  by 
Romans  at  the  season  when  flowers  were  in  bloom.  The  first 
of  May  was  a  great  day  also  among  Kelts  and  other  Europeans 
(see  Bel-tein) ;  and  in  this  month  Romulus,  the  Roman  hero,  was 
said  to  have  performed  rites  to  appease  the  manes  of  his  murdered 
brother  Remus,  so  that  it  became  a  funereal  month,  and  as  such 
unlucky.  The  nights  of  the  9th,  11th,  and  13th,  were  celebrated 
in  silence  and  mourning.  On  the  9th  the  devotees  walked  barefoot, 
and  flung  9  beans  behind  their  backs  to  ghosts  (see  Beans) :  on  the 
11th  they  held  games  in  honour  of  Mars:  on  the  13th  they  flung 


518  May 

little  ozier  mannikins  from  the  Pons  Sablicius  into  the  Tiber,  io 
honour  of  Mercury  whose  shrine  was  as  old  as  500  B.C.  Througbout 
the  month  none  might  marry  ''  for  fear  of  the  Lemures  "  (or  ghosts), 
but  all  must  choose  mates  in  the  next  month,  which  was  sacred  to  Juno 
the  godess  of  marriage.  This  probably  was  due  to  the  necessity  of 
providing  for  the  results  of  May  licence  of  which  we  find  evidence 
elsewhere.  Ovid  describes  the  Lemundia  of  the  9th  to  13th  Ma? 
above  noticed  (Fasti,  v,  489-490),  and  says  that  "the  vulgar  say 
May  is  a  bad  month  in  which  to  marry/'  probably  because  prudent 
maidens  then  held  aloof,  but  professedly  because  the  ghosts  must 
then  be  adored  She  who  married  in  May  would,  it  was  thought^ 
either  die  early  or  be  divorced 

In  every  British  village  the  May-pole  used  to  stand  on  the  green, 
with  its  surrounding  ring,  and  its  adornments  of  fruit  and  flowers, 
streamers  and  other  symbols.  It  was  also  erected  on  the  Mut-hill,  or 
in  glades,  or  by  sacred  wells  such  as  the  *'  mapple  well "  (Country 
FM'Lore,  1895,  i,  p.  29):  such  tree  emblems  were  not  however 
peculiar  to  Europe  (see  Gonds),  being  even  described  in  America 
among  natives  (Bancroft,  Nat  Eaees^  ii,  pp.  329-331,  713,  714; 
see  Notes  and  Queries,  4th  January  1896).  At  the  beginning  of 
the  month,  when  the  fete  of  the  fire  god  was  celebrated  in  Mexico, 
certain  priests  went  to  the  mountain  and  selected  the  tallest  and 
straightest  tree  they  could  find.  This  was  cut  down,  and  dragged  on 
rollers  to  the  temple,  where  it  was  set  up.  After  twenty  days  it  was 
lowered,  and  dressed  smooth,  the  branches  being  left  at  the  top, 
below  which  a  long  cross-yard  was  fixed.  It  was  adorned  with 
colored  papers,  and  on  the  summit  was  placed  the  image  of  the  fire 
god,  made  of  a  dough  of  amaranth  seeds,  robed,  and  bound  with  a 
sash  of  paper.  In  its  head  were  inserted  three  rods,  on  each  of  which 
was  spitted  a  tamale  or  native  magpie.  The  pole  was  then  again 
raised  erect  Those  about  to  sacrifice  captives  appeared  dancing  with 
them,  and  grotesquely  dressed  and  painted.  The  dance  ceased  at 
sunset :  the  captives  were  delivered  over  at  midnight ;  and  at  dawn 
were  stripped  of  dress  and  ornaments  by  the  priests.  They  were 
dragged  to  the  foot  of  the  temple  steps,  partly  stupefied  by  a  powder 
thrown  into  their  faces,  carried  to  the  top  of  the  temple,  and  burned 
nearly  to  death.  Each  was  then  thrown  on  the  stone  of  sacrifice,  and 
the  heart  torn  out  The  skulls  were  spitted  on  poles,  and  the  people 
then  came  together  to  dance  and  sing  in  the  temple  court-yard. 
The  youths  raced  to  climb  the  great  pole,  and  the  first  at  the  top 
scattered  the  dough  image,  and  its  ornaments,  on  the  applauding 
crowd  below,  and  became  the  hero  of  the  day.     The  pole  was  next 


May  519 

dragged  down  with  rejoicings  by  the  multitude.  The  Tepanecs — 
according  to  Duran — had  a  similar  custom,  offering  incense  to  a  tree 
—  set  at  the  entrance  of  the  town — for  a  month  before  the  fSte.  It 
was  then  raised,  with  a  dough  bird  on  the  top.  Food  and  wine 
were  offered,  warriors  and  women  in  their  finest  dresses  danced 
round  it,  holding  small  dough  idols,  and  youths  struggled  to  reach 
and  to  knock  down  the  bird  image,  the  pole  being  afterwards 
overthrown. 

Miniature  poles  decked  with  flowers  are  still  carried  (in  Dorset 
and  in  other  parts  of  England)  by  children  on  old  May-Day.  In  1902 
the  Vicar  of  Billesdon,  we  are  told,  dismissed  the  head  master  of  his 
school,  on  the  plea  that  he  refused  to  maintain  a  May-pole,  which  he 
said  was  an  old  sacred  symbol  (Tr^A,  11th  December  1902).  On 
April  30th,  at  midnight,  youths  and  maidens  used  to  visit  the  woods 
in  couples  to  **  find  the  May-dew."  The  May-pole  was  decked  next 
morning,  and  borne  in  joyous  procession,  being  dragged  by  gaily 
caparisoned  oxen,  on  a  car,  with  dances,  songs,  and  music  (Notes  and 
Queries^  May  and  August  1883;  March  1891).  Men  and  maids  in 
Cornwall  still  dance  and  sing  round  the  May-pole  at  Landrake  and 
Treryn.  Till  recently  these  poles  were  preserved  in  Yorkshire,  Berkshire, 
Worcestershire,  Wilts,  and  Gloucestershire.  The  May-pole  was  part  of 
the  church  furniture  (see  Peacock,  Church  Furniture),  and  the 
clergy  taught  that  *' these  were  pleasing  ancient  rites."  But  Dr 
Stubbes  {AnaUynxie  of  Abuses,  1595)  said  :  "As  regards  the  May-Day 
eve  and  mom  rites  in  woods  and  groves.  .  «  .  not  one-third  of  the 
maidens  who  entered  them  returned  as  they  went."  We  wonder  not 
therefore  that  the  Puritans  decreed  (6th  April  1644)  that  May-poles 
should  be  abolished,  as  '*  heathen  vanities  full  of  superstition  and 
wickednesse."  The  May-poles  were  restored  by  Charles  II ;  and  it  is 
recorded  that  "  the  great  Strand  May-pole  "  was  brought  on  May-Day, 
1661,  from  Scotland  Yard,  with  music  and  rejoicings,  by  sailors  sent 
by  the  Duke  of  York ;  and  it  was  erected  opposite  Somerset  House, 
in  "  May-pole  alley,"  as  a  "  type  of  golden  days."  This  pole  was  of 
cedar,  and  134  ft.  high,  having  three  golden  crowns,  and  other  rich 
ornaments.  It  appears  in  a  picture  as  late  as  1713,  but  it  was  sold 
four  years  later  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  for  use  in  connection  with  his 
great  telescope  (see  Pennant ;  and  Chambers's  Book  of  Days).  Its 
original  position  was  on  the  E.  of  the  *'  ancient  cross  "  opposite  Chester 
Inn,  W.  of  Catherine  Street.  Another  May-pole  was  near  a  sacred  well 
in  "  Holy- well  Street,  Strand,"  no  doubt  near  the  "  May-pole  Tavern." 
The  London  parish  of  Under-shaft  was  named  from  the  "  great  shaft 
of  Comhill,"  mentioned  by  Chaucer.     Stow  says  that  this  "  was  set 


520  Maya 

up  every  May-Day  mom  ...  in  midstreet,  before  the  S.  door  of  the 
church,  and  was  higher  than  the  steeple."  It  was  kept  in  ''Shaft 
Alley/'  and  was  destroyed  by  Puritans  in  1549  A.C  Another  iu 
Basing  Lane,  near  St  Paul's,  was  called  the  ''giant's  staff,"  and  set 
up  at  "  Gerard's  Hall."  A  new  May-pole  was  set  up  at  Fenchureh 
in  1552.  Parishes  vied  in  the  height  of  these  great  fir  trees,  which 
were  hung  with  bells  and  charms.  May-poles  can  still  be  seen  at 
Hemswell  in  Lincolnshire,  and  at  Wellford,  near  Stratford-on-Avon, 
near  Donnington  Wood  in  Shropshire,  and  in  Pendleton  churchyard, 
Manchester,  this  latter  being  surmounted  by  a  cock. 

On  "Yellow  May-Day"  the  need-fire  was  lighted,  and  the 
May-poles  were  painted  black  and  yellow.  The  Morris-dancers  then 
wore  black  dresses  with  yellow  hoods  in  England.  The  1st  of  May 
was  the  day  of  Robin  Hood,  and  Maid  Marian,  Friar  Tuck,  aud  Little 
John.  The  fool  wore  a  green  hood  {Scotsman,  7th  April  1885). 
The  May  Queen  was  the  godess  of  the  rite,  represented  by  a  maidea 
of  good  repute  robed  in  white ;  but  she  also  appeared  in  Malkin,  or 
Mad  Moll,  the  Bona  Dea  of  Rome.  In  this  month  also  a  bull  with 
gilt  horns,  and  decorated  with  flowers,  used  to  be  led  to  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem  for  sacrifice,  by  the  later  Jews  (see  Jewish  Wor^d, 
loth  May  1885). 

Maya*  Sanskrit :  "  illusion,"  represented  as  a  woman.  It  is 
also  the  name  of  Buddha's  mother ;  and  Maha-Maya,  or  Maya-devi, 
is  the  godess  Durga  in  India.  Maya-vati,  the  wife  of  a  demon,  reared 
a  son  of  Krishna,  and  an  incarnation  of  Kama  (love),  whom  she 
recovered  from  the  ocean  and  wedded.  Krishna  then  recognised  ber 
as  a  virtuous  wife,  and  an  incarnation  of  Rati  or  "  passion."  Durga 
Maya  is  thus  called  "  a  daughter  of  vice "  (A-dharma),  and  ''  of 
falsehood"  (An-rita),  sweet  in  springtime,  but  bringing  troubles  in 
autumn. 

Mayas.  An  early  race  of  Central  America  (see  Azteks).  They 
preserved  an  alphabet  supposed  to  be  connected  with  Aztek  hiero- 
glyphics. Five  brief  chronicles  of  Yukatan,  in  the  agglutinative 
Maya  language,  carry  back  their  history  many  centuries  before  the 
Spanish  conquest,  soon  after  which  they  were  written.  A  history 
of  the  conquest  was  also  written  by  a  Maya  chief  in  1562  (Dr  D.  G. 
Brinton,  Maya  Chronicles).  The  Mayas  were  conquered  by  the 
Azteks.  The  language  belongs  to  the  same  class  with  others  in 
America,  which  present  similarities  of  both  grammar  and  vocabulary 
with  Mongolian  speech. 

Mazar.     Arabic.     From  zor  "  to  visit,"  or  "  go  round  "  :  a  shrine 


Mazbah  521 

**  visited/'  or  circumambulated,  often  called  a  Muka/m  or  "  station." 
These  little  cubical  domed  shrines,  in  Syrian  villages,  are  the  real 
peasant  temples,  named  after  some  prophet,  or  hero  of  Islam,  who 
is  the  local  saint.  Sometimes  Christian  shrines  of  St  Paul,  St  George, 
and  others,  have  been  taken.  Sacrifices  are  still  ofifered  at  them  in 
times  of  sickness,  and  the  elders  of  the  village  dance  solemnly  round 
them.  The  interior  contains  the  saint's  tomb,  and  a  Mihrab  niche  in 
the  direction  of  Makkah.  They  have  been  specially  described  with 
their  legends  by  Col.  Conder  (Mem.  of  Survey  of  W.  Pal.  and  Tent 
Work  in  Palestine). 

Mazbah.  Hebrew  :  "  altar  " — Arabic  Medhbah — a  "  place  of 
slaying."  The  Hebrews  were  to  have  altars  "  on  the  ground,"  without 
any  steps  (Exod.  xx,  24,  25),  and  if  not  of  rock  or  earth  they  must  at 
least  not  be  of  hewn  stone. 

Mazdean.  A  common  term  for  the  Persian  religion,  from  the 
name  of  Ahura-mazda,  *'  the  being  of  great  knowledge "  (see  that 
heading). 

Me.     Japanese.     The  mother  godess  (see  Japan). 

Me.   Mi.     Barmese  :  "  fire."     Akkadian  mu  "  burn." 

Mean.  An  Etruskan  spirit  of  comfort  like  Lasa.  She  carries 
palms  in  her  hands.  [Probably  "  mother  godess."  Akkadian  erne- 
an. — Ed.] 

Mecca.     See  Makka. 

MedeS.     See  Madai. 

Medha.  Sanskrit :  "  sacrifice "  (see  Andromeda,  Asva-medha, 
and  Ganum^gs). 

MegastheneS.  A  friend  of  Seleukos  Nikator,  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  Chandra-gupta  in  N.W.  India  (316  to  294  B.a):  he 
appears  to  have  lived  at  the  Magadha  court  from  306  to  298  B.C., 
and  to  have  concluded  an  alliance  between  the  Greek  and  Indian 
emperors  in  302  RC.  Arrian  speaks  of  his  having  accompanied 
Alexander  to  India  (327  B.C.),  and  says  that  he  lived  with  Sibyrtius, 
the  Satrap  of  Arakhosia  and  Gedrosia,  in  328  B.c.  (Max  Mlillcr,  India, 
p.  297).  Megasthenes  wrote  Ta-Indika  ("the Indian  matters")  in 
the  Attik  dialect,  and  is  said  to  have  been  surprised  by  the  honesty 
and  truthfulness  of  Indians.  Buddhism  was  then  the  prevailing 
religion.     There  was,  we  learn,  no  slavery  in  the  Magadha  empire. 


522  Mehtar 

'Hhe  women  are  chaste,  and  the  men  excel  all  Asiatics  in  ooorage: 
honour,  truth,  and  virtne,  are  highly  esteemed  .  .  •  the  doors  have  no 
locks,  yet  theft  is  rare,  and  no  Indian  is  ever  known  to  tell  a  lie. 
The  people  are  sober  and  indostrions,  good  farmers,  and  skilful  artizans : 
they  scarcely  ever  go  to  law,  and  live  peaceably  under  their  chiefe." 
The  laws  were,  he  says,  unwritten ;  but  Nearkhos  (the  admiral  of 
Alexander  the  Great)  is  quoted  as  saying  "they  write  on  cotton 
cloth."  As  yet  we  have  no  texts  in  India  earlier  than  about  250  BwC^ 
but  the  antiquity  of  writing — back  to  500  or  600  B.C. — is  not 
doubted  (see  Alphabets,  Deva-nagari,  Kharoshthi).  Megasthenes  is 
known  by  the  quotations  in  works  of  Pliny,  Strabo,  Diodorus,  and 
Arrian. 

Mehtar.  Originally  this  meant  *'  great  one,"  but  the  word  has 
gradually  come  to  be  applied  to  the  lowest  Pariah,  or  sweeper  caste, 
who  are  scavengers,  living  in  a  village  near  any  town,  and  properly 
called  Pachpirya :  the  name  of  their  patron  deity  or  saint  is  Bale- 
Shahy  or  Ghazi  Miyan.  His  son  Jivan  was  converted  by  the  Gum 
Govind  (see  Sikhs),  and  founded  the  Sikh  sweeper  caste  called 
Mazabis.  Jivan  is  said  to  have  had  7  sons  who  founded  7  sab- 
castes  :  one  being  Moslem,  and  the  other  six  Hindu  or  Sikh.  Some 
of  these  sub-castes  will  not  inter-marry.  The  degradation  of  the 
Mebtars  was  no  doubt  the  result  of  conquest  and  persecution.  They 
consider  themselves  of  high  caste,  and  have  a  high  priest  at  Banaras 
who  possesses  their  scriptures  and  traditions,  and  prescribes  social  and 
religious  regulations.  They  meet  at  night,  and  hand  round  a  pipe  to 
be  smoked  by  each  in  turn  (see  Knights  of  the  Broom,  by  Mr 
Greeven,  B.C.S.,  Banaras,  1894).  The  sub-caste  of  Helas  wiU  not 
touch  dogs,  though  these  are  usually  in  charge  of  Mehtars.  All  the 
caste  consider  their  duties  sacred,  as  symbolising  spiritual  cleanliness. 
They  say  that  their  royal  founder  Jivan  swept  roads,  and  sprinkled 
water,  on  account  of  his  humility  of  heart,  and  was  therefore  raised 
to  heaven  which  be  now  cleanses  of  the  filth  of  Satan.  When  this 
labour  is  completed  a  millennium  of  purity,  holiness,  peace,  and  chastity 
will  begin :  the  prophets  of  all  ages  will  reappear  on  earth — ^the 
Balmik  of  Mehtars  first,  aod  after  him  the  Hindu  Markan-deva,  the 
Christian  Christ,  and  the  Moslem  MahdL 

Melanesia.  Greek :  "  black  isles."  A  modem  name  for  the 
islands  N.K  and  K  of  Australia,  the  largest  being  Papua  or  New 
Guinea,  and  the  furthest  east  the  Fiji  group.  It  includes  the  Admiralty, 
Solomon,  Banks,  and  Loyalty  isles,  with  New  Ireland,  New  Hebrides, 
and  New  Caledonia.     The  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Papuan  negrito 


Memnon  523 

race,  with  frizzled  hair  and  hideous  features,  akin  to  Australians  and 
Tasmanians,  and  having  a  less  infusion  of  Malay  blood  than  the  brown 
Polynesians  and  Maoris.  Their  languages  are  supposed  to  be  akin  to 
those  of  the  aborigines  of  India,  and  to  the  Dravidian,  with  some 
Malay  terms.  The  area  occupied  stretches  some  3500  miles  in  a  S.E. 
direction  from  New  Guinea.  Though  sometimes  sharp  traders,  and 
often  skilful  carvers,  the  Melanesians,  who  have  received  the  rudi- 
ments of  their  civilisation  from  the  Malays,  are  still  cannibals,  and  with- 
out any  organisation.  Their  religion  is  mere  Fetishism,  and  they  regard 
every  object  as  possessing  a  spirit  or  Mana,  including  rocks  and  trees 
as  well  as  animals  and  men.  The  Mana  can  go  anywhere,  and  enter 
into  any  person  or  thing,  traversing  water  and  air.  The  Yui  is  a  non- 
human  spirit,  as  powerful  as  the  Mana.  The  Tindalo  is  a  ghost,  which 
becomes  very  active  and  mischievous  when  it  loses  its  human  body. 
They  may  be  seen  at  shrines,  and  at  tombs,  but  soon  sink  into  oblivion 
as  the  dead  are  forgotten.  All  must  strive  to  keep  the  Mana,  which 
lives  after  death  in  Panoi  or  Elysium.  Suretupa  is  the  phice  of  good 
ghosts,  and  Surelumagar  of  those  who  die  young.  It  is  a  beautiful 
world  of  sweet  flowers,  fruits,  song,  and  dance. 

Memnon.  A  deity,  or  hero,  whom  the  Greeks  connected  with 
Egypt.  He  was  a  son  of  the  sun  and  dawn,  and  built  a  Memnonium 
in  the  city  founded  by  his  father  Tithonos.  The  two  gigantic  statues 
at  Luxor  in  Egypt,  now  known  as  representing  Amenophis  III,  were 
connected  with  Memnon  by  the  Greeks ;  and  many  Greek,  Earian, 
and  Phoenician  names  are  scrawled  (since  about  600  B.c.)  on  the  legs. 
Memnon's  father  Tithonos  was  the  half-brother  of  Priam — sons  of 
Laomedon.  At  the  siege  of  Troy  Memnon  slew  Antilokhos,  and  was 
slain  by  Akhilleus.  He  could  travel  through  air,  and  could  cross 
seas  and  rivers  dry  shod.  He  died  in  many  places  and  ways ;  Aiax 
also  killed  him,  and  Eos  (the  dawn  mother)  wept  dew  drops  for  him. 
Zeus  made  him  immortal ;  Pallas  gathered  his  ashes  at  Paphos  in 
Cyprus.  His  tomb  was  shown  on  the  Belus  river  near  'Akka  in 
Palestine.  H^phaistos  made  *'  bright  armour  and  a  magic  sword  "  for 
Memnon,  and  all  wept  his  death,  while  from  his  funeral  pile  birds 
(or  souls)  flew  out,  but  fell  back  again  after  fighting  each  other. 
Virgil  (JSn.,  i,  493)  speaks  of  "  the  weapons  of  black  Memnon,"  and 
in  Egypt  no  doubt  his  statues  were  of  black  basalt  The  Memnon 
statue  at  Luxor  was  said  to  utter  a  note  at  sunrise,  which  has  been 
supposed  to  have  been  due  to  the  sudden  heating  of  the  stone  by  the 
rays  of  the  rising  sun :  but  after  Septimus  Severus  repaired  the  statue 
about  196  A.C.  it  ceased  to  be  a  "  vocal  Memnon"  (see  Prof.  Goldziher, 


524  Memphis 

Academy,  6th  November  1886).  There  was  a  sacred  pillar  in  the 
Arabian  mosk  at  Taif  which  gave  a  Naktd,  or  '*  note,"  when  the  sun 
rose,  and  another  at  Askalon.  The  Jews  in  Arabia  also  said  that  the 
statues  in  the  castle  of  Ghumdan  roared  like  lions  when  the  wind 
blew  on  them.  In  the  Arab  romance  of  'Antar,  which  preserves  many 
folk  legends,  we  read  of  the  hero  who  encamped  ''  near  a  mountain — 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  from  which  black  clouds  and  smoke 
rise,  summer  and  winter ;  and  that  when  the  new  moon  rises  it  at 
once  utters  a  cry,  like  that  of  a  mother  bereaved  of  her  children/' 
The  name  Memnon  may  be  connected  with  that  of  Agamemnon. 

Memphis.  An  ancient  capital  of  Egypt  S.  of  Cairo,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Nile  before  the  formation  of  its  delta.  The  name  is 
thought  to  have  been  originally  Men-niofr,  or  *'  Fair-haven  "  as  the 
Greeks  understood  it.  The  whole  nome  or  district  was  sacred  to  the 
triad  of  Osiris  with  his  son  and  his  wife.  Memphis  was  one  of  the 
largest  of  ancient  cities,  and  the  reputed  capital  of  the  first  king 
Menes ;  but  little  now  remains,  and  even  in  the  time  of  Strabo  (about 
50  B.C.)  it  had  become  ruinous,  though  still  flourishing  under  the 
Ptolemies.  'Abd-el-Latif  (about  1100  a. c.)  speaks  of  its  great  size, 
and  of  the  many  marvels,  and  innumerable  buildings  and  images,  still 
to  be  seen.  Diodorus  found  its  palaces  in  ruius,  but  its  temples  still 
kept  up  with  some  of  the  old  magnificence.  Seventy  pyramids  on  the 
plains  of  Memphis  range  in  antiquity  from  Senefru  to  Amen-emhat 
III  (3rd  to  12th  dynasties),  and  hard  by  is  the  rock -cut  Serapeum, 
with  the  tombs  of  the  sacred  Apis  bulls  (see  Egypt)  a  vast  vault 
600  feet  long,  containing  black  granite  sarcophagi,  in  separate 
chambers,  well  polished,  and  weighing  60  tons  each.  The  divine 
bulls — -symbols  of  the  sun  god — were  here  preserved  (as  discovered  by 
Mariette)  from  the  time  of  the  18th  dynasty  down  to  about  50  B.C., 
under  the  Ptolemies — a  period  of  1600  years. 

Men.  Min.  Egyptian.  A  name  of  Khem  (see  Khem 
Knouphis). 

Mena.      See  Makka. 

Menat.  The  third  godess  of  the  Arab  triad,  with  Allat  and 
'Uzzah.  She  was  the  godess  of  "numbers"  or  "fate"  (see  Man), 
typified  by  the  stone  monument  in  the  Valley  of  Mena,  and  by  similar 
stones  at  Taif  and  elsewhere. 

MenciuS.  The  Latin  form  for  the  Chinese  Mangtsze,  or  "  Mang 
the  teacher."     He  is  the  great  exponent  of  Confucian  philosophy  (371 


Mencius  525 

to   288  B.C.),  making  the  welfare  of  the  people  his  constant  theme. 
For  this,  be  said,  kings  ruled ;  and,  if  they  waged  war,  and  sacrificed 
their  subjects,  they  were  inexcusable,  unless  the  geneml  happiness  of 
the  nation  was  involved  (see  Dr  Edkins,  Asiatic  Quarterly^  Octr. 
1886).     Mencius  courted  argument,  and  laid  down  definite  political 
axioms.     He  was  born  in  Shan-tung,  14  miles  S.E.  of  the  home  of 
his  master.     Both  discarded  any  sectarian  title,  but  Mencius  became 
the  founder  of  the  literary  class,  the  Ju  school  who  said — following 
Confucius — that  the  king's  power  came  from  heaven  (Tien),  and  must 
resemble  that  of  heaven  in  rectitude  and  goodness.     They  held  that 
the  will  of  heaven  was  to  be  discovered  by  the  study  of  events  — 
historical,  meteorological,  oracular,  or  retributory,  and  thus  required 
knowledge  of  antiquity.     The  emperor  who  did  nut  win  the  hearts  of 
his  people  was  unworthy  to  rule :  for  "  the  human  heart  possesses  in 
itself  the  germs  of  perfect  virtue  and  wisdom."  *  Mencius  thought  that 
if  Duty,  Love,  and  Morality  were  supreme,  armies  might  be  disbanded, 
and  their  vast  cost  saved  :  so  that  land  taxes,  and  frontier  dues,  would 
not  be  needed.     Men,  he  held,  were  naturally  inclined  to  goodness, 
reverence,  loyalty,  love,  and  pity  ;  to  prudence  and  courtesy  ;  and  only 
the  pangs  of  hunger,  and  the  instinct  of  self-preservation,  prevented 
their  attaining  to  such  a  happy  state.     This   opinion    was   strongly 
opposed  by  many  in  China,  both  before  and  after  the  time  of  Mencius. 
Among  the  earliest  disputants  was  Si-un-king,  who  said  :  "  Man  is  clay 
which  the  potter  must  work  up  for  use  and  beauty — a  horse  that 
requires  a  good  rider  armed  with  whip  and  spur,  bit  and  bridle :  that 
requires  to  be  trained  early  and  always ;  for  then  there  is  no  limit  to 
its  capacity  for  good."    But  Yang-Chu,  the  bitter  Taoist  contemporary 
of  Mencius,  said :  "  The  world  and  mankind  are  utter  and  hopeless 
failures ;  let  us  keep  to  ourselves,  as  well  as  we  can,  and  leave  the 
world  alone ;  if  by  plucking  out  a  hair  of  my  head  I  could  confer 
benefit  on  the  whole  world  of  men  I  would  not  do  it."     Mencius,  on 
the  other  hand,  followed  Mitzi  (450  to  500  B.C.),  who  said  (see  Metse)  : 
'*Love  all  men  equally  ;  do  all  for  love,  and  seek  the  good  of  the  whole 
world,  not  limiting  your  love  to  those  who  can  claim  it  on  special 
grounds,  but  extending  it  to  those  who  have  no  claim  on  you.    Befriend 
the  widow,  the  orphan,  the  friendless  and  lonely ;   feed  the  hungry, 
clothe  the  naked,  nurse  the  sick,  and  bury,  the  dead."     Mencius,  how- 
ever, says  that  "  this  is  too  much  to  expect  of  any.     It  is  unpractical, 
and  therefore  an  unbecoming  teaching  for  a  statesman,  and  likely  to 
be  destructive,  of  filial  piety,  if  not  also  of  loyalty  to  kings  and  rulers." 
"  There  is,"  he  said,  "  a  nobility  of  heaven  and  also  of  men,     Benevo- 
Jence,    righteousness,    self-consecration,   and    fidelity,   with    unwearied 


526  Mendaites 

delight  in  these  virtues,  constitute  the  nobility  of  heaven  .  .  •  the 
great  man  is  one  who  does  not  lose  his  child-heart.  Respect  others 
and  they  will  respect  you.  Love  both  life  and  righteousness ;  but  if 
thou  must  choose  between  them,  choose  the  latter.  Sespect  the  old, 
and  be  kind  to  the  young,  not  forgetful  of  strangers  and  travellers. 
The  great  charge  is  the  charge  of  one's  self.  He  who  knows  well  his 
own  nature  knows  that  of  heaven.  He  who  delights  in  heaven  will 
affect  a  whole  empire  by  his  love  and  protection.  When  heaven  is 
about  to  confer  a  great  charge  on  a  man  it  first  exercises  his  mind  with 
toil  and  suffering,  his  body  with  hunger  and  poverty  .  .  .  thus  to 
stimulate  his  nature,  and  to  supply  his  incompletenesses.  .  .  .  There- 
fore let  us  reflect  that  happiness  often  springs  from  misery."  The 
Taoists  (see  Lao-tze)  were  powerful,  in  the  time  of  Mencius,  as  mystics  : 
and  of  them  he  says :  "  Let  their  stories  spread,  if  only  they  contain 
sound  principles."  The  seed  of  philosophy  fell  at  the  time  on  unre- 
ceptive  soil,  and  his  system  only  became  famous  long  after  his  death. 

Mendaites.     See  Mandaeans. 

Mene.  Greek  :  '*  moon."  Supposed  to  come  from  an  Aryan 
root  Mih  "  to  shine  "  (see  Man). 

MeneS.  The  first  king  of  Egypt  according  to  Manetho  (see 
Egypt).  Dr  Borchardt  (see  Tunes,  22nd  Novr.  1897)  claimed  to  read 
the  name  of  King  Menes  on  a  tomb  at  Nagada  found  by  M.  de  Morgaa 
It  is,  however,  a  matter  in  dispute  whether  the  text  is  rightly  under- 
stood, or  the  tomb  that  of  a  king. 

Men-hir.     Keltik  :  "  long  stone,"  an  erect  monumental  stone. 

Meni.      Hebrew:  "number"  or  "fate"  (see  Man). 

MennoniteS.  An  American  sect,  chiefly  in  Pennsylvania,  who 
in  1891  numbered  about  40,000  persons.  Many  joined  them  from 
Kussia,  and  they  have  gradually  developed  half  a  dozen  sub-sects.  In 
the  census  return  Dr  Carroll  tells  us  that  Menno  Simons,  a  native  of 
Friesland  in  Holland,  was  born  in  1492,  and  educated  as  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest ;  he  became  a  Waldensee  pastor  in  1536,  but  soon 
began  to  preach  the  doctrine  of  non-resistance  to  evil,  and  against 
infant  baptism.  In  1683,  attracted  by  the  success  of  Penn's  colony, 
Mennonites  crossed  the  ocean  and  settled  in  Oerman*s-town.  They 
forbade  marriage  outside  their  sect,  as  well  as  any  resistance  to  violence, 
or  the  taking  of  oaths.  They  inculcated  the  washing  of  saints'  feet, 
and  the  kiss  of  peace,  seeking  to  establish  a  Christianity  in  strict 
accord  with  the  Gk>spels.     Their  ministers  are  chosen  out  of  the  con- 


Mentu  527 

gregation  tbey  are  to  serve  ;  and  if  the  election,  over  which  the  bishop 
presides,  is  not  unanimous,  some  of  the  Russian  congregations  accept  a 
majority  vote,  but  others  take  as  many  books  as  there  are  proposed 
candidates,  and  place  a  slip  of  paper  in  one,  on  which  is  written, 
"  Herewith  God  has  called  thee  to  the  ministry  of  the  Gospel."  The 
candidates  take  a  book  each,  and  by  such  divination  the  minister  is 
selected,  the  books  being  all  just  like  each  other.  Disputes  are  settled 
by  arbitration,  and  Mennonites  accept  no  public  offices  except  such  as 
are  connected  with  the  management  of  schools.  Their  Eucharist  is 
celebrated  twice  a  year,  and  is  followed  by  the  washing  of  feet,  women 
washing  those  of  women,  and  men  those  of  men.  The  same  ceremony 
is  still  also  observed  by  both  Greeks  and  Romanists  at  Easter. 

Mentu.  The  Egyptian  Mars,  a  form  of  Amen-Ra,  hawk-headed, 
with  a  winged  solar  disk  above  his  head,  and  carrying  a  sword. 

Mer.     Akkadian  :  "  wind  "  (see  Mar,  and  Maruts). 

Mer.  Mera.  Egyptian  :  ''  sea  "  (see  Mar).  The  Nile  deity  was 
Mera,  and  the  word  is  found  in  the  names  of  Lake  Moeris  (see  Egypt), 
and  of  Lake  Mareotis,  as  also  at  Meroe. 

Meriah.     See  Ehonds. 

Mercury.  The  Latin  god  of  **  marks,"  boundaries,  coins,  and 
merchants  (see  Hermes).  Caesar  recognised  a  Keltik  Mercury.  Dulaure 
says  (Hist,  des  CvZtes,  i,  p.  359)  that  Mercury  ''stole  the  sceptre  of 
Jupiter,  the  hammer  of  Vulcan,  the  trident  of  Neptune,  the  sword  of 
Mars,  the  arrows  and  cows  of  Apollo,  and  the  girdle  of  Venus,"  being 
natural  appropriations  for  a  phallic  deity. 

Mermaid.  Merman.    See  Nix. 

Merodach.      See  Marduk. 

MeropeS.  A  very  ancient  people  according  to  the  Greeks. 
[Probably  '*  bright  eyed "  (see  Mar). — Ed.]  They  lived  in  innocent 
happiness  to  a  great  age,  under  a  King  Merops  who  saved  them  from 
a  deluge  (see  M.  F,  Lenormant,  Contempy.  Review,  Sept  1881).  The 
island  of  Eos  was  called  Meropis,  and  Siphnos  was  Meropia,  the 
inhabitants  being  said  to  be  very  licentious,  but  to  live  to  the  age  of 
120  years.  Strabo,  quoting  Theopompos,  says  that  Merops  was  a 
king  of  the  Aithiopes,  and  ruled  the  Hyperboreans  (or  Northerners), 
the  ''  dusky  faced  "  subjects  being  perhaps  contrasted  with  a  "  bright " 
ruler. 


528  Merti 

Merti.  Milt.  An  Egyptian  deity  carrying  lotus  flowers  or 
papyrus. 

Mem.  The  great  Hindu  mountain  of  Paradise,  the  name  perhaps 
meaning  **  bright  "  (see  Mar).  It  has  one  sacred  river  only,  called 
MandarSini,  and  is  identifie<l  with  the  triple  peaks  of  the  Himalayas 
called  Ila-vatta,  the  home  of  Brahma ;  By«kant  of  Vishnu ;  and 
Eailasa  of  Siva.  But  the  site  of  the  heaven  mountain  was  variouslv 
pointed  out,  for  it  rose  from  the  centre  of  the  Madhya-dvipa,  or 
"sweet  region,"  a  heaven  of  untold  joys.  It  is  the  abode  of  Ila 
mother  of  all,  and  daughter  of  Manu — "  mother  earth."  Its  rivers  are 
also  said  to  water  four  continents  (see  Mountains).  Mem  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Rig  Veda,  but  seems  first  to  appear  in  the  Ramayana 
epik.  It  is  compared  to  a  bell-shaped  Dhatura  fruit,  which  is  sweet 
to  taste  and  produces  slumber,  and  to  a  lotus — the  gem  of  the  Jambu- 
Dvipa^  or  region  of  the  golden  apple  tree  of  life,  placed  also  in  the 
centre  of  the  "  Jewel  India." 

Meryeks.  Miriyeks.    See  Korea. 

Meshio  and  Meshia.  The  Persian  Adam  and  Eve  (see 
the  Pahlavi  Bundahlsh),  who  grew  united  out  of  a  sacred  rhubarb  tree 
(as  in  Talmudic  legends  of  Adam  and  Eve,  which  make  them  to  have 
been  originally  united  as  a  single  being) :  they  were  created  by  Ahura- 
Mazda ;  but  Meshia  mistook  Angro-mainyiis  (or  Ahriman)  for  the 
creator,  and  ate  fruit  by  the  advice  of  this  Satan.  The  pair  discovered 
fire,  and  made  an  axe  and  a  hut,  but  quarrelled  and  wounded  each 
other,  and  lived  a  long  time  apart. 

Messiah.  Hebrew  :  '*  anointed  "  (see  Christ).  In  early  times 
both  priests  and  kings  were  anointed.  In  Exodus  (xxx,  22-30)  the 
unction  of  the  Hebrew  High  Priest,  and  of  other  priests,  is  described  ; 
but  the  earliest  notice  of  unction  is  that  of  Jacob's  stone  at  Bethel 
(Gen.  xxviii,  18).  Hebrew  kings  were  anointed  from  the  time  of 
Saul  downwards,  and  David  did  not  dare  to  touch  ''the  Lord's 
anointed,"  though  we  are  told  he  had  already  been  anointed  himsell*. 
The  *^  anointed  ones  "  (Psalm  cv,  15)  is  apparently  a  term  for  the  early 
.patriarchs;  and  the  pagan  Cyrus  is  also  a  Messiah  (Isaiah  xlv,  1\ 
When  we  read  of  the  Messiab  in  Daniel  (ix,  25,  26),  as  a  prince  who 
is  "  cut  off,"  we  cannot  suppose  that  he  is  the  *'  branch,"  or  human 
successor  of  David,  of  whom  the  earlier  Hebrew  prophets  speak  (see 
Isaiah)  as  a  future  king.  [The  allusion  seems  to  be  to  the  destruction 
of  Hasmonean  priest-princes  by  Herod  after  37  B.c. — Ed.];  but  the 
belief  in  a  mysterious  Son  of  Ood  and  Messiah  was  arising  among  the 


Metempsychosis  62  9 

Jews  before  Christ  was  born,  and  the  doctrine  becomes  important  in 
later  Talmudic  literature.  The  pre-existent  Messiah  is  to  appear  at 
the  end  of  the  world  as  an  universal  monarch,  ruling  a  restored  Israel ; 
and  at  his  great  feast  Behemoth  and  Leviathan  will  be  eaten,  while 
grapes  of  enormous  size,  and  gigantic  com,  will  furnish  food  for  all. 
Some  said  that  he  would  rise  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The  Moslems 
adopt  these  legends,  and  apply  them  to  their  Mahdi,  but  the  idea 
is  much  older  and  is  found  in  Persia  (Fahlavi  Bahman  Yast,  and 
Bundahish),  where  Zoroaster  will  be  born  of  a  virgin  (in  an  eastern 
lake)  as  Sosiosh,  and  will  defeat  the  powers  of  evil,  becoming  the  ruler 
of  the  righteous  on  earth.  Such  a  "*  world  king  "  was  also  expected  in 
India  in  Buddha's  time,  and  in  Europe  we  have  endless  legends  of  the 
return  of  great  heroes,  such  as  Marco  Kralievich  the  Serb,  Frederic 
Barbarossa  in  Germany,  Holgar  Danske  in  Denmark,  Charlemagne  in 
France,  Don  Sebastian  in  Spain,  the  Italian  Lasseretti,  and  our  own 
Arthur. 

Metempsychosis,  or  Transmigration.    The  Greek  term 

signifies  the  passage  of  the  soul  to  another  body ;  and  the  Latin  its 
"  migration."  The  belief  common  to  most  early  peoples  was  however 
very  hazy.  Our  forefathers  believed  that  old  women  could  change 
into  cats  or  hares  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  p.  281),  and  this  idea,  which 
lies  at  the  base  of  much  Greek  and  Indian  philosophy,  is  found  in  its 
earliest  crude  forms  in  the  beast  worship  of  Egypt,  and  in  what  is 
commonly  called  Totemism  in  Africa,  Australia,  and  America  (see 
Animal  Worship),  savages  supposing  that  chiefs  and  ancestors,  after  a 
human  life,  transmitted  their  souls  into  the  bodies  of  beasts  or  of  plants. 
There  is  no  allusion  to  this  belief  in  Yedik  hymns,  but  it  appears  later 
among  Vedanta  scholars  as  part  of  the  doctrine  of  Immortality. 

Transmigration  was  anciently  regarded  as  purgatorial,  which  is 
an  advance  on  the  savage  theory,  and  involves  a  belief  in  the  moral 
government  of  the  universe.  Early  Hindus  taught  that  there  were 
three  futures  possible  for  anyone:  (1)  in  heaven  with  the  gods, 
after  a  life  of  virtue  on  earth  :  (2)  on  earth,  a  continuance  of 
anxious  weary  lives,  for  those  who  have  lived  the  ordinary  busy 
worldly  life  :  (3)  on  earth  in  animal  forms,  more  or  less  degraded 
according  to  the  degree  of  wickedness  in  the  previous  human  life. 
Ekich  of  these  three  phases  was  again  subdivided  into  three  :  and  these 
nine  classes  were  known  to  Plato,  whose  doctrine  is  explained  at  the  end 
of  the  Republic  (see  Er).  Prof.  Max  MuUer  says  (  Vedanta  Lectures, 
1894)  that:  "If  a  man  feels  that  what — without  any  fault  of  his 
own — he  suffers  in  this  life   can   only  be  the  result  of  some  of  his 

2  l2 


530  Metempsychosis 

former  acts,  he  will  bear  his  sufferings  with  more  resignation,  like 
a  debtor  who  is  paying  off  an  old  debt.  And,  if  he  knows  besides 
that,  in  this  life,  he  may  be  suffering  not  only  to  pay  off  his  old 
debts,  but  actually  to  lay  by  moral  capital  for  the  future,  he 
has  a  motive  for  goodness  which  is  not  more  selfish  than  it 
ought  to  be."  [This  is  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  "  works  of  super- 
erogation."— Ed.]  But  this  assumes  that  we  carry  into  future 
lives  a  consciousness  of  personal  identity,  and  a  memory  of  the  past, 
with  many  other  assumptions  (see  Soul). 

Sir  Le  Page  Renouf  warns  us  against  supposing  the  metempsychosis 
of  Indians  and  Greeks  to  be  discoverable  in  Egyptian  allusions  to 
transformations  (see  Egypt).  These  are  "  expressly  said  to  be  entirely 
voluntary  :  the  nature  of  them  depends  upon  the  will  and  pleasure 
of  the  glorified  personage"  (see  Proc.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  May  1893) : 
the  unglorified  suffered  the  **  second  death,"  being  given  over  to  the 
"  devourer,"  a  monster  shown  awaiting  his  prey  in  the  hall  of 
Judgment  All  mediaeval  Europe  believed  in  such  transformations, 
and  that  the  soul  could  leave  the  body  during  sleep.  Endless 
legends  occur  (as  also  in  Arab  tales)  about  such  changes  of  shape; 
and  souls  were  seen  stealing  from  the  mouths  of  sleepers  in  the 
form  of  mice.  Men  were  cautioned  not  to  go  to  sleep  thirsty,  for 
if  the  soul — so  stealing  out  to  drink — was  chased  away  it  might  never 
find  its  way  back.  The  Teutonic  godess  Holda,  who  was  the  guardian 
of  souls,  was  symbolised  as  a  mouse,  and  scared  evil  mice  from 
sleeping  maidens  and  children.  With  her,  as  the  White  Lady, 
departed  souls  spend  the  first  night,  and  the  second  with  St 
Michael,  leaving  for  their  future  home  on  the  third,  Dryden  alludes 
to  such  beliefs  when  he  says — 

*'  Here  and  there  the  unembodied  spirit  flies 
And  lodges  where  it  lights  in  man  or  beasf 

Thus  no  existence  was  thought  to  cease,  but  only  to  undergo  a 
metamorphosis  or  "  change  of  form."  Even  Buddhists  accepted  the 
theories  of  the  Yedanta  and  Darsana  schools  on  this  subject.  Eapila 
said  that :  "  Joy,  fear,  and  grief,  arise  to  him  that  is  born,  through 
return  to  his  memory  of  things  previously  experienced " :  so  that 
Gotama  remarked  that :  "  If  joy  arises  before  causes  for  joy  are 
experienced,  the  child  must  have  existed  in  a  previous  life."  This 
doctrine  was  known  to  the  Jews,  but  is  set  aside  by  Christ  (John 
ix,  2,  3).  The  Nyaya  school  (see  Darsanas)  argued  that  the  soul 
"  must  be  eternal :  if  otherwise  it  would  be  mortal :  for  whatever 
has  a  beginning  has  of  necessity  an  end."     In   the  Bhagavad-gita 


Metempsychosis  531 

Krishna  is  made  to  say  :  "  One  cannot  say  of  the  soul  it  has  been,  or  is 
about  to  be,  or  is  to  be  hereafter ;  it  is  a  thing  without  birth."  Plato 
also  {PhoRdma)  says  that  the  soul  "  is  deathless.  Evil  may  attack  or 
corrupt  it,  but  cannot  waste  its  substance :  it  is  one  thing,  not  com- 
posite, and  must  therefore  live  for  ever."  The  logic  and  the  assertion 
alike  may  be  disputed ;  but  the  idea  was  yet  earlier  brought  to  the  West 
by  Pythagoras,  who  begged  that  a  dog  might  not  be  beaten,  lest  it 
should  have  in  it  the  soul  of  some  former  friend.  The  followers  of 
Swedenborg  (18th  century  A.C.)  said  that  the  cunning  would  become 
foxes,  and  the  timid  hares,  and  this  idea  is  everywhere  traceable  from 
savage  ages.  The  Rig  Veda  speaks  of  the  dead  as  "  being  glorified, 
and  putting  on  a  body,"  for  "  the  good  man  shall  be  born  in  the  next 
world  with  his  entire  body"  [Sarvaianu).  This  is  nearer  to  the 
belief  of  Christ  and  of  Paul  as  to  a  spiritual  body,  Origen  was 
condemned  for  speaking  of  the  soul  as  corporeal,  asserting  that  it 
had  been  seen  issuing  from  the  mouth  of  the  dying  in  the  form  of 
a  child.  He  wrote  that :  "  Corporeal  matter,  in  whatsoever  quality 
(or  form)  it  is  placed,  is  necessary  to  the  soul,  now  indeed  carnal, 
though  hereafter  it  will  become  subtle,  and  purer,  and  what  is  termed 
spiritual." 

In  the  Buddhist  Jataka  (or  *'  birth  ")  tales,  Gotama  is  made  to 
describe  the  transmigrations  of  himself  and  of  other  sages.  But 
Buddhist  philosophy  is  concerned  with  the  surviving  effect  of  conduct 
(see  Karma),  not  with  the  immortality  of  an  individual  identity  or 
soul.  Buddhists  teach  the  existence  of  a  definite  number  of  beings, 
which  exist  in  various  conditions  (see  Buddhism),  and  this  number  is 
only  occasionally  diminished  when  some  one  being  attains  to  Nirvana,  and 
is  born  no  more.  The  Buddhists  thus  attempt  to  avoid  two  extremes, 
that  of  belief  in  a  soul,  and  that  of  disbelief  in  retribution.  They  believed 
that  '*  if  a  man  reaps  sorrow,  disappointment,  and  pain,  he  himself 
— and  no  other — must  at  some  time  have  sown  folly,  error,  and 
sin;  and  if  not  in  this  life,  then  in  some  former  birth."  Metem- 
psychosis was  a  prominent  feature  of  neo-Platonic  teachiug  at 
Alexandria.  Prof.  Knight  tells  us  that :  "  Philo  of  the  first  century 
(B.C.)  held  it :  Plotinus  and  Porphyry  in  the  third  (a.C.)  :  Jam- 
blichus  in  the  fourth  :  Hierocles,  and  Probus  in  the  5th  century." 
It  was  a  Gnostik,  and  especially  a  Manichsean,  dogma :  "  It  was 
held  by  Nemesius  who  emphatically  declared  that  all  Greeks  believ- 
ing in  immortality  believed  in  (metempsychosis) ;  and  we  have  hints 
of  it  in  Boethius."  The  2nd  Council  of  Constantinople  (553  a.c.) 
condemned  it  as  held  by  Origen,  but  the  idea  survived  late  among  the 
Christian   schoolmen.        It  found   an   earnest  advocate   in   Lessing : 


5;t2  Metis 

Herder  maintained  it,  and  it  fascinated  the  minds  of  Fourier,  and 
Leroux«  Soame  Jenyos,  Chevalier  Ramsay,  and  Mr  Cox,  have 
written  in  its  defence.  It  appears  as  a  belief  in  Mexico,  and  Tibet* 
among  Negroes,  and  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  among  ancient  Druids 
and  extinct  Tasmanians.  If  the  truth  of  a  belief  depended  on  its 
being  of  general  acceptation  "ever,  everywhere,  and  among  all/' 
then  Metempsychosis  would  be  true. 

The  advocates  of  the  theory  deny  that  '*  if  we  cannot  reoiember 
our  past  lives  it  is  all  the  same  as  if  they  never  were  our&"      This 
was  Cicero's  view ;  but  on  the  other  hand  it  is  argued  that  we  forget 
even  the  events  of  our  present  existence.     The  doctrine  of  Metem- 
psychosis is  so  far  scientific  that  it  recognises  the  indestructibility  of 
force,  and  supposes  only  a  change  of  form.     Pro£  Knight  says  that 
according  to  this  theory :    "  Every  creature  in   which  there    is   the 
faintest  adumbration  of  intelligence  .  .  .  the  intelligence  of  the  dog, 
the  beaver,  the  bee,  and  the  ant,  which  does  not '  perish  everlastingly/ 
is  conserved  somewhere  after  the  dissolution  of  their  bodies."     It  may 
be  admitted  that,  if  we  reject  the  idea  of  dissolution  of  the  forces 
which  animate  a  bodv,  there  is  more  to  be  said  in  favour  of  Metem- 
psychosis  than  in  favour  of  the  idea  of  continual  creation  of  new 
additional  souls  out  of  nothing.     [But  if  evolution  teaches  us  that 
there  is  a  purpose  and  a  unity  in  the  universe,  though  we  may  not 
understand  it,  we  can  rest  in  confidence  about  the  future,  while  ad- 
mitting our  limited   powers  of  comprehension,  whether  the  life   be 
preserved   as  a  single  force,  or  otherwise. — Ed.]     The  idea  that  a 
personal  creator  is  compelled  to  furnish  a  new  soul  for  every  new- 
body,  which  soul  must  last  forever  after,  is  ancient  but  crude.      The 
theory  of  Transmission  implies  that  every  soul  has  two  sources,  being 
derived  from  those  of  its  parents. 

Metis.  A  daughter  of  Okeanos  and  Thetis,  who,  to  Orphic 
mystics,  personified  the  power  of  creation,  but  whom  the  Greeks  called 
"  Prudence,"  the  first  love  of  Zeus.  She  was  the  mother  of  Athene 
(the  dawn  and  the  later  abstract  personification  of  Wisdom),  and  before 
Athene  was  bom  Zeus  swallowed  Metis,  so  that  Athene  sprang  from 
his  head.  It  was  Metis  also  who  caused  Kronos  (as  Khronos  or  *'  time  *'> 
to  disgorge  his  own  children  (see  Kronos). 

Metse.  Mitzi.  A  great  Chinese  teacher  about  500  to  400 
B.C.  (see  Confucius  and  Mencius).  He  advocated  prayer  and  sacri- 
fice which,  he  said,  God  or  heaven  {THefo)  accepts  from  men  for  their 
good.  He  blamed  Confucius  for  encouraging  singing  and  dancing 
as  alleviations  of  the  sorrows  of  life,  saying  that  the  time  would  be 


Mexico  533 

better  spent  in  helping  the  miserable.  He  was  himself  a  maker  and 
inventor  of  weapons  and  machines  for  use  by  land  and  sea :  he  urged 
the  necessity  of  building  comfortable  houses  for  the  people,  and  also  forts 
with  improved  armaments  for  their  protection.  He  advocated  justice, 
and  respect  towards  foes  as  well  as  friends,  and  kindness  towards  the 
people,  as  the  best  way  of  ruling  them.  He  said  that  love  "  without 
distinction  should  be  the  guiding  principle  of  sage  and  statesman 
alike  ;  and  governments  should  only  levy  taxes  (li)  in  order  to  execute, 
and  aid  all  works  which  are  a  benefit  to  the  people."  He  thought 
that  the  school  of  Confucius  was  wrong  in  holding  back  from  the 
people  a  teaching  about  things  spiritual,  and  in  their  ideas  about  fate  : 
that  they  did  not  sufficiently  point  out  how  happiness  is  the  natural 
consequence  of  good,  and  misery  of  bad  actions.  Yet  Mitzi  has  been 
called  *'  the  exponent  of  the  doctrine  of  expediency  "  by  Dr  Edkins. 

Mexico.  See  Azteks.  The  city  of  Mexico  (Te-mix-titlan)  had 
four  quarters,  the  chief  one  being  the  Teo-pan  or  "god-place."  The 
later  Azteks  called  it  Mexi-ko,  after  Meshi  (or  Mixi),  their  god  of  the 
sun  and  of  war ;  whence  the  Spanish  Mejico.  It  was  also  called  the 
"central  place  of  the  Maguey" — the  invaluable  agave  or  aloe  used 
for  so  many  purposes,  including  the  manufacture  of  a  kind  of  paper. 
Mexico  was  known  in  China  in  our  6tb  and  7tb  centuries  as  Ve-shi- 
ko,  Bu-shi-ko,  and  Fu-sang-ko  (Vining,  Inglorious  Columbus),  In 
1520  A.C.  the  Spaniards  found  the  Azteks  in  possession  of  the  city,  and 
understood  that  they  had  conquered  the  earlier  Tolteks  about  1050 
to  1150  A.C.,  occupying  the  whole  kingdom  of  Anahuak.  The  Tolteks 
were  supposed  to  be  traceable  as  early  as  650  A.C.,  as  writers  of 
hieroglyphics  using  the  Nahuatl  language,  and  as  having  erected  the 
pyramids  of  Cholula,  Teo-ti-huakan,  and  others.  The  Spanish  con- 
quest was  efifected  between  1519  and  1535,  but  the  last  descendant 
of  the  Aztek  emperors  died  in  1820  A.c.  Cortez  entered  the  city 
of  Mexico  as  a  conqueror  in  1519,  and  called  it  Vera  Cruz  ("  true 
cross"):  all  Yukatan  was  finally  annexed  as  ^'New  Spain"  in  1540. 
The  Asiatic  derivation  of  Mexican  civilisation  is  indicated  by  the 
resemblance  of  their  astronomical  ideas  to  those  of  India  and  Tibet,  as 
Mr  Vining  shows  (pp.  144-154,  655) ;  and  it  appears  to  have  reached 
Mexico  from  the  N.E.  of  Asia.  [See  for  instance  the  comparison  of 
the  Manchu  and  Aztek  cycle  of  years. 

Tibet  Manchu,  Aztek, 

ky  "  dog  "  Tiokoi  "  dog  **  izanitli  "  do^  " 

pah  "  hog  "  ga^ai  "  hog  "  calli  "  house  " 


534 


Mexico 


Tibet. 

tchip  "  water-rat " 
lang  "  ox  " 
tah  "  tiger  " 
io  "  hare  " 
brou  **  dragon  " 
provl  "serpent" 
ilia  "  horse  " 
Ion  "  goat " 
»pra  **  monkey  " 
tcha  "  bird  " 


MaTicku. 

singueri  "  water-rat " 
onker  "  ox  " 
pan  **  tiger  " 
taulal  "  hare  " 
Ion  "  dragon  " 
mogai  "snake" 
morin  "  horse  " 
kom  "goat" 
patchi  "  monkey  " 
tvJda  "  bird  " 


Aztek, 

atli  "  water" 
dpacUi  ^  sea  monster " 
ocdoUi  "tiger" 
tochtli  "  rabbit " 
cohatli  "  snake  " 
accUli    "  reed  " 
tecpatli  "  flint " 
ollin  "  sun  path  " 
ozoniaUi  "  monkey  " 
quantli  "  bird  " 


In  thus  comparing  we  must  remember  that  there  were  no  hogs,  oxen, 
horses,  or  goats  in  Mexico,  so  that  other  signs  had,  in  these  cases,  to 
be  adopted.  The  Mexicans,  however,  had  a  distinct  system  of  dividing 
the  year  into  18  months  of  20  days,  with  5  additional  days,  or  365 
in  all.  This  was  revised  to  suit  the  solar  seasons  in  1091  A.C. — Ed.] 
Father  John  Ren6,  a  missionary  on  the  Yukon  in  Alaska 
{Daily  Mail,  11th  October  1901),  discovered  that  the  language  of 
the  Nulato  Indians  who  live  within  the  Arctic  circle,  and  that  of 
the  Apaches  of  New  Mexico,  is  the  same.  [Such  comparisons  bad 
however  been  pointed  out  earlier — see  Compar.  PhUol,,  H.  P.  Greg, 
1893 — and  the  resemblance  of  vocabulary  between  the  American 
and  Tartar  languages  is  very  close,  and  extends  through  hun- 
dreds of  words. — Ed.]  The  Chevalier  de  Paravey  reported  to  the 
French  Academy  of  Sciences,  as  early  as  1840,  that :  *'  On  an  island 
of  the  Colorado  river  was  a  sanctuary,  and  a  Lama  like  one  of  Tibet, 
called  Quatu-zaka  —  'he  who  never  eats'  —  meaning  (thinks  the 
Chevalier)  the  Sakya  Buddha  of  Cathay^  :  zaka  however  is  probably 
the  Chinese  shi-hia,  applied  to  "  persons  who  abstain  from  flesh,  eat 
only  three  or  four  kinds  of  fruits,  and  never  wage  war."  Whenever 
this  Lama  arrived,  his  presence  illustrates  what  may  easily  have 
happened  in  earlier  times :  and  even  the  Chama-naui,  or  "  peaceful 
ones"  of  the  Tolteks  {Inglorious  Columbus,  p.  74)  may  have  been 
Buddhist  Shamans.  American  antiquaries  have  again  and  again 
pointed  out  the  resemblances  between  the  old  western  native  tribes 
and  the  N.  Asian  Tartars  and  Mongols.  The  Denes,  in  N.W.  America, 
show  (says  Father  Morice  of  British  Columbia)  their  Asiatic  origin  in 
marriage  and  divorce  customs,  mode  of  dressing  the  hair,  washing 
hands  and  face ;  in  the  forms  of  their  buildings,  amusements,  banquets 
and  articles  of  food,  as  well  as  in  customs  connected  with  births  and 
with  women  (see  Proc.  Canadian  Instit,  October  1889). 


Mexico  535 

Mr  Purchas,  in  his  "Pilgrimage"  of  1613,  found  "within  the 
circuit  of  the  principal  Mexican  temple  two  cloisters,  one  for  men  and 
one  for  women.  .  .  .  Virgins  of  12  or  13  years  of  age,  called 
'  maids  of  penance  * " — corresponding  to  the  Bhikshuni  of  India,  and 
the  Gelong-ma,  or  nuns,  of  Tibet.  They  were  dedicated  to  the  ser- 
vice of  the  god,  swept  the  temple,  prepared  the  food,  and  collected 
alms :  they  held  services  at  midnight,  and  performed  various  pen- 
ances.  They  were  habited  in  white ;  were  under  an  abbess ;  and,  if 
they  desired,  might  leave  after  a  year  for  the  purpose  of  being  married. 
The  young  men  entered  the  cloister  at  the  age  of  18  or  20  ;  they 
had  shaven  crowns,  and  tied  up  the  side  hair  in  bunches.  They 
lived  meagrely  and  chastely,  ministering  to  priests  and  altars,  to  the 
sacred  fire  and  the  altar  lamps,  which  must  never  go  out.  They 
might  not  look  at  women,  and  in  public  must  keep  their  eyes  on  the 
ground.  They  wore  linen  garments,  and  went  daily  through  the  city 
in  fours,  or  sixes,  to  gather  alms.  They  rose  at  midnight,  and 
sounded  trumpets  to  wake  the  people.  The  neophyte  remained  a 
year,  or  as  long  as  he  had  vowed  to  remain  ;  the  rule  was  the  same 
for  him  as  for  those  who  were  to  become  priests  or  monks ;  for  all 
lived  together,  in  chastity,  on  alms,  and  never  tasting  wine  or  strong 
drink.  Those  most  renowned  for  sanctity  were  called  Tlama-kaz- 
kayotl,  dedicated  to  the  god  of  peace  (see  Kuetzal-koatl).  Their 
superior  lived  on  the  coarsest  food,  dressed  in  black,  and  worked  very 
hard,  but  never  issued  from  seclusion  except  to  confer  with  the  king 
(Bancroft's  Native  liacea,  iii,  p.  436  :  Vining,  Inglorious  Columbus, 
p.  565).  The  resemblance  to  Buddhist  manners  is  evident  (see 
Barmah,  Buddha,  Palenque,  Peru). 

The  ancient  remains  of  Mexican  art  and  architecture  are  exquisite 
and  colossal.  They  are  scattered  over  a  distance  of  2000  miles,  and 
include  flat  topped  pyramids  like  those  of  India  and  Babylonia  (see 
Architecture),  of  masonry  accurately  hewn.  The  oldest  remains  are 
probably  those  of  Maya-pan,  and  Uxmal ;  Palenque  and  Cholula  come 
next,  in  Yukatan,  with  Papantla,  Hoxikalko,  Mizantla,  Quemada,  and 
many  others  in  tangled  forests  or  on  unexplored  mountains.  Tor- 
quemada  said  that  Mexico  had  40,000  temples :  Clavigero  thought 
there  were  more;  and  Mexico,  with  its  islands,  covers  744,000  square 
miles  of  country.  The  early  Spaniards  speak  of  the  city  of  Mexico, 
and  its  suburbs,  as  having  a  population  of  one-third  of  a  million,  with 
600  temples ;  to  the  principle  ones  5000  priests  were  attached. 
Their  system  was  Polytheism  as  regards  the  masses,  but  Theism  among 
the  learned  ;  and  their  ritual  included  many  horrible  and  cruel  rites  of 
sacrifice.     Their  priests  appear  to  have  cultivated  many  virtues,  in 


536  Mexico 

spite  of  this  terrible  belief  (see  May) :  tbey  were  celibates  and  as- 
cetiks,  and  taught  a  high  morality.  They  had  a  godess  of  love  like 
many  other  nations,  and  her  votaries  were  not  few.  Tet  they  taught 
purity  and  benevolence,  and  established  hospitals  for  the  sick.  They 
inculcated  confession  of  sins,  and  taught  men  thus:  ''Clothe  the 
naked,  and  feed  the  hungry,  whatever  privations  it  may  cost  thee : 
for  remember  that  their  flesh  is  like  thine,  and  they  are  men  like 
thee :  cherish  the  sick  for  they  are  the  image  of  Grod."  Yet  the 
penitent  is  commanded  (as  Mr  J.  Robertson  says)  to  procure  a  slave 
for  sacrifice  to  the  deity.  This  is  but  the  priestly  idea  that  *'  without 
the  shedding  of  blood  there  is  no  remission  of  sins "  :  neither  the 
penitent  nor  the  State  could  be  saved  unless  these  hateful  services 
were  performed  with  a  willing  heart  (see  Khonds).  They  sacrificed 
victims  specially  fed  and  pampered  to  Tezkatli-poka,  the  soul  of  the 
universe,  an  ever-young  god,  and  to  CenteoU  the  com  godess,  a 
beautiful  maiden.  The  victim  (a  youth  or  a  maiden  respectively)  was 
accorded — ^as  among  Khonds — the  honours  of  a  god,  and  clad  in  gor- 
geous garments,  carried  in  procession  in  a  car  or  barge,  and  eaten 
sacramen tally  by  the  congregation  (see  Hibbert  Lectures,  1884).  The 
life  of  a  foreigner,  or  of  a  captive  taken  in  war,  was  less  valuable  to 
Mexicans  than  that  of  an  animal.  In  the  atonement  (or  reconcilation) 
of  Centeotl,  the  skin  of  the  maiden  victim  was  flayed  off  that  the 
worshiping  priest  might  be  therewith  robed  (Bancroft,  Native  Races, 
iii,  p.  355).  The  gods  numbered  some  200,  of  whom  the  sun,  and 
his  12  attendants,  were  the  greatest. 

The  Mexicans  practised  infant  baptism,  and  Centeotl  was  then 
specially  invoked.  But  the  rain  god  TlaJok  demanded  infant  victims 
(like  Moloch),  who  were  either  purchased  or  dedicated  as  a  return  for 
benefits  received  or  expected :  the  greater  the  weeping  of  infants  and 
mothers,  in  the  great  processions  for  babe-sacrifice,  the  more  certainly 
would  Tlalok  send  rain  on  the  thirsty  land.  Uit  (or  Huitzilo-poktii) 
was  the  god  of  winds  and  of  the  State.  Uizilin,  the  humming  bird, 
was  an  emblem  of  this  god,  and  of  the  spring  sun  who  became  a  vrar 
god,  battling  by  aid  of  winds  in  spring  time.  Huitzilo-poktli  also 
became  incarnate  for  the  salvation  of  mankind,  being  bom  of  the 
virgin  Koatlikue,  who  played  with  a  ball  of  bright  feathers ;  and  his 
wintry  brother  Tezkatli-poka  (IWville,  Hibbert  Lect,,  1884)  was  "the 
shining  stone,"  or  mirror,  able  to  produce  greenness  even  in  the  wood- 
pecker (see  Prof.  A.  de  Gubematis,  ZooL  Mythol,,  ii,  p.  268).  Hue-hue- 
teotl,  or  *'  the  god  of  days,"  was  also  Ziuhte-kutli  the  "  lord  of  fire/' 
He  was  adored  as  the  dough  image  (see  Cross  and  May),  which  was 
also  the  emblem  of  Tlalok  the  "  rain  god/'  torn  in  pieces  and  eaten 


Michael  537 

as  an  eucharistic  rite,  just  as  the  dough  image  of  a  god  is  torn  and 
eaten  by  Tibetans,  who  call  themselves  Buddhists.  His  cross  was 
called  "  the  tree  of  our  life,"  and  the  dough  image  was  kneaded  with 
blood  (see  Eucharist).  The  Aztek  Venus  was  the  consort  of  Tlalok, 
carried  ofif  by  the  wintry  Tezkatli-poka.  Teo-tl  (*'  the  god  ")  was  the 
sun,  depicted  with  a  large  mouth  and  a  protruded  tongue,  which  (says 
R^ville)  was  an  emblem  of  life  (see  Rivera  of  Life,  ii,  p.  464,  fig. 
303).  The  pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Teo-tl  was  colored  blue,  and 
had  serpents  carved  at  the  corners.  His  shrine  was  the  Teo-calli  or 
"god's  house/' 

The  Mexican  pyramid  shrines  were  correctly  oriented.  Two  of 
these  at  St  Juan  (Teo-ti-huakan),  in  the  plain  of  Otumba,  are  each 
682  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  rise  180  feet,  being  nearly  as  large 
as  the  Egyptian  great  pyramid.  [The  pyramids  of  Babylon — repro- 
duced in  India — are  however  the  true  prototypes  of  both  Egyptian  and 
Mexican  examples. — Ed.]  On  the  top  of  each  of  these  pyramids 
was  a  shrine  75  feet  square,  for  sun  and  moon  respectively.  The 
whole  was  built  of  hard  basalt  or  trachyte.  Round  such  shrioes  are 
found  weapons  of  stone,  knives  and  arrows  of  obsidian  (a  material 
found  in  Asia  Minor  also,  and  used  in  Krete),  with  terra-cotta  heads, 
masks,  and  beads,  representing  grotesque  deities  :  or  such  a  mysterious 
object  as  the  candelero  ("  candlestick  "),  with  rows  of  holes  in  a  square 
stone. 

The  Spaniards  ruled  Mexico  till  1810,  when  revolution  broke 
out.  In  1823  a  Republic  was  established:  in  1863  the  unhappy 
Archduke  Maximilian  was  made  emperor,  and,  abandoned  by  France, 
was  executed  in  1867.  For  the  third  time,  Juarez  became  president, 
and  Mexico  is  still  a  Republic,  with  a  mixed  population  of  some  2 
million  Europeans,  4  million  American  Indians,  and  5  million  mixed 
tribes. 

MichaeL  The  Christian  soldier  angel  (see  Dan.  x,  13,  21  ; 
xii,  1).  FUrst  regards  the  usual  etymology  as  doubtful.  [Hebrew 
Mi'ki-al  "  who  is  like  God  ? "  the  name,  if  unpointed,  is  merely 
M-i'k-a-lf  and  may  signify  "he  who  strikes  for  God." — Ed.]  He  is 
one  of  four  angels,  with  Raphael  ("the  highness  of  God"),  Suriel 
("God's  command"),  and  Uriel  ("God's  light").  He  fought  with 
Satan  for  the  body  of  Moses  (Jude  9),  and  is  ever  warring  with  the 
dragon  (Rev.  xii.  7).  Moslems  rank  him  with  Israfil  and  Jibrail. 
He  was  the  patron  saint  of  France  after  St  Denys  failed  to  overcome 
St  George  (see  Denys),  for  "by  the  power  of  St  Michael,"  did  Charles 
V,  in  1425,  overconie  those  who  had  seized  the  Abbey  of  St  Denys  in 


538  Mid-gard 

1419.  The  shrines  of  St  Michael  are  usually  oa  steep  rocks,  as  at 
St  Michael's  Mount  in  Cornwall,  at  Mont  St  Michel  opposite  it  on 
the  French  coast,  and  at  St  Malo.  He  is  symbolised  as  a  lion,  and 
like  St  George  he  tramples  on  a  serpent  and  dn^n,  being  always  Id 
full  armour.  He  was  pursued  as  a  bull  to  the  cave  of  Monte  Gargano, 
but  the  arrows  of  the  pursuers  flew  back  to  the  archers,  who  fell 
trembling  on  their  knees,  and  after  three  days  (early  in  May)  the 
arch-angel  appeared  to  a  bishop  by  night,  and  commanded  the 
erection  of  a  shrine.  This  miracle  dates  about  492  to  536  A.C.  As 
the  sun  in  the  cave  is  connected  with  autumn,  so  St  Michael  is 
worshiped  in  the  end  of  September,  when  the  goose  is  his  victim  at 
Michael-mass.  The  feast  was  appointed  in  813  A.C.  by  the  Council  of 
Mentz,  and  in  England  by  Ethelred  III  in  1000  A.C.  From  Moaday 
till  Wednesday  all  must  then  go  barefoot  to  church,  on  pain  of  being 
flogged.  According  to  the  annals  of  Eutychius  the  bishop,  about  900 
A.C.,  Alexander,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  was  unable  to  stop  the 
worship  of  Serapis  in  Egypt,  till  he  substituted  that  of  St  Michael, 
and  induced  the  Egyptians  to  destroy  their  older  idoL  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great  saw  Michael  sheathing  his  sword  where  the  tower  of  St 
Angelo  still  stands.  In  Wales  the  lofty  summit  of  Caderidris  is  St 
Michael's  *'  chair  " :  another  shrine  of  St  Michel  is  found  at  Le  Puy, 
in  the  Haute  Loire  department,  S.W.  of  Lyons,  a  rock  reached  by  271 
steps  near  the  town  gate ;  and  a  small  church  of  St  Michael,  on  a 
vertical  cliff,  overlooks  Torbay  in  Devonshire.  On  Arran  Isle,  at  the 
foot  of  Goat  Fell,  is  the  Kil-vighal  or  "  Michael's  cell,"  where  ilr 
Carmichael  saw  naked  dances  round  the  shrine  {Scottish  Geogr,  Mag., 
Feby.  1887)  celebrated  in  the  end  of  September. 

Mid-£^ard.     Norse  :  ''  the  central  region  "  or  earth  (see  Hel  and 
Yggdrasil). 


[This  is  apparently  a  geographical  and  not  an  ethnical 
name  ;  it  applies  to  the  country  &  of  Jordan,  including  Moab  and 
Edom.  Its  inhabitants  were  descendants  of  Abraham,  Lot,  and 
Ishmael,  according  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  The  meaning  of  the 
word  is  not  known — possibly  Mad-yanu^  as  in  Assyrian,  meaning 
"land  of  no  one,"  or  "of  nothing."  This  region  is  still  called  the 
Belka  or  "  empty  "  land. — Ea]  The  great  Midianite  god,  worshiped 
near  Mt.  Nebo  and  in  the  Jordan  plains  at  Shittim,  was  the  phallic 
deity  (see  Ba'al-Pe'or). 

Midrash.     The  Jewish  "  teaching,"  or  commentary  on  the  Scrip- 
tures (see  Haggadah,  Halakah,  Hebrews).     The  Midrashim  {Babbak 


539 

and  Peaikta)  became  known  in  Europe  about  700  to  1100  A.c.  The 
first  of  these  comments  on  the  law,  the  latter  on  the  festivals.  The 
various  Midrashim  are  founded  on  the  Hebrew  canon,  on  the  Mishna, 
and  on  the  Jerusalem  and  Babylonian  Talmuds.  They  include  both 
the  "  decisions  "  on  legal  points  (Halakah)  and  the  "  stories  "  (Hagga- 
dah)  in  illustration  or  enlargement  of  Bible  legends,  with  those 
referring  to  the  future  Messiah.  Thus  the  Jews  say  :  "  In  adversity 
we  bang  on  the  consolations  of  the  Haggadah,  and  in  prosperity  cling 
to  the  law  of  the  Halakah." 

Miktlan.  Mitla.  The  ancient  capital  of  Salvador,  on  the 
Pacific,  S.  of  the  Gulf  of  Honduras,  where  the  god  of  Hades  was 
known  as  Mikthm-teuktli  (or  Miktlan-tekutli),  the  *'  Lord  of  Miktlan," 
transformed  into  St  Michael  (Miguel)  by  the  Spaniards  (Vining, 
Inglorious  Cclv/mbvs,  pp.  411,  646).  His  consort  was  Miktlan- 
cihuatl,  resembling  the  Indian  Kali  in  character.  Nothing  but 
shapeless  ruins  here  remain,  but  the  high  priest  of  Miktlan  was  once 
second  only  to  the  king.  He  bore  a  sceptre,  and  had  a  diadem  of 
feathers,  and  a  long  blue  robe  (Bancroft,  Native  Rcbces,  iii,  p.  489). 
The  founders  of  Miktlan,  according  to  the  Abb^  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg, 
were  followers  of  the  god  of  peace  (see  Euetzal-Eoatl). 

Melinda.      Pali  for  the  Greek  Menander  (see  Naga-sena). 

Milcom.   Milkom.      See  Malak. 

Milukha.  Melukhkha.  The  name  of  a  region  near  Sinai 
(Magan)  and  Egypt,  noticed  both  in  the  15th  century  B.C.  and  also  in 
the  7th.  It  appears  to  have  been  part  of  Nubia,  or  of  Aithiopia. 
[Probably  the  Akkadian  Mi-lukha,  "  land  of  slaves/* — Ed.] 

MimanssL  See  Darsana.  A  school  of  Hindu  philosophy.  The 
Purva  is  the  oldest  work  of  this  system,  and  is  attributed  to  Jaimini, 
a  celebrated  disciple  of  Viyasa  founder  of  Vedanta  philosophy.  Some 
however  attribute  the  second  (or  Uttara),  Mimansa  to  Viyasa  himself. 
These  works  uphold  the  inspiration  of  the  Vedas  ;  they  permit  images, 
but  hold  that  rites  are  matters  of  indifference,  the  important  question 
being  the  state  of  the  heart,  whence  vice  or  virtue  comes ;  and  re- 
ligion is  a  matter  of  creating  the  greatest  happiness  for  all.  Jaimini 
held  that  the  universe  had  no  beginning  and  no  end  :  that  God  is 
the  omnipotent,  and  omnipresent  cause,  the  supporter,  and  the 
destroyer  of  all  things ;  and  that  creation  is  the  manifestation  of 
his  will  and  action. 

Mimir.  The  Skandinavlan  giant  of  ''  memory,"  or  wisdom,  who 
sits  under  the  World  Tree  (see  Odin  and  Tggdrasil). 


540  Mimra 

Miinra.  Aramaik  :  ''  spoken  "  or  ''  ordered  " :  the  later  Jewish 
word  for  the  Logos  or  ''  reason  "  of  God  (see  Logos),  which  heals  all 
(Wisdom  of  Sol,  xvi,  12)  and  leaps  from  the  throne  of  God  in  heaven 
(xviii,  15). 

Minaret.  Arabic  Mindrah,  or  "  place  of  fire,"  applied  to  a 
lighthouse.  The  term  is  incorrectly  used  by  Europeans  of  the  towers 
of  a  Mosk,  which  are  called  Mddhneh,  or  "  place  of  hearing  "  the  call 
to  prayer  (see  Madhneh). 

Minas.  A  tribe  of  Sajputana,  in  Meywar,  Jeypur,  Bundi,  and 
Kata,  including  340  clans,  or  about  430,000  persons  (Journal 
Bengal  Rl,  Asiatic  Socy,,  1886  :  Iv,  i-iii).  They  worship  spirits, 
especially  Siva  and  his  consorts,  and  certain  warrior  ancestors  such  as 
Malaji,  or  Manjatji,  who  was  conquered  because  his  wife,  Bhatyao, 
betrayed  his  vulnerable  point — the  foot — which  reminds  us  of 
Akhilleui!,  Krishna,  and  H^phaistos. 

Mind.     See  Man. 

Minerva.  The  Roman  godess  of  wisdom,  who  is  identiBed 
with  the  Greek  Ath^n^  She  is  the  £truskan  Menerva  (see 
Etruskans). 

Minos.  The  son  of  Zeus  and  Europa,  bom  in  Krete.  He  bad 
two  brothers  Sarpedon  and  Rhadamanthos,  and  was  said  to  have 
succeeded  Ast^rios  (*'  the  starry  "),  as  King  of  Knossos.  Poseidon 
gave  him  a  bull  from  the  sea,  which  he  was  to  sacrifice ;  but  be 
failed  to  do  so.  His  queen  Pasiphae  (*'all  shining")  was  changed 
into  a  cow,  and  from  this  bull  and  cow  was  born  the  Minotaur  or 
**  man  bull,"  a  monster.  Minos  was  said  to  have  received  laws  from 
Zeus  on  the  summit  of  Mt.  Ida,  and  after  death  became  a  judge  in 
Hades  with  Aiakos,  and  Rhadamanthos. 

Minotaur.  "  The  man  bull "  (see  Minos).  This  monster  dwelt 
in  the  labyrinth  (see  Krete),  and  devoured  youths  and  maidens — who 
were  probably  human  sacrifices  to  the  bull  form  of  Minos.  [As  tbere 
were  good  and  bad  wolves  (see  Lukos)  so  there  were  good  and  bad 
man  bulls  (see  Ea-bani). — Ed.] 

Minyans.  These  are  not  connected  with  the  Arab  Minseaos  (see 
Arabia),  nor  certainly  with  the  Minyans  known  to  the  Greeks,  bnt 
were  a  people  living  near  Lake  Van  in  Armenia  (*'the  land  of 
Minyans  "),  and  noticed  as  early  as  the  1 5th  century  B,a,  as  well  as 
by  Jeremiah  (li,  27).     The  Minuai  of  the  Greeks  dwelt  in  BoiOtia, 


Miracles  541 

Thessaly,  and  Lemnos,  and  most  of  the  Argonaut  heroes  were  Minuai. 
The  letters  which  occur  in  the  Tell  Amarna  collection  from  Dusratta, 
king  of  Mitanni,  to  his  contemporaries  and  kinsmen  Amenophis  III 
and  Amenophis  lY  of  Egypt,  are  mostly  in  Semitic  speech ;  but  one 
is  in  the  native  language  of  Mitanni  (the  MatiSne  of  Herodotos,  or 
S.W.  Armenia),  which  is  an  agglutinative  dialect  like  the  Akkadian 
and  the  Hittite  (see  Col.  Conder's  translation,  Journal  M,  Asiatic 
Socy.f  Oct.  1892).  The  writer  invokes  the  god  Tessub,  who  was 
also  worshiped  by  Kassites,  with  others,  and  writes  about  his 
daughter  Tadukhepa,  who  was  about  to  marry  Amenophis  IV.  In 
this  letter  his  subjects  are  called  Minni  or  Minyans,  ruled  by  Eha- 
khans  (an  ancient  title  for  "  chiefs  "  in  Turkish  also) ;  and  Dusratta 
appears  to  have  conquered  the  Hittites  of  N.  Syria,  where  however 
he  recognised  the  Pharaoh  as  a  suzerain. 

Mir&cles.  See  Agnostiks,  Atheism,  Bible,  Christianity,  Gospels. 
A  miracle  was  a  "  wonder,"  usually  supposed  due  to  divine  action 
with  the  intent  of  striking  awe,  or  of  showing  special  favour. 
Education  is  now  gradually  convincing  even  the  most  religious  that 
the  miracles  of  the  ancients  were  stories  due  to  general  ignorance, 
and  belief  in  spirits  ever  busy  in  interfering  with  natural  events. 
The  Asiatic  peasant  is  still  as  firmly  convinced  of  the  constant  occur- 
rence of  such  miracles  as  were  his  ignorant  ancestors.  Those  who 
recorded  such  miracles  no  doubt  believed  in  them,  though  they 
usually  speak  of  them  as  occurring  in  times  earlier  than  those  in  which 
they  lived.  The  assertion  of  miracles  weakens  our  confidence  in  their 
own  statements  on  historical  questions.  Monumental  inscriptions 
may  confirm  what  they  say  as  to  natural  events,  but  we  do  not  find 
in  them  any  allusion  to  contemporary  miracles.  Cardinal  Newman, 
referring  to  miracles  attributed  to  Christian  saints,  says  quite  truly  : 
**  If  the  miracles  in  our  church  history  cannot  be  defended  by  the 
arguments  of  Leslie,  Paley,  etc.,  how  many  scripture  miracles  can 
satisfy  these  conditions?'  (Miracles,  Eccles.  Hist,  p.  107).  Pro- 
fessor Hiixlej  (NiTieteenth  Cent,  June  1889),  answers  "  none,"  adding : 
"  from  the  levitation  of  the  axe  at  one  end  of  a  period  of  3000  years 
(2  Kings  vi,  6),  to  the  levitation  of  present  spiritualists  at  the  other 
end,  there  is  a  complete  continuity  of  the  miraculous,  with  every 
gradation  from  the  childish  to  the  stupendous ;  from  the  gratification 
of  a  caprice  to  the  illustration  of  a  sublime  truth.  There  is  no 
drawing  a  line  in  the  series.  ...  If  one  is  true  all  may  be  true ;  if 
one  is  false  all  may  be  false."  Cardinal  Newman  saw  the  force  of  the 
argument,   and   therefore   said   "  to   be   deep   in   history    (that  is  in 


542  Mirrpr 

ecclesiastical  traditioD)  is  to  cease  to  be  a  Protestant  ...  the 
multiplication  of  the  pieces  of  the  True  Cross  with  which,  said 
Bishop  Cjrril  of  Jerusalem,  the  whole  world  is  filled  is  no  more 
wonderful  than  that  of  the  loaves  and  fishes."  [But  Cyril,  in  his 
lecture,  does  not  call  this  a  miracle — he  only  uses  a  hyperbolic 
expression. — Ed.] 

All  religions  have  in  like  manner  created  legends  and  miraculous 
stories,  even  when  the  founders  did  not  desire  to  do  so,  as  in  the  cases 
of  Buddha  and  Confucius.  These  wonders  arose  from  fear  of  the 
mysterious  and  unknown,  and  from  the  belief  in  spirits.  Mr  Lecky 
{Histy.  of  European  Morcda^  i,  pp.  397,  412)  says  that  "  ChristiaDity 
was  floated  into  the  Roman  empire  on  a  wave  of  credulity  that 
brought  with  it  a  long  train  of  superstitions,  fears,  and  prophecies. 
It  proclaimed  with  thrilling  hon'or  the  immediate  destruction  of  the 
globe;  the  damnation  of  all  who  opposed  Christians;  and  the  glory 
that  awaited  these ;  and  such  beliefs  continued  ever  and  again  to  stir 
up  Europe  down  to  Reformation  times,  however  much  the  educated 
smiled."  It  is  apparently  enough  answer  to  satisfy  the  masses  that 
they  should  object  that  science  is  not  able  to  explain  all  the  phenomena 
of  the  universe ;  but  this  is  not  to  prove  the  historical  occurrence  of 
any  miracle. 

We  hear  even  more  of  miracles  in  our  4th  and  5th  centuries 
than  in  the  time  of  Christ  It  was  an  age  of  ignorance  in  Europe,  and 
the  monks  encouraged  and  shared  such  superstitious  beliefs  (see 
Christianity)  until  the  Reformation.  Holy  persons  were  believed 
(as  they  still  are)  to  be  able  to  rise  in  the  air,  like  Indian  Rishis, 
or  Jewish  Rabbis,  who  fly  to  heaven.  Many  believed  they  saw 
Christ,  the  Virgin,  or  a  saint,  during  their  devotions.  Sacred  statues 
and  crucifixes  sweated,  or  the  hair  grew  on  them  and  was  r^ularly 
shorn :  relics  cured  disease,  or  restored  amputated  limbs :  the  fishes 
came  to  shore  to  hear  St  Antony  preach ;  and  pious  persons  falling 
from  heights  were  supported  in  the  air.  The  diffusion  of  knowledge 
has  not  only  led  all  but  the  most  ignorant  now  to  discredit  such 
superstitions,  but  has  also  softened  our  hearts,  and  has  made  us  hate 
cruel  gods  as  well  as  cruel  men.  The  horrors  of  a  priestly  hell,  in 
which  "infants  a  span  long"  were  said  to  roast,  no  longer  terrify. 
The  miraculous  is  a  name  for  the  unknown,  and  misunderstood,  and 
its  home  is  amid  the  myths  and  legends  of  the  past 

Mirror.  A  sacred  emblem  not  only  in  Japan  but  in  Egypt, 
Phoenicia,  Etruria,  and  elsewhere,  as  we  see  from  the  figures  engraved 
on  the  ancient  mirrors  of  bronze.     It  is  the  emblem  of  Venus,  and  of 


Mini  543 

^oman  :  of  Maya  or  "  illusion,"  and  of  light.  The  Egyptians  offered 
mirrors  and  combs  (see  Eteis)  to  godesses,  and  metal  mirrors  are  found 
beside  idols  in  America.  In  China  mirrors  on  house  roofs  scare 
away  demons.  Buddhists  and  Shinto  worshipers  alike  use  them  (see 
Japan). 

Mini.     The  Polynesian  queen  of  Hell — perhaps  the  same  as  Mari 
in  India.     See  Mar,  Mara,  and  Mari. 


The  Jewish  collection  of  the  rules  and  sayings  of 
famous  Habbis,  some  of  whom  lived  before  the  Jerusalem  temple  was 
<lestroyed.  It  is  written  in  Hebrew,  and  was  compiled  by  Babbi 
Jndah,  and  others,  at  Tiberias  about  150  to  200  B.C.,  after  the 
Sanhedrin  had  retired  from  Jamnia,  S.  of  Joppa,  to  Galilee,  on  the 
death  of  Rabbi  Akibah  in  the  revolt  of  135  a.c.  The  Talmud  includes 
the  Mishnah  as  text,  with  the  commentary  either  of  Jerusalem  (about 
390  A.c.)  or  of  Babylon  (365  to  427  A.c.  or,  in  part,  perhaps  as  late 
as  800  A.C.),  these  two  commentaries  beiug  in  Aramaik  (see  E.  Deutsch, 
Lity.  Remains^  p.  40).  The  Babylonian  Qemara  (''  completion  ")  is 
four  times  as  long  as  that  of  Jerusalem  (see  Hebrews). 

The  word  Mishna  (or  Mishnah)  signifies  "  repetition,"  or  *'  tra- 
dition "  (like  the  Moslem  Sunna,  or  comment  on  the  j^oran) :  the 
subject  is  the  study  of  the  law,  with  decisions  (Halaka)  on  disputed 
details.  The  older  decisions  were  those  of  the  schools  of  Hillel  and 
Shammai  (see  Hillel),  followed  by  Gamaliel,  whose  son.  Rabbi  Simon, 
about  166  A.C.  began  to  collect  all  existing  materials  for  study  of  the 
law,  the  work  being  continued  by  Rabbi  Judah  han-Nasi,  down  to 
219  A.C. 

[The  language  of  the  Mishnah  is  late  Hebrew,  and  remarkable 
for  the  inclusion  of  many  Greek  and  of  some  Latin  loan  words  (see  Col. 
Conder,  Quart.  Stat  Pal  Expl.  Fund,  October  1890,  pp.  310-326) 
— Ed.]  The  tracts  of  the  Mishnah  are  divided  into  six  "orders": 
(1)  Zer'avm  "seeds,"  or  agriculture — 11  tracts :  (2)  Mc>ed  "festivals" 
— 12  tracts  :  (3)  Neahim  "  women "  —  7  tracts :  (4)  Nezikim 
"damages" — 10  tracts:  (5)  ^odashlm  "holy  things" — 11  tracts: 
(6)  TaJioroth  "purifications" — 12  tracts;  or  63  tractates  in  all. 
Among  the  more  important  of  these  may  be  noticed  those  on 
Blessings,  the  Sabbath,  the  Red  Heifer,  the  Passover,  the  Sanhedrin, 
the  Temple  measurements,  the  New  Year,  the  Day  of  Atonement,  and 
Strange  Worship.  These  inform  us  of  the  later  Jewish  rites  and 
customs,  superstitions  and  Rabbinical  regulations,  from  the  Herodinn 
period  down  to  that  of  the  great  Antonine  emperors  of  Rome.  But 
the  legends  of  the  Talmud  are  mostly  found  in  the  Babylonian  Gemara. 


544  Misor 

In  time  the  Mishnah  or  "  oral  law  "  became  second  only  to  the  Torah, 
or  law  of  Moses,  in  Jewish  estimation ;  and  it  was  claimed  that  the 
traditions  had  been  also  (orally)  delivered  to  Moses  during  forty  dars 
on  Sinai.  The  Babbis  themselves  were  also  said  often  to  hear  a  Bath 
Kol  ("  daughter  of  speech  "),  or  divine  voice  from  heaven,  announcbg 
the  decision  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

Misor.  A  figure  in  the  legendary  genealogy  of  the  Phoeniciaos, 
as  recorded  by  Sancboniathon,  and  Philo  of  Byblos  (see  Cory's  Ancient 
Fragments),  answering  to  the  Hebrew  Misnum  (see  Egypt). 

Mista.  Nista.  Norse  Fates  who  supplied  the  gods  with  mead 
or  ambrosia. 

Mistletoe.  The  sacred  Vuctua  alhtim,  a  parasitic  plant  growing 
on  the  oak,  whence  the  Druids  prepared  a  magic  drink.  It  was  called 
the  **  all  heal/'  and  the  viscous  juice  of  the  white  berries  was  nibbed 
on  the  bark  of  fruit  trees,  such  as  the  appla  It  was  also  the  "  spectre 
wand  "  which  enabled  the  holder  to  see  ghosts,  and  to  force  them  to 
speak.  The  juice  imparted  fertility  according  to  Pliny,  and  made 
cattle  fat,  if  they  survived  the  purgations  it  caused :  it  was  also  an 
antidote  to  all  poisons.  The  Druids  cut  it  only  on  the  4th  and  6tli 
days  of  the  moon.  They  went  in  procession  to  the  sacred  oak,  and  on 
an  altar  covered  with  grass  (see  Grass)  they  inscribed  the  names  of 
gods,  and  offered  sacrifices.  Two  white  bulls  were  bound  to  the  tree 
by  their  horns,  and  a  priest  ascended  it,  and  cut  the  mistletoe  with  a 
golden  sickle,  letting  it  drop  into  a  white  consecrated  cloth  held  by 
another  priest ;  for  it  must  not  be  defiled  by  touching  the  earth 
which  was  the  abode  of  demons.  It  was  dipped  in  holy  water ;  and 
the  bulls — with  human  sacrifices  at  times  in  addition — were  offered, 
after  which  the  pieces  of  the  mistletoe  were  distributed  among  the 
worshipers,  who  therewith  consecrated  their  homes,  flocks,  and  fields 
(see  Aricia).  No  woman  caught  under  it  could  refuse  an  embrace; 
and  still,  if  not  so  kissed,  she  will  not  be  married  during  the  year. 
With  every  kiss  a  berry  should  be  plucked,  and  for  this  reason  none 
liked  to  be  the  last  to  pass  under  it.  Especially  at  Christmas  was  this 
rite  observed,  as  it  still  is  in  places.  In  later  times  men  were  sent  to 
gather  it 

"  For  to  the  woods  must  merry  men  go 
To  gather  in  the  mistletoe.*' 

If  they  failed  to  do  so  their  trousers  were  stolen,  and  hung  up  instead 
of  it. 


Mithra  545 

It  was  by  the  mistletoe  alone  that  the  sun  god  Baldur  conld  be 
slain  (see  Baldur). 

Mithra.  Mitra.  Mihin  The  god  of  <'  light "  among  Aryans, 
especially  in  Persia  The  name  comes  from  the  Aryan  root  Mah  or 
Mih  "  to  shine  "  (as  seen  in  the  Pahlavi  form  Mihir),  but  was  under^ 
stood  later  to  mean  "friend."  The  •*  two  Mithras"  ("shiners"  or 
'*  friends  '*)  were  the  sun  and  moon.  In  India,  Mitra  is  the  *"  friend  " 
of  Yarunft  (or  heaven),  but  the  root  is  seen  also  in  the  Latin  Tnicare 
"  to  sparkle"  (see  Mr  Qrierson,  Indian  Antiq.,  Jan.  1889).  In 
Persia,  Mithra  was  only  one  of  28  Izeds,  spirits,  or  angels,  surrounding 
the  throne  of  Ahura-Mazda  in  heaven.  He  rises  from  a  paradise  in 
the  Elast,  and  has  ten  thousand  eyes  and  ears ;  nothing  escapes  his 
notice ;  he  hates  darkness,  deceit,  and  lies ;  and  demons  flee  before 
bis  light;  he  knows  our  secret  thoughts,  and  watches  over  family 
life. 

[The  worship  of  Mithra,  however,  was  introduced  into  Rome  by 
the  soldiers  of  Pompey  about  60  B.C.,  from  Pontus  where — ^and  indeed 
all  over  Asia  Minor — Mithra  appears  to  have  been  the  supreme  god 
of  the  Persian  population.  A  bas-relief  of  Mithra  in  the  Phrygian 
cap,  accompanied  by  the  sacred  dog,  still  exists  at  Hamanli  on  the 
Hermus  river  in  Phrygia;  and  a  text  of  the  1st  century  B.C.,  at 
ApoUonia  a  little  further  S.,  gives,  in  Greek,  the  name  of  Mithradates 
(•*  Mithra-given ")  as  •*  archpriest  of  Asia "  (see  W.  J.  Hamilton, 
Researches  in  Asia  Minora  1842,  vol.  i,  text  No.  160  ;  vol.  ii,  p. 
140).  The  worship  of  Mithra  in  cave  chapels  included  certain  ordeals ; 
and  cakes  were  offered  to  him  with  the  sacred  Haoma  drink,  whence 
Tertallian  regards  the  rites  as  a  parody  of  the  Christian  Eucharist. 
The  tombs  of  Mithra  worshipers  occur  in  the  Roman  catacombs, 
mingled  with  those  of  Christians.  The  chief  design  on  Mithraic  bas- 
reliefs  represents  the  god  as  a  youth  with  a  Phrygian  cap,  stabbing  the 
bull  which  represents  the  original  Gayo-mard,  or  "  bull-mortal,"  who 
was  slain  that  the  world  might  be  fertilised  by  its  blood,  according  to 
Persian  mythology. — Ed.]  Mithra  as  the  sun  is  able  to  cross  rivers 
dry  shod,  and  Mitra  in  the  Indian  Puranas  is  one  of  the  12  Adityas 
or  "  boundless  ones."  Mithraic  worship  became  so  important  in  Rome 
that  it  seemed  for  a  time  destined  to  be  the  only  faith  of  the  empire. 
It  presented  mystery,  and  also  an  ethikal  system  (for  truth  ^vas  the 
great  characteristic  of  Mithra,  who  hates  all  liars),  and  it  had  its 
'*  baptism  of  blood  "  in  the  horrible  Tav/robolia,  when  the  penitent  in 
a  cave,  or  hole  beneath,  was  drenched  with  the  blood  of  the  slain  bull. 
An  altar  erected  in  the  3rd  Consulate  of  Trajan  in  honour  of  Mithra 
2  M> 


546  Mithra 

bore  the  title  "  Deo  Solis  invicto,"  or  ''  to  the  unoonquered  sun  god, ' 
whose  birthday  was  said  to  be  the  25th  of  December  (see  Christmag: : 
his  chariot  was  drawn  by  four  horses. 

Temples  to  Mithra  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire 
in  Europe.     The  old  church  of  St  Clement  in  Rome  is  built  over 
a  Mithrseum,  or  cave  chapel  of  Mithra.     He  had  a  grotto  in  Milan, 
and  a  temple  iu  Naples,  the  pillars  of  which  are  iiow  in  Santa  Maria 
a  Capella     Socrates,  the  historian  of  our  5th  centuiy,  says  that  in  bis 
time  the  Christians  of  Alexandria  found  many  human  skulls  in  an  old 
Mithraeum.     The  mysteries  were  supposed  to  be  terrible,  as  noticed 
by  Tertullian,  Jerome,  and  Augustine.     On  the  threshold  of  the  cave- 
tuunel  the  candidate  found  a  drawn  sword,  from  which — if  he  pressed 
on — he  received  more  than  one  wound.     He  had  then  to  pass  through 
flames,  and  to  endure  a  long  fast — some  said  of  50  days — ^being 
obliged  to  remain  far  away  from  human  habitations,  and  to  eat  only 
a  little  coarse  food.     He  was  beaten  with  rods  for  two  whole  days ; 
and,  for  twenty  days  in  conclusion  of  the  ordeal,  was  buried  to  the 
neck  in  snow.     When  he  had  triumphed,  a  golden  serpent  was  placed 
in  his  bosom,  as  a  symbol  of  regeneration*    These  accounts  are  however 
perhaps  not  very  reliable.      The  serpent,   the  dog,   and   the  crow, 
together  with  other  emblems,  constantly  accompany  his  figure.    The 
bull  is  represented  with  a  tail  ending  in  a  wheat  ear — being  the  earth 
bull — and  attacked  by  the  dog,  the  serpent,  and  the  scorpion,  who  aid 
Mithra  to  slay  it     Two  attendant  genii  bear  torches,  one  erect  the 
other  reversed — for  dawn  and  sunset,  or  spring  and  autumn.    He 
is  connected  with  the  tree  of  life  (see  Rivers  of  Life,  i,  p.  461), 
and  appears  on  the  white  marble  bas-relief  of  the  Villa  Albani  at 
Rome,  as  well  as  in  the  Torso  at  Aries  in  France ;  his  statue  was 
found  between  the  Yiminal  and  Quirinal  hills  in  the  16th  centarf* 
in  one  of  his  usual  circular  temples.    He  there  appears  as  a  lion-headed 
man,  with  a  serpent  twined  round  his  body ;  thus  standing  on  a  globe, 
he  presses  two  keys  to  his  breast,  and  lamps  were  hung  round  this 
figure  (Mr  Murray  Aynsley,  Indian  Antiq,,  March,  April,  1886). 
Sig.  Gatti  excavated  a  fine  Mithraeum  at  Ostia  (see  Athevceum,  6th 
Nov.  1886),  having  a  serpentine  avenue  of  approach:  this  passage 
led  from  the  refectory  of  a  Roman  villa  to  a  half  hidden  flight  of 
steps,  descending    to   a   square   chapel,  with  seats  along   its  walls, 
and  a  little  shrine  at  the  further  end.      Figures  on  the  wall  have 
respectively  a  lamp  and  upturned   face,  and  a  reversed  torch  and 
downcast  countenance — representing  spring  and  autumn  as  before. 
Stars  and  zodiakal  signs  also  occur  on  the  walls,  and  on  the  pavement 
of  black  tesserse  on  a  white  ground. 


Mitzraim  547 

Mithraic  tablets  are  to  be  found  in  the  British  Museum,  and 
in  those  of  the  Louvre,  Vatican,  and  at  Metz.  (See  Open  Cowrty 
Dec.  1903.)  The  Vatican  Mithra  (No.  1412)  shows  him  killing 
.the  bull,  with  aid  from  the  dog,  serpent,  and  scorpion*  The  London 
^roup  is  the  same,  with  two  torch-bearers  added.  The  Aquilsea  tablet 
gives  instead  figures  of  the  sun  and  moon  in  chariots,  with  the  central 
group  as  before,  the  bull's  tail  having  a  com  ear  at  the  end«  The 
Borghese  group  gives  four  horses  to  the  sun  chariot,  and  two  to  that  of 
the  moon.  In  another  case  a  crab  is  said  to  take  the  place  of  the 
scorpion,  and  a  fish  and  urn  appear  in  one  example.  At  Mayence 
Mithra  bears  a  bow.  The  fine  statue  at  Naples  came  from  the 
celebrated  cave  temple  of  Mithra  in  the  island  of  Capri.  Several 
of  the  symbols,  such  as  the  scorpion,  crab,  fish,  and  urn,  may  be 
2odiakal.  St  Augustine,  in  describing  the  mysteries,  says  that  the 
assistants  represented  eagles,  crows,  doves,  and  lions — according  to 
Sig.  A.  D.  Grimaldi. 

Mitzraim.  Misr^m.    See  Egypt 

Mlakukh.  Malakuka.  An  Etruskan  Venus,  consort  of 
Hercules.  [Perhaps  MuL-Akuka  "moon  lady,"  as  in  Akkadian. 
From  Mvl  and  Aku,  the  final  ka  being  the  case  ending. — ^Ed.] 

MlechaS.  Mlechchas.  Sanskrit :  "  outcasts,"  excommuni- 
cated persons,  or  heretics,  not  allowed  to  hear  the  Vedas  read,  a  term 
applying  generally  to  non-Aryans. 

Mnevis.  The  black  bull  of  Lower  Egypt,  which,  at  Heliopolis, 
bears  the  sun-disk  on  its  horns,  with  feathers,  and  uraei  or  snakes 
{see  Apis). 

Moab.  The  region  £.  of  the  Dead  Sea,  between  the  Amon  and 
the  "waters  of  Nimrim,"  from  which  however  the  Moabites  were 
expelled  by  the  Amorites  before  the  Hebrew  conquest.  According 
to  the  legend  of  Lot  and  his  daughters  (Gen.  xix,  37)  the  Moabites 
were  allied  to  the  Hebrews  by  race,  though  they  opposed  their  advance 
from  Edom.  Solomon  married  Moabite  women,  and  worshiped  their 
god  Eemosh.  Moab  rebelled  from  Israel  in  the  9th  century  aa, 
^ter  the  death  of  Ahab ;  and  the  Hebrew  prophets  denounced  Moab, 
whereas  in  the  Pentateuch  the  relationship  of  the  nation  to  the 
Hebrews  is  often  admitted.  The  famous  inscription  of  Mesha,  king 
of  Moab  (see  2  Kings  iii,  4)  was  discovered  by  the  Rev.  F.  Klein 
in  1868,  at  Dibon  (Dhiban)  on  the  Arnon  river.  Unfortunatel}^ 
the  monument  was  broken  up  by  the  Arabs  before  it  was  secured, 


us  Moab 

and  part  of  the  text — about  |th  in  all — was  lost.  The  reinaiDs 
are  now  in  the  Louvre,  the  stone  being  3  feet  1 0  inches  high,  2  feet 
wide,  and  1  foot  2  inches  thick.  There  are  34  lines  of  text,  in 
alphabetic  writing  from  right  to  left.  It  dates  from  about  890  aa 
and  is  the  oldest  dated  text  in  alphabetic  writing  in  the  worldL 
The  language  is  very  similar  to  Hebrew,  but  presents  some  Aramaik 
features  in  grammar  and  vocabulary  alike.  The  words  are  carefully 
divided  by  dots.  The  various  translators  are  in  general  accord,  except 
as  to  the  meaning  of  the  words  Dodah  and  Aralln  (see  Aral).  The 
latest  translation  is  that  of  Dr  Smend,  and  Dr  Socin,  in  1886.  King 
Mesha  calls  the  stone  a  baTnah  (see  Bamoth)  and  says  that  his  father 
Eemosh-melek  was  oppressed  by  **  Omri,  King  of  Israel,"  for  a  long 
time ;  and  ^  his  son,"  in  the  time  of  Mesha,  desired  to  oppress,  buv 
during  this  reign^-or  at  least  in  Mesha's  time — *' Israel  perished 
forever."  Omri  occupied  Medeba  (Mddeba  as  now  called),  and  his 
reign,  with  that  of  his  son  (called  Ahab  in  the  Bible),  lasted  40  years 
in  Moab.  Mesha  built  Baal-meon  (ATain),  and  JS^iriathain  {^urietein). 
The  king  of  Israel  built  'Ataroth  {'Atarua),  where  "  men  of  Gad " 
had  once  dwelt  (see  Num.  xxxii,  3),  but  Mesha  took  it,  and  "slew 
all  the  people  of  the  city  in  sight  of  Kemosh  and  Moab."  He  adds 
(line  12),  "I  brought  thence  the  Arel  of  Dodah,  and  dragged  it  (or 
him)  before  Eemosh  in  Eiriath,  and  I  settled  there  the  men  of  Sharon 
('  the  plain '),  and  the  men  of  Mokhrath.*'  He  next  took  Nebo  {Jfbel 
Nebd),  and  slew  7000  men,  boys,  women,  girls,  and  (other)  females: 
''  for  I  devoted  them  to  'Astar-Kemosh  ;  and  I  took  thence  the  Araltn 
of  Yahveh,  and  dragged  them  before  Eemosh."  Jahaz  (Yakhaz)  was 
next  conquered  by  200  chief  men  of  Moab,  and  subjected  to  Diboa 
Walls  were  built  at  Kirkhah  with  a  palace  and  reservoir,  and  wells 
ordered  to  be  dug  in  each  house  of  the  city.  The  fosse  of  this  place 
— an  uncertain  site — was  dug  "  by  prisoners  of  Israel "  :  [or  **  as  a 
check  to  Israel " — Ed.]  ;  and  Mesha  also  built  Aroer  {'Arair),  the 
road  over  Amon  {Wddy  Mojib),  Beth  Bamoth,  and  Bezer,  Beth 
Diblathain,  and  Beth  Ba'al  Me'on  {ifain).  The  broken  part  continues 
to  describe  a  victory  at  Horonain. 

The  geography  is  easily  understood,  representing  a  gradual  exten* 
sion  of  Mesha's  rule  northwards :  it  agrees  with  that  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  the  sites  for  the  most  part  still  retain  their  names. 
The  general  history  is  also  in  accord,  and  the  whole  would  read  like 
a  chapter  out  of  the  Bible  if  we  substituted  the  name  of  Yahveh  for 
that  of  Kemosh.  For  Mesha  on  two  occasions  says  (lines  14,  32) 
"  Eemosh  said  to  me  go,"  and  he  was  as  fully  persuaded  of  the  favour  of 
his  god  as  he  was  of  the  failure  of  Yahveh  to  help  Israel. 


Mohini  549 

Mohini.  A  female  form  assumed  by  Vishnu,  exciting  Siva  to 
the  creation  of  Hanuman  (see  Hanuman). 

Moirai.  The  Greek  fEites,  daughters  of  night  and  sunset  (Erebos), 
or  of  Zeus  and  Themis  according  to  Hesiod  (see  Erinues).  They  are 
named  Klotho,  Lakhesis,  and  Atropos,  presiding  over  birth,  life,  and 
death.  The  gods  are  subject  to  the  fates.  They  sit  in  hell,  or  star- 
crowned  in  heaven.  They  are  three  old  women  with  fillets  of  wool : 
the  first  with  a  distaff,  the  second  with  a  spindle,  the  third  with 
shears  to  cut  the  thread.  Homer  spoke  of  one  fate,  and  at  Delphi 
there  were  two — good  and  evil. 

Moksha.  Sanskrit.  Absorption  into  deity,  by  means  of 
penance. 

Moloch.     See  Malak. 

Monachism.  Monk.  From  the  Greek  monos  ''alone."  It 
originally  meant  a  hermit  living  alone.  The  ancient  Egyptians, 
Babylonians,  and  Hebrews,  had  no  monks :  they  were  neither  celibate 
nor  ascetik  in  their  ideas.  The  ascetik  first  seems  to  have  appeared 
in  India,  before  the  time  of  Gotama  Buddha;  and,  as  Dr  Isaac 
Taylor  (Ancient  Christianity)  has  said,  the  monastic  idea  was 
brought  to  the  west  by  Buddhists,  and  spread  by  them  (we  may 
add)  far  east  as  well,  in  China,  Mexico,  and  Peru  (see  Buddha, 
Essenes,  Mexico).  The  intention  of  Gotama  was  to  unite  the  various 
anchorites  and  hermits  of  India,  and  to  convert  them  into  an  order 
busy  in  practical  work  for  the  help  of  the  suffering.  Christian 
monachism,  founded  in  Egypt  on  the  asceticism  of  the  Therapeutai, 
and  in  Palestine  on  that  of  the  Essenes,  only  began  to  become  common 
in  the  3rd  century  A.c.  The  disciples  who  gathered  round  some 
famous  hermit — such  as  Antony  in  Egypt,  or  Hilarion  in  the  Beer- 
sheba  desert — ^gradually  instituted  a  system  of  communal  life  whence 
sprang  monasteries  and  nunneries.  Tertullian  however,  about  220  A.C., 
says :  "  We  are  not  Indian  Brahmans  or  gymnosophists,  dwellers  in 
woods  and  exiles  from  life  ...  we  sojourn  with  you  in  the  world  " 
{ApoL,  xlii).  The  first  Christians  had  "  all  things  in  common,"  but 
this  was  not  monachism,  nor  were  their  widows  nuns.  The  "  dweller^ 
alone "  appeared  in  Egypt  (see  Antony),  and  both  monks  and  nuns 
were  very  numerous  in  Palestine  after  326  A.c,  as  Jerome  records. 
Asceticism  was  a  common  feature  of  Gnostik  sects,  such  as  the 
Montanists  of  Phrygia  (see  Mandseans,  and  Manes).  After  the  Decian 
persecution  (250  A.c.)  the  movement  received  a  great  impetus,  and 
retreat  to  the  desert  was  due  (1)  to  persecution,  (2)  to  the  doctrine 


550  Monfras 

that  matter  is  impure  and  the  body  vile.     So  the  Indian  Yogis  also 
had  long  preached  ;  and  they,  claimed,  like  the  Christian  sects,  to  laj 
up  merit  by  their  austerities.     Paul,  a  native  of  the  Lower  Thebaid 
in   Egypt,  was  a   man   of  good  family  and   wealth,  who  retired  to 
a  cave  (290  to  340  A.C.);    and  his  example  was  followed   by  the 
more  celebrated   Antony :    these  were  true  ''  monachi,"  or   **  lonely 
ones."     The  second  stage  was  reached  when  ascetiks  gathered  round 
the  hermits*  caves,  and  formed  groups  of  cave  dwellers.     Pachomiiis 
was  bom  about  292,  and  joined  the  hermit  Palaemon,  about  320  A.C., 
in  his  cell  on  the  island  of  Tabennae  in  the  Nile.     He  instituted  the 
true  system  of  Coenobites  (Greek  Koinos  "common"  and  bios  "life"), 
who  were  called  monks,  as  dwelling  apart  from  the  world.    Cells  we.'e 
erected,  and  the  brethren  were  called  Syncelli  ("  celled  together "), 
having  a  Laura,  or  common  room  for  meals,  near  their  caves,  which  in 
time  grew  into  a  large  establishment  with  a  church.     At  the  Laura  of 
St  Saba,  S.E.  of  Jerusalem,  the  caves  still  line  the  precipice  within  the 
fortress  walls  of  the   Laura.     Bules  as  to  dress,  food,  and  worship 
naturally  developed — much  as  among  Buddhists.    Holy  women  sought 
the  anchorites,  and  lived  near  the  monks  for  protection.     Pachomius 
inducetl  his  sister  to  found  a  nunnery ;  and,  when  he  died  (348  or 
360  A.C.),  his  rules  were  accepted  by  7000  monks,  of  whom  1500 
lived  at   his  own  coenobium.     From  this  centre   monachism   proper 
spread  to  Palestine,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Armenia.     The  rule, 
slightly  altered  by  the  great  Basil,  was  adopted  in  Pontus  and  Kappa^ 
dokia  in  our  4th  century.     Athanasius  (in  340)  brought  such  a  rule 
to  Italy,  and  by  the  5th  century  there  were  100,000  celibates — three- 
quarters  of  them  being  men — in  Egypt     Jerome  (about  400  A.C.) 
speaks  of  50,000  monks.     Their  life  gradually* became  one  of  sloth 
and  ignorance,  as  the  first  zeal  died  out     The  Roman  orders  date 
mostly  from  the  Middle  Ages.     The  good  Francis  of  Assisi  (1182  to 
1226)  aimed  at  creating  a  new  order,  not  of  monks,  but  of  **  little 
brethren  of  the  poor,"  who  were  to  have  no  house  or  property,  to  live 
on  alms,  and  to  aid  the  wretched.     He  was  coldly  regarded  at  first 
by  the  Church,  and  when  the  movement  became  popular  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  others,  so  that  before  his  death  he  saw  with  sorrow  that 
these  Minorites,  or  Franciscans,  were  settling  down  to  life  in  a  monastery 
like  other  monka 

Monfras.  A  great  god  of  Kelts  and  Britons,  still  remembered 
in  Cornwall.  The  name  occurs  in  many  dedicatory  inscriptions,  on 
stones,  in  caves,  and  on  the  wall  of  Hadrian. 

Mongols.     A  Turanian  people  N.  of  China  and  Tibet,  and  £  of 


Mongols  531 

the  Turks  of  Central  Asia.  The  name  Mon-gul  signifies  "  heayeoly 
race  " ;  and,  according  to  their  legends,  their  ancestor  was  bom  of  a 
tree^  or  a  virgin  transformed  into  a  tree,  at  their  capital  of  Karakorum, 
the  father  being  a  god — as  in  the  l^end  of  Adonis  born  of  the  tree 
virgin  Myrrha.  The  Chinese  called  them  Mun-ku  or  '*  bmves/'  and 
ia  Persian  the  word  became  Mughal.  They  were  also  called  **  sons  of 
the  blue  wolf"  (the  northern  heaven),  and  are  noticed  as  early  as  the 
T'ang  dynasty  (618  to  690  A.C.),  but  did  not  become  a  dominant  race 
till  the  end  of  the  12th  century,  under  Tesukai,  who  claimed  to  be 
the  8th  in  descent  from  Budant-Sar,  the  first  great  leader  of  Mongols 
in  our  8th  century.  Yesukai  had  a  son  called  Timurji  ('*  the  hardy  "X 
afterwards  known  as  Tchengiz-Khau^  "  the  strong  king."  He  was  bom 
in  1154  (see  Yamb6ry,  Hist,  of  Bokhara,  p.  119),  and  first  became 
famous  in  1202  by  the  defeat  of  Ung-Khan,  who  was  the  chief  of  the 
Kara-Ehitai  Turks  (see  Kheta)  W.  of  the  Mongols.  He  was  the 
historical  "  Prester  Jpbu  *'  of  the  West,  and  appears  to  have  been  a 
Nestorian  Christiiti.  Even  down  to  1272  the  Europeans  believed  the 
Mongols  to  be  Christians  generally,  but  Tchengiz-Khan  and  his  successors 
were  sk^ptikal  philosophers,  who  tolerated  both  Buddhism  and  Islam, 
as  well  as  Nestorian  Christianity,  and  the  Shaman  superstitions  of 
Mongols.  Tchengiz  married  his  sou  to  the  daughter  of  Ung-Ehan,  who 
had  claimed  to  be  a  Gur-Ehan  ("  world  king  "),  or  suzerain  of  Central 
Asia.  From  these  Ehitai  the  Mongols  learned  civilisation,  and  adopted 
the  alphabet  of  the  Uigur  Turks,  which  had  been  taught  to  the  Ehitai 
by  Nestoriana  They  wrote  in  vertical  lines — a  custom  common  in 
the  Syriak  inscriptions — and  the  Nestorian  alphabet  was  of  Syriak 
origin. 

The  conquests  of  Tchengiz-Ehan  extended  eastwards  over  Honan 
and  China,  to  Shan-tung.  In  121 4f  only  Pekin  remained  to  the  Ein 
Emperor,  and  the  dynasty  terminated  in  1223.  On  the  west  this 
same  great  leader  reconciled  the  E.  Uigurs,  and  defeated  the  W.  Uigurs 
and  other  Turkish  tribes.  His  power  spread  over  Eashgar,  Ehoten, 
and  Eharezm.  He  took  Bokhara  in  1220,  when  he  called  himself 
the  "  scourge  of  God,"  and  tore  up  all  the  i^orans.  Samarkand, 
Balkh,  and  Merv  fell  before  him,  and  a  bloody  massacre  revenged  the 
revolt  of  Herat  In  1222  the  Mongols  invaded  Georgia,  and  raided 
S.  Russia.  Tchengiz-Ehan  died  in  1226,  while  attacking  Tanghut 
rebels,  being  over  70  years  of  age.  The  empire,  thus  embracing 
Central  and  KE.  Asia,  was  maintained  and  enlarged  for  three-quarters 
of  a  century,  and  revived  again  in  our  14th  century  by  Timur. 
Tchengiz-Ehan  had  four  sons,  of  whom  Oktai  succeeded  him,  though 
only  second  by  birth  (1227  to  1241).     Under  his  rule  the  western 


552  Mongols 

MoDgol  armies  reached  Moscow  in  1238,  Festh  and  Poland  in  1241. 
Euyuk,  son  of  Oktai,  followed  (1241  to  1250),  and  was  succeeded  by 
Mangu  Khan,  nephew   of  Oktai  (1251    to   1259)l      His    coart  is 
described  by  the  Franciscan  friar  Rubruquis.  whom  St  iMuis  4st  Frwace 
sent  from  Palestine  in  1250,  as  far  as  Karakorum  in  Moogolia,tD  £nd 
out  if  the  Khan  was  a  Christian.     The  empire  rose  to  its  greatest 
prosperity  and  civilisation  under  Kublai,  son  of  Mangu  (1259  to  1294), 
and  the  state  of  Central  Asia  and  China  was  then  described  to  Europe 
by   Marco  Polo.      But   gradually  the  western    "golden    horde,"   in 
Russia,  settled  down  and  became  estranged  from  the  "silver  horde" 
in  Asia — ^these  terms  denoting  the  colour  of  the  ordu  or  "  camp  "  :  for 
Mongol    pavilions  were    magnilScent.     Under   Euyuk  in   1245   the 
Panjab,  Delhi,  and  N.  Siiid  were  ravaged.     In  1263  Eublai  devastated 
rebellious  Baghdad,  and  it  is  said  that  the  Mongols  under  Hulagu  then 
massacred  800,000  Moslems.     The  Popes  continued,  down  to  1282, 
to  hope  that  Hulagu  and  Abagha  would  aid  the  Christians  in  Palestine, 
but  the  latter  was  driven  out  of  N.  Syria  by  Egyptian  Moslems,  in 
1281,  and  Acre  fell  to  Egypt  twenty  years  later.    Euluk,  the  successor 
of  Eublai  (1294  to  1311),  tolerated  all  religions  in  his  empire  and 
befriended  John  of  Monte  C!orvino  as  archbishop  of  Pekin,  though  the 
latter  showed  no  such  tolerance  of  Nestorians.     Buyantu,  nephew  of 
Euluk,  was  a  patron  of  Chinese  literature  (1311  to  1320),  and  rescued 
from  destruction  the  ancient  "stone  drums"  with  texts  of  the  Eau 
dynasty  (1122  to  256  B.C.),  placing  them  in  the  temple  of  Confucius 
at  Pekin,  where  they  still  are.     Buyantu  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Gegen  (1320  to  1323),  who  was  the  first  Mongol  emperor  to  die  bj 
assassination,  for  the  family  had  ruled  with  strict  justice  and  con- 
sideration for  their  subjects,  though  savage  in  the  treatment  of  enemies. 
Yissun  Timur  was  a  good  emperor  in  China,  but  retired  to  a  monastery 
when  Timur  the  Tartar  usurped  power. 

Timur  himself  was  not  a  Mongol  but  a  Turk.  He  was 
employed  under  the  Mongol  emperor,  and  was  called  in  Persia 
Timur-lenk  (Tamerlane,  or  "  Timur  the  lame  ")  having  been  lamed 
by  a  wound  in  the  foot  He  was  bom  in  1333,  and  at  18  was  dis- 
tinguished as  a  student  of  the  Eoran,  and  a  pious  Moslem.  He 
was  made  prince  of  Eesh  by  the  Mongol  ruler  of  W.  Turkestan, 
and  fought  his  way  to  independence  by  1359,  fixing  his  capital  at 
Samarkand.  He  was  an  emperor  from  1363tol405  A.C.,  and  is  chiefly 
remembered  in  Europe  for  the  massacre  of  Christians  and  Moslems  in 
Georgia,  Armenia,  and  Asia  Minor.  But  his  court  at  Samarkand 
was  a  centre  of  Moslem  civilisation,  literature,  and  art,  and  he  traded 
not  only  with  the  Italian  republics  but  also  with  Hanseatic  towns, 


Mongols  553 

through  Moscow.  Under  him  the  "  white  horde  "  regained  its  power 
in  Asia.  In  1386  he  ruled  Afghanistan  to  Herat,  and  io  1392  he 
began  a  five  years'  war  in  the  West.  His  troops  swam  the  Tigris,  and 
Baghdad  fell,  the  last  Ehalif  being  put  to  death.  The  Mongol  tide 
swept  over  Armenia  and  Georgia,  and  Moscow  was  sacked.  He 
turned  his  arms  to  the  East,  and  came  home  victorious  from  Delhi  in 
1399.  In  1402  he  defeated  the  Turkish  Osmanli  Sultan  at  Angora, 
and  returned  to  Samarkand  which  he  then  entered  in  triumph  for  the 
9th  time.  In  January  1405  he  set  out  for  China,  but  died  on  the 
l7th  February  at  the  age  of  72,  after  a  life  of  triumph,  having 
caught  a  chill  in  crossing  the  lazartes  river.  His  dynasty  lasted  till 
1500  A.C. 

The  Mongol  language — remarkable  for  its  long  compound  words 
• — is  akin  to  that  of  the  Turkish  Tartars,  and  also  to  the  Chinese, 
but  distinct  from  both.  Their  religion  was  Animism,  or  belief  in 
many  spirits,  the  supreme  gods  being  the  ancient  pair  heaven  and 
earth.  The  word  for  heaven  (Tengri)  is  the  same  as  in  Turkish 
— the  Akkadian  Dingir.  Under  this  god  were  many  others,  and 
Mongols  said  that  the  sun  was  fed  with  light  by  the  moon,  and  should 
be  adored  as  fire.  Every  gift  was  purified  by  being  passed  over  the 
fire.  The  camp  gods  (Natagai)  had  images  of  felt  (see  Natagai),  with 
libations  of  Kumis  or  fermented  "  mare's  milk,"  the  ancient  drink  of 
Central  Asia.  Rubruquis  says  that  "  close  to  the  women's  quarters 
was  an  image  with  a  cow's  teat,  and  adjoining  the  men's  quarters  a 
mare's  teat  ...  all  of  which  are  continually  sprinkled  on  bended 
knees."  The  luxury  of  the  camps  was  then  as  remarkable  as  the 
organisation  of  the  empire  with  its  systems  of  post  and  reports. 
Europeans  dwelt  at  Earakorum ;  and  Chinese,  Moslems,  and  Nes- 
torians  held  public  disputations  as  to  religion,  and  afterwards  "  drank 
and  sang  together."  The  Shamans  invoked  the  Fire  by  sprinkling  the 
libation  thrice  towards  the  south,  the  Air  towards  the  east,  the  Water 
towards  the  north.  They  set  up  a  tabernacle  for  their  images 
(carried  in  arks  or  carts)  at  each  camp,  and  tents  were  then  pitched 
round  it — as  by  the  Hebrews.  Gradually  Buddhism  has  replaced — 
or  mingled  with — the  rites  of  their  Shamans,  and  the  Buriats  E.  of 
Lake  Baikal,  who  represent  one  of  the  purest  Mongol  stocks, 
speaking  the  oldest  Mongol  dialect,  now  claim  to  be  Buddhists. 
They  have  many  curious  customs,  purifying  by  fire  any  place  where 
a  woman  has  sat.  None  may  look  at  the  holy  fire  when  seated. 
Each  man  must  pass  west  of  it,  having  it  on  his  right  They  use 
3mall  images  (Ougous)  of  brick  or  of  wood  in  every  hut,  decking 
them  in  felt  or  cloth  :  these  images  are  only  about  6  inches  high,  and  are 


554  Monism 

set  on  a  little  oval  mound  with  a  fence  of  birch  wood.  The  Bantu 
and  Tungusea  have  practically  the  same  faith  and  customs,  and 
speak  of  a  supreme  god  Tengri,  Bur^kan,  or  Oktorgan,  as  the 
creator.  They  believe  that  the  soul  takes  various  forms  after 
death,  especially  those  of  bears,  birds,  and  bees,  none  of  which 
will  they  willingly  injure  (see  MetempsychosisX  Various  Mongol 
tribes  have  various  sacred  animals  (or  totems  as  they  are  usually, 
but  incorrectly,  called) ;  all  believe  in  a  future  life  very  much 
like  that  of  the  present,  but  better.  They  tell  weird  stories  of  the 
painful  wanderings  of  the  lone  soul ;  and  place  cups  and  food  in,  or 
on  the  grave,  wishing  the  soul  a  safe  journey  and  a  happy  marriage 
in  the  next  world,  and  (like  the  Akkadians)  begging  it  not  to  return, 
or  show  enmity  to  the  living.  They  carefully  efface  all  marks  on  a 
road  by  which  a  corpse  passes,  that  the  ghost  may  not  be  able  to 
trace  its  way  back.  They  have  tree  and  stone  emblems  to  which 
sacrifices  are  offered.  The  Shamans  who  preside  are  a  sordid  and 
ignorant  caste  of  wizards,  who  often  excite  themselves  to  fall  into 
ecstasies  (see  Samans). 

The  Mongols  became  acquainted  with  the  Arabic  characters  from 
Moslems,  and  with  the  N.  Indian  alphabet  from  Buddhists,  but  the 
old  texts  found  on  the  Yenisei  river  in  Siberia  (see  Anjuvmn-u 
Panjab,  10th  July  1885)  which  were  rather  wildly  described  as 
''Hittite,"  are  in  the  Uigur  alphabet,  of  Nestorian  origin.  Prof. 
Vozdn^eff  (Rl.  Oeogr.  Socy.  of  St  Peter Aurg,  1896)  says  that 
Buddhism  was  established  in  N.W.  Mongolia  (Ehalkha)  in  16S5. 
They  then  established  a  Dalai  Lama  (see  Lamas),  or  reincarnate 
infant  deity,  at  Urga  on  the  highlands  S.  of  Lake  Baikal  He  is  said 
to  have  been  reincarnate  {Khubil^an)  15  times  since  the  time  of 
Sakya  Muni,  whom  they  place  about  700  B.C.  The  professor  found 
at  Urga  monasteries  containing  13,850  lamas,  and  a  colossal  image  of 
Maidari  (see  Maitri),  51  feet  high.  The  election  of  this  infant 
(called  Ehutukhta)  costs  £50,000,  and  is  ratified  by  the  Chine:$e 
emperor  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the  Dalai  Lama  of  Tibet 

Monism.  See  Materialism.  The  term  is  now  applied  to  the 
belief  in  the  unity  of  matter  and  force.  It  is  wrongly  compared  with 
Pantheism,  since  it  is  a  scientific  and  not  a  religious  term,  mind  being 
regarded  as  a  property  and  motion  of  matter.  We  no  longer  speak 
like  Descartes  of  a  "  concursus  divinus  "  when  the  body  acts  on  the 
mind,  and  the  mind  on  the  body ;  and  the  enquiry  is  only  complicated 
by  introducing  the  idea  of  the  external  action  of  some  personal  deity. 
Spinoza,  like  earlier  philosophers,  identified  God  with  nature  (as  Paul 


Monotheism  555 

spoke  of  a  Qod  in  all),  but  this  practically  explains  nothing.  His 
Pantheism  was  called  Atheism,  and  men  adhered  to  the  old  view  of 
conscience  as  a  divine  voice  in  man  (see  Atheism  and  Conscience). 
But  we  still  know  nothing  of  the  cause,  though  we  may  study  the 
means.  Kant  is  equally  obscure,  and  Fichte  seems  to  make  the  Ego 
the  creator.  Prof.  Haeckel  identifies  Monism  with  Realism,  or  the 
belief  that  all  things  follow  a  consistent  law  and  purpose.  We  may 
define  it  with  S^ant  as  "  the  principle  of  mechanism  without  which 
there  can  be  no  natural  science  at  all."  "  The  law-abiding  operation 
in  nature,"  says  Prof.  Huxley,  "  is  more  astoundingly  miraculous  than 
anything  recounted  in  the  mythologies  "  (see  Agnostiks). 

Monotheism.  Greek :  the  belief  in  "  one  God  only,"  as  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  one  god  among  many  (see  Henotheism). 
Neither  the  Egyptians,  the  Babylonians,  nor  the  early  Hebrews,  were 
Monotheists.  The  Hebrew  prophets  however  so  taught  when  they 
attributed  all  that  happened,  whether  good  or  bad,  to  one  god.  The 
Christian  creed  with  its  Trinity  and  Satan  is  not  more  Monotheistic 
than  that  of  Persia  or  of  the  Gnostiks.  The  Monotheism  of  Mu- 
liammad  was  purer ;  but  no  system  that  speaks  of  an  evil  power — 
even  if  inferior  to  the  good  power — is  really  Monotheism.  The 
ordinary  Hebrew  (like  the  Moabite)  regarded  his  deity  as  the  greatest 
of  gods,  but  as  peculiar  to  Israel  (see  Exod.  xxii,  20).  "  For  what 
great  nation  hath  a  God  so  nigh  unto  them  as  Yahveh  our  God  " 
(Deut.  iv,  7).     See  Theism. 

MonS.  MongS.  MunS.  Mughs.  See  Muns.  Warlike 
Mongoloid  tribes  entering  India  from  the  Brahmaputra,  and  Assam,  and 
into  Barmah  down  the  Iravadi,  and  down  the  Mekong  into  Kambodia. 
They  are  often  confused  with  Dravidian  Telains,  who  came  from  the 
N.W.  into  India.  Their  dialects  (see  Mr  Mason,  Bumiah,  p.  130) 
are  akin  to  those  of  the  Kols. 

Month.  The  month  was  naturally  first  connected  with  the  course 
of  the  moon,  and  in  all  languages  the  two  words  are  connected.  The 
year  began  at  the  vernal  equinox  (see  Zodiak),  or  at  the  first  new 
moon  of  that  season.  As  the  lunar  year  lost  about  11^  days  (roughly) 
each  solar  year,  early  astronomers  like  the  Akkadians  and  Egyptians 
made  up  the  difference  either  by  adding  a  13th  month  from  time  to 
time  to  the  year,  when  the  festivals  began  to  occur  too  early  (Akkadian 
and  Babylonian  system),  or  by  fixing  the  month  at  30  days,  and  adding 
5  at  the  end  of  the  year  (as  in  Egypt),  which  was  a  rougher  system 
found  in  time  to  fall  short  by  about  1  day  in  4  years.     The  names  of 


556  Moon 

Akkadian  months  show  that  they  were  connected  with  the  seasons; 
but  the  Egyptian  year  was  vague.  Muhammad  found  the  Babylonian 
calendar  with  its  interpolated  month  in  use  in  Arabia,  and  the  fast  of 
the  month  Samadan  then  occurred  in  winter.  He  was  ignorsmt  of 
astronomy,  and  ordered  the  Moslem  calendar  to  consist  simply  of 
1 2  lunar  months.  This  has  caused  much  misery,  since  the  fast  now 
loses  a  month  in  less  than  3  years,  and  goes  round  the  seasons  in 
about  33  years.  When  it  occurs  in  the  hot  weather  of  September  it 
is  especially  trying,  as  not  only  may  no  food  be  eaten  but  no  water 
may  be  drunk,  by  Moslems,  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  Some  Arabs 
however  retained  the  year  as  settled  by  Eitab,  son  of  Mura  (of  the 
JS^oreish  tribe)  in  390  A.C.,  when  the  intercalary  month  was  arranged 
so  as  to  bring  the  month  of  pilgrimage  (Dhu  el  Hijja)  to  a  convenient 
season  for  the  trading  caravans  (see  Makka). 

Moon.  The  moon  bears  names  signifying  either  to  **  shine,"  or 
"  to  measure  "  the  month  (see  Man).  It  was  regarded  as  self-luminous 
like  the  sun,  and  not  merely  as  a  barren  cinder  once  thrown  off  from 
earch,  having  neither  air  nor  water  nor  any  life  on  its  surface,  and  only 
reflecting  sunlight  Yet  in  some  early  myths  the  moon  is  said  to 
receive  light,  and  ornaments,  from  the  sun.  The  two  are  a  pair,  either 
brother  and  sister,  or  husband  and  wife.  When  the  sun  was  regarded 
as  female  (as  in  Japan,  or  among  Arabs  and  Teutons)  the  moon  was 
male,  but  generally  we  find  in  the  oldest  mythologies  two  moon  deities, 
one  male  and  one  female  (Akkadian  Aku,  and  Aa ;  Babylonian  Sin% 
and  Istaru ;  Egyptian  Thoth  and  Isis ;  Latin  Lunus  and  Luno). 
The  moon  is  also  a  cup  full  of  water  of  life  (the  dew),  and  thus  is 
Soma  in  India.  She  was  also  a  capricious  godess  who  struck  with 
madness  those  who  slept  exposed  to  her  beams.  She  underwent  great 
dangers,  being  pursued  by  the  great  dragon  which  threatens  to  swallow 
her  at  times  of  eclipse.  Pythagoras  said  that  she  was  the  abode  of 
departed  spirits,  and  Porphyry  says  that  some  "believed  that  only 
through  her  as  a  gate  could  dead  souls  visit  us."  For  such  spectres 
were  easily  conjured  up  in  uncertain  moonlight  Her  offerings  in- 
cluded cakes  in  the  form  of  a  disk  (see  Buns,  or  Kavanlm),  The 
Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Hindus,  saw  a  hare  or  a  rabbit  in  the  moon. 
Europeans  saw  a  human  face,  or  a  man  with  a  thorn  bush  and  a  dog. 
He  was  said  to  be  Cain.  The  male  moon  is  also  Suka  the  parrot,  a 
son  of  Krishna.  Chandra  the  moon  rides  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  10 
milk  white  steeds.  The  moon  is  also  a  huntress  with  a  silver  bow 
(the  crescent),  aa  Istar  among  Akkadians,  or  Artemis  among  Greeks, 
attended  by  the  stars  as  handmaids.     She  is  the  "night  walker" 


Moon  557 

and  80  the  cat  (see  Bas,  and  Cat).  The  question  of  sex  was  of  no 
importance  to  the  myth  makers.  Men  used  to  sacrifice  to  Luna,  and 
women  to  Lunus,  the  two  sexes  interchanging  their  garments. 

In  the  Mishnah  are  described  the  customary  arrangements  for 
fixing  the  first  day  of  the  new  moon  by  actual  observation  at 
Jerusalem,  and  it  is  pretended  that  a  line  of  bonfires  carried  the  news 
as  far  as  Babylon,  to  the  Jews  of  that  city.  The  prayer  oifered  at  the 
new  moon  seems  to  have  been  only  a  modification  of  moon  worship. 
(See  Rev.  T.  Hurley,  Moon  Lore^  p.  211  ;  and  Col.  Conder,  Qu/xrt, 
Stat  Pal.  Expl.  Fund,  July  1882).  **When  about  to  sanctify  the 
new  moon,  one  should  stand  with  one  foot  on  the  other  [an  attitude 
also  of  Dervishes — Ed.]  ;  then  give  one  glance  at  the  moon  and  begin 
the  ritual  blessing,  not  again  looking  at  her,  '  In  the  name  of  the  Holy 
and  Blessed  One,  and  of  his  Shekinah  (presence),  through  the 
hidden  and  consecrated  one  (the  Messiah),  and  in  the  name  of  all 
Israel.'  Then  the  form  of  prayer  for  the  new  moon  is  to  be  word  by 
word  slowly  and  solemnly  uttered,  and  when  he  repeats  '  Blessed  be 
thy  former,  blessed  thy  maker,  blessed  thy  possessor,  blessed  thy 
creator '  then  must  he  meditate  on  the  four  divine  epithets  that  form 
yJa-k'b :  for  the  moon — the  lesser  light — is  his  symbol,  and  Amos 
(vii,  2)  calls  him  '  little.'  The  devotee  must  repeat  this  three  times, 
then  skip  three  times  forwards  and  backwards,  saying  with  forward  skips, 
'  Fear  and  dread  shall  fall  upon  them  by  the  greatness  of  Thine  arm  : 
they  shall  be  still  as  a  stone ' ;  and  with  the  backward  skips  '  still  as  a 
stone  may  they  be,  by  the  greatness  of  Thine  arm  may  fear  and  dread 
fall  on  them/  Then  he  must  say  to  his  neighbour  three  times 
'  Peace  be  unto  you ' ;  and  the  neighbour  responds  three  times  *  Unto 
you  be  peace ' :  after  which  he  must  call  aloud  three  times  *  David 
King  of  Israel  liveth  and  existeth ' ;  and  finally  say  three  times  *  May 
a  good  omen  and  good  luck  be  on  us  and  on  all  Israel.  Amen/" 
This  superstitious  rite  belongs  to  the  mediseval  l^bbala. 

The  new  moon  was  evidently  an  important  festival  among 
Hebrews  in  the  8th  century  B.C.  Women  wore  "  round  tires  like  the 
moon"  (Isaiah  iii,  18),  such  as  are  found  on  statues  of  'Ashtoreth  in 
Palestine  and  Phoenicia.  Hebrews  feared  moonstroke  (Psalm  cxxi,  6), 
and  the  "lunatic  "-(Matt,  iv,  24)  was  so  affected;  but  Paul  attaches 
no  importance  to  observing  the  new  moon  (Coloss.  ii,  16).  The 
Greeks  thought  that  no  child  born  when  the  moon  was  "  sickle-shaped  " 
could  grow  up  strong,  and  a  common  superstition  bids  us  not  to  see 
the  new  crescent  through  glass,  or  reflected  in  water,  and  to  turn  our 
money  as  soon  as  it  is  seen.  The  Chinese  present  the  Yue-Ping  (''  moon 
cake  ")  at  the  feast  of  the  8th  month,  when  the  emperor  visits  certain 


S58  Morality 

temples  (Bev.  B.  Morrison,  ChinoLy  p.  107).  These  cakes  are 
stamped  with  figares  of  a  horse  and  rider,  a  cone,  a  fish,  a  flower,  a 
woman,  or  a  tree,  or  of  the  lunar  hare  couched  by  trees.  Young 
persons  then  play  the  game  of  ''pursuing  and  congratulating/'  in 
honour  of  the  Mother  of  Mercy  (Dr  Medhurst's  ChvMi,  p.  217). 
Missionaries  naturally  compared  our  ''hot  cross  buns"  with  these 
moon  cakes.  Throughout  Africa  also  the  moon  is  worshiped,  and  at 
the  new  moon  the  idols  are  taken  down  and  sprinkled  with  red 
powder  (see  Holi). 

In  Mexico,  Meztli  ("  the  moon  ")  had  her  pyramid  shrines  like 
the  sun,  but  in  the  city  of  Teotihuacan  ("  god  stone ")  the  shrine  of 
Meztli  is  rather  smaller  than  that  of  the  sun.  The  Abipones  honoured 
her  with  silver  altars,  Peruvian  women  carried  her  stone  image 
(huaco)  out  of  the  sun  temple.  She  was  Pacha-kamak,  and  i-egarded 
as  the  sister  and  wife  of  the  sun,  who  was  inferior  to  her.  In  Xorth 
America  she  is  connected  with  cold,  sleep,  water,  and  death,  but  in  hot 
countries  she  is  the  giver  of  milk,  ambrosia,  or  dew,  and  is  gau  "  the 
cow."  Indu  is  the  moon,  and  the  frog  her  emblem  (see  Frog).  The 
Japanese  say  that  "  she  rules  the  new-bom  earth,  the  blue  sea,  and  all 
salt  waters  " — in  allusion  to  the  tides.  The  nursery  story  of  Jack  and 
Jill  comes  from  the  old  Norse  myth  of  Eotar  the  man  in  the  moon, 
who  makes  her  grow  (from  crescent  to  full  moon)  by  pouring  out 
water.  Anaxagoras  was  charged  with  Atheism  by  the  Athenians, 
because  he  tried  to  ezplsdn  the  lunar  phases  as  due  to  natural  causes. 
Irenseus  thought  that  only  God  could  understand  them.  A  Greek 
army  refused  to  move  against  Syracuse  because  of  an  eclipse,  and  on 
such  occasions  the  Bomans,  like  the  Chinese,  beat  brazen  vessels 
together,  and  waved  torches.  In  the  Hebrides  the  "  moon-stone  " — a 
rock  E.  of  Harris — waxes  and  wanes  with  the  moon  (Martin,  We^iem 
Islands,  p.  41).  Qardeners  still  observe  the  moon  when  sowing  or 
planting,  and  astrologers  said  that  she  ruled  the  brain. 

Morality.  Hthiks.  From  the  Latin  mores,  " manners''  or 
"  ways,"  and  the  Greek  ethos  "  character  "  or  "  conduct " ;  both  mean- 
ing our  conduct  to  our  fellow  mortals.  Morals  have  no  immediate  con- 
nection with  any  particular  religious  belief,  though  fear  of  the  gods 
was  early  inculcated  to  restrain  the  violent,  selfish,  and  treacherous. 
There  is  no  absolute  standard  of  morals,  since  they  depend  on  the 
conditions  of  society,  improving  as  ignorance  is  enlightened.  The 
ethikal  system  of  the  Egyptian  idolaters  was  a  high  one  (see  £g7pt)i 
but  we  do  not  now  approve  of  the  deceptions  practised  by  Hebrew 
patriarchs;  for  perfect  reliance  can  only  be  placed  in  the  perfectly 


Morality  669 

truthful.  The  ethiks  of  Plato's  republic  are  those  of  a  semi-barbarous 
race,  including  class  communism,  and  the  deliberate  deception  of  the 
ignorant  for  political  purposes.  The  ethiks  of  Aristotle  are  based  on 
the  sternest  sense  of  justice,  and  of  personal  responsibility :  those  of 
Buddha,  Confucius,  and  Christ,  on  love  of  our  fellows,  representing  a 
standard  not  yet  attained  by  the  majority  of  mankind  :  for  the  news- 
paper writer  who  deceives,  the  speculator  who  swindles,  and  the  poli- 
tician who  deludes,  are  as  harmful  to  the  general  welfare  as  is  a  lying 
priest,  or  a  treacherous  libertine.  The  highest  morality  seeks  to  do 
good  for  the  sake  of  promoting  the  happiness  of  mankind,  and  not  for 
the  sake  of  personal  reward  here  or  hereafter :.  yet  there  is  no  gi*eater 
comfort  than  to  feel  that  we  have  played  our  part  well,  and  have  done 
our  **  duty "  (or  that  which  we  owe  to  others)  throughout  our  lives. 
Theology  is  based  on  speculation  alone,  but  morality — that  is  good 
thoughts,  words,  and  deeds — rests  on  the  firm  foundation  of  reason 
and  experience,  being  concerned  only  with  social  life.  Qotama  Buddha 
exhorted  men  to  strive  to  attain  that  righteous  attitude  in  which  love, 
justice,  and  sympathy,  become  so  much  a  part  of  our  nature  that  it 
pains  us  to  think,  say,  or  do,  what  is  cruel,  and  wrong,  to  others ;  a 
state  in  which  we  no  longer  need  rules  and  laws,  as  when  one  who 
knows  a  language  speaks  correctly  without  considering  syntax  and 
inflections.  True  love  does  not  say  "  I  ought  to  love,"  nor  does  true 
compassion  stop  to  study  some  law  of  pity.  The  pure  in  heart  are 
pure  in  deed,  as  far  as  their  knowledge  allows.  Hating  sin  they  yet 
pity  the  sinner,  as  one  who  has  never  understood  the  real  reasons  why 
certain  actions  are  condemned  by  human  experience  of  results.  The 
moralist  desires,  by  brave  example  as  well  as  by  true  speech,  to  influ- 
ence others  even  when  he  cannot  make  them  fully  understand  why 
we  must  be  reliable  in  word  and  deed.  He  feels  a  share  of  responsi- 
bility for  the  wrong  doing  of  the  society  that  surrounds  him,  and 
cannot  isolate  himself  therefrom.  He  must  live  in  and  not  out  of  the 
world,  yet  he  must  recognise  that,  like  others,  his  moral  code  may  not 
be  absolute ;  for  ethikal  writers  agree  that  normal  judgments  depend 
on  experience,  and  that  though  we  need  no  special  faculty  to  guide  us 
in  conduct  to  others,  yet  human  experience  is  ever  growing  wider  and 
deeper.  Pleasure  is  not  the  aim  of  morals,  in  the  opinion  of  any  sensible 
person  ;  but  general  happiness  is  an  aim  ;  and  the  formation  of  char- 
acter is  the  goal.  New  light  may  enable  us  to  follow  reality  better, 
but  absolute  morality  could  only  belong  to  absolutely  perfect  character. 
Early  races  believed,  like  the  Hebrews,  that  the  reward  of 
virtue  was  prosperity  in  this  life,  and  they  were  greatly  puzzled  when 
experience  taught  them  that  this  was  not  so  (see  Job).     Such  a  view 


660  Morality 

however  strikes  at  the  root  of  real  morality,  which  teaches  that  if  all 
men  did  what  they  ought  they  would  be  happy,  and  that  some,  who 
understand  better  what  should  be  done  than  others  do,  must  b^in  to 
set  the  example.  Conduct  must  differ  in  different  stages  of  tbe 
general  advance,  but  the  simple  rule  is  to  consider  whether  general 
benefit  is  the  aim  of  anything  said  or  done — ^that  is  (as  Herbert 
Spencer  says)  whether  our  conduct  tends  to  the  infliction  of  pain. 
Religious  teachers  are  strongly  opposed  to  the  severance  of  morality 
from  belief :  they  do  not  reflect  that  beliefs  are  only  of  value  when 
they  influence  conduct.  If  they  are  outgrown  they  must  hinder 
rather  than  aid  morality.  Kant  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  birth 
of  virtue  can  only  take  place  on  the  death  of  dogma. 

Moral  and  immoral  persons  are  found  among  the  believers  in 
every  creed,  so  that  it  is  clear  that  religious  belief  does  not  of  necessity 
lead  to  morality.  Superstitious  terrors  are  felt  by  pirates  and 
brigands ;  priests  and  monks  who  **  pray  without  ceasing  "  have  often 
been  immoral  Prof.  Bucbner  says :  "  The  most  religious  times  and 
countries  have  produced  the  worst  and  greatest  amount  of  crime  and 
sin  " ;  but  by  religion  he  means  superstition  and  dogma.  Some  of  the 
best  and  most  moral  of  men  have  had  no  religious  beliefs,  and  the 
masses  on  the  other  hand  reject  morality  unless  they  fear  the  gods. 
Pro£  Huxley  (in  July  1894)  said  that  the  science  of  ethiks  **is  as 
much  a  science  as  navigation,  and  not  unlike  it,  in  so  far  as  it  tells  us 
how  to  steer  tly:ough  life.  Theology  professes  only  to  be  a  science, 
furnishing  truths  which  have  to  be  taken  into  account  for  the  guidance 
of  conduct,  in  addition  to  those  attainable  by  observation  and  experi- 
ment in  the  realm  of  nature.  ...  It  is  based  on  unproved,  and  often 
highly  improbable  assumptions.  ...  It  is  not  religion,  as  a  devotion 
to  an  ideal  .  .  .  the  attainment  of  which  calls  forth  aU  our  energies.'' 

Whether  or  no  Bibles  be  inspired,  or  immortality  await  us  beyond 
the  tomb,  we  must  still  love  justice  and  mercy.  The  moral  sentiment 
has  always  been  of  slow  growth,  for  it  depends  on  knowledge.  It  is 
very  ancient  in  its  origin,  and  even  animals  have  been  found  to  show 
dim  ideas  of  justice,  and  of  kindness  to  the  weak  (see  Conscience). 
The  moral  law  represents  the  highest  ideal  known  to  man  in  tbe 
stage  of  progress  reached.  It  is  therefore  in  a  state  of  flux,  the 
general  advance  being  accompanied  by  local  or  temporary  relapse,  as 
waves  of  ignorance  prevail.  Every  flood  tide  has  many  low  and 
apparently  receding  waves,  and  so  has  the  growth  of  human  knowledge 
and  morality.  Moral  evils  are  due  to  ignorance,  and  to  want  of 
human  love.  At  the  age  of  four  score  years  and  four,  our  dear  old 
friend  Prof.  J.  S.  Blackie,  the  companion  of  many  happy  and  studious 


Morality  561 

years,  still  thought  that  "  grov^th  in  knowledge,  and  the  search  after 
truth,  are  the  purest  and  most  stimulating  of  human  pleasures,  and 
within  the  grasp  of  all."  Arthur  Schopenhauer  has  bluntly  told  us 
that  "  the  basis  of  morality  is  egoism  .  .  .  induced  by  the  evil  and 
wickedness  of  a  bad  world,  which  we  try  to  make  endurable  by  moral 
rules  and  devices,  tending  to  thwart  evil  men,  and  the  cruel  callous- 
ness of  nature."  [This  is  true  enough  of  the  Neomachian  ethiks  of 
Aristotle,  taught  at  universities,  but  not  true  in  the  case  when  we  are 
told  to  love  our  enemies.  — Ed.]  The  aim  of  the  highest  morality  is 
not  egoism,  but  the  promotion  of  general  happiness.  Our  motto 
should  be :  **  Do  good  and  be  good,  without  hope  of  reward."  Moral 
laws  are  founded  on  human  experience  ;  and  ethikal  guidance  must,  as 
Mr  Herbert  Spencer  says,  "in  the  main  be  obtained  by  a  judicial 
balancing  of  requirements  and  avoidance  of  extremes."  We  come  in 
time  to  see  that  "  it  is  best  to  act  towards  others  as  we  would  have 
them  act  towards  us."  The  weak,  savage,  and  lawless,  are  swayed  by 
the  passion  or  emotion  of  the  moment,  but  morality  is  the  conduct  of 
the  strong  and  patient,  who  reflect  and  foresee,  doing  what  is  best 
under  the  circumstances  for  all  concerned,  as  far  as  can  be  understood. 
Our  ideal  cannot  be  too  high,  but  our  action  must  often  be  based  on 
a  choice  between  evils. 

The  Hebrew,  the  Christian,  and  the  Moslem  alike,  often  lose 
sight  of  the  foundation  of  morality,  when  they  regard  it  as  obedience 
to  the  will  of  God.  If  they  lose  faith  in  God,  morality  has  no 
sanction  in  their  eyes,  unless  they  learn  its  real  nature.  The 
generosity  of  Christians,  according  to  Herbert  Spencer,  has  too  often 
been  prompted  by  the  desire  of  buying  Divine* favour :  for  "He  that 
hath  pity  on  the  poor  lendeth  unto  the  Lord"  (Prov.  xix,  17).  The 
shrines  and  churches  of  the  past  were  built  with  money  given  for 
such  reasons;  to  compound  for  sins  and  crimes;  to  gain  favour  with 
God,  or  the  applause  of  men.  The  welfare  of  the  poor,  as  Mr  Lecky 
says,  was  not  in  the  thoughts  of  those  who  endowed  such  buildings. 
The  Hebrew  of  the  age  of  Jacob,  or  of  Ahab,  had  little  thought  of 
reprobating  lying.  We  can  understand  their  writing  "  I  will  be  a 
lying  spirit  in  the  mouth  of  all  his  prophets"  (1  Kings  xxii,  22),  for 
yet  later,  Ezekiel  says :  *'  If  the  prophet  be  deceived  when  he  hath 
spoken  a  thing,  I  Yahveh  have  deceived  that  prophet "  (Ezek.  xiv,  9). 
But  Paul  says  :  **  Let  God  be  true  if  every  man  is  a  liar  ...  for  if 
God's  truth  were  increased  by  my  lie  to  his  glory,  why  should  I  be 
called  a  sinner,  and  why  not  say  (as  we  be  slanderously  reported,  and 
as  some  affirm  that  we  say)  Let  us  do  evil  that  good  may  come. 
Which  things  are  justly  condemned  "  (Rom.  iii,  4,  7,  8).     Our  clergy 

2  N« 


562  Morality 

still  denounce  morality  without  belief,  and  cry  that  salvation  is  found 
only  through  the  blood  of  Christ  This  is  not  what  the  first 
Christians  taught  (see  James),  and  the  day  of  superstition  is  passing 
away.  Morality  is  unconcerned  with  creeds.  It  is  a  supreme  judge 
that  looks  deep  into  the  motives  of  action.  It  is  the  highest  ideal 
We  trust  those  whom  we  know  to  be  reliable,  and  distrust  those 
whose  concealed  egoism  is  discovered.  The  morality  of  Buddha, 
Confucius,  and  Christ,  is  largely  that  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  Christ 
became  a  loving  and  loveable  personal  Qod,  reconciling  an  angry 
Creator  with  man.  He  thus  inspired  that  love  which  constitutes  the 
evangelical  faith  of  Europe,  and  this  undoubtedly  proved  a  good  moral 
impulse  for  the  busy  working  masses,  embodying  the  ideas  of  the  age, 
which  alone  could  be  understood  by  the  race.  But  none  may  noir 
forbid  us  to  investigate  freely  the  most  sacred  subjects,  or  to  seek 
truth  wherever  it  may  be  found.  The  Rev.  Baring  Gould  says  : 
**  Criticism  has  put  a  lens  in  our  eyes,  which  discloses  to  us,  in  the 
shining  remote  face  of  primitive  Christianity  rents  and  craters  un- 
dreamt of  in  our  old  simplicity." 

Charity,  benevolence,  self-denial  even  to  asceticism,  love,  ^d 
sympathy,  are  peculiar  to  no  creed  :  during  the  age  of  health  and 
growth  they  have  marked  the  progress  of  all  religions,  and  have  been 
their  salvation.  All  have  in  time  added  something  new  to  their 
ethikal  code.  The  gods,  as  being  the  creations  of  men,  have  them- 
selves gradually  improved  in  morality.  They  were  ever  the  protectors 
of  the  poor  and  oppressed,  and  of  those  who  loved  truth  and  justice. 
The  ethiks  of  the  tribal  stage  are  tribal  only.  The  universal  ethiks 
can  belong  only  to  an  age  when  the  common  happiness  of  all  the 
world  is  held  in  view.  The  Golden  Eule  was  taught  (in  its  negative 
form)  very  anciently  in  the  East,  and  (in  its  positive  form)  by 
Confucius  and  Buddha ;  by  Thales  in  the  West  as  early  as  the  7th 
century  B.C.  Rabbi  Hillel  said  :  "  Do  not  to  others  what  you  would 
not  wish  them  to  do  to  you."  Plato  (in  420  B.c.)  exclaimed:  "May 
I  do  to  others  as  I  would  have  them  do  to  me."  Sextus  (400  6.C.) 
said :  "  What  you  wish  your  neighbours  to  be  to  you,  be  such  also  to 
them":  the  wise  Aristotle  wrote  (in  385  B.C.):  "We  should  conduct 
ourselves  towards  others  as  we  would  have  them  act  towards  us." 

These  teachers  summed  up  human  experience  ;  yet  we  are  still 
asked,  "  Why  should  we  lead  a  moral  life  if  there  is  no  revelation 
commanding  it,  and  no  fear  of  Hell  ?  "  But  to  be  good  for  a  purpose 
of  so  selfish  a  character  is  not  morality.  A  good  life  is  more  useful 
to  ourselves  and  to  others,  than  is  one  that  is  inconsistent  and  without 
steady  purpose.     We  therefore  take  pleasure  in  leading  the  wiser  life, 


Morality  563 

which  confers  comforts  and  happiness  both  on  ourselves  and  on  those 
around  us.  If  a  Rationalist  says :  "  I  am  not  interested  in  the 
human  race.  I  seek  my  own  happiness,  of  which  I  am  the  best 
judge,"  no  religious  denunciation  can  touch  him.  Only  a  Rationalist 
can  answer  him,  saying :  "  You  cannot  separate  yourself  from  others." 
The  man  is  better  than  his  creed,  and  does  care  for  some.  He  has  no 
iree-will  in  the  matter,  but  is  the  creature  of  his  circumstances  (see 
Free-will).  Even  evil  doers  respect  the  good,  and — as  Buddha  taught 
— evil  is  never  overcome  by  evil,  but  only  by  good.  "  Each  for  all, 
and  all  for  each,"  proves  in  the  end  better  than  "  each  for  himself." 
To  do  justice  and  to  love  mercy,  to  be  pure  in  thought,  word,  and 
deed,  is  more  to  be  desired  than  rank  or  wealth. 

We  do  not  here  concern  ourselves  with  sexual  morality.  The  word 
morals  (as  Qeorge  Eliot  remarked)  has  been  limited  in  popular  speech 
to  this  question  alone.  All  sensible  people  know  that  treachery 
between  the  sexes  is  one  of  the  worst  forms  of  deceit,  leading  to  the 
misery  of  parent  and  child.  All  civilised  peoples  call  on  both  men  and 
women  to  be  faithful  to  their  promises,  and  to  care  for  their  children, 
to  reflect  before  they  act,  and  to  cause  no  pain  to  others.  The  wise 
man  fulfils  his  duty — that  which  is  due  to  others — and  is  kindly  to 
his  kind,  rejoicing  in  their  joy,  and  sorrowing  for  their  sorrow.  Not 
only  in  words  but  in  deeds  does  he  show  his  sympathy.  He  allies 
himself  with  all  who  seek  righteousness,  with  a  true  enthusiasm  or 
"  God-fulness,"  and  he  neglects  not  to  oppose  all  that  tends  to  evil. 
If  religious  fancies  aid  others  in  practical  morality  let  them  keep  them  ; 
but  this  must  not  deter  us  from  good  deeds  because  others  do  not 
think  alike  about  such  things.  For  deeds,  and  not  beliefs,  are  re- 
quired, and  if  this  had  been  remembered  by  the  hundred  religions  of 
the  world  they  might  have  filled  it  with  happiness,  instead  of  drench- 
ing it  with  blood.  The  moralist  must  strive  as  far  as  possible  to 
make  a  heaven  on  earth,  and  so  to  do  requires  the  highest  training 
and  wisdom.  Religions  do  not  practically  influence  the  actions  of  the 
majority  of  those  who  profess  them.  It  may  not  be  necessary  or 
desirable  that  our  bodies  or  souls  should  be  immortal,  but  it  is  im- 
perative that  we  should  do  immortal  deeds  of  goodness  if  we  can, 
leaving  the  world  the  better  for  our  lives  (see  Karma).  Let  us 
bravely  uphold  all  that  we  know  to  be  true,  and  leave  alone  the  un- 
known, or  even  the  doubtful,  lest  perchance  we  waste  our  lives  in 
trying  to  maintain  a  superstition  or  a  lie.  Our  time  is  so 
short,  and  the  hopes  of  youth,  the  busy  age  of  bright  maturity, 
so  soon  pass  that  we  must  hasten  to  make  our  little  world  happy, 
and  if  possible  better,  for  our  transitory  existence.     This  we  can  do 


^64  Moriah 

even  if  there  be  for  us  no  other  life  with  sweet  remembrance  of  the 
past. 


Hebrew.      [Probably    "  lofty "    as    translated    in    the 
Greek.     Gen.  xxii,  2. — Ed.]     The  mountain  where  Isaac  was  to  be 
sacrificed.     Jewish   tradition  identified   it  with   that  on   which  the 
temple  was  built  (2  Chron.  iii,  1),  and  Samaritan  tradition  with  Mt 
Gerizim  S.  of  Shechem.     The  word  Moreh  (Gen.  xii,  6)  is  probably 
connected     [the    Greek     again     reads    "  lofty    oak "    for    '*  plain    of 
Moreh " — Ed.]  ;    and    this    Moreh   was   at    Shechem,  while  another 
Mount  Moreh  (Judg.  vii,   1)    was   near  Jezreel  in  Galilee.     In  the 
Targums  however  Moriah  is  understood   to  be  "  the  land  of  worship," 
and  hence  was  taken  a  pinch  of  earth  from  which  Adam  was  made. 
Here  the  ark  rested,  and  here  l^ain  and  Abel  offered  sacrifices. 

Mormons.  This  sect,  like  many  others,  was  created  by  the 
visions  of  an  ignorant  man,  whom  however  we  have  no  right  to  call 
an  impostor.  Joseph  Smith  the  founder  was  born,  on  23rd  De& 
1805,  at  Sharon,  Vermont,  U.S.  His  parents  were  poor,  and  not  too 
good,  and  settled  in  1809  in  New  York.  At  15  years  of  age  he 
began  to  see  visions.  On  the  23rd  Sept.  1823,  as  be  said,  an  angel 
Maroni  ("  our  Lord  "  in  Hebrew),  son  of  an  archangel  Mormon  (appar- 
ently "  the  most  high "  in  Hebrew),  appeared  to  him  thrice,  com- 
manding him  to  go  and  find  a  supplement  to  the  Bible  near  Manchester 
in  the  western  forests.  Some  years  later  he  announced  that  an  angel 
had  given  him  a  book,  consisting  of  gold  leaves,  in  a  stone  box, 
covered  with  writings  in  the  **  reformed  Egyptian  writing."  It  was 
an  octavo,  8  inches  by  7  inches  and  6  inches  thick.  The  leaves  were 
fastened  by  three  gold  rings.  With  the  book  was  a  pair  of  spectacles 
with  crystal  lenses,  which  he  called  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  and  bv 
their  aid  he  could  read  and  understand  the  writings.  No  one  was 
allowed  to  see  it,  and  he  dictated  the  contents  to  Oliver  Cowdery,  a 
friend,  from  behind  a  curtain.  Cowdery  and  another  disciple,  Farmer 
Harris,  were  induced  to  pay  for  the  publication  of  this  "  Book  of 
Mormon  " ;  but  they  afterwards  denied  that  they  had  signed  a  state- 
ment to  the  effect  that  ''an  angel  had  shown  them  the  plates  of 
wnich  the  book  was  a  translation."  The  box  and  the  plates  mysteri- 
ously vanished,  and  no  one  ever  saw  them,  but  the  writings  are 
recognised  as  made  up  '*  principally  from  a  rhapsodical  romance  written, 
in  1812,  by  a  crack-brained  ex-clergyman  named  Solomon  Spalding'' 
(see  BibU  Myths,  p.  519,  and  Encyclop,  Brit), 

The  Church  so  established  was  called  the  "  Church  of  Jesus  Christ 
of  the  Latter  Day  Saints,"  and  founded  at  Manchester  (New  York) 


Mormons  565 

in  1830.  The  Vermont  prophet  not  only  suffered  ridicule,  but  was 
often  shot  at,  though  "delivered  by  the  Lord  "  according  to  the  saints. 
They  won  multitudes  by  preaching  the  near  approach  of  the  Millennium, 
and  moved  to  the  centre  of  the  continent,  declaring  that  they  were 
sent  to  convert  the  heathen  and  to  found  the  New  Jerusalem.  They 
were  driven  out  of  Eirtland  (Ohio),  and  Commerce  (Missouri),  till 
they  found  a  governor  who  favoured  them  in  Illinois.  They  were  now 
teaching  the  duty  of  polygamy,  which  was  forbidden  in  the  early 
Book  of  Mormon.  The  prophet  received  a  new  revelation  on  the  sub- 
ject in  July  1843,  when  he  had  established  his  great  temple  at 
Nauvoo  near  Commerce,  and  had  become  the  leader  of  20,000 
fanatics.  He  then  established  "  sealed  wives,"  in  addition  to  his 
legitimate  wife.  A  great  many  men,  and  lonely  women,  largely  from 
Wales,  joined  the  saints,  who  proved  energetic  colonists  of  new  regions. 
Joseph  Smith  however  was  so  enraged  by  tractates  published  by  some 
brethren  who  began  to  dissent,  that  he  destroyed  their  press,  where- 
upon he  and  his  brother  Hiram  were  imprisoned.  Popular  wrath  was 
roused,  and  the  townspeople  broke  into  the  jail,  on  the  night  of  the 
27th  June  1844,  and  shot  both  the  brothers. 

Martyrdom  as  usual  was  the  **  seed  of  the  church,"  and  a  new 
leader  of  ability  appeared  in  a  youth  named  Brigham  Young.  He 
organised  the  Mormons  under  twelve  apostles,  with  bishops,  chapters, 
councils,  and  pastors.  He  led  them  into  the  desert  to  Salt  Lake 
City  (Utah),  where  he  founded  a  colony  on  24th  July  1847.  All 
who  remained  behind  at  Nauvoo  were  murdered  or  di-iven  out,  when 
the  place  was  cannonaded.  The  wilderness,  under  the  hands  of  the 
Mormons,  soon  began  to  be  full  of  fruits  and  corn,  but  no  wine  was 
made.  Here  the  saints  prospered  till,  in  1885,  they  numbered  three- 
quarters  of  a  million  of  orderly,  abstemious,  and  energetic  colonists. 
Their  leader  died  on  29th  August  1887,  leaving  56  children  and  a 
fortune  of  half  a  million  sterling.  The  Government  of  the  United 
States  denied  to  polygamist  Mormons  the  right  of  citizenship,  and  in 
1891  their  numbers  had  greatly  decreased.  A  new  sect  has  arisen 
denouncing  Brigham  Young,  his  revelations,  and  his  "  sealed  wives," 
and  fixing  its  centre  at  Lamoni,  as  the  "  Reorganised  "  Latter- Day 
Church.  They  accept  the  Book  of  Mormon  as  a  revelation  of  the 
history  of  ancient  America  between  2000  B.C.  and  400  A.c.  They 
hold  plurality  of  wives  in  abomination,  and  are  represented  in  36 
states  and  in  Utah.  Their  census  in  1891  showed  21,773  members, 
5303  being  in  Iowa.  They  thus  threaten  to  supersede  the  original 
sect  of  Utah. 

Joseph   Smith  was  a  pious  youth  though  of  ill-balanced  mind. 


566  Mormons 

When  the  angel  came  to  him  the  house  seemed  full  of  fire,  and  he 
was  told  that  his  sins  were  forgiven,  that  the  old  covenant  with  the 
Jews   was  fulfilled,   and  that   he   must  now  prepare  for  the  second 
coming  of  Christ,  as  a  chosen  instrument  of  the  Lord.     Mormon  had 
been  a  prophet  of  God  who  died  in  420  A.C.,  and  who  buried  the  gold 
plates  on  a  hill  near  Palmyra.     Grood  Mormons  are  to  rise  and  reign 
with  Christ  at  his  coming,  and  are  even  able  in  this  life  to  cast  out 
devils  though,  in  the  case  of  unbelieving  Americans,  with  difficulty. 
They  are  able  to  prophecy,  and  to  speak  with  strange  tongues,  receiving 
the  gift  of  the  Holy  Qhost.     They  are  baptised  by  immersion  when 
old  enough  to  understand  the  faith,  or  at  8  years  of  age  if  childr^ 
of  believers.     Muhammad,  they  are  taught,  is  only  second  to  Christ, 
and  Joseph  Smith  is  the  third  great  prophet.     But  they  know  notfaiDg 
of  Buddha,  Confucius,  or  Plato.     The  title-page  of  the  first  Book  of 
Mormon  has  on  it  the  following :  "  Be  it  remembered  in  the  53rd  year 
of  the  independence  of  the  United  States  of  America  in  A.D.  1829. 
Joseph  Smith  of  the  same  district  hath  deposited  in  this  office  the  title 
of  a  book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  in  the  following  words,  to  wit, 
'  The  Book  of  Mormon  written   by  the  hand  of  Mormon  upon  plates 
taken  from  the  plates  of  Nephi.' "     In  its  "  genesis  "  this  book  states 
that    there   were    three   migrations  from   Asia  to  America,  the  first 
immediately  after  the  Dispersion,  the  last  in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah, 
600    RC.      These   Mormons  were    called    Jeredites,    Lamanites,  and 
Nephites,  after  their  respective  leaders.    They  first  founded  civilisations 
in  S.  and  Central  America,  which  perished  from  their  own  corruptions. 
Jesus  visited  America  after  his  ascension,  and  Mormon  in  400  A.C. 
(T.  W.  Curtis,  Boston  Index,  30th  April  1885).     The  inspired  record 
was  finished  by  Maroni,  son  of  Mormon.     The  style  is  Biblical,  and 
Zion  is  in  America  where  the  New  Jerusalem  will  be  built  when  the 
Lord  descends  from  heaven.     Charity,  love,  and  other  moral  principles, 
are   inculcated  ;    envy,  hatred,  and   vice,  are  condemned.      Jew  and 
Gentile    are    invited    to    seek    the    Lord  while    he    may  be   found. 
Thousands   of   Red    Indians   have  been   baptised   as   descendants  of 
Laman,    and    casting    aside    filthy  habits    **  are   building    the  waste 
places  of  Zion."     Idleness  is  denounced,  and  a  tenth  must  be  given 
to   the    Lord.     The   huge  Temple  was  not  complete  even  in  1888. 
The  profane  are  not  admitted  to  its  rites,  but  every  Sunday  afternoon 
the  faithful  partake  of  the  eucharist  of  bread  and  water.     Many  rich 
Christians   have   settled   at   Ogden    (central   city)  and    have  bought 
Mormon  lands.     They  now  are  gaining  on  the  Mormons,  whom  thej 
denounce  with  the  secret  approval  of  many  of  the  sect.     The  elden? 
of  the  270  wards  have  no  longer  their  old  control  of  every  inhabitant, 


Moses  567 

and  the  sect  is  thus  becomiDg  absorbed  in  the  general  population  of 
the  country. 

Moses.  From  the  Latin  form  of  the  Greek  Movsea,  from  the 
Hebrew  Mosheh,  [According  to  Exodus  ii,  10,  it  means  "  drawn  out," 
because  he  was  drawn  from  the  water,  being  thus  connected  with  the 
root  Tnashah  "  to  draw  out "  in  Hebrew,  whence  meahi  "  silk."  But 
the  Amarna  tablets  show  that  raasha  (as  in  Arabic)  means  "to  go  out " ; 
and  Moses  may  mean  "  he  who  went  out,"  or  perhaps  "  brought  out," 
as  the  leader  of  the  Exodus,  or  *'  going  out,"  from  Egypt. — Ed.]  Some 
have  supposed  the  name  to  be  Egyptian  as  mes-a  '*  child  of  the  water." 
The  later  Jewish  legends  (see  Dr  Wiedemann,  Proc.  Bib.  Arch.  Socy., 
May  1889)  make  his  mother  a  virgin,  and  say  that  he  was  born 
circumcised,  and  saved  because  a  light  from  between  his  eyes 
brightened  the  whole  chamber.  He  also  sucked  his  thumb  in  his 
papyrus  cradle  (as  the  Egyptian  Harpokrates  is  an  infant  with  its 
finger  in  its  mouth) :  he  refused  milk  from  the  unclean,  and  prophecied, 
when  three  hours  old,  that  he  would  receive  the  Law  out  of  a  fire.  He 
took  the  crown  of  Pharaoh  from  his  head  as  a  child,  and  cured  the 
Egyptian  princess  Merrig  of  leprosy.  He  persuaded  Pharaoh  to  observe 
the  Sabbath  lest  his  slaves  should  die  for  want  of  rest.  Josephus  says 
that  he  conquered  the  Nubians  by  taking  birds  (the  ibis)  in  cages  to 
«at  snakes  which  opposed  him.  The  Bible  legends  are  similar  to  those 
of  other  mythologies.  Moses  in  his  ark  on  the  Nile  recalls  Sargiua 
in  his  ark  on  the  Euphrates,  as  also  Perseus  in  Greece,  and  Darab 
in  Persia.  [It  seems  to  have  been  a  common  custom  to  abandon 
infants  in  such  boats  or  boxes  on  rivers,  as  well  as  to  leave  them  a 
prey  to  wolves  on  mountains. — Ed.]  Zoroaster  in  Persia,  and  Minos 
in  Krete,  are  also  said,  like  Moses,  to  have  ascended  mountains  and 
there  to  have  received  laws  from  God. 

We  cannot  assert  that  there  ever  was  an  historical  Moses  (see 
Hebrews),  or  an  exodus  of  a  whole  nation  from  Egypt.  He  is 
represented  by  Michael  Angelo  as  having  horns  [for  in  Exodus 
(xxxiv,  29)  we  read  "  his  skin  shone  "  (Karan\  otherwise  rendered 
*'  was  horned  " — Ed.]  ;  and  solar  legends  gathered  round  his  name. 
He  divided  the  sea,  and  made  the  marshy  waters  sweet.  He  produced 
manna  (see  Manna)  and  quails,  and  his  magic  rod  brought  water  (see 
Goldziher,  Heb.  Mythol.,  pp.  428-429  :  Prof.  A.  de  Gubematis,  Zooi. 
Mythol.f  ii,  p.  276).  So  also  the  club  of  the  Maruts  broke  open  rocks 
and  brought  water.  The  later  Jews  said  that  he  died  on  Nebo  from 
^*the  kiss  of  God,"  having  ascended  12  steps — the  12  months  of  the 
year.     Moslems  however  show  his  grave  not  in  Moab  but  W.  of  the 


568  Moses  of  Khorene 

Dead  Sea,  at  Nebi  Musa,  where  the  angel  of  death  overtook  him  as 
he  fled ;  and  a  great  pilgrimage  to  this  shrine,  from  Jerusalem,  is 
celebrated  by  them  annually  about  Easter,  when  a  lamb  is  sacrificed 
(Quarterly  Stat.  Pal.  HxpL  Fund,  Oct.  1888).  The  details  of  his 
death  are  given  in  the  Midrash  on  Deuteronomy  (Rev.  A.  L<5wy,  Proc, 
Bib.  Arch.  Socy.,  Dec.  1887).  All  creation  trembled  when  he  was 
commanded  to  die,  but  God  said  :  "  The  sun  shineth  forth,  and  the 
sun  goeth  down.*'  He  must  die  in  the  last  month  of  the  year.  Death 
fled  when  he  saw  sparks  from  his  lips ;  and  was  unable  to  stand  before 
him  because  "  his  face  beamed  like  a  seraph  in  the  heavenly  chariots  '*; 
while,  on  the  rod,  with  which  Moses  touched  him,  was  written  "the 
ineffable  name."  At  last  Michael  (who  wept  for  him),  Zagzagel,  and 
Gabriel,  laid  him  on  a  couch,  and  he  closed  his  eyes,  and  God  called 
his  soul  saying :  "  My  daughter,  120  years  were  appointed  for  thee  to 
abide  in  this  righteous  man,  tarry  no  longer." 

Moses  of  Khorene.  The  famous  historian  of  Armenia,  a 
pupil  of  "  the  patriarch  Sahak  the  great,  and  of  the  Vartabed  Mesrob." 
He  was  sent  about  431  A.C.  to  study  Greek  at  Alexandria,  and  thence 
to  Edessa.  He  visited  the  sacred  places  in  Palestine,  and  went  to 
Rome,  Athens,  and  Constantinople,  returning  home  in  440  A.C.  He 
seems  to  have  been  then  about  20,  and  died  in  490,  though  tradition 
says  he  lived  120  years  like  Moses.  The  Armenian  history  which  be 
compiled  exists  only  in  MSS.  of  our  12th.  century,  which  are  full  of 
later  interpolations,  introducing  tenets  not  earlier  than  the  7th 
century.  It  is  to  a  great  extent  legendary,  and  Moses  knew  nothing 
of  the  history  of  Armenia  from  any  of  the  Assyrian  or  Vannic  inscrip- 
tions ;  he  builds  on  Eusebius,  whose  notices  he  expands,  but  who  was 
himself  a  doubtful  authority.  Yet  the  history  is  of  considerable  value 
politically  and  as  a  religious  work. 

Moslem.     See  Islam. 

Moumis.  In  Greco-Phoenician  mythology  the  "waters"  (see 
Mam)« 

Mountains.  The  ancients  chose  mountains  for  worship  as 
being  nearer  heaven,  and  adored  great  conical  peaks  as  emblems 
of  deity.  They  believed  in  Babylonia  in  a  "  world  mountain,"  sepa- 
rating the  flat  plains  from  the  surrounding  ocean.  The  Akkadians 
called  it  Kharsak  Kalama  ("mountain  peak  of  the  world"):  the 
Persians  borrowed  the  idea,  applying  it  to  Elburz,  and  the  Moslems  also 
took  it  as  Kdf,  the  mountain  surrounding  the  world.  [This  may  also 
be  intended  in  Isaiah  xiv,  13. — Ed.]  A  change  of  faith  does  not 
make  a  mountain  less  holy  (see  Ararat,  Elburz,  Kailasa,  Mem). 


Mouse  569 

Mouse.     See  Mus. 

Mritya.     Sanskrit:    "death."       The   son   of  Bhaya,  and  Maya 
("  being  '*  and  "  illusion  "),  parent  "  of  decay,  sorrow,  growth,  and  wrath/' 

MrOS.  MyOS.  An  early  race  of  Upper  Arakan,  who  ruled 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  to  the  Iravadi.  Their  capital,  Mro- 
huang,  is  "  old  Arakan,"  on  the  highest  tidal  reach  of  the  Akyab 
river.  On  one  of  their  texts  we  read  "  to  make  war  is  improper," 
which  is  said  to  be  the  meaning  of  the  name  of  their  city  Tsit-ta- 
goung,  or  Chittagong,  with  which  Moslems  traded  in  our  9th  century. 
In  the  12th  century  their  kings  ruled  "  100,000  Pegus,"  and  they  took 
tribute  from  Bangal  and  Dakkah  down  to  1400  A.C.  In  1660  they 
fought  the  Moslems  of  Bangal,  who,  aided  by  the  Portuguese,  drove 
them  back  to  Arakan.  The  Barmese  overran  their  country  in  1784, 
and  they  are  now  found  in  mountains  above  Chittagong  and  the 
Akyab  river.  They  are  a  large,  strong,  dark  people,  said  to  be  neither 
Barmese  nor  Mongolian.  They  are  given  to  sorcery  and  divination. 
They  wear  only  a  waist  cloth,  with  a  short  petticoat  for  women.  They 
say  that  they  are  dying  out,  living  only  to  the  age  of  50  or  60,  while 
their  forefathers  lived  for  100  years  (see  Sir  W.  Hunter,  Statistics  of 
Bangal).  They  are  a  timid  people,  never  fighting,  but  calling  on  an 
exorcist  to  decide  quarrels.  They  have  three  gods  :  Tarai  the  *'  great 
father " ;  Sangtung  the  hill  spirit ;  and  Oreng  the  god  of  rivers. 
Their  language  is  Turanian.  They  offer  blades  of  grass,  set  up  in 
earth,  by  rivers  or  on  mountain  passes  (see  Grass),  but  have  no  definite 
ideas  as  to  the  future.  They  swear  by  gun,  axe,  or  tiger,  or  more 
solemnly  by  gods  to  whom  a  sacrifice  is  then  made  :  such  an  oath — 
if  broken — brings  ill  luck  and  death.  A  youth  serves  his  father-in- 
law  three  years  for  a  wife,  or  pays  £20  to  £30,  which  is  repaid  in 
case  of  divorce,  the  wife  losing  also  all  her  jewels.  Widows  are  not 
forbidden  to  remarry.  The  eldest  male  relative  takes  charge  of  the 
family  of  a  man  when  he  dies.  The  Mros  bury  the  dead.  They 
make  slaves  of  captives  and  of  debtors.  The  sites  of  villages  are 
settled  by  visions ;  to  dream  of  fish  is  lucky,  and  to  dream  of  a  river 
betokens  a  plentiful  crop ;  but  to  dream  of  a  dog  or  snake  is  unlucky, 
and  the  village  must  not  be  built  where  this  occurs.  They  are  now 
of  mixed  stock,  mingling  with  Mughs  and  Khyens ;  but  they  appear 
to  be  probably  of  Dra vidian  origin,  or  connected  with  the  Kols. 

Muda.      Sanskrit :  "  pleasure."     A  son  of  Dharma  ("  duty  "),  and 
of  "joy"  tihe  daughter  of  Daksha  (see  Daksha). 


570  Mugs 

Mugs.     See  Muds. 

Muhammad.  Arabic :  ''  much  praised."  [This  is  a  parent's 
exclamation  on  the  birth  of  a  son,  meaning  '*  God  be  much  praised,'' 
from  the  root  S[amad — whence  Ahmad  "  I  praise,"  Hamad  "  praise  be," 
Mahamad  *'  praise,"  Mabmud  *'  praised  "  :  called  incorrectly  by  Turks 
Mahomet :  and  by  Europeans  Mohammed. — Ed.]  The  great  religious 
genius  of  Arabia  is  fully  treated  of  in  our  SItori  Sttvdi^fi(x,  pp.  453-552). 
See  also  Habal,  Islam,  Ra'aba,  and  Makka. 

[A  short  epitome  may  be  added.  As  in  other  cases  we  have  to 
depend  on  accounts  not  contemporary.  The  earliest  biographies  were 
written  200  years  after  the  prophet's  death,  and  even  these  are  only 
known  as  quoted  by  yet  later  writers.  The  true  sources  are  allusions 
in  the  i^oran,  with  certain  "  traditions,"  some  of  which,  attributed  to 
his  young  wife  'Aisha,  and  to  his  companions,  appear  to  be  probably 
genuine.  Muhammad  was  of  the  Hashem  clan  of  the  Beni  ^oreish 
tribe  of  Makka.  His  grandfather,  'Abd-el-Muttalib,  was  a  leader  in 
resisting  the  attacks  of  the  Christian  Abyssinians  who  had  conquered 
San'a  in  Yaman.  His  father  'Abd-allah  appears  to  have  been  poor, 
and  died  before  he  was  born  ;  his  mother  Amina  also  died  when  he 
was  a  child.  His  birth  occurred  in  570  A.C.,  "the  year  of  the 
elephant,"  when  an  army  led  by  Abraha  the  Abyssinian  met  with 
disaster  though  bringing  an  elephant  against  Makka.  The  child  was 
reared  by  his  grandfather,  and  on  his  death  by  Muhammad  s  uncle 
Abu  Talib.  He  was  delicate,  and  some  say  epileptic,  and  was  seDt 
to  an  Arab  camp  where  he  tended  sheep,  and  grew  strong  in  the 
desert  air.  His  uncle  took  him,  at  the  age  of  12,  on  a  trading 
expedition  to  Basrah  S.  of  Damascus,  where  he  saw  Byzantine 
Christianity.  He  became  the  caravan  leader  of  his  rich  widowed 
cousin  Ehadijah,  and  gained  the  title  Amin  or  "  faithful."  He  never 
forgot  the  mercies  of  his  orphaned  childhood  (Koran  xciii,  6) ;  and, 
when  at  the  age  of  40  he  married  Khadijah,  he  had  become  univer- 
sally respected  as  a  trustworthy  and  pious  man,  handsome  in  person, 
with  black  hair,  and  "  teeth  like  hailstones " ;  and  notable  for  his 
courage,  modesty,  and  kindliness.  His  two  sods  died,  and  Fatima 
his  famous  dau£fht«r  married  'Ali  the  son  of  Abu  Talib. 

Arabian  towns  were  then  full  of  Jews,  and  some  Christians  lived 
there,  being  either  Arabs  from  Bashan,  or  8abiun  ("  baptisers"),  from 
the  Euphrates  (see  Mandaeans),  who  held  Ebionite  and  Gnostik  opinioDs. 
Many  of  the  Koreish  had  begun  to  be  dissatisfied  with  the  savs^ 
worship  of  their  stone  gods  Habal,  Allat,  'Uzzah,  and  Menat,  to  whom 
they   offered  infant   daughters  buried  alive.     These  enquirers  were 


Muhammad  571 

<^led  Hanlf,  variously  rendered  "penitent"  and  "hypocrite"  by 
friends  and  foes.  Mu]:;iammad  was  attracted  by  them,  and  said  that 
'  Abraham  was  a  Hanif."  He  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  true 
religion  was  a  belief  in  One  God  only,  and  that  it  had  been  taught  by 
-all  prophets  since  Abraham,  but  that  the  Jews  had  corrupted  the  faith 
by  Rabbinical  additions,  while  the  Christians  had  failed  to  follow  their 
prophet  Aisa,  and  had  invented  monkish  superstitions.  His  mind 
rebelled  alike  against  the  horrible  rites  of  the  Koreish  and  the  super- 
stitions of  the  Rabbis,  as  also  against  the  effete  formalism  of  Byzantine 
priestly  religion.  It  was  a  Koreish  custom  to  retreat  to  the  desert 
during  the  fast  of  Ramadan,  and  Muhammad  used  to  retire  to  the 
eave  of  Mt.  Ilira,  where,  after  exhausting  austerities,  he  began  to  see 
visions  of  the  Angel  Gabriel,  and  heard  a  voice  that  said  (Koran,  xcvi)  : 
**  Cry  in  the  name  of  thy  Lord  who  created,  created  man  from  a  drop. 
•Cry  for  thy  Lord  is  the  most  high,  who  hath  taught  by  the  pen  :  hath 
taught  to  man  what  he  knew  not.  Nay  truly  man  walks  in  delusion, 
when  he  deems  he  suffices  for  himself:  to  thy  Lord  they  all  must 
return." 

There  was  nothing  new  in  Muhammad's  belief  beyond  its  nega- 
tions. He  believed  in  heaven  and  hell,  in  God  as  the  source  of  all, 
and  in  angels  and  devils.  Islam  is  thus  the  simplest  of  creeds,  as 
taught  by  him ;  and  though  the  Fathah,  or  "  opening"  chapter  of  the 
i^oran,  is  not  the  earliest  of  his  poetic  outbursts,  yet  it  is  rightly 
placed  first,  as  summing  up  his  teaching. 

'^  In  the  name  of  God,  merciful  and  pitying, 
Praise  he  to  God  the  Lord  of  worlds  : 
The  King  of  doomsday,  merciful  and  pitying. 
Thee  we  serve,  and  Thee  we  ask  for  help. 
Show  us  the  way  that  is  established  : 
The  way  of  those  on  whom  is  grace  : 
No  wrath  on  them,  nor  do  they  stray.     Amen." 

Muhammad  was  frightened  by  his  visions,  and  doubted  if  he 
were  mad  or  possessed ;  but  the  good  Khadijah  believed  in  him,  and 
encouraged  him.  He  began  to  repeat  his  poems,  and  gathered  a  few 
of  his  own  relatives  round  him  as  disciples.  His  course  at  first  was 
uncertain,  and  the  Koreish  were  indignant  at  his  scepticism — especially 
Abu  Sofian  of  the  Ommeiyah  clan  of  the  IJoreish,  with  those  who 
feared  lest  the  Ka'aba  should  no  longer  be  the  great  centre  of  annual 
pilgrimaga  The  "call"  of  Muhammad  occurred  in  610  A.C.,  and 
ten  years  later  a  ban  was  pronounced  on  those  who  began  to  believe 
in  Islam  or  "salvation."  Then  Khadijah  died,  and,  soon  after,  12 
merchants  from  Medinah   became  followers  of  Muhammad,  who  then 


572  Muhammad 

drew  up  the  first  code  of  Moslem  duties  :  (1)  There  is  no  god  but 
The  God  ;  (2)  Steal  uot  ;  (3)  Fornicate  not ;  (4)  Murder  not  your 
children ;  (5)  Slander  not ;  (6)  Obey  the  Messenger  of  God.  Many 
disciples  however  now  fled,  to  Abyssinia  and  elsewhere.  The  Medinah 
Arabs  invited  him  to  their  city,  Yathrib  (afterwards  Medinat-en-Nebi» 
or  "the  prophet's  city"),  and  73  swore  to  defend  him.  The  flight  of 
150  Moslems  to  Medinah  began  in  April  622  A.C.  Mul^mmad 
followed,  and  hid  for  a  time  in  Mt.  Thaur  (^oran,  ix,  40),  reaching 
the  northern  city  safely,  and  settling  at  Koba,  where  the  first  mosk 
(Meajid,  or  "  place  of  prayer  ")  was  soon  built.  This  famous  "  flight  *' 
(Hejirah),  on  16th  July  622,  is  the  date  of  the  Moslem  era;  and  to 
it  the  Koran  refers  (vi,  2  ;  xvii,  1),  in  allusion  to  the  "distant  sanc- 
tuary," which  was  otherwise  explained  later  (see  Jerusalem). 

The  Arab,  like  the  Jew,  considers  it  improper  for  a  grown  man 
to  live  without  a  wife.  Mubammad  was  faithful  to  Khadijah,  but 
immediately  after  her  death  married  the  widow  of  a  faithful  follower, 
who  had  fled.  He  married  later  several  widows  of  followers  who  fell 
in  his  service,  thus  providing  them  with  homes  ;  and  also  a  Christian 
slave  girl  from  Abyssinia  named  Maria.  At  Medinah  he  also  married 
'Aisha,  the  daughter  of  his  friend  Abu  Bekr,  who  was  quite  young 
and  long  survived  him,  but  had  no  childreu.  He  now  became  a  law- 
giver, and  instituted  a  creed  which  required :  (1)  belief  in  one  God 
alone :  (2)  prayer :  (3)  alms  which  became  a  tithe.  At  Makka  he 
had  said  "  Let  there  be  no  compulsion  in  religion  "  (Koran,  ii,  57;  x, 
95),  but  at  Medinah  he  urged  the  Moslems  to  "  fight  for  the  cause  of 
Allah "  (xlvii,  4).  His  Koran  ("  reading ")  had  included  ninety 
chapters,  to  which  twenty-four  were  added  when,  at  Medinah,  he 
became  a  political  leader.  The  earlier  poems  are  short,  vigorous 
verses,  which  established  his  fame  as  a  poet.  These  were  followed  by 
exhortations  to  the  unbelieving  Makkans,  with  tales  showing  how 
punishment  always  fell  on  those  who  rejected  their  prophets. 
Muhammad  called  himself  "  unlettered,"  and  his  Koran  a  new 
revelation  for  Arabia  **  in  the  Arab  tongue."  He  drew  from  Arab 
traditions  about  the  fate  of  the  tribe  of  *Ad,  and  of  the  wicked  who 
rejected  the  prophet  Saleb,  and  slew  his  camel.  He  took  many 
legends  from  the  Jews  about  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Joseph,  and 
Moses,  which  are  traceable  in  Rabbinical  books  (see  Hughes'  Diet  of 
IsUim),  but  appear  to  have  been  orally  related  to  him.  His  Christian 
legends,  in  like  manner,  were  derived  orally  from  the  Sabiun,  whom 
he  mentions  as  "  people  of  a  book,"  and  who  were  Gnostik  Christians. 
Thus  he  regarded  Christ  as  a  mysterious  prophet,  and  he  had  even 
heard  the   legend   of  the  "Seven   Sleepers   of  Ephesus."     He   drew 


Muhammad  573 

very  little  from  Persia,  but  the  Makkan  critics  said  that  the 
**  tale  of  Bustem "  was  better  thau  his  poems.  He  believed 
that  the  pious,  and  their  wives  and  children,  would  all  meet  in 
the  Garden  of  Paradise  (!^oran,  xl,  43),  the  nymphs  of  which 
Are  the  only  figures  in  the  I^oran  of  Persian  origin  (see  Houris). 
At  Medinah  many  of  his  ideas  changed,  in  consequence  of  altered 
•circumstances,  and  the  poems  became  practical  regulations  for  his 
followers,  though  the  poetic  form  was  still  retained  probably  to  assist 
the  memory.  In  the  time  of  doubt  and  fear  at  Makka  he  appeased 
the  wrath  of  the  Koreish  by  saying  of  their  godesses :  "  What  think 
ye  of  AUat,  el  'Uzzah,  and  Menat  the  third  with  them — the  craues  on 
high,  whose  intercession  may  be  hoped  *' ;  but  of  this  he  was  ashamed, 
and  altered  the  verse :  "  The  male  for  vou  the  female  for  God — that 
were  an  unjust  share "  (liii).  It  is  remarkable  that  the  !^oran  does 
not  inculcate  circumcision,  but  this  was  an  ancient  Arab  custom.  The 
social  regulations,  however  primitive,  marked  a  great  advance  on 
I$[oreish  practices ;  and  Muhammad  freed  his  own  slaves,  and  inculcated 
kindness  to  widows,  orphans,  and  slaves  alike.  He  made  laws  in 
defence  of  the  dowries  and  property  of  women,  and  allowed  them  to 
plead  against  bad  husbands.  We  are  however  not  able  to  make  sure 
that  the  !^oran  is  exactly  preserved  :  for,  on  the  prophet's  death,  it 
was  in  great  confusion,  some  poems  being  written  on  palm  leaves, 
some  on  sheep  shoulder-blades,  and  some  apparently  only  recited  and 
committed  to  memory.  Abu  Bekr  ordered  Zaid  to  collect  them  ;  and 
the  authorised  version  was  published  under  the  Khalif  'Othman  (644- 
€56  A.C.)  or  twenty  years  after  the  prophet's  death.  The  oldest  monu- 
mental extracts  (in  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  at  Jerusalem)  date  from 
692  A.C.  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  these  are  not  in  exact  accord 
with  the  received  text.  No  attempt  was  made  to  place  the  poems  in 
chronological  order,  and  many  of  the  oldest  come  at  the  end,  according 
to  length,  while  various  distinguishing  letters,  or  marks,  are  now  un- 
intelligible, and  were  apparently  so  to  the  earliest  commentators. 
The  language  is  that  of  the  ^oreish,  a  somewhat  archaic  dialect ;  and 
the  alphabet  used  appears  to  have  been  a  local  form  of  the  Aramean 
alphabet  of  N.  Arabia. 

The  later  beliefs  in  the  Mahdi,  and  in  the  time  of  trouble  to  be 
followed  by  a  millennium  (see  Hughes'  Dicty.  of  Islam^  and  the 
introduction  to  Sale's  !^oran),  are  not  found  in  the  Koran  itself. 
Moslems  also  differ  in  belief  as  to  Predestination,  which  is  not  dog- 
matically taught  in  the  Koran,  and  some  believe  in  Free-will. 
Mysticism  is  also  a  later  growth  (see  Sufis).  The  Koran  teaches 
abstinence  from  wine ;  and  true  Moslems  despise  drunkards ;   but  its 


574  Muhammad 

greatest  distinctive  feature  is  the  organisation  of  a  religion  withoot 
priests ;  for,  although  officials  are  attached  to  mosks,  prayer  is  au 
individual  act,  and  the  Imam,  or  ''  example,"  is  not  a  priest,  but  the 
most  respected  of  local  elders. 

The  quarrel  with  MuUammad  and  his  supporters  became  a  serious 
matter  for  the  Koreish,  for  Medinah  commanded  their  trade  route  to 
the  north.      In    December    623,  they  were  defeated  at  Bedr,  when 
trying  to  recover  a  caravan  load  of  leather,  wine,  and  raisins,  captured 
by  Moslems.     The  fight  at  Obod,   in  February  625,  was  indecisive, 
and  Mubammad  was  wounded   in  the  face.     He  next  expelled    the 
Beni  Nadir  Jews  from  Medinah,  and  took  their  lands.    They  joined  his 
foes  at  Khaibar,  and  Abu  Sofian  made  a  supreme  effort  with  a  force  of 
10,000.     Yet  after   "the  war   of   the   Ditch,"    when    the    Moslems 
defended  a  fortified  position,  the  Makkans  had  to  retreat  in  March 
627,  and  next  year  a  truce  was  concluded.     Zainab  the  Jewess  nearly 
succeeded  in  poisoning  the  prophet,  and  the  murder  of  the  Khaibar 
Jews,  at  the  same  time,  gave  great  wealth  to  the  cause.     The  peace 
of   Hodaibiyeh    gave    Muhammad    the   right   of  peaceful    entry  into 
Makka,  and  his  triumph   was  now  secured  by  defeat  of  the  Hawazin 
tribe.     In   March  632,  he    performed    the    annual  pilgrimage;  and 
Makka  submitted  without  a  blow  when  she  saw  the  famous  statue  of 
Habal    thrown    down    by  this  daring  reformer,    without    any  divine 
vengeance  overtaking    him    (see   Habal).     The  Moslems  turned  their 
arms  to  the  north,  where  Khalid  had  met  with  defeat  in  the  autumn 
of  629  A.C.     Thirty  thousand   Arabs  left  for  the  front  in  £dom,  and 
the  last  act  of  the  prophet,  who  now  was  supreme  in  Arabia,  was  to 
bless  them  as  they  left.     On  Monday  the  8th  of  June  632,  after  a 
last  service  in  his  mosk,  Mubammad  died  peacefully  in  the  arms  of 
'Aisha,  and  was  buried  in  his  humble  house  at  Medinah,  close  to  the 
Mosk,  leaving  a  command  that  his  tomb  should  never  be  made  a  place 
of  worship.     His  last  recorded  whispers  are  said  to  have  been  :  *'  Lord 
grant  me  pardon  and  join  me  to  the  fellowship  on  high — Eternity — 
Paradise — Pardon — Yes  the  blessed  fellowship — on  high." 

Abu  Bekr  was  his  first  "  successor  "  (Khalif),  but  he  also  died 
on  22nd  August  634.  In  the  summer  of  635,  under  the  Ebalif 
'Omar,  Damascus  fell  to  the  Moslems,  and  on  the  20th  August  636 
the  victory  of  the  Yarmuk  (the  river  S.E.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee)  was 
secured  by  Khalid's  wondrous  march  over  the  E.  desert.  The 
Byzantine  rule  in  Syria  was  thus  destroyed,  and  the  road  to 
Jerusalem  and  Egypt  lay  open  to  Moslems.  The  battle  of  l^adasiyab, 
in  the  end  of  637,  gave  them  Irak,  and  Egypt  was  conquered  in 
641,  while  in  the  same  year  Persepolis  was  entered,  and  the  Sassanian 


Muharram  57& 

dynasty    of   Persia    overthrown.      This    glorious    Khalifate  ended    in 
November  644,  and  'Othman,  the  third  Khalif,  proved  a  weak  ruler, 
the  empire  being  full  of  revolt  till  he  was  murdered  at  Medinah  in 
656.     For  Islam  now  gradually  divided  into  two  great  parties,  Sunni 
("  traditionists  ")  in  the  West,  and  Shi'ah  ("  sectarians  ")  in  the  East. 
The  former  were  pure  Moslems,  the  latter  were  influenced  by  Persian 
Mazdean    ideas.      The   former  followed    Mu'awiya,   the    son  of   Abu 
Sofian,  who  was  made  ruler  of  Syria  under  'Othman  ;  and  politically 
this  was  the  Keis  party.     The  latter  were  faithful  to  'Ali,  the  son-in- 
law  of  the  prophet,  chosen  as  the  4th  Khalif  at  Makka.     They  there- 
fore were   politically   known  as   Tamani.     'AH  was  assassinated    on 
Friday  the   15th  of  Ramadan  (January)   661,  and    his   son   Hasan 
abdicated  six  months  later  (see  Hasan).     Thus  for  a  time  the  family 
of  Abu  Sofian  reaped  the  results  of  Muhammad's  success,  and  ousted 
his   family,  founding  the   famous  Ommeiyah   dynasty   of  Rhalifs  at 
Damascus.       Under    Mu'awiya    the    Moslem    victories    extended    to 
Bokhara,  l^abul,  and  Multan  on  the  east,  and  in  Africa  to  Kairwan. 
A  treaty  was  made  with  Constantine  lY  in  678,  and  two  years  later 
Mu'awiya  died.     But  the  dynasty  endured  till  750   A.c.  under  his 
12  successors.     Spain  was  conquered  in  710,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean  were  all  held  within   70  years  of  Mul^ammad's  death. 
The  highest  condition  of  prosperity  and  culture  in  Islam  was  reached, 
however,  when  Abu  el  'Abbas,  a  descendant  of  the  prophet's   uncle, 
won  the  battle  of  the  Zab  on  25th   January   750,  and  founded  the 
'Abbaside    dynasty  of   Khalifs    in    Baghdad.     The    study    of   Greek 
philosophy   undermined  Moslem  orthodoxy,  and  the  Arabs    adopted 
the  civilisation  of  Byzantium  and  of  Persia.     The  great  age  of  their 
art  and   science  was  that  of  the  fifth  'Abbaside,  Harun    er    Rashid 
("Aaron  the  Just,"  786  to  809   A.C.),  and  of  Mamun  his  son  (813- 
833  A.C.).     But  after  a  century  this   great  house   in   turn    decayed, 
and  Turkish  Atabeks  at  Baghdad  gradually  usurped   political  sway. 
The  Egyptian  Rhalifs  (930  to  1170  A.C.)  were  usurpers,  who  claimed 
descent  from  Fatimah  the  prophet's  daughter.     The  last  true  Ehalif 
of  Baghdad  (37th  of  the  house  of  'Abbas)  died  in  prison,  when  the 
Mongol  Hulagu  took  the  city,  on  5th  February  1258. — Ed.] 

Muharram.  Arabic :  "  consecrated."  The  first  month  of  the 
Moslem,  year,  and  one  of  four  in  which  war  was  forbidden  in  Arabia* 
The  first  ten  days  are  devoted  to  mourning  (see  Hasan)  and  the 
tenth  (or  'Ashurah)  is  a  fast. 

Muidhr.  Midhr.  Keltik  :  the  "  sun "  stone  (see  Mithra) : 
pronounced  muV  (see  Mr  Keane,  Towers  and  Temples  of  Ireland^ 


576  Muk 

pp.  65,  332).     In  the  island  of  Innis  Murray  this  emblem  was  adored 
{see  Miiri)  as  fully  treated  in  Rivers  of  Life  (i,  p.  485,  figs.   181, 
182,   183). 

Muk.      Keltik  :  •*  boar  "  and  also  **  whale." 

Mukani.  Arabic  :  ''  station  "  (see  Mazar).  The  Hebrew  Makdm 
("  place  "  or  "  shrine  "),  as  at  Shechem  (Gen.  xii,  6).  Any  shrine  of 
Yahveh  was  a  Makom  (Exod.  xx,  24). 

Mukene.    Mycenae.       The  celebrated  city   N.  of  Ai^^os,  anti 
N.W.  of  Tiruns,  the  capital  of  Agamemnon,  which  fell  into  ruins  after 
the  Dorian  conquest  of  1100  B.c.      It  was  half  deserted  in  the  5th 
century  B.G. ;  its  earliest  remains  are  supposed  to  be  as  old  as  1500 
B.G. ;  its  art  resembles  that  of  Asia  Minor,  but  Egyptian  objects  show 
acquaintance  with  the  Nile  civilisation,  such  as  we  know  the  Aryan 
tribes  must  have  had  as  early  as  1300   ac.  (see  Egypt).     The  un- 
cut masonry  is  the  same  as  that  found  in  Asia  Minor,  N.  Syria,  and 
Etruria.        The    later    polygonal    masonry     was    the    same   as  that 
used  in  Asia  Minor  down  to  the  Roman  age.    Strabo  (viii,  6)  says  that 
the  Cyclopes  ("  round  faced  "  men)  of  Karia  built  the  walls  of  Myceosp. 
The  chiefs  of  MycensB  were  apparently  illiterate  in  the  earliest  age, 
and  we  find  only  a  few  signs  of  the  "  Asianic  syllabary "  on  potterj, 
and  short  texts  of  about  the  6th  or  7th  century  B.C.,  such  as  JSTvaro^., 
and  To  Heroes  Emi  ("I  am  a  hero's ").     The  designs  and  subjects 
on  gems  are  Greek.     The  civilisation  is  the  same  as  at  Troy,  and 
traditionally  the  descendants  of  Perseus,  from  Nauplia  and  the  coasts 
of  Argolis,  founded  Mycenae  and  Tiruns  (Herod.,  vi,   53),  being  suc- 
ceeded by  the  sons  of  Pelops  from  Thrakia,  akin  to  the  Phrygian 
Aryans ;  so  that  Teucer  told  Agamemnon  that  "  his  grandfather  was 
a  Phrygian  barbarian." 

[Further  discoveries  were  made  at  Mycenae  in  1886,  after  those 
of  Dr  Schliemann,  a  sixth  tomb  being  discovered  in  the  Akropolis 
(see  Mycence  by  Dr  H.  Schliemann,  1878,  and  SchliemAinn*8  Excava- 
tions by  Dr  C.  Schuchhardt,  English  translation,  1891).  The  lion 
gateway  is  found  to  resemble  8  similar  instances  in  Asia  Minor,  in 
which  two  lions  flank  a  pillar.  The  burials  in  the  tombs  (of  both 
men  and  women)  may  have  been  successive.  The  bodies  were 
<;remated  in  the  grave  (see  Dead);  but  near  Tomb  3  were  found 
many  unburned  bodies,  possibly  of  slaves  killed  at  the  grave  of  a 
chief.  The  amount  of  gold,  in  the  form  of  breastplates  (for  men), 
large  diadems  for  women,  masks,  ribbons,  shield-bosses,  bracelets,  etc., 
amounted  to   100  lbs.  Troy  weight.     The  religion  of  the  artists  is 


Mula-Vriksha  577 

shown  by  figures  of  the  naked  Venus  (as  among  Hittites  and  Akka- 
diansX  with   doves,  gems  representing  HSrakl^  and   the  lion,  the 
garden  of  the  Hesperides,  and  such  figures  as  the  sphyDX,  gryphon, 
and  double  eagle ;  one  design  represents  a  winged  man  with  horse's 
feet,  playing  a  flute;  in  another  a  pole  is  borne  by  three  human 
figures  having  the  heads  of  lions  with  the  ears  of  the  ass :  these 
recall  not  only   the  ass-ears  of  Midas,  but  also  those  of  Assyrian 
demons.     The  fylfot  cross  (see  Svastika)  is  often  found  on  the  pottery, 
as  at  Troy,  and  the  art  generally  is  the  same  as  that  of  Hittites  and 
Minyans,  or  that  found  in  Thera,  Cyprus,  Erete,  Sicily,  Etruria,  and 
Asia  Minor.     The  materials  used  include  obsidian  (from  Asia  Minor), 
amber   (from  Sicily),  alabaster,  diorite   (for   axes),  glass   beads    and 
charms  (from  Egypt),  and  precious  metals  and  stones ;    but  iron  only 
occurs  in  the  latest  remains.     There  are  no  lamps  (and  lamps  are  un- 
noticed by  Homer),  nor  any  early  swords,  but  only  daggers.     The 
gold  masks  which  covered  the  faces  of  the  dead  (even  of  children) 
resemble  some  from  Egypt,  but  such  a  mask  has  also  been  found  at 
Arvad  in  Phoenicia,  and  a  bronze  mask  at  Nola  in  Italy,  while  a  stone 
one  was  discovered   in   Palestine.      The  butterfly  is  represented  in 
gold  (see  Butterfly),  and  doves  appear  on  cup  handles  (see  Iliad,  xi, 
632),  while  a  lion  hunt  is  shown  in  color.      Paintings  represent  a 
palace  with  women   sacrificing ;    and  enamels  represent  cats,  ducks, 
fish,  and  papyri :  a  wooden  fish,  and  horns  of  ivory,  have  also  been 
found.     One  gravestone  represents  a  man  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  a 
horse,  and  the  clumsy  sword  is  like  those  borne  by  Hittites  on  their 
monuments.      The  conclusion  seems  to  be  that  an  illiterate  Aryan 
race  was  receiving  its  civilisation  from  the  Turanians  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  description  of  the  gold,  and  other  ornaments,  in  the  dowry  lists  of 
Tadukhepa  (Amarna  tablets)  in  the   15th  century  B.C.  might  often 
apply  to  the  art  of  Mycenae,  but  belongs  to  that  of   the   Minyans 
(see  Minyans)  of  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia,  possibly  connected  with 
Greek  Minuans. — Ed.]     Mr  Evans  (Journal  Hellenic  Socy.,  Novem- 
ber 1900)  points  to  the  worship  of  pillars  and  trees  at  Mycenae,  which 
was  common  to  all  W.  Asia. 

Mula-Vriksha.     An  Indian  tree  of  life,  one  of  six  Vrikshas,  the 
others  being  Mandara,  Parijataka,  Santana,  ELalpa,  and  Hari-Ghandana. 

Mulge.  Akkadian  :  "  lord  below "  ;  otherwise  read  Mul-lil,  or 
En-lil,  *'  ghost  lord  "  (see  Lilith).  The  Akkadian  name  of  Ba'al,  lord 
of  earth  and  of  hell.  His  son  was  Nam-tar,  "  fate "  or  "  plague." 
His  wife  was  Nin-ki-gal  ("  lady  of  dead-land  ").  He  is  often  invoked 
in  Akkadian  texts  (see  Lobi  and  Nipur). 
2  0* 


578  Mulida 

Mulida.  Mylitta.  The  Babylonian  godess  of  "bearing"  off- 
spring, wiio  is  the  Mylitta  of  Herodotos,  to  whom  the  temple  women 
were  consecrated  (see  Kadesh). 

Mungho.  MungO.  A  pet  name  for  St  Eentigern  (516  to 
603  A.C.),  meaning  "dearest  friend."  His  mother,  Thenew, or Tbenna, 
was  the  daughter  of  the  pagan  king  of  Laudonia  (the  Lothians),  who 
desired  to  marry  her  to  the  king  of  Cambria,  or  Strath-Clyde  (see 
Pinkerton,  Notes  and  Queries^  7th  Jany.  1888) ;  but  a  beardless 
youth,  disguised  as  a  girl,  made  her  a  mother  (as  in  the  story  of 
Akhilleus),  while  she  wandered  with  swine  herds.  The  angry  king 
set  her  afloat  in  a  leather  coracle  (see  Perseus),  which  floated  to  the 
Isle  of  May,  and  was  cast  ashore  finally  at  Eulross  in  Fifeshire,  where 
her  child  was  born.  Here  St  Servanus  (who,  however,  lived  much 
later  than  Mungo)  baptised  the  mother  and  her  infant  in  520  A.C., 
and  the  boy  was  known  as  Enoch,  or  as  Eentigern — "the  head 
master,"  or  "  lord,"  because  of  his  royal  descent  He  lived  with  his 
mother  at  Glasgow  (or  Glasgu  rendered  "  dear  family  "),  then  known 
as  Cathures,  at  the  site  of  the  present  cathedral.  He  became  a  pious 
ascetik  in  the  cave  chapel — said  to  have  been  built  by  St  Ninian — 
probably  the  present  crypt.  Friends  and  disciples  gathered  round 
this  ''  dear  friend,"  but  they  were  expelled,  and  fled  to  S.  Wales, 
settling  at  Menevia  (St  David's),  and  founding  the  monastery  of 
Llanelwy,  afterwards  St  Asaph's.  Mungo  returned  to  Scotland  when 
Roderick  became  king  of  Cambria ;  and  he  became  bishop  at  Haddam 
in  Dumfriesshire,  but  died  finally  in  his  old  home  at  Glasgow  on  13th 
January  603,  and  was  buried  at  Sancta  Tbamestis,  or  St  Enoch,  on 
Clyde  side.  His  legend  is  evidently  of  pagan  origin,  and  Thenna  is 
perhaps  connected  with  Tydein,  a  Druid  ical  Apollo.  The  story  of  bis 
ark  is  common  in  Semitic,  Greek,  and  Persian  mythology  (see  Moses); 
his  mother  appears  as  Cemeda,  Thenat,  Thanes,  and  in  Wales  as 
Dwyenwen,  among  Keltik  godesses.  The  spire  of  St  Enoch's  once 
rose  alone  in  the  great  square  where  is  now  the  great  railway  station 
of  that  name  (see  Da  vies,  Brit  Dmids,  p.  193). 

Munin.     The  raven  which  sat  on  Odin's  shoulder  as  "  memory/* 

Munker  and  Nakir.  Arabic:  ''the  digger  and  the  hewer"; 
two  black  angels  who  according  to  Moslems  visit,  and  examine,  the 
dead  in  the  grave,  which  they  open.  They  question  the  soul  as  to  its 
faith,  and  if  he  can  repeat  the  Teshabid  (or  "testimony" — I  bear 
witness  there  is  no  God  but  Allah,  and  Mubammad  is  his  messenger) 
they  give  him  sweet  repose,  and  fill  up  the  grave,  pressing  down  the 


Muns  579 

clay  that  the  body  may  be  coDSumed  before  the  Resurrection.  Then 
on  the  third  day  after  death  the  soul  departs  to  heaven.  But  if  the 
soul  is  impious,  these  angels  beat  the  corpse  with  clubSi  till  the  cries 
of  the  dead  can  be  heard  by  living  believers ;  but,  though  of  equal 
importance  to  them,  unbelievers  and  Jinns  never  hear  these  cries, 
[The  same  idea  of  an  angel  visiting  the  dead  is  found  in  the  Talmud, 
and  in  the  Hadokht  Nask  of  the  Zend  Avesta,  and  this  angel  in 
Persia  is  created  by  the  good  thought,  word,  and  deed  of  the  dead 
man,  and  leads  him  to  the  bridge  of  heaven.  But  the  evil  man,  on 
the  third  night,  is  blown  to  a  hell  of  darkness  and  mire  by  a  stinking 
wind,  and  dwells  with  Ahriman  and  his  devils. — Ed.] 

Muns.  Munds.  Mundas.  A  branch  of  the  Eolarians  (see 
Eols),  the  Monades  of  classic  writers,  also  Mundals,  or  the  classic 
Mandaloi,  found  in  S.W.  Bangal,  by  the  Da-munda  or  Dammuda  river. 
They  pushed  W.  into  Central  India,  and  along  the  Narbada,  or  Nar- 
munda,  river  into  Malwa  and  Surashtra.  In  N.  Bangal  and  Tirhut, 
they  occupied  the  kingdom  of  Yideha,  and  they  were  found  in  the 
capital  at  Vaisala  and  in  Magadha.  All  regions  of  the  Ganges  S.  of 
Mathila,  or  Tirhut,  were  known  as  Mung-ir  or  *'  Mun  land,"  and  their 
name  may  appear  at  Munipur  in  Assam.  The  Eols  are  thought  to 
come  from  Assam,  which  presents  however  impassable  mountains  on 
the  north  ;  and  Mongolic  tribes  would  more  easily  congregate  at  Mana- 
sarwar,  and  follow  the  Sravasti  river  to  the  central  part  of  N.  India, 
or  might  come  in  by  the  Brahma-putra  valley.  The  Mundas,  or 
Mundlas,  are  still  numerous  in  the  rocky  jungles  of  Ghutia  Nagpur 
and  in  Mundla,  at  the  sources  of  the  Narbada,  This  is  the  centre, 
of  the  Baigas,  or  priestly  class  of  the  Munds  and  Eols,  who  have 
shaven  heads,  whence  Mund  is  now  rendered  *'  shaven  "  as  a  Sanskrit 
word  ;  but  the  title  is  probably  older  (see  Man)  and  Munda  is  known 
as  a  non- Aryan  language  (Col.  Bloomfield,  Notes  on  Races  of  Central 
Provinces^  January  1885).  They  have,  however,  now  adopted  Aryan 
caste  restrictions  as  to  killing  cattle,  etc. 

Munthukh.  An  Etruskan  godess  of  health  (Hugeia)  and  one  of 
the  graces,  carrying  a  dove,  a  stylus,  and  cosmetics.  [Akkadian  Man-; 
takk  "  condition  of  firmness." — Ed.] 

Mura.     Vishnu  as  the  sun.     See  next  article. 

Muri.   Innis-Muidhn   Inch -Murray.     See  Mari  and 

Muidhr.  The  island  of  St  Geidhe  (Innis-Eea)  about  5  miles  off 
the  W.  Sligo  coast  in  Ireland.  Remains  of  an  ancient  temple  existed 
here  a  generation  ago  (Sir  J.  E.  Tennent,  Notes  and  Qtierits,  v,  121, 


580  Murutas 

1852).     The  menhir,  or  liDgam,  was  Burrounded  by  a  dry-stone  wall, 
180  by  100  feet,  10  feet  high,  and  5  to  10  feet  thick  (see  Rivers  of 
Life,  i,  p.  485,  fig.  183).     Within  this  area  were  two  chapels  of 
St  Molas,  and  one  of  St  Columb-kill,  with  small  cells  and  caves.    The 
people  used  to  flock  thither  to  pray.     The  dead  were  brought  to  this 
spot  from  the  mainland  for  burial.     General  Vallency  (Preface  to  Iri^ 
Dtcty,)  gives  a  sketch  of  the  lingam,  and  a  plan  of  the  chapels.     This 
stone,  accordinig  to  Earl  Roden  (as  quoted  in  Turner's  SaTuoa),  was 
a  Fidh  Nemad  (see  Fidh),  and  "  an  old  woman  priestess  used  to  keep 
it  well  sewn  round,  and  wrapped  up  in  flannel "  (like  the  Polynesian 
lingam  stones)  :  "  its  power  was  held  to  be  immense,  and  it  was  prayed 
to   for  good  and  evil,  in  sickness,  distress,  and  storms;  sometimes  it 
dashed  a  hapless  vessel  on  the  coast  of  these  wreckers,  and  at  other 
times  it  calmed  the  angry  waves."     Mr  W.  F.  Wakeman  (Survey  of 
Innis  Murray,  1893)  says  that  this  ancient  cashel  ("castle*')  con- 
tained the  "  Church  of  the  Women,"  and  the  '*  Church  of  Fire  "  ;  in 
the  latter  (till  destroyed)  was  a  slab  on  which  sacred  fire  used  to  bum 
perpetually,  and  near  it  were  swearing  stones,  and  two  boled-stones  at 
which  pregnant  women   prayed,  as  well  as  ''  holy  wells  and  other 
interesting  remains."     But  in  1880-1882  the  Board  of  Works  pulled 
down  the  S.W.  wall  of  this  Fire  Church  (Teach  na  Teinidh),  and 
the   "  fire  stone "   (Leach-na-Teinidh)  was  broken  up   for  building 
purposes. 

Murutas.  VurutaS.  Kassite:  "hero  Vuru."  This  was  the 
name  of  a  god,  found  in  Eassite  king's  names  (Nazi-murutas,  and 
Eatisman-vurus),  rendered  BeLu  (Ba'al)  in  Semitic  speech,  and  Kinib 
in  Akkadian.  The  same  as  Urus  or  Vurus,  from  Ur  "bright/* 
**  fiery  "  (see  Nimrod). 

MUS.  Musha.  Latin  and  Sanskrit,  the  "  stealthy,"  a  symbol  of 
night,  and  of  Siva.  The  Greek  Apollo  treads  on  the  mouse,  as  Ganesa 
in  India  rides  a  mouse  or  rat  (for  these  are  little  distinguished  in 
mythology),  and  Apollo  is  the  "Pied  Piper"  who,  with  his  music, 
charms  away  these  night  demons.  The  soul  leaves  the  body  at  night 
as  a  mouse  (see  Metempsychosis),  and  it  is  the  emblem  of  Holds  or 
Berchta,  and  of  St  Gertrude.  Mice  are  ghosts,  and  when  they  leave 
a  house,  or  rats  a  sinking  ship,  it  is  a  sign  of  death.  They  are  wise 
and  powerful  and  can  free  lions  from  snares,  in  return  for  being  spared 
in  a  previous  time  of  life  (a  Jataka  tale).  They  dip  their  tails  in  honey 
of  butter,  and  dive  into  holes,  being  emblems  of  life  and  of  the  soul. 
They  gnawed  the  robe  of  Pallas,  and  the  shrew  mouse  was  sacred  to 
Sekhet  in  Egypt     But  the  cat  destroys  them  (see  Cat). 


Musala  58i 

Musala;   MusalL     Sanskrit :  "  pestle."     See  Pestle. 

NEuslim.     Arabic  :  "  saved."     See  Islam. 

Mut.     Egyptian  :  "  matter."     See  Maut. 

Mygale.   Mugale.     The  shrew  mouse.     See  Mus. 

Mythology.     The  study  of  myths,  or  "  sayings."     The  myth  has 

a  natural  origin  in  the  belief  that  every  natural  object  ha£  a  life  or 

soul  (see  Animism),  and  in  the  imperfect  language  of  early  man.     The 

first  poets  who  described  nature  did  not  use  similes.     They  said  the 

cloud  was  a  bellowing  bull,  and  not  that  the  thunder  in  the  cloud 

bellowed  like  a  bull.     The  meanings  of  the  myths,  when  fairly  clear, 

are  explained  in  special  articles  on  the  various  legends.      Turanian 

and   Semitic  races  have  myths  as  well  as  Aryans,  and  the  Greeks 

borrowed  many  of  theirs  from  Akkadians,  Hittites,  Babylonians,  and 

Phoenicians.     Such  tales  were  related  by  child-like  men,  and  for  the 

amusement  and  instniction  of  children  ;  but  many  myths  use  a  very 

primitive  phallic  symbolism  (as  in  the  story  of  Lot,  and  in  Greek 

tales,  or  especially  in  Hindu  Puranas).     Parents  also  frightened  naughty 

children,  or  warned  good  ones  of  the  terrors  of  nature,  by  primitive 

folk-tales.     The  foaming  torrent  had  its  kelpie,  the  sullen  pool  its 

corp.     Savage  men,  beasts,  and  demons,  lurked  in  forests  and  deserts. 

The  Persians  said  that  demons  existed  even  in  the  sacred  fire  and 

water,  and  caused  death.      Myths  founded  on  facts  became  terrible 

realities,  and  excited  the  imagination  of  savages  and  children,  till  they 

fancied  they  saw  demons,  ghosts,  spirits,  and  guardian  angels,  when 

awake,  as  well  as  in  sleep.     The  religions  of  the  past  survive  in  the 

nursery  tales  of  Grimm  and  Andersen,  or  in  the  Arabian  Nights, 

Ingersol  speaks  of  the  fair  spirits  of  spring  and  summer  ;  but  savages 

saw  war  in  nature,  and  terrors  in  the  unknown.     The  appreciation 

of  beauty  belonged  to  later  and  more  civilised  ages,  and  the  Greek 

gods  were  at  first  phallic  deities,  and  ferocious  beings  demanding 

human  victims.     Night  and  darkness  caused  fear,  and  sheltered  evil 

men.     The  sun  was  the  "  friend  "  before  whom,  and  before  the  rosy 

dawn,  the   devils  fled.     Clouds  were  cows,  but  also  growlers,  and 

archers  pelting  with  hail,  or  slaying  with  the  fiery  arrow  or  serpent 

of  the  lightning.       The   wrath   of  gods  was   shown    by   flood,  and 

tempest,  and  earthquake.      Therefore  must  it  be  appeased  by  sacrifice 

(see  Sacrifices),  and  devils  propitiated  by  gifts.     Thus  religions  grew — 

and  not  from  ethiks.     Mythology  was  formulated  in  dogma.     The  old 

gods  could  not  be  kept  out  of  the  new  systems,  as  long  as  millions — 

whose  fathers  had  believed  in  them  for  ages — could  not  read  or  write. 


582  Mythology 

Priests,  like  their  flocks,  could  not  forget  the  past,  or  surroQcler  their 
ancient  powers  founded  on  such  superstitions.  But  the  meaning  of 
words  and  legends  was  often  forgotten,  and  new  false  explanations  and 
etymologies  were  so  introduced,  while  savage  symbolism,  which  had 
b^^me  indecent  or  discreditable,  had  to  be  explained  away,  and 
abstract  ideas  took  the  place  of  the  crude  primitive  materialism. 

Dr  Tylor  classes  myths  as :  (1)  Explanatory :  (2)  Descriptive : 
(3)  Historical  L^ends  of  sun  and  moon  were  transferred  to  national 
heroes — to  Moses  or  Krishna,  Buddha  or  Christ.  Myths  were  con- 
verted into  allegories  and  fables,  with  a  moral  explanation.  Men  in 
time  fancied  that  all  the  gods  once  lived  as  heroes  on  earth  (see 
EuhSmeros).  We  must  never  forget  that  the  myth-makers  had 
neither  the  moral  standard,  nor  the  astronomical  knowledge,  often 
attributed  to  them.  Not  only  has  "  every  story  had  a  definite  origin," 
but  even  every  dream  is  based  on  something  really  seen.  MateriaUsm 
is  the  true  explanation  of  mythology.  But  Dr  Tylor  says :  "  Even  the 
firagments  of  real  chronicle  found  embedded  in  the  mythic  structore 
are  mostly  in  so  corrupt  a  state  that,  far  from  elucidating  history,  they 
need  history  to  elucidate  them.  Tet  unconsciously,  and  in  spite  of 
themselves,  the  shapers,  and  transmitters  of  .poetic  legend  have  pre- 
served for  us  masses  of  sound  historical  evidence.  They  moulded  into 
mythic  lives  of  gods  and  heroes  their  own  ancestral  heirlooms  of  thought 
and  word  :  they  displayed  in  the  structure  of  their  l^ends,  the  operations 
of  their  own  minds :  they  placed  on  record  the  arts  and  manners,  the 
philosophy  and  religion,  of  their  own  times,  of  which  formal  history 
has  often  lost  the  meaning.  Myth  is  the  history  of  its  authors,  not  of 
its  subjects.  It  records  the  lives  not  of  superhuman  heroes  but  of 
poetic  nations."  We  seek  therefore  for  the  Hebrew  Paradise,  and  the 
Indian  Meru,  and  for  the  home  of  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet. 


END   OF    VOL.    II. 


^759^j 


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