UNIVERSITY
OF FLORIDA
LIBRARIES
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive
in 2011 witii funding from
LYRASIS IVIembers and Sloan Foundation
http://www.archive.org/details/familiesofwordsOOinpeim
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
OTHER BOOKS BY MARIO PEI
Published by Harper & Brothers
The Holiday Magazine Language Books for the Traveler
Getting Along in French (with John Fisher)
Getting Along in German (with Robert Politzer)
Getting Along in Italian
Getting Along in Portuguese (with Alexander R. Prista)
Getting Along in Russian (with Fedor I. Nikanov)
Getting Along in Spanish (with Eloy Vaquero)
Talking Your Way around the World
Published by J. B. Lippincott Co.
The Story of Language
All About Language
The Story of English
Published by The Devin-Adair Co.
Language for Everybody
One Language for the World
Published by The John Day Co.
Swords of Anjou
Published by Henry Holt & Co., Inc.
First Year French (with E. Meras)
Published by Philosophical Library, Inc.
The Sparrows of Paris
Dictionary of Linguistics (with F. Gaynor)
Published by Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co., Inc.
The Book of Place Names (with E. Lambert)
Our Names (with E. Lambert)
Published by Crown Publishers, Inc.
The Consumer's Manifesto
Published by Vanni Publications
The Italian Language
The Language of the Eighth-Century Texts in Northern France
The World's Chief Languages
The Families of Words
by
Mario Pei
Professor of Romance Philology, Columbia University
Harper & Brothers Publishers New York
Copyright © 1962 by Mario Pei
Printed in the United States of America
All rights reserved.
No part of the book may be used or repro-
duced in any manner whatsoever without
written permission except in the case of
brief quotations embodied in critical articles
and reviews. For information address
Harper & Brothers,
49 East 33rd Street, New York 16, N.Y.
FIRST EDITION
Library of Congress catalog card number: 61-8609
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to his colleagues
who assisted him in the compilation of this work, and particularly to
Professor Elliott V. K. Dobbie, of Columbia University, who went over
a great deal of the Germanic material and supplied numerous valuable
suggestions; and Professor Robert Fowkes of New York University,
who performed the same service for the Celtic material.
ABBREVIATIONS MOST FREQUENTLY USED
AF — Anglo-French
Ar. — Arabic
AS — Anglo-Saxon
Celt. — Celtic
Dan. — Danish
Du. — Dutch
Eng. — English
Fr. — French
Gaul. — Gaulish
Ger. — German
Goth. — Gothic
Gk.— Greek
Heb. — Hebrew
HG— High German
Hind. — Hindustani
IE — Indo-European
II — Indo-Iranian
Ir.— Irish
It. — Italian
Jap. — Japanese
Lat. — Latin
LG — Low German
Lith. — Lithuanian
ME — Middle English
MHG— Middle High German
MLG — Middle Low German
NF — Northern French
(Norman-Picard-Walloon)
OF— Old French
OHG— Old High German
Olr.— Old Irish
ON— Old Norse
OPers. — Old Persian
Osc. — Oscan
Prov. — Proven9al
Pt. — Portuguese
Rum. — Rumanian
Russ. — Russian
Scand. — Scandinavian
Sem. — Semitic
Skt. — Sanskrit
SI. — Slavic
Sp.- — Spanish
VL — Vulgar Latin
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
1 The Background of Indo-European 1
2 Indo-European Sound Correspondences 17
3 Later Changes in Anglo-Saxon, Greek, Latin, and Romance 32
4 One-Branch Families 44
5 Two-Branch Families 70
6 Three-Branch Families 146
7 Families of Four and Five Branches 208
List of Works Most Frequently Consulted 232
Indices 235
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
CHAPTER 1
The Background of Indo-European
How many words are there in the world's 2,796 spoken languages?
This is an idle question, to which no one has the answer.
Estimates of the number of words in individual languages often
appear. One such estimate for English, based on the entries in the
New English Dictionary, the most comprehensive lexicological tool at
our disposal, places the total number of English words at somewhere in
the neighborhood of 600,000, exclusive of such variants as dogs from dog,
or takes, took, taking, taken from take. But even the New English
Dictionary misses many of the words in actual use — slang or dialectal
forms, new technological expressions, new acceptances for old words,
brand-new coinages that appear every day. Each language is in a
state of flux, each adds to its wordstock at the rate of dozens, perhaps
hundreds, of words each day. The task of listing all the words in the
language (any language) is a hopeless one, because by the time you
have completed your list a new list is needed.
Yet it is a fact that all these hundreds of thousands of words, in
English as in all other tongues, have a way of grouping themselves
under common ancestors which are relatively few in number. Anyone
who gives the matter even fleeting thought will realize at once that
there must be something which receive, deceive, conceive, perceive hold in
common, a root word which in English assumes the form -ceive. Any
dictionary that gives etymologies will inform us that this -ceive, as well as
the -cept oi intercept, concept, the -cipate oi participate, the cap- o^ capable and
captive, goes back to a Latin word, capio, which may also assume the
form -cipio in compounds, that means "to seize, take" and the like.
What the dictionary does not ordinarily tell us is that this Latin word
stems from the same original root that produces have, haven, heave and
heft. The Latin capio and the English have are members of the same
word-family, and go back to a single common root- word.
1
2 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
This may cause a little surprise, because anyone knowing some Latin
and German would rather naturally assume that the Latin habeo
corresponds to both the German haben and the English have, all the
more since habeo means exactly "to have", while capio means "to
seize". Yet this apparently simple and logical assumption is wrong.
It can be proved wrong, and the proof will be forthcoming a little
later.
Again, it will rather naturally be assumed that English day and Latin
dies (or Spanish dia, or French -di of lundi, mardi) are the same original
word. Again, this assumption is wrong.
In English we speak of a rare occurrence and rare meat. Is it the same
word? Not at all. The first is Latin, the second is Anglo-Saxon, and
they have nothing in common save that in modern English they have
fallen together in pronunciation and spelling.
On the other hand, there are cases where our elementary etymolo-
gical instinct, based on similarities of sound and meaning, does not
deceive us. Does there not seem to be a relationship of some sort
between deep and dip, and could this not carry on even to dimple and
dump ? The answer is yes. Does not the link between just and justice
carry on io juror, jury, even conjure, injure and perjury? It does. Is it not
natural to assume a kinship between beard and barber, and when
someone who has studied Russian informs us that the Russian word
for "beard" is boroda, do we not have the feeling that it is a related
form?
The real fact of the matter is that words, in English as in other
languages, come in families, not as individuals. The word that has no
relatives is as rare as the man who tells you that he is entirely alone in
the world. In fact, there are no such words, and there are no such men.
He may not know it, but the mere fact that he is alive is clear indication
of the existence of cousins and other kinsmen, however far removed,
however much unknown to him.
We are going to present English words (with occasional words that
are not English, but with which most readers are acquainted) in their
family groupings. Some of them will be small and quite simple groups,
others extremely large and seemingly far-fetched, like water, whiskey,
hydrant and vodka, or rule, royal, right and rajah.
But first something must be said of the conditions that led to the
formation of these word-families and the way in which they started.
THE BACKGROUND OF INDO-EUROPEAN 3
Do all of the world's languages, past and present, stem from a single
original tongue? Or did they originate in various spots, with the
evolution of different groups of human beings ?
This question has interested linguists since linguists began to exist.
But it has far more than linguistic implications. If it could be proved
that all languages come from a single source, it would be a very strong
element of proof that all human beings likewise come from a single
source. It would be highly improbable that men, arising in unrelated
groups and in various regions of the earth without speech, would later
fasten upon a single form of speech. It is perfectly true that speech can
be acquired ; but if we postulate, as some anthropologists do, one human
group arising in northern Europe, a second around the Gulf of Guinea,
and a third in the valley of the Yellow River in China, we would then
have to suppose that one of these three groups began to speak, and
that speech was spread by later contacts to the other two groups. This
is not altogether impossible, but at a period when there was little
migration or intermingling, it seems not too likely.
If, on the other hand, three or more races of mankind had arisen
separately, and each had separately evolved its own form of speech,
then we would expect these forms of speech to be different from the
outset and show no common link save to the extent that the races later
came in contact.
The Biblical account describes all men as having a common origin,
and a single original form of speech, later differentiated as a result of
the Tower of Babel episode. This belief predominated throughout the
Middle Ages and well into the Renaissance, with the Hebrew of the
Old Testament assumed to have been the original tongue from which
all others stemmed.
It was not until the voyages of discovery began to bring to light a
vast number of hitherto unknown languages that this point of view
began to change. Many of the newly discovered tongues were so
utterly different from the familiar ones of the older period that those
who studied them were in spite of themselves forced to doubt that all
could stem from the same source. Eventually there came attempts at
classification, and by the eighteenth century most language scholars
were convinced that the relationship of all the world's languages
supposed at an earlier period was a figment of the imagination.
Numerous errors were made when classification was first attempted.
4 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
and it was not until the dawn of the nineteenth century that the languages
were finally placed in some sort of satisfactory pigeon-hole arrangement
(for a good many of the more obscure tongues, the pigeon-holes are
quite tentative even today).
Of one thing, however, the language scholars felt more and more
certain. These languages that were becoming ever more numerous and
diverse could not possibly all belong to the same family, or have any
sort of universal origin. Throughout the nineteenth century, which was
the great period of language classification, the possibility of common
origin was hushed up, and when the Italian linguist Trombetti brought
it up again in 1905 and presented a daring series of comparisons among
all the languages of the world designed to prove their monogenesis, or
unity of origin, his attempt met with skepticism and barely veiled
scorn.
Today the linguists are not so sure. Many of them admit the possi-
bility of links among language families that were formerly considered
altogether distinct and unrelated. The question of monogenesis, with
its far-flung implications concerning the single origin of the human
species, is still a highly debatable one.
What is not debatable is the very evident link among certain languages,
to the exclusion of others. No linguist denies the relationship and common
origin of Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, German, Russian and Welsh; or of
Arabic and Hebrew; or of Finnish and Hungarian. What some
linguists (perhaps still a majority) deny is the common origin of all
three groups.
The general classifications that were established in the nineteenth
century still hold, save for minor shifts. The present-day language expert
can state with almost absolute assurance, backed by undeniable evidence,
that certain tongues are related; beyond that, for lack of irrefutable
proof, he is unwilling to commit himself.
Among the major language classifications that have been established
beyond the shadow of a doubt is one called Indo-European (often
abbreviated in writing to IE), from the fact that its members extend
from northern India across Europe. Another name for it is Indo-
Germanic, which is justified by the fact that the name includes
the easternmost and westernmost members of the family (the
Indian branch, represented by Sanskrit, and the Germanic branch,
THE BACKGROUND OF INDO-EUROPEAN 5
represented by Icelandic) ; but this name also seems to give those two
members undue prominence, leaving the others out in the cold. A third
name is Aryan, which is even more objectionable because of its use
in racial rather than linguistic connotations.
The Indo-European language family has a demonstrable common
origin, but the original parent tongue is unknown, because writing had
not yet been invented at the time when it was spoken. The common
origin is shown by the vast number of word-roots which the member
languages hold in common, though they may use them in different
ways and with different meanings, and also by the fact that the different
branches show in their use of these root-words certain highly consistent
sound-shifts and sound correspondences. One of the most elementary
examples of the latter is that where Sanskrit, Greek and Latin have an
initial/), the members of the Germanic branch have an initial y^ (Latin
pater, ped-, piscis, vs. English father, foot, Jish).
The original speakers of Indo-European are supposed to have lived
in northern Europe, around the shores of the Baltic, though of that we
do not have absolute proof. An earlier theory was to the effect that
they lived on the Iranian plateau, in western Asia, and moved west-
ward in successive waves, save for the group that moved southeastward
into India. What led people to prefer north central Europe as a
hypothetical original habitat for the early speakers of Indo-European
was the fact that all or most of the branches hold in common certain
words for plants, animals, and minerals that exist in north central
Europe, but not other words denoting objects existing on the Iranian
plateau or in northern India. For example, most of the early Indo-
European languages show native developments of the same original
root for birch, beech, willow, ash, wolf, bear, goose, horse, dog, gold, silver,
but not for palm, olive, vine, laurel, tiger, elephant, lion, leopard.
Whichever way the migration may have gone, as groups of these
speakers wandered away in various directions, they lost touch with one
another, and their once identical speech began to develop differences,
until finally a number of separate dialects emerged. Many of these
disappeared in the course of history, their speakers dying out or being
absorbed by other groups. (Two important extinct groups were the
Hittite and the Tokharian.) Eight of them have come down to the
present day, and have modern representatives in the tongues of most of
Europe and southwestern Asia.
b THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
These eight Uving Indo-European groups, with their major sub-
divisions, are:
1 . Indo-Iranian; this includes the ancient and modern languages of
what is today northern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran. The
Indian sub-branch takes in ancient Sanskrit, ancient and medieval
languages called Prakrits, of which Pali is one, and modern languages
like Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, and numerous others. The Iranian division
comprises the Old Persian of Darius and Artaxerxes, the Avestan used
by Zoroaster, and the official tongues of present-day Iran and Afghani-
stan (Persian, Pashtu, Kurdish, etc).
2. Armenian; this is a small and isolated branch, appearing in
ancient, medieval , and modern times around the border region of
present-day Turkey and the Soviet Union.
3. Albanian; another small and isolated branch, spoken in Albania
and near-by regions.
4. Greek; in ancient times Greek was subdivided into several
dialects, and was spoken not merely in Greece, but in most of Asia
Minor, the islands of the Aegean, and in numerous Greek colonies
along the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Today it
is restricted to Greece and near-by islands, including Cyprus and
Crete.
5. Balto-Slavic; here, as with Indo-Iranian, we have two sub-
branches: the Baltic, including Lithuanian and Latvian, and the
Slavic, which takes in Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-
Croatian, Slovenian, and Bulgarian.
6. Italic; in ancient times this had two branches, Oscan-Umbrian
and Latin-Faliscan. Latin, however, absorbed all its kindred tongues,
and from Latin come all the modern Romance languages: French,
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Provencal, Sardinian, Rheto-
Rumansh, Rumanian.
7. Germanic; in ancient times, this had three branches; an eastern
one, represented by Gothic, which disappeared; a northern, which
gave rise to the Scandinavian tongues (Old Norse, modern Swedish,
Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic) ; and a western, which further sub-
divided itself into a High German and a Low German variety ; Old
High German, with some admixtures from the Low German dialects,
forms the basis of modern literary German ; the chief Low German
varieties were, in the early Middle Ages, Old Saxon, Anglo-Saxon
THE BACKGROUND OF INDO-EUROPEAN 7
(which uhimately turned into EngHsh) and Old Frisian, which gave
rise to Dutch (with closely related Flemish, Frisian, and Afrikaans).
8. Celtic; here again antiquity shows three subdivisions: a conti-
nental one, represented by ancient Gaulish, which vanished; a
Goidelic, whose modern descendants are Irish, Scots Gaelic, and Manx;
and a Brythonic, represented by Welsh, Cornish, and Breton.
All the languages mentioned, and many others besides, belong to the
Indo-European classification. However dissimilar they may appear
today, all have a common ancestry and many common root-words, as
well as a basically similar grammatical structure, which becomes more
evident as we go back in time (the grammar of Anglo-Saxon, for
instance, is much closer to that of Latin than is that of English to that
of Italian). Each branch, each sub-branch, and each individual
language is characterized by certain specific, distinctive features, which
have arisen over the course of centuries by a natural process of diversi-
fication or dialectalization ; still, the common origin, the common roots
and the common original structure are unmistakable.
It is on the basis of the common roots that we are able to attempt
some kind of reconstruction of the Indo-European parent language.
The reconstruction is quite hypothetical, yet it gives us a glimpse of that
mysterious early form of speech of which no written documents are in
existence.
How is the reconstruction achieved? By laying side by side the
earliest attested forms of each branch and, as we compare them,
arriving at some conclusion as to what the form that gave rise to all of
them must have been like. This very often involves a process similar to
an election or a Gallup Poll. When we find, for example, that the
common word appears with an initial p in Indo-Iranian, Balto-Slavic,
Italic, Greek, but with h in Armenian, f in Germanic, and complete
disappearance of the initial consonant sound in Celtic, we assume that
the majority group has kept the original sound while the three minority
groups have changed it (the fact that they show different forms, not
the same form, is added proof) ; so we assume that in a word like that
for "father", the original parent tongue had the p indicated by four
out of seven of our descendants, rather than the h, f, or nothing indi-
cated by the minorities. Where six of our branches show /, and only
Armenian and Germanic show th, we assume that t shows the original
state of affairs.
8 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
The sequence p-p-p-p-p-h-f-zero, or that of t-t-t-t-t-t-th-th must appear
in a large number of words before we accept it as definitive. In works
of a scientific nature, chance or stray resemblances or relationships do
not suffice. But once the relationship is established, it permits us to
prophesy with some degree of assurance what ought to be the form in a
language in which we have not yet found it. In other words, it tells us
what to look for or expect.
It is formulas of this kind that tell us that capio, not habeo, is the Latin
word that comes from the same Indo-European root as English have
or German haben; if Germanic has h, then Latin should have c, not
h; if Germanic has b (English have was habban in Anglo-Saxon), then
Latin should have p, not b. Capio, not habeo, is the Latin word that fits
the pattern. But what about the meaning? Shifts in meaning are
extremely common in Indo-European development; shifts in sound
pattern are not. To accept habeo as stemming from the same Indo-
European root as have, we would have to make one of two assumptions :
either that Latin borrowed the word from Germanic (or vice versa),
and this is not likely in the case of words in very general use ; or that
there was, in either Latin or Germanic, a special development in the
case of this woid, which would be so exceptional as to be little short
of miraculous.
A similar formula tells us that if day came from the same root as
Latin dies, Spanish dia, French -di, it would have t, not d. Strange as it
may seem, it is in the Tues- part of Tuesday, not in the -day part, that
we get the Anglo-Saxon relative of both Latin dies, "day" and Latin
dens, "god". Day comes directly from Old Norse daga, and more remotely
from an Indo-European root *dhagh''^^ or *dhegh, "warm period", which
develops in Latin into the forms that ultimately come to English in
foment and (possibly) fever.
The comparative method we have described serves to give a measure
of predictability to our work as we pass from one branch to another and
from one language to another. It also permits us to reconstruct, with
some measure of plausibility, the original Indo-European word roots.
In fact, it permits the more imaginative Indo-European specialists to
determine, more or less correctly, how the primitive Indo-European
<!' The asterisk in front of an Indo-European form indicates that this form is
hypothetical, and reconstructed from a comparison of all the others, which are
attested. It is also used for any other hypothetical or unattested form.
THE BACKGROUND OF INDO-EUROPEAN y
speakers might have phrased a sentence Hke "God gave teeth; God
will give bread". Placing side by side the translation of this statement
in three of the most conservative Indo-European known languages,
Sanskrit, Lithuanian and Latin, this is what we get :
Sanskrit: Devas adadat datas ; Devas daddt dhdnds.
Lithuanian: Dievas dawe dantis ; Dievas duos duonos.
Latin: Deus dedit dentes ; Deus dabit panem.
Indo-European: Deivos ededoj, dntns ;'''^^ Deivos dedot dhonds.
Even in as simple and primitive a sentence as this, it is of interest to
note that in its word for "bread" Latin has already strayed away from
the original *dhonds evidenced by Sanskrit dhdnds and Lithuanian
duonos, and replaced it with another word.
But this is a mere curio, and a hypothetical one at that. Of greater
importance is the fact that the reconstruction process shows us that as
against the hundreds of thousands of words of the modern descendants,
the parent tongue was far from rich. A very few thousand common
roots are all that we have been able so far to establish. Out of those
few thousand have developed, by infinite combinations and changes in
both form and meaning, the numerous words of today. But poverty of
words is, after all, what we should expect to find in a truly primitive
language.
Our reconstruction process also indicates that the original roots were
of a highly concrete nature. Abstract concepts are the aftermath of
civilization, and the original speakers of Indo-European had not yet
attained the cultural levels that were later reached by the speakers of
Sanskrit, Greek and Latin, let alone the modern tongues.
Among the original Indo-European root words we find such concrete
verbal ideas as drive, burn, breathe, grow, bend, sleep, go, increase, see, live,
die, join, sit, stand; we do not find refute, vindicate, dominate, endure, evade,
which are the later result of the blending of the earlier roots. Maximum
concessions to abstraction are praise, know, pledge, remember. There are
substantive forms denoting animals {horse, dog, bear, bird, fish) ; trees
and plants {oak, beech, barley) ; parts of the body {hand, foot, beard,
heart) ; materials and tools {stone, metal, plow, cooking pot) ; natural
phenomena {sun, moon, fire, water) ; family relationships {father, mother,
brother, sister). There are a few additional human relations, like guest,
<^' The symbol n indicates a vowel value for the n sonant.
10 THE FAMILIES OF \\U)RDS
host, orphan, or heir. But we miss such later products as phase, faith,
hope, charity, efficiency, though we find the means by which they were
later put together. At the most, the abstract concept is represented in
the earlier tongue by terms like honor, sorrow, illness, or by such super-
stition words as magic and demon. Among adjective forms, there are
colors {white, brown, red, green) ; shapes {sharp, flat, hooked) ; words
descriptive of what is visible or perceptible through the senses {big,
small, high, low, full, empty, bright, dark, sweet, bitter, hot, cold) ; numerals
{one to ten) ; at the most we get such abstractions as good and bad,
friendly and hostile. We find pronouns (/, you, this, that) and various
connecting words {with, from, under), along with a few adverbial forms
{now, here).
Often the reconstructed roots appear in two or more variant forms,
to account for the divergences of their later descendants, or for exten-
sions produced by the addition of formative elements that serve to
modify what appears to be the original meaning.
With the small number of root words appearing, we are sometimes
astonished at what seems to be idle repetition of the same concrete
concept : flow, call, shine (or glimmer, or shimmer) , grasp (or seize, or grip) ,
twist (or wind) , cut and all its variants {hew, split, saw) , strike {hit, smite) ;
until we pause to realize that in the primitive Indo-European mind
these near-synonyms represented different modes of action, as they
still do today, since they are still with us.
Not all of the ascertained roots get into all the branches of the Indo-
European family of languages. Often we find a root that appears in
Sanskrit, but for some reason or other skips the kindred Avestan, then
reappears in Greek, but not in Latin, and makes its westernmost bow
in Germanic, but does not show up in Celtic. The root that appears in
all eight living branches is very much the exception. Almost equally
exceptional is the root that appears in only one branch. Roots appearing
in three, four, and five branches are quite common.
It is at this point that our families of words come into play. The
identical Indo-European root may get into Germanic, then pass on to
Anglo-Saxon and thence to English; it may have another Germanic
form that -gets into Scandinavian and is then passed on to English by
King Canute's Danes. It may also appear in Latin, in vastly different
form, be passed by Latin on to French, become disguised by radical
THE BACKGROUND OF INDO-EUROPEAN 11
French sound-changes, and eventually finds its way into English by
reason of the Normans and 1066; but the same Latin word, picked up
by Renaissance scholars, may likewise appear in almost straight Latin
form in the English vocabulary. The original root may also appear in
Greek, and give rise to some modern English scientific term. It may
appear in Slavic or Celtic or one of the languages of India, and then be
borrowed by English as a totally foreign word.
This sort of process accounts for the kinship oi full, plenty, plenary,
plethoric, the -pur o^ jodhpurs, the -polls oi metropolis ; or o^ water, undulation,
hydrant, whiskey, and vodka ; or of royal, regal, right, ruler, and rajah. The
story has often been told of how an English word goes back to an Anglo-
Saxon one, or a Latin one, or a Greek one, or how it has been borrowed
from Sanskrit or Russian. We propose to carry the story a little farther
back, to the Indo-European stage, and show how entire groups of
words are the ultimate outcomes of one and the same root word.
English, in its original form, is Anglo-Saxon, a Low German dialect
of the western sub-branch of the Germanic branch of Indo-European.
Perhaps 25 per cent of our words (at least 50 per cent, however, of our
words of most frequent occurrence) go back to Anglo-Saxon or to
Middle English (when the dictionary describes a word as being of
Middle English origin, it means that it cannot be traced all the way
back to Anglo-Saxon, but also that there is no evidence that it was
borrowed from any other source ; this means that it is more likely to be
of native, or Anglo-Saxon, origin than of any other).
Even Anglo-Saxon, however, borrowed from the Latin and Greek of
the missionaries who came to Christianize the heathen Saxons, or of the
earlier Roman merchants who traded with the Germanic tribes while
they were still on the European mainland. Many English words,
despite their deceptive native appearance, come from those early
borrowings {church, street, cheese, kitchen, mint, minster are a few).
Then came the Danes, occupying half of England and bringing
their Scandinavian North Germanic to mingle with the Low West
Germanic of the Anglo-Saxons, thus producing a merger of two sub-
branches of the same Indo-European branch. They, them, take, cut,
shall, knife are samples of Scandinavian words that found their way
into everyday Old English, often displacing the Anglo-Saxon form
previously used {take, for instance, displaces a West Germanic,
12 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
Anglo-Saxon nimman that has as its close kinsman the modern
German nehmen).
The Norman Conquest of 1066 brought French to England. French
stems largely from Latin, but French also has other elements: Celtic
words from the ancient Gauls, Germanic words from the Franks,
Greek words that had previously been adopted by Latin. French words
brought into English in the centuries that preceded Chaucer generally
managed to adapt themselves very well to English speech-habits, and
many of them look quite native : very, pay, soldier, money, catch. Special
interest attaches to those words which were originally not Latin but
Germanic, were brought into French by the Franks, then carried on to
England, where they met, usually without recognition, their Germanic
kinsmen that had peacefully developed on English soil from Anglo-
Saxon. The Germanic root- word wadio, for instance, meaning "pledge",
becomes Anglo-Saxon and modern English wed; the same wadio,
carried into French by the Franks, then by the Normans to England,
becomes gage; but in the Norman-Picard dialect of Old French this
appears as wage. Not too many people would think of wed, wedding,
gage, engage and wage, wages as all stemming originally from the same
word.
After Chaucer's time, English, becoming a highly cultural language,
went in for wholesale borrowing of Latin and Greek words in their
Classical forms. Many of these learned borrowings duplicate words
already brought into English by the French. Thus fragile duplicates
frail, and compute duplicates count. Other learned borrowings duplicate
old English words that Anglo-Saxon had already taken from Latin and
Greek. Thus presbytery duplicates priest, and casein duplicates cheese.
One interesting case of triplication is the Latin moneta, "coin" (so
named because coins were minted in the old temple of Juno Moneta,
the "Warner"; this surname had been bestowed after her sacred
geese warned the Romans with their cackling that the Gauls were
trying to scale the walls by surprise) ; the Anglo-Saxons had already
borrowed moneta in the form oi mint; the Normans brought the word to
England again in the form of Old French monneie, and it became money;
the learned Renaissance form, close to the original Latin, is monetary;
since moneta comes from the root of moneo, "to warn", we also have
admonish and monitor from the same source.
Becoming more cultural and widespread, English borrowed from
THE BACKGROUND OF INDO-EUROPEAN 13
every language under the sun, Indo-European and otherwise. Already
having beam from Anglo-Saxon, it borrows boom (originally the same
word) from Dutch, Already having study from Old French, which had
taken it from Latin studium, English proceeds to take over the Italian
studio and the modern French etude, from the same original Latin source.
From French and Italian sources, it adapts saloon and cartoon, while at
the same time it borrows and adopts salon and carton.
Of course, not all the borrowings of English are from Indo-European
sources. Sherbet and syrup both come from the same Arabic (Semitic,
non-Indo-European) source. Tycoon and typhoon both show the Chinese
root tai, "big". The families of English words need not all be Indo-
European, though the majority of them are.
This book sets forth a certain number of word-families within the
English language, those which are more striking, and for which the
evidence seems more assured. It is far from exhaustive.
There are perhaps 2,000 productive Indo-European roots that have
been established with some degree of assurance. Of these, perhaps half
have recognizable descendants in English. Only about 200 are discussed
here.
As with all families, some are very large, others quite small. For what
concerns English, there are some to which only one Indo-European
branch has contributed, usually the Germanic, or the Latin, or the
Greek. These will be presented first. Next come word-families where
two of the great Indo-European branches have made contributions to
the English vocabulary; these are more numerous and, as a rule, more
extensive. The two-branch combinations are usually Greek-Latin,
Greek-Germanic, or Latin-Germanic; but there are also cases where
one of the "Big Three" joins forces with Celtic, Slavic, or Indo-Iranian.
Then come families where three branches, usually Greek, Latin and
Germanic, have collaborated in supplying English with descendants;
these are also quite numerous. Beyond three, there is a sharp drop,
since contributions to English from Slavic, Celtic and Indo-Iranian
are only occasional, and contributions from Albanian and Armenian
practically non-existent, save for a few place names and proper names.
But four, five and six-branch families of words are as a rule quite large
and cover a great deal of ground; they will therefore appear last.
In a good many cases, there is no agreement among authorities as to
whether certain contributions to the English vocabulary belong
14 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
together or not. These uncertainties are more likely to arise in the case
of branches where the documentation is relatively scanty, such as the
Germanic ; but they appear even in the case of heavily attested lan-
guages, like Greek or Latin. Where an inclusion is doubtful, it will be
described as such.
In the case of the Germanic branch, it must be borne in mind that
while contributions to English may come from Anglo-Saxon, Scandi-
navian, Dutch or German, such contributions are still from a single
branch, the Germanic. Thorp, dorp, and dorf reflect, respectively,
Anglo-Saxon, Dutch, and German; but they are all Germanic. It is
unfortunate that we do not have at our disposal the parent Germanic
tongue, intermediate between Indo-European and the later attested
languages, as Latin is intermediate between Indo-European and the
Romance tongues. While Gothic was the first Germanic language to
appear in fully recorded form, and is often presented as the Germanic
representative, it is in no sense the parent language of Anglo-Saxon,
Old High German, Old Norse, etc., but only an older brother; and
even that not in the true sense of "older", but only in order of appear-
ance. It is quite safe to assume that older versions of Anglo-Saxon, Old
High German, Old Norse, were spoken contemporaneously with
Gothic; but these older versions, like primitive Germanic and Indo-
European itself, did not come down to us in written form.
Latin may make its contribution to English directly or indirectly,
through one of the Romance languages (usually French) . Student goes
back directly to Latin, studio is Italian, etude is French, but they all have
a common Latin origin.
The fact that a certain word enters English from a certain language
is immaterial for purposes of basic classification if the word comes to
that language from a different source. Kirsch comes to English from
German, but German itself had taken it from Latin, which in turn had
taken it from Greek; Kirsch therefore joins cherry and cerise under a Greek
heading. Degage comes to us from French ; but French formed it from a
Germanic root, the same one that gives us wed; therefore, for purposes
of ultimate word-origins, (/^^a^e appears under its Germanic root. In the
case of learned words that largely retain their Latin or Greek forms, it
is immaterial for our present purpose whether they were adopted
directly by English scholars, or adopted into the learned vocabulary of
French by French scholars, then passed on to English in practically
THE BACKGROUND OF INDO-EUROPEAN 15
unchanged form. Hence, many of our entries will be labelled "directly,
or through French".
In listing English descendants of the various Indo-European roots,
we generally omit forms that are little known and little used, archaic,
dialectal, or too highly specialized in a certain field. There exist in
English forms like lamellibranch and lamellirostral, but they are known
only to zoologists, and are therefore omitted from our list of descendants
of Latin lama, "blade", while omelet, which everyone is familiar with, is
given. We also often omit obvious derivatives, like castigation, castigator,
from castigate.
On the other hand, there is no good reason to omit well-known place
names and 'personal names derived from a certain root, like the -bert of
Albert, Robert, etc., which comes from the same root as bright. Nor is
there good reason to omit significant, well-known foreign forms, like
the pro tempore (or its abbreviation j&ro tem) and the tempus fugit which,
despite the fact that they are straight Latin, appear in all standard
handy English dictionaries.
The family trees which we offer are simplified for reasons of space.
They repeat, in schematic form, what is already set forth in our
discussion of each root and its descendants. In doubtful cases, the
doubts are expressed in the main discussion and not repeated in the
trees, save for a possible question mark. Many learned forms, taken
directly from Latin and Greek from the fifteenth century on, and
easily identifiable by reason of their close resemblance to their Latin or
Greek prototypes, appear first in French, then are passed on to English;
others appear first in English ; in the case of some, there is doubt as to
whether English or French first created or adapted them. In our
simplified family trees, they will often appear as stemming directly
into English from Latin or Greek, since the intermediate French stage
is unimportant.
For the convenience of those who are interested in the major sound-
changes that occur within the Indo-European family, and also to
satisfy the curiosity of those who wonder at some of the drastic differ-
ences appearing among words of the same word-family that come into
English from different branches of Indo-European, a brief series of
tables follows in Chapter 2. These tables present, in simplified form, the
major consonant shifts that occur in the various Indo-European
branches. Each word-family is accompanied by one or more references
16 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
to one of these tables, describing the consonant shift exemplified in
the discussion and in the family tree.
Chapter 3 contains a very limited and elementary description of
some of the later changes from Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian to
modern English, and similar changes occurring in words of Greek,
Latin and Romance origin.
CHAPTER 2
Indo-European Sound Corrdspondences
The following tables of sound correspondences are a simplification of
those appearing in A. Meillet's Introduction a Vetude comparative des
langues indo-europeennes (Paris, Hachette, 1922). Only the major con-
sonants, presenting the really striking features of change, are given here.
Since very little that is worthy of note takes place in the liquid and
nasal consonants r, I, m, n, we have omitted them (normally, they
appear unchanged in all the branches of the family, save for a very
occasional interchange of / and r) . The vowels present, in some ways,
greater complexities, while at the same time they do not lend themselves
so well to the points we are trying to bring out, hence we do not discuss
vowel changes save in a few specific instances. Vowel length is indicated
by the appropriate mark {a, e, o, etc.) for Sanskrit and Germanic
(including Anglo-Saxon, Gothic, Old Norse and Old High German),
but not, ordinarily, for Latin or Greek, where it can easily be checked
in the ordinary school dictionary of those languages. The very rare
occurrence of the symbol (e) indicates that the vowel, in the parent
language, could be long or short.
Of the eight living Indo-European branches, Albanian is omitted,
by reason of its late appearance, the uncertainty of many of its forms,
and its scanty interest from the standpoint of English (very few, if any,
words from Albanian have found their way into English, save for
occasional place and personal names). The Indo-Iranian branch is
represented by its oldest member, Sanskrit. Balto-Slavic is represented
by Old Church Slavic, which does not differ widely from such a modern
Slavic tongue as Russian; Lithuanian could have been included as a
representative of the Baltic sub-branch, but its divergences from
Slavic are not at all striking, and very few words from the Baltic
tongues appear in English. Armenian and Greek are given, the former
17
18 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
by reason of its strong consonant-shifts which are often reminiscent of
Germanic, the latter because of its vast contributions to our language.
Italic appears in its Latin form; occasional references to the Oscan-
Umbrian sub-branch, and copious references to Latin's Romance
descendants, appear in the text. Celtic is represented by Old Irish,
with references to Welsh (Brythonic) where the two diverge. For
Germanic, the representative is Gothic, which was spoken in the region
of the Crimea at the time it was first recorded in Bishop Wulfila's
fourth-century a.d. translation of the Bible. The speakers of Gothic,
Ostrogoths and Visigoths (eastern and western Goths) shortly there-
after moved into the territory of the Roman Empire and were even-
tually absorbed by Latin-speaking populations, so that their language
ceased to be spoken. Gothic is a member of the extinct East Germanic
sub-branch of the Germanic or Teutonic languages, but it offers the
earliest complete set of attested forms. Its consonant system does not
diverge too widely from that of Anglo-Saxon or Old Scandinavian, the
two languages that join forces to produce the earliest English; modern
German, on the other hand, diverges from all the other Germanic
tongues by reason of a second, or High German, consonant-shift.
The first Germanic consonant-shift, whereby all the primitive
Germanic tongues differentiated themselves from the general Indo-
European pattern, occurred in preliterary times, and cannot be
precisely dated. It applies equally to the eastern sub-branch (rep-
resented by Gothic), the northern or Scandinavian (represented by
Old Norse and modern Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic),
and the western (represented by the ancestors of modern English,
Dutch, and German). Its chief features appear in our tables under the
Gothic heading.
In the course of the sixth century, the West Gerrnanic sub-branch
underwent a further cleavage. The Low West Germanic dialects
(roughly, those closer to the seacoast, including Old Frisian, Old
Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon, which are the immediate ancestors of Dutch,
Flemish, and English) retained the same general consonant structure
that appears in Gothic. The High West Germanic dialects (roughly,
those of the mountain regions, particularly Austria, Bavaria, 'and
Switzerland) went through a second transformation of the consonants,
the major feature of which was that Gothic or Anglo-Saxon p, t, k,
which already represented a shift from Indo-European or Latin or
INDO-EUROPEAN SOUND CORRESPONDENCES 19
Greek b, d, g, further shifted, respectively, to pf, ff or /; zz (later
represented by z or ss) ; and kh (later represented by ch) . The other
consonants underwent similar changes, but not so universally. It is
this second consonant-shift of High German that supplies the more
striking differences between modern English and modern German
where the two languages use the same word. Water, retaining a t which
appears also in Gothic, Scandinavian, and Dutch, has as its German
counterpart an older wazzar and a modern Wasser. English hemp, with a
p that comes from an Indo-European b appearing in Greek cannabis,
has as its German counterpart Hanf. The Latin and Greek ego o^ alter ego
and egotist had as its Anglo-Saxon counterpart ik, which modern English
has reduced to /; but German has ich. Other consonants involved in
the second or High German shift which frequently appear in their
shifted form in German, in their unshifted form in English, are Gothic
and Anglo-Saxon th coming from an original Indo-European t, which
in German appears as d (Latin tu, English thou, German du) ; and
Gothic and Anglo-Saxon d, issuing from Indo-European dh, which in
German appears as t (English door, German Tor).
Consonants which were shifted in Old High German, but where the
shift has generally been rejected by modern German, so that the
English and German forms coincide, are Gothic and Anglo-Saxon h
from Indo-European k (English heart, German Herz, Latin cord-,
Greek kard-) ; Gothic and Anglo-Saxon b from Indo-European bh
(English brother, German Bruder, but Old High German pruoder) ;
Gothic and Anglo-Saxon g from Indo-European gh (English goose,
German Gans, but Old High German kans).
One consonant that remained unshifted by Old High German, and
that consequently appears in the same form in English and German, is
initiaiyfrom Indo-European/) (English y^a^^gr, Germaxi Feder, from an
Indo-European root * peter or *pter). Further reference to the second
consonant-shift will appear in the individual tables.
Vowel shifts among the Indo-European branches are complicated
and, to a certain degree, still uncertain. The consonants are far more
stable and easily traceable. Hence, in a book designed for the general
public, we shall omit any discussion of the vowel transformations from
group to group, and endeavor to explain only the consonant shifts,
which at all events furnish the main basis for the classification and
affiliation of words, even among the experts.
20 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
The Indo-European system of consonants is the product of com-
parison and reconstruction. It is supposed to have comprised the
following set of consonant sounds:
Unvoiced Plosives
Voiced Plosives
Aspirates
Labial
Dental
Velar (Guttural)
Labialized Velar
P
t
k
kwipvkuf^^
b
d
g
gw (or^«)<i'
bh
dh
gh
gwh [or guhY'^'>
Semi-vowels
Nasals
Liquids
Sibilants
y, w (or I, m)'^'
n, m
l,r
s
"^' The symbols u and i are often used in linguistic works to indicate the sounds of
w and y. A raised " indicates a reduced grade of the w sound.
There is some uncertainty concerning the precise nature of the
aspirates {bh, dh, gh, gwh). The most widely accepted theory is that they
represented the sounds of ^ + A, d ^ h, g -\- h, gw + h; for the first
three, we could construct imaginary English place names like Knobhill,
Fordhill, Bighill. Kw and gw represent, approximately, the sounds of qu
in quart and of ^m in language.
The absence of certain sounds from this hypothetical primitive
scheme will be noted. The palatal sounds represented by English ch
and J, sh and s oi pleasure, the spirant or fricative sounds represented by
English y and v, English voiced and unvoiced th, German ch (both in
ach and ich), the voiced sound of English z, do not appear, though they
develop later in the attested languages.
The detailed series of correspondences that follows is numbered
with Roman numerals. The appearance of one or more of these Roman
numerals in the text is intended to guide the reader to the proper set of
correspondences among the various Indo-European groups. Thus,
where an Indo-European root has an initial p, he may expect English
words derived from Greek or Latin (or any of the Romance languages
that stem from Latin) to have an initial p, which should also appear in
English words borrowed from Slavic or from the languages of India;
but for words from the same original root that English inherits from
Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian, he should expect an initial/, and for
words that come from Celtic he should expect the disappearance of the
initial consonant. There are many divergences from the regular
scheme, for most of which there are explanations that are more or less
INDO-EUROPEAN SOUND CORRESPONDENCES 21
satisfactory and involved. A summary of all the correspondences listed
will appear at the end of the detailed discussion given in the tables.
For the reader's convenience, Sanskrit, Slavic, Armenian, Greek,
Irish, and Gothic are given in Roman-alphabet transcriptions. In its
original form, Sanskrit appears in an alphabet called Devanagari
("pertaining to the city of the gods"), which is still used by some of the
modern languages of India, notably Hindi and Bengali. Slavic appears
in Cyrillic, which is still used today by Russian, Ukrainian, Serbian,
and Bulgarian, though in slightly divergent forms. Armenian has a
special alphabet which is still in use. The ancient Greek alphabet is
still used by modern Greek. The Irish alphabet, still used by modern
Irish, is a modified form of the Roman. The Gothic alphabet, no
longer is use, was an adaptation of the Greek. The Roman or Latin
alphabet itself comes from the Greek, probably through the Etruscan.
TABLE I
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*p(i)
P
p h, w<2)
P
P
_(3)
f, b'**
1. The asterisk in front of an Indo-European form indicates that
this form is hypothetical, and reconstructed from a comparison of all
the others, which are attested.
2. In Armenian, Indo-European *p appears as h initially, but as w
between vowels (the Armenian word that corresponds to the Latin
pater and the English y^^A^r, for example, is hayr).
3. In Celtic, Indo-European *p disappears. The Irish word that
corresponds to pater and father is athair.
4. In Germanic, Indo-European *p appears as f initially, as b,
usually, between vowels when the original Indo-European accent did
not fall on the preceding syllable. The y development is general, even
though modern German often spells it with v (English full, German
voll, corresponding to hatin plenus, Greek pleres, etc.). The b develop-
ment between vowels generally appears as b in modern German, but
changes to v in English. This means that Greek hyper and Latin super,
which keep the original Indo-European p, have as their modern
German correspondent iiber, while English has over. In an original sp
group, Germanic does not shift thep to either/" or b, but retains the sp.
22 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
TABLE II
Indo-European Sanskrit Slavic Armenian Greek Latin Irish Gothic
*t t t th t t t th, d'l'
1. In Germanic, Indo-European *t appears as th initially, as d,
usually, between vowels or sonants where the original Indo-European
accent did not fall on the preceding syllable. The th remains unchanged
in English, while German usually shifts it to d (Latin tu, English thou,
German du). In an original st or kt group, Germanic does not shift t to
either th or d, but retains the st, kt.
TABLE III
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*k
r(l)
S(l) s'l'
k
C(2)
C(2)
h, g<3'
1 . Here we have an interesting divergence between the eastern and
the western members of the Indo-European family. While the eastern
members (Sanskrit, Slavic, Armenian) turn Indo-European *k into a
sibilant sound {s in Slavic and Armenian, f, pronounced more or less
like English sh, in Sanskrit), the western members keep the original
A;-sound. Germanic shifts this to h (g between vowels or sonants when the
Indo-European accent is not on the initial syllable). This means that
where English and German have initial h in heart, Herz, the Latin and
Greek corresponding words have hard c or k [cordial, cardiac), while the
eastern members of the family have initial s (the Russian word for
"heart", for example, is serdtse). Corresponding to the hund- of English
hundred and German hundert, Latin, Greek and Irish have, respectively,
centum, hekaton and cet, with a /;-sound; Slavic has sto, with an j--sound;
and Sanskrit has gata. The eastern members are accordingly often
described collectively as the satem-\a.ngmigcs, the western as the centum-
languages. Occasionally, however, under circumstances not yet precisely
determined, the ^-development appears even in the saterti languages.
(One explanation is that there were two different points of articulation
for Indo-European *k; that in the western languages these two sounds
INDO-EUROPEAN SOUND CORRESPONDENCES 23
merged ; but in the eastern tongues they remained separate, giving rise
respectively to a sibilant and a velar.)
2. Both in Latin and Irish, the pronunciation of c is invariably
"hard" (velar), and represents the sound of ^.
3. Between vowels or sonants, when the original accent did not fall
on the preceding syllable, Germanic has not h, but g. Corresponding to
the Latin oculus that gives us oculist, German has Auge, and Anglo-Saxon
has eage, which modern English has changed to eye. In an original sk
group, Germanic does not change k to h or g, but keeps the Indo-
European sk.
TABLE IV
Indo-
European
Sanskrit
Slavic
Armenian Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*kw
korch'i'
k, ch, ts<->
kh p, t""
qu""
c(p)""
hw, w'*'
The original *kw of Indo-European appears intact only in Latin
(qu). The only other branch that retains the if-element of *kw is
Germanic, but Germanic changes the A-element to h. In all the other
branches, the w-element is lost, and further changes occur, as described
below.
1. Before front vowels {e, i), Sanskrit palatalizes *kw into the sound
oi ch in English cheese. (This sound, in the conventional transliteration
of the Sanskrit alphabet, appears as c.) Elsewhere, it turns *kw into k.
2. Before some front vowels, Slavic turns *kw into the sound oi ch in
cheese (transcribed as c) ; before others, into ts; elsewhere, into k.
3. Greek usually turns *kw into/?; but in most old Greek dialects,
*kw becomes t before long or short e.
4. Irish and the other languages of the Goidelic sub-branch of
Celtic turn *kw into "hard" c (k). The languages of the Brythonic
sub-branch (Welsh, Cornish, Breton), as well as ancient Gaulish, turn
*kw into p. The same occurs in Oscan-Umbrian, where /)z</ corresponds
to Latin quid.
5. Germanic turns *kw into hw, which English retains in the spelling
wh. German not only loses the A-element of hw, but also pronounces
the w as v. English what appears in German as was, in Latin as quod.
24 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
TABLE V
Indo-European Sanskrit Slavic Armenian Greek Latin Irish Gothic
1. Germanic, which is with Armenian the only branch to diverge
from the universal b, shifts it to p, which English retains. German,
however, by its second consonant shift turns this jf? into f, ff or pf [f is
usual in final position, ^ between vowels, j^ initially) . Corresponding
to Greek-Latin cannabis, English has hemp, German Hanf. Since b is of
rare occurrence in Indo-European roots, many of the words in which
English p corresponds to German f, ff, pf are borrowed from Latin or
Greek, and represent not original Indo-European *b, but *p. The
second consonant shift that separates High from Low German, how-
ever, appears even in most words of this description, since it occurred
after the borrowings had taken place : Latin and Greek piper, borrowed
by the Germanic languages, becomes pepper in English, Pfeffer in
German ; Latin pondus becomes English pound, German Pfund.
TABLE VI
Indo-Iranian
Sanskrit
Slavic Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*d
d
d t
d
d
d
t'l'
1. Again, Armenian and Germanic are the only groups to shift *d to
t. In English, t remains. In German, by reason of the second consonant-
shift, it is changed to z, zz (later becoming z,.y5), according to its position
in the word. The t of Englishyoo^ appears as ss in German Fuss, but as d
in words which English derives from Greek or Latin {podium, pedal).
English water, with t, corresponds to German Wasser [wazzar in Old
High German), and to Greek hydor, Latin unda, Slavic voda, which have
d. English heart, with t, corresponds to German Herz, with z, and to the
Greek and Latin-derived cardiac and cordial, with d. English tooth,
with t, corresponds to German Zahn (formerly zand), with z, and to
Latin-derived dentist and Greek odont-.
INDO-EUROPEAN SOUND CORRESPONDENCES 25
TABLE VII
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic
Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*g
j'^'
z<i'
ts'i'
g
g
g
k(2)
1. Again we have the interesting cleavage between East and West
that we saw in Table III. The eastern branches (Indo-Iranian, Slavic,
Armenian) turn the original velar *g into a palatal j or a sibilant z or
ts, while the western members retain the sound unchanged, and
Germanic shifts it to k. But the velars-development appears occasionally
even in the eastern branch, as was the case with *k [q.v.).
2. Anglo-Saxon and English usually retain the A;-sound derived from
*g, but High German further shifts it to the sounds indicated by the
German c^-spelling [ach, ich). In the initial position, however, standard
German rejects this shift and retains the original Germanic k. As
against Latin and Greek ego, Anglo-Saxon has ik (/in modern English),
and German has ich. In the case of Greek and Latin gnosco, from which
we get gnostic and ignorant, English has know. Old High German has
chennan, pronounced with the ch of modern German ach ; but modern
literary German has kennen. The Russian word for "know", znat',
shows the eastern sibilant z replacing the western velar g and the
Germanic k. In the Indo-European period, *gt was changed to *kt by
assimilation, and in Germanic *kt was later shifted to ht. This accounts
for such forms as Latin rectus and Anglo-Saxon riht from *reg-tos.
TABLE Vlll
Indo-
European
Sanskrit Slavic
Armenian Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*gw
g or j'l' g, zh, dz'2'
k bord'="
w or gu'*'
b
q(5)
As in the case of *kw, Latin alone retains the original *gw, but not in
all cases. The Gothic spelling q represents a qu or kw sound, and may
therefore be said to retain the rf-element of *gw.
1 . Sanskrit, in addition to losing the le^-element, turns *gw into j
before front vowels.
2. Slavic turns *gw into zh (the sound of ^ in pleasure) before some
front vowels, into dz before others, into g elsewhere.
26 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
3. Greek normally has b; but before long or short e, most Greek
dialects have d.
4. Latin usually has a !:£;-sound, represented in Latin spelling by v.
5. The kw or ^M-sound indicated by Gothic q is retained by both
English and German. The German spelling qu, however, indicates a
modern pronunciation closer to that of kv than to that of kw (English
and German qualm ; English quail, German qudlen) . English quick has for
its correspondents Sanskrit jYya^, Latin vivus (appearing in vivacious),
and the Greek bios oi biology, as well as the Russian zhyf, "to live". In
Anglo-Saxon spelling the sound is represented by cw, not by qu (cwic) ;
the qu spelling was introduced by the Normans, who had taken it from
Latin.
1
^ABLE IX
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic
Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*bh
bh'i>
b
b
ph'2>
forb'3>
b
b(4)
1 . Sanskrit .bh was pronounced as in knobhill. This is supposed to
coincide with the original Indo-European pronunciation.
2. Greek ph was at first pronounced as in uphill. Later the sound
shifted to that o^ Philadelphia (/).
3. Latin has / initially, b between vowels. Oscan, one of Latin's
kindred languages of the Italic branch, has /in both positions. Latin
words in which f appears between vowels (save in compounds like
deficio, from de -\- facia) are therefore generally of Oscan origin, and
were borrowed by Latin (Latin bubalus, Oscan-derived bufalus, from
which English eventually gets buffalo).
4. The b of Gothic appears also in Anglo-Saxon. High German, in
accordance with the second consonant-shift, turns b into p, and Old
High German actually offers the form pruoder where modern German,
using a Low German variant, has Bruder. The word for brother, appearing
throughout Indo-European, takes the form bhrdta in Sanskrit, brat or
bratr in 'S>\div\.c,phrater in Greek,yra/^r in -Latin, brdthair in Irish. Between
vowels, Anglo-Saxon turns b tof, which becomes v in modern English
{wifel to weavil).
INDO-EUROPEAN SOUND CORRESPONDENCES 27
TABLE X
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic
Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*dh
dh<i>
d
d
th'2'
ford<3)
d
d<*>
1. Sanskrit dh, pronounced as in madhouse, is supposed to conserve
the original Indo-European sound.
2. Greek th was pronounced as in hothouse at an earlier period, as in
thing later.
3. Latin has y in the initial position, d between vowels; b occurs
after r.
4. English has the same d as Gothic. High German shifts it by the
second consonant-shift to t, and this shift is generally adopted by
modern German. English door has Tor as its German counterpart, while
thyra appears in Greek.
TABLE XI
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
♦gh
h(i)
z j or z
ch<2)
h(3)
g
g(4,
1 . Sanskrit shifts *gh to h, despite the presence of gh in the Sanskrit
sound-scheme.
2. Greek ch was originally pronounced as in blockhead, later as in
Scottish loch or German ach, while modern Greek has two sounds
similar to those of German ach and ich, the former before back vowels
{a, 0, u) and most consonants, the latter before front vowels {e, i).
3. Latin, like Sanskrit, shifts *gh to h, but often tends to lose the h, as
in the word for "goose", anser, which was originally hanser.
4. Gothic g appears also in Anglo-Saxon, but in the transition to
modern English g is turned to j* before e or i. High German, by the
second consonant-shift, changes g to k, but modern German usually
prefers the Low German form with g. Corresponding to English goose
we have German Gans {kans in Old High German), Sanskrit hansa,
Greek chen, Latin {h) anser. Corresponding to English j'^ji^r- (withj; from^
before e), we have German gestern (Old High German kestern), Sanskrit
hyes, Greek chthes, Latin heri.
28 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
TABLE XII
Indo-
European
Sanskrit
Slavic
Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*gwh
ghorh'i'
g, zh, dz<2'
g,j'^'
ph, th""
f, w'5>
g
k,w'«'
1. Sanskrit has h before front vowels, gh elsewhere.
2. In Slavic, zh appears before some front vowels, dz before others, g
elsewhere.
3. Armenian hasj before front vowels, g elsewhere.
4. Greek has th before long or short e, ph elsewhere.
5. Latin has /initially, v (pronounced w) between vowels.
6. Gothic k is doubtful in the initial position. The w that appears
between vowels is the favorite English and German outcome, in all
positions. Corresponding to English and German warm (note that
German pronounces the w as v), we have the Greek-derived thermal
and the Latin-derived yMrwac^. English snow (German Schnee, in which
the w is lost) has for its correspondents Latin nivem and Greek nipha.
TABLE XIII
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic Armenian Greek
Latin Irish
Gothic
*y w
y
y y h, z, -<!'
y(2) _
y(3)
1. In Greek, the A-sound that stems from Indo-European *y is
represented initially by the rough breathing ('), pronounced as h;
occasionally, under circumstances not yet precisely determined, z
appears in the initial position. Between vowels, y falls.
2. In Latin, the sound of j; is represented by the written symbol i;
but medieval and modern Latin writings often usej {I AM, IVSTVS,
jam, Justus) .
3. In Gothic, the sound ofy is represented by the written symbol j.
Anglo-Saxon represents it by g before e and i. English prefers a y-
spelling, German a j-spelling (English young, German jung, Latin
IVVE N IS or juvenis; English jyoA;^, German Joch, Latin IVGVM, jugum) .
INDO-EUROPEAN SOUND CORRESPONDENCES 29
TABLE XIV
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic
Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*w (u)
V
V
gor V
_(i)
V<2)
f
W(3)
1 . In archaic Greek there appears a letter called digamma which had
the sound of rf, but which later disappeared, so that woida becomes oida.
2. Latin v used as a semi-vowel had the sound of w, but in Vulgar
Latin and the Romance languages this becomes the sound of English v,
without change of spelling. The symbol F was used in Latin with three
different phonetic values: that of the semi- vowel w, that of short u, and
that of long u {VILLA, PVER, MVRVS, for what later appear as villa,
puer, mums).
3. The w of Gothic appears also in English and in German; but
German pronounces it v. Corresponding to English wit, wot are German
wissen, Latin video, Sanskrit Veda, Slavic videt\ Greek oida, with inter-
esting shifts of meaning (the root that means "to see" in Latin and
Slavic means "to see" or "to hear" in Greek, and "to know" in
Sanskrit and Germanic).
TABLE XV
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish Gothic
*s (initial)
s
s h<i'
h'l'
s
s (h)<i> s
1. Armenian, Greek, and the Brythonic (Welsh, Cornish, Breton)
sub-branch of Celtic turn initial *s into h (Greek represents this by the
rough breathing). Corresponding to English six, German seeks, Latin
sex, Irish se, Greek has the hex of hexagon, Welsh has chwech (Welsh ch
represents a strongly aspirated A-sound).
30
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
TABLE XVI
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic
Armenian
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
*s (between
vowels)
s
s
-
_(i)
j-(2)
s
gO)
1. Greek drops s between vowels (as does Armenian). Genos has a
genitive form geneos from *genesos.
2. Latin turns s between vowels into the sound of English z, then
further shifts it to r. Genus has a genitive form generis from * genesis. This
SUMMARY OF TABLES
Indo-European
Sanskrit
Slavic
Armenian
I
*P
P
P
h, w
11
*t
t
t
th
III
*k
? (= sh)
s
s
IV
*kw
k, c (= ch)
k, c (= ch), ts
kh
V
*b
b
b
P
VI
*d
d
d
t
VII
*g
J
z
ts
VIII
*gW
g>j
g, zh, dz
k
IX
*bh
bh
b
b
X
*dh
dh
d
d
XI
*gh
h
z
J, z
XII
*gwh
gh, h
g, zh, dz
g,J
XIII
*y
y
y
y
XIV
*w
V
V
g. V
XV
*s
(initial)
s
s
h
XVI
*s
s
s
-
(between vowels)
INDO-EUROPEAN SOUND CORRESPONDENCES
31
shift to r does not appear in the Oscan-Umbrian sub-branch of Italic;
Oscan -azum corresponds to the Latin -arum ending of the first declension
genitive plural feminine. Latin words with single s between vowels are
usually loan-words from Oscan.
3. In Germanic languages other than Gothic, including Anglo-
Saxon, s between vowels generally turns to z, then to r, just as in Latin.
Corresponding to Gothic auso, which conserves the original Indo-
European s between vowels^ Anglo-Saxon has eare (modern English
ear), Old High German has ora (modern German Ohr), Old Norse has
eyra, just as Latin has auris (of aural, auricular) from an original *ausis.
Greek
Latin
Irish
Gothic
P
P
-
f,b
t
t
t
th, d
k
c(=k)
c(=k)
h,g
P,t
qu
c(=k)
hw, w
(Oscan
and Brythonic p)
b
b
b
P
d
d
d
t
g
g
g
k
b,d
V, gu
b
q
ph
f, b
b
b
th
f,d
d
d
ch (= kh)
h
g
g
ph, th
f,v
g
k, w
h, z, -
y
-
y
—
V
f
w
h
s
s
(Brythonic h)
s
-
r
s
s
(Oscan z)
(others r)
CHAPTER 3
Later Changes in Anglo-Saxon, Greek,
Latin, and Romance
A. GERMANIC
In. addition to the general sound-shifts whereby the Germanic
tongues differentiate themselves from the other Indo-European
branches, there are some further considerations that concern English
words of Germanic origin. Some apply to the Germanic group as a
whole, others are specific to the development of Anglo-Saxon and,
occasionally, Old Norse, into modern English.
The reader may be reminded of a few interesting exceptions,
caused mostly by the position of the sound in the word, to the general
consonant-shifts already presented :
1. While the Germanic group of languages shifts Indo-European
*p, *t and *k tof, th and h, the original p, t, k are retained by Germanic
in the combinations sp, st, sk. Thus in the *spek root, where Latin,
reflecting original Indo-European conditions, has -spicio, which
ultimately gives us aspect, suspicion, etc., Old High German has not
*sfehdn, but spehon, from which we ultimately get spy and espionage; in
the *ghostis root, where Latin has hostis {host, hostile, etc.), Anglo-Saxon
has not *giesth, but giest (guest) ; in the *peisk root, where Latin has the
piscis of piscatorial, Anglo-Saxon has not *Jis + h, hut Jisc {fish is the
result of a later palatalization).
2. In the Indo-European *pt, *kt groups,/? and k change in Germanic
toy and h respectively, but / stays unchanged instead of shifting to th.
In the *nepdt root, where Latin has neptis ("niece"), Anglo-Saxon has
not *nifth, but nift (this word, which would have come down to us
unchanged, was displaced by the French niece) ; in the *okto root, where
Latin has octo ("eight"), Anglo-Saxon has eahta, not *eahtha.
32
LATER CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON, GREEK, AND LATIN 33
3. Between vowels and in final position, when the preceding vowel
did not bear the original Indo-European accent, *p, *t, *k, instead of
producing Germanic^, th, h, produce spirant b, d, g sounds resembling
those of modern Spanish caballo, amado,-pagar; these, in the historical
period of most of the Germanic languages, appear in writing as b, d, g.
In Anglo-Saxon, however, the first often appears as f, which later,
between vowels, generally becomes v. Corresponding to Greek heptd,
Anglo-Saxon has seofon, later seven, compared with Gothic and Old
High German sibun, modern German sieben.
4. An s between vowels was generally voiced to z and then turned to
r in most Germanic languages, including Anglo-Saxon, but not in
Gothic (see Table XVI, 3).
5. Indo-European *gwh and *kw, save before u, develop generally
into w. In the ^sneig^h root, where Greek has nipha and Latin nivem,
Anglo-Saxon has sndw, later snow.
6. There are assorted phenomena of assimilation, in which a group
of two different consonants changes into a double consonant: *-nd-
becomes -nn- (Latin spondeo, Anglo-Saxon, Old High German spannan) ;
*-nw- becomes -nn- (Latin tenuis, Anglo-Saxon thynne, English thin,
Old High German dunni, modern German diinn); *-ln- becomes
-//- (Latin plenus, Slavic polny, Gothic fulls, Anglo-Saxon full,
German voll) ; *-dhl- becomes -//- (Latin stabulum, Anglo-Saxon steall,
stall) .
7. There is an occasional phenomenon of epenthesis (the insertion of
a consonant between two other consonants to facilitate the transition
from one to the other): in the *{s)roum root, where Sanskrit has
sravati and Greek, dropping initial s, has rheuma, Anglo-Saxon has
stream, with t inserted between s and r.
A few consonant phenomena peculiar to Anglo-Saxon are the
following :
1. Loss of n, with lengthening of the preceding vowel, before h\
thencean, "think", but thohte (instead of thonhte), "thought".
2. Loss of h between vowels: Gothic saihwan. Old High German
sehan, modern German sehen, but Anglo-Saxon seon, English see.
3. Loss of « before s (the same phenomenon that is so widespread in
the development of Latin into Romance, where mensis becomes mese,
mes, mois, and mensa becomes mesa) : Old High German uns, but Anglo-
Saxon us, English us.
34 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
Later phenomena that attend the transition from Anglo-Saxon and
Old Norse to Middle and modern English are:
1 . Loss of h before / and r : hlowan to low, hleotan to lot, hlut to loud,
hlystan to listen, hreaw to raw, hrer to rare.
2. Loss in pronunciation (but not in spelling) of A: and g before n and
of w before r : cnyttan to knit, cniht to knight, cnedan to knead, cneo to knee,
gnagan to gnaw, gnat to gnat, wrecan to wreak, wryhte to wright.
3. Change of cw to qu, under Norman-French influence; but this
affects merely the spelling: cwen to queen.
4. A similar spelling change, without change of pronunciation, from
hw to wh : hwil to while.
5. The Indo-European *kt or *gt group, which had undergone
general Germanic change to ht, undergoes a further spelling change in
Middle English to ght; later, in modern English, the gh becomes silent
and the preceding vowel, if short, is lengthened : beorht to bright, gesiht
to sight, neaht to night, feohtan to fight, fyht to flight, meahte to might, leoht to
light. A final Anglo-Saxon h in modern English also becomes gh in
spelling and silent in pronunciation : heah to high.
6. In some verbs, Anglo-Saxon -bb- between vowels becomes
modern English v under the analogical influence of the third person
singular, which has/" (see page 33, for the change of y to v): habban
(third person singular hafath) to have, hebban (third singular hefeth) to
heave, libban (third singular lifath) to live.
7. There are widespread phenomena of palatalization, affecting
Anglo-Saxon eg, sc, c and g :
Anglo-Saxon eg regularly palatalizes into a j-sound, generally
represented by dg in modern English spelling: brycg to bridge, secg to
sedge, mycge to midge, midget. In some verbs, however, the eg is affected by
the analogical influence of the third person singular, which has g
between vowels, and the result is the j; or i development of ^ instead of
the dg development oicg: licgan (third singular ligeth) to lie, lecgan (third
singular legeth) to lay, secgan (third singular segeth) to say.
In the case oi sc, palatalization to sh is regular in Anglo-Saxon words,
and even in early borrowings from Greek or Latin: wascan to wash,
fisc to fish, biscop (from Greek episkopos, Latin episcopus) to bishop. Words
of Scandinavian origin do not show palatalization : as against shell from
Anglo-Saxon scell, we have skull from Old Norse skel or skalla ; Anglo-
Saxon scyrte gives us shirt, but the kindred Old Norse skyrta becomes skirt.
LATER CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON, GREEK, AND LATIN 35
In the case of c, palatalization to ch is widespread, though not
universal, before the front vowels, e and i, but better resisted before
back vowels, including y : cinn to chin (but cynn to kin) , ceosan to choose,
ciele to chill (but ceald to cold), cealc to chalk (but cealf to calf), ceorl to
churl (but cene to A:^^/z, C(?/>a« to keep, cennan to Aen) . There is a possibility
of dialectal or Scandinavian influence in the case of some of the words
that do not show palatalization.
In the case of ^, palatalization toy or i depends in part on position in
the word, in part on preceding and following vowels (if these vowels are
the front vowels, e or i, the usual change of g is to y, i ; if there is a
predominance of back vowels, a, o, u, a labial development to w is
usual). Words of Scaiidinavian origin show the labial development to
w if they are early borrowings, but leave the g unchanged if borrowed
at a later period : Anglo-Saxon drage to dray, but dragan to draw, and
Old Norse draga to drag. Old Novse JIaga gives us both Jlaw and the flag
oi flagstone. Other examples of a jv or i development are : (initially) ge-
to y- to i- to complete fall in the prefix of the past participle (the
archaic yclept, for instance, represents an earlier geclipod) ; geoc to yoke,
gieldan to yield, geard to yard (hut gyr dan to gird) , geostra to yester; (medially)
regn to rain, fesger to fair, segel to sail, plegian to play, cage to eye (but Old
Norse vindauga to window), fleogan to fly, wagn to wain, blegen to [chil) blain;
(in final position) mag to may, dag to day, weg to way. Examples of the
labial w development are : fugol to fowl, sagu to saw, dgen to own (ad-
jective), sorg to sorrow, morgen to morrow, galga to gallow{s), bylgan to
bellow.
B. GREEK
The majority of Greek words in the English language are learned
creations and compositions, made in relatively modern times for
scientific and cultural purposes. Most of these words, though built on
Greek roots, would have puzzled the ancient Greeks. Combinations
like telephone, constructed out of the Greek words for "distance" and
"sound", or antibiotic ("against life"), are used by us to betoken objects
and activities unknown to the ancients.
This learned segment of Greek loan words follows quite closely the
original Greek forms and spellings. In English, French, German, and
many other modern western languages, Greek theta, phi and chi are
36 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
faithfully represented by th, ph and ch, and upsilon and zeta are treated
with equal respect asj; and z. This is not the case in Italian, Spanish
and Portuguese, but it is very seldom that modern scientific creations
from Greek come to us through the latter languages.
The same holds true, in the main, for those Greek words which
represent ancient cultural activities, and came to us through Latin,
which had adopted them as cultural words. Whether they come into
English directly from Latin or through the intermediary of French
makes very little difference in their form and appearance. Philosophy,
history, geography are typical samples.
There are, however, two other Greek streams to be considered. One
consists of those words which came into Anglo-Saxon through the
missionaries, and developed on English soil. The other includes those
forms which, having entered Latin as fairly popular words, went on to a
normal Romance (usually French) development, and were only later
adopted by English. The first group assumes popular English form,
while the second takes the familiar aspect of words that join the great
stream of English from French, Italian or Spanish.
Typical of the first are kyriakon ("the house of the Lord") which
enters Anglo-Saxon with the missionaries as circe, and goes on to
become church; episkopos, which having been latinized into episcopus,
becomes biscop and bishop; pyxis, which turns into Latin buxus, Anglo-
Saxon bocse and English box ; schole, which becomes the Latin schola and
the Anglo-Saxon scol, is joined by Norman-French escole, and ultimately
results in school; martyr, which preserves its original form in Latin,
Anglo-Saxon and English; boutyron, which gives Latin butyrum and
Anglo-Saxon butere to go on to butter.
Typical of the second are thesauros, which enters Latin as a cultural
word, thesaurus, but becomes popularized in French tresoir and English
treasure; camera, which becomes French chambre and English chamber
(along with the more conservative camera) ; hora, which yields French
{h)oure, heme and English hour; mekhane, which coming into Latin from
a Greek dialectal form, becomes machina and later machine; kathedra,
which as the learned Latin cathedra yields cathedral, but in popular
French development goes on to chaire, chaise, and gives us both chair
and chaise longue; plateia, which becomes Latin platea, French and
English />/a<;^, Italian and English j&iazza, Spanish and English />/aza;
kybernan, which becoming Latin gubernare and French gouvemer,
LATER CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON, GREEK, AND LATIN 37
ultimately results in govern {cybernetics is a learned modern relative) ;
paidion, which becomes ItdMdin paggio, French and English j&a^^ (boy).
In these Greek words which receive popular treatment in Latin or
Romance, the original spelling is generally changed and disguised.
Greek theia, for instance, yields the Spanish tin of Tia Juana; kolaphos,
the Latin colaphus, becomes French and English coup ; chrisma gives the
learned chrism, but also the popular French creme and English cream;
phainein, "to appear", yields forms like phenomenon, but also popular and
semi-popular forms like fantastic, fancy and tiffany {theophania, "the
showing of God").
In this more popular sector of the Greek-derived vocabulary, it is
common for Greek th to appear as t, ph as p orf {p is the earlier Latin
popular treatment of^ Greek phi, f the later), ch as c,y as u or i [u is the
earlier, i, the later treatment). Even in learned treatment, Greek k
normally appears as c {kathedra — cathedral), ai as <? or ^ (phaino —
phenomenon or phenomenon) , oi as « or ^ {oikia — ecology or ecology), by
reason of the equivalence of the Latin sounds of c, a, ce to those of
Greek k, ai, oi, and the later Latin equivalence of e, ce and e.
Also, where Classical endings are retained, these are more frequently
the Latin substitutes than the Greek originals: -us for -os, -um for -on,
etc. {acanthus for akanthos, cranium for kranion; but logos, phenomenon, etc.).
C. LATIN
Among important changes that differentiate Classical Latin from
archaic Latin and earlier Indo-European (in addition to or repetition
of those mentioned in Chapter 2), the following are of interest:
1 . The change ofs between vowels to a voiced z-sound and then to r,
as in most Germanic languages. This is reflected in forms like the
genitives generis, floris, as compared with the nominatives genus, flos, or
in the genitive plural feminine -arum ending which in the kindred
Oscan appears as -azum. Words which in Classical Latin appear with
single s between vowels are generally borrowed, often from Oscan,
sometimes from other sources: asinus, "ass", for instance, is claimed to
have come from Sumerian anshu.
2. The change of earlier, attested du before vowels {dw) to b, as in
duonos to bonus and duellum to be Hum.
3. Widespread assimilation and simplification of troublesome
38 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
internal consonant clusters, as shown-by stella from *stelna, posco from
^porcsco, luna from *leuksna or *loukna, lumen from *leuksmen.
4. The fall of n before s, widely reflected in later Romance develop-
ment, but appearing even in the Classical and pre-Classical periods:
sponsa becomes Old French espose and English spouse; mensa gives
Spanish mesa; *mansuetinus becomes mastinus and ultimately mastiff.
5. The change in sound of semi-vowel ?/ (written as v) from w to
dentolabial v (as pronounced in modern French or English), which
probably occurred while the language was still basically Latin (this
seems attested, among other things, by widespread ^-spellings for v in
Latin inscriptions: biginti for viginti, etc.). In Romance development,
this phenomenon becomes practically universal: Latin veracus, derived
from verus (pronounced wtrus) becomes Old French verai (modern
French vrai), and enters English as very.
Many other changes are of doubtful chronology, and are variously
described as Vulgar Latin, primitive Romance, etc. It will be best to
discuss them under the Romance heading.
English forms which may be described as derived from Latin
without Romance intervention are of three kinds :
1 . Latin words that came into Anglo-Saxon through the missionaries
and acquired early naturalization in English before the Norman
Conquest. Typical of these are street (Latin strata), cheese (Latin caseus),
cheap (Anglo-Saxon ceapian, derived from Latin caupo, "merchant"),
shrive (Latin scribo). There are even words that came into Anglo-Saxon
from Latin, but were later displaced by French words from identical
sources brought in by the Normans: Greek-Latin cerasia, for instance,
produced Anglo-Saxon cirs, which was displaced by Norman-Picard
cherise, understood as a plural and turned into a singular cherry; persica
(the "Persian fruit") gave Anglo-Saxon /)^r^oc, but this was displaced by
the French-developed pessica, pesca, pesche, peche, which became peach.
2. Ultra-learned Latin forms adopted by English without any change
whatsoever in form, usually for legal or governmental use {agenda,
alibi, propaganda, quorum, veto, etc.). Some of these are quite modern in
their formation or use [facsimile, quantum, gallium).
3. Vast numbers of cultural Latin words adopted in the Renaissance
and later with a minimum of change in form. Some of these were
brought directly from Latin into English, others were first adopted by
Italian or French, then passed on to English. It seldom makes any
LATER CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON, GREEK, AND LATIN 39
difference which process occurred, so far as the English form is con-
cerned. Whether a learned Latin form like simulate, simplification,
dedicatory, is adopted directly by English writers and scholars from the
Latin lexicon, or whether it is adopted by French scholars and later
passed on to English is of importance only with reference to the history
of that particular word. On the other hand, prefixes and suffixes in
learned and semi-learned words are often quite revealing: the -fy of
simplify is obviously the French fier, while the ficate oi pontificate comes
directly from the Latin ficare, of which fier is a development. The />ro-
oi provide is obviously Latin (though it could also appear in words that
come to English from French, such as provenance) ; but the pur- oi purvey
can only be the French pour-.
D. ROMANCE (FRENCH, ITALIAN, SPANISH,
PORTUGUESE)
Among the numerous and complex changes that mark the develop-
ment of Latin into French (Spanish, Portuguese, and particularly
Italian, are far more conservative of Latin forms), and that are reflected
in Romance words that pass into English, are the following:
1. Latin stressed a in the free position (i.e., coming at the end of the
Latin syllable) becomes e in French: Latin mare, "sea" becomes mer
(mal de mer); hatin fratrem becomes frere {confrere).
2. Latin stressed short e in the free position becomes French ie:
Latin pedem to pied {Piedmont) ; Vulgar Latin pettia or petia, of Gaulish
origin, to piece {piece). The same development appears in words of
Spanish origin, save that in Spanish the change occurs in any position :
festa to fiesta, sexta to siesta.
3. Latin stressed long e and short i in the free position become in
French first ei, then oi; these changes are reflected in English spelling,
or pronunciation, or both, according to the time when the word was
borrowed: hatin fidem becomes Old French feidh (modern French ybi),
which English borrows as faith; Latin tres becomes Old French treis,
later trois, and English, borrowing it at the earlier stage, has trey ; Latin
flebilem becomes Yrenchfeible, then foible, ultimately faible, and English
borrows it at the first stage as feeble, then again at the second as foible.
Similar alternations of ei and oi in French endings are reflected in
convey, purvey, vs. convoy, envoy, invoice.
40 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
4. Latin stressed short o becomes French eu and Italian uo in the
free position, Spanish ue in all positions: novum to French neuf [Neuf-
chdlel), Italian nuovo [dolce stil nuovo), Spanish nuevo [Nuevo Laredo).
L3,tin domina, dom'na to Spanish duenna, later duena.
5. Latin stressed long a and short u in the free position are in French
changed to ou, later eu. The ou spelling is reflected in the British
spellings honour, labour (Latin honorem, laborem, modern French honneur,
labeur) ; both spelling and pronunciation are reflected in Jlour, flower
(Latin florem, Old French flour, modern French fleur offleur de lys).
6. Latin stressed au, whether original or arising as the result of other
sound changes, becomes o: Latin aurum, "gold", becomes French or,
which English uses in herdi\dry; parabola becomes paraola, paraula, parole;
avunculum becomes aunclum, oncle, and this is reflected in English uncle.
7. Latin / preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant in
French becomes u: talpa, "mole", to taupe; altum to haul, which appears
in English haughty.
8. In Italian, / preceded by a consonant and followed by a vowel
turns into i, while in Spanish it absorbs the preceding consonant and
produces //: Latin planum becomes Italian piano and Spanish llano;
Latin clarum becomes Italian chiaro in chiaroscuro.
9. Plosive consonants between vowels, even when followed by r, tend
to pass from unvoiced to voiced, from voiced to fricative, and ultimately
to disappear, in accordance with the following scheme: p to b to v to —;
k to g to semi-vowel i {y) to -; t to d to the sound of th in this to -. In
this type of change, French is most drastic, Italian most conservative,
Spanish, Portuguese, Provencal in between: Latin capra, "goat"
{capricorn) to Italian capra, Spanish and Provencal cabra [cabriolet, cab),
French chevre {chevron, Chevrolet) ; Latin and Italian opera, Spanish
obra, French oeuvre {hors d^oeuvre) ; Latin superanum, Italian soprano (but
also sovrano), French souverain, English sovereign; L.a.tm pacare, "appease,
pay off"", to Italian pagare, Spanish pagar, French payer, English pay;
Latin spatha, Italian spada, Spanish espada, French epee; hatin patrem,
Italian and Spanish padre, French pere; Latin cauda {caudal), Italian
coda (used in English as a musical term), French queue (English to queue
up and cue). Spanish and Portuguese examples of the process include
lobo from Latin lupum, Madeira from materiem, peon from pedonem, Ladino
from latinum.
11. Latin groups of initial s plus consonant receive in French and
LATER CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON, GREEK, AND LATIN 41
Spanish a prefixed e-\ French then goes on to drop the j, in fully
popular words, as illustrated by epee, above, or ecu from scutum, or Hat
from statum ; but in semi-learned words the s is retained (Latin spiritum
to French esprit, as in esprit de corps) . The fall of s before consonants
appears also within words in French (Latin testa, French tete-a-tete).
12. The suffix -aticum in French yields -age, widely reflected in
English (Latin viaticum, missaticum to French and English voyage, mess-
age). The suffix -arium. gives -ier in French, -ero in Spanish, and these are
also reflected in English (Latin caballarium, French chevalier, Spanish
caballero). In English, the -ier suffix often appears as -eer {volunteer,
cannoneer, etc.). Italian, adopting the French -ier, turns it into -iere,
-iero, then passes it back to French and on to English in cashier, cavalier,
gondolier etc.
13. Widespread phenomena of palatalization appear in all the
Romance languages, but most of all in French. Latin c (= A;) before e
or i acquires the sound of ch in Italian and in the Norman-Picard
dialect of French, of ts, later s and th respectively, in standard French
and Spanish. The Norman-Picard ch development is reflected in
cherise, from Latin cerasia, which becomes cherry, for the regular French
cerise which also comes into English, but at a later date. Standard
French words that have c before e or i come into English with the same
j-sound they have in modern French {cell from Old French celle, Latin
cella; circle from French cercle, Latin circulum).
14. Standard French, based on the Francien dialect of the Paris
region, palatalizes Latin c before a into ch; Spanish, Italian, Provencal,
and the Norman-Picard dialect of French do not make this change.
English, taking words both from standard French and from Norman-
Picard (less frequently from the other Romance sources), often shows
both forms: cant vs. chant; cavalry vs. chivalry; cape vs. chief; cattle vs.
chattel; candle vs. chandle; carry vs. charge; from an original Latin captiare
English derives chase from standard Old French chacier (modern chasser)
and catch from Norman-Picard cachier. Other samples of standard
French palatalization of c before a that come into English are chemise
from camisia, chasten from castigare, change from cambiare. Samples of
unpalatalized c before a in words that enter English from Norman-
Picard, Provencal, and Italian are cat, car, caitiff, camp, castle (standard
French chat, char, chetif, champ, chateau).
15. Latin g before e and i and, in French, also before a, shifts its
42 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
value from the g oi good to the g oi general (English j). Accordingly, we
have gelid, jelly from original Latin gelidum, gelata, and jardiniere, which
is standard French, vs. garden from Norman-Picard, which does not
palatalize g before a; cf. French jar din.
16. Latin semi-vowel i (spelled j in modern Latin works, but not by
the Romans themselves) generally changes its value from that of
English y to that of English j : Latin judicem becomes French juge and
'English, judge ; justum becomes French Jmj-^^ and English jwjf. This change
is made even in words that English takes directly from Latin (jocare to
joke, junior to English junior) .
1 7. Other palatalization phenomena include the change of vi and bi
plus vowel to palatal g : rabiem to French and English rage, cavea to cage,
servientem to sergeant; as well as the change by which a French -ss-,
becoming final in English, is turned to -sh {push {rom pousser, finish from
finiss-, nourish from nouriss-).
18. Germanic words beginning with w, coming into Vulgar Latin
or preliterary French, receive a ^-sound which is prefixed to the w; the
latter then frequently disappears, leaving only the g-. In this fashion,
wadio becomes gage, warnjan becomes garnir, wardjan becomes garder,
wisa becomes guise (in modern French, as in English, the u is silent).
However, the extreme northern French dialect, Walloon, which
frequently affects Norman-Picard, leaves the original Germanic w
unchanged. The w also remains unchanged in words which are not
brought in by the Normans, but form part of the original Anglo-Saxon
Germanic stock of English. A single Germanic root, consequently,
gives us Anglo-Saxon wed, standard French gage, and Walloon wage.
Ward is Anglo-Saxon; guard is the same root with standard French
treatment, and so is guardian; but warden is the Walloon treatment of
the standard French gardien. Watch is Anglo-Saxon wacian; wait is the
same root, treated in Walloon fashion (waitier) ; while standard Old
French has a guaitier which ultimately becomes guetter, "to lurk, lie in
wait", in modern French. Taking two examples where only Anglo-
Saxon and standard French treatments appear, warn is Anglo-Saxon,
while garnish is the French development of the same original Germanic
root; the wise of "in wondrous wise" is Anglo-Saxon, and has guise as its
French counterpart.
19. A special Anglo-Norman development is the -oon oi boon, corre-
sponding to the French -on of bon (in Anglo-Norman manuscripts.
LATER CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON, GREEK, AND LATIN 43
spellings like raisun for standard French raison are frequent) . An occas-
ional variant is -oom, as in mushroom from moucheron. The -oon treatment
is later applied to Italian words ending in -one and other French words
in -on {saloon, poltroon, buffoon, macaroon, cartoon, pontoon) . Many of these
-oon forms have -on variants {salon, carton) .
20. As a general rule, French and other Romance words borrowed
at an early date tend to shift their stress to the initial syllable to conform
with the Anglo-Saxon and general Germanic law of initial accen-
tuation, as shown by very, dinner, supper, venison, mutton, jelly, butler,
dandelion, laundry, from French verai (later vrai), diner, souper, venaison,
mouton, gelee, boutelier, dent de lion, Italian lavanderia. Later borrowings
are more likely to keep the Romance accent on the final or non-initial
syllable {brunette, ballet, patrol, garage, dessert, canteen, cartoon, from French
brunette, ballet, patrouille, garage, dessert, Italian cantina, cartone).
21. The distinction between learned words, which tend to keep
their Latin or Greek form and spelling, and popular words, showing
the sound changes normal to the development of the language, is very
pronounced in both French and English, and leads to numerous
doublets (pairs of words coming from the same original source, of
which one receives learned, the other popular treatment). There may
even be triplets, quadruplets, quintuplets, according to the degree of
learned, semi-learned or popular treatment, or to the factor of de-
rivation through different dialects. Hotel, hostel and hospital all come
from Latin hospitalem ; Gentile, genteel, gentle and jaunty all have their
roots in Latin gentilem ; discus, disc, disk, desk, dish, and dais dire all derived
from Latin discus, as is also the German Tisch, "table". Parabola,
parable, and parole all go back to Greek parabole. Other examples are
frail and fragile (French frele, fragile, haiin fragilem) ; forge and fabricate
(French forge, fabrique, Latin fabrica) ; coy and quiet (French coi, quiet,
Latin quietum) ; caitiff and captive (French chetif with Norman-Picard
treatment, and captif Latin captivum) ; count and compute (French
conter, compter, computer, Latin computare) ; treason and tradition (French
trahison, tradition, Latin traditionem) ; allow and allocate (French alouer,
allocation, Latin allocare) ; priest and Presbyterian (Greek presbyter,
"elder") ; triumph and trump (Greek thriambos, "dance of rejoicing") ;
robe and rob (French robe and Old French rober, from Germanic rauba,
"booty". Old High German roub; here the Anglo-Saxon cognate is the
-reave of bereave) .
CHAPTER 4
One-Branch Families
Families of English words showing derivation from a single Indo-
European branch (Germanic, Greek, or Latin) are not so numerous as
those that combine two or three of these branches, and some of them
are sufficiently simple to give the impression of resembling the man
who is all alone in the world. This simplicity should not deceive us,
because, while they may appear singly in English, they almost invari-
ably have wide connections in other languages. Two illustrations are
supplied by words of family relationship, son and daughter, which appear
in English only in Germanic and Anglo-Saxon guise. This is because
Latin, instead of using the two roots involved, rejects them, and
prefers an altogether different root, which appears in Jilius and Jilia
(the root preferred by Latin, *dhe{i), has the original meaning of
"suckle", and will be discussed later). Since Latin does not choose to
give admission to the Greek words for son and daughter, which are
related to the Germanic, and since these Greek words do not give rise
to any modern learned borrowing, Germanic son and daughter, despite
their vast extensions in other branches of Indo-European, find them-
selves isolated in English.
In discussing one-branch word-families, we shall begin with those
issuing from Germanic, which is basic to English, then pass on to
Greek and Latin. In families of two or more branches, we shall arrange
the branches and our o\Vti discussion of them in order of historical
precedence (Indo-Iranian, Greek, Latin, Germanic, Celtic, Slavic).
A. GERMANIC
The Indo-European root *sU, *seu, "to bear, bring forth", with its
derivative sunus, has ramifications in Greek hyios, "son", in Indo-
Iranian, in Celtic, and in Slavic (the form represented by Russian
44
*de[] ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES 45
syn). In Anglo-Saxon, it produces sunu, which becomes son (with
sonship, son-in-law, sonny, etc.). Close cognates of son are in evidence
throughout the Germanic branch (German Sohn, Scandinavian son,
sen, etc.).
The family tree for the English word is extremely simple :
IE *su, seu, sunu ("to bear, bring forth; son")
AS sunu
I
Eng. son, etc. (Table xv, 1)
Another root with extensive outside connections, but a single line
of English descent, is that of *dhug{h)9ter, "daughter". The root
appears in Indo-Iranian (Sanskrit duhitd, Persian duhitar) ; in Armen-
ian; in Oscan (but not in Latin); in Slavic (Russian doc\ with root
docer-) ; in Greek {thygater) . Anglo-Saxon dohtor, which gives us
daughter, daughter-in-law, daughterly, etc., has cognates in all the Ger-
manic languages (German Tochter, Icelandic dottir, etc.). Again, the
English family tree is extremely simple :
IE *cihug(h)3ter ("daughter")
AS dohtor
I
Eng. daughter, etc. (Table x, 2, 4)
One Indo-European root, *bhel, "sound, roar, bellow", has an
extremely simple Germanic development that leads to Anglo-Saxon
and English forms. From AS belle comes bell {bell buoy, bellwether,
bellboy or bellhop are compound forms), while the verb form, bellan or
bylgan in Anglo-Saxon, goes on to English bellow. The only thing bell
and bellow have in common semantically is that both refer to sounds.
The tree: jg ^^-^^^ ("sound; to roar, bellow")
■ \ \
AS belle bellan, bylgan
I I
Eng. bell, etc. bellow (Table ix, 4)
There is a Germanic root derived from IE *del, "to reckon, count",
which, appearing in Anglo-Saxon as tM (noun) and tellan (verb),
gives rise to English tell and its derivatives, such as teller and telltale.
From the same root comes Anglo-Saxon talu, which becomes English
tale. Two other variants of the root are Middle English talken, leading
46 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*del
to talk, with its derivatives talkative, talkie, etc., and Middle English
tal (modern English tall), which seems to go back to Anglo-Saxon
getal, "quick". The semantic link is between the idea of reckoning,
counting, telling and that of docile or quick to learn (to reckon or
count). The meaning of tall at its earliest appearance is "comely, fine,
excellent, brave", which is linked to "quick to learn". The tree:
IE *del ("to reckon, count")
AS tael, tellan talu getael
ME talken
ME tal
Eng. tell, etc. talk, etc. tale tall
(Table vi, 1)
A Germanic root meaning "pledge", derived from IE *wadk, first
appears in Gothic wadi. With a slight change of form, it appears in
Anglo-Saxon wedd (noun) and weddian (verb), which eventually turn
into English wed, with such derivatives as wedding and wedlock. The
same Germanic root, carried by the Franks into the Vulgar Latin of
northern Gaul after the fall of the Roman Empire, appears in Vulgar
Latin documents as wadjo, later giving rise to French gage and its
derivatives {engager, engagement, etc.). In the northern French dialects
(Walloon, Picard, Norman) the original w of the Germanic form is
kept instead of being turned to gu and g, so that these dialects show
wage, wagier, etc. Both variants get into English, giving rise on the one
hand to gage or gauge, engage, engagement, on the other to wage, wages,
wager. Much later English borrows from standard French the term
degage, "unpledged, free from pledges", therefore "free and easy,
unconstrained". Here the progression is:
IE *wadh ("pledge")
1
AS wedd, weddian
1
Prankish wadi
Eng. wed
wedding
wedlock
1
Francien gage, gager
1
Walloon-Norman wage
Eng. gage, gauge
engage
engagement
Eng. wage
wages
wager
Fr. d^gag^
Eng. d^gag^
(Table xiv, 3; Table x,
*bhreg] one-branch families 47
Another Germanic root whose original form seems to have been an
IE *dheub, "deep", or *dhumb, "hole", appears first in Gothic as diups,
"deep", with a verb daupjan, "to deepen" or "to dip". In Anglo-Saxon
we have deop, "deep", diepan, "to deepen", and dyppan, "to dip".
There is also a variant of diepan which is diefan, "to dive" (i.e., "to
make yourself deep"). Modern English forms derived from these are
deep, with deepen and depth; dip, with dipper; dive, with diver; and, very
possibly, dimple, which is a "deepening" of some part of your anatomy.
Two other forms that come in from kindred Germanic tongues are
dump, from the Scandinavian (either "to drop with a thud" or "a deep,
water-filled hole"), and dope, from Dutch (something that is prepared
by a process of dipping) . Not to be overlooked are special uses of these
words in certain combinations {deep freeze, depth charge, dive bomber, big
dipper) . Here our line of progression is :
IE *dheub, dhumb ("deep, hole")
\ i I \ \ \
AS deop diepan dyppan diefan Scand. dump(e) Du. doop, doopen
I f I J I I
Eng. deep deepen dip dive Eng. dump Eng. dope
depth dipper diver
(Table x, 4; Table v, 1)
Another Germanic root that has wide ramifications in English is
the IE *bher9g or *bhreg, "to gleam, white". This first appears in
Gothic as bairhts, later in Anglo-Saxon as beorht, and ultimately
becomes the English bright, with its derivatives brighten, brightness,
brightly, etc. The Germanic tribes also used it as a proper name {Bert,
Bertha) , and it forms the second part of a veritable army of first and
family names {Robert, Albert, Herbert, Lambert, etc.). These, however,
are carried by the Germanic-speaking Franks into French, then
taken by the Normans to England. As a common noun, the lambert is
the unit of brightness, after the name of its inventor. BrighVs disease
shows the Anglo-Saxon form used as a family name, while the name
of Bertillon, the discoverer of the finger-print method of identification,
contains the Frankish form of the root. Big Bertha, the nickname
given a German siege-gun in World War I, shows another special use.
German variants of the form used in names are -brecht and -precht
{Albrecht, Rupprecht), and Scandinavian names containing Bjerk or
Bjork display the same root. Another form of the IE root is shown by
48 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*bher9g
birch, "the white tree", with its derivative birchen, which appears in
Anglo-Saxon as bierce, a form used also as an English family name.
The family tree:
IE *bher3g,
*bhreg ("to
gleam, white")
AS beorht
1
bierce
Prankish bercht
Eng. bright, etc.
birch, etc.
French -bert
Eng. -bert
Bertha
-berta
(Table ix, 4)
One Germanic root which combines several ideas is the one derived
from IE *gen, "to press together". Here the semantic connections are
doubtful, and the sound similarities paramount. Knap (mountain top),
knit, knob, knoll, knock, knot, possibly also knave and knight, as well as
knead, are claimed by some authorities to belong together under the
same family heading. Most of them have Anglo-Saxon ancestors,
which are, respectively, cnff.pp, cnyttan, knobbe (Middle English), cnoll,
cnocian, cnotta, cnafa, cniht and cnedan. From the Scandinavian division
of Germanic (Old Norse knifr) comes knife, said to belong under the
same root. From Russian, where it was imported by the Scandinavian
Varangians, comes knout, and from Dutch knobhout, "knotted stick",
comes the South African knobkerrie, where the Germanic knob is com-
bined with the Hottentot kirri, "club". Derivatives of the words
listed above are numerous {knapweed, knitting, knobby, knockout, knock-
knee, knothole, knavery, knighthood, to mention some). Granting that the
original link is correct, the family tree would be :
IE *gen ("to press together")
AS cnaepp cnyttan cnoll cnocian cnotta cniht cnedan cnafa ME knobbe
Eng. knap knit knoll knock knot knight knead knav^e knob
Scand. (ON) knifr ? Du. knob
Eng. knife Russ. knut Eng. knobkerrie
Eng. knout
(Table \ni, 2)
*dh'\ ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES 49
It must, however, be stressed that there is considerable uncertainty
about the derivation of all these semantically dissimilar forms from a
single root. Doubt attaches particularly to knave, knight and knead.
B. GREEK
A one-branch family with dubious connections elsewhere appears
in Indo-European *yekUrt, "liver". This, in Latin, produces iecur,
which disappears from the Romance languages because it is replaced
by an accompanying adjective, Jicatum ("stuffed with figs"; the Romans
were apparently fond of combining liver and figs into a single dish ;
ficatum eventually turns into Italian fegato, Spanish higado, French
foie, etc.). In Slavic, the root appears in Russian ikra, "caviar". The
doubtful Germanic descendant is represented by Anglo-Saxon lifer,
English liver, which would call for a prefix with /; but many
authorities prefer to derive liver from the root of life and live. Greek
hepar definitely gives us hepatic and hepatitis. All we can surely
claim for the English tree is :
IE *yekurt ("liver")
I
Gr. hepar
spa
Eng. hepatic
hepatitis
(Table xin, 1, 3)
An Indo-European root *gwadh, "to plunge, sink", comes into
Greek with an initial b replacing *gw and th replacing *dh of the
original. Bathos and the bathy- of bathysphere and similar words are the
English descendants, as well as the abyss and abysmal that issue
directly from the Greek abyssos. There is a very remote possibility
that the slangy Latin bassus, whose immediate ancestor is either Oscan
or Celtic, may be from the same root, in which case our family would
expand to include such words as base (in the sense of "low"), basso,
bassoon, basset, basement, debase, abase, bas relief and bas bleu. Picturing
50 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS \* gwadh
our family tree with only that portion of the family of whose relation-
ships we are sure, we have :
IE *gwadh ("to plunge, sink")
Gk. bathys bathos abyssos
Lat. abyssus
I
Eng. bathy- bathos abyss
abysmal
(Table vin, 3; Table x, 2)
From the IE root *ker, "cherry", the earliest Greek form is kerasos,
"cherry tree". This, coming into Latin in the form cerasus, cerasia,
gives rise to the French cerise, which in the northern French dialects
(Picard-Norman, which contribute heavily to early borrowings from
French in the centuries immediately following the Norman Conquest)
appears as cherise. English speakers misunderstood this to be a plural,
turned it into cherries, and built a singular cherry. Centuries later, the
regular French form cerise was appropriated by English to denote a
color. The brandy made by a distillation of cherries is named Kirsch-
wasser, "cherry water", German having borrowed cerasus from Latin
and turned it into Kirsch. The German term gets into English in the
form of Kirsch or Kirschwasser. The progression here is :
IE *ker ("cherry")
Gk. kerasos
Lat. cerasus, cerasia
NF cherise Fr. cerise Ger. Kirsch (wasser)
I II
Eng. cherries, cherry cerise Kirsch (wasser)
(Table hi, 2)
An IE root that appears in Greek and Germanic is that of *segh,
"to hold fast, victory". We include it in one-branch discussions
because in English the Germanic derivatives appear only in proper
names {Sigmund, Siegfried, Siegfried Line, etc.; German has Sieg,
"victory"). In Greek, the major exemplification of the *segh root is the
verb ekho, "to have, hold", from which comes the English epoch {ep-ekho,
"to have a hold upon, check a course, check the course of a star",
'^segh]
ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES
51
eventually the period of the course itself), and eunuch {eune ekho, "to
hold the couch", the person who guards the couch or harem).
There are two other Greek variants of the root. One is represented
in English by Hector, hector, hectic (with initial IE *j' appearing as h',
Hector is "one who holds firm"; to hector is to behave as Hector did on
the battlefield in the absence of Achilles; hectic is "holding, habitual,
behaving like one suffering from consumption"; cf. Italian etico,
"consumptive"). The other is represented by forms pertaining to
scheme and school (some also claim schedule, but this is disputed), in
which the verb ekho appears in tense-forms beginning with eskh- or
skh-. Schema produces, in addition to scheme and its derivatives {sche-
matic, schematize, etc.), also such forms as sketch, esquisse and schizzo,
the first through Italian and Dutch, the second through French, the
third representing the Italian original of sketch. School (the original
Greek schole indicated a "holding period" of leisure, then that for
which leisure is profitably employed, schooling or instruction or
intellectual development), goes on to Latin schola and Anglo-Saxon
scol, which, blending with Norman-French escole, from the same Latin
source, gives us school and scholar. Scholiast, scholastic, scholasticism and
Schola Cantorum are later and more learned borrowings. School forms
such compounds as schoolboy and schoolhouse, while scholar gives rise to
scholarly, scholarship, etc. With the elimination of Germanic forms and
of schedule, this is the tree :
IE *segh ("to hold fast, victory")
Gk. ekho
(through Latin)
Hektor
schema
Eng. epoch Eng. Hector Eng. scheme
eunuch, hector
hectic
schedion
I
schedius
It. schizzo
schizzo
Fr. esquisse
esquisse
Du. schets
I
Eng. sketch
schole
I
schola
AS scol Fr. escole
Eng. school
scholar
Eng. scholastic
scholiast
Schola
Cantorum
(Table xv, 1 ; Table xi, 2)
52 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*^?^^^
The IE root *gUel, "to throw", produces in Greek the verb ballo and
the noun bole. The former leads directly to such English forms as
ballista and ballistics, the latter to learned compounds of the type of
embolism, hyperbole, metabolism, bolograph, bolometer, with their adjectives
in -ic, as well as to older, more disguised words like emblem, problem and
symbol, with their derivatives {emblematic, problematical, symbolic, etc.).
Two extremely productive compounds of ballo and bole are the ones
formed with the prepositional prefixes para- and dia-. The former
gives us, as a learned word, parabola and parabolic, but in Christian
parlance parabola becomes parable, a "throwing around, talking around,
circumlocution". 'This word goes on to replace, in Vulgar Latin and
early Romance, such Classical words as verbum, locutio and sermo, and
to become the regular form for "word" {parola, parole, palabra) ; it also
gives rise to a new verb "to speak", parabolare, which eventually
becomes Italian parlare and French j&ar/^/-. The French forms eventually
give rise to English parole, parley, parlance, and parlor, the Portuguese
palavra becomes palaver, and Italian directly contributes the musical
term parlando. The diplomatic pourparler is a more recent borrowing
from French. In addition, French parlement gives rise to English
parliament and parliamentary.
Diaballo, "to throw through", also means "to slander", and diabolos
becomes in Christian parlance the "slanderer" of mankind. Turning
into the Latin diabolus, it enters Anglo-Saxon in the form deofol, which
becomes devil, with its derivatives deviltry, devilish, devilment, etc., and
with such picturesque combination forms as deviVs advocate, deviV s-food,
etc. Later and more learned borrowings give us diabolic and diabolism,
while modern French contributes diablerie and the title of a film,
^^Diabolique''\
There is a remote possibility that the Greek balaneion, "bath", may
come from the same root, in which event the learned balneology and
the Italian-derived bagnio would be related forms. There is also a
possibility that Greek ballo, bole may be connected with the Germanic
qualm (originally "black smoke", as in German). These two connections
seem too uncertain to warrant inclusion of the root in a two-branch
discussion, or inclusion of balneology and bagnio in the family tree,
which accordingly takes this form:
''ognis]
ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES
IE *guel ("to throw")
53
Gk. ballo
bole
Eng. ballista metabolism
ballistics embolism
hyperbole
(through
Latin and
French)
I
emblem
problem
symbol
diabolos
I
Lat. diabolus
parabole
Eng. parabola
AS deofol Eng. diabolic
Eng. devil Fr. diable
(through Latin
and Fr.)
Eng. parole
Eng. diablerie parley
parlance
parlor
parliament
(through
Portuguese)
palaver
(through Italian)
parlando
(through French)
pourparler
(Table viii, 3)
C. LATIN
Indo-European had two roots that conveyed the idea of "fire".
One, inanimate and neuter, appears in Greek pyr, English ^re, German
Feuer, etc. The other, personified and mascuHne, is *egnis, *ognis,
which produces, among other things, the Sanskrit agnis, "the fire-god,
fire", and the Slavic word for "fire" represented by Russian ogori' .
In Latin, ignis gives us ignite, ignition, igneous and similar words. The
tree:
IE *egnis, *ognis ("fire")
Lat. ignis
. I.
Eng. ignite
ignition
Eng. igneous, etc.
(Table vii, 1 : note that
the changes for *g do not
occur in the gn group)
54 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*Wei
The IE root *wei, "strength", appears in Latin vis, whose accusative
form, vim, gets directly into English. Latin derivatives of vis are the
verb violo, the adjective violentus and the noun violentia, from which
English, directly or through French, acquires violate, violation, inviolable,
violent, violence, etc. There is disagreement as to whether the same or
other roots yield via, vie, envy, and invite, so they are best left out of our
tree. It is of interest that the Slavic word for "war", voina (Tolstoi's
Voina i Mir, "War and Peace") is from the same root.
IE *wei ("strength")
Lat. vis vioiare violentus violentia
II. I I
Eng. vim (directly or through French)
Eng. violate violent violence
inviolable
etc.
(Table xtv, 2)
IE *VDer, *wer9, "friendliness", from which Latin derives verus,
"true", with various derivatives and compounds {veritas, "truth",
severus, "severe", etc.) produces words derived through French, such
as Very, verity, verdict, verify, veritable, verily, aver, and such direct appro-
priations as veracious, veracity, verisimilitude. Latin severus seems to be
compounded of se, "without", and the original meaning of the IE
root, "friendliness"; from it we inherit severe, severity, persevere, per-
severance, asseverate. It is of interest that while Germanic descendants
of the IE root appear in other Germanic languages (German vuahr,
Wirt), none appear in English.
IE *wer, *wer3 ("friendliness")
Lat. verus
Veritas
1
severus
1
VL veracus
1
1 1
(directly or through French)
OF verai (MF vrai)
Eng. veracity
1
1
verity
severe
Eng. very
veritable
severity
verily
persevere
verdict
asseverate
verify
aver, etc.
(Table xiv, 2)
'bhlag]
ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES
55
An IE root *al, "to wander, roam about aimlessly, go astray, be
mentally wrong", gives rise to Latin ambulo, from which English
derives, directly or indirectly, amble, preamble, ambulance, ambulant^
ramble, perambulator (shortened to pram), somnambulism, funambulism.
If it is true that the same root gives rise to French aller, "to go", then
English alley and possible even allure belong in this group.
IE *al ("to wander, go astray, be wrong")
Lat. ambulo
OF ambler
I
Eng. amble
ramble
preamble
Fr. ambuler
I
Eng. ambulance
ambulant
perambulator
pram
somnambulism
funambulism
aller (?)
Eng. alley
allure (?)
(Chapter 2, p. 17)
The IE root *bhlag, "to strike", gives rise to Latin Jlagellum, "little
whip", from which we get directly flagellant, flagellation, flagellate, and,
through French, flail. English ^o_^, which begins to appear only in the
seventeenth century, is claimed to be a schoolboy abbreviation of
flagellate. If it is true that this root is also at the bottom of Latin ^a^ro,
"to burn brightly", then we would have as part of this fsLmiiy flagrant,
conflagration, eflulgence, fulminate, etc., but the connection is not
definitely established.
IE *bhlag ("to strike")
Lat. flagellum
OF flaiel Eng. flagellant
I flagelliform
Eng. flail flagellate, etc.
flog
(Table ix, 3; Table vii)
There is a root which is simple if accepted in one interpretation,
but would have numerous links in other branches if differently
interpreted. Latin bellum, "war", coming from an earlier duellum, is by
some linked to the root oi duo, "two", which would give it numerous
Germanic and Greek relatives; by others it is connected with an IE
56 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*dau
root *ddu, *d9u, *du, "to burn, hurt, annihilate". In this acceptance,
it yields in English, from the older variant and through Italian, duel,
duellist, duello; from the Classical bellum come bellicose, belligerent, along
with a series of compound forms represented by rebel, rebellion, rebellious.
IE *dau, *d3u, *du ("to burn, hurt, annihilate")
Archaic Lat. duellum
\
I I I .
Lat. bellum rebellio
It. duello
1
Eng. bellicose
belligerent
Fr.
rebellion, etc.
ng. duello
Eng.
rebel
duel
rebellion
duellist
rebellious
(Table vi; Chapter 3, p. 37.)
The IE root *yewos, "law, precept, to bind", is utilized by Latin to
manufacture the jus-, jur- root from which English ultimately derives
on the one hand just and all its compounds {justice, unjust, injustice,
justify, adjust, adjustment, etc.) ; on the other, its various jur-, jure-,
-jury forms {juror, jury, jurist, jurisprudence, jurisdiction, abjure, adjure,
conjure, perjury, injure, injury, etc.). In addition, the jus- root combines
another widespread root, that of Lat. dice, "to say", to produce
judge, judicial, prejudice, etc. There are also proper names such as
Justin, Justine, Justinian, and foreign expressions accepted into the
English vocabulary, such as jus gentium and juste milieu.
IE J^yewos ("law, precept, to bind")
Lat. jus- jur- judex
Fr. juste, etc. jurer, etc. juge, etc.
Eng. just, etc. jury, etc. judge, etc. (Table xiii, 2)
The IE root *kel or *kdl means "gray" or "brown", but acquires a
secondary meaning of "warm". The primary meaning appears in
Latin columba, "dove", which goes on to English columbarium, columbine,
columbium, and the proper name Columbus with its derivatives {Columbia,
Columbian, Colon, Colombia, etc.). The secondary meaning of "warm"
appears in Latin caleo, "to be warm", calidus, "warm", caligo, "mist",
calefacio, "to make warm". Some of these appear directly in English
*prek\
ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES
57
(calef action, caliginous, calorie, calorimeter, etc.). But an even greater
number of English words conies from the French descendants of the
Latin words {chaud, echauder, chauffer, etc.). Here we have chafe, chafing
dish, chauffeur, nonchalant, nonchalance, even chowder (from chaudiere,
which goes back to Latin caldaria, "stew-pot"); while cauldron, caudle,
scald go back to Norman-Picard forms.
IE *kel, *kal ("gray, brown, warm")
Lat. columba caleo calidus (*caiidare)
caldaria
caiefacio
Eng. columbine Eng. calorie
columbarium caloric
columbium etc.
It. Colombo
Fr. chaloir
Eng. nonchalant
Fr. chaud Fr. chaudiere Eng. calefaction
echauder |
I Eng. chowder Fr. chauffer
Eng. scald cauldron chauffeur
caudle |
Eng. chafe
chauffeur
Eng. Columbia
etc.
(Table hi, 2; Chapter 3, p. 41)
The IE root *md, "good, opportune", produces in Latin Manes,
"ancestor spirits"; mane, "in the morning, tomorrow" (which the
Romance languages generally use in compound form: French demain,
Italian domani, Spanish manana, which finds its way into English
dictionaries); Matuta, "dawn goddess", who gives us matutinal, matins,
and matinee; maturus, "ripe", leading to mature, maturity, immature,
premature and possibly, through French, demure; and the negative
immanis, leading to immane. There is a possibility that Greek mania
may be connected, but for semantic reasons it seems best to link it with
the root of mind and mental.
IE *ma ("good, opportune")
Lat. Manes
Eng. Manes
mane
I
Sp. manana
I
Eng. manana
Matuta maturus
(directly or through French)
Eng. matutinal
matins
matinee
immanis
Eng. immane
mature
immature
premature
demure ( ?)
(Chapter 2, p. 17)
The root *perk, *prek "to ask, ask for" produces in Germanic the
verb that appears in modern German asfragen and in Anglo-Saxon as
58
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*porcsco
fricgan, but the latter does not survive in modern English. On the Latin
side, we have posco (originally *porcsco), "to ask, demand", with a
derivative postulo from which we get postulant, postulate, expostulate,
expostulation. Another derivative is l^diiin precor, "to pray", from which,
directly or through French, we obtain precarious (that for which you
pray, but are not sure of obtaining), deprecate "pray off, ward off",
imprecation "pray curses upon", and, through French prier, pray and
prayer (with prayer book, praying mantis, etc.), prithee ("I pray thee"),
and, in straight French form, prie-dieu ("pray-God", a prayer desk or
seat) .
IE *perk, *prek ("to ask, ask for")
Lat. *porcsco — posco— postulo
precor
Eng. postulate
postulant
expostulate
I
Eng. deprecate
imprecation
precarious
Fr. prier
I
Eng. pray
eic. prayer
prithee
prie-dieu
Table i; Table hi, 2)
The IE root *kapro means "goat, male animal". Here we have Latin
capra, "goat", which appears directly in caper, capriole, Capricorn,
caprifoliaceous, possibly caprice and capriccio (these come through French
from Italian capriccio, but they may go back to caput, "head", rather
than to capra). The diminutive capella, "little goat", appears in the
name of a constellation. Provencal and Spanish forms, in which p is
voiced to b, appear in cabriolet (shortened to cab, with its derivatives
cabby and taxicab); cabriole (the name of a kind of furniture) ; cabrilla
(a fish, named by the Spaniards "little goat"). French forms, with c
before a palatalized to ch, appear in chevron, chevrotain and Chevrolet.
IE *kapro ("goat, male animal")
I
Lat. capra
Eng. Capricorn
caper
caprifoliaceous
It. capriola
capriccio ( ?)
Eng. capriole
capriccio ( ?)
caprice (?)
Prov.
and Sp.
-I
cabriole
cabrilla
cabriolet
cab etc.
capella
I
Eng. Capella
Fr.
chevron
chevrotain
Chevrolet
(Table hi, 2; Table i; Chapter 3, p. 41)
^stldtus]
ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES
59
A slightly doubtful, yet very extensive family is that of IE *pdi, *pi,
"to drink". Although this has extensive ramifications in Greek (pino)
and in Slavic {pit\ "to drink", pivo, "beer"), its English members all
come from Latin bibo and poto, "to drink". Bibo is described as a case
of assimilation of the first ^ in a hypothetical *pibo to the second b,
and this hypothesis is supported by the form pipqfo, "I shall drink",
in a Faliscan inscription (Faliscan was a dialect of the Latinian branch
of Italic). Bibo gives us, directly or through Old French beivre (modern
French boire), bib, bibulous, imbibe, wine-bibber, beverage, bevy (from Old
French bevee, "hunting party at which one drinks"), possibly buffet
(from an alternative French form buvette). Poto gives potable, potation,
and, through potio, a noun formation, potion, and poison (with poisoner,
poisonous, poison ivy, etc.). In addition, there is an Anglo-Saxon pott
which seems borrowed from the root of Latin poto ; this merges with
French pot, from the same source, and becomes pot, with potter, potter'' s
field, pottery, poteen, pottage, or potage, potboiler, pothook, pothouse, pot luck,
potsherd, pot shot, pot roast, potpie, pot liquor, pot walloper, pot belly, potash
and potassium, the half-disguised porridge and porringer, putty, hotchpotch
or hodgepodge, and the French potpourri and potiche.
IE *p6i, *pi ("to drink")
Lat. poto
potio
bibo
I I I I I I
Eng. potable AS pott Fr. pot Fr. potion Eng. bib (through
potation
Eng. pot
potter
poteen
potpourri
hodgepodge
porridge
porringer
putty
potiche
poison
I.
Eng. potion
poison
bibulous French)
imbibe |
bibber Eng. bevy
beverage
buffet ( ?)
(Table i)
The IE root *stel, "to broaden, broad", gives rise to Latin Idtus,
(earlier *stldtus, arising by metathesis, or transposition, of /), an
adjective meaning "wide, broad"; as well as to the noun latus, with
short a, meaning "side". The first gives us latitude, "broadness", and,
by an extension to the meaning of "broad fields", Latium, which in
60 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*Stel
turn gives us Latin, Latinity, and such compound forms as Latin cross,
Latin Quarter and Latin America. Latinus, "Latin", also gives us lateen
sails, Ladino, the Romance tongue of the Sephardic Jews, and Ladin,
the Rheto-Romansh dialects of Switzerland and northeastern Italy.
It is possible that Lateran also belongs here (the Lateran Palace was
originally the residence of the Laterna family) . By a further extension,
latus produces lama, "blade", which gives us laminate, lamellate, lame
(in the sense of "thin plate"), and omelet (the last is Latin lamella, a
diminutive meaning "small blade", which gets another diminutive
ending in French at the same time that it loses its initial /, and so
turns into omelette, a "small, thin blade" of c.^g). The noun latus,
meaning "side", gives us lateral, bilateral, collateral, unilateral, equilateral,
quadrilateral, etc., as well as dilate, dilatation, elate, elation.
IE *stel ("to
broaden, broad")
Lat. latus
Latium
latinus
lama, lamella
latus
lateralis
1
Eng. latitude
Fr.
Eng.
Sp.
Eng.
Rhetian
Latin
(voile) latine
lateen (sail)
ladino
Ladino
ladin
lamellate Fr. lamelette
omelette
Eng. omelet
1
Eng. lateral
etc.
dilate
elate
Eng.
Ladin
(Table ii)
The IE root *temp, "to span, spin", leads to hsLtin tempus, "time"
(that which is spun by the Fates), used also for "weather", as it still is
in the Romance languages. A further Latin extension of the root is
templum, "temple", a space cut off for the interpretation of omens,
which often had to do with time and weather. The time-weather
combination ultimately results in English temper, temperate, temperament,
temperance, temperature, distemper, tempest, temporal, temporize, extem-
poraneous, contemporary, as well as tamper (a variant, of fem/^^r), tense (in a
grammatical sense, the time denoted by the verb), the Italian tempo
and tempera (paint), the French contretemps, the Latin tempus fugit,
*{s)kand] one-branch families 61
and pro tempore (or pro tern) . One curious extension is Japanese tempura,
"shrimp fried in batter", from the Quattuor Tempora, "four times of the
year", "Ember days", of the Portuguese navigators, who called for
seafood on those days. Templum gives us temple, Templar and contemplate
(with contemplative, contemplation, etc.). Two additional possibilities
arise : one is antenna, the other is tempt (with temptation, attempt, contempt,
tentacle, tentative, even tent and taunt). Leaving these two out of the
reckoning by reason of the uncertainty of the connection, we have :
IE *temp ("to span, spin")
Lat. tempus
tempora (pi.)
templum
OF tens
Eng. temporal
Fr.
1
temple
Fr. temps, etc.
temporize
contemporary
etc.
1
Eng. contretemps
Eng.
temple
tense
Ft. Quattuor Tempora
etc.
temper, etc.
1
tamper
Jap. tempura
tempest, etc.
Eng. tempura
Eng. tempus (fugit)
(pro) tempore
Eng. Ember (Days)
(by blending with AS ymbryne.
It. tempo
"running around")
tempera
1
Eng. tempo
tempera
(Table iii;
Table i)
The IE root *{s)kand means "to shine, glow, bright". In Latin,
this produces the verb candeo, "to glow, gleam white", with such
derivatives as candor, candela, candidatus (the one who wears the clean
white robe when he runs for political office), and compounds like
candesco, incendo, accendo (the last does not get into English, but note
the Italian accendere, "to light up"). Directly or through French, we
get candid (with Candid Camera), candidate and candidacy, candor (also
the French proper name Candide, immortalized by Voltaire) ; also
incense and incendiary, along with incandescent. Candle was borrowed
directly from Latin candela by Anglo-Saxon, where it appears as
candel (note also candle light, candle power. Candlemas) . Candelabrum and
candelabra come directly from Latin ("candle lip" is the original
meaning). French forms in which c before a turns to ch are responsible
62
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*{s)kand
for chandelier, chandler, and aviation'§ chandelle. There is a possible
inter-branch relative in the sandal of sandalwood, which comes from a
Greek sandalon or santalon said to go back to Sanskrit chandala, but this
relationship is uncertain.
IE *(s)kand ("to shine, glow bright")
Lat. candeo, candor
1
1
candidatus
candela
incendo candesco
1
(through Fr.)
1
AS
candel
(directly or through Fr.)
Eng. candor
candid
Candide
candidate
candidacy
etc.
Fr.
Eng.
Lat.
candle
chandelle
chandelier
chandler
chandelier
chandelle
candelabrum-a
incense incandescent
incendiary etc.
etc.
Eng.
candelabrum-a
(Table hi; Table vi;
Chapter 3, p. 41)
The IE root *kes means "to cut, knife". Some authorities prefer
to view this root as giving rise only to Latin castrum, "cut-off place",
ultimately "camp, fortified encampment", and castro, "to cut off,
castrate"; others include also castus, "castrated, purified", hence
"pure, chaste". Castrum yields a series of English place names in
-caster, -cester, -chester, as well as Spanish alcazar, which is Latin castrum
borrowed by the Moors, who prefixed the Arabic article al-, turned
the word into al-qasr, from which the Spaniards made alcazar (it is of
interest that a seafront drive in Palermo, Sicily, bears the name of
Cassaro, which is the Arabic qasr without the article) . A diminutive of
castrum, castellum, becomes castle (through Norman- Picard castel),
chateau (this is from the standard Old French chastel), and, through
Spanish, Castillo, whence Castilla, "land of castles", and Castile {soap).
Derivatives of the French forms are castellan, chdtelain and chatelaine.
It is worth noting that the Swiss chalet (not chalet) is not a diminutive
form derived from chastelet and castellittum, but comes either from an
ancient Mediterranean (non-Indo-European) language, or possibly
from the root of casa, "house". Castro gives us castrate and castration.
'^kamp\
ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES
63
while castus, if it is correct to include it under this root, give rise to
chaste, chastity, chastisement and chastise, castigate and caste (the last
through Portuguese casta, a "pure race or breed"). A derivative is
incest, with incestuous, "that which is impure, unchaste".
IE *kes ("to cut, knife")
1
Lat. castro
1
1
castrum
1
, castellum
castus (?)
(directly or
through Romance
forms)
Eng. castrate
castration
(through AS)
Eng. -cester
-caster
-Chester
(through Fr.)
Eng. castle, etc.
chateau
chatelain, etc.
(through Sp.)
Eng. castigate
(through Fr.)
chaste
chastity
chastise
1 .
Eng. Castile (soap)
(through Pt.)
(through Arabic
and Spanish)
caste
Eng. alcazar
(Table hi, 2;
Chapter 3, p. 41)
An IE root *kamp, "bend, edge", gives rise to Latin campus, which
appears in English as campus, camp (with numerous compounds, like
camp fire and camp follower), and derivatives of the type of campaign
and camping, as well as encamp, decamp, and even scamp and scamper.
(The last is variously described as issuing from the Italian scampare or
the Old French eschamper, while scamp is a back-formation from scamper,
"one who runs away from a fight"). There are Italian forms which
enter English directly, like campagna (the Roman campagna), campo,
and campo santo (Italian graveyard, literally "holy field"). The French
champ goes on to champagne (the older form was champaign) and cham-
pignon, "mushroom". Place names abound [Champagne, Campania,
Champs Elysees, etc.). It seems likely that German borrowed the Latin
word to form Kampf and kampfen [Kulturkampf, the struggle waged by
Bismarck against the Catholic Church) . If the assumption of Germanic
borrowing from Latin is correct, then the Germanic borrowed kampjo
gives rise to the French and English champion (with championship, etc.),
and to the Spanish [Cid) Campeador. A more doubtful connection
appears with Celtic cam, camb, "bent, crooked", which gives rise to
64
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*kamp
Latin cambio, "to change". This goes on to French change, changer, and
English change [exchange, interchange, changeless, etc.), while the Italian
form cambio appears in the antiquated financial terms cambial, cambist;
the scientific cambium is best taken as coming directly from Latin ; and
gambit (the exchange of a pawn for a positional advantage in chess)
may also come from this root, though there is also a possibility that it
represents the Italian sgambetto, the act of tripping someone. At any
rate, the Celtic root is best left out of consideration for family tree
purposes, while it seems reasonably safe to include the Germanic
K ampf a.nd kampjo.
IE *kamp ("bend, edge")
Lat. campus
Eng. campus
(through
Romance
Fr.
champ
champagne
champignon
It.
scampare
campagna
campo (santo)
Germanic
Fr.
kampjo
champion
1
forms)
1
Eng. camp
Eng.
champagne Eng.
champignon
Champs Elysdes
scamper
scamp
campagna
Eng.
Sp.
champion
campeador
encamp,
decamp.
etc.
etc.
campo (santo)
Eng.
Ger.
Eng.
campeador
Kampf
Kulturkampf
(Table hi; Table i;
Chapter 3, p. 41; Chapter 2, p. 19; Table v)
The IE root *dhe(i) means "to suck, suckle". In Latin, it gives rise
to femina, fecundus, fetus, felix, and Jilius, all of which become extremely
productive in the Romance languages and English. Inter-branch
connections appear in Slavic (Russian) dyeti, "children", and dyeva,
dyevitsa, dyevushka, "girl", and in the doubtful Illyrian or Albanian
place name Dalmatia, from which we get Dalmatian (dog) and
dalmatic. Femina yields, directly or through French, y^ma/e {Fr.femelle),
feminine, feminist, effeminate, etc.; in modern French form we have
femme fatale and femme de chambre, along with the archaic legal feme
covert and feme sole, used to refer to a woman who is married (covered)
or unmarried (alone). Fecundus hGComes fecund, fecundate. Fetus, "off-
spring", gives fetus and also effete, "no longer bearing fruit". Felix
gives us, in addition to the proper name and to Arabia Felix ("fruitful,
*m9Tl] ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES 65
fertile", therefore ^''ha.ppy"), felicity, felicitate, felicitation, felicitous, and
some opposites prefixed by in-. Filius and its feminine form flia go on
to English flial, affiliate, affiliation, the Norman-French family name
prefix Fit z- {Fitzgerald, Fitzpatrick, etc., "son of"), such modern literary
French forms as Dumas Fils (where English would normally use
Junior or Younger), other French forms Yik.efille dejoie and file de chambre,
and the Spanish-derived hidalgo (origmedly fdalgo, f jo de algo, "son of
something", "nobleman", as opposed to a peasant whose ancestry
mattered little). <i>
IE *dhe(i) ("to suck, suckle")
Lat. femina fecundus fetus
felix
films, filia
1 1
(directly or through French) Eng. fetus
(directly
1 I
or through French)
1 1 effete
1
1 1
Eng. female fecund
felicity
filial fille
feminist fecundate
felicitate
affiliate
feminine
Felix
Fitz-
effeminate
etc.
Fils
femme fatale
femme de chambre
Sp. fijo, hidalgo
feme covert
1
feme sole
Eng. hidalgo
(Table x, 3)
A very productive one-branch root is IE *mdn, "hand". This,
becoming Latin manus and later French main, gives us a host of words :
manual, manacle, manage, manager (with managerial, manageme?it) , eman-
cipate (with emancipation, emancipator), manicure, manifest, manifesto,
maniple, manipulate, manipulation, manipulator, manufacture, manuscript,
manumit. Manus plus do, "to give", produces mandate (that which is
given by hand, or into your hands), mandamus, mandatory, and Maundy
Thursday (the Thursday on which the disciples were commanded;
Fr. mande). In compounds, mando gives rise to command, commander,
commandment, the Portuguese commando, the Afrikaans commandeer, as
well as to commend; also to demand, amend, remand. There is manure,
"that which is spread by hand"; mansuetude, from manu suesco, "to
soothe by hand or stroking", which goes on to mansuetinus, which
becomes mastinus and ultimately mastiff. There is maneuver, which is
<!' Filly, however, comes from a separate Scandinavian source, connected with foal
and, more remotely, with pullet, puerile and the -putra of Brahmaputra.
66
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
\*m3n
French manoeuvre from Latin manu opera, "works by hand". From
main, the French descendant of Latin manus, we get maintain and
maintenance. There is a learned amanuensis, "one who copies manu-
scripts by hand", and a scientific quadrumane, "four-handed animal",
such as an ape. There is even the French name of the English Channel,
La Manche, which is "the Sleeve" (Latin manica, "that which comes
down to the hand", which also gives rise to the Italian manicotti,
large, hollow tubes of dough stuffed with cottage cheese, hterally
"muffs"). As against all these Latin derivatives, the only Germanic
product of this IE root appears in proper names, such as Rosamond,
which justifies us in treating this as a one-branch root. The tree is
somewhat unmanageable (another word from the same root) :
IE *m9n ("hand")
Lat. manus
(directly or
through French)
mancipo (manu capio)
Eng.
manual
manacle
manicure
manifest
maniple
manufacture
maneuver
manuscript
maintain
maintenance
It. maneggiare
manifesto
Eng. manage
manifesto
Eng. emancipate
etc.
Lat. mandamus
mansuetinus
amanuensis
quadrumanus
Eng. mandamus
mastiff
amanuensis
quadrumane
mando (manu do)
Fr. mander
demander
commander
etc.
Eng. Maundy
demand
command
etc.
Du. kommandeeren
I
Eng. commandeer
Pt. commando
Eng. commando
(Chapter 2, p. 17)
The IE root *op, "work", produces Latin opu^, with a plural form
opera, and also Latin ops, "might, wealth", with derivatives like
officium (from opi-ficium, "work-doing place"), opulentus, optimus, copia
{cum-ops or co-opia). There are possible, but not assured, links with
Osci, the name of the Oscans, an Italic group related to the Romans,
inhabiting southern and central Italy, and even to omnis (if the latter
connection is correct, then English descendants of the root would also
include omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent, omnivorous, and omnibus or
Hag]
ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES
67
bus, whose original meaning is "for everybody"). Opus and its plural
opera give us, in addition to the Latin words themselves, also the
diminutive opuscule, operate, and operation, with their derivatives
cooperate, operational, inoperable, etc.; the Italian operetta; and the Italian-
French opera bouffe. Officium yields office, officer, official, officialdom,
officious, officiate, etc. Opulentus gives opulent, opulence. Optimus gives us
optimate, optimist, optimism, optimistic, even soroptimist. From copia we
get copy, copyist, copyright, copious. A straight French form that gets into
English is hors d'auvre, "out of the main works", something eaten in
advance of the main meal; another is chef d'ceuvre, "masterpiece".
Maneuver and manure represent the French combination of the root of
"hand" with that of "work". Lucubration may be derived from luce
opero, "to work in the light", but this is doubtful.
IE *op ("work")
1
Lat. opus
opera
1 J
opulentus optimus
officium
1
1.
copia
rough Fr.)
1
Eng. opus
It. opera
1 1 1
(through Fr.) (directly or (directly or th
operetta
1 through Fr.)
1
1
(through
1
Eng. opulent Eng.
, office
copy
French)
Eng. opera
opulence
officer
copyist
1
operetta
Eng. optimum
official
copyright
Eng. opuscule
optimist
officiate
copious
(through Fr.)
optimism
optimate
officious
etc.
etc.
Eng. operate, etc. soroptimist
chef d'oeuvre
hors d'oeuvre
maneuver
manure
(Table i)
An IE root *tag, "to seize", comes into Latin in the form of the verb
tango, "to touch". This, with its past participle tactus, gives rise to
many English forms (note that the shift from _^ to c in ta{n)go, tactus is
merely a phenomenon of assimilation due to a desire to avoid the
difficult pronunciation of gt; ct is easier to pronounce). From the
tang- variant of the Latin root we get tangible, tangent, tangential, and
the name of the dance tango, which comes from the Spanish verb
tangir. The participial root tact- produces tact and its derivatives
{tactile, tactual, tactless, tactful, intact, contact, etc.). The Latin integer,
formed on the root of tango, gives on the one hand integer, integrity.
68
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
\*tag
integral, integrate, integration, on the other, through its French develop-
ment, entire and entirety (see Chapter 3, p. 40). Other formations
produce contiguous and contiguity, contingence and contingent, contagion
and contagious. Another French development comes into English in
the form of attain, attainment, attainder, attaint, contain, retain, detain, and
all their derivatives. Contaminate and contamination also belong here,
while a derivative verb of tango, taxo or taxito, produces tax, surtax,
taxable, taxation and even taxpayer, as well as task and taskmaster, in
addition to taste and all its derivatives {tasty, tasteful, tasteless, distaste,
etc.). It may be noted in passing that tact, tax, and their compounds
and derivatives are to be distinguished from words in which the idea
of "arrangement" predominates {syntax, tactics, etc.); these come from
a different root through Greek.
IE *tag ("to seize")
Lat. tango
1
tactus
integer
1
taxo
1
contagio
(directly or through
Eng. tangible Eng.
tangent
tangential
Fr.)
tact
contact
intact
Eng.
Fr.
integer
integral
etc.
entier
1
(through Fr.)
Eng. tax
task
taste
Eng.
contagion
contaminate
etc.
contingent
contiguous
etc.
Eng.
entire
etc.
attain
retain
entirety
contain
(through Sp.)
(Table ii
Chapter
; Table vii;
3, p. 40)
tango
The IE root *men has the general meaning of "to project", later
extended to "mountain" (a projection on the landscape). The
"projecting" idea leads to that of something that overhangs, impends,
threatens. Latin takes this root in two forms, that of the verb minor,
"to threaten", later extended to include the sense of "to drive along
by threats", as of a flock or herd of animals, and that of the noun
mons, "mountain". From minor, generally through French, stem forms
like minatory and commination, menace, promenade (and prom), amenable,
demean, demeanor, misdemeanor, eminent, prominent, pre-eminent, imminent,
with their respective nouns and adverbs (note also the legal compound
eminent domain). Latin mons, "mountain", eventually gives rise to
"men]
ONE-BRANCH FAMILIES
69
mount (both noun and verb), amount, dismount, paramount, tantamount,
catamount, surmount, mountain, mountaineer, mountainous, mountebank (this
comes through ItaHan montimbanco), Mounties (Royal Northwest
Mounted Pohce), promontory, and all those place names in which the
idea of "mountain" appears [Montana; Vermont, which is Green
Mountain", Montenegro, which is Italian for "Black Mountain", a
translation of the Serbo-Croatian Crna Gora; the Spanish Monterey
and the French Montreal, which both mean "King's Mountain";
Montevideo, or "mountain saw I" in Magellan's Portuguese; and
others too numerous to count). Other tempting connections present
themselves for this root, but they are uncertain: the Latin mentum,
"chin", which gives rise to an English adjective mental (not "per-
taining to the mind", but "pertaining to the chin"; if this is accepted,
we may have links with the Germanic branch, since mouth is linked
with Latin mentum) ; mine, with its derivatives mineral, miner, and the
German Minenwerfer, "mine-thrower"; but mine seems more likely to
come from a separate Celtic root; lastly, there is marmot, which many
authorities derive from mus montanus, "mountain mouse".
IE *men ("to project, mountain")
Lat. minor
.1
Eng. minatory
commination
(through Fr.)
Eng. promenade, prom
demeanor
amenable
menace
eminent
prominent
imminent
pre-eminent
etc.
promuntonum
Eng. promontory
Fr. mont
I
Eng. mount
amount
dismount
paramount
surmount
catamount
Mounties
Montreal
Vermont
etc.
Sp., Pt., It. monte
I
Eng. Monterey
Montevideo
Montenegro
etc.
It. montimbanco
montagne
I
mountain
mountainous
mountaineer
etc.
Eng. mountebank
(Chapter 2, p. 17)
CHAPTER 5
Two-Branch Families
English vocabulary being mainly compounded of Germanic, Greek,
and Latin, it is natural that the most numerous word-families should
be combinations of two of these, or all three. Two and three-branch
families constitute the majority of our material.
In considering two-branch families, we discover an interesting
division that gives a clue to the nature of the English vocabulary, if
any were needed. Well over half of such families consist of the Latin-
Germanic combination. Of the remainder, about half are Latin-
Greek. Greek-Germanic groups account for about half as many
families as the former. Other combinations (Indo-Iranian and Greek,
Indo-Iranian and Latin, Greek and Slavic, Latin and Celtic, Germanic
and Celtic, Germanic and Slavic) are only a sprinkling. None of them
fails to include one of the big three.
These sprinklings, however, are of particular interest, because they
show the basically international character of English. We shall
therefore begin our discussion of two-branch families with them.
A. MIXED
A very simple, though somewhat learned, example of a root
that combines Latin and Indo-Iranian is IE *bhlagh{men), "priest-
magician", which gives on the one hand, through Sanskrit brahman,
"prayer, divine essence", Brahma, chief god of the Hindu Trinity,
with Brahman, Brahmanism, Brahmin and such combinations as Brahma
bull; on the other, through hatin Jlamen, "priest", English ^am^«, with
such proper-name derivatives as Flaminius and Via Flaminia. Un-
explained, in connection with the Sanskrit brahman, is the shift from
IE *bhl- to Sanskrit br-, where we should expect *bhl- or *bhr- (the
70
'bhag]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
71
interchange of / and r is common in Sanskrit) . The same shift, however,
appears in the only other *bhl- root that is of frequent occurrence in
Sanskrit (IE *bhlendh to Sanskrit bradhnah, the root which in Germanic
leads to English blind, blend, blunder, blond, etc.).
IE *bhlag(men) ("priest-magician")
Skt.
brahman
etc.
Lat.
flamen, Flaminius
1
Eng.
flamen
Eng.
Brahma
(Via) Flaminia
Brahmin
etc.
Brahman
Brahmanism
etc.
(Table ix,
The IE root *bhag, "to divide, cut up, allot", appears in Greek
phagein, "to eat", from which English derives several combining forms
{-phage, -phagous, -phagy or -phagia, phago-), which appear in words like
anthropophagous, sarcophagus (originating in sarkophagos lithos, "body-
eating stone"), oesophagus or esophagus (combining the Greek roots of
"to carry" and "to eat": "that which carries what you eat"), ichthyo-
phagous, phagocyte, etc. From the same root, Indo-Iranian Persian
derives baksheesh, from the Persian verb meaning "to give", and this
is passed on to English. It is of interest to note that the same root
produces in Slavic the word for "rich" (Russian bogaty), the word for
"God" {Bog), and the Russian "thank you", spasibo {spasi Bog, "'God
save (you)". The English two-branch tree is:
IE *bhag ("to divide, cut up, allot")
Persian baksheesh Gk. phagein
I I
Eng. baksheesh (directly, or through
Latin and French)
Eng. -phagous, phago-, etc.
sarcophagus
esophagus
anthropophagous
ichthyophagous
phagocyte, etc. (Table ix)
72 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS *[nebh
Another IE root producing a Persian (Indo-Iranian) word which is
borrowed by Enghsh is *nebh, "cloud". Here we have on the one hand
Latin nebula, with nebulose, nebulous, nebular, etc.; nimbus; nubilous (from
nubes, a variant of nebula) ; possibly also imbue and Neptune, with
neptunium, the name of a chemical element (though Neptune is also
attributed to the root of nepos, "nephew", or given an Etruscan origin
in Nethuns) ; on the other hand, we have Persian naft, with the earlier
Avestan napta, possibly derived from an Akkadian form, but meaning
"moist"; this gives us naphtha, naphthalene, naphthol, etc. There is also a
Greek nephele which appears in English, along with nephelite and
nephelometer, but only as a scientific word. Anglo-Saxon had nifol, from
the same root, and German has Nebel, but the Germanic form has
disappeared from modern English. Slavic derives from this root its
word for "sky, heaven" (Russian nebo).
IE *nebh ("cloud")
\ \ J \
Avestan-Persian napta, naft Lat. nebula nimbus nubes
Eng. naphtha Eng. nebula nimbus nubilous
etc. nebulose
etc. (Table ix, 3)
A combination of which only the Indo-Iranian and Germanic
members are beyond question is that of IE *bhendh, "to bind". Here
Anglo-Saxon offers bindan, with English bind, bindery, binder; bendan,
which gives bend and bends; bonda, which is crossed with a kindred
Old Norse bondi to produce bond, bondage, bondsman, etc.; and bend,
which merges with Old Norse band and a bande brought in by the
Normans from Old French, which had previously borrowed it from an
Old High German source; this gives us band, with such compounds as
bandbox, bandstand and bandwagon. Dutch bundel gives us bundle, and a
combination of French, Italian, and Spanish produces bandage, bandolier,
banner and banderole. Modern High German gives us not only the Nazi
Bund, but also the older Bund meaning a "federation of German states",
with such compounds as Bundesrat. From the Indo-Iranian division,
through Hindustani band and Hindustani-Persian kamarband, come the
Bund of Shanghai and the cummerbund that is worn with dinner jackets,
and whose meaning is "stomach-band". There is also bandanna.
'^orbho]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
73
representing Hindustani bdndhnu, a form of dye. The very doubtful Latin
and Greek cognates are on the one hand the -fendo offend, fence, fender,
defend, defensive, offend, offensive, which most authorities prefer to derive
from IE *g'ihen; and the path- o{ pathos, pathetic, homeopath, allopath,
osteopath, sympathy, antipathy, empathy, apathy, pathological, etc., which is
phonologically unsatisfactory, since Greek p should come from IE *p,
and IE *bh should give ph in Greek; in addition, there are semantic
difficulties.
IE *bhendh ("to bind")
Skt. bhandh
Hind, (kamar)band
bandhnu
Eng. Bund (promenade)
cummerbund
bandanna
AS bindan bendan bonda ON bondi Du. bundel
Eng. bind
binder
etc.
bend
bends
bond
bondage
bondsman
bundle
AS bend
ON band
I
OHG band
"OF bande
It. banderuola
Sp. bandolera
Eng. bannerole
bandolier
Eng. band
bandbox
bandstand
etc.
bund
I
Ger. Bund
Bundesrat
Eng. Bund
Bundesrat
Eng. banner
bandage
(Table ix, 1, 4;
Table x, 1, 4)
A Greek-Slavic combination appears in the IE root *orbho, "orphan,
heir". Here, through Greek orphanos, we get orphan and orphanage. In
Slavic, the root has numerous developments (Russian rebyonok,
rebyata, "child", "children"; rab, "slave" and rabota, "work"). On the
basis of the "work" root, a Czech writer, Karol Capek, formed the
word robot, a "mechanical man" who works for his more fortunate
human counterpart. Since the play was produced in English-speaking
countries under the title "R.U.R.", the word robot has become part of
the English vocabulary. There is also a Latin cognate orbus, "deprived
of, bereaved", which gives rise to a specialized architectural term,
orb. It is interesting that although the root appears in Anglo-Saxon
74
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*orbho
and has vast ramifications in modern German (Arbeit, arbeiten, arm,
Erbe), the Germanic forms disappeared firom English. Leaving out of
account the highly specialized orb, the present-day EngHsh picture is
therefore :
IE *orbho ("orphan, heir")
Gk. orphanos
Lat. orphanus
Eng. orphan
orphanage
Slavic raijota
I
Czech robota, robot
I
Eng. robot
(Table ix, 2)
The IE root *kem, "to adorn, disguise", gives rise to Celtic and
Germanic forms which ultimately appear in English, but also present
quite doubtful features. The Celtic branch is represented by Gaulish
camisia, borrowed by Latin, which goes on to chemise, camisole, camisade
("a night attack in disguise") and shimmy, a slang form of chemise.
It is only fair to state that there is a possibility, though not a prob-
ability, that the word was borrowed by Celtic from a Germanic
hypothetical *khamithja (represented by Anglo-Saxon hemethe and
modern German Hemd). On the attested Germanic side are heofon,
which becomes heaven (with heavenly; but some authorities prefer to
link this to the root of Greek camera, and others to still another root
appearing in Sanskrit asman, "stone, sky") ; and possibly, but not at
all probably, scamian, leading to shame and its derivatives {shameful,
shameless, ashamed, and shamefast, that by misunderstanding becomes
shamefaced) .
IE *kem ("to adorn, disguise")
1
AS heofon
1
1 .
scamian ( ?)
Gaulish camisia
1
Eng. heaven
shame
Latin camisia
etc.
etc.
1
(through French)
Eng. chemise
shimmy
camisole
camisade
(Table hi,
Chapter 3.
2, 3;
, p. 41)
*gUer] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 75
The IE root *reidh, "to go, be in motion", produces on the Celtic
side the GauUsh {ve)redus (possibly from an earlier *{wo)redos), which
comes into Latin in the form veredus, and, being given a Greek prefix
para-, turns into paraveredus, developed by French into palefroi and
transferred to English as palfrey (through the fall of unstressed
syllables, paraveredus, borrowed by German, turns into Pferd). On the
Germanic side, Anglo-Saxon has rdd, ridan and {ge)ra;de, which in
English become road (with its many compounds: roadbed, roadblock,
roadhouse, etc.), ride (with rider), and ready (with readiness, readily,
already, etc.). Raid, with raider, is a Scottish development of road,
perhaps with some Scandinavian influence.
IE *reidh ("to go, be in motion")
AS rad
ridan
1
(ge)raede
Gaulish *(wo)redos, veredus
Eng. road
(through
Scottish)
raid
1
ride
ready, etc.
already
Lat. (para) veredus
Fr. palefroi
Eng. palfrey
etc.
(Table x, 4)
In the case of the IE root *g'ier, "to raise one's voice, praise", we
have on the one hand the Celtic word for "poet" (Irish bard, Welsh
bardd, Gaulish bardo-), adopted by English as bard; on the other, an
entire series of words coming from the Latin gratia, grains and their
derivatives. These, entering English directly or through French, give
us grace, gracious, graceful, graceless, grateful, gratitude, ingrate, ingratitude;
disgrace and disgraceful; ingratiate and ingratiating; gratify and grati-
fication; gratis, gratuity, gratuitous; congratulate and congratulation, with
other derivatives. Through Spanish we receive gracias and gracioso.
76
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*guer
The French bon gre, mat gre, "wilhngly or unwilHngly", is occasionally
used in an English context, though in italics.
IE *gyer ("to raise one's voice, praise")
Lat. gratia gratus
(directly or through Fr.
Eng. grace, etc.
grateful, etc.
disgrace, etc.
ingratiate, etc.
gratify, etc.
gratis, etc.
congratulate, etc.
Sp. gracias
gracioso
1 .
Eng. gracias
gracioso
Celtic bard
I
Eng. bard
(Table vni)
A combination of Celtic and Germanic is presented by the IE root
*me, "big". Here we have the Welsh mawr of Bryn Mawr ("Big Hill",
but with the order of the words reversed), and the Anglo-Saxon mdra,
masst, that turn into English more (with moreover) and most (with such
derivatives as mostly and foremost) ; it may be mentioned in passing
that the r of the Welsh mawr and that of Anglo-Saxon mdra do not
stem from the same source, and do not form part of the root. Other
Celtic connections provide French with maint, German with Mdrchen
(in addition to mehr and meist), along with proper names ending in
-mar [Volkmar, Waldemar), and Slavic with the -mir oi Vladimir. There
is a possible, perhaps probable, connection with the root of Latin
magis, magnus, Indo-Iranian maha- of maharajah, Greek megas, which
supply us with master, mister, megacycle, and numerous other words
(see pp. 225-227).
IE *me ("big")
AS mara
maesst
Welsh mawr
Eng. more
most
Eng. (Bryn) Mawr
(Chapter 2, p.
17)
*dhe]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
77
The root *kleu, "to hear", produces clueo, inclitus and inclutus in
Latin, but none of these pass on into EngHsh. Nor does the Greek
klyo. The Germanic forms appear in Anglo-Saxon hlud, leading to
loud, loudness, loud-mouthed, loudspeaker, etc.; and hlyst, hlystan, which
become list and listen. In addition, the Germanic root with initial hl-
(hlutha) appears in Old High German personal names of the type of
Hlothwig, later Ludwig and Louis (with louis d'or, Louise, Lulu, Louisiana,
Heloise, St. Louis, etc., and variants like Lewis) ; and Hlothachar or
Lothaire, from which we get the name of the French Lorraine {Lotha-
ringia, the land of Lothaire), and proper names such as Lothario,
Luther (with Lutheran, Lutheranism, etc.). The Slavic branch, which
turns initial A; of IE into s under certain circumstances, gives us slovo,
"word", from which come Slovak, Slovene; and slava, "glory", which
gives not only Slavic, Slavonic, Yugoslavia, Jaroslav, Vyacheslav, etc., but
also, owing to the medieval Frankish and Venetian practice of con-
ducting slave raids on the Slavic lands and impressing into servitude
people who called themselves by the name of "glorious", the Italian
schiavo and the French esclave, which in English become slave, with
slavery, slavish, slavey, slave-driver, etc. It is of interest that the same root
in Slavic also produces a word that means "to hear" or "to listen"
(Russian slyshaf, slushat').
IE *kleu ("to hear")
1
AS hlud
hlystan
OHG hlutha
Slavic slovo slava
Eng. loud
list-en
(through Fr.)
(through Byzantine Gk., Fr., It.)
1 1
Eng. Ludwig
Eng. Slovak Slav-ic
Louis (Lewis)
Louise (Lulu)
Louisiana
louis d'or
Lothaire
Slovene Yugoslavia
slave
slavery
slavey
Lorraine
Luther-an-ism
Lothario
(Table hi, 1, 3)
B. GREEK-GERMANIC
Combinations of Germanic and Greek are the least numerous of the
two-branch groups in which the big three alone appear. One that
presents some doubtful features is the IE root *dhe, described as "a
child word for an older family member". This is said to have given
78 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*dhe
US the native dad, daddy, with such compounds as daddy longlegs and
the very modern daddy-o (the first recorded appearance of dad in
English is 1500). According to some, but not all, authorities, the same
root produces Greek Thetis (from an earlier Tethis), and theios, which
eventually gives us the Spanish tio, tia ( Tia Juand) and the Italian zio,
zia (Greek theios, however, could also come from the root of theos,
"god", and mean "god-given"). Slavic words for "grandfather" and
"uncle" (Russian dyadya, dyed) are also claimed to come from this root,
along with Gothic atta and Sanskrit attas, "father". To the extent that
we can claim the Spanish and Italian forms on the ground of literary
and place-name appearances, we have:
IE *dhe, child word for older family member
Gk. theios Eng. dad
I daddy
It. zio, zia daddy-o
Sp. tio, tia
I
Eng. Tiajuana
literary forms (Table x, 2, 4)
Another Greek-Germanic combination, concerning which there is
no doubt, is supplied by the IE root *gwena, "woman". On the Greek
side, this produces the gyne that appears in gynecology, gynecaeum,
misogynist, philogynist, androgynous, etc. On the Germanic side, through
Anglo-Saxon cwen, cwene, we get on the one hand queen (with queenly),
on the other quean, an archaic word for "harlot, slut, wench" (these
semantic changes whereby the same word acquires both glorifying
and pejorative meanings in the same language occasionally appear).
The same root produces the Slavic word for "wife" (Russian zhena).
IE *gwena ("woman")
Gk.
1
gyne
1
AS cwen, cwene
Eng.
gynecology
Eng. queen
gynecaeum
quean
misogynist
philogynist
androgynous
etc.
(Table viii, 3, 5 : The Greek root should have b instead of g. The form bana appears
in some Greek dialects. The shift from b Xo g\% attributed to a crossing with the root
of gignomai, "to be born".)
*Sreu] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 79
An IE root *sek^, "to notice, see", gives on the one hand Greek
*thespesios, "divinity-proclaimed, seer, soothsayer", which appears
in the Greek proper name of Thespis, father of the Greek drama, from
which comes the English Thespian. On the Germanic side, the root
gives rise to the forms of both see and say. The Anglo-Saxon ancestor
of say (with formations like saying and say-so) is secgan, which has as its
hypothetical ancestor a Germanic form *sagja or *sagwja (see Chapter
3, p. 35). Connected witl\ it are sagu, which Anglo-Saxon appears to
have borrowed from Old Norse, and which becomes saw (in the sense
of "proverb, saying") ; and saga, taken directly from Scandinavian
by modern English. For see (with seer, unforeseen, etc.) there is a
Gothic prototype saihwan (see Chapter 3, p. 34) ; the Anglo-Saxon
form is seon, with a derivative gesiht, which becomes sight (with
sightless, unsightly, sight unseen, etc.; German Gesicht is closer to the
original Anglo-Saxon than modern English sight). There is also the
German form auf Wiedersehen, which appears in English dictionaries.
IE *sek'^ ("to notice, see")
Gk. *thes-pesios AS secgan ON saga AS seon gesiht Ger. sehen
I I I I I I
Thespis Eng. say AS sagu Eng. see sight auf Wiedersehen
I etc. I etc. etc.
Eng. Thespian Eng. saw
saga
(Table xv, 1 : Greek does not turn
initial j to A in 5/)-group;
Table iv, 3, 5; Chapter 3, pp. 33,34)
The IE root *sreu, "to flow", in Greek changes its initial j to a
rough breathing which is the equivalent of h (although the tran-
scription of Greek r with rough breathing is rh, the value is hr), and
gives rise to rhein, "to flow", which is at the bottom of such forms as
rheumatism, rheumatoid, rheumatic, rhythm (which leads to rhyme or rime),
rhythmic, catarrh, diarrhea, hemorrhoid, logorrhea, etc., as well as the rheo-
of rheostat and other scientific and technological words. On the
Germanic side, we have stream with its various compounds {streamer,
streamline, etc.), stemming from Anglo-Saxon stream, along with the
Dutch-derived maelstrom (for the Germanic insertion of t between s
and r to facilitate the pronunciation, see Chapter 3, p. 33). There are
80
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*sreu
also interesting Slavic forms, such as the Struma River of Bulgaria
and the word for "island", appearing in Rubinstein's ^'Kamennoi
Ostrov" ("Stony Island").
IE *sreu ("to flow")
Gk. rhein, rheuma rhythmos
1 1
AS stream
Dutch Strom
(directly, or through Latin and Fr.)
Eng. stream
etc.
Eng. maelstrom
Eng. rheumatism rhythm
catarrh rhyme (rime)
diarrhea
logorrhea
hemorrhoid
rheostat
etc.
(Table xv, 1)
One of the several IE roots that mean "to shine, gleam", *bhd,
enters Germanic in the form of Anglo-Saxon beacen, beacnian, and
gives rise to English beacon, beckon, beck. It also enters Greek as the
verb phainein, "to shine", which, with its derivatives, directly or
through Latin and French, gives us phase, emphasis (with emphasize
and emphatic), phenomenon, then an entire series of words that may
appear With. ph,f, or even p (see Chapter 3, p. 37) : phantasy or fantasia,
fantastic, fantasque, phantasmagoria, phantom, fancy, fanciful, fancier (with
fancy dress and fancy-free) . There is phaeton, derived from the name of a
mythological character going back to the same root; diaphanous (what
the light shines through) ; Epiphany (the "display" of the newly born
Christ; also the theophany, "God-showing", that becomes tiffany, a
light gauze, and the Italian Befana, the old woman whose name comes
from Epiphania and who brings presents to the Italian children after
the fashion of the Nordic Santa Claus). Hierophant and sycophant both
contain this root ("showing what is sacred" and "showing figs", or
"flattering"). Pharos, the name of the ancient Alexandrian lighthouse
which was one of the seven wonders of the world, comes from this root.
So does the verb pant, from Old French panteier which is derived from
a Vulgar Latin modification of the Greek root, borrowed, seemingly,
at an early period. There is photo-, "light", with all its derivatives
{photograph, photographer, photographic, photogenic, photofilm, photo-en-
graving, photo-offset, the photon which is the unit of light, photostat.
*der] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 81
photosynthesis, etc.). There are phosphate, phosphorus, phosphorescent,
phosgene, as well as phenol, phenyl, pheno-barbitol, phenacetin, and many
other scientific terms.
IE *bha ("to shine, gleam")
Gk. phainein
phasis
1
phos
AS beacen
beacnian
1 1
(directly or through Latin and
French)
Eng. beacon
beckon
beck
Eng. phenomenon
phen-
fantasy
fancy
phaeton
phase
emphasis
etc.
photo-
phos-
pant
diaphanous
hierophant
sycophant
Epiphany
tiffany
pharos
(Table
IX, 2, 4)
The IE root *der, "to run, tread", produces on the one hand Greek
dromos, "road", from which we derive dromedary (a "running" camel;
the term is applied to the one-humped North African variety), as well
as prodrome, syndrome, palindrome, hippodrome, airdrome. It also seems to be
at the root of the name of the Drave River of Yugoslavia, through an
Illyrian (Albanian) development, but since this is a place name and
has doubtful features, it is best to exclude it from our count of branches.
On the Germanic side, there is an entire series of words beginning
with tr-, which come into English from numerous Germanic sources.
Anglo-Saxon has tredan, tredel, from which come tread and treadle,
along with tneppe and trteppan from which we get trap (with trap-door,
trap-shooting, etc.). Tramp and trample have as their immediate ancestor
a Middle English trampen, trampelen, with no known Anglo-Saxon
progenitor; but one must have existed, as indicated by the corro-
borating evidence of the Gothic trumpan. Trade, with trader, tradesman,
trade-mark and trade name, trade union and trade wind, are variously
described as coming from Low German or from Norse. Trip, with
trippet and triphammer, comes from Old French triper which in turn
goes back to a Germanic source. Trot comes from French, which
82
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
{*der
borrows it from Old High German trotton. There is some doubt
concerning troll, in the sense of "dwarf" (if it belongs here, it would
come from Norse), and trill (from Italian trillo, which some claim is
an imitation of the sound, others a borrowing from Dutch trillen).
The table for the forms of which we are reasonably sure is :
IE *der ("to run, tread")
Gk. dromos
AS
1
tredan
1
tredel
traeppe(n)
? Scand.
or LG
High and Low
Ger. forms
(directly or
through Lat.
and Fr.)
Eng.
tread
treadle
trap ME
etc.
trampen
trampelen
Fr. triper
trotte^
1
Eng. dromedary
hippodrome
prodrome
airdrome
Eng.
1 1
tramp Eng, trip
trample trot
Eng. trade
etc.
syndrome
palindrome
(Table vi, 1)
The IE root *gerebh, "to scratch", produces on the Germanic side a
verb which appears in Anglo-Saxon as ceorfan, ultimately giving us
carve and carving; and also a noun crabba, which turns into crab (with
crab apple, crab grass, etc., as well as craps, the dice game, formerly
crabs). This same Germanic noun, assuming in Old High German the
form chrebiz, passes into French, which turns it into ecrevisse, "shrimp",
which then comes into English and becomes crayfish through a mis-
understanding of the last part of the word (this is known as popular
etymology). On the Greek side, the root produces graphein, "to write",
and gramma, "a writing". The former gives us a long series of words:
graph, graphic, graphite, epigraph, telegraph, photograph, graphology, etc.;
while gramma goes "on to gram, epigram, anagram, telegram, program or
programme, gramophone, and many other words of the same type. It also
becomes grammar ("the art of writing"), grammatical, grammarian, and,
through a special Scottish development of the archaic gramarye, which
meant "magic" (to the medieval mind, anyone who knew how to
write was a magician, and most incantations came in written form),
it becomes glamor, "that which casts a spell over you", with its modern
*wreg]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
83
derivatives glamorous and glamorize. Lastly, a derivative of the graph
root, graphion, "a stylus for writing", then "a grafting-knife", turns
into graft, both in its horticultural sense and in its modern semi-slang
connotation of "money illegally obtained".
IE *get"ebb ("to scratch")
1
Gk. graphein
1
graphion
gramma
AS ceorfan
1
1
crabba
OHG chrebiz
1
1 1
(directly or through Lat.
and Fr.)
Eng.
1
carve
crab
1
Fr. ^crevisse
1
1
1
carving
craps
1
Eng. graph
graft
gram
Eng. crayfish
graphic
epigram
crawfish
graphite
telegram
epigraph
program
telegraph
gramophone
photograph
grammar
graphology
1
(Table vii, 2;
etc.
glamor, etc.
Table ix, 2, 4)
There is an IE root *werg, with a variant *wreg, which means "to
work, do". On the Germanic side, this gives rise to Anglo-Saxon
wyrcan and weorc, which turn into work, both noun and verb (with
compounds and derivatives such as handiwork, worker, workless, work-
shop, workday, workmanship) ; also to wrecan, which becomes wreak ; to
the wrohte which is the past tense of wyrcan, and becomes wrought; and to
the wryhta that gives us wright and its derivatives (shipwright, cartwright,
playwright, wheelwright, wainwright, etc.). From Low German bolwerk,
English imports bulwark', French, taking the same Low German word,
converts it into boulevard (the original Paris boulevards were built
along the lines of ancient fortifications which were demolished as the
city expanded), and this is also imported into English. On the Greek
side, the root produces the erg-, org- root which is at the bottom of
erg, ergon, energy, energetic, etc., and of organ with its numerous deriv-
atives {organic, organism, organist, organize, disorganize, reotganize,
organization, organizer, etc.). There are also orgp and orgiastic. Orgasm,
however, is best taken as coming from another root meaning "to
84 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*Werg
swell". Through the French chirurgien ("hand-worker"), English
derives an archaic chirurgeon and a modern surgeon, surgery, surgical, etc.
IE *werg, *wreg ("to work, do")
Gk. erg- org- AS wyrcan wrohte wrecan wryhte LG bolwerk
I I weorc III I
(directly or through I I I I I
Latin and French) Eng. work wrought wreak wright bulwark
I I etc. etc.
Eng. erg organ Fr. boulevard
ergon .etc. |
energy orgy Eng. boulevard
etc. etc.
Fr. chirurgien
I
Eng. surgeon (Table xiv, 1, 3;
etc. Table vii, 2)
The IE *g^elbh root means "womb", and, by later extensions,
"cub". In Germanic, this produces Anglo-Saxon cealf and cealfian,
which become English calf and the verb calve (the irregularities in AS
cealf, where we should expect *cwealb, seem due to a crossing with
another related root, *gelbh, meaning "to bunch up"; they and v of
cealf 3ind cealve are special Anglo-Saxon developments from an earlier
b in certain positions; see Chapter 3, p. 33). On the Greek side, there
is adelphos, "from the same womb, brother", which gives us such place
names as Adelphi and Philadelphia (with Philadelphia lawyer), and by a
series of somewhat far-fetched imageries, the delphis that gives rise on
the one hand to delphinium, on the other to dolphin and Dauphin (there is
a linguistic-historical mystery in the fact that the name of the dolphin
should have been selected to denote the heir to the French throne in
the fourteenth century; the best guess is that this usage started as a
nickname, based not so much on the dolphin as on the fact that Latin
delphinus, delfinus, had been in use for perhaps as long as ten centuries
as a proper name for individuals; with the two French phonetic
tendencies to change el to al and to turn / after a vowel and before a
consonant to u, (see Chapter 3, p. 40), Delphinus became Dalphinus,
then Daulphin, finally Dauphin; English, receiving the word at the
Daulphin stage, when au was beginning to be pronounced o, turned it
*ghrei] two-branch families 85
into dolphin). The name of the Greek city o£ Delphoi (Delphi), seat of
the worship of Apollo and the most famous oracle of antiquity, also
belongs to this root, and from it we get Delphic and Delphian. The name
of the constellation Delphinus seems to go back to the dolphin. A Celtic
connection appears possible in the personal name Galba, "fat man",
but this appears in English only as a proper name.
IE *g'^elbh ("womb, cub")
Gk. delphys
(directly or
through Lat.
and French)
I . .
Eng. delphinium
Delphic
Delphian
Philadelphia
etc.
delphis
Lat. delfinus
I
Fr. dauphin
Eng. dolphin
Dauphin
AS cealf
Eng. calf
cealfian
I
calve
(Table viii, 3, 5;
Table ix, 2, 4)
The *ghrei root means "to smear, spread, rub". Here Germanic
produces Anglo-Saxon grindan, grist, which become English grind
(grindstone) and grist. There is a possibility of connection with grima,
"spectre", and grislic, which go on to grim, grime, grisly; also, through
Old High German and French (grommeler), with grumble and grumpy;
through another French connection, with chagrin; and through
Spanish grimazo, with grimace; but these are all uncertain. Greek
chrisma, "ointment", produces a series of derivatives, many of which
find their way into Anglo-Saxon with the early Christian missionaries :
crisma, Crist, Cristmas, cristnian, cristen, cristendom, which give rise res-
pectively to chrism, Christ ("the anointed One", "the Messiah"),
Christmas ("Christ's Mass"), christen. Christian, Christendom. Later
English additions include Christianity, Christianize, Antichrist, Christian
Science, and, through the use of the root in a Norwegian personal and
place name, the Christiania turn of skiing. There is also criss-cross,
which was originally Christ's Cross. Most authorities hold that cretin
and cretinism, terms first arising in the French Alps, are deformations
of the word Christian, used in the sense of "human being"; a minority
opinion is that cretin comes from creta, "chalk", and refers to the chalky
complexion of people affected by cretinism. Through a possible
crossing with Gaulish crama, chrisma also gives rise to French creme
86
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*ghrei
and English cream, with such derivatives as creamy and creamery. The
tree, with only sure forms, is :
IE *ghrei ("to smear, rub")
1
Gk. chrisma
Christos
AS
grindan
1
grist
(through Lat.)
(through Lat.)
Eng.
grind
etc.
1
grist
AS crisma
AS Crist
cristnian
Eng. chrism
cristen
cristendom, etc.
(through Fr.)
Eng. Christ
Eng. cream
Christmas
christen
Christian
Christiandom
criss-cross
(through Norwegian)
Eng. Christiania turn
(Table xi,
2, 4)
C. GREEK-LATIN
Greek-Latin combinations, while not nearly so numerous as the
Latin-Germanic, are nevertheless the second largest assortment of ^
two-branch families. To begin with an extremely simple one, the
IE root *serp, "to creep", goes on in Greek to herpein, from which we
get the zoological herpetology, "the study of snakes", while in Latin it
becomes serpo, leading to serpent and serpentine. If the Latin root can
be resolved into se + repo (another verb that means "to creep, crawl")
then we would also have from repo such forms as reptile, reptilian.
Since the Latin root appears in practically identical form in Indo-
Iranian, it was one of the observations made by Sassetti in the fifteenth
century that Italian serpe and Sanskrit sarpas seemed to point to a
relationship between the two languages.
IE *serp ("to creep")
Gk. herpein
Eng. herpetology
herpetologist
etc.
Lat. serpo, serpens
I I
(through French)
Eng. serpent, serpentine
(Table xv, 1 ; Table i)
*udtero]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
87
The IE root *wem, "to vomit, spit", produces on the Greek side
emein, "to vomit", which eventually reaches us in the form emetic, "a
preparation that induces vomiting". In Latin, it produces vomo,
"to vomit", which we inherit in the forms vomit, vomitive, vomitory,
and in the Latin vomitorium, "the passageway in circuses through
which the audience could be spewed out into the open when the
performance was over", as well as in medical terms such as nux
vomica.
IE *wein ("to vomit, spit")
Gk. emein
I
(through Latin)
Eng. emetic
Lat. vomo
I
Eng. vomit
vomitive
etc.
vomica vomitorium
I . .1 .
(nux) vomica vomitorium
(Table xiv, 1, 2)
An IE root *swep "to sleep", produces in Greek the hyp-nos that
later gives us hypnotism, hypnosis, hypnotize, etc. On the Latin side, it
produces sopor, which gives us soporific and soporiferous, and, through an
extension *sompn-, somn-, the somnus which eventually appears in
English somnolent, somnolence, somnambulist, somniferous, insomnia, insom-
niac. The root appears also in Germanic, and produces in Anglo-
Saxon a form swefen, "to sleep, dream", which later becomes English
sweven; but since this is archaic, we shall exclude it from our tree.
IE *swep ("to sleep")
Gk. hyp-nos
I
(directly or through
Latin and French)
Eng. hypnosis
hypnotism
etc.
Lat. sopor
Eng. soporific
soporiferous
(directly or
through French)
I
Eng. somnolent
somniferous
somnambulism
insomnia
etc.
(Table xv, 1 ; Table i)
One Greek-Latin combination which presents some phonological
difficulties is the hypothetical *udero or *udtero, "belly", which, with
various supposed insertions, produces the Greek hysteros, "hindmost",
from which comes the expression hysteron proteron, "hindmost first, the
cart before the horse", and also the noun hystera, "womb", from which
88 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*udero
are derived, by scientific formation, hysteria, hysterical, hysterectomy and
similar words. In Latin, the root yields uterus, "womb", which, with
uterine, passes into English ; also, through what seems to be a derivative
form *wendri, with nasal infix, venter, "belly", which gives us ventral and
ventriloquist. Vesica, the Latin word for "bladder", is also claimed for
this root, and it gives us vesical and other scientific formations.
IE *udero, *udtero ("belly")
\ \ \ \ T"
Gr. hysteros hystera Lat. uterus venter vesica
Eng. hysteron hysteria (directly or through French)
(proteron) hysterectomy | |
hysterical uterine ventral vesical
ventriloquist vesicle
(Table ii)
The IE root *ekwos, "horse", produces in Greek hippos, which
appears in hippopotamus ("river horse"), hippodrome, hipparch, hippo-
gryph, and in proper names [Philip, "horse-lover"; Hippocrates, from
which we get the Hippocratic oath of the physicians ; Hippolytus, Hippo-
menes, etc.). There is also eohippus, "dawn horse", the tiny ancestor of
the modern horse. The Latin form is equus, which appears in equestrian,
the French feminine equestrienne, equine, equitation, Equites (the Roman
social class of people able to supply their own horses for war service) .
The Romance languages, though they retain learned and semi-
learned derivatives similar to ours, generally replace equus with the
somewhat slangy cab alius, which may have been of GauHsh origin.
The *ekwos root, however, is very widespread in the ancient IE
languages, appearing in Gaulish epos, Irish ech, Anglo-Saxon eoh,
Gothic aikwa, Sanskrit asvas, and even T okharian yakwe.
IE *ekwos ("horse")
Gk. hippos Lat. equus
I . I
(directly or through (directly or
Latin and French) through French)
Eng. hippopotamus Eng. equestrian
hippodrome equestrienne
Hippocratic equitation
Philip equine
eohippus Equites
etc. etc. (Table iv, 3, 4)
*awei]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
89
The IE root *del, "to split", produces in Greek the proper name
Daedalus ("worked with art") and probably deltas, "writing tablet",
from which we get deltiology, "the collection and study of post-cards".
On the Latin side, it produces dolor, "grief", which gives us dolorous,
dole (in the sense of "sorrow", not of "city relief"), doleful, condole,
condolence, the proper name Dolores (through Spanish: los Dolores de
Nuestra Senora, "the sorrows of Our Lady"); and the scientific dol, the
unit of pain.
IE *del ("to split")
Gk. Daidalos
deltos
Lat. doleo
dolor
Eng. Daedalian
deltiology
(directly or
through French)
(through Spanish)
Eng. dol
dole
dolorous
doleful
condole
Eng. Dolores
etc.
(Table vi)
The IE root *aw or *awei, "to become aware, notice", gives rise to
the Greek verb aio, "to hear", which forms the initial part of ais-
thanesthai, "to perceive", and aisthetes, "a person of keen perception",
from which we ultimately get esthete, esthetic, esthetics, anesthesia,
anesthetic, anesthetist, etc. In Latin, the root produces audio, "to hear",
from which we derive the TV term audio, along with such compounds
as audience, audit, auditor, audition, audible, auditorium, and negative
forms like inaudible, coming either directly or through French. In
Anglo-French form are the legal oyez and court of oyer and terminer,
from the Anglo-French oyer (modern French ouir), which is a popular
French development of Latin audire. A Latin compound of audio,
oboedio, gives rise to obey, obedient, obedience, with negatives in dis-, as
well as to obeisance, with definitely French form. A possible Indo-
Iranian relative may be Avesta, the sacred book of the Persians
90
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*aw
{Avistdk from dvisya, "public, well-known, evident"), but since it is
both doubtful and a proper name, we shall omit it from our tree.
IE *aw, *awei ("to become aware, notice")
Gk.
aio, aisthetes
Lat. audio
oboedio
1
Eng.
esthete
esthetic
(directly or through Fr.)
1
(through Fr.)
1
anesthesia
etc.
Eng. audio
audience
auditory
audit
audition
auditorium
inaudible
etc.
(through AF)
1
Eng.
obey
obedient
disobey
obeisance
etc.
1
Eng. oyez
oyer
Table xiv, :
I, 2)
From the IE *semi, "half", Greek derives hemi-, which appears in
numerous English compounds, largely of a scientific nature {hemi-
plegia, hemistich), but also hemisphere and hemicrania, which in French
becomes migraine, and passes on to English in both forms, adding the
quaint and archaic megrim (the -crania part of hemicrania represents
Greek kranion, Latin cranium, "skull"; the literal meaning is "a
headache on one side of the head"). The Latin development is semi-,
which appears in English in very numerous compounds {semi-
automatic, semi-centennial, semicolon, semi-circular, semi-quaver, semivowel,
semitone, etc.); note, however, that semester is from the root o{ sex,
"six"; "a six-month period". It is disguised in sesqui- (elliptical for
unus semisque, "one and a half"), which appears in sesquicentennial,
sesquipedalian ("a foot and a half long"); and in Latin sestertius ("two
and a half" asses; literally, "half-third", or half-way between two
and three), which appears in English either in Latin form or as
sesterce, and its derivative sestertium, originally sestertiorum {milia),
"thousands of sestertii'\ If the same root appears in simplex, which
seems contradicted by the semantics, then simple, simplify, simplicity,
etc., would also belong to this family.
^nek]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
IE *semi ("half")
91
Gk. hemi-
Lat.
1.
semi-
1
semis-
semisque
Eng. hemi-sphere
-plegia
-stich
Eng.
1
semi-
sestertius
sestertium
sesterce
sesqui-
-crania
etc.
(through Lat.
and Fr.)
Eng. migraine
megrim
(Tabl
The IE root *nek, "death", produces in Greek a nekro- root that
gives us necromancy, necropolis, necrosis, necrology, necrophilia, etc., as well
as nektar {nectar, "a death-dispelling drink", to be used only by the
immortal gods, with its modern derivative nectarine). On the Latin
side, we have neco, "to kill", with such English descendants as per-
nicious, internecine, and with a French term noyade, a "collective
drowning" that took place at Nantes during the French Revolution,
from the French verb noyer, "to drown, to kill by drowning", which is
the direct descendant of necare. We also have noceo, "to harm", giving
us negative forms like innocent, innocence, innocuous, and even ninny (from
an innocent, 'ninnocent). Nuisance is a French development formed on
the root of the French verb nuire, the direct descendant of Latin
nocere. There is doubt as to whether obnoxious represents the root of
noceo or that of nancior, nanciscor, "to find, run across", but noxious is
clearly from noxa, "harm", a derivative oi noceo.
IE *nek ("death")
Gk.
nek-
nekro-
Lat. neco
noceo
1
noxa
Eng.
nectar
nectarine
necro-mancy
-pohs
Eng. pernicious
internecine
1
innocent
innocuous
noxious
obnoxious (?)
-sis
etc.
etc.
(through
French)
ninny
etc.
(through
French)
noyade
nuisance
(Chapter 2, p. 17; Table hi, 2)
92
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*tem
IE *tem, "to cut", produces in Greek a verb temnein, with a participle
tomos, from which EngHsh derives tmesis, tome (a "volume cut off from
the others"), atom ("that which is uncuttable", "indivisible"; a
definition that no longer holds true since the achievement of atomic
fission, which, using first Greek, then Latin, means literally "the
splitting of what is unsplittable"), with atomize, atomizer, and numerous
compounds, like atomic pile, atomic weight, and even the abbreviated
A-bomb. There are also the suffixes -tomy, or -tom£ a "cutting", as in
anatomy, epitome, dichotomy, phlebotomy; and -ectomy, a "cutting out",
as in appendectomy, tonsillectomy. On the Latin side, we have tondeo,
"to cut, shear" (past participle tonsus), with tonsure and tonsorial, and
possibly tonsil (in Latin, the original meaning oi tonsilla is "a seabird"
or "a mooring-spike"). More probable are esteem {aes-timare, "to cut
off or evaluate or price brass"), with estimate, estimation, the modern
and somewhat slangy guesstimate, and even the proper name Esme,
occasionally used in British aristocratic circles (Old French esme,
"esteemed", from Latin aestimatus) ; also contempt, contemptuous and
contemptible (from the Latin compound contemno; contumacious and
contumely are more doubtful).
IE *tem ("to cut")
Gk. temnein
tmesis
tomos
Lat.
1 1
tonsus contemno
1
aestimo
1
Eng. tmesis
(directly or
(directly or through French)
through Lat.
1 1
1
and Fr.)
Eng.
tonsure contempt
tonsorial etc.
estimate
esteem
Eng. tome
Esme
atom
guesstimate
-tomy
-ectomy
(Table ii)
The root *wekU, "to speak, word", produces the Greek epos from
which we get epos and epic, along with the French epopee and the Greek
epopoiia. The Latin branch produces vox and voco, and here, directly or
through French, we get voice and voiceless, vocal, with vocabulary,
vocalism, vocalist, vocalize, vocalization, vociferous; vowel, with vowelize and
vowel point; vouch, voucher, vouchsafe; numerous forms in -voke and -voc-,
'^weik]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
93
like convoke, revoke, evoke, provoke, invocation, provocation, equivocation, equi-
vocal, advocate, avocation, vocation, irrevocable, and the French agent provo-
cateur; also avow and avowal, and the Latin vox populi. Not belonging to
this family despite its appearance is invoice, which comes from Old
French envois, "sendings", from envoyer, "to send", which goes back to
the root of Latin via {inviare, "to put on its way").
IE weky ("to speak, word")
Gk. epos
1
1
epopoeia
Lat.
vox
voco
Eng. epos
epopoeia
(directly or
through French)
1
(through Fr.)
Eng.
voice
vociferous
vocal
vouch
Eng. epopde
vox populi
etc.
-voke
avow
vowel
agent provocateur
voc-
etc.
(Table xiv, 1, 2; Table iv, 3)
The IE root *weik, "house", is a borderline case in this division,
since in addition to Greek and Latin developments there is also a
Germanic one, which appears in a place-name suffix and possibly,
but not surely, in a noun of nationality. In Greek, the form is oikia,
"house", from which we get economy and its group (economist, economic,
economize, economics), as well as ecology. In compound form, we have
ecumenical, diocese, diocesan, parochial and parochialism, parish and parish-
ioner (through French paroisse). The Latin vicus, "village", and villa,
"country estate", produce on the one hand vicinage and vicinity, on the
other villa, villain, and villein, villeinage, village, villager, ville, villainous,
villainy, and the Italian villanella, which we also have in French form,
villanelle. It is interesting to note the semantic shift in villein, "serf",
which in French becomes vilain, "ugly", and in English villain, "bad
man". On the Germanic side, we have the Gothic weihs, "village",
and the Anglo-Saxon wic, which leads to many place names ending
in -wick or -wich ( Warwick, Greenwich) . The doubtful element comes in
94
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*weik
the Old Norse vikingr, properly "inlet dweller", which produces
Viking. The tree, for the assured Greek and Latin members, is:
IE weik ("house")
Gk. oikia
1
Lat.
1
vicus
villa
1
(directly or through
Latin and French)
Eng. economy, etc.
parochial, etc.
diocese, etc.
parish, etc.
ecumenical
Eng.
(directly or
vicinity
vicinage
through French)
villa
-ville
villain, etc.
villein
village, etc.
It. villanella
1
Fr. villanelle
Eng. villanella
villanelle
(Table xiv, 1, 2; Table in)
A root *tel, "to raise, carry", produces in Greek the verb tlenai,
"to uphold, bear", with ramifications that appear in Atlas (the
mythological character who bore the world on his shoulders), from
which we get atlas, Atlantic, Atlantis; Tantalus, who gives us tantalize
and tantalum (a chemical element) ; probably also Atalanta and
Anatolia ("the rising of the stars") ; the talanton from which we get
talent, both as a coin and as "native genius"; and the telonion or
tolonion, "tax", which becomes toloneum in Vulgar Latin, passes into
Anglo-Saxon as toll (with toll road, toll gate, etc.), and into German as
Zoll, with Zollverein, or "customs union", that finds its way into English
dictionaries. In Latin the root takes two forms, that oi tollo, "to raise"
{extol, tolerate, tolerance, toleration, tolerant, tolerable, with negatives in
in-), and, with metathesis (interchange of position of two consonants
in one word), that of the past participle, latus, of the vcrh fero, "to
bear". Forms from latus appear in numerous English compounds and
derivatives {superlative, translation, collation, ablative, dilatory, elation,
legislation, oblation, prelate, prelacy, relate, and even delay, which is the
Old French outcome, delaier, of Latin de-lat-are. The same IE root
passes • from Sanskrit tula into some of the Far Eastern, non-Indo-
European tongues, and probably, but not surely, gives rise to tael.
Germanic forms appear in Anglo-Saxon tholian and tholl, English thole
*ost{h)]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
95
of tholepin, but the verb is obsolete and the noun appears only in
specialized nautical parlance, which permits us to exclude it from our
*^^^" , IE *tel ("to raise, carry")
Gk. tlenai
I
Atlas
Tantalos
I
Eng. Atlas
atlas
tantalize
tantalum
I
talanton
I
Lat. talentum
I
Eng. talent
i III
tolonion Lat. tollo tolero latus
I III
Eng. extol (directly or through Fr.)
,Lat. teloneum
I
AS toll
I
Eng. toll
Ger. Zoll (verein)
I
Eng. Zollverein
Eng. tolerate elate
tolerant collate
etc. ablative
dilatory
legislate
oblation
prelate
relate
translate
delay
(Table ii)
The IE root *ost{h), "bone", produces on the Greek side the osteo-
ifrom which English gets osteon, osteopath, osteomyelitis and other scien-
tific terms. A derivative of osteon, ostrakon, originally "shell, bony
substance", later "tablet, tile" used in voting, gives us ostracism, ostracize,
but is also borrowed by Latin in the form ostrea, which becomes Old
French oistre (modern French huitre) and English oyster (with oyster bed
oysterettes, etc.). There is also astragalus, used in the sense of "die,
gaming device", which passes into English as a physiological term.
On the Latin side, we have, with loss of the final -t of the root, os
(genitive ossis), "bone", leading to ossature, osselet, osseous, ossification,
ossify, ossuary, ossein, etc. Ossifraga, "bone-breaker", the name of a
type of hawk, comes into English in double form, ossifrage, and,
through French orfraie, osprey.
IE *ost(h) ("bone")
Gk. osteon
I
Eng. osteal
osteopath
etc.
ostrakon
I
ostracize
etc.
Lat. ostrea
I
OF oistre
I
Eng. oyster
I I I
astragalos Lat. os ossifraga
I I I
Lat. astragalus Eng. ossature Eng. ossifrage
I osselet
Eng. astragalus ossify Fr. orfraie
ossification |
ossuary Eng. osprey
etc.
(Table xvi: Note that Greek
keeps s in st group)
96 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS \* peky:
IE *pek^, "to cook", appears in Greek forms that give us pepo,
pepto- and pepsin, with formations like peptone and Pepsi-Cola. On the
Latin side, there is an assimilation of *peky: to *k^eky!:, and the result of
this appears in coqueo, "to cook" and coquina, "kitchen". The first,
with the noun coquus, "cook", is borrowed by Anglo-Saxon, which
has coc, later cook (with cookery, cook-book; decoction, concoct, precocious,
"before it is cooked", are later formations on the Latin root). Coquina,
also entering Anglo-Saxon, becomes cycene and ultimately kitchen. A
related word, culina, turns into Anglo-Saxon cylen and English kiln,
as well as into the learned culinary. Cuisine and biscuit are later
borrowings from French descendants of the Latin words {coquina to
cuisine, bis-coctum, "twice cooked", to biscuit). Bisque is another French
form derived from biscuit. Interesting forms in other languages are
popina, appearing in Latin as a loan word from Oscan, where p does
service for Latin qu, and Slavic (Russian) pech\ "to fry, bake".
lE
*peku (
"to cook"
)
Gk.
pepon
pepo
pe
)t-
pe
JS-
Lat.
development *kyekW
Lat.
Lat.
coqueo
1
coquina
culina
1
Eng.
pepo
pepto-
peptic
peptone
etc.
pepsin
Pepsi-
Cola
AS
Eng.
coc
1
cook
cycen
kitchen
1
cylen
kiln
Lat.
coctus
Fr. cuisine
Eng.
culinary
Eng.
decoct
concoct
etc.
Eng. cuisine
Fr.
cuit
biscuit
bisque
Eng.
biscuit
bisque
(T
\BLE
IV, 3, 4)
The IE root *poti-s, "house-lord, husband", appears in Greek
despotes (analyzed as *dams-potis, "house-lord"), from which we get
*Solo] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 97
despot, despotism, despotic, etc. In Latin, the adjective potis is com-
pounded with the verb esse, "to be", to produce posse, "to be able,
have power over". The two Latin root-forms, poss- and pot-, appear in
the posse (comitatus) of Western stories, possible, impossible, possibility,
etc.; in the French-derived puissant and puissance; in potent, potency,
impotent, omnipotent, potential, potentiality, plenipotentiary; in power,
powerful, powerless (the last are immediately derived from French
pouvoir). Possideo, a compound oi pot- and sedeo, "to sit in power",
gives us possess, possession, dispossess, possessive, etc. The compound
compos {cum -\- pot-) gives us the legal compos mentis, "in possession of
one's mental powers". The Latin potestas, "power", appears in the
Italian podesta, "mayor". The pot- root also appears in hospes (genitive
hospitis), where it combines with the "guest"-root into *ghosti-pots,
and this comes out in hospital, hospitality, hospitable, hotel, etc. The only
Germanic possibility, and it is a very doubtful one, is fad, which most
authorities derive from other sources (Gothic, however, had bruth-
faths, "the one who has power over the bride, the bridegroom").
IE *poti-s ("lord, husband, powerful")
I
I II I .
Gk. des-potes Lat. posse pot- hos-pit-
Eng. despot (directly or through French)
despotic I I I
despotism Eng. posse potent hospital
etc. possible impotent hospitable
possess power hospitality
dispossess hotel
possession (through It.)
puissant |
podesta
(Table i; Table ii)
An IE root *solo, "whole, complete", assumes in Greek the form
holo- which we have in numerous compounds [holocaust, holograph,
Catholic and its derivatives Catholicism, Catholicity, etc., in which holo-
is preceded by the preposition kata, "down, along"; "down-whole,
down the line, universal"). In Latin, the main formations stem from
two forms, sollus and salus. From the former, Latin forms sollemnis
("for the whole year", therefore "solemn", with solemn, solemnity,
solemnize, etc.; possibly, but not surely, sollers, leading to solertious ;
98
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*solo
sollicitus, "wholly or violently moved", with solicit, solicitation, solicitous,
solicitor, solicitude, and, through French development, souci, sans souci,
insouciant, insouciance; with an extension, solidus, from which we
derive solid, solidity, solidify, solidarity, console, consolidate, and even the
British consols [consolidated annuities), a type of government bond. But
solidus was used in Roman times as the name of a coin, which has
come down into the Romance languages as soldo, sueldo, sou. The man
hired to fight in the army was a soldatus {soldato, soldado, soldat) or a
soldarius (Old French soldier, appearing in English as soldier, with
soldierly, soldiery, etc.). The verb solidare, "to make solid", leads to
solder. Salus, "health, safety, salvation", leads to salubrious, salutary,
salute, salutation, salutatory, and, in Latin form, salus populi suprema lex
esto, ("let the safety of the people be the supreme law"). It is probable
that the name of Sallust also comes from this root. The' adjective
salvus, from salus, leads to salvation, salvable, salvage, salve, salvo (this
through Italian salva, a firing of guns in greeting), with such side
formations as Salvation Army. A salver is originally a saver, in the sense
that it contains what is to be tasted before it is offered to the king or
nobleman. Another derivative is the plant salvia, which we inherit in
that form, and also as sage (with sagebrush). Through French salver,
sauver, sauf, we get save, with savings and savior, safe and safety, safe-
conduct, safeguard, safe-keeping, safety razor, safety valve, safety belt, etc.
IE *solo ("whole, complete")
Gk.
holos Lat.
1
soUus
salus
1
sollemnis
sollicitus
solidus
salvus
Eng.
holocaust
1
1
holograph
(directly or through French)
Catholic
1
1
1
1
1
etc. Eng.
solemn
solicit
solid
salute
salve
etc.
solicitor
consolidate
salubrious
salvage
etc.
solidarity
salutary
salvation
souci
console
salus popul
i
safe
insouciant
solder
soldier
etc.
etc.
safety
savior
etc.
(through It.)
salva
Eng.
, salvo
(Table xv, 1)
*dek] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 99
The IE root *dek means "to take up, honor, fit, be convenient".
It assumes several distinct forms both in Greek {doxa, "opinion, glory,
praise"; dogma, "thought"; didaskein, "to teach") and in Latin {decet,
"it is fitting"; decus, "ornament"; doceo, "to teach"; disco, "to learn";
dignus, "worthy" ; dexter, "right", as opposed to "left") . In both languages,
forms that have g instead of <: or ^ owe it to assimilation by a following
nasal consonant. Doxa leads to doxology, paradox, orthodox, heterodox and
similar forms and derivatives {paradoxical, orthodoxy) . Didaskein leads to
didactic. Stemming from dogma are dogmatic, dogjnatism, etc. Latin decet
and decus produce decent, indecent, decency, decorum, decorate, decorous, decorator,
decoration, decorative, etc., while a French descendant appears in decor. Doceo
gives us docile ("teachable, easy to teach"), docility, as well as doctor (origi-
nally "teacher") with its many derivatives {doctoral, doctorate, etc.). It also
leads to doctrine ("that which is taught"), with doctrinal, indoctrinate,
etc. A document is something that serves to teach or show, and here we
have documentary, documentation, etc. Disco leads to disciple (appearing in
Anglo-Saxon in the form discipul), and also discipline, disciplinary, etc.
Dignus gives us dignity, indignity, indignant, indignation, dignify, dignitary;
IE *dek ("to take up, honor, fit, be convenient")
Gk. doxa dogma didaskein
1 1 1
Lat.
decet decus doceo disco
III 1
1 1 1
(directly, or through Lat. and Fr.)
1 1 1 1
(directly, or through French)
Eng. doxology dogma didactic
paradox etc. etc.
orthodox
heterodox
Eng.
decent decorum docile disciple
decency decorate doctor discipline
etc. decorous doctrine etc.
d^cor document
etc.
etc. etc.
Lat. dignus, dignitas dexter
. I I
(directly, or through French)
Eng. dignity
dexterous
indignation
ambidextrous
dignify
dexterity
dignitary
dextrine
deign
dextrose
disdain
etc.
dainty
etc.
(Table vij Table hi, 2)
100 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*dek
in French development, it also gives us deign, disdain, disdainful, and
even dainty (the story behind this is curious: dignitas, "dignity'', was
used in Low Latin as a euphemism for "testicles", the "dignity" of
the male ; the testicles of a stag were considered the choicest morsel,
a "dainty" ; the noun ultimately turned into an adjective in English,
with the meaning of "choice, refined, delicate"). Dexter gives us
dexterity, dexterous, ambidextrous, and even dextrine and dextrose. The
*dek root was productive in Germanic, with a Gothic taihswa, a
modern German Zeche, "reckoning, bill", and an Anglo-Saxon teohh
and teohhian, but the Anglo-Saxon forms did not survive. There is
even an Indo-Iranian relative in Deccan or Dekkan, the southern region
of India, which gets its name from Sanskrit dahsina, "right", trans-
ferred to mean "south" (the south is on your right hand as you face
east to pray) . But since this place name gives rise to no common noun,
it will be best to exclude it from our tree.
A two branch family with vast ramifications in Greek and Latin is
that of IE *dd, *dd, "to give". In Greek it produces the verb didomi
and the nouns dosis, "a giving", and doron, "gift". The first gives us
dose, dosage. From the participial stem of didomi, dotos; we get the -dote
of antidote and anecdote (the latter literally means "not given out,
unpublished, one you haven't heard yet"). Doron appears in such
first names as Theodore and Dorothea or Dorothy (both mean "God's
gift"), as well as Isidore ("the gift of Isis"). On the Latin side, we have
the verb do, "to give", with a past participle datus and a very large
number of compounds which appear in Latin itself; an extension of
do in the form of dono; and the noun dos (genitive dotis), "dowry".
The last gives us the French-derived dot and dotal, dowry, endow,
endowment, dowager. Dono gives us donate, donation, donative, donor,
condone, condonation, pardon, pardonable, impardonable. The participial
datum, with a plural data, and often appearing as -ditum in compounds,
gives us datum, data, dative, die and its plural dice (through Old French
de, from datum, "that which is given or allotted by fate") ; it also gives
us date (the Romans used to describe a letter as data, "given", on a
^d9]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
101
certain day) ; with date go dateless, date line, predate, postdate, even the
teenagers' to date. Through -ditum forms, we get extradite, extradition;
recondite; edit, edition, editor, editorial; perdition; add, addition, additional,
addend, addendum, additive; tradition, traditional, with less learned French
forms treason [trahison, from Latin traditionem) , treasonable, traitor (French
traitre from Latin traditor), traitorous, betray, betrayer, betrayal; vend
(Latin vendo, "to sell", is formed from venum-do, "to give in sale", the
first element being the same one we find in venal, venality), with
vendition, vender, vending machine; render, surrender, rendition (Latin reddo,
"to give back", acquires a nasal infix as it passes into French rendre),
also rent (French rente, from Latin reddita, "that which is returned, a
return on an investment"), with rental, rentable, renter and the straight
French rentier, "one who lives in the return of investments" ; abscond
{abs-, "away from", and condo, "with-give", or "offer"), which in
French development gives us sconce and ensconce. Slavic forms include
the Russian blagodaryu, "I give blessings, thank you", and the par-
ticipial dana, sometimes used in English as a first or family name.
IE *d6, *da ("to give")
Gk.
dosis
dotos
doron
Lat,
. do, datum
-ditum
1
dono dos
1 1
Eng.
dose
antidote
Theodore
1 III
(directly, or through French)
dosage
anecdote
Dorothea
1
1
{ 1
Isidore
Eng.
datum
data
date
predate
postdate
dative
die, dice
etc.
extradite
dedition
perdition
tradition
treason
betray
recondite
edit
add
traitor
vend
render
rent
surrender
abscond
sconce
ensconce
etc.
donate dot
donor dotal
donation endow
condone dowry
pardon dowager
etc. etc.
(Table vi)
102 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*peisk
D. LATIN-GERMANIC
Latin-Germanic combinations form the most numerous group of
English word-families. This is quite natural, since we have on the one
hand our basic Anglo-Saxon, reinforced by the Scandinavian of the
Danes, plus a fair number of Frankish (Old High German) words
(brought in by the French-speaking Normans) which had acquired
French citizenship before the Norman conquest of England, plus a
few German, Dutch, and Scandinavian words borrowed by English
at a later period; on the other hand, Latin words borrowed by the
Anglo-Saxons, French words imported by the Normans and at all
later periods, and Latin words of a learned nature appropriated by
English scholars from the early Renaissance onward, plus independent
borrowings from the other Romance languages (Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese) .
To begin with some of the simple and obvious Latin-Germanic
combinations, there is the IE root *peisk, "fish", which appears in
Anglo-Saxon asjisc and Jiscian (the latter if used as a verb), and gives
us Jish and its derivatives and compounds {fishy, fishery, fisherman,
fishmonger, fish story, etc.). In Latin, the root produces piscis, which
gives us a number of rather learned forms {piscatorial, piscine, the
constellation Pisces, etc.). The French poisson, derived from a dimin-
utive form of piscis, piscionem, made no headway whatsoever against
the native ^j^A.
IE *peisk ("fish")
Lat. piscis
AS
fisc, fiscian
(directly or through
Eng. piscatorial
piscine
Pisces
etc.
Fr.)
Eng.
1
fish
fishery
fisherman
fishy
fishmonger
etc.
(Table i,
4)
IE *{s)poimno, "foam", gives in Anglo-Saxon yam, which leads to
foam {With, foamy, foam rubber, etc.). On the Latin side, it produces
spuma {spume, spumy, the Italian spumante, "foaming or sparkling wine") ;
also pumex, which becomes pumice.
*nokUt] TWO-BRANGH FAMILIES 103
IE *(s)poimno ("foam")
Lat. spuma pumex AS fam
I I I
(directly or through Fr.) Eng. foam
I I foamy
Eng. spume pumice etc.
spumy
It. spumante
Eng. spumante (Table i, 4)
An extremely simple IE root is that of *ghdhyes, or *ghyes, "yester-
day" (in Greek it produces chthes). In Latin, the more simple variant
produces hesi which becomes heri, by reason of the change of s between
vowels, to r, normal in Latin. The adjective hesternus, "of yesterday",
gives us a little-used hesternal. In Anglo-Saxon, the root produces
geostra and gioster-dtsg, which become yester (with yesteryear, etc.) and
yesterday.
IE *ghdhyes, *ghyes ("yesterday")
\
I I I
Lat. heri hesternus AS geostra gioster-daeg
I I I
Eng. hesternal Eng. yester yesterday
(Table xi, 3, 4; Table xvi, 2, 3)
The root *nokUt, "night", produces in Anglo-Saxon neaht, niht,
leading to English night and its many compounds: nightly, midnight,
benighted, nightcap, nighthawk, nightingale ("night singer", with the
-gale part coming from the same root as yell), nightmare, nightwalker,
nightshade, night club, night owl, etc. The Latin form is nox (root noct-),
and here, in addition to the name of the night goddess Nox, we have
nocturne, nocturnal, equinox, equinoctial, noctule (a learned name for the
bat). The Greek form is nykt-, and it appears in nycteris (another
learned name for the bat), nyctophobia ("fear of the night"), etc.
104
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*nom
But since these terms are learned, we may be justified in treating our
tree as a two-branch one.
IE *nokyt ("night")
Lat. nox
1
AS
1
neaht, niht
1
(directly or
Eng.
night
through Fr.)
nightly
etc.
Eng. Nox
nocturne
nocturnal
equinox
equinoctial
'etc.
(Table hi, 2, 3; Table ii, 1
Chapter hi, p. 32)
From the IE root *ndhos or, by extension, *ndheri, "under", Anglo-
Saxon obtains under [undaro in Gothic), which gives us compounds
too numerous to list {underneath, understand, underhand, underwrite,
underclothes, abbreviated to undies, are only a few). Latin gets infra,
which appear s in English in infra-red, infracostal, infrarenal, etc. ; and
inferus, from which inferior is derived, with inferiority, and infernus,
which gives us irfernal and the Italian inferno.
IE *ndheri ( 'under")
Lat.
. 1
infra
inferior
infernus
AS
1
under
Eng.
infra-
inferior
inferiority
etc.
It.
Eng.
infernal
inferno
inferno
Eng.
under
etc.
undies
(Table x, 3, 4)
The root *swer, "to speak", produces Anglo-Saxon swerian and
and-swaru ("against-swear"), which give us swear, answer, answerable,
etc. The Latin form appears in sermo {sermon, sermonize, Sermon on
the Mount). If there is a link between sermo and series (but this is
*'genu]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
105
doubtful), then we have another line of descendants including series,
serial, serialization, sort, sorcerer, sortilege, assort, consort, resort, assert,
desert, dissertation, exert, insert, etc.
IE *swer (''to speak")
Lat. sermo
I
(through French)
Eng. sermon
etc.
AS swerian
I
Eng. swear
andswaru
I
answer
etc.
(Table xv)
The root *ar(9), "plow, to plow", becomes the Latin aro, "to plow",
from which we get arable. With an extension, it produces Anglo-
Saxon earth, ierth, leading to earth, with unearth, earthen, earthenware,
earthquake, earthly, earth-bound, earth-worm, earthling, etc. In the Dutch
form aard, the Germanic root appears in aardvark and aardwolf, the
first of which (literally "earth-pig") is from the Afrikaans of the
South African Boers.
IE *ar(9) ( plow, to plow")
Lat. aro
I
Eng. arable
AS earth, ierth
I
Eng. earth
etc.
Du. aard
I
Eng. aardvarte
aardwolf
(Chapter 2, p. 17)
A case in which there is some reasonable doubt is that of the IE
root *genu, "chin", which in Anglo-Saxon produces cinn, later
palatalized into chin (compare the German Kinn). In Latin, the root
yields gena, "jaw", with a derivative genuinus (dens), "jaw-tooth",
from which we get genuine. The doubt lies in the semantics. Genuinus in
Latin is used in the combination described above, but also in the
sense of "genuine"; hence some authorities prefer to take the two
identical forms separately, and derive the one meaning "genuine"
either from the root of^ genu, "knee" (see p. 155), or from that of genus,
106 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*genu
"kind, sort, species". If the genuinus that develops into genuine is from
gena, the tree is :
IE *genu ("chin")
Lat. gena genuinus (dens) AS cinn
Eng. genuine Eng. chin
(Table vii, 2; Chapter 2, p. 17)
The root *erd or *re, "to row", produces Anglo-Saxon rowan, which
leads to row (with rower, rowboat, etc.), and, by an extension, Anglo-
Saxon rothor, which becomes rudder. On the Latin side is remus, "oar",
appearing in bireme and trireme, Roman ships with two and three
banks of oars.
IE *er3, *re ("to row")
\ j~ rn i \~
Lat. remus — biremis — triremis AS rowan rothor
.1.1 I I
Eng. bireme trireme Eng. row, etc. rudder
(Chapter ii, p. 17)
The root *awos means "grandfather on the mother's side". In
Anglo-Saxon, this comes out as earn, surviving in the somewhat
archaic erne. In Old High German, the form is oheim, later shortened
to Ohm, appearing as the family name of a physicist, from which we
get ohm, the unit of electrical resistance, with ohmmeter and other
technical compounds. In Dutch form, the word is com, and this was
part of the nickname of Kruger, leader of the Boer forces in the South
African war [Oom Paul, "Uncle Paul"). In Latin, *awos comes out as
avus, with avuncular, and through a diminutive avunculus, produces
French oncle, which becomes English uncle.
IE *awos ("grandfather")
■ \ \ 1 r \
Lat. avus avunculus AS earn OHG oheim Du. oom
I III
Eng. avuncular Eng. eme Ger. Ohm Eng. Oom Paul
I
Fr. oncle Eng. ohm
I etc.
Eng. uncle (Table xiv, 2, 3; Chapter hi, p. 40)
The root *swesor, "sister", produces in Anglo-Saxon sweoster, but
this appears influenced by a Scandinavian form to produce English
'bhardha]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
107
sister (with sister-in-law, sisterly, sisterhood, sissy, sis, sissified, etc.; the
Anglo-Saxon form, uninfluenced, would have produced *swester).
It also produces the Latin soror, from which we get sororal, sorority,
sorosis, soroptimist. Through a derivative, *cum-sobrinus or consobrinus,
it passes into French in the forms cousin, cousiner (the latter means "to
treat as a cousin, to deceive through pretext of relationship"), from
which we get cousin and cozen.
IE *swesor ("sister")
Lat. soror
I
Eng. sorority
etc.
I
consobrinus
I
Fr. cousin — cousiner
I. I
Eng. cousin cozen
AS sweoster (with Scand. influence)
Eng. sister, etc.
sissy, sis, etc.
(Table xv; Table xvi, 2)
The IE root * bhardha, "beard", produces Anglo-Saxon and English
beard, and also a German Bart which, through Middle High German
helmbarte, "a beard-like weapon designed to split helmets", passes
into Italian, then into French, and finally into English in the form
halberd. On the Latin side, there is a highly irregular barba (it should
have been *farba, and it is possible that a similar form appeared in
Oscan and Umbrian, as seems indicated by developments in some
South Italian dialects; several explanations for the Latin irregularity
are offered, none fully satisfactory). Barba gives us barber, barbate,
barb, barbed, barbel, and even barbiturate. It is of interest that barbatus,
"bearded", has become in Rumanian the regular word for "man"
{barbat). The root appears also in Slavic (Russian boroda, "beard").
Borodino, scene of a great battle in Napoleon's Russian campaign, and
Barbados, in the West Indies (named after the bearded fig-trees,
higos barbados, that abound on the island), are two place names based
on this root. jE *bhardha ( 'beard")
1
Lat. barba
AS
beard
OHG bart
1
(directly or
through Fr.)
Eng. barb
barber
Eng.
beard
MHG helmbarte
(through It.
and Fr.)
barbiturate
Eng. halberd
etc.
(Table ix, 3, 4; Table x,
3, 4)
108 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [* bhores
An IE root *bhares, "barley", comes into Anglo-Saxon as here, and
with the suffix -lie, "-like", becomes barley, with a few compounds
like barley-corn. The bere root also produces Anglo-Saxon bern, "a place
to store barley", which becomes barn, with barnyard, barnstorming, etc.
The Latin form is far, with derivatives yarma (farina, farinaceous, etc.),
and farrago, which comes into English unchanged.
IE *bhares ("barley")
\
Lat. far farina farrago AS bere-lic bern
Eng. farina farrago Eng. barley, etc. barn
farinaceous
etc.
(Table ix, 3, 4)
IE *bhedh, "to bury, dig", gives Anglo-Saxon bedd and English bed
(with bedroom, bedtime, bedside, bedstead, bedding, bed-pan, bedclothes,
bedbug, bedfellow, bed-chamber, etc.). It also gives 'LdiXin fodio, "to dig",
with its past participleybj'j'Mi-, from which we derive, fossa, fossil, fossilize,
etc.
IE *bhedh ("to bury, dig")
Lat. fodio fossus AS bedd
(directly or Eng. bed
through Fr.) etc.
I
Eng. fossa
fossil
fossilize
etc.
(Table ix, 3, 4; Table x, 3, 4)
IE *bheid, "to split", produces a series of Anglo-Saxon words:
bita, which becomes English bit; bitan, "to bite"; biter, later bitter
(with bitter end, bittersweet, etc.) ; bitel or bitula, which become beetle
(with beetling, beetle-browed, etc.) ; bat, which becomes boat (with
boatswain, boatman, boathouse, boat load, boating, boat hook, etc.). The
'dhe]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
109
Latin form is findo, "to split", with a root fid- and a past participle
fissus, from which come fission, fissionable, fissile, etc.
IE *bheid ("to split")
Lat. findo (fid-)
fissus
(directly or
through Fr.)
Eng. fission
fissile
fissionable
etc.
AS bita
Eng. bit
bitan
bite
biter
J
bitter
bitel
beetle
bat
I
boat
(Table ix, 3, 4; Table vi, 1)
The root *bhle, "to howl, cry", gives Anglo-Saxon blatan and English
bleat and blatant, with a Scandinavian variant blathra which produces
blather. There is a possibility that blare, described by some as echoic
(that is, formed in imitation of the sound it betokens), by others as
derived from Low German or Dutch, may also belong here. There is
another possibility that this root may be connected with that of
bellow, bell, belch. On the Latin side, we have fleo, "to weep", and
fiebilis, "weepable, weak", which produces in Old French feible and
foible (later faible), taken over by English as feeble and foible, re-
spectively. Taking only assured forms :
IE *bhle ("to howl, cry")
Lat. fleo-
-flebilis
OF feible— foible
Eng. feeble foible
AS blaetan
Eng. bleat
blatant
ON blathra
I
blather
(Table ix, 3, 4)
The root *dhe, "to dwindle", produces an Old Norse dasask {dasa
plus a reflexive suffix -sk), which appears in Middle English as dasen,
"to grow weary", and ultimately gives us daze, with a frequentative
form dazzle ("frequentative" means that the form of the verb in
question indicates a frequent or repeated occurrence of the action
described by the main verb). Old Norse dasathr, "weary", seems to
give rise to English dastard, dastardly, also appearing in late Middle
no
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*dhe-
English. On the Latin side, we h.a.ve fames, "hunger", which through
French gives us famine and famish; also perha-ps fatigo, "to weary, to
tire", a compound of fatim ago, which gives us fatigue, with inde-
fatigable, fatigue duty, etc.
IE *dhe ("to dwindle")
Lat.
fames fatigo (?)
1 1
ON dasa(sk)
dasathr
1
1 1
(through Fr.)
ME dasen
dastard
1
Eng.
1 1
famine fatigue
famish indefatigable
etc. etc.
Eng. daze
dazzle
1
dastard
dastardly
(Table x, 3, 4)
The IE root *dheu, "to die", produces Old Norse deyja, from which
English gets die, and this relegates starve, from Anglo-Saxon steorfan,
"to die", to specialized uses ("to die by hunger", or "to die from cold",
as in Scottish usage). It also produces Anglo-Saxon dead, death, and
possibly dwinan, from which we get dead, death and dwindle, with all
their derivatives and compounds [deadly, deaden, dead beat, dead end,
deadline, deadlock, dead pan, deadwood, deathbed, deathly, death warrant,
death watch, etc.; undying is the one outstanding derivative of die).
The Latin form is funus, which gives us funeral and funereal.
IE *dheu ("to die")
I
Lat. funus
Eng. funeral
funereal
AS dead
I
Eng. dead
etc.
death
I
death
etc.
dwinan (?)
dwindle
ON deyja
I
die
(Table x, 3, 4)
The root *geus, "to taste", appears in Gothic as kausjan, in Old
High German as kiosan, and in Anglo-Saxon as ceosan. The last pro-
duces the verb choose (Anglo-Saxon palatalizes c before e; see Chapter
3, p. 35). The noun choice, however, comes through Old French chois
(modern French choix). Since French palatalizes c into ch only before
a (see Chapter 3, p. 41), it seems that a form like Gothic kausjan
(possibly from East Germanic Burgundian) was more likely to produce
Old French chois than Old High German kiosan. On the Latin side.
*dakru] two-branch families 111
we have gustum, with English gustatory, disgust, etc. ; also gusto, through
Italian, and ragout (a "re-adding of taste through combination with
other ingredients") through French. The same root, in Celtic, pro-
duces the proper name Fergus, but no common noun in English.
IE *geus ("to taste")
Lat. gustum
AS ceosan
Goth.
kausjan
Eng. gustatory
disgust
etc.
Eng. choose
Fr.
Eng.
chois, choix
choice
It. gusto
1
Eng. gusto
Fr. ragout
ragout
(Table vii, 2)
An IE root *treud, "to crush, press, strike", produces in Anglo-
Saxon threatnian and threat, which become threaten and threat. Two
additional and fairly likely possibilities are Anglo-Saxon gethryscan,
threscan, which give us thrash and thresh, with threshold, and Old Norse
thrysta, which becomes thrust. The Latin cognate is trudo, "to push",
which with its past participle trusus, gives, in compound forms,
protrude, intrude, intruder, intrusion, obtrude, abstruse, extrude, etc.
IE *treud ("to crush, press, strike")
\ i ' " n \ \ r~
Lat. trudo trusus AS threatnian threat gethryscan ON thrysta
11 II threscan |
(directly or through Fr.) Ill I
I I Eng. threaten threat thrash thrust
Eng. intrude intrusion thresh
protrude abstruse threshold
obtrude obtrusion
extrude etc.
etc.
(Table ii, 1; Table vi, 1)
The IE root *dakru, "tear", becomes in Anglo-Saxon tahher,
tagor, leading to English" f^ar, with tearless, tearful, tear gas, tearjerker, etc.
112
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
\*dakru
In archaic Latin dacruma appears, but in classical Latin, perhaps
through Sabine influence (initial d of Italic becomes / in Osco-
Umbrian), we have lacrima or lachryma, leading to lachrymal and
lachrymose.
IE *dakru ("tear")
Lat. dacruma — lachryma
Eng. lachrymal
lachrymose
etc.
AS taehher, taegor
Eng. tear
etc.
(Table vi, 1 ; Table hi, 2, 3)
In similar fashion IE *dnghu,^^^ "tongue", becomes in Anglo-Saxon
tunge, leading to tongue (with tongue-tied), and, possibly, tongs, while
Old Norse tangi, "projecting point", gives tang. Latin lingua, evidently
a Sabine variant of *dingua, gives us lingual, linguist, linguistic, bilingual,
multilingual, plurilingual, the modern Unguis tician, and lingua franca.
From French langue, langage, comes language, while a Provengal form
of the word gives us lingo. Note, from the same root, German Zunge
and Kussian y a zyk.
IE *dnghu"' ("tongue")
Lat. *dingua — lingua
Eng. lingua (franca)
lingual
linguist, etc.
bilingual, etc.
AS tunge
Eng. tongue
tongs {':
Fr. langage
Eng. language
Prov. lingo
Eng. lingo
'^' The symbol n indicates a vowel value for the sonant n
ON tangi
tang
(Table vi, 1; Table xi, 3; in *righ
group, Lat. turns *gh into g, not /;)
A Latin-Germanic combination of interest is presented by the IE
root *ayos, "metal", which appears in Anglo-Saxon isen, iren, from
which we get iron, with derivatives and compounds like ironmonger.
*wirOs'\ TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 113
ironclad, iron horse, Iron Curtain. In the form dr, it also develops into ore,
and a similar Scandinavian form produces ore and ore, coins of various
Scandinavian countries, while an Old High German form gives the
Erz- of Erzgebirge, a mountain range. The Latin form appears in aes
(root aer-), the word for "bronze", from which we get on the one hand
era (the plural aera, "brass counters", used for counting and measuring) ;
on the other the verb aestimari ("bronze" plus the verb "to cut", used
in the sense of "measure, appraise"), which eventually appears in
English esteem, estimate, estimable, estimation, and the British first name
Esme, which is the past participle of the Old French verb esmer, "to
esteem", later replaced in French by the learned estimer. An important
Latin compound of aestimari, the verb existimo, "to think", fails to
appear in English.
IE *ayos ("metal")
Lat. aes, aera aestimor AS iscn, iren ar Scand. ore, 0re
.1 I .11 I
(directly or through Fr.) Eng. iron ore Eng. ore
Eng. era esteem
estimate
estimable
etc.
Fr. esmer
Eng. Esme
(Table xiii; Table xvi, 2, 3)
IE *wiros, "man", produces in Anglo-Saxon a form wer, of which
the only ostensible present-day survivors are werewolf and wergild,
the money paid in Anglo-Saxon times for taking a man's life. In
highly disguised form, however, wer survives also in Anglo-Saxon
weorold, literally "man-age", which becomes world, with worldly,
worldliness, unworldly, etc., while the German cognate of world. Welt,
gives us loan-words such as Weltpolitik, Weltanschauung, Weltschmerz,
Weltansicht. The Latin vir, "man", appears in virile, virility, virago,
triumvirate, quadrumvirate, and an extension of vir, virtus, "manly
114
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*wiros
quality, virtue", which results in virtue, virtual, virtuous, virtually, and
the Italian-derived virtuoso, virtuosity.
IE wiros ("man")
Lat.
vir
1
virtus
1
(directly or
through Fr.)
1
Eng.
[
virile
1
virtue
virility
virtuous
virago
virtual
triumvir
etc.
quadrumvir
etc.
It. virtu
virtuoso
Eng. virtuoso
virtuosity
AS wer
weorold Ger. Welt-
Eng. werewolf world Weltschmerz
wergild worldly etc.
etc.
(Table xiv, 2, 3)
The widespread "water, stream" root of IE, *akwd or *eky:, pro-
duces a Gothic ahwa, an Old Norse ey, which appears in English
place-name suffixes, an Anglo-Saxon ea, which later becomes ea, and
in combination with gar, "spear", gives eagre, as well as an leg, which,
in combination with land, forms the basis of igland ("water-land",
"island"). The modern English island is contaminated by Old French
isle from Latin insula, which supplies the s that replaces the original g
of the Anglo-Saxon form. The Old High German form, ache, appears
in the name of the German city of Aachen, which translates the French
Aix, derived from Latin Aquis{grana). Lastly, there is the place name
Scandinavia, in which the -av- portion comes from the "water" root.
The Latin form is aqua, and this produces, directly or through French
or Italian, aquamarine, aquarelle, aquarium, aquarian, Aquarius, aquatint,
aqueduct, aquaplane, aquavit, and the modern American aquacade, along
with straight Latin forms like aquafortis, aqua regia, aqua vitae. Through
the French descendant of aqua, eau, we get eau de vie, eau de Cologne;
through evier, the French descendant of aquarium, we get ewer, as well
as sewer (with sewage, sewerage), from ex-aquarium, "outlet for water".
Osier may also come from this root, through the Celtic av, but there are
other theories to the effect that it comes from Low Latin ausaria or
Greek oisos, so it is best omitted.
"^^m]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
IE *akwa, *eku ("water")
115
Lat. aqua
AS ea
ieg
ON ey
1
(directly or through
Eng ea
island
1
-ey
Fr. or It.)
eagre
Eng. aquatic
aquarelle
aquarium
aqueduct
aquamarine
aquaplane
aquacade
aqua fortis
aqua regia
aqua vitae
Fr. eau
1
1
Eng. eau
Fr. 6vier
Eng. ewer
sewer
sewage
sewerage
(Tabi
A slightly doubtful family is that of *kdu, *hu, "hew, strike",
which produces an Anglo-Saxon heawan that eventually becomes hew
(with hewer). Latin shows incus, "anvil", from the stem of in-cudo,
"to strike", and this is used in English to designate scientifically one
of the bones of the ear ; also codex, from which we derive code, codex,
codicil, encode, decode, codify. The doubts reside in the possible connection,
on the Germanic side, with hack; on the Latin side, with cauda, "tail",
which would lead to caudal, coda, coward, etc. There seems to be an
assured connection with Slavic forms represented by kovac and kuznets,
"blacksmith". Limiting ourselves to reasonably sure forms, we have:
IE *kau, *k3u ("hew, strike")
Lat.
(in)cudo, incus
codex
1
AS heawan
Eng. incus
1
(directly or
through Fr.)
1
Eng. code
codex
codicil
encode
decode
Eng. hew
codify
(Table m, 2, 3)
116
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
\*dhwer
The IE *dhwir, "door", gives Anglo-Saxon duru and English door
(akin to German Tor), with compounds like doorstep, doorway, door-
keeper, indoors, outdoors, etc. The L.a.tmfores, "doorway", has a secondary
form foris, "outside", from which come forfeit (through French
forfeit, "done outside the law"), forfeiture, foreign, foreigner, forest
{silva forestis , "a wood lying outside the common domain, and reserved
for the king"), with forester, forestry, reforestation. In purely French
form are hors d''oeuvre, "out of the regular work of the meal", and hors
de combat, "out of combat". There is some doubt as to whether ybrwm
comes from the same root ("an outdoor place where people met to
conduct public and private business") ; ii so, forensic would come under
this heading. There is also Greek thyra, "door", from which we get
thyroid, but in a very indirect way, since the original Greek word is
thyreoidos, "shield-shaped", the oblong shield having the same general
shape as a door; dithyrambic may also come from thyra; since these
forms are somewhat doubtful, in addition to being scientific rather
than popular, we are perhaps justified in treating this as a two-branch
root.
IE *dhwer ("door")
Lat. fores, foris
1
forum (?)
1
AS duru
(through Fr.)
1
1
1
Eng. forum
Eng. door
Eng. forest, etc.
forensic
etc. ■
forfeit, etc.
foreign, etc.
hors de
(Table x, 2, 3, 4)
The root *ghostis, "foreign, guest", produces Anglo-Saxon giest
and English guest. The Latin hostis shows in its semantics a pre-
dominance of the idea of "foreign", therefore "enemy, hostile", and
it is from this meaning that host, "army" and hostile, with hostility,
descend. Host in the sense of "Communion wafer" seems to come from
the idea of "enemy" extended to that of "expiatory offering". Latin
also has hospes, which some authorities analyze as *hosti-pots, "the one
who has power over the guest or enemy"; but Latin shows, from the
very beginning, the same confusion between the two meanings of
"guest" and "host" that appears today in the languages descended
from it. Hospes, with root hospit-, gives rise to hospital, hospitality,
*aweg] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 117
hospitable, hospitalize, hospice, host, hostess, hostage, hostel, hostelry or
ostelry, hostler, hotel; it is probably hostage which, despite its late for-
mation, holds the semantic key; the hostage is both a guest and an
enemy. Some dictionaries also list a Rumanian hospodar which comes
from the Slavic development of the root as it appears in Russian
gospod', "lord", gospodin, "Mr., sir", gospodar, "nobleman", etc.
IE *ghostis ("foreign, guest")
Lat. hostis hospes AS giest
I I I
(directly or through Fr.) Eng. guest
I . I .
Eng. hostile hospital, etc.
hostility hospitality
host hospitable
etc. hospice
hostel
hotel
hostage
host
hostess
(Table xi, 3, 4)
A root *aweg, "to increase", gives in Anglo-Saxon eacan, ecan, {ea
is a normal Anglo-Saxon development of *aw), and also weaxan.
This first gives us eke, the second wax (in the sense of "increase") and
also waist, with waistline, waistcoat, etc. In Latin, we have augeo, "to
increase", from which come augment, augmentation, augmentative, with
extensions like augurium {augur, augury, inaugurate, inauguration) ; augustus
[august, August, Augustan, Augustine, Austin) ; auxilium [auxiliary) ; audio
[auction, auctioneer) ; auctor [author, authoress, authorship, authority, author-
itative, authoritarian, authorize, etc.), and a French development octroi,
which comes from Vulgar Latin auctoricare, becoming octroyer. There is
question whether autumn also belongs to this root, or is from Etruscan.
IE *awesf ("to increase")
Lat. augeo augurium augustus auxilium auctor auctio AS eacan weaxan
I I . I II I II
(directly or through French) Eng. eke wax
II I I I I waist
Eng. augment augury august auxiliary author auction
etc. inaugurate etc. authority etc.
etc. octroi
etc.
(Table xiv, 2, 3; Table vir, 2)
118 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*bhrei
A somewhat doubtful, yet picturesque family is that of IE *bhrei,
"to cut with a sharp tool". Through Anglo-Saxon brjne it gives us
brine, with a semantic difficulty. It is also possible that it gives Anglo-
Saxon priccian, leading to prick, prickle, prickly, prig, priggish, but here
we encounter a phonological difficulty, since IE *bh should produce
Germanic b, not p. There is the French briser, coming from a Celtic
development and giving us the little-used brisance; also the Slavic
development appearing in Russian britva, "razor". In Latin, the root
yields frico, "to rub", from which come friction, fricative, dentifrice,
frivolous , frivolity and, through Yr^rxch., friable, fray , frazzle, with {small)
fry attributed either to Old French yrof or to a Scandinavian source.
IE *bhrei ("to cut")
Lat. frico AS bryne
I .1
(directly or Eng. brine
through Fr.)
I .
Eng. friction
dentifrice
frivolous
friable
fray
frazzle
etc.
(Table ix, 3, 4)
An IE root *ker{d), "to burn, glow, heat", gives Anglo-Saxon
heorth and English hearth, with hearthstone, etc. For Latin, we have
carbo, "coal", and cremo, "to burn, cremate", from which come
cremate, cremation, crematorium, cremator, etc. The carbo root appears in a
large number of scientific compounds that involve carbon {carbonic,
carbohydrate, carbide, carbonate, carbolic, which combines the roots of
"coal" and "oil", carborundum, a trade name, carbon monoxide, car-
buretor, etc.), as well as carbuncle and the Italian-derived Carbonari
("charcoal burners", the name of a secret society devoted to the
cause of Italian unification in the early nineteenth century). There is
an assured connection with the Slavic root for "red" or "beautiful"
that appears in Russian krasny, krasivy, and a quite doubtful one with
Greek keramos, "earthenware", from which we get ceramics.
^pek] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 119
IE *ker(9) ("to burn, glow, heat")
I I I
Lat. carbo cremo AS heorth
I I I
(directly or through Fr.) Eng. hearth
I I etc.
Eng. carbon cremate
carbide etc.
carburetor
carbuncle
etc."
(through It.)
Eng. Carbonari (Table hi, 2, 3)
IE *pek is "to pluck wool or hair". On the Germanic side, we have
AngloSaxon feohtan, "to pick on, fight", which becomes Jight with its
derivatives {fighter plane) ; Anglo-Saxon feoh, which gets crossed with
fieu, brought in by the Normans and derived by Old French fi'om
Old High German fiu, to give us fee. The Old High German-Old
French word alone produces fief, while an Old High German ex-
tension, fehida, leads to feud and feudal, feudalism. Other Germanic
relatives are Old Norse felagi, "partner", which gets into Anglo-
Saxon as feolage and ultimately becomes fellow (with fellowship, fellow
traveler, etc.) ; and the Scandinavian name of the Faroe ("sheep")
islands. Latin shows the root in pecus, "sheep", firom which we get,
through the idea of sheep or cattle as a medium of exchange, peculate,
peculiar, pecuniary, impecunious, etc., as well as the Italian pecorino, "a
cheese made with sheep's milk". There is also pecten, "comb", which
appears in English as a scientific term, along with its adjective
pectinate.
IE *pek ("to pluck wool or hair")
\ .
II III
Lat. pecus pecten AS feohtan feoh OHG fiu fief fehida ON felagi
(directly or Eng. fight
through Fr.) fighter
(through Fr.)
-J I I
Eng. peculiar pecten Eng. fee fi^^ ^"^"'i fellow
pecuniary pectinate feudal fellowship
peculate feudalism
impecunious
etc.
(through It.)
Eng. pecorino (Table i, 4; Table hi, 2, 3)
120
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
{*ters
The root *ters means "dry, arid, thirst". In Anglo-Saxon this pro-
duces thurst and thyrstig, which become thirst and thirsty. In Latin, we
have the verb torreo, "to burn", with past participle tostus, and terra,
"land, earth" (presumably dry land as opposed to the sea; in Latin rr
often replaces rs). Torreo gives rise to torrid, torrefaction, torrefy, and
torrent, with torrential {torrens, the present participle of torreo, was at
first applied to the drying-up bed of a seasonal stream; but since the
latter, in times of heavy rains, becomes a rushing stream, this meaning
finally took the upper hand). The past participle tostus yields toast,
"bread heated over a fire to the point of drying up" ; then, from the
custom of dipping pieces of toasted bread into wine drunk in some-
one's honor, we get the secondary meaning of toast. Terra appears in
Latin form in terra firma, in Italian form in terracotta ("cooked earth"),
and, generally through French, goes on to produce terrestrial, terrain,
terrier (a dog used to burrow in the earth after small game) ; terrine
(with its variant tureen, something made of earthenware) ; terrace and
the Italian terrazzo; territory, with territorial, extra-territoriality , etc.;
the Yrcnch. parterre, ("on the ground"); inter and disinter; Mediterranean
("in the midst of lands", the Internal Sea of the ancients), sub-
terranean; and even turmeric, from terra merita, "deserving earth".
IE *ters ("dry, arid, thirst")
Lat. torreo
(directly or through French)
Eng. torrid
torrefaction
torrent
torrefy
etc.
terra firma
terrain
terrestrial
terrine
tureen
territory, etc.
parterre
inter
disinter
Mediterranean
subterranean
turmeric
AS thurst
I
Eng. thirst
thyrstig
thirsty
(through It.)
terracotta
terrazzo
terrace
(Table ii, 1)
*mori] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 121
The IE root *lou, "to wash", has certain doubtful ramifications.
On the Germanic side, Anglo-Saxon leather gives lather, and leak
gives lye. In Latin, we have the verb lavo, "to wash", with a secondary
form in lu- and a past participle lotus. Lavo produces, directly or
through French or Italian, lave, lava, lavender, laundry, laundress, latrine
(from an original lavatrina), lavabo (Latin for "I shall wash"), lavatory,
lavish, lavasse ("a heavy rain"). The lu- variant appears in compounds,
and gives rise to such forms as ablution, dilute, dilution, alluvial, deluge,
ante-diluvian, pollute, pollution {porro-luere, "to wash from afar", though
some authorities prefer to derive this from lutum, "mud"). The
participial lotus appears in lotic and lotion. There is a possibility of
connection, on the Germanic side, with Anglo-Saxon lapian, which
becomes the verb lap, and lippa, which produces lip, and if this con-
nection is accepted, it also involves Latin labium or labrum, "lip", and
lambo, "to lap, lick", with consequent involvement of labial, candelab-
rum, lambent, and even lampoon (from the French lapons, lampons,
"let us lap it up"). Restricting ourselves to the surer forms, we have:
IE *lou f'to wash")
1
Lat. lavo
1
-luo lotus
AS leathor
leah
1
(directly
1
or through French)
Eng. lather
lye
1
Eng. laver
ablution lotic
lavender
dilute lotion
laundry
latrine
lave
alluvial
deluge
diluvian
lavatory
lavish
pollute (?)
lavasse
Lat. lavabo
Eng. lavabo
It. lava
1
1
Eng. lava
(Chapter 2, p. 17)
An IE root *mori, "sea," produces Anglo-Saxon mor, merisc, and
mere, which work out in English as moor, marsh (with marshy, marsh-
mallow), and mere (with mermaid, merman). The Latin form is mare,
which directly or through French produces marine, submarine, mariner,
122
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*mori
marinade, maritime, etc. Ros marinus, "sea dew," is misunderstood
(another case of popular etymology) and becomes rosemary. There is
the French mal de mer, "seasickness," and the Italian maremma, "marsh-
land." Morass comes originally from Latin mariscus, appropriated by
Frankish (Old High German) in the form marisk, then passed on to
Old French as marais and to Dutch as moeras, from which it comes into
English. A Celtic extension appears in Armorica, the ancient name of
Brittany, and a Slavic one in Pomerania {Pommern in German, Pomorze
in Polish) ; both mean "by the sea."
IE *mori ("sea")
Lat. mare marinus
. I I
(directly or through Fr.)
I .. I
Eng. maritime
Fr. mer
marme
mariner
marinade
I submarine
Eng. mal de mer rosemary
It. maremma
Eng. maremma
mariscus
OHG marisk
OF marais
I
Du. moeras
I
Eng. morass
AS mor merisc mere
Eng. moor marsh mere
mermaid
(Chapter 2, p. 17)
The root *red, *rdd means "to scratch." In Anglo-Saxon form, it
gives r^ett, which later becomes rat (with ratty). On the Latin side, we
get rado, "to shave", and redo, "to gnaw", with past participles rasus
and rosus. From rado-rasus we get rase or raze, erase, abrasion, abrasive,
razor, rasorial; also rash (on the skin), from Old French rasche, "the
ailment that causes you to scratch"; and rascal, rascally (possibly also
rapscallion), from Old French rascaille, "the scratchable or expendable
element of the population", or perhaps "those who scratch because
they are unwashed". There is also the possibility that to rail (at some-
one) and raillerie (or raillery) may come from a secondary Latin
formation radulare. Rodo and rosus give us rodent, erode, erosion, corrode,
corrosion, corrosive. They also give rostrum, "beak", with rostral and
rostrate (the rostrum from which Roman orators spoke in the Forum
was so called because it was adorned with rostra, ships' prows or
beaks, used in ramming and sinking enemy ships; these rostra had
been taken by the Romans from the Volscians at the battle of Antium,
''pleu]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
123
later Anzio, where another big battle was fought in the Second World
War).
IE *red, *r6d ("to scratch")
Lat.
rado
1
rasus
1
1
rodo
1
rosus
1
1
rostrum
AS raett
1 1 1
(directly or through French)
1
1
1
1
1
Eng. rat
Eng.
rail
rase
rodent
erosion
rostrum
ratty
raillery
erase
razor
abrasion
rash
erode
corrode
corrosion
rascal
(T
\BLE VI, 1)
The IE root *pl€u, "to run, swim, flow", produces in Anglo-Saxon
flowan, which leads to flow ; flotian, which comes out as float, with
floterian, which becomes flutter ; fleoge and fleogan, which become the
noun and the verb fly (with flywheel, flyweight, fly-by-night, flying saucer,
flying column, etc.); flyht, which becomes flight ; and flugo I, fugo I, which
turns into fowl. There is doubt whether fleet comes from Anglo-Saxon
flete,fleotan,fleot (the last means "ship"), or from Old Norse floti through
French flotte (the French form definitely gives us flotation and flotsam
from flotaison, and, with a Spanish extension, flotilla) . As against all
these Germanic forms, all that Latin has to offer is pluvia, "rain",
from which we get pluvial, pluviometer, {Jupiter) Pluvius, and the name of
the French Revolutionary month Pluviose; also, through French
plovier, "the rain-bird", plover.
IE *pleu
("to run
swim, flow
')
Lat. pluvia
AS flowan
Eng. flow
1
flotian
float
floterian
1
flutter
1 1
fleogan fleoge
flyht
flight
(directly or
through Fr.)
fly
Eng. pluvial
AS flugol
pluviometer
fugol
Pluvius
1
Pluviose
Eng. fowl
plover
fleotan fleot flete
fleet (?)
ON floti
Fr. flotte, flotaison
Eng. fleet (?)
flotation
flotsam
Sp. flotilla
Eng. flotilla
(Table i, 4)
124
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*seno
The root *seno, "old", gives us, through Old High German sini-
skalk, "elder servant," and French senechal, English seneschal. In Latin,
the root produces senex, "old", senior, "elder", senatus, "senate, body of
elderly men", and the proper name oi Seneca, famous Roman orator.
Senex, with its adjective senilis, gives us senile, senility, senescent. Senior
gives us not only senior and seniority, but most of the Romance terms of
polite address : French seigneur, with seignorial and other feudal terms ;
also Monseigneur, Monsieur and its plural Messieurs, Sieur, sire, and sir ;
Italian signer (e), Monsignor, Messer{e), signora, signorina; Spanish
senor, senora, senorita; Portuguese senhor, senhora, senhorinha (the incon-
sistency of calling a young lady "little old woman" never seems to
have struck Romance speakers). There are even surly and surliness,
derived from an earlier sirly, "behaving like an aristocrat".
IE *sen-o (
1
'old")
1 1.
Lat. senex — senior
1..
senilis
1
senatus
OHG
_ 1
sini-skalk
1
Fr.
1
senechal
Eng. senior
senile
senate
Eng.
seneschal
seniority
senility
senescent
senatorial
(through Fr.)
1
seigneur
seignorial
Monsieur
Monseigneur
sire
sir
surly
(through It.)
signor(e)
signora
signorina
Monsignor
Messer(e)
(through Sp.)
1
seiior
sefiora
senorita
(through Pt.)
senhor
senhora
ser
ihorinha
(Table
*al] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 125
The IE root *al, "to grow, nurture", gives in Anglo-Saxon eald,
which turns into old (with older, oldish, oldster, etc.) ; ealdorman, which
becomes alderman; yldo, yldra, which become eld and elder; weorold
(literally, "man-age"), which becomes world (with worldly, unworldly,
world-wide, and even World's Series). A High German form which
becomes modern German Welt gives us Weltpolitik, Weltschmerz,
Weltansicht, Weltanschauung. There is even a Scandinavian form elska,
"to love", but it does not get into English. The two main Latin
developments are alo, "to nourish", and altus, "high, tall". The former
has many derivatives and compounds, among them the alma of Alma
Mater ; alumnus and alumna; ailment and alimentary; alimony ; coalesce and
coalition; adult and adolescent (not, however, adultery and adulterate,
which come from the root o{ alter, "other") ; abolish, with abolition and
abolitionist; proletarian, proletariat, prolific, proliferate; possibly indolent
and indolence (but there is a chance that these come from doleo, "to
grieve"). Altus gives us altitude, altimeter, exalt, exaltation; numerous
Italian forms, like alto, contralto, altissimo, alto rilievo ; French forms like
haut relief, hautboy (or oboe), haughty, haughtily, haughtiness (in French the
Latin root of altus gets crossed with the Germanic h of high, hoch, and
by reason of the fact that / following a vowel and preceding a con-
sonant becomes u, turns into haut). There is the possibility that altar
may also come from altus, but the picture is obscured by the presence
oi ara, also meaning "altar".
IE *al ("to grow, nurture")
AS eald ealdorman yldo weorold HG Welt
I I yldra | I
Eng. old alderman eld world Weltschmerz
etc. elder etc. etc.
1
Lat. alo
altus
1
(directly or
1
through Fr.)
1 F
Eng. alma
1 *-'
altitude
coalesce
altimeter
adult
exalt
alimony
haut relief
aliment
hautboy
abolish
haughty, etc.
proletarian
indolent ( ?)
1 It. alto, etc.
1
1
Eng. alto
contralto
altissimo
alto rilievo
(Chapter 2, p. 17)
126 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*yeu
The IE root *yeu, "young", produces in Anglo-Saxon the adjective
geong and the noun geoguth, leading to young and youth (with derivatives
like youngster, youthful). There is also a Dutch form, jonkheer, from
which we get a little-known younker (but also the name of the city of
Yonkers), and its German counterpart, Junker ("young gentleman",
in both cases). The German Hitlerjugend, or "Hitler Youth" movement,
is not altogether forgotten. In Latin, the root takes the form juvenis
(leading to juvenile, rejuvenate, etc., as well as the name of the poet
Juvenal), and its comparative junior, which reaches us unchanged.
With juniority, etc. The goddess Juno also seems to take her name from
this root, and this would give us June and all its compounds {June bug,
June bride, etc.)
IE *yeu ("young")
T^. TT \ \ \ n r~
Lat. juvenis junior Juno AS geong geoguth Du. jonkheer Ger. Jugend
III II I Junker
.1 II II I I
(directly or through French) Eng. young youth younker Jugend
I I I Yonkers Junker
Eng. juvenile junior June
rejuvenate juniority
(Table xiii, 2, 3)
*Kan is the IE root that means "to sing, sound". On the Anglo-
Saxon side, it gives hano, "rooster" (German Hahn), and herin, which
becomes hen (with henpeck, henbane, etc.). The Latin form is cano or
canto, "to sing". There is also carmen, "song", which appears in the
name of an opera, as well as in charm, charmer, charming (with normal
palatalization of c before a in French charme) . Derivative forms include
accentum, "a singing upon, accent", indicating that the accent was
originally viewed as primarily of the musical or pitch variety rather
than of the stress variety (here we get accent, accentuation, etc.); and
incino, "to strike up a tune", from which we get incentive. Canto, the
more popular of the two Latin forms, appears as chant- when it comes
to us from standard French, as cant- when it comes from Norman-
Picard or Italian. Hence we have chant, chanty, chantry, enchant, enchant-
ment, enchanter, enchantress, disenchantment, chanticleer (the clear-singing
rooster that is France's national symbol), the recently imported
chanteuse, the older chanson [de geste) ; while from cant- we have cant,
decant, recant, cantor, canticle, cantilene, all on the French (Norman-
Picard) side, and Italian gives us {bel) canto, cantata, cantabile, canzone.
*dheig^] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 127
canzonet, and even cantaloupe, from the name of the Calabrian town of
Cantalupo ("Singing Wolf"), renowned for the fruit.
IE *kan ("to sing, sound")
\
I I I I I
Lat. cano incino accentum canto AS hano, henn
I I I I I
(directly or through French) Eng. hen
I .1.1 I
Eng. canorous incentive' accent chant
accentuation chanty
chantry
enchant
chanticleer
cant
decant
recant
cantor
canticle
etc.
(through It.)
I
canto
canzone
cantabile
cantata
cantaloupe
(Table hi, 2, 3; Chapter 3, p. 41)
It is a commonplace that when the same root appears in both the
Germanic and the Latin branches, its extensions and ramifications
will normally be far greater in the latter than in the former. This is
due to the greater number and productivity of the Latin prefixes and
suffixes as compared with the Germanic, for what concerns English.
German is there to attest that a similar productivity can be achieved
by the Germanic counterparts of the Latin elements. In English,
however, the Anglo-Saxon development was partly arrested after the
Norman Conquest, and the French-Latin formations took over. This
explains why the Germanic words in our tongue are usually (by no
means always) shorter, more terse, more direct-sounding than the
French or Latin. It is of interest to note, however, that where the
Latin root, and particularly its French development, is uncomplicated
by prefixes and suffixes, it is usually just as monosyllabic as the Anglo-
Saxon. A good example of this is the IE *dheigU, "to stick, set fast".
128
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*dheigU
which on the Germanic side yields Anglo-Saxon die and English dike,
with its extension ditch. Through Dutch dijk and French diguer, English
gets on the one hand dig, with its few derivatives, such as the Digger of
Australia and the gold-digger of the U.S., on the other the proper name
Van Dyke, which appears in several combinations, of which Van
Dyke beard is the best known. In Latin, we have the verb Jigo, "to fix",
with its participle Jixus, and the noun Jinis, as well as a probable
connection with the verb Jingo, "to shape, mold, pretend", showing a
nasal infix in the rpot. Fixus yields fix, fixation, prefix, suffix, infix, transfix,
crucifix, and their numerous extensions: suffixation, crucifixion, etc.
Crucify and the French fichu are from the infinitive figere rather than
from the participle^;cMJ'. Finis appears in Latin form, but also produces,
directly or through French, an almost infinite variety of secondary
formations: fine, finery, finial, finesse, finish, final, finale, finite, finality
infinite, infinity, infinitesimal, affinity, confine, confinement, define, definition,
refine, refinement, superfine, even finicky, finance, financier, financial. If we
accept the likely hypothesis that^n^^o also belongs to this root, we have
figment, fiction, fictional, fictitious, feign, feint, faint, figure, figurative, figure-
head, figure of speech, disfigure, configuration, transfigure, effigy. It is less
likely tbditfilum, "thread", also belongs here, but if it does, we can go
on to file, filament, filigrain and filigree, defile, defilement, enfilade, profile,
and with the alternative form hilum (or filum, we can add nihil, nihilist,
annihilation, etc. Omitting the less likely filum, but including the more
probable ^n^o, we have:
-IE *dheigu ("to stick, set fast")
1 1
Lat. figo fixus
(directly or th
1.
finis
fingo
1
AS
die
Du. dijk
1 1
rough French)
Eng.
dike
]
Fr. diguer
1 1
1
1
ditch
1
Eng. crucify fix
fine
fiction
Eng. dig, etc.
fichu fixation
finish
figment
crucifix
final
feign
Eng. Van Dyke
suffix
finite
feint
prefix
finance
faint
transfix
confine
figure
etc.
refine
finicky
finial
etc.
effigy
configuration
transfigure
etc.
(Table x, 3,
4; Table vii, 2)
'we]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
129
The IE root *eu or *wd means "to lack", "empty". With extensions
that in part coincide, it produces both Germanic and Latin roots.
For the former, we have Anglo-Saxon wan and wanian, leading to
wan and wane, as well as Old Norse vanta, which produces want; and,
by combining wane with Anglo-Saxon togen, "drawn", which is the
part participle of the verb that eventually gives us tow, the form
wanton is produced, originally meaning "lacking in drawing out
(education)" or "illmannered". There is also an Anglo-Saxon weste,
"waste, lay waste"; its Old High German cognate wiiosti combines
with Latin vasto, which has the same meaning and ultimate origin, to
produce Old French guastier {wastier is the Walloon-Norman form;
see Chapter 3, p. 42), and English waste, with wasteful, wastage, wastrel.
More directly derived from Old French guastier, modern French
gdter, is enfant gate, "spoiled child". Latin forms coming from the same
root, in addition to the verb vasto, are the adjective vastus, from which
we get, directly or through French, vast, vastness, vastity, vastly, devastate,
devastation ; vanus, which in various incarnations gives us vain, vanity,
vainglory, vanish, evanesce, vaunt and vaunted (French vanter from Latin
*vanitare), inane, inanition, and inanity (from Latin *invanum, with fall
of v) ; vaco, "to empty", and vacuus, "empty", which give vacant,
vacancy, vacate, vacation, vacuum, vacuity, vacuous, evacuation, evacuee. There
is also an alternative Latin form with o instead of a, vocitus, which
produces French forms that lead to void, avoid, avoidance.
IE *eu, *wa ("to lack", "empty")
Lat. vanus vaco vocitus vastus
I I I I
(directly or through French)
AS wan wanian ON vanta
Eng. wan wane want
wanton
Eng. vain vacuum
vanity vacuous
vanish vacuity
evanesce vacant
vaunt vacate
inane vacation
etc. evacuate
etc.
void vast
avoid vastity
avoidance devastate
Lat.
1
vasto
1
OHG wuosti
OF
guastier
NF wastier
Fr.
gater
Eng. waste
wastrel
Eng.
enfant gate
etc.
(T
A.BLE XIV, 2, 3)
130 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*g^K^)
The root *gel{9), "cold, to freeze", appears in Anglo-Saxon calan,
ceald, which come out as cold; in col, colian, which give us cool, both
adjective and verb, with coolant, cooler, coolness, etc. ; and in ciele, celan,
which become chill, noun and verb, with chilliness. The Latin forms
are gelu, "frost", and gelidus, "cold", on the one hand, glacies, "ice",
on the other. Gelu and gelidus go on to French forms (geler, etc.) which
ultimately give us gelid, gel, jelly {-with jell and jellyjish), gelatine (through
Italian; with gelatinous), congeal; while glacies produces glacial, glacier,
glacis (so called because it is slippery like ice) , and the directly French
glace, glacee. Note that French palatalizes Latin g before e and i without
change of spelling, while Anglo-Saxon usually palatalizes c before e
to ch; but the spelling change occurs only after the Norman Conquest
(see Chapter 3, pp. 42, 35).
IE *gel(3) ("cold, to freeze'
1
')
1 1
Lat. gelu — gelidus
1
glacies
1
AS
1
ceald
col, colian
1
1
1
ciele, celan
1
1 1
(directly or through French)
Eng.
cold
1
cool
chill
1
1
etc.
etc.
etc.
Eng. gelid
gel
jelly
congeal
(through It.)
1
glacial
glacier
glacis
glacd
glacde
gelatine
(Table vii, 2)
A family that is somewhat doubtful, for reasons that will be presented
shortly, yet accepted by most authorities, is IE *gherdh, "to enclose,
fence in". In Anglo-Saxon, this gives geard and ultimately jar</ (with
yardarm, yardstick, barnyard, etc.). It also produces Anglo-Saxon gyrdel
and gyrdan, which give us girdle and gird, while the closely related
Old Norse girthi, gyorth produces girth. Old High German gardo,
passing into French, becomes jardin (English jardiniere), but the
northern French dialects, not palatalizing g before a, give us garden
(with gardener, etc.; gardenia is from a family name Garden). The
doubtful Latin relative is hortus, "garden", with horticulture, horti-
culturist, and even the proper name Hortense, as well as ortolan (a
species of bird), which comes from Provencal via French. In the Latin
*(kuk] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 131
compound cohors, this root gives us cohort, but in contracted form it
becomes Old French cort, court (modern French cour), and here we
acquire court with its numerous compounds {courthouse, courtroom,
courtship, courtyard, etc.), along with courteous, courtesy, curtsy, courtly,
courtier, courtesan (this comes by way of Italian cortigiano) ; negative
forms in dis- {discourteous), even curtain, and cortege, which comes from
Italian corteggio through French. The phonological difficulty lies in
the fact that IE *dh before or after r normally gives Latin b, not /
(compare Latin verbum, English word). This leads some authorities to
link yard and gird with Latin urbs rather than with hortus (but urbs
lacks the initial h called for by IE *gh), and this would lead us to
urban, suburb, urbane, etc. The Slavic form is the grad or gorod of Lenin-
grad, Novgorod, but so far as English is concerned, this appears only in
place names (the semantics would go with urbs rather than with
hortus, but both a garden and a town could in origin be an enclosure) .
Assuming hortus to be nearer right than urbs, we have :
IE *gherdh ("to enclose, fence in")
Lat. hortus cohors AS geard gyrdan gyrdel ON gjorth OHG gardo
.1 I I J J .1 . i.
(directly or through Fr.) Eng. yard gird girdle girth Fr. jardin
I I NF gardin
Eng. horti- cohort |
Hortense court, etc. Eng. garden
ortolan courteous, etc. gardenia
curtain jardiniere
(through It.)
I
courtesan (Table xi, 3, 4; Table x, 3, 4;
cortege Chapter 3, pp. 35, 41-42)
One of the most productive IE roots is *deuk, "to draw, pull". On
the Germanic side come Anglo-Saxon togian, teon, which become tow,
with towline, towboat, etc., and with the compound wan togen, "poorly
drawn or educated", which becomes wanton; tiegan, which gives us
tug; toht, yielding taut; tieman, becoming teem; team, becoming team
{teamster, teamwork, team-mate, etc.) ; tudor, becoming Middle English
teder and modern English tether ; tuccian, becoming tuck; tyge, teh and
tiegan, giving tie; with tight coming either from Anglo-Saxon tyht or from
a kindred Scandinavian form {tighten, tights, tightrope, tightwad, etc.).
132
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*deuk
In addition, we have toy from Dutch tuig, speeltuig, "play-gadget",
and the High German heritogo, herizogo, which becomes Herzog,
"army-puller, army leader" (in modern German, this root gives Zug,
"train"). Latin forms comprise duco, "to lead", with past participle
ductus, and dux, "leader". The latter gives us duke, duchess, duchy,
archduke, grand duke, ducal, ducat, the doge of Venice and the Duce of
Fascism. The verbal forms lead to our numerous compounds in -duce,
-duct, -ducate, all of which involve the idea of leading, conducting; as
well as to the Italian condottiere ; the French conduit; the French douche
from Italian doccia; the French endue and subdue; redoubt, with a b
from dubito, "to doubt", thrown in by mistake (French redoute, Italian
ridotto, from reductus). Among -duce forms are adduce, conducive, deduce,
introduce, produce, producer, reproduce, seduce, traduce ; -duct forms from the
participial stem include duct, duction, ductile, ductless, viaduct, aqueduct,
abduct, abduction, conduct, conductor, deduct, deduction, introduction, product,
production, productive, reproduction, reduction, seduction, seductive; while -ducate
produces educate, education, educational, educator, etc.
IE *deuk ("to draw, pull")
Lat. dux
duco
ductus
(directly, or through It.
and/or Fr.)
I I I
Eng. duke -duce -duct
duchess -ducive -ductor
duchy -ducent -ductive
ducal endue -ductile
ducat subdue conduit
Doge educate douche
Duce etc. condottiere
etc. redoubt
etc.
AS togian tiegan toht tvge tvht team
I I 1 j J I
Eng. tow tug taut tie tight team
wanton
AS tucian tudor tieman Du. tuig
Eng. tuck tether teem toy
OHG herizogo — '
I
Ger. Herzog
I
Eng. Herzog
(Table vi, 1 ; Table hi, 2, 3)
Another immensely productive root is that of IE *dherdgh, "to
sleep on the ground, draw". It presents a major phonological difficulty,
since the Latin forms we shall soon see ought to have initial /"instead
of t from IE *dh. In view of the clear semantic connection, however,
this discrepancy is minimized by the experts, who attribute the t
instead of/ to a dissimilation of one of the two spirants in the word, or
*terdgh] two-branch families 133
to an alternative IE form *terdgh. On the Germanic side, we have
Anglo-Saxon dragan becoming draw (with withdraw, drawing-room,
drawer, drawers, drawing, drawl, as well as draught or draft, draughts,
drajty, draftsman) ; an Anglo-Saxon noun dr<Bge, leading to dray, and
possibly also to dredge and dredger (these may, however, represent a
Dutch development of the Germanic root) ; and an Old Norse draga
which gives us drag, draggle, bedraggled (note that the -g, which in
Anglo-Saxon development turns into -y or -w, remains in words
borrowed late from Scandinavian; see Chapter 3, p. 35). From Dutch
trek, which seems to have been borrowed from High German (Dutch
would keep the same initial d- as English, while High German, by the
second consonant shift, would turn it to t-), we have trek and track,
voortrekker (the original Boers of South Africa who moved north from
Capetown into the African hinterland), and trigger. The Latin form,
showing the cjuestionable t- ior f-, is traho, "to draw", with its past
participle tractus (for *trahtus ; ht and gt both shift to ct in Latin), and
from this we get all our compounds in -tract-, -treat-, -trait, -trace, -trail,
-train, and even trawl and trawler ; tract, traction, tractable, tractile, tractor,
retractile, abstract, abstraction, attract, attraction, contract, contractor,
detract, detraction, distract, distraction, extract, extraction, protract, retract,
retraction, subtract, subtraction, intractable, along with the Italian trat-
toria, "restaurant"; treat, entreat, entreaty, maltreat, treatment, retreat
treatise, treaty; trait, portrait, portray; trace, tracer, traces, retrace; trail,
trailer; train, entrain, training; and other forms too numerous to list. A
Slavic cognate appears in Russian doroga, "road".
IE *dheragh, *teragh(?) ("to sleep on the ground, draw")
Lat. traho tractus
AS
1
dragan
1
draege
1
ON draga
Du.
1
trek
1
(directly or
Eng.
1
draw
dray
drag
1
trek
through Fr.)
draught
draft
dredge (?)
draggle
track
voortrekker
Eng. -tract-
trigger
-trace
-trait-
-tray
-trail
-train
-treat
treaty
trawl
etc.
('
Table x, 3, 4:
Table xi, 3, 4)
134
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*ghend
The IE root *ghend, *ghed, "to seize, grasp", produces an Old Norse
geta and an Anglo-Saxon begietan, bigetan, which combine in English
get, beget, forget, misbegotten, and lead to such modern English forms as
getaway and go-getter. The form guess, coming from Middle English
gessen, is said to go back to Low German or Scandinavian (get-sian is
suggested to account for the English ss instead of t) . On the Latin side,
we ha.ve praehnedo {prae-hendo), with a past ■pdiVXicipit praehensus , which
in French ultimately becomes pris, prise ; there is also a noun praeda
(from *prae-henda), from which, directly or through French, we get
prey, predator, predatory, {de)predation. The Latin verb, in compound
form, gives prehensile, apprehend, apprehension, apprehensive, misapprehension,
comprehend, comprehension, reprehend, reprehensible, while various French
developments, mostly from the French past participle pris, prise, lead
to prise, prize, pry, apprise, comprise, enterprise, surprise, reprisal, prison
{from prae-hensio) , with emprison, prisoner, etc. There are also apprentice,
impregnable, and the straight French entrepreneur.
IE *ghend, *ghed ("to seize, grasp")
Lat.
prae-hendo
prae-hensus
praeda
1
(directly or through French)
1 ' '
Eng.
prehensile
1
prize
1
prey
apprehend
pry
predator
comprehend
prise
depredation
reprehend
apprise
misapprehend
comprise
etc.
prison
enterprise
surprise
apprentice
impregnable
entrepreneur
etc.
AS begietan ON geta
Eng. get
forget
beget
misbegotten
etc.
ME gessen
I
Eng. guess
(?)
(Table xi, 3, 4; Table vi, 1)
The next two families seem intimately related, and it is difficult to
unscramble their descendants in spots. IE *kap, "to seize", gives us
Anglo-Saxon habban and English have (with behave, behavior, behaviorism,
*kap]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
135
etc.); also Anglo-Saxon hcefen and English haver (with such foreign
place names as Habana, Le Havre, Kobenhavn or Copenhagen, from the
same Germanic root) ; Anglo-Saxon hefe and English heft; Anglo-
Saxon hebban and English heave; Anglo-Saxon behojian and English
behoove ; Anglo-Saxon hefig and English heavy (with heavily, heaviness) ;
Anglo-Saxon haft and English haft; Anglo-Saxon heafoc and English
hawk, and, from the same word-root, but with development through
Old French crier havot, "to cry pillage", havoc. There is a further
possibility, through Old Ndrse happ, "good luck", of tying to the same
root hap, happen, happenstance, haphazard, happy, happiness. The Latin
form, capio, "to take", with past participle captus, which in compound
IE *kap ("to seize")
1.
Lat. capio (-cipio,
captus (-ceptus,
1
capsa
AS habban
haefen hefe
-cupo, -cupero)
-ceps, captiare)
1
1 1
1
1
Eng. have
haven heft
(directly or
through French)
behave
1
1
1
etc
Eng. capable
captive
caitiff
capsule
capsicum
capacity
1
1
capstan
capture
encase
AS hebban behofian
occupy
caption
casket
1
1
recuperate
captivate
caisson
Eng
heave
behoove
recover
accept
deception
It
cassa
municipal
1
1
1
emancipate
intercept
1
AS hefig
heafoc
OHG ?
participate
inception
Eng
cash
1
1
1
anticipate
perception
cashier
Eng. heavy
hawk
Fr. havot
recipe
concept
1
except
Eng. havoc
OF -ceveir
precept
receipt
Eng. receive
deceit
conceive
conceit
perceive
forceps
deceive
prince
princess
principal
principle
participle
OF chacier
NF cachier
1
Eng
1
catch
chase
(Table hi, 2, 3; Table i, 4; Chapter 3, pp. 34, 41)
136 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS \* primi-ceps
forms become -cipio and -ceptus, give us forms in cap-, capt-, -cept, -cup
or -cupy, -ceipt, -ceive, -cip-, -cipate, of which only a few can be listed :
capable, capacity, capability, capacious, incapable, capstan; captive (with
its northern French variant caitiff), caption, captious, capture, captivate;
accept, acceptance, deception, deceptive, intercept, inception, perception, perceptive,
concept, conceptual, except, precept, receptacle, susceptible; occupy, occupant,
occupation, recuperate (and its variant recover, which has nothing to do
with cover); deceit, receipt, conceit; receive, deceive, perceive, conceive, con-
ceivable, receiver ; forceps ; municipal, municipality, participle; prince (which
is * primi-ceps, "the one who takes first place"), with princess, principal,
principality, principle; emancipate, emancipator, anticipate, participate,
participation, anticipation. But this is only a beginning. Recipe is an
imperative form oi re-cipio, "receive, take". Catch and chase are respec-
tively the Norman-Picard and the Francien version of a Vulgar Latin
captiare, built on the participial root oi captus, and purchase is "to chase
through" {porchacier in Old French). In addition, there is the noun
capsa, from the root of capio, meaning "receptacle, that which takes",
from which we get on the one hand capsule and capsicum, on the other
case (in the sense of "receptacle"), encase, encasement, casket, caisson, and,
through Italian, cash and cashier. For a few other words, there is doubt
whether they belong with *kap or with the following * kaput, "head".
IE *kap-ut, "head", may be related to *kap, "seize", through
semantic use as "vessel, receptacle for the brain". On the Germanic
side, it gives Gothic haubith, German Haupt, and Anglo-Saxon heafoth,
which turns into head, a word that has many compounds and deriva-
tives [ahead, behead, heading, heady, headache, headstrong, headlong, head-
cheese, headland, headless, headline, headlight, head-on, headquarters, head-
stone, headway are only a few). Through Latin caput we get cap and
cape (the first form comes through Anglo-Saxon c(Eppe, though it was
later joined by the French descendants of caput). Words with regular
French form (French turns c to ch before a) appear in chief, chieftain,
chef (a later development of Old French chief, and English borrows
the word twice), with chef d'' oeuvre ; also kerchief {couvre-chief or "cover-
head", which makes handkerchief slightly nonsensical), mischief and
mischievous, achieve [achever, or "bring to a head") and achievement. A
conflict between the Francien and the Norman-Picard development
of the Latin capitalis, "pertaining to a head", appears in chattel vs.
'^kap-ut\
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
137
cattle ; but we also have learned treatment in capital, capitalism, capitu-
late, capitulary, recapitulation, decapitate. A Provencal (southern French)
form appears in cadet, with cad and caddie. Other forms appear in
captain, biceps ("double-headed"), chapter (from capitulum, which also
gives the Spanish cabildo), caudillo (the Spanish development of
capitellum, "little head"), occipital, precipice, precipitate {^^tohurlheadlong")
caparison. Capillary, from capillum, "hair", may also belong here. Cape,
which in the meaning of "headland" definitely comes from caput, in
the sense of "cloak" stems from cappa, a "covering for the head",
later a "cloak". Here we have capote (with its German adaptation
kaput) and capuchin (the latter from Italian) ; escape (getting out of a
cloak that someone has thrown over your head; compare the native
English hoodwink) and escapade; possibly cope and coping (but these may
also come from French couper, "to cut off") ; and the clearly French
chapeau, chapel, chaplain, chaplet and chaperon. The story of chapel is to
the effect that St. Martin of Tours, who was an officer in the Roman
army, cut his military cloak {cappa) in two to give half to a beggar,
who turned out to be Christ, and that a shrine erected to commemorate
IE *kap-ut ("head")
Lat. caput
-ceps
1
capitalis
capitulum
1
cappa
AS heafoth
capit-
-cipit-
cappella
1
1
1
Eng.
head
(directly oi
through French)
etc.
1
1
1.
ahead
Eng. cap
biceps
capital
capitulate
cape
behead
cape
triceps
cattle
recapitulate
escape
decapitate
occipital
chattel
chapter
escapade
achieve
precipice
chapel
cadet
precipitate
(through Sp.)
chaplain
cad
1
chaplet
captain
cabildo
chaperon
caparison
chapeau
chief
capote
chef
kerchief
(through Ger
)
mischief
1
kaput
(through Sp.)
(through It.)
caudillo
1
capuchin
a
cappella
(Table hi, 2, 3; Table i, 4; Table ii, 1)
138
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
{*kel
his act of charity bore the name of "little cloak" or "half cloak",
cappella; a more prosaic explanation is that the chapel, being covered,
afforded shelter similar to that of a cloak. The Italian a cappella
singing comes from the Italian form, which is identical with the Latin.
Chaperon was in origin a "cloak" or "protection", and the term was
applied to the elderly lady who by her presence gave protection (and
perhaps even a figurative cloak) to a younger woman in the company
of the other sex.
The IE root *kel, "to hasten, drive cattle", leads to Anglo-Saxon
healdan and English hold (with such derivatives as holder, holdover and
beholden). The High German form appears in German halten, from
which French takes the military command passed on to English as
halt, and generalized both as a verb and a noun. The Latin form
appears in celer, "swift", of celerity, accelerate, deceleration, etc., which
some authorities prefer to derive from non-Indo-European Etruscan;
and in celeber, "frequented", later "famous", which appears in
celebrate, celebrity, celebration, etc.
IE *kel ("to hasten, drive cattle")
Lat. celer (?) celeber
(directly or through Fr.)
I . I
Eng. celerity celebrate
accelerate celebrity
decelerate celebration
etc. etc.
AS healdan
I
Eng. hold
behold
etc.
HG halten
Fr. halte
Eng. halt
(Table hi, 2, 3)
Another *kel root means "to call, cry". In Anglo-Saxon, it pro-
duces hlowan, which modern English turns into the verb "to low"
(all initial hi- and hr- groups of Anglo-Saxon are simplified into /-, r-
in modern English; see Chapter 3, p. 34). Some of the Latin forms
insert a between the initial c and the /, as in Kalendae, Calendae, which
gives us Calends and calendar, and the verb calo, which gives us intercala-
tion. The majority, however, present an initial cl- ; clamo and clamor,
leading to clamor, clamorous, claim, with claimant, acclaim, declaim,
declamation, disclaim, reclaim, reclamation, exclaim, exclamation, exclamatory^
proclaim, proclamation, nomenclature; clarus, which gives us clarity, clarify.
*kleud]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
139
declare, declaration, declarative, clarinet, eclair, clairvoyant, clear, clearance, clear-
cut, clearing-house, clarion, claret; classis, which gives us class, classic, classical,
classify, classification, classroom, classmate, and the French declasse. There
are also forms in which the a of calo, unstressed, becomes i, as in
concilium, giving us council, councilor, 'conciliate, reconcile, reconciliation,
conciliatory. In Slavic the root produces, among other things, the
Russian kolokol^ "bell" {Tsar Kolokol, the "Emperor Bell").
IE *kel ("to call, cry")
Lat.
1
calo (-cil-)
Kalendae
clamo
1
1
clarus
1
classis
1
AS hlowan
1
1
1 1 1
(directly or through French)
1 1 1
1
Eng. low
Eng.
1
intercalation
1
Calends
1
clamor
1
clarity
1
class
council
calendar
claim
clarify
classify
reconcile
acclaim
declare
classic
conciliate
proclaim
clarinet
declassd
etc.
reclaim
disclaim
exclaim
declaim
acclamation
exclamation
disclaimer
nomenclature
claret
eclair
clairvoyant
clear
clarion
declaration
declarative
etc.
etc.
etc.
(Table hi, 2, 3)
The IE root *kleu, with a possible extension *kleud, means "hook,
wooden plug". In Anglo-Saxon it gives us hleotan, hlot, which become
lot. French, receiving the Germanic root from Old High German
(Prankish) hlot, combines it with the Latin preposition ad, "to", in
the form aloter, which is passed on to English as allot, allotment. Italian
receives it as lotto, lotteria, which are passed on to English as lotto,
lottery. With an s- prefix, the word appears in Middle English as slot. A
similar formation in High German is sloz, which eventually becomes
Schloss, "castle". The connection of German Schloss with the verb
schliessen, "to close", leads to a suspicion that lot and slot may have a
connection with slit (Anglo-Saxon slitan), and possibly with slice and
slat. The chief Latin forms are claudo, "to close", with its past parti-
ciple clausus, and clavis, "key". The latter gives us clavicle, claviform,
clavichord, clavier, conclave, enclave, laticlavium, and the French clef.
From the verb claudo and its participle clausus we get close, enclose.
140 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*kleu
disclose, enclosure, disclosure, closet, closure or cloture, clause, include, conclude,
preclude, occlude, exclude, with derivatives in -elusion, such as inclusion
and exclusion; recluse, cloister, claustrophobia (a hybrid, since it combines
Latin claustrum, "closed space", with Greek phobia, "fear"). Lastly,
there is sluice, coming from the French escluse, which in turn comes
from Latin exclusa {aqua), "shut-out water". Spanish clavel, "carnation",
comes from still another Latin form, clavus, "nail".
IE *kleu, *kleud ("hook, wooden plug")
Lat. claudo
• i 1 .
clausus clavis
AS hleotan slitan
OHG hlot sloz
1
1 1
hlot
1 1
(directly
or through French)
1
(through Fr.) (through
1
1 1 .
Eng
lot
slit
1 Ger.)
Eng. include
close clavicle
slot
allot 1
exclude
enclose clavier
allotment Schloss
conclude
disclose clavichord
preclude
closet claviform
(through It.)
occlude
closure conclave
1
etc.
clause enclave
clausure laticlavium
conclusion clef
exclusion etc.
recluse
cloister
claustrophobia
sluice
lotto
lottery
etc.
(Table hi, 2,' 3; Table vi, 1)
The IE root *pd, *pd-t, "to nurture, feed", appears in Anglo-
Saxon foda, fedan, fothor and fostor, which develop respectively into
food, feed, fodder, and foster, with such compounds as foodstuffs, feeder,
feedback, foster-parent, etc. In Latin, we have pasco, "to feed, graze",
with past participle pastus ; panis, "bread"; and pabulum, "fodder".
The participial root of the verb produces, directly or through French,
pastor, pastoral, pasture, repast, pastourelle, pasteurize and pasteurization
(through Pasteur, the family name of the scientist after whom the
process was named) ; also paste, pastry, the French patisserie and pate,
pasty, patty, the Italian pasta, pastel, pastiche, pasticcio. There are com-
pound forms like pasteboard, pate de foie gras, pasta asciutta. From the
root of panis, we get panification and pastille ; panel and empanel (but
these may also come from pannus, "cloth") ; pantry (Old French
paneterie, "place where bread is made or kept") ; appanage (originally
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
*pe{i)]
"an allowance for bread" and other necessities
141
companion, company,
companionate, accompany, accompanist (here we have a Latin loan-
translation from the Germanic ga-hlaifs, "with-loaf", "one who
shares bread with you"; just as comrade is in origin "one who shares a
room {camera) with you", a "room-mate"). There are also the Spanish
panada and empanada.
IE *pa, *pa-t ("to nurture, feed")
Lat. pasco
pastus
panis pabulum
(directly or through French)
Eng. pastor
pasture
pasteurize
pastourelle
repast
paste
pastry
pate
patty
pasty
(through It.)
I
pasta
pastel
pastiche
pasticcio
panification
pastille
panel (?)
companion
accompany
company
pantry
(through Sp.)
I
panada
empanada
AS foda fedan fothor fostor
I I I I
Eng. food feed fodder foster
pabulum
(Table i, 4; Table ii, 1)
The IE root *pe{i), "abuse, sorrow, illness", appears in Anglo-
Saxon in feond, leading to fiend, the producer of such manifestations,
with fiendish, fiendly (note that in German Feind, the same form is
extended to mean "enemy, foe" in general, rather than the specific
"Enemy of Mankind"). On the Latin side, we have patior, with past
participle passus, "to suffer, endure, undergo"; paenitet, "it causes
repentance, regvct" ; poena, "penalty" ; />ewMn'a, "penury, lack" ; />wwzo,
"to punish". From patior and its participle come patient, patience,
impatient, compatible; passion, passible, passive, passionate, compassion,
impassioned (with such compounds as passion flower, Passion play, passive
resistance, etc.); paenitet yields penitence, penance, penitential, penitentiary,
impenitent, repent, repentance, repentant; poena gives penal, penalty, penalize.
142
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*pe{i)
pain, painful, painless, painstaking, the Latin subpoena, and, through
pinian, an Anglo-Saxon development of the Latin poena, pine and
repine; penuria yields penury and penurious; and punio gives punish,
punishment, punitive, impunity.
IE *pe(i) ("abuse, sorrow, illness")
Lat.
patior
1
passus
1
paenitet
1
poena
1
penuria
punio
1
1
' (d
1 1
rectly or through French)
1 1
Eng.
patient
passion
penitence
1
penal
penury
punish
patience
passionate
penitent
penalty
penurious
punishment
compatible
passive
impenitent
penalize
punitive
impatient
passible
penance
pain
impunity
etc.
impassive
compassion
penitentiary
repent
painful
painless
etc.
impassic
)ned repentance
1
etc.
repentant
etc.
AS pinian
AS feond
1
Eng. pine
Eng. fiend
repme
fiendish
etc.
(Table i, 4)
The IE root *wegh, "to go, draw", appears in Anglo-Saxon as weg,
which gives us way, with many compounds and derivatives: away,
always, wayfarer, waylay, wayward, etc.) ; wagn, which becomes wain, with
wainscoting, wainwright ; wagian, which leads to wag, waggle, waggish;
wegan, weg, which becomes weigh, with weighty, weightless, etc. The
same root that appears in Anglo-Saxon w<Egn appears in Dutch as
wagen, and eventually becomes wagon (with wagonette, wagon train, the
French wagon-lit, etc.), while the same root in German produces the
proper name Wagner. The Latin forms are veho, "to carry", with past
participle vectus, from which we derive vehicle, vehicular, inveigh, etc.;
vector, vection, convector, convection, convex, invective ; vehemens, which gives us
vehement, vehemence, etc. ; velox, which leads to velocity, velocipede, velo-
drome, and the Italian musical veloce ; via, from which come, mostly
through French, viable, viability, viaduct, viaticum, deviate, devious, deviation,
deviationist, obviate, obvious, previous, impervious, trivia, trivial, trivium, and
triviality, quadrivium, convey, conveyor, conveyance, convoy, envoy, invoice
(Old French envois, "things sent", from the verb envoyer, from in-viare,
*ghabh]
TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES
143
"to send on its way"), renvoi, voyage, voyager (the last two are develop-
ments o£ viaticum, "that which is necessary for the way or journey").
IE *wegh ("to go, draw")
Lat.
1
veho
1
1
1
vectus
1
1
1 1
vehemens velox
(directly or through French)
1 1
!
via
1
Eng.
1
vehicle
1
vector
vehement velocity
1
via
inveigh
convex
etc. velodrome
viable
etc.
invective velocipede
viaticum
etc.
(through It.
veloce
deviate
obvious
previous
impervious
trivial
quadrivium
convey
convoy
envoy
invoice
renvoi
voyage
etc.
AS
1
weg
waegn
Du. wagen AS wegan
1 1
gewiht wagian
1
1.
1 wSg
Eng.
way
wain
wagon 1
away
wainright
weigh
we
ght wag
wayward
etc.
(through Fr.)
etc
waggish
waylay
1
etc.
Eng. wagon-lit
(Table xiv, 2, 3; Table xi, 3, 4)
The IE root *ghabh, "to seize, take", appears in Latin habeo, "have",
with its contracted compounds debeo {de-habeo), "owe", and praebeo
(prae- habeo), "offer", as well as numerous other compounds in which
contraction does not occur, but -habeo appears in modified form as
-hibeo {prohibeo, exhibeo, adhibeo, inhibeo, etc.). There is also an adjective
habilis, "able", often appearing as -hibilis, -ibilis in compounds. There
are secondary formations like habito and habitus, and an adjective
debilis, "feeble", from debeo. Habeo itself, which prov^ides the Romance
languages with their verbs meaning "to have" {avoir, haber, avere, etc.),
gives us the legal habeas corpus ("you may have the body"). Debeo
supplies debit, debt, debtor, indebtedness, debenture, due, duty, and endeavor.
144
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
\*ghabh
Praebeo supplies prebend and provender. Compounds in -hibeo give us
adhibit, exhibit, exhibition, exhibitionist, inhibit, inhibition, prohibit, prohibi-
tion. Habilis, in addition to giving the suffixes -able and -ible (as in
capable, capability, sensible, sensibility), forms able, unable, ability, inability,
enable, disable, able-bodied ; in the verb-form habilitare, it gives us habilitate,
rehabilitate, habiliment, deshabille. Debilis gives debilitate, while male
habitus ("holding or held badly") produces the French malade,
maladie and the English malady. Habitus by itself produces habit,
habitual, habituate, habitue. Habitare gives the Latin habitat (literally
"he inhabits"), habitation, inhabit, inhabitant, uninhabited, while a
derivative habitaculum, through Portuguese bitdcola, becomes binnacle.
Germanic forms appear in Anglo-Saxon giefan, probably derived
from Scandinavian or a northern English dialect, which becomes
give, With, forgive, forgiveness, give and take, givaway; giefu and gift, also
probably taken from Scandinavian, with gift and gifted; gafol, which
becomes gavel; and possibly gabelle (though this may come from
IE *ghabh ("to seize, take")
Lat. habeo
praebeo
1
debeo
1
habito
habilis
-hibeo
1
debihs
1
(direc
1 1
tly or through French)
1 1
1
Eng. habeas
prebend
1
debt
1
habit
able
(corpus)
prove
nder
debtor
habitual
ability
adhibit
debit
habitue
-able
exhibit
indebtedness
habitat
-ible
inhibit
debenture
habitable
enable
prohibit
due
inhabit
disable
etc.
duty
habiliment
habilitate
endeavor
deshabille
etc.
debilitate
etc.
etc.
(through Pt.)
binnacle
AS
1
giefan
1
giefu
1
gafol OHG
1
morgengeba
Eng.
give
forgive
gift
gavel
morganatic
forgiveness
etc.
(Table xi, 3, 4; Table ix, 3, 4)
*ghabh] TWO-BRANCH FAMILIES 145
Celtic gabagla or Arabic qabalah) . There is also morganatic, which comes
from the first part of Old High German morgengeba, "morning gift" (it
was customary for the aristocrat who married beneath his station to
make an endowment of worldly goods to his lower-class bride on the
morning following their wedding night) . As to the semantic difference
between the Latin habeo and the Germanic give, it is explained as
representing the same act from opposite points of view.
CHAPTER 6
Three-Branch FamiHes
Three-branch famihes are, in their overwhelming majority, of the
Greek-Latin-Germanic persuasion. This is quite natural, since these
three branches supply English with most of its vocabulary. The Greek
contribution is, for the most part, of the learned or scientific variety,
and, though built on the most anciently recorded of the three members,
it is likely to be the most modern so far as English is concerned. This,
however, is not invariably the case, since numerous Greek words
entered Latin and were then passed on to English either directly or
through an intermediate French or other Romance stage.
A. MIXED GROUPS
It is only occasionally that in a three-branch family Indo-Iranian
or Celtic replaces Greek, Latin, or Germanic. The first example is
widespread throughout all the Indo-European branches, but only
four are productive so far as English is concerned ; and one of them,
Greek, gives us only an obsolete word, justifying its exclusion. The
root is that of IE *bhrdter, "relative, brother", which in Greek produces
the little-used phrater and phratria [adelphos, "from the same womb", i
is the replacement preferred by Greek) ; in English, this gives us i
phratry, but the word is practically obsolete today. In Indo-Iranian,
the Sanskrit form is bhrdtr, which eventually develops into Romany
Gypsy pral, corrupted by English slang usage into pal. The Latin i
{ovn\.,frater, gives us fraternal, fraternity, fraternize, fratricide, and, through
French development, yrzar dind friary, as well as confrere, while a Spanish
development gives Fray (as in Fray Luis de Leon) from fraile. Anglo-
Saxon brothor produces brother, with brotherly, brotherhood, brother-in-law,
and the irregular plural brethren, as well as the br^er of the U.S. South.
146 \
*kei]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
147
There is a suspicion that boy (Middle English boi) may come from the
same root, from an Old Norse boji, "rogue", with a development
similar to that of German Bube from Old High German buobo, but
this is uncertain.
IE *bhrater ("
relative, brother")
1
Skt. bhratr
(Gk. phrater
Lat. frater
AS
brother
1
Romany pral
Eng. pal
phratria)
1
(Eng. phratry)
1
(directly or
through Fr.)
Eng. fraternal
fraternity
fraternize
fratricide
friar
friary
confrere
(through Sp.)
Fray
Eng.
brother, etc.
brethren
br'er
(Table ix, 1, 2, 3, 4; Table ii, 1)
The root *kei, "to lie, home, camp", produces in Anglo-Saxon the
form ham, which appears on the one hand in place-name endings in
-ham {Birmingham, Durham, etc.), as well as in hamlet; on the other
hand, under the stress, it becomes home with its many compounds and
derivatives {homeless, home brew, homework, homespun, homesick, home-
maker, home run, homestead, homely, homeliness, etc.). Haunt, which with
IE *kei ("to lie, home, camp")
! I .1. .1..
Skt. (^iva Lat. cunae civis civilis
.1 .1 .1. .1.
Eng. Siva incunabula civic civil
Sivaism civics civilian
Sivaist civilize
etc.
civitas AS ham ON heimta
1 1 1
1
city
1 1
home OF hanter
1
citizen
City
Cit6
homely |
-ham Eng. haunt
hamlet ha'nts
etc.
It.
cittadella
1
Eng.
1
citadel
(Table hi, I, 2, 3)
148
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
\*magh
the dialectal U.S. ha'Tits goes back to Old French hunter, may have as
its Germanic progenitor either Old Norse heimta, "to bring the cows
home, to frequent", or Anglo-Saxon hdmettan, "to house". On the
Latin side, the root gives rise to civis, "citizen", from which come
civic, civil, uncivil, civilian, civics, civilize, civilization, and, through
civitas, "city, city state", city, citizen, citizenship, the City of London, the
He de la Cite of Paris. Citadel, from the same source, is directly derived
from the Italian cittadella. There is also the Latin cunae, from which
we get incunabula. In Indo-Iranian, the root gives rise, among other
things, to the name of the god ^iva or Siva, "the friendly one, the
preserver", from which we get Sivaism, Sivaist, etc.
IE *magh, "can, help, might", produces in Indo-Iranian the
Sanskrit forms mdyd, "magic power" and magha, "might", and an Old
Persian form from which Latin derives magus, the word that appears
in Magi, magic, magician, magical. Greek mekhane (mechane) gives us
mechanic, mechanical, mechanism, mechanistic, mechanize, etc., while the
Doric variant makhana [machana) comes into Latin as machina, and
gives us machine, machinist, machination, machinery, machine gun, machine
shop, machine tool, etc. In Germanic, Anglo-Saxon magan, mag give
English may, and, through a French development of the Germanic
root [de-ex-* magare to desmaier), dismay, while Anglo-Saxon meahte
produces might, mighty. (In the Indo-European period, *gt was shifted
to *kt by assimilation; then the first Germanic sound shift turns *kt
to ht). The Slavic word for "to be able" (Russian moch\ with present
mogu) is also from this root, but does not appear in English.
IE *magh ("can, help, might")
OPers. magos Gk. mekhane
makhana AS magan, maeg meahte OHG
Lat. magus Eng. mechanic Lat. machina
I mechanical |
Eng. Magi mechanist Eng. machine
Magian mechanize machinist
magic etc. machinery
magician machination
etc. machinator
etc.
Eng. may
might
OF desmaier
Eng. dismay
(Table xi, 2, 4)
*perk^s\ THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES 149
One three-branch family in which Celtic replaces Greek presents
certain phonological complications. This is IE *perk¥s, "oak". Through
Old Norse Jyri, English acquires Jir. The Cymric (Welsh, Brythonic)
branch of Celtic produces the place-name Perth (from a word meaning
"hedge" or "bush"; "a place of hedges or bushes"), and from this
comes the name of the little-known mineral found in Ontario called
perthite. Note that in order to achieve Perth, we must postulate for
*perkMs in Celtic (as we must also in Latin) a shift from initial IE */>-,
which would fall in Celtic and remain in Latin, to *kw, which in
Latin becomes qu- and in the Brythonic branch of Celtic becomes p-
(in the Irish or Goidelic branch of Celtic, kw- would come out as c-;
the fact that Perth is in Scotland, which is today Goidelic territory,
need not perturb us, as many Brythonic place names appear there,
and it is probable that Brythonic speakers preceded the Goidelic
speakers in that area). This shift is accounted for by the assimilative
pull exerted on the initial *p- by the *kw that appears later in the
word, and is of the same nature as the one we see in the case of the
root *penk^e, "five", where, corresponding to Sanskrit panca, Greek
pente, Slavic (Russian) pyaC, English five, etc., we have Latin quinque
(but Oscan pump), Irish cuig (but Welsh, pimp). In the case of *perkUs,
Latin, with the same shift caused by assimilation from initial *p to
*kw, gives us quercus, "oak", from which we get quercine, quercitron,
IE *perkus ("oak")
1
Lat. quercus
ON fyri
1
Celtic (Welsh) Perth
Eng. quercine
quercitron
1
Eng. fir
Eng. perthite
Sp. alcorque
Albuquerque
Eng. cork
Albuquerque
Fr. chesne
NF quesne
Eng. Duquesne
(Table iv, 4; Table i, 4)
150
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*quesnus
Albuquerque ("white oak"; used as a Portuguese and Spanish family
name), and cork (through Spanish alcorque, where the Arabic article
al- is prefixed to the native descendant of quercus). A secondary
derivative of quercus seems to have been *quesnus, from which Old
French may have derived chesne (modern French chene) ; although
Casinum, the progenitor of Monte Cassino, seems more likely from a
phonological point of view; other authorities offer a hypothetical
*cassanus, phonologically unsatisfactory. This in the Norman-Picard
dialects comes out as quesne, and as a proper name leads to Fort
Duquesne, the old name of Pittsburgh.
IE *bhdt, *bhau, "to beat, strike" (but the connection of the two
postulated root-forms is quite doubtful) also shows a Latin-Germanic-
Celtic combination if it is accepted. Through Anglo-Saxon beaten we
get beat (with beatnik), while Anglo-Saxon batt gives us bat (with
batter, batting average) and Anglo-Saxon buttuc gives buttock, with the
possibility that it may also give us butt in the sense of "stump, end",
and butte, with perhaps some participation by French bout and but,
which seem to stem from a Germanic source. (If this participation
IE ♦bhat, *bhau ("to beat, strike")
I.
Lat. fustis
(directly or
through Fr.)
I.
Eng. fustian
fusty
fustigate
I I I
AS beatan batt buttuc
Eng. beat
beatnik
bat
etc.
butt
buttock
butte ( ?)
boss (?)
emboss (?)
abut ( ?)
button ([•)
debut ( ?)
rebuttal (?)
buttress ( ?)
Celt. (?) bat-
i
Lat. battuo bastum
I I
(directly or through Fr.)
I I
baton
Eng. combat
debate
rebate
abate
abatis
batter
battlement
embattled
battery
abattoir
(through It.)
I
battalion
(Table ix, 3, 4)
*ang] THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES 151
holds true, we have also a link with boss in the sense of "protuberance",
emboss, abut, abutment, boutade, button, debut, rebut, rebuttal, buttress, etc.)
Latin gives us fustis, "stick", from which come fustian, "vegetable
cloth, cloth from a wooden source", fustigate and fustigation, fusty;
there is a remote possibility ihdit fatuous, with infatuate, infatuation, and
confute, refute, refutation, irrefutable, may come from this source, but for
the first group a link with vapidus is suggested, for the second with
fundo. Latin also has the, verb battuo which is said to come to it from a
Celtic source (but the borrowing may also have gone the other way) ;
this gives us combat, non-combatant, debate, debatable, rebate and the
archaic rabbet, abate, abatement, abattoir, abatis, batter, battering-ram,
baton and Baton Rouge (here Latin had bastum, from the same source as
battuo), battle (with battle-ax, battle cruiser, battleship) and battlement,
embattled, battery, and the Italian-derived battalion. Limiting ourselves
only to the more probable elements of a family whose unity is not at
all certain, we have the family shown on page 1 50.
B. GREEK-LATIN-GERMANIC ROOTS
The IE root *ank, *ang, "bend", comes into Greek in the form ankylos,
"crooked", and gives us scientific terms like ankylosis; but in the form
ankyra it passes into Latin as anchora and ultimately reaches us as
IE *ank, *ang ("bend")
\
I I III I I ~
Gk. ankylos ankyra Lat. ungula uncus angulus AS ancleow angel
II III II
Eng. ankylosis | (directly or through French) Eng. ankle angle
Lat. anchora | | |
I Eng. ungulate uncinate angle ~~ ]
Eng. anchor triangle AS Engle
anchorage quadrangle Englisc
rectangle |
triangular Eng. Angle
^^^' England
English
Anglia
Anglican
anglicize
Anglophobia
Anglophile
etc.
(Table hi, 2, 3; Table vii, 2)
152 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*WlkHos
anchor, with anchorage. Native Latin forms are uncus, "hook", of uncinate;
ungula, "nail, hoof", of ungulate (French ongle, Italian unghia, Spanish
una do not come into English) ; and angulus, "angle, corner". The last
gives us, directly or through French, angle, triangle, quadrangle, rectangu-
lar and similar forms. There is also the proper name of Ancus Martius,
one of Rome's early kings, and there is the name of the city of Ancona
(though this may have come from the Illyrian or Albanian branch).
Anglo-Saxon gets the root in the forms ancleow, "ankle" ; angel, which
gives us angle in the fishing sense, with angler, angleworm, etc. ; and
Angle, Engle, Englisc, the name of the region and people, said to be
derived from the fact that the original Anglo-Saxons came from the
angle or bight of Holstein ; these, in native form, give us England and
English; latinized into Anglii, they give us Anglia, Anglic, Anglican,
anglicize, anglomaniac, anglophobia, and similar forms.
The root *wlk^os, *wlp,''^^ "wolf", is quite widespread, appearing in
Sanskrit vrkas^ and Slavic volk. In Greek, through a dialectal develop-
ment, it produces lykos, from which we get lycanthrope and lycanthropy,
"the state of being a werewolf". The Latin lupus shows a Sabine
(Oscan) development, with p replacing the qu that would be normal
in Latin. Here we get lupine, lupiform, the French loup garou, "were-
wolf", the proper name Ulpius, the feast of the Lupercalia, the Latin
lupanar, "house of ill repute" (prostitutes were called lupae, "she-
wolves"), and such place names as the French Saint-Leu, Saint-Lo
IE *wlkuos, *wlp ("wolf")
Gk. lykos
Lat. lupus
1
volpes
(?)
AS
wulf
Eng. lycanthropy
lycopod
etc.
lupine
lupiform
lupanar
Lupercalia
vulpine
Eng.
wolf
wolverine
wolfram
etc.
(through Fr.)
loup garou
(through Sp.)
1
lobo
(Table
Table i
XIV, 1, 2, 3;
;v, 4; Table i, 4)
'" The symbols
/ and
r denote a vowel \
/alue
for these sonant
or
liquic
1 sounds.
^sp{h)er]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
153
(Lupus was currently used as a first name in Low Latin times, and
people bearing that name became saints) ; through Spanish, we get
the lobo of our Southwest. There is also a likelihood that volpes, "fox",
from which we get vulpine, comes from the identical root. Anglo-
Saxon offers wulf, from which comes wolf, with wolfish, wolfbane,
wolfhound, wolverine, wolfram (this, in the original Germanic, is "wolf-
raven", not "wolf-ram"), wolframite (the normal Germanic wh becomes
fin final position).
The IE root *sweid, "sweat", produces in Greek the noun hidron,
"sweat" (not to be confused with hydor, "water"), which gives us
hidrosis, a medical term used to describe a sweating condition. Latin
sudor gives us sudoriferous and sudorific, as well as exude. Anglo-Saxon
swat, swet, swatan, produce our noun and verb sweat, with such com-
pounds as sweatband, sweatbox, sweatshirt, sweatshop.
IE *sweid ("sweat")
.1
Gk. hidron
1
1
Lat. sudor
AS swat, swet, swaetan
1
1
Eng. hidrosis
sudorific
exude
sudoriferous
1
sweat
etc.
(Table xv, 1; Table vi, 1)
A root *sp{h)er, "to jerk, kick away", appears in Greek as sphaira,
from which come sphere, spherical, spheroid, hemisphere, planisphere,
atmosphere. In Latin, there is, in addition to the verb sperno, "to reject",
IE *sp(h)er ("to jerk, kick away")
Gk. sphaira
I
(directly, or
through Lat.
and Fr.)
I
Eng. sphere
spherical
hemisphere
atmosphere
etc.
Lat. asper
I
(directly or
through Fr.)
I
Eng. asperity
exasperate
sperno AS spurnan spura Du. spoor
Eng. spurn
spur
spoor
(Table i, 4; Table ix, 2)
154 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*bhel
the adjective asper, from which come asperity, exasperate, exasperation.
Anglo-Saxon, spura, sporettan, produce the noun and verb spur, while
Anglo-Saxon speornan, spurnan, with perhaps an assist from Latin
sperno, give us spurn. In addition, English borrows from Dutch the
form spoor, "track, footprint".
The root *bhel, "beam, plank, stem", gives Greek phalanx, which
appears in English, with a derivative phalanstery. It also produces, in
French development, planche, which in Norman-Picard form gives us
plank, and with a direct borrowing, planchette. The Latin form, from
the verb fulcio, "to prop", is fulcrum, which is borrowed directly.
Anglo-Saxon has bealca, balca, "ridge", from which we get balk. Old
High German bloh, entering French as bloc, eventually reaches us as
bloc, block, blockade, blockhouse, blockhead, blockbuster, etc. Old Norse
bolr, coming into English as bole, "trunk", which is antiquated, still
survives in bulrush.
IE *bhel ("beam, plank, stem")
Gk. phalanx
1
Lat. fulcrum
AS bealca
1
1 1
OHG bloh ON bolr
1 1
Eng. phalanx
phalanstery
Fr. planke, planche
Eng. plank, planchettt
Eng. fulcrum
1
Eng. balk
1 1
Fr. bloc Eng. bole
1 bulrush
Eng. bloc
block
blockade
etc.
(Table ix, 2, 3, 4)
The IE root *ayu, "life strength", with a variant *aew, "duration",
appears in Greek aion, from which comes aeon or eon. The Latin forms
are aevum, "age", with derivatives which give us longevity, coeval,
medieval, primeval; aetas (from *aev-itas), which becomes age, with
ageless. Middle Ages, etc., aeternus or eternus (from * aev-iternus) , which
leads to eternal, eternity. Eternal City. Germanic forms, starting with
Gothic aiws, appear in Anglo-Saxon na, "at no age", a contraction
of the negative ra-prefix with dwa, "age, time"; this na ultimately
becomes no, while the Old Norse ei, which in the affirmative gives us
ay, aye, in the negative produces nay. The German nie, "never", keeps
the original meaning of "at no time".
^gere]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
IE *ayu, *aew ("life strength")
155
Gk, aion Lat. aevus aeternus aetas AS n-*awa, na ON ei n-ei
I I I I III
Eng. eon (directly or through Fr.) Eng. no ay, aye nay
I I I
Eng. longevity eternal age
coeval eternity etc.
medieval
primeval (Table xiv, 1, 2, 3)
The root *genu, *gneu, "knee", produces in Greek gonia, "angle",
which gives us all our learned forms in -gon; hexagon, polygon, octagonal,
goniometry, diagonal, trigonometry, etc. The Latin genu, "knee", gives us
genuflect, genuflection, and possibly genuine (the story goes that a father
would recognize a new-born child as genuinely his by holding it on
his knee; but see p. 105). Anglo-Saxon cneo, cneowlian, give us knee and
kneel (with kneecap, knee-deep, kneepan, knee action, etc.). In addition,
there are the place names Genoa and Geneva, said to come from an
Illyrian form, Genusia.
IE *genu, *gneu ("knee"')
\
I .
Gk. gonia
I
(directly, or
through Lat.
and Fr.)
I
Eng. -gon
-gonal
diagonal
goniometry
trigonometry
etc.
Lat. genu
I
Eng. genuflect
genuflection
etc.
I
AS cneo
I
Eng. knee
etc.
cneowlian
I
kneel
(Table vii, 2; Chapter 3, p. 34)
The root *ger, *gere, "to unite", produces in Greek agora, "market-
place", and kindred compounds from which we get agoraphobia,
allegory, allegorical, category, categorical, phantasmagoria, panegyric. The
Latin grex, "flock, herd", gives egregious ("one who stands out from the
herd"), gregarious ("one who likes to belong to the herd"), with
aggregate, aggregation, congregate, congregation, congregational, segregate,
156
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*ger
segregation. The Anglo-Saxon form is crammian, which, develops into
cram, with possible relatives in cramp and crimp. There is also a possible
connection between this root and that of Latin ago (past participle
actus), and if so, the number of cognates would be far greater. Limiting
ourselves to surer forms:
IE *ger, gere ("to unite")
I
Gk. agora, etc.
I
(directly or through
Lat. and Fr.)
I'
Eng. agoraphobia
allegory
category
phantasmagoria
panegyric
etc.
Lat. grex, greg-
I
(directly or
through Fr.)
Eng. egregious
gregarious
aggregate
congregate
segregate
etc.
AS crammian
I
Eng. cram
(Table vii, 2)
The root *g^her, "warm, hot", gives Greek thermos, from which we
get a variety of learned and semi-learned forms : thermos bottle, thermal,
diathermy, thermometer, thermotherapy, thermostat, Thermidor. Latin furnus,
"oven", produces furnace and, through French, petits fours. Anglo-
Saxon wearm, wearman (used in substitution for an original *gwarm)
give warm, warmth. It is claimed that Germani, the name of a Teutonic
tribe, comes from an Illyrian form belonging to this root, but there
are at least four competing derivations, Gorky, the Russian writer,
owes his name to the Slavic form of this root, which in Slavic assumes
the meaning of "bitter".
IE *gyher ("warm, hot")
I
Gk. thermos
Eng. thermos (bottle)
thermal
diathermy
thermometer
thermostat
thermodynamics
Thermidor
Lat. furnus
I
Eng. furnace
(through Fr.)
I
petits fours
I
AS wearm, wearman
I
Eng. warm
warmth
(Table xii, 4, 5, 6)
'mr-otos]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
157
IE *kwon, *kun, "dog", gives Greek kyon, from which we get such
forms as cynic, cynical, cynicism (originally applied to a philosophical
school nicknamed the "dogs, snarlers"), cynosure (originally the name
of a constellation, "Dog's Tail", shifted in meaning because it is eye-
attracting), cynegetics (the art of dog-leading, or hunting), cynocephalous
("dogheaded", like the Egyptian god Anubis). Latin canis, "dog"
(for *kwanis), gives us canine, canicular ("dog-days", which occur when
the constellation of the Big Dog, Canis Major, is in the ascendant).
From a Norman-Picard French development we get kennel {kenil, for
Francien chenil) ; regular French gives us chenille (from canicula,
originally "little bitch" ; here the doubtful explanation for the semantic
transfer is that the head of a caterpillar was reminiscent of the head of
a small dog; then the material is reminiscent of caterpillars) . Italian
canaglia, "dog pack", through French, gives us canaille. There is also
canary, a bird pertaining to the islands which were found to be infested
with wild dogs and therefore named by Columbus Islas Canarias,
"Dog Islands". Anglo-Saxon hund gives us hound, and from a closely
related High German root we get such hound names as Dachshund,
"badger-hound". There is a Slavic cognate represented by Russian
sobaka, but it does not get into English.
IE *kwon, *kun ("dog")
Gk. kyon
1
Lat. canis
1
AS hund
Ger. Hund
(directly or through
Lat. and Fr.)
(directly or
through Fr.)
Eng. hound
Dachshund
Eng. cynic
cynosure
cynegetics
cynocephalous
etc.
canine
canicular
kennel
canary
chenille
It. canaglia
1
1
canaille
(Table hi, 2, 3)
The root *mer, "to die", produces in Greek a form brotos, "mortal"
(from *mr-otos), which in the negative gives us ambrosia, the food of
the immortal gods, with ambrosial, ambrotype, the proper name Ambrose,
and even the family name of Tito Broz, the Yugoslav dictator.
158
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*mer
A minority opinion holds that martyr (originally "witness"), with
martyrdom and martyrology, stems from the same root, but the root of
memory appears more likely. The Latin mors, mort-, gives us mortal,
mortality, immortalize, mortgage, mortify, mortification, mortician, mortuary,
mortmain, amortize, post-mortem, morbid, moribund, possibly morgue, and,
through French morine, "plague", murrain. In Anglo-Saxon, morthor,
myrthrian, morth, produce murder, murderous, murderer. Other forms that
do not appear in English include the Persian-Hindustani (Indo-
Iranian) mard, "man", and the Slavic (Russian) smerf , "death",
myortvy, "dead" (Rachmaninov's Myortvy Ostrov, "The Isle of the
Dead").
IE *mer ("to die")
Gk.
a-mbrotos
Lat.
1
mors, mort-
1
AS morthor
ambrosia
1
1
1
(directly or
Eng.
murder
Eng.
ambrosia
through Fr.)
murderer
ambrosial
1
murderous
ambrotype
Eng.
mortal
etc.
Ambrose
immortal
Broz
mortgage
etc.
mortmain
mortify
mortician
mortuary
moribund
morgue (?)
murrain
etc. (Chapter
2, p. 17; Table ii,
1)
The root *ster, "star", gives in Greek aster, from which we derive
aster, asterisk, asterism, asteroid and similar forms. There is also a variant
which is borrowed by Latin in the form astrum, from which we get
astronomy, astrology, astral, disaster, disastrous, astrolabe, astrophysics, and
numerous other forms. Latin Stella gives us stellar, stellate, constellation.
Anglo-Saxon steorra gives us star, starry, starfish, stargazer, starlet, star-
light, and many compound forms, including Stars and Stripes, Stars and
Bars, Star-Spangled Banner. Sterling is attributed by some authorities to
Middle English sterre from Anglo-Saxon steorra, on the theory that
ancient Sterling coins bore a star; but others dispute this version, and
derive sterling from easterling.
*sweks]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
159
IE *ster ("star")
Gk. aster, astron
1
Lat. Stella
AS steorra
1
1
(directly or through
Lat. and/or Fr.)
1
(directly or
through Fr.)
1
1
Eng. star
starry
etc.
Eng. aster
asteroid
stellar
stellate
sterling (?)
astronomy
astrology
astrolabe
constellation
etc.
astrophysics
disaster
disastrous
etc.
(Tai
(Table ii, 1)
IE *swdd, "sweet", gives in Greek hedys, from which we derive
hedonism, hedonistic. The Latin suadeo, past participle suasus, gives us
persuade, persuasion, dissuade, suasion, assuage, etc., while suavis gives
suave, suavity. Anglo-Saxon swete produces sweet, with sweeten, sweet-
heart, sweetness, sweetbread, sweetmeat, etc.
Gk. hedys
I
Eng. hedonism
hedonistic
etc.
IE *swad ("sweet")
Lat. suadeo, suasus suavis
I I
(directly or through Fr.)
Eng. suasion
persuade
persuader
dissuade
assuage
etc.
suave
suavity
AS swete
I
Eng. sweet
sweetness
sweetheart
sweetmeat
etc.
(Table xv, 1; Table vi, 1)
The IE root *sweks, "six", gives the Greek hex, with hexagon,
hexagonal, hexameter, hexapod, hexarchy, hexane, hexyl, hexahedron, hexagram,
and other learned and semi-learned forms. Latin sex produces sexa-
genary, sexagesimal, sextant, sexto, sextuple, sextuplet, semester and semestral,
senary, and, through Italian, sextette, sestet, sestina, Sistine (both Chapel
and Madonna, from the papal name Sixtus or Sisto, "sixth"), while
Spanish gives us siesta (the sixth hour of daylight, devoted to rest).
160
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*sweks
Anglo-Saxon seox, sixta, syxtyne, sixtig give us six, sixth, sixteen, sixty, and
related forms, with modern formations like six-shooter and sixth column.
IE
"sweks ("six")
1
Gk.
hex
1
1
Lat. sex
.1
sixtus
1
AS
1 1 1
seox sixta syxtyne
1 1 1
Eng.
1
hexagon
hexameter
1 i
(directly or through Fr.)
Eng.
1
six
1 1
sixth sixteen
etc.
hexane
hexyl
hexarchy
hexagram
hexahedron
Eng. sexagenary
sexagesimal
semester
senary
sextant
sextuple
etc.
(through It.)
AS sixtig
Eng. sixty
etc.
sextet
Sistine
(through Sp.)
etc.
(Table xv, 1 ; Table hi, 3 ; Anglo-Saxon x may stand for hs as well as ks)
An IE root *wer, *werdh, "to say, speak", appears in Greek in the
form oi rhetor (directly derived from the verb eiro for *werio, "to say"),
and this gives us rhetor, rhetoric, rhetorical, rhetorician. The Latin verbum
produces verb, verbal, verbalize, verbatim, verbiage, verbose, as well as
verve from the plural verba; also derivatives like adverb, adverbial,
proverb, proverbial. Anglo-Saxon gives us word, with wordy, wordless,
wording, byword, reword. Slavic forms include Russian vrat\ "to lie",
and vrach, "physician" (originally "magician", therefore "liar").
.IE
*wer, *
werdh f'to say, speak")
1
Gk. rhetor
1
Lat.
verbum
1
1
verba
1
1
AS word
1
1
(through Lat.)
1 1
(directly or through Fr.)
1
Eng. word
1
1
1
wordy
Eng. rhetorician
Eng.
verb
verve
wordless
rhetorical
verbal
byword
rhetoric
verbatim
reword
etc.
verbiage
verbose
adverb
etc.
proverb
(Table xiv,
1, 2, 3; Table x, 3, 4;
etc.
IE dh becomes b after r in Latin)
The IE root *de, *do, "this", generally used in the formation of
demonstrative pronouns and adverbs, appears in Anglo-Saxon in the
*leikyf\ THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES 161
form to, which gives rise to English to and too, with such compounds as
tomorrow, tonight, too much, etc. There is also the military tattoo, which
comes from Dutch tap toe, "tap shut". One Greek derivative appearing
in English in compound form is the -do- of endo- in such words as
endocrinology. In Latin, the form -de- appears in many variants:
indigenous, the de- which also serves as an English prefix, the -dam,
-dem of quondam, tandem, idem, the last of which leads to identical,
identity, identify. The oft-repeated story of how tandem, "finally, at
length", came to have its current English meaning goes back to the
days of horse vehicles, when a carriage drawn by two horses placed
end to end was jocularly described as being "at length". The root
appears in other Latin words, such as dum, donee, inde, quando, from
some of which come very well-known Romance forms (French en,
done, quand; Italian ne, dunque, quando; Spanish ende (archaic), cuando).
IE *do, *de ("this")
Gk. endo- Lat. de- indi- -dam -dem AS to Du. toe
I I.I.I I I I
Eng. endo- Eng. de- indi- quondam tandem to tattoo
(crinology) idem too
etc. identical
identify
identity
etc. (Table vi, 1)
The IE root *leik'i, "to leave behind", produces Greek leipo, "to
leave", from which proceed eclipse (from ekleipo, "to abandon"), and
ellipse, with ellipsis, elliptical. The Latin form is linquo, with a nasal
infix which disappears in the past participle lictus; the form with the
nasal gives us relinquish, delinquent, delinquency, etc. ; the participial
form leads to relic and reliquary, relict, derelict, dereliction. Other suggested
connections, with doubtful features, are limpidus (limpid; this would
have to come through Oscan-Umbrian to justify its p for qu) ; and
liquidus [liquid, liquefaction, liquefy, liquor, liqueur, liquidate, liquidation,
etc., as well as prolix, prolixity). On the Germanic side, we have Anglo-
Saxon leihan, lanan, Ian, leon, as well as Old Norse Ian, which, losing h
between vowels,*^' eventually develop into loan (with loanword, loan
<^' Note that h is already a reduction from an earlier hw, indicated by Gothic
leihwan.
162 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*leip
translation) and lend (with such modern formations as lend-lease) . There
are also endleofan, "(ten) one-leave", twelf, "two-leave", which give
us eleven with eleventh and twelve with twelfth; but to justify this inter-
pretation, we have to assume an alternative form *leip, perhaps
borrowed from the Brythonic branch of Celtic, which turns *kw into
*p. The tree, for reasonably sure forms, is:
IE *leiky ("to leave behind")
I II J _l I
Gk. leipo Lat. linquo lictus AS laenan laen ON Ian
Eng. eclipse (directly or through Fr.) Eng. lend loan
ellipse
ellipsis Eng. relinquish relic | |
elliptical delinquent reliquary AS endleofan, twelf
etc. delinquency dereliction | |
etc. etc. Eng. eleven twelve
eleventh twelfth
(Table iv, 3, 4, 5)
IE *mdter, "mother", is a root that appears throughout the entire
Indo-European family. In Greek, it produces meter, which appears in
the name of the goddess Demeter (the Roman Ceres), and also in the
metro- of metropolis ("mother-city"), metropolitan, and the Paris Metro.
The Latin mater appears in unchanged form in alma mater and mater
familias, in the mater- of maternal, maternity, in the matro- of matronymic
(but this could also be a dialectal form of the thoroughly Greek
metronymic), in the matri- of matrix, matriculate, matriculation, matriarch,
matrimony, matrimonial, matricide, etc. An augmentative form, matrona,
gives matron, matronly, and probably the name of the French river
Marne. A Latin derivative is materies or materia, which produces matter
(with matter of fact, matter of course), material, immaterial, materiel,
materialize, materialism, materialist, materiality, materia medica, and the
Portuguese madeira, with a shift in meaning from "matter" in general
to "wood", then to the wooded island of Madeira, lastly to the wine
which is one of the island's products. Madre may be Italian or Spanish;
madrepore is a combination of Italian madre with Greek poros, "stone",
and there is a French commere that occasionally appears in English.
There is doubt concerning madrigal, which could be connected with
Spanish madrugar, "to rise early", or with the root of mandria, "herd,
^me-not]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
163
flock", which would make it a pastoral song. Anglo-Saxon modor
crossed with Old Norse modir produces mother, with stepmother, mother-
hood, mother-in-law, etc.
IE *mater ("mother")
I I
Gk. meter metro-
Lat. mater
II II
matrona materies AS modor ON modir
(directly or through French)
Eng. Demeter
metropoHs | | |
metropoUtan Eng. maternal matron matter
maternity matronly material
(through Fr.
M^tro
matrix Marne materiel
matriculate materia medica
matriarch
matrimony
matricide
(alma) mater
etc.
(through It.)
I
madrepore
Eng. mother
motherly
stepmother
etc.
(through Pt.
I
Madeira
(Table ii, 1)
*Me-n6t is the IE root for "month, moon". Anglo-Saxon has mono,
"moon", from which we get moon (with moonbeam, moonlight, moonstone,
moonshiner, moonstruck, etc.) and also Monday from Anglo-Saxon
monandag; while Anglo-Saxon monath produces month, monthly. There
is also Anglo-Saxon mM, which gives meal, mealy, mealtime, piecemeal,
etc. In Greek, the root appears with the meaning of "measure", and
Greek metron gives us meter (or metre) , metric, metric ton, metrics, metronome,
metrical, hexameter, diameter, diametrically, perimeter, pentameter, symmetry,
symmetrical, geometry, trigonometry, thermometer, barometer, centimeter,
millimeter, kilometer, micrometer, hygrometer, and a host of other scientific
measures and measuring instruments. In Latin, we have on the one
hand mensis, "month" (the variant mesis appears in the Romance
languages because Vulgar Latin regularly drops n before s) ; here
come semester, trimester, semestral, menstrual, menstruate, menstruation. On
the other hand, the verb metior, "to measure", with its Vulgar Latin
noun mensura, mesura, gives rise to measure, measurement, measureless,
measurable, incommensurable, mensuration, dimension, dimensional, immense,
immensity. Two additional forms coming through other languages are
the German Mensur (from mensura; the regulated duel of German
164
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
* [me-not
university fraternities) ; and the Spanish mesa (from Latin mensa,
"table, that which has been measured off"). If the root is connected,
as some authorities suppose, with that of Latin mederi, "to heal", and
Latin modus, "mode, way", then we have a large further ramification
including medical, medicine, mode, mood, meditate, modest, moderate, remedy,
model, modern, modify, mold, accommodate, incommode, etc.
IE *me-n6t ("month, moon")
Gk. metron Lat.
1 .
mensis
metior-
-mensa AS
1
mona
monath
1
mael
1
1
mensura
1
1
1
(directly, or
through Lat.
and Fr.)
(direc
tly or
th
1 Eng.
rough Fr.)
1
moon
Monday
etc.
month
etc.
meal
piece-
meal
i Eng.
semestei
measure
etc.
Eng. meter
menstruate
incommensurable
hexameter
etc.
dimension
pentameter
thermometer
immense
etc.
barometer
kilometer
(through Ger.)
centimeter
1
-metry
metrical
Mensur
metronome
(through Sp.)
etc.
1
mesa
(Table ii, 1)
The root *en[o)mn, *nomn, "name", appears in Greek as onoma,
"name", which gives us a large variety of words: onomastic, onomato-
paia, anonymous, anonymity, synonym, pseudonym, antonym, eponym, homonym,
patronymic, toponymy, metonymy. The Latin nomen, in Latin form, gives us
agnomen, praenomen, cognomen, nomenclature; then there are nominal,
nominate, nominative, nominee, nomination, denominate, denomination, denomi-
nator, nuncupate, ignominious, misnomer, etc. In forms derived through
French we have noun, pronoun, renown, renowned, nom de guerre, nom de
plume. The Anglo-Saxon nama gives us name, surname, nameless, namesake,
namely, etc. Nome, in Alaska, gets its name from a misreading of the
word "name" (the head of a government bureau in Washington had
scribbled "Name?" on the map of the region that showed a locality
without a name, and this was later interpreted as being the actual
name of the place) . There is a possible link between this root and that
'uperi]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
165
of Latin nosco, "to know" (see p. 206) and if this is correct the family
becomes much larger. The tree, for what is assured, is :
IE *en(o)mn *nomn, ("name")
Gk. onoma
Lat.
1
nomen
1
ignominia
1
AS
1
nama
(directly, or
1 1
(directly, or through Fr.)
Eng.
name
through Lat.
1
1
surname
and/or Fr.)
Eng.
agnomen
ignominy
namely
1
praenomen
ignominious
nameless
Eng. onomastic
cognomen
namesake
onomatopcEia
nomenclature
Nome
anonymous
nominal
etc.
synonym
pronominal
antonym
nominate
homonym
nominee
patronymic
nominative
toponymy
denomination
pseudonym
misnomer
eponym
nuncupate
metonymy
noun
etc.
pronoun
renown
nom de guerre
(plume)
(Chapter
2, p. 17)
An IE root *uper, * uperi, "over", gives Greek hyper, which appears
as a prefix in numerous English words, among them hyperborean,
hyperbole, hypertrophy, hypercritical, hypertension. Latin has super, used as a
prefix in superintendent, superabundant, superannuated, supercargo, super-
fluous, supervise, supercilious, superstition, supersede, superlative, superman,
supernatural, etc. There are also forms like supernal, insuperable, the
Italian soprano, the French soubrette, the French-derived sovereign,
sovereignty. The Latin superior passes into English without change of
form, forming superiority, and Latin super bus gives us superb. Latin
supra appears in a number of learned compounds {suprarenal, supra-
liminal, suprailiac, etc.) and supremus gives us supreme, supremacy. The
French descendant of super is sur, which appears in surface, survive,
surfeit, and other forms, including sirloin, where it is misspelt by
popular etymology. There is some question whether summus, the
alternative form of Latin supremus, comes from the same root; if it
does, we have sum, summary, and a host of other forms. The Anglo-
Saxon cognate is yf err a, ofer, which becomes over, with very numerous
compounds {overall, overbearing, overboard, overcoat, overcome, overflow,
overhead, overdue, overly, overnight, overpower, overseer, oversight, overtime.
166
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*uper
overweening, overwrought, to cite only a few). The same Anglo-Saxon
root produces efes, "eaves", and yfesdripe, "overdrip", from which we get
eaves and eavesdrop. A Celtic development, ver-, appears in proper names,
like Vercingetorix. ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^. ^..^^^^„^
Gk.
hyper
Lat.
1
super
1
supra
1 1
supremus superanus
1
superior
1
1 1
Eng.
hyper-
hyperborean
hyperbole
super-
supernal
supra-
supreme (through
supremacy |
sovereign
Fr.)
hypertrophy
insuperable
sovereignty |
hypercritical
superior
hypertension
superiority
It. soprano
etc.
Fr.
Eng.
etc.
sur
surface
I
Eng. soprano
1 1
1
surfeit
Lat.
superbus AS yferra
efes
survive
1 ofer
yfesdripe
etc.
Eng.
superb |
1
Eng. over
eaves
Prov.
soubra
etc.
eavesdrop
Eng.
soubrette
(Table i, 4)
IE *plek, "to weave together", gives us in Anglo-Saxon ^^ax {flax,
flaxen) and fealdan {fold, twofold, manifold, folder, etc.). Greek adds the
prefix for "two" to its />/o- and gets the diplo- that we inherit in diploid,
diplodocus, diploma, diplomat, diplomacy (the original idea was that of a
document that could be folded in two, a diploma; people dealing in
such documents were then said to engage in diplomacy). Latin has
plecto, with a past participle plexus, and a secondary formation in
plico. These ultimately produce in English numerous forms in -plex,
-ply, -plicate, -plicit, -ploy, -play, -plice, -pli-, -plet, -pie, of which only a
few examples can be given: plexus, complex, complexity, duplex, simplex,
perplex; comply, reply, multiply and multiplier, apply, imply (but not supply,
which comes from the root o[ plenus, "full"; see p. 230), with com-
pliance, pliant, pliable, suppliant, complicate, complication, multiplication,
application, applicant, implication, implicate, explication, duplicate, triplicate,
duplication, applicable, inexplicable ; duplicity, complicity, accomplice, implicit,
explicit, 'explicitly; exploit, exploitation, employ, deploy, deployment, employ-
ment, employer, employee; display, plait, pleat; simple, double, triple, quad-
ruple, simplify, simplification, simplicity, doublet, duplicity, triplet, quadruplet.
*nem]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
167
quintuplet, dubloon, the Italian replica, etc. Doubt attaches to fiask, the
ItaWaxi fiasco, and flagon, which by reason of their initial/- would have
to come from the Germanic branch, but which some authorities
prefer to derive from the root of Latin vasculum, vas, which gives us
vase. There is also a hypothetical connection with the loot of Latin
flecto, "to bend", but this would call for an alternative IE root in
^"'■^'^' IE *plek ("to weave together")
I
Gk. (di)plo-
Eng. diploid
diplodocus
diploma
diplomat
diplomacy
etc.
I I
Lat. plecto, plexus plico
(directly or through Fr
I I
Eng. plexus
-plex
-plexity
etc.
I I
AS fleax fealdan
I I
Eng. flax fold
flaxen folder
twofold
manifold
etc.
-ply
-plicate
-plication
-plicant
-plicit
-pi ice
-plicity
-ploy
-ployment
-ployer
-ployee
-plicable
-plier
-pliant
-play
-pie
-plet
-ploit
-ploitation
-ploiter
double
doublet
doubloon
plait
pleat
(through It.)
replica
(Table i, 4; Table hi, 2, 3; Anglo-Saxon x may stand for hs as well as for ks)
The IE root *nem, "to divide, take", produces in Greek the name of
Nemesis, goddess of retribution, along with a verb nomeno, "to let
graze", from which we get nomad, nomadic, and the nomas, "law", that
gives us -nome and -nomy {metronome, astronomy, autonomy, economy,
economic, economize, economical, binomial, Deuteronomy, gastronomic, etc.).
A by-product of nomos is nomisma, "that which is regulated by law, or
168
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*nem
sanctioned by custom"; this is applied to coins, and gives us numismatic
and numismatist. The Latin numerus, "number", produces numeral,
enumerate, numerous, numerical, numerator, innumerable, supernumerary,
numerology, and, through Italian numero, the N° we occasionally use,
while nombre, the French descendant of numerus, gives us number,
numberless, and the popular numbers game. The Germanic branch
produces Anglo-Saxon niman, "to take", which was displaced by the
Scandinavian take, but still appears in German nehmen. However, other
forms survive : numen, the past participle of niman, gives us numb and
numbness ("seized, taken", therefore "dazed, deprived of feeling") ;
numskull is a compound of numb. There is also nimble, which appears
only in Middle English, and originally meant "quick to take or
seize".
IE *nem ("to divide, take")
Gk. Nemesis nomeno nomos nomisma Lat. numerus AS niman, numen
Eng. Nemesis nomad
nomadic
-nomy
-nomial
-nomic
etc.
numismatic
etc.
numerous Eng. numb
numeral numskull
numerator
enumerate
numerical
numerology
etc.
Fr. nombre
I
Eng. number
etc.
It. numero
I
Eng. No.
nimble
(Chapter 2, p. 17)
IE *ed, "to eat", gives us Anglo-Saxon etan, which becomes eat,
with eatable, eats, etc. In compound form, this root enters t-onth, t-oth,
which eventually becomes tooth, ("the eater, or eating tool"), with
toothsome, toothache, toothpick, etc. There is a further extension in Anglo-
Saxon tusc, tux, which give us tush and tusk. Before leaving the Germanic
field, it may be worth while to see what happens in High German,
since this root is a perfect illustration of both the first and the second
consonant shifts of the Germanic languages. English eat appears in
German as essen, with ss resulting from a medieval ezzan, while tonth,
the earlier Germanic form, passing through zand (tsand), ends as
'(aw)es'\
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
169
Zahn (Italian borrows this High German form in zanna, "tusk").
Greek odont- appears in odonto-, mastodon, odontoid, and other learned
forms. It may also be remarked that Slavic makes extensive use of the
root {Kussidin. yesf , "to c?^." ; yeda, "meal"; ob-yed, "dinner"). Some
even claim that Scandinavian jotunn, "mythological giant", comes
from this root. Latin edo, "to eat", gives us edible, edacious, edacity; in
compound form, we get comestibles (this is the same compound that
produces Spanish-Portuguese comer, "to eat", namely cum-edo, "eat
with") ; and obese, obesity {ob-edo, ob-esus, "one who has eaten to excess").
Escarole, taken from Italian scarola, is also probably from the participial
root of edo. Using the same formation that appears in Germanic and
Greek, Latin forms dent- for "tooth", and this gives us numerous forms
{dent, dental, dentate, dentifrice, dentine, the French dentelle, denticulated,
denticle, dentist, dentistry, dentition, denture, edentate, bident, trident, indent,
indentation, indentured, etc.). Redan comes from re-dent; dandelion is dent
de lion, "lion's tooth". It is possible that Latin prandium, "dinner",
which appears in post-prandial, may come from primus combined with
edo, "the first meal of the day".
IE *ed ("to eat")
Gk.
od-ont-
1
Lat. edo, esus
1
dent-
1
AS etan
1
1
t-6th
1
tusc
1
Eng.
1
odont-
1 1
(directly or through Fr.)
1
Eng. eat
tooth
1
tush
mastodon
1.
1
etc.
etc.
tusk
etc.
Eng. edible
edacious
obese
obesity
(through It.)
escarole
dent
dental
dentist
denture
dentifrice
dentine
dentelle
edentate
indent
indenture
redan
dandelion
(Table vi, 1 ; Table ii, 1 )
An IE root *{aw)es, "to grow light", produces in Greek eos, "dawn",
which gives rise to eocene, eolith, eolithic, eohippus, and similar forms.
The Latin cognate is the word for "dawn", aurora, with aurum, "gold".
These two produce Aurora Borealis, aureola, aureate, aureomycin, aurous,
auriferous, Aurelia, etc. There is also a form Auster, "south wind", from
170 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*aW
which come the names of Austria, Australia, and Charlemagne's
eastern region of Austrasia, along with austral and Aussie {austere and
austerity, however, come from another root meaning "dry"). The
French descendant of aurum is or, which provides us with the heraldic
or, ormolu (literally, "ground gold"), oriole ("the golden bird"), and
the Oriflamme, or "Golden Flame", which was the battle standard of
medieval French kings. The Germanic forms are Anglo-Saxon easte,
"east" (giving us east, eastern, easterly, eastward, etc.; ea is a regular
Anglo-Saxon development for an original *aw) eastre, "Easter" (with
the possibility that sterling may come from easterling rather than from
the root oi star); and the Ostro-, Oester- of Ostrogoths ("eastern Goths")
and Oesterreich ("Austria, eastern realm"). There is also a remote
possibility that the German ur- of urgermanisch, uralt, occasionally used
in English and meaning "primitive, original", may come from the
same source. Slavic gets from this root its word for "morning" (Russian
utro). The name of Vesuvius is also said to contain it. The confusion
between the meanings "south" and "east" comes from the direction
of the rising sun.
IE *(aw)es ("to grow hght")
Gk.
1
eos
1
Lat. aurum
Aurora
1
Auster AS
1
easte eastre OHG ostar
1 1 1
Eng.
Eos
eocene
eohippus
eolith
1 1 Eng.
(directly or through Fr.)
Eng. Aurora Austria
east Easter Ostrogoth
eastern Oesterreich
easterly
eastward
etc.
aureola
aureate
auriferous
aureomycin
Aurelia
or
ormolu
oriole
Oriflamme
etc.
Australia
Australasia
austral
Aussie
etc.
etc.
(Table xiv, 1, 2, 3; Table xvi, 2)
An IE root variously presented as *ghdhem, *khem, *ghem, "earth, soil",
gives in Greek khthon (chthon), from which come chthonian, chthonous
and autochthonous; also the adverbial khamai {chamai), "on the ground",
from which come camomile, chameleon, and germander, the first being
khamaimelon, "on-the-ground apple", the second khamaileon, "on-the-
ground lion", the third khamai-drys, "on the-ground tree", the first
*gfiem]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
171
and last rather radically transformed by their passage through Latin
and French. The initial part of Demeter is claimed by some to come
from this root in lUyrian (or Albanian) form, but others postulate
Greek ^^, "earth". Latin supplies humus, "soil", WiXhhumilis, "pertaining
to the soil, humble", and homo, "man", with humanus (also "pertaining
to the soil, human"). Humus gives us humus, humidity, humid, humidify,
humidor, exhume, inhume, inhumation; humilis produces humility, humiliate,
humiliation and, through French, humble (but not humble pie, changed
by popular etymology from umble pie, a pie made from the organs of
the animal). Homo gives us homo sapiens, homunculus ("little man"),
hominoid, homicide, homicidal, Spanish hombre, French homme d'esprit, and
homage (from hominaticum, "declaring yourself your overlord's man").
In negative form, ne-homo contracts into nemo, "no one" {Captain
Nemo of Verne's "Nautilus"). Humanus gives us human, inhuman, humane,
inhumane, humanity, inhumanity, humanism, humanist, humanitarian, humanize,
humankind, superhuman, subhuman, etc. The Germanic form appears in
Anglo-Saxon guma, "man", which survives in the compound brydguma,
"bride's man", ultimately bridegroom or groom (the groom that attends a
horse instead of a bride comes from a different root, which also gives
us gourmand and gourmet, and from this, by popular etymology, bride-
groom borrows its second r). Slavic takes from this root its word for
"land" (Russian zemlya, Novaya Zemlya).
IE *ghdhein, *gheni ("earth, soil")
Gk.
1 1
khthon khamai Lat
1
1
humus
1
1 . .
humilis
1
1 1 1
homo humanus AS guma
1 1 1
Eng.
1
chthonic
1
humus
1 1 1 1
(directly or through Fr.) Eng. (bride)
auto-
inhume
1
1 groom
chthonous
exhume
humility
human
chameleon
humid
humiliation
humane
humidor
humble
humanity
(through
humidify
etc.
humanism
Lat. and
etc.
homo humanitarian
Fr.)
1
homicide superhuman
homunculus inhuman
camomile
hominoid subhuman
germander
homage etc.
homme d'esprit
(through Sp.)
hombre
(Table xi, 2, 3, 4; Table x, 2)
172
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*k(w)erp
A family group in which there appears to be confusion of two IE
roots is that of *k{w)erp and *werb, both of which mean "to twist
oneself". Save for their semantics, they might be treated separately.
The *werb root in Greek produces rhabd-, "stick" and rhomb-, "spinning
top", from which come such forms as rhahdomancy and rhombus, rhomboid,
etc. The Latin forms are verbena, from which, through French, we get
vervain, and verbero, "to flog", which gives us reverberate, reverberation,
etc. In Germanic, Anglo-Saxon weorpan, wearp gives us warp, while the
cognate High German werfen produces military terms like Flammen-
werfer, "flame-thrower", and Minenwerfer, "mine-thrower". The root
with initial *k and final *p seems responsible for Greek karpos, "wrist",
of carpus, metacarpal, etc., and for a series of Germanic forms with
initial hw- {wh- in modern English) : Anglo-Saxon hwerf to wharf; Old
Norse hvirfla to whir, whirl, whirligig, whirlpool, whirlwind; Dutch wervel
to Middle English whorwyl and modern English whorl; while Germanic
wirbil, leading to Old French guerbler and werbler (in the northern
French dialects) , goes on to warble. There is a further possible complica-
tion in the root o{ -vert, -verse, -vort (Latin verto, versus, vortex), and we
could be carried on to many possible extensions, including wry, wrist,
wretch, wriggle, wrong, wrench, wrestle, worm, worth, wrath, etc. The
somewhat hypothetical family trees for both roots are:
IE *werb ("to twist oneself")
Gk. rhabd-
rhomb-
Lat. verbena verbero
I
AS weorpan, wearp
Eng. rhabdomancy rhomboid (directly or through Fr.) Eng. warp
etc. etc. I I
Eng. vervain reverberate
reverberation
etc.
(Table xiv, 1, 2, 3; Table v, 1)
IE *k(w)erp ("to twist oneself")
Gk. karpos
(directly or
through Lat.)
Eng. carpus
metacarpal
etc.
AS hwerf OHG wirbil ON hvirfla Du. wervel
Eng. wharf NF werbler Eng. whir ME whorwyl
I whirl I
Eng. warble etc. Eng. whorl
etc.
(Table i, 4; Table iv, 5)
Hegh]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
173
Another blend or confusion of two IE roots seems indicated by
*{s)teg, "to hide, roof, house", and *tek, *tegh, "to twine, build".
Here Greek offers tekton, "carpenter", from which we get architect,
architecture; and also the teknhe, "handicraft", of technical, technician,
technique, technology, polytechnic, etc. Germanic gives us Anglo-Saxon
theccan, thac, leading to thatch, and Dutch dek, dekken, which produces
deck (with deckhand, deckhouse, etc.) Latin gives us the most numerous
descendants, with tego, "to cover", (past participle tectus), and texo,
"to weave". From the root of tego comes toga, which appears in English
in its original form and also as togs; tegmen, and tegumentum, giving us
tegument; and tegula, which in learned form gives tegular, but in French
development goes on to tuile (appearing in Tuileries, originally "tile
works"), and in English development produces Anglo-Saxon tigele and
English tile. The participial tectus gives us many forms in -tect {detect,
detection, detective, protect, protection, protector, protectionist, protectorate, etc.
Tego itself appears in French proteger and its participle protege, which
appears in English. Latin texo, "to weave", gives obvious forms like
textile, texture, but also (through the participial textus) text, textual.
IE *(s)teg ("to hide, roof, house"); *tek, *tegh ("to twine, build")
Gk. tekton
tekhne
Eng. architect technique
technical
polytechnic
technology
technician
etc.
Lat. tego tectus toga
(directly or through Fr.)
I I
-tect
tegument
protege
protect
detect
etc.
toga
togs
tegula
AS tigule
Eng. tile
(through Fr.)
Eng. Tuileries
Lat.
texo
tela
testa
AS theccan
Du. dek
textus
telarium
1
testudo
1
1
(directly
1 1
or through French)
Eng. thatch
deck
1
1
1
etc.
Eng.
text
toile
test
textual
toilette
testy
context
toilet
testudo
pretext
subtle
tete-a-tete
tissue
tiller
etc.
(Table ii, 1 ; Table vii, 2 ; Table xi, 2 ; Chapter 3, p. 35)
174 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*Sal
context, pretext ("that which you build or weave in front of you, to ward
off something unpleasant"), etc. The Latin infinitive texere produces
Old French tistre, with a past participle tissu, and this becomes our
tissue. Ramifications oftexo are tela, "cloth", and possibly testa, "earthen
vessel". The former gives us toile, toilet (originally "little cloth"),
toiletry, subtle ("under the cloth"), subtlety, subtleness. Telarium, "weaver's
beam", becomes tiller, with a shift in use from industry to ships. Testa
gives test (at first a "refining vessel", then the means of refining or
testing), testy, tester, testudo (at first a "turtle", similar to a vessel;
later a military formation whereby the Roman soldiers joined shields
over their heads as they advanced, thus giving themselves protection
from missiles from above, but also resembling a moving turtle). In
French, testa developed into tete, "head", from a slangy use of "jug"
or "pot" for "head", and the French form appears in tete-a-tete.
The IE root *sal, "salt", appears in Greek as hals, from which come
the scientific halogen, haloid, halophyte, etc. Anglo-Saxon sealt, sealtan
give us salt, and sealtern gives us saltern, while compound forms appear
in salty, saltiness, saltcellar, saltpeter. A Scandinavian cognate, sylt,
produces silt. The Latin sal appears straight in sal volatile and sal
ammoniac. Saline and salicylate are compound forms. So is salary (origi-
nally the allowance for salt paid to Roman soldiers). Through French
we get salad (with such modern compounds as salad days), and sla, the
Dutch derivative of the French form, which appears in English as
slaw. Italian salame is in English mispronounced and misspelled as
salami, which in Italian would be a plural form. There is some doubt
whether salmis and salmagundi belong in this family. Various French
forms in which the / turns into u before consonants (see Chapter 3
p. 40) appear in sauce, saucer, saucepan, saucy, etc., and in sausage.
Old French also borrows from Old High German the form sulz, which
it turns into solz, souz, and passes on to English as souse. It is of interest
that this root gives rise to a Slavic form meaning "sweet" (Russian
sladkiy). It also appears in numerous names of rivers and towns (Saale,
Salzburg, etc.). If Latin insula, "island", comes from in salo ("in the
salt sea"), and not from in sola ("in alone"), we have to add insular,
insularity, insulin, insulate and (through Italian isola), isolate, isolation,
as well as the contribution made by insula to island and isle (the replace-
ment of the first part of Anglo-Saxon iegland by the French isle) .
*neWOS] THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES 175
IE *sal ("salt")
\
II I I I I
Gk, hals Lat. sal AS sealt sealtern Scand. sylt OHG sulz
I I sealtan I I |
Eng. halogen sal volatile | | | OF solz
haloid sal ammoniac Eng. salt saltern silt souz
halophyte salicylate |
etc. saline Eng. souse
(through Fr.)
I
salad
sauce
saucer
saucy
sausage
etc.
(through Du.)
slaw
(through It.)
I
salami (Table xv, 1)
IE *newos, "new", appears in Anglo-Saxon niwe, neowe, leading to
English new, with anew, renew, news, newsboy, newsprint, newspaper, news-
letter, new-fangled, newsy, etc. The Greek form is neos, and this gives us
the prefix neo- of neolithic, neologism, neophyte, etc., as well as neon; it
also appears in various place names {Neapolis, "New City", to Naples,
with Neapolitan and Neapolitan ice cream) . Slavic novy appears in Novgorod,
Novaya Zemlya, "New City", "New Land", and in the Czech family
name Novak, but does not otherwise come into English. Latin novus
gives us the astronomical nova, the scientific novocain, the compounds
renovate, renovation, innovate, innovation, etc., and its Latin derivatives
appear in many forms. Novellus gives us novel, novelty, novelette, novelist,
the Italian novella, the French nouveau riche and nouveaute, and even
creeps into Jespersen's constructed language Novial. Novicius appears
in novice, novitiate. Other random Italic and Romance forms are the
Oscan Nuvela, which is the modern city of Nola; and Spanish navaja,
"razor", from novacula, and novio, novia, "sweetheart, betrothed"
(presumably stemming from the idea of a "new interest"). The root
*newos appears also in Anglo-Saxon nu, which produces now, in
176
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*newos
German nun, and in Latin nunc, from which we get the humorous
quidnunc ("what now?"), and which also appears in the rehgious
nunc dimittis.
IE *newos ("new")
Gk. neos
Eng. neo-
neon
Neapolitan
Lat. novus
novellus
novicius nunc
AS
niwe nu
(directly or through French)
nova novel
novocain novelette
renovate novelty
innovate novelist
etc. nouveau riche
nouveautd
(through It.)
I
novella
novice quidnunc
novitiate
Eng. new now
anew
renew
news
etc.
(Table xiv, 1, 2, 3)
The IE root *sawel, *swen, *swo, "sun", appears in Gothic in the
double form sawil and sunno. Anglo-Saxon offers sunna, which gives us
sun (with sunny, sunstroke, etc.) ; sunnand^g, which becomes Sunday and
sundae; and suth, sutherra, which produces south, southern, southward,
southpaw, South Pole, etc. Compounds of sun are numerous: sunburn,
sunburst, sundial, sunspot, sun worshiper, etc. There are also disguised
forms in Suffolk, Sussex, Southampton, Surrey. The Latin sol gives us
solar, solar plexus, soharium, solstice, insolation, parasol, as well as the sol
which is the currency of Peru. Greek helios gives us helium, heliotrope,
heliograph, heliacal, perihelial, and other scientific formations.
IE *sawel, *swen, *swo ("sun")
Gk.
helios
1
Lat. sol
AS
sunna
junnandsg
1 1
sijth sutherra
1 1
Eng.
1.
helium
solar
sun
Sunday
1 1
south southern
heliotrope
solarium
sunny
sundae
southward
heliograph
solstice
sunstroke
Suffolk
heliacal
insolation
etc.
Sussex
perihelial
parasol
Surrey
etc.
etc.
etc.
(Table xv, 1)
'■{s)na]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
177
IE *{s)nd, "to flow, wetness", produces in Anglo-Saxon a form
gesnott, which gives us snotty, and probably also snout and snooty, with
perhaps an assist from Old High German snuz£n, which becomes the
German schnauzen, leading to the name of the breed of dog known as
Schnauzer [Schnozzola is also a derivative of the German form, com-
bining the German root with an Italian ending). In Greek we have
nesos, "island", which appears in various place names ending in
-nese, -nesus, -nesia {Chersonese, Dodecanese, Peloponnesus, Indonesia,
Micronesia, Polynesia) ; there is also a verb nao, "to swim", that gives
Naiad, and the name Nereis, which produces Nereus and Nereid; nans,
"ship", appears in nautical. Argonaut, aeronaut, astronautical, nautilus,
nausea ("ship sickness, seasickness"). The last word in French takes the
form noise ("that which may cause nausea'''), passed on to English,
with noisome as a later formation. Latin forms include nato, "to swim",
which gives us natant, natatory, natation; navis, "ship", with naval,
navigate, navigator, navigable, navy, navicert, navvy, and the nave of a church,
likened to a ship; nutria, "nourish", which in more learned Latin form
gives us nutriment, nutrient, nutrition, and in French form {nourrir, nourrice)
becomes nourish, nourishment, and nurse, with nursery and nurture.
IE *(s)na ("to flow, wetness")
1
Gk. nao
1
Nereis
1
nesos
1
naus
Lat.
nato
1.
navis
1 .
nutrio
1
Eng. Naiad
Nereus
Nereid
1
-nese
-nesus
nautical
aeronaut
(directly
or through
Fr)
-nesia
Argonaut
natatory
navy
nutrition
nautilus
natation
naval
nutriment
nausea
natant
etc.
navvy
navigate
nutrient
nourish
(through
navigator
nourishment
Lat. and Fr.)
nave
nurse
i
navicert
nursery
noise
etc.
nurture
noisome
AS gesnott OHG snuzen
^ I I
Eng. snotty Schnauzer
snout Schnozzola
snooty
(Table xv; Chapter 2, p. 17)
178
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*dekm
Better perhaps than any other class of words, numerals illustrate
the basically threefold nature of the English vocabulary. The IE root
*dekm,^^^ *deku, "ten", gives rise to Anglo-Saxon tien, tyn, and teotha,
from which come ten and tenth, with such secondary forms as the -teen
oi thirteen, fourteen, teen-age, teen-ager; tenfold, tenpins, tithe, as well as the
suffix -tig that appears in English -ty of twenty, forty, etc. The Greek
form is deka, from which come our deca- compounds [Decalogue, decade,
decahedron, Decameron (something designed for a ten-day period),
decapod, decathlon, decasyllabic, and even endecasyllabic, for an eleven-
syllable line of verse. Latin decern, "ten" and decimus, "tenth" (with
the feminine decima that becomes dime) give us decimal, December,
decennial, decimate (to execute one man out of every ten), decibel, decillion,
the decanus (originally a leader of a group of ten) that French turns
into doyen, adopted by English as dean (with deanery), decurion, decuman.
There are also undecim, "eleven", and duodecim, "twelve", from which
come undecimal, duodecimal, and dozen (Vulgar Latin duodecina to French
douzaine). There is dicker, which comes through German Decker, "a
set of ten hides", borrowed from Latin. Deni, "by tens", a derivative
of decern) forms denarius, which comes down into English in the double
IE *dekm
1 ■
"ten")
Gk.
deka
Lat
decern
1
decimus
1
1 1
deni AS tyn
1 1
teothe -tig
1 1
Eng.
decade
1
(directly
1 1 1
or through Fr.) Eng. ten
1 1
tenth -ty
Decalogue
1
1
1 teen
tithe
Decameron
December
decimal
denarius tenfold
decathlon
decennial
decimate
denier etc.
decasyllabic
decibel
dime
duodenum
decapod
decillion
etc.
etc.
decurion
decuple
decuman
undecimal
duodecimal
dozen
dean
deanery
etc.
(through Ar.)
dinar
(through Ger.)
1
dicker
(Table vi, 1; Table m, 2, 3)
*" The symbol m indicates a vowel value for the sonant m.
*gHou\ THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES 179
form denier, used even in hosiery, and dinar, a form of currency used in
Yugoslavia, Iraq, Iran, etc. It is supposed by some authorities that
*dekm gets into the root oi*kmtom, "hundred", through an intermediate
*dekmtom, and if so, the same basic root would give us hundred, hecatomb,
cent, centime, centavo, centennial, century, centurion, etc., but this is doubtful.
The eastern languages of the Indo-European group have s corre-
sponding to the general western k and the Germanic h evidenced by
Gothic taihun, but lost in Anglo-Saxon (Old High German has zehan,
and modern German keeps the h in spelling, even though it does not
pronounce it in zehn; see Chapter 3, p. 33); Sanskrit has dasa, and
Slavic (Russian) has desyaf .
The IE root *g^ou, "ox", appears in Anglo-Saxon as cu (plural cy),
leading to cow and kine (with compounds such as cowslip, cowboy, cow-
puncher, cowhide, etc.). Latin bos, bov-, seems to have been in origin
either a Greek or an Oscan loan word, as native Latin development
should have given *vos, *vov-. This gives us bovine and, through French,
beef (plural beeves), with beefy, beefeater, beefsteak, etc. Latin also
offers bubalus, for which there is an Oscan doublet bufalus, from which
Italian derives bufalo, passed on to English as buffalo, and shortened to
buff. Buculus, "little ox", produces bugle, originally a hunting horn. In
Greek there is a bous, "ox", which appears in bubalis, bucentaur, heca-
tomb [hekaton-be, "a sacrifice of a hundred oxen or cows"), bucolic
{boukolikos, "pertaining to a cowherd"), boustrophedon ("as the ox
plows", right to left, then left to right, then right to left again; used to
describe the early Greek system of writing). There is also a related
verb bosko, "to graze", which appears in proboscis on the one hand, in
botany, botanical, etc., on the other. There is also the possibility that it
may have been borrowed by Latin to give boscus, from which seem to
stem both French bois and English bush, with such additional English
forms as bosky, boscage, and haut-bois or oboe. The most far-reaching
word, however, is boutyron, "ox-cheese", which passes into Latin in
the form butyrum and gives rise to butter and its associated words
{butterfly, which appears as early as Anglo-Saxon in the form buterflege;
buttercup, butter fat, butterfish, buttermilk, butternut, butterscotch, and the
more learned butane, butyl, butyric). A Celtic cognate, appearing in a
place name, is Boyne, from Boouinda, while the Indo-Iranian cognate
is gaus, go, "cow", which may possibly appear in the family name of
180
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*g^OU
the Buddha, Gautama or Gotama. Buccaneer, once thought to be con-
nected with French boeuf, is now generally conceded to come from an
American Indian language.
IE *gyou ("ox")
Gk
1 1
bous bosko
botane
1
boutyron
1
Lat. bov-
1
buculus
1
bubalus
AS
cu, cy
(directly
or
Eng.
cow kine
Eng
hecatomb
boustrophedon
bucolic
bubal is
bucentaur
etc.
butyric
butyl
butane
(through
Lat. and
through
bovine
beef
beeves
etc.
Fr.)
bugle
(through
It.)
buffalo
buff
cowboy
etc.
proboscis
AS)
botany
1
botanical
butter
etc.
butterfly
etc.
(Table viii
, 3, 4, 5)
In the case of the IE root *trei, "three", there is a little difficulty in
keeping apart Greek and Latin compounds, both of which have tri-
(so do even Slavic and Indo-Iranian : the Hindu Trinity, composed of
Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer, is
Trimurti, appearing in English, but only as a proper noun). In Anglo-
Saxon, the root produces thrive), which develops into three, with
numerous compounds [threefold, threepenny, threescore, threesome, etc.) ;
and thridda, which gives us third (with third class, third degree, etc.).
There is also thriga, giving us thrice; threotyne, which becomes thirteen;
threoteotha, which becomes thirteenth; thretig, which turns into thirty.
Greek treis appears in a few very learned words, like treiskaidekaphobia,
"fear of the number thirteen"; while the neuter tria, shortened to tri-,
gives us triad, triclinium, tricycle, trigonometry, trinomial, trilogy, triphthong,
tripod, Tripoli ("three cities"), triptych, tristich, tritium, Triton. Latin
tres, with a neuter form tria, appears for the most part in words that
have gone through French, like trefoil, treble, trellis, trey {Trecento is
Italian) ; it appears as tri- in triangle, Triassic, tricentennial, tricolor,
trident, trilateral, trilingual, trillion, trine. Trinity, triple, triplet, triplane,
triplicate, trireme, trisect, triumvirate, triune, trivial {trio is Italian). Tri-
becomes tra- in tripalium (a three-poled instrument of torture) which
turns into French travail and English travail and travel. Ter, Latin for
"thrice", appears in tercentenary, tern, ternary, tercet (Italian), and
tertius, "third" appears in tertium quid, tertiary, tertian, sesterce, sestertius.
'^trei]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
181
sestertium, the French tierce, and the Italian terza rima. Two Latin
derivatives of tres (the first a little more doubtful than the second) are
tribus, "tribe", from which come tribe, tribal, tribesman, tribute, tributary,
attribute, contribute, contribution, contributor, distribute, distribution, retribu-
tion, tribune, tribunal; and testis, "witness" (originally *ter-stis, "the
third stander, the bystander"). Here the ramifications are: testament,
testamentary, testate, testator, intestate, testes or testicles ("little witnesses"
IE "
tre
1
("three")
Gk
treis, tria tri- Lat. tre(s)
1 1
tri- ter
1 1
tertius tribus
1 1
Eng
triskai- triad
1
1 1 1 1
(directly or through French)
dekaphobia triclinium
1
1 1
1 1
trilogy
trefoi
triangle tern
tertium tribe
tripod
treble
triceps tercen-
quid tribal
Tripoli
trellis
tricolor tenary
tertiary tribune
trigonometry trey
trident etc.
sesterce tribunal
triphthong
etc.
trilateral
tierce tribute
etc.
trillion (through
etc. tributary
(through
It.)
trinity It.)
attribute
1
triple 1
(through contribute
Trecento
trireme tercet
It.) distribute
trisect
1 retribution
triumvirate
terza etc.
trivial
rima
travail
travel
(through It.)
1.
trio
Lat. testis AS
1
thri(e)
thridda thriga threotyne threoteotha
1
1
1
1 1
thretig
(directly or Eng.
three
third thrice thirteen
through Fr.)
etc.
etc
1
thirteenth
Eng. testament
thirty
testator
intestate
testicles
testify
testimony
testimonial
attest
contest
detest
protest
Protestant
etc.
(Table fi, V
182
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*kered
to a man's virility, or perhaps from the custom of swearing by one's
most treasured possessions), testicular, testificate, testify, testimonial,
testimony, and numerous compounds: attest, attestation, contest, contestant,
detest, detestable, incontestable, protest, protestation, Protestant, etc.
The root *kered, "heart", gives the Anglo-Saxon heorte that develops
into heart, with hearty, heartiness, heartily, dishearten, heartbreak, heartland,
heartburn, heartfelt, heartless, heart-rending, heartsick, etc. The Greek kardia
gives us cardiac, cardiology, cardiogram, endocardial, pericardium, and other
medical terms. Latin cor (root cord-) gives us, directly or through
French, core, cordial, cordiality, accord, accordion, concord, concordance,
discord, discordant, record, recorder, and also recourse, misericord, courage,
encourage, discourage, etc. Most authorities link Latin credo, "to believe",
with the "heart" root, and here we get creed and credo, credence and
the Italian credenza (a cabinet to which you "entrust" possessions),
credentials, credible, incredible, credibility, credulous, incredulity, the Italian
credit, with accredit, discredit, creditor, creditable, the French miscreant and
recreant. Slavic cognates have s where the IE root has *k (Russian
serdtse, "heart", sreda, "middle, Wednesday, or midweek").
IE *kered ("heart")
Gk.
kardia
1
Lat.
cor, cord-
1
credo
1
AS
heorte
Eng.
1
cardiac
cardiogram
endocardial
pericardium
etc.
1 1
(directly or through French)
core credo
cordial creed
accord credence
concord credentials
discord credulous
record credible
recourse incredible
Eng.
heart
hearten
hearty
heartless
dishearten
etc.
courage
miscreant
encourage
discourage
etc.
recreant
etc.
(through It.)
credenza
credit
accredit
discredit
creditable
creditor
etc.
(Table
Ill, 2,
3; Table vi,
1)
*kreu\
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
183
The root *oH, "to see, eye", produces in Anglo-Saxon eage, which
becomes eye, with compounds like eyebrow, eyelash, eyetooth, eyeful, eye-
glass, eyesight, eyesore, eyestrain, eyewink, eye-witness, etc. From another
Germanic source, Old Norse, vindauga (literally "wind-eye") comes
to English as window. In Greek the root takes two forms, ops, "face",
with opsomai, "I shall see", which come to English in the form of
optic, optical, optician, Cyclops, myopia, other scientific words in -opia,
autopsy, synopsis, possibly hydropsy or dropsy; and ophthalmos, "eye",
which yields ophthalmic, ophthalmia, ophthalmology, ophthalmologist,
ophthalmoscope, etc. The Latin form is oculus, from which come ocular,
oculist, binocular, monocle, as well as atrocious (literally "black-eyed"),
with atrocity, and ferocious ("fierce-eyed") -with ferocity. Other forms are
ocellate, inoculate (the original meaning is "to graft, to put into the eye") ;
also inveigle, which comes from the French aveugler, "to blind", aveugle,
"blind" (the latter in turn comes from a Vulgar Latin formation ab
oculo, "away from the eye", "eyeless"); antlers, which are ante oculares,
"before the eyes". The Latin oculus, entering Low German in the form
oegeln, is passed on to English as ogle. Slavic cognates include the word
for "window" (Russian okolo) and the ochi of Ochi Chornyya ("Black
Eyes").
IE *oky ("to see, eye")
Eng. optic
ophthalmic
(directly or
through F
r.)
optician
ophthalmia
1
1 . i Eng
optical
ophthalmology ocular
itrocious
Cyclops
ophthalmoscope oculist <
itrocity
myopia
etc.
binocular
autopsy
monocle
ferocious
synopsis
ocellate
ferocity
dropsy (?)
inoculate
etc.
inveigle
antlers
(through LG)
ogle
(Tab
LE IV,
window
IE *kreu, "blood, bloody, raw meat", produces in Anglo-Saxon
hreaw, which becomes raw (with rawness, rawhide, rawboned, etc.), and
hrer, which becomes the rare of meat, to be distinguished from rare
meaning "uncommon", which comes from Latin rarus. Old High
184
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*kreu
German hrosa enters into the name of Mount Rosa in the Alps, which
has nothing to do with roses, but a good deal to do with raw, cold
weather. Greek has kreas, "meat", which appears in English pancreas
("all meat"), pancreatic, creatine, creosote; and kryos, "cold", which
appears in cryogen, cryolite, cryoscope, and other scientific terms, as well
as krystallos, which becomes crystal, with crystallize, crystallization,
crystalline, etc. Latin offers cruor, "blood", with crudus, "raw", from
which we get crude, crudeness, crudity, recrudescence, and the French ecru;
crudelis, which leads to cruel and cruelty; and crusta, which produces
crust, crusty, crustacean, crustaceans, encrust. In this group, the eastern
Indo-European languages have k, not s, corresponding to western k,
and Sanskrit has krava and Russian krov'' as the word for "blood".
IE *kreu ("blood, bloody, raw meat")
Gk.
1
kreas
1
1
kryos
1
krystallos
1
Lat.
crudus crudelis crusta
1
AS hreaw
hrer
Eng.
pancreas
cryogen
crystal
(directly or through Fr.)
1
creosote
cryolite
crystallize
1 1 1
Eng. raw
creatine
etc.
crystalline
crude cruel crust
rare
etc.
etc.
crudity cruelty encrust
crudeness crusty
recrudescence crustiness
ecru crustacean
etc. crustaceous
(Table hi, 1, 2, 3)
IE *leuk, "light, to see", produces in Anglo-Saxon leoht, lyhtan,
liegetu, which develop into light, lighten, lightning, enlighten, enlighten-
ment, lighthouse, light year, etc. (This "light" is distinct from the "light"
which is the opposite of "heavy", and comes from another root that
also produces levity). There is also a leah which gives lea and, through a
Dutch cognate, the -loo of Waterloo. Through Old Norse logi, this root
also gives rise to the name of Loki, the Scandinavian god of mischief
Greek forms are lynx, which comes into English unchanged, and
leukos, "white", which gives us the leuko-, leuco- of scientific terminology
[leucocyte, leukemia) , and the proper name Luke. The proper name
Roxana comes from a Persian (Indo-Iranian) form of the root. In
Latin, the basic words are lux, "light", luna (from *louksna, "the
shining one"), "moon", and lumen (from *leuks-men), "light". Lux
gives rise to lux, lucerne, lucent, lucid, lucidity, pellucid (per-lucid, "shining
through"), elucidate, elucidation, proper names like Lucius, Lucy, Lucille,
*pag]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
185
Lucifer ("Light-bearer"). There are also lucubrate, lucubration ("to
work by artificial light") ; possibly pollex, irom pollucere ("to let shine") ;
possibly luxus (with luxury, luxuriousness, de luxe) ; and a lucus meaning
"grove" which, like lea, originally meant an open spot or field where
the sun shone, and later came to mean a shady spot reserved for
religious rites (interestingly, a Roman etymologist says that lucus
comes from "wow lucendo", the fact that it does not shine). Luna gives
us lunar, sublunar, lunette, lunacy, lunatic and loony. From lumen we get
lumen, luminary, luminous, illuminate, illumination, illuminati, and limn.
Another derivative, luster, gives luster, lustrous, illustrious, illustrate,
illustration, etc.
IE *leuk ("light, to see")
Gk. lynx leukos Lat
1 1
1
. lux
1 1 1
luna lumen luster
1 1 1
1
AS leah
1
leoht
lyhtan
Eng. lynx leuco-
(directly
or through French)
1
leuk-
1
1
1
Eng. lea
light
leucocyte
lucerne
lunar
luster
lighten
leukemia
lucid
sublunar
lustrous
(through
lightning
Luke
pellucid
lunacy
illustrious
Du)
enlighten
etc.
lucubrate
lunette
illustrate
I
etc.
Lucius
lunatic
etc.
Waterloo
Lucy
loony
Lucifer
etc. luminary
etc.
luminous
illuminate
illumination
illuminati
lin
an
(Table
Ill, 2, 3)
The IE root *pdk, *pag, "to make fast", appears in Greek hapax
legomenon (what is said only once), derived from the verb pegnymi, "to
make fast". The Germanic branch has Anglo-Saxon feng, giving
English fang (an archaic verb fang, from Anglo-Saxon fon, corre-
sponding to German fangen, is no longer used) . Latin gives us pax,
"peace"; paciscor (past paxticvpl^ pactus), "to agree"; a Vulgar Latin
pacare, "to appease, pacify, pay off" ; the verb pango, "to make fast",
with a nasal infix and a past participle which is also pdctus, but with
long a; this, in Romance development, merges with the pactus of
paciscor. Other Latin forms from this root a.re pagina, originally "trellis",
then "page of -writrng" ; pagus, "village" ; palus, "stake, pole", whence
palatium, "palace" (probably from Palatinus, the Palatine Hill of
Rome, so called because once enclosed by a palisade). Tripalium, an
186
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*pdk
instrument of torture consisting of three poles, becomes French travail
and English travail and travel, with traveler. There is the further
possibility that palatum, "palate", may come from this source, but
pala, "shovel", seems more likely. Pax, directly or through French,
gives us peace, peaceful, peaceable, pacifist, pacify, Pacific, appease, appease-
ment, and the religious pax vobiscum. The participial pactus, from either
paciscor or pango, gives pact, compact, impact, and, through Spanish
despacho, dispatch (but this may also come from the foot root of im-ped-
icare, dis-ped-icare) . Pangere, through its compound impingere, gives
impinge and impingement. The root of pango, shorn of its nasal infix,
produces a noun propages, "what is extensively made fast or spread",
from which we get propagate, propagation, propaganda ("that which is
to be propagated or spread", from the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide,
"the Congregation of the Faith that is to be spread"), v/ith propagandist,
propagandize, etc. Pagina yields page, pagination, paginate, and with the
IE *pak, pag ("to make fast")
Gk. hapax
(legomenon)
Eng. hapax
(legomenon)
Lat. pax
paciscor
pango
pactus
pacare pagma
(directly or through French)
Eng. peace
peaceful
pacify
pacifist
Pacific
appease
pax vobiscum
appeasement
etc.
impinge pact
propagate compact
propaganda impact
etc. etc.
(through Sp.)
dispatch ( ?)
pay page
payment pagination
repay pageant
etc. etc.
^at. palus
palatium
pagus
AS
feng
(directly
1
or through French)
1
Eng.
fang
ng. impale
palisade
travail
travel
palace
palatial
Palatine
paladin
1
pagan
paynim
peasant
etc.
AS pol
Du. paltsgraaf
1
ng. pole-axe
1
Eng. palsgrave
(Table i, 4; Table hi,
2, 3)
i
*pl3-k'\ THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES 187
original meaning of "trellis" developing into "scaffold, stage", also
pageant 2iX\d pageantry. Pagus, ("village") gives pagan, paganism, paganize,
paynim (the country districts and villages clung longer to the traditional
Roman gods and rejected Christianity, which first spread in the larger
cities). An adjective derived from pagus, pagensis, "pertaining to a
village", becomes the French noun pays, "village, town, district,
country", and on this is formed a new adjective paysan, which in
English becomes peasant and peasantry. Pacare, through French payer,
becomes pay, payment, payable, repay, payee, etc. Palus produces impale,
palisade, and, through Anglo-Saxon pol, the pole of pole-axe, while
palatium and Palatinus give us palace, palatial. Palatine, paladin. Palatinate,
then (through Dutch paltsgraaf) palsgrave, "palace count". \^ pala and
palatum belong here, we have also palate and palette.
The root *pld-k, *pld-g, *pld-k means "wide, flat, to broaden". It
gives the Grctkpelagos, "sea", from which we get pelagic and archipelago,
and Pelasgian. Germanic forms are represented by Anglo-Saxon Jloc,
"fluke"; Old Norse Jlak, "flake", and JJaga, which leads to the flag of
flagstone; Norwegian flo, leading to floe; Middle English flawe, "crack",
leading to flaw. Latin forms involve placeo, "to please" ; placidus,
"placid"; placo, "to placate"; plaga, "beach", which is the forefather
of French plage, and shows a g that conforms to the Greek g and the
Germanic k. Here we get some straight Latin forms, like placebo, "I
shall please", a remedy that pleases the taker, but has no particular
effect; and placitum, used as a law term (Old French plait) and leading
IE *pla-k, *pla-g, *pl3-k ("wide, flat, to broaden")
Gk. pelagos Lat. placeo placidus placo AS floe ON flak flaga flo
I III I I I I
Eng. pelagic (directly or through French) Eng. fluke flake flag floe
archipelago | | | (stone)
Pelasgian placebo placid placate |
etc. placitum placidity implacable ME flawe
plea I
plead Eng. flaw
complacent
please
displease
ple£isure
pleasant
pleasantry
etc. (Table i, 4; Table vii, 2)
188 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*pldn
to plea, plead. Placo gives us placate, implacable. Placidus gives us placid,
placidity. Placeo, in varied forms, mostly derived through French,
gives us complacent, complacency, please, displease, pleasure, plaisance,
complaisance, pleasant, pleasantry, pleasurable, etc. A possible link appears
with the root *pldn, and if this is so, further extensions would include
English ^fli, plain, place, piano, piazza, etc.
The IE root *deu, *dou, *du, "to honor, honorable", produces in
Germanic an Anglo-Saxon getawian, tow, which gives English taw, and
a tot that results in tool. Greek dynamai, dynamis give us the dyna- root of
dyne, heterodyne, dynamic, dynamite, dynamism, dynamo, electro dynamic,
hydrodynamic,' etc. They also provide dynast, dynasty, dynastic. In Latin
the forms are duenos (archaic), with an adverbial duene and a secondary
duenelos, and these, by the archaic Latin change whereby initial *dw
becomes b, turn into bonus, "good", bene, "well", and bellus, "beautiful".
Bonus appears in English in Latin form in bonus and bona fide, while its
derivative bonitas, through French bonte, becomes English bounty
(with bounteous and bountiful). Other ramifications are boon (in boon
companion ; the boon which is granted comes from an unrelated Scandi-
navian source); bonny; perhaps bonnet; debonnaire ("of good air");
boniface; Bonaparte and Bonapartist; also numerous French forms like
the reduplicative bonbon ("goody goody"), bon gre mal gre, bon ton, bon
vivant, bon voyage, bon marche. English Marylebone represents French
Marie la bonne, "Mary the good", and bonne itself, in the sense of "maid",
has entered English. Through Spanish come bonanza ("good weather"
in its original meaning) and bonito ("pretty", applied to a fish).
Bellus, "beautiful" (not to be confused with bellum, "war", from an
earlier duellum) gives us, through Italian, belladonna ("beautiful
woman"), and through French, beauty, beauteous, beautiful, beautify,
beautician, beauty salon (or beauty parlor, or even beauty shop) ; also embellish
and embellishment, bibelot and bauble (the last comes from a French
childish belbel, "pretty pretty"). In straight French form we have beau
(with bo and hobo), beau geste, beau ideal, beau monde, beaux arts, beaux
yeux, belle, belles lettres. The Latin adverb bene, "well", gives rise to
benediction or benison, Benedict or Bennett (with Spanish Benito and
sanbenito), benedict, Benedictine, benefactor, benefaction, benefit, benefice,
beneficent, beneficial, beneficiary, benign, benignity, and the Italian ben
trovato. There is considerable doubt whether beatus, "blessed", comes
'^deig]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
189
from the same root. If it does, we may add beatitude, beatific, beatify,
Beatrice, etc.
IE *deu, *dou, *du ("to honor, honorable")
Gk.
dynamis
Lat.
bonus
1
bene
1
bellus
1
1
AS getawian
tow
1
tol
Eng.
dynamo
(directly
or through French)
1
dynamic
1
1
1
Eng. taw
tool
dyne
bonus
benedict
beauty
dynamite
bona fide
benediction
beautify
dynasty
bounty
benison
beautician
etc.
bountiful
boon
bonny
boniface
Bonaparte
debonnaire
bonbon
bon gre
bon mot
bon vivant
bon voyage
bon marche
Marylebone
Benedictine
Bennett
benefactor
benefit
benefice
beneficiary
benevolent
benign
benignity
etc.
(through It.)
ben trovato
beautiful
embellish
bauble
bibelot
beau
belle
beaux arts
belles lettres
etc.
(through It.)
belladonna
(through Sp.)
1
1
bonanza
bonito
(Table vi, 1 ;
Chapter 3, p
. 37)
A root *deik, with a possible variant *deig, "to show", produces in
Anglo-Saxon tacean, from which we derive teach (with teacher, teachable,
etc.), along with tdcen, which gives us token, betoken. In Greek the root
produces dike, "justice", with dicast, and the verb deiknymi, "to show",
with a noun deixis. These give us paradigm, paradigmatic, deictic, apode-
ictic, paradeictic. From apodeixis, "a showing forth", comes apodeixa,
"receipt", which Italian turns into pa lizza, and this becomes the policy
of insurance (but not that of national interest, which comes from the
root of polis, "city"). In Latin, we have dico, "to say", with past
participle dictus, and secondary formations in -dicare (which give us
forms in -dicate), -dictio (leading to our -diction and -dition; but the
latter need to be kept separate from -dition forms that come from the
root oi do, "to give"); -dex (as in judex, "judge, the one who shows or
speaks the law", or vindex, "avenger") ; and digitus, "finger" ("the
one that shows, points out, indicates"). Latin forms appear straight in
dictum and obiter dicta, while ditto and vendetta show Italian forms of
190
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*deik
dictus {ditto, however, also shows some confusion between Latin dictus
and Italian detto). Other forms involving the participial diet- are
diction, addict, addiction, contradict, contradictory, benedict (with Bennett,
and the Spanish Benito and sanbenito), benediction, benison, malediction,
edict, indict, indictment, indite, interdict, interdictory, predict, prediction,
verdict, dictionary, jurisdiction. Dictare, which leads to dictate, dictation,
dictator, dictatorial, dictatorship, and the French dictee which comes out in
English as ditty, also leads to Anglo-Saxon dihtan, which comes out as
bedight. The combining form -dicare gives us abdicate, abdication, dedicate,
IE *deik, *deig ("to show")
Gk.
J J .
dike deixis
Lat
1
dico
dictus
1
dictare
1
-dicare
1
-dex
Eng.
dicast deictic
I.I 1
(directly or through French)
paradigm
1
1
1
1
etc.
Eng
dictum
dictate
abdicate
judge
dicta
dictator
dedicate
adjudge
(It. polizza)
addict
dictee
indicate
misjudge
1
contradict
ditty
predicate
judgment
Eng. policy
benedict
benison
etc.
predicament
adjudicate
index
etc.
malediction
AS dihtan
vindicate
edict
avenge
indict
Eng
bedight
preach
indite
judicial
interdict
prejudice
predict
fatidical
verdict
juridical
diction
etc.
jurisdiction
dictionary
condition
etc.
(through It.)
1
1
ditto
vendetta
Lat. digitus
I
(directly or through Fr.
AS taecean tacen
Eng. teach token
teacher betoken
etc.
Eng. digit
digitalis
prestidigitator
etc.
(Table vi, 1; Table ni, 2; Table vii, 2, Chapter 3, pp. 35, 42)
*bhd] THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES 191
dedication, indicate, indication, indicator, fatidical, predicate, predicament,
adjudicate, vindicate, revindicate. But vindicare, through Old French
vengiier, also gives us avenge, avenger, revenge, vengeful, while praedicare
becomes prechier (modern French precher) and English preach, with
preacher, preachment. Combinations with jus, "law", give us judicial,
judicable, prejudice, prejudicial, juridical, while French development
appears in judge, adjudge, misjudge, judgment. Index (plural indices)
appears in Latin form. The -ditio which is a weakening of -dictio gives
us condition, conditional, recondition. Digitus gives digit, digital, digitalis,
prestidigitator, etc.
The root *bhd, "to speak", produces in Greek a verb phemi which, in
compounds that pass into Latin and, usually, French, gives us blaspheme
and blasphemous in a more learned version, blame and blameless in a
more popular one, as well as euphemy, euphemism, prophet, prophetess,
prophecy, prophesy, prophetic, and aphasia. The noun phone, "sound",
derived from the same Greek root, enters Latin in one of its compounds,
antiphonon, which in Anglo-Saxon becomes antefen, and in later English,
anthem. More learned treatment produces antiphon and antiphony,
while other compounds give us phonic, phonetic, phonetician, phonology,
phoneme and phonemic, telephone, phonograph, apophony, metaphony, symphony,
symphonic, euphony, euphonic, diphthong, monophthong, triphthong, etc. A
Germanic cognate appears in Anglo-Saxon bannan, "to summon by
proclamation". This gives us ban, banns, banish, banishment, banal (with
banality; banal was in origin an adjective applied to feudal service,
rendered in response to a proclamation, but often performed in
perfunctory fashion, as though unimportant). In many of these later
developments, Anglo-Saxon bannan gets crossed with Old French
forms derived from the Old High German of the Franks, but going
back to the same original Germanic source. The Old High German
form appears in French banlieue; one development is Old French
abandoner, from the Latin preposition ad combined with the Germanic
bandon, "jurisdiction", with the original meaning of "to give up
legally"; this comes into English as abandon. Another form built on
the Germanic root, but coming originally through Italian, is bandit,
with banditism, banditry, etc. {banditti shows, from the Italian stand-
point, an erroneous doubling of t). Contraband, "against the law",
may have reached us from Italian or from Spanish. The Latin
192
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*bhd
descendant of the root is for, "to speak", with infinitive yen and past
participle fatus, and numerous secondary formations: facundus,
"endowed with the gift of speech" ; ya^M/a, "fable" ;ya/«or, "to avow";
fatum, "fate"; fama, "fame"; fascinus, "fascination". The root of
for produces nefarious, "unspeakable"; infant, "not speaking", with
infancy, the Spanish Infante and Infanta, infanticide, infantile, the French
erf ant gate and enfant terrible ; also infantry and infantryman (from Italian
or Spanish; the semantic progression is from child to boy to young
IE *bha ("to speak")
Gk. phemi
phone
1
Lat. for
fateor
fabula
i
1 1
(directly or through Lat. and Fr.)
(directly or
1 1
through French)
Eng. blaspheme
1
phonic
nefarious
confess
fable
blame
phonetic
infant
profess
fabulous
euphemism
phoneme
infantile
professor
confabulate
prophet
telephone
preface
etc.
ineffable
aphasia
phonograph
prefatory
Fabliaux
etc.
apophony
metaphony
symphony
euphony
diphthong
antiphon
etc.
enfant gate
(through It.)
infantry
(through Sp.)
etc.
AS
antefen
1
Infanta
Eng.
1
anthem
Lat. fama
fatum AS bannan
Eng. fame
famous
infamous
infamy
defamation
etc.
fate
fatal
fateful
fatality
fairy
etc.
ban
banish
banns
banality
(through Fr.)
abandon
banlieue
(through It.)
I
bandit
contraband
(Table ix, 2, 3, 4)
*{s)pOnd] THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES 193
man to enlisted young man or foot soldier) ; also preface and prefatory.
Facundus, "one endowed with the gift of gab" gives facundity, an
obsolete word meaning "eloquence". From fabula come fable, fabulous,
ineffable, confabulate, corifabulation, the Spanish hablar ("to speak"; the
older form wsisfablar), the Portuguese ya/ar, the Old French Fabliaux.
Two compounds of fateor [confiteor and profiteor) give us confess, con-
fession, profess, profession, professor, professorial. Fatum ("that which is
spoken") gives fate, fatal, fatalism, fatality, fateful, fated, and, through
Old French y^m^j derived from Vulgar 'Lditin fateria, "enchantment",
fairy. Fama gives fame, famous, infamy, infamous, defame, defamation. The
doubt involved in fascinus {fascinate, fascination) is that it may come
from the root of fasces, "bundle", which ■p^'^oduces fascist and fascism.
There is also the question -whether fatuus, which gives us fatuous and
infatuation, may belong here, or with the root of vapidus.
Another highly productive root is that of *{s)pend, *(s)pond, "to
draw, spin, stretch" (though in Greek and Latin it acquires a religious
significance, "to pour out a libation"). The Germanic branch shows
Anglo-Saxon spannan, leading to span (with outspan, inspan, etc.) ;
spinnan, "to spin", with spinel {spindle, spinster, spindly) ; spithre {spider,
"the one who spins"). The Greek forms are span or spaein, "to draw,
cause convulsions", which gives us spasm, spasmodic, spastic; and
sponde, "libation", which gives us spondee and spondaic. Latin has
various and varying roots: spont-, represented by {sua) sponte, "of
one's own free will"; spond-, appearing in spondeo, past participle
sponsus, "to promise, pledge"; pend-, with pendeo and its past participle
pensus, "to hang"; and pond-, shown hy pondus, "weight". Sponte gives
us spontaneous and spontaneity. Spondeo, in its various compounds,
directly or through French, gives sponsor, spouse, espouse, espousal,
despondent, despondency (here the story is curious: a father, giving away
or "desponding" his daughter to her future husband, feels depressed,
"despondent"; a less picturesque account is that you "de-spond", or
swear off, hope) ; respond, responsive, responsible, irresponsibility, response,
correspond, correspondent, correspondence, etc. Pendeo, "to hang", in its
pend- root gives us pend, impend, suspend, suspenders, append, appendage,
appendix, appendicitis, appendectomy, expend, expenditure, stipend, propend,
compendium, compendious, spend, spendthrift, spender, depend, dependent,
independence, dispend, perpendicular, pendant, pending, pendicle, pendulous.
194
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*s{s)pend
pendulum, pendule, penchant, penthouse, the painter or fastening rope of a
boat, etc. The participial root pens- gives pensile, pensive, le Penseur,
pansy (French. pensee, "thought", the flower being the thought-violet);
Spanish peso, peseta, from the idea of weight, derived from that of
"hanging in the balance") ; suspense, expense, expensive, propensity,
IE *(s)pend, *(s)pond ("to draw, spin, stretch, pour out")
Gk.
1 1 1
span sponde Lat. sponte
1 1 1 1
pend-
pens- spond-
Eng
spasm spondee spontaneous (directly
spastic spondaic spontaneity |
or through French)
spasmodic etc.
pend
penseur correspond
etc.
impend
pensive despondent
append
pensile etc.
appendix
pansy
appendage
spencer (?)
expend
suspense
stipend
expense
propend
expensive
compendium propensity
spend
compensate
spendthrift
recompense
depend
indispensable
independent
dispensary
dispend
dispensation
spender
pension
perpendicular pensionnaire
pendant
poise
pendicle
equipoise
pendulous
counterpoise
pendulum
avoirdupois
suspenders
etc.
penchant
penthouse
(through Sp.)
painter
1
etc.
peso
peseta
1 1
Lat. spons- pondus
AS spannan
1 i 1
spinnan spinel spithre
(directly or through French)
Eng. span
spin spindle spider
spinster spindly
Eng. sponsor pound
spouse poundage
espouse ponder
response ponderous
irresponsible preponderant
etc. imponderable
etc.
(Table i, 4; Table vi; for -nd- to -nn- in AS, see Chapter 3, p. 33)
*bldtian\ three-branch families 195
recompense, compensate, compensation, dispense, indispensable, dispensary,
dispensation, possibly Spencer and spencer ; pension, pensioner, the French
pension and pensionnaire. From a more popular and advanced French
development, we have poise, equipoise, counterpoise, avoirdupois. Pondus,
"weight", gives us, in various incarnations, pound and poundage,
ponder, imponderable, preponderant, ponderous, etc.
An IE root *bhel, "blade, bloom, to sprout", appears in Greek
phyllon, "leaf", from which come such scientific terms as chlorophyll,
phylliform, and phylloxera (the last is the vine disease that almost wiped
out the European wine grape, rescued in the nick of time by the
grafting of the American Concord variety, immune to the disease) . In
Latin, we have on the one hand folium, with a plural folia, from which
come foliage, foliaceous, and foil (in the sense of tinfoil) , along with
botanical terms like trifolium, folium, foliolate, and the folio used in
bookbinding, as well as the French feuilleton (it may be remarked that
the Romance words for "leaf" are derived from the Latin plural
folia (French feuille, Spanish hoja, Italian foglia, which become feminine
singulars, while in Italian the Latin singular folium remains as foglio,
"sheet of paper"). Latin also has the verh floresco, "to bloom", which,
through French, gives us flourish, and the nounflos (rootflor-), "flower",
from which come floral, flora, florid, Florida (this is a Spanish adjectival
form meaning "flowery"), Florence, florin (the Florentine coin),florescent,
efllorescent, defloration, florist, floriculture, etc. French development gives
us flower {With flowery, flowerpot, etc.), and also flour ("the flower of the
wheat") ;^fr^ {from fleurette, "little flower", used in such expressions as
conter des fleurettes, "to tell little flowery tales, sweet nothings"). There
are also fleuret and fleur-de-lys, in straight French form; Fiorello (Italian
for "little flower") ; and a special development of the feminine name
Florence to Flossie, then to floosie. On the Germanic side, we have
Anglo-Saxon blad, which becomes blade, bladre to bladder, blowan to
blow (only in the sense of flowers : full-blown) ; blegen to the -blain of
chilblain; a hypothetical *blotian to bloat. Anglo-Saxon blod, bled,
bledan give us blood, bleed, with such formations as bloody, blood-curdling,
bloodhound, bloodshot, bloodthirsty, bleeding heart, etc. Bledsian, "to conse-
crate by sprinkling with blood", becomes bless, with blessing, blessed or
blest, blessedness, etc. Lastly, there are the two blooms of English, the
metallurgical one, which comes from Anglo-Saxon blostma, bloma,
196
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
\*bhel
and the botanical one, from Old Norse blomi; while Anglo-Saxon
blostmian is responsible for blossom.
IE *bhel ("blade, bloom, to sprout")
Gk.
phyllon
Lat.
folium
floresco
1
flos, flor-
1
Eng.
chlorophyll
1 1 1
(directly or through French)
phylliform
1
1
1
phylloxera
Eng.
folium
flourish
flora
Phyllis
folio
florescent
floral
etc.
foliage
foliaceous
trifolium
foil
feuilleton
etc.
etc.
florid
florin
florist
floriculture
flower
flour
flirt
fleuret
fleur-de-lys
deflower
floosie
AS bleed blaedre *bl6tian blegen blowan blod
II I I I I
Eng. blade bladder bloat (chil-) blow
bloat (chil-)
bloater blain
etc.
blood
etc.
AS bledan bledsian blostma blostmian ON blomi
I I I I I
Eng. bleed bless bloom blossom bloom
blessing
etc. (Table ix, 2, 3, 4)
The IE root *ger, "to grow old, mature", keeps its original semantics
in Greek, where geron, "old man", gives us gerousia, the Athenian
senate, and such medical terms as gerontology and geriatrics. In Germanic,
there is a shift to the idea of a man mature enough to be free, with
the result that Old Norse karl, "freeman", gives us the house-carl of the
days of King Harold, while the same word in Anglo-Saxon, ceorl,
becomes churl, with churlish. Used as a proper name, Karl is appropriated
by Vulgar Latin and turned into Carolus and later into Charles, giving
us such proper nouns and adjectives as Charlemagne {Carolus Magnus,
"Charles the Great"), Carolingian or Carlovingian, Carlist, Carolina,
*pod] THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES 197
Carol, Charlotte, etc., as well as the colloquial charley horse. Since
Charlemagne, bearer of the name, spread its fame to the east, the
word was borrowed by Slavic and Hungarian in the forms korof,
krol, kirdlj, etc., and given in those languages the meaning of "king",
thus offering a remarkable example of semantic differentiation, with
a lowering of concept at one end that results in "churl", an enhance-
ment at the other end that results in "king". Applied to the vegetable
world, with the meaning of "mature", the root also produces Anglo-
Saxon corn and cyrnel, leading to English corn, kernel (with cornflower,
cornbread, corncob, corntassel, and even the ultra-modern corny. There
are also Anglo-Saxon cyrin, ciern, which produce English churn. The
Latin descendant, with the same meaning as corn, is granum, which
ultimately produces in English grain, ingrained, filigrain and filigree,
pomegranate, granule, granular, granulated, grenade and grenadier, granary
and grange, garner and garnet, all having some connection with grain,
as well as the Italian-derived granite. Gravy is also held by some to
come from French gram, "grained", but this is not altogether certain.
IE *ger ("to grow old, mature")
Gk.
1 1
geron Lat. granum
ON karl AS ceorl
1
corn
cyrin
cyrnel
Eng.
gerousia |
1 (directly or
gerontology through Fr.)
geriatrics |
gerousia Eng. grain
etc. ingrained
filiffrain
Eng. karl
Eng. churl
churlish
ciern
corn churn
corny
etc.
OHG Karl —
kernel
filigree |
granule (through Vulgar
granulated Latin and French)
grenade |
grenadier Eng. Charles
pomegranate Carolingian
grange Carlovingian
granary Carlist
garner Carolina
garnet Carol
Charlotte
(through It.) charley horse
granite
etc.
(Table vii, 2)
The IE root '^ped, *pod, "foot", gives us Anglo-Saxon /of, leading to
foot (with football, footprint, footstep, footpath, foothold, foothill, footing.
198
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*ped
footman, footpad, afoot, underfoot, and disguised forms like fetlock) ;
Anglo-Saxon feotor, which becomes fetter ; fetian, "to go on a foot
IE *ped, *pod ("foot")
Gk.
pous
pod-
ped-
Lat
ped-
1
1
pecco (?)
Eng.
octopus
podium
1
Gk. trapeza
(d
irectly or
Eng. peccant
platypus
podiatry
1
through Fr.)
impeccable
Oedipus
tripod
Eng. trapeze
1
etc.
octopod
cephalopod
trapezoid
Eng
-ped
ped-
(through Sp.)
gastropod
Gk. pedotes
pedal
peccadillo
polyp
1
pedestrian
antipodes
It. pilota
pedicure
etc.
1
Eng. pilot
velocipede
pedicle
petiolate
palmiped .
biped
quadruped
sesquiped-
pedigree
pawn
pioneer
cap a pie
expedite
expedition
expedient
impede
impediment
impeach
repudiate
etc.
(through It.)
Eng. piedmont
pedestal
(through Sp.)
I
Eng. peon
peonage
Lat. pejor ( ?)
pessimus (
Eng. pejorative
impair
pessimism
pessimist
etc.
AS fot
feotor fetian
Eng. foot fetter fetch
afoot fetching
underfoot
fetlock
(Table i, 4; Table vt, 1)
*pet] THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES 199
journey", which turns into fetch, with fetching. Greek pous, pod-,
produces forms in -pod, -pode, -poda, and also forms in -pus: octopus,
platypus, Oedipus, podium, tripod, podiatry, podiatrist, octopod, cephalopod,
gastropod, polyp {poly-pod, "many-footed"), antipodes ; and, in disguised
form, trapeze and trapezoid (originally tetra-ped-, "four-footed"). There
is also a Greek pedotes, which gets into Italian in the form pedota,
pidota, pilota, and eventually gives us pilot. Latin forms, from pes, ped-,
"foot", include pedal, pedestrian, pedicure, velocipede, pedicle, petiolate,
palmiped, biped, quadruped, sesquipedalian ("a foot and a half long"), the
Italian pedestal, the French pied de grue, "crane's foot", which turns
into pedigree (the genealogical lines being likened to the diverging toes
of a crane). The ped- that means "foot" must be carefully distinguished
from the ped- that comes from Greek pais, paid- and means "child"
{pediatrician, pedagogue, etc.). There are semi-disguised forms oi ped- in
the Spanish-derived peon and peonage, equivalent to the pawn of chess
{pedonem, "foot-man, foot soldier, man on foot", as distinguished from
the member of the upper classes, who rides), and the French-derived
pioneer. Piedmont is the Italian pie di monte, "foot of the mountain,
foothill". Cap a pie is straight French for "head to foot". Compounds
include expedient, expediency, expedite, expedition, expeditionary, expeditious,
impede, impediment, impedimenta (this is straight Latin, and was used in
Roman army circles for "baggage, that which got underfoot when you
wanted to march or fight"). Latin impedio, "to impede, hinder, get
between the feet of", led to a Vulgar Latin formation impedicare,
which in French became empecher and in English impeach, with impeach-
ment ("to hinder, prevent one from performing his appointed functions')
There are also repudiate and repudiation. Forms that are somewhat
dubiously linked with the foot root are Latin peccare, "to sin" (with
peccant, impeccable, the Spanish-derived pecadillo, "trifling sin", mis-
spelt, probably by Latin or Italian influence, as peccadillo) ; pejor,
"worse", leading X.o pejorative, impair, impairment, etc.: pessimus, "worst",
leading to pessimism, pessimist, etc.
The IE root *pet, "to fly, fall", produces an Anglo-Saxon fether,
which ultimately htcom.es feather {-with feathery , featherbed, featherweight,
etc.). In Greek, we have pipto, "to fall", from which come ptosis, a
scientific term for a falling of the eyelid, and ptoma, "corpse, fallen
body", from which we derive ptomaine; also potamos, "river, falling
200
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*petsna
body of water", which appears in hippopotamus ("river-horse") and
Mesopotamia (the land "between the rivers", Tigris and Euphrates).
There is also in Greek the form pteryx, "wing", from which we get
diptera, coleoptera, hymenoptera, lepidoptera, and other classes of insects
described by their wings, as well as pterodactyl. Latin forms include
penna and pinna (the latter apparently a dialectal form) , derived from
an original *petsna, and from these come pen (with penknife, penmanship,
pennant, etc.) ; pinna, pinnate, pinniped, pinion, pinnacle, and, through
IE *pet ("to fly, fall")
1
1.
Gk. ptosis
ptoma
potamos
pteryx
1
Lat. penna, pinna
1
Eng. ptosis
ptomaine
hippopotamus
Mesopotamia
diptera
coleoptera
hymenoptera
pterodactyl
etc.
(directly or
through Fr.)
Eng. pen
pennant
pinna
pinnate
pinniped
pinion
pinnacle
etc.
It. pennacchio
Fr. panache
Eng. panache
1
Lat. peto
I
(directly or
through Fr.)
Eng. centripetal
petulant
petition
appetite
impetus
impetuous
compete
competent
competitor
repeat
repetition
perpetual
AS fether
Eng. feather
(Table i, 4; Table ii, 1-)
*p9ter]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
201
Italian pennacchio, the French panache. Another Latin form is peto, "to
seek, fall upon, attack"; here compound forms give us centripetal^
petulant, petition, appetite, appetizing, appetizer, impetus, impetuous, compete,
competence, competitor, repeat, repetition, repetitious, perpetual, perpetuity,
perpetuate, etc.
IE *p9ter, "father", produces Anglo-Saxon fader, which becomes
father, with fatherhood, fatherly, father-in-law, godfather, grandfather, etc.
The High German variant Vater gives us Vaterland. Greek pater gives
IE *p3ter ("father")
Gk.
1
pater
patriotes
pappas
1
Lat. pater
1
patrare
Eng.
patronymic
patriot
papacy
1 1 1
(directly or through Fr.)
patrology
compatriot
papal
1
1
patriarch
patriotism
Pope
Eng. pater
perpetrate
patristic
patriotic
antipope
paternal
impetrate
etc.
etc.
Fr.
Eng.
papa
pappy
pa
paw
pop
papeline
poplin
paternalism
paternity
Jupiter
patricide
patrimony
patron
patronage
patronize
pattern
compeer (?)
patter
patrician
Patrick
etc.
(through It.)
padrone
(through Du.)
patroon
Lat. patria
(directly or
through Fr.)
I
Eng. expatriate
repatriate
repair
r
AS fader Ger. Vater
Eng. father
etc.
Vaterland
(Table i, 4; Table ii, 1)
202 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*Spek
forms like patronjmic, patrology, patriarch, while patriotes supplies patriotic,
patriotism, patriot, compatriot. Latin pater, coinciding in form with the
Greek, produces paternal, paternalism, paternity, patristic (this, however,
may equally well come from the Greek), Jupiter [Deus Pater, "God the
Father"); straight Latin forms like pater familias and pater patriae;
patricide or parricide, patrimony ; patron, patroness, patronize, patronage, and
the Italian padrone; the Spanish and Italian padre, the British pater,
the French pere ; possibly compeer, where par and pater seem to merge
(French compere and Italian compare may favor the former, Spanish
compadre the latter) ; pattern and the Dutch patroon, both derived from
French patron ; patter ("glib or rapid speech"), which is a vulgarization
of Pater Noster, "Our Father", or the Lord's Prayer; patrician, with
Patrick, Patricia and Pat; perpetrate, perpetrator, impetrate are compounds
of patrare, derived from pater ; while expatriate, repatriate, and French
descendant repairier (which gives us repair in the sense of "betake
oneself, go back to one's own country") stem from patria, "native
land". A Greek form pappas, said to be a childish corruption of pater,
eventually produces papacy, papal, papish. Pope, antipope, popery, poplin
(from Papelin, the papal town of Avignon), as well as papa, pappy, paw
and pop. Doubt attaches to the Latin proprius, which some authorities
derive from pro-patrius, others from pro-privus, "by particular or private
right". Proprius appears in proper, property, improper, propriety, impropriety,
proprietor, proprietary, appropriate, appropriation, misappropriate, expropriate,
propitious, proximity, approach, reproach, etc.
The IE root *spek, *skep (with metathesis, or interchange in the
position of k and p) means "to scout, look keenly". The Anglo-Saxon
forms have not come down to us, but the kindred Old High German
spehon, passing into Old French, eventually becomes English spy
(with spyglass) and espy, while the same root, passing into Italian,
becomes spione, which then comes to English through French in the
form of espionage. Two Greek forms appear, skeptomai, from which we
get skeptic, skeptical, skepticism; and skopein, which through Italian
gives us scope, and as a learned word produces -scope and -scopic, as in
gyroscope, kaleidoscopic, telescope, horoscope, stethoscope, periscope, stereoscope,
microscope (abbreviated to mike). A compound of skopein is episkopein,
"to oversee", and here we get episcopate. Episcopal, etc.; this word,
borrowed in the days of early Christianity from Greek by Latin in the
''skep]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
203
form episcopus, produced the Anglo-Saxon biscop which later became
bishop (with bishopric, archbishop, etc.). Latin forms include species,
with its adjective specialis ; the noun speculum, "mirror"; and the verb
specio with past participle spectus and numerous compounds {aspicio,
conspicio, respicio, despicio, circumspicio, etc.). Other verbal formations
are built on the participial root, giving forms like exspecto. From
species and specialis we get species and specie, special and especial, specious,
specify and specification, specialty or speciality, specialist, specialization,
specimen, spice, spicy, spicery. Specu- gives us speculum, specular, speculate.
IE *spek, *
''skep ("
o scout, look
keenly")
Gk.
1
skept-
1
1
skop-
Lat.
1
species
1
specu-
1 1
-spicio
Eng.
sceptic
-scope
(directly
or through French)
etc.
episcopal
1
1
1
Eng
species
speculum
auspice
AS biscop
specie
special
speculate
specula
conspic-
despic-
Eng. bishop
specialty
speculative
suspic-
etc.
specialist
specious
specify
specimen
spice
spicy
etc.
etc.
perspic-
frontispiece
respite
despise
despite
spite
etc.
Lat. -spect-
OHG spehon
(directly or
OF espier
through Fr.)
Eng. spectacle
Eng. spy
specter
espy
haruspex
spectro-
It. spione
aspect
1
circumspect
Eng. espionage
expect
perspective
prospect
respect
retrospect
irrespective
introspection
suspect
spectrum
etc.
(Table i, 4; Table hi, 2, 3)
204 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS \_*gen
Speculation, speculator, speculative. Spic- gives us auspice, auspicious, con-
spicuous, despicable, perspicuous, perspicuity, perspicacity, suspicious, frontispiece,
respite, despise, despite and the cut-down spite, spiteful, spitefulness .
Spect- and specto give spectacle, spectacular, specter, spectral, spectrum,
spectroscope, haruspex, aspect, circumspect, circumspection, expect, expectant,
expectation, expectancy, perspective, prospect, prospector, prospective, prospectus,
respect, respectful, respectable, respectability, irrespective, retrospect, intro-
spection, suspect, etc.
The IE root *gen, "to beget", is one of the most fruitful in our
language. On the Germanic side, it produces Anglo-Saxon cynn,
cennan, which give us kin (with kinship, kinsman, kinsfolk, akin) ; Anglo-
Saxon gecynd, leading to kind, unkind, kindness, kindly; Anglo-Saxon
cyning (this is cynn with an -ing which is a patronymic suffix: "kin-
born"), which becomes king, with kingly, kingship, kinglet, kingdom,
kingfish, etc. There is the possibility, but by no means the certainty,
that Anglo-Saxon cniht may also belong to this group, in which case
we would also have knight, knighthood, knightly, etc., as well as the
German Knecht and Landsknecht. German Kind, which definitely
belongs to this family, gives us kindergarten. In Greek, the verb gignomai
produces two stems, gen- and gon-. The first appears in gene, genealogy,
genesis, genetic, palingenesis, heterogenous and heterogeneous, homogenous
and homogeneous, homogenize, genotype, genocide (a Greek-Latin hybrid),
epigene, oxygen, hydrogen, eugenic, exogenous, Eugene, etc. The second
helps to form gonococcus, gonorrhea, theogony, cosmogony, gonad, and many
other compounds. Latin genus, gener- appears in genus, genera, French
genre, gender, engender, genitive, possibly genuine (but this may come
from the root of knee, or that of cheek; see pp. 105, 155); progeny,
progenitor, congenital, genito-urinary, primogeniture, generic, generate, genera-
tion, degenerate, degeneration, degenerative, regenerate, regeneration, generous,
generosity, miscegenation, ingenuous, ingenious, ingenuity, French ingenue,
engine, engineer, engineering, gin (in the sense of "machine"), congenial,
congeniality, congener, indigenous, genius, genial, geniality, general, generalise,
generality, generalization, Italian generalissimo. Latin gens, gent-, from the
same root, "race, nation", appears in gentle, genteel, Gentile, jaunty,
gentility, gentry, gentleman, gentlewoman, gendarme. Latin germen, "germ,
seed", appears in germ, germane, germinate, germinal, possibly German.
The *gen root appears in Latin gn-ascor, nascor, "to be born", with
*gen]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
IE *gen ("to beget")
205
Gk. gen-
gon-
Lat.
genus
1
gens
germen
1
1
gener-
gent
-
Eng. gene
gonococcus
1
1
genealogy
gonorrhea
(directly or through French) 1
genesis
theogony
1
1
1
genetic
cosmogony
Eng.
genus
gentle germ
genotype
etc.
genera
gentry germane
genocide
genre
genteel germinate
palingenesis
gender
Gentile germinal
heterogenous
engender
jaun
ty etc.
homogenous
generate
gendarme |
homogeneous
genitive
progeny
etc.
epigene
1
oxygen
congenital
Lat. (g)nascor
hydrogen
genito-
(g)natus
eugenic
generic
1
Eugene
regenerate
(directly or
exogenous
degenerate
through Fr.)
etc.
generous
generosity
Eng. nascent
miscegenation
renascent
ingenuous
renaissance
ingenue
pregnant
engine
malignant
engineer
benign
gin
innate
congenital-
natal
congener
prenatal
indigenous
Natal
genius
Noel
genial
cognate
general
impregnate
generalize
puny
generality
aine
etc.
(through It.)
-
etc.
1
1
Lat. natio
generalissimo
1
(directly or
through Fr.)
1
1 _
Eng. nation
national
nationalize
international
etc.
1
Lat. natura
nativus AS
cynn
1 1 .
gecynd cyning
OHG kind
(directly or throu
gh Fr.) Eng.
kin
kind k
1
ing
Ger. Kindergarten
1
1
akin
kindness k
ingly
1
Eng. nature
native
kinsman kindly k
ingdom
Eng. kindergarten
natural
nativity
kinsfolk
kindred k
ingship
denature
naif
kinship
k
ingfish
naturalize
naive
naturalist
naivete
supernatural
preternatural
unnatural
etc.
(Table vii, 2)
206 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*gen
past participle ^na^M J or natus, and several derivatives: nativus, "native",
natio, "nation", natura, "nature". {G)nascor and {g)natus give us cognate,
impregnate, pregnant, malignant, benignant, benign, benignity, puny (which is
the French puis ne, "later born", from Latin post natus), opposed to
aine, "before born", from ante natus ; as well as the French ne, nee; we
also have innate, nascent, renascent. Renaissance, and, from the adjective
natalis, "pertaining to a birth", natal, prenatal. Natal, Noel. Nativus
gives us native, nativity, naif, naive, naivete. Natio gives us nation, national,
international, nationalism, nationalize, nationality, denationalize, anti-
national, etc. From natura come nature, denature, natural, naturalize,
naturalization, naturalist, supernatural, preternatural, unnatural, etc.
Another IE root that has vast ramifications in English is that of
another *gen meaning "to know". Here we have the Anglo-Saxon
forms cennan from which come ken and kenning; cndwan, which gives us
know, with knowledge, acknowledge, acknowledgment, know-how, know-
nothing, unknown, unbeknownst, etc.; cene, leading to keen, which has the
earlier meaning of "bold, wise"; cunnan, cann, which becomes can, and
has a present participle cunning and a past participle cuth, which gives
us couth and uncouth (in origin, cunning is "knowing", couth is "known,
familiar", and uncouth is "unknown, unfamiliar, strange"). There is
also a derivative form cyth, meaning "known or native land", which
becomes kith; and there is a Middle English development connan,
which gives us con, with conning-tower. It may be mentioned that German
Kunst, "art", also comes from this root. Greek gnome and gignosko give
us gnome, gnomic, physiognomy; gnostic, agnostic, diagnose, diagnostic,
diagnostician, prognosis, prognostic, prognosticate, etc. Latin gnosco or nosco
develops into ignorant, ignorance, ignore, ignoramus (Latin for "we don't
know") ; cognize, cognition, cognoscenti (said to be an Italian form, but
apparently blended with Latin, as the Italian would be conoscenti),
cognizant, cognizance, recognize, recognition, connoisseur (Old French),
reconnaissance, reconnoiter, acquaint and acquaintance (from Old French
acointier, from Vulgar Latin ad-cognitare) , cut down to quaint and
quaintness, the Italian incognito, possibly the Latin cognomen and agnomen
(but these are more likely to come from the related nomen, "name",
and there is a more remote possibiHty that they may be linked with
the root of the *gen that means "to beget"). The past participle of
{g)nosco, (g)notus, yields note (with notebook, noteworthy, n.b. for nota bene.
*gen]
THREE-BRANCH FAMILIES
207
"note well", notice, notify, notification, noticeable, notion, notional, denote,
denotation, prenotion, notable, notability, notabilia, notary, notarial, notarize,
notate, notation, annotate, annotation, connote, connotation, notorious, notoriety,
etc. {G)nobilis, literally "knowable", gives noble, nobility, nobleman,
noblewoman, ennoble, ignoble, nobilitate, noblesse oblige, and, if the tale is
true (it is more likely to be pure folk etymology), snob, from an
abbreviation s. nob., for sine nobilitate, "without nobility", said to have
been entered after the names of people without titles. Two ramifica-
tions of the Latin know root are norma, "carpenter's square", which
gives us norm, normal, normalcy, normalize, normality, anormal, abnormal,
normative, enormous^ enormity, etc.; and narro, "to narrate, make known",
from which come narrative, narrator, narration, etc. Slavic cognates,
with z for western g, include Russian znai' , "to know", and znamya,
"banner".
IE *gen ("to know")
Gk
(gi)gnosko
gnome
Lat
. (g)nosco
1
(g)notus
1
1
(g)nobilis
1
norma
Eng
gnostic
gnome
1 1
(directly or through
1
French)
agnostic
gnomic
1
1
1
diagnose
physiognomy
ignorant
note
noble
norm
prognosis
ignorance
n. b.
nobility
normal
prognostic
ignoramus
noteworthy
nobleman
normalcy
etc.
ignore
notify
noblesse
normalize
cognizant
notice
ignoble
normative
cognition
denote
ennoble
abnormal
recognize
notion
etc.
anormal
reconnaissance
notable
enormous
reconnoiter
notabilia
enormity
connoisseur
notary
etc.
acquaint
notarize
quaint
notate
annotation
(through It.)
connotation
denotation
cognoscenti
notorious
incognito
notoriety
etc.
Lat. narro
AS
1
cennan
cene cunnan cnawan
cuth
cyth
cann
Eng. narrate
ken
keen can
know
1
couth kith
narrative
kenning cunning knowledge uncouth
narrator
con
acknowledge
narration
unbeknownst
etc.
(Table vn, 2)
CHAPTER 7
Families of Four and Five Branches
These are relatively scarce, but there are enough to offer a good
sampling. For the most part, they are made up of the familiar three
(Greek, Latin, Germanic), with the addition of one or two of the
other branches (Indo-Iranian, Celtic, Slavic) with which there have
been fairly abundant contacts. It is of interest that Albanian and
Armenian never appear, save for doubtful proper names. It is also of
interest that in the case of Celtic, we are often left in doubt whether
the original borrowing was from Celtic to Latin or vice-versa.
One root of apparently four branches, in which considerable
confusion appears, by reason of the possibility of a Semitic (non-
Indo-European) influence, coupled with a seeming suspension of the
phonological law for what concerns the Germanic forms, is the call-
word *baba, "to babble, stammer". Here we have Sanskrit barbaras
and Greek barbaros (originally "stammerer, one who does not speak"
the language of civilization), leading to barbarian, barbarous, barbaric,
Barbary, Berber and J) arb (the horse from Barbary), as well as rhubarb,
the barbarous or foreign plant from the banks of the river Volga,
which was Rha to the ancient Greeks. Latin balbus, balbutio appear in
English only in proper names {Balbo, Balboa), though in the Romance
languages they lead to forms meaning "to stammer" (Italian balbuziare) .
Germanic forms include baby, first appearing in Middle English; and
babble, in which there is a strong possibility of an influx from Semitic
bab, "gate" {Bab-el, Bab-ilu, or Babylon, "the gate of the god"; Bab el
Mandeb, "the gate of tears"). The Biblical episode of the Tower of
Babel involved a confusion and stammering of tongues. German
Bube, "boy", may also come from this root. In Slavic, it gives rise to
the word for "grandmother" (a "stammering old woman"), baba,
208
J
"A:?^]
FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES
209
with a diminutive babushka; the latter is appropriated by English in
the sense of "headkerchief, that which the little old Russian grand-
mother wears". Another form said to stem from this root is the Italian
babbo, "daddy".
Sem. bab, "gate" — IE *baba ("to babble, stammer")
Sem.
bab, bab-el
Gk. barbaros
Rus. baba, babushka
Middle Eng.
Eng.
babi(?)
baby
babble (?)
(through Lat.
and Fr.)
Eng. barbarous
barbarian
barb
Barbary
Berber
rhubarb
Eng. babushka
(Table v, 1 — inoperative by reason
of nature of word or Semitic influx)
One interesting group in which Indo-Iranian joins the customary
three of the western world is *penky:e, the IE root for "five". Here
both Latin and Germanic show assimilation, Germanic of the pro-
gressive variety, with the Germanic f of the initial syllable bringing
on another y in place of the IE *A;?^, which should have given *hw or
*wh in Germanic; while Latin has retrogressive assimilation, with
the *ky: of the second syllable turning the initial *p into another *A;^
(other Italic dialects, such as Oscan, show the expected p in both
places; Oscan has pompe corresponding to Latin quinque). From Indo-
Iranian come the Sanskrit Pancatantra ("five books") of the sacred
Hindu writings; Punjab (Sanskrit and Hindustani /jaraja^, "five rivers"),
with Punjabi, and the drink punch, which is Sanskrit and Hindi panca,
"five", because originally made with five ingredients. Greek pente
yields such compounds as pentagon, pentathlon, pentameter, Pentateuch,
Pentecost. Latin quinque gives us quinquagenarian, Quinquagesima, quin-
quennium {Cinquecento is from Italian, and Cinque Ports from French) ;
quinctus or quintus, "fifth", gives quintuple, quintuplet, quint, quintessence,
Quentin; and quini, "by fives", gives rise to keno. Pompeii and Pontius
may show the Oscan form pompe. In Anglo-Saxon we have f if, which
becomes Jive (with Jiver, etc.) ; fifta, which yields Jifth (with Jifth wheel,
fifth column, etc.) ; fiftig and fiftyne, which become fifty and fifteen.
210
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*penk'ie
Finger {-with Jinger nail, finger wave, etc.), which has the same form in
Anglo-Saxon, probably comes from the five root, though some authori-
ties prefer to connect it with the root of fang.
*IE penkVe ("five")
Skt. panca
Eng. Pancatantra
Punjab
punch
Gk. pente
Lat. quinque
quintias
pentagon
Pentateuch
Pentecost
pentameter
pentathlon
etc.
Quinquagesima quintuple
quinquagenarian quintuplet
quini
I
keno
quinquennium
(through Fr.
and It.)
cinquefoil
Cinque Ports
Cinquecento
quint
quintessence
Quentin
etc.
\
AS f if
I
Eng. five
fiver
etc.
fifta fiftig fift;yne
fifth fifty fifteen
(Table i, 4; Table iv, I, 3, 4, 5)
Another four-branch root that includes Indo-Iranian in addition
to the familiar Greek, Latin, and Germanic is that of IE *mus, "mouse,
rat". Here Anglo-Saxon mus provides us with mouse and mousy, while
an imagery that extends also to Greek, likening a rippling muscle to a
scurrying mouse, appears in Latin musculus, "little mouse" [muscle,
muscular, musculous, intramuscular, etc.). From Anglo-Saxon musle,
derived from Latin musculus, we get mussel. In cases other than the
nominative, the Latin root is mur-, by reason of the fact that Latin
turns s between vowels to r. Hence, we have marmot and marmoset,
through French, from a Latin murem montanum, "mountain mouse".
The Greek mys, myo- gives us scientific forms in myo- {myotic, myotomy,
myocarditis, myology, etc.), and myosotis, which is "mouse-ear". Lastly,
there are two separate Indo-Iranian developments that reach us.
One is Sanskrit muska, or Old Persian mushk, which becomes Greek
moskos, Latin muscus and English musk {muskmelon, musk-ox, muskrat,
etc.), with the possibility that this may extend to muscatel (the alterna-
tive theory is that muscat may come from the city of Masqat in
*did] FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES 211
Mesopotamia, where muscatel grapes are alleged to have first been
grown). The other is Sanskrit musa-angusa, "mouse-mongoose",
which in Mahratti, a modern language of India, becomes mungus, and
ultimately reaches us as mongoose, the little ferret-like animal that
destroys cobras.
IE *mus ("mouse, rat")
1
Skt. muska
musa-angusa Gk,
. mys, myo- I-at. mus musculus AS mus
1
1
1 mur- 1 1
OPers. mushk
1
(through Gk.
and Lat.) Eng.
Mahratti
mungus
mongoose
Eng. myology | Eng. mouse
myocarditis (through Fr.) mousy
myosotis | |
etc. Eng. marmot muscle
mar- muscular
Eng. musk
moset etc.
AS musle
1
Eng. mussel
(Chapter 2, p. 17; Table xvi, 1, 2)
The IE root *dei, appearing also as *dey9, *di, *did, means "bright,
to shine". In Anglo-Saxon, it produces the name of the god Tig or
Tiw (the Norse Tjr), of which the genitive case, Tiwes, appears in
Tiwesdteg, which becomes Tuesday. In Indo-Iranian, we have Sanskrit
deva, "god" and devi, "goddess", as well as Hindustani deodar, from
Sanskrit devadaru, "god's tree". Greek Zeus, with its genitive Dios,
gives us Dioscuri (Zeus' sons) and dianthus (Zeus' flower). In Latin we
have Jup{p)iter [Deus Pater, "god the father"), with its other case
forms in Jov-, fiom which come Jove, jovial, joviality ; a further extension
of this palatalized form appears in Julius, from which come such
names as Julian, Julia, Juliet, the month of July, the soup named
julienne. The unpalatalized form appears in deus, "god" {deus ex
machina), from which come deify, deijication, deity, joss (which is a
Portuguese-Chinese development of deus), French Dieu and adieu,
Spanish Dios and adios ("to God"). There are also the name Diana
(originally Diviana), and divus, divinus, from which come the Italian
diva and the English divine, divinity, divination. In addition, there is the
Latin dies, "day" (despite the similarity of appearance and meaning,
the two words are unrelated; English day comes from the root of
dawn; to be related, the English form should have t, not d). Dies gives
rise to Italian di, the French -di of lundi, mardi, the Spanish dia; it
212
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*dei
appears in Latin form in per diem and sine die; in triduum, diary, diarist,
diurnal, dial and dialing, dismal, (Old French dis mal, from Latin dies
mali, "day of evil"); in hodiernal (Latin hodie, "this day, today"); diet
(only in the sense of "governmental body", which meets daily, or
requires a day's journey to reach; the food diet comes from Greek
daiaita, "mode of living"); quotidian, meridian (with a.m. and p.m.),
meridional and the French midi {medium diem, "midday") ; it is implied
in dominical (from dies dominica, "the day of the Lord"). A derivative,
diurnus, "daily", produces French jowr, which gives ns journal, journalist,
journalism, journey, journeyman, adjourn, adjournment, sojourn.
IE *dei, ♦deya, *di, *dia ("bright, to shine")
Skt.
1
deva
devi
devadaru
1
Gk.
Zeus, Di-
1
Lat
1 1
Jupiter Julius
Jov-
Hind.
deodar
Eng.
Dioscuri
1
1
dianthus
(directly or through Fr.)
Eng.
deva
deodar
devi
Eng. Jove Julius
jovial Juliet
etc. julienne
etc.
Lat.
Deus
divinus
divus
dies
diurnus
AS Tiwesdaeg
Eng.
deify
deity
divine
divinity
per diem
sine die
Tuesday
deism
divination
diary
dial
(through Pt.)
(through
It.)
triduum
1
1
hodiernal
joss
diva
quotidian
meridian
(through Fr.)
a.m.
1.
p.m.
adieu
(through Fr.)
(through Sp.^
!
1
dismal
adios
midi
journal
journalist
adjourn
sojourn
(Table vi, V
The IE root *yu-go-m, "yoke", appears in Anglo-Saxon as geoc,
geocian, giving rise to yoke, noun and verb, and possibly yokel. In
FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES
213
*yeu-g]
Sanskrit it appears in Yoga and Yogin, "Yogi" (from Yuga, "the four
ages of the world"). Greek forms include zeugma (from the root of
zeugnymi, "to unite"), which appears in English, and zygon, which
gives rise to zygo- compounds {zygote, zygospore, syzygy, etc.). In Latin,
we have the verb jungo, with past participle junctus, developing into
French joindre, joint ; the verb juvo, with past participle jm^mj-, which, in
the compound form ad-jutare, develops into Old French aidier (modern
French aider) ; the nouns jugum, "yoke", and jumentum, "beast of
burden"; the did]e.ctiwc. jucundus (originally "helpful", then, possibly
with an assist from joco, "to play", "jocund, jolly") ; and the adverb-
preposition juxta, "near, adjoining". These give rise to numerous
English forms: juncture, junction, conjunction, conjuncture, conjunctive, con-
junctivitis, disjunctive, injunction, subjunctive ; conjugate, conjugal, conjugation,
subjugate ; join, joiner, joint, adjoin, disjoin, subjoin, enjoin, rejoin, rejoinder;
the Spanish jMwte; adjuvant, adjutant, coadjutor, aid, aide ; jugular, jumentous ;
jocund, jocundity, the Italian Gioconda; juxtapose, juxtaposition, joust,
jostle; and, possibly, adjust, adjustment (though here the possibility
that the root may be that oi Justus, "just", is strong).
IE *yu-go-m, *yeu-g ("yoke")
Skt. yuga
Gk. zeugma zygon
1 1
Lat. jungo junctus
jugum
. 1
juvo, ad-juto
yoga
1 1
1
1
1
(directly or through French)
Eng. Yoga
zeugma zygote
1 1
1
1
Yogi
zygospore
juncture
conjugal
adjuvant
syzygy
junction
conjugate
adjutant
etc.
conjunction
subjunctive
disjunctive
injunction
join
jugular
aid
aide
coadjutor
1
1
joint
Lat. jucundus juxta
adjoin
1
1
"disjoin
(directly or
through Fr.)
subjoin
1
1
enjoin
Eng. jocund
juxtapose
rejoin
jocundity joust
jostle
(through Sp.)
junta
AS geoc
1
Eng. yoke
yokel
(Table xiii, 1, 2, 3)
214 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*bak \
A root in which four branches possibly appear (the fourth, Celtic,
presents some doubtful features) is IE *bak, "support staff, rod".
This in Greek produces bakterion, "staff, rod", from which come, in
Latin form, bacterium and its plural bacteria, with bacterial, bacteriology,
bacteriophage, etc. (the germ, under the microscope, looks like a little
rod) . The same transfer of meaning appears in Latin baculum, bacillus,
from baca or bacca, "rod, staff". Latin bacca becomes confused with
Celtic bach, meaning "young, young man", so that baccalaris becomes |
bachelier in French and bachelor in English; but there is more than a I
suspicion that the Celtic form may have been previously borrowed from i
Latin baca. A further confusion appears in the meaning of the ending
-laris with laureus, "laurel", and this leads to baccalaureate. Baca or bacca
further develops into French baie, which appears in English as bay \
(leaf). There are further possible but doubtful extensions in Bacchus, I
with Bacchanal, Bacchanalian, Bacchic, etc., and in French debacle, j
Anglo-Saxon pagel, pagl, "gage-rod", gives rise to peg and pail (the |
latter in origin a wine-measure) ; some authorities suppose that the '
Anglo-Saxon form may have been borrowed from Latin pagella or ]
patella, but the semantics, as well as the phonological development, ;
seem to favor a native Anglo-Saxon development. i
IE *bak ("support, staff, rod") |
Gk. bakterion Lat. baca, bacca Celt, bach ( ?) AS paegel
Lat. bacterium (directly or through French) Eng. pail
Eng. bacteria Eng. baccalaureate bachelor ME pegge
bacteriology bay (leaf) |
etc. Bacchic ( ?) Eng. peg
debacle ( ?)
(Table v, 1; Table hi, 2, 3)
IE *ker, "horn, top", gives Anglo-Saxon and English horn (with
horny, hornbill, hornpipe, hornswoggle, dehorn, etc.) ; and Anglo-Saxon
heorot, which gives us hart, while a kindred Dutch form supplies
hartebeest, and Scandinavian hrdn appears in Old Norse as hreinndyri,
which in English becomes reindeer. Greek keras, "horn", appears in
rhinoceros ("nose-horn"), and in various learned forms in kera- {keratin,
keratoid, trikeratops, etc.) ; while the derivative kranion, "skull", through
Latin, yields cranium, cranial, hemicrania, which French fashions into
*guer]
FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES
215
migraine and English further contorts into megrim. The horn root in
Celtic form appears in the name of Cornwall, with Cornish and the
common noun Cornish hen; it may also appear in cerevisia, the word
that gives us Old French cervoise and Spanish cerveza, "beer", if we
accept the hypothesis that the original meaning is "deer-colored",
and that the word does not come from the name of Ceres, goddess of
the harvest. Latin forms include cornu, from which we get corn (in the
sense of a horny excrescence, usually on the foot), cornea, cornucopia,
cornet, tricorn, Capricorn, unicorn, etc., while from a derivative corneria,
French corniere, comes corner, with cornerstone, etc.; cervus, "deer",
which gives French cerf and English cervine; cervix, which gives cervix
and cervical; cerebrum, which yields cerebrum, cerebral, cerebrate, cerebellum,
etc. A Slavic cognate appears in Russian korova, "cow", but does not
get into English. jj, ^^^^ ^.^^^^^^ ^^p„)
Gk.
1
keras
kranion
Lat.
1
cornu
1
1
cervus
1
cervix
1
cerebrum
1
Eng.
kera-
keratin
trikeratops
(directly, or
through Lat.
and Fr.)
Eng.
1
(directly
corn
1 1 1
or through French)
cervine cervix cerebrum
rhinoceros
1
cornea
cervical
cerebral
etc.
cranmm
cranial
hemicrania
migraine
megrim
etc.
cornet
cornucopia
tricorn
unicorn
Capricorn
corner
etc.
cerebrate
cerebellum
etc.
1
Celt, corn-
I
Eng. Cornwall
Cornish (hen)
AS
Eng.
horn
I
horn
hornbill
hornpipe
dehorn
etc.
heorot Du. hart
hart Eng. hartebeest
ON hran
hreindyri
j
Eng. reindeer
(Table hi, 2, 3)
A doubtful four-branch family (the doubt attaches to the Celtic
branch) is IE *gy:er, "hard". This in Sanskrit produces ^wrwA, "heavy",
which comes into English as guru, "teacher, one who is heavy or
influential by reason of his learning". The Greek barys, "heavy",
gives us barytone, isobar, barium, barometer, barograph; while hybris,
"wild boar", analyzed as "on-heavy, heavy upon" gives us hybrid and
216 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS \*bheregh
hybridism (the wild boar is the descendant of a wild pig and a tame
sow). Latin gravis gives us grave (in the "serious", not in the "burial-
place" sense; the latter comes through Germanic, from a different
root) ; gravity, gravitate, gravitation, aggravate, aggravation, as well as the
French-derived grief, grieve, grievous, grievance, etc. The apparently
Oscan brutus (there is also a possibility that Latin may have borrowed
this form from Celtic bruth, "weight") gives us brute, brutal, brutality,
brutalize, brutish, and the French brut, applied to champagne. A possible
Celtic form appears in Old Irish brig, "strength", which may be the
source of Italian forms that give us English brigand, brigade, brigadier,
brigandage, brigantine or brig (but it is more likely that the Celtic brig
forms come from the root of *bheregh, "high, lofty", related to German
Berg, "mountain" and to English borough and barrow). The Germanic
cognate, which does not develop in Anglo-Saxon, appears in Old
High German kreg and modern German Krieg, from which English
borrows such compounds as Blitzkrieg and Kriegspiel.
IE
*g¥er ("hard")
Skt. guruh Gk. barys
hybris
Lat. gravis
1
brutus (?)
1
OHG kreg
Eng. guru barium
isobar
barometer
barytone
barograph
I . .1 1
hybrid (directly or through Fr.)
hybridism | |
etc. grave brute
gravity brutal
gravitate brutality
aggravate brutish
grief brutalize
grieve brut
grievance etc.
Ger. Krieg
Eng. Blitzkrieg
Kriegspiel
etc.
Celt, brig ( ?)
(through It.)
grievous
etc.
Eng. brigand
brigandage
brigade
brigadier
brigantine
brig
(Table viii, I, 3, 4, 5)
The IE root *kar, or, with reduplication, *karkar, "hard", produces
in Greek karkinos, "crab, tumor", from which we get carcinoma and
carcinogen. There is also kratos, "power", which appears in the suffixes
-crat, -cracy {democracy, autocrat, plutocrat, aristocracy, bureaucracy, theocracy,
even mobocracy) as well as in pancratium. There is also a possibility that
*ker(s)]
FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES
217
krateros, "crater", may come from this source. Slightly less doubtful
are the Celtic crag and cairn (the former is Irish carrac, craig, or Welsh
carreg, craig; the latter is an inflectional form of cam). From Latin
cancer, "crab", come Cancer, cancer, cancerous, the French-derived
chancre, chancroid, the Norman-Picard canker. The diminutive cancelli,
"little crabs", applied to lattice-work, gives rise to cancel and cancella-
tion (an erasure of something written by drawing crosswise lines
across the script), and, supposedly because of the lattice-like grill or
crossbars, to chancel, then chancellor, chancellery, chancery. Another Latin
form is career, "prison" (crossbars blocking the exit), and this appears
in incarcerate, incarceration, and the place name Chartres, formerly
Carceres, "Prisons". Still another form is carina, "keel", which gives us
careen. On the Germanic side, Anglo-Saxon heard produces hard, with
hardly, hardness, harden, etc. ; hardy and hardihood come from the cognate
Old High German hartjan, which appears in French hardi ; the same
form appears in the -ard, -art of Reynard (Reginhart), coward, braggart,
drunkard, standard, poniard, Richard, Leonard, Spaniard. A Scandinavian
form gives rise to Middle English harsk, English harsh, with harshen,
harshness.
IE *kar, *karkar ("hard")
Gk. karkinos kratos Lat. cancer cancellus career carina
II I I I I
Eng. carcinoma -cracy (directly or through French)
carcinogen -crat | { | |
etc. pancratium Eng. cancer cancel incarcerate careen
cancerous cancellation
chancre chancel
canker chancellor
chancery
etc.
Celt, carrac earn AS heard OHG hartjan ON harsk
Eng. crag cairn hard OF hardi
hard
hardly |
harden Eng. hardy
hardship -ard
etc. -art
Eng. harsh
harshness
(Table hi, 2, 3)
The IE root *ker{s), "cart, wagon", produces in Anglo-Saxon hros,
hors (though some authorities deny this), which becomes horse, with
218
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*ker(s)
such derivatives as unhorse, horsy, horseback, horseman, horse chestnut,
horse marine, horseradish, horsepower, horse sense, horseshoe, horsewhip; the
same root in Old High German produces in Romance a word for
"nag" which eventually appears in Rocinante, Don Quixote's steed.
From Scandinavian comes hrossvalr ("horse-whale"), which passes
into Dutch, is reversed, and passed on to English as walrus. In Greek,
the root appears in the name oi Epicurus ("one who hastens to help"),
and gives Epicurean, Epicureanism, etc. The Latin form is curro, past
participle cursus, "to run", from which come numerous English forms:
current, currency, probably curule, cursory, course, courser, cursive, recur,
recurrent, incur, iru:ursion, concur, concurrent, discourse, discursive, precursor,
IE *ker(s) ("cart, wagon")
Gk.
Epikouros
Lat.
curro
cursus
Gelt, carros
1
carpentum
Eng.
Epicurean
1
(directly or through French)
epicure
1
1
1
1
epicurism
Eng.
current
course
car
carpenter
etc.
incur
recur
currency
concur
curriculum
succor
occur
occurrence
courier
curule
scour
courante
cursive
cursory
incursion
concourse
recourse
discourse
intercourse
excursion
coarse
courser
precursor
corsair
hussar (?)
carriage
carry
miscarry
career
chariot
charioteer
charge
discharge
surcharge
charabanc
charger
(through Sp.)
carpentry
(through Sp.)
1
1
cargo
corral
supercargo
(through Pt.
(through It.)
and Du.)
1
1
caricature
kraal
carriole
carry-all
AS hros
OHG hross
ON hrossvalr
hors
1
1
1
(through Sp.)
Eng. walrus
Eng. horse
1
unhorse
Eng. Rocinante
etc.
(Table m, 2, 3)
>/]
FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES
219
excursion, occur, occurrence, succor, concourse, recourse, intercourse, the Latin
curriculum (vitae), the Italian courier, the French courante, the Portuguese
corral and the Dutch kraal derived from it; also corsair and possibly
the Hungarian-derived hussar, if it comes, like corsair, from the Greek
koursorios; but it may also come from Hungarian husz, "twenty";
coarse, scour; possibly scurrilous from scurra, "buffoon", but this is
doubtful. In Celtic, there is the Gaulish carros, which comes into
Latin as carrus and in French becomes char, but in Norman-Picard car.
Here we get car, carload, career (Latin carraria, "highway" for con-
veyances), carriage, carry, miscarry, the Italian-derived carriole and the
carry-all derived from it by popular etymology, the Italian caroche,
caricature, caricaturist. Standard French forms give us char-a-bancs or
charabanc, chariot and charioteer, charge, charger, discharge, surcharge,
while Spanish contributes cargo and supercargo. A Gaulish two-wheeled
vehicle, carpentum, gives rise to carpenter.
The IE root *gal, "to call, shout", shows development into at least
three, and perhaps four branches that contribute to English vocabulary.
In Anglo-Saxon, it produces the verb callian, which becomes call
(with calling, callable, recall, over call, etc.) ; also clacu, the ancestor of
clack (the French claque comes from the same formative root, but
through Old High German) ; clatrian and clatrung, which give us clatter;
and clteppan, which blends with Old Norse klapp to give us clap. Old
IE *gal ("to call, shout")
Lat.
Eng.
gallus Celt.
Gallia
gallinaceous
Gaul
Gaulish
gallium
Gallican
gallicism
galw
Gael
Gaelic
Galicia
Wales (?)
Welsh (?)
Wallachia ( ?)
AS
callian clatrian clacu OHG klinkan
call clatter clack clink
clinker
OHG klak AS claeppan ON klapp
Fr. claque Eng. clap
Eng. claque |
SI. glas
glagol
Eng. glagolitic
(Table vii, 1, 2)
220 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*^^S
High German klinkan or Dutch klinken gives us clink and clinker,
possibly also clank (Old High German klagon appears in the related
German klagen). Latin gallus, "cock, rooster", may or may not be a
borrowing from Celtic; it produces gallinaceous, and p>ossibly the
Latin name of Gaul, Gallia, from which came the name of the chemical
element gallium, along with Gallican and gallicism. The Celtic form is
galw, and from this may come the Latin gallus and Gallia ; in addition,
it gives us Gael and Gaelic, Galicia in Spain, and may have something
to do with the formation of Wales, Welsh and Wallachian, though
these forms are more likely to arise from a Germanic source. In Slavic,
the word for "voice", golos or glas, is related to glagol, "word", from
which comes glagolitic, the name of the alphabet used by the Slavs
before the adoption of Cyrillic. It may be noted that in this form the
eastern Indo-European languages have the same g as the western,
instead of the sibilant z which is their more usual development.
The root *reg, "straight, king", produces in Sanskrit the forms that
appear in rdjan, rdjhi, which give us rajah, ranee (or rani), maharajah,
maharani, as well as in raj, "government", svaraj, "self-government",
Rajasthan and Rajasthani (from a combination meaning "king's palace"),
Rajputana and Rajput {rdjaputra, "king's son"). There is also from the
Indo-Iranian branch the Romany Gypsy rye, which acquires in the
slang of the English gypsies the meaning of "gentleman". A connected
Greek form is probably or ego, "to stretch for, reach", which appears
in orectic and origan. In Celtic, the root appears in the formation of
names like those of Vercingetorix and Dumnorix. Latin forms include
the noun rex, "king", the verb rego (past participles rectus), "to rule",
with numerous compounds, the secondary verb rogo, "to ask for",
the conjunction ergo, "therefore". The root of rex and rego, reg-, gives
us rex, regina, regal, regale, regalia, regicide, regime, regimen, regent, regency,
regiment, regimentation, regimental; in French development we have roi,
Roy, royal, royalty, royalist, royalism ; there are assorted names of coins :
the Spanish real, the Portuguese reis and milreis, the rial of Iran. We
have rey from Spanish, while corduroy may be either corde or coulew'du
roi, "king's cloth" or "king's color". From regnare and other compounds
we have regnum, interregnum, reign, and realm (the French royaume) ;
dirigible, corrigible, incorrigible, incorrigibility, dirge (from Latin dirige,
the opening word of the antiphon) ; rigid, rigidity, rigor, rigorous, rigor
*reg] FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES 221
IE *reg ("straight, king")
Skt. rajah
Gk. orego
Lat. rex
rect-
surgo regula
raini
Eng. rajah
reg-
orectic
1 1 I 1
(directly or through French)
ranee
origan
1
1
1 1
maharajah
Eng. rex
rectus
surge Regulus
maharanee
regina
rectum
insurgent regular
raj
regal
recto
resurgent regulate
svaraj
regalia
rectal
source rule
Rajput
regicide
rectify
resource misrule
Rajasthani
regale
rector
etc.
rye
regime
rectangle
(through It.)
regimen
regiment
direct
indirect
Risorgimento
1
1
Lat. rogo
rigidus
regent correct
interregnum resurrect
1
1
(directly or through French) reign
erect
Celt, -rix 1
1
1
realm
insurrection | |
Eng. rogation
rigid
dirigible
ruction
Eng. Dumnorix
abrogate
rigor
corrigible
ruckus
Vercingetorix
arrogant
rigorous
royal
Directoire
rogue (?)
de rigueur real
adroit
derogatory
rial
maladroit
interrogate
roi
dress
prorogate
Roy
dressing
subrogate
royal
dresser
supererogate
region
address
surrogate
dirge
redress
prerogative
corduroy
etc.
corvee
etc.
(through Sp.
and Pt.)
real
rey
reis
milreis
1
AS riht
recean racu raeccan
rice OHG rihhi
gerecenian
receleas
i
Eng. right
reck ra
1
ke reach
1
rich Ger. Reichs-
aright
reckon
enrich |
upright
reckless
Richard Eng. Reichs-
downright
Dixie
forthright
Dickens
outright
etc.
ri
ghtly
rightful
righteous
etc.
Du. rijk-
.1
Eng. rix-dollar
Scand. rig-, rik-
Rigsdag
Riksdag
Rigsdaler
(Table vn, 1,2; Latin rect- (instead of *regt-) and AS riht (instead of *rikt) are due to
the assimilative pull of the t. The change from *gt to *kt occurred in Indo-European.)
222 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*deru
mortis and the French de rigueur are from rigidus, another derivative.
The derivative regio gives us region, regional, regionalism. From the
participial stem reel- come rectus, rectum, recto, rectal, rector, rectory,
rectangle, rectangular, rectitude, rectify, rectification, rectilinear, etc. Compound
forms of rect- include direct, indirect, direction, directional, directive, director,
directorate, directory, Directoire ; correct, correction, corrective, resurrect,
resurrection, erect, erection, erectile, insurrection (this, in one special con-
nection, gives rise to ruction, which in turn blends with rumpus to
produce ruckus). There are, from surgo, "to rise" (which is a compound
of sub and rego), surge, resurge, resurgent, insurgent, the Italian Risorgi-
mento, source, resource, resourcefulness, etc. The compound dirigo, past
participle directus, produces the French-derived dress, with dressing,
address, redress, dresser, while directus, turning into French droit, gives us
adroit and maladroit. Regula, "rule", gives us Regulus, regulate, regular,
irregular, regularity, regulation, regulator, and, in French development,
rule, ruler, ruling, misrule. From rogo come rogation, rogatory, abrogate,
abrogation, arrogant, arrogance (with a possible development in rogue,
roguery, roguish, rogue's gallery, if we accept the theory that rogue is a
blend of rogo with Old Norse hrohr) ; also arrogation, derogatory, interroga-
tion, interrogative, interrogatory , prorogation, subrogation, prerogative, supereroga-
tion, surrogate, surrogation. Latin corrogata, "that which is demanded",
gives rise to French corvee. On the Germanic side, Anglo-Saxon riht
(with an h explained as coming from the participial root, in the same
manner as the c of Latin rectus) gives us right, aright, upright, downright,
outright, forthright, rightly, rightfol, righteous, righteousness, rightist. Recean,
gerecenian and receleas produce reck, reckon, reckoning, reckless. Rceccan
gives us reach. Rice, with some assistance from French riche derived
from the kindred Old High German rihhi, gives rich, enrich, enrichment,
Richard (with Dick, Dixon, Dixie, Dickens, possibly Nixon, if this is
derived from Dick's son and not from Nick's son). The Old High
German form produces Reich, Reichsmark, Reichsbank, Reichstag, Reichs-
wehr, etc. The Dutch rijk gives rijksdaler which becomes rix-dollar,
while kindred Scandinavian forms appear in Danish Rigsdag, rigsdaler
and Swedish Riksdag.
The IE root *deru, *doru, *dru, "tree", produces the Sanskrit ddru,
which, combined with deva, "god", appears in the name of the deodar
tree. In Greek, the form is dendron, which comes to English as a
*dru]
FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES
223
combining form {rhododendron, "rose-tree", etc.) ; in another form,
drys, it appears in drupe, as well as in Dryad and Hamadryad; Doric
probably also comes from this root. While there is some doubt con-
cerning the Celtic Druid, Druidism, it appears likely that it comes from
the root of Old Irish drui (Gaulish dru-talos, "high-brow", is another
form in which the Celtic "tall tree" root probably appears). Latin
forms are mainly connected with durus, "hard", a quality of the tree.
Here we have durum wheat, duration, durable, durability, dour, duress,
endure, endurance, perdure, obdurate, etc. Since Dante's name is in full form
Durante, "enduring", Dantesque also comes from this source. In Anglo-
Saxon, treow gives us both tree and true (with truism, truly, untrue) ;
treowth gives truth; teoru gives tar. Derivative forms include untruth,
truce (the Middle English form of this is trewes); trow, from treowian;
tray, from trig; trim, from trum; trough, from trog, troh. Troth, betroth,
betrothal, are derivative forms of truth. The Scandinavian branch of
IE *deru, *doru, *dru ("tree")
Skt.
1 1
devadaru Gk. dendron
drys
Lat. durus
Celt, drui
Eng.
deodar -dendron
rhododendron
Dryad
Hamadryad
drupe
(directly or
through Fr.)
Eng. durable
duration
durative
duress
durum
dour
obdurate
endure
perdure
etc.
(through It.)
Dantesque
Eng. druid
druidism
AS treow teoru
trog trig
trum treowian
i
ON treysta
Eng. tree tar
true
trough tray
trim trow
trust
untrue
truth
(through OF)
truce
etc.
Eng. tryst
(Table vi, 1)
224 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*aw
Germanic furnishes tryst (Old Norse treysta) through Old French,
where the meaning is "spot where hunter lies in wait for game".
Treysta also supplies English directly with trust [trustee, trusteeship,
trusty, trustful, trustworthy, entrust, distrust, mistrust). Among Slavic forms,
which do not find their way into English, are Russian derevo, "tree",
and zdrav, zdorov, "health" (the common Russian greeting zdravstvuyte
literally means "be healthy").
One Indo-European root in which no fewer than five branches
collaborate to form English cognates is *aw, *awed, *awer, "wet, to
flow". Greek hydor, "water", gives us our very numerous hydr-, hydro-
compounds (hydrant. Hydra, hydraulic, hydrochloric, hydrogen, hydrometer,
hydrargyron ("water-silver", or the element mercury, whose symbol is
Hg), hydrophobia, hydroplane, hydroxide, hydroponic, dehydrate, clepsydra
("steal-water", or "water clock"), dropsy (from hydrops, "water-eye").
Latin forms appear in unda, "wave", with undine or Ondine, ondograph,
undulant, undulate, undulatory, inundate, inundation, abound, abundance,
redound, redundant, superabundant, surround, surroundings, sound (in the
sense of to take depth measurements; French sonder from Latin sub-
undare, "to go under water") ; also in uter, "wine-skin", with utriform
and utricle (with an original dr turning to tr for obscure reasons,
perhaps under the influence oi uterus, "womb"). Some doubt attaches
to urina, from which come urine, urinal, urinate, uric, ureter, diuretic, etc.
Germanic forms include Anglo-Saxon water, becoming water, with
numerous compounds and derivatives {watery, waterless, watercress,
water-line, watermark, watermelon, waterproof, waterfall, waterlog, water-
shed, etc.). The same Low Germanic root, going through Dutch, gives
us Waterloo. Anglo-Saxon wascan produces wash, washer, wishy-washy,
washboard, washerwoman, etc. Anglo-Saxon wat becomes wet, with
wet blanket, wet nurse, etc. Anglo-Saxon winter gives winter, wintry,
wintergreen. Anglo-Saxon otor produces otter. Old High German urohso,
borrowed by Latin in the form urus, reaches us in that form, as well
as in the more native form aurochs. Old Irish uisce, later uisge-beatha,
"water of life", produces whiskey, while the ay-root of Celtic, appearing
in place names like Avon, also gets into the form ausarios which develops
into French and English osier. The Slavic form, voda, "water", becomes
vodka, "little water", used even by Americans. Among the very
numerous place names attributed to this root are the Latin Aventine,
*meg{h)] FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES
225
the ancient Edessa and Metaurus, and the French Eure. There are even
claims for Greek kentauros, leading to centaur and Centauries, and for
thesauros, becoming thesaurus and treasure, but they are too uncertain
to warrant inclusion.
IE *aw, *awed, *awer ("wet, to flow")
1
Gk. hydor
Lat. unda uter
1 1
Celt, uisce ausarios
uisgebeatha
(directly, or
(directly or through Fr.)
1
through Lat.
1 1
Eng. whiskey osier
and Fr.)
Eng. undine utriform
Ondine utricle
Eng. hydro-
undulant
Hydra
ondograph
hydrant
inundation
hydrauUc
abound
hydrophobia
abundance
dehydrate
redound
clepsydra
redundant
dropsy
superabundant
etc.
surround
sound
etc.
AS waeter otor
wascan w5t winter Du
. water Ger. Wasser
Eng. water otter
wash wet winter
Waterloo Kirschwasser
watery
washer etc. wintry
waterless
wishy-washy wintergreen
etc.
etc. etc.
1 1
OHG urohso Slav, voda
1 vodka
Eng. aurochs |
1 Eng. vodka
(through Lat.)
Eng. urus
(Table xiv, 1, 2, 3; Table vi, 1)
Another family in which five Indo-European branches appear in
EngUsh is that of *meg{h), "big". Here Sanskrit mahdt, "great",
appears in Mahabharata, mahatma ("great soul"), maharajah and
maharanee ("great king", "great queen"), Maharashtra or Mahratti
("great kingdom"). Greek megas, megalos appear in megaphone, mega-
therium, megasaur, megalomaniac, and numerous scientific words, including
the jocular megabuck. Latin formations are numerous: the goddess Maia,
226
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*meg{h)
after whom is named the month of May (with May/air, Maypole, etc.) ;
magnus, "great", which appears in magnum, magnum opus. Magna
Charta, magna cum laude, and in compounds hke magnanimous, magna-
nimity, magnitude, magnificence, magnificent (and the ItaUan magnifico),
magniloquent, magnify, magnate ; its comparative major, from which come
on the one hand major, majority, majorette, on the other, mayor, mayoralty,
IE *meg(h) (-big")
Skt. mahat Gk. megas
I megalos
Eng. mahatma |
maharajah Eng. megaphone
Lat. magnus major maximus
I. I I
(directly or through French)
maharanee
Mahabharata
Maharashtra
Mahratti
megalomania
etc.
megatherium Eng. magnum major maximum
megabuck Magna Charta majority maximal
magnanimous majorette maxim
magnify mayor Maximalist
magnificent mayoralty etc.
magniloquent majordomo
magnitude etc.
magnate
etc.
(through It.
I .
magnifico
(through Sp.
(through Sp.
and It.)
Majorca
majolica
Lat. majestas
magister Maia
Ceh.
mawr AS mycel
mor
(directly or
through French)
1
1
1 1
Eng.
Bryn Mawr mickle
Eng. majesty
magistrate May
claymore much
majestic
master Mae
etc.
mister
mistress
miss
etc.
(through Fr.)
maitre
mistral
(through It.)
maestro
(Table xi, 1 ; Table vii, 2 ; Chapter 3, p. 35)
*widesd\ families of four and five branches 227
mayoress, with a Vulgar Latin compound, major-domo ; the name of the
island of Mallorca, which gives rise to the Italian majolica; and a
variety of sheep called majorinus, which in Spanish becomes merino;
the superlative form maximus, from which come maximum, maxim,
maximal. Maximalist ; majestas, which gives us majesty, majestic ; magister,
originally "helmsman", from which come master (with masterful,
masterly, mastery, masterpiece, etc.), mister (with mistress, Mrs., miss and
missy) ; the French maitre, the Italian maestro, and also magistrate,
magistracy, magisterial, and the French mistral (once magistralis) . There
is a Celtic cognate, mawr (Welsh) or mor (Irish), "large, great",
which appears in Bryn Mawr ("Big Hill") and in claymore, from
claidheamh mor, "big sword" (but see p. 76). Lastly, in Germanic,
we have Anglo-Saxon mycel from which come both mickle and much,
with muchness.
The root *w(e)di, "to see", first appears in Sanskrit vedas, veda,
"knowledge, sacred lore", from which come Vedas, Vedic, Rig-Veda,
Vedantas, Vedantic. There is a possibility that it may appear in Celtic
Druid, if the word is analyzed as dru uid, "strong knowledge" (the
*dru root, meaning "tree", may also have the meaning of "strong,
strength"). In Greek, where an original w, indicated in some Greek
dialects by the digamma, usually disappears, we have eidomai, "to
see", from an earlier *widomai, and ideia from *widesa. Ideia produces
idea, ideal, idealism, idealistic, ideogram, ideology, etc. Eidolon, "shape",
from the same root, gives us idol, idolize, idolatry, idolater. Eidyllion,
"short lyric poem", gives idyll, idyllic. Kaleidoscope combines the roots
of kalos, "beautiful", eidolon, "shape", and skopein, "to look". This
root also appears in the -aid, -ode suffix that means "similar to", "of
the same appearance as" {typhoid, rhomboid, trapezoid, geode, etc.). An
original vistor, histor, "knowing", gives rise to historia, which gives us
history, historical, historicity, historiography, prehistoric, prehistory ; history is
cut down to story, and the later meaning of what the British spell
storey comes from tiers of painted windows, which tell a story, but at
the same time mark a vertical division in a house or building. In
Anglo-Saxon, witan, wita, witt provide us with wit {witticism, witty,
witness, witless) ; wot (originally wdt, the first singular present of witan,
"I know"); wist, the past tense; and with the Anglo-Saxon council
witanagemot, a gathering of collective knowledge, which might be
228
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
[*w{e)di
paraphrased as "brain-trust". Twit is aetwitan, "to reproach". lVis{e)
gives us wise, wisdom, wisecrack, wiseguy, wiseacre, and the wise of wondrous
wise, as well as the -wise suffix of lengthwise, crosswise, which becomes
highly disguised in rightwise, later righteous (with righteousness). Wizard
and wizardry also come from wis{e). The same root in Old High
German wisa, wisan is carried by the Franks into Old French and
IE *w(e)di ("to see")
Skt. veda
Gk. ideia
historia
Lat.
video
visus
1
eidolon
J
1
Eng. Veda
eidyllion
(directly or through Fr.)
Vedic
1
1
1
Rig-Veda
(directly, or through
Eng.
video
visa
Vedanta
Lat. and Fr.)
vide
vis-a-vis
etc.
1
1
videlicet
visage
Eng. idea
history
vedette
envisage
ideal
historical
provide
devise
idealism
prehistoric
providence
device
ideology
story
prudent
visible
idol
storey
prudence
invisible
idolize
etc.
jurisprudence
vision
idolatry
evident
visionary
kaleidoscope
evidence
television
-oid
prevident
visual
-ode
envy
visualize
idyll
envious
revise
idyllic
purvey
improvise
etc.
survey
clairvoyant
view
review
preview
revue
etc.
supervise
provision
proviso
advise
advice
visit
etc.
(through It.)
vista
Celt, druuid (?) AS
witan
1
wise
1
OHG wisan witan
Eng. druic
Eng.
1
wit
1
wise
(through Old French)
druidism
witty
-wise
1
1
witness
wisdom
Eng. guise
guide
wot
wisecrack disgu
ise guidance
wist
wizard
guy
twit
righteous
etc.
witanagemot
etc.
etc.
(Table xiv, 1, 2, 3; Table vi, 1)
*ple\ FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES 229
produces guise and disguise, while an earlier form witan eventually gives
us guide, guidance, the guy of guy-rope, Guy Fawkes, and the American
slang guy, wiseguy (the last form is curious, because in it the word
is repeated, first in Anglo-Saxon, then in Old High German form).
The basic Latin form is video, past participle visus, "to see". Here we
have a series of direct borrowings of Latin forms, including the video
of TV, the directions vide and videlicet (or viz.), the visa on a passport.
Other foreign forms include Italian vista and French vis-a-vis and
vedette or vidette. Compounds, most of which appear in Latin itself, are
numerous. Among them are: provide, provident, providence, evident,
evidential, evidence, prevident, invidious; contracted forms of provident
give prudent, prudence, prudential, imprudent, jurisprudence, etc. ; French
developments of invidia give envy, envious, enviable. Purvey, purveyor,
survey, surveyor come from the older French veir, while clairvoyant,
clairvoyance come from the later voir. Forms built on the participial
root of visus include visage, envisage, devise, visible, invisible, visibility,
vision, visionary, television, visual, visualize, revise, revision, revisionism,
improvise, improviser, supervise, supervisor, prevision, provision, provisional,
proviso, advise, advice, advisable, advisability, devise, device. From the
participial root comes also visit ("to go and see"), with visitor, visitation,
visitant. The French participle of voir, vu, gives us view, review, revue,
preview, viewer, view halloo, interview, purview.
The IE root *pel, *pel^, *ple, "to fill", has secondary meanings,
"to pour in, flow, flutter, filled-up rampart", leading to the idea of
"city, crowd, mass, much, many". In Sanskrit it gives rise to the pur,
"city", that appears in place names like Cawnpore, Singapore, and to
jodhpurs, taken from the name of an Indian city. In Celtic we have the
Llan- that appears as a prefix in many Welsh place names [Llandudno,
Llandaff, etc.), and there is the possibility that it may appear in the
Celtic (Welsh) lann, "enclosure", that gives us lawn, though the root
of land is also possible. Greek developments include pimplemi and pletho,
"to fill", pleres, pleos, "full"; poly-, "much", with comparative pleios
and superlative pleistos ; polemos, "war"; and polis, "city". The pletho
root gives \x% plethora, plethoric, Pleiades ("star cluster"), and the French
literary Pleiade. Pleos appears in pleonasm, pleonastic. Poly- appears in
the plural hoi polloi, "the many", and in numerous compounds {poly-
technic, polyglot, polyphonic, polygon, polygamy, Polynesia, polychrome, polypus
230 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS [*pei
or polyp, polytheism, polyclinic, polysyllabic are only a few) . The compara-
tive pleios appears in Pliocene ("more recent"), and the superlative
pleistos in Pleistocene ("most recent"). Polemos, "war", appears in
polemics, polemicist. Polis, "city", gives us the -polis of Minneapolis
Gallipolis, Tripoli, Naples (Neapolis, "Newtown"), possibly Istanbul
(if it is derived from eis ten polin, "into the city"), necropolis, acropolis,
cosmopolitan, metropolitan ; policy, polity, police, policeman, politics, political,
politician, the Spanish politico, the Russian Politburo. It is possible that
through the verb psallo, "to pull", we also have psalm, psalmist, psalmody,
psalter, psaltery from this root. Latin forms include plenus, "full", and
pleo, "to fill", with past participle pletus. The first gives us plenary,
plenum, plenipotentiary, plenitude and plenty (with plentiful, plenteous),
replenish, the French plein air. The verb pleo gives us implement, imple-
mentation, complement, complementary, supplement, supplementary, supple-
mental. Compliment and complimentary belong to this root, but come
through Spanish cumplir. Supply, supplier are from French; comply,
compliance, compliant from Italian. The participial root, plet-, gives us
implete, impletion, replete, repletion, complete, completion, incomplete, expletive,
deplete, depletion. Latin also offers manipulus, "handful", from which
come maniple, manipulate, manipulator, manipulation. Plus, "more", from
the same root, yields plus, surplus, the Italian musical piii, plural,
plurality, plurilateral, pluperfect, etc. In addition, Latin has plebs, "crowd,
mob, common people" and populus, "people". The first gives us plebe,
plebeian, plebiscite, while the second yields populace, popular, popularity,
populate, population, populous. Populist, depopulate, the French peuple and
the Spanish pueblo. The adjective publicus gives rise to public, publication,
publicist, publicize, publicity, publish, publisher, and res publica, "the
public thing, the state," gives us republic, republican. If we accept the
"flutter" meaning for this root, palpo, "to feel, touch," gives us palpate,
palpation, impalpable, palpitate, palpitation, palpebral ("of the eyelid"),
palpitant, while the derivative papilio, "butterfly", gives us papillon
and pavilion, and palma gives us palm, palmistry, palmist, palmer and
palmetto (from the Spanish palmito). Germanic forms include Anglo-
Saxon full and fyllan, from which come full, fulness, fulsome, fulfill,
fill, filler J refill, fullback, fullblooded, etc. There is ahofielan, from which
come feel, feelings, unfeeling, etc. Floterian gives us flutter, and the same
root in Old High German fiedarmus gives rise to the name of the opera
Fledermaus. Anglo-Saxon folc gives us folk, folkways, folklore, folkmoot,
*ple]
FAMILIES OF FOUR AND FIVE BRANCHES
231
folksy, while the German equivalent Volk appears in Herrenvolkf
Volkswagen, Volkslied, etc.
IE *pel, *pel3, *ple ("to fill"
Skt. pur
I I
Gk. pletho pleos
Eng. Cawnpore
Singapore
jodhpurs Eng. plethora pleonasm
etc. plethoric pleonastic
Pleiades
(through Fr.)
Pldiade
I
poly-
pleios
pleistos
poly-
Pliocene
Pleistocene
hoi polloi
polemos polis
polemics
Lat. plenus pleo
pletus
I
Eng. plenary
plenum
pleni-
plenitude
plenty
replenish
plein air
etc.
(directly or through French)
implement
complement
supplement
etc.
(through Sp.)
compliment
replete
complete
deplete
impletion
repletion
expletive
supply
etc.
(through It.)
comply
\
manipulum
maniple
manipulate
etc.
-polis
Tripoli
Naples
necropolis
acropolis
cosmopolitan
metropolis
police
polity
policy
politics
(through Sp.)
politico
(through Russ.)
Politburo
Lat. plus
Eng. plus
plural
plurality
pluri-
pluperfect
etc.
(through It.)
piu
publicus populus plebs
paipo
(directly or through French)
popular plebe
popularity plebeian
populate
population
popularize
people
public
publican
publicist
publicity
publish
publisher
republic
republican
etc.
(through Sp.)
pueblo
I
palpate
palpitate
impalpable
palpebral
papillon
pavilion
etc.
palma
palm
palmer
palmistry
(through Sp.)
palmetto
Gelt. Uan-
lann(?)
Eng. Llan-
lavm. (?)
AS full
fyllan fSlan folc
OHG folk
full fill
fulfil filler
fulsome etc.
etc.
feel folk
feeler folklore
feeling folkways
etc. folksy
Herrenvolk
Volkswagen
Volkslied
(Table i, 3, 4)
List of Works Most Frequently Consulted
Battisti, C, and Alessio, G., Dizionario etimologico italiano, Barbera,
Firenze, 1950-1957.
Baugh, a. C, History of the English Language, Appleton-Century, New
York, 1935.
Block, O., and von Wartburg, W., Dictiotinaire etymologique de la
langue frangaise, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1950.
BoiSAcq, E., Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue grecque, Winter,
Heidelberg, 1950.
Bruch, J., Der Einfluss der germanischen Sprachen auf das Vulgdrlatein,
Winter, Heidelberg, 1913.
Buck, C. D., A Grammar of 0 scan and Umbrian, Ginn, Boston, 1928.
Carr, C. T., German Influence on the English Vocabulary, Society for
Pure English, Tract XLH, Clarendon, Oxford, 1934.
Clark, G. N., Dutch Influence on the English Vocabulary, Society for Pure
English, Tract XLIV, Clarendon, Oxford, 1934.
Conway, R. S., The Italic Dialects, Harvard University Press, Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1897.
Conway, R. S., Whaxmough, J., and Johnson, S. E., The Prae-Italic
Dialects of Italy, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1933,
Dauzat, a., Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue frangaise, Larousse,
Paris, 1957.
DoTTiN, G., La Langue gauloise, Klincksieck, Paris, 1920.
DuCange, C. de F., Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis, Akademische
Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz, 1954-1955.
Ernout, a., Les Elements dialectaux du vocabulaire latin. Champion,
Paris, 1909.
Ernout, A., Les Elements etrusques du vocabulaire latin, Champion, Paris,
1930.
Ernout, A., and Meillet, A., Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue
latine, Klincksieck, Paris, 1951.
232
LIST OF WORKS MOST FREQUENTLY CONSULTED 233
Feist, S,, Vergleichendes Worterbuch der gotischen Sprache, Brill, Leiden, 1939.
FoRSTEMANN, E., Althochdeutsches Namenbuch, Hanstein, Bonn, 1900.
GoDEFROY, F., Dictionnaire de Uancienne langue frangaise, Vieweg, Paris,
1880-1902.
Gray, L. H., Foundations of Language, Macmillan, New York, 1939.
Holder, A., Altkeltischer Sprachschatz, Teubner, Leipzig, 1896.
KoRTiNG, G., Lateinisches-romanisches Worterbuch, Schoningh, Paderborn,
1907.
Liddell, H. G., and Scott, R., Greek-English Lexicon, Clarendon,
Oxford, 1925-1940.
LoKOTSCH, K., Etymologisches Worterbuch der europdischen Worter orien-
talischer Ursprungs, Winter, Heidelberg, 1927.
Mathews, M. M., Dictionary of Americanisms, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 1951.
Meillet, a., Introduction a F etude comparative des langues indo-europeennes,
Hachette, Paris, 1949.
Meyer-Lijbke, W., Romanisches etymologisches Worterbuch, Winter,
Heidelberg, 1935.
MiGLiORiNi, B., and Duro, A., Prontuario etimologico della lingua italiana,
Paravia, Torino, 1941.
MiKLOSic, F., Etymologisches Worterbuch der slawischen Sprachen, Brau-
miiller, Wien, 1886.
New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, Oxford University Press,
Oxford, 1884-1928.
Palmer, L. R., The Latin Language, Macmillan, New York, 1954.
Partridge, E., Origins : a Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English,
Macmillan, New York, 1958.
Patrick, G. Z., Roots of the Russian Language, Pitman, New York and
Chicago, 1938.
PoKORNY, J., Indogermanisches etymologisches Worterbuch, Francke, Bern,
1951-1959.
Prati, a., Vocabolario etimologico italiano, Garzanti, Torino, 1951.
Real Academia Espanola, Diccionario de la lengua castellana, Hernando,
Madrid, 1914.
Robertson, S., Development of Modern English, Prentice-Hall, New York,
1938.
ScHONFELD, M., Worterbuch der altgermanischen Personen- und Volkersnamen,
Winter, Heidelberg, 1911.
234 THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
Shipley, J,, Dictionary of Word Origins, Philosophical Library, New
York, 1945.
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1955.
Staffers, H., Dictionnaire synoptique de la langue frangaise, Larousse,
Paris, 9th ed.
Waltemath, W., Die frdnkische Elemente in der franzosischen Sprache,
Schoningh, Paderborn, 1885.
Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, Merriam, Springfield, 1951.
Webster's New World Dictionary, World, Cleveland and New York, 1959.
Webster's Third New International Dictionary, unabridged, Merriam,
Springfield, Mass., 1961.
Weekley, E., Concise Etymological Dictionary, Button, New York, 1952.
Wright, J., Grammar of the Gothic Language, Clarendon, Oxford, 1954.
WusT, W.j Vergleichendes und etymologisches Worterbuch des Altindoarischen,
Winter, Heidelberg, 1935.
Topical index
Abbreviations and
Abbreviated Forms 55,
58, 202, 204, 206f
Abstract Nouns 9f
Accent 2 Iff, 33, 39, 42f,
126; Initial, in Ger-
manic 43
Ack-sound 20
Address, Polite Forms of
124, 226f
Adjectives 10
Adverbs 10, 160
Afghanistan 6
Afrikaans 7, 66, 105f
ai (Gk) 37
Akkadian 72
Albanian 6, 13, 17ff, 64,
81, 152, 171, 208
Alphabets 21 (see also
under individual
names)
American Indian
Languages 180
Analogy 34
Anglo-Norman 42f, 89
Anglo-Saxbn 6f, lOff, 17ff,
23ff, 32ff, 42ff, 44ff, 59,
61f,72ff,78ff,87f,93f,96,
100, 102ff, 129ff, 183ff
Arabic 4, 13, 63, 145, 150
Archaic Latin (see Latin)
Armenian 6f, 13, 20ff, 29ff,
45, 208
Articulation, Point of 22
Aryan 5
Aspirates 20ff
Assimilation 33, 37, 59, 67,
96,99,149,194,209,221
Attested Forms 18, 33ff
Augmentatives 162
Avestan 6, 72
B
*b 20, 24, 30f
Babel 3, 208
Baltic Languages 17ff (see
Balto-Slavic)
Balto-Slavic 6f, 17ff
Bengali 6, 21
*bh 20, 26, 30f, 73
*bhl, *bhr 70f
Bible 3, 18
Body, Names of Parts of 9
Boers 133
Borrowing 8, 1 Iff, 24, 34ff,
46ff, 53, 62
Breathing, Rough, Greek
28f, 79
Breton 7, 23, 29
Brythonic 7, 18, 23, 29,
149, 162
Bulgarian 6, 21
Burgundian 110
G
c (Latin, Irish) 23
g (Sanskrit) 22
c (Slavic) 23
Gapek 73
Gatalan 6
Geltic 7, 12f, 18ff, 23ff,
44ff, 49f, 63f, 69f, 74ff,
85, 111, 114, 118, 122,
145f, 149ff, 162, 166,
179,208,214-222,224-
229
Gentum Languages 22
eg (Anglo-Saxon) 34
cA-sound 20, 35, 41
ch (Greek) 25, 35ff
Ghecked Position (see
Position)
Ghild Words 77f
Ghinese 13, 211
Ghristianization 11, 36ff,
52, 85
Glassification of
Languages 3-10
en (Anglo-Saxon) 34
Gognates 45ff
Golors 10
Gomparative Method 8,
20ff
Gompensatory Length-
ening 33f
Gomposition 35ff
Gompound Forms 45 ff
Goncrete Nouns 9
Gonfusion of Roots 172f
Gonsonant Shift (Sound
Shift) ; First Germanic
IBff, 24ff, 168; Second
Germanic 18ff, 24ff,
133, 168
Gontamination 1 14, 125,
190, 206
Gontracted Forms 143
Gornish 7, 23, 29
Grete 6
Groatian (see Serbo-
Groatian)
ew (Anglo-Saxon) 25, 34
Gymric 149
Gyprus 6
Gyrillic Alphabet 21, 220
Gzech6, 73, 175
235
236
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
D
*d 20, 24, 30f
Danes 1 1
Danish 6, 18, 22 If
Dentals 20
Derivatives 44ff
Devanagari Alphabet 2 1
dgZA
*dh 20, 27, 30f, 49f, 131ff,
160
*dhl 33
Dialectal Influence 35f,
4 Iff, 46ff, 50, 59, 107,
143, 146f, 162, 200
Dialectalization 7
Digamma 29, 227
Diminutives 60, 62
Dissimilation 132
Doric 148
Doublets 42f
du > b (in Latin) 37
Dutch 7, 13f, 18f, 47ff, 51,
72, 79f, 102, 105f, 109,
122, 126, 128, 132f,
142f, 153f, 161, 172ff,
184, 186f, 202, 214,
218ff, 222, 224
East Germanic 18, 110
(see also Gothic)
Echoic Words 109
Endings, Flectional 37
Epenthesis 33, 79, 138
Etruscan 72, 117, 138
Etruscan Alphabet 21
Extensions 10
/20
Faliscan 6, 59
Family Relationship,
Words of 9
Final Position (see
Position)
Financial Terms 64, 90,
98, 113, 119, 158, 168,
176, 178ff, 220
Finnish 4
Flemish 7, 18
Folk Etymology (see
Popular Etymology)
Francien 4 If, 46ff, 134,
157
Frankish, Franks 12, 46ff,
102, 122, 139, 228
Free Position (see Position)
French 6, 12, 35ff, 46ff, 72,
75ff, 80ff, 88ff, 106ff,
llOff, 114ff, 119ff, 12 Iff,
126ff, 130ff, 142, 146,
152ff, 178, 183, 187
Frequentative Forms 109
Fricatives 20, 40 (see also
Spirants)
Frisian 7
*g 20, 24, 30f, 53
^-sound 42
Gaelic 7
Gaulish 7, 23, 39, 74f, 85,
88, 219, 222
German 6, 14, 19ff, 23ff,
35, 43, 45, 50, 52ff, 63f,
69, 72ff, 79, 94, 100, 102,
105, 107, 112f, 122,
125ff, 132, 136ff, 141f,
154, 157, 163, 176ff,
185, 204, 206, 208, 216,
231
Germanic 4ff, llff, 17ff,
23ff, 32 ff, 42, 44ff, 64,
66, 70ff, 77ff, 86f, 93f,
97, 100, 102ff, 146ff, 168,
183ff, 200ff
*gh 20, 26, 30f, 34, 131
*gn 53
gn (Anglo-Saxon and
English) 34
Goidelic 7, 23, 149
Gothic 6, 14, 17ff, 23ff, 33,
46ff, 78f, 81, 88, 93, 97,
100, 103, 110, 114, 134,
154, 161, 176, 179
Gothic Alphabet 2 1
Greek 4, 6ff, llff, 17ff,
23ff, 33ff, 43ff, 49ff,
53ff, 59, 62, 70ff, 77ff,
86ff, 103, 114, 116, 118,
140, 146ff, 154, 160,
163, 183ff,204,208ff,218
Greek Alphabet 2 1
Greek Dialects 6, 23, 36
Greek, Modern 2 1
*gt 24, 34, 133, 148, 220f
gu (Romance) 42, 46
Gutturals 20 (see Velars)
*gu) {g}i) 20, 24, 30f, 49f
*gwh igJih) 20, 28, 30f, 33
Gypsy 146, 220
H
Hebrew 4
High German 6, 18ff, 24ff,
125, 132f, 138f, 157,
168f, 172, 174, 201
Hindi 6, 21
Hindustani 72f, 158, 209
Hittite 5
hi 138
Hottentot 48
hr 138
ht > ct (in Latin) 133, 148
Hungarian 4, 197, 219
hw 34
Hybrids 140, 162, 174,
177, 204
Hypothetical Forms 8f, 2 1
i.20, 28, 42 (see also_>') .
Icelandic 4, 6, 45
/cA-sound 20
Illyrian 64, 81, 152, 155f,
171
India, Languages of 6, 20f
Indo-European 4ff;
Original Homeland of 5
Indogermanic 4
Indo-Iranian 6f, 13, 2 Iff,
25, 44, 70ff, 86, 89, 100,
146, 148, 158, 179f, 184,
208ff, 211, 220f
Inscriptions 38
Intervocalic Position (see
Position)
TOPICAL INDEX
237
Iran, Iranian 6 (see
Persian, Old Persian,
Avestan)
Irish 7, 18, 20, 23ff, 75, 88,
149, 217, 222, 226f
Irish Alphabet 2 1
Italian 6f, 13, 36fF, 49, 51,
56, 58, 61, 63, 66f, 72,
77f, 80, 82, 86, 93, 97f,
102ff, 107, 111, 114,
119f, 12 If, 124, 126,
130ff, 136fF, 139f, 142,
148, 151, 157, 159, 161f,
165, 167, 169, 174f,
179ff, 182, 188f, 191f,
195, 197, 199, 201f, 204,
206, 208f, 214, 216,
219ff, 225-30
Italic 6f, 18fT, 26, 59, 66,
112, 175, 209
j 20, 42
Japanese 61
K
*k 20, 22, 30f, 32f
k (Greek) 37
kn 34
*kt 25, 32, 34
Kurdish 6
*kw {ku) 20, 23, 30f, 33,
149, 162, 209
*/ 17, 20
/ 152
/, Vocalization of 40, 84,
125, 174
Labialized Velars 20
Labials, Labialization 20,
35
Ladino 60
Latin 4ff, llff, HflF, 23fF,
32ff, 44ff, 49ff, 53ff,
70ff, 80, 86fr, 102flF,
130ff, 146ff, 183f, 208ff
Latin Alphabet 2 1
Latin, Archaic 37, 55, 58,
112, 188
Latin, Medieval 28
Latin, Vulgar 29, 38, 46,
49, 52, 80, 94, 100, 114,
117, 134, 158, 163, 178,
183, 185, 193, 196f, 199,
206, 225
Latvian 6
Learned Words 35fr, 43,
51, 66, lOlf, 139, 146,
159, 165, 169, 177, 191,
202, 214
Legal Terms 38, 64f, 68,
89, 97, 143
Lettish (see Latvian)
// (Spanish) 40
*ln 33
Liquids 20, 152
Lithuanian 6, 9, 17
Loan Translations 141
Low German 6, 10, 18ff,
24ff, 81, 83, 109, 134,
183, 224
Low Latin (see Vulgar
Latin)
M
*m 17, 20
m 178
Mahratti 2 1 1
Manx 7
Meaning 8, 10 (see
Semantics)
Mediterranean
Languages 62
Metathesis 60, 94, 202
Middle English 11, 34, 45f,
48, 81, 109f, 131, 134,
139, 147, 158, 172, 187,
206, 208, 217, 222
Middle High German 107
Missionaries 38 (see
Christianization)
Monogenesis 3ff
Moors 62
Musical Terms 51, 93,
115, 138, 142, 230
N
*n 17, 20
n before s, Loss of 33, 38
«112
Nasal Infix 88, 101, 128,
160f, 185f
Nasals 20
*nd 33, 194
Negative Forms 155, 171
Norman French 34fr, 46fr,
51, 65
Norman-Picard 12, 38fr,
41fr, 50, 57, 62, 126,
134, 136, 154, 157,
217fr
Normans 1 If, 26, 38, 47f,
50,72,102,119,127,130
Northern French 130, 136,
154, 172
North Germanic 18 (see
Scandinavian)
Norwegian 6, 18, 85, 187
Nouns 9
ns > n 163
Numerals 10, 159f, 178,
180f
*nw 33
O
oi (Greek) 37
Old Church Slavic 17
Old French 12f, 38f, 41f,
59, 62f, 72, 80f, 92f, 98,
100, 109f, 118f, 122,
129, 131, 135f, 140, 142,
148, 150, 172, 179, 187,
191, 193, 202, 206, 212,
214f, 223, 228
Old Frisian 7, 18
Old High German 6, 14,
17f, 24f, 32f, 42f, 72, 77,
81f, 85, 102, 106, 110,
113f, 119, 122, 124,
129f, 135, 139, 145, 147,
154, 177, 179, 183f, 191,
202, 216-22, 224, 228ff
Old Irish 17, 22, 224f
Old Norse 7, 14, 17f, 30f,
32fr, 48, 72, 79, 94, 109f,
114, 119, 123, 129f,
133ff, 147ff, 153ff, 160f,
163, 172, 183f, 187,
196, 214, 217ff, 222flF
Old Persian 6, 148, 210
Old Saxon 6, 18
238
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
Old Scandinavian (see
Old Norse)
Oscan 18, 23ff, 30f, 37, 45,
49f, 67,96, 107, 112,
149, 152, 161, 175, 179,
209, 216
Ostrogoths 18
*p 20f, 30f, 32f, 149
Pakistan 6
Palatalization 23ff, 32ff,
41f, 62, 110, 130, 136,
211
Palatals 20
Pali 6
Paris Dialect (see Fran-
cien)
Pashtu 6
Persian6, 45, 71f, 89f, 158,
184
Personal Names 47f, 50f,
57f, 61, 65ff, 76ff, 88f,
92ff, 98, lOOf, 111, 117f,
126, 139f, 150, 152f,
155, 157ff, 162, 166f,
169f, 175, 177, 180, 184f,
188ff, 195f, 202, 208-11,
214, 218, 220-6
pf (High German) 24
ph (Greek) 26, 35ff, 73,
80f
Picard 46, 50 (see
Norman-Picard,
Northern French)
Place Names 57, 63ff, 69,
76ff, 80f, 85, 93, 100,
107, 114, 119f, 122,
127f, 131, 135, 147, 149-
53, 157, 162, 164, 170,
173-81, 184ff, 188, 195,
200, 202, 208ff, 215,
224f, 227, 229f
Plosives 20, 40
Polish 6, 122
Popular Development
35ff, 41, 43
Popular Etymology 38, 50,
73, 122, 132, 136, 155,
161, 164fr, 171, 174,
185, 193, 207
Portuguese 6, 36ff, 52ff,
61ff, 65f, 69, 102, 124,
143, 150, 162, 169, 193,
211, 219f
Position 33; Checked 39;
Final 24, 33; Free 39;
Initial 24; Intervocalic
20ff,33f, 40; Stressed 39
Prakrits 6
Prefixes 35, 39, 41, 52, 65,
75, 94, 127, 160f, 165f,
170, 175
Pronouns 9, 160
Proper Names (see Per-
sonal Names, Place
Names)
Provencal 6, 41, 58, 112,
130, 137
*pt'i2
Pushtu (see Pashtu)
Q
q (Gothic) 26
qu 23, 34
R
r 152
*r 17, 20, 30f
Races of Mankind 3
Reconstruction of Indo-
European 7f, 10, 20
Reduced Grade 20
Religious Vocabulary 85,
115, 137, 153, 158, 176,
186, 193, 202f
Renaissance 11, 38f
Rheto-Romance 6, 60
Rhotacism 33ff
Roman Alphabet 2 1
Romance 6, 14f, 18, 29,
33, 36fr, 4 Iff, 49, eOflf,
88, 98, 124, 143, 146,
161, 163, 185, 195, 208
Romany (see Gypsy)
Rumanian 6, 107, 117
Russian 4, 6, 17, 20, 25,
44f, 48f, 53, 64, 7 Iff, 76,
78, 101, 107, 112, 117f,
133, 139, 148f, 155,
157f, 160, 169ff, 174,
179, 182ff, 207, 215,
223, 230
*s 20ff, 29ff
s (Initial in French,
Spanish) 40f
Sabine 112, 152
Sanskrit 4, 9, 17ff, 23ff, 33,
45, 53, 62, 70ff, 78, 86,
88,94, 100, 146-50, 152,
179, 184, 208-11, 213,
215, 220ff, 225, 227ff
Sanskrit Alphabet 23 (see
Devanagari)
Sardinian 6
Satem Languages 22, 179,
182, 184, 207, 220
sc (Anglo-Saxon) > sh 34
Scandinavian 6, lOff, 14ff,
18f, 34f, 44ff, 65, 74, 79,
102, 106, 109, 113, 118f,
125, 131, 133f, 144, 169,
174f, 184, 188, 214,
217f, 222f
Scientific Terminology 11,
35f, 66, 72, 79, 86ff, 89f,
92, 94, 106, 118f, 146,
151, 163, 175f, 182ff,
195f, 199f, 210, 214, 225
Scots Gaelic 7
Scottish English 74, 82,
110
Semantics and Semantic
Differentiation and
Shifts 8, 29, 44ff, 78, 93,
100, 105, 110, 116, 118,
120, 132, 136, 141, 145,
157, 162, 172, 174, 177,
183, 192f, 197, 206, 214
Semi-Learned (Semi-
Popular) Development
35, 41ff
Semitic 13, 208
Semivowels 20, 29, 42
Sephardic 60
Serbian Alphabet 21
Serbo-Croatian 6
sh 20, 42
Sibilants 20, 22, 25
*sk 22, 32
Slang 73, 88, 92, 146, 174,
195, 202, 222, 228f
TOPICAL INDEX
239
Slavic 6, 13, 17, 20, 23ff,
44ff, 49, 53, 59, 64, 70ff,
78, 96, 101, 107, 115,
117, 122, 131, 133, 139,
148f, 152, 157fF, 169ff,
174f, 179f, 182ff, 197,
207ff, 215, 220, 223f
Slovenian 6
Slovak 6
Sonants 9, 17,20, 152, 178
Sound Shifts 5ff, 32, 208
South Africa 48, 133
*sp 21, 32, 79
Spanish 6, 33ff, 49, 57f,
62f, 65, 67fr, 71, 75, 78,
85, 89, 102, 123f, 139,
141, 146, 150, 152f, 159,
161ff, 169, 171, 175,
186, 188-95, 199, 202,
212, 214f, 219f, 225fr,
230
Spelling 33, 37, 227
Spirants 20, 33, 40 (see
Fricatives)
*st 22, 32, 95
Stress (see Accent)
Suffixes 39, 108, 127, 143f,
178, 216, 227
Sumerian 37
Swedish 6, 18, 222f
Synonyms 10
*t 20, 22, 30f, 32f
Teutonic 18 (see Ger-
manic)
th 20
th (Greek) 27, SSfT
Tokharian 5, 88
Trade 1 1
Trade Names 118
Transcriptions 21
Tfombetti 4
U
« 20, 29
Ukrainian 6, 21
Umbrian 6, 18, 23ff, 107,
112, 160f
Unvoiced Consonants 20
Urdu 6 (see Hindustani)
V
v20
Velars 22, 25
Verbs 9
Visigoths 18
Vocabulary, Frequency 1 1
Vocabulary, Range of 9
Vocalization of / (see /)
Voiced Consonants 20
Voicing 33, 37, 40
Vowels 17; Shift of 19;
Front and Back 23, 35
Vulgar Latin (see Latin)
W
*a;29ff
w 20, 42, 46
w, Germanic, in Romance
41
Walloon 4 If, 46ff, 129
Welsh 4, 7, 18, 23, 29,
75f, 149, 217, 226f, 229f
West Germanic 18ff
wh 23, 34
wr 34
Wulfila 18
X
X (in Anglo-Saxon) 160,
167
*y 28, 30f
y 20, 43f
z 20, 36
zh (in Slavic) 28
Zoroaster 6
Word index
This word index includes all words, from whatever language, that appear in the
text, save that we often omit obvious derivatives (such as acknowledgment from ac-
knowledge, agnosticism from agnostic, ambrosial from ambrosia, anticipation from anticipate) .
The reader is reminded that forms preceded by an asterisk (such as *dha) art
hypothetical reconstructions, usually, but not invariably, of Indo-European roots.
Abbreviations used in this word index are listed below. For reasons of space, periods
are omitted, and abbreviations are run together. Thus, carton (FE) indicates that the
word appears in both French and English; cabriolet (FPrE) indicates that the word
appears in French, Provencal and Engliyh; campus (LE) indicates that the word appears
in both Latin and English.
ABBREVIATIONS
Alb — Albanian
AN — Anglo-Norman
Arab — Arabic
Arc — Archaic
Arm — Armenian
AS — Anglo-Saxon
Av — Avestan
Celt — Celtic
Chin — Chinese
Cz— Czech
Dan — Danish
Dor — Doric
Du — Dutch
E — English
F — French
Fal — Faliscan
G — German
Gaul — Gaulish
Gic — Germanic
Gk— Greek
Goth — Gothic
Gyp — Gypsy (Romany)
Heb — Hebrew
HG— High German
Hind — Hindustani
Hot — Hottentot
Icel — Icelandic
Ir — Irish
It — Italian
Jap — -Japanese
L — Latin
LG — Low German
Lith — Lithuanian
Mahr — Mahratti
Mai — Malay
ME — Middle English
MHG— Middle High
German
MLG— Middle Low
German
NF — Northern French
(Norman-Picard-
Walloon)
Nor — Norwegian
OF— Old French
OHG— Old High German
Olr— Old Irish
Olt— Old Italian
ON— Old Norse
OPers — Old Persian
Osc — Oscan
OSp — Old Spanish
Pers — Persian
Pol— Polish
Pr — Provencal
Pt — Portuguese
Rum — Rumanian
Rus — Russian
SAf— South African
SC — Serbo-Croatian
Scan — Scandinavian
Scot — Scottish English
Sem — Semitic
Sk — Sanskrit
SI — Slavic
Sp — Spanish
Sum — Sumerian
S wed — S wed ish
Tokh — Tokharian
Umb — Umbrian
VL — Vulgar Latin
Wal — Walloon
We— Welsh
Note — For purposes of alphabetization, the phonetic symbol 3 is placed with e, 8 with
d, '^ with u.
240
WORD INDEX
241
Aachen 114f
aard (Du) 105
aardvark (DuE) 105
aardvolk (DuE) 105
abandon 19 If
abandoner (OF) 19 If
abase 49f
abate 150f
abatis (FE) 150f
abattoir (FE) 150f
abdicate 190
abduct 132
ability 144
abjure 56
ablative 94f
-able 144
able-bodied 144
ablution 121
abnormal 206f
ab oculo (VL) 183
abolish 125
A-bomb 92
abound 224f
abrasion-ive 122f
abrogate 22 If
abs- (L) 101
abscond 101
abstract 133
abstruse 1 1 1
abundant-ce 224f
abut 150f
abyss-mal 49f
abyssos-us (GkL) 49f
acanthus (LE) 37
a cappella (ItE) 137
accelerate 138
accendo (Lit) 61
accent-uate 126f
accentum (L) 126f
accept-ance 135f
acclaim-amation 139
accommodate-ion 163f
accompany-ist 141
accomplice 166f
accord-ance 182
accredit 182
ach (G) 25
ache (OHG) 1 14f
achever (F) 136f
achieve 136f
acknowledge 206f
acointier (OF) 206f
acquaint-ance 206f
acropolis 230f
actus (L) 156
ad (L) 139, 191
adcognitare (VL) 206f
add-end-um 101
addict- ion 190
addition-al 101
additive 101
address 22 If
adduce 132
Adelphi 84f
adelphos (Gk) 84f, 146f
adhibeo (L) 143f
adhibit 144
adieu (F) 21 If
adios (Sp) 211f
adjoin 213
adjourn 212
adjudge 190f
adjudicate 190f
adjure 56
adjust 56, 213
adjutant 213
adjutare (VL) 213
adjuvant 213
admonish 12
adolescent 125
adroit 22 If
adult-erate-ery 125
adverb-ial 160
advice 228f
advise-r 228f
advocate 93
aeon (LE) 154f
aera (L) 1 13
aeronaut 177
aes (L) 113
aestimari-tus (L) 92, 113
aetas (L) 154f
aeternus (L) 154f
aetwitan (AS) 228
aevum (L) 154f
*aew 154f
affiliate-ion 64f
affinity 128
afoot 198
-age (FE) 41
age-less 154f
agen (AS) 35
agenda (LE) 38
agent provocateur (FE) 93
aggravate-ion 216
aggregate 155f
agnis (Sk) 53
agnomen (L) 164f, 206f
agnostic 206f
ago (L) 155f
agora (GkE) 155f
agoraphobia (GkE) 155f
ahead 136f
ahwa (Goth) 114
aid-e213
aider (F) 213
aidier (OF) 213
aihwa (Goth) 88
ail-ment 125
aine (F) 205f
aio (Gk) 89f
aion (Gk) 154f
airdrome 8 If
aisthanesthai (Gk) 89f
aisthetes (Gk) 89f
aiws (Goth) 154f
Aix 114f
akanthos (Gk) 37
akin 204f
*akwa 114f
al- (Arab) 150
*al 55, 125
Albert 15, 47f
Albrecht 47f
Albuquerque 149f
alcazar (SpE) 62f
alcorque (Sp) 149f
alderman 125
alibi (LE) 38
alimentary 125
alimony 125
allegory-ical 155f
aller (F) 55
alley 55
allocate 43
allocation (F) 43
alloco (L) 43
allopath 73
allot-ment 139f
allow 43
allure (FE) 55
242
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
alluvial 121
alma (L) 125
Alma Mater 125, 162f
alo (L) 125
aloter (OF) 139f
alouer (F) 43
al-qasr (Arab) 62f
already 75
altar (LE) 125
alter (ego; LE) 19, 125
altimeter 125
altissimo (ItE) 125
altitude 125
alto (ItE) 125
alto rilievo (ItE) 125
altus (L) 40, 125
alumna-US (LE) 125
always 142f
a.m. 212
amado (Sp) 33
amanuensis (LE) 65f
ambidexterous 99f
amble 55
ambler (OF) 55
Ambrose 157f
ambrosia (GkE) 157f
ambrotype 157f
ambulance 55
ambulant 55
ambuler (F) 55
ambulo (L) 55
amenable 68f
amend 65f
amortize-ation 158
amount 69
anagram 82f
Anatolia 94
anatomy 92
anchor-age 15 If
anchora (L) 15 If
ancleow (AS) 15 If
Ancona 15 If
Ancus Martius 15 If
androgynous 78
andswaru (AS) 104f
anecdote lOOf
anesthetic-ist 89f
anew 175f
*ang 151f
angel (AS) 15 If
Angle (AS) 15 If
angle-r-worm 15 If
Anglia-ic-ican-icize 15 If
Anglii (L) 15 If
Anglomaniac-philia-
phobia 15 If
angulus (L) 151f
*ank 151f
ankle 15 If
ankylos (Gk) 151f
ankylosis (GkE) 151f
ankyra (Gk) 15 If
annihilate 128
annotate 206f
anonymous-ity 164f
anormal 206f
anser (L) 27
anshu (Sum) 37
answer 104f
ante-diluvian 121
antefen (AS) 191f
ante natus (L) 205f
antenna (LE) 61
ante oculares (VL) 183
anthem 19 If
anthropophagous 71
antibiotic 35
Antichrist 85f
anticipate 135f
antidote lOOf
antinational 205f
antipathy 73
antiphonon (Gk) 19 If
antiphony 19 If
antipodes 198f
antipope 20 If
antlers 183
antonym 164f
apathy-etic 73
aphasia (GkE) 19 If
apodeictic 189f
apodeixis (Gk) 189f
apophony 19 If
appanage (FE) 140f
appease 186
append-age 92, 193f
appendectomy 92, 193f
appendix-icitis 92, 193f
appetite-izer-izing 200f
applicable 166f
applicant 166f
application 166f
apply 166f
appropriate 20 If
aqua (L) 114f, 140
aquacade-marine-plane-
relle-rium-vit 114f
aqua fortis, regia, vitae
(LE) 114f
Aquarius 114f
aqueduct 114f, 132
Aquisgrana 1 14f
ar (AS) 113
ara (L) 125
arable 105
Arbeit-en (G) 74
archbishop 203
archduke 132
archipelago 187f
architect-ure 173
-ard217
*ar(a) 105
argonaut 177
aright 22 If
aristocrat-cy 216f
-arium (L) 41
arm (G) 74
Armorica 122
aro (L) 105
arrogant-ce 22 If
arrogation 22 If
-art 217
-arum (L) 30f, 37
as (L) 90
ash 5
ashamed 74
asinus (L) 37
asman (Sk) 74
aspect 32, 207f
asper (L) 153
asperity 153
aspicio (L) 203
assert 105
asseverate 54
assort 105
assuage 159
aster (GkE) 158f
asterisk-ism-oid 158f
astragalos-us (GkL) 95
astral 158f, 167f
astrolabe-logy-nomy-
physics 158f, 167f
astronaut 158f, 177
WORD INDEX
243
astrum (L) 158f
Atalanta 94f
athair (Ir) 21
-aticum (L) 41
Atlantic-s 94f
Atlas 94f
atmosphere 153
atom-ic-ize 92
atrocious-ity 183
atrox (L) 183
atta (Goth) 78
attain 68
attainder 68
attaint 68
attas (Sk) 78
attempt 60f
attest-ation 18 If
attract-ion-ive 133
attribute 181
auctio (L) 117
auction-eer 117
auctor (L) 117
auctoricare (VL) 117
audible 89f
audience 89f
audio (LE) 89f
audition 89f
auditor-ium 89f
auf Wiedersehen (G) 79
Auge (G) 23
augeo (L) 117
augment-ation 1 1 7
augur-y 1 1 7
augurium (L) 117
august 117
August-an-ine-inian 117
augustus (L) 117
aunclum (VL) 40
aural 30f
aureate 169f
Aurelia 169f
aureola (LE) 169f
aureomycin 169f
auricular 30f
auriferous 169f
auris (L) 30f
aurum (L) 40, 169f
aurochs 224f
Aurora (Borealis) 169f
aurous 169f
ausaria (VL) 1 14f
ausarios (Celt) 224f
auso (Goth) 30f
auspicious 203f
Aussie 170
Auster 169f
austere-ity 170
Austin 117
austral 170
Australasia 170
Australia 170
Austria 170
author-ess-ship 117
authority-arian 117
authorize 117
autochthonous 170f
autocrat-cy 216f
autonomy-ous 167f
autopsy 183
autumn 117
auxiliary 117
auxilium (L) 117
av (Celt) 1 14
avenge-r 190f
Aventine 224f
aver 54
avere (It) 143
Avesta 89f
aveugle-r (F) 183
Avistak (Pers) 90
avisya (Pers) 90
avocation 93
avoid-ance 129
avoir (F) 143
avoirdupois 193f
Avon 224f
avow-al 93
avuncular 106
avunculus (L) 40, 106
avus (L) 106
*aw 89f
*aw 224ff
*aw (AS) 117, 170
awa (AS) 154f
away 142f
*awed 224f
*aweg 117
*awei 89f
*awer 224f
*(aw)es 169f
*awos 106
ay(e) 154f
♦ayos 112f
*ayu 154f
-azum (Osc) 30f, 37
B
bab (Sem) 208f
baba (SI) 208f
*baba 208f
babble 208f
babbo (It) 209
Bab-el 208f
Bab el Mandeb 208f
babi (ME) 208f
Bab-ilu 208f
babushka (RusE) 209
baby 208f
Babylon 208f
bac(c)a (L) 214
baccalaris (L) 214
baccalaureate 214
Bacchanal-ian 214
Bacchus-ic 214
bach (Celt) 214
bachelier (F) 214
bachelor 214
bacillus (LE) 214
bacterial-ology-phage 214
bacterium-a (LE) 214
baculum (L) 214
bad 10
bagnio 52f
baie (F) 214
bairths (Goth) 47f
*bak214
baksheesh (PersE) 71
bakterion (Gk) 214
balaneion (Gk) 53
Balbo 208f
Balboa 208f
balbus (L) 208f
balbutio (L) 208f
balbuziare (It) 208f
balca (AS) 154
balk 154
ballet (FE) 43
ballista (L) 52f
ballistics 52f
ballo (Gk) 52f
balneology 52f
ban 191f
bana (Gk) 78
244
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
banal-ity 191f
band (ONE) 72f
band (HindE) 72f
bandage 72f
bandanna 72f
bande (F) 72f
banderole 72f
banderuola (It) 72f
bandhnu (Hind) 73
bandit-ism-ry 19 If
banditti 19 If
bandolera (Sp) 73
bandolier 72f
bandon (Gic) 19 If
banish 19 If
banlieue (F) 191
bannan (AS) 191f
banner 72f
banns 19 If
barb 107, 208f
barba (Lit) 107
Barbados 107
barbaras (Sk) 208f
barbaric-ism-ity 208f
barbaros (Gk) 208f
barbarous 208f
Barbary 208f
bSrbat (Rum) 107
barbate 107
barbatus (L) 107
barbel 107
barber 2, 107
barbiturate 107
bard (IrE) 75f
bardd (We) 75
bardo (Gaul) 75
barium 215f
barley-corn 9, 108
barn-yard 108, 130f
barograph-meter 163f,
215f
barrow 2 1 6
Bart (G) 107
barys (Gk) 215f
barytone 215f
bas bleu (FE) 49f
base 49f
basement 49f
bas-relief (FE) 49f
basset 49f
basso (ItE) 49f
bassoon 49f
bassus (L) 49f
bastum (L) 150f
bat 150f
bat (AS) 108f
bathos (GkE) 49f
bathysphere 49f
baton (FE) 150f
Baton Rouge 150f
batt (AS) 150
battalion 150f
batter-ing ram 150f
battery 150f
battle-ment 150f
battuo (L) 150f
bauble 188f
bay 214
beacen (AS) 80f
beacnian (AS) 80f
beacon 80f
bealca (AS) 154
beam 13
bear (noun) 5
bear (verb) 9
beard (ASE) 2, 9, 107
beat-nik 150
beaten (AS) 150f
beatific-fy 188f
beatitude 188f
Beatrice 188f
beatus (L) 188f
beau geste, ideal, monde
(FE) 188f
beaux arts, yeux (FE) 183f
beck-on 80f
bed 108
bedd (AS) 108
bedight 190
bedraggle 133
beech 5, 9
beef-eater-steak-y 179f
beetle-ing 108f
beeves 179f
Befana (It) 80
behave-ior-ism 134f
behead 136f
behofian (AS) 135
behold-en 138
behoove 135
beivre (OF) 59
belbel (F) 188
belch 109
bell 45, 109
belladonna (ItE) 188f
bellan (AS) 45
belle (AS) 45
belle (FE) 188f
belles lettres (FE) 188f
bellicose 55f
belligerent 55f
bellow 35, 45, 109
bellum (L) 37, 55f, 188
bellus (L) 188f
bend-s 72f
bendan (AS) 72f
bene (Lit) 188ff
benedict-ion 188ff
Benedictine 188ff
benefactor-ion 188f
benefice-cent-cial-ciary
188f
benefit ISSff
benevolent-ce 188f
benighted 103f
benign-ant-ity 188f, 205f
benison 188ff
Benito 188ff
Bennet(t) ISSflF
ben trovato (It) 188f
beorht (AS) 34, 47f
Berber 208f
bere (AS) 108
bereave 43
Berg (G) 216
bern (AS) 108
-bert 15, 47f
Bertha 47f
Bertillon 47f
betoken 189f
betray-al-er 101
betroth-al 223
bevee (OF) 60
beverage 59
bevy 59
*bha 80f
*bha 191 ff
*bhag 71
bhandh (Sk) 72f
*bharda 107
♦bhares 108
*bhat 150f
*bhau 150f
WORD INDEX
245
*bhedh 108
*bheid 108f
*bhel 45, 154, 195f
*bhendh 72f
*bhereg 216
*bher9g 47f
*bhlag 55f
*bhlag(men) 70f
*bhle 109
*bhlek 167
*bhlendh 71
bhrata-r (Sk) 26, 146f
*bhrater 146f
*bhreg 47f
*bhrei 118
bibber 59f
bibelot (FE) 188f
bibo (L) 59f
bibulous 59f
biceps 137
bident 169
bierce (AS) 48
big 10
Big Bertha 47f
biginti (VL) 38
bilateral 60
bilingual 112
bind-er-y 72f
bindan (AS) 72f
binnacle 144
binocular 183
binomial 167f
biology 26
bios (Gk) 26
biped 198f
birch 5, 48
bird 9
bireme 106
Birmingharn 147
bis coctum (L) 96
biscop (AS) 34, 36, 203
biscuit (FE) 96
bishop-ric 34, 36, 203
bisque (FE) 96
bit 108f
bita (AS) 108f
bitacula (Pt) 144
bitan (AS) 108f
bite-r 108f
bitel (AS) 108f
bitter 10, 108f
bitula (AS) 108f
Bjerk, Bjork 47
bladder 195f
blade 195f
bla;d (AS) 195f
bliEdre (AS) 195f
blatan (AS) 109
blagodaryu (Rus) 101
-blain 195f
blame-less 19 If
blare 109
blaspheme-ous 19 If
blather 109
blathra (Scan) 109
bleat 109
bled-an (AS) 195f
bledsian (AS) 195f
bleed-ing 195f
blegen (AS) 35, 195f
blend 71
bless-ing-ed-ness 195f
blest 195f
blind 71
Blitz-krieg (GE) 216
bloat-er 195f
bloc (FE) 154
block-ade-buster-head-
house 134
blod (AS) 195f
bloh (OHG) 154
bloma (AS) 195f
blomi (ON) 195f
blond 71
blood- thirsty-y 195f
bloom 195f
blossom 195f
blostma (AS) 195f
blostmian (AS) 195f
*bl6tian (AS) 195f
blow 195f
blowan (AS) 195f
blunder 71
bo 188f
boat 108f
bocse (AS) 36
boeuf(F) 179f
bofi (ON) 147
Bog (SlRus) 71
bogaty (SlRus) 71
boire (F) 59
bois (F) 179f
bole (Gk) 52f
bolograph-meter 52f
bolr (ON) 154
bolwerk (LG) 83f
bon(F) 188f;(FE)gremal
gre 75, 188f; marche
188f; ton 188f; vivant
188f; voyage 188f
bona fide (LE) 188f
bonanza (SpE) 188f
Bonaparte-ist 188f
bonbon (FE) 188f
bond-age-sman 72f
bonda (AS) 72f
bondi (ON) 72f
boniface 188f
bonitas (L) 188f
bonito (SpE) 188f
bonne (FE) 188f
bonnet 188f
bonny 188f
bonte (F) 188f
bonus (LE) 37, 188f
boom 13
boon (companion) 188f
Boouinda 179f
boroda (Rus) 2, 107
Borodino 107
borough 216
bos (L) 179f
boscage 179f
boscus (L) 179f
bosko (Gk) 179f
bosky 179f
boss 150f
botane (Gk) 179f
botany-ical 179f
boukolikos (Gk) 179f
boulevard (FE) 83f
bounty-eous-ful 188f
bous (Gk) 179f
boustrophedon (GkE) 179f
bout (F) 150
boutade (F) 150f
boutelier (F) 43
boutyron (Gk) 36, 179f
bov- (L) 179f
bovine 179f
box 36
boy 147
Boyne 179f
246
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
bradhnah (Sk) 71
braggart 2 1 7
Brahma-n-ism 70f
brahman (Sk) 70f
Brahmaputra 65
Brahmin 70f
brat-r (SI) 26
br^thair (Ir) 26
breathe 9
-brecht (G) 47f
br'er 146f
brethren 146f
bridegroom 171
bridge 34
brig (Olr) 216
brig-antine 216
brigade-ier 216
brigand-age 216
bright 10, 15, 34, 47f
brine 118
brisance (FE) 1 18
briser (F) 1 18
britva (Rus) 118
brother-hood-ly 9, 19, 26,
146f
brothor (AS) 146f
brotos (Gk) 157f
brown 10
Broz 157f
Bruder (G) 19, 26
brunette (FE) 43
brut (FE) 216
brute-al-ity-ize 216
bruth (Ceh) 216
bruth-faths (Goth) 97
brutish 216
brutus (LOsc) 216
brycg (AS) 34
brydguma (AS) 171
bryne (AS) 118
Bryn Mawr 76, 226f
bubalis 179f
bubalus (L) 26, 179f
Bube (G) 147, 208
buccaneer 180
bucentaur 179f
bucolic 179f
buculus (L) 179f
bufalo (It) 179f
bufalus (L) 26, 179f
buff 179f
buffalo 26, 179f
buffet 59
buffoon 43
bugle-r 179f
bulrush 154
bulwark 83f
Bund 72f
Bund-esrat (GE) 72f
bundel (Du) 72f
bundle 72f
buobo (OHG) 147
bureau-crat-cy 217f
burn 9
bus 66f
but (F) 150
butane 179f
butere (AS) 36
buterflege (AS) 179f
butt (ASE) 150
butter-cup-fly-milk 36, 43,
179f
buttock 150
button 150f
buttress 150f
buttuc (AS) 150
butyl 179f
butyric 179f
butyrum (L) 36, 179f
buvette (F) 59
buxus (L) 36
bylgan (AS) 35, 45
byword 160
G
cab-by 40, 59
caballarius (L) 41
caballero (Sp) 41
caballo (Sp) 33
caballus (L) 88
cabildo (SpE) 137
cabra (PrSp) 40
cabrilla (SpE) 58
cabriole (FE) 58
cabriolet (FPrE) 40, 58
cachier (NF) 41
cad-dy 137
cadet 137
caeppe (AS) 136f
cage (FE) 42
cairn 2 1 7
caisson 135f
caitiff 41, 43, 135f
calan (AS) 130
caldaria (L) 57
calefacio (L) 57
calefaction 57
Calendae (L) 138f
calendar 138f
Calends 138f
caleo (L) 57
calf 35, 84f
calid 57
*calidare (VL) 57
calidus (L) 57
caliginous 57
caligo (L) 57
call-able-ing 10, 219f
callian (AS) 219f
calo (L) 138f
calorie-meter 57
calve 84f
cam(b) (Celt) 63f
cambial-ist 63f
cambiare (L) 41
cambio (ItE) 63f
cambium (LE) 63f
camera (GkLItE) 36, 74,
141
camisade 74
camisia (GaulL) 41, 74
camisole 74
camomile 170f
camp-ing, 41, 63f
campagna (It) 63f
campaign' 63f
Campania 63f
campo(santo) (It) 63f
campus (LE) 63f
can 206f
canaglia (It) 157
canaille (FE) 157
(Islas) Canarias 157
canary 157
cancel-lation 217
cancelh (L) 217
cancer-ous 217
candel (AS) 6 If
candela (Lit) 61f
candelabrum-a (LE) 6 If,
121
candeo (L) 6 If
WORD INDEX
247
candesco (L) 6 If
candid 6 If
candidate-cy 6 If
candidatus (L) 6 If
Candide61f
candle 41, 6 If
Candlemas 6 If
candor (LE) 6 If
canicula (L) 157
canicular 157
canine 157
canis (L) 157
Canis Major 157
canker 217
cann (AS) 206f
cannabis (Gk) 19, 24
cannoneer 41
cano (L) 126f
canorous 127
cant-or 41, 126f
cantabile (It) 126f
cantaloupe 127
Cantalupo 127
cantata (It) 126f
canteen 43
canticle 126f
cantilene (FE) 126f
cantina (It) 43
canto (LItE) 126f
canzone-t (ItE) 126f
cap 136f
capable-ility 1, 135f, 144
capacious-ity 1, 135f
cap k pid (FE) 198f
caparison 137
cape 41, 136f
capella (L) 58
caper 58
capillary 137
capillum (L) 137
capio (L) 1, 7, 67, 135f
capital-ism-ist 137
capitalis (L) 136f
capitellum (VL) 137
capitulary 137
capitulate 137
capitulum (L) 137
capote (FE) 137
cappa (L) 137
cappella (LItE) 137f
capra (Lit) 40, 58, 135f
capriccio (ItE) 58
caprice (FE) 58
Capricorn 40, 58, 215
caprifoliaceous 58
capriole 58
capsa (L) 135f
capsicum 135f
capstan 135f
capsule 135f
capt- 1, 136f
captain 137
captiare (VL) 41, 135f
caption 135f
captious 135f
captive-ate-ity 1, 43, 135f
captivus (L) 43
capture 135f
captus (L) 135f
Capuchin 137
caput (L) 58, 136f
car (NFE) 41, 218f
carbide 118f
carbo (L) 118f
carbohydrate 118f
carbolic 118f
carbon-ic-ate 118f
Carbonari (It) 118f
carborundum 118f
carbuncle 1 1 8f
carburetor 118f
career (L) 217
Carceres 217
carcinoma-gen 216f
cardiac 22, 24, 182
cardiogram-logy 182
careen 217
career 218f
cargo (SpE) 218f
caricature-ist 218f
carina (L) 217
carl, Carl 197
Carlist 197
Carlovingian 197
carmen (L) 126f
cam (IrWe) 217
caroche 218f
Carol 197
Carolina-e 197
Carolingian 197
Carolus 197
carpenter-ry 218f
carpentum (GaulL) 218f
carpus (LE) 172
carrac (Ir) 217
carraria (VL) 218f
carreg (We) 217
carj-iage 218f
carriole 2 18f
carros (Gaul) 218f
carrus (L) 218f
carry-all 41, 218f
carton (FE) 13, 43
cartone (It) 43
cartoon 13, 43
cartwright 83f
carve 82 f
casa (LItSp) 62f
casein 12
caseus (L) 38
cash-ier 41, 135f
Casinum 150
casket 135f
*cassanus (L) 150
Cassaro 62 f
Cassino 150
casta (Pt) 63
caste 62 f
castel (NF) 62f
castellan 62f
castellittum (L) 62f
castellum (L) 62f
-caster 62f
castigate 15, 62f
castigo (L) 41
Castile 62f
Castilla 62f
Castillo (Sp) 62f
castle 41, 62f
castrate 62f
castro (L) 62f
castrum (L) 62f
castus (L) 62f
cat 41
9ata (Sk) 22
catamount 69
catarrh 79f
catch 12, 41, 135f
category-ical 155f
cathedra (L) 36
cathedral 36
Catholic-ism-icity 97f
cattle 41, 137
248
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
Cauda (LE) 40, 115
caudal 40, 115
caudillo (Sp) 137
caudle 57
cauldron 57
caupo (L) 38
cavalier (FE) 41
cavalry 41
cavea (L) 42
Cawnpore 229ff
cealc (AS) 35
ceald (AS) 35, 130
cealf-ian (AS) 35, 84f
ceapian (AS) 38
-ceipt 135f
-ceive 1, 135f
celan (AS) 130
celeber (L) 138
celebrate 138
celebrity 138
celer (L) 138
celerity 138
cell 41
cella (L) 41
celle (F) 41
cene (AS) 35, 206f
cennan (AS) 35, 204ff
cent 179
Centaur-US 225
centavo (Sp) 179
centennial 179
centime (F) 179
centimeter 163f
centripetal 200
centum (L) 22, 179
centurion 179
century 179
ceorfan (AS) 82f
ceorl (AS) 35
ceosan (AS) 35, 11 If
cepan (AS) 35
cephalopod 198f
-cept 1, 135f
ceramics 1 18
cerasia-os-us (GkL) 38, 41,
50
cercle (F) 41
cerebellum (LE) 215
cerebral-ate 215
cerebrum (LE) 215
Ceres 2 1 5
cerevisia (GaulL) 215
cerf (F) 215
cerise (FE) 14, 41, 50
cerveza (Sp) 215
cervical 215
cervine 215
cervix 215
cervoise (OF) 215
cervus (L) 215
-cester 62 f
cet (Ir) 22
chacier (OF) 41
chafe-ing dish 57
chagrin (FE) 85f
chair 36
chaire (F) 36
chaise (longue; FE) 36
chalet (FE) 62f
chalk 35
chamai (Gk) 170f
chamber 36
chambre (F) 36
chameleon 170f
champ (F) 41, 63f
champagne-ign (FE) 63f
Champagne 63f
champignon (FE) 63f
champion-ship 63f
Champs Elys^es 63f
chancel-lery-lor 217
chancery 2 1 7
chancre (FE) 217
chancroid 217
chandala (Sk) 62
chandelier (FE) 62
chandelle (F) 62
chandle-r 41, 62
change (FE) 41, 64
changer (F) 64
chanson (de geste; FE)
126f
chant-icler-ry-y 126f
chanteuse (FE) 126f
chapeau (FE) 137
chapel 137f
chaperon 137f
chaplain 137f
chaplet 137f
chapter 137
char (F) 41, 218f
charabanc 218f
char-^-bancs (FE) 218f
charge-r 41, 218f
chariot-eer 218f
charity 10
Charlemagne 197
Charles 197
charley-horse 197
Charlotte 197
charm-er-ing 126f
charme (F) 126f
Chartres217
chase 41, 135f
chasser (F) 41
chaste-ity 62f
chastel (OF) 62f
chastelet (F) 62f
chasten 41
chastise 62f
chat (F) 41
chateau (FE) 41, 62f
chatelain-e (FE) 62f
chattel 41, 136f
chaud (F) 57
chaudiere (F) 57
chauffeur (FE) 57
cheap 38
cheek 105f, 204f
cheese llf, 38
chef(FE) 136f
chef d'oeuvre (FE) 67,
136f
chemise (FE) 41, 74
chen (Gk) 27
chene (F) 149f
chenil (F) 157
chenille (FE) 157
chennan (OHG) 25
cherise (NF) 38, 41, 50
cherry 14, 38, 41, 50
Chersonese 177
chesne (OF) 149f
-Chester 62 f
chetif (F) 41, 43
chevalier (FE) 41
chevre (F) 40
Chevrolet 40, 58
chevron (FE) 40, 59
chevrotain (FE) 58
chiaro (It) 40
chiaroscuro (ItE) 40
chief-tain 41, 136f
WORD INDEX
249
chilblain 35, 195f
chill-y 35, 130
chin 35, 105f
chirurgeon 84
chirurgien (F) 84
chivalry 41
chlorophyll 195f
choice 1 1 If
chois (OF) 1 1 1
choix (F) 1 1 If
choose 35f, 11 If
chowder 57
chrebiz (OHG) 82f
chrism 37, 85f
chrisma (GkLE) 37, 85f
Christ-endom-mas 85f
Christian-ity-ize 85f
Christiania 85f
Christos-us (GkL) 85f
chthes (Gk) 27
chthon (Gk) 170f
chthonian 170f
church 1 1 , 36
churl-ish 35, 196f
churn 197
chwech (We) 29
Cid (Sp) 64f
ciele (AS) 35, 130
ciern (AS) 197
cinn (AS) 35, 105f
Cinquecento (ItE) 209f
cinquefoil 210
Cinque Ports 209f
-cip- 135f
-cipate 1, 135f
-cipio (L) 1
circe (AS) 36
circle 41
circulus (L) 41
circumspect-ion 203f
circumspicio (L) 203f
cirs (AS) 38
citadel 147f
Cit6 (F) 147f
cittadella (It) 147f
city-izen-ship 147f
giva 147f
civic 147f
civil-ian-ize-ization 147f
civis (L) 147f
civitas (L) 147f
clack219f
clacu (AS) 219f
clappan (AS) 219f
claidheamh mor (Celt)
226f
claim-ant 138f
clairvoyant 139, 228f
clamo-r (L) 138f
clamor-ous 138f
clank219f
clap219f
claque (FE) 219f
claret 139
clarify-ication 138f
clarinet 139
clarion 139
clarity 138f
clarus (L) 40, 138f
class-ic-ical-ify-ification
139
clatr-ian-ung (AS) 219f
clatter 2 19f
claudo (L) 139f
clause 140
claustrophobia 140
claustrum (L) 139f
clausus (L) 139f
clavel (Sp) 140
clavichord-form 139f
clavicle 139f
clavier 139f
clavis (L) 139f
clavus (L) 140
claymore 226f
clear-ance-ing 139
clef(FE) 139f
clepsydra 224f
clink-er 219f
cloister 140
close-ure 139f
closet 139f
cloture 140
clueo (L) 77
-elusion 140
cna?pp (AS) 48
cnafa (AS) 48
cnawan (AS) 206f
cnedan (AS) 34, 48
cneo-wlian (AS) 34, 155
cniht (AS) 34, 48, 204
cnocian (AS) 48
cnoll (AS) 48
cnott (AS) 48
cnyttan (AS) 34, 48
coadjutor 213
coalesce 125
coalition 125
coarse 218f
coc (AS) 96
coda (ItE) 40, 115
code 1 15
codex (LE) 115
codicil 1 15
codify 1 15
coeur du roi (F) 220f
coeval 154f
cognate 205f
cognition 206f
cognize-ant 206f
cognomen (L) 164f, 206f
cognoscenti 206f
cohors (L) 131
cohort 131
coi (F) 43
col-ian (AS) 130
colaphus (L) 37
cold 10, 35, 130
coleoptera (GkE) 200
collate-ion 94f
collateral 60
Colombia 56f
Colon 56f
columba (L) 56f
columbarium (LE) 56f
Columbia 56f
columbine 56f
columbium 56f
Columbus 56f
combat-ant 150f
comer (SpPt) 169
comestible 169
command-ment 65f
commandeer 65f
commando (PtE) 65f
commend 65f
commere (F) 162f
commination 68f
compact 186
compadre (Sp) 201f
companion-ship-ate 141
company 141
compassion-ate 141 f
250
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
compatible-ibility 14 If
compatriot 20 If
compeer 20 If
compendium-ous 193f
compensate- ion 194f
compere (F) 20 If
compete-itor 200f
competent-ce 200f
complacent-cy 187
complaisant (FE) 187f
complement-ary 230f
complete- ion 230f
complex-ity 166f
compliant-ce 166f, 230f
complicate-ion 166f
complicity 166f
compliment-ary 230f
comply 166f
compos mentis (LE) 97
compter (F) 43
compute 12, 43
computer (F) 43
computo (L) 43
con 206f
conceit 135f
conceive-able 1, 135f
concept-ual 1, 135f
conciliate-ory 139
concilium (L) 139
conclave 139f
conclude-sion 139f
concoct 96
concord-ance 182
concourse 218f
concur-rent 218
condition-al 190f
condo (L) 101
condole-nce 89
condone lOOf
condottiere (ItE) 132
conduce-ive 132
conduct-or 132
conduit (FE) 132
confabulate 19 If
confess-ion-al-or 19 If
configure-ation 128
confine-ment 128
confiteor (L) 191
conflagration 56
confrere (FE) 31, 146f
confute 150f
congeal 130
congener 204f
congenial 204f
congratulate-ion 75f
congregate-ion 155f
Congregatio de Pro-
paganda Fide 186
conjugate-ion 213
conjunction-ure-ive-ivitis
213
conjure 2, 56
connan (AS) 206f
conning-tower 206f
connoisseur (FE) 206f
conoscenti (It) 206f
consobrinus (L) 107
console-ation 98
consolidate-ion 98
consols 98
consort 105
conspicio (L) 203f
conspicuous 203f
contagion-ous 67f
contain 67f
contaminate 68
contemno (L) 92
contemplate-ion-ive 61
contemporary-neous 60f
contempt-ible-uous 61, 92
center (F) 43
contest-ant-ation 18 If
context-ual 173f
contiguous-ity 67f
contingent-cy 67f
contraband 19 If
contract-or-ual 133
contraction 133
contradict-ion-ory 190f
contralto (ItE) 125
contretemps (FE) 60f
contribute-ion-or 181
contumacious 92
convection-or 142f
convex 142f
convey-or-ance 39, 142f
convocation 93
convoke 93
convoy 39, 142f
cook-ery 96
cool-er-ness 130
cooperate 66f
cope-ing 137
Copenhagen 135
copia (L) 66f
copious 66f
copy-ist-right 66f
coqueo (L) 96
coquina (L) 96
coquus (L) 96
cor (L) 19, 182
cordial-ity 22, 24, 182
corduroy 220f
core 182
cork 149f
corn (AS) 197
corn-y 197
corn 2 1 5
cornea 215
corner 215
corneria (VL) 215
cornet 215
corniere (F) 215
cornu (L) 215
cornucopia 215
Cornwall-ish 215
corral (PtE) 218f
correct- ive-ion 22 If
correspond-ent-ence 193f
corrigible 220f
corrode 122f
corrogata (L) 221f
corrosion-ive 122f
corsair 218f
cort (OF) 131
cortege (FE) 131
corteggio (It) 131
cortigiano (It) 131
corvee (FE) 22 If
cosmogony 204f
cosmopolitan 230f
couleur (F) 220f
council-or 139
count 43
counterpoise 193f
coup (FE) 37
couper (F) 137
cour (F) 131
courage (FE) 182
courante (FE) 218f
courier 218f
course-r 218
court (OFE) 131
WORD INDEX
251
courteous 131
courtesan 131
courtesy 131
courtier 131
courtly 131
cousin (FE) 107
cousiner (F) 107
couth 206f
couvre-chef (F) 136f
cow-boy-hide-slip 179f
coward-ice 105, 217
coy 43
crab-by 82f
-cracy 216f
crag 217
craig (IrWe) 217
cram 156
crama (Gaul) 85f
crammian (AS) 156
cramp 156
cranium (LE) 10, 37,
214f
craps 82f
-crat 216f
crater 216f
crawfish 82f
crayfish 82f
cream-y-ery 37, 86
creatine 184
crebba (AS) 82f
credence 182
credentials 182
credenza (ItE) 182
credible-ibility 182
credit-able 182
creditor 182
credo (LE) 182
credulous-ity 182
creed 182
cremate-ion-orium 11 8f
creme (F) 37, 85f
cremo (L) 1 18f
creosote 184
creta (L) 85f
cretin-ism 85f
crimp 156
crisma (AS) 85f
criss-cross 85f
Crist-mas-nian-en-endom
(AS) 85f
Crna Gora (SO) 69
crosswise 228
crude-ity-ness 184
crudelis (L) 184
crudus (L) 184
cruel-ty 184
cruor (L) 184
crust-y 184
crusta (L) 184
crustacean-eous 184
cryogen-lite-scope 184
crystal-line-lize 184
cu (AS) I79f
cuando (Sp) 161
cue 40
cuig (Ir) 149
cuisine (FE) 96
culina (L) 96
culinary 96
cumedo (VL) 169
cummerbund 72f
cumplir (Sp) 230f
cunae fL) 147f
cunnan (AS) 206f
cunning 206f
-cup-y 135f
current-cy 218
curriculum (vitae; LE)
218f
curro (L) 218
cursive 218
cursory 218
cursus (L) 218
curtain 131
curtsy 131
curule218
cut lOf
cuth (AS) 206f
cwen-e (AS) 34, 78
cwic (AS) 26
cy (AS) 179f
cybernetics 37
cycene (AS) 96
Cyclops 183
cylen (AS) 96
cynegetics 157
cynic-al-ism 157
cyning (AS) 204f
cynn (AS) 35, 204f
cynocephalous 157
cynosure 157
cyrin (AS) 197
cyrnel (AS) 197
cyth (AS) 206f
D
Dachshund (GE) 157
*dacruma (L) 1 12
daddy-o 78
Daedalos-us-ian (GkLE)
89
deeg (AS) 35
daga (ON) 8
dahsina (Sk) 100
daiaita (Gk) 212
dainty 99f
dais (FE) 43
♦dakru 11 If
Dalmatia-n-ic 64
Dalphinus 84f
-dam (L) 161
*dams-potis 96f
dana (SI) 101
dandelion 43, 169
Dante-sque 223
dark 10
daru (Sk) 222f
dasa (Sk) 179
dasask (ON) 109f
dasathr (ON) 109f
dasen (ME) 109f
dastard-Iy 109f
data (LE) lOOf
date-less lOOf
dative lOOf
datus (L) lOOf
*dau, *dau 56
daughter 44f
Dauphin 84f
daupjan (Goth) 47
dawn 2 1 1
day 2, 8, 35,211
daze 109f
dazzle 109f
*de 160f
-de- (L) 161
de- 161
d6 (F) lOOf
♦d9 lOOf
dead (AS) 1 10
dead-en 110
dean-ery 178
252
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
death (AS) 110
death-ly 110
debacle (FE) 214
debase 49f
debate-able 150f
debenture 143f
debeo (L) 143f
debilis (L) 143f
debilitate 143f
debit-or 143f
debonnaire (FE) 188f
debt-or 143f
d^but (FE) 150f
deca- 178
decade 178
decahedron 178
Decalogue 178
Decameron 178
decamp 63f
decant-er 126f
decanus (L) 178
decapitate 137
decapod-thlon-syllabic
178
Deccan 100
deceit-ful 135f
deceive 1, 135f
decelerate-ion 138
decern (L) 178
December 178
decennial 178
decent-ly-cy 99f
deception-ive 135f
decet (L) 99f
decibel 178
decillion 178
decimal 178
decimate 178
decimus-a (L) 178
deck 173
Decker (G) 178
declaim-ation 138f
declare-ation-ative 139
ddclassd (FE) 139
decoct-ion 96
decode 1 15
ddcor (FE) 99f
decorate-or-ative-ation 99f
decorous 99f
decorum (LE) 99f
decuman 178
decuple 178
decurion 178
decus (L) 178
dedicate-ion-ory 39, 190f
deduce 132
deduct-ion-ible 133
deep-en 2, 47
defame-ation-atory 19 If
defend-er 73
defense 73
deficio (L) 26
defile-ment 128
define-ition-ite 128
defloration 195f
degage (FE) 14, 46
degenerate-ion-ive 204f
dehorn 214f
dehydrate 224f
*dei211f
deictic 189f
deify-fication 21 If
*deig 189f
deign 99f
*deik 189f
deiknymi (Gk) 189f
deity 21 If
deixis (Gk) 189f
*dek 99f
dek-ken (Du) 173
deka (Gk) 178
Dekkan 100
*dekm 178f
*dekmtom 179
*deku 178f
*del 45f, 89
delaier (OF) 94f
delatare (VL) 94f
delay 94f
delinquent-cy 161f
delphinium 84f
delphinus (L) 84f
delphis (Gk) 84f
Delphoi-ic-ian 85
deltiology 89
deltos (Gk) 89
deluge 121
de luxe (FE) 185
-dem (L) 161
demain (F) 57
demand 65f
demean-or 68f
Demeter 162f, 170f
democrat-cy-tic 217f
demon 10
demure 57
denarius (LE) 178
denationalize 205f
denature 205f
dendron (Gk) 222f
deni (L) 178
denier (FE) 178
denominate-ion-or 164f
denote 206f
dens (L) 169
dent- 169
dental-ate 169
dent de lion (F) 43, 169
dentelle (FE) 169
denticle 169
denticulated 169
dentifrice 118, 169
dentine 169
dentist-ry 24, 169
dentition 169
denture 169
deodar (HindE) 211f, 222f
deofol (AS) 52f
deop (AS) 47
depend-ent-ence 193f
deplete-ion 230f
deploy-ment 166f
depopulate 230f
deprecate 58
depth 47
*der81f
derelict-ion 161f
derevo (Rus) 224
derigueur (FE) 221f
derogatory 22 If
*deru 222f
desert 105
deshabille (FE) 144
desk 43
desmaier (OF) 148
despacho (Sp) 186
despicable 203f
despicio (L) 203f
despise 203f
despite 203f
despondent-cy 193f
despot-ic-ism 97
despotes (Gk) 96f
WORD INDEX
253
dessert (FE) 43
desyat' (Rus) 179
detain 67f
detect-ion-ive 173
detest-able-ation 18 If
detract-ion-or 133
detto (It) 190
*deu 188f
*d9u 56
*deuk 13 If
deus (L) 8, 21 If
ex machina (LE) 21 If
Deus Pater (L) 20 If, 21 If
Deuteronomy 167f
deva-i (Sk) 21 If, 222f
devadaru (Sk) 21 If, 222f
devastate-ion 129
deviate-ion-ist 142f
device 228f
devil 52f
devious 142f
devise 228f
-dex (L) 189f
dexter-ity-ous 99f
dextrine-ose 99f
*dey9 21 If
deyja (ON) 110
*dhagh 8
dhanas (Sk) 9
*dhe 77f, 109f
*dhegh 8
*dhe(i) 44, 64f
*dheigu 127f
*dherag 132f
*dheu 110
*dheub 47
*dhonas 9
*dhug(h)9ter 45
*dhumb 47
*dhwer 1 16
-di (F) 2, 8, 21 If
di (It) 211f
*di, *dia211f
dia (Sp) 2, 8, 21 If
dia- (GkE) 52f
diaballo (Gk) 52f
diablerie (F) 52f
diabolic 52f
Diabolique (F) 52f
diabolos-us (GkL) 52f
diagnose-tic-ian 206f
diagonal 155
dial-ing212
diameter-tric-al-ly 163f
Diana 21 If
dianthus211f
diaphanous 80f
diarrhea 79f
diary-ist 212
diathermy-ic 156
die (AS) 128
-dicare (L) 189f
dicast 189f
-dicate 189f
dice lOOf
dichotomy 92
Dick-ens 220f
dicker 178
dico (L) 56, 189f
dictate-ion 190
dictator-ial-ship 190
dictee (F) 190
dictio (L) 189f
-diction 189f
diction-ary 189f
dictum (LE) 189f
dictus (L) 189f
didactic 99f
didaskein (Gk) 99f
didomi (Gk) lOOf
die 9, 110
die (pi. dice) 110
diefan (AS) 47
diepan (AS) 47
dies (L) 2, 8, 211fmali,
dominica 21 If
diet 212
Dieu (F) 21 If
dig 128
Digger 128
digit-al-is 190f
digitus (L) 189f
dignify 99f
dignitas (L) 99f
dignity-ary 99f
dignus (L) 99f
diguer (F) 128
dihtan (AS) 190
dijk (Du) 128
dike 128
dike (Gk) 189f
dilate- ion 60
dilatory 94f
dilute-ion 121
dime 178
dimension-al 163f
dimple 2, 47
dinar 178f
diner (F) 43
*dingua (L) 112
dinner 43
diocese-an 93f
Dios (GkSp) 21 If
Dioscuri (Gk) 21 If
dip-per 2, 47
diphthong 191f
diplo- 166f
diplodocus 166f
diploid 166f
diplomat-cy 166f
diptera (GkE) 200
direct-ion-al 22 If
directive 22 If
Directoire 22 If
director-ate-y 22 If
directus (L) 22 If
dirge 22 If
dirige (L) 221f
dirigible 22 If
dirigo (L) 22 If
disable 144
disaster-ous 158f
disc 43
discharge 218f
disciple 99f
discipline-ary 99f
discipul (AS) 99f
disclaim-er 139
disclose-ure 139
disco (L) 99f
discord-ant 182
discourage-ment 182
discourse-ive 218
discredit 182
discus (LE) 42
disdain-ful 99f
disenchant-ment 126f
disfigure 128
disgrace-ful 75f
disguise 228f
disgust 112
dish 42
dishearten 182
254
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
disinter 120
disjoin 2 1 3
disjunctive 213
dismal 212
dismal (OF) 212
dismay 148
dismount 69
disobedient-ce 89f
disobey 89f
disorganize-ation 83f
dispatch 186
dispedicare (VL) 186
dispend 193f
dispense-ation-ary 193f
display 166f
displease-ure 187
dispossess 97
dissertation 105
dissuade-sion 159
distaste 68
distemper 60f
distract-ion 133
distribute-ion-or 181
distrust 223f
ditch 128
dithyramb-ic 116
-ditio (L) 190f
-dition 189f
ditto 189f
ditty 190
-ditum (L) lOOf
diups (Goth) 47
diuretic 224f
diurnal 212
diurnus (L) 212
diva (It) 21 If
dive-r 47
Diviana 21 If
divination 21 If
divine-ity 21 If
divinus (L) 21 If
divus (L) 21 If
Dixie 220f
Dixon 220f
*dnghu 112
do "(L) 65f, lOOf, 189f
*d6 lOOf, 160f
doc', docer- (SI) 45
doccia (It) 132
doceo (L) 99f
docile-ity 99f
doctor-al-ate 99f
doctrine-al-ary 99f
document-al-ary-ation 99f
Dodecanese 177
dog 1, 5, 9
doge (ItE) 132
dogma (GkE) 99f
dogmatic-ism 99f
dohtor (AS) 45
dol89
Dolce Stil Nuovo (It) 40
dole-ful 89
doleo (L) 125
dolor (L) 89
Dolores 89
dolorous 89
dolphin 84f
domani (It) 57
dom(i)na (L) 39
dominate 9
dominical 212
donate-ion lOOf
done (F) 161
donee (L) 161
dono (L) lOOf
donor lOOf
doop-en (Du) 47
door 19, 27, 116
dope 47
dorf 14
Doric 223
doroga (Rus) 133
doron (Gk) lOOf
Dorothea-y lOOf
dorp 14
*doru 222f
dos (L) lOOf
dose-age lOOf
dosis (Gk) lOOf
dot (FE) lOOf
dotal lOOf
-dote lOOf
dotos (Gk) lOOf
dottir (Icel) 45
*dou 188f
double-t 166f
douche (FE) 132
dour 223
douzaine (F) 178
dowager lOOf
dower lOOf
downright 22 If
dowry lOOf
doxa (Gk) 99f
doxology 99f
doyen (F) 178
dozen 178
draege (AS) 35, 133
draft-y-sman 133
drag 35, 133
draga (ON) 35, 133
dragan (AS) 35, 133
draggle 133
draught 133
Drave 81
draw-er-s-ing 35, 133
drawl 133
dray 35, 133
dredge-r 133
dress-er-ing 22 If
Driad 223
drive-r 9
droit (F) 22 If
dromedary 8 If
dromos (Gk) 8 If
dropsy 183, 224f
*dru 222f, 227
drui (Olr) 223
Druid-ism 223, 227f
drunkard 218
drupe 223
dru-talos (Gaul) 223
dru uid (Celt) 227f
drys (Gk) 223
du (G) 19, 22
*du 188f
*du 55f
dubito (L) 132
dubloon 167
ducal 132
ducat 132
-ducate 132
-duce 132
Duce (It) 132
duchess 132
duchy 132
duco (L) 132
-duct 132
duct-ion-ile-less 132
ductus (L) 132
due 143f
duel-list 55f
WORD INDEX
255
duello (ItE) 55f
duellum (ArcL) 37, 55f,
188f
duefia (Sp) 39
duene (ArcL) 188f
duenelos (ArcL) 188f
duenna 39
duenos (ArcL) 37, 188
duhita (Sk) 45
duhitar (Pers) 45
duke 132
dum (L) 161
Dumnorix 22 If
dump 2, 45
dunn (G) 33
dunni (OHG) 33
dunque (It) 161
duo (L) 55f
duodecim (L) 178
duodecimal 178
duodecina (VL) 178
duodenum (LE) 178
duonos (ArcL) 37, 188
duonos (Lith) 19
duplex 166f
duplicate-ion 166f
duplicity 166f
Duquesne 149f
Durante 233
durable-lity 223
duration 223
duress 233
Durham 147
duru (AS) 116
durum (wheat) 223
durus (L) 223
duty-ful 143f
dux (L) 132
dwinan (AS) 110
dwindle 110
dyadya (Rus) 78
dyed (Rus) 78
dyeti (Rus) 64
dyeva-itsa-ushka (Rus) 64
dynamai (Gk) 188f
dynamis (Gk) 188f
dynamite-ic-ism 188f
dynast-y-ic 188f
dyne 188f
dyppan (AS) 47
ea 114f
ea (AS) 114f, 170
eacan (AS) 117
cage (AS) 23, 35, 183
eagre 1 14f
eahta (AS) 32
eald (AS) 125
ealdorman (AS) 125
eam (AS) 106
ear 30f
eare (AS) 30f
earth (AS) 105
earth-en-ly-ling-quake 105
east-em 170
easte (AS) 170
Easter 170
easterling 158f, 170
eastre (AS) 170
eat-able 168f
eau (de Cologne, de vie;
FE) 114f
eaves-drop 166
ecan (AS) 117
ech (Ir) 88
^chauder (F) 57
Eclair (FE) 139
eclipse 16 If
ecology 37, 93f
economy-ist-ize-ic-al-s 93f,
167f
6crevisse (F) 82f
6cTu (FE) 184
-ectomy 92
6cu (F) 41
ecumenical 93f
*ed 168f
edacious-ity 169
edentate 169
Edessa 225
edible 169
edict 190
edit-ion-or-ial 101
edo (L) 169
educate-or-ion-al 132
-eer 41
efes (AS) 166
effeminate 64f
effete 64f
efficient-cy 10
effigy 128
efflorescent 195f
effulgent-ce 55
*egnis 53
ego (LE) 19, 25
egotist 19
egregious 155f
ei (ON) 154f
eidomai (Gk) 22 7f
eidolon (Gk) 22 7f
eidyllion (Gk) 227f
eight 32
eiro (Gk) 160
eke 117
ekho (Gk) 50f
ekleipo (Gk) 161f
*eku 11 4f
*ekwos 88
elate-ion 60, 94f
eld-er 125
electrodynamic 188f
elephant 5
eleven-th 162
ellipse-tical 16 If
elska (Scan) 125
elucidate-ion 184f
emancipate-ion-or 65f,
135f
embattled 150f
embellish 188f
Ember Days 61
emblem 52f
embolism 52f
emboss 150f
eme 106
emein (Gk) 87
emetic 87
eminent-ce 68f
empanada (Sp) 141
empathy 73
empecher (F) 198f
emphasis-tic-size 80f
employ-ee-er-ment 166f
empty 10
en (F) 161
enable 144
encamp-ment 63f
encase-ment 135f
enchant-er-ment-ress
126f
enclave (FE) 139f
256
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
enclose-ure 139f
encode 1 15
encourage-ment 182
encrust 184
ende (OSp) 161
endeavor 143f
endecasyllabic 178
endleofan (AS) 162
endo- 161
endocardial 182
endocrinology 161
endow-ment lOOf
endue 132
endure-ance 9, 223
energy-etic 83f
enfant gatd, terrible (FE)
129, 191
enfilade 128
engage 17, 46
engagement (FE) 46
engager (F) 46
engender 204f
engine-er-ing 204f
England-ish 15 If
Engle-isc (AS) 15 If
enjoin 213
enlighten-ment 184f
ennoble 206f
*en(o)mn 164f
enormous-ly-ity 207
enrich-ment 22 If
ensconce 101
entier (F) 68
entire 67f
entrain 133
entreat-y 133
entrust 223f
enumerate 168
envisage 228f
envois (OF) 93, 142f
envoy 39, 142f
envoyer (F) 93
envy-able-ous 54, 228f
eo- 169f
eocene-lith-ic 169f
eoh (AS) 88
eohippus 88, 169f
eon 154f
eos (Gk) 169f
6p6e (FE) 40f
epic 92 f
Epicurus-ean-ism 218
epigene 204f
epigram 82f
epigraph 82f
Epiphania-y (GkE) 80f
episcopal-ian 202f
episcopus (L) 34, 36, 203
episkopein (Gk) 202f
episkopos (Gk) 34, 36
epitome 92
epoch 50f
eponym 164f
^popde (FE) 92f
epopoiia (Gk) 92f
epos (GkE) 92f
epos (Gaul) 88
equestrian-ienne 88
equilateral 60
equine 88
equinox-ctial 103f
equipoise 194f
equitation 88
Equites (LE) 88
equivocal-ation 93
equus (L) 88
erase-r 122f
Erbe (G) 74
*er9 106
erect-ion-ile 22 If
erg 83f
ergo (L) 220f
ergon 83f
-ero (Sp) 41
erode-sion 122f
Erzgebirge 1 13
escapade 137
escape 137
escarole 169
eschamper (OF) 63f
esclave (F) 77
escluse (OF) 140
escole (OF) 36, 51
Esme92, 113
esmer (OF) 113
esophagus 71
esquisse (FE) 51
espada (SpE) 40
especial 203f
espionage 32, 203f
espose (OF) 38
espouse-al 193f
esprit (FE) 41
espy 203f
essen (G) 168
esteem 92, 113
esthete-ic-s 89f
estimate-ion-ble 92, 113
estimer (F) 1 13
esus (L) 169
6tat (F) 41
eternal-ity 154f
eternus (L) 154f
etico (It) 51
6tude (FE) 13f
*eu 129
eugenic 204f
eune (Gk) 50f
eunuch 50f
euphemy-ism 19 If
euphony-ic 19 If
Eure 225
evacuate-ion 129
evade-sion 9
evanesce 129
evident-ce 228f
^vier (F) 114f
evoke 93
ewer 1 14f
exalt-ation 125
exasperate-ion 153f
except-ion 135f
exchange 63f
exclaim-ation-atory 139
exclude-sion 140
exclusa (L) 140
excursion 218f
exert-ion 105
exhibeo (L) 143f
exhibit-ion-ist 144
exhume 171
existimo (L) 113
exogenous 204f
expatriate 20 If
expect-ation-ant-ancy 203f
expedient-cy 198f
expedite-ion-ary-ous 198f
expend-iture 193f
expense-ive 193f
expletive 230f
explicate-ion 166f
explicit 166f
exploit-ation 166f
WORD INDEX
257
expostulate 58
extemporaneous 60f
extol 94f
extract-ion 133
extradite-ion 101
extraterritorial-ity 120
extrude-sion 111
exude 153
ey (ON) 1 14f
eye 23, 35, 183
eyra (ON) 30f
ezzan (OHG) 168
fablar (OSp) 193
fable 192f
Fabliaux (OF) 193
fabrica (L) 43
fabricate 43
fabrique (F) 43
fabula (L) 192
fabulous 192f
facsimile 38
facundity 192f
facundus (L) 192f
fad 97
fader (AS) 20 If
faeger (AS) 35
fSlan (AS) 230f
faible (F) 39, 109
faint 128
fair 35
fairy 192f
faith 10, 39
falar (Pt) 193
fam (AS) 102f
fama (L) 192
fame-ous 192f
fames (L) 110
famine 110
famish 1 10
fancy-ier-ful 37, 80f
fang 185f, 210
fangen (G) 185
fantasia 80f
fantasque (FE) 80f
fantastic 37, 80
far (L) 108
fari (L) 192
farina (LE) 108
farinaceous 108
Faroe 119
farrago (LE) 108
fasces (L) 193
fascinate-ion 192f
fascinus (L) 192
Fascism-ist 193
fate-al-isrn-ful-ality-ed
192f
fateor (L)192
fateria (VL) 192f
father-hood-ly 5, 9, 21,
201
fatidical 190f
fatigo (L) 110
fatigue 1 10
fatim ago (L) 110
fatum (L) 192
fatuous 150f, 193
fatus (L) 192
fatuus (L) 193
fealdan (AS) 166f
feather-y-bed 19, 199f
fecund-ate 64f
fecundus (L) 64f
fedan (AS) 140f
Feder (G) 19
fee 119
feeble 39, 109
feed-er-back 140f
feel-ing 230f
feerie (OF) 192f
fegato (It) 49
fehida (OHG) 119
feible (OF) 39, 109
feidh (OF) 39
feign 128
Feind (G) 141
feint 128
felagi (ON) 119
felicity-ate-ion-ous 64f
felix (LE) 64f
fellow-ship 1 19
female 64f
feme covert, sole (OFE)
64f
femelle (F) 64f
femina (L) 64f
feminine-ist 64f
femme fatale, de chambre
(FE) 64f
fence 73
fend-er 73
fendo (L) 73
feng (AS) 185f
feoh (AS) 119
feohtan (AS) 39, 119
feolage (AS) 119
feond (AS) 141f
feotor (AS) 198
Fergus 1 1 1
fero (L) 94f
ferocious-ity 183
ferox (L) 183
festa (Lit) 39
fetch-ing 198f
fether (AS) 199f
fetian (AS) 198
fetlock 198
fetter 198
fetus (LE) 64f
feud-al-ism 1 19
Feuer (G) 53
feuille (F) 195f
feuilleton (FE) 195f
fever 8
fiasco (ItE) 167
-ficare ^L) 39
-ficate 39
ficatum (L) 49
fichu (F) 128
fiction-al 128
fictitious 128
fid- 109
fidalgo (OSp) 64f
fides (L) 39
fief 119
fiend-ish-ly 141f
-fier (F) 39
fiesta (SpE) 39
fieu (OF) 119
fif (AS) 209f
fifta (AS) 209f
fifteen 209f
fifth 209f
fiftig (AS) 209f ^
fifty 209f "~
fiftyne (AS) 209f
fight 34, 119
figment 128
figo (L) 128
figure-ative-head 128
258
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
fijo de algo (OSp) 64f
filament 128
file 128
filial 64f
filigree-ain 128, 197
filius-a (L) 44, 64f
fill-er 230f
fille (de chambre, de joie;
FE) 64f
filly 65
fils (F) 64f
filum (L) 128
final-ity 128
finance-ial-ier 128
findo (L) 109
fine-ry-sse 128
finger 209f
fingo (L) 128
finial 128
finicky 128
finir (F) 42
finis (L) 128
finish 42, 128
finite 128
Fiorello 195f
fir 149
fire 9, 54
fisc-ian (AS). 32, 34, 102
fish 5, 9, 32, 34, 102
fissile 109
fission-able 109
fissus (L) 109
Fitz- 64f
fiu (OHG) 119
five 149, 209f
fix-ation 128
fixus (L) 128
flag(stone) 35, 187
flaga (ON) 35, 187
flagellant-ate 55
flagellum (L) 55
flagon 167
flagrant 55
flagro (L) 55
flail 55
flak (ON) 187
flamen (LE) 70f
Flaminius-a 70f
Flam men werfer (GE) 172
flask 167
flat 10, 187f
flaw 35, 187
flawe (ME) 187
flax-en 166f
fleax (AS) 166f
flebilis (L) 39, 109
flecto (L) 167
fledarmus (OHG) 230f
Fledermaus (G) 230f
fleet 123
fleo (L) 109
fleogan (AS) 35, 123
fleoge (AS) 123
fleot (AS) 123
fleotan (AS) 123
flete (AS) 123
fleur-et (FE) 40, 195f
fleur de lys (FE) 40,
195f
fleurette (F) 195f
flight 34, 123
flirt 195f
flo (Nor) 187
float 123
floe (AS) 187
floe 187
flog 55
floosie 195f
flora-1 (LE) 195f
Florence 195f
florescent 195f
floresco (L) 195f
floriculture. 195f
florid 195f
Florida 195f
florin 195f
florist 195f
flos (L) 37, 40, 195f
Flossie 195f
flotaison (F) 123
flotation 123
floterian (AS) 123, 230f
floti (ON) 123
flotian (AS) 123
flotilla (SpE) 123
flotsam 123
flotte (F) 123
flour (OFE) 40, 195f
flourish 195f
flow 10, 123
flowan (AS) 123
flower-y 40, 195f
flugol (AS) 123
fluke 187
flutter 123, 230f
fly 35, 123
flyht (AS) 34, 123
foal 65
foam-y 102f
foda (AS) 140f
fodder 140
fodio (L) 108
foglia-o (It) 195f
foi (F) 39
foible (OFE) 39, 109
foie (F) 49
foil 195f
folc (AS) 230f
fold-er 166f
foliage-ceous 195f
folio (LE) 195f '
foliolate 195f
folium-a (L) 195f
folk (OHG) 230f
folk-lore-ways-sy-moot
230f
foment 8
fon (AS) 185
food-stuffs 140f
foot 5, 9, 24, 186, 197f
for (L) 192
forceps 135f
foreign-er 116
foremost 76
forensic 1 16
fores (L) 116
forest-er-ry 1 1 6
forfait-ure 1 16
forfeit (F) 1 16
forge (FE) 43
forgive-ness 144
foris (L) 116
forthright 22 If
forty 178
forum (LE) 116
fossa (LE) 108
fossil-ize 108
fossus (L) 108
foster 140f
fostor (AS) 140f
fot (AS) 197f
fothor (AS) 140f
(petits) fours (FE) 156
WORD INDEX
259
fourteen 178
fowl 35, 123
fragen (G) 57f
fragile (FE) 12, 43
fragilis (L) 43
frail 12, 43
fraile (Sp) 146f
frater (L) 26, 39, 146f
fraternal-ity-ize 146f
fratricide 146f
fray 118
Fray (Sp) 146f
frazzle 118
frele (F) 43
frere (F) 39
friable 118
friar-y 146f
fricative 118
fricgan (AS) 58
frico (L) 118
friction 118
friend 10
frivolous-ity 118
froi (OF) 118
from 10
frontispiece 203f
(small) fry 118
fugol (AS) 35, 123
fulcio (L) 154
fulcrum (LE) 154
fulfill-ment 230f
full (ASE) lOf, 21, 33,
230f
fullness 230f
fulls (Goth) 33
fulminate 55
fulsome 230f
funambulism 55
fundo (L) 151
funeral-eal 110
funus (L) 110
furnace 28, 156
fumus (L) 156
Fuss (G) 24
fustian 150f
fustigate-ion 150f
fustis (L) 150f
fusty 150f
-fy39
fyllan (AS) 230f
fyri (ON) 149
gabagla (Celt) 144f
gabelle (FE) 144f
Gael-ic219f
gafol (AS) 144f
gage (FE) 12, 42, 46
ga-hlaifs (Goth) 141
*gal219f
Galba 85
galga (AS) 35
Galicia219f
Gallia 2 19f
Galilean 2 19f
Gallicism 2 19f
gallinaceous 219f
Gallipolis 230f
gallium 38, 219f
gallows 35
gallus (L) 219f
galw (Celt) 219f
gambit 64
Cans (G) 19, 27
gar (AS) 114f
garage (FE) 43
garden-er-ia 42, 130f
garder (F) 42
gardien (F) 42
gardo (OHG) 130f
garner 197
garnir (F) 42
garnish 42, 197
gastronomy-ic 167f
gastropod 198f
gat^ (F) 129
gauge 46
Gaul-ish219f
gaus (Sk) 179f
Gautama 179f
gavel 144f
ge- (AS) 35
ge (Gk) 171
geard (AS) 35, 130f
geclipod (AS) 35
gecynd (AS) 204f
gel-id 130
*gel(a) 130
gelata (L) 42
gelatine-ous 130
*gelbh 84
gelee (F) 43
geler (F) 130
gelidus (L) 42, 130
gelu (L) 130
*gen 48, 204fr, 206fr
-gen (GkE) 204f
gena (L) 105f
gendarme (FE) 204f
gender 204f
genealogy 204f
general-ity-ize-ization
204f
generalissimo (ItE) 204f
genera te-ion 204f
generic 204f
generous-ity 204f
genesis 204f
genetic 204f
Geneva 155
genial-ity 204f
genitive 204f
genito-urinary 204f
genius 204f
Genoa 155
genocide-type 204f
genos (Gk) 30f, 204f
genre (F) 204f
gens (L) 204f
genteel 43, 204f
Gentile 43, 204f
gentilis (L) 43, 204f
gentility 204f
gentle-man-woman 43,
204f
gentry 204f
♦genu 105f, 155
genu (L) 155
genuflect-ion 155
genuine 105f, 155
genuinus (L) 105f, 204f
genus (L) 30f, 37, 105f,
204f
Genusia 155
geoc (AS) 35, 212f
geocian (AS) 212f
geode (AS) 22 7f
geography 36
geoguth (AS) 126
geometry 163f
geong (AS) 126
geostra (AS) 35, 103
*ger 196f
260
*ger, *gere 155f
gerSde (AS) 75
♦gerebh 82f
gerecenian (AS) 22 If
German-y 204f
germander 170f
germane 204f
Germani (L) 156
germen (L) 204f
germinal-ate 204f
geriatrics 196f
geron (Gk) 196f
gerontology 196f
gerousia (GkE) 196f
Gesicht (G) 79
gesiht (AS) 34, 79
gesnott (AS) 177
gestern (G) 27
getEl (AS) 47
getawian (AS) 188f
gethryscan (AS) ill
*geus 1 lOf
gewiht (AS) 143
*ghabh 143ff
*ghdhem 170f
*ghdyes 103
*ghem 170f
*gherd 130f
*ghosti-pots 97
*ghostis 32, 116f
♦ghrei 85f
*ghyes 103
giefan (AS) 144f
giefu (AS) 144f
gieldan (AS) 35
giest (AS) 32, 116f
gift 144f
gignomai (Gk) 78, 204f
(gi)gnosko (Gk) 206f
gin 204f
gioster(dceg) (AS) 103
gird-le 35, 130f
girth 130f
girthi (ON) 130f
give-away 144f
glac6-e (FE) 130
glacial-er-is 130
glacies (L) 130
glagol (SI) 219f
glagolitic 219f
glamor-ous-ize 82f
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
glas (SI) 219f
glimmer 10
gnagan (AS) 34
gnat (AS) 34
(g)nascor (L) 204f
gnat 34
(g)natus (L) 204f
gnaw 34
(g)nobilis (L) 206f
gnome (GkE) 206f
gnomic 206f
(g)nosco (L) 24, 206f
gnosko (Gk) 206f
gnostic 206f
(g)notus (L) 206f
go 9
go (Sk) 179f
godfather 201
gold 5
gold-digger 128
golos (Rus) 219f
-gon, -gonal 155
gon- (GkE) 204f
gonad 204f
gondolier 41
gonia (Gk) 155
goniometry 155
gonococcus-rrhea 204f
good 10
goose 5, 19, 27
Gorky 156
gorod (Rus) 131
gospod' (Rus) 117
gospodar (Rus) 117
gospodin' (Rus) 117
Gotama 179f
gourmand-et (FE) 171
gouverner (F) 36
govern-ment 37
grace-ful-less 75f
gracias (Sp) 75f
gracioso (Sp) 75f
gracious 75f
grad (SI) 131
graft 82
grain 197
gram 82f
gramarye (Scot) 82f
gramma (Gk) 82f
grammar-ian-tical 82f
gramophone 82f
granary 197
grandfather 201
gran^ (F) 197
grange 197
granite 197
granular-ted 197
granum (L) 197
graph-ic-ite-ology 82f
graphein (Gk) 82f
graphion (Gk) 82
grasp 10
grateful 75f
gratia (L) 75f
gratify-ication 75f
gratis 75f
gratitude 75f
gratuitous 75f
gratus (L) 75f
grave-ity-itation 216
gravis (L) 216
gravy 197
green 10
Greenwich 93f
gregarious 155f
grex (L) 155f
grenade-ier 197
grief (FE) 216
grieve-ance-ous 216
grim 85f
grima (AS) 85f
grimace 85f '
grimazo (Sp) 85f
grime 85f
grind 85f
grindan (AS) 85f
grip 10
grislic (AS) 85f
grisly 85f
grist 85f
grom.meler (F) 85f
groom 171
grow 9
grumble 85f
grumpy 85f
guaitier (OF) 42
guard 42
guardian 42
guastier (OF) 129
guberno (L) 36
*gyel 52f
♦guelbh 84
WORD INDEX
261
*guer 75f, 215f
guerbler (F) 172
guesstimate 92
guest 10, 32, 116f
guetter (F) 42
*guhen 73
*guher 156f
guide-ance 228f
guise (FE) 42, 228f
guma (AS) 171
*gUou 179f
guru215f
guruh (Sk) 215f
gustatory 1 1 1
gusto (ItE) 111
gustum (L) 111
guy, Guy 228f
*gwadh 49f
*gwarm 156
*gwena 78
gyne (Gk) 78
gynecaeum 78
gynecology 78
gyorth (ON) 130f
gyrdan (AS) 35, 130f
gyrdel (AS) 130
gyroscope 202f
H
Habana 135
habban (AS) 8, 34, 134f
habeas corpus (LE) 143f
haben (G) 2, 8
habeo (L) 2, 7f, 144f
haber (Sp) 143
habiliment 144
habilis (L).143f
habilitare (L) 144
habilitate 144
habit-ual-uate 144
habitaculum (L) 144
habitare (L) 144
habitat (LE) 144
habitation 144
habito (L) 143f
habitu^ (FE) 144
habitus (L) 143f
hablar (Sp) 193
hack 115
hsfen (AS) 135
haeft (AS) 135
hafath (AS) 34
haft 135
Hahn (G) 126f
halberd 107
halogen-oid-phyte 174f
hals (Gk) 174f
halt 138
hake (F) 138
halten (G) 138
ham (AS) 147
Hamadryad 223
hamettan (AS) 147f
hamlet 147
hand 9
handkerchief 136f
Hanf (G) 19, 23
hano (AS) 126f
hansa (Sk) 27
hanser (L) 27
hanter (OF) 147f
ha'nts 147f
hap-pen-ing-hazard-
stance 135
hapax legomenon (GkE)
185f
happ (ON) 135
happy-ness 135
hard-ly-en-ness 217
hardi (F) 217
hardy-hood 217
harsh-en-ness 217
harsk (ME) 217
hart214f
hartebeest (DuE) 214f
hartjan (OHG) 217
haruspex (LE) 203f
haubith (Goth) 136f
haughty-ness 40, 125
haunt 147f
Haupt (G) 136f
haut (F) 40, 125
haut-bois, hautboy (FE)
125, 179f
haut relief (FE) 125
have If, 8, 34, 134f
haven 1, 135
havoc 135
havot (OF) 135
Havre 135
hawk 135
hayr (Arm) 21
head-y-on 136f
heafoc (AS) 135
heafoth (AS) 136f
heah (AS) 34
healdan (AS) 138
heard (AS) 217
heart-y-ness-land-burn-
felt 9, 19, 22, 29, 182
hearth 118
heave 1, 34, 135
heaven-ly 74
heavy-ly-ness 135
heawan (AS) 115
hebban (AS) 34, 135
hecatomb 178f
hectic 51
hector, Hector 51
hedonism-ist 159
hedys (Gk) 159
hefe (AS) 135
hefeth (AS) 34
hefig (AS) 135
heft 1, 135
hekaton (Gk) 22, 178f
hekaton-be (Gk) 178
heima (ON) 147f
heir 10
heliacal 176
helios (Gk) 176
heliotrope-graph 176
helium 176
helmbarte (MHG) 107
Heloise 77
Hemd (G) 74
hemethe (AS) 74
hemi- (GkE) 90f
hemicrania 90f, 214f
hemiplegia-stich 90f
hemisphere 90f, 153
hemorrhoid 79f
hemp 19, 23
hen-peck-bane 126f
henn (AS) 126f
heofon (AS) 74
heorot (AS) 214f
heorte (AS) 182
heorth (AS) 1 18
hepar (Gk) 49
hepatic-itis 49
hepta (GkE) 33
262
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
Herbert 47f
here 10
heri (L) 27, 103
heritogo (OHG) 132
herizogo (OHG) 132
herpein (Gk) 86
herpetology-ist 86
Herrenvolk (GE) 230f
Herz (G) 19, 24
Herzog (G) 132
hesi (ArcL) 103
hesternal 103
hesternus (L) 103
heterodox- y 99f
heterodyne 188f
heterogenous-eous 204f
heure (F) 36
hew-er 10, 1 16
hex (GkE) 28
hexagon-al 28, 155, 159f
hexameter-pod-gram 159f
hexane-hedron 159f
hexarch-y 159f
hexyl 159f
Hg 224f
-hibeo (L) 143f
-hibilis (L) 143f
hidalgo (SpE) 65f
hidor (Gk) 153
hidrosis 153
hierophant 80f
higado (Sp) 49
high 10, 34, 125
hilum (L) 128
hipparch 88
Hippocrates-ic 88
hippodrome 8 If, 88
hippogryph 88
hippopotamus 88, 200
histor- (GkE) 227f
historia (GkL) 227f
historiograph 36, 22 7f
history-ic-al-icity 36, 227f
hit 10
Hitlerjugend (GE) 126
hleotan (AS) 34, 139f
hlot (AS) 139f
hlot (OHG) 139f
Hlothaghar 77
Hlothwig 77
hlowan (AS) 34, 138f
hlud (AS) 77
hlut (AS) 34, 139f
hlutha (OHG) 77
hlyst-an (AS) 34, 77
hobo 188f
hoch (G) 125
hodgepodge 59
hodie (L) 212
hodiernal 212
hoi polloi (GkE) 229ff
hoja (Sp) 195
hold-er 138
holo- (GkE) 98
holocaust-graph 98
homage 171
hombre (SpE) 171
home-ly 147
homeopath 73
hominaticum (VL) 171
hominoid-cide-al 171
homme (d'esprit; FE)
171
homo (sapiens; LE) 171
homogenous-eous-ize 204f
homonym 164f
homunculus (L) 171
honneur (F) 40
honor (L) 40
honor^our 40
hoodwink 137
hooked 10
hope 10
hora (L) 36
horn-y-bill-pipe-swoggle
214f
horoscope 202f
hors (AS) 217f
hors de combat (FE) 116
hors d'oeuvre (FE) 40, 67,
115
horse-y 5, 9, 217f
Hortense 130f
horticulture 130f
hortus (L) 130f
hospes (L) 97, 117
hospice 1 1 7
hospitable 97, 117
hospital-ity 43, 97, 1 16f
hospital is (L) 43
hospodar (Rum) 117
host 10, 32, 116f
hostage 1 1 7
hostel-ry 43, 97, 117
hostess 1 1 7
hostile-ity 10, 32, 116f
*hosti-pots 116
hostis (L) 32, 1 16f
hostler 117
hot 10
hotchpotch 59
hotel 43, 97, 117f
hound 157
hour 36
houre (OF) 36
hran (Scan) 214f
hreaw (AS) 34, 183f
hreinndyri (ON) 214f
hrer (AS) 34, 183f
hror (ON) 22 If
hros (AS) 217f
hrosa (OHG) 184
hrossvalr (ON) 218
huitre (F) 95
human-kind-ism-ist-
itarian-ize 171
humane 171
humanus (L) 171
humble-pie 171
humid-ity-ify-or 171
humilis (L) 171
humility-ate-ion 171
humus (LE) 171
hund (AS) 157
Hund (G) 157
hundred 22, 178f
hussar 21 8f
husz (Hung) 218f
hvirfla (ON) 172
hwerf (AS) 172
hwil (AS) 34
hybrid-ism 215f
hybris (Gk) 215f
hydor (Gk) 24, 153, 224f
Hydra 224f
hydrant 2, 11, 224f
hydrodynamic 188f, 224f
hydrogen 204f, 224f
hydro-meter-phobia-
plane-ponic-xide 224f
hydrops (Gk) 224f
hydropsy 183, 224f
hyes (Gk) 27
WORD INDEX
263
hygrometer 163f
hymenoptera (GkE) 200
hyper (GkE) 21, 165f
hyperbole 52f, I65f
hyperborean-critical-
tension- trophy 165f
hypnos (Ok) 87
hypnotize-ism-ist-ic 87
hystera (Gk) 85f
hysteria-ical-ectomy 88
hysteron proteron (GkE)
87f
I
I 10, 19, 25
i- (ME) 35
-ibilis (L) 143f
-ible 143f
ich (G) 19, 25
ichthiophagous 71
idea-1-ism-ist-ic 22 7f
idem (L) 161
identical-icity-ity-ify 161
idol-ater-atry-ize 227f
idyll-ic 227f
iecur (L) 49
ieg (AS) 1 14f
iegland, igland (AS) 174f
-ier (FE) 41
-iere (It) 41
ierth (AS) 105
igneous 53
ignis (L) 53
ignite-ion 53
ignominious 164f
ignoramus (LE) 206f
ignore-ant-ance 25, 206f
ikra (Rus) 49
ill-ness 10
illuminate-ion 185
illuminati (ItE) 185
illustrious-ate-ion 185
imbibe 59
imbue 71
immane 57
immanis (L) 57
immaterial 162f
immature 57
immense-ity 163f
imminent-ce 68f
immortal-ity-ize 158
impact 186
impair-ment 198f
impale 186f
impalpable 230f
impardonable lOOf
impassioned 14 If
impassive 14 If
impatient-ce 14 If
impeach-ment 198f
impeccable 198f
impecunious 119
in^pede-iment 198f
impedicare (VL) 186,
198f
impedimenta (LE) 198f
impedio (L) 198f
impend-ing 193f
impenitent 14 If
impervious 142f
impetrate 20 If
impetuous 200f
impetus (LE) 200f
impinge-ment 186
impingo (L) 186
implacable 187f
implement-ation 230f
impletion 230f
implicate-ion 166f
implicit 166f
imply 166f
imponderable 193f
impotent-ce 97
imprecation 58
impregnate 205f
improper 20 If
improvise-ation 228f
in- (negative) 57
inability 144
inane-ity-ition 129
inaudible 89f
inaugurate-ion 117
incandescent-ce 6 If
incarcerate-ion 218
incendiary 6 If
incendo (L) 6 If
incense 6 If
incentive 126f
inception 135f
incest-uous 63
incino (L) 126f
inclitus (L) 77
include 140
inclusion 140
inclutus (L) 77
incognito (ItE) 206f
incommensurable 163f
incommode 164
incomplete 230f
incontestable-ity 18 If
incorrigible-ity 220f
increase 9
incredible-ity 182
incredulous-ity 182
incudo (L) 1 1 5
incunabula (LE) 147f
incur-sion 218
incus (LE) 115
inde (L) 161
indebted-ness 143f
indefatigable 110
indent-ation-ure 169
independent-ce 193f
index- ices 190f
indi- 161
indicate-ion-or 190f
indict-ment 190
indigenous 161, 204f
indignant-tion-ity 99f
indirect-ion 22 Iff
indispensable-ity 193f
indite 190
indoctrinate-ion 99f
indolent-ce 125
Indonesia 177
indoors 1 1 5
induce-ment 132
ineffable 192f
inexplicable 166f
infamy-ous 192f
infancy 192
infant-ile-icide 192
Infante-a (Sp) 192
infantry-man 192f
infatuate-ion 150f, 192f
inferior-ity 104
infernal 104
inferno (ItE) 104
infernus (L) 104
inferus (L) 104
infinite-y-esimal 128
infix 128
infra (LE) 104
264
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
ingenious-uity 204f
ingenue (FE) 204f
ingenuous 204f
ingrained 197
ingrate-itude 75f
ingratiate-ing 75f
inhabit-ant 144
inhibeo (L) 143f
inhibit-ion 144
inhuman-e-ity 171
inhume-ation 171
injunction 213
injure-y 2, 56
innate 205f
innocent-ce 91
innocuous 91
innovate-ion 175f
innumerable 168
inoculate 183
inoperable 67
insert-ion 105
insolation 176
insomnia-c 87
insouciant-ce (FE) 98
inspan 193f
insula (L) 114f, 174f
insular-ity 174f
insulate-ion 174f
insulin 174f
insuperable 165f
insurgent 22 If
insurrection 22 If
intact 67f
integer (LE) 67f
integral-ate-ation 67f
integrity 67f
inter 120
intercalation 139
intercept 1, 135f
interchange 64
intercourse 218f
interdict-ion-ory 190
international 205f
internecine 91
interregnum 220f
interrogate-ion-ive-ory
221f
interview 228f
intestate 18 If
intractable 133
intramuscular 21 Of
introduce-ction 132
introspection-ve 203f
intrude-er 111
intrusion 1 1 1
inundate-ion 224f
*invanum (L) 129
invective 142f
inveigh 142f
inveigle 183
invidia (L) 228f
invidious 228f
invisible 228f
invite-ation 54
invocation 93
invoice 39, 93, 142f
invoke 93
iren (AS) 112f
iron 112f
irrefutable 150f
irregular-ity 22 If
irrespective 203f
irresponsible-ity 194f
irrevocable 93
isen (AS) 112f
Isidore lOOf
island 114f, 174f
isle (OFE) 114f, 174f
Isle de la Cite (F) 147f
isobar 215f
isola (It) 174f
isolate-ion 174f
Istanbul 230f
jam (L) 28
jardin (F) 42_, 130f
jardiniere (FE) 42, 130f
Jaroslav 77
jaunty 204f
jell-y-fish 42f, 130
jivah (Sk) 26
Joch (G) 28
joco (L) 42, 213
jocund-ity 213
jodhpurs 11, 229ff
join-er 9, 213
joindre (F) 213
joint (FE) 213
joke 42
jonkheer (Du) 126
joss 21 If
jostle 213
jotunn (Scan) 169
jour (F) 212
journal-ism-ist 212
journey 212
joust 213
jucundus (L) 213
judex (L) 42, 56, 189f
judge-ment 42, 56, 189f
judicable 190f
judicial-ary 56, 190f
juge (F) 42, 56, 189f
Jugend (G) 126
jugular 2 1 3
jugum (L) 28, 213
Julia-an-et-us 21 If
julienne (FE) 2 llf
July 21 If
jumentous 213
jumentum (L) 213
junction-ure 213
junctus (L) 213
June 126
jung (G) 28
jungo (L) 213
junior (LE) 42, 126
Junker (GE) 126
Juno 126
junta (SpE) 213
Jup(p)iter 201f, 2 llf
juridical 190f
jurisdiction 56, 190
jurisprudence 56, 228f
jurist 56
juror 2, 56
jury 2, 56
jus gentium (L) 56
just-ice 2, 42, 56
juste (F) 42, 56
juste milieu (FE) 56
justify-ication 56
Justin-e-inian 56
Justus (L) 28, 42, 56, 213
jutus (L) 213
Juvenal 126
juvenile 126
juvenis (L) 28, 126
juvo (L) 213
juxta (L) 213
juxtapose-ition 213
WORD INDEX
265
K
*kal 56f
kaleidoscope 202f, 22 7f
Kalendae (L) 138f
kalos (Gk) 227
kamarband (HindPers)
72f
*kamp 63f
Kampf (G) 63f
kampfen (G) 63f
kampjo (Gic) 63f
*kan 126f
*kand 611"
kans (OHG) 19, 27
*kap 134fF
*kapro 58
*kaput 136f
kaput (G) 137
*kar, *karkar216f
kardia (Gk) 19, 182
karkinos (Gk) 216f
Karl 196f
karl (ON) 196f
karpos (Gk) 172
kathedra (Gk) 36
*kau 115
kausjan (Goth) 11 If
keen 35, 206f
keep 35
*kei 147
*kel 56f, 138f
*kem 74
ken 35, 206f
kenil (NF) 157
kennel 157
kennen (G) 25
kenning 20.6f
keno 209f
kentauros (Gk) 225
*ker50, 214f
kera- (Gk) 214f
keramos (Gk) 1 18
keras (Gk) 214f
kerasos (Gk) 50
keratin-oid 214f
kerchief 136f
*ker(9) 118
*kered 182
kernel 197
*ker(s) 2i7f
*kes 62f
kestern (OHG) 27
*k3U 115
khamai (Gk) 170f
-drys, -melon, -leon
*khamithja (Gic) 74
*khem 170f
khthon (Gk) 170f
kiln 96
kilometer 163f
kin-dred-folk-sman-ship
35, 204f
Kind (G) 204f
kind-ly-ness 204f
Kindergarten (GE) 204f
kine 179f
king-dom-Iet-ly-ship 204f
Kinn (G) 105
kiosan (OHG) 1 1 If
kiralj (Hung) 197
kirri (Hot) 48
Kirsch(wasser) (GE) 14,
50, 225
kitchen 11, 96
kith 206f
klagen (G) 219f
klagon (OHG) 219f
klak (OHG) 219f
klapp (ON) 219f
*kleu 77
*kleu-d 139f
klinkan (OHG) 219f
klinken (Du) 219f
klyo (Gk) 77
*kmtom 179
knap 48
knave-ry 48
knead 34, 48
Knecht (G) 204f
knee-cap-pan 34, 155, 204
knife 11, 48f
knifr (ON) 48
knight 34, 48, 204f
knit 34, 48
knob 48
knobbe (ME) 48
knobhout (Du) 48
knobkerrie 48
knock 48
knoll 48
knot 48
knout (RusE) 48
know-how-ledge 9, 25,
206f
Kebenhavn 135
kolaphos (Gk) 37
kolokol (Rus) 139
kommandeeren (Du) 66
korol' (Rus) 197
korova (Rus) 215
koursorios (Gk) 218f
kovac (SI) 115
kraal (SAf) 218f
kranion (Gk) 37, 90, 214f
krasivy (Rus) 118
krasny (Rus) 118
krateros (Gk) 216f
kratos (Gk) 216f
krava (Sk) 184
kreas (Gk) 184
kreg (OHG) 216
*kreu 183f
Krieg-spiel (GE) 216
krol (Pol) 197
krov' (Rus) 184
kryos (Gk) 184
krystallos (Gk) 184
*kueku 96
Kultur-kampf (GE) 63f
*kun 157
kuznets (SI) 115
*kwanis 157
*k(w)erp 172
*kwon 157
kybernan (Gk) 36
kyon (Gk) 157
kyriakon (Gk) 36
labeur (F) 40
labial-ize 121
labium (L) 121
labor (L) 40
labo(u)r 40
labrum (L) 121
lachryma (L) 112
lachrymal-ose 1 12
lacrima (L) 112
Ladin 59f
Ladino 40, 60
liEn-an (AS) 161f
266
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
lama (L) 15, 59f
La Manche (F) 66
lambent 121
lambert, Lambert 47f
lambo (L) 121
lame 59f
lamella (L) 59f
lamellate 59f
laminate 59f
lampons (F) 121
lampoon 121
Ian (ON) 161f
land 229
Landsknecht (G) 204f
langage (F) 112
language 1 1 2
langue (F) 112
lann (We) 229ff
lap 121
lapian (AS) 121
lapons (F) 121
-laris (L) 214
lateen 59f
lateral 59
Lateran 59
lather 121
laticlavium (L) 139f
Latin 59f
Latinity 59f
latinus (L) 40, 60
latitude 59
Latium 59f
latrine 121
latus, latus (L) 59f
laundry-ess-er 43, 12 1
laurel 5
laureus (L) 214
lava (ItE) 121
lavabo (LE) 121
lavanderia (It) 43
lavasse 121
lavatory 121
lave 121
lavender 121
lavish 121
lavo (L) 121
lawn 229ff
lay 34
lea 184f
leah (AS) 121, 184f
leathor (AS) 121
lecgan (AS) 34
legeth (AS) 34
legislate-ion-or-ive 94f
leihan (AS) 16 If
*leikii 16 If
*leip 162
leipo (Gk) 16 If
lend-lease 162
lengthwise 228
Leningrad 131
leoht (AS) 34, 184f
leon (AS) 16 If
Leonard 2 1 7
leopard 5
lepidoptera (GkE) 200
leuco-cyte 184f
*leuk 184
leukemia 184f
leuko- 184f
leukos (Gk) 184f
*leuksmen 184
*leuksna 38, 184
levity 184
Lewis 77
libban (AS) 34
lie (AS) 108
licgan (AS) 34
lictus (L) 16 If
lie 34
liegetu (AS) 184
lifath (AS^ 34
lifer (AS) 49
ligeth (AS) 34
light-en-ning-house 34,
184f
limn 185
limpid 16 If
limpidus (L) 16 If
lingua (L) 112
lingua franca (LE) 1 12
lingual-ist-ic-ician 112
lingo (PrE) 112
linquo (L) 161f
lion 5
lip 121
lippa (AS) 121
liquefaction 16 If
liqueur 16 If
liquid-ify-ate-ion-or 16 If
liquidus (L) 161f
liquor 16 If
list-en 34, 77
live 9, 34, 49
liver 49
llan- (We) 229ff
Llandaff229ff
Llandudno 229ff
llano (Sp) 40
loan 161f
lobo (SpE) 40, 152f
locutio (L) 52
logi (ON) 184f
logorrhea 79f
logos (Gk) 37
Loki 184
longevity 154f
-loo (Du) 184f
loony 185
Lorraine 77
lot 34, 139f
Lothaire-rio-ingia 77
lotic-ion 121
lotteria (It) 139f
lottery 139f
lotto (ItE) 139f
lotus (L) 121
*lou 121
loud 34, 77
Louis-e-iana 77
louis d'or (F) 77
*loukna 34
♦louksna 184
loup garou (F) 152f
low 10, 34
lucent 184f
lucerne, Lucerne 184f
lucid-ity 184f
Lucius-lle-y-fer 184f
lucubrate-ion 67, 185
lucus (L) 185
Luke 143f
Lulu 77
lumen (L) 38, I84f
luminous-ar)' 185
luna (L) 38, 184f
lunar-ette-atic-acy 185
lundi (F) 2, 211
lupae (L) 152f
lupanar (L) 152f
Lupercalia 152f
lupine-form 152f
lupus (L) 40, 152f
WORD INDEX
267
luster (LE) 185
lustrous 185
Luther-an-ism 77
lutum (L) 121
lux (L) 67, 184f
(de) luxe (FE) 185
luxury- ious 185
luxus (L) 185
lycanthrope-y 152f
lycopod 152
lye 121
lyhtan (AS) 184f
lykos (Gk) 152f
lynx (GkE) 184f
M
*ma 58
macaroon 43
machina (L) 36, 148
machine-ist-ery-ation 36,
148
madeira (Pt) 162f
Madeira 162f
madre (ItSp) 162f
madrepore 162f
madrigal 162f
madrugar (Sp) 162f
Mae 226
mEg (AS) 35, 148
m51 (AS) 163f
maelstrom (DuE) 79f
miesst (AS) 76
maestro (ItE) 226f
magan (AS) 148
*magh 148
magha (Sk) 148
Magi 148
magic-al-ian 10, 148
magister (L) 226f
magisterial 226f
magistralis (L) 226f
magistrate-cy 226f
Magna Charta 226
magna cum laude (LE)
226
magnanimous-ity 226
magnate 226
magnifico (It) 226
magnify-ficient-ce 226
magnitude-loquent 226
magnum (LE) 226
magnus (L) 226
magos (OPers) 148
magus (L) 148
maha- (Sk) 76, 225f
Mahabharata 225f
maharajah (SkE) 76, 220f,
225f
maharanee-i (SkE) 76,
220f, 225f
Maharashtra 225f
mahat (Sk) 225f
mahatma (SkE) 225f
Mahratti 225f
Maia 225f
main (F) 65f
maint (F) 76
maintain-ance 65f
maitre (FE) 226f
majestas (L) 226f
majesty-ic 226f
majolica (ItE) 226f
major (LE) 226
Majorca 226f
major domus (VLE) 226
majorette 226
majorinus (L) 226f
majority 226f
makhana (Dor) 148
malade (F) 144
maladroit (FE) 22 If
malady 144
mal de mer (FE) 144
malediction 190
male habitus (L) 144
malignant-cy 205f
maltreat 144
manacle 65
manage-r-ment 65
manana (SpE) 57
Manche (F) 66
mancipo (L) 66
mandamus (LE) 65
mandate 65
mandatory 65
mande (F) 65
mando (L) 65
mandria (L) 162f
mane (L) 57
maneggiare (It) 66
Manes (L) 57
maneuver 65ff
mania 57
manica (ItL) 66
manicotti (It) 66
manicure 65f
manifest 65f
manifesto (ItE) 65f
manifold 166f
maniple 65f, 230f
manipulate-or 65f, 230f
manipulus (L) 230f
*mansuetinus (VL) 38; 65f
mansuetude 65f
manual 65f
manufacture 65f
manumit-ssion 65f
manure 65ff
manus (L) 65f
manuscript 65f
-mar 76
mara (AS) 76
marais (F) 122
Marchen (G) 76
mard (PersHind) 158
mardi (F) 2, 8, 211
mare (L) 39, 12 If
maremma (It) 122
marine-r-ade 12 If
mariscus (L) 122
marisk (OHG) 122
maritime 12 If
marmot, marmoset 69,
210f
Marne 162f
marsh-mallow 12 If
martyr-dom-ology 36, 158
Marylebone 188f
Masqat 21 Of
master-ful-ly-y-piece 76,
226f
mastiff 38, 65f
mastodon 169
*mater 162f
mater (L) 162f
materia (medica; LE) 162f
material-ize-ism-ist-ality
162f
materies (L) 40
maternal-ity 162f
matinee (FE) 57
matins 57
matri- 162f
268
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
matriarch-cide-mony 162f
matriculate-ion 162f
matrix 162f
matro- 162f
matron-ly 162f
matrona (L) 162f
Matrona 162f
matronymic 162f
matter 162f
mature-ity 57
maturus (L) 57
Matuta 57
matutinal 57
Maundy 65f
mawr (We) 76, 226f •
maxim-al-ist-um 226f
maximus (L) 226f
may 35, 148
May-fair-pole 226
maya (Sk) 148
mayor-al-alty-ess 226f
*me 76
meahte (AS) 34, 148
meal-y-time 163f
measure-able-ment-less
163f
mechanic-ical-ician-ist-ize
148
mederi (L) 164
medic-al-ine-ate-ation 164
medieval 154f
meditate 164
Mediterranean 120
medium diem (L) 212
mega-cycle 76, 22 5f
megabuck 225f
megalomania 225f
megalos (Gk) 225f
megaphone-therium-saur
225f
megas (Gk) 76, 225f
*meg(h) 225ff
megrim 90f, 215
mehr (G) 76
meist (G) 76
mekhane (Gk) 36, 148
memory 158
*men 68f
*m3n 65f
menace 68f
*me-n6t 163f
mensa (L) 38, 164
mensis (L) 33, 163f
menstrual-ate-ion 163f
Mensur (G) 163f
mensura (L) 163f
mensuration 163f
mental 57, 69
mentum (L) 69
*mer 157f
mer (F) 39
mere 12 If
meridian-onal 212
merino (SpE) 226f
merisc (AS) 12 If
mermaid-man 12 If
mes (Sp) 33
mesa (SpE) 3, 38, 164f
mese (It) 33
mesis (VL) 163f
Mesopotamia 200
message (FE) 41
Messer(e) (It) 124
Messieurs (F) 124
mesura (VL) 163f
metabolism 52f
metacarpal 172
metal 9
metaphony 19 If
Metaurus 225
meter (Gk) 162f
meter 163f
metior (L) 163f
metonymy 164f
metre 163f
metric-al 163f
metro-nome-nymic 162f
Metro (F) 162f
metron (Gk) 163f
metropolis-itan 11, 162f,
230f
mickle 226f
micrometer 163f
Micronesia 177
microscope 202f
Middle Ages 154f
midge-t 34
midi (FE) 212
midnight 103f
might-y 34, 148
migraine (FE) 90f, 215
mike 202f
millimeter 163f
milreis (Pt) 220f
minatory 68f
mind 57
mine-r-ing 69
Minenwerfer (GE) 69, 172
mineral 69
Minneapolis 230f
minor (LE) 68f
minster 1 1
mint llf
-mir 76
misappropriate 20 If
miscarry-iage 218f
miscegenation 204f
mischief- vous 136f
miscreant 182
misdemeanor 68f
misericord 182
misjudge 190f
misnomer 164f
misogynist 78
misrule 223f
miss-y 226f
missaticum (L) 41
mister 76, 226f
Mistral (FE) 226f
mistress 226f
mistrust 223f
mobocracy 217f
moch' (Rus) i48
mode 164
model 164
moderate-ion-or 164
modern 164
modest-y 164
modify-ication 164
m6ir (ON) 162f
modor (AS) 162f
modus (L) 164
moeras (Du) 122
mogu (Rus) 148
mois (F) 33
mold 164
mona (AS) 163f
monandaeg (AS) 163f
monath (AS) 163f
Monday 163f
moneo (L) 12
moneta (L) 12
monetary 12
WORD INDEX
269
money 12
mongoose 2 1 1
monitor 12
monneie (OF) 12
monocle 183
monophthong 19 If
mons (L) 68f
Monseigneur (F) 124
Monsieur (F) 124
Monsignor (ItE) 124
montagne (F) 69
Montana 69
Montenegro 69
Monterey 69
Montevideo 69
month-ly 163f
montimbanco (It) 69
Montreal 69
mood-y 164
moon-beam-light-stone 9,
163f
moor 12 If
mor (Ir) 226f
mor (AS) 12 If
morass 122
morbid 158
more-over 76
morganatic 145
morgen (AS) 35
morgengeba (OHG) 145
morgue 158
*mori 12 If
moribund 158
morine (F) 158
morrov^ 35
mors (L) 158
mortal-ity 158
mortgage. 158
morth (AS) 158
morthor (AS) 158
mortician 158
mortify-ication 158
mortmain 158
mortuary 158
moskos (Gk) 21 Of
most-ly 76
mother-hood-ly 9, 162f
moucheron (F) 43
mount-ain-eer-ous 69
mountebank 69
Mounties 69
mouse-y 21 Of
mouth 69
mouton (FE) 43
*mr-otos 157
much-ness 226f
multilingual 1 12
multiple-y-er 166f
mungQs (Mahr) 21 Of
municipal-ity 135f
murder-er-ous 158
murrain 158
murus (L) 29
*mus210f
mus (AS) 21 Of
musa-angusa (Sk) 21 Of
muscatel 21 Of
muscle-ular 21 Of
musculus (L) 210f
muscus (L) 21 Of
mushk (OPers) 21 Of
mushroom 43
musk-melon-ox-rat 21 Of
muska (Sk) 21 Of
musle (AS) 21 Of
mus montanus (L) 69,
210f
mussel 21 Of
mutton 43
mycel (AS) 226f
mycge (AS) 34
myo-tic-tomy-carditis-
sotis (GkE) 21 Of
myopia (GkE) 183
myortvy (Rus) 158
myrthrian (AS) 158
mys (Gk) 21 Of
N
na (AS) 154f
naft (Pers) 72
Naiad 177
naif-ve (FE) 205f
naivete (FE) 205f
nama (AS) 164f
name-less-ly-sake 164f
nancior (L) 91
nanciscor (L) 91
nao (Gk) 177
naphtha-lene-ol 72
Naples 175f, 230f
napta (Av) 72
narrate-ion-ive-or 207
narro (L) 207
nascent 205f
nascor (L) 204ff
natal, Natal 205f
natant-tory-tion 177
natio (L) 205f
nation-al-ize-ism-ality
205f
native-ity 205f
nativus (L) 205f
nato (L) 177
natura (L) 205f
nature-al-ize-ation-ist
205f
natus (L) 205f
naus (Gk) 177
nausea 177
nautical 177
nautilus 177
navaja (Sp) 175
naval 177
nave 177
navicert 177
navigate-able-or 177
navis (L) 177
navvy 177
navy 177
nay 154f
n. b. 206f
*ndheri 104
*ndhos 104
ne (It) 161
ne(e) (FE) 205f
neaht (AS) 34, 103f
Neapolis-tan 175f, 230f
Nebel (G) 72
*nebh 72
nebo (Rus) 72
nebula (L) 72
nebular-ose-ous 72
neco (L) 91
necro-logy-mancy-phili a
91
necropolis 91, 230f
nectar-ine 91
nefarious 192f
nehmen (G) 11, 168
ne-homo (L) 171
*nek 91
270
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
nektar (Gk) 91
*nem 167f
Nemesis 167f
nemo (L) 171
(Captain) Nemo 171
neo- 175f
neolithic-logism 175f
neon 175f
neophyte 175f
neos (Gk) 175f
neowe (AS) 175f
nephele (Gk) 72
nephelite-ometer 72
nepos (L) 72
*nep6t 32
neptis (L) 32
Neptune-ium 72
Nereis-id-US 177
-nese, -nesus, -nesia 177
nesos (Gk) 177
Nethuns (Etr) 72
neuf (F) 40
Neufchatel 40
new 175f
*newos 175f
news-paper-print-boy-y
175f
nie (G) 154f
niece (F) 33
niece 33
nifol (AS) 72
night-mare-ingale 34, 103f
nihil-ism-ist (LE) 128
niht (AS) 103f
niman, nimman (AS) 11,
168
nimble 168
nimbus (LE) 72
ninny 91
nipha (Gk) 28, 33
niwe (AS) 175f
nix-vis (L) 28, 33
Nixon 22 If
no 154f
No. 168
nobilis (L) 206f
nobilitate 207
noble-ity-man-esse-
woman 207
noblesse oblige (FE) 207
noceo (L) 91
noct- (LE) 103f
noctule 103f
nocturne-al 103f
Noel (FE) 205f
noise-some 177
*nokut 103f
Nola 175f
nom (de guerre, de plume;
FE) 164f
nomad-ic 167f
nombre (F) 168
Nome 164f
-nome-nomial-nomic 167f
nomen (L) 164f, 206f
nomenclature 139, 164f
nomeno (Gk) 167f
nominal-ative-ee-ation
164f
nomisma (Gk) 167f
*nomn 164f
nomos (Gk) 167f
-nomy 167f
nonchalant-ce (FE) 57
non-combatant 150f
norm-al-cy-ize-ity-tive 207
norma (L) 207
nosco (L) 165, 206f
nota bene (LE) 206f
notable-ility-bilia 206f
notary-ial-ize 207
notate-ion 207
note-book-worthy 206f
notice-able 207
notify-ication 207
notion-al 207
notorious-iety 207
notus (L) 206f
noun 164f
nourish-ment 42, 177
nourrice (F) 177
nourrir (F) 42, 177
nouveau riche (FE) 175f
nouveaut^ (FE) 175f
nova (LE) 175f
novacula (L) 175f
Novak 175
Novaya Zemlya 171, 175f
novel-ty-ette-ist 175f
novella (ItE) 175f
novellus (L) 175f
Novgorod 131, 175f
Novial 175f
novice 175f
novicius (L) 175f
novio-a (Sp) 175f
novitiate 175f
novocain 175f
novus (L) 39f, 175f
novy (SI) 175f
now 10, 175f
nox (L) 103f
noxa (L) 91
noxious 91
noyade (F) 91
noyer (F) 91
nu (AS) 175f
nubes (L) 72
nubilous 72
nuevo (Sp) 40
Nuevo Laredo 40
nuire (F) 91
nuisance (FE) 91
numb-ness-skull 168
number-less 168
numen (AS) 168
numero (It) 168
numerous-al-ical-ology
168
numerus (L) 168
numismatic-ist 167f
nun (G) 176
nunc (dimittis) (L) 176
nuncupate 164f
nuovo (It) 40
nurse-ry 177
nurture 177
nutrient-ment-tion 177
nutrio (L) 177
Nuvela 175f
nux vomica (LE) 87
nycteris 103f
nyctophobia 103f
nykt- (Gk) 103f
O
oak 9
obdurate 223
obedient-ce 89f
obedo (L) 169
obeisance (FE) 89f
obese-ity 169
obesus (L) 169
WORD INDEX
271
obey 89f
obiter dicta (LE) 189f
oblation 94f
obnoxious 91
oboe 125, 179f
oboedio (L) 89f
obra (Sp) 40
obtrude 1 1 1
obviate-ous 142f
obyed (Rus) 169
occipital 137
occlude-sion-sive 140
occupy-ant-ation-ancy
135f
occur-rence 218f
ocellate 183
ochi (Rus) 183
octagonal 155
octo (L) 32
octopus-od 198f
octroi-yer (F) 117
ocular-ist 23, 183
oculus (L) 23, 183
-ode 22 7f
odont-o- (Gk) 24, 169
odontoid 169
oecology 37
Oedipus 198f
oegeln (LG) 183
Oesterreich 170
oeuvre (F) 40, 67
ofer (AS) 165f
offend-der-se-sive 73
officer 67
official-ate-ous 67
officium (L) 66f
ogle 183
*ognis 53
ogon' (Rus) 53
oheim (OHG) 106
Ohm, ohm-meter 106
Ohr (G) 30f
-oid 22 7f
oida (Gk) 29
oikia (Gk) 37, 93f
oisos (Gk) 1 14
oistre (OF) 95
okolo (Rus) 183
*okt6 32
*okiJ 183
old-er-ish-ster 125
olive 5
omelet 15, 60f
omnibus (LE) 66f
omnipotent 66f, 97
ornnis (L) 66f
omniscient-present-vorous
66f
-on (F) 42f
oncle (F) 40, 106
Ondine 224f
ondograph 224f
one 10
-one (It) 43
ongle (F) 15 If
onoma (Gk) 164f
onomastic 164f
onomatopoieia 164f
-oom 43
oom (Du) 106
Oom Paul 106
*op 67f
opera (LItE) 40, 66f
operate-ion-ive 66f
operetta (ItE) 66f
opero (L) 66f
ophthalmia-ic-oscope 183
ophthalmos (Gk) 183
-opia 183
opificium (L) 66f
ops (L) 66f
ops-omai (Gk) 183
optic-ian-al 183
optimate-ist-ism 66f
optimus (L) 66f
opulent-ce 66f
opulentus (L) 66f
opus (L) 66f
opuscule 66f
or (F) 40, 170
ora (OHG) 30f
orb 73f
*orbho 73f
orbus (L) 73f
ore 1 1 3
ore, 0re (Scan) 1 13
orectic 220f
orego (Gk) 220f
orfraie (F) 95
org- 83f
organ-ic-ize-ism-ization-
er 83f
orgasm 83
orgy-astic 83f
Oriflamme 170
origan 220f
orible 170
ormolu (FE) 170
orphan-age 10, 73f
orphanos (Gk) 73f
orthodox-y 99f
ortolan 130f
OS (L) 95
Osci 66f
osier 114, 224f
osprey 95
ossature-elet-ify-eous-
uary-ein 95
ossifraga (LE) 95
ostar (OHG) 170
*ost(h) 95
ostelry 1 1 7
osteo- 95
osteomyelitis 95
osteon (GkE) 95
osteopath 73, 95
ostracism-ize 95
ostrakon (Gk) 95
ostrea (L) 95
Ostro-goths 170
ostrov (Rus) 80
otor (AS) 224f
otter 224f
ouir (F) 89f
outdoors 116
outright 22 If
outspan 193f
over 21, 165f
overcall 219f
own 35
oxygen 204f
oyez-r et terminer (OFE)
89f
oyster-ette 95
pa201f
*pa, *pat 140f
pabulum (LE) 140f
pacare (VL) 40, 185f
pacific- ist-ify 186
paciscor (L) 185f
pact 186
272
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
pactus, pactus (L) 185f
padre (ItSpE) 201f
padrone (It) 201f
paegel, psegl (AS) 214
paenitet (L) 141f
*pag 185f
pagan-ism-ize 186f
pagar (Sp) 33, 40
pagare (It) 40
page 186
page (boy) 37
pageant-ry 186f
pagella (L) 214
pagensis (L) 186f
paggio (It) 37
pagina (L) 185f
paginate-ion 186
pagus (L) 185f
paidion (Gk) 37
pail 214
pain-ful-less 142
painstaking 142
painter 194
pais (Gk) 199
*pak 185f
pal 146f
pala (L) 185f
palabra (Sp) 52f
palace 186f
paladin 186f
palate 186f
palatial 186f
Palatine-ate 186f
Palatinus (L) 185f
palatium (L) 185f
palatum (L) 185f
palaver 52f
palavra (Ft) 52f
palefroi (F) 75
palette (FE) 186f
palfrey 75
palindrome 81 f
palingenesis (GkE) 204f
palisade 186f
palm 5, 230f
palma (L) 230f
palmer 230f
palmetto 23 If
palmiped 194f, 230f
palmist-ry 230f
palmito (Sp) 23 If
palpable 230f
palpate-ion 230f
palpebral 230f
palpitate-ion 230f
palpo (L) 230f
palsgrave I86f
paltsgraaf (Du) 186f
palus (L) 185f
panache (FE) 200f
panada (Sp) 140
pafica (Sk) 149, 209f
Pancatantra 209f
pancratium 2 1 7f
pancreas-tic 184
panegyric 155f
panel 140f
paneterie (F) 140
pango (L) I85f
panification 140f
panis (L) 140f
Panjab 209f
pannus (L) 140
pansy 194
pant 80f
panteier (OF) 80f
pantry 140
papa 20 If
papacy 20 If
papal-ish 20 If
Papeline 20 If
papilio (L) 230f
papillon (F) 230f
pappas (Gk) 20 If
pappy 20 If
par 202
para, para- (GkE) 52f, 75
parable 43", 52f
parabolare (VL) 52f
parabole-a (GkL) 40, 43,
52f
paradeictic 189f
paradigm-atic 189f
paradox-ical 99f
paramount 68f
paraola, paraula (VL) 40,
52f
parasol 176
paraveredus (L) 75
pardon-able lOOf
parish-ioner 93f
parlance 52f
parlando (ItE) 52f
parlare (It) 52
parlement (F) 52f
parler (F) 52f
parley 52f
parliament-ary-arian 52f
parlor 52f
parochial-ism 93f
paroisse (F) 93
parola (It) 52f
parole (FE) 40, 43, 52f
parricide 20 If
parterre (FE) 120
participate-ion 1, 135f
participle 135f
pasco (L) 140f
passible- ve 141f
passion-ate 141f
passus (L) 141 f
pasta (asciutta) (It) 140f
paste-board 140f
pastel 140f
Pasteur 140f
pasteurize-ation 140f
pasticcio (ItE) 140f
pastiche (FE) 140f
pastille (FE) 140f
pastor-al 140f
pastourelle (FE) 140f
pastry 140f
pasture 140f
pastus (L) 140f
pasty 140f
Pat 20 If
pate (FE) 140f
patella (L) 214
pater (LE) 5, 21, 40, 20If
pater (Gk) 20 If
pater familias, patriae
(LE) 201f
Pater Noster 20 If
paternal-ism-istic 20 If
paternity 20 If
path-o- 73
pathetic 73
pathos-logical 73
patient-ce 141f
patior (L) 141f
patisserie (FE) 140f
patrare (VL) 20 If
patria (Lit) 20 If
WORD INDEX
273
patriarch 20 If
patrician 20 If
patricide 20 If
Patrick-icia 20 If
patrimony 20 If
patriot-ism-ic 20 If
patriotes (Gk) 20 If
patristic 20 If
patrius (L) 202
patrol 43
patrology 20 If
patron (F) 20 If
patron-ess-ize-age 20 If
patronymic 164f, 20 If
patroon (Du) 201f
patrouille (F) 43
patter 20 If
pattern 20 If
patty 140f
pavilion 230f
paw 20 If
pawn 198f
pay 12, 40
payable-ee-ment 186f
payer (F) 40, 186f
paynim 186f
pays-an (F) 186f
pax (vobiscum) (L) 185f
peace-ful-able 186
peach 38
peasant-ry 186f
pecadiUo (Sp) 198f
peccadillo 198f
peccant 198f
pecco (L) 198f
pech' (Rus) 96
peche (F) 38
pecorino (It) 1 19
pecten (L) 119
pectinate 119
peculate 119
peculiar-ity 119
pecuniary 1 19
pecus 'L) 1 19
ped- (L) 5, 39, 198f
*ped 197ff
pedagogue 199
pedal 24, 198f
pedestal 198f
pedestrian 198f
pediatrician 199
pedicle 198f
pedicure 198f
pedigree 198f
pedo (L) 40, 198f
pedota (Olt) 198f
pedotes (Gk) 198f
peg 214
pegge (ME) 214
pegnymi (Gk) 185f
*pe(i) 141f
*peisk 32, 102
pejor (L) 198f
pejorative 198f
*pek 119
*pek'> 96
*pel, *peb 229f
pelagic 187
pelagos (Gk) 187f
Pelasgian 187
pellucid 184f
Peloponnesus 177
pen-knife-manship 200
penal-ty-ize 14 If
penance 14 If
penchant (FE) 194
pend- (L) 193f
pend-ing 193f
pendant (FE) 193f
pendeo (L) 193f
pendicle 193f
pendule-um-ous 193f
penitential-ary-ce 141f
♦penkiJe 149, 209f
penna (L) 200
pennacchio (It) 200f
pennant 200
pens6e (F) 194
Penseur 194
pensile 194
pension-er 194f
pension-naire (FE) 194f
pensive 194
pensus (L) 193f
pentagon 155, 209f
pentameter 163f
Pentateuch 209f
pentathlon 209f
Pentecost 209f
penthouse 194
penuria (L) 141f
penury-ious 14 If
peon (SpE) 40, 198f
peonage 40, 198f
people 230f
pepo (LE) 96
pepon (Gk) 96
pepper 24
Pepsi-Cola 96
pepsin 96
pepto- 96
peptone 96
perambulator 54
perceive 1, 135f
perception- ive 135f
per diem (LE) 212
perdition 101
perdure 223
pere (F) 40, 20 If
pericardium 182
perihelium 176
perimeter 163f
periscope 202f
perjury 2, 56
*perk 57f
*perkHs 149
pernicious 91
perpendicular 193f
perpetrate- ion 20 If
perpetual-ity-uate 200f
perplex-ity 166f
persevere-ance-ant 54
persica (L) 38
persoc (AS) 38
perspective 203f
perspicuous-ity-acity 203f
persuade-sion 159
Perth 149
perthite 149
pes (L) 5, 39, 198f
pesca (VLIt) 38
pesche (OF) 38
peseta (SpE) 194
peso (SpE) 194
pessica (VL) 38
pessimist-ism 198f
pessimus (L) 198f
*pet 199ff
*peter 19
♦pater 20 If
petiolate 11 Of
petition-er 200f
♦petsna 200
274
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
pet(t)ia (VL) 39
petulant-cc 200f
peuple (F) 230f
Pfeffer (G) 24
Pferd (G) 75
Pfund (G) 24
phaeton 80f
-phage-ous-y-ia-o 71
phagein (Gk) 71
phagocyte 71
phainein (Gk) 37, 80f
phalanstery 154
phalanx (GkE) 154
phanai (Gk) (see phemi)
phantasmagoria 80f, 155f
phantasy BOf
phantom BOf
pharos (Gk) BOf
phase 10, BOf
phasis (Gk) BOf
phemi (Gk) 19 If
phenacetin Bl
pheno-barbitol Bl
phenol Bl
phenomenon BOf
phenyl Bl
Philadelphia B4f
Philip BB
philogynist 78
philosophy 37
phobia (GkE) 140
phone-ic-etic-ician-ology-
eme-emic (GkE) 191f
phonograph 191f
phos (Gk) BOf
phosgene 81
phosphate-orescent 81
photo-graph-genic-film-
stat- synthesis BOf
photon (Gk) BOf
phrater (Gk) 26, 146f
phratria (Gk) 146f
phratry 146f
phylliform 195f
Phyllis 195f
phyllon (Gk) 195f
phylloxera 195f
physiognomy 206f
*pl 59f
piano (ItE) 40, 188
piazza (ItE) 36, 188
*pibo (L) 59
pid (Osc) 23
pidota (Olt) 198f
piece (F) 39
piece 39
piecemeal 163f
pied (F) 39
pied de grue (F) 19Bf
pie di monte (It) 198f
Piedmont 198f
pilot 19Bf
pilota (It) 19Bf
pine 142
pinian (AS) 142
pinion 200
pinna (L) 200
pinna-te-iped 200
pinnacle 200
pino (Gk) 59
pioneer 19Bf
pipafo (Fal) 59
piper (Gk) 24
pipto (Gk) 199f
piscatorial 32, 102
Pisces 102
piscine (FE) 102
piscio (L) 102
piscis (L) 5, 32, 102
pit' (SI) 59
piia (It) 230f
pivo (SI) 59
placate lB7f
place (FE) 36, 188
placebo (LE) 187f
placeo (L) lB7f
placid-ity lB7f
placidus (L) lB7f
placitum (L) lB7f
*pla-g lB7f
plaga (L) 187f
plage (F) lB7f
plain 188
plaisance (FE) 187f
plait 166f
plait (OF) 187f
*pla-k lB7f
*plan 188
planche (F) 154
planchette (FE) 154
planisphere 153
plank 154
planke (NF) 154
planum (L) 40
platea (L) 36
plateia (Gk) 36
platypus 198f
-play 166f
play 35
playwright 83f
plaza (SpE) 36
-pie 166f
*ple 229flF
plea-d 187f
pleasant-ry 187f
please 187f
pleasure-able lB7f
pleat 166f
plebeian 230f
plebiscite 230f
plebs (L) 230f
plecto (L) 166f
pledge 9
plegian (AS) 35
Pleiade (FE) 229ff
Pleiades 229flF
plein air (F) 230f
pleios (Gk) 229ff
Pleistocene 230f
pleistos (Gk) 229ff
*plek 166f
*pl3k lB7f
plenary 11, 230f
plenipotentiary 97, 230f
plenitude 230f
plenty-ful-eous 11, 230f
plenum (LE) 230f
plenus(L)21,33, 166,230f
pleo (L) 230f
pleonasm-tic 229ff
pleos (Gk) 229fr
pleres (Gk) 21, 229flF
-plet 166f
pletho (Gk) 229fr
plethora 229ff
plethoric 11, 229ff '
*pleu 123
-plex 166f
plexus (LE) 166f
-pli-er-ant 166f
pliant-ble 166f
-plicate 166ff
-plice-it-ity 166f
WORD INDEX
275
plico (L) 166f
Pliocene 230f
-plo- (GkE) 166f
-ploit 166f
plover 123
plovier (F) 123
plow 9
-ploy 166f
pluperfect 230f
plural-ity 230f
pluri- 230f
plurilateral 230f
plurilingual 112, 230f
plus (LE) 230f
plutocrat-cy 217f
pluvia (L) 123
pluvial-ometer 123
Pluviose (F) 123
Pluvius (L) 123
-ply 166f
*pod 197ff
-pod, -pode, -poda 198f
podesta (It) 97
podiatry-ist 198f
podium 24, 198f
poena (L) 141f
*p6i 59
poise 194f
poison (FE) 59
poisson (F) 102
pol (AS) 186f
pole-axe 186f
polemics- ist 230f
polemos (Gk) 229ff
police-man 229ff
policy 189f, 229fF
-polls 11, 189, 229ff
Politburo (Rus) 230f
politico (Sp) 230f
politics-al-ian 230f
polity 230f
polizza (It) 189f
pollex (L) 185
polluceo (L) 185
poUute-ion 121
"polny (SI) 33, 229ff
poltroon 43
poly- 229ff
polyglot-phonic-gamy-
chrome-theism-clinic-
syllabic 229ff
polygon 155, 229ff
Polynesia 177, 229ff
polyp-US 198f, 229ff
polytechnic 173, 229ff
pomegranate 197
Pomerania 122
Pommern (G) 122
Pomorze (Pol) 122
pompe (Osc) 209f
Pompey 209f
pond- (L) 193ff
ponder-ous 194f
pondus (L) 24, 193ff
poniard 217
pontificate 39
Pontius 209f
pontoon 43
pop 20 If
Pope-ish-ry 20 If
popina (L) 96
poplin 20 If
populace-ate-ion 230f
popular-ity 230f
populous-ist-arize 230f
populus (L) 230f
porchacier (OF) 135f
*porcsco (L) 38, 57f
poros (Gk) 162f
porridge 59
porringer 59
porro (L) 121
portray-it 133
posco (L) 37, 57f
poss- 97
posse (comitatus) (LE) 97
possess-ion-or-ive 97
possible-ibility 97
possideo (L) 97
postdate 101
post mortem (LE) 158
post natus (L) 205f
post-prandial 169
postulant-ate 58
postulo (L) 58
pot- 97
pot (FE) 9, 59
potable-tion 59
potamos (Gk) 199f
potash 59
potassium 59
pot(t)age (FE) 59
poteen 59
potent-cy 97
potential-ity 97
potestas (L) 97
potiche (F) 59
potio (L) 59
potion 59
*poti-s 96f
potis (L) 97
poto (L) 59
potpourri (FE) 59
potsherd 59
pott (AS) 59
potter-y 59
pound-age 24, 193f
pour- (F) 39
pourparler (FE) 52f
pous (Gk) 198f
pousser (F) 42
power-ful-less 97
praebeo (L) 143f
praedico (L) 190f
praenomen (L) 164f
praise 9
pral (Gyp) 146f
pram 55
prandium (L) 169
pray-er 57f
preach-er-ment 190f
preamble 55
prebend 144
precarious 57f
precept-or 135f
precher (F) 190f
prechier (OF) 190f
-precht (G) 47f
precipice-tate-tous 137
preclude-sion 140
precocious 96
precor (L) 57f
precursor 218
predate 101
predicate-ment 190f
predict-ion 190
pre-eminent 68f
preface-tory 19 If
prefix 128
pregnant 205
prehistory-ic 22 7f
prejudice-ial 56, 190f
*prek 57f
276
prelate-cy 94f
premature 57
prenatal 205f
prenotion 207
preponderant-ce 194f
prerogative 22 If
presbyter (Gk) 43
Presbyterian 43
presbytery 12
prestidigitator 190f
preternatural 205f
pretext 173f
prevident 228f
preview 228f
previous 142f
prevision 228f
priccian (AS) 118
prick-le-ly 1 18
prie-dieu (FE) 57f
prier (F) 57f
priest 12, 43
prig-gish 1 1 8
primeval 154f
*primi-ceps (L) 135f
primogeniture 204f
primus (L) 169
prince-ss 135f
principal-ple-pality 135f
prithee 57f
privus (L) 202
pro- 39
problem 52f
proboscis 179f
proclaim-ation 138f
prodrome 8 If
produce-r 132
product-ion 132
profess-ion-or 192
profile 128
profiteor (L) 192
progeny-itor 204f
prognosis-stication 206f
program-me 82f
prohibeo (L) 143f
prohibit-ion 144
proletarian-at 125
prolific-erate 125
prolix-ity 16 If
prom-enade 68f
prominent 68f
promontory 69
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
promuntorium (L) 69
pronoun-nominal 164f
propaganda-ist-ize 38, 186
propages (L) 186
propend-sity 193f
proper-ty 20 If
prophet-ess-cy-tic 19 If
propitious-ate 20 If
propriety-or-ary 20 If
proprius (L) 20 If
prorogation 22 If
prospect-or-ive-us 203f
protect-ion-or-orate 173
protege (FE) 173
prot^ger (F) 173
pro tem(pore) (LE) 15, 60f
protest-ation 18 If
Protestant-ism 18 If
protract 133
protrude 1 1 1
provenance 39
provender 144
proverb- ial 160
provide-r 39, 22 7f
providence-tial 22 7f
provision 22 7f
proviso 228f
(agent) provocateur (FE)
93
provocation 93
provoke 93
proximity 20 If
proximus (L) 20 If
prudent-ce 228f
pruoder (OHG) 19, 26
psallo (Gk) 230f
psalm-ist-ody 230f
psalter-y 230f
pseudonym 164f
*pter 21
pterodactyl 199f
pteryx (Gk) 199f
ptoma (Gk) 199f
ptomaine 199f
ptosis (GkE) 199f
public-ation-ist-ize-an-ity
230f
publicus (L) 230f
publish-er 230f
pueblo (Sp) 230f
puer (L) 29
puerile 65
puis n^ (F) 205f
puissant-ce (FE) 97
pullet 65
pumex (L) 102f
pumice 102f
pump (Osc) 149
punch 209f
punio (L) 141f
punish-ment 142
punitive 142
Punjab 209f
puny 205f
pur- (FE) 39
-pur (Sk) 11, 229f
purchase 135f
purvey 39, 228f
purview 228f
-pus 198f
putra (Sk) 65
putty 59
pyat' (Rus) 149
pyr (Gk) 53
pyxis (Gk) 36
qabalah (Arab) 145
qasr (Arab) 62f
quadrangle-ular 15 If
quadrilateral 59
quadrivium (LE) 142f
quadrumane 65f
quadruped 198f
quadruple-t 166f
quail 26
quaint-ness 206f
qualen (G) 26
qualm (GE) 26, 52
quand (F) 161
quando (Lit) 161
quantum (LE) 38
Quattuor Tempora (L) 60f
quean 78
queen-ly 34, 78
Quentin 209f
quercine-itron 149
quercus (L) 149
quesne (OF) 149f
*quesnus (L) 149f
queue (FE) 40
WORD INDEX
277
quick-ly-ness 26
quid (L) 23
quidnunc 176
quiet (FE) 43
quietus (L) 43
quin(c)tus (L) 209f
quini (L) 209f
quinquagenarian-gesima
209f
quinque (L) 149, 209f
quinquennium 209f
quint-uple-et-essence I66f,
209f
quod (L) 23
quondam (L) 161
quorum (LE) 38
quotidian 212
R
rab (SI) 73f
rabbet 150f
rabies (L) 42
rabota (Rus) 73f
racu (AS) 22 If
rad (AS) 75
rado (L) 122f
radulare (VL) 122f
raeccan (AS) 22 If
ride (AS) 75
rEtt (AS) 122f
rage (FE) 42
ragout (FE) 1 1 1
raid-er 75
rail-lery 122f
rain 35
raison (F) 42
raisun (AN) 42
raj (HindE) 220f
rajah 2, 11, 220f
rajan (Sk) 220f
rajaputra (Sk) 220f
Rajastan-i 220f
rajni (Sk) 220f
Rajput-ana 220f
rake 22 If
ramble 55
ranee-i 220f
rapscallion 122f
rare 2, 34, 183f
rarus (L) 183f
rascaille (OF) 122f
rascal-ly 122f
rasche (OF) 122f
rase 122f
rash 122f
rasorial 122f
rat-ty 122f
rauba (Gic) 43
raw-ness-hide-boned 34,
183f
raze-or 122f
*re 106
reach 220f
ready-ness-ly 75
real (SpE) 220f
realm 220f
-reave 43
rebate 150f
rebel-lion 57
rebut- tal 150f
rebyonok-ata (Rus) 73f
recall 2 19f
recant 126f
recapitulate 137
recean (AS) 22 If
receipt 135f
receive-er-ship 1, 135f
receleas (AS) 22 If
receptacle 135f
recipe 135f
recipio (L) 135f
reck-on-ing-less 22 If
reclaim-ation 138f
recluse 140
recognize-ition 206f
recompense 194f
reconcile-ation 139
recondite 101
recondition 190f
reconnaissance 206f
reconnoiter 206f
record-er 182
recourse 182, 218f
recover-y 135f
recreant 182
recrudescence 184
rectal 22 If
rectangle-ular 15 If, 22 If
rectify-ication 22 If
rectilinear 22 If
rectitude 22 If
rector-y 22 If
rectum-a (LE) 22 If
rectus (L) 25, 220f
recuperate 135f
recur-rent-rence 218
*red 122f
red 10
redan 169
reddita (L) 101
reddo (L) 101
redos (Gaul) 75
redoubt 132
redound-undant-ce 224f
redoute (F) 132
redress 22 If
reduce-tion 132
reductus (L) 132
refine-ment 128
reforestation 116
refute-ation 9, 150f
*reg 220ff
regal 11, 220f
regale 220f
regalia 220f
regenerate-ion 204f
■ regent-cy 220f
regicide 220f
regime-n 220f
regiment-al-ation 220f
regina (LE) 220f
Reginhart 217
regio (L) 220f
region-al-ism 220f
regn (AS) 35
regno (L) 220f
regnum (L) 220f
rego (L) 220fr
*reg-tos 25
regula (L) 22 If
regular-ity-ate-ion-ator
221f
Regulus221f
rehabilitate-ion 144
Reich (G) -sbank, -smark,
-swehr, -stag 22 If
*reidh 75
reign 220f
reindeer 214f
reis (Pt) 220f
rejoin-der 213
rejuvenate 126
278
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
relate-ive-ion 94f
relic-quary 16 If
relinquish 16 If
remedy-ial 163f
remember 9
remus (L) 106
Renaissance 205f
renascent 205f
render 101
rendition 101
rendre (F) 101
renew-al 175f
renovate-ion 175f
renown 164f
rent-al-er 101
rente-ier (F) 101
renvoi (FE) 143
reorganize-ation 83f
repair 20 If
repairier (OF) 201f
repast 140f
repatriate 20 If
repay 186
repeat-ition-itive 200f
repent-ance-ant 14 If
repine 142
replenish 230f
replete-ion 230f
replica (ItE) 166f
reply 166f
repo (L) 86
reproach 20 If
reproduce-tion 132
reptile-ian 86
republic-an 230f
resort 105
resource-ful-ness 22 If
respect-ful-able-ility 203 f
respicio (L) 203f
respite 203f
respond-se-ive-ory 193f
responsible-ity 193f
res publica (L) 230f
resurge-nce 22 1
retain 67f
retrace 133
retract-ile-ion 133
retreat 133
retribution 181
retrospect 203f
revenge 190f
reverberate- ion 172
review 228f
revindicate 190f
revise-ion 224f, 228f
revoke-cation 93
revue (FE) 228f
reword 160
rex (L) 220f
rey (Sp) 220f
Rha 208f
rhabd- (Gk) 172
rhabdomancy 172
rhein (Gk) 79f
rheo-stat 79f
rhetor (GkE) 160
rhetoric-al-ian 160
rheuma (Gk) 33
rheumatic-oid-ism 79f
rhinoceros 214f
rhododendron 223
rhombus-oid 172, 227f
rhubarb 208f
rhyme 79f
rhythm-ic 79f
rhythmos (Gk) 80
rial (PersE) 220f
rice (AS) 22 If
rich 22 If
Richard 217, 22 If
riche (F) 22 If
ridan (AS) 75
ride-r 75
ridotto (It) 132
right-ful-ly-ist 2, 11, 22 If
righteous-ness221f, 22 7f
right-wise 22 7f
rigid-ity 220f
rigidus (L) 22 If
rigor-ous 2 2 Of
rigor mortis (LE) 220ff
Rigsdag (Dan) 22 If
rigsdaler (Dan) 22 If
rigueur (F) 22 If
Rig- Veda 22 7f
rihhi (OHG) 22 If
riht (AS) 25, 22 If
rijk (Du) 22 If
rijksdaler (Du) 22 If
Riksdag (Swe) 22 If
rime 79f
Risorgimento (It) 22 If
-rix (Celt) 220f
rix-dollar 221f
road 75
rob-ber-y 43
robe 43
rober (OF) 43
Robert 15, 47f
robot 73f
Rocinante 218
*r6d 122f
rodent 122f
rodo (L) 122f
rogation-tory 22 If
rogue- ish-ery 22 If
roi (F) 22 If
(Mount) Rosa 184
Rosamond 66
rosemary 122
ros marinus (L) 122
rosus (L) 122f
rostral-ate 122f
rostrum (LE) 122f
rothor (AS) 106
roub (OHG) 43
row-boat 106
rowan (AS) 106
Roxana 184f
Roy 220f
royal-ty-ist 11, 220f
royaume (F) 220f
ruckus 21 If
ruction 21 If
rudder 106
rule-r 11, 220f
rumpus 22 If
Rupprecht 47f
r>'e (Gyp) 220f
Saale 174f
safe-ty 98
saga (ScanE) 79
sage(brush) 98
*sagja (Gic) 79
*sagwja (Gic) 79
sagu (AS) 35, 79
saihwan (Goth) 33, 79
sail 35
Saint-Leu, Saint-L6 152f
♦sal 174f
sal (L) 174f
WORD INDEX
?79
salad 174f
salame-i (ItE) 174f
sal ammoniac 174f
salary 174f
saline-cylate 174f
Sallust 98
salmagundi 174f
salmis 174f
salon (FE) 13, 43
saloon 13, 43
salt-y 174f
saltern 174f
saltpeter 174f
salubrious 98
salus (L) 98
salute-ary-ation 98
salva (It) 98
salve 98
salver 98
salvo 98
sal volatile (LE) 174f
salvus (L) 98
Salzburg 174f
sanbenito (SpE) 188f
sandal(wood) 62
sandalon (Gk) 62
sans souci (F) 98
santalon (Gk) 98
sarcophagus 71
sarkophagos (Gk) 71
sarpas (Sk) 86
sauce-r-y-pan-age 174f
save-ing-s-ior 98
saw 10, 35, 79
*sawel 176
sawil (Goth) 176
say-ing-so 34, 79
scald 56f
scamp-er 63f
scampare (It) 63f
scamian (AS) 74
Scandinavia 1 14f
scarola (It) 169
scell (AS) 34
sceptic {see skeptic)
schedion (Gk) 51
schedule 51
schema (Gk) 50f
scheme-atic 50f
schets (Du) 51
schiavo (It) 77
schizzo (ItE) 50f
schliessen (G) 139f
Schloss (G) I39f
schnauzen (G) 177
Schnauzer (GE) 177
Schnei (G) 28
Schnozzola 177
schola (L) 36, 50f
Schola Cantorum 50f
scholar-ly-ship 50f
scholastic-ism 50f
schole (Gk) 36, 50f
scholiast 50f
scol (AS) 36, 50f
sconce 101
-scope-ic 202f
scour218f
scribo (L) 38
scurra (L) 218f
scurrilous 218f
scutum (L) 41
scyrte (AS) 34
se (L) 54
s6 (Ir) 29
seafon (AS) 33
sealt-an (AS) 174f
sealtern (AS) 174f
secg (AS) 34
secgan (AS) 34, 79
sechs (G) 29
sedeo (L) 97
sedge 34
seduce-ction-ive 132
see-r 9, 33, 79
segel (AS) 35
segeth (AS) 34
*segh 50f
segregate-ion 155f
sehan (OHG) 33
sehen (G) 33
seigneur (FE) 124
seignorial 124
seize 10
*sekiJ 79
semester-tral 90, 159f, 163f
*semi 90f
semi- (LE) 90f
semisque (L) 90f
sen (Scan) 45
senary 159f
senate-or-ial 124
senatus (L) 124
Seneca 124
sen^chal (F) 124
seneschal 124
senex (L) 124
senhor-a-inha (Pt) 124
senile-ity-escent 124
senilis (L) 124
senior (LE) 124
seniority 124
*seno 124
sefior-a-ita (Sp) 124
seon (AS) 33, 79
seox (AS) 160
serdtse (Rus) 22, 182
sergeant (FE) 42
serial 104f
series (LE) 104f
sermo (L) 52f, 104f
sermon 104f
*serp 86
serpe (It) 86
serpent-ine 86
serpo (L) 86
Servians (L) 42
sesqui- (LE) 90f
sesquipedalian 90f, 198f
sesterce 90f, 180f
sestertius-m (L) 90f, 180f
seven 33
severe-ity 54
severus (L) 54
sewage 1 14f
sewer-age 1 1 4f
sex (L) 29, 90, 159f
sexagenarian-gesimal 63f
sexta (L) 39
sextant 63f
sextet-te 63f
sexto-uple-t 63f
sgambetto (It) 63f
shall 1 1
shame-ful-less 74
shamefaced 74
sharp 10
shell 34
sherbet 13
shimmer 10
shimmy 74
shine 10
shipwright 83f
280
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
shirt 34
shrine 38
sibun (GothOHG) 33
sieben (G) 33
Sieg (G) 50f
Siegfried 50f
siesta (SpE) 39, 159f
sieur (F) 124
sight-less-ly 79
Sigmund 50f
signore-a-ina (It) 124
silt 174f
silver 5
simple- ify-icity 90, 166f
simplex (L) 90f, 166f
simplification 39, 166f
simulate 39
sine die (LE) 212
Singapore 229ff
siniskalk (OHG) 124
sir-e 124
sirloin 165f
sirly 124
sis-sy-fied 107
sister-ly-hood 107
Sistine 159f
Sisto 159f
sit 9
Siva-ism-ist 147f
six-th-ty-teen 29, 160
sixta (AS) 160
sixtig (AS) 160
Sixtus 159f
skalla (ON) 34
*(s)kand 6 If
skel (ON) 34
*skep 202ff
skeptic-ism-al 202f
skeptomai (Gk) 202f
skirt 34
skopein (Gk) 202f, 227f
skull 34
skyrta (ON) 34
sla (Du) 174f
sladkiy (Rus) 174
slat 139
Slav-ic-onian 77
slava (SI) 77
slave-ry-ish 77
slavey 77
slaw 174f
sleep 9
slice 139
slit 139f
slitan (AS) 139f
slot 139f
Slovak-ene-ian 77
slovo (SI) 77
sloz (OHG) 139f
sluice 140
slushat' (Rus) 77
slyshat' (Rus) 77
small 10
smert' (Rus) 158
smite 10
*(s)na 177
*sneigi^h 33
snob 207
snooty 177
snotty 177
snout 177
snow 28
snuzen (OHG) 177
sobaka (Rus) 157
Sohn (G) 45
sojourn 212
sol (LSp) 176
solarium 176
solar plexus 176
soldado (Sp) 98
soldat (F) 98
soldato (It) 98
soldatus (VL) 98
solder 98
soldier-ly-y (OFE) 12, 98
soldo (It) 98
solemn-ity-ize 97f
solertious 97f
solicit-or-ous-ude-ation 98
solid-ity-ify-arity 98
solidare (VL) 98
solidus (L) 98
sollemnis (L) 97f
sollers (L) 97f
sollicitus (L) 98
sollus (L) 97f
♦solo 97f
solstice 176
solz (OF) 174f
somnambulism-ist 55, 87
somniferous-lent-ce 87
son (ScanE) 44f
sonder (F) 224f
sopor (L) 87
soporific-erous 97
soprano (ItE) 40, 165f
sorcerer-y 105
sorg (AS) 35
soror (L) 107
soroptimist 67f, 107
sorority 107
sorosis 107
sorrow 10, 35
sort 105
sortilege 105
sou (F) 98
soubra (Pr) 166
soubrette (FE) 165f
souci (F) 98
sound 224f
souper (F) 43
source 22 If
souse 174f
south-ward-ern-erly 1 76
Southampton 176
souverain (F) 40
souz (OF) 174f
sovereign-ty 40, 165f
sovrano (It) 40
spada (It) 40
spaein (Gk) 193f
span (Gk) 193f
span 33, 193f
Spaniard 217
spannan (ASOHG) 33,
193f
spasibo (Rus) 71
spasm-odic 193f
spastic 193f
spatha (L) 40
specialis (L) 203
specie-s-al-ious-fy-fication-
alty-ality-ist-ization 203
species (L) 203
specimen 203
spectacle-cular 203f
specter-ral-um 203f
spectus (L) 203
specula-r-ate-ator-ation-
ative 203f
speculum (LE) 203
speeltuig (Du) 132
spehon (OHG) 32, 202f
WORD INDEX
281
*spek 32, 202ff
spencer, Spencer 194f
*(s)pend 193ff
spend-er- thrift 193f
speornan (AS) 153f
sperno (L) 153
*sp(h)er 153f
sphaira (Gk) 153
sphere-ical-oid 153
spice-y-ery 203
spicio (L) 32, 203
spider 193f
spin-dle-ster-dly 193f
spinel (AS) 193f
spinnan (AS) 193f
spione (It) 202f
spiritus (L) 41
spite-ful 203f
spithre (AS) 193f
split 10
*(s)pond 193ff
spond- (L) 193f
sponde (Gk) 193f
spondee-aic 193f
spondeo (L) 33, 193f
sponsor 193f
sponsus-a (L) 38, 193f
spont- (L) 193f
spontaneous-ity 193f
spoor (DuE) 153f
sporettan (AS) 153f
spouse 38, 193f
spuma (L) 102f
spumante (It) 102f
spume-y 102f
spur 153f
spura (AS) 153f
spurn 153f
spurnan (AS) 153f
spy-glass 32, 202f
sravati (Sk) 33
sreda (SI) 182
*sreu 79f
*(s)roum 33
stabulum (L) 33
stall (ASE) 33
stand 9
standard-ize 217
star-ry-fish-let 158f, 170
starve 110
statum (L) 41
steall (AS) 33
*(s)teg 173
*stel 59f
Stella (L) 38, 158f
stellar-ate 158f
♦stelna (L) 38
steorfan (AS) 110
steorra (AS) 158f
stepmother 163
*ster 158f
stereoscope 202f
sterling 158f, 170
sterre (ME) 158f
stethoscope 202f
stipend 193f
*stlatus 59f
sto (SI) 22
stone 9
story-ey 22 7f
strata (L) 38
stream (AS) 33, 79f
stream-er 33, 79f
street 1 1 , 38
strike 10
Strom (Du) 80
Struma 80
student 14
studio (ItE) 13f
studium (L) 13
study 13
*su 44f
suadeo (L) 159
suasion 159
sua sponte (L) 193f
suasus (L) 159
suave-ity 159
suavis (L) 159
sub (L) 22 If
subdue 132
subhuman 171
subjoin 213
subjugate 213
subjunctive 213
submarine 12 If
subpoena (LE) 142
subrogation 22 If
subterranean 120
subtle-ty 173f
subtract- ion 133
subundare (VL) 224f
suburban 131
succor 218
sudor (L) 153
sudorific-erous 153
sueldo (Sp) 98
suffix-ation 128
Suffolk 176
sulz (OHG) 174f
sum-mary-ize 165f
summus (L) 165f
sun-shine-stroke-ny 9, 176
sundae 176
Sunday 176
sunna (AS) 176
sunnandaeg (AS) 176
sunno (Goth) 176
*siinu 45
sunu (AS) 45
super (LE) 21, 165f
superabundant-ce 224f
superanus (VL) 40, 166
superb 165f
superbus (L) 165f
supercargo 218
supererogation 22 If
superfine 128
superhuman 171
superior-ity 165f
superlative 94f
supernal 165f
supernatural 205f
supernumerary 168
supervise 228f
supper 43
supplement-al-ary 230f
suppliant-cate-ion 166f
supply-er 166, 230f
supra- (LE) 165f
supreme-acy 165f
supremus (L) 165f
sur (FE) 165f
surcharge 218f
surface (FE) 165f
surfeit 165f
surge 22 If
surgeon-ery-ical 84
surgo (L) 221f
surly-ness 124
surmount 68f
surname 164f
surplus 230f
surrender 101
282
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
Surrey 176
surrogate-ion 22 If
surround-ings 224f
surtax 68
survey-or 228f
survive-or 165f
susceptible-ility 135f
suspect 203f
suspend-der-se 193f
suspicion-ous 32, 203f
Sussex 176
suth (AS) 176
sut'-ierra (AS) 176
svaraj (HindE) 220f
*swad 159
swietan (AS) 153
swat (AS) 153
swear 104f
sweat 153
sweet-en-heart-ness-meat-
bread 10, 159
*swefen (AS) 87
*sweid 153
*sweks 159f
*swen 176
sweoster (AS) 106f
*swep 87
swerian (AS) 104f
*swesor 106f
*swester 107
swet (AS) 153
swete (AS) 159
sweven (ArcE) 87
sycophant 80f
sylt (Scan) 174f
symbol-ic-ize 52f
symmetry-ical 163f
sympathy-etic 73
symphony-ic 19 If
syndrome 8 If
synonym 164f
synopsis 183
syntax 68
syrup 13
syxtyne (AS) 160
syzygy 2 1 3
ta (Chin) 13
tacen (AS) 189f
tact-ile-ful-less-ual 67f
tactics 68
tactus (LE) 67f
tiecean (AS) 189f
tEgor (AS) 111
tshher (AS) 1 1 1
tael (Mai) 94f
tSl (AS) 45f
*tag 67f
taihswa (Goth) 100
taihun (Goth) 179
take 1, 11, 168
tal (ME) 45f
talanton (Gk) 94f
talc (AS) 45f
talent 94f
talentum (L) 94f
talk 45f
talken (ME) 45 f
tall 45f
talpa (L) 40
talu (AS) 45f
tamper 60f
tandem (LE) 161
tang 112
tangi (ON) 112
tangible-ent-ial 67f
tangir (Sp) 67f
tango (LE) 67f
tantalize 94f
tantalum 94f
Tantalus 94f
tantamount 69
tap toe (Du) 161
tar 223
task-master 68
taste-y-ful-less 68
tattoo 161
taunt 60f
taupe (FE) 40
taut 13 If
taw 188f
tax-able-ation-payer 68
taxito (L) 68
taxo (L) 68
teach-er 189f
team (AS) 13 if
team-ster-work 13 If
tear 11 If
technic-al-ician-ique-
ology 173
-tect 173
tectus (L) 173
teder (ME) 131f
teem 131f
-teen 178
teen-age-r 178
*tegh 173
tegmen (L) 173
tegula (L) 173
tegular 173
tegument 173
tegumentum (L) 173
teh (AS) 13 If
*tek 173
tekhne (Gk) 173
tekton (Gk) 173
*tel 94f
tela (L) 173f
telarium (L) 173f
telegraph-gram 82 f
telephone 35, 19 If
telescope 202f
television 228f
tell-er 45f
tellan (AS) 45
telonion-um (GkL) 94f
*tem 92
temnein (Gk) 92
*temp 60f
temper-ate-ament-ance-
ature 60f
tempera (It) 60f
tempest 60f
Templar 60f
temple 60f
templum (L) 60f
tempo (ItE) 60f
temporal-ize 60f
temps (F) 60f
tempt-er-ation 60f
tempura (Jap) 60f
tempus (L) 15, 60f
ten-fold-pins 10, 178
tens (OF) 61
tense 60f
tent 60f
tentacle-tive 60f
tenuis (L) 33
teohh-ian (AS) 100
teon (AS) 13 If
teoru (AS) 223
teotha-e (AS) 178
WORD INDEX
283
ter (L) 180f
*teragh 133
tercentenary 180f
tercet 180f
tern IBOf
ternary 180f
terra (firma, cotta : LE) 1 20
terrace 120
terrain 120
terra merita (L) 120
terrazzo (ItE) 120
terrestrial 120
terrier 120
terrine 120
territory-al 120
*ters 120
*ter-stis 181
tertian-ary 180f
tertium quid (LE) 180f
tertius (L) 180f
terza rima (ItE) 18 If
test-y-er 173f
testa (Lit) 41, 173f
testament-ary-ator-ate 181
testes (L) 181
testicles 181
testicular 181
testify 18 If
testimonial-mony 18 If
testis (L) 181
testudo (LE) 173f
tete (F) 41, 173f
tete-i-tete (FE) 41, 173f
tether 13 If
texo (L) 173
text-ual 173
textile 173
texture 173
textus (L) 173
thsc (AS) 173
that 10
thatch 173
theccan (AS) 173
theios-a (Gk) 37, 79
them 11
thencean (AS) 33
theocracy 2 1 7f
Theodore lOOf
theogony 204f
theophania (Gk) 37, 80f
theophany 80f
theos (Gk) 79
thermal 28, 156
thermidor 156
thermodynamics-stat-
therapy 156
thermometer 156, 163f
thermos (GkE) 156
thesauros-us (GkLE) 36,
225
*thespesios (Gk) 79
Thespis-ian 79
Thetis 79
they 11
thin 33
think 33
third 180f
thirst-y 120
thirteen- th 178, 180f
thirty 180f
thohte (AS) 33
thole-pin 94f
tholian (AS) 94f
tholl (AS) 94f
thorp 14
thou 19, 22
thought 33
thrash 111
threat-en 111
threat-nian (AS) 111
three-fold, -penny-score-
some 180f
threoteotha (AS) 180f
threotyne (AS) 180f
threscan (AS) 111
thresh-old 111
thretig (AS) 180f
thri(e) (AS) 180f
thrice 180f
thridda (AS) 180f
thriga (AS) 180f
thrust 111
thrysta (ON) 1 1 1
thurst-ig (AS) 120
thygater (Gk) 45
thynne (AS) 33
thyra (Gk) 27, 116
thyreoidos (Gk) 116
thyroid 116
Tia Juana 37, 78
tie 131f
tiegan (AS) 131f
tiegan (AS) 13 If
tieman (AS) 13 If
tien (AS) 178
tierce (FE) 181
tiffany 37, 80f
-tig (AS) 179
Tig (AS) 21 If
tigele (AS) 173
tiger 5
tight-en 13 If
tigule (AS) 173
tile 173
tiller 173f
tinfoil 195f
tio-a (Sp) 37, 78
Tisch (G) 43
tissu (F) 173f
tissue 173f
tistre (OF) 173f
Tiw (AS) 21 If
TiwesdEg (AS) 21 If
tlenai (Gk) 94f
tmesis (GkE) 92
to 161
to (AS) 161
toast 120
toe (Du) 161
toga (LE) 129, 131f
togian (AS) 13 If
togs 173
toht (AS) 13 If
toile (F) 173f
toilet-ry-te 173f
token 189f
tol (AS) 188f
tolerate-ion-ance-ant-able
94f
toll 94f
tollo (L) 94f
tolonion (Gk) 94f
tome 92
-tome 92
tomorrow 161
tomos (Gk) 92
-tomy 92
tondeo (L) 92
tongs 112
tongue 112
tonight 161
tonsil 92
tonsilla (L) 92
284
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
tonsillectomy-otomy 92
tonsure-orial 92
tonsus (L) 92
tonth (AS) 168f
too 161
tool 188f
tooth 24, 169
toponymy 164f
Tor (G) 19, 27, 116
torrefy-faction 120
torrens (L) 120
torrent-ial 120
torreo (L) 120
torrid 120
tostus (L) 120
toth (AS) 168f
tow (AS) 188f
tow-line- boat 13 If
toy 132
-trace 133
trace-r-s 133
track 133
-tract 133
tract-ion-able-ile-or 133
tractus (L) 133
trade-r-sman 8 If
traditio (L) 43, 101
tradition-al (FE) 43, 101
traditor (L) 101
traduce-r 132
traeppe-an (AS) 8 If
trahison (F) 43, 101
traho (L) 133
trail-er 133
-trail 133
train-ing 133
-train 133
trait 133
-trait 133
traitor-ous 101
traitre (F) 101
tramp-en-elen (ME) 8 If
tramp-le 8 If
transfigure-ation 128
transfix 128
translate-ion-or 94f
trap 8 If
trapeze-oid 198f, 22 7f
trattoria (It) 133
travail (FE) 180f, 185f
travel-er 180f, 185f
trawl-er 133
tray 223
treachery-ous 101
tread-le 8 If
treason-able 43, 101
treasure 36, 225
treat-men t-ise-y 133
-treat 133
treble 180f
Trecento (ItE) 180f
tredan (AS) 8 If
tredel (AS) 81f
tree 223
trefoil (FE) 180f
♦trei 180fr
treis (Gk) 180f
treis (OF) 39
treiskaidekaphobia (GkE)
180f
trek (DuE) 133
trellis 180f
treow (AS) 223
treowian (AS) 223
treowth (AS) 223
tres (L) 39, 180f
tr6sor (F) 36
*treud 111
trewes (ME) 223
trey 39, 180f
treysta (ON) 223f
tri- 180f
tria- (GkE) 180f
triad 180f
triangle-ular 15 If, 180f
Triassic 180f
tribe-al-sman 181
tribune-al 181
tribus (L) 181
tribute-ary 181
tricentennial 180f
triceps 137, 180f
triclinium (LE) 180f
tricorn 215
tricycle 19 If
trident 169, 180f
triduum (LE) 212
trifolium (L) 195f
trig (AS) 223
trigger 133
trigonometry 155, 163f,
180f
trikeratops (GkE) 214f
trilateral 180f
trilingual 180f
trill 82
trillo (It) 82
trilogy 180f
trim 223
trimester 163f
Trimurti (Sk) 180f
trine 180f
trinity 180f
trinomial 180f
trio (ItE) 180f
trip-pet-hammer 8 If
tripalium (L) 180f, 185f
triper (OF) 8 If
triphthong 180f, 19 If
triplane 180f
triple-t 180f
triplicate 166f, 180f
tripod 140f, 198f
Tripoli 180f, 229ff
triptych 180f
trireme 106, 180f
trisect 180f
tristich 180f
tritium 180f
Triton 180f
triumph-al 43
triumvir-ate (LE) 113f,
180f
triune 180f
trivium-a-al-ity 142f, 180f
trog (AS) 223
troh (AS) 223
trois (F) 39
troll 82
trot 8 If
troth 223
trotton (OHG) 82
trough 223
trow 223
truce 223
trudo (L) 1 1 1
true-ism-ly 223
trum (AS) 223
trump 43
trumpan (Goth) 81
trust-ee-y-ship- worthy
223f
trusus (L) 111
WORD INDEX
285
truth-ful-ly 223
tryst 223f
tu (L) 19, 22
tuccian (AS) 13 If
tudor (AS) 131f
Tuesdays, 21If
tug 131
tuig (Du) 132
tuile (F) 173
Tuileries 172
tula (Sk) 94
tureen 120
turmeric 120
tusc (AS) 168f
tush 168f
tusk 168f
twelf (AS) 162
twelve-fth 162
twenty 178
twist 10
twit 228
twofold 166f
-ty 179
tycoon 13
tyge (AS) 13 If
tyht (AS) 13 If
tyn (AS) 178
typhoid 22 7f
typhoon 13
Tyr (ON) 21 If
U
iiber (G) 21
*udero 87f
*udtero 87f
uisce (Olr) 224f
uisge beatha (Olr) 224f
Ulpius 152
umble pie 171
un- 56, 59
uiia (Sp) 15 If
unable 144
unbeknownst 206f
uncinate 15 If
uncle 40, 106
uncouth 206f
uncus (L) 15 If
unda (L) 24, 224f
undecim (L) 178
undecimal 178
under 10, 104
underfoot 198
undies 104
undine 224f
undulant-ate-ion-atory
224f
undying 1 10
unfeeling 230f
unghia (It) 151f
ungula (L) 15 If
ungulate 15 If
unhorse 218
unicorn 215
unilateral 59f
uninhabited 144
unkind 204f
unknown 206f
unmanageable 66
unnatural 205f
uns (OHG) '33
unsightly 79
untrue-th 223
unworldly 1 1 3f
*uper, *uperi 165f
upright 22 If
ur- (G) 170 •
urak (G) 170
urban-e-ity 131
urbs (L) 131
ureter 224f
urgermanisch (G) 170
uric 224f
urine-al-ate 224f
urohso (OHG) 224f
urus (LE) 224f
us (AS) 33
us 33
uter (L) 224f
uterine 87f
uterus (LE) 87f, 224f
utriform-cle 224f
utro (SI) 170
V
vacant-cy 129
vacate- ion 129
vaco (L) 129
vacuity 129
vacuous 129
vacuum (LE) 129
vacuus (L) 129
vain-glory 129
Van Dyke 128
vanish 129
*vanitare (VL) 129
vanity 129
vanta (ON) 129
vanter (F) 129
vanus (L) 129
vapidus (L) 151, 193
vas-culum (L) 167
vast-ness-ity 129
vasto (L) 129
vastus (L) 129
Vater (G) 201
Vaterland (GE) 201
vaunt-ed 129
vector-ion 142f
vectus (L) 142f
Veda-nta-ic-s 29, 22 7f
Vedas (Sk) 227f
vedette (FE) 228f
vehemens (L) 142f
vehement-ce 142f
vehicle-ular 142f
veho (L) 142f
veir (OF) 228f
veloce (ItE) 142f
velocipede 142f, 198f
velocity-drome 142f
velox (L) 142f
venaison (F) 43
venal-ity 101
vend-or-ition 101
vendetta (ItE) 189f
vendo (L) 101
vengeful 189f
venison 43
venter (L) 87f
ventral-iloquist 87f
venum-do (L) 101
veracious-ity 54
veracus (VL) 38, 54
verai (OF) 38, 43, 54
verb-al-ose-atim-iage 160
verbena (L) 172
verbero (L) 172
verbum-a (L) 52, 131, 160
Vercingetorix 163, 220f
verdict 54f, 190
veredus (L) 75
286
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
verify-ication 54f
verily 54f
verisimilitude 54
Veritas (L) 54
verity-able 54f
Vermont 68f
verse, -verse 172
versus (L) 172
-vert 172
verto (L) 172
verus (L) 38
vervain (F) 172
verve (FE) 160
very 12, 38, 43, 54
vesica (L) 88
vesical 88
Vesuvius 170
veto (LE) 38
via (LE) 54, 93, 142f
Via Flaminia 70f
viable-bility 142f
viaduct 132, 142f
viaticum (LE) 41, 142f
vicinage-ity 93f
vicus (L) 93f
vide(Iicet) (LE) 228f
video (LE) 129, 228f
videt' (SI) 29, 228f
vidette (FE) 228f
vie 54
view-er-halloo 228f
viginti (L) 38
Viking 94
vikingr (ON) 94
vilain (F) 93f
villa (LE) 29, 93f
village-r 93f
villain-ous-y 93f
villanella (ItE) 93f
villanelle (FE) 93f
ville, -ville (FE) 93f
villein 93f
vim 54
vindauga (ON) 35, 183
vindex (L) 189f
vindicate 9, 190f
vine 5
violate-ion-or 54
violent-ce 54
violentia (L) 54
violentus (L) 54
violo (L) 54
vir (L) 113f
virago (LE) 113f
virile-ity llSf
virtu (It) 114
virtue-al-ous 114
virtuoso-a (ItE) 114
virtus (L) 113f
vis (L) 54
visa (LE) 228f
visage 228f
vis-a-vis (FE) 228f
visible-ility 228f
vision-ary 228f
visit-or-ant-ation 228f
vista (ItE) 228f
*vistor (Gk) 227f
visual-ize 228f
visus (L) 228f
vivacious-ity 26
viz. 228f
Vladimir 76
voc- 92f
vocable-ulary 92f
vocal-ize-ism-ist 92f
vocation 93
vociferous 92f
vocitus (L) 129
voco (L) 92f
voda (SI) 24, 224f
vodka (Rus) 2, 11, 224f
voice-less 92 f
void 129
voina (Rus) 54
voir (F) 228f
-voke 92f
volk (SI) 152f
Volk (G) 230f
Volkmar 76
Volkslied-wagen (GE)
230f
voll (G) 21, 33
volpes (L) 152f
volunteer 31
vomica (L) 87
vomit-ive-orium 87
vomo (L) 87
voortrekker (DuE) 133
vortex (LE) 172
*vos (L) 179
vouch-er-safe 92f
*vov (L) 179
vowel-ize 92f
vox (L) 92f
voyage (FE) 41, 142f
vrach (Rus) 160
vrai (F) 38, 43, 54
vrat' (Rus) 160
vrkas (Sk) 152f
vulpine 152f
Vyacheslav 77
W
*wa 129
wacian (AS) 42
*wadh 46f
wadi (Goth) 46f
wadio (Gic) 12, 42, 46f
wiig (AS) 142f
w£egn (AS) 35, 142f
wiEt (AS) 224f
water (AS) 224f
wag-gle-gish 142f
wage 12, 42, 46f
wagen (Du) 142f
wager 46f
wagian (AS) 142f
wagier (NF) 46f
Wagner 142f
wagon-ette 142f
wagon-lit (FE) 142f
wahr (G) 54
wain-scoting 35, 142f
wainwright 83f, 142f
waist 117
wait 42
waitier (NF) 42
Waldemar 76
Wales 219f
Wallach-ian219f
walrus 218
wan-ian (AS) 129
wan-e 129, 131f
want 129
wanton 129, 13 If
warble 172
ward-en 42
wardjan (Gic) 42
warm (GE) 28, 156
warmth 156
warn 42
warnjan (Gic) 42
WORD INDEX
287
warp 172
Warwick 93f
was (G) 23
wascan (AS) 34, 224f
wash-er 34, 224f
Wasser (G) 19, 24, 224f
waste-age-ful-rel 129
wastier (NF) 129
wat (AS) 227f
watch-er-ful 42
water-y 2, 9, 11, 19, 24,
224f
Waterloo 185f, 224f
wax 1 17
way-lay-farer-ward 35,
142f
wazzar (OHG) 19, 24
wearm-an (AS) 156
wearp (AS) 172
weavil 26
weaxan (AS) 1 1 7
wed-ding-lock 12, 14, 42,
46f
wedd-ian (AS) 46f
*w(e)di 227f
weg (AS) 35, 142f
wegan (AS) 142f
*wegh 142f
*wei 54
weigh-t-less 142f
weihs (Goth) 93f
*weik 93f
*wek« 92f
Welsh219f
Welt (G) 113f, 125
Weltanschauung-ansicht-
politik-schmerz (GE)
113f, 125
*wem 87
*wendri 88
weorc (AS) 83f
weorold (AS) 113f, 125
weorpan (AS) 172
wer (AS) 113f
*wer, *werdh 160
*wer, *wer3 54
*werb 172
werbler (NF) 172
werewolf 1 1 3f
werfen (G) 172
*werg 83f
wergild 113f
*werio 160
wervel (Du) 172
weste (AS) 129
wet 224f
wharf 172
what 23
wheelwright 83f
while 34
whir 172
whirl-igig-pool-wind 1 72
whiskey 2, 11, 224f
white 10
whorl 172
whorwyl (ME) 172
wic (AS) 93f
-wich, -wick 93f
*widesa (Gk) 22 7f
*widomai (Gk) 22 7f
Wiedersehen (G) 79
wifel (AS) 26
willow 5
wind 10
window 35, 183
wine-bibber 59
winter (ASE) 224f
wintergreen 224f
wintry 224f
wirbil (OHG) 172
*wiros 1 13f
Wirt (G) 54
wis(e) (AS) 228
wisa (Gic) 42
wisa-n (OHG) 22 7f
wisdom 22 7f
-wise 227f
wise-crack-guy-acre 42,
227f
wishy-washy 224f
wissen (G) 29
wist (AS) 22 7f
wit-ty-cism-less 29, 22 7f
wita (AS) 227f
witan (ASOHG) 22 7f
witanagemot (AS) 22 7f
with 10
witness 227f
witt (AS) 22 7f
wizard-ry 227
*wlkHos 152f
*wip 152f
wolf-ish-bane-hound 5,
152f
wolfram-ite 152f
wolverine 152f
wondrous(wise) 227f
word (AS) 160
word-y-ing 131, 160
*(wo)redos (Gaul) 75
work-er-less 83f
world-ly-ness 1 1 3f,
125
worm 172
worth 172
wot 29, 22 7f
wousti (OHG) 129
wrath 172
wreak 34, 83f
wrecan (AS) 34, 83f
*wreg 83f
wrench 172
wrestle 172
wretch 172
wriggle 172
Wright 34, 83f
wrist 172
wrohte (AS) 83f
wrong 172
wry 172
wryhta-e (AS) 34, 83f
wulf (AS) 152f
wyrcan (AS) 83f
y- (AS) 35
yakwe (Tokh) 88
yard 35, 130f
yazyk (Rus) 112
yclept 35
yeda (Rus) 169
♦yekJirt 49
yest' (Rus) 169
yester-day-year 27, 35,
103
*yeu 126
*yewos 56
yferra (AS) 165f
yfesdripe (AS) 165f
yield 35
yldo, yldra (AS) 125
ymbrine (AS) 61
288
THE FAMILIES OF WORDS
Yoga (Sk) 213
Yogin (Sk) 213
yoke 28, 35, 212f
yokel212f
Yonkers 126
you 10
young-ster 28, 126
younker (Du) 126
youth-ful 126
Yuga (Sk) 213
*yu-go-m 212f
Yugoslavia 77
Zahn (G) 24, 169
Zand (OHG) 24, 169
zanna (It) 169
zdorov (Rus) 224
zdrav (SI) 224
zdravstvuyte (Rus) 224
Zeche (G) 100
zehan (OHG) 179
zehn (G) 179
zemlya (Rus) 171
zeugma (Gk) 213
zeugnymi (Gk) 213
Zeus 21 If
zhena (Rus) 78
zhyt' (Rus) 26
znamya (Rus) 207
znat' (Rus) 25, 207
Zoll (G) 94f
Zollverein (GE) 94f
Zug (G) 132
Zunge (G) 112
zygon (Gk) 213
zygote-spore 2 1 3
':ji<Jhwi
Date Due
HUMANITIES ROOM
Due Returned Due Returned
^^
APR 8 '63
M23'lf«l
|40'vl5*^
r.b i
B-4'65 ^
IL
. ^
vmi€»'65M|
^ ^
Mitm i
[E M23^si
RE :
j^M 9 1 Tn
f?'
f 1 ,
' l»»t
OfC ,:>7|
RU
Mkff i ft
7
n«n 1 u
' - .
tA^Il 1 s ^ :
•r^^.(^_9
262 00103 3157
KEEP CARD IN POCKET
Date Due
"^^^^^JRi^^E^ir ^ I RETURNED
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11