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FARM    ANIMALS 

COVERING  THE  GENERAL  FIELD 
OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY 


BY 
THOMAS  FORSYTH  HUNT 

Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  and  Director  of  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  of  the  University  of  California 

Formerly  Assistant  in  Agriculture,  University  of  Illinois ;  Professor  of  Agriculta;e 

and  Dean  of  College  of  Agriculture  and  Domestic  Science,  Ohio  State 

University  ;  P'ofessor  of  Agronomy,  New  York  State  College 

of  Agriculture  ;  and  Dean  and  Director  of  the  School 

of  Agriculture  and  Experiment  Station, 

Pennsylvania   State    College 


CHARLES  WILLIAM  BURKETT 

Editor  of  American  Agriculturist 

Formerly  Assistant  in  Agriculture,  Ohio  State  University;  Professor  of  Agriculture  and 
Agriculturist  of  Experiment  Station  in  the  New  Hampshire  State  College  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts  ;  Professor  of  Auriculture  and 
Agriculturist    of    the    Experiment   Station    in    the    North 
Carolina  College   of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic 
Arts ;  and  Director  of  the  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural Experiment   Station 


WITH  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  ANIMALS, 
METHODS  AND  PRACTICES 


ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

LONDON:     KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.,  Limited 

1914 


Copyright,  1914,  by 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 
London,  England 


Printed  in  U.  S.  A 


PREFACE 

In  preparing  "Farm  Animals,"  the  authors  have  sought 
to  treat  in  detail,  not  merely  the  subjects  of  breeds,  breed- 
ing, feeding,  sanitation,  medication  and  animal  products, 
but  to  cover  the  whole  field  of  animal  industry.  They 
have  followed  the  general  plan  as  developed  in  "Soils 
and  Crops,"  the  initial  and  companion  volume  of  this 
series.  By  means  of  the  two  books  a  full  teachable  course 
covering  soils,  crops  and  animals  is  now  available  for 
use  in  the  schools.  Each  of  these  books  is  complete  in 
itself  in  its  field.  No  collateral  reading  has  been  sug- 
gested for  pupils,  not  because  the  authors  wish  to  dis- 
courage such  independent  effort  on  the  part  of  the  pupil, 
but  because  they  believe  they  have  included  as  much  sub- 
ject matter  as  can  be  covered  wisely  in  16  weeks  by 
pupils  of  high  school  age. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  subject  matter,  the  attempt 
has  been  made  to  adapt  it  to  the  high  school  mind;  that  is, 
to  pupils  between  the  ages  of  14  and  18.  It  has  been 
assumed  that  this  book,  like  "Soils  and  Crops,"  will  oc- 
cupy 16  full  weeks  of  three  recitations  each,  and  that  two 
days  each  week  would  be  devoted  to  practicums,  or  one 
day  to  practicums  and  one  day  to  review  of  the  work 
of  the  previous  three  days.  The  practicums  selected  are 
all  possible  for  high  school  use.  The  method  of  con- 
ducting them  is  clearly  explained,  and  the  large  number 
provided  will  enable  the  teacher  to  select  such  as  are  best 
adapted  to  the  school  and  circumstances.  It  is  particu- 
larly desirable  that  considerable  time  be  used  for  scoring 
and  judging  work  in  order  that  the  student  may  be  made 
fully  acquainted  with  the  good  and  bad  points  of  each 
class  of  animals. 


W7        '^' 


VI  PREFACE 

Each  lesson  contains  a  note  to  the  teacher  and  15  para- 
graphs in  which  are  developed  the  ideas  or  set  of  ideas 
discussed  in  the  lesson  text.  The  authors  have  endeav- 
ored to  lead  the  pupil  from  the  simple  and  knov^n  to  the 
unknov^n  and  complex.  The  purpose  is  to  have  the  con- 
clusions follow  logicall}^  from  the  statements  made.  This 
is  the  laboratory  method  applied  to  recitations.  De- 
veloped in  this  manner,  it  does  not  become  a  question  as 
to  what  place  in  the  curriculum  the  book  shall  occupy, 
but  rather  if  it  is  adapted  to  the  age  of  the  pupil  and  to 
the  use  of  the  teacher,  that  an  inspiring  and  hence  a  suc- 
cessful recitation  or  practicum  may  be  conducted.  The 
authors  believe  that  both  ''Soils  and  Crops"  and  ''Farm 
Animals"  are  admirable  text  books  covering  the  general 
field  of  agriculture  in  all  high,  agricultural,  normal  and 
other  schools  in  which  agriculture  is  taught.  In  many 
district  schools  there  are  boys  and  girls  between  the  ages 
of  14  and  18  who  spend  four  or  five  months  each  year 
studying  arithmetic,  grammar,  history,  physiology  and 
descriptive  geography.  It  is  believed  that  these  students 
may  wisely  recite  less  on  these  subjects,  using  the  time 
for  "Soils  and  Crops"  and  for  "Farm  Animals." 

Acknowledgments. — The  greater  part  of  the  drawings 
used  to  illustrate  the  text  have  been  made  by  Mr.  B.  F. 
Williamson,  artist  of  Orange  Judd  Company,  from  orig- 
inal subjects  and  suggestions,  or  from  other  sources  that 
expressed  the  ideas  to  be  brought  out.  A  great  many 
photographs  and  drawings  were  furnished  by  the  pub- 
lishers. The  authors  acknowledge  their  thanks  to  the 
publishers  and  to  the  many  individuals  who  have  as- 
sisted in  supplying  illustrations,  and  their  indebtedness 
to  other  various  sources  from  which  they  were  procured. 
Individual  credit,  on  account  of  the  large  number,  has 
not  l)een  attempted. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


LESSON  ONE 
Sorting   of   Animals 1 

LESSON  TWO 
Animals  Made  Useful 11 

LESSON  THREE 
Relation  of  Animals  to  Man 22 

LESSON  FOUR 
Plants   and   Animals 35 

LESSON  FIVE 
Food  Nutrients 43 

LESSON  SIX 
Some  Scientific  Terms  in  Feeding 52 

LESSON  SEVEN 
How  Food  Is  Digested 66 

LESSON  EIGHT 
Computation  of  Rations  74 

LESSON  NINE 
Getting  the   A^ost   from   Feeds 85 

LESSON  TEN 
Draft  and  Speed    S6 

LESSON  ELEVEN 
How  Do  Horses  Move? 105 

LESSON  TWELVE 
What  Shape  Should  a  Horse  Be? 115 

LESSON  THIRTEEN 
Breeds  of  Horses  __ 128 

LESSON  FOURTEEN 
Feeding  Farm   Horses ■ 139 

LESSON  FIFTEEN 
The  Ass  and  the  Mule 148 

LESSON  SIXTEEN 
The  Ox  and  the  Cow 159 

vii 


Mil  TABLE    OF    CONTEXTS 

Page 

LESSON  SEVENTEEN 
Dairy    Cattle   169 

LESSON  EIGHTEEN 
Beef    Cattle    181 

LESSON  NINETEEN 
Concerning  Cattle   193 

LESSON  TWENTY 
Feeding  Dairy  Cattle 203 

LESSON  TWENTY-ONE 
Feeding    Beef    Cattle    212 

LESSON  TWENTY-TWO 
Wool  and  Mutton 225 

LESSON  TWENTY-THREE 
Races  of   Sheep 235 

LESSON  TWENTY-FOUR 
Feeding   Sheep   246 

LESSON  TWENTY-FIVE 
The  Pig  and  His  Products 260 

LESSON  TWENTY-SIX 
From  Wild  Hog  to  L^seful  Breeds 271 

LESSON  TWENTY-SEVEN 
Feeding  Hogs 282 

LESSON  TWENTY-EIGHT 
Goats    296 

LESSON  TWENTY-NINE 
Bees   306 

LESSON  THIRTY 
Fish   for  the  Farm 316 

LESSON  THIRTY-ONE 
Eggs   and  the   Hen 328 

LESSON  THIRTY-TWO 
Incubation  and  Brooding  340 

LESSON  THIRTY-THREE 
Breeds  of  the   Domestic  Fowl 351 

LESSON  THIRTY-FOUR 
Flock  Management  for  Eggs  and  Meat 365 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  IX 

Page 

LESSON  THIRTY-FIVE 
Ducks   and  Geese    377 

LESSON  THIRTY-SIX 
Turkeys    and    Guineas 389 

LESSON  THIRTY-SEVEN 
Secretion  of  Milk 400 

LESSON  THIRTY-EIGHT 
Milk   400 

LESSON  THIRTY-NINE 
Milk    Products    418 

LESSON  FORTY 
Dairy  Farming 429 

LESSON  FORTY-ONE 
Facing  Disease  on  the  Farm 439 

LESSON  FORTY-TWO 
Meaning  of  Disease 448 

LESSON  FORTY-THREE 
Wounds  and  Their  Treatment 459 

LESSON  FORTY-FOUR 
Important  Infectious  Diseases  466 

LESSON  FORTY-FIVE 
Common  Ailments   Not  Infectious 477 

LESSON  FORTY-SIX 
Keeping  Animals  Healthy 487 

LESSON  FORTY-SEVEN 
Farm  Butchering 499 

LESSON  FORTY-EIGHT 
Marketing  Live  Stock  and  Products 508 


LESSOX  OXE 
SORTING  OF  ANIMALS 

1.  Locomotion. 

2.  Amoeba. 

3.  Sponges. 

4.  Hydra. 

5.  Corals  and  jellyfish. 

6.  Worms. 

7.  Arthropoda. 

8.  Mollusca. 

9.  Starfish  and  sea  urchin. 

10.  Backbone  animals. 

11.  Fishes. 

12.  Toads  and  frogs. 

13.  Reptiles. 

14.  Birds. 

15.  Mammals. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — In  this  lesson  are  indicated  the 
steps  in  development  from  the  amoeba,  the  lowest,  to  mam- 
mals, the  highest,  forms  of  animal  life.  Show  in  a  general 
way  how  one  form  differs  from  the  others  immediately 
above  or  below  it.  The  lesson  starts  with  locomotion,  a 
power  possessed  by  animals  but  not  by  plants  or  only  by 
those  of  the  lowest  orders.  The  first  and  earliest  forms  of 
life  were  one  celled;  then  came  two-layered  animals  :  then 
three  layered,  with  a  body  cavity  where  traces  of  the  an- 
cestry of  the  backbone  groups  are  found.  Now  come  the 
fishes,  with  their  gills ;  now  the  amphibia,  with  gills  lost 
in  the  adults.  From  here  we  reach  the  reptiles,  cold 
blooded,  with  true  lungs ;  and  then  the  birds,  with  their 
feathers ;  and  finally  the  mammals,  with  their  hair  or  fur. 


LESSON  ONE 


SORTING  OF  ANIMALS 


1.  Locomotion. — Every  living  animal  eats,  breathes, 
moves,  feels,  and  reproduces  its  kind.  The  bodies  of  farm 
animals  are  complexively  formed  and  because  of  this  are 
able  to  do  various  kinds  of  work.  In  a  modified  way  plants 
also  eat,  breathe,  feel  and  reproduce,  but  they  are  unable 
to  move  about.  Locomotion  is  denied  them.  Their  roots 
hold  them  fast  and  what  growth  an  individual  makes  comes 
from  the  immediate  vicinity  in  which  the  roots  are  attached 
for  food  and  sustenance.  Animals,  on  the  other  hand,  can 
and  do  move  from  place  to  place.  This  advantage  is  of 
much  consequence  in  the  development  of  the  individual  and 
species. 

2.  Amoeba. — Water  is  the  principal  home  of  the  simplest 

animals.  It  is  an  ideal  place,  as  it  is  easier  to  swim  than  to 

walk.     Locomotion  starts  here.     You  may  not  think  much 

about  the  tiny  animals  of  the  streams,  ponds  and  seas  which 

cannot  be  seen  with  the  eye,  but  they  exist  nevertheless. 

Some  of  these  prefer  fresh  water;  some  like  best  the  brine 

of  the  ocean ;  others  seek  the  moist  sand  of  the  quiet  places, 

and  still  others  attach  themselves  to  the  bodies  of  certain 

animals  and  from  them  suck  their  food. 

These  simplest  animals  are  of  one  cell  only.     The  amceba,  for  in- 
stance, eats  and  yet  has  no  stomach ;  it  moves  and  has  no  legs ;  it 

feels  and  has  no  nerves. 
Indeed,  in  respect  to  life  as 
an  animal,  it  does  every- 
thing that  a  horse  does.  In 
performing  its  life  func- 
tions it  can  take  on  any 
shape.  It  is  a  cell  but  \vith- 
out  fixed  outline.  If  it  is 
How  AN   Amoeba   Eats  hungry  it  moves  up   to   an- 


SORTING   OF    ANIMALS 


One  of  the  Sim 
PLEST  Sponges 


Other  microscopic  plant  or  animal  and  gradually  incloses  it. 
Thus  it  is  all  mouth  and  all  stomach.  It  keeps  growing  until  it 
reaches  a  certain  limit  of  size,  when  it  subdivides  and  becomes  two 
individuals,  each  one  of  which  is  exactly  one-half  the  size  of  the 
original.  The  two  are  now  the  offspring,  the  parent  having  disap- 
peared into  its  progeny. 

3.  Sponges. — As  we  ascend  the  scale  of 
simplest  animals  we  come  to  where  there 
is  a  community  of  cells.  Animals  con- 
sist of  either  one  cell  or  of  many 
cells.  Sponges  are  an  example  of  the 
latter.  In  their  young  state  they  swim 
about,  but  soon  attach  themselves  to  some 
solid  substance  on  the  bottom  of  the 
sea  where  they  grow  and  develop.  Each  ani- 
mal is  practically  a  stomach  in  form,  yet  each 
cell  gathers  its  own  food  and  assimilates  it, 
and  each  obtains  the  necessary  fresh  aii 
from  the  water  circulating  about  it.  The  sponges  of  com- 
merce are  gathered  by  divers,  who  pull  them  up  from  the 
ocean  beds  by  means  of  mechanical  devices.  Once  re- 
moved from  the  water  they  soon  die,  only  the  soft  skele- 
ton remaining.  This  now  becomes  a  valuable  aid  in 
man's  work. 

4.  Hydra. — Higher  in  the  scale  of  cellu- 
lar complexity  comes  the  hydra,  in  which 
there  is  a  division  of  labor.  This  simple 
animal  has  sensitive  parts  correspondmg  to 
nerve  cells.  A  sticky  substance  is  secreted 
which  enables  the  animal  to  attach  itself 
to  stone  or  plant  for  temporary  habitation. 
From  tiny  projections  are  thrown  out  tiny 
threads,  which  paralyze  an  animal  that  it 
uses  for  food.  It  has  a  mouth  for  introduc- 
ing food  into  the  body;  and  this  food  is 


Fresh  Water 
Polyp 
a,  expanded  condi- 
tion: b,  contracted. 


FARM    ANIMALS 


acted  upon  l)y  a  digestive  fluid  that  prepares  it  for  ab- 
sorption. The  cavity  in  hydra,  in  which  digestion  goes 
on,  corresponds  to  the  cavity  inside  of  a  simple  sponge. 

5.  Corals  and  jellyfish. — The  structure  of  the  body  is 
still  more  complex  in  the  coral  and  jellyfish.  In  these  ani- 
mals cells  are  groii^ed  to  do  special  work.  Thus,  some  cells 
serve  as  muscles,  others  as  nerves,  others  digest  the  food, 
and  still  others  ^re  distinct  reproductive  cells.  The  sponges 
were  slightly  higher  in  form  than  the 
amoeba,  the  hydra  than  the  sponges, 
the  corals  and  jellyfish  than  the  hydra. 
And  while  there  is  still  greater  diver- 
sity, the  same  structural  and  physiologi- 
cal complexity  proceeds  on  up  the  scale 
through  all  the  higher  forms  of  animal 
life. 

6.  Worms. — There  are  many  aquatic 
worms  that  swim.  Most  worms  crawl. 
They  do  this  by  means  of  successive 
contractions  of  successive  parts  of  the 
muscular  wall  of  the  elongated  body. 
They  have  no  legs  such  as  caterpillars 
have.  The  common  earthworm,  the 
plowman,  is  one  of  the  higher  forms. 


Corals 
At     top,     red     coral; 
at    bottom,    mushroom 
coral. 


"The  earthworm  not  only  dwells  in  the  soil,  but  is  in  a  sense  the 
manufacturer  of  soil,  since  the  fertility  of  the  earth  depends  greatly 
upon  the  work  of  earthworms.  They  pass  the  soil  through  their 
bodies,  digesting  the  organic  particles  they  find  in  it,  and  thereby 
loosen  the  soil,  reduce  it  to  a  state  of  fine  division,  and  render  it 
more  fit  to  support  the  growth  of  plants." 

The  tapeworm  draws  nourishment  through  the  skin,  and  therefore 
has  no  need  of  an  alimentary  canal.  The  liver  fluke  is  flat.  The 
adult  form  infests  the  sheep's  liver.  There  it  lays  eggs,  which  after 
a  time  find  their  way  into  water.  Unless  a  certain  water  snail  takes 
them  up  they  die.  Housed  for  a  while  in  these  snails,  the  eggs  now 
hatch,  escape  and  finally  settle  on  plants.  If  eaten  by  sheep  the  route 
is  repeated.   Great  damage  is  done  the  sheep  industry  by  these  worms 


SORTING   OF    ANIMALS 


Liver  Fluke 


in  certain  parts  of  the  country.  An  example  of  thread  worms  is  the 
dreaded  trichinae,  which  infest  pork.  Leeches  also  belong  to  the 
worm  group.  In  ascending  the  scale  worms  are  the  first  great  group 
of  animal  life  in  which  true  land  animals  are  found. 

7.  Arthropoda. — The  Crustacea,  or  jointed  animals  of  the 
water,  breathe  by  gills.     The  insects,  or  jointed  animals  of 

the  land,  breathe  through  tubes  in  their  sides. 
Crabs  and  lobsters  belong  to  the  first  group, 
and  insects  and  spiders  to  the  second.  True 
spiders  have  eight  legs,  whereas  the  true  in- 
sects have  six.  Spiders  dispose  of  their  prey 
by  sucking  and  never  swallow  solid  food.  All 
spiders  have  poison  glands,  certain  varieties 
being  very  venomous.  Scorpions  and  centi- 
pedes belong  to  the  spider  division.  The  num- 
ber of  insects  is  enormous,  some  authorities 
placing  it  at  a  quarter  of  a  million.  Bees,  ants, 
beetles,  fleas,  locusts,  weevils,  and  the  various  kinds 
known  as  insect  pests,  all  belong  to  this  group. 

"We  owe  the  bright  colors  and  the  sweet  honey  of  flowers  to  the 
selection  exercised  by  insects ;  they  carry  the  pollen  of  flowers  from 
one  plant  to  its  neighboring  kindred,  thus  securing  cross- 
fertilization  for  the  advantage  of  the  plant,  and  thereby 
perpetuating  any  quality,  such  as  color  or  sweetness,  which 
has  originally  attracted  the  insect  to  the  flower.  While  a 
few  plants  only  are  fertilized  by  means  of  the  wind,  a  vast 
majority  depend  entirely  upon  insects  for  the  cross- fertiliza- 
tion which  is  so  necessary  for  the  production  of  healthy 
seeds.  If  the  earthworm  has  been  the  plowman,  the  insect 
has  been  the  more  intelligent  gardener,  who  has  filled  the 
world  with  bright  flowers.  The  insect  owes  its  food  to  the 
plant  world ;  the  plant  world  owes  health  and  beauty  to  the 
constant  ministration  of  the  insect." 

8.  Mollusca. — An  insect  is  covered  by  a  hard- 
ened skin.     In  the  mollusk,  or  shellfish,  a  cover- 
ing  is  secreted  which  lies  outside  the  skin.     Tust  as    "^^^^ 
our  skins  pass  perspiration  out  to  the  surface,  so  the  skin 
of  these  animals  passes  to  the  outside  certain  substances 
that  the  bodv  has  taken  in  from  the  sea  water.    As  these 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Snail  with  Shell 


accumulate  the  shell  is  formed.  Examples  of  this  group 
are  the  snails,  slugs,  mussels  and  scallops. 

9.  Starfish  and  sea  urchin. — These  beautiful  creatures 

have  prickles  on  their  horny 
skins.  Sea  urchins  are  some- 
times called  "sea  hedgehogs" 
because  armed  in  this  way. 
The  prickles  attain  their  maxi- 
mum in  the  sea  urchin,  but  they 
are  well  represented  in  the  star- 
fish. In  the  sea  cucumber,  also  a  representative  of  this 
group,  the  shelly  needles  are  greatly  reduced. 

10.  Backbone  animals. — Scientific  men  speak  of  ani- 
mals as  either  having  or  not  having  backbones.  Hence, 
animals  are  called  J\v'tcbrata  or  Invcrtcbrata.  Careful  study 
has  disclosed  the  fact  that  all  animals  are  related.  The 
higher  forms  are  linked  by  gradual  steps  back  to  lower 
forms.  There  is  no  aristocracy  in  creation.  Backbone  ani- 
mals from  the  standpoint  of  origin  have  come  up  out  of  the 
ranks  of  the  common  people  of  the  animal  world.  Xo 
longer  are  the  family  secrets  of 
the  higher  forms  to  be  kept 
hidden  in  the  locked  closets  of 
ignorance. 

The  creatures  that  connect  the 
backbone  animals  with  the  family- 
lines  without  a  backbone  are  known 
as  Ascidiaiis.  or  the  Clwrdata.  They 
possess  a  structure  called  the  Xoto- 
chord,  or  a  rod  down  the  back.  This 
rod  is  like  the  cord  that  precedes  the 
backbone  in  the  vertebrate  embryo. 
The  higher  forms  of  Ascidians  attach 
themselves  without  any  sensible  form 

of  support.  They  possess  all  the  organs  of  life  that  the  higher  water 
forms  possess.  Their  gills  are  highly  developed  and  contain  a  spe- 
cial cavity  or  chamber  into  which  the  sea  water  they  breathe  is 
passed. 


Starfish 


SORTING  OF   ANIMALS  7 

"The  Notochord  as  a  structure,  precedes  the  formation  of  the 
spinal  column  in  vertebrates.  The  spinal  column  of  vertebrates  is 
formed  to  protect  the  spinal  cord.  This  protection  is,  however,  an 
afterthought,  so  to  speak,  of  the  vertebrate  structure ;  the  lowest  of 
all  vertebrates  is  quite  without  it,  and  in  the  lower  groups  of  fishes 
we  may  trace  various  steps  of  its  formation.  But  in  these  cases 
where  the  spinal  column  is  absent  or  incomplete,  there  is  a  large  and 
well-developed  notochord ;  and  in  the  embryo  of  higher  vertebrates, 
when  the  spinal  column  has  not  yet  begun  to  be  formed,  the  noto- 
chord is  equally  a  conspicuous  feature.  It  runs  from  the  region 
known  as  the  midbrain,  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  lies  throughout 
just  beneath  the  spinal  cord.  Whatever  its  original  use  in  the  animal 
body  may  have  been,  it  undoubtedly  acts  now  as  a  support  to  the 
spinal  cord,  and  indeed  to  the  whole  body.  Bones  do  not  exist  either 
in  the  lower  vertebrate,  or  in  the  early  embryo.  In  the  latter  they 
are  formed  by  degrees.  The  spinal  cord  and  the  notochord  each 
begin  to  be  surrounded  by  rings  of  cartilage  or  gristle,  which  by 
degrees  is  changed  into  bone.  The  rings  surrounding  the  notochord, 
however,  gradually  encroach  upon  it  and  obliterate  it.  The  place 
where  it  has  been  becomes  the  centrum,  or  most  solid  part  of  each 
vertebra.  The  notochord  at  first  is  continuous,  and  has  no  division 
into  successive  parts ;  but  when  the  bony  spinal  column  is  developed, 
it  consists  of  a  series  of  successive  vertebrae.  Each  of  them  is  made 
up  of  several  parts,  which  by  degrees  become  consolidated  into  the 
vertebrae." 

11.  Fishes. — These  are  the  lowest  forms  of  backbone  ani- 
mals. All  fishes  have  gills  for  breathing,  both  the  lowest 
fish  order  and  the  true  fishes.     The  true  fishes  have  scales. 

limbs  and  teeth.  In  some,  such 
as  sharks,  rays  and  dogfishes, 
the  skeleton  is  gristle  and  does 
not  transform  into  bone.  In 
nearly  all  of  the  familiar  fishes 
the  skeleton  develops  into  bone. 
The  kinds  of  fishes  are  legion 

Head  of   Trout,   Showing  Gills       and    the    shapeS,    COlors,    habitS 

and  character  of  many  varieties. 

The  truth  about  the  matter  is  this :  All  the  higher  forms  of  ani- 
rnals  have  gills  for  a  time.  In  the  highest  vertebrates,  such  as  rep- 
tiles, birds  and  mammals,  the  gills  are  never  put  to  use.  They  exist 
in  the  early  stages  of  embryo  life,  but  afterwards  disappear,  other 
structures  taking  their  place. 

12.  Toads  and  frogs. — Between  the  fishes  and  the  reptiles 


8 


FARM    ANIMALS 


are  the  Amphibia,  a  class  of  animals  that  includes,  among 
others,  the  toads,  frogs  and  salamanders.   In  amphibia,  the 

body,  except  in  the  toads  and 
frogs,  is  fishlike,  though  limbs 
and  lungs  are  present.  Toads 
and  frogs  undergo  a  metamor- 
phosis ;  the  young,  called  tad- 
poles, breathing  by  external 
gills,  and  at  first  being  without 
legs.  They  are  adapted  both 
to  water  and  land  life.  Fishes, 
you  know,  are  water  dwellers, 
breathing  by  gills ;  while  rep- 
tiles, birds  and  mammals  are 
air  breathers,  never  possessing 
gills,  except  for  a  short  time 
during  the  embryo  stage. 

Toads  and  frogs,  even 
though  adapted  to  water,  are 
obliged  to  come  to  the  surface 
to  breathe. 

13.  Reptiles. — These  occupy 
the  place  between  the  amphib- 
ians and  the  birds.  They  are 
cold-blooded  and  breathe  by 
lungs.  They  include  serpents, 
lizards,  tortoises  and  croco- 
diles. With  the  exception  of 
tortoises,  the  reptiles  are  elon- 
gated in  form,  the  body  cylin- 
development  of  a  Toad  in  a      ^rical,     which     usually    termi- 

Single  deason  -^ 

nates  in  a  long  tail.     Limbs  are 
not  found  in  serpents  or  in  some  of  the  lizards.     In  other 


SORTING   OF    ANIMALS 


9 


lizards,  rudimentary  limbs  are  observed.       The  tortoises 
and  crocodiles  have  limbs  fully  developed.     A  peculiarity 

of  reptiles  is  the  shedding  of  the 
teeth ;  but  new  ones  form  as  fast 
as  the  old  ones  drop  out. 

Crocodile  The     reptiles     are     enormous     and 

swallow  their  pre}'^  whole.  Serpents, 
as  a  general  rule,  affect  moist  places 
in  the  neighborhood  of  water,  although  some  are  inhabitants  of  dry 
sandy  deserts.  Lizards,  for  the  most  part,  live  in  sandy  portions  of 
hot  and  tropical  regions.  They  either  burrow  in  the  ground  or  live 
in  holes  of  trees  or  walls.  The  largest  kinds  of  reptiles  are  found 
in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  globe. 

14.  Birds. — The  step  between  reptiles  and  birds  is  not 
as  great  as  it  may  seem.  The  earliest  forms  of  birds  had 
teeth  in  their  jaws  and  possessed  jointed 
tails.  The  reptiles  of  early  times  were 
able  to  fly.  Some  birds  have  claws  on 
their  wings,  and  these  suggest  another 
purpose  than  for  use  in  flying.  Birds  are 
warm  blooded,  more  so  than  any  other 
of  the  vertebrates.  All  the  other  ani- 
mals below  them  are  cold  blooded.  Rep- 
tiles are  considered  ugly ;  but  birds,  as  a 
rule,   are   noted   for  beauty   and  adorn- 


Oldest  Known  Bird 
This  ancient  bird 
lived  ages  and  ages 
ago.  It  had  teeth  and  a 
long  tail,  like  reptiles, 
instead    of    the    horny 

ment.     Their  feathers  give  birds  a  dis-   J'^^jf  ^7^  Jii^^'roS 

birds.  This  bird, 
known  by  scientists  as 
Archaeopteryx,  was  a 
little  larger  than  a 
crow. 


tinction   that   applies   to   every   variety 
and  species. 

15.  Mammals. — Animals  that  suckle 
their  young  and  produce  them  at  birth  were  formerly 
considered  set  off  to  themselves.  No  connecting  link  had 
been  observed  between  them  and  animals  that  lay  eggs, 
such  as  birds  and  reptiles.  Yet  it  is  now  known  that 
the  lowest  form  of  mammals  does  lay  eggs.  This  is 
the  duck  mole,  that  lives  on  and  burrows  in  the  banks 


10 


FARM    ANIMALS 


of  rivers  in  Australia  and  Tasmania.  This  mammal 
lays  two  eggs  at  a  time.  The  eggs  have  a  yolk.  A  kindred 
form,  the  spiny  ant  eater,  hatches  its  eggs  in  a  temporary 

pocket  that  disappears  when 
the  young  grow  big  enough  to 
care  for  themselves.  The  step 
from  these  to  the  Marsupialia, 
the  characteristic  mammals  of 
southern  Asia,  the  opossum  of 
America,  and  the  kangaroo  of 
"  ~  Australia,    is    not    difficult    to 

Duck   Mole 
These    animals    live    on    worms    and    COVCr.         The      mOSt      distinctive 
vegetable   matter.  ,  ^  c  i       •       ,  i      • 

character  oi  mammals  is  their 
mode  of  development  and  of  nourishment  during  the 
earliest  period  of  life.  They  are  all  brought  into  the 
world  alive. 

The  lowest  mammals  are  more  closely  related  to  reptiles  than  to 
birds.     Reptiles  are  also  egg  layers. 

In  the  earlier  ages  man  must  have  attempted  to  use 
many  forms  of  animal  life.  The  number  of  species  that 
he  has  succeeded  in  domesticating  either  for  food,  cloth- 
ing or  labor  has,  indeed,  been  small.  Of  the  numerous 
types  described  in  this  lesson  man  depends  almost  exclu- 
sively upon  animals  with  backbones  and  has  domesti- 
cated in  the  true  sense  only  birds  and  mammals. 


LESSON  TWO 
ANIMALS  MADE  USEFUL 

1.  Domestic  animals. 

2.  Life  cycle. 

3.  Struggle  for  existence. 

4.  Crowd  of  animals. 

5.  Way  of  the  wild. 

6.  Natural  selection. 

7.  Artificial  selection. 

8.  Heredity. 

9.  Variation. 

10.  Atavism. 

11.  Crossing  peas. 

12.  Dominant  and  recessive  characters. 

13.  Pure-bred  races. 

14.  Scrub  stock. 

15.  Improving  the  herd. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — In  this  lesson  the  contrast  of 
living  between  the  wild  and  tamed  animals  is  indicated. 
Also  the  fundamental  principles  of  animal  improvement, 
both  of  the  breed  and  the  herd,  are  discussed.  An  ex- 
cellent opportunity  is  offered  here  for  assigned  readings 
and  essays  covering  the  important  steps  of  a  race  from 
the  time  of  capture  in  its  original  haunts  to  the  largest 
development  under  domestication.  Pupils  will  do  well  to 
get  this  chapter  in  one  lesson  without  outside  reading. 


LESSON  TWO 


ANIMALS  MADE  USEFUL 


1.  Domestic  animals. — Dogs,  cats,  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  goats,  the  ass  and  the  mule,  rabbits,  poultry,  pig- 
eons and  the  birds  of  the  aviary  for  centuries  have  been 
in  contact  with  man.  They  are  grouped  in  friendly  con- 
fidence around  his  dwelling. 
They  live  for  his  use  and  pleas- 
ure, and  are,  more  or  less,  under 
his  direct  supervision,  being  fed 
and  cared  for  by  him.  They 
have  played  an 
important  role 
in  the  civiliza- 
t  i  o  n  of  the 
human  race. 
Without  them 
— especially  the 
dog,  the  horse, 

the  cow  and  the  sheep — man's  develop- 
ment onward  and  upward  would  have 
been  slow  and  uncertain.  It  is  a  fact  that 
in  those  countries  in  which  the  problem 
of  domestication  did  not  enter  the  peo- 
ple ever  remained  near  to  barbarism. 

The  great  drawback  of  the  American 
Indian  was  his  lack  of  a  beast  of  burden 
for  certain  kinds  of  fatiguing  work. 

2.  Life  cycle. — The  higher  animals 
are   born   or   hatch    out   of   eggs;   they 

12 


Domesticated 
Their     ancestors     were 
dangerous. 


wild     and 


ANIMALS    MADE    USEFUL 


13 


grow  and  develop ;  and  then  die.  As  a  distinct  organism 
an  animal  begins  in  an  egg.  Birth,  growth,  development 
and  maturity  all  succeed  in  due  time  and  in  due  order. 
Death  inevitably  results,  either  accidentally  during  some 
stage  of  the  life  cycle,  or  in  the  end  when  maturity  is  com- 
plete. From  tgg  to  Q:gg  is  the  life  cycle.  The  three  in- 
evitable certainties  in  the  life  of  every  animal  are  birth, 
growth  and  death. 

3.  Struggle  for  existence. — Between  life  and  death 
there  is  a  constant  struggle  for  existence.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  the  wild 
forms.  Animals  require 
food  for  satisfying  hun- 
ger, drink  for  appeas- 
ing thirst  and  abiding 
places  for  rest  or  rear- 
ing the  young.  Their 
food  consists  of  plants 
or  of  other  animals  that 


L^<4^^ 


Return  of  the  Forager 

live  on  plants.    Without     in    the   wild,    life    is    a   continuous   struggle    for 
^  111  existence. 

plants   there    could   be 

no  plant-eating  animals ;  and,  without  these,  flesh-eating 

species  would  not  be  able  to  exist. 

This  struggle  for  existence  is  observed  in  two  ways:  In  the 
species,  as  between  the  sheep  of  the  fields,  the  stronger  securing  the 
best  and  richest  food,  the  weaker  being  crowded  to  the  rear  or  to 
scanty  pastures;  and  as  between  individuals  of  different  species,  as 
the  wolf  or  coyote  with  the  sheep,  or  the  hawk  or  fox  with  the 
poultry. 

Another  condition  in  this  struggle  is  to  meet  the  changes  of  the 
seasons.  Vast  numbers  of  wild  animals  die  in  winter  from  cold, 
or  starve  when  the  snows  cover  the  food,  or  die  of  thirst  when  the 
streams  disappear  in  summer.  Thus  the  number  of  animals  in  the 
wild  reaching  maturity  is  but  a  small  part  of  those  that  are  born. 

4.  Crowd  of  animals. — In  nature,  therefore,  a  continu- 
ous crowding  of  animal  life  affects  not  only  the  species 


14 


FARM    ANIMALS 


but  the  individuals  of  the  species.  As  the  crowding  In- 
creases the  warfare,  becomes  more  intense,  and  this  re- 
mains until  the  natnral  balance  obtains  again.  If  the 
seasons  are  unusually  severe  or  the  enemies  gain  in 
strength,  some  certain  species  may  altogether  disappear. 
This  always  follows  if  the  death  rate  exceeds  the  birth 
rate.  Only  those  species  increase  that  are  favored  by 
strength  or  environment. 

"It  is  said  that  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America  there  were 
no  more  red  men  than  live  today.  The  severe  struggle  for  food  led 
to  war  and  disease,  which  in  turn  maintained  the  balance  between 
the  consuming  population   and  the  production  of  wild   animal  life 


Crowding  of  Animals  Leads  to  Warfare 

At  one  time  immense  numbers  of  American  bison  inhabited  the  vast  areas  of  the 
western  plains.     Why  have  these  animals   disappeared? 


available  for  human  food.  When  the  number  of  Indians  in  a  tribe 
increased,  luore  animals  were  slaughtered ;  to  meet  these  new  de- 
mands it  was  necessary  to  search  for  food  at  further  distances  and 
in  new  territory,  often  the  property  of  another  tribe.  War  usually 
followed,  and  in  the  thinning  of  the  ranks  of  both  contestants,  the 
slaughtering  of  game  was  lessened,  which  continued  until  the  sup- 
ply of  game  or  animal  life  was  equal  to  the  ability  of  plant  life  to 
support  it  or  until  the  increase  of  Indian  population  again  caused 
depletion  to  the  minimum  numbers." 


ANIMALS    MADE   USEFUL  15 

5.  Way  o£  the  wild. — Among  the  wild  there  is  little 
sympathy  or  sentiment.  The  call  of  food  to  meet  Na- 
ture's demands  is  always  uppermost.  Only  where  wild 
animals  have  been  subjugated  to  domestication  and 
raised  under  environments  of  a  settled  husbandry  have 
the  higher  ideals  of  civilization  prevailed.  The  ways  of 
the  wild  are  entirely  different  from  those  of  civilized  men. 
In  the  wild  every  other  species  is  an  enemy  and  every 
individual  of  the  same  species  a  rival  or  competitor. 
Hence,  life  is  one  long  battle  in  which  strength,  cunning, 
instinct  and  racial  characteristics  to  defend,  outwit  or 
escape,  are  weapons  of  victory. 

6.  Natural  selection. — Animals  swiftest  of  foot  most 
frequently  escape,  while  the  weak  or  sick  are  most  often 
devoured  by  the  attacking  ene- 
mies.   The  strong  and  swiftest  i^Hfe-^-;^^^^ 
satisfy  their   hunger  by  over-              r  jpy^T'" 
taking  the  slowest  of  the  spe-  ^^^'^         ^w 
cies  trying  to  escape  in  flight.        _        ^    ^^mJ  /^^ 
In  the  feed  lot  the  weakest  are  ^^^"^"^^pjr^^  ^«P~^--^- 
always  crowded   aside   by  the  /^r^^KL--    VlHk  "^ 
strong  and  vigorous.    The  wild       ^^^^m4^  ^^j^9^^ 
boar,  through  natural  selection,       '^"^^^^^J^^^^/'^^ 
becomes  more  fit  for  wild  boar              ^"-^.^^^^^v^^i^ 
life,  the  eagle  becomes  swifter              way  of  the  wild 

and  more  capable  of  killing  and    Eagles    endeavoring    to    capture    the 

infant  deer. 

tearing  his  prey,  and  the  wild 

horse  fleeter  when  the  dangerous  beasts  pursue  him. 
A  species  unable  to  adapt  itself  to  its  environment  is 
sooner  or  later  crowded  out  by  another  species  that  can 
do  so. 

The  primitive  hog  was  naturally  coarse  and  ferocious  and  easily- 
angered,  because  his  protection  lay  in  those  directions.  He  needed 
a  long  limb,  because  he  could  the  more  easily  escape  when  the  foe 


16 


FARM   ANIMALS 


was  stronger  than  himself.  The  longer  his  snout,  the  better  he 
could  dig  for  roots ;  and  worms  were  good  to  his  palate,  and  whole- 
some medicine.  If  his  hide  was  tough  and  thick,  he  could  better 
withstand  the  cold,  the  thorns,  or  the  enemy's  tooth ;  and  the 
stronger  his  tusk  the  better  able  he  was  to  win  the  tight. 

7.  Artificial  selection. — Either  purposely  or  uncon- 
sciously man  weeds  out  the  unfitted  and  reserves  for 
breeding  purposes  the  strong,  hardy,  vigorous  that  best 
perform  their  work.  He  chooses  the  ''best  milkers,"  and 
in  time  establishes  a  line  or  strain  that  produces  a  large 
quantity  of  milk.  His  horses  are  heavier  or  swifter  than 
their  wild  antecedents,  because  he  selected  them  for  work 
or  speed.     His  hogs   are  finer  in  fiber,   reach   maturity 


FOL'R  Leading  Breeds  of  Dogs 
Showing  how  artificial  selection  has  brought  about  extreme  types  in   form  and  use. 

more  quickly  and  possess  more  flesh  than  their  relatives 
of  the  woods,  because  by  man's  selection  the  more  desir- 
able qualities  were  sought  and  when  obtained  were  pre- 
served by  means  of  breeding  only  animals  having  such 
characteristics.  This  artificial  selection  has  become  a 
most  valuable  aid  in  fitting  every  class  of  domestic  ani- 
mal life  for  the  highest  and  best  service. 

8.  Heredity. — ''If  the  parentage  is  chosen  to  a  definite 
end,  the  process  of  heredity  will  develop  the  form  de- 
sired by  a  force  as  unchanging  as  that  by  which  a  stream 
turns  a  mill."    This  is  the  keynote  in  breeding  and  im- 


ANIMALS    MADE   USEFUL 


17 


proving  both  plants  and  animals.  The  law  of  heredity  is 
the  basis  of  breeding  success.  Its  structural  principle 
is  ''like  begets  like."  Heredity  holds,  keeps  and  guards 
the  values  of  the  best  fitted  animals. 

"I  would  not  miss  the  opportunity  to  drive  home  the  idea  that 
frequently  the  parent  can  only  be  sized  up  by  observing  the  off- 
spring. A  parent  frequently  transmits  qualities  it  does  itself  not 
seem  to  have,  at  least  not  to  be  observed." — Landacre. 


Just  Like  Peas  in  a  Pod 

Note  the  striking  resemblance  of  the  pigs  one  to  another  and  to  the  mother.     Here 
is  demonstrated  the  fundamental   law  of  heredity,  or  "like   begets  like." 


9.  Variation. — Opposed  to  heredity  is  the  law  of 
variation.  This  force  seeks  to  produce  new  things  ;  hered- 
ity preserves  uniformity.  Variation  is  the  law  of  change ; 
heredity  is  satisfied  with  what  exists.  Variation  goes 
out  to  explore,  to  seek  new  paths  and  new  fields.  An 
animal  breeder  builds  upon  present  heredity,  but  he 
courts  variation  and  urges  it  to  seek  new  findings.  If 
these  are  to  his  liking,  he  seizes  them  as  his  own,  attaches 


18  FARM    ANIMALS 

them  to  the  old  heredity,  and  builds  or  improves   the 
structure  to  higher  and  better  ends. 

The  breeder's  work  is  to  fix  the  new  acquisitions  and  to  make 
them  a  part  of  the  building  material ;  and  all  the  while  he  allows 
variation  free  range  that  it  may  gather  in  new  discoveries  for  fur- 
ther improvement  and  use.  When  found,  through  the  law  of  hered- 
ity, they  are  transmitted  to  the  betterment  of  the  class  or  breed. 
In  improving  a  herd  or  flock  it  is  part  of  the  breeder's  work  to 
decide  which  of  the  new  things  that  variation  has  found  shall  be 
held,  which  shall  be  cast  aside,  and  at  what  point  a  new  acquisition 
is  to  be  fixed  as  a  part  of  the  old  stock.  In  this  way  improvement 
is  secured  through  heredity,  variation  and  selection. 


Striking  Variation  in  Fowls 

These  breeds  have  been  evolved  from  a  single  ancestry.  A,  Houdan;  h,  English 
Game;  c.  Barred  Plymouth  Rock;  d.  White  Polish;  e,  Japanese  Bantam;  /,  Light 
Brahma;  g,  Aseel;  h,  Ceylon  jungle  fowl;     /,  White  Wyandotte. 

10.  Atavism. — Often  it  is  observed  that  there  is  a  re- 
appearance of  peculiarities  or  traits  after  a  lapse  of  one 
or  more  generations,  either  in  the  lower  animals  or  in 
man.  This  phenomenon  is  known  as  atavism,  or  "breed- 
ing back."  It  is  simply  a  reoccurrence  to  the  surface  of 
some  old  trait  that  had  supposedly  become  eliminated. 

11.  Crossing  peas. — Gregor  Johann  Mendel,  an  Aus- 
trian monk,  conducted  many  experiments  with  peas.  In 
crossing  dififerent  varieties,  and  subsequently  planting 
their  offspring,  he  observed  the  inheritance  of  contrasting 
characters  in  the  hybrids  or  crosses.  He  made  crosses 
(hybrids  he  called  them)  between  varieties  which  differed 
markedly  as  regards  a  pair  or  several  pairs  of  characters, 


ANIMALS    MADE   USEFUL  19 

i.  e.,  tall  or  short,  with  rounded  seeds  or  wrinkled,  with 
yellow  cotyledons  or  green  cotyledons. 

Varieties  differing  in  stature  were  used:  One  a  giant  of  6  to  7 
feet  high,  the  other  a  dwarf  9  inches  to  18  inches  high.  "These  were 
crossed,  and  the  resulting  seeds  grew  into  plants  which  were  all 
tall.  The  character  of  tallness  which  appeared  in  this  cross-bred 
generation  to  the  exclusion  of  dwarfness  was  called  by  Mendel  the 
dominant  character,  the  other  recessive.  The  tall  cross-bred  peas  were 
left  to  self-fertilize,  and  in  their  progeny  there  were  tails  and 
dwarfs,  in  the  average  proportions  of  3  :1.  When  the  dwarfs  of  this 
generation  were  allowed  to  self-fertilize,  their  offspring  were  all 
dwarfs,  and  further  generations  bred  from  them  were  also  dwarfs. 
In  other  words,  one-fourth  of  the  generation  were  quite  pure  as  re 
gards  dwarfness,  and  these  were  called  pure  recessives.  But  when 
the  tails  of  the  second  generation  were  left  to  self-fertilize,  their 
offspring  were  of  two  kinds :  (a)  plants  which  produced  tails  and 
dwarfs  in  the  3:1  proportion,  and  (b)  similar  plants  which  pro- 
duced tails  only,  being  pure  as  regards  tallness.  These  "impure 
dominants"  and  "pure  dominants"  occur  in  the  ratio  of  2  to  1.  Thus 
the  second  generation,  resulting  from  the  self-fertilization  of  the 
cross-bred  forms  or  hybrids,  consists  of  25  per  cent  pure  dominants, 
50  per  cent  impure  dominants,  and  25  per  cent  pure  recessives." 

12.  Dominant  and  recessive  characters. — Important 
conclusions  in  a  fundamental  way  have  been  reached  as 
the  result  of  what  is  now  known  as  Mendel's  law.  This 
law  applies  to  certain  kinds  of  hybridization.  A  hybrid, 
you  know,  is  the  resulting  offspring  when  two  plants  or 
two  animals  of  different  varieties  or  breeds  have  been 
mated  or  bred.  In  such  crossings  it  is  supposed  that  the 
generative  cells,  or  gametes,  produced  by  cross-breds  are 
of  two  kinds,  each  kind  bearing  only  one  of  two  con- 
trasted or  alternative  characters  which  do  not  blend. 
These  characters  are  known  as  dominant  and  recessive. 

"The  idea  may  be  better  understood  by  using  mice  as  an  illus- 
tration. When  what  are  called  waltzing  mice  are  crossed  with 
normal  mice,  in  the  hybrid  waltzing  is  recessive,  the  normal  is  dom- 
inant. When  the  members  of  this  generation  are  in-bred,  their 
progeny  consists  of  normal  mice  and  waltzing  mice  in  the  propor- 
tion 3  :1.  The  recessive  waltzers  of  this  generation  are  quite  pure 
as  regards  waltzing,  and  will  produce  only  waltzers  for  as  many 
generations  as  one  likes  to  breed  them.  But  the  dominants  of  the 
same  generation  turn  out  to  be  two  kinds   (though  they  appear  to 


20 


FARM   ANIMALS 


be  all  the  same  as  far  as  the  eye  can  tell)  one-third  of  them  (i^ure 
dominants)  when  inbred,  will  yield  the  normal  mice,  the  other  two- 
thirds  {impure  dominants)  will  split  up  again,  when  inbred,  into 
normal  mice  and  waltzing  mice  in  the  old  proportion  of  3:1.'" 

13.  Pure-bred  races. — Often  there  is  found  certain 
characteristics  that  distinguish  a  family  or  variety  from 
one  or  others  of  that  race.     These  distinctions  give  rise 

to  breeds,  into  which  all  of  our 
domestic  animals  have  been 
grouped.  Thus  the  Yorkshire 
hog  differs  from  a  hog  of  the 
Poland-China  in  color,  confor- 
mation, bone  and  in  other  traits. 
These  differences  of  breed  are 
possibly  due  to  climate,  food, 
habit  and  environment.  When 
a  breed  has  been  under  the  same 
environment  for  considerable 
time  and  has  not  been  crossed 
with  hogs  of  a  different  environ- 
ment or  breed,  the  race  becomes 
established,  and  individuals  are 
pure  bred.  If  a  record  is  kept  of 
the  ancestry,  it  is  known  as  its 
pedigree.  Pedigrees  are  re- 
corded by  breed  associations,  the  book  of  such  records 
being  called  a  herd  book. 

14.  Scrub  stock. — Farm  animals  of  no  known  breeding 
or  of  mongrel  and  degenerated  qualities  are  called  scrub 
stock.  As  a  rule  these  are  unsatisfactory  because  such 
individuals  are  not  profitable  as  are  those  of  selected 
strains.  Scrub  stock  is  fast  being  replaced  by  individuals 
of  pure  breeding  or  by  those  '*bred-up"  through  the  use 
of  pure-bred  sires. 


Of  the  Same  Ancestry 

Yorkshire  at  top,  Poland-China 
at  bottom.  Their  ancestry  traces 
back  to  the  wild  boar  of  the  woods. 


ANIMALS    MADE    USEFUL  21 

15.  Improving  the  herd. — It  has  become  a  proverb  that 
the  sire  is  half  the  herd.  The  sire  is  even  more  than  that. 
In  the  first  generation  he  is  half;  in  the  second  he  is 
three-fourths ;  in  the  third,  seven-eighths ;  in  the  fourth, 
fifteen-sixteenths,  and  so  on,  until,  if  judicious  selection 
be  maintained  and  only  pure-bred  sires  be  used,  the  char- 
acter of  the  herd  will  be  fixed  by  the  blood  introduced 
through  the  sires  alone.  Ultimately,  such  breeding,  if 
continued  for  several  generations,  will  transform  the  herd 
of  mixed  breeding  into  one  substantially  pure  bred. 


How  Breeding  Up  Improves  the  Stock 

The  larger  individual  at  the  left  is  the  result  in  the  first  generation  when  a  pure- 
bred Berkshire  and  razorback  were  crossed.  The  progeny  is  inferior  to  its  pure-bred 
dam  but  greatly  superior  to  its  scrub  sire,  pictured  at  the  right. 

This  plan  requires  the  selection  of  sires  belonging  to 
one  distinct  breed,  and  there  must  be  no  change  to  any 
other  breed.  This  kind  of  breeding  alWays  improves  the 
herd,  but  must  not  be  confounded  with  improvement  of 
the  breed.  To  improve  the  breed  or  race  is  a  difficult  task 
and  involves  great  expense,  a  long  period  of  time,  and  the 
careful  application  of  technical  details  and  much  scientific 
knowledge  to  the  breeding  operations. 


LESSON  THREE 
RELATION  OF  ANIMALS  TO  MAN 

1.  A\'hen  civilization  was  young. 

2.  Domestication. 

3.  Because  man  was  initiative. 

4.  A\^hat  domestication  requires. 

5.  Domestication  more  than  taming. 

6.  Animals  in  captivity. 

7.  Animals  as  a  prime  motor. 

8.  Animals  as  a  source  of  clothing. 

9.  Animals  as  a  source  of  food. 

10.  Animals  as  civilizing  agents. 

11.  Increase  in  animal  production. 

12.  Advantages  of  keeping  live  stock. 

13.  Disadvantages  of  keeping  live  stock. 

14.  Alan's  contract  with  animals. 

15.  Live  stock  industry  just  begun. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — Domestication  is  older  than  his- 
tory. It  is  older  even  than  human  civilization.  From  the 
earliest  times  animals  have  appeared  by  the  side  of  man, 
both  as  helpers  and  companions.  Develop  the  subject 
further  by  questions.  Aim  to  show  how  few  species  have 
been  conquered  but  how  immensely  important  these  are 
to  the  human  race.  It  is  very  desirable  also  to  teach  kind- 
ness to  these  faithful  workers.  Kindness  to  animals  not 
only  makes  their  lot  more  pleasant  but  helps  the  doer. 


22 


LESSON  THREE 


RELATION  OF  ANIMALS  TO  MAN 


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1.  When  civilization  was  young. — The  antecedents 
of  all  species  now  known  as  domestic  animals  were  once 
wild  and  roamed  over  plains  or  through  forests  in  search 
of  food,  water  and  shelter.  In  most  instances  they  lived 
in  droves,  flocks,  or  herds,  staying 
together,  more  or  less,  for  safety  and 
self-protection.  Man  was  as  much 
their  enemy  as  the  savage  beasts 
that  constantly  preyed  on  them. 
With  few  exceptions,  the  animals 
that  have  been  domesticated  belong 
to  grass-eating  species.  While  not 
ferociously  hostile,  they  neverthe- 
less fought  when  occasion  arose  and 
drove  other  classes  less  inclined  to 
fight  from  their  midst ;  and  in  case 
of  danger  or  surprise  they  fled  to- 
gether, or  fought  the  attacking  foe  wild  sheep 

until  one  or  the  other  was  vanquished     Known  also  as  Big  Horn  and 

.  Mountain  Sheep. 

or  forced  to  seek  safety  m  flight. 

2.  Domestication. — Man  has  brought  under  his  control 
several  species  of  birds  and  mammals.  In  taming  and 
subjecting  them  to  his  will,  in  fitting  them  to  his  needs, 
in  requiring  them  to  do  certain  kinds  of  work,  and  in 
other  ways  adapting  them  to  his  life  and  well  being,  a 
long  process  was  set  in  operation.  Both  plants  and  ani- 
mals have  been  domesticated.  In  the  realm  of  animal 
life  only  a  few  species  have  been  subdued  from  a  state 


24: 


FARM   ANIMALS 


of  nature  and  trained  for  domestic  use.  While  thousands 
of  species  have  been  captured,  only  a  limited  few  have 
really  been  domesticated.  In  the  entire  list  of  mammals 
nearly  12,000  kinds  have  been  recorded;  and  less  than  a 
score  have  proven  of  use  as  agricultural  animals.  Of  the 
birds  less  than  one  species  in  a  thousand  has  responded 
to  a  settled  life  with  man. 

3.  Because  man  was  initiative. — While  many  wild  spe- 
cies have  been  captured  and  tamed,  only  a  few  have  met 

all  the  requirements  of 
domestication.  Hence  the 
domestic  species  that  we 
know  are  the  results  of  fit- 
ness for  the  various  environ- 
ments in  which  man  has 
placed  them.  In  the  early 
days  man  himself  had  a  diffi- 
cult task  of  establishing  his 
own  race  and  interests.  Na- 
ture was  severe  on  him.  To 
cope  with  the  stern  realities 
that  tested  his  endurance 
and   that   tried   his   cunning 

Man's  initiative  led  him  to  devise  tools  j      i   -n     i-                   1.^.^.1-          'J 

and  implements  for  defense  and  assault,  and    SKlll,    tie    SOUght    the    aiQ 

By    means    of    these    he    gained    domin-  (■        mj  it     j.      i      i       i   •            A      J 

ion    over   the    beasts    of    the    fields    and  of  Wild  life  tO  help  him.    And 

'^°°'*^"  he  succeeded.      Brought  un- 

der control  these  served  as  draft  animals ;  they  provided 
clothing,  their  flesh  served  as  food,  and  their  comradeship 
made  for  civilization.  Hence,  back  of  domestication  is 
service  to  the  human  race. 

4.  What  domestication  requires. — Unless  the  animals 
brought  under  subjugation  are  able  to  survive  when  put 
to  their  new  work,  little  if  any  advance  is  possible.  Other- 
wise the  process  would  be  a  game  of  continual  capture 


Cave  Man  and  Bear 


RELATION    OF   ANIMALS  TO   MAN 


25 


and  taming,  requiring  more  effort  than  the  good  in  the 
end  would  justify.  To  meet  the  requirements  of  domesti- 
cation animals  must  breed  in  captivity,  thrive  under  the 
artificial  conditions  imposed,  and  be  of  service  to  man. 

5.  Domestication  more  than  taming. — Domestication 
means  more  than  merely  to  capture  and  tame.  The  off- 
spring must  show  fitness  for  a  domestic  life.  They  must 
have  mental  capacity  for  education;  plasticity  of  blood 
and  physical  nature  to  change  from  the  old  environment 
to  the  new;  and  power  to  acquire  new  habits,  develop 
new  characters,  assume  new  shapes,  and  serve  the  uses 
and  purposes  of  their  captors.  Every  domestic  animal,  if 
completely  domesticated,  is  an  artificial  production.  It  has 
lost  its  old  ability  to  care  for  itself.  Under  its  new  en- 
vironment it  depends  on  man  for  its  parents,  food,  shelter, 
protection  and  care. 

6.  Animals  in  captivity. — Thousands  of  species  have 
been  captured  and  kept  in  captivity.  But  few  of  them 
give  forth  offspring;  and  if  offspring  result  they  are  as 
intractable  and  unresponsive  in  their  new  environment 
as  the  parental  stock.  Elephants,  for  instance,  are  not 
difificult  to  bring  under  the  will  of  man,  but  they  seldom 
breed  in  captivity.  The  problem  with  the  elephant  is 
one  of  capturing  and  taming,  not  of  domesticating.    Of  all 


Flair  of  the  Dog 


The  marvelous  faculty  of  being  able  to  locate  game   by  scent  has  been  acquired  by 
certam  dogs  through  long  years  of  breeding,  selection  and  training. 


26 


FARM    ANIMALS 


the  cat  kind  of  animals, 
the  domestic  cat  only 
has  been  plastic  enough 
to  meet  the  severe  de- 
mands of  man's  civiliza- 
tion. Yet  enormous 
numbers  of  closely  al- 
lied species  have  been 
tamed  and  have  pro- 
duced young,  but  have 
never  become  domestic. 
Back  of  this  universal 
law  is  the  fact  that  few 
species  are  domesticable. 
7.  Animals  as  a  prime 
motor. — \\'orking  alone 
and  unaided,  man  would 
have  a  sorry  existence. 
His  tasks  would  be  too 
great  and  severe  for  his 
frail  body  and  erect 
structure.  When  he 
trained  animals  to  carry 
his  burdens  and  do  his 
heavy  work  he  not  only 
conserved  his  own 
strength,  but  increased 
his  productive  power. 
This  gave  an  added  in- 
centive to  advance ;  he 
saved  time,  enabling 
him  to  think  and  plan, 
and  allowed  him  to  gain 
in   substance   for   protection   and   future   needs. 


Wolves  in  Captivity 


These    animals    are   trained    but   not    domesti- 
cated. 


RELATION    OF  ANIMALS   TO    MAN  27 


One  reason  why  the  early  people  of  America  failed  to  develop 
as  did  those  in  the  Old  World  was  because  there  were  no  domestic 
animals  of  any  consequence  on  the  American  continent.  True,  they 
had  the  dog,  but  this  animal  was  of  little  use  in  subjugating  the 
forces  of  nature  like  the  horse  and  ox  were  for  the  people  of  Asia, 
Africa  and  Europe. 

Not  only  have  animals  furnished  motive  power  directly,  but  they 
have  served  to  furnish  this  power  in  other  forms.  The  application 
of  oil,  gas  and  coal  to  mechanical  devices,  wheeled  vehicles  and  man- 
made  motors  has  come  about  largely  from  the  ability  of  domestic 
animals  to  do  certain  difficult  tasks  that  man  unaided  by  them  would 


Tedding  Hay  in  Switzerland 

Efficiency  of  labor  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  progress  and  pros- 
perity of  North  America. 

have  found  impossible  of  accomplishment,  even  though  his  mental 
insight  would  have  indicated  a  way.  Civilization  and  human  de- 
velopment are  most  due  to  the  animals  that  have  carried  burdens 
and  moved  things. 

8.  Animals  as  a  source  of  clothing. — Animals  have  en- 
abled man  to  conquer  nature,  not  only  by  adding  their 
force  to  his  relatively  weak  body,  but  they  have  furnished 
him  clothing-  which  has  made  it  possible  to  extend  his 
habitat.  Skins  effectively  gave  him  warmth  and  protec- 
tion before  the  days  of  manufacture,  and  today  leather 
is  in  greater  use  than  ever  in  our  history.  Although  rela- 
tively less  extensively  used  than  formerly,  silk  and  wool, 
both  animal  products,  possess  qualities  found  in  no  other 


28  FARM    ANIMALS 

fiber.  And  cotton,  the  most  extensively  used  vegetable 
fiber,  is  possible  only  from  the  assistance  that  horses, 
mules  and  oxen  give  in  its  production. 

9.  Animals  as  a  source  of  food. — Much  the  larger  part 
of  the  vegetation  which  grows  in  the  earth's  surface  is 
unsuited  for  human  consumption.  But  converted  into 
milk,  butter,  cheese,  meat  and  animal  fats,  the  supply  of 
human  food  is  greatly  increased.  Not  only  is  there  more 
of  it,  but  the  quality  of  animal  flesh  and  other  products  is 


^^■B^K^^^^^Sbs^^^vF  ^"^^ 


Taking  a  Cartload  of  Sheep  Skins  to  Market 

This  photograph  was  taken  at  Cette,  France,  and  is  typical  of  the  custom  of  gather- 
ing animal  skins  in  all  parts  of  the  world  for  man  to  use  for  one  purpose  or  another. 

superior  to  an  exclusive  vegetable  diet.  Among  all  the 
food  products  of  man  none  are  more  efficient  or  refined 
than  meat  and  dairy  and  poultry  products.  The  human 
race  has  made  its  greatest  progress  in  regions  where 
animal  products  are  an  important  part  of  man's  regular 
dietary. 

The  domestication  of  animals  has  added  also  to  human  progress 
by  increasing  the  stability  of  the  food  supply.  Like  grain  eleva- 
tors in  primary  markets,  domestic  animals  are  storehouses  of  food 
to  be  called  on  when  soil  products  are  temporarily  liiuited,  and  al- 
lowed to  accumulate  gradually  when  these  products  are  plentiful. 
Where  meat  raising  is  a  part  of  the  activity  of  the  people,  famine 
seldom  occurs. 


RELATION    OF  ANIMALS   TO    MAN 


29 


[  10.  Animals  as  civilizing  agents. — Animals  serve  an- 
other purpose  besides  advancing  the  material  welfare  of 
the  human  race.  They  have  not  been  less  important  to 
our  spiritual  welfare.    Whether  kept  merely  as  pets  and 


Flesh  from  Grass 

Sheep  being  loaded  in  cars  for  shipment  to  market  centers.  They  have  converted 
a  very  large  amount  of  grass,  weeds  and  grain  into  substances  that  can  now  be  used 
for  human  food. 


companions,  or  for  the  production  of  work,  clothing  and 
food,  they  compel  habits  of  care  and  responsibility  and 
inculcate  habits  of  mercy.  These  habits,  together  with 
the  sympathetic  influences  involved,  in  all  ages  have  had 
and  still  continue  to  have,  an  elevating  and  civilizing 
influence  upon  the  human  race. 

"If  it  be  true,  as  my  personal  experiences  and  observations  lead 
me  firmly  to  believe  is  the  case,  that  man's  contact  with  the  domes- 
ticated animals  is  ever  to  be  one  of  the  most  effective  means 
whereby  his  sympathetic,  his  civilized  motives  may  be  broadened  and 
affirmed,  there  is  clearly  reason  for  giving  to  this  side  of  life  a 
larger  share  of  attention  than  it  has  received." — Shaler. 


30 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Free  Education 


As    much   so   to   the   boy   as   to   the   dogs, 
learn  by  doing. 


We 


11.  Increase  in  animal  production. — In  recent  years 
farm  animals  have  not  increased  in  numbers  as  rapidly 
as  have  the  inhabitancs,  but  the  value  of  animals  has  in- 
creased much  more  rapidly.  Much  of  this  is  due  to  in- 
crease in  the  individual  merit  of  the  animals. 

In  1850  the  average 
weight  of  wool  was  2.4 
pounds  per  sheep ;  in  1910 
it  was  6.9  pounds.  Thus, 
while  in  50  years  sheep 
have  not  doubled  in  num- 
bers, the  production  of 
wool  has  increased  more 
than  five  times.  This  is  a 
striking  example  of  the 
value  of  improvement  in 
breeding,  because  the  im- 
provement in  wool  produc- 
tion is  due  to  the  influence 
of  heredity  in  far  greater 
degree  than  to  the  effect  of 
improved    feeding. 

Beef  cattle  offer  another 
illustration  of  the  way  in  which  animal  products  have  been  in- 
creased without  increasing  the  number  of  animals.  Formerly  beef 
cattle  were  matured  in  their  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  year.  They  are 
now  placed  in  the  market  in  their  second  and  third  year.  The  in- 
crease in  the  size  of  horses  and  the  increased  production  of  butter 
fat  per  cow  which  have  occurred  in  the  past  century  are  hardly  less 
important  factors  in  increasing  the  value  of  domestic  animals  and 
their  products. 

12.  Advantages  of  keeping  live  stock. — The  most  strik- 
ing advantages  afifecting  the  farmer  are:  (i)  Animals 
make  it  possible  to  use  land  that  would  be  w^holly  or 
partly  unproductive.  (2)  They  make  use  of  farm  crops 
which  would  be  entirely  or  partially  wasted ;  straw,  corn 
stalks,  the  various  hays  would  not  have  sufftcient  value  to 
pay  for  raising  if  animals  were  not  kept  to  convert  them 
into  useful  products.  (3)  In  thus  acting  as  machines  in 
manufacturing  raw  materials  into  those  which  are  much 
more    concentrated,  thus    making    their    transportation 


RELATION    OF   ANIMALS   TO    MAN 


31 


economically  possible.  (4)  In  the  production  of  these 
finer  products  much  of  the  essential  materials  of  plant 
growth  are  left  on  the  farm ;  this  means  land  improve- 
ment. (5)  The  rearing  of  live  stock  makes  it  possible 
to  arrange  a  better  rotation  of  crops ;  and  this  practice 
helps  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.     (6)   Labor  is 


Adapting  Power  to  Work  Requirements 

European  countries  have  learned  to  adapt  their  power  to  the  kind  of  work  to  be 
performed.  They  do  not  use  a  ten-horsepower  boiler  and  engine  to  perform  the 
work  which  can  be  done  by  a  half  horsepower. 

better  utilized  also,  thus  securing  greater  prosperity  to 
the  community  and  a  higher  skill  of  those  operating  the 
farms. 

13.  Disadvantages  of  keeping  live  stock. — More  capital 
is  required  to  operate  a  given  area  of  land  where  animals 
are  kept  than  on  exclusive  grain  or  other  crop  farms. 
This  investment  is  in  animals,  buildings,  feed  and  labor. 
The  perishable  nature  entails  also  a  great  risk  in  the  in- 
vestment. Not  only  the  products  of  a  single  year,  but 
the  growth  of  a  number  of  years,  may  be  suddenly  swept 
away  by  disease.    Then,  when  an  animal  has  been  prop- 


32  FARM   ANIMALS 

erly  fattened,  he  must  be  sold.  If  held  for  any  length  of 
time,  not  only  is  there  a  constant  outlay  for  food  to  main- 
tain the  animal,  but  the  condition  of  the  animal  may  actu- 
ally deteriorate. 

Marketable  animals  cannot  be  held  for  better  markets  like  grain 
or  merchandise.  A  rise  in  price  of  feeding  stuffs  often  seriously 
affects  the  profit  of  animals  that  are  being  fitted  for  the  market.  It 
requires  continual  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  stockman  to  meet 
these  several  disadvantages  as  they  arise. 

14-  Man's  contract  with  animals. — Since  some  animals 
have  responded  to  domestication,  a  sort  of  contract  is 
implied  in  their  consent.  In  return  for  the  services  they 
render  to  mankind  they  are  entitled  to  protection  from 
cold,  heat,  storms  and  annoying  enemies ;  to  suitable  food 
for  their  nourishment ;  to  sanitary  quarters  for  their 
health  and  comfort ;  and  to  humane  treatment  for  their 
physical  and  mental  happiness.  On  farms  where  these 
attentions  are  bestowed  the  best  service  is  rendered  the 
owner.  On  the  other  hand,  if  farm  animals  are  abused, 
poorly  nourished,  or  improperly  housed,  they  return  less 
wool,  less  milk,  less  pork,  less  beef  and  less  labor  than 
on  neighboring-  farms  where  these  fundamentals  are 
neither  neglected  nor  ignored. 

15.  Live  stock  industry  just  begun. — ]Much  as  domestic 
animals  have  done  for  us,  their  work  is  only  started.  For 
all  time  they  must  continue  to  furnish  the  human  race 
with  food,  clothing,  labor,  and  other  necessities.  Our  in- 
debtedness to  them  will  continue  rather  than  diminish. 
The  work  of  the  future  will  lie  in  the  direction  of  better 
care,  better  feed,  and  more  skillful  mating  of  breeding 
stock.  Thus  scrubs  and  mongrels  will  become  more  and 
more  unprofitable.  Substituted  for  such  will  come  effi- 
cient animals  of  quality  breeding,  each  class  or  breed 
adapted  to  its  peculiar  purpose  and  special  service,  that 
the  cheapest  meat  or  milk  or  wool  may  be  secured. 


PRACTICUMS 

1.  Observation  of  Animals. —  (a)  Each  student  is  to  select  five 
kinds  of  wild  animals  w^ith  v^hich  he  is  partially  acquainted,  and, 
from  his  observation  and  experience,  enumerate  the  points  at  which 
they  touch  human  welfare.  Are  they,  in  each  instance,  to  be  classed 
as  helpful,  as  harmful,  or  merely  as  indifferent?  Is  their  influence 
upon  man's  interest  direct  or  indirect? 

The  student  will  also  select  five  animals  that  appeal  most  to  his 
interest.  What  quality,  considering  structure,  habits,  instinct  and 
powers,  is  of  most  interest?  As  you  study  any  one  quality  do  you 
not  find  that  it  takes  you  at  once  into  all  others?  Develop  these 
facts  into  a  story  or  composition  paper. 

(b)  Are  there  any  domesticated  animals  whose  species  is  repre- 
sented in  the  wild  state?  Compare  the  habits  and  general  structure 
of  some  domesticated  animal  with  that  of  the  nearest  kin  among 
wild  species.  How  many  kinds  of  domestic  animals  can  you  enumer- 
ate? Have  you  ever  seen  a  wild  boar  or  a  picture  of  him?  Is  it 
true  that  all  our  modern  breeds  have  come  from  this  ancestral 
stock?  Can  you  explain  how  such  great  changes  have  been  effected? 
What  effect  have  food,  care  and  use  on  a  race  or  breed? 

2.  Animal  Characteristics. —  (a)  What  farm  animals  have 
front  teeth  on  both  jaws?    One  jaw  only? 

(b)  In  what  respects  (enumerate)  and  to  what  degree  have  you 
ever  noticed  variation  in  farm  animals? 

(c)  Does  use  or  disuse  produce  changes  in  the  organs  of  an  in- 
dividual? In  what  way  has  speed  in  the  race  horse  and  the  milk- 
giving  function  in  cows  been  developed? 

{d)  Enumerate  some  facts  of  your  own  observation  which  illus- 
trate heredity.  Are  all  blackbirds  black?  Why?  Have  you  ever 
seen  a  white  blackbird?  Can  you  explain?  Compare  any  offspring 
with  its  parents  and  note  if  there  are  any  characters  peculiarly 
marked  in  one  of  the  parents. 

{e)  Do  animals  change  in  shades  of  color  with  the  seasons?  Is 
color  a  protection  in  nature  in  the  wild? 

3.  Insect  Collections. — To  collect  and  preserve  ordinary  insects 
the  amateur  needs  only  net.  killing  bottle,  phials  or  pill  boxes  (for 
living  specimens)  and  insect  pins.  For  butterflies  and  moths  he  will 
need  a  cork-lined  collecting  box  and  a  phial  of  chloroform  with  a 
little  brush  fitted  to  the  cork. 

(a)  The  best  net  has  a  12-inch  circle  of  No.  3  wire  fitted  firmly 
to  a  lig-ht  but  strong  wooden  handle  3^  or  4  feet  long.     This  loop  is 

33 


34  FARM    ANIMALS 

covered  first  with  a  strip  of  sheeting  5  or  6  inches  wide  to  form  a 
gathering  or  shirring.  To  this  strip  is  sewn  a  cheesecloth  bag  with 
a  rounded  bottom  not  less  than  2  nor  more  than  3  feet  deep.  Thus 
insects  may  be  prevented  from  escaping  by  turning  the  handle. 

(b)  For  the  killing  bottle  choose  a  straight  tube  bottle  1  or  1^2 
inches  across  or  a  big-mouthed  4  to  6-ounce  bottle.  In  the  bottom 
place  a  piece  of  cyanide  of  potassium  ■):+  inch  square,  barely  cover  with 
water,  and  immediately  add  enough  plaster  of  parts  to  soak  up  the 
water.  This  cements  the  cyanide  to  the  bottom.  Leave  the  bottle 
open  in  a  shady  place  to  dry  for  an  hour,  then  cork  it  tight  with  a 
long  cork  and  label  it  POISON.  No  child  should  be  allowed  to  do 
this  work  because  of  the  danger  of  handling  the  poison.  The  teacher 
or  a  druggist  should  do  it.  In  using  it  keep  the  cork  out  only  long 
enough  to  put  insects  in.  If  kept  closed  tightly  it  will  last  for  sev- 
eral months.    Insects  may  be  left  in  it  overnight  without  injury. 

Instead  of  cyanide,  a  few  drops  of  choloform,  sulphuric  ether  or 
benzine  on  cotton  may  be  used,  but  they  are  not  so  convenient  to 
handle. 

(c)  The  cork-lined  collecting  box  is  needed  for  insects  too  large 
or  too  delicate  to  put  in  the  killing  bottle.  Such  specimens  must  be 
carefully  caught  to  prevent  injury  and  touched  with  a  soft  paint 
brush  dipped  in  chloroform,  ether  or  benzine.  This  kills  them  in- 
stantly. Then  they  may  be  pinned  through  the  thorax  (the  middle 
section  of  the  body)  and  placed  in  the  box.  Some  collectors  pinch 
butterflies  while  the  wings  are  folded  above  the  back  and  then  place 
them  in  pieces  of  paper  folded  to  form  a  sort  of  three-cornered 
envelope.  This  is  not  so  good  a  plan  as  the  other,  because  there  is 
more  danger  of  breakage. 

Pill  boxes  and  phials  are  useful  for  holding  delicate  insects,  larvae 
and  pupae.  Soft-bodied  insects,  spiders,  etc.,  may  be  dropped  in 
alcohol. 

(d)  Insect  pins  are  long,  very  thin,  small  headed  and  sharp 
pointed.  They  are  much  better  for  mounting  insects  than  ordinary 
pins. 


LESSON  FOUR 
PLANTS   AND    ANIMALS 

1.  How  plants  grow. 

2.  Cells. 

3.  Formation  of  plant  compounds. 

4.  Starch. 

5.  Protein. 

6.  Fat  or  oil. 

7.  Ash  or  mineral  material. 

8.  Water. 

9.  Crude  fiber. 

10.  Groups  of  plant  constituents. 

11.  Plants  and  animals  compared. 

12.  Function  of  protein. 

13.  Heat  and  energy. 

14.  What  the  fat  does. 

15.  What  the  carbohydrates  do. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  relationship  of  soils,  plants 
and  animals  is  quite  well  illuminated  in  this  lesson.  The 
substances  composing  plants  and  animals  are  defined,  the 
sources  of  their  formation  pointed  out,  and  the  work  that 
each  performs  is  indicated,  so  that  a  clear  idea  may  be 
had  concerning  food  and  its  ultimate  end  when  admitted 
as  digested  nutrients  into  the  animal  machine.  This  les- 
son informs  us  how  this  living  machine  operates  and  per- 
forms its  important  work. 


LESSON  FOUR 
PLANTS    AND    ANIMALS 


1.  How  plants  grow. — Plants  secure  food  from  the  soil 
and  air.  An  animal  frame  comprises  the  essential  con- 
stituents of  plants,  with  sodium  and  chlorine  in  addition. 
Animals  cannot  subsist  directly  on  the  soil  and  air.  Their 
food  consists  of  plants  or  of  other  animals  that  subsist 
directly  or  indirectly  in  plants.  Plant  life  is  the  founda- 
tion of  growth  and  energy. 

The  soil,  the  plant,  and  the  animal  represent  the  three  great  fields 
of  agricultural  activity.  They  are  dependent  upon  one  another,  each 
giving  to  or  receiving  from  the  others  the  things  vital  to  its  very 
existence.  Without  a  soil  there  would  be,  of  course,  neither  plant 
nor  animal  life ;  without  plants  there  co  ild  be  no  animals ;  and 
without  plants  or  animals  there  would  be  a  useless  if  not  a  barren 
soil.  The  first  step  is  plant  growth,  whereby  the  elements  essential 
to  all  growth  are  organized  in  plant  cells,  compounds  and  tissues. 
On  this  plant  tissue  the  animal  feeds.  After  the  animal  dies,  with 
its  decay  and  decomposition,  come  the  changes  of  animal  tissue  back 
to  soil  and  air — back  to  the  original  materials  such  as  they  were  be- 
fore captured  by  roots  and  leaves  and  formed  into  plants.  It  is  in 
this  manner  that  the  plant  grows  out  of  soil  and  air,  the  animal  out 
of  plants  and  air,  and  the  soil  out  of  plants  and  animals.  The  animal 
when  living  contributes  active  supplies,  and  when  dead  both  humus 
and  mineral  ingredients  are  returned  to  the  soil ;  the  soil  thus  re- 
inforced favors  the  new  plants  now  growing  in  it;  and  the  new 
plants,  now  abundantly  nourished,  more  effec- 
tively take  care  of  the  animals.  From  the  plant 
is  fed  the  animal ;  from  the  animal  is  sustained 
the  soil ;  from  the  soil  is  nourished  the  plant. 

2.  Cells. — A  plant  or  animal  is 
formed  of  myriads  of  cells.  These  in- 
crease in  number  as  an  individual 
grows.  Simply  stated,  the  cell  is  an 
inclosed  sac  within  whose  walls  are  the 
juices  and  other  substances  required  for 
growth    and    development.      The    cell 

36 


How    Cells   Grow 

Growth  of  a  single  cell, 
ending  in  cell  division  or 
the  production  of  two 
individual   cells. 


PLANTS    AND    ANIMALS 


37 


walls  of  plants  consist  of  a  wood  substance  called  cellu- 
lose. In  green  and  growing  plants  this  cellulose  is  thin 
and  tender,  but  as  the  plant  matures  it  becomes  hard  and 
woody.  The  work  of  building  the  plant  is  done  within 
the  cells. 

3.  Formation  of  plant  compounds. — Certain  soluble 
compounds  are  carried  from  the  soil  into  plants  through 
the  roots  and  deposited  in  the  cells.  These  are  met  by 
carbon,  brought  into  the  plant  through  the  leaves.  These 
substances  supply  the  building  materials  for  the  manu- 
facture of  plant  compounds.  The  master  builder  is 
protoplasm,  tucked  away  in  the  cells.  No  one  knows 
just  what  protoplasm  is,  but  it  represents  life,  without 
which  there  could  be  no  growth.  Every  live,  active  cell 
contains  protoplasm,  the  life  principle.  Herein  is  con- 
tained the  vital  spark  that  makes  all  growth  possible. 

The  various  agricultural  elements  used  by  plants  or  animals  are : 

O.    Oxygen. 
H,   Hydrogen. 
N,   Nitrogen. 
C,    Carbon. 
CI,  Chlorine. 
Na,  Sodium. 
S,     Sulphur. 


P,     Phosphorus. 
K,     Potassium. 
Mg,  Magnesium. 
M,    Manganese. 
Fe,  Iron. 
Si,    Silicon. 
Ca,  Calcium. 

4.  Starch. — When  the  soluble 
soil  material  or  plant  food  has 
been  carried  up  through  the 
long  channel  of  cells  and  reaches 
the  leaves,  it  is  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  carbon  dioxide  that 
has  been  pulled  into  the  leaf 
through  the  little  mouths  on  the 
undersides  of  the  leaves.  Here  these  various  compounds 
are  upset  and  disintegrated  through  the  action  of  heat, 
sunlight,  protoplasm  and  chlorophyll,  with  the  result  that 


Starch  Cells 
This    is    the    way    the    starch 
cells     from     potato     tubers     look 
when  seen  under  the  microscope. 


38 


FARM    ANIMALS 


a  grain  of  starch  is  made  out  of  water  and  carbonic  acid 
gas.  Some  of  these  starch  grains  are  changed  into  sugar, 
which,  being  readily  soluble,  is  transferred  by  diffusion 
from  cell  to  cell  and  left  in  those  cells  that  need  it  most. 
5.  Protein. — The  formation  of  the  protein  constituents 
is  more  complex  than  that  of  starch.  In  a  general  way  it 
may  be  said  that  starch  or  a  starch  derivative  is  united 
in  the  cells  with  nitrates  and  sulphur  which  have  been 
brought  into  the  plant  from  the  soil.  The  living  matter, 
or  protoplasm,  then  breaks  up  the  nitrates  in  the  active 
cells,  uniting  them  in  some  way  with  starch,  with  the  re- 
sult that  a  protein  compound  is  formed. 

6.  Fat  or  oil.— Oil 
contains  the  same 
chemical  elements  as 
starch.  Both  starch  and 
oil  are  formed  of  car- 
bon, hydrogen  and  oxy- 
gen. In  the  oil  com- 
pounds there  is  a  larger 
number  of  the  carbon 
and  hydrogen  units  in 
proportion  to  the  oxy- 
gen than  in  the  case  of 
starch.  All  plants  con- 
tain oil  or  fat  in  their 
woody  tissue,  but  the  bulk  of  it  is  deposited  in  the  seed 
and  fruit.  Protein  differs  in  composition  from  oil  or 
starch  in  having  nitrogen  and  sulphur  in  addition  to  car- 
bon, hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

7.  Ash  or  mineral  materials. — When  plants  or  animals 
are  burned  a  portion  is  left  as  asJi.  This  consists  of  the 
mineral  materials  taken  into  the  plant  from  the  soil. 
A\^hen  food  is  eaten  by  man  or  beast  the  minerals  are  used 


pt.  or  lib  of  Milk 

5oz.  of  Froteid. 

Beef.   301. 

Protein   the  Same  in  All 

Here  is  shown  the  weight  of  food  required 
to  yield  the  equivalent  of  protein  in  one 
pound  of  milk. 


PLANTS   AND    ANIMALS 


39 


for  building  bone,  teeth  and  other  tissue  structures  of  the 
body.  In  most  feeding  stuffs  sodium  and  chlorine  are 
lacking,  but  the  deficiency  is  corrected  by  the  artificial 
supply  of  common  salt.  Poor  teeth  and  small  and  weak 
bones  result  when  live  stock  fail  to  get  euough  ash  or 
mineral  material  in  their  food.  A  variety  of  food,  includ- 
ing coarse  fodders  and  the  legumes,  makes  it  possible  to 
supply  the  mineral  matter  in  abundance. 


FEEDING  STUFF 

TOTAL  POUNDS  OF  WATER  IN  100  POUNDS  OF  SUBSTANCE 

5    10   15  20  25  30  35  40       50        60        70       80       90      100 

GREEN  CORN 

CORN  SILaGE 

CORN  STOVER.FIELD  CURED 

DENT  CORN 

PASTURE  GRASS 

RED  CLOVER 

RED  CLOVER  HAY 

TURNIP 

WHEAT,  GREEN 

WHEAT  STRAW 

WHEAT,  GRAIN  OF 

WHEAT   BRAN 

APPLES 

POTATOES 

SKIM  MILK 

^ 

^^^^^^^^ 

■■■■ 

~ 

Bum 

Growing  Plants  Contain  Much  Water 
Several  common  feeding  stuffs  are  here  compared  to  show  the  large  quantities  of 
water  they  contain.     Note  the   change   when   harvested    and   cured    as    dry    forage. 

8.  Water. — Often  three-fourths  or  more  of  the  weight 
of  young  growing  plants  is  water.  Do  you  wonder  now 
why  water  in  the  soil  is  so  important  for  the  production 
of  good  crops?  The  plant  not  only  must  have  water,  but 
the  only  way  it  can  make  use  of  it  is  to  carry  it  into  the 
plant  through  the  roots.  Water  serves  as  a  carrier  of 
plant  food  through  the  roots  to  every  part  of  the  plant. 
It  is  to  the  plant  what  blood  is  to  the  animal.  One  pur- 
pose of  the  water  is  to  dissolve  the  plant  food  of  the  soil, 
and  when  in  solution  to  carry  it  into  the  plant. 

More  than  half  of  the  entire  weight  of  the  animal  is  water.    It  is 


40  FARM    ANIMALS 

found  in  all  parts  of  the  body  and  is  as  essential  for  the  development 
of  solid  tissue  as  any  of  the  other  ingredients.  Young  and  grow- 
ing animals,  like  young  and  growing  plants,  contain  the  highest  per- 
centage of  water.  As  the  animal  matures  the  proportion  of  water 
diminishes  until  it  reaches  about  one-half  of  the  total  weight. 

9.  Crude  fiber  serves  as  a  framework  of  the  plant.  It 
is  to  the  plant  what  bones  and  skeleton  are  to  the  animal. 
It  is  made  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  These  ele- 
ments are  the  same  that  form  starch.  Immature  and 
young  plants  are  tender  because  the  crude  fiber  is  tender; 
as  the  plant  matures,  the  fiber  hardens  and  toughens — as 
found  in  hay  and  corn  stover  and  trees. 

10.  Groups  of  plant  constituents. — Plants    censist    of 

many  compounds.     AMiile  there  are  physical  differences, 

the  chemical  elements  are  invariably  united  in  definite 

combinations   producing   definite    compounds.      For   the 

sake  of  convenience  these  may  be  grouped  as  follows : 

I.    Ash. 
II.     Water- 
Ill.     Protein  or  compounds  containing  nitrogen. 
IV.     Nitrogen-free  compounds,*  or  compounds  containing  no  nitro- 
gen, such  as  starch,  crude  fiber,  sugar,  gums,  etc. 
V.     Ether  extract,  or  oil,  or  fat. 

11.  Plants  and  animals  compared. — From  the  stand- 
point of  composition  one  difference  between  a  plant  and 
an  animal  is  in  the  fact  that  the  former  contains  carbo- 
hydrates and  the  latter  does  not.  \\^hen  the  soil  ele- 
ments are  taken  into  the  plant  they  lose  their  individual 
identity,  and,  united  in  various  ways,  become  organized 
compounds.  They  are  no  longer  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  but  starch  or  sugar  or  oil ;  or,  if  nitrogen  and  sul- 
phur are  added,  they  become  protein  compounds.  The 
plant  has  now  fulfilled  its  destiny  and  is  ready  to  be  used 
as  food  for  the  support  of  animal  life. 


*These  being  derived  from  the  same  elements,  and  having  the  same  fuel  value 
when  assimilated  by  an  animal,  are  usually  termed  carbohydrates.  The  carbohydrates 
are  formed  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen;  the  last  in  proportion  to  form  water, 
hence  the  name. 


PLANTS   AND    ANIMALS 


41 


12.  Function  of  protein. — The  protein  of  a  food  is  used 
primarily  to  replenish  the  body  wastes  of  tissues,  blood, 
organs,  brain  and 
nerves,  etc.  Young  ani- 
mals require  a  larger 
supply  than  adult  and 
aged  animals  because  of 
the  requirements  of 
growth  and  enlarge- 
ment. Protein  may  be 
used  also  for  energy  and 
fat,  but  usually  not  eco- 
nomically. A  very  large 
consumption  of  protein 
may  lead  to  ill  health. 

Protein  is  the  "muscle 
maker"  of  the  body.  The 
protein  of  the  plant  is 
changed  into   the  protein   of 

the  animal.  In  the  animal  this  constituent  comprises  the  muscular 
tissues,  blood,  hair,  nerves,  internal  organs,  skin,  etc.  In  addition 
the  protein  is  used  in  the  repair  work  of  the  body.  Every  beat  of 
the  heart,  every  circuit  of  the  blood,  and  every  move  of  a  muscle, 
demands  that  some  protein  substance  be  used  up.  To  keep  the 
animal  machine  in  good  working  order  these  parts  must  be  kept  in 
repair  through  protein.  If  this  supply  satisfies  the  waste,  the  weight 
of  the  animal  will  remain  unchanged.  When  the  supply  is  liberal, 
or  exceeds  the  demands  of  the  system,  material  may  be  stored  in  the 
body  as  flesh  or  fat,  and  the  animal  will  gain  in  weight. 

13.  Heat  and  energy. — Food  is  needed  to  keep  animals 
warm.  As  wood  burned  in  a  stove  gives  off  heat,  so 
food  consumed  in  the  body  furnishes  heat.  This  con- 
sumption of  fuel  food  is  so  well  regulated  in  a  healthy 
animal  that  the  temperature  remains  at  the  same  point 
at  all  times.  Carbohydrates  and  fats  are  mainly  the 
sources  of  heat  supply.  These  same  ingredients  are  used 
for  the  production  of  fat  and  muscular  energy,  and  pro- 
tein may  also  be  used  for  the  same  purpose. 


Beef  Cut  Showing  Protein 
Observe    distribution    of    large    and    small 
particles   of  fat.     This  improves  the  quality 
of  the   meat- 


42 


FARM    ANIMALS 


When  Shelter  Is  Denied 

When  farm  animals  are  unsheltered  in  win- 
ter they  often  suffer  from  rain,  snow  and 
wind. 


14.  What  the  fat  does. — When  fat  is  consumed,  it  is 
either    stored    in    the    body    for    future    use    or   at    once 

burned   in   the   produc- 
Wi\-l  ^    "  ^    '  ^^\      tion  of  energy  and  heat. 

The  l)oy  given  to  much 
exercise  requires  a 
large  supply  of  energy- 
producing  foods.  W^ork- 
ing  animals  have  a 
leaner  appearance  than 
those  kept  quietly  in  a 
stall.  Dairy  animals 
give  ofif  much  of  their 
flesh  and  fat  stores 
in  milk.  Only  a  small  amount  of  oil  or  fat  should  be 
daily  consumed.  If  fed  too  abundantly,  digestive  disturb- 
ances often  result. 

15.  What  the  carbohydrates  do. — The  sugars,  starches 
and  similar  products  are  used  to  produce  heat,  fat  and 
energy.  AVhile  actually  sup- 
plying the  same  purpose  as 
fats,  the  carbohydrates  cannot 
altogether  replace  them.  Ex- 
periments show  that  at  least 
some  oil  or  fat  is  necessary  to 
keep  animals  in  the  best  of 
health.  The  carbohydrates 
are  bulky  and  to  most  animals 

they  form  the  greater  part  of  the  food,  both  in  quantity 
and  weight.  This  class  of  foods  is  generally  the  cheapest. 
The  greater  part  of  the  food  supply  the  world  over  con- 
sists of  feeding  stuffs  having  the  carbohydrates  in  greater 
abundance  than  of  all  others  combined. 


Self-Feeding  Device  for  Ear  Corn 
OR  Alfalfa 


LESSON  FIVE 
FOOD  NUTRIENTS 

1.  Nutrients  defined. 

2.  Most  feeding  stuffs  are  unl^alanced. 

3.  Dig-estibility  defined. 

4.  How  digestibility  of  a  food  is  determined. 

5.  First  step  is  to  obtain  composition. 

6.  Coefficient  of  digestibility. 

7.  Digestible  nutrients. 

8.  Correct  rations  are  based  on  digestibility. 

9.  Each  constituent  is  required. 

10.  Foods  must  be  appetizing. 

11.  Folly  of  light  feeding. 

12.  Digestibility  little  influenced  by  quantity. 

13.  Individual  character  of  the  animal. 

14.  Digestibility  decreases  as  plants  mature. 

15.  What  most  influences  digestion. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  items  brought  out  in  this 
lesson  will  show  how  important  it  is  that  digestibility  of 
a  food  be  clearly  understood.  An  animal  fed  a  mixed 
ration  digests  only  about  two-thirds  of  its  food.  This 
means  that  approximately  one-third  of  the  food  does  not 
contribute  in  any  way  to  the  nourishment  of  the  animal. 
Indicate  some  of  the  factors  that  influence  digestibility. 
Show  the  wide  ranges  of  the  food  nutrients  of  the  more 
common  feeding  stuffs. 

43 


LESSON  FIVE 


FOOD  NUTRIENTS 


1.  Nutrients  defined. — Any  substance  absorbed  into 
the  system  in  the  process  of  digestion  or  that  contributes 
to  the  support  of  animal  life  is  a  nutrient.  Hence,  the 
albumen  of  an  egg,  the  starch  of  a  potato,  the  salts  of  an 
apple,  the  ash  of  wheat  bran,  the  fiber  of  pasture  grass, 
are  all  nutrients  and  as  such  promote  the  well-being  of 
animals  in  growth,  work,  milk,  or  flesh  increase. 

2.  Most  feeding  stuffs  are  unbalanced. — Only  a  few 
feeding  stuffs  furnish  alone  the  required  quantities  of  pro- 
tein, carbohydrates  and  fat.  The  most  economical  and 
best  results  are  secured  when  two  or  more  are  combined. 
By  such  combinations,  if  one  feed  is  lacking  in  protein, 
the  deficiency  may  be  met  in  the  ration  through  the  selec- 
tion of  another  substance  possessing  the  protein  element 


Balancing   the   Ration   Improves   It 

The  two  larger  pigs  at  the  right  have  been  fed  corn  and  tanliage,  while  the  two 
smaller  ones  at  the  left  have  been  fed  corn  only.  This  shows  why  a  balanced  ration 
is  worth  while. 

44 


FOOD    NUTRIENTS 


45 


in  unusual  abundance.     In  this  manner  the  shortage  of 
one  is  balanced  by  the  abundance  of  others. 

3.  Digestibility  defined. — Every  feeding  stufif  contains 
protein,  carbohydrates,  fat,  ash  and  water.  A  distinct 
portion  of  each  is  absorbed,  but  the  remainder  is  rejected 
and  excreted  in  the  feces.  The  part  so  absorbed  is  spoken 
of  as  the  amount  digested.  Digestibility  refers  to  the  true 
food  value  of  any  nutrient.  Every  food,  regardless  of 
the  balance  of  its  proximate  principles,  contains  both 
digestible  and  indigestible  matter.  A  feeder  must  be 
familiar  with  the  digestible  nutrients  of  feeding  stuffs  if 
he  is  to  use  them  to  best  advantage. 

4.  How  digestibility  of  a 
food  is  determined. — The  gen- 
eral method  of  ascertaining 
the  digestibility  of  the  various 
constituents  of  a  feeding  stuff 
is  to  supply  an  animal  with 
weighed  quantities  of  food,  the 
composition  of  which  is  known 
by  chemical  analysis.  During 
the  period  of  experiment  the 
solid  excrements  are  collected, 
weighed  and  analyzed  by  the 
same  chemical  methods  applied 
previously  to  the  food.  In  this 
manner  the  amount  of  each 
constituent  of  the  food  which  passes  through  the  animal 
unabsorbed  is  determined.  It  is  a  simple  matter  now  to 
subtract  this  quantity  from  the  amount  found  to  have 
been  present  in  the  food  originally.  The  difference  is  the 
amount  digested  and  absorbed. 

5.  First  step  is  to  obtain  composition. — Chemists  have 


Determining  Digestibility 

The  steer  is  harnessed  in  appa- 
ratus for  ascertaining  facts  about 
the  digestibility  of  food. 


46 


FARM    ANIMALS 


analyzed  all  the  important  feeding  stuffs.  In  the  table 
following  a  few  common  feeding  stuff's  are  used  for  de- 
termining the  real  nutritive  value  of  each  constituent. 

Composition  of  Some  Common  Feedixg  Stuffs 


In  100  pounds  of  fresh  substance. 

Feeding  Stuffs 

Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Xitrogen 

free 
extract 

Fat 

Corn  stover,  field  cured 

Red  clover  hay 

Timothy   hay 

3.8 
12.3 
5.9 
4.2 
10.3 
15.7 
45.3 
25.0 

19.7 

24.8 

29.0 

46.3 

2.2 

9.0 

6.3 

6.8 

31.5 
38.1 
45.0 
33.4 
70.4 
53.9 
24.6 
53.5 

1.1 
3.3 
2  5 

Cottonseed  hulls 

2  2 

Corn,  dent 

5  0 

\\  heat  bran 

4  0 

Cottonseed  meal 

10  1 

Gluten   feed 

3  5 

^f 

'-Mi 

Composition  of  Cor.n  Stover 

Fully    one-third    of    the    total    digestible    nutrients    of    the    corn    crop    remains    in    the 
stover  after  the  ears  are  removed. 


FOOD    NUTRIENTS 


47 


6.  Coefficient  of  digestibility. — Composition  includes 
both  the  digested  and  unabsorbed  materials.  But  the  ab- 
sorbed matter  only  is  of  importance  as  food.  Digestion 
trials  make  known  the  percentage  of  each  nutrient 
digested.  Such  figures  express  the  digestion  coefficient 
for  each  constituent.  In  the  table  following  are  given 
the  coefficients  of  digestibility  for  the  constituents  of  the 
feeding  stuff  previously  mentioned. 


Digestion  Coefficients  of  Some  Common  Feeding  Stuffs 


Percentage  digestible 

Feeding  stuffs 

Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Nitrogen 

free 
extract 

Fat 

Corn  stover 

45 

55 

48 

6 

76 

77 
83 
85 

67 
46 
52 
47 
58 
41 
35 
76 

61 
64 
63 
34 
93 
71 
78 
89 

62 

Red  clover  hay 

53 

Timothy  hay 

60 

Cottonseed  hulls 

79 

Corn 

86 

Wheat  bran 

63 

Cottonseed  meal 

94 

Gluten   feed 

82 

7.  Digestible  nutrients. — When  composition  and  diges- 
tible percentage  are  known,  it  is  a  comparatively  simple 
matter  to  determine  the  digestible  quantity  of  each  con- 
stituent. This  is  done  by  multiplying  the  figures  repre- 
senting the  total  amount  of  each  constituent  by  the  coeffi- 
cien  of  digestibility,  the  resulting  product  being  the  quan- 
tity digested. 

For  example :  Corn  stover  contains  3.8  pounds  of  protein,  19.7 
pounds  of  crude  fiber,  31.5  pounds  of  nitrogen-free  extract  and  1.1 
pounds  of  fat.  By  multiplying  these  amounts  by  the  figures  repre- 
senting the  digestibility  for  each  constituent  respectively,  the  amount 
of  each  digestible  nutrient  will  be  obtained.    This  is  done  as  follows : 


48 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Constituent 
Protein, 
Crude  fiber, 
Nitrogen-free  extract. 
Fat, 


Digestible     Digestible 

Composition    Coefficient     Nutrient 

3.8         X        -15         =         1.7 

19.7  X         67         =       13.2 

31.5  X         61  =:       19.2 

1.1  X         62         =         0.7 


The  total  digestible  nutrients  have  been  determined  for  each  feed- 
ing stuff.  Crude  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract,  taken  together,  are 
often  expressed  as  carbohydrates  Determine  the  digestible  nutri- 
ents in  corn  stover,  red  clover  hay,  timothy  hay,  cottonseed  hulls, 
corn,  wheat  bran,  cottonseed  meal,  and  gluten  feed. 

8.  Correct  rations  are  based  on  digestibil- 
ity.— The  importance  of  basing  all  feeding 
rations  on  the  digestible  matter  rather  than 
on  the  total  composition  is  clearly  seen. 
Only  a  portion  of  the  food  taken  into  the 
stomach  is  assimilated.  Hence,  in  every 
feed  a  part  is  lost  and  wasted.  This  serves 
no  contribution  to  the  nutriment  of  the  body. 

9.  Each  constituent  is  required. — No  one 
constituent  can  wholly  take  the  place  of  an- 
other. Since  protein  contains  nitrogen  and 
sulphur  in  addition  to  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  it  is  evident  that  neither  the  carbo- 
hydrates nor  the  fats  which  contain  carbon, 

hydrogen  and  oxygen  only  can  be  substituted  for  protein. 
Just  as  the  phosphorus  or  potassium  of  a  fertilizer  can- 
not replace  nitrogen,  so  the  carbohydrates  or  the  fats 
cannot  replace  the  protein  of  a  food.  While  protein  may 
be  substituted  for  the  carbohydrates  and  fats,  it  is  to  a 
limited  extent,  and  only  for  a  limited  time.  Even  though 
the  well-being  of  the  animal  would  permit  of  this  sub- 
stitution the  added  expense  would  be  against  the  practice. 
10.  Foods  must  be  appetizing. — Plants  are  most  appe- 
tizing when  young  and  tender.  They  are  then  agreeable 
to  the  taste  and  induce  a  maximum  consumption.    At  this 


Nearly  All  is 
Digestible 


FOOD    NUTRIENTS 


49 


Protein  Is  Very  Important 

The  larger  two  were  fed  skim  milk  and 
wheat  middlings  with  corn;  the  smaller  two 
were  given  corn  only. 


stao-e  of  growth  little  woody  tissue  has  developed,  the 
juices  are  abundant,  the  substances  are  freely  acted  upon 

by  the  secretions,  and 
the  largest  amount  of 
nutriment  is  absorbed. 
Feeds  that  are  unappe- 
tizing and  disagreeable 
to  smell  or  taste  will  be 
rejected,  or  if  eaten  at 
all  will  be  only  to  satisfy 
hunger.  The  good  feeder 
endeavors  to  tempt  the 
taste  and  increase  the 
appetite  of  his  animals, 
that  the  largest  possible  consumption  of  food  may  be  had 
to  secure  the  quickest  and  largest  returns. 

11.  Folly  of  light  feeding. — Since  growth  can  result 
only  from  food  consumed,  it  follows  as  an  undisputed 
conclusion  that  light  feeding  will  retard  development. 
Hence,  not  only  good  food  must  be  provided,  but  much 
food  also.  Many  a  feeder  owes  his  success  to  his  ability 
of  placing  before  his  ani- 
mals a  bountiful  ration 
that  is  both  wholesome 
and  nutritious.  Hunger 
may  make  his  animals 
partake  of  almost  any 
kind  of  food,  but  nothing 
he  can  do  will  induce 
these  same  animals  to 
eat  a  disagreeable  or  un- 
appetizing food  heartily 
enough  to  get  a  response  much  beyond  their  maintenance 
needs.    Growth  and  production  are  invariably  associated 


Little  Feed,  Poor  Stock 
Little   profit  in  this  kind  of  farming. 


50 


FARM    ANIMALS 


with  well-flavored  and  appetizing  food,  even  though  noth- 
ing is  added  to  the  nutritive  value  of  the  food. 

12.  Digestibility  little  influenced  by  quantity. — Ordi- 
narily, digestion  is  but  slightly  influenced  by  big  appe- 
tites. Heavy  eaters  are  usually  the  most  profitable  ani- 
mals. Fed  to  their  full  capacity  they  give  as  good  an 
account  of  their  food  as  when  limited  to  half  feeds.  Food 
is  digested  and  assimilated  just  as  completely  in  full  as  in 
half-filled  stomachs.  The  most  rapid  growth,  or  the  larg- 
est milk  flow,  is  to  be  had  when  an  animal  is  permitted  to 
eat  to  its  full  capacity,  and  this  is  another  reason  why  the 
ration  must  be  palatable  and  attractive  to  taste  and  smell. 

13.  The  individual  character  of  the 
animal. — Armsby  has  found  that  a 
pure-bred  animal  of  superior  breeding 
renders  a  better  account  of  its  food 
than  a  scrub.  This,  however,  was  not 
because  the  pure-bred  animal  digested 
a  greater  percentage  of  his  food,  but  be- 
cause he  requires  less  food  for  main- 
tenance. Of  two  animals  supplied  with 
the  same  feed,  one  will  often  persist- 
ently digest  a  larger  proportion  than 
the  other.  Often  very  greedy  eaters 
show  very  poor  fattening  qualities.  In 
young  animals  the  digestive  power  is 
apparently  equal  to  animals  of  mature 
age. 

14.  Digestibility  decreases  as  plants 
mature. — All  classes  of  plants  show  a 
striking  diminution  in  digestibility  as 
they    approach    maturity,    and   this    is 

Note  the  square  biocky    y^^y  equally  Spread  over  all  the  constit- 

type  at  top  and  thin   an-  J        l.  J      l 

uents.     The  composition    varies    also, 


Kinds  of   Feeders 


gular  shape    at   the   bet 
torn. 


FOOD    NUTRIENTS  51 

and  for  the  same  reason.  Grass  is  always  more  nutri- 
tious than  mature  hay.  The  superior  fattening  quality 
of  pasture,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  hay  made  of 
it,  is  clearly  due  to  the  fact  that  on  land  continuously 
grazed  the  animal  is  fed  entirely  on  young  forage,  while 
hay  will  largely  consist  of  the  mature  or  nearly  matured 
plants.  If  hay  making  is  carefully  carried  out  in  good 
weather  so  the  finer  parts  are  not  lost  by  bad  treatment, 
or  the  soluble  matter  is  not  washed  out  by  rain,  the  diges- 
tibility will  not  be  diminished  considerably. 

15.  What  most  influ- 
ences digestion. — Feed- 
ing farm  stock  is  a  gentle 
art.  The  old  adage,  ''the 
hand  of  the  master  fat- 
tens the  flock,"  is  a  clear 
expression  of  the  intimate 
relation  that  should  exist  ^hamp.on  steer 

between      the      feeder     and     well  bred,  but  well   fed  also   by  a  master 

the  animals  in  his  charge.  ^^^'^' 

Two  men  may  provide  the  same  feed  for  two  lots  of  live 
stock,  similar  in  kind,  and  far  different  results  will  be 
obtained  at  the  end  of  a  given  period.  The  one  studies 
his  individual  animals,  knows  each  as  if  by  name,  takes 
an  interest  in  its  progress,  endeavors  at  all  times  to  help 
in  case  of  mishap,  and  actually  encourages,  as  if  to  in- 
duce greater  endeavor.  The  other  feeds  simply  the  stock 
and  lets  it  go  at  that.    He  is  a  failure  as  a  stockman. 


LESSON  SIX 
SOME  SCIENTIFIC  TERMS  IN  FEEDING 

1.  The  animal  as  a  machine. 

2.  Nutritive  ratio. 

3.  Reducing  fat  to  car])ohy(lrates. 

4.  Determining  the  nutritive  ratio. 

5.  Wide  or  narrow  nutritive  ratio. 

6.  Balanced  ration. 

7.  Feeding  standards. 

8.  Maintenance  standard. 

9.  All  nutrients  necessary. 

10.  Standards  for  farm  animals.  • 

11.  Wolff-Lehmann  feeding  standards. 

12.  Based  on  weight. 

13.  Feeding  standard  only  a  guide. 

14.  Size  of  animal. 

15.  Other  standards  in  recent  years. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  terms  used  in  the  discussion 
of  foods  and  feeding  rations  are  explained  in  this  lesson. 
Blackboard  drill  in  determining  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the 
more  common  feeds  is  desirable.  Such  practice  should  be 
continued  until  the  arithmetic  of  the  subject  is  mastered. 
Consult  the  appendix  for  the  digestible  nutrients  of  all 
common  foods. 


52 


LESSON  SIX 
SOME  SCIENTIFIC  TERMS  IN  FEEDING 

1.  The  animal  as  a  machine. — Considered  as  a  machine, 
the  animal  body  needs  two  classes  of  food :  One,  to  fur- 
nish the  materials  by  which  the  machine  may  be  con- 
structed and  kept  in  repair;  and  a  second,  or  sustaining 
reserve,  to  develop  heat  to  keep  the  body  warm  and  to 
supply  energy  for  the  production  of  internal  and  external 
work.  Water,  ash  and  protein  are  the  essential  building 
materials  and  the  fats  and  carbohydrates  the  primary  fuel 
substances.  This  distinction  gives  rise  to  the  grouping 
of  feeding  stuffs  as  being  either  of  a  building  or  of  a 
fuel  nature.  All  individual  foods  contain  both  classes, 
but  in  varying  proportions ;  some  are  heavy  carriers  of 
the  first,  others  of  the  second,  and  still  others  carry  mod- 
erate amounts  of  both. 

2.  Nutritive  ratio. — A  point  of  some  importance  in  de- 
termining the  suitability  of  a  feeding  stuff  as  an  article 
of  diet  is  the  proportion  between  the  digestible  protein 


Living  Machines  Eagerly  at  Work 
They  are  converting  substances  unsuitable   for  human   food  into  meat   of  splendid 

quality. 

53 


54 


FARM   ANIMALS 


rEE;DING  STUFF 


NUTRITIVE 
.^ATIO 


DRIED  BLOOD 

TANKAGE 

COTTON  SEED  MEAL 

LINSEED  MEAL 

SOY  BEANS 

SKIM  MILK 

GLUTEN  FEED 

COW  PEAS 

DRIED  BREWERS'GRAINS 

COWS  MILK 

WHEAT  BRAN 

ALFALFA 

COW  PEA  HAY 

PASTURE  GRASS 

WHEAT  MIDDLINGS 

MANGLES 

RAPE 

RED  CLOVER  HAY 

OATS 

BUCKWHEAT 

RYE 

WHEAT 

TURNIPS 

KAFIR  CORN 

BLUE  GRASS 

CORN 

BEET  PULP 

MILLET  HAY 

PRAIRIE  HAY 

CORN  SILAGE 

CORN  6c  COB  MEAL 

TIMOTHY  HAY 

POTATO 

CORN  STOVER 

KAFIR  CORN  STOVER 

SORGUM  HAY 

OAT  STRAW 

WHEAT  STRAW 


Nutritive  Ratio  of  Some  Common   Feeding  Stuffs 


SOME   SCIENTIFIC   TERMS    IN    FEEDING 


55 


f    Carbohydrates 


1 


and  the  digestible  non-protein  organic  constituents.  This 
relation  is  most  conveniently  termed  the  nutritive  ratio  of 
the  food.  Simply  defined,  this  term  means  the  ratio  which 
exists  between  the  amount  of  digestible  protein  to  the 
combined  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat. 

The  nutritive  ratio  as  a  feed  is  obtained  as  follows :  The  fat  is 
reduced  to  its  carbohydrate  equivalent  and  added  to  the  digestible 
carbohydrates.  The  sum  of  the  two,  representing  the  non-protein, 
is  then  divided  by  the  figure  or  figures  representing  the  quantity  of 
protein.  The  resulting  figure  is  the  second  factor,  which  means 
that  for  each  pound  of  digestible  protein  in  the  feed  or  ration  there 
are  so  many  pounds  of  digestible  non-protein  or  carbohydrates. 

3.  Reducing  fat  to  carbohydrates. — The  non-protein 
constituents  of  a  feed — starch,  fiber,  fats,  etc. — are  used  to 
develop  heat,  energy  and  fat  in 
the  animal  body.  Their  effi- 
ciency for  this  purpose  has  been 
ascertained  by  numerous  ex- 
periments, which  show  that  a 
pound  of  fat  will  develop  as 
much  heat  energy  as  2.3  pounds  of  starch.  Hence  this 
more  concentrated  energy  must  be  taken  in  consideration 
in  combining  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  as  a  single  unit 
group  if  a  definite,  accurate  value  is  to  be  obtained  with 
reference  to  any  feeding  stufif.  In  all  calculations  from 
now  on  this  higher  efficiency  of  fat  will  be  given  its 
proper  weight. 

4.  Determining  the  nutritive  ratio. — In  a  previous 
table  the  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds  of  corn  were 
shown  to  be  as  follows :  Protein  7.8  pounds,  carbohy- 
drates 66.8  pounds  and  fat  4.3  pounds.  The  fat  first  is 
reduced  to  its  carbohydrate  equivalent  by  multiplying  the 
number  of  pounds  representing  it  by  the  authoritatively 
taken  factor  2.3  ;  which  being  done,  shows  that  4.3  pounds 
of  fat  equal  9.9  pounds  of  the  carbohydrates  in  producing 


A  pound  of  fat  equals  2.3 
pounds  of  carbohydrates  when 
burned    in    the    body. 


56  FARM    ANIMALS 

heat  and  energy.  The  fat,  now  having  been  reduced  to  a 
carbohydrate  basis,  can  be  added  to  66.8,  the  amount  of 
carbohydrates  in  corn,  which  gLves  76.7  pounds  of  total 
carbohydrates.  This  sum,  divided  by  the  number  repre- 
senting the  quantity  of  protein,  which  in  the  case  of  corn 
is  7.8  pounds,  gives  the  final  factor  of  the  ratio,  or  9.8. 

In  the  form  of  proportion  the  stages  are  as  follows : 

(1)  The  amount  of  protein  is  to  the  amount  of  the  carbohydrates 
as  1  is  to  the  factor  to  be  determined. 

(2)  Protein  :   Carbohydrates  : :  1  :  x. 

(3)  7.8  :    (66.8  -f  9.9)    :  :   1  :  x. 

(4)  7.8  :   76.7  :  :   1  :   9.8. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  corn  is  therefore  1  to  9.8,  which  means  that 
in  this  feeding  stuff  for  every  pound  of  digestible  protein  there  are 
9.8  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat  equivalent. 

5.  Wide  or  narrow  nutritive  ratio. — A  wide  difference 
exists  among  feeds  as  to  the  amount  of  protein.  The  oil 
meals  and  the  legumes  are  rich  in  protein,  roots  and  straw 
very  poor,  while  cereal  grain  and  their  products  occupy  a 
middle  place.  These  differences  give  rise  to  the  terms 
Zi'ide  and  iiarroiv  nutritive  ratios,  which  apply  to  both  sin- 
gle feeds  and  rations.  A  feed  or  a  ration  has  a  ''narrow" 
nutritive  ratio  when  the  digestible  protein  it  contains  is 
high  in  comparison  to  the  carbohydrates  and  fat,  and 
"wide"  Avhen  the  reverse. 

6.  Balanced  ration. — Since  all  feeding  stufTs,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  pasture  grass,  are  unfit  as  single 
food  substances,  they  naturally  fall  into  a  class  as  being 
either  wide  or  narrow.  If  two  or  more  are  combined  in 
the  proper  proportions  to  furnish  all  the  digestible  nutri- 
ents, with  no  excess  or  shortage  of  any  nutrient,  but  in 
just  the  quantity  needed  by  a  certain  class  of  animals  fed 
for  a  distinct  purpose,  the  combination  is  then  satisfac- 
tory, and  does  provide  a  balanced  ration. 

7.  Feeding  standards. — For  many  years  investigators 
have  been  conducting  feeding  tests  to  learn  the  amount 


r^alntcnance     Ration* 


SOME   SCIENTIFIC   TERMS    IN    FEEDING  57 

of  digestible  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat  best  suited 
to  farm  animals  under  average  conditions.  They  have 
studied  the  results  of  various  foods  and  varying  amounts 
in  thousands  of  animals.  The  results  are  embodied  in 
what  are  called  feeding  standards.  These  tell  the  proper 
amounts  of  the  nutrients,  or  one  day's  food,  for  an  ani- 
mal of  a  certain  v^eight  under  ordinary  conditions. 

8.  Maintenance  standard. — Less  nutrients  are  neces- 
sary for  animals  not  doing  work,  or  not  giving  milk,  or 
not  fed  for  fattening 
purposes,  than  for  ani- 
mals actually  so  en- 
gaged. This  knowledge 
has    given     rise    to    a  after  maintenance,  milk 

standard     for     mainten-  The  first  use  to  which  a  cow  puts  her  food 

,  ,  .  ,        is    for   maintenance.     That   requirement   satis- 

ance    when    the    animal       fied,  any  excess  may  be  used  for  milk  or  other 

is  at  rest  in  the  stall.     p"''p°^^- 

A  dairy  cow  giving  little  or  no  milk  does  not  require 
nearly  as  much  food  as  one  in  full  flow  of  milk.  Of 
course  every  farmer  knows  this ;  but  he  now  has  available 
a  guide  that  suggests  the  quantity  of  digestible  protein, 
carbohydrates  and  fat  so  as  to  meet  the  maintenance  needs 
of  the  dry  cow. 

9.  All  nutrients  necessary. — A  dry  cow  does  need  daily 
a  certain  amount  of  each  of  the  food  nutrients.  She  must 
keep  her  body  warm,  maintain  the  regular  blood  supply, 
repair  the  broken-down  tissues  and  meet  all  the  require- 
ments of  life  and  health.  These  things  she  obtains  from 
her  food.  If  more  food  is  provided  than  necessary  to  meet 
these  daily  demands,  she  will  increase  in  weight.  If  too 
little  food  is  given,  then  the  reverse  will  happen,  and  she 
will  lose  in  weight,  becoming  thin  in  flesh,  or  poor. 

Working  from  this  point,  nutrition  investigators  have  carefully 
prepared  standards  for  cows  giving  various  quantities  of  milk,  for 


SOME   SCIENTIFIC   TERMS    IN    FEEDING  59 

Steers  at  different  stages  of  fattening,  for  horses  doing  little  or  much 
work,  and  for  hogs  and  sheep  during  various  periods  of  growth 
and  fattening. 

10.  Standards  for  farm  animals. — Feeding  standards 
are  guides  for  indicating  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  for 
different  animals  and  consistent  with  the  purposes  for 
which  the  animals  are  fed.  A  cow  giving  little  milk, 
according  to  the  standard,  is  to  be  given  smaller  quanti- 
ties of  food  than  another  in  heavy  milk  flow.  Likewise 
rations  for  beeves  dififer  considerably  from  those  for 
horses  or  pigs.  Feeding  standards,  though  easily  under- 
stood, are  still  very  complicated,  but  they  clearly  show 
that  the  practice  of  feeding  is  not  only  an  interesting  art, 
but  one  that  calls  lor  much  skill  and  training  also. 


Pc^otein Fat  .6 

Horse  3t  Moderate  Work. |  2.|     Carbohijclratcs   ll.|  | 

Protein Fat^.8 

'Cow  Yielding  27.5  Pounds  of  Milk....|  5.3    \      Carbohtidrates     I3."~|| 

Pt^otein Fat  7 

Fattening  Steer |  5.     |      Carbohydrates      14.5    \\ 

Prjatein Fat  .6 ' 

Fattening  Sheep «, |  3.5    |    Carbohtjdrates      14.5      [[ 

P(^otein Fat  .5 

Fattening  Hogs |     4.      |  Carbohydrates        24.  \\ 

Digestible  Nutrients  Required  of  Rations 

Such    food    requirements    are    commonly    called    feeding    standards.      Carbohydrates 
are  used  in  greatest  abundance  and  fat  in  least. 

11.  Wolff-Lehmann  feeding  standards. — The  standards 
in  most  common  use  are  what  are  known  as  the  Wolff- 
Lehmann  standards,  named  after  the  two  German  inves- 
tigators who  first  suggested  the  limits  to  be  observed  in 
the  daily  allowance  of  the  nutrients. 


60 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Daily  allotment  on  basis  1.000  pounds  live  weight. 


• 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients  in 
pounds 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Milk     cows     when     giving 
daily 

11     pounds  of  milk 

22     pounds  of  milk 

27.5  pounds  of  milk 

Fattening  cattle 

25 
29 
32 

30 
30 
26 

20 
23 
25 

30 

28 

20 
24 
26 
22 

36 

32 
35 

1.6 
2.5 
3.3 

2.5 

3.0 
2.7 

1.2 
1.5 
2.9 

3.0 

3.5 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
2.5 

4.5 
4.0 
2.7 

10.0 
13.0 
13.0 

15.0 
14.5 
15.0 

10.5 
12.0 
15.0 

15.0 
14.5 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 
15.5 

25.0 
24.0 

18.0 

0.3 
0.5 
0.8 

0.5 

Second  period 

0.7 

Third  period 

0.7 

Sheep 

Coarse  wool 

0.2 

Fine  wool 

0.3 

Ewes  with  lambs 

Fattening  sheep 
First  period 

0.5 
0.5 

Second  period 

0.6 

Horses 

Light  work 

0.4 

Medium  work 

0.6 

Heavy  work 

0.8 

Brood  sows   

Fattening  hogs 

0.4 
0.7 

0.5 

0.4 

12.  Based  on  weight. — These  standards  are  based  on 
1,000  pounds  Hve  weight.  For  animals  weighing  less,  as 
sheep  and  swine,  the  quantity  prescribed  would  be  pro- 
portionately decreased.  A  sheep,  for  instance,  weighing 
100  pounds  would  be  fed  one-tenth  the  quantity  called 
for  in  the  standard.  An  animal  weighing  more  than  1,000 
pounds  would  require  a  proportionate  increase. 

13.  Feeding  standard  only  a  guide. — Standards  are  to 
be   taken   as  guides   and  varied  or  modified  as  circum- 


SOME   SCIENTIFIC    TERMS    IN    FEEDING 


61 


stances  require.  In  fattening  farm  stock  it  is  clearly  the 
best  sense  to  supply  the  largest  amount  of  food  that  can 
be  profitably  used.  In  feeding  dairy  cows,  so  long  as  pas- 
ture, hay,  fodder,  and  silage  are  home-raised  and  abun- 
dant, the  cows  may  safely  be  given  as  much  as  they  can  be 
tempted  to  eat,  provided  of  course,  the  concentrated  feeds 
are  not  denied  a  proper  place  in  the  ration.     Such  cows 


When   Nature  Balances  the   Ration 

On  no  kind  of  feed  does  animal   life  better  flourish   than  on   rich,  luxuriant  pasture 
grass.     It  is  the  first  choice  of  big  and  little,  old  and  young  animals. 


as  respond  with  heavy  milk  yields  are  entitled  to  the  larg- 
est amount  of  the  concentrates,  while  those  that  yield  lit- 
tle milk  will  not  require  much  if  any  grain. 

14.  Size  of  animal. — The  size  of  the  animal  also  affects 
the  consumption  of  food.  A  part  of  the  demand  for  food  is 
determined  by  the  surface  of  the  animal  rather  than  by 
its  weight.  With  these  circumstances  in  mind  as  exam- 
ples of  various  factors  that  must  be  considered,  the  feed- 
ing standard  may  well  be  used  as  a  starting  point  in  the 
practical  feeding  of  any  class  of  live  stock. 


62 


FARM    ANIMALS 


15.  Other  standards  in  recent  years. — Since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  \\'olff  standards  other  investigators  have 
sought  simpler  means  of  measuring  the  nutrient  content 
of  feeding  stufifs.  The  idea  of  using  energy  values  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  starch  equivalent  in  the  computation 
of  rations  for  farm  animals  originated  with  Dr.  Kellner  of 
Germany.      Following  him   came    Dr.     Henry    Prentiss 

Armsby  of  Pennsylvania,  who 
measures  the  energy  content  by 
the  therms  of  net  energy  they 
contain.  The  two  methods  are 
identical,  but  neither  method 
<7   ^  ^  has  been  before  the  public  long 

S^S^mM,  A^>  enough  to  be  well  known  or  to 

be  put  to  practical  use.  The 
value  of  any  material  as  a  fuel 
substance  will  naturally  depend 
on  how  much  chemical  energy 
that  material  contains.  Both  the 
quantity  and  the  quality  must 
be  determined  in  order  to  get  a 
fair  measure  of  its  energy  value. 
Quite  generally  the  fuel  value  of 
feeding  stufifs  is  expressed  in 
calories.  A  calorie  is  the  amount 
of  heat  required  to  raise  one 
pound  of  water  four  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  A  therm  is  the 
quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
1000  kilograms  of  water  one  degree  centigrade. 


From  Milk  to  Corn 

As    the    animal    grows    the    ration 
widens. 


PRACTICUMS 

1.  Test  for  Starch. — The  materials  required  for  making  the  test 
below  are  inexpensive  and  may  be  obtained  at  a  drug  store.  Each 
school  should  have  on  hand  a  few  chemicals  and  glassware  as  a  part 
of  its  regular  laboratory  equipment.  Moisten  some  starch  with 
diluted  iodine.  The  starch  will  turn  blue.  If  there  is  much  starch 
present,  the  change  will  be  a  dark  blue ;  if  there  is  but  little,  the 
color  will  be  a  light  blue. 

2.  Test  for  Grape  Sugar. — Grape  sugar  or  glucose  may  be  tested 
as  follows :  Place  a  little  corn  syrup  in  a  bottle  or  a  test  tube.  Pour 
on  it  concentrated  potassium  hydrate  and  a  few  drops  of  copper  sul- 
phate (blue  vitriol)  and  boil.  The  mixture  will  turn  green,  yellow, 
orange  and  finally  brick  red.    Test  seeds  for  the  presence  of  glucose. 

3.  Test  for  Cane  Sugar. — Add  a  solution  of  cobalt  hydrate  (5 
grains  of  cobalt  nitrate  to  100  cubic  centimeters  of  water)  to  the 
solution  to  be  tested.  Add  to  this  a  strong  solution  of  sodium 
hydrate.  A  violet  color  indicates  the  presence  of  cane  sugar.  This 
test  applied  to  grape  sugar  results  in  a  blue  color,  which  finally 
changes  to  green. 

4.  Test  for  Protein. — Reduce  any  common  seeds  to  powder  by 
pounding.  Place  in  a  test  tube,  add  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid  and 
boil.  The  protein  will  turn  yellow.  Add  a  few  drops  of  ammonia 
and  the  protein  will  turn  orange. 

Do  the  same  with  white  of  an  egg.  Chew  several  kernels  of  wheat, 
until  the  gluten  becomes  separated  from  the  starch.  The  gluten  is 
protein.     Apply  the  same  test  as  above. 

5.  Test  for  Fat  or  Oil. — Reduce  seeds  to  a  powder  by  pounding. 
Place  the  powder  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  lay  on  a  piece  of  tin  and  heat — 
not  enough  to  burn  the  paper.  If  oil  is  present,  a  spot  will  be  made 
on  the  paper. 

6.  Bone  and  Mineral  Matter. — Place  a  slender  bone  in  weak 
muriatic  acid  and  another  in  a  hot  fire  for  a  time,  and  note  the 
effects.  The  acid  will  dissolve  the  lime,  or  mineral  matter,  out  of  the 
bone,  and  the  fire  will  burn  all  grittle,  or  animal  matter,  out  of  the 
other.  The  first  can  be  bent  or  even  tied  in  a  knot,  while  the  latter 
is  very  brittle. 

(a)  What  gives  toughness  to  bones?  (b)  What  makes  them 
hard  and  rigid?  (c)  Why  may  a  child  fall  many  times  without 
breaking  a  bone,  while  an  aged  person  is  so  apt  to  break  one  in 
falling?  (d)  At  what  time  in  life  are  bones  most  easily  bent  and 
made  to  grow  in  a  wrong  shape?  (e)  Would  it  injure  an  old  per- 
son as  much  as  it  would  a  young  child  to  sit  long  in  a  wrong  position? 

7.  Determining  Nutritive  Ratio. — Process:  (1)  Reduce  fat  to 
its   carbohydrate   equivalent,    (2)    add   the   carbohydrates,    and    (3) 


64 


FARM   ANIMALS 


divide  this  sum  by  the  protein.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  buck- 
wheat containing  8.1  per  cert  of  digestible  protein,  48.2  per  cent  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  ana  2.4  per  cent  of  digestible  fat? 


Determine  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  followins 


Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds. 

Feeding  stuff 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Mutritive 
ratio 

Wheat    - 

8.8 

8.8 

37.6 

11.9 

20.7 

2.8 

1.4 

7.1 

10.5 

G7.5 
49.2 
21.4 
42.0 
42.5 
42.4 
:!1.2 
37.8 
40.5 

1.5 
4.3 
9.6 
2.5 
6.1 
1.3 
0.7 
1.8 
0.9 

Oats 

Cottonseed  meal 

Wheat  bran 

Gluten 

Timothy  hay           _  - 

Corn  stover 

Clover  hay 

Alfalfa 

9.  Make  a  list  of  feeds  used  on  your  father's  farm.  Consult 
appendix  for  digestible  nutrients  and  determine  nutritive  ratio  of 
each. 

10.  Determine  the  nutritive  ratio  of  each  feeding  standard  given 
in  paragraph  11  on  page  60. 

11.  Amount  of  Feed. — Require  pupils  to  make  measurements  of 
the  home  storage  places. 

1.  Corn  in  crib. — Multiply  together  the  height,  width  and  length 
in  feed  and  multiply  this  product  by  0.45  for  old  corn,  and  by  0.4  for 
new  corn.  The  final  product  will  approximate  the  number  of  bushels 
of  corn  in  the  crib. 

Problems:  (a)     How  many  bushels  of  new  corn  in  a  crib  20  feet 
long,  4  feet  wide  and  10  feet  high? 
{h)     What  is  the  approximate  amount  of  old  corn  in 
a  crib  30   feet  long,   12   feet  high  and  4  feet 
wide  ? 

2.  Hay  in  mow. — Multiply  together  the  height,  length  and  width 
in  yards  and  divide  by  15  if  the  hay  be  well  packed.  If  the  mow  be 
shallow  and  the  hay  recently  placed  therein,  divide  by  18,  or  by  any 
number  from  15  to  18,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  packing. 
This  gives  approximately  the  number  of  tons. 

Problems :  (a)  How  many  tons  in  a  mow  46  feet  long,  18  feet 
high  and  35  feet  wide,  the  hay  being  just 
put   in? 


SOME   SCIENTIFIC    TERMS    IN    FEEDING  65 

(b)  How  many  tons  in  a  mow  39  feet  long,  27  feet 
wide  and  18  feet  high,  the  hay  being  old  and 
well  packed? 

3.  Silage  in  silo. — Compute  the  cubic  contents  of  the  silo  in  feet 
and  multiply  the  product  by  40,  the  approximate  weight  in  pounds  of 
a  cubic  foot  of  silage.  Divide  the  total  by  2,000  for  the  approximate 
amount  of  silage  in  tons.  The  same  result  may  be  obtained  as  fol- 
lows :  Compute  the  cubic  contents  of  the  silo  in  feet  and  divide  by 
50.    The  quotient  is  the  amount  of  silage  in  tons. 

Problems:   (a)     How  many  tons  of  silage  in  a  round  silo  34  feet 
high  and  18  feet  in  diameter? 
(&)     How  many  tons  in  a  silo,  one-half  full,  the  silo 
being  21  feet  in  diameter  and  36  feet  high? 


LESSON  SEVEN 
HOW  FOOD  IS  DIGESTED 

1.  Making  ready  for  digestion. 

2.  What  is  done  in  the  mouth. 

3.  From  mouth  to  stomach. 

4.  Compartments  of  cow's  stomach. 

5.  The  stomach  churn. 

6.  Stomach  secretions. 

7.  Stomach  digestion. 

8.  From  stomach  to  intestines. 

9.  The  two  intestines. 

10.  Food  absorption. 

11.  Villi  cells. 

12.  From  intestines  to  blood. 

13.  How  food  is  distributed. 

14.  Respiration. 

15.  Excretion. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — In  this  lesson  a  splendid  oppor- 
tunity is  ofifered  for  linking  some  of  the  facts  of  physi- 
ology with  daily  life.  The  processes  of  nutrition,  as  here 
outlined,  are  brought  into  their  proper  relationship  with 
the  various  organs  of  the  body  and  with  the  functions  of 
these  organs  in  their  work  of  growth,  life  and  activity. 


LESSON  SEVEN 
HOW  FOOD  IS  DIGESTED 

1.  Making  ready  for  digestion. — Digestion  is  more  than 
chewing  and  swallowing.  Before  the  several  plant  ingre- 
dients can  be  used  as  food  they  must  be  prepared  for 
absorption.  This  preparation  takes  place  in  the  mouth, 
oesophagus  tube,  stomach  and  intestines. 

2.  What  is  done  in  the  mouth. — When  food  is  taken  in- 
to the  mouth  it  is  masticated  by  the  teeth.  While  this  is 
being  done  there  are  poured  into  the  mouth  large  quanti- 
ties of  saliva  which  soften  and  soak  the  foods  and  start 
digestion.  The  active  principle  of  saliva  is  a  soluble  fer- 
ment called  ptyalin,  which  converts  the  starch  into  sugar. 
One  authority  states  that  the  saliva  of  a  horse  will  con- 
vert raw  starch  into  sugar  in  15  minutes. 

A  large  amount  of  saliva  is  soaked  up  by  the  food.  This  is  often 
as  much  as  one-tenth  of  the  weight  of  the  animal.  Colin  states  that 
84  pounds  is  secreted  by  the  horse  and  112  pounds  by  the  cow  in  a 
single  day.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  nature  of  the  food  gready  in- 
fluences the  flow,  although  the  control  rests  with  the  nervous  sys- 
tem. 

3.  From  mouth  to  stomach. — Food,  after  being  ground 
and  mixed  with  the  saliva,  is  forwarded  to  the  stomach. 
Horses,  hogs,  and  humans  have  a  single  stomach.  Cows, 
sheep,  and  goats  have  a  different  arrangement,  embody- 
ing four  divisions.  With  the  former  the  stomach  is  com- 
paratively simple ;  it  is  a  single  sac  not  capable  of  hold- 
ing a  large  quantity  at  one  time.  In  the  ruminants,  the 
family  to  which  cattle  and  sheep  belong,  the  stomach  is 
large,  and  capable  of  considerable  extension.  The  capacity 
of  the  stomach  of  the  average  horse  runs  from  three  to 
four  gallons,  and  of  the  cow  up  to  50  gallons  or  more. 

67 


68 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Digestive  System  or  Horse 

1,  mouth;  2,  pharynx;  3,  oesoph- 
agus; 4,  diaphragm;  5,  spleen;  6, 
stomach;  7,  duodenum;  8,  liver; 
9,  large  colon;  10,  caecum;  11, 
small  intestine;  12,  floating  colon; 
13,   rectum. 


4.  The  compartments  of  the  cow's  stomach  are  known 
as  the  nimcn,  or  paunch,  the  rccticiilnm,  the  omasuni,  and 
the  aboniasunt.     The  last  is  the  true  digestive  stomach. 

The  others  are  largely  storage 
places  for  the  saliva-mixed  food. 
The  first  of  these  compartments 
is  very  decidedly  a  storing  place 
where  the  food  is  placed  until  it 
is  thrown  back  to  the  mouth  for 
further  mastication.  This  act, 
or  cud  chewing,  refers  to  re- 
chewing  the  food  so  as  to  get  it 
finer  and  better  ground  for 
digestion.  The  food,  on  leav- 
ing the  mouth  the  second  time, 
is  passed  through  the  rumen 
into  the  reticulum,  then  to  the  omasum  and  finally  into  the 
abomasum,  or  true  stomach,  where  digestion  is  continued. 

5.  The  stomach  churn. — In  the  first  compartment,  or 
rumen,  a  churning  process  is  carried  on  continually. 
Some  think  this  division  of  the  stomach  is  never  wholly 
empty.  An  alkaline  fluid  is  supplied  here,  as  is  the  case 
also  in  the  second  compartment.  Food  in  the  third  com- 
partment is  subjected  to  a  squeeze  which  dries  it,  forc- 
ing the  extracted  juices  into  the  true  stomach  or  fourth 
compartment. 

6.  Stomach  secretion. — The  stomach  of  every  animal  is 
lined  by  two  kinds  of  membrane — one  similar  in  nature 
to  the  lining  of  the  oesophagus  tube,  and  the  other  that 
admits  of  secretion.  These  do  not  form  a  dou])le  coat, 
but  one  blends  into  the  other.  The  section  giving  of¥  the 
secretion  is  known  as  the  villous  coat.  It  extends  to  the 
posterior  end,  and  to  the  point  where  the  small  intestine 
joins  with  the  stomach. 


HOW    FOOD   IS   DIGESTED 


69 


f=C^' 


Stomach    of    Cow 
Showing  the  four  compartments. 


7.  Stomach  digestion. — In  the  stomach,  saliva  contin- 
ues the  digestion  of  the  starchy  matter,  and  is  assisted 
by  the  gastric  juice  which  pours  in  from  the  stomach  lin- 
ing. This  secretion  has  three  constituents — acid,  rcnnin, 
and  pepsin.  Pepsin  is  a  ferment  whose  work  is  to  split 
up  the  protein  compounds.  Rennin,  also  a  ferment,  as- 
sists in  the  digestion  of  milk.  There  is  much  of  this 
secretion   in   calves.     Gastric 

juice  converts  the  protein 
substances  into  peptones.  The 
mucus  glands  of  the  stomach 
secrete  mucin, a.  substance  that 
lines  the  walls  of  the  stomach. 

8.  From  stomach  to  intes- 
tines.— The  constant  churning 
movement  in  the  stomach 
causes  the  food  to  travel  from 
its  entrance  to  the  small  intestine.  Up  to  this  time  there 
has  been  no  absorption  into  the  body ;  nor  is  digestion  yet 
complete.  When  the  partly  digested  material  or  chyme 
leaves  the  stomach  it  passes  into  the  duodenum,  one  of 
the  three  parts  of  the  small  intestine,  and  is  there  sub- 
jected to  further  action  by  other  digestive  juices.  Here 
the  bile,  the  pancreatic  and  intestinal  juices  are  admitted  to 
complete  the  work.  The  bile,  dark  green  or  brownish  in 
color,  is  secreted  by  the  liver  and  acts  in  conjunction 
with  the  pancreatic  juice.  The  pancreatic  juice, 
alkaline  and  watery,  is  secreted  by  the  pancreas,  or 
"sweetbread." 

The  bile  acts  as  a  bowel  regulator  when  the  liver  is  active  and 
healthy.  The  pancreatic  juice  has  a  treble  function — it  changes 
starch  into  sugar,  protein  into  peptones,  and  the  oils  into  fatty  acids. 
The  intestinal  juices  perform  a  similar  work. 

9.  The  two  intestines  are  not  only  important  for  stor- 


70 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Blood    Plasma 

This     shows     blood     plasma     passing 
out   of  the  capillaries  to  feed  the   cells. 


age  purposes,  but  in  them,  particularly  in  the  smaller,  the 
real  digestive  act — the  absorption  of  the  nutriment  in  the 
food  by  the  blood — takes  place.  Up  to  this  point,  al- 
though fluids  have  been  at 
work,  there  has  been  little  if 
any  active  absorption  of  the 
nutrients.  The  food  up  to 
now  is,  in  a  sense,  outside 
the  body,  and  there  is  no  en- 
trance or  opening  for  it  into 
the  body  save  through  the 
cells  that  line  the  intestinal 
section  of  the  digestive  tract. 
10.  Food  absorption. — 
There  are  no  body  gates  that 
open  and  close,  and  through  which  the  digested  materials 
can  be  delivered  into  the  body.  Food  is  admitted  by  ab- 
sorption. In  a  way  similar  to  that  by  which  soluble  plant 
food  is  carrie(i  into  the  plant  roots  through  the  cell  walls, 
so  is  the  digested  food,  after  it  has  been  broken  up  and 
made  soluble,  absorbed  through  the  cell  walls  of  the  in- 
testines into  the  blood. 

11.  Villi  cells. — The  digested  food  in  the  intestines  is 
gathered  in  by  villi  cells.  The  mucous  membrane  lining 
the  small  intestines  possesses  highly  differentiated  struc- 
tures that  appear  as  minute  fingers.  These  tiny,  hairlike 
projectiles  reach  into  the  intestinal  mass  for  sugar,  pep- 
tones and  fatty  acids,  and  transfer  them  through  the  cells 
into  the  absorbent  vessels  or  lymphs  that  in  turn  empty 
the  assimilated  stores  of  food  into  larger  and  still  larger 
vessels.  This  process  continues  until  the  whole  of  the 
nutritive  fluid  is  collected  in  the  circulatory  system,  later 
to  become  the  very  basis  of  the  blood. 

12.  From  intestines  to  blood. — When  food  is  absorbed 


HOW    FOOD   IS   DIGESTED 


71 


it  is  admitted  either  to  the  capillaries  or  to  the  lymphatic 

system.    If  collected  by  the  capillaries  the  absorbed  food 

is  carried  to  the  portal  vein, 

thence  to  the  liver  and  finally 

to  the  heart,  into  which  it  is 

poured    with   the    blue   blood 

brought  in  from  all  parts  of 

the  body.     At  this  point  the 

blood  contains  both  nutriment 

and  waste.     That  part  of  the 

absorbed  food  which  entered 

into  the  lymphatic  system  is 

carried  to  the  thoracic   duct, 

and  delivered  into  one  of  the 

main  blood  vessels.      Lymph 

is  blood  without  the  red  blood 

corpuscles.     It  wanders  to  all 

parts  of  the  body,  surrounds 

all  the  cells  of  all  the  tissues 

and  carries  and  leaves  with  the  very  kind  of  food  they 

need  most. 

13.  How  food  is  distributed. — After  food  enters  the  cir- 
culatory system  it  takes  the  regular  course  of  the  blood. 
In  impure  blood  it  is  carried  to  the  right  auricle  of  the 
heart,  then  to  the  right  ventricle.  This  in  turn  contracts 
and  forces  the  blood  into  the  lungs,  where  oxygen  is 
taken  on  and  carbonic  acid  gas  and  other  impurities  are 
given  ofif.  From  the  lungs  the  blood,  now  red  and  pure, 
passes  into  the  left  auricle,  and  thence  into  the  left  ven- 
tricle, from  which  it  is  forced  into  the  aorta,  and  dis- 
tributed to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

14.  Respiration. — When  the  impure  blood  passes 
through  the  lungs,  carbonic  acid  gas  and  other  impuri- 
ties  are   held   back   and   in   breathing   are   exhaled   and 


Villi  Cells 

Section  of  intestine  showing  villi. 
The  parts  are:  a,  arteries;  b,  villi; 
c,  villi  cut  open  to  show  lacteal  (/), 
and  blood  tubes;  d,  glands;  m, 
muscle;  v,  veins;  and  w,  wall  of 
intestine. 


72 


FARM    ANIMALS 


thrown  out  of  the  system.  At  the  same  time  oxygen  is 
taken  in  with  great  greediness  by  the  cells  of  the  blood, 
which  distribute  it  where  needed  in  all  parts  of  the  body. 
When  plants  are  growing,  oxygen  is  released  and  thrown 
into  the  air.    At  the  same  time,  by  means  of  leaves,  the 


DISTRIBUTION   OF   CAPILLARIES 
IN  POSTERIOR   EXTREMITIES. 


RIGHT 
VENTRICLl 


How  THE  Blood  Circulates  Through  the  Body 


Blood  is  collected  from  all  parts  of  the  body  and  delivered  into  the  right  auricle, 
which  on  contracting,  forces  the  blood  into  the  right  ventricle;  this  in  turn  contracts 
and  forces  the  blood  into  the  lungs,  where  oxygen  is  taken  on  and  carbonic  acid  gas 
and  other  impurities  are  thrown  off.  From  the  lungs  the  blood  is  returned  to  the 
left  side  of  the  heart  and  distributed  through  arteries  and  capillaries  to  all  parts 
of  the  body. 


carbonic  acid  gas  is  drawn  in  and  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  plant  compounds.  This  was  got  from  the  air.  An 
animal,  in  performing  its  functions  and  in  building  tissue, 
inhales  oxygen  from,  and  exhales  carbon  dioxide  into,  the 
air.  Animals  in  this  niannei  use  what  is  waste  to  the 
plant,  and  the  plants  what  is  poison  to  the  animal. 

15.  Excretion. — The  products  resulting  from  the  oxida- 
tion of  animal  tissues,  or  of  the  food  consumed,  are  re- 
moved from  the  body  by  the  lungs,  kidneys  and  skin.  The 
chief  products  of  oxidation  in  the  body  are  carbonic  acid, 
water,  urea,  and  salts.  Carbonic  acid  is  removed  through 
the  lungs,  and  to  a  smaller  extent  by  the  skin ;  urea  and 


HOW    FOOD   IS  DIGESTED 


73 


salts  by  the  kidneys  and  by  perspiration ;  water  by  the 
organs  of  excretion.  Fat  and  sugar  when  oxidized  yield 
simply  water  and  carbonic  acid  and  are  excreted  as  such 
products.  The  undigested  part  of  the  food  is  voided  as 
solid  excrement. 

The  powers  of  digestion  differ  with  the  several  species 
of  animals.  Thus  hogs  are 
not  capable  of  living  on  hay 
and  similar  roughage  because 
their  single  small  stomach 
does  not  permit  them  to  digest 
a  sufficient  proportion  of  such 
material.  A  hog  will  not 
grow  fat  on  grass  alone,  while 
a  steer  may.  Cattle  and  sheep 
Avith  their  four  stomachs, 
have  the  power  of  efficiently 
changing  grass  into  food, 
clothing  and  labor.  It  is  this 
power  which  makes  them 
useful  to  man.     Horses  have 

the  ability  of  digesting  coarse  materials  in  a  fairly  high 
degree.  When  severe  work,  however,  is  required  horses 
must  be  fed  on  concentrated  and  easily  digested  food  for 
the  best  results. 


Respiratory  System  of  Horse 
1.  Cranial  cavity;  2,  guttural 
pouch;  3,  nasal  cavity;  4,  tongue; 
5,  pharyngeal  cavity;  6,  cavity  of 
larynx;  7,  epiglottis;  8,  trachea;  9, 
oesophagus;  10,  section  of  left 
bronchus;  11,  ramifications  of  right 
bronchus;  12,  right  lung;  13,  left 
lung;  14,  sternum;  15,  ribs;  16, 
heart;  17,  posterior  aorta;  18,  ante- 
rior aorta. 


LESSON  EIGHT 
COMPUTATION  OF  RATIONS 

1.  Why  animals  use  food. 

2.  Two  kinds  of  rations. 

3.  Mixed  foods. 

4.  How  a  ration  is  made. 

5.  First  step  in  making  a  ration. 

6.  Second  step  in  the  computation. 

7.  Comparing-  the  trial  ration  with  the  standard. 

8.  Completing  the  ration. 

9.  Ration  is  satisfactory. 

10.  Feeding  for  heavy  milkers. 

11.  Rounding  out  with  grain  feeds. 

12.  Using  the  standard  in  practical  work. 

13.  What  balanced  rations  accomplish. 

14.  What  foods  to  choose. 

15.  Cost  of  the  ration. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — This  lesson  gives  all  the  details 
of  compounding  rations  for  farm  animals.  To  make  stu- 
dents thoroughly  familiar  with  ration  making  require  them 
to  prepare  other  rations,  using  feeds  available  at  their 
homes.  Members  of  the  class  should  be  asked  to  place 
their  work  on  the  blackboard,  where  careful  comparisons 
may  be  made.  This  will  develop  into  very  interesting 
work,  particularly  if  the  cost  of  each  food  is  also  in- 
cluded. Calculate  the  variation  in  cost  for  large  herds 
covering  half-A^ear  or  yearly  periods. 

74 


LESSON  EIGHT 

COMPUTATION  OF  RATIONS 

1.  Why  animals  use  food. — An  animal  uses  food  for 
five  distinct  purposes : 

1.  To  replace  waste  from  all  parts  of  the  body. 

2.  To  produce  heat  to  keep  the  body  warm. 

3.  To  produce  energy  so  that  work  may  be  done. 

4.  To  provide  the  building  materials  for  larger  growth 
or  increase  in  muscle,  fat,  flesh  and  bone. 

5.  To  have  materials  in  reserve  for  the  formation  of 
milk,  wool,  etc. 

These  five  purposes  develop  after  the  food  is  absorbed, 
and  originate  in  the  digestible  nutrients  expressed  in 
terms  of  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat.  To  provide 
nutrients  in  the  quantity  and  proportions  that  they  should 
be  fed  so  as  to  satisfy  one  or  more  of  the  five  ends  of 
feeding  makes  necessary  the  selection  and  compounding 
of  rations. 

2.  Two  kinds  of  rations. — Suppose  a  ration  is  wanted 
for  a  herd  of  dairy  cows.  What  class  of  food  shall  be 
placed  before  the  animals?  It  is  possible  to  furnish  a  ra- 
tion consisting  of  roughage  food  raised  on  the  farm,  like 
straw,  corn  stover,  the  usual  farm  hays,  and  ear  corn  ; 
on  the  other  hand,  a  ration  might  be  furnished  consist- 
ing largely  of  grain  food  or  concentrates,  with  a  small  al- 
lowance of  some  cheap  roughage. 

In  villages,  and  in  herds  near  large  cities,  cows  are  fed  largely 
the  by-products  of  certain  manufacturing  enterprises,  or  on  chop 
feeds  and  other  grain  materials  that  may  be  purchased  often  as 
cheaply  as  hay.  The  result  is,  these  cows  are  not  fed  as  they  ought 
to  be.    The  cow  in  the  country  often  is  fed  too  little  protein  and  too 

75 


76 


COMPUTATION    OF    RATIONS 


77 


much  carbohydrates  and  fat;  the  village  cow  too  much  of  protein 
and  too  little  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fat;  and  the  best  results  are 
not  obtained  in  either  case.  The  country  cow  loses  in  weight;  she 
gets  poor ;  she  is  forced  to  take  from  her  own  body  much  protein 
stored  in  flesh  to  use  for  milk  and  tissue  repair.  The  village  cow 
may  or  may  not  thin  down,  but  the  necessity  of  using  the  protein 
in  the  food  for  meeting  all  the  functions  of  the  nutrients  acts  to  her 
disadvantage  and  she  is  never  able  to  be  at  her  best. 

3.  Mixed  foods. — Best  results  are  always  secured  when 
the  two  methods  are 
merged;  when  the  coun-  ill 'lyiiijli. 
try  cow  is  given  concen- 
trates in  addition  to  the 
farm-raised  roughages, 
and  the  village  cow  hay 
and  stover  in  addition  to 
the  feed-store  mill  feeds. 
It  is  not  enough  to  se- 
cure grain  as  concen- 
trates for  the  country 
cow  either;  the  selection 
must  be  made  on  the 
basis  of  the  composition  ; 
and.  since  the  country 
cow's  ration  is  already 
out  of  proportion  be- 
cause of  the  excess  of 
carbohydrates  and  fat,  it 
would  not  help  matters 
any  by  a  purchase  of  a  grain  food  also  low  in  protein. 

In  practice  many  feeders  buy  corn  meal  as  a  dairy  concentrate; 
instead  of  improving  the  ration  this  makes  things  worse,  because 
corn  meal  added  to  grass  hay,  corn  stover  and  straw  only  increases 
the  cost  without  supplying  any  appreciable  increase  of  protein.  The 
way  out  of  this  difficulty  is  to  study  the  available  concentrates  and 
select  one  or  more  that  contains  protein  in  greatest  abundance,  and 
not  starch  and  fat. 


AVERAGE  DAILY 

RATION 
Consumed  by  each  row 
fed  the sllafle  ration 


AVERAGE  DAILY 

RATIONJ- 
Consumed  b^eac  h  cow 
fed  the  sjiecial  grain  ration 


Two  Dairy  Rations 

Two  rations  for  dairy  cows  have  been  com- 
pared. From  one,  8.9  pounds  of  butter  v.-as 
produced  from  one  dollar's  worth  of  feed, 
while  from  the  other  but  5.28  pounds  of  but- 
ter was  obtained  from  a  dollar's  worth  of 
feed.  This  shows  how  two  rations  may  cost 
the  same  and  one  may  be  worth  a  great  deal 
more  for  final  returns. 


78 


FARM    ANIMALS 


4.  How  a  ration  is  made. — The  first  step  in  computing 
rations  is  to  consider  the  feeding  standard  for  the  class  of 
animals  to  be  fed.  If  it  is  assumed  that  a  ration  is  wanted 
for  a  dairy  cow  yielding  22  pounds  of  milk  daily,  the  table 
of  standards  is  to  be  consulted  for  that  class  of  dairy 
cows.  The  standard  calls  for  29  pounds  of  dry  matter, 
2.5  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  13  pounds  of  digestible 
carbohydrates,  and  0.5  pounds  of  digestible  fat.  Assum- 
ing that  corn  stover,  corn  silage  and  clover  hay  are  avail- 
able, we  will  use  such  quantities  of  each  as  have  been 
found  in  practice  to  be  fairly  representative  of  the  avail- 
able supply  on  average  farms  and  about  what  an  animal 
will  eat  up  clean  without  tiring  her  appetite. 

5.  First  step  in  making  a  ration. — As  a  starting  point, 
we  will  use  10  pounds  of  corn  stover,  15  pounds  of  clover 
hay  and  30  pounds  of  corn  silage.  The  averages  of 
digestible  nutrients  in  these  feeds  are  as  follows : 


Feeding  stuffs 


Corn   stover 
Corn  silage 
Clover  hay 


Dry 
matter 


59.5 
20.9 

84.7 


Digestible   nutrients   in 
100  pounds 


Protein 


l.-i 
0.9 
7.1 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


31.3 
12.6 
37.8 


Fat 


0.7 
0.6 
1.8 


6.  The  second  step  in  the  computation  is  to  calculate 
the  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients  in  the  quantities  of  each 
of  these  feeding  stuffs.  It  is  clear,  for  instance,  that  10 
pounds  of  corn  stover  will  contain  just  one-tenth  as  much 
protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat  as  100  pounds.  If  each 
of  these  factors  is  divided  by  100  and  multiplied  by  10, 
we  shall  have  the  amounts  of  each  constituent  that  10 
pounds  of  corn  stover  will  furnish  the  animal. 


COMPUTATION    OF    RATIONS  79 


The  100  pounds  of  corn  stover  contains : 
59.5  pounds  of  dry  matter 

1.4  pounds  of  protein 
31.2  pounds  of  carbohydrates 
0.7  pounds  of  fat 

If  100  pounds  of  corn  stover  contains  these  quantities  of  digestible 
nutrients,  then  1  pound  contains  just  one  one-hundredth  as  much,  or 
the  following  quantities: 

.595  pounds  of  dry  matter 

.014  pounds  of  protein 

.324  pounds  of  carbohydrates 

.007  pounds  of  fat 

Ten  pounds  vi^ill  contain  ten  times  the  quantity  of  1  pound,  or  the 
following : 

5.95  pounds  of  dry  matter 
.14  pounds  of  protein 
3.24  pounds  of  carbohydrates 
.07  pounds  of  fat 


The  digestible  nutrients  in  30  pounds  of  corn  silage  are  ascer- 
tained in  the  same  manner :  In 

In  100  lbs.        In  1  lb.       30  lbs. 

Dry  matter  20.9  -^  100  =  .209  X  30  =    6.27 

Protein  0.9 -MOO  =  .009  X  30  =      .27 

100  =  .126  X  30  =    3.78 
100  =  .006  X  30  ==      .18 


Carbohydrates 12.6 

Fat 0.6 


Making  the  same  computation  for  each  constituent  in  clover  hay, 
we  have  the  following :  In 

In  100  lbs.        In  1  lb.       30  lbs. 

Dry  matter  84.7  ^  100  =  .847  X  15  =  12.70 

Protein   7.1 -^  100  =  .071  X  15  =    1.06 


Carbohydrates    37.8 

Fat 1.8 


100  =  .378  X  15  =    5.67 
100  =  .18    X  15  =      .27 


7.  Comparing  trial  ration  with  the  standard. — If  we 

arrange  these  figures  in  a  table  and  add  the  nutrients  to- 
gether, we  shall  have  a  statement  of  the  quantity  of  each 
constituent  supplied,  and  will  be  in  a  position  to  compare 
their  totals  with  the  standard,  to  know  what  nutrients 
are  insufficiently  provided.     This  is  done  as  follows : 


80 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Trial  Ration  Falls  Below  Standard 


Dry 

matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Feeding  stuffs 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

10  lbs.  corn  stover 

30  lbs.  corn  silage 

15  lbs.  clover  hay 

5.95 

6.27 

12.70 

.14 

.27 
1.06 

3.24 
3.78 
5.67 

.07 
.18 

.27 

Totals 

25.92 

1.47 

12.69 

.52 

Feeding  standard 

29.00 

2.50 

13.00 

.50 

8.  Completing  the  ration. — Comparing  the  nutrient.s  in 
the  feeds  used  with  the  standard,  it  will  be  seen  there  is  a 
striking  deficiency  of  protein.  It  will  now  be  necessary 
to  introduce  into  the  ration  one  or  more  other  feeds  in 
order  to  correct  the  faults  so  evident  in  the  trial  ration. 
Since  the  greatest  deficiency  is  in  the  protein,  we  must 
seek  a  supply  from  among  such  feeding  stuffs  as  are  par- 
ticularly rich  in  protein.  The  oil  and  the  gluten  meals 
are  of  this  kind.  Suppose  we  now  try  two  and  three- 
quarter  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal.  The  digestible  nu- 
trients are  ascertained  in  the  same  manner  as  before, 
and  a  second  trial  made. 


Feeding  Ration  for  Dairy  Cow  Approximates  Standard 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

In  preceding 

2-}4  lbs.  cottonseed  meal 

25.92 
2  55 

1.47 
1.03 

12.69 
.59 

.52 
.26 

Totals 

23.47 

2.50 

13.28 

.78 

Feeding  standard 

29.00 

2..50 

13.00 

.50 

COMPUTATION    OF    RATIONS  81 

9.  Ration  is  satisfactory. — In  this  ration  no  serious 
faults  are  noticed.  We  have  the  correct  amount  of  protein, 
but  an  excess  in  carbohydrates  of  .28  pounds.  The  dry 
matter  is  slightly  under  the  standard.  This  does  not 
matter  so  long  as  the  quantity  does  not  so  greatly  over- 
run the  standard  as  to  give  greater  bulk  than  the  average 
cow  has  room  to  accommodate.  A  deficiency  in  dry 
matter  can  be  evident  and  still  not  affect  the  efficiency  of 
the  ration.  The  excess  of  the  fuel  foods  is  so  small  as 
to  be  of  no  importance.  Were  a  pound  less  of  clover  hay 
and  a  quarter  of  a  pound  more  of  cottonseed  meal  used 
in  the  ration,  the  ration  would  correspond  to  the  standard 
with  considerable  exactness. 


Ration  For 
Maintenance 


Ration  For 
Maintenance 

Extra  For 
22  pounds  Milk 

Ration   For 
Maintenance 

Extra  For 
27.5  pounds  Milk 

Rations  Change  with   Rate  of  Milk  Yield 

Food  requirements  for  maintenance  are  the  same,  but  more  food  is  necessary  in 
proportion  as  the  yield  of  milk  is  increased.  Heavy  milking  cows,  therefore,  re- 
quire the  biggest  rations. 


10.  Feeding  for  heavy  milkers. — Suppose,  now,  a  ration 
is  wanted  for  the  same  cows  at  another  period  when  they 
are  giving  more  milk  than  in  the  case  just  cited,  say  27.5 
pounds  daily.  How  shall  we  proceed  to  adjust  this 
ration  to  the  new  requirements,  using  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible the  same  feeding  stuffs  as  before?  The  first  step 
is  to  consult  the  standard.  This  we  find  calls  for  32 
pounds  of  dry  matter ;  3.3  pounds  of  protein ;  13  pounds 
of  carbohydrates ;   0.8  pounds  of  fat. 


82 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Obviously,  each  cow  has  a  certain  limit  as  to  storage  and  diges- 
tion capacity  for  bulky  feeds.  In  the  preceding  ration  about  all  of 
the  corn  stover,  silage  and  clover  hay  that  the  average  cow  can 
handle  was  used.  Her  limit,  therefore,  was  reached  as  far  as  the 
roughage  foods  are  concerned. 

11.  Rounding  out  with  grain  feeds. — Since  the  ration 
already  contains  just  about  all  that  a  cow  of  this  size  can 
eat,  we  will  prepare  a  place  in  the  ration  by  withdrawing 
three  pounds  of  the  clover  hay.  We  will  increase  the 
cottonseed  meal  to  four  pounds  and  add  2^  pounds  of 
gluten  feed.     This  done,  we  have  the  following : 


Dry 
matter 

Digestible   nutrients 

Feeding   stuffs 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

10  lbs   corn  stover 

5.95 
6.27 
10.12 
3.76 
2.25 

.1-4 
.27 
.85 
1.50 
.53 

3.24 

3.78 

4.54 

.84 

1.30 

.07 

30  lbs.  corn  silage 

12  lbs   clover  hay 

.18 
.21 

4  lbs.  cottonseed  meal 

2y2  lbs.  gluten  feed 

.36 
.06 

Totals 

28.35 

2.29 

13.70 

.88 

32.00 

3.30 

13.00 

.80 

This  ration  agrees  closely  with  the  standard  and  is  assumed  to 
satisfy  all  the  requirements  for  a  cow  yielding  27.5  pounds  of  milk 
daily  and  weighing  1,000  pounds. 

12.  Using  the  standard  in  practical  work. — Many  peo- 
ple take  feeding  standards  and  balanced  rations  far  too 
seriously.  They  fail  to  understand  that  it  is  in  the  spirit 
and  not  in  their  literal  use  that  these  feeding  aids  are  to 
be  adopted.  The  balanced  ration,  at  best,  can  be  made 
to  approach  only  approximately  the  food  requirements 
for  any  animal  or  set  of  animals. 

The  composition  of  a  feeding  stuff  is  always  open  to  considerable 
variation,  and  what  adds  still  to  the  uncertainty  is  the  fact  that  foods 


COMPUTATION    OF    RATIONS 


83 


are  not  digested  with  equal  facility  or  completeness  by  different 
animals,  even  in  the  same  herd  and  given  the  identical  feeding 
stuffs.  Moreover,  it  is  impracticable  to  provide  a  ration  for  every 
individual  in  a  herd.  To  do  this  would  require  as  many  different 
rations  as  there  are  animals  to  be  fed,  and  definite  weighings  of 
every  feeding  stuff  contained  in  the  ration.  But  all  this  is  unneces- 
sary, and  no  exponent  of  the  balanced  ration  asks  that  it  be  done. 

13.  What  balanced  rations  accomplish. — The  aim  of 
the  balanced  ration  is  to  avoid  serious  faults  in  the  use 
of  feeding-  stuffs.  Used  on  broad  lines, 
the  balanced  ration  enables  the  stock 
feeder  to  utilize  to  the  best  advantage  his 
plant  products  or  feed  crops.  In  case  he 
needs  an  additional  supply,  a  bit  of  figur- 
ing will  fully  adv^ise  him  as  to  what  class 
of  available  purchased  feeds  he  ought  to 
buy  in  order  to  secure  the  greatest  ef- 
ficiency from  the  food. 

14.  What  foods  to  choose. — On  every 
farm  some  feeding  stuffs  are  grown  that 
possess  little  commercial  value.  Corn 
stover,  the  straws,  legume  hays,  and 
silage  are  all  splendid  bulk  foods,  are 
easily  raised  on  the  farm  and  should  be 

used  freely  in  ration  making.  They  will  supply  also  the 
greater  part  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fat.  The  farm  is 
the  best  factory  for  the  production  of  these  fuel  nutrients. 
In  the  legumes  and  cereal  grains  much  of  the  protem  may 
be  obtained.  If  a  protein  shortage  exists,  it  is  good  busi- 
ness to  meet  it,  even  though  expensive  concentrates  must 
be  purchased. 

15.  Cost  of  the  ration. — The  wise  farmer  will  figure  the 
cost  of  foodstuffs  very  carefully  to  find  out  what  are  most 
profitable  to  feed.  It  is  often  economy  to  sell  some  food 
having  a  wide  nutritive  ratio,  such  as  timothy,  corn,  oats 


Feed  Did  It 

The  hogs  were 
litter  mates.  The 
smaller  of  the  two 
lived  its  little  life  on 
corn  alone.  The  big 
fellow  had  corn  and 
alfalfa. 


84  FARM    ANIMALS 

and  wheat,  replacing  with  other  foods  having  a  narrow 
nutritive  ratio,  such  as  the  oil  meals,  and  the  factory  by- 
products. Very  often  this  exchange  is  made;  and  not 
only  is  the  ration  improved,  thus  bringing  about  better 
results  from  the  animals  under  feed,  but  a  money  profit 
is  secured  in  addition  to  that  obtained  because  of  the 
greater  efficiency  of  the  ration. 

Alore  milk  can  be  produced  from  a  given  herd  of  cattle 
if  the  grain  is  fed  in  proportion  to  the  milk  given  than 
if  distributed  equally  among  all  the  cows  of  the  herd. 
Let  it  be  assumed  that  in  addition  to  what  clover  hay  and 


1  Acre 

Cowpea 

Hay 


4^  Acres 
Timothy    Hay 


Increasing  the  Farm  Protein   Supply 

The  two  fields  will   produce  the   same   amount   of   protein.     This    is   one   reason   why 
legume   farming  pays. 

silage  a  cow  will  eat,  she  should  receive  1  pound  of 
grain  for  each  5  pounds  of  milk.  Under  these  conditions, 
a  cow  that  is  producing  20  pounds  of  milk  w^ould  require 
4  pounds  of  grain ;  one  giving  30  pounds,  6  pounds ;  while 
a  cow  producing  50  pounds  of  milk  would  require  10 
pounds  of  grain.  The  best  results  are  obtained  by  the 
skillful  feeder  who  studies  the  needs  of  his  cows. 


LESSON  NINE 
GETTING  THE  MOST  FROM   FEEDS 

1.  Appetite 

2.  Pasture  grass 

3.  Soiling  crops 

4.  Silage 

5.  Roots 

6.  Variety  in  food 

7.  Steaming  and  cooking  food 

8.  Coarse  or  roughage  feeds 

9.  Concentrates 

10.  Protein  most  important 

11.  Cutting  hay 

12.  Shall  grain  be  ground 

13.  Double  value  in  feeds 

14.  Loss  of  fertility  contained  in  feed 

15.  Profit  from  feed 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  opportunity  is  offered  in  this 
lesson  to  summarize  the  entire  subject  of  feeding,  and 
to  combine  the  practical  phases  with  the  fundamental 
scientific  facts.  A  ration  might  be  compounded  that 
would  be  balanced  in  the  proper  sense,  and  yet  be  so 
bulky  that  it  could  not  be  entirely  consumed ;  or  it  might 
be  so  unappetizing  as  to  be  largely  rejected.  Bring  the 
student  to  see  the  importance  of  rational  feeding,  of 
growing  the  feeds  at  home,  and  of  using  them  to  the 
very  best  advantage. 


86  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

should  weigh  as  much  as  2000  pounds,  and  the  females 
should  weigh  at  least  1600  pounds  when  mature. 

Characteristics.  —  These  horses  have  been  selected  for 
their  true  and  snappy  action,  excellent  conformation  and 
quality  of  feet,  pasterns,  and  Umbs.  The  best  Clydesdales 
have  large  feet  with  open  hoof  heads  and  liberal  width  at 
the  heels;  the  pasterns  are  long  and  sloping;  the  cannon 
bones  are  clean,  hard,  and  supported  by  strong  well-defined 
tendons.  The  feather  or  hair  that  grows  back  of  the  can- 
non bones  is  fine,  denoting  quahty.  The  hock  joint  is 
usually  well  set  and  clean,  and  the  knees  are  large,  straight, 
and  flat.  The  thighs  and  quarters  are  strong,  and  the  arm 
and  forearm  are  well  muscled.  They  have  gently  sloping 
shoulders  and  are  high  at  the  withers. 

The  body  is  somewhat  rangier  than  that  of  the  Belgian 
or  Percheron.  The  Clydesdales  are  excellent  draft  horses 
and  good  types  sell  well ;  but  they  have  not  met  with  the 
favor  on  the  market  that  the  Percherons  enjoy,  because 
they  lack  compactness  of  form.  American  farmers  who 
have  used  the  Clydesdale  horse  object  to  the  hairy  legs, 
which  gather  mud  and  snow,  and  are  thus  hard  to  keep 
clean ;  and  the  market  does  not  favor  pasterns  that  slope 
extremely. 

In  America,  they  were  first  imported  to  Canada  in  1842, 
where  they  are  found  to-day  in  greater  numbers  than  in 
the  United  States.  Their  continued  use  has  greatly  im- 
proved Canadian  horses. 

The  favorite  and  commonest  color  of  the  Clydesdale  is 
bay  with  perhaps  one  or  more  white  feet  and  cannon  bones, 
and  a  white  star  on  the  forehead  or  white  strip  in  the  face. 
Black,  gray,  and  chestnut  colors  are  also  found,  but  they 
are  not  encouraged  in  fancy  breeding. 


SHIRE  HORSE 


87 


THE   SHIRE   HORSE 

The  Shire  horses  are  the  most  popular  draft  horses  in 
England.  They  have  become  general  in  city  use  in  that 
country  because  of  their  great  weight  and  strength. 

They  have  developed  and  are  now  bred  mostly  in  the  low 
flat  lands  of  England,  where  the  soil  is  rich,  climate  moist, 
and  vegetation  abundant.  f, 

Although  much  valued  in  England,  both  in  the  cities 
and  on  the  farms,  and  used  to  a  large  extent  in  continental 


Fig.  23.  —  Shire  horse. 

Europe  and  in  Australia,  they  have  not  met  with  general 
favor  in  America,  because  of  the  abundant  growth  of  hair 
on  their  legs,  to  which  our  farmers  object. 

Some  people  have  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between 
the  Shire  and  the  Clydesdale  breeds.     While  bay  is  the  pre- 


88 


FARM    ANIMALS 


duced  from  an  acre  of  corn  put  in  the  silo  than  from  an 

equal  area  of  similar  corn  fed  when  matured  and  cured 

and  used  as  dry  fodder  and  ear  corn. 

Corn  is  the  leading  silage  crop,  although  alfalfa,  soy  beans,  clover, 
rye,  and  other  crops  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose.  These 
crops,  however,  do  not  keep  as  well  in  the  silo  as  corn  does. 
When  crops  other  than  corn  are  to  be  siloed,  it  is  better  to  mix 
them  with  corn.  Soy  beans  and  corn,  or  alfalfa  and  corn,  are 
excellent  combinations.  Prepared  in  this  manner,  the  mixture 
is  better  balanced  and  gives  maximum  results  in  the  stable  and 
feed  lots. 

5.  Roots. — In  summer,  if  pasture  is  available,  animals 
fare  very  well  without  silage,  soiling  or  roots.  In  win- 
ter a  succulent  food  is  advis- 
able. Root  crops  have  long 
been  popular  with  sheep, 
cattle  and  horsemen  and  with 
breeders  of  valuable  farm 
stock.  Roots  are  not  valued 
solely  for  their  nutriment. 
They    aid    digestion    and    as- 

^    similation    of   dry    foods    and 
'=-' -^rrg^     contribute  to  healthfulness. 

The  leading  root  crops  are  car- 
rots,   turnips    and   beets.      If    silage 
Root  Cutter  is  available,  roots  may  be  dispensed 

with.  The  cost  of  labor  in  grow- 
ing has  been  against  their  extended  use  in  this  country.  One  rea- 
son why  roots  are  so  satisfactory  an  article  of  food  is  because  they 
are  so  completely  digestible. 

6.  Variety  in  food. — Animals  are  less  likely  to  tire  of 
their  food  if  it  contains  several  kinds  of  feeding  stufifs. 
Farm  stock  are  like  people — they  relish  variety  in  their 
food  supply.  This  does  not  mean  frequent  changes  in 
the  ration.  If  a  ration  is  correct,  animals  do  better  if  fed 
continuously  upon  it.  Provide  variety  at  the  time  of 
selecting  the  feed,  but  after  the  proper  combination  has 


GETTING   THE    MOST    FROM    FEEDS 


89 


been  secured  make  no  changes  except  for  very  good  rea- 
sons. Under  what  circumstances  is  it  sometimes  advis- 
able to  change  the  ration? 

7.  Steaming  and  cooking  food. — A  great  many  devices 

have  been  placed  on  the  mar- 
ket for  the  preparation  of  feed- 
ing stuffs  for  live  stock.  The 
labor  and  expense  connected 
with  the  steaming  and  cooking 
of  food  are  usually  unwarranted 
and  uneconomical. 

8.  Coarse  or  roughage  feeds. 
— These  include  the  grasses, 
cereals,  legumes,  roots  and 
anything  of  a  bulky  nature, 
whether  fed  green  or  dry,  as 
hay.  In  all  feeding  practice, 
the  ration  should  be  based  on 
one  or  more  of  these  products.  They  are  home  grown 
and  are  thus  produced  at  less  cost  than  other  feeds  if 
purchased.  The  roughage  feeds  contain  more  of  the 
carbohydrates  than  of  protein. 

9.  Concentrates. — The  grain  by-products  and  other 
concentrates  are  relatively  rich  in  protein,  but  not  always 
so.     Cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal  and  gluten  are  very 


Device   for  Cooking   Feed   for 
Live  Stock 


high 


m  protein.  The 
concentrates  are  easily 
digestible,  and  where 
high  production  is  de- 
manded, liberal  quanti- 
ties should  be  used  in 
daily  rations.  In  pur- 
chasing       concentrates, 


1  30.2 

;^32 


J64.J 


Selecting   for  Protein 

Note  the  much   larger  amount  of  protein   in 
linseed  meal  than   in   corn  meal. 


90 


FARM    ANIMALS 


make  it  a  rule  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  total  digestible 
nutrients  and  of  digestible  protein  in  a  ton.  Then  select 
the  feeding  stuff  that  supplies  the  protein  at  the  cheapest 
rate  to  the  pound.  In  this  way  economical  buying  of 
feeds  is  possible. 

10.  Protein  most  important. — In  buying  concentrates 
choose  those  feeds  that  are  high  in  protein  and  relatively 
low  in  carbohydrates.  For  instance,  cottonseed  meal 
contains  nearly  six  times  as  much  protein  as  corn  meal. 
The  dairyman  who  has   a  large  supply  of  corn  stover, 


Useful  Tools   for  Making  Hay 
Our  forefathers  cut  the  hay  crop  by  hand.     Haying  operations  are  now  done  largely 
by   horse-drawn   tools.      Farm  tools   and  implements  save   labor  and  lessen   the  cost 
in  producing  crops. 


silage  and  grass  hay  would  make  a  poor  purchase  if  he 
selected  corn  meal  instead  of  cottonseed  meal  or  gluten 
for  dairy  cows,  even  though  the  corn  might  cost  but 
half  as  much  per  ton  as  cottonseed  meal  or  gluten. 
Getting  protein  at  the  cheapest  cost  a  pound  is  the  most 
important  thing  in  buying  concentrated  feeds. 

11.  Cutting  hay. — Early  cut  ha}-  is  richer  in  protein 
and  contains  less  crude  fiber  than  late  cut.  As  plants 
ripen,  the  more  nutritious  compounds  move  into  the  seed, 
and  leave  the  food  part  of  hay  less  valuable.     The  best 


GETTING  THE  MOST  FROM  FEEDS 


91 


time  for  cutting  is  between  the  time  of  blossoming  and 
seed  forming.  The  nutritious  compounds  at  this  time 
are  distributed  throughout  the  plants,  and  there  is  cor- 
respondingly less  woody  tissue.  If  cut  when  the  plants 
are  in  blossom  the  yield  will  be  less  than  at  a  period  a 
little  later. 

12.  Shall  grain  be  ground? — Grain  feeds  are  most 
digestible  if  ground.  Corn,  oats,  wheat  and  other  grains 
often  are  so  hard  that  if  passed  into 
the  stomach  without  mastication  the 
digestive  juices  fail  in  their  duty. 
But  it  does  not  follow  that  it  is  good 
business  management  to  grind  feeds. 
Experiments  show  that  when  corn, 
for  instance,  is  ground  the  returns 
are  increased  from  8  to  15  per  cent ; 
yet  the  labor  of  hauling  to  and  from 
the  mill  or  of  grinding  the  grain  at 
home  may  mean  a  loss  in  the  end. 
The  custom  of  following  cattle  and 
horses  with  pigs  to  pick  up  the  un- 
digested grain  or  other  food  is  both 
wise  and  profitable,  and  satisfactorily  meets  this  condition. 

13.  Double  value  in  feeds. — All  feeding  stufifs  have  two 
values — feed  and  fertility.  The  man  who  buys  concen- 
trated feeds  rich  in  protein  gains  by  the  enterprise,  but 
the  men  lose  who  produce  and  sell  them.  By  disposing 
of  these  valuable  food  products  farmers  really  sell  the 
plant  food  of  their  lands.  When  animal  products  are 
sold  the  drain  on  the  land  is  not  large,  but  if  grain  crops 
are  sold  much  plant  food  is  withdrawn  from  the  soil. 

The  farmer  who  sells  a  ton  of  clover  hay  withdraws  from  his 
soil  $8.72  worth  of  fertility.  This  is  half  as  much  as  he  receives. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  sells  a  ton  of  pork,  he  sends  from  his  farm 


Feed  Grinder 


92 


FARM    ANIMALS 


but  $6.35  worth  of  fertility,  but  receives  30  times  as  much  as  the 
value  of  the  fertility  contained  in  it.  If  he  sells  milk,  he  receives 
40  times  as  much  as  the  fertility  contained  in  it;  and  if  he  sells 
butter,  his  returns  are  1,000  times  as  much  as  is  the  value  of  the 
fertility  sold  in  the  butter. 

14.  Loss  of  fertility  contained  in  feed. — Due  to  careless 
methods  of  handling  manure,  there  is  a  tremendous  loss 
of  fertility  in  the  aggregate  each  year.  Much  of  the  nitro- 
gen is  lost  as  fast  as  the  manure  is  made,  through  fer- 


Selling  Hogs  Versus  Selling  Hay 

Equal  amounts  of  hay  and  pork  are  sold.     Note  the  difference  in  market  value  and 
quantity  of  plant  food  sent  from  the  farm  in  each. 


mentation  and  leaching.  Much  of  the  potash  is  lost  in 
drainage  waters  from  the  stable  and  the  barnyards.  This 
loss  can  l)e  greatly  lessened  by  the  use  of  litter  in  the 
stables,  by  covered  barnyards,  and  through  the  addition 
from  day  to  day  of  a  preservative  like  acid  phosphate  to 
the  excrement. 

There  is  loss  through  leaching,  not  only  in  barnyards,  but  wher- 
ever manure  is  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  weather.  In  loose, 
open  piles  fully  one-half  of  the  fertilizing  value  may  disappear  in  a 
half-year  period.  If  manure  is  not  hauled  direct  to  the  field  and 
scattered,  it  may  be  fairly  well  preserved  in  large  piles,  which  should 
be  kept  moist;  or  in  covered  barnyards,  where  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly compacted,  with  enough  litter  provided  to  absorb  the  liquid 
and  keep  the  animals  clean.  Fresh  manures  that  undergo  fermenta- 
tion rapidly,  such  as  horse  and  sheep  manures,  should  be  mixed  with 
litter  immediately,  else  the  nitrogen  will  be  lost.  Acid  phosphate 
sprinkled  on  fresh  manure  has  long  been  a  popular  preservative. 

15.  Profit  from  feed. — The  full  value  of  a  feeding  stuflf 


GETTING   THE   MOST    PROM    FEEDS 


93 


for  feed  and  fertilizer  is  secured  only  when  the  feed  has 
been  properly  prepared  in  the  first  place,  then  fed  in  the 
proper  combination  with  other  feeds  to  farm  animals  of 
good  breeding  and  selected  for  the  purpose  to  which  they 
are  best  adapted,  and  finally  so  handled  as  manure  that  the 
fertilizing  materials  are  not  lost  through  fermentation, 
decomposition  and  leaching.  Such  practice  is  good  farm- 
ing and  is  fundamental  for  success  in  feed  lot  or  open  field. 
To  get  the  best  results 
there  must  be  a  proper 
relation  (1)  between 
the  total  dry  matter  and 
the  total  digestible  nu- 
trients and  (2)  between 
the  digestible  protein 
and  the  digestible  car- 
bohydrates. For  ex- 
ample, from  100  pounds 
of  hay  a  horse  may 
digest  40  pounds  of  nutrients.  Twenty-four  pounds  may 
be  burned  up  in  the  work  of  digesting  the  hay,  thus 
leaving  but  16  pounds  available  for  labor.  From  100 
pounds  of  oats,  a  horse  may  digest  72  pounds,  12  pounds 
of  which  are  consumed  in  the  work  of  digestion,  leaving 
60  pounds  for  labor.  Thus  oats  may  be  nearly  four  times 
as  valuable  as  hay  for  a  horse  that  must  exercise  great 
power  or  speed.  An  ordinary  milk  cow  will  consume 
from  24  to  30  pounds  of  dry  matter,  two-thirds  of  which 
should  be  digestible,  while  one-eighth  of  the  digestible 
material  should  be  protein. 


How  Not  to  Store  Manure 

This    bad    practice   causes    an    annual    loss    of 
millions  of  dollars.     Why  will  we  do  it? 


PRACTICUMS 

1.  Do  horses  have  teeth  in  front  in  both  jaws?  Do  cattle?  Do 
sheep? 

2.  Cost  of  Nutrients. —  (Consult  appendix  for  digestible  nu- 
trients in  feeding  stuffs.) 

(a)  When  corn  is  worth  $25  a  ton,  what  is  the  value  of  a  pound 
of  digestible  protein?     Of  a  pound  of  total  digestible  nutrients? 

(b)  When  cottonseed  meal  can  be  bought  for  $32  a  ton,  and  pro- 
tein only  is  required  for  balancing  a  dairy  ration,  what  is  the  cost  of 
a  pound  of   digestible  protein? 

(r)  If  protein  only  is  needed,  in  which  feeding  stuff — cottonseed 
meal  at  $32,  linseed  meal  at  $32,  corn  meal  at  $25,  or  wheat  bran  at 
$28  a  ton — can  it  be  most  cheaply  purchased?     Show  by  figures. 

3.  Ration  for  D.mry  Cows. — Compound  a  ration  for  dairy  cows, 
averaging  1,000  pounds  in  weight,  and  yielding  22  pounds  daily, 
using  10  pounds  of  corn  stover,  10  pounds  of  clover  hay,  and  40 
pounds  of  corn  silage  for  the  foundation  and  such  amounts  of  cot- 
tonseed meal,  wheat  bran  and  gluten  as  will  be  necessary  to  balance 
the  ration. 

4.  Rations  with  Reference  to  Cost. —  (a)  Use  the  following 
feeding  stuffs  for  compounding  a  ration  for  a  cow  weighing  1,000 
pounds  and  yielding  22  pounds  milk  daily.  Timothy  hay  worth  $20 
a  ton,  corn  stover  $5.  corn  $25,  oats  $30  and  bran  $28.  What  is  the 
daily  cost  of  the  ration? 

(b)  Use  the  following  feeding  stuffs  for  compounding  a  ration 
for  the  same  cow:  Alfalfa  hay,  worth  $15  a  ton;  clover  hay,  $12; 
corn  silage,  $2;  cottonseed  meal,  $32,  and  gluten,  $25.  What  is  the 
cost  of  the  ration? 

(c)  What  is  the  difference  in  cents  of  the  daily  cost  between 
these  two  rations? 

(d)  Suppose  both  rations  are  available  for  a  dairy  herd  of  40 
cows  to  be  fed  six  months.  What  would  be  the  total  cost  of  each 
ration  and  the  saving  in  cost  if  the  cheapest  is  used?  Is  not  the 
cheapest  ration  also  the  best? 

5.  Home  Used  Ration. — What  quantities  each  of  five  feeding 
stuffs  used  at  your  home  may  be  used  in  combination  so  as  to  fur- 
nish an  approximately  balanced  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  weighing 
1.000  pounds  and  yielding  22  pounds  of  milk?  (For  digestible  nu- 
trients, see  appendix.) 

6.  Using  for  the  purpose  timothy  hay,  corn,  oats  and  bran,  how 
many  pounds  each  will  be  required  for  feeding  a  horse  weighing 
1,000  pounds  and  doing  light  work? 

7.  A  farmer  fed  each  of  his  cows  about  10  pounds  of  timothy  hay, 
35  pounds  of  corn  silage  and  5  pounds  of  corn  and  cob  meal  daily. 
Suggest  some  changes  that  might  be  made  to  make  this  ration  better. 

8.  Two    Dairy    Rations    Compared. — At    the    Ohio    station    two 

94 


GETTING   THE    MOST    FROM    FEEDS 


95 


rations  were  compared  for  feeding  dairy  cows.  Ration  A  con- 
tained 58  pounds  of  corn  and  soy  bean  silage,  6.8  pounds  of  mixed 
timothy  hay,  2  pounds  of  linseed  meal  and  2  pounds  of  bran.  Ration 
B  consisted  of  4.7  pounds  of  corn  stover,  6.4  pounds  of  mixed 
timothy  hay,  2.5  pounds  of  linseed  meal,  5  pounds  of  corn  meal  and 
6  pounds  of  bran,  (a)  Compare  these  two  rations  as  to  digestible 
nutrients,     (b)  Determine  nutritive  ratio  of   each  ration. 

The  value  of  the  feeds  was  as  follows :  Corn  silage,  $2  a  ton ; 
corn  stover,  $5;  hay,  $12;  linseed  meal,  $34;  wheat  bran,  $30;  and 
corn  meal,  $30.  (c)  What  was  the  daily  cost  of  Ration  A?  of 
Ration  B?  What  is  the  difference  in  cost  of  the  rations?  (d) 
Suppose  40  cows  are  fed  210  days;  what  is  the  difference  in  cost  of 
feeding  that  number  of  cows  during  that  time  if  the  cheaper  ration 
is  used?  (The  results  of  this  trial  showed  that  Ration  A  produced 
g6.y  pounds  of  milk  for  each  lOO  pounds  of  food,  based  on  dry  mat- 
ter contained  in  it,  and  Ration  B,  81.3  pounds.  Thus  Ration  A  was 
better,  but  was  it  also  cheaper?) 

9.  Two  Horse  Rations  Compared. — Weight  of  horses,  1,000 
pounds ;  kind  of  work,  severe.  Feed  in  Ration  A,  10  pounds  of 
timothy  hay,  14  pounds  of  oats.  Feed  in  Ration  B,  10  pounds 
timothy  hay,  2  pounds  linseed  meal  and  9  pounds  of  corn  meal. 

(o)  Compare  the  two  rations  for  digestible  nutrients.  Value  of 
feeds,  hay  $16  a  ton,  oats  56  cents  a  bushel,  corn  65  cents  a  bushel, 
and  linseed  meal  $30  a  ton. 

(6)  What  is  the  cost  of  each  ration? 

(c)  What  is  the  difference  in  daily  cost? 

{d)  If  six  horses  are  fed  for  nine  months,  what  would  be  the 
saving  if  the  cheaper  ration  were  fed? 

{e)   Is  the  cheaper  ration  less  efficient?     Why? 

10.  Cost  of  Nutrients. — Complete  the  following  table  and  cal- 
culate the  digestible  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients  that  can 
be  procured  for  $1.  In  making  the  calculation  use  the  prices  of 
your  local  or  home  market.  What  are  the  three  most  expensive 
feeds?     The  cheapest? 


Comparing  Feed  Prices 


Feeds 

Price 

Pounds 
for$l 

Nutrients  procurable  for  $1 

Protein 

Total  digestible 
nutrients 

Corn 

Oats    _     _  _     . 

Wheat  bran 

Linseed  meal 

Gluten  meal 

Cottonseed  meal-- 

Timothy  hay 

Clover  hay  

LESSON  TEN 
DRAFT  AND  SPEED 

1.  Work 

2.  Beast  labor 

3  Why  horses  excel 

4.  Two  types  of  horses 

5.  Draft  breeds 

6.  Carriage  or  coach  breeds 
.    7.  Lighter  breeds 

8.  Action 

9.  Quality 

10.  Temperament  and  disposition 

11.  Beauty 

12.  Defects 

13.  Blemishes 

14.  Schooling 

15.  Educating  the  colt 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — In  the  horse  are  combined  both 
work  and  speed  to  greater  useful  advantage  than  in  any 
other  animal.  The  early  wild  horses  were  swift  and 
strong,  and  these  two  qualities  have  been  still  further 
developed  since  man  has  taken  these  beasts  into  his 
keeping.  It  is  not  out  of  place  to  honor  and  caress 
this  noble  animal,  which,  sturdier,  stronger  and  fleeter 
than  ourselves,  is,  nevertheless,  one  of  the  most  service- 
able and  devoted  of  all  domestic  animals. 


LESSON  TEN 


DRAFT  AND  SPEED 


1.  Work. — In  the  early  days  the  work  of  the  world  was 
done  largely  by  human  beings.  Burdens  were  carried, 
the  arts  of  agriculture  performed,  and  the  necessary  tasks 
of  life  were  all  based  on  hand  labor  or  on  the  toil  of  men 
and  women.  After  a  time  animals  were  domesticated, 
captive  beasts  being  forced  to  perform  the  sterner  and 
more  severe  kinds  of  labor  and  work. 

2.  Beast  labor. — In  our  own  days  the  ox  and  the  horse 
were  drawn  to  do  this  work,  but  the  horse  proved  to  be 
best  adaptable  and  most  efficient.  This  superiority  is  due 
not  entirely  to  greater  strength,  but 
to  more  rapid  and  graceful  move- 
ment. In  many  parts  of  the  world 
oxen  or  other  cattle  are  generally 
employed.  Oxen  have  done  much 
in  subduing  the  wilderness  and  the 
prairies  of  this  land.  Horses  and 
machinery  are  now  the  chief  mo- 
tive forces  in  the  United  States. 
Although  steam,  gasoline  and  elec- 
trical power  are  much  used,  horses 
are  more  in  demand  today  and 
command  higher  prices  than  ever 
before.  The  call  of  cattle  for  meat  has  practically  ex- 
hausted their  supply  for  labor. 

3.  Why  horses  excel. — Horses  are  more  popular  for 
working  purposes  than  other  domestic  animals,  because 


Developed   for  Work 

Note    the    heavy    muscles    and 

substantial    frame. 


98 


FARM    ANIMALS 


they  are  readily  educated  to  their  task.  They  draw 
vehicles,  tools  and  implements  at  quick  speed ;  they  may 
be  ridden  or  driven  at  a  fast  or  slow  pace,  and  in  all 
other   respects   they   meet   the   necessities   of   an   active, 


Cattle    Used    for    Plovcing    in    Gera\any 

While   horse   labor   is   generally   employed    in    this   country,   in    Europe    ox    labor   is 
common  and  efficient.    Ox  teams  were  once  common  on  many  American  farms. 

dependable  beast  for  labor,  travel  or  other  work.  Their 
racial  characteristics  have  admitted  of  easy  development, 
so  much  so  that  they  have  become  among  the  most  use- 
ful and  most  indispensable  of  the  domestic  animals. 

4.  Two  types  of  horses. — Horses  now  existing  may  be 
divided  into  two  great  groups  :  the  heavy,  cold-blooded 


Coach  Horses  of  Stylish  Action 


DRAFT   AND    SPEED  99 

horses  of  western  Europe,  and  the  lighter,  hot-blooded 
horses  of  eastern  origin.  This  difference  relates  to  char- 
acter and  temperament,  the  eastern  horses  being  ardent, 
quick,  susceptible,  courageous,  sometimes  restive;  while 
those  of  the  west  are  calm,  steady,  slow  and  gentle. 
The  draft  breeds  belong  to  the  latter,  the  roadsters,  car- 
riage and  speed  to  the  former. 

"A  low,  heavily  built  horse,  with  comparatively  large  feet  and 
limbs,  developed  and  spread  over  a  considerable  portion  of  Europe, 
especially  in  the  northern,  low-lying  sections;  and  from  this  old 
black  horse  of  Europe,  or  the  black  horse  of  Flanders,  as  it  is 
variously  called,  all  of  our  modern  draft  horses  have  been  produced 
by  selection,  careful  breeding,  and  mixture  of  other  strains  of  blood." 

5.  Draft    breeds.  —  The 

principal    draft    races    are 

Percheron,    French    Draft, 

Belgian  Draft,   Clydesdale, 

Suffolk  and  English  Shire. 

Horses    of    this    type    are 

heavy  in  body  and  muscle, 

have   broad   shoulders   and 

backs,   thick   necks,   broad 

loins,  strong,  compact  hips 

and     thighs,     and      clean, 

powerful    legs.     They    are 

large   and   massive,   possess   big,   heavy   bones   and   are 

powerful  in  appearance  and  form. 

6.  Carriage  or  coach  breeds.— The  Hackney,  French 
Coach,  German  Coach  and  Cleveland  Bav  are  the  leading 
heavy  carriage  breeds.  These  horses  are  less  massive 
than  the  draft  breeds.  They  may  be  as  tall  or  long,  but 
are  less  muscular  and  less  heavily  clothed  in  flesh.  They 
carry  less  substance  and  weight.  They  have  been  bred 
and  selected  to  move  more  rapidly  on  the  road  than  the 
draft  breeds,  but  are  not  able  to  draw  as  heavy  loads. 


French    Draft 
Typical  of  the  draft  type. 


TOO 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Coach  in  Harness 


To   1)6  of  the  most   approved   fashion   they   must   show 

elegance  in  movement,  grace  in  bearing  and  in  action, 

move  with  care  and  regularity.     High  knee  action  is  a 

point  that  is  held  in  high  favor. 

7.  Lighter  breeds. — 
lliis  class  includes  the 
speed  horses  and  road- 
sters, such  as  the  Thor- 
oughbred, trotters, 
pacers  and  saddle 
horses.  They  are  pri- 
marily used  on  race 
tracks,  and  on  roads 
for  fast  and  light  travel. 
These  horses  are  light 

in  body,  bone  and  muscle,  and  are  capable  of  moving  at 

a  rapid  gait.     In  appearance  they  may  be  as  tall  as  the 

horses  of  the  other  breeds,  but  they  weigh  much  less. 

Their  bodies  are  narrow,  their 

necks    thin    and    supple,    their 

muscles  long  and   elastic.      In 

appearance    they   are   just   the 

opposite    of   the    draft   breeds, 

both     in     bulk     and     strength. 

Their    muscular    development 

and  skeleton  framework  enable 

them  to  reach  and  stretch  out 

in  rapid  action. 

8.  Action. — A  prime  requisite 

of  a  good  horse,  regardless  of 

breed  or  class,  is  action.   When 

drawing  a  load   or   moving  at 

swift  travel  a  horse  is  expected 

to  move  along  with   ease  and 


M 

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Dan   Patch 


A  fine  representative  of  the  lighter 
breed   type. 


DRAFT   AND    SPEED 


101 


Good    Action 

Note   the   stylish   movement   in   the 
high    knee    action. 


grace,  otherwise  its  value  is  lessened  and  its  efficiency 
discounted.  Action  is  most  important  in  the  carriage 
and  speed  horses.  Even  the  walk  expresses  distinction. 
In  the  carriage  type  a  snappy, 
stylish  movement  is  observed 
with  high  knee  action.  The  feet 
should  touch  and  leave  the 
ground  with  trueness  and  snap. 
The  gait  of  the  roadster  should 
be  regular  with  less  flexing  of 
the  knee  and  hocks  than  required 
of  the  carriage  breeds.  Draft 
horses  of  good  action  show  regu- 
larity and  trueness  of  movement 
and  a  more  powerful,  although  a 
plainer  gait. 

9.  Quality. — Without  refine- 
ment and  fitness  there  can  be  no  beauty.  Quality  is  the 
indication  of  refinement  in  each  individual  as  expressed 
in  its  breeding.  Animals  of  quality  are  of  pleasing  pro- 
portions. Their  refinement  is  expressed  in  bone,  muscle, 
hair,  body,  legs  and  feet.  The  hair  should  be  fine  and 
silky,  the  bones  neat,  not  coarse,  the  muscles  clean,  not 
fat  or  flabby,  the  body  of  good  form,  the  legs  straight, 
the  feet  of  good  texture.  In  horses  of  quality  clean-cut 
features  are  noticeable,  the  veins  of  the  skin  are  distinct 
and  the  lines  of  the  face  are  clearly  defined. 

10.  Temperament  and  disposition. — A  mean  disposition 
is  an  undesirable  character  of  any  horse.  Well-bred 
horses,  while  showing  a  nervous  temperament,  need  not 
be  excitable  or  vicious ;  on  the  other  hand,  rather  a  quiet, 
docile  manner  is  liked.  The  pleasing  and  well-bred  horse 
is    intelligent    when    worked.      Viciousness,    excitability 


102 


FAKM    ANIMALS 


and  untrustworthiness  are  the  result  either  of  bad  train- 
ing or  inheritance. 

11.  Beauty. — What  makes  a  horse  beautiful?  Is  it  the 
the  color  of  the  hair,  the  shape  of  the  body  or  the  length 
of  the  head,  neck  or  legs?  Too  frequently  our  thoughts 
of  beauty  and  of  the  beautiful  spring  from  superficial 
conceptions.  The  word  beautiful  applied  to  the  land- 
scape means  proper  blending  of  its  objects  and  their 
proper  fitness  one  to  the  other  and  in   relation   to  the 


Quiet  and  Docile,   Intelligent  and   Willing 

These   draft  mares   are    of   improved   breeding   and   have  been   thoughtfully   fed   and 
intelligently  trained  in  their  service  for  labor  and  work. 


whole.  In  the  horse,  beauty  is  significant  of  the  "perfect 
adaptation  of  the  organ  to  its  function,  or  of  the  subject 
to  the  service  for  which  he  is  destined.  Beauty  is,  there- 
fore, synonymous  with  fitness."  A  beautiful  horse  is, 
therefore,  a  good  horse — one  capable  of  doing  its  work 
well  and  possessed  of  parts  or  regions  that  function  in 
the  easiest,  most  graceful  and  most  efficient  manner. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  beauty:  the  absolute  beauties  that  are 
necessary  in  all  horses  and  the  relative  beauties  that  apply  to  horses 
bred  to  a  special  work  or  service.  Among  those  of  the  first  class 
that  all  horses   should_p_pssess,   are  big  chests,   width   between  the 


DRAFT  AND    SPEED 


103 


eyes;  clear,  steady  breathing ;  powerful  attachments  of  the  muscles; 
large  articulations  of  the  joints;  sound,  perfect  feet,  and  sturdy  con- 
stitutions. Of  the  second  class,  the  relative  beauties  are  distinguished 
in  respect  to  the  type  of  the  individual  for  the  work  he  is  best  fitted 
to  do.  Thus  the  draft  horse  must  have  a  broad,  muscular  croup  for 
heavy  work,  whereas  the  trotting  horse  is  much  less  developed  in 
this  region.  The  neck  of  the  draft  horse  is  shorter,  the  shoulders 
straighter,  the  arms  more  heavily  muscled  and  the  weight  more 
ponderous  than  horses  for  the  road  or  speed  track. 

12.  Defects. — All  horses  are  not  born  equally  good  or 
useful.  Some  at  birth  possess  certain  defects  which  in 
meaning  refer  to  just  the  opposite 

of  beauty  or  fitness.  A  defect,  there- 
fore, is  a  disadvantage  and  the 
animal  possessing  such  a  defect  is 
less  valuable  because  less  can  be  ex- 
pected when  put  to  general  or  special 
work.  Sometimes  a  defect  is  the 
result  of  accident  or  is  acquired  as 
the  result  of  use.  A  defect  observ- 
able at  birth  is  known  as  congenital. 
Common  defects  are  flat  feet,  slender 
legs,  flat  chests,  irregular  movements 
of  the  legs,  and  thin,  narrow  hocks. 
Defects  often  acquired  are  knee- 
sprung  forelegs,  swayed  backs, 
sweenied  shoulders,  curby  hocks, 
and  ill-shaped  legs  and  feet. 

13.  Blemishes. — Frequently  some  disfiguring  mark  that 
mars  the  beauty  of  a  horse  is  observed.  This  may  be 
seated  in  the  skin  or  in  the  tissues  underneath  the  skin. 
Wherever  located  or  whatever  the  cause,  the  injury  or 
deformity  is  a  blemish  and  detracts  from  the  value  of  the 
animal.  While  such  disfigurement  may  not  in  any  way 
prevent  the  animal  from  doing  everything  expected  of 
it  in  the  performance  of  its  work,  the  marred  condition  is 


J 

1 

Knee  Spring 

A  common  defect  of 
forelegs. 


104  FARM    ANIMALS 

a  recognized  flaw  that  brands  imperfection.  Common 
blemishes  are  wire  fence  cuts,  hock  enlargements,  blis- 
tered surfaces,  and  scars  from  improperly  healed  wounds. 

14.  Schooling. — Boys  and  girls  are  sent  to  school  to 
learn  useful  things  and  to  develop  their  mental  capabil- 
ities. Horses,  like  boys  and  girls,  must  be  educated  and 
trained  in  order  that  they  may  attain  the  power  for  them 
to  give  their  best  service  in  any  one  or  more  directions. 
A  colt  should  be  educated  to  do  its  work,  but  this  educa- 
tion should  be  along  the  lines  of  usefulness  for  which  it 
is  best  fitted  by  breeding  and  inheritance.  A  draft  colt 
should  not  be  trained  for  work  on  the  race  track,  nor  a 
colt  of  speed  breeding  for  the  plow.  Yet  each  should  be 
educated  to  its  class,  because  it  is  only  through  such 
training  and  schooling  that  a  high  degree  of  proficiency 
is  attained. 

15.  Educating  the  colt. — The  old  idea  of  ''breaking" 
a  horse  is  giving  way  to  educating  the  colt.  Training 
from  the  early  days  of  colthood  is  a  far  better  way  of 
securing  control  and  subordination  than  through  neglect 
until  the  age  of  putting  to  work.  The  little  foal  should 
be  petted  and  haltered  early  in  its  life,  and  in  this  way 
will  not  become  willful  and  headstrong.  Taken  in  hand 
early,  a  colt's  education  will  be  continuous,  each  step  in 
training  being  taken  at  the  proper  time.  When  the  time 
comes  for  driving  and  working,  the  final  touches  will  be 
easy  of  accomplishment.  It  is  of  vital  importance  that 
during:  no  state  of  the  educational  work  should  the  colt 
or  young  horse  be  frightened  or  alarmed.  Most  of  the 
difficulties  encountered  in  way  of  the  vices  and  faults  of 
adult  life  have  their  beginnings  in  fear  and  distrust  aris- 
ing during  the  training  time. 


LESSON  ELEVEN 
HOW  DO  HORSES  MOVE? 

1.  Plants  and  animals 

2.  Crowbar 

3.  Bones 

4.  Lever 

5.  How  a  horse  moves 

6.  How  a  horse  stands 

7.  The  center  of  gravity 

8.  Gaits 

9.  The  walk 

10.  The  trot 

11.  The  pace 

12.  The  gallop     * 

13.  Quality 

14.  Saddle  gaits 

15.  Muscles 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  points  brought  out  in  this 
lesson  are  (1)  that  the  laws  of  physics  apply  to  the  horse 
or  other  animals  just  as  they  do  to  inanimate  machines ; 
(2)  the  influence  of  the  center  of  gravity  upon  the  produc- 
tion of  force  and  speed;  and  (3)  the  relation  that  this 
fact  has  upon  the  well-known  difference  in  the  speed  of 
such  gaits  as  the  walk,  trot,  pace  and  gallop.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  considerable  time  can  be  spent  profitably  in 
watching  the  movement  of  horses.  This  lesson  can  be 
made  more  useful  and  interesting  if  it  is  possible  to  have 
a  horse  present  during  the  recitation  period. 


105 


LESSON  ELEVEN 
HOW  DO  H0R3ES  MOVE? 

1.  Plants  and  animals. — One  important  distinction  be- 
tween higher  plants  and  animals  is  that  while  plants  are 
rooted  to  the  ground,  animals  move  freely  about  through 
a  power  that  exists  within  them.  No  such  power  exists 
in  plants.  Mankind  has  taken  advantage  of  this  power 
for  its  own  advancement.  It  exists  in  the  horse  in  a  high 
degree.  Without  animals  man  could  never  have  ad- 
vanced beyond  the  stage  of  barbarism.  America  was  not 
developed  as  was  Europe  because  the  Lidian  did  not  have 
the  horse  and  the  ox  to  assist  him. 

2.  Crowbar. — If  one  wishes  to  move  a  large  bowlder, 
he  places  one  end  of  a  crowbar  under  the  edge  of  it  and 
then  places  a  small  stane  under  the  crowbar.     He  next 

presses  down  on  the  upper  end 

of  the  bar.     What  happens  is 

that  he  increases  his  power  at 

the   expense  of  speed.     If  the 

upper  end  of  the  crowbar  is  ten 

times  as  long  as  the  lower  arm, 

ten  times  as  much  power  will 
Crowbar  Increases  Power  ,  ,         »        , 

be  exerted.  At  the  same  tmie, 
the  hands  of  the  person  moving  the  bar  go  ten  times  as 
far  as  the  stone  which  he  moves.  This  is  an  absolute 
law.  Increased  power  cannot  be  obtained  without  loss 
of  speed  and  increased  speed  cannot  be  obtained  without 
a  corresponding  loss  of  power.  A  horse  of  great  speed 
cannot  be  a  horse  of  great  power.  Powerful  draft  horses 
cannot  be  fast  horses.  A  horse  for  general  utility  can 
have  both  power  and  speed  only  in  fair  degree. 

106 


HOW  DO  HORSES  MOVE 


107 


Lever  of  the  First  Class 


3.  Bones. — Certain  bones,  such  as  those  of  the  head, 
the  vertebrae,  and  the  ribs,  are  useful  in  protecting  the 
organs  of  the  body.  For  the  most  part,  however,  bones 
are  a  series  of  crowbars.  When  the  horse  moves,  these 
bars  or  levers  are  operated  by  the  muscles.  In  no  other 
way  can  a  horse  move.  If  any  of  the  movable  bones  are 
examined,  it  will  be  found  that  they  are  not  smooth  bars, 
but  that  they  have  m'any  irregularities  of  surface.  The 
projections  and  depressions  in  the  bones  are  for  the  at- 
tachment of  muscles.  When  a  muscle  is  attached  to  a 
small  projection,  this  projection  be- 
comes the  small  arm  of  a  lever. 

4.  Lever. — When  any  object  does 
what  a  crowbar  does,  it  is  called  a 
Icz'cr.  The  point  where  the  small 
stone  touched  the  crowbar  is  called 
the  fulcrum.  There  are  three  kinds 
of  levers,  all  of  which  the  horse  uses. 
They  are  shown  in  the  diagrams.  In 
levers  of  the  first  class  the  fulcrum 
(F)  is  between  the  power  (P)  and 
the  resistance  (R).  In  the  second 
class,  the  resistance  is  between  the 
fulcrum  and  the  power,  while  in  the 
third  cbcs  the  power  is  between  the 

fulcrum  and  the  resistance.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  lever 
of  the  third  class  must  always  be  a  lever  of  speed,  be- 
cause the  power  arm  is  always  shorter  than  the  resistance 
arm.  A  lever  of  the  second  class  must  always  be  a  lever 
of  power,  because  the  resistance  arm  is  shorter  than  the 
power  arm.  A  lever  of  the  first  class,  however,  may  be 
either  a  lever  of  speed  or  a  lever  of  power,  depending 
upon  whether  the  resistance  arm  or  the  power  arm  is  the 


if  the  Second  Class. 
4^ 


.ever  of  the  Third  ClaSJ 

Kinds  of  Levers 


108 


FARM    ANIMALS 


longer.     In  horses,  levers  of  the  first  class  are  always 
levers  of  speed. 

5.  How  a  horse  moves. — In  the  horse,  levers  of  the  first 
and  third  class  are  levers  used  for  producing  motion.  A 
simple  illustration  may  be  found  in  the  movement  of  the 
arm  about  the  point  of  the   shoulder.     Muscles   of  the 

shoulder,  A  D,  attached  to  a  projection  on 
the  arm  bone,  are  enabled  by  contracting  to 
rotate  the  arm  and  leg  forward.  The  fulcrum 
is  at  B.  It  is  a  lever  of  the  first  class.  Mus- 
cles, D  C,  lift  the  foot  from  the  ground,  pre- 
paratory to  being  moved  forward  by  the 
muscles,  A  D.  The  fulcrum  is  at  B.  The 
power  arm  is  represented  approximately  by 
the  line  B  C,  while  the  resistance  arm  is  ap- 
proximately the  line  B  E.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
lever  of  the  third  class.  The  more  nearly  the 
How  A  Horse  arm  A  E  is  at  right  angles  to  the  shoulder 
Moves  g  j^^  ^-^^q  more  powerful  the  horse  will  be. 
The  greater  the  angle  of  shoulder  with  the  arm  the 
greater  speed  will  the  horse  be  capable.  Horses  having 
large  joints  are  powerful  horses,  because  the  power  arms 
of  the  levers  are  longer  in  proportion  to  the  resist- 
ance arms. 

6.  How  a  horse  stands. — It  is  natural  that 
a  horse  should  wish  to  stand  with  the  least 
possible  efi^ort.  This  is  accomplished  by  using 
a  lever  of  the  second  class,  which  is  always  a 
lever  of  power.  When  a  horse  stands  prop- 
erly the  weight  of  the  body  descends  directly 
down  the  cannon  through  the  fetlock  to  the 
ground.  The  fulcrum,  F,  is  in  the  foot,  while 
the  power  which  prevents  the  fetlock  from  touching  the 
ground   and   thus   sustains   the   weight   of   the   body    is 


How  A   Horse 
Stands 


HOW    DO    HORSES    MOVE?  109 

exerted  through  the  muscles  and  tendons,  the  latter  pass- 
ing back  of  the  fetlock.  The  power  arm  is  F  B,  while  the 
resistance  arm  is  F  A.  The  straighter  and  shorter  the 
pastern,  O  F,  the  easier  the  animal  maintains  a  standing 
position  and  the  greater  the  power.  The  longer  and  more 
slanting  the  pastern,  the  greater  the  speed.  Heavy  draft 
horses  have  short,  steep  pasterns,  while  light,  running 
and  trotting  horses  have  long  slanting  ones. 

7.  The  center  of  gravity. — An  object  of  uniform  density 
does  not  topple  over  of  its  own  weight,  unless  its  center 
falls    outside    its    base. 

The  farther  one  must 
push  an  object  to  cause 
its  center  to  fall  out- 
side the  base  the  more 
difficult  it  is  to  move  it. 
If  a  horse  is  near  the 
ground,  and  has  its  feet 
wide  apart,  its  center  of 
gravity  does  not  read- 
ily fall  outside  its  base.  center  of  gravity  in  horse 

In    a    horse    that    is    tall     ^*   '^   evident   that  the   center   of   gravity   is   not 

located  at  similar  points  in  these  two  horses. 

and    has    its    feet    near 

together,  this  occurs  easily.  A  draft  horse  is  able  to  pull 
a  great  load,  not  alone  because  he  has  large  muscles,  but 
because  he  is  near  the  ground  and  has  his  feet  wide  apart. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  horse  does  not  run  fast  simply 
because  he  has  long  legs,  but  because  his  body  is  farther 
from  the  ground  and  he  is  relatively  shorter,  bringing 
his  feet  closer  together.  The  reason  a  boy  cannot  run 
when  leaning  backwards  is  because  his  center  of  gravity 
is  in  the  wrong-  place. 

8.  Gaits. — The  horse  has  four  well-defined  gaits — the 
walk,  trot,  pace  and  gallop.     A  horse  or  other  animal 


110 


FARM    ANIMALS 


can  move  only  by  changing  his  center  of  gravity.  This 
he  does  when  he  starts  to  walk,  by  a  slight  movement  of 
the  head,  throwing  the  weight  of  the  body  on  one  fore- 
leg before  he  lifts  the  other  one.  The  rapidity  with 
which  he  moves  depends  upon  the  relative  amount  of 
time  that  the  center  of  gravity  is  outside  the  base  during 
each  step.  This  is  the  reason  that  the  gallop  is  faster 
than  the  pace,  the  pace  a  faster  gait  than  the  trot,  and  the 
walk  the  slowest  gait  of  all. 


How  A  Horse  Walks 

The  feet  are  on  the  ground  longer  in  the  walk  than  in  any  other  gait.  Much 
of  the  time  three  feet  are  in  contact  with  it.  As  the  walk  is  made  faster  the 
periods   of  contact  with   the  ground  are  shortened  in   length. 


9.  The  walk  is  a  slow  gait,  because  during  each  step 
at  least  two  feet  are  always  upon  the  ground,  while  part 
of  the  time  three  members  furnish  support  to  the  body. 
Assuming  a  horse  starts  to  walk  with  his  left  forefoot, 
the  walk  is  accomplished  as  follows.  Left  fore  member, 
right  hind  member,  right  fore  member,  left  hind  member 
and  then  back  to  the  left  fore  member.  The  feet  reach 
the  ground  at  equal  intervals.  As  one  listens  to  a  horse 
walking  upon  a  pavement,  there  are  four  equally  spaced 
beats  to  each  step.  Notice,  also,  that  the  hind  foot  is 
raised  before  the  forefoot  on  the  corresponding  side,  but 


HOW    DO    HORSES    MOVE, 


111 


the  latter  is  lifted  in  time  to  allow  the  hindfoot  to  be 
placed  in  its  track  or  even  in  some  cases  in  advance  of  it. 

10.  The  trot. — The  trot  is  a  faster  gait  than  the  walk 
because,  under  ordinary  conditions,  there  are  only  two 
feet  upon  the  ground  at  any  one  time,  sometimes  only 
one  and  at  other  times 
none  at  all.  In  the 
typical  trot  one  fore- 
foot and  the  opposite 
hind  foot  reach  the 
ground  at  the  same 
time.  There  are,  there- 
fore, only  two  Deats  to 
each  step.  Ordinarily 
the  hind  foot  will  be 
placed  either  on  the 
track  of  the  front  foot 
or  ahead  of  it.  In  order 
for  this  to  happen  the 
front  foot  must  be  raised  before  the  hind  one  comes  to 
rest.  Hence  there  must  be  an  interval  of  time  when  all 
four  feet  are  off  the  ground.  The  longer  this  interval  of 
suspension,  the  faster  is  the  gait. 

11.  The  pace. — Since  when  a  horse  trots  the  diagonal 
feet  move  forward  together  and  are  on  the  ground  at  the 
same  time,  it  follows  that  the  center  of  gravity  is  moving 
in  a  line  between  the  two  points  of  support.  When  a 
horse  paces,  however,  the  two  members  on  one  side  go 
forward  together.  Hence  the  point  of  support  alternates 
from  one  side  to  the  other  of  the  line  on  which  the  horse 
is  moving.  The  equilibrium  is,  therefore,  less  stable. 
This  is  another  way  of  saying  that  the  pace  is  a  faster 
gait  than  the  trot. 


When  a  Horse  Trots 

forefoot   and   the  opposite  hind   foot  are   on 
the  ground  at  the   same  time. 


112 


FARM    ANIMALS 


12.  The  gallop. — When  a  horse  gallops,  the  last  foot 
to  leave  the  ground  is  a  front  one,  and  the  first  one  to 
reach  the  ground  is  a  hind  foot.  Assuming  the  horse 
leaves  the  ground  from  the  left  front  foot,  the  first  foot 

to  reach  the  ground  will 
be  the  right  hind  one. 
This  is  followed  by  the 
left  hind  one  closely  as- 
sociated or  simulta- 
neously with  the  right 
front  foot.  The  left 
front  foot  then  returns 
to  the  ground  while  the 
others  are  preparing  to 
leave  it. 

When  a  Horse  Paces  The       horse        IS        SUS- 

Fore  and  hind   feet  of  the  same  side  are  on  the    pendcd       in       the       air       3. 
ground  in  unison.    Compare  with  the  trot.         ^ 

much  larger  proportion 
of  each  step  than  in  the  pace  or  the  trot,  which  accounts 
for  its  being  a  more  rapid  gait.  A  horse  has  its  feet 
doubled  up  under  it  while  thus  suspended,  and  not 
stretched  out,  as  often  depicted.  It  is  only  when  the 
horse  is  on  the  ground  that  its  feet  are  extended. 

13.  Quality. — Any  gait  is  properly  executed  when  it  is 
performed  regularly  and  without  due  loss  of  motion.  A 
straight  line  is  the  shortest  distance  between  two  points. 
Other  things  equal,  the  nearer  that  the  foot  can  be  car- 
ried from  one  contact  with  the  ground  to  another  con- 
tact in  a  straight  line,  the  less  will  be  the  loss  of  motion. 
Therefore  when  one  views  the  horse  in  motion,  from 
front  or  rear,  the  members  should  swerve  neither  to  the 
right  nor  to  the  left.  The  feet  must,  of  course,  be  raised 
sufficiently  to  overcome  obstacles,  but  if  the  feet  are 
raised  excessively,  it  results  in  loss  of  speed.     In  showy, 


HOW    DO    HORSES    MOVE? 


113 


carriage  horses  this  is  not  considered  objectionable,  be- 
cause speed  is  not  desired  so  much  as  appearance  of 
motion. 

14.  Saddle  gaits. — It  is  customary  to  recognize  two 
types  of  saddle  horses — one  known  as  the  walk,  trot  and 
canter  horses ;  and  gaited  saddle  horses,  which  can  exe- 
cute five  gaits.  In  addition  to  the  walk,  trot  and  canter, 
gaited  saddle  horses  must  go  the  rack  and  either  the  run- 
ning walk,  fox  trot  or  slow  pace.     The  running  walk  is 


When  a  Horse  Gallops 

It  will  be  observed  that  the   horse  leaves  the  ground  from  a  forefoot  and  on  com- 
pleting the   leap   reaches  the   ground  with   the  opposite   hind   foot. 

the  most  distinctive  of  the  last  three.  It  lies  between 
the  trot  and  the  walk.  It  is  a  slow  gait.  The  rack,  some- 
times called  single  foot,  is  a  modified  pace.  Its  execution 
lies  between  the  pace  and  the  walk.  It  is  a  fast  gait.  In- 
stead of  having  two  beats,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pace,  it 
has  four,  as  in  the  case  of  the  walk.  Instead,  however,  of 
these  four  beats  being  equally  divided,  they  are  unequally 
associated.  Thus,  if  one  hears  a  single-footer  passing 
along  the  pavement,  it  will  sound  something  like  this — 
peck-a-peck,  half-a-peck;  peck-a-peck,  half-a-peck — re- 
peated rapidly. 

15.  Muscles. — Deep,  broad  horses  with  bodies  close  to 
the  ground  are  powerful  horses.     Tall,  slender  ones  are 


114 


FARM    ANIMALS 


capable  of  greater  speed.  These  differences  are  not 
wholly  due  to  shape  and  weight.  It  also  depends  upon  the 
muscles,  which  are  the  source  of  all  motion.  Large  mus- 
cles give  power.  Long  muscles  give  speed.  In  running 
and  driving  horses  the  muscle  lies  more  nearly  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  bones,  while  in  draft  horses  the 
muscles  act  more  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  levers.  In 
judging  a  horse,  therefore,  one  considers  not  only  the  form 
of  the  animal,  but  the  character  of  his  muscles. 


Weight  as  a   Source  of   Power 

This  horse  is  able  to  pull  this  great  load  of  alfalfa  hay  because  he  is  carrying  part 
of  the  weight.  The  extra  weight  which  he  carries  not  only  enables  him  to  pull 
more,  but  he  does  not  have  so  much  to  pull. 


LESSON  TWELVE 
WHAT  SHAPE  SHOULD  A  HORSE  BE? 

1.  Head. 

2.  Neck. 

3.  Eyes. 

4.  Ears. 

5.  Front  legs. 

6.  Shoulders. 

7.  Arms. 

8.  Body. 

9.  Croup. 

10.  Hind  legs. 

11.  Cannons. 

12.  Joints. 

13.  Hocks. 

14.  Feet. 

15.  Attitudes. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — This  lesson  may  be  made  useful 
in  training  the  powers  of  observation  and  judgment,  two 
powers  very  differently  developed  in  different  persons. 
The  purpose  is  to  give  those  fundamental  conceptions  of 
form  which  apply  to  all  horses  for  force  or  speed.  Shire 
horses  differ  from  Percheron  horses,  and  Hackney  horses 
differ  from  French  Coach  horses  by  virtue  of  certain  char- 
acteristics which  are  not  touched  upon  in  this  lesson,  but 
must  be  considered  when  judging  whether  a  horse  is  a 
correct  representation  of  a  certain  breed. 


115 


LESSON  TWELVE 
WHAT  SHAPE  SHOULD  A  HORSE  BE? 

1.  Head. — Measure  the  length  in  a  straight  line  from 
the  top  of  the  head  to  the  point  where  the  lips  come  to- 
gether. In  an  ideal  head,  this  measurement  will  l)e  tw,o- 
fifths  the  height  of  the  horse  at  his  withers.  In  draft 
horses,  the  head  tends  to  be  relatively  longer,  while  in 

running  horses  it  may  be  rela- 
tively shorter.  The  width  of  the 
forehead  should  be  more  than 
one-third  the  length  of  the  head. 
The  head  is  twice  as  long  as  the 
distance  from  the  forehead  to  the 
point  of  the  lower  jaw.  There 
should   be   good   width  between 

Good  Head  1^1  •         i  r,  1      . 

the  jawbones,  because  between 
them  pass  the  windpipe  (trachea)  and  the  gullet  (oesoph- 
agus). If  these  are  restricted,  the  lung  power  and  the 
digestion  may  be  reduced.  Too  short  a  distance  from 
eye  to  ear  compared  with  distance  from  eye  to  lips  is  an 
especially  bad  feature.  It  indicates  a  sullen,  morose  dis- 
position, probably  associated  with  a  lack  of  intelligence. 
A  wide  forehead,  large  nostrils,  well-situated  eyes,  ears 
widely  separated  and  larger  space  between  jawbones  go 
together  and  constitute  a  good  head. 

2.  Neck. — Measure  the  distance  from  the  base  of  the 
ear  to  the  middle  front  of  the  neck  where  it  joins  the 
shoulder.  Under  ideal  conditions  this  length  is  equal  to 
that  of  the  head.    The  head  and  neck  serve  the  same  pur- 

116 


WHAT    SHAPE    SHOULD    A    HORSE    BET 


117 


MMWI/i 


pose  in  the  movements  of  the  horse  as  the  balancing  pole 
does  to  the  movements  of  the  tight-rope  walker.  They 
help  to  balance  the  horse  and 
keep  him  from  falling.  The 
faster  the  horse  the  more  agile 
must  be  the  head  and  neck.  A 
light  head  and  a  long  slender 
neck  respond  to  this  require- 
ment. A  heavily  muscled  neck 
is  required  for  great  power. 

Under  average  conditions  both  the 
head  and  neck  form  an  angle  of  45 
degrees  with  the  ground;  thus  the 
head  and  neck  form  a  right  angle 
with  each  other.  For  trotting  and 
running,  the  neck  is  held  up  and  the 
head  extended  horizontally;  hence 
the  over-draw  check.  For  heavy- 
draft  the  head  is  lowered  and  held 
more  vertically.  For  the  slow  gallop 
the  neck  is  arched  and  the  head  is 
held  more  vertically  than  for  run- 
ning. These  different  positions  of 
head  and  neck  are  for  the  purpose 
of  changing  the  center  of  gravity. 

3.  Eyes. — From  the  stand- 
point of  soundness  there  are 
four  weak  regions  in  the  horse. 
They  are  the  eyes  (blindness), 
the  hocks  (spavin  and  curb), 
the  region  below  the  front 
knees  (splints,  side  bones  and 
navicular  disease)  and  the 
flanks  (heaves).  The  best  posi- 
tion for  examining  the  eyes  is 
with  the  head  in  the  stable 
doorway  facing  outward.     The 


Typical  Necks 


Arched    at    top;    straight    at   mid- 
1-  1  .     •!         die;    ewe    neck    at    bottom.      A    ewe 

eyes,     eyelids,     ears,     nostrils,  neck  is  objectionable. 


118 


FARM    ANIMALS 


lips,  and  mouth  constitute  the  facial  expression  of  the 
horse  by  which  is  judged  the  intelligence,  disposition, 
and  temperament.  Among  the  beauties  of  the  eye  are  a 
separation  proportionate  to  forehead  and  face,  a  proper 
degree  of  prominence,  perfect  equality  and  freedom  from 
blemishes,  either  of  the  eye  itself  or  the  eyelids.  A  cer- 
tain vivacity  and  changeableness  of  expression  is 
desirable. 

4.  Ears. — The  size,  quality,  position  and  movement  are 
characteristics  of  the  ear  that  must  be  studied.  The  size 
of  the  ear  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  head, 
neither  too  small  nor  too  large.  Generally  speaking, 
horses  with  small  ears  are  more  energetic  and  courage- 
ous. The  texture  of  the  ear  should  be  fine  and  free  from 
coarse  hairs. 

To  improve  the  appearance  of  the  ear  the  internal  hairs  are  some- 
times clipped.  This  is  not  a  good  practice,  since  these  hairs  are 
intended  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  insects  and  other  objects. 

The  ears  should  be  well  placed.  A  too  narrow  dis- 
tance between  the 
ears  is  particularly 
objectionable.  When 
the  head  and  neck 
are  held  as  stated 
above,  a  side  view 
of  the  ears  should 
be  vertical.  The  ears 
should  be  vertical, 
also,  when  viewed 
from  the  front.  Lop- 
eared  horses  are  un- 
sightly.    A  sluggish 

Skeleton  of  Horse  movement        of        the 

Observe   the   bones   of   the   forequarters   and  of  the  rr^n^r     tnf^an     fViaf 

hindquarters.     See  paragraph    10,  page   121.  ear     may     mcaU     tnat 


WHAT  SHAPE  SHOULD  A  HORSE  BE?  119 

the  horse  is  deaf,  or  merely  that  he  is  lazy.  A  constant 
movement  of  the  ear  may  mean  that  the  horse  is  skittish, 
or  it  may  be  that  the  horse  is  blind. 

5.  The  front  legs. — The  fore  members  of  a  horse  may 
be  somewhat  puzzling  to  one  who  has  never  seen  the 
skeleton  of  one.  Think  of  your  own  arm  and  then  locate 
the  corresponding-  region  in  the  horse.  Place  the  end  of 
your  middle  finger  upon  the  desk.  Your  nail  corresponds 
to  the  horse's  hoof;  the  pastern,  e  f,  to  your  finger;  the 
cannon,  d  e,  to  the  middle  bone  of  your  hand ;  the  fore- 
arm, c  d,  to  your  forearm;  and  the  arm,  h  c,  to  your  arm. 
The  shoulder  blade  is  shown  at  a  b.  The  horse  does  not 
have  a  collarbone.  His  shoulders  are  attached  to  the  body 
by  means  of  muscles,  thus  giving  greater  elasticity  to  his 
movements. 

6.  Shoulders. — The  shoulders  of  a  trotting  horse  should 
be  long  and  sloping.  They  should  be  long  because  long- 
bones  give  long  muscles.  They  should  be 
sloping,  because  sloping  shoulders  give  a 
greater  elasticity  to  the  movements  and  be- 
cause they  enable  the  horse  to  take  longer 
steps.  They  may  be  steeper  in  draft  horses, 
because,  owing  to  the  better  position  of  the 
collar,  the  horse  is  enabled  to  exert  a  greater 
force.  The  shoulders  should  be  heavily 
muscled,  especially  in  the  draft  horse. 

7.  Arms. — In  a  draft  horse,  the  arm  should 
be  relatively  horizontal,  while  in  the  trotting    bones  of  the 
horse  it  should  be  more  vertical.     Since  the 

arm  itself  is  hidden  in  a  mass  of  muscle,  the  position  of 
the  arm  is  best  determined  by  examining  the  position  of 
the  elbow.  The  elbow  should  be  relatively  high  as  com- 
pared with  the  bottom  of  the  chest  for  draft  horses,  and 
just  the  reverse  in  running  and  trotting  horses. 


120 


FAKM    ANIMALS 


The  movement  of  the  arm  is  directly  forward  and  backward. 
Horses  cannot  rotate  their  arms  as  can  boys  and  girls.  This  is  be- 
cause the  horse  does  not  hr:ve  a  collar  bone.  For  the  same  reason, 
the  horse  cannot  carry  food  to  its  mouth  as  can  a  squirrel.  But  the 
horse  is  fleet  because  the  backward  and  forward  movement  of  the 
arm  prevents  lost  motion. 

8.  Body. — The  body  varies  greatly  with  the  service  to 
which  the  horse  is  to  be  put.  In  the  draft  horse  the  body 
is  much  larger  and  rounder  than  in  the  trotting  horse. 
The  loin  must  be  wide,  short  and  thick,  since  all  the  force 
exerted  by  the  hind  meml)ers  must  pass  through  the  loin. 
In  a  powerful  draft  horse  the  distance  from  the  chest  to 
the  ground  should  not  be  greater  than  half  the  height  of 
the  horse.  In  trotting  and  running  horses  this  distance 
may  be  2  to  4  inches  greater  than  that  from  the  chest  to 
the  withers.  This  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the  rela- 
tive power  and  speed  of  the  horse.  All  horses  should 
have  well-sprung  ribs,  which  are  wide  apart  and  extend 
well  back  so  as  to  make  the  flank  narrow  and  low.     The 


PI 

m 

1  ■'^,  ?  -^ 

"^^^1 

J 

B^l^^ 

Three  \Vhi-,.-Bub.i.L.  L)RAi  t    H>^.xo^c^. 

Note  the  width  and  depth  of  the  bodies.     They  show  great  force   and   power.     The 
legs  are  no  longer  than  the  body  is  deep. 


WHAT  SHAPE  SHOULD  A  HORSE  BE?  121 

main  point  of  beauty  in  the  back  is  that  it  be  straight, 
neither  convex  (arched)  nor  concave  (sway-backed). 

9.  Croup. — The  croup  is  the  region  above  a  line  from 
the  haunch  to  the  point  of  the  buttock.  In  draft  horses 
this  region  should  be  wide,  relatively  steep  and,  includ- 
ing the  buttocks,  heavily  muscled.  Watch  a  draft  horse 
pull,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  he  places  his  croup  in  a 
relatively  vertical  position.  This  is  an  aid  to  power.  A 
horizontal  croup,  on  the  other  hand,  is  better  for  speed. 
The  legs  are  longer  in  a  horse  of  the  same  height.  The 
step  is  longer  while  the  body  is  projected  in  a  more  hori- 
zontal direction.  While  relatively  steep  shoulders  and 
steep  croup  are  conducive  to  power,  many  draft  horses 
are  so  defective  in  speed  that  horses  with  more  sloping 
shoulders  and  horizontal  croup  are  often  preferred. 

10.  Hind  legs. — Can  you  imagine  yourself  standing 
upon  the  end  of  your  middle  toe?  That  is  what  a  horse 
does.  Referring  to  paragraph  5,  the  pastern  ;  k  corre- 
sponds to  the  toe;  the  fetlock,  j,  to  the  ball  of  the  foot; 
the  hock,  j,  to  the  heel ;  the  leg,  h  i,  to  your  shin  bone ; 
the  stifle,  h,  to  the  knee ;  while  the  thigh,  g  h,  is  hidden 
beneath  a  mass  of  muscles.  The  thigh  is  attached  to  the 
croup  at  p-  by  a  ball  and  socket 

joint.  The  hind  legs  are  the  great- 
est agent  in  pulling.  This  kind  of 
a  joint  enables  the  animal  to  exert 
more  power  than  would  be  possi- 
ble if  attached  only  by  muscles,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  shoulders. 

11.  Cannons. — The  front  can- 
nons are  9  to  10  inches  long,  while 
the   hind  cannons  are  about  two 

•     ^1 I „  TT    „  1  Draft  horse  with  a  croup  that  is 

mcheS        longer.  Horses        whose    too  steep  even  for  a  draft  horse. 


122 


FARM    ANIMALS 


knees  and  hocks  are  close  to  the  ground  are  fitted  for 
draft,  while  running  horses  have  their  knees  and  hocks 

relatively  high  from  the 
ground.  The  principal  re- 
quirement of  the  cannons  is 
that  they  should  l)e  perfectly 
vertical.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  front  cannons.  To 
be  kneesprung,  or  over  on 
the  knees,  is  a  particularly 
bad  fault. 


Draft    horse    with    a    good    croup 
(rump). 


There  is  a  saying  that  horses 
should  have  a  flat  bone,  meaning 
that  the  cannons  should  have  a 
long  diameter  from  front  to  back. 
This  flatness  is  not  due  to  the  shape  of  the  cannon  bone  but  is  due 
to  the  position  of  the  tendon.  The  farther  the  tendons  are  detached 
from  the  bone  the  flatter  the  cannon  appears  and  the  greater  the 
ease  with  which  the  bone  can  maintain  a  standing  position. 

12.  Joints. — All  joints,  such  as  knees,  fetlocks,  elbows 
and  hocks,  are  like  the  hinges  on  the  barn  door.  They 
should  be  proportionate  to  the  size  of  the  object 
to  be  moved.  The  knees  and  the  hocks  are  made 
up  of  a  collection  of  bones,  some  above  the  others, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  take  up  the 
concussion  when  the  animal  is  mov- 
ing. The  larger  the  area  of  these 
joints  the  less  the  concussion  to  the 
square  inch.  In  general,  rather  prom- 
inent, lean,  well-defined  joints  are  de- 
sirable. They  should  be  free  from 
puffiness,  blemishes  or  other  evidence 
of  disease. 

13.  Hocks. — In     many     ways     the 
most  important  joint  in  the  horse  is  front  and  rear 

^111  -n  'j^    '  j^    j^       1        ^1  Showing   how   a   horse 

the  hock.     Because  it  is  apt  to  be  the  should  stand. 


WHAT  SHAPE  SHOULD  A  HORSE  BE.'' 


123 


weakest  point  in  the  horse,  the  ultimate  speed  and  power 
is  often  dependent  upon  the  shape  and  soundness  of  this 
region.  One  must  learn  to  recognize  the  shape  of  a  sound 
hock  in  order  to  recognize  spavin  or  curb.  The  angle 
that  the  leg  makes  with  the  cannon  is  greater  in  running 
and  driving  horses  than  in  draft  horses.  This  means  that 
the  depth  of  the  hock  from  front  to  rear  is  greater  in  draft 
horses  than  in  those  for  speed.  In  like  manner  the  thigh 
of  the  draft  horse  is  more  horizontal  than  in  driving  horses. 
Such  a  condition  gives 
greater  power,  but  short- 
ens the  step. 

14.  Feet. — It  is  the  front 
feet  that  require  the  most 
attention.  It  is  seldom 
that  there  is  anything  seri- 
ously wrong  with  the  hind 
feet  of  a  horse,  except 
through  accident.  The 
front  feet  should  be  round 
and  of  equal  size.  The 
horn  should  be  dense  in 
texture  and  dark  in  color. 
The  sole  should  be  con- 
cave, the  bars  strong,  and 
the  frog  large  and  elastic.  The  heel  should  be  one-half 
the  length  of  the  toe  and  approximately  vertical.  In 
comparison  with  the  front  feet,  the  hind  feet  should  be 
more  oval,  the  bottom  more  concave,  the  heels  higher 
and  more  separated.  The  walls  of  the  foot  should  be 
more  vertical. 

15.  Attitudes. — When  a  boy  sits  upon  a  one-legged 
milk  stool,  he  balances  with  the  least  effort  when  the  bot- 
tom of  the  leg  is  directly  under  the  top.    This  is  equally 


Good  and  Diseased  Hocks 

Normal, healthy  hock  at  left;  diseased  hock, 
the  result  of  bone  spavin,  at  right. 


124 


FARM    ANIMALS 


true  whether  the  leg  happens  to  be  straight  or  crooked. 
The  properly  formed  horse  stands  with  the  least  effort 
when  each  foot  is  directly  under  the  point  of  attachment 
with  the  body.  Whether  this  requirement  is  met  may  be 
determined  in  the  following  manner:  The  point  of  the 
shoulder,  the  middle  of  knee  and  the  point  of  the  toe 
should  be  in  a  vertical  line  when  viewed  from  the  front. 
The  distance  between  the  front  feet  should  then  be  equal 
to  the  width  of  either  foot.  In  heavy  horses  this  distance 
is  apt  to  be  greater  and  in  light  horses  less.    Viewed  from 


Position    of   Hind   Legs   and   of    Forelegs 

Front  and  hind  legs:    1,  as  it  should  be;  2,  feet  too  far  under;  3,  feet  too   far  out. 
Both  2  and  3  positions  are  objectionable. 


the  side,  the  center  of  the  elbow,  the  middle  of  the  knee 
and  the  pastern  should  be  in  a  vertical  line,  which  when 
extended  passes  in  the  rear  of  the  foot.  A  plumb  line 
dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  just  touch 
the  hock  and  extend  parallel  to  the  hind  cannon.  The 
distance  part  of  the  hind  feet  should  be  about  equal  to 
the  width  of  the  hock.  Such  a  horse  is  said  to  have  a  cor- 
rect attitude. 


PRACTICUMS 


1.  Age  of  a  Horse  Determined  by  the  Teeth. — At  eight  to  10 
months  of  age  the  milk  teeth  of  the  foal  are  complete.  The  shedding 
of  the  milk  teeth  and  the  beginning  of  the  permanent  set  occur 
between  2^^  and  3  years  of  age,  the  permanent  set  being  complete 
between  4^  and  5  years.  Between  five  and  10  years  it  is  possible 
to  determine  the  age  with  considerable  accuracy  from  a  study  of  the 
front  teeth  of  the  lower  and  upper  jaws.  These  teeth  undergo 
changes  due  to  form  and  wearing.  The  determination  by  years 
may  be  made  as  follows  : 

a.  At  three  years. — Two  or  three  months  under  three  years,  the 
permanent  pair  of  center  nippers  replaces  the  milk  or  baby  colt  teeth. 
At  three  years  they  are  ready  for  use.  These  teeth  are  larger  dian 
the  milk  teeth  and  have  deep  cups  in  their  middles. 

h.  At  four  years. — Two  or  three  months  under  four  years,  the 
next  or  intermediate  pair  of  permanent  nippers  replaces  ihe  inter- 
mediate pair  of  milk  teeth.  At  four  years  these  are  ready  for  use. 
Some  wear  is  shown  on  the  center  pair  and  the  cups  are  partly  worn 
down. 

e.  At  Five  Years. — The  mouth  is  full  and  dentition  complete. 

d.  At  Six  Years. — The  cups  in  the  center  pair  in  the  lower  jaw 
have  disappeared,  or  very  nearly  so.  Some  wear  is  shown  in  the 
corner  nippers. 

e.  At  Seven  Years. — The  cups  in  the  two  teeth  next  to  the  center 
pair  in  the  lower  jaw  have  disappeared.  Those  of  the  corner  teeth 
are  quite  shallow  also. 

f.  At  Eight  Years. — The  cups  of  the  six  teeth  or  nippers  of  the 
lower  jaw  have  disappeared.     The  cups  still  show  in  the  upper  jaw. 

g.  At  Nine  Years. — The  cups  of  the  center  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw 
have  disappeared. 

//.  At  Ten  Years. — The  cups  of  the  two  teeth  next  to  the  center 
pair  of  the  upper  jaw  have  disappeared. 

i.  At  Eleven  Years. — The  cups  of  the  corner  and  remaining  teeth 
of  the  upper  jaw  have  disappeared.  No  cups  now  show  in  any  of 
the  teeth. 

Note. — Often,  due  to  denser  bone,  the  cups  occasionally  wear  un- 
til the  twelfth  year  or  longer.  Other  ch:;nges  in  the  teeth  are  taken 
in  consideration  by  experts,  but  these  are  too  complicated  to  de- 
scribe here,  and  are  understood  only  after  long  experience  and 
practice. 

125 


126 


FARM    ANIMALS 


2.  Members. — Place  pieces  of  numbered  paper  on  the  various 
regions,  such  as  shoulder,  arm,  elbow,  forearm,  knee,  cannon,  fet- 
lock, pastern  and  hoof.  Require  each  student  to  write  the  name  of 
each  region  and  name  the  corresponding  region  in  his  own  body. 

3.  Relative  Weight. — Place  the  front  feet  on  a  pair  of  scales 
and  obtain  the  weight.  Then  place  the  hind  feet  where  the  front 
ones  were,  and  vice  versa.  Be  careful  to  have  feet  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  the  same  place;  then  weigh.     If  carefully  done,  the  com- 


-# 

4 

,M 

1  ^     ^ 

1 

'9 

i 

^^^^~jj 

1 

^^--^^ 

1 

30V 

"fi 

f 

m" 

UrI 

i 

--% 

t» 

*a 

'~J*i, 

^. 

1  Lip 

2  Nostril 

3  Forehead 

4  Poll 

5  Cheek 

6  Ear 

7  Mane 

8  Neck 

9  Shoulder 

10  Point  of  shoulder 

11  Breast 

12  Forearm 


Points  of  the  Horse 

13  Arm 

14  Knee 

15  Cannon 

16  Fetlock 

17  Pastern 

18  Foot 

19  Withers 

20  Back 

21  Side 

22  Underline 

23  Flank 

24  Croup 


25  Tail 

26  Haunch 

27  Thigh 

28  Stifle 

29  Hock 

30  Point  of  hock 

31  Cannon 

32  Foot 

33  Coronet 

34  Fetlock 

35  Pastern 


bined  weights  should  equal  the  total  weight  of  the  horse.  It  is 
difficult  to  get  this  result  exactly  becau^.e  of  the  more  or  less  con- 
stant movement  of  the  head  and  the  internal  organs.  It  will  be 
sufficiently  accurate,  however,  to  show  that  a  horse  supports  ap- 
proximately five-ninths  of  its  weight  through  its  front  members 
and  four-ninths  through  the  hind  ones.  This  is  one  reason  why 
more  trouble  occurs  in  the  front  than  in  the  hind  feet. 


WHAT  SHAPE  SHOULD  A  HORSE  BE?  127 


4.  Gaits. — Take  one  or  more  horses  and  cause  them  to  walk,  trot 
and  gallop.  Try  to  follow  the  movement  of  the  feet  as  explained  in 
paragraphs  9,  10  and  12  of  Lesson  XI.  Also  note  the  difference 
in  the  regularity  and  elasticity  with  which  different  horses  execute 
the  same  gait.     Observe  them  from  front,  side  and  rear. 

5.  Attitudes. — Secure  one  or  more  plumb  bobs  or  pieces  of  lead 
attached  to  a  stout  cord  5  feet  long.  Place  the  cord  at  the  point 
of  the  shoulder,  and  note  whether  it  divides  the  knee  into  two  halves 
and  falls  at  the  point  of  the  toe.  Determine  whether  the  distance 
between  the  two   front   feet  is  equal   to   the   width  of   either   foot. 

Drop  the  plumb  line  from  the  center  of  the  elbow,  and  note  whether 
fore  arm  and  cannon  are  vertical,  as  indicated  by  cord  bisecting 
knee  and  fetlock  and  falling  just  behind  the  heel.  Measure  the  dis- 
tance between  the  point  of  the  shoulder  and  the  front  of  the  elbow. 
Locate  a  point  half  way  between.  The  plumb  bob  dropped  from 
this  point  should  be  in  line  with  the  center  of  the  foot.  Drop  to 
plumb  bob  from  the  point  of  the  fetlock  and  note  whether  hock  and 
fetlock  are  adjacent  to  cord,  making  cannon  vertical.  Measure  dis- 
tance between  hind  feet  and  determine  how  nearly  the  measurement 
corresponds  to  the  width  of  the  hock.  If  the  hind  feet  are  too  far 
under  the  horse,  too  much  of  the  weight  is  placed  upon  the  hind 
members.  This  is  especially  bad  for  the  hocks.  If  the  front  feet 
are  under  too  much,  weight  is  thrown  upon  them,  causing  them  to 
wear  out  sooner.  If  a  horse  stands  with  his  front  feet  too  far 
forward,  it  may  indicate  he  is  lame  in  one  or  both  front  feet. 

6.  Form. — There  are  several  regions  of  the  body  which  in  an 
ideal  prize-winning  animal  should  be  equal  to  the  length  of  the 
horse's  head.  Have  students  take  these  measurements  on  one  or 
more  horses,  as  follows : 

Length  of  head  . 

Length  of  neck . 

Length  of  shoulder  . 

From  back  angle  of  shoulder  to  hip  . 

From  point  of  hock  to  ground  . 

There  are  three  measurements  in  the  horse  that  should  be  the 
same  in  horses  of  good  conformation,  and  each  two  and  one-half 
times  the  length  of  the  head.     Have  measurements  taken  as  follows : 

Height  at  withers  . 

Height  at  croup  . 

From  point  of  shoulder  to  buttock  . 

In  draft  horses  the  tendency  is  for  the  length  to  be  greater  than 
the  height,  while  in  running  horses  the  height  may  be  greater  than 
the  length. 

7.  Selecting  Horses. — Secure  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than 
five  horses  of  any  one  type  or  breed.  Have  each  student  place  the 
horses  in  the  order  of  merit  for  the  pu.oose  for  which  they  are  in- 
tended. Give  reasons  based  upon  the  discussion  in  the  text.  Any 
special  defects  or  unsoundness  should  be  noted. 


LESSON  THIRTEEN 
BREEDS    OF    HORSES 

1.  Ancestry 

2.  Early  qualities  retained 

3.  Oriental  horses 

4.  American  trotters 

5.  American  saddle  horses 

6.  The  Hackney 

7.  The  French  Coach  horses 

8.  German  Coach  horses 

9.  Cleveland  Bays 

10.  The  Percheron 

11.  Clydesdales 

12.  Belgian   Draft 

13.  English  Shire 

14.  The  Suffolk  Punch 

15.  Ponies 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — Try  to  see  the  purpose  in  breed 
development.  The  pony  is  small  because  of  cold,  tem- 
pestuous climates  and  limited  food;  the  draft  breeds 
descended  from  the  big  horse  stock  of  northern  Europe, 
where  food  was  rich  and  luxuriant  and  the  great  out-of- 
doors  mild  and  invigorating;  and  the  lighter  breeds  from 
the  regions  wdiere  stamina  and  endurance  were  most 
highly  appreciated.  Thus  ancestry  has  been  used  as 
foundation,  and  selection,  training  and  purpose  as  the 
building  material  for  the  superstructure  of  every  breed. 


LESSON  THIRTEEN 


BREEDS    OF   HORSES 


1.  Ancestry. — Recently  unearthed  skeletons  reveal  the 
fact  that  at  one  time  horses  lived  in  North  America  as 
well  as  Europe  and  Asia.  When  America  was  discovered 
no  horses  were  in  existence  here.  It  is  from  the  vast  high- 
lands of  northern  Asia,  where  the  tempests  rage  and  man 
can  scarcely  live,  that  the  ancestral  modern  horse  has 
come.  At  first  they  were  sought  for  food ;  then  subse- 
quently they  we^-e  captured  alive  and  herded  in  inclosures 
like  cattle,  where  they  were  trained  for  either  riding  or 
draft.  Mare's  milk  is  now,  but  was  more  so  in  the  past, 
prized  as  food.  It  is  greatly  esteemed  as  cheese  or  whey 
among  the  Tartars. 

Wild  horses  have  always  been  terrorized  by  wild  beasts.  They 
early  learned  to  perceive  at  great  distance  their  natural  enemies. 
On  approach  of  such  their  quick  ears  pricked,  a  short  neigh  sounded, 


Wild  Horses  Still  Kxist 

Here  are  pictured  three  wild  horses  of  Central  Asia.  It  is  believed  that  in  this 
region  the  only  genuine  wild  horses  are  now  to  be  found.  In  a  wild  state  these 
animals  are  timid  and  difficult  to  approach,  but  when  confined  they  gradually  as- 
sume the  confidence  of  domesticated  horses. 

129 


130  FARM    ANIMALS 

and  the  horde  dashed  away  with  the  speed  of  the  wind.  Man  was 
as  much  feared  by  them  as  other  strange  life,  because  their  flesh 
made  dehghtful  dishes  for  their  half-wild  people.  And  here  we 
come  upon  the  great  natural  motive,  the  hrst  cause  of  the  drawing 
together  of  man  and  animals— hunger  and  its  satisfying.  When  the 
horse  was  ridden  for  the  first  time  speed  was  impressed  on  man  so 
firmly  that  horse  and  speed  soon  became  synonymous. 

2.  Early  qualities  retained. — Of  the  principal  and  best 
qualities  of  those  wild  and  ancestral  horses  two  still  re- 
main— speed  and  strength.  These  qualities,  which  served 
them  once  for  flight,  are  now  employed  in  the  service  of 
humanity.  A  third  quality  of  almost  equal  importance 
is  endurance.  The  first  two,  under  the  guiding  hand  of 
man  in  training  and  breeding,  has  steadily  increased.  It 
is  possible  that,  in  the  freedom  from  danger  and  the  less 
severe  environment  under  which  they  are  now  allowed  to 
live,  that  horses  do  not  possess  the  endurance  they  once 
possessed.  Yet  some  of  the  races  are  still  remarkable  in 
this  respect.  They  possess  remarkable  enduring  powers 
and  quickly  recuperate  after  even  the  most  fatiguing 
work. 

3.  Oriental    horses. — Every    important   modern    breed 


ARABIAN  Horse 


BREEDS   OF    HORSES  131 

has  been  influenced,  directly  or  indirectly,  by  the  blood 
of  the  original  races,  especially  the  Oriental.  A  few  of 
these,  known  as  Arabian  blood,  were  fundamentally  used 
in  crossing  with  the  native  mares  of  western  Europe. 
From  these  beginnings,  with  subsequent  crosses,  various 
breeds  were  evolved.  But  the  Arabian  blood  v/as  not 
without  great  influence.  As  early  as  the  days  of  the 
Crusades,  Arabian  horses  had  been  brought  to  England 
and  there  used  in  the  improvement  of  the  horse  stock. 
The  English  Thoroughbred  is  the  result  of  such  crosses. 
Although  several  original  races  were  used  to  produce  the 
Thoroughbred,  the  Oriental  predominates. 

The  best  known  ancestors  of  the  English  Thoroughbred  are 
Byerly  Turk,  Darley  Arabian  and  Godolphin  Barb,  all  taken  from 
the  east  to  the  west.  The  modern  Thoroughbred  owes  its  great- 
ness to  English  breeders  and  not  to  Arab  breeders.  These  horses 
are  primarily  famous  as  racers  or  running  horses.  Their  chief 
qualities  are  rapid  gait  and  staying  power.  In  form  and  every 
action  a  noble  origin  is  revealed.  The  Thoroughbred  has  a  small, 
refined  head ;  a  delicate,  long  neck ;  keen  and  intelligent  eyes ;  skin 
and  hair  so  fine  that  the  veins  show  through  them ;  broad  chest ; 
long  and  robust  back  and  straight  croup;  and  long,  lean,  delicate 
legs  with  hard  tendons  and  solid  hoofs.  Although  Arabian  blood 
did  much  to  improve  the  Thoroughbred,  it  has  been  the  blood  of 
the  pure  English  breeding  that  has  been  sought  and  used  in  the 
production  of  other  modern  breeds. 


American   Trotting  Horses 
The  horse  at  the  left  is  Uhlan,  the  world's  fastest  trotting  horse. 


132  FAKM    ANIMALS 

4.  American  trotters. — The  most  remarkable  of  all 
horses,  the  Amcrcan  trotter,  has  been  improved  and  de- 
veloped for  a  special  purpose — speed.  This  breed  is  a  de- 
scendant of  the  English  Thoroughbred.  They  have  long, 
sloping  shoulders,  strong  backs,  horizontal  croups,  clean 
and  fine-boned  legs  and  good  feet.  In  color  they  show 
great  variety.  The  pacers  belong  to  this  breed,  their  dis- 
tinction resting  on  a  style  of  gait  and  not  in  characteris- 
tics. Some  individuals  of  this  breed  both  trot  and  pace. 
The  most  notable  families  among  the  trotters  and  pacers 
are  the  following :  Hambletonian,  Mambrino,  Pilot,  Clay 
and  Morgan. 

One  hundred  years  ago  there  was  no  authentic  record  of  any 
horse  going  faster  than  one  mile  in  less  time  than  two  and  three-quar- 
ters minutes ;  today  we  have  records  for  one  mile  in  both  trotting 
and  pacing  in  less  than  two  minutes.  Some  very  distinguished  indi- 
viduals of  this  breed  are  the  following :  Maud  S,  2.0834  ,*  Nancy 
Hanks,  2.04;  Cresceus,  2.02^4;  The  Harvester  2.01;  Low  Dillon, 
1.58J/2  ;  and  Uhlan,  1.54,  among  the  trotters.  Hal  Pointer,  2.05^  ; 
Star  Pointer,  1.59>4;  Minor  Heir,  1.59;  and  Dan  Patch,  1.55^, 
among  the  pacers. 

5.  American  saddle  horses. — Horses  of  this  breed  are 
intended  primarily  for  riding,  either  for  business,  exer- 
cise or  sport.  Their  development  has  occurred  largely  in 
Kentucky,  Virginia  and  Tennessee.   Thoroughbred  blood, 

mingled  with  that  of  good 
riding  stock,  has  been  re- 
sponsible for  this  race. 
These  horses  have  elegance 
and  style,  as  shown  in  their 
step  and  in  the  carriage  of 
head  and  neck.  While  no 
uniformity  of  color  is  ob- 
served, bay,  brown  and 
chestnut  are  most  common. 
s.oDL.  TYPE  All  good  saddle  horses  are 


BREEDS   OF   HORSES 


rs's 


able  to  walk,  trot  and  canter  with  ease  and  distinction. 

In  addition  to  these  gaits  some  riding  horses  have  been 

educated  to  take  the  gaits  known  as  the  rack,  and  either 

the  running  walk,  fox  trot  or  slow  pace. 

6.  The  Hackney.—  The 
Hackney  originated  in  Eng- 
land from  good  driving 
mares  bred  to  Thorough- 
bred stallions.  The  name 
comes  from  hack,  originally 


meanmg    any 


horse    which 


English   Piackney 


is  suitable  for  hauling 
light  carriages  at  a  rather 
rapid  pace.  Modern  Hack- 
neys have  not  been  devel- 
oped to  go  fast,  but  to  serve  as  heavy  harness  horses  of 
great  style.  The  walking  gait,  with  high  knee  action, 
is  the  technical  conception  of  what  these  horses  should 
be.  Hackneys  are  not  as  angular  as  Thoroughbreds. 
They  are  also  smoother;  the  neck  is  more  arched,  the 
chest  fuller,  the  back  shorter,  the  thighs  better  muscled 
than  in  the  case  of  the  Thoroughbred  or  trotter.  The 
striking  characteristic  of  these  horses  is  the  leg  move- 
ments. They  greatly  flex 
their  legs,  the  knees  and 
hocks  being  raised  to  an  ex- 
treme height.  There  is  no 
fixed  color  of  the  breed,  but 
bay,  brown  and  chestnut 
are  the  most  common. 
These  horses  are  used 
chiefly  as  park  animals  and 
for  driving  in  boulevards, 
where  style  and  not  speed 

is    required.  French  Coach 


134  FARM    ANIMALS 

7.  The  French  Coach  horses. — As  the  name  indicates, 
these  horses  are  a  French  breed.  They  have  resulted 
from  crosses  of  the  English  Thoroughbred  with  the  na- 
tive blood  that  came  down  from  the  rule  of  the  Nor- 
mans. The  French  Coach  is  primarily  a  carriage  horse, 
and  as  such  enjoys  great  popularity  in  the  land  of  his 
l)irth.  He  possesses  all  the  necessary  external  qualities — 
height,  massiveness  and  nobility  of  shape.  The  French 
government  has  for  a  long  time  encouraged  the  people 
to  breed  these  horses  and  has  assisted  breeders  in  many 
ways.     Chestnut,  bay  and  brown  are  the  leading  colors. 

8.  German   Coach  horses. 

^  — Germany     is     a     land     of 

^^^Bl      many  horses.     In  the  south- 

^^^^^g^    ^^^  P^^t  of  that  country  the 

^j^^^^^tf^^^^K  heavier     draft     horses     pre- 

^^^^^^^I^B  dominate,  and  in  the  north- 

^W^^^^^^^f  ci"^     P^i't     lifeht     horses     for 

m  W  saddle    and    harness   mostly 

,^^gB|^^^^^^^^^^^.        are  found.     Many    of    these 

l[|H|PPHHip||||HpP  '       latter  have  been  imported  to 

our  country.   They  are  solid, 

Gera\an  Coach  .    .  ^  '    .         •,  r  i  i 

weighty  animals  oi  noble 
form  for  carriage  use.  The  head  is  well  formed,  the  neck 
and  shoulders  handsome,  the  withers  high,  and  the  legs 
thickly  muscled.  They  are  very  docile  and  fine  in  action. 
They  are  usually  bay  or  brown  in  color. 

9.  Cleveland  Bays. — The  good  qualities  of  this  English 
breed,  becoming  more  widely  known,  led  to  the  intro- 
duction of  many  of  these  horses  to  America.  They  be- 
long to  a  very  old  race,  derived,  probably,  from  an  an- 
cient mixture  of  the  native  horse  with  Oriental  blood. 
Animals  of  this  race  are  well  built,  lively,  vigorous,  with 


BREEDS   OF   HORSES 


185 


Cleveland  Bay 


Strong,  lean  legs.     They  at  one  time  were  much  in  de- 
mand for  carriage  and  also  for  work  horses. 

10.  The      Percheron. 

— There  are  several 
races  of  heavy  horses 
in  France,  representa- 
tives of  which  have 
been  imported  to  this 
country.  The  most 
popular  of  the  heavy 
draft  breeds  of  France 
is  the  group  that  takes 
the  name  from  the 
Perche  region  between 
Normandy  and  the  river  Maine.  The  Percheron  has  a 
broad  head,  short  and  thick  neck,  with  a  heavy  double 
mane,  the  withers  low,  the  chest  broad,  cleft  and  pend- 
ant, the  legs  short  and  strong.  These  horses  are  espe- 
cially suited  to  draw,  at  a  rather  quick  pace,  moderately 
heavy  loads,  such  as  carts,  trucks  and  farm  tools  and 
implements.  Their  docility,  ease  of  acclimating  and  quick 
movement  have  made  them  the  most  popular  draft  breed 
in  the  United  States.  There  is  a  constant  demand  for 
these  horses. 


The  French  breeders  have 
co-operated  with  great  care  in 
endeavor  to  develop  this  breed 
to  still  greater  size.  These 
horses  are  massive,  heavily  mus- 
cled and  stand  16  hands  or  more 
high.  They  weigh  from  1,600  to 
2,100  pounds.  Up  to  recent 
years  gray  was  the  character- 
istic color,  but  black  is  now  more 
in  fashion.  Bays  and  roans  are 
not  uncommon,  and  occasionally 
a  bay  or  chestnut  is  seen.     The 


Percheron 


136 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Clydesdale 


legs  are  free  from  the  long  hairs  or  "feather,"  so  conspicuous  on 
some  of  the  draft  breeds. 

11.  Clydesdales. — Th:s  notable  breed  originated  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Clyde  in  Scotland.     The  foundation  stock 

was  the  "old  black  horse"  of 
northern  Europe.  Years  of 
selection  and  careful  breed- 
ing under  the  local  environ- 
ments gave  rise  to  this  dis- 
tinct breed  of  horses,  weigh- 
ing from  1,600  to  1,800 
pounds.  The  prevailing  col- 
ors are  brov^n,  bay  or  black, 
with  a  star  or  blaze,  or  other 
mark  on  the  forehead,  and 
they  frequently  have  white  feet.  The  breed  produces 
excellent  work  horses.  The  hind  quarters  are  well  cov- 
ered with  muscles  and  the  legs  and  feet  are  good.  Some 
say  they  have  the  best  feet  of  any  of  the  draft  breeds. 
Considerable  hair  grows  out  from  the  back  of  the  tendons 
of  all  four  feet.    They  have  a  long  stride  and  rapid  walk. 

12.  Belgian  Draft.— 
Belgium  is  the  country 
of  the  heaviest  draft 
horses.  Here  they 
reach  a  giant  size, 
weighing  from  1,700 
to  2,500  pounds.  These 
horses  are  renowned  for 
developed  muscles,  fine 
shape  and  vast  strength. 
The  croup  is  powerfully 
developed,  the  legs  rel- 
atively   short,    but    the 


Belgian 


BREEDS   OF   HORSES 


137 


English   Shire 


horses  trot  with  ease.     The  breed  is  steadily  gaining  in 

popularity  in  the  United  States,  and  many  fine  specimens 

have  been  imported.   The  breed  is  characterized  by  great 

size,    broad    chest,    short 

but  wide  back,  deep  body 

and   heavy  weight.     The 

legs    are    free    from    long 

hair.       Much     variety     is 

seen    in    color,    although 

bay,  brown,  chestnut  and 

roan  are  most  in  evidence. 

13.  English  Shire.— On 
the  plains  and  in  the  fer- 
tile valleys  of  England 
there  have  been  from  time  immemorial  solid,  heavy 
draft  horses.  The  Shire  is  an  ancient  animal  whose 
own  blood  has  been  mixed  with  that  of  other  heavy  races. 
His  true  cradle  is  the  center  of  England.  The  race  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  ponderous  conformation,  its  fine  shape, 
especially  by  the  thick  hair  at  the  back  of  the  leg,  de- 
scending into  long  locks  about  the  fetlock.  They  possess 
extraordinary  strength,  great  height  and  excellent  quali- 
ties for  draft  purposes.  They  are  usually  gray,  black  or 
bay  in  color. 

14.  The  Suffolk  horse,  commonly  known  as  the  Suffolk 
Punch,  has  come  down  from  ancient  times  in  the  English 
county  of  that  name.  He  is  equally  heavy  and  stout  and 
enjoys  great  popularity  because  of  his  gentleness  and  the 
ease  with  which  he  lends  himself  to  toilsome  work,  espe- 
cially farming.  The  Suffolk  horse  is  well  rounded,  the 
legs  are  clean  and  the  action  brisk.  The  prevailing  color 
is  some  shade  of  chestnut  or  sorrel.  These  horses  vary 
from  1,500  to  2,000  pounds  in  weight. 


138  FAR-M.   ANIMALS 

15.  Ponies. — A  great  variety  of  ponies  has  been  pro- 
duced in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Great  Britain.  The 
Shetland  ponies,  coming  from  the  islands  of  that  name, 
are  the  most  characteristic  because  they  are  the  smallest. 
These  little  animals,  sometimes  less  than  three  feet  in 

height,  are  not  only  used  in 

^^■n^      circuses,     and     as     children's 

^^^^^^^^K^^^     playmates,  but  also  in  mines, 

M^^^^^^^^K  where    they    draw    the    train 

JP^^Hm^F  cars.       Not        infrequently, 

m^  ■  when  once  taken  down  in  the 

■:M  ,  If  mine  they  never  again  see  the 

Wm0tB^^  V   -  light  of  day.   Some  have  lived 

15  years,  stabled  and  fed  un- 

5HETLAND  Pony  -^  ' 

derground.  There  are  several 
other  tribes  of  ponies  named  for  the  localities  where  they 
originate,  such  as  Welsh,  Exmoor,  Dartmoor  and  the 
New  Forest. 

The  broncho  ponies  of  the  western  plains  are  of  Span- 
ish origin,  and  therefore  are  of  Oriental  blood.  The  polo 
pony  is  externally  a  Thoroughbred  and  descends  from 
one,  but  by  birth  he  is  a  half  breed.  His  sire  is  usually 
a  Thoroughbred,  and  his  mother  a  common  mare. 


LESSON  FOURTEEN 
FEEDING  FARM  HORSES 

1.  A  fundamental  principle  in  horse  feeding. 

2.  Sound  and  wholesome  food. 

3.  Character  of  food. 

4.  Requirements  for  work. 

5.  Quantity  may  vary. 

6.  Giving  water. 

7.  Order  of  hay,  grain  and  water. 

8.  Regularity  in  feeding  and  watering. 

9.  Roughage  feeds  for  horses. 

10.  Balanced  ration. 

11.  Mettle  of  oats. 

12.  When  corn  is  fed. 

13.  Other  concentrates. 

14.  Selecting  the  ration. 

15.  Feeding  mules. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  entire  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology of  its  digestive  apparatus  show  that  the  food  of  the 
horse  should  be  nutritious  in  quality,  supplied  frequently, 
and  in  comparatively  small  quantities.  The  amount  and 
character  of  the  food  must  vary  with  the  size  and  con- 
stitution of  the  horse,  the  climate  and  season,  the  amount 
and  kind  of  work  required,  and  the  section  it  lives  in. 


LESSON  FOURTEEN 
FEEDING  FARM  HORSES 


1.  A  fundamental  principle  in  horse  feeding. — A  rela- 
tively smaller  quantity  of  roughage  and  a  correspond- 
ingly larger  amount  of  concentrates  is  advisable  for 
horses  than  for  bovines.  The  kind  of  work  to  which 
horses  are  put  calls  for  the  least  possible  load  on  the  di- 
gestive organs,  which,  even  in  the  heavy  draft  breeds,  are 
small,  and  particularly  the  stomach.  Hence  the  food  of 
the  horse  should  be  nutritious  in  quality,  be  supplied  fre- 
quently and  in  comparatively  small  quantities. 

2.  Sound      and      wholesome 
food. — The   food — and   it   may 
include  a  wide  range  of  feed- 
ing materials — must  be   clean, 
wholesome  and  sound ;  but  be- 
yond this  no  specific  rules  can 
be  laid  down,  except  that,  gen- 
erally speaking,  reasonable  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  the 
digestible     nutrients,     in     that 
they    should    bear   the    proper 
proportion  one  to  another.  The 
amount  and  character  of  the  food  must  vary  with  the  size 
of  the  horse,  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  used,  the  climate 
and  the  season,  and  the  section  in  which  it  is  used. 

3.  Character  of  food. — The  horse  feeds  on  a  wider 
range  of  food  substances  than  is  popularly  supposed.  In 
Arabia,  where  stamina  and  sinew  are  famous,  the  prin- 
cipal food  is  barley  and  scant  herbage ;  in  Ireland  it  is 
dried  fish  mainlv  ;  in  England  hav,  oats  and  beans  com- 


Stomach  Capacity 

The  principal  reason  why  coarse 
foods  may  be  used  for  cows  but 
not  for  horses. 


FEEDING    FARM    HORSES 


141 


prise  the  food  supply  largely ;  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
rye,  barley  and  inferior  wheat  make  up  the  grain  portion 
of  the  rations ;  while  in  this  country  many  feeding  stuffs, 
covering  a  wide  range  of  roughage  and  grain,  find  their 
way  into  the  feed  mangers  and  satisfactorily  keep  the 
horse  stock  in  health  and  vigor. 

It  is  not  so  much  the  kind  of  food,  but  the  purity  and  character, 
that  count.  Moldy  hay  and  grain  cause  many  ills  in  the  horse,  and 
imperfect  methods  of  preparation  and  curing  have  cast  an  odor  of 
unpopularity  on  many  meritorious  feeds  that,  if  properly  handled, 
would  be  eagerly  sought  because  of  their  ease  of  production  or  rela- 
tively less  cost  when  compared  with  the  standard  horse  feeds  of 
each  particular  section. 


Farm   Horses   at  Work   in  the   Field 

Their  feed  consisted  of  corn,  bran  and  oil  meal  for  grain,  and  timothy  and  clover 
hay  mixed  for  roughage. 

4.  Requirements  for  work. — Naturally  the  work  de- 
manded of  a  horse  will  influence  the  choice  and  amount  of 
food.  The  race  horse  or  the  roadster,  fed  on  coarse  rough- 
age and  little  grain,  will  be  greatly  handicapped  if  in  compe- 
tition with  another  supplied  with  nutritious  and  appetizing 
concentrates  and  but  little  of  coarse  fodder.  In  winter  the 
draft  horse  can  subsist  readily  on  hay  or  fodder  and  little  or 
no  grain,  providing  the  work  is  light  and  the  hours  of  labor 


142 


FARM    ANIMALS 


few.  But  this  same  horse,  when  put  to  hard  labor  in  spring 
and  summer,  at  plow,  cultivator  or  harvester,  will  demand 
less  hay  and  more  grain, 

5.  Quantity  may  vary. — Farm  work  usually  is  not  of  a 
strenuous  nature,  even  in  the  busy  season.  On  some  days 
and  during  some  periods  the  work  is  light,  and  not  in- 
frequently there  are  many  days  of  rest.  At  such  times 
less  food  should  be  given,  but  the  feeding  should  be  done 
in  such  fashion  as  to  keep  the  horse  in  good  work  form 
and  in  thrifty  condition. 


Water  at   the  Roadside 

A  thoughtful  and  humane  provision   for  the  horse's  com- 
fort that  ought  to  be  in   greater  use   than   it   is. 

6.  Giving  water. — In  a  state  of  nature  horses  feed  upon 
juicy  herbage  and  drink  at  pleasure  only  pure  water  when 
that  is  available.  No  animal  is  more  delicate  and  fas- 
tidious about  its  drink  than  the  horse.  Often  these  ani- 
mals will  suffer  agonies  of  thirst  rather  than  quench  it 
with  impure,  stale  or  tepid  water.  Water  should  be  given 
frequently  and  in  small  quantities. 

Some  horses  require  more  water  than  others,  the  quantity  varying 
with  the  nature  and  amount  of  the  ration,  the  propensity  to  Sweat 
and  the  season  of  the  year.  In  a  test  at  the  New  Hampshire  station 
the  arnount  of  water  drunk  by  five  horses  was  recorded,  showing 
a  variation  of  from  25,895  pounds  to  32,997  pounds  in  the  course  of 


FEEDING    FARM    HORSES  143 

a  year.  Stale  or  foul  water  from  a  neglected  cistern  is  unfit  for  a 
horse  and  will  be  refused,  except  in  case  of  extreme  thirst  or  when 
no  other  kind  is  provided. 

The  custom  of  not  giving  horses  a  drink  during  the  forenoon  or 
the  afternoon  when  working  in  the  field  is  frequently  condemned  but 
generally  followed.  In  our  larger  cities  horses  are  often  never  given 
water  between  morning  and  evening.  This  is  cruel,  of  course.  Good 
horsemen  are  more  thoughtful  of  these  dumb  beasts.  Not  only 
should  the  horse  be  permitted  to  drink  his  fill  at  noon,  but  during 
hot  weather,  in  the  dusty  fields,  a  cool  drink  should  be  provided 
also. 

7.  Order  of  hay,  grain  and  water. — Drinking  water 
should  be  given  at  least  three  times  a  day  to  horses  at 
rest,  and  more  frequently  when  at  work.  Small  quanti- 
ties of  water  may  be  given  horses  at  work,  even  though 
they  are  hot  and  tired.  When  horses  are  at  heavy  work, 
their  noon  feed  should  consist  largely  of  grain.  After 
being  watered,  grain  is  fed  and  some  ha}^  given.  For 
the  evening  meal  the  grain  should  come  first,  and  after 
a  brief  interval  the  hay.  Usually  hay  and  grain  are 
given  at  the  same  time.  A  drink  of  water  after  feeding 
is  both  humane  and  desirable. 

8.  Regularity  in  feeding  and  watering. — Whatever  the 
system  of  feeding  and  watering,  it  should  be  strictly  ad- 
hered to  during  the  season.  Habit  is  part  of  the  ration. 
Water  given  one  day  before  meals  and  the  following  day 
after  meals  is  as  unsatisfying  to  the  horse  as  it  would  be 
to  man.  If  accustomed  to  grain  before  hay  at  noon,  there 
will  be  dissatisfaction  if  this  procedure  is  reversed  the 
following  day.  Drink  and  food  should  be  given  at  about 
the  same  time  each  day. 

Not  only  does  the  animal  know  when  to  expect  its  grain  and  hay, 
but  the  animal  system  adjusts  itself  accordingly,  and  discomfort 
results  if  this  order  is  not  adhered  to.  This  does  not  mean  that  a 
set  scheme  should  be  followed  throughout  the  year,  but  rather  fol- 
lowed during  certain  periods  of  the  year  when  special  work  is  per- 
formed. During  the  winter  season  when  farm  horses  are  not  called 
to  do  strenuous  or  regular  work,  a  different  plan  may  be  followed 
than  that  employed  in  the  summer  season,  when  every  minute  counts. 
But,  winter  or  summer,  a  reasonable  regularity  should  be  required. 


144 


FARM    ANIMALS 


9.  Roughage  feeds  for  horses. — Timothy  hay,  oats  and 
corn  are  standard  articles  in  horse  rations,  but  many 
other  grasses  and  legumes  are  equally  available  and 
equally  satisfactory.  The  red  and  alsike  varieties  of 
clover,  alfalfa  and  timothy  are  all  good  and  may  be  fed 
in  varying  amounts.  On  some  farms  red  clover  hay  is 
often  the  sole  food  of  work  horses  durins:  winter.     It  is 


Fattening  Horses  for  Market 

These  grade  Percherons   are  ready   for  shipment,   having  been   put  in   proper  condi- 
tion for  market. 

a  balanced  food  in  itself,  but  somewhat  too  bulky  to  be 
used  exclusively  when  these  same  horses  are  put  to  heavv 
farm  work. 

In  the  southern  states.  Bermuda.  timoth\%  cowpea  hay,  corn 
stover,  the  cereal  hays,  with  or  without  vetch,  and  other  legumes 
and  grasses,  admit  of  considerable  choice  and  variety.  Although 
crimson  clover  is  frequently  fed  to  horses,  it  is  not  a  desirable 
roughage  because  of  the  fuzzy  condition  of  the  clover  head.  Fre- 
quently this  fuzz  curls  up  into  balls,  lodges  in  the  intestinal  organs, 
and  causes  digestive  disorders  and  sometimes  death.  In  the  western 
states  many  of  the  cereal  hays,  brome  grass,  alfalfa,  prairie  hay,  corn 
stover,  timothy  and  the  clovers  are  avr.ilable.  These  allow  a  wide 
range  of  roughage  materials  for  horses.  In  every  section  millet 
grows  well  and  is  frequently  fed.  If  cut  and  cured  just  as  the  first 
blossoms  appear,  a  hay  scarcely  inferior  to  timothy  is  made.  Over- 
ripe millet  should  not  be  fed  to  horses. 


FEEDING    FARM    HORSES 


145 


10.  Balanced  ration. — It  does  not  matter  very  much 
what  kind  of  roughage  is  fed  horses,  providing  the  rough- 
age is  well  cured  and  free  from  dirt,  and  is  wholesome. 
An  important  thing  is  to  provide  concentrates  that  will 
carry  the  nutrient  or  nutrients  lacking  in  the  roughage, 
but  which  are  abundantly  supplied  in  the  concentrates. 
Thus,  if  legume  hays  are  fed,  the  concentrates  need  not  be 
high  in  protein,  and  if  the  roughage  is  of  a  carbonaceous 
nature,  like  timothy  or  corn  stover,  some  concentrate  like 
bran  or  oil  meal  should  be  introduced  into  the  ration. 

11.  Mettle  of  oats.— It 
was  formerly  thought  that 
oats  were  indispensable  for 
horses.  There  seems  to  be 
some  constituent  '  of  this 
grain  that  gives  mettle  and 
energy.  For  horses  of  the 
roadster  type  and  those 
where  quick  action  is  de- 
manded, oats  should  be,  and 
no  doubt  will  continue  to  be, 
a  principal  part  of  the  ra- 
tion, but  for  farm  work  the 
value  of  oats  perhaps  has 
been  overestimated.  Many 
tests  have  been  conducted 
in  which  various  feeding 
stufifs  have  been  compared, 
and  the  oats  theory  has  been 
overthrown.  It  is  not  so  much 
the  kind  of  concentrate,  but 
rather  that  the  grain  portion  shall  contain  the  digestible 
nutrients  in  the  best  balance,  and  that  they  be  of  an 
easily  digestible  nature. 


Bulk  in  Grain  Ration 
Each  pile  contains  the  same  amount 
of  digestible  nutrients.  1.  Corn.  2. 
Corn  meal.  3.  Oats.  4.  Ground  oats. 
5.  Corn  and  oats,  half  and  half.  6. 
Corn  meal  and  ground  oats,  half  and 
half.  7.  Corn  meal,  ground  oats  and 
wheat  bran,  equal  parts. 


146  FARM    ANIMALS 

12.  When  corn  is  fed. — Indian  corn  shares  with  oats 
popularity  as  a  horse  food.  Although  a  very  concen- 
trated food  it  is  deficient  in  muscle-forming  elements. 
If  fed  in  combination  with  timothy  or  corn  stover,  too 
little  protein  will  be  provided.  Concentrates  of  a  nitrog- 
enous nature,  therefore,  should  be  admitted  to  the 
ration.  Oats  then  may  be  used,  or  bran,  or  the  oil  meals ; 
indeed,  practically  any  commercial  concentrated  feed. 
Bran  and  oil  meal  are  laxative,  and  are  particularly  good 
when  succulence  otherwise  is  not  to  be  had.  These  may 
be  given  in  small  quantities  daily,  or  fed  in  larger  quanti- 
ties two  or  three  times  a  week.  Both  are  extremely  valu- 
able articles  for  horses,  and  may  be  fed  either  dry  or  in 
mashes.  When  fed  as  mash  once  a  week,  night  is  the  best 
time,  preferably  before  a  day  of  rest. 

13.  Other  concentrates. — Barley  is  a  principal  grain  food 
for  horses  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  In  some  of  the  great 
breeding  stables  barley  and  oats  are  ground  together  in 
proportions  varying  with  the  season  and  fed  to  stallions 
and  mares.  Cottonseed  meal  is  similar  in  its  chemical 
composition  to  linseed  meal,  but  is  more  highly  concen- 
trated and  contains  more  protein.  It  should  be  fed  with 
caution,  one  or  two  pounds  a  day,  and  never  to  exceed 
three  or  four  pounds.  This  concentrate  is  coming  more 
and  more  into  favor,  but  some  horses  seem  never  to 
learn  to  like  it.  It  is  more  often  used  in  rations  for 
mules  than  for  horses. 

The  carrot  is  the  root  crop  par  excellence  for  the  horse.  It 
serves  to  cool  the  system  and  assists  in  the  digestion  of  other  food. 
Only  a  few  roots  should  be  fed  at  a  time  and  two  or  three  times 
weekly.  Salt  is  wholesome  and  beneficial  for  horses,  and  attention 
should  be  given  to  this  matter.  An  occasional  feeding  of  salt  is 
not  desirable.  Salt  should  be  in  rock  form  and  placed  where  the 
horses  can  get  it  at  all  times. 

14.  Selecting  the  ration. — In  making  up  a  ration  for  a 
horse  the  first  point  is  to  find  out  how  much  the  horse 


FEEDING    FARM    HORSES 


147 


will  eat,  the  next  is  to  regulate  the  ration  according  to  the 

demand  to  be  made  upon  the  animal,  whether  the  work 

is  heavy  or  light,  regular  or  irregular;  then  consider  the 

feeding  stuffs  that  are  available ;  and  finally  the  season 

and  the  weather. 

The  harder  the  work  and  the  cokler    

the  weather,  the  greater  the  propor- 
tion of  carbohydrates  required  in  the 
food.  Be  particular,  however,  to  get 
enough  protein,  even  though  it  neces- 
sitates the  purchase  of  a  concentrate, 
that  the  horse  may  get  enough  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  body  machine 
and  to  secure  the  completest  digestion 
of  the  other  substances. 

15.  Feeding  mules. — There  is 
a  prevailing  notion  that  mules 
eat  less  than  horses.  Riley, 
after  a  long  experience  with 
thousands  of  army  mules,  main- 
tains that  "a  mule  requires  just 
as  much  as  horses  of  similar  dimensions."  In  fact,  at 
hard  work,  Riley  says,  ''the  mule  will  eat  more  than  the 
horse  will  or  can."  In  general,  an  animal  that  eats  little 
is  a  poor  animal,  regardless  of  its  class  or  kind.  The 
mule  will  manage  to  get  along  on  poor  feed  given  at 
irregular  intervals,  but  this  neglect  will  be  manifested 
in  its  condition  and  efficiency.  What  has  been  said  about 
feeding  work  horses  applies  to  mules. 


Fine  as  a  Fiddle 

This  farm  team  was  fed  alfalfa, 
timothy,  corn  and  oats — each  a 
home-grown  feed. 


LESSON  FIFTEEN 
THE  ASS  AND  THE  MULE 

1.  The  wild  ass. 

2.  Description. 

3.  The  domestic  ass. 

4.  Spanish  jacks. 

5.  Poitou  jacks. 

6.  Native  jacks. 

7.  Other  breeds. 

8.  The  burro. 

9.  The  mule. 

10.  Best  types. 

11.  Uses. 

12.  Market  classes. 

13.  Disease  immunity. 

14.  Raising. 

15.  Choosing-  dams. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  horse  (cqiius  caballas),  the 
ass  (cqiivs  asinus),  the  zebra  (cquus  zebra)  and  the 
quagga  (cquus  quagga)  are  closely  related.  Their  skele- 
tons when  compared  are  not  essentially  different,  show- 
ing that  these  four  classes  of  animals  are  closely  related 
and  had  the  same  ancestors.  The  mule  is  not  only  a  most 
faithful  beast,  but  can  be  used  for  certain  kinds  of  work 
for  which  other  work  animals  are  not  nearly  so  well 
fitted. 


148 


LESSON  FIFTEEN 
THE  ASS  AND  THE  MULE 


1.  The  wild  ass. — The  ass  and  the  horse  in  a  wild 
state  were  not  widely  different.  It  is  only  when  the 
domestic  relations  are  reached  that  a  divergence  of  char- 
acters exists,  and  these  are  more  external  than  otherwise. 
In  their  wild  state  they  live  in  herds  and  wander  to  and 
fro,  gathering-  their  food  regardless  of  quality  or  scanty 
herbage.  Under  domestication  they  submit  to  the  worst 
forms  of  drudgery,  but  in  a  wild  state  are  distinguished 
by  an  inborn  love  of  freedom.  Job  excellently  describes 
him : 

"Who  hath  sent  out  the  wild  ass  free?  Or  who  hath  loosed  the 
bands  of  the  wild  ass?  Whose  house  I  have  made  the  wilderness, 
and  the  barren  land  his  dwellings.  He  scorneth  the  multitude 
of  the  city,  neither  regardeth  he  the  crying  of  the  driver.  The  range 
of  the  mountains  is  his  pasture,  and  he  searcheth  after  every  green 
thing." 

2.  Description. — Compared  with  the  domestic  ass,  the 
wild  ass  is  taller,  more  active,  is  more  solidly  built,  and 
is  capable  of  enduring  great  fatigue.  He  drinks  salt  or  fresh 
water,  and  eats  bitter  herbs,  weeds 

and  tough  grasses,  even  when 
other  pasturage  is  available.  In 
color,  they  are  grayish.  In  winter 
the  coat  gets  very  heavy  and  takes 
on  a  fleecelike  appearance  which 
changes  in  summer  to  soft,  silky 
hair.  Their  sharp  eyes  and  quick, 
keen  ears  enable  them  to  detect 
the  approach  of  an  intruder  or 
enemy    at    great    distances    away.  ^^^^  ^^  j^^^ 


150 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Donkey 


3.  The  domestic  ass. — Under  domestication  the  ass 
has  become  the  donkey  drudge  of  mankind.  Although 
obstinate  and  provoking,  he  does  work  that  other  ani- 
mals would  soon  perish  in 
doing,  or  in  performing  cer- 
tain labors  that  no  other 
beast  of  burden  could  with 
safety  be  intrusted.  His  foot- 
ing is  so  firm  and  sure  and 
his  back  so  strong  and  untir- 
ing that  he  and  his  kind  have 
largely  displaced  all  other 
living  carriers  in  mountain- 
ous countries  for  the  trans- 
portation    of     merchandise. 

He  is  also  an  excellent  riding  animal.  In  many  parts  of 
Europe,  Asia  and  Africa  he  is  held  in  high  favor  as  a 
driving  animal  for  private  carriages  and  as  riding  steeds 
for  men  and  women. 

4.  Spanish  jacks. — The  Andalusians  come  from  Spain, 
where  the  breed  originated.  The  color  is  gray,  frequently 
white.    They  stand  14  to  15  hands 

high  and  have  fine  legs  with  large 
bone.  The  Catalonian  stands 
about  15  hands  and  has  a  good, 
clean  bone.  They  are  black  in 
color,  with  white  points,  and  very 
popular  because  of  their  fine  style 
and  action.  These  qualities  give 
the  breed  a  high  standing. 

5.  Poitou  jacks. — This  French 
breed  has  by  merit  alone  taken 
a  high  place  among  breeders.  The 
head  is  a  little  large,  the  mouth  is  (..atmoman  jack 


tr^^'.Miair, 


THE    ASS    AND    THE    MULE  151 

small,  the  tail  short,  the  chest  broad  and  all  the  joints 
large.  The  hair  generally  is  fine  and  silky.  Draft  mares 
bred  to  this  jack  produce  excellent  mules  of  striking  size 
and  quality. 

6.  Native     jacks. — Many     ex- 
perienced   breeders    prefer    the 
native  jacks  to  any  of  the   im- 
ported breeds.     This  is  because 
of  the  large  size,  greater  weight 
and  larger  bone  that  have  been 
developed  after  several  genera- 
tions  of   feeding  on   blue   grass 
and  other  foods  grown  on  lime- 
stone soils.    While  all  colors  are  native  jack 
found,  breeders  prefer  black  with   white  points.     Colts 
from   native  jacks   are   stronger,   with   better  body   and 
more  length  than  those  from  imported  jacks. 

7.  Other  breeds. — The  Maltese  breed  comes  from  the 
island  of  Malta.  The  jacks  are  small,  seldom  standing 
over  14  hands.  They,  have  good  color  and  fine  bone,  and 
while  much  liked  for  riding  and  driving,  they  are  too 
small  for  farm  breeding.  The  Italian  jacks  are  smaller 
than  the  Maltese,  13  to  14  hands  high.  They  are  black 
or  gray  in  color.  The  Majorca  jack  is  the  largest  of  the 
imported  breeds.  Mature  individuals  stand  over  16 
hands.  They  are  heavy  and  rather  coarse.  The  head  and 
ears  are  large. 

8.  The  burro. — The  pony  of  the  jack  tribe  is  the  burro, 
a  descendant  of  the  jacks  brought  to  this  country  by 
the  earliest  Spanish  settlers.  Its  hair  is  shaggy,  usually 
of  mouse  color,  although  this  may  vary  from  white  to 
black.  The  neck  is  very  thick,  and,  in  proportion  to  the 
rest  of  the  body,  is  enormous.  These  beasts  are  very 
popular    in    mountainous    regions.      They    carry    large 


152  FARM   ANIMALS 

loads  on  their  backs,  and  move  slowly  and  patiently, 
but  with  great  sureness  of  foot  over  the  narrow,  dan- 
gerous, rocky  passes.  Many  of  these  animals  are  used 
in  mines,  where  they  perform  steady  service  for  a  great 
many  years. 


Burro  at  Work 

These  little  beasts,  while  not  in   general  use   on  farms,   are  willing  workers  and 
never  complain  at  any  task  to  which  they  may  be  put. 

9.  The  mule. — The  mule  is  a  hybrid,  not  a  breed.  It  is 
a  mongrel  product,  having  a  jack  for  sire  and  a  mare 
for  dam.  If  the  breeding  is  reversed,  the  product  is 
known  as  a  hinny,  but  this  is  always  inferior  to  the  first- 
named  cross.  The  mule  is  tall  and  strong,  corresponding 
to  the  horse  in  height  and  in  the  shape  of  the  neck, 
shoulders  and  body,  while  the  form  of  his  head,  his  long 
ears,  his  thin,  wiry  legs  and  narrow  hoofs  are  the  in- 
heritance of  his  father,  tlie  ass.  The  mule  has  better  style 
and  finish  and  better  bone  than  the  hinny  and  greater 
size.     Hinnies,  while  homelier  in  appearance,  are  never- 


THE  ASS  AND   THE    MULE 


153 


Span  of  Prize  Mules 


theless  faithful  workers  and  are  able  to  endure  work  and 
to  labor  under  the  most  trying  hardship. 

10.  Best  types. — The  mules  in  greatest  favor  are  those 
that  most  nearly   approach   the  horse   type  and  follow 

closely  in  all  points  of 
symmetry  of  form. 
Compared  with  the 
horse,  the  body  is  more 
cylindrical  and  smaller. 
The  mule  markets  de- 
mand a  fine  body  on  the 
mule,  with  bigness,  but 
not  paunchiness.  They 
must  have  fine,  hard 
legs  and  show  action 
and  power  in  every 
movement.  Smooth,  dense  bones  are  desirable,  as  are  also 
prominent  tendons  and  well-developed  muscles.  Small 
feet  are  not  wanted. 

11.  Uses. — First  and  foremost  the  mule  is  a  work  ani- 
mal. In  this  respect  he  stands  unsurpassed.  He  matures 
slowly  but  lives  to  great  age.  Trying  heat  in  hot  fields  in 
summer  affects  the  mule  much  less  than  the  horse.  These 
creatures  stand  rough  weather  better  than  horses.  They 
are  noted  for  their  great  vigor  and  little  tendency  to  dis- 
ease. For  severe  road 
work,  and  for  labor  in  cot- 
ton and  sugar  fields  and  in 
the  mines,  they  are  with- 
out a  rival.  They  are  con- 
sidered indispensable  for 
many  kinds  of  army  work. 

12.  Market       classes. — 
The     market     grades     of  farm-rmsed  mule 


154  FARM    ANIMALS 

mules  are  as  follows :  (1)  Sugar  mules,  (2)  cotton  mules, 
(3)  lumber  mules,  (4)  general-purpose  mules,  and  (5) 
mine  mules.  Of  these,  sugar,  cotton  and  lumber  mules 
command  the  highest  prices.  They  must  stand  15  to  17 
hands,  be  heavy  boned,  very  rugged  and  have  capacity 
for  very  hard  work.  Finish  in  body,  good  style  in  action, 
and  considerable  refinement  about  head,  neck  and  legs 


Four  Big  Farm  Mules  at  Work 
These  mules  have  done  severe  farm  work  for  years.     They  are  as  active  as  ever. 


give  an  added  value.  The  general-purpose  mule  is  used 
on  the  roads  for  heavy  hauling,  for  railroad  construction, 
farm  work,  and  dray  purposes  in  towns  and  cities.  This 
class  is  a  regular  competitor  of  the  draft  horse  and  by 
many  is  preferred.  The  mine  mules  are  small,  often  no 
more  than  10  or  11  hands.  They  are  chunky,  hardy,  and 
have  heavy  bone.  They  must  have  the  capacity  for  long, 
steady  pulls  and  to  bear  heavy  loads. 

13.  Disease  immunity. — AMiile   mules    are    subject   to 
disease  and  bone  troubles,  they  are  unquestionably  har- 


THE  ASS  AND  THE    MULE 


155 


dier  and  healthier  than  the  horse  under  adverse  condi- 
tions. Many  of  the  common  ailments  of  the  horse  never 
affect  the  mule  at  all ;  and  when  affected  v^ith  certain  ail- 
ments, mules  more  quickly  recover  and  appear  to  be  less 
disabled  during  the  course  of  the  disease. 

14.  Raising. —  Mule  colts 
are  less  troublesome  in  rais- 
ing than  horse  colts  and 
therefore  the  expense  is  less. 
It  takes  less  time  to  prepare 
mule  colts  than  horse  colts 
for  the  market.  They  are 
also  in  demand  at  any 
period.  When  quality  and 
condition  are  considered, 
mule  colts  uniformly  com- 
mand higher  prices  than 
ordinary  draft  colts  of  the 
same  age  and  quality.  There  is  less  risk  in  bringing  a 
mule  colt  to  a  salable  age  than  a  horse  colt.  The  steps 
in  raising  are  similar  to  those  for  raising  other  colts. 
Nutritious,  appetizing  food  is  essential  for  size  and 
growth. 

15.  Choosing     dams. 

— The  best  dams  are 
those  of  good  confor- 
mation and  otherwise 
sound  and  in  good 
health.  The  ideal  type 
is  a  draft  mare  pos- 
sessed of  good  length 
and  well-rounded  bar- 
rel.   Her  head  must  be  ^^^^  colt  and  dam 


Jack  Colt 
Fifteen  months  old. 


156  FARM   ANIMALS 

clean  and  fine,  her  neck  of  approved  proportions,  her 
chest  broad,  her  hips  wide.  With  these  must  go  good 
bearing,  finished  style  and  improved  breeding.  The  size 
of  the  dam  influences  the  size  of  the  mule  colt.  Large, 
hardy  and  healthy  mares  of  the  draft  breeds  v^^ill  make 
good  and  satisfactory  mule  mothers.  While  color  is  a 
secondary  point,  bay,  black,  brown  or  chestnut  mares  are 
preferred. 


PRACTICUMS 


1.  Judging  Draft  Horses. — Provide  two  or  more  typical  draft 
horses.  Use  the  score  card  below,  which  contains  all  important 
points  of  the  draft  horse  and  their  relative  values  in  judging  work. 


Score  Card  for  Draft  Horses 


Scale  of  Points 


l-c    o 


E. 


General  Appearance: 

Height — estimated ;  actual 

Weight — estimated ;  actual 

Form — low,  blocky,  massive 

Quality — fine  h^ir  and  skin 

Action — smooth  step;  quick  movement;  regular  walk  and  trot 

Attitude — stands  straight  and  square 

Disposition — docile,  friendly 

Temperament — agreeable,  no  look  of  stupidity 

Head  and  Neck: 

Head — lean,  wide  forehead 

Muzzle— fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  teeth  sound 

Eyes — intelligent,  bright,  big 

Ears — short  and  clean  and  directed  forward 

Neck — well  muscled,  short,  thick,  rather  horizontal 

Forequarters : 

Shoulders — good  length,  rather  upright 

Knees — clean,  wide  and  deep 

Cannons — straight  up,  lean  and  wide,  fine  tendons 

Fetlocks — wide,  thick  and  free  from  puffs 

Pasterns — angle  45  degrees,  medium  length 

Feet — round,  even,  sole  concave;  frog  large  and  elastic 

Body: 

Chest — wide  and  deep,  showing  long  capacity  and  strength .  . 

Withers — clean,  broad 

Breast — broad  and  muscular 

Ribs — long  and  round 

Back — straight,  short,  muscular 

Loin — wide,  short,  thick,  well  joined  to  hips 

Underline — low  flank 

Hindquarters : 

Hips — -wide,  level,  smooth 

Thighs — muscular,  thick 

Hocks — clean  cut,  deep,  wide  and  broad 

Cannons— larger  than  front  legs,  otherwise  like  them 

Fetlocks — as  front  ones 

Pasterns — straighter  than  front 

Feet — solid,  more  oval  than  front,  heels  higher 

Tail — carried  up,  long  and  full 

Total 


100 


157 


158 


FARM    ANIMALS 


2-  Judging  Driving  and  Trotting  Horses. — Provide  two  or  more 
light  horses  and  use  the  score  card  until  all  the  points  are  fixed  in 
mind  and  their  relative  values  memorized. 

Score  Card  for  Driving  Horses 


7) 

"^ 

Scale  of  Points 

lf> 

fey 

2y 

Ow 

A.  General  Appearance: 

Weight — estimated;  actual 

Height — estimated ;  actual 

Form — long,  deep  chested,  lithe  and  long  muscles 

Quality — neat,  clean,  fine  hair,  mellow  skin,  clean  bone 

Action — smooth,  regular,  walk,  trot,  rapid 

Attitude — stands  straight  and  square 

Disposition — active,  but  kindly 

Temperament — bright  look,  intelligent  interest 

B.  Head  and  Neck: 

Head — wide  forehead,  lean 

Muzzle — large  nostril,  thin  lips,  sound  teeth 

Eyes — bright,  big  and  prominent 

Ears — medium  size,  alert 

Neck — somewhat  long,  refined 

C.  Forequarters : 

Shoulders — long,  smooth  and  slanting 

Knees — wide  in  front,  deep  through  and  broad 

Cannons — short,  straight,  fine  tendons 

Fetlocks — wide,  thick,  no  puffs 

Pasterns — strong,  45  degrees  shank 

Feet,  medium  size,  sloping;  frog  large  and  elastic 

D.  Body: 

Chest — deep,  making  large  girth 

Withers — muscular,  well-set  back 

Breast — high  and  projecting 

Ribs — long  and  round 

Back — strong  and  muscular 

Loin — -wide,  short,  thick,  neatly  fitted  to  hips 

Underline — long  and  well  down  in  flank 

E.  Hindquarters : 

H'ps — smooth,  rather  wide  and  level 

Thighs — long,  muscular,  well  muscled  quarters 

Hocks — wide,  deep,  broad,  clean  cut 

Cannons — straight,  fine  tendons,  longer  than  front 

Fetlocks; — as  for  front  legs 

Pasterns — as  for  front  but  straighter  up 

Feet — solid,  more  oval  than  front,  heels  higher 

Tail — covered  well  up,  full , 

Total 


LESSON  SIXTEEN 
THE  OX  AND  THE  COW 

1.  Their  contribution. 

2.  Two  types  of  cattle. 

3.  Milk-yielding  function. 

4.  Indications  of  milky  tendencies. 

5.  Beef  cattle  different. 

6.  The  beef  type. 

7.  Best  beef  cuts. 

8.  As  producers  of  human  food. 

9.  Two  individuals  compared. 

10.  What  influences  milk  formation. 

11.  How  often  to  milk. 

12.  What  age  of  cow  is  best? 

13.  Quality  of  milk. 

14.  Quantity  of  milk. 

15.  Cow  comfort. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — As  a  work  animal  the  cow  and 
her  kind  are  no  longer  of  great  importance  in  the  United 
States.  The  demand  for  beef  and  dairy  products  has 
forced  each  individual  to  do  a  specific  kind  of  work  and 
to  do  that  work  well.  All  things  considered,  this  race  has 
been  the  most  useful  of  all  domesticated  animals  in  man's 
welfare.  The  battle  from  now  on  will  be  the  survival  of 
the  fittest  in  the  production  of  mrat  or  dairy  products. 


1^9 


LESSON  SIXTEEN 
THE  OX  AND  THE  COW 

1.  Their  contribution. — The  cow  and  her  kind  con- 
tribute more  to  man's  welfare  than  any  other  domestic 
animal.  ''She  gives  us  milk,  our  most  important  food, 
to  drink ;  she  provides  us  with  butter  and  cheese,  both 
wholesome  and  rich  in  food  nutriments;  her  flesh  enters 
largely  into  our  dietaries;  the  leather  made  of  her  hide 
covers  our  feet  and  provides  us  with  necessities  and 
luxuries  in  other  directions ;  and  finally  her  bones,  blood 
and  offal  fertilize  our  gardens  and  fields." 

In  addition  to  food  and  protection  their  labor  has  made  the  earth 
to  yield  forth  generous  harvests.  The  first  crooked  stick  used  as  a 
plow  was  fastened  to  the  horn  of  a  bull  and  not  to  a  leather  thong 
attached  to  the  shoulder  of  a  horse.  Horses  when  first  domesti- 
cated were  used  to  ride,  not  to  work.  The  cow  labored  in  the  fields 
to  raise  vegetable  products,  yielded  up  her  milk  at  night  time  to  give 
drink  and  when  needed  submitted  her  carcass  as  flesh  for  food. 

2.  Two  types  of  cattle. — Cattle  are  raised  either  for  the 
milk  or  the  flesh  stored  up  in  their  bodies  as  meat.     This 


An  Odd  Team  in  Germany 


THE   OX   AND   THE   COW  161 

gives  rise  to  two  classes — milk  cows  and  beef  cattle.  The 
milkers  may  be  used  after  a  time  for  beef,  but  if  long 
used  as  milk  producers  little  is  expected  of  them  as  pro- 
ducers of  beef.  The  most  generous  milkers  during  their 
careers  give  out  their  food  forces  so  abundantly,  that 
as  old  age  approaches,  there  is  little  lef^,  either  of  nerve 
force  or  flesh.  The  cows  kept 
for  the  shambles  render  their 
service  by  storing  abundant  fat 
on  their  sides  and  much  lean 
meat  on  their  backs  and  loins. 
This  flesh  is  solid  and  elastic, 
mellow  and  yet  firm.  ^The  ten- 
der flesh  for  meat  is  'found  on  ^^'^^  Versus  beef 

,1  J.  r    ,A  .  1  Two    kinds    of    cattle    in    outline, 

those    parts    of   the    steer    where      contrast    the    two    as    to    type    and 

there  was  the  least  movement    '^^^''^'^^^''• 

during  its  life,  as,  for  instance,  the  loii-^  and  the  sides. 

The  parts  of  least  value  are  about  the  head,  neck  and  legs. 

3.  Milk-yielding  function. — Before  men  were  inter- 
ested in  cattle  breeding  as  a  primary  work  there  was  no 
large  production  of  milk  by  any  single  individual.  It 
was  only  expected  that  a  cow  yielded  milk  enough  for 
the  nourishment  of  her  new-born  calf  until  it  might  be 
able  to  support  itself.  The  large  production  of  dairy 
cows  today  is  an  artificial  development.  During  the 
lapse  of  centuries,  cows  were  saved  for  the  dairy  because 
of  their  tendency  to  give  much  milk,  or  to  give  milk  of  a 
rich  quality.  The  milk-yielding  capacity  of  breeds  was 
not  achieved  in  one  generation  or  in  five  ;  it  is  the  outcome 
of  many  centuries.  Once  this  quality  becomes  the  habit 
of  the  breed  or  the  family  or  the  individual,  it  cannot  be 
discarded. 

4.  Indications  of  milky  tendencies. — To  the  practical 
eye  there  are  several  indications  of  the  milky  tendencies 


162 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Dairy    Type 
Contrast  with   beef  type   on   page    163. 


in  dairy  cows.  These  are  known  to  be  the  wedgelike 
shape  of  the  body  when  observed  from  the  front,  side 
or  rear;  the  wide  spacing  of  the  eyes;  the  fine,  narrow 
forequarters    and    broad,     spacious     hindquarters;     the 

springing  ribs,  long  and 
wide  apart ;  the  refined 
feminine  countenances ; 
the  hair,  silklike  and 
smoothly  laid  on  the 
skin,  which  itself  is 
fine,  mellow  and  soft  to 
the  touch.  In  addition 
to  these  characteristics 
the  stomach  should  be 
prominent,  the  udder 
large  and  not  flabby  or  fleshy,  with  medium  large  teats, 
evenly  set ;  and  extending  forward  along  the  abdomen 
should  be  strong,  tortuous  milk  veins,  which,  carried  in- 
ternally, are  admitted  by  means  of  large  milk  wells.  The 
dairy  cow  is  angular,  lithe,  thin ;  she  gives  ofif  the  nutri- 
ment of  her  food  as  milk  and  does  not  lay  it  on  her 
skeleton  as  fat  or  flesh.  She  is  a  dairy  philanthropist ; 
she  gives  away  the  product  she  manufactures. 

5.  Beef  cattle  different. — On  the  other 
hand  beef  animals  are  meat  misers.  They 
hold  fast  to  the  assimilated  products  of 
their  food.  On  the  several  parts  of  their 
sturdy  frames  they  store  fat  and  protein 
as  if  they  were  providing  for  rainy  days 
or  for  times  when  the  food  years  might 
be  lean.  Unlike  their  dairy  cousins,  they 
supply  only  small  quantities  of  milk,  or 
milk  with  little  butter  fat  in  it.  The  pro- 
duction of  milk  is  onlv  an  incident:  thev      »,,„  ^,  ^^,,,„ 

'  •'  KEAR     OF     STtfcR 


THE  OX   AND  THE    COW  165 

as  follows :  Protein,  1.1  pounds ;  fat,  9.5 ;  mineral  mat- 
ter, 0.2;  or  a  total  of  10.8  pounds.  Considering  the 
amount  of  food  required  to  yield  20  pounds  of  milk  daily 
and  two  pounds  of  beef  increase  daily,  the  dairy  cow 
not  only  supplies  more  human  food  each  day,  but  does 
it  a  great  deal  more  economically.  This  is  one  reason 
why  dairying  as  a  business  is  steadily  increasing  and 
beef  production  is  in  some  sections  on  a  decline. 

9.  Two  individuals  compared. — At  one  experiment  sta- 
tion the  entire  body  of  a  fat  steer  that  weighed  1,250 
pounds  was  analyzed.  It  contained  700  pounds  of 
water,  172  of  protein,  333  pounds  of  fat  and  43  pounds 
of  mineral  matter.  The  total  amount  of  dry  substance 
in  the  steer  was  548  pounds.  These  facts  are  particu- 
larly interesting  when  compared  with  the  dry  matter  in 
the  milk  of  a  dairy  cow  that  yielded  18,405  pounds  of 
milk  during  the  course  of  a  year.  In  the  cow's  milk 
the  following  nutrients  were  determined :  552  pounds 
of  protein;  618  pounds  of  fat;  920  pounds  of  sugar;  and 
128  pounds  of  mineral  matter,  or  a  total  of  2,218  pounds. 
This  comparison  shows  that  a  cow  of  this  production 
yields  more  than  four  times  as  much  of  the  food  nu- 
trients as  a  fat  steer  weighing  1,250  pounds.  As  a  pro- 
ducer of  human  food  the  cow,  next  to  the  hen,  is  the  most 
efficient  of  all  domestic  animals. 

10.  What  influences  milk  formation. — The  milk 
formation  is  hereditary  to  a  certain  extent.  Certain 
breeds  and  certain  strains  of  these  breeds  possess  the 
ability  to  yield  much  milk  and  to  transmit  this  character- 
istic to  their  offspring.  Other  breeds  yield  very  little 
milk,  and  no  manner  of  care  or  feeding  will  largely  in- 
crease the  amount  or  change  the  character  of  its  quality. 
To  the  former  belongs  the  dairy  races,  and  to  the  latter 
the  beef  races.     Cows  possessed  of  beef  tendencies  are 


166 


FARM   ANIMALS 


of  small  merit  in  the  dairy  herd.  In  many  dairy  herds 
there  are  cows  that  are  useless  as  milk  producers.  Their 
production  returns  in  money  are  less  than  the  cost  of 
keeping  them.  By  means  of  milk  scales  and  the  Babcock 
tester  incompetent  ones  may  be  determined  and  dis- 
carded. 

11.  How  often  to  milk. — The  custom  of  milking  twice 
a  day  has  become  fixed,  and  no  marked  advantage  is 
secured  when  the  number  of  milkings  is  increased.  Ex- 
perience and  repeated  tests  show  that  three  milkings  a 
day  increase  the  amount  of  milk  secured  less  than  7  per 
cent.  Considering  the  extra  labor  involved,  the  extra 
milk  obtained  by  three  milkings  will  not  repay  the  cost 

and  trouble. 

12.  What  age  of  cow  is 
best? — The  formation  of 
milk  is  closely  associated 
with  the  birth  of  the  off- 
spring. Milk  increases  for 
several  months  after  calv- 
ing, and  may  abruptly  or 
gradually  decrease,  as  the 

i  ^...uLi  Dairy  Queen  ^  •'  ' 

This  is  Sayda  Queen  of  Vetmore.    At  12     ^^^^     may     be.       As     a     rulc, 
years  of  age  she  gave    11,400   pounds   of    f^^*.  inrrp;i^P'^  <;1icrht1v  a«;  \\\e 

milk  and  809  pounds  of  butter.  ^^^  mcredscs  biigntiy  as  tnc 

lactation  period  advances. 
The  young  heifer  generally  will  give  increasing  amounts 
of  milk  with  each  succeeding  calf  until  the  sixth  or 
seventh  year,  and  remain  near  that  point  a  few  years 
longer;  then  the  milk  flow  will  gradually  diminish. 

13.  Quality  of  milk. — So  far  as  the  question  can  be 
decided,  the  influences  that  bear  most  on  the  quality  of 
milk  are  breed,  heredity  and  inherent  functional  capacity. 
It  used  to  be  thought  that  the  kind  of  food,  the  care  of 
the  cow  and  her  surroundings  influenced  the  quality  of 


THE  OX   AND   THE    COW 


167 


milk.  When  put  to  actual  test,  that  was  proved  to  be 
incorrect.  The  quality  of  milk  is  an  individual  character 
due  to  inheritance,  and  is  not  influenced  by  food  or  treat- 
ment. A  cow  that  yields  a  rich  milk  does  so  because 
it  is  her  nature  and  inheritance  so  to  do.  Another  cow 
that  yields  a  thin  milk  will  always  yield  a  thin  milk 
regardless  of  food  or  care. 


•f'f"  i 


A  Comfortable  Corner  in  the  Barnyard 

The  owner  of  these  cows  believes  that  exercise  in  the  open  is  equally  important 
with  good  food.  The  rack  in  the  center  serves  as  a  manger  for  hay.  The  shed  at 
the  side  is  a  comfortable  shelter  in  bad  weather. 


14.  Quantity  of  milk. — On  the  other  hand,  the  quantity 
of  milk  may  be,  and  commonly  is,  influenced  by  the 
amount  and  nature  of  the  food,  the  treatment  bestowed 
on  the  cows  and  the  attention  given  to  all  details  of  dairy 
management.  If  the  mammary  gland  is  small  the  milk 
yield  will  be  small.  Quantity  of  milk,  therefore,  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  size  and  condition  of  the  udder,  nature 
and  kind  of  food,  and  treatment  of  the  cows. 


168  FARM   ANIMALS 

15.  Cow  comfort. — Unappetizing  and  ill-smelling  foods 
depress  milk  secretion^  although  they  may  normally  pro- 
vide the  nutrients  abundantly.  The  same  foods  set  be- 
fore cows  in  more  appetizing  and  tempting  ways  often 
cause  an  increased  flow,  although  no  more  provender  is 
consumed.  The  appetite  bears  a  direct  connection 
with  the  udder.  Cows  that  are  annoyed  by  flies  and  other 
insects,  or  that  are  chased  about  by  dogs  or  other  tor- 
mentors, will  yield  milk  less  in  quantity,  and,  perhaps, 
poorer  in  quality,  than  if  they  are  placed  under  more  ^ 
comfortable  and  agreeable  conditions.  Dairymen  are 
more  and  more  realizing  the  importance  of  these  facts  in 
practice,  and  are  now  giving  much  attention  to  the  sim- 
ple details  of  cow  comfort. 


LESSON  SEVENTEEN 
DAIRY  CATTLE 

1.  Milk. 

2.  Two  classes  of  dairy  cows. 

3.  Channel  Island  cattle. 

4.  Demand  of  butter  a  controlling  factor. 

5.  Jersey  characteristics. 

6.  Guernsey  characteristics. 

7.  Dairy  cattle  of  the  North  Sea. 

8.  Holstein-Friesian  characteristics. 

9.  Cattle  of  Bonnie  Scotland. 

10.  Ayrshire  characteristics. 

11.  Brown  Swiss  cattle. 

12.  Two  Irish  breeds. 

13.  Dutch  Belted  cattle. 

14.  Red  Polled  cattle. 

15.  French-Canadian   cattle. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — This  lesson  teaches  how  cer- 
tain breeds  have  been  evolved  to  meet  the  needs  and 
circumstances  of  the  people  in  the  land  of  their  develop- 
ment. The  physical  character  of  the  soil  has  had  much 
to  do  with  the  choice  of  occupation,  and  this  is  reflected 
in  the  kind  of  live  stock  produced  by  the  people.  A  milk 
or  butter  breed  is  not  a  mere  chance  result ;  it  is  the  out- 
come of  a  people  and  a  soil. 


189 


LESSON  SEVENTEEN 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


1.  Milk. — This  product  of  the  bovine  race  is  composed 
of  a  white,  opaque  substance,  in  which  small  globules  of 
fat  are  floating.  It  is  devoid  of  odor,  except  for  a  short 
time  after  its  extraction.  It  is  of  slightly  sweet  taste. 
When  it  has  been  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time,  a  thick, 
fatty,  yellowish-white  stratum  forms  upon  its  surface. 
This  is  the  cream.  Skim  milk  has  a  bluish-white  tint. 
The  milk  of  some  cattle  races  is  of  a  golden  tint  and  of 
other  races  of  a  paler,  lighter  tone.  On  standing  for  some 
hours,  exposed  to  the  air,  milk  exhibits  an  increasing  acid 
reaction,  from  the  formation  of  lactic  acid  from  the  milk 
sugar. 

2.  Two  classes  of  dairy  cows. — Dairy  cattle  fall  within 
two  special  classes — one,  where  the  milk  yield  is  of  mod- 
erate quantity  but  the  fat  propor- 
tionally high ;  and  a  second 
where  the  quantity  of  milk  is 
large  but  the  fat  much  lower.  To 
the  first  class  belong  the  Jerseys 
and  Guernseys,  and  to  the  sec- 
ond the  Holsteins  and  Ayrshires. 
Jerseys  and  Guernseys  are 
known  as  the  ''butter  breeds," 
the  Holsteins  and  Ayrshires  as 
the  "milk  and  cheese  breeds." 
The  quantity  of  milk  and  its 
quality  of  any  representative 
cow  is  an  individual  as  well  as 


A  Dairy  Queen 


17(? 


DAIRY    CATTLE  171 

a  breed  character.  Often  milk  cows  that  are  otherwise 
equal  in  conformation  and  in  appearance  will  show  great 
difference  in  their  production  of  milk. 

While  these  distinctions  are  breed  characteristics  in  the  main,  not 
all  of  the  second  class  yield  more  milk  than  many  individuals  of 
the  first  class  and  not  all  of  the  first  class  yield  milk  possessing 
higher  percentage  of  fat  than  individuals  of  the  second  class. 

3.  Channel  Island  cattle. — Our  magnificent  breeds  of 
Jersey  and  Guernsey  cattle  are  the  direct  descendants  of 
cattle   imported   from  the 

Channel    Islands     or     of  ^» 

those  bred  in  this  coun- 
try. Very  likely  the  orig- 
inal stock  was  brought  to 
the  islands  from  France. 
A  near  neighbor  of  these 
people  are  the  cattle  lov- 

^  Jersey  Bull 

ers  of  Brittany  and  Nor- 
mandy, who  also  have  good  cattle,  their  stock  being  in 
one  instance  a  white,  fawn  color,  and  in  another,  a  blacker 
hue.  But,  regardless  of  descent,  the  superior  qualities 
of  these  races  are  due  to  the  people  who  developed  them, 
to  the  rigid  rules  under  which  they  have  been  bred  and 
reared,  to  the  fertile  soil  that  yields  good  foods,  and  to 
the  balmy  climate  that  admits  living  the  year  round  out 
of  doors. 

4.  Demand  of  butter  a  controlling  factor. — The  Chan- 
nel Islands  are  near  to  London  and  other  large  cities. 
They  are  of  small  size.  As  the  population  increased  it 
was  necessary  for  the  young  people  to  seek  other  fields  of 
labor.  Having  settled  in  nearby  cities,  and  remembering 
the  golden  butter  their  parents  made,  they  naturally  sent 
home  for  this  delicious  table  article.  Others  learning  of 
the  sources  of  this  superior  product  naturally  joined  in 


172 


FARM   ANIMALS 


the  call  for  larger  supplies.  In  the  course  of  time  Jer- 
sey and  Guernsey  butter  became  well  known.  The  calls 
for  it  tried  the  fullest  possibilities  of  the  Island  cows  and 
people,  and  set  in  motion  every  means  of  increasing  the 
supply  and  of  securing  superior  cattle  to  meet  the  ever 
increasing  demands.  Here  is  the  controlling  factor  that 
led  the  people  to  carefully  breed  and  select  their  cattle 
stock  and  to  guard  against  any  change  or  new  blood  that 
might  in  any  way  injure  the  improved  butter  qualities 
or  jeopardize  the  butter  trade  already  built  up. 

5.  Jersey      characteris- 

^^^  tics. — These      cows      are 

(^|ll^!^P!HH|l^flB|  rather     small,     weighing 

'.f      -^  ^^^^n  around    850    to    900 

pounds.  Some  weigh 
much  less,  not  more  than 
600  to  700  pounds,  and 
others  as  much  as  1,000  or 
1,200  pounds.  In  color,  a 
fawnlike  appearance  pre- 
dominates. This  varies  in  shade  from  a  deeper  yellow  to 
a  brown,  reddish  or  silvery  fawn.  White  markings  are 
common,  but  no  really  white  individuals  are  ever  seen. 
White  and  black  are  identification  marks  of  the  tongue 
and  switch.  Jerseys  are  a  horned  race,  the  horns  of  no 
particular  form  or  style.  A  yellow  skin  secretion  in  the 
ear  and  about  the  udder  and  thighs  is  a  mark  in  much 
favor  by  breeders.  It  is  claimed  to  be  an  indication  of  the 
quality  of  the  milk.  Typical  Jerseys  belong  to  the  ap- 
proved dairy  type.  As  producers  of  high  quality  milk 
they  are  famous  the  world  over. 


GUERNSEY  Bull 


DAIRY    CATTLE 


173 


Some  Notable  Jersey  Records  of  Milk  and  Butter. 


Name  of  cow 

Milk 
pounds 

Butter  fat 
pounds 

Eminent  Bess                 __ 

18,783 
17,558 
17,253 
15,284 
16,275 
15,572 
14,105 
14,821 

1,045 
999 

Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm 

Jacoba  Irene         _        __     ___ 

953 

Lass  38th  of  Hood  Farm 

890 

Olga  4th's   Pride 

852 

Adelaide  of  Beechlands 

849 

Rosaire's  Olga  4th's  Pride 

837 

Warder's  Lady- 

820 

6.  Guernsey  characteristics. — The  Guernsey  is  slightly 
larger  than  the  Jersey  and  perhaps  a  little  more  robust. 
Both  give  very  rich  milk,  but  the  milk  of  the  Guernsey  is 
of  a  more  yellow  shade.  The  Guernsey  breed  is  not  as 
widely  distributed  in  this  country  as  the  Jersey,  but  is 
still  well  known  and  popular.  Good  individuals  are  in 
such  constant  demand  that  the  average  selling  price  is 
always  high.  In  color,  the  fawn  shade  predominates  and 
is  of  a  brown  or  reddish  or  yellow  character.  White 
markings  are  common.  These  cattle,  like  the  Jerseys, 
have  horns.  The  skin  secretion  is  richly  yellow  and 
abundant.  Guernsey 
breeders  lay  much  stress 
on  this,  giving  it  weight 
in  their  scale  of  points. 
As  butter  producers  these 
cattle  have  no  superiors. 
The  fat  globules  are  large, 
very  yellow,  from  which 
is  secured  a  butter  of  the 
highest  excellence. 


Jersey  Cow 


174 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Some  Notable  Guernsey  Records  of  Milk  and  Butter. 


Name  of  cow 


May  Rilma 

Spotswood  Daisy  Pearl 

Dairy  Maid  of  Pinehurst  _ 

Dolly  Dimple 

Imp.  Beauty  of  Park  Farm 

Yeksa  Sunbeam 

Murne    Cowan    

Dolly   Bloom   


Milk 

Butter  fat 

pounds 

pounds 

19,673 

1,073 

18,608 

957 

17,285 

911 

18,459 

907 

14.687 

899 

14.921 

857 

16,729 

845 

17,297 

836 

Guernsey  Cow 


7.  Dairy  cattle  of  the  North  Sea. — In  the  days  of  long 
ago  the  sturdy  settlers  of  the  North  Sea  held  fast  to  the 

two  races  of  black  and  white 
cattle  that  they  had  brought 
from  the  old  lands  they  had 
left.  The  land  was  very  rich 
in  some  places,  and  nutri- 
tious vegetation  was  found 
to  thrive  luxuriantly.  Much 
of  this  land  is  below  the 
level  of  the  sea  and  has  been 
reclaimed  to  agricultural  use  by  dikes  which  keep  the 
waters  of  the  sea  in  check.  Being  ardent  lovers  of  cattle, 
it  was  natural  that  these  pioneers  should  bring  to  high 
perfection  a  race  of  producers  that  would  convert  the 
abundant  and  nutritious  provender  of  that  land  into  dairy 
products  of  the  highest  excellence. 

Unlike  the  farmers  of  the  Channel  Islands,  there  were  no  nearby 
cities  to  quickly  consume  their  dairy  output  if  made  into  butter. 
And  butter  soon  grows  rancid,  even  if  kept  in  cold  storage.  In  the 
days  of  Holstein  cattle  development,  cold  storage  was  unknown. 
What  were  these  people,  then,  to  do?  Make  cheese.  This  they  did; 
and  cheese  could  be  stored  for  many  months  until  a  market  was 
secured  or  until  they  themselves  had  used  up  their  stores  for  food. 
Since  the  casein  as  well  as  the  fat  is  of  great  importance  in  cheese 


DAIRY    CATTLE 


175 


making,  it  Is  not  surprising  that  a  breed  was  finally  evolved  whose 
chief  characteristic  was  a  large  output  of  milk.  Even  if  the  fat 
content  were  low  it  did  not  matter.  These  circumstances  of  soil, 
environment,  and  people  have  been  prominent  in  the  development 
of  the  black  and  white  cattle  of  Holland.  In  the  course  of  time 
not  cheese  only,  but  butter  also,  has  been  made  a  feature  of  the  pro- 
duction of  these  cattle. 

8.  Holstein-Friesian      characteristics. — Holstein-Fries- 
ian  cattle  have  long  bodies  with  the  loins  and  shoulders 

well  filled  out.  They  are 
of  large  build,  black  and 
white  in  color,  and  popu- 
lar because  of  their  large 
milk  supply.  The  udder 
of  the  cow  is  remarkable 
for  size.  The  demand  for 
market  milk  to  supply  city 
needs  has  made  these  cattle 
the  most  sought  breed  at 
the  present  time.  Mature 
cows  weigh  from  1,200  to  1,800  pounds  and  mature  bulls 
from  1,800  to  2,000  pounds.  Many  individuals  of  either 
sex  are  even  larger  than  these  general  weights,  often  500 
or  600  pounds  more. 

These  cows  take  first  rank  as 
milk  producers,  and  as  butter  pro- 
ducers they  are  famous.  While  the 
fat  content  of  the  milk  is  low,  a 
large  production  is  possible  be- 
cause of  the  large  yield  of  milk. 
Their  milk  runs  from  3  to  4  per 
cent  in  fat,  while  that  of  the  Jer- 
seys and  Guernseys  ranges  from 
5  to  6  per  cent,  and  even  more.  The 
fat  globules  are  small  and  of  a 
whiter  shade  than  the  Guernseys.  Cattle  of  this  breed  are  often 
rated  as  beef  producers,  but  they  fall  short  when  tested  side  by  side 
with  the  distinct  beef  breeds.  The  young  calves  make  excellent  veal, 
and  for  this  purpose  are  in  great  demand. 


HoLSTEiN   Bull 


HOLSTEIN    Cow 


176 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Some  Notable  Holstein  Records  of  Milk  and  Butter. 


Name  of  cow 

Milk 
pounds 

Butter  fat 
pounds 

Banostine  Belle  De  Kol 

27,404 
25,318 
25,592 
27,432 
27,718 
29,591 
28,090 
21,966 

1,058 

Pontiac  Clothilde  De  Kol,  2d 

1,017 

High  Lawn  Hartog  De  Kol 

998 

Colantha  4th  s  Johanna 

998 

Daisy  Grace  De  Kol 

962 

Creamelle  Vale 

924 

Aralia  De  Kol 

913 

Caroline  Paul  Parthenea 

888 

9.  Cattle  of  Bonnie  Scotland. — In  Scotland,  in  the 
county  of  Ayr,  in  the  land  of  Burns  and  Tarn  o'Shanter, 
a  breed  of  cattle  has  been  developed  that  has  long  been 
popular,  and  long  esteemed  because  of  superior  merit. 
The  Ayrshire  cow  is  not  as  common  as  the  Jersey  or  the 
Holstein  in  this  country,  but  in  the  land  of  her  evolution 
she  is  highly  esteemed,  a  quality  fast  spreading  here,  and 
particularly  true  of  those  who  best  know  her  qualities. 
Ideal  in  many  respects  she  is  hardy  and  robust.  In  size 
she  ranks  between  the  Jersey  and  the  Holstein.  Her  color 


Ayrshire  Cattle:  Bull,  Cow  and  Calf 


DAIRY    CATTLE 


177 


of  red  or  white,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two,  gives  her  attrac- 
tiveness and  distinction.  Her  high  merit  as  a  producer 
of  milk  and  cheese  has  brought  her  fame  in  every  land. 

10.  Ayrshire  character- 
istics.— These  cattle  are 
quite  uniform  in  many  par- 
ticulars. There  is  greater 
evenness  in  size,  color  and 
form  than  of  any  other 
dairy  breed.  The  cows  av- 
erage 1,000  pounds  in 
weight,  the  bulls  1,500 
pounds.  The  udders  are 
very  uniform,  their  development  averaging  a  higher  per- 
fection of  outline  than  those  of  any  other  breed.  It  is  not 
often  that  an  imperfect,  fore  udder  is  observed,  but  this  is 
a  common  occurrence  in  all  other  breeds.  In  dairy  form 
Ayrshires  rank  high.  Their  thin  necks,  shapely  horns, 
lithe  shoulders  and  wedgelike  bodies  and  ample  udders 
give  these  cows  a  distinction  of  uniformity  that  no  other 
breed  possesses  to  a  like  degree.  Their  capacious  abdo- 
mens quite  well  accommodate  the  coarse  roughages  of 
their  rations  and  their  vigorous  digestive  systems  quite 


Ayrshire  Cow 


Some  Notable  Ayrshire  Records  of  Milk  and  Butter 


Name  of  cow 

Milk 
pounds 

Butter  fat 
pounds 

Auchenbrain  Brown  Kale  4th  

Lily  of  Willowmoor 

23,022 
22,106 
18,110 
21,023 
20.174 
15.072 
14.582 
14,721 

918 

889 

Netherall    Brownie   9th   

Gerranton  Dora  2d 

821 
805 

Jean    Armour 

775 

Rena  Ross _            _        

644 

The  Abbess  of  Torr  

Auchenbrain  White  Beauty  2d 

641 

637 

178  FARM    ANIMALS 

well  enable  them  to  convert  this  provender  into  much 

milk. 

While  the  milk  is  less  rich  than  the  Channel  Island  breeds,  it  is 
richer  in  general  than  the  Holsteins ;  and  while  these  cows  yield 
less  milk  in  quantity  than  Holsteins,  they  do  surpass  in  quantity  the 
Jerseys  and  Guernseys.  While  of  average  production  in  both  butter 
and  milk  yield,  their  robust  health  and  meritorious  other  qualities 
give  them  rank  as  one  of  the  leading  four  dairy  breeds. 

11.  Brown  Swiss  cattle. — These  are  a  secondary  dairy 
breed,   but   they   have   attracted   some   attention    in   the 

United  States.  The  Brown 
Swiss  cattle  originated  in 
Switzerland,  They  are 
mouse-colored,  rugged  an- 
imals. Some  are  good 
milkers,  but  many  are  in- 
different when  compared 
with  the  heavy-milking 
Holsteins  or  abundant  but- 
ter-making Jerseys  or 
Guernseys.  Cows  of  this  breed  weigh  from  1,250  to 
1,400  pounds,  and  bulls  from  1,500  to  1,800  pounds. 
In  butter  fat  the  milk  ranges  from  3.2  to  3.8  per 
cent.  Records  of  500  to  600  pounds  of  butter  have 
been  made  in  a  year.  Fairly  good  cows  often  show  a 
decided  beef  tendency,  but  those  having  the  keeping  of 
this  race  in  charge  insist  that  the  Brown  Swiss  should 
be  known  as  a  dairy  breed. 

12.  Two  Irish  breeds. — From  Ireland  we  get  two 
breeds,  better  known  in  this  country  on  account  of  their 
small  size  than  because  of  numbers.  These  are  the 
Kerry  and  Dexter.  The  two  breeds  have  a  common 
ancestry.  The  Kerry  is  black  in  color,  the  Dexter  black 
and  red.  Their  small  size  enables  these  cattle  to  forage 
where    other    breeds    would    starve.     Some    are    good 


Brown  Swiss  Cow 


DAIRY    CATTLE 


179 


Dutch  Belted  Cow 


dairy  cattle,  the  milk  testing  about  4  per  cent  fat.  There 
is  a  record  of  a  500-pound  Dexter  yielding  over  8,000 
pounds  of  milk  in  one  year.  These  cattle  will  never  have 
a  place  in  money-making  herds,  but  as  family  cows  they 
may  in  time  find  a  place. 

13.  Dutch  Belted  cattle. — These  cattle  belong  to  the 
Holstein  class,  but  are  inferior  to  the  parent  stock.    The 

white  belt  around  the  body 
gives  distinction,  but  adds 
nothing  to  their  ability  as 
milk  producers.  Some  ex- 
cellent records  of  milk  have 
been  reported,  but  as  a  dairy 
competitor  this  breed  is  out- 
classed. The  fancy  of  the 
breeder  will  be  the  sole  de- 
pendence of  these  cattle  for  perpetuation  and  popularity. 

14.  Red  Polled  cattle. — As  the  name  indicates,  these 
cattle  have  no  horns  and  are  red  in  color.  They  orig- 
inated in  England,  and  although  bred  in  this  country  in 
considerable  numbers,  they  are  outranked  as  dairy 
animals    by    the    primary 

dairy  breeds.  They  give  a 
good  grade  of  milk  and 
are  prized  also  as  beef 
producers. 

15.  French  -  Canadian 
cattle. — These  cattle  come 
to  us  from  Canada.  Their 
ancestry  is  represented 
in  stock  similar  to  that 
used  in  the  development  of  the  Channel  Islands  breeds. 
In  color  the  cattle  are  black  or  browish  fawn.    They  are 


Red   Polled   Cow 


180 


FARM   ANIMALS 


of  small  size,  mature  cows  weighing  600  to  900  pounds 
and  mature  bulls  from  700  to  900  pounds.  The  milk  tests 
about  4  per  cent  fat.  Only  a  few  herds  have  been  estab- 
lished in  the  United  States. 

It  is  pertinent  to  point  out  that  while  each  of  the  breeds 
have  certain  characteristics  which  are  uniformly  trans- 
mitted, which  set  it  apart  from  each  of  the  other  breeds, 

yet,  so  far  as  the  leading 
breeds  are  concerned,  each 
produces  an  equal  amount 
of  butter  fat.  The  several 
breeds  vary  in  the  amount 
of  milk  given,  in  the  per  cent 
and  color  of  the  butter  fat, 
in  their  adaptation  to  differ- 
ent climates,  and  to  their 
ability  to  consume  different 
kinds  of  feeding  stuffs. 
Each  breeder  should  select  his  breed  with  reference  to 
his  conditions  and,  also,  with  reference  to  his  own  pref- 
erences. The  man  who  likes  his  animals  best  is  the  one 
who  succeeds  best  in  rearing  them.  Other  things  equal, 
it  is  best  to  rear  that  improved  breed  which  is  most 
economic  in  the  neighborhood. 


French-Canadian   Cow 


LESSON  EIGHTEEN 
BEEF   CATTLE 

1.  Beef. 

2.  Baby  beef. 

3.  General  beef  production. 

4.  Beef  cattle. 

5.  The  popular  Shorthorn. 

6.  Beef  and  dairy  Shorthorns. 

7.  Shorthorn  characteristics. 

8.  Herefords. 

9.  Hereford  characteristics. 

10.  The  Scottish  doddies. 

11.  Angus  characteristics. 

12.  The  Polled  Scots. 

13.  Galloway  characteristics. 

14.  West  Highland  cattle. 

15.  Sussex  and  Polled  Durham. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  cow  that  turns  her  food  into 
milk  and  butter  fat,  naturally  is  unable  to  convert  it  at 
the  same  time  into  flesh.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  food  is 
stored  up  on  the  body  frame  as  meat,  the  milk  yield  will 
be  small.  Here  is  the  turning  point  that  leads  either  to 
dairying  or  beef  production.  The  beef  breeds  consist  of 
races  that  have  been  carried  along  the  beef  road;  what 
they  eat  is  stored  on  their  backs  and  not  given  away  as 
milk. 


181 


LESSON  EIGHTEEN 


BEEF   CATTLE 


1.  Beef. — The  flesh  of  the  ox  may  be  called  the  staple 
article  of  animal  food.  Certain  beef  cuts  are  the  most 
esteemed  of  all  meat  dishes.  In  the  region  of  the  loins, 
the  flesh  is  tender  and  juicy,  and  commands  the  highest 
prices  of  any  parts  of  the  carcass.  Sirloin  is  said  to  owe 
its  name  to  Charles  II.  of  England,  who,  on  dining  upon 
a  loin  of  beef,  and  being  particularly  well  pleased  with  it, 
asked  the  name  of  the  joint.  On  being  told,  he  said: 
"For  its  merit,  then,  I  will  knight  it,  and  henceforth  it 

shall     be     called     Sir 
Loin." 

2.  Baby  beef.— 
When  calves  of  good 
breeding  and  quality 
are  brought  to  a  mar- 
ketable condition  to 
weigh  1,000  to  1,400 
pounds  by  the  time 
they  are  10  to  18 
months  of  age,  they 
are  sold  as  baby  beeves.  So  marketed,  they  fetch  good 
prices,  but  their  raising  and  fattening  are  expensive.  To 
attain  success  in  baby  beef  making,  an  exceptionally  high 
grade  of  breeding  stock  is  required.  The  calves  from 
the  day  of  their  birth  must  be  fed  much  milk  and  nu- 
tritious concentrates,  and  each  individual  must  have  close 
attention  until   sold.     The  raising  of  baby  beeves   is  a 

182 


Retail  Beef  Cuts  and  Weight 
Retail  dealers'  method  of  cutting  a  beef  carcass. 


BEEF    CATTLE  183 

difficult  and  complicated  specialty.  No  one  should  en- 
gage in  it  who  is  not  a  skillful  judge  of  cattle.  Good 
quality,  a  strong  constitution  and  right  conformation  are 
basic  essentials  behind  profit  in  this  business. 

3.  General  beef  production. — Two  classes  of  producers 
are  engaged  in  beef  production.  One  class  makes  it  its 
business  to  grow  the  beef  stock  or  ''feeders,"  the  other 
to  feed  and  fatten  this  stock  for  market.  At  one  time 
the  wide  areas  of  the  western  plains  were  more  or  less 


Baby    Bfei 
These  are  now  ready  for  market.     Note  the  high  quality  and  finish. 

covered  with  vast  hordes  of  cattle  which  were  tended 
and  cared  for  by  ranchers  and  cowboys.  Many  of  these 
animals  were  purchased  by  farmers  in  the  corn-belt  sec- 
tions, who  fed  them  corn  and  grass,  thus  fitting  them 
for  market.  This  feeding  stock  was  full  grown  in  frame 
but  thin  in  condition.  The  passing  of  the  ranges  has 
reduced  the  output  of  this  kind  of  cattle.  From  now  on 
beef  will  be  produced  largely  on  farms  where  other  ac- 
tivities also  are  pursued.  Cheap  lands  no  longer  being 
available,  the  production  of  ''feeder"  stock  on  ranges 
naturally  will  decline  and  the  cost  of  producing  beef  as 
a  consequence  will  advance. 


184 


FARM   ANIMALS 


4.  Beef  cattle. — The  stock  from  which  beef  is  secured 
the  world  over  is  now  limited  to  the  few  choice  breeds  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  Continental 
Europe  has  many  strains  of  cattle.  Some  of  these  strains 
make  excellent  beef,  but  compared  wHth  the  products  of 
England,  Scotland  and  the  United  States,  the  beef  stock 
is  inferior.     The   English  have  long  been  a  beef-eating 


m 
Ml 

- 

ft   ^f     MV^wft  «n      ^ 

Where  Grade  Steers  Are  Fattened  in  Large  Numbers 

Note  in  the  background  the  large  silo  which,  with  clover  furnishes  the  bulk  of 
the  roughage  portion  of  the  ration.  Corn  and  the  oil  meals  are  largely  used  for 
the  grain  portion.  These  are  western  raised  steers  being  fattened  in  the  eastern 
part  of  corn  belt. 


people,  and  from  the  earliest  until  recent  times  have 
sought  to  improve  their  cattle  breeds,  that  not  only  more 
meat,  but  meat  of  a  high  quality,  might  be  secured. 

5.  The  popular  Shorthorn. — It  is  not  to  the  discredit 
of  other  beef  breeds  that  the  Shorthorn  in  the  popular 
mind  holds  first  place  in  the  beef  world.  These  cattle 
are  of  such  high  merit,  and  have  been  with  us  so  long, 
that   their   fame   has   become   world   wide   and   notable. 


BEEF    CATTLE 


185 


Shorthorn  Bull 


They  are  easily  at  home  under  most  conditions,  are  of 

good  size,  fatten  readily  and  produce  meat  that  is  tender, 

juicy  and  nutritious. 

Among  the  early  English  improvers  of  this  breed  were  the 
Colling  Brothers  of  Ketton,  who  began  their  work  of  improvement 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half  ago ; 
Thomas  Bates,  a  faithful  disciple 
of  the  Collings,  who  founded 
the  famous  Princess,  Duchess 
and  Oxford  families;  Richard 
Booth,  who  together  with  his 
sons,  did  so  much  to  lengthen 
the  hindquarter,  to  fill  up  the 
fore  flank,  and  to  secure  greater 
depth  of  flesh,  thus  increasing 
the  value  of  the  carcass ;  and 
Amos  Cruikshank,  the  father  of 
Scotch  Shorthorns,  who  has 
given  us  a  family  of  Shorthorns 
compact  and  blocky  in  build, 
easily  fattened,  and  of  superior  meat  when  placed  on  the  block. 

6.  Beef  and  dairy  Shorthorns. — Of  the  beef  breeds  the 
Shorthorn  alone  claims  merit  as  a  dairy  breed.  Two 
types  are  evident — one  that  adheres  to  the  typical  beef 
type,  and  a  second  that  shows  decided  dairy  tendencies. 
Both  distinctions  have  been  accentuated  by  breeders, 
depending  on  whether  they  wanted  beef  or  milk  and  beef. 
The  extreme  beef  families  among  Shorthorns  are  as 
typical  of  their  class  as  other  beef  breeds.  Some  splen- 
did milk  and  butter  records  have  been  made  by  cows  of 
strains.  One  Shorthorn  cow  at  the  Wisconsin  station 
produced  over  10,000  pounds  of  milk,  from  which  was 
made  506  pounds  of  butter  in  326  days.  Many  records 
are  reported  of  dairy  Shorthorns  yielding  6,000  pounds  to 
8,000  pounds  of  milk  and  300  to  400  pounds  butter  in 
a  year. 

7.  Shorthorn  characteristics. — The  Shorthorn  is  the 
largest  beef  breed.  Average  mature  cows  weigh  1,400 
or  1,500  pounds  and  mature  bulls  1,800  to  2,100  pounds. 


186 


FARM    ANIMALS 


bHORTHORN    COW 


In  many  instances  these  weights  are  greatly  exceeded. 
As  the  name  indicates,  the  horn  is  short  and  small,  and 
is  usually  curved  forward.  The  tips  bend  inward  or 
upward.     These  cattle  mature  early,  equaling  any  breed 

in    this    respect.        As    grazers 

^i^J^^  ^^^ they  are  just  fair.     They  make 

^^^HK.  JgWy*''''||jl  good  use  of  their  food  and  lay 
^^^Bfe.  •■'  '^>'  Hi  ^"  ^  thick  coat  of  fine  flesh  on 
^wMstmKi^^x  li  the  outside  of  the  frame.  Their 
flesh  is  of  excellent  quality.  In 
grading  up  common  cattle, 
Shorthorns  have  been  widely 
used,  with  excellent  results.  In 
color  red  and  white  predominate.  They  may  be  pure 
white,  pure  red,  red  and  white,  or  roan.  This  breed  is 
noted  for  the  high  quality  of  its  flesh.  The  skin  is  mellow 
and  elastic,  the  hair  and  bone  fine  and  of  good  texture. 
8.  Herefords. — These  white-faced  cattle  are  descend- 
ants of  one  of  the  aboriginal  breeds  of  Great  Britain,  and 
as  a  distinct  breed  has  a 
long  lineage.  The  presence 
of  the  white  face  is  an  in- 
dication of  purity  of  blood. 
The  most  notable  of  the 
early  improvers  was  Ben- 
jamin Tompkins,  who  died 
in  1790.  Like  Batewell, 
who  did  so  much  for 
sheep,  Tompkins  improved  his  animals  through  the  most 
careful  selection  of  his  breeding  stock.  The  first  authen- 
tic importation  of  Herefords  into  this  country  was  made 
by  Henry  Clay  in  1817.  Since  that  time  these  animals 
have  been  distri1)uted  over  all  parts  of  this  country.  They 
are  especially  liked  on  the  plains  and  in  the  pasture  dis- 


Hereford  Bull 


BEEF   CATTLE  187 

tricts  of  the  southwest.  Herefords  are  good  "rustlers" 
and  have  long  been  popular  for  their  grazing  qualities. 
They  make  their  best  beef  at  an  early  age. 

9.  Hereford  characteristics. — In  size  and  weight  Here- 
fords are  slightly  under  the  Shorthorns      In  color  they 

are  red  and  white,  the  body 
being  red  with  white  on  the 
face  and  on  the  underline 
from  the  throat  along  the 
.  lower  part  of  the  body. 
The  tail  tip  is  white.  Be- 
cause of  their  early  matur- 
hereford  Cow  ing  qualities,  they  are  ex- 

cellent for  the  production 
of  baby  beef,  and  thousands  are  annually  used  as  such.  As 
meat  producers  they  rank  high;  as  milk  producers  they  are 
inferior  to  the  other  breeds.  They  are  sturdy,  rugged  beasts, 
of  distinctly  superior  quality;  the  hair  is  fine,  the  skin  mel- 
low, the  fl.esh  soft  and  elastic  and  the  bone  of  good  texture. 

10.  The  Scottish  doddies. — The  Aberdeen-Angus  has 
only  lately  been  brought  from  Scotland,  but  he  has  al- 
ready become  a  rival  of  the 

other     beef     breeds.     His  .^^flHRMMM^I^^. 

greatest  popularity  is  found  ^^^^^^  '     '-^S^W^^ 

in  the  middle  and  western  W^^^gK^^mMm^m 

states,  although  many  have         l^^r^^BB^^^r 
gone     to     the     south     and         '^W^^^^^t^^^ 
southwest.      These     cattle     y^      ^^pPW^WWI^^ 
are   prized   for   their   earh^         '""     "'-  .^-    ~      -^ 

maturing  qualities.     In  the  aberoehn-angus  bull 

economic  use  of  food  the  Angus  is  second  to  no  other 
breed.  In  recent  years  they  have  carried  away  their 
share  of  prizes  at  fat  stock  shows  and  in  block  contests. 


188  FARM    ANIMALS 

The  quality  of  meat  is  usually  recognized  as  superior  to 
that  of  Shorthorns  ^nd  Herefords,  commanding  the 
highest  place  in  this  respect. 

11.  Angus  characteristics. — All  specimens  of  this  breed 
are  black   in   color  and   hornless,   blocky   in   shape,   and 

compact,  with  short  legs. 
They  are  poor  milkers,  but 
since  they  are  bred  only  for 
beef,  their  supporters  say 
this  does  not  matter.  In  size, 
average  individuals  follow 
closely  the  Herefords,  but 
are     slightly     smaller    than 

Aberdeen-Angus  Cow  oi         ii  '       t-'i  r    • 

Shorthorns.  They  are  fair 
grazers,  though  probably  not  as  good  as  the  Herefords. 
They  ship  well,  are  unsurpassed  in  crossing  or  grading, 
and  are  destined  to  occupy  a  commanding  position  in 
beef  production  of  the  future.  Many  new  herds  of  this 
breed  are  annually  established  in  the  corn-belt  districts. 

12.  The  Polled  Scots. — The  most  common  name  of  this 
Scottish  breed  is  the  Galloway.  They  were  brought  to 
our  country  only  a  few  years  ago.  In  his  native  land 
he  was  always  a  good  rustler  and  hustler  for  food.  Some 
say  he  is  the  best  breed  for  the  open  plains.  When 
slaughtered,  his  meat  is  in  the  first  rank  in  competition 
with  other  breeds  and  always  commands  the  highest  price 
in  English  and  American  markets.  These  cattle  are 
hornless,  possess  unusual  hardiness,  enabling  them  to 
endure  a  severe  climate.  They  do  not  mature  quite  as 
early  as  the  Shorthorn  or  Angus,  but  they  take  on  flesh 
smoothly.  The  hide  is  of  peculiar  value,  and  may  be 
used  for  robes  and  fur  coats. 

13.  Galloway  characteristics. — In  color  they  are  pure 
black,  with  a  brownish   tinge.     The  head   is  short  and 


Galloway   Bull 


BEEF   CATTLE  189 

wide  with  a  broad  forehead.  The  body,  like  the  Angus, 
is  broad,  rounded  and  symmetrical,  the  skin  mellow  and 
thick,  the  hair  soft  and  wavy,  with  a  mossy  undercoat. 

In  size  they  are  smaller 
than  the  Angus,  Hereford 
or  Shorthorn.  Represen- 
tative cows  weigh  1,200  to 
1,350  pounds  and  bulls  from 
1,800  to  2,000  pounds. 
Yearlings  of  this  breed  are 
frequently  brought  to 
weigh  1,000  to  1,100 
pounds  and  two-year-olds  1,200  to  1,400  pounds.  As 
milkers,  the  Galloways  are  inferior,  but  they  yield  enough 
to  nourish  their  calves.  When  crossed  on  other  breeds, 
their  black  color  and  hornless  condition  are  transmitted 
almost  without  exception. 

14.  West  Highland  cattle. — This  breed  originated  in 
Scotland.  The  horns  are  large  and  upturned.  The  color 
is  generally  black,  red  and  black,  dun  or  brindle.  The 
hide  is  thick  and  covered  with  long,  soft  hair,  even 
longer  than  the  Galloways. 
In  hardiness  these  cat- 
tle are  superior  over  all 
others ;  as  milkers  they  are 
poor.  Their  claim  to  dis- 
tinction is  in  their  meat, 
which  is  of  the  highest  qual- 
itv,   surpassing  that  of  any 

•"  ^  °  .  "^  Galloway  Cow 

Other    breed,     and     m   their 

hardiness,  which  also  surpasses  all  other  breeds.  They 
endure  not  only  cold,  but  wet  and  damp  weather,  and  can 
secure  a  satisfactory  living  on  either  grass  or  brush.  In 
size  they  are  the  smallest  of  the  strictly  beef  breeds,  ma- 


190  FARM   ANIMALS 

ture  cows  weighing  850  to  950  pounds  and  mature  bulls 
1,050  to  1,200  pounds. 

15.  Sussex   and   Polled   Durham. — The   Sussex   is   an 
English  breed  of  solid  red  color.    In  size  they  range  from 

1,700  to  2,000  pounds  for 
bulls,  and  from  1,200  to  1,500 
for  cows.  They  are  inferior 
in  milking  qualities.  They 
mature  early  and  are  highly 
esteemed  as  good  grazers. 
They  are  not  popular  in  the 
United  States,  although  many 
excellent  herds  are  in  exist- 
ence in  this  country. 
WEST  HIGHLAND  BuLL  ^hc  Pollcd  Durham  is  now 

a  distinct  breed,  growing  out 
of  the  Shorthorn  race  and  owing  their  distinction  to  lack 
of  horns.  Much  attention  has  been  given  to  their  milk- 
ing qualities,  these  animals  excelling  even  the  milking 
strains  of  their  parental  stock.  The  breed  is  steadily 
growing  in  popularity  and  numbers.  They  are  very  sim- 
ilar to  Shorthorns  in  all  physical  respects. 


PRACTICUMS 


1.  Judging  Dairy  Cows. — Provide  one  or  more  typical  dairy  cows. 
Use  the  score  card  below,  considering  the  details  outlined  in  it.  Prac- 
tically every  dairy  point  has  been  mentioned,  with  a  description 
fitting  the  ideal  of  a  good  dairy  animal. 

Score  Card  for  Dairy  Cows. 


Scale  of  Points 


■2  8 


A.  General  Appearance: 

Size — small,  medium  or  large 

Form — wedge  shape,   from   front;   side,  top  and  rear    angular 

and  open 

Quality — hair,  fine,  silky;  skin  mellow,  loose;  secretion  yellow 

Temperament — feminine  and  full  nervous  force 

Constitution — general  healthy  appearance 

B.  Head  and  Neck: 

Muzzle — clean  cut,  with  large  mouth  and  nostrils 

Eyes — bright,  big,  kindly  looking 

Face — broad  forward ;  lean  face 

Ears — fine  texture;  broad,  yellow  secretion 

Neck — long,  thin ;  thwart  clean ;  light  dewlap 

C.  Forequarters : 

Shoulders — lithe,  oblique;  withers  lean 

Legs — straight,  short    

D.  Body: 

Chest — deep,  large  girth;  big,  well-sprung  ribs 

Abdomen— deep,  large  capacity;  light  flank 

Back — lean,  open,  straight 

Loin — broad,  level 

E.  Hindquarters : 

Hips — far  apart,  not  fleshy 

Tail — slim,  long,  with  fine  switch 

Thighs — thin,  long,  wide  apart 

Legs — straight,  ohort 

P.     Mammary  Development: 

Udder — capacious,    extending   well   forward,    high   up   behind, 

full,  but  not  fleshy,  mellow;  quarters  even 

Teats — evenly  placed,  good  size 

Milk  veins — large,  tortuous,   elastic,  and  entering  large  milk 
wells 

Total 


100 


2.  Diagram  of  Cow. — Place  pieces  of  numbered  paper  on  the 
various  regions  of  the  cow  as  indicated  in  the  illustration.  Require 
each  student  to  write  the  name  of  each  region  and  name  the  cor- 

191 


192 


FARM   ANIMALS 


responding  region  in  his  own  body.  Each  student  should  be  required 
also  to  make  a  sketch  of  a  cow  and  name  each  part  or  region  on  the 
drawing  or  sketch  at  the  pioper  point.  Continue  this  practice  until 
each  student  of  the  class  has  learned  the  regions  and  is  able  to  name 
the  location  without  referring  to  his  sketch.  Definitions  of  all  terms 
should  be  learned  and  memorized. 


Diagram  of  Cow 

1  Head 

16 

Pelvic   arch 

30  Side  or  barrel 

2  Muzzle 

17 

Rump 

31   Belly 

3  Nostril 

18 

Tail 

32  Flank 

4  Face 

19 

Switch 

33  Milk   vein 

5  Eye 

20 

Chest 

34  Fore    udder 

6  Forehead 

21 

Brisket 

35  Hind   udder 

7   Horn 

22 

Dewlap 

36  Teats 

8  Ear 

23 

Shoulder 

37   Upper    thigh 

9  Cheek 

24 

Elbow 

38  Stifle 

10  Throat 

25 

Forearm 

39  Twist 

11  Neck 

26 

Knee 

40  Leg  or  gaskin 

12  Withers 

27 

Ankle 

41   Hock 

13  Back 

28 

Hoof 

42  Shank 

14   Loins 

29 

Heart   girth 

43  Dew  claw 

15  Hip   bone 

3.  Dairy  Versus  Beef  Types. — Require  each  student  to  make 
drawings  of  typical  dairy  and  beef  cattle,  showing  differences  of 
form  and  conformation.  Important  facts  to  be  considered  are: 
Wedge  shape  of  body,  length  and  shape  of  neck,  milk  veins,  size 
and  nature  of  udder,  back  and  underlines,  fleshiness  of  loins  and 
thighs.  Bring  out  in  the  drawings  the  distinctive  characteristics  that 
distinguish  the  dairy  from  the  beef  type. 


LESSON  NINETEEN 
CONCERNING   CATTLE 

1.  Cattle  farming-. 

2.  Quality. 

3.  Dairy  temperament. 

4.  Swine  after  cattle. 

5.  Age  and  yields  of  milk  and  meat. 

6.  Dishorning. 

7.  Co-operative  breeding. 

8.  Milk  records. 

9.  Cow  shelters. 

10.  Milk-testing  associations. 

11.  Advanced  register. 

12.  Maintaining  the  milk  flow. 

13.  Keeping  cattle  on  the  gain. 

14.  Live  and  dressed  weight. 

15.  Shrinkage. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — In  paragraph  1,  the  relation  of 
cattle  raising  to  soil  fertility  is  clearly  indicated.  The 
teacher  can  point  out  with  great  profit  the  depleting 
efifect  of  grain  farming  and  the  restoring  effect  of  cattle 
farming.  American  agriculture  is  full  of  these  examples. 
It  will  be  advisable  to  show  the  practical  bearing  that 
each  paragraph  of  this  lesson  has  on  handling  and  caring 
for  cattle. 


193 


LESSON  NINETEEN 

CONCERNING   CATTLE 

1.  Cattle  farming. — Whoever  raises  cattle  improves  his 
farm.  Grain  or  cotton  or  hay  depletes  the  land.  With 
cattle  a  leading  feature,  the  farm  becomes  a  farm  factory, 
where  crops  home  grown  and  farm  raised  are  converted 
into  milk  or  beef.  Both  are  finished  products  that  are 
worth  as  much  or  more  than  the  commercial  value  of 
the  crops  consumed.  In  addition  their  fertilizing  ele- 
ments are  largely  returned  to  the  soil  from  which  they 
were  obtained  originally.  Crops  ought  to  be  "marketed 
on  the  hoof"  as  milk  or  butter  or  beef  or  pork  or  mutton. 
Such  a  system  secures  larger  efficiency,  insures  better 
profits,  improves  the  land,  makes  happier  the  family  life. 
_^^_^^__^^^^^__^  2.  Ouality. — In    rais- 

coRr,  ^  m^^^mmm^^^^^^i^^m^  iiig  live  stock  the  aim  is 
v^ormwam^m^mK^^mmmmmm^Hmm  to  secure  the  highest 
•^"-•^    ■■■^  efficiency  in  the  line  of 

PORK   ■■■  breeding-      undertaken. 

BUTTER  I  .        ^    . 

When  a  Ton  Is  Sold  Quality     IS     an     exprCS- 

In     the     sketch     are     indicated     the     relative  •               r    f.^^^,^^       Tf     Ap_ 

amounts    of    plant    food    removed    when    a    ton  felOIl    Ui     llLllCbb.      ±L     uc 

of    product    is    sold.      Live    stock    products    are  --.p.^         pnrf-c:trv     b'tlPacrp 

much    less    exhaustive    on    the    land    than   grain  UOteS  dncestry,  llllCdj^e, 

'^'■^P^-  breeding.  Animals  pos- 

sessing quality  manifest  the  same  in  fine,  silky  hair;  soft, 
mellow  skin ;  neat,  fine,  bone ;  prominent  veins  in  the 
skin ;  fine  features;  and  in  the  choice  products  which  they 
produce. 

3.  Dairy  temperament. — A  cow  used  for  the  dairy 
should  possess,  in  addition  to  proper  form  and  good  qual- 
ity, an  intangible  something  commonly  known  as  dairy 

194 


CONCERNING  CATTLE 


195 


temperament.  This  is  not  a  physical  character  but  rather 
an  outcropping  of  the  nervous  nature.  It  is  indicated 
in  manners  and  bearing,  but  is  not  capable  of  being  meas- 
ured as  are  other  tangible  qualities.  Our  best  dairy  cows 
manifest  this  typical  dairy  temperament  in  their  general 
appearance,  deportment,  and  disposition.  A  quiet,  docile 
nature,  with  motherly  attributes,  and  a  willingness  to 
give  her  milk  to  the  milker  instead  of  to  her  calf,  typifies 
the  spirit  of  dairy  temperament. 


Swine   Following  Steers   in   the   Feed   Lot 

Cattle  take  their  grain  from  the  feed  box  and  the  pigs  gather  up  what  falls  to 
the  ground.  Usually  no  additional  food  is  given  the  pigs  other  than  what  they 
gather  from  the  waste  and  the  droppings. 


4.  Swine  after  cattle. — When  cattle  are  fed  concen- 
trates or  unground  grain,  such  as  corn,  oats,  barley  or 
wheat,  pigs  and  shotes  should  be  placed  in  the  feed  lots 
or  barnyards  to  pick  up  the  undigested  grains  in  the 
droppings.  Often  pigs  secure  the  larger  part  of  their  sup- 
port in  this  way.  A  steer,  on  fattening  rations,  particu- 
larly when  snapped  corn  is  generously  fed,  will  supply 
in  its  voidings  food  enough  to  support  two  or  three  good- 
sized  shotes.  If  fed  husked  corn,  the  waste  from  two 
steers  will  suffice  for  three  hogs ;  if  fed  shelled  corn,  a 


196 


FARM    ANIMALS 


pig  to  the  steer;  and  crushed  or  ground  corn,  one  shote 
to  two  or  three  steers. 

5.  Age  and  yields  of  milk  and  meat. — The  most  eco- 
nomical gains  in  meat  cattle  are  secured  during  the  earlier 
periods  of  growth.  Calves  lay  on  a  pound  of  increase  for 
every  pound  and  a  half  of  food.  When  maturity  has  been 
reached  from  10  to  12  pounds  are  necessary  for  making 
a  pound  of  gain.  To  produce  a  pound  of  butter  requires 
about  two  and  one-half  times  as  much  food  as  to  produce 
a  pound  of  gain  in  steers.  The  cost  of  milk  is  greatest  in 
the  first  milking  period  in  heifers.  The  cost  decreases 
steadily  until  old  age.  The  average  dairy  cow  is  at  her 
best  from  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  year.  After  the  twelfth 
to  thirteenth  year  the  decrease  in  milk  is  very  great. 


Using  the  Dishorning  Clippers 


6.  Dishorning. — Removing  the  horns  of  cattle  is 
humane  because  it  prevents  torture  and  permanent  pain 
that  certain  individuals  in  every  beef  or  dairy  herd  inflict 
on  their  mates.  Horns  may  be  removed  in  two  ways. 
In  the  use  of  the  dishorner,  an  implement  for  cutting 
off  the  horns  of  growing  calves  and  mature  cattle;  and 
of  caustic  potash,  a  chemical  that  can  be  obtained  at  any 
drug  store.  The  latter  method  is  the  simplest  and  any- 
one can  perform  the  operation.    Get  a  stick  of  this  chem- 


CONCERNING   CATTLE 


197 


ical,  wrap  a  bit  of  paper  about  one  end  so  as  to  protect 
the  fingers,  moisten  the  horn  buttons  on  the  week-old 
calf,  and  rub  the  stick  of  potash  on  the  moistened  part. 
This  will  prevent  the  growth  of  the  horns. 

7.  Co-operative  breeding. — A  community  working  in 
harmony  can  accomplish  more  than  individuals  alone. 
In  co-operative  breeding  a  few  choice  sires  are  purchased 
by  an  organization  of  interested  members  and  each  se- 
cures his  proportionate  use  of  these  high-grade  animals. 
Such  an  organization  may  take  on  many  forms,  but  its 
essential  principle  is  that  quality  be  obtained  in  a  few 
select  purchases  rather  FORM  FOR  DAILY  MILK  RECORD, 
than  mediocrity  in 
many.  As  good  sires 
are  bought  exchanges 
are  made,  so  that  a 
choice  animal  can  be 
kept  in  the  same  local- 
ity during  the  entire 
period  of  his  useful- 
ness. Certain  sections 
have  become  noted  the 
world  over  because 
breeders  have  been 
working  together  rais- 
ing a  class  of  stock  of 
high  quality. 

8.  Milk  records. — A 
report  of  the  amount 
of  milk  yielded  by  each 
and  every  cow  of  a 
herd  is  known  as  a 
dairy  record.  Before 
milk    is    emptied    from  „  ^       ^ 

^  Making  the  Cows  Tell 


nONTH 

PRINCESS/I 

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4th. 

Q. 

BEAUTY 

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IDFAL 

QUETN 

ALTA 

s!:Boa 

E. 

JILIX 

tVESTA 
6th. 

AM 

PM 

J.n 

J... 

A^IPM 

.hU, 

Ah'pM 

An 

PM 

AM 

pn 

AM 

PM 

1 

lbs 

Ib3 

lbs' 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

TE 

2 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

IS 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

3. 

T(-AL 

- 

198  FARM    ANIMALS 

the  pail  in  which  it  is  milked  it  is  weighed  and  then  writ- 
ten on  a  milk  sheet.  Both  the  morning  and  evening  milk- 
ings  are  recorded  for  each  day  of  the  month  and  for  each 
month  of  the  milking  period.  A  milk  sheet  large  enough 
for  all  the  cows  should  be  provided,  one  for  each  month. 
By  means  of  this  sheet,  when  the  totals  are  added  up,  a 
complete  record  for  each  cow  is  available  by  month  and 
year  and  her  worth  may  be  readily  calculated. 


Good  Cow  Shelter  at  Small  Cost 

Posts   are   set   in   the   ground   and  covered   with    rails   or  boards,   on   top    of  which 
straw  is  stacked  at  threshing  time. 

9.  Cow  shelters. — Dairy  cows  require  comfortable 
quarters.  Steers  are  able  to  shift  to  better  advantage, 
since  the  thick  coating  of  fat  just  under  the  hides  serves 
as  a  warm  blanket  for  protection.  Dairy  cows  are  not 
thus  shielded;  they  turn  their  food  into  milk  and  butter 
fat,  and  were  they  able  to  reason,  would  expect  their 
keepers  to  furnish  quarters  that  would  protect  against 
rain  and  snow  and  bad  weather.  Even  for  steers  and 
other  stock,  shelters  are  desirable.  These  may  be  built 
of  any  material  and  may  be  of  costly  or  simple  construc- 
tion to  suit  the  taste  and  purse  of  the  owner.  In  either 
case  the  important  consideration  is  to  protect  from  rain, 
snow  and  wind  and  to  provide  a  dry  bed. 


CONCERNING  CATTLE 


199 


10.  Milk-testing  associations. — In  some  places  local 
groups  of  dairymen  organize  as  a  body  and  enter  their 
herds  for  testing  both  the  butter  fat  and  quantity  of  milk. 
Both  morning  and  night  milkings  are  weighed  and  set 
down  on  record  sheets.  Once  a  month  samples  are  taken 
to  test  for  butter  fat.  Such  associations  are  most  success- 
ful when  enough  herds  are  under  test  that  a  trained  milk 
tester  may  go  from  herd  to  herd  obtaining  samples  of  all 
the  individual  cows  and  determining  the  full  measure  of 
production.  The  usual  cost  for  making  such  tests  is  from 
$1  to  $2  per  cow  a  year.  Cow  testing  associations  point 
out  the  good  and  poor  cows  of  a  community.  By  elim- 
inating the  poor  cows  and  preserving  the  heifer  calves 
of  the  best  cows  for  milkers, 

a  herd  can  soon  be  improved. 

11.  Advanced  register. — 
All  of  the  important  dairy 
cattle  clubs  now  maintain 
an  advanced  registry ,  in 
which  are  recorded  tested 
cows  that  meet  certain  re- 
quirements as  to  production 
of  butter  fat  and  total  milk 
yield.  Prescribed  regula- 
tions are  enforced  as  to 
when  a  cow  may  be  entered 
and  under  what  conditions 
the  tests  are  to  be  made.  The 
dairy  breed  associations  co- 
operate with  the  experiment 
stations.       Disinterested      a*   ^    *     •     u        c  •     .>    d 

At  Ihe   top   IS  shown    Eminent's   Bess 
testers    are    sent   from   month    before  beginning  her  test;  at  the  bottom 

how   she    looked    a   year    later   on    com- 

to    month    to    conduct   the  p'^*'"^.  ^^^f   *^^*-     ^^\  '?   ^   world's 

champion   Jersey   cow,    havmg   produced 

tests.    The  testers  watch  the   '^'^^?    pounds    of    miik    and    1,133 

pounds  of  butter  m  one  year. 


Making  Yearly  Tests 


200  FARM   ANIMALS 

milking,  take  the  samples,  weigh  the  milk  and  deter- 
mine the  percentage  of  butter  fat.  This  is  done  for  a 
two-day  period  each  month.  Daily  milk  records  are  re- 
corded, in  addition  to  the  monthly  test  to  ascertain  the 
full  yields  for  the  lactation  period.  Entry  into  the  ad- 
vanced registry  is  a  mark  of  merit. 

12.  Maintaining  the  milk  flow. — Once  a  cow  drops  in 
her  milk  yield,  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  restore  her  pro- 
duction to  a  high  point  during  that  period  of  lactation. 
Hence  good  dairymen  endeavor  to  secure,  through  feed- 
ing, care  and  management,  a  steady  and  even  flow;  and 


Folly  of  Light  Feeding 

When  cattle  are  underfed  ihey  lose  in  weight,  and  this  requires  extra  feeding 
to  replace  previous  weights.  Profit  in  feeding  means  keeping  the  stock  steadily 
on  the  gain. 

when  the  decrease  comes,  to  have  it  slight  and  gradual. 
Anything  that  checks  normal  production  for  any  consider- 
able time  generally  proves  disastrous  during  the  lactation 
period.  Concentrated  foods,  succulent  forage  and  appetiz- 
ing provender  make  hearty  appetites  and  tend  to  stimulate 
not  only  an  even  but  the  maximum  yield  of  milk. 

13.  Keeping  cattle  on  the  gain. — It  is  equally  important 
that  cattle   raised  for  beef  be   provided   with   abundant 


CONCERNING   CATTLE 


201 


rations  in  order  that  they  may  steadily  increase  in  weight 
and  growth.  If  the  ration  is  insufficient  at  any  time, 
meeting  only  the  needs  of  the  body  or  forcing  the  animal 
temporarily  to  fall  back  on  its  reserve  forces,  a  check  in 
growth  will  occur  which  can  be  overcome  only  through 
extra  feeding.  This  kind  of  feeding,  although  common, 
is  unprofitable  in  the  end.  During  a  period  of  insufficient 
feeding  an  animal  must  be  supported  and  no  returns  are 
secured  from  the  use  of  that  food.  It  is  advisable  under 
most  circumstances  to  feed  liberally  so  as  to  get  a  steady 
increase  in  growth  from  birth  until  maturity. 

14.  Live  and  dressed  weight. — When  steers  or  other 
cattle  are  sold  on"  the  hoof,  the  purchase  is  made  on  the 
basis  of  live  zvcight.  If  first 
slaughtered  and  then  sold, 
it  is  as  dressed  carcasses, 
or  by  dressed  zv eight.  The 
percentage  of  dressed 
weight  to  live  weight  va- 
ries with  the  breed,  type 
and  condition.  Old  cows 
of  the  strictly  dairy  breeds 
may  dress  as  low  as  40  per 
cent  of  their  live  weight, 
while  prime  steers  of  the 
best  beef  breeds  often 
dress  68  to  70  per  cent. 

15.  Shrinkage. — In  ship- 
ping cattle  from  farms  to 
market  there  is  always 
some  loss  in  weight.  This 
loss  is  known  as  shrinkage 
and  varies  with  distance, 
time  on  the  road,  feed  and  p^,^^  ^^.^^^  ^^^  ^^^  Carcass 


202  FARM    ANIMALS 

care  while  en  route.  The  average  shrinkage  in  weight  from 
shipping  steers  on  the  railroad,  as  computed  from  50,000 
animals,  is  43  pounds  to  an  animal.  Grass-fed  steers  when 
shipped  shrink  more  than  those  fed  corn  and  dry  rough- 
age. Much  shrinkage  will  result  if  steers  get  "off  feed" 
or  scour.  A  day  or  two  before  shipping  feed  largely  of 
hay  and  give  little  water.  "As  to  feed  on  the  road,  noth- 
ing equals  good  sweet  hay,  which  excels  corn  or  other 
grains  because  it  is  easily  digested  and  does  not  fever 
the  animal."  As  for  water  for  drink,  give  just  enough  to 
quench  thirst. 


LESSON  TWENTY 
FEEDING   DAIRY   CATTLE 

1.  Grass. 

2.  Pastures  ideal  for  cows. 

3.  Feeding  grain  on  pasture. 

4.  When  pastures  are  short. 

5.  Producing  milk  economically. 

6.  Grain  feeding. 

7.  Getting  cheap  food. 

8.  Foods  that  all  may  grow. 

9.  Liberal  feeding. 

10.  Protein  most  important. 

11.  Grain  feeds  of  first  rank. 

12.  Grain  and  quality  of  butter. 

13.  Salt  and  water. 

14.  Testing  with  tuberculin. 

15.  Order  of  supplying  the  food. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  purpose  of  feeding  dairy 
cows  is  to  secure  the  largest  yield  of  milk.  The  rations, 
therefore,  will  consist  of  such  feeding  stufifs  as  will  not 
only  supply  the  milk-producing  constituents  most  satis- 
factorily, but  at  the  same  time  tend  to  stimulate  milk 
secretion.  Practical  work  in  compounding  rations  should 
be  continued  until  the  student  becomes  proficient  in  this 
work. 


203 


LE3SON  TWENTY 

FEEDING   DAIRY   CATTLE 

1.  Grass. — In  early  spring  cows  are  usually  put  on 
pasture  as  early  as  there  is  food  enough  for  support.  New 
fresh  grass  is  generally  very  laxative,  and  if  it  alone  is 
relied  on,  a  very  bad  efifect  often  occurs.  This  can  be 
avoided  by  feeding  only  partially  en  grass,  completing 
the  ration  through  the  use  of  both  hay  and  concentrates. 
In  a  short  time  cows  become  accustomed  to  grass,  and 
may  then  be  left  to  subsist  entirely  on  it 


Condition  of  Cows  Shows  the  Pasture  Is  Good 

Remember  the  old  proverb,  No  grass,  no  cattle;  no  cattle,  no  manure;  no  manure, 

no    crops. 

2.  Pastures  ideal  for  cows. — Pasture  grass  is  one  of  our 
best  foods.  It  is  succulent,  fresh  and  appetizing,  and 
very  nutritious.  The  splendid  results  obtained  in  hav- 
ing cows  on  pasture  is  not  solely  because  the  food  is 
unusually  well  utilized  over  winter  rations,  but  because 
it  is  so  rich  in  nutriment.  It  ranks  with  the  cereals,  and 
everyone  knows  how  effective  such  feeds  are  in  milk 
production.  When  cows  in  milk  are  on  pasture  their 
treatment  is  very  simple,  and  quite   in   contrast  to  the 


FEEDING   DAIRY    CATTLE  205 

diligent  necessities  of  the  stable  during  winter.  Labor 
is  largely  dispensed  with,  except  that  required  for  milk- 
ing. Cows  are  nowhere  so  well  treated  as  when  on 
pasture.  They  gather  their  own  feed,  and  even  on 
scanty  pasture  add  flesh  and  vigor  for  heavy  winter 
production. 

3.  Feeding  grain  on  pasture. — Cows  give  more  milk  if 
fed  grain  on  pasture,  but  the  cost  of  producing  the  milk 
will  thereby  be  increased  and  the  practice  may  not  be 
economical.  Certainly  the  cows  that  give  but  little  milk 
do  not  require  concentrates  when  on  good  pasture.  The 
very  heavy  milkers  may  be  given  grain,  the  kind  depend- 
ing on  what  is  available.  Corn  is  satisfactory  if  but  two 
or  three  pounds  are  given  ;  but,  in  case  more  is  fed,  gluten, 
cottonseed  meal  or  bran  should  be  used  in  a  mixture 
with  corn. 

4.  When  pastures  are  short. — During  the  hot  days  of 
late  summer  the  pastures  often  become  parched,  dry  and 
scanty.  At  this  time  great  care  is  needed  in  managing 
the  dairy  herd.  Unless  some  supplementary  food  is  fed, 
the  cows  will  drop  ofif  in  their  milk  flow,  and  once  down 
it  is  a  difficult  task  to  get  them  back. 

The  short  pasture  problem  mav  be  overcome  by  providing  soil- 
ing crops,  such  as  green  corn,   millet,  oats  and  peas,   alfalfa,   and 


Pasture  is  short,  but  soiling  crops  and  grain  at  the  barn  keep  the  cows  in  Hesh  and 
maintain    the    milk   flow. 


206  FARM    ANIMALS 

corn  silage.  If  a  patch  of  corn  be  planted  on  warm  land  as  early  in 
the  spring  as  the  weather  will  permit  and  planted  thickly,  by  July 
a  great  abundance  of  green  foliage  will  be  available  for  green  feed. 
This  may  be  fed  in  the  field  in  racks,  or  on  the  grass,  or  in  the 
stable  mangers.  A  very  large  amount  of  succulent  food  can  be 
provided  in  this  way  at  no  great  expense.  The  barnyard  millets 
make  excellent  green  forage.  They  are  usually  ready  by  late  July 
or  early  August.  If  alfalfa  is  grown,  a  good  soiling  crop  is  at 
hand  when  needed. 

5.  Producing  milk  economically. — The  production  of 
milk  economically  depends  upon  high-producing  cows 
and  cheap  home-grown  feeds.  On  most  dairy  farms  the 
food  raised  is  of  a  roughage  character,  but  just  as  much 
of  this  roughage  material  as  the  cows  will  eat  up  clean 
at  all  times  should  be  put  before  them.  If  the  legume 
hays  are  grown,  the  demand  for  concentrates  containing 
protein  will  be  much  lessened,  and  consequently  the  ex- 
pense bills  for  grain  will  be  much  smaller  than  otherwise 
would  be  the  case.  But  even  with  an  abundance  of 
legumes  and  silage  some  grain  will  be  called  for,  and 
particularly  by  heavy-yielding  cows.  Cows  yielding 
from  30  to  50  pounds  of  milk  will  not  usually  be  able  to 
manufacture  these  quantities  from  farm  roughages,  even 
though  legumes  and  silage  are  included.  The  bulk  is  too 
considerable  and  the  stomach  capacity  of  the  cow  is 
unequal  to  the  demand. 

6.  Grain  feeding. — Practical  dairymen  introduce  grain 
concentrates  freely  into  rations,  basing  the  quantity  on 
the  amount  of  milk  produced.  To  cows  yielding  20  or 
more  pounds  of  milk  a  day  one  pound  of  grain  is  added 
to  the  daily  ration  for  each  three  pounds  of  milk  or  for 
each  pound  of  butter  fat  produced  a  week.  If  much 
legume  roughage  is  fed,  these  amounts  may  be  lessened 
to  one  pound  of  grain  for  every  four  or  five  pounds  of 
milk  or  butter  fat.  Cows  giving  milk  low  in  butter  fat  will 
need  less  grain  in  proportion  to  the  milk  yield,  and  those 


FEEDING   DAIRY    CATTLE 


207 


high  in  butter  fat  will  need  more.     It  is  a  delicate  prob- 
lem, each  cow  requiring  individual  attention. 

7.  Getting  cheap  food. — The  kind  of  food  for  cows  in 
milk  will  be  much  gov- 
erned by  the  production 
in  any  given  locality. 
Every  farmer  can  grow 
his  own  carbohydrates 
and  fat;  and  more  and 
more  the  legumes  will 
be  introduced  into  the 
cropping  system  on 
dairy  farms.  In  this 
way  it  will  be  possible 
to  grow  most  of  the 
protein  at  home.      Con- 


Famous  Cow  and  What  She  Did 


Auchenbrain    Brown    Kate    4th    during    one 
lactation   period   gave   23,022   pounds   of   milk 
containing  918  pounds  of  butter  fat.     During 
,        ,  •        r       J       this  period  she  consumed  $184  worth  of  food. 

CentrateS    or    gram    leedS    The  milk  was  sold  for  five  cents  a  quart  and 
•f  1   -  '^.1  J        returned  $575  in  money. 

are     bought     either     to  ^ 

increase  the  protein   or  the   digestibility  of  the   ration. 

8.  Foods  that  all  may  grow. — A  few  foods  may  be 
looked  upon  as  standard  for  dairy  cows.  These  include 
plants  of  the  clover  family,  alfalfa,  corn  silage,  soy 
beans,  cowpeas,  corn,  peas  and  oats.  On  every  dairy 
farm,  if  possible,  there  should  be  a  permanent  pasture, 
and  this  should  be  intelligently  handled,  that  it  may  im- 
prove steadily.  If  the  pasture  is  of  limited  size,  soiling 
crops  should  be  introduced.  These  may  include  rye, 
peas  and  oats,  alfalfa,  clover,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  green 
corn,  millet  and  other  crops  of  local  adaptation. 

9.  Liberal  feeding. — A  liberal  supply  of  these  feeds  is 
indispensable  for  milk  or  butter.  On  many  farms  there 
is  too  frequently  a  shortage  of  hay,  silage  or  dry  prov- 
ender. When  such  are  grown  insufficiently,  either  the 
cows  are  denied  full  rations,  or  else  feed  must  be  pur- 


208 


FARM    ANIMALS 


chased.  Ordinarily,  the  high  prices  absorb  the  greater 
part  of  the  profits  of  the  dairy  business.  On  farms 
where  the  normal  supply  of  roughage  is  not  equal  to 
the  requirements  of  the  stock,  it  would  be  better  to  dis- 
pose of  the  least  productive  cows,  bestowing  on  those 
remaining  more  care  and  feed. 


Crop  of  Corn  and  Sorghum  Sii.age 
The  yield   on   heavy  road   clay  was    15   tons   an   acre.      Formerly   this   land   was   in 
rundown  condition,  but  deep  tillage,  cover  crops,  thorough  cultivation   and  chemical 
manures  made  it  possible  to  secure  the  crop   as   pictured. 


Next  to  the  legumes  no  food  provides  so  large  a  proportion  of 
desirable  nutrients  as  corn  preserved  in  the  silo.  The  nutrients  in 
silage  are  very  appetizing  for  winter  feeding.  Moreover,  the  suc- 
culence of  silage  is  beneficial ;  it  aids  digestion,  and,  of  course, 
favors  milk  production.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  wherever  dairy 
cows  are  kept,  the  silo  is  indispensable,  both  for  economical  feeding 
and  for  the  production  of  milk  at  a  reasonable  profit. 

10.  Protein  most  important. — The  list  of  concentrates 
for  dairy  cows  is  practically  unlimited.  The  cost,  how- 
ever, must  be  considered.  It  is  not  enough  that  a  con- 
centrate be  labeled  a  food  for  dairy  cows;    it  must  pos- 


FEEDING    DAIRY    CATTLE  209 

sess  a  relatively  large  amount  of  protein  and  a  small 
amount  of  fiber.  The  less  of  fat  and  carbohydrates  in 
proportion  to  the  protein,  the  better,  provided  the  supply 
of  home-grown  roughage  feeds  is  sufficient  to  meet  the 
demand.  In  the  past  too  little  attention  has  been  paid 
to  the  chemical  composition  of  concentrates.      The  cus- 

Corn  I 


Coirton   Seed   Meal. 


Linseed  Meal 


Gluten  Meal 


Oats 


Wheat    Bran 


Protein  in  a  Ton 

Relative   amounts  of  protein   in  common    feeding  stuffs.     Compare  corn   and  oats 
with    linseed    and    cottonseed   meal. 

torn  has  too  long  prevailed  of  buying  these  by  name, 
whereas  the  only  thing  that  counts  is  merit.  The  only 
sensible  rule  to  follow  is  to  study  the  composition  of 
each  feeding  stuff,  and  ascertain  which  kind  or  brand 
will  give  the  largest  quantity  of  digestible  protein  and 
the  least  quantity  of  crude  fiber.  This  information  will 
be  of  incalculable  value  in  buying  feeds  and  will  be  a 
means  of  saving  money. 

11.  Grain  feeds  of  first  rank. — Among  the  most  useful 
and  best  liked  concentrates  are  cottonseed  meal,  linseed 
meal,  gluten  meal,  gluten  feed,  bran,  brewers'  grain  and 
malt  sprouts.  The  several  by-products  of  starch  and 
cereal  food  factories  are  extensively  advertised,  but  they 
usually  sell  for  more  than  they  are  worth.     Cereal  grains 


210  FARM    ANIMALS 

are  often  fed  dairy  cows,  corn  more  so  than  other  cereals. 
On  farms  where  alfalfa  ^nd  clover  form  the  bulk  ration, 
corn  may  be  fed  if  its  market  value  is  on  a  level  with 
the  best  meals  and  other  grains.  If  corn  silage  is  fed 
in  connection  with  timothy,  mixed  grasses  and  corn  stover, 
corn  would  not  be  a  desirable  food.  There  will  be  wanted 
in  this  instance,  and  in  others  like  it,  concentrates  such  as  oil 
meal,  wheat  bran,  gluten,  distillers'  grains  or  other  concen- 
trates having  protein  as  the  predominating  factor. 

12.  Grain  and  quality  of  butter. — The  character  of  the 
food  frequently  influences  the  quality  of  the  butter.  The 
white,  hard,  tasteless  character  of  winter  butter  is  the 
result  of  food.  Fresh  pasture,  bright  legume  hays,  corn 
silage  and  soiling  crops  give  color  to  milk  and  to  butter. 
Gluten  and  corn  produce  a  soft  butter.  Wheat  bran 
makes  a  harder  butter  than  either.  If  much  of  gluten 
is  introduced  into  a  ration,  the  butter  will  be  soft,  but 
its  hardness  may  be  improved  by  the  use  of  cottonseed 
meal,  a  feed  that  makes  a  very  hard  butter.  By  mixing 
the  two,  a  better  grade  will  be  obtained  than  if  either 
is  used  alone.  When  cows  are  on  pasture,  a  pound  or 
two  of  cottonseed  meal  helps  to  counteract  the  objection- 
able softness  of  butter  during  the  pasture  season. 

13.  Salt  and  water. — Cows  should  have  salt,  either 
added  to  the  rations  or  furnished  in  lump  form.  If  added  to 
the  feed,  from  a  half  ounce  to  an  ounce  and  a  half  should  be 
furnished  daily  to  each  cow.  One  ounce  of  sulphur  added 
to  each  pound  of  salt  gives  good  results.  Cows  do  not  need 
to  have  water  kept  before  them  continuously,  summer  or 
winter.  They  need  a  liberal  supply  at  all  seasons,  however  ; 
and  ice  water  is  not  good,  since  they  often  will  drink  really 
less  than  they  need.  If  comfortably  stabled  in  winter, 
natural  water,  even  if  cold,  will  be  satisfactory. 


FEEDING    DAIRY    CATTLE 


211 


14.  Testing  with  tuberculin. — There  are  two  methods 
of  controlling  tuberculosis  in  cattle.  One  is  the  Ostertag 
or  German  method,  which  consists  in  removing  from  the 
herd  only  such  animals  as  show  physical  signs  of  disease ; 
and  the  other  is  the  so-called  American  method  of  remov- 
ing and  slaughtering  all  animals  which  react  to  the  tuber- 
culin test.  The  latter  method  is  considered  practical  in 
herds  which  do  not  contain  more  than  15  per  cent  of  re- 
actors. 

15.  Order  of  supplying  the  food. — Certain  foods,  like 
cabbage,  silage  and  turnips,  wHll  be  less  likely  to  taint 


Pure  Water  at  All  Times 

The  dairy  herd  requires  fresh  water  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.     This  herd  is  never 

in  want. 


milk  if  fed  after  milking.  Grain  may  be  given  just  be- 
fore or  some  time  previous  to  milking.  In  the  case  of 
hay,  there  will  be  less  trouble  from  dust  if  fed  after 
milking.  The  following  order  is  followed  on  many  up- 
to-date  dairy  farms  :  Milking,  first ;  then  the  grain  feeding ; 
then  silage  or  roots ;  stable  cleaning  while  the  cows  are 
watering;  following  this  work  come  hay  feeding  and 
grooming.  In  winter,  if  the  weather  is  pleasant,  the 
cows  may  be  turned  out  for  exercise  and  morning  air. 


LESSON  TWENTY-ONE 
FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 

1.  Wild  cattle  are  seldom  fat. 

2.  Younger  stock  now  being  fattened. 

3.  Two  classes  of  beef  animals. 

4.  Skim  milk  calves. 

5.  Whole  milk  calves. 

6.  Making  veal. 

7.  Feed  during  the  first  winter. 

8.  Finishing  beeves  under  18  months. 

9.  Baby  beeves  finished  on  grass. 

10.  From  calf  to  steer. 

11.  Finishing  two-year-olds  on  grass. 

12.  Summer  feeding  on  grass. 

13.  Fall  feeding  on  grass. 

14.  Older  steers  are  still  marketed. 

15.  Many  kinds  of  food. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — Growth  and  flesh  are  sought  in 
feeding  beef  cattle ;  also  the  conversion  of  rough  feed 
and  green  grass  into  human  food.  Were  it  not  for  meat- 
producing  animals  a  large  part  of  farm  products  would 
not  be  utilized  at  all.  The  steer  occupies  a  very  im- 
portant place  in  agriculture.  How  best  to  feed  him  in 
order  that  he  may  yield  much  juicy  meat  is  a  problem 
worthy  of  deep  thought,  close  study  and  careful  testing. 


212 


LESSON  TWENTY-ONE 
FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 


1.  Wild  cattle  are  seldom  fat. — Animals  in  a  wild  state 
are  not  easily  fattened.  It  has  taken  many  centuries 
of  careful  selection  and  breeding  to  bring  the  cattle  of  the 
plains,  lowlands  or  mountains  up  to  a  point  at  which 
they  will  lay  on  gains  rapidly  and  at  a  reasonable  cost. 
It  has  been  the  work  of  the  breeder  to  select  out  of  the 
whole  those  individuals  that  were  most  disposed  to  fatten 
easily  and  naturally,  and  use  them  as  foundation  stock 
for  an  ever-improving  race  of  meat  animals. 

Breeds  have  been  developed  that  represent  in  a  high  degree  this 
tendency  or  disposition  to  give  rapid  growth  and  to  fatten  readily. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  cattle  stock  is  still  inferior  for  any  pur- 
pose. Success  in  the  feed  lot  depends  on  the  class  and  the  in- 
heritance of  the  animals  selected.  In  fattening  cattle,  the  first  task 
is  to  select  the  right  kind  of  animals — those  that  have  been  bred 
to  fatten,  that  possess  hidden  quality  and  that  are  of  the  conforma- 
tion which  practical  experience  has  shown  to  be  associated  with 
rapid  increase  and  tender,  juicy  meat. 

2.  Younger  stock  now 
being    fattened. — In   the 

old  days  cattle  were  car- 
ried along  for  four  or  five 
years  and  then  fattened. 
The  new  way  is  to  grow 
beef.  Young  animals 
are  now  brought  to  ma- 
turity and  finish  at  as 
early  an  age  as  possible. 
If  steers  can  be  brought 
by  liberal  treatment  to 
marketable  weight  at  12 


Feeder  of  Olden  Days 


There  is  no  profit  in  this  kind  of  stock  in 
these  days  of  high  labor  and  costly  feeds. 


213 


2U 


FARM    ANIMALS 


to  18  months  old  the  amount  of  food  consumed  will  be 
smaller  than  if  two,  three  or  more  years  are  spent  in  at- 
taining the  same  weight.  Thus  the  food  that  would  have 
been  consumed  for  animal  heat  and  energy  during  the 
longer  period  can  be  saved. 

3.  Two  classes  of  beef  animals. — Lean 
feeding  animals  that  have  depended  on 
scant  pastures  require  a  different  ration 
when  put  in  the  feed  lot  than  those  in 
moderate  condition.  In  the  thin  stock 
the  fibers  of  the  flesh  need  development 
in  order  that  fat  may  be  stored  in  be- 
tween and  among  them.  Such  animals 
require  a  feeding  period  of  three  or  four 
weeks,  in  which  a  greater  quantity  of 
protein  will  be  given  than  later  on. 
After  this  preliminary  feeding  the  pro- 
New  Idea  Is  to  Grow  portion  of  carbohydrates  and  fats  may 
be  increased.  When  more  than  a 
couple  of  pounds  of  digestible  fat  are  consumed,  appetite 
and  digestion  are  disturbed. 

4.  Skim  milk  calves. — Corn  should  be  added  to  the 
skim  milk  diet  of  calves  while  the  change  from  whole  to 
skim  milk  is  under  way.  At  first  a  very  small  amount 
may  be  given.     This  quantity  will  be  increased  when 


AGE  OF  STEERS  IN  RESPECT  TO  COST  OF  100  POUNDS  GAIN 


CALVES 

ONE  YEAR  OLD 
TWO  YEARS  OLD 
THREE  YEARS  OLD 


AVERAGE  [average  COST  IN  DOLLARS  OF  100  POUNDS  GAIN 
WEIGHTS  I  ._gQ      2.00       3.00      4.00      5.00     6.00     7.00 


397 
683 
lOII 
1226 


Cheapest  Grains  Are  Made  with  Young  Animals 

As  animals  advance  in  age  the  cost  of  food  for  maintenance  and  increase  advances 
also.     Compare  the  four  classes  of  cattle   as  sketched  above. 


FEEDING    BEEF    CATTLE 


215 


whole  milk  is  no  longer  given,  and  still  further  increased 
as  the  calf  grows  older  and  larger.  These  calves  should 
be  on  pasture,  be  fed  skim  milk  twice  each  day,  have 
clean  water  available  for  drink,  and  have  placed  before 
them  a  mixture  of  other  grains  like  whole  corn,  wheat 
bran  and  oats. 

5.  Whole  milk  calves. — Calves  on  whole  milk  will  show 
fine  flesh  at  weaning  time.  If  allowed  to  run  with  their 
dams  on  good  pasture, 
little  additional  food 
than  the  milk  will  be 
required.  It  is  desir- 
able to  encourage 
whole  milk  calves  to 
eat  grain  as  soon  as 
they  will  take  it.  Equal 
parts  by  measure  is  a 
good  mixture,  say  corn 
56  pounds,  oats  32 
pounds  and  bran  14 
pounds.  Corn  and  oats 
are  best  fed  whole. 
Whole  milk  calves,  when  separated  from  their  mothers, 
should  have  the  run  of  a  good  pasture,  and  the  grain  mix- 
ture should  be  fed  in  increased  quantities  right  up  to  wean- 
ing time.  After  being  weaned  the  calves  v/ill  hold  their 
flesh  and  keep  on  gaining  steadily. 

6.  Making  veal. — Much  veal  is  made  from  feeding  skim 
milk  and  milk-substitute  grains,  yet  the  highest  quality 
of  veal  is  obtained  by  exclusive  whole  milk  feeding.  The 
calf  is  either  left  with  its  dam  or  early  taught  to  drink 
milk  from  a  pail.  If  the  latter  method  is  followed,  the 
calf  may  be  given  all  the  milk  it  will  consume.     If  for 


Ready   for  Their  Breakfast 

This  simple  contrivance  is  much  esteemed 
where  many  calves  are  fed  and  raised.  Each 
gets  its  own  ration  without  fuss,  confusion  or 
fighting. 


216  FARM    ANIMALS 

any  reason  additional  food  is  given,  let  it  be  of  an  easily 
digestible  nature  and  reasonably  high  in  protein.  In 
other  words,  the  nearer  it  resembles  milk  the  better. 

7.  Feed  during  the   first  winter. — The   best   food   for 
calves  depends  somewhat  upon  the  age  at  which  they 

are  to  be  marketed.     If 

^I^^^^Mj^MH^^^^  they  are   to  be   finished 

^^H^^^^^^^^^H  late  or 

^^^^^^^^^^H^H  summer  on  grass, 

^^^^^^^^^|Bi  they  should  have  a  very 

V  ^M  liberal        supply        with 

steadily      increasing 


Jr  •  ■ 


amounts  of  grain. 


Best    results    are    secured 
Veal  Calf  during     the     first     winter     if 

alfalfa,  clover,  cowpea  or 
soy  bean  hay  is  made  the  basis  of  the  ration.  Let  the  calves  have 
about  all  they  will  eat.  If  corn  silage  is  available,  from  10  to  15 
pounds  may  be  fed  daily.  As  for  grain,  nothing  is  better  than  corn, 
and  particularly  so  if  a  legume  hay  is  fed.  From  two  to  four 
pounds  may  be  fed  each  day.  In  case  grass  hays,  corn  stover  and 
corn  silage  are  used  for  roughage,  a  protein  concentrate  will  be 
necessary  in  addition  to  corn.  For  this  purpose  linseed  meal,  cot- 
tonseed meal,  or  soy  bean  meal  may  be  used.  A  pound  or  two  of 
either,  mixed  with  corn,  will  meet  the  requirements.  Oats  are  good, 
but  the  price  usually  is  against  them. 

8.  Finishing  beeves  under  18  months. — When  calves 
are  to  be  finished  as  baby  beeves,  their  ration  will  include 
more  and  more  of  the  grain  concentrates  as  winter  passes. 
Corn  should  be  fed  liberally,  from  one-half  to  three- 
quarters  of  the  grain  consisting  of  it.  If  legumes  are 
largely  fed,  the  grain  may  consist  largely  of  corn,  with 
enough  oil  meal  or  bran  added  to  give  a  safe  supply  of 
protein.  In  the  absence  of  alfalfa,  clover  or  other  legume 
hay,  one  of  the  oil  meals  should  be  used  to  the  extent  of 
20  per  cent  of  the  grain.  The  ration  should  be  gradually 
increased  to  meet  steady  growth  and  weight. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  217 

By  spring  these  calves,  now  yearlings,  should  weigh  from  800  to 
1,000  pounds  and  be  in  such  good  flesh  that  they  may  be  marketed 
in  a  very  short  time  after  being  put  on  a  finishing  ration.  If  fin- 
ished in  a  few  weeks  the  roughage  may  be  decreased  and  concen- 
trates proportionally  increased,  but  consisting  of  the  same  or  similar 
feeding  stuffs  as  previously  fed. 

9.  Baby  beeves  finished  on  grass. — If  pasture  is  abun- 
dant grain  may  be  fed  less  heavily  during  winter  and  the 
calves  finished  a  few  weeks  later  on  grass.  Less  grain 
will  be  required  during  the  winter,  but  on  grass  an  ample 


Calves   Ready  to  Fatten   for  Baby  Beef 
These  have  been  kept  steadily  on  the  gain  from  the  very  day  of  their  birth. 

supply  is  desirable.  The  grain  ration  should  contain  15 
to  20  per  cent  of  linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal  or  other 
protein  concentrate  if  the  calves  are  pastured  on  timothy, 
prairie,  Bermuda  or  blue  grass.  If  the  pasture  consists 
of  mixed  grasses,  clover  and  alfalfa,  not  more  than  10 
per  cent  of  the  concentrates  needs  to  be  of  a  protein  na- 
ture. Calves  fed  in  this  manner  should  weigh  from  1,000 
to  1,200  pounds  and  be  ready  for  market  before  torment- 
ing insects  and  hot  weather  come  to  annoy  them. 

10.  From  calf  to  steer. — For  growing  baby  beef,  con- 
tinuous grain  feeding  from  birth  to  finish  is  necessary. 
While  adapted  to  certain  farms,  the  practice  of  carrying 


218 


FARM    ANIMALS 


cattle  along  until  in  the  range  of  two  years  of  age  is  still 
the  more  popular.  This  custom  more  nearly  meets  the 
conditions  of  the  average  farm  on  which  beef  cattle  are 
raised.  The  steer  is,  by  nature,  a  good  instrument  for 
converting  large  quantities  of  coarse  or  bulk  food  into 
meat.  Compared  with  the  pig,  the  baby  beef  steer  ren- 
ders a  less  satisfactory  account  of  the  grain  it  consumes. 
For  this  reason  doubtless  this  pig  competitor  will  limit 
the  extent  to  which  baby  beef  will  be  produced. 


Young  Feeders  Selected  for  Feed  Lot 


When  calves  are  fed  that  they  may  be  ready  for  market  at  around 
two  years  of  age  their  first  winter's  food  should  be  such  as  will  secure 
favorable  growth  and  keep  them  steadily  on  the  gain.  The  manner 
of  feeding  will  depend  on  the  roughage.  In  the  spring  these  calves 
will  go  on  grass,  and  if  the  pasture  is  good,  grain  will  ordinarily 
not  be  fed.  If  hot.  dry  weather  cuts  short  the  pasture,  light  grain 
feeding  will  be  advisable.  The  skillful  farmer  will  watch  these 
matters  as  they  arise  and  meet  them  in  accordance  with  his  best 
judgment,  which  will  be  influenced  very  largely  by  the  amount, 
kind,  and  market  value  of  the  grain  on  hand,  and  the  cost  incidental 
to  obtaining  a  supply  of  commercial  feeds.  During  the  second  win- 
ter the  steers  will  be  fed  on  hay.  stover,  and  silage  if  available,  and 
grain.  The  steers  should  be  allowed  to  eat  all  the  roughage  food 
they  want.    If  alfalfa,  clover  or  other  legume  hay  is  fed,  more  corn 


FEEDING    IJEEF    CATTLE  219 

in  the  grain  mixture  may  be  used.  In  the  absence  o£  a  legume  hay- 
then  protein  concentrates  will  be  necessary.  From  two  to  five 
pounds  may  be  fed  daily  at  first.  The  nature  of  the  hay,  the  char- 
acter of  the  cattle,  and  the  market  price  of  feed,  must  all  be  con- 
sidered in  deciding  the  kind  and  amount  of  each. 

11.  Finishing  two-year-olds  on  grass. — In  feeding  out 
steers  that  have  passed  through  two  winters  and  are  in 
good  flesh,  pastures  are  a  great  help.  During  the  second 
winter  grain  will  be  fed  rather  liberally.  By  May  or 
June  such  animals  ought  to  be  of  marketable  finish  if 
turned  on  good  pasture  and  fed.  heavily  on  grain.  Corn 
is  sufficient  on  alfalfa;  but  on  mixed  grasses,  at  least  10 
per  cent  of  the  grain  should  consist  of  linseed  meal,  cot- 
tonseed meal  or  gluten  meal.  Steers  fed  in  this  way 
should  gain  two  pounds  a  day. 


FATTENING  STEERS-GRAIN  CONSUMED  TO  PRODUCE  100  POUNDS  GAIN 

NUMBER  OF 
DAYS  FEEDING 

I06      200       300     400      500       600      700      800      900     1.000 

56 
84 
1  12 
140 
168 
182 

I           '        "  '■ 

When   the  Feeding  Period  Is  Extended 

When  fattening  steers  were  fed  56  days,  slightly  over  700  pounds  of  food  were 
consumed  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain.  When  the  feeding  period  was  lengthened 
to  128  days,  over  1,000  pounds  of  grain  were  necessary  to  give  100  pounds  of 
increase. 


12.  Summer  feeding  on  grass. — On  many  farms  early 
spring  pasturing  is  delayed  until  grass  attains  a  fine 
growth,  and  until  the  sod  is  dry  enough  after  spring  rains 
to  prevent  injury  from  tramping.  The  steers  are  con- 
tinued in  the  feed  lot  and  fed  silage,  hay  and  grain  in 
amounts  liberal  enough  to  give  a  fair  rate  of  increase  at 
a  reasonable  cost.     The  steers  are  then  turned  out  on 


220 


FARM    ANIMALS 


pasture,  the  grain  is  increased  and  a  market  finish  ob- 
tained as  early  in  the  summer  as  possible. 

Care  should  be  exercised  in  changing  from  dry  feed  to  grass ; 
otherwise  shrinkage  will  certainly  result.  Steers  should  be  turned 
on  the  pasture  for  a  short  time  at  first,  the  grazing  period  being 
gradually  lengthened  day  by  day.     This  accustoms  them  to  grass. 

13.  Fall  feeding  on  grass. — On  many  farms  the  older 
beeves  are  pastured  through  summer,  with  little  or  con- 
siderable grain,  and  finished  on  new  corn.  Corn  is  hauled 
direct  from  the  cornfield  to  the  pasture  and  is  fed  on  the 


Shocked  Corn  for  Roughage  Food 

In  addition  to  ear  corn  and  stover,  cottonseed  meal  was  fed  in  order  to  balance 
the  ration   for  cheapest  gains. 


Stalk.  If  little  grain  had  been  given  previously,  only  a 
small  feed  at  first  is  hauled  to  them.  As  rapidly  as  may 
be  done  safely  the  corn  may  be  increased,  when  in  a 
month  or  six  weeks  the  steers  will  be  on  full  feed.  From 
now  on  they  may  refuse  much  of  the  roughage.  Where 
this  forage  is  of  value,  snapped  corn  should  be  substituted 
for  half  of  the  ration. 

If  the  pasture  is  short  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  shocked  corn 
may  be  used  for  roughage.  When  the  pasture  is  no  longer  avail- 
able, protein  feeds  must  be  used,  and  some  shelled  or  ground  corn 
used  in  connection  with  them.  Pigs  should  follow  the  steers,  else 
much  valuable  grain  will  be  wasted.  Not  only  will  pigs  make  steady 
growth,  but  will  practically  grow  up  to  marketable  finish,  thus  giv- 
ing a  double  chance  of  profit  from  the  grain. 


FEEDING   BEEF   CATTLE  221 

14.  Older  steers  are  still  marketed. — In  some  sections 
cheap  lands  are  still  common  and  more  pasture  is  avail- 
able than  could  be  used  economically  under  the  tillage 
system  utilized.  Under  such  circumstances  older  steers 
are  preferred.  They  are  bought  of  neighboring  farmers 
at  all  ages  and  at  small  cost  and  turned  on  pasture,  where 
they  are  forced  to  shift  for  themselves.  So  placed  they 
grow  slowly,  may  or  may  not  keep  steadily  on  a  gain, 
but  in  time  attain  size  and  foundation  for  fattening. 


W^-'^ 

IB 

m 

KK^^aa. 

^^ 

j«p  =v,'';,'i 

MHB 

1 

^^^HIk[>»* 

^^?^m 

V 

Prime  Steers  Three  Years  Old 

On  many  farms   it   is  more  profitable  to   carry  the   seers  to   considerable   age   in 
order  to    consume   the   home-raised    roughage   crops.      This    is    a    bunch    of    prime 


The  initial  cost  is  inconsiderable  and  the  outlay  for  feed  is  prac- 
tically nothing.  During  favorable  seasons  pastures  mav  be  good. 
Then  rapid  increase  will  follow  as  a  certainty.  Steers  raised  in  this 
manner  mature  slowly,  but  they  do  not  cost  much.  Even  if  they 
are  three  years  old  or  more,  the  total  cost  is  at  such  a  low  figure 
that  some  profit  is  bound  to  result.  The  finishing  period  may  be 
short  or  long.  It  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  condition  of  the 
animals  and  the  state  of  the  market.  Given  the  run  of  a  good 
pasture,  and  supplied  corn  and  other  concentrates  for  a  short  period, 
a  reasonable  finish  and  often  highly  satisfactory  money  results  are 
to  be  expected.  Often  steers  of  this  nature  are  carefully  and  pains- 
takingly fattened,  and  when  sold  bring  the  highest  prices  that  the 
market  pays. 

15.  Many  kinds  of  food. — Various  hay  crops,  corn 
stover,  fodder  corn,  and  silage  are  all  vakiable  at  certain 


222 


FARM    ANIMALS 


periods  of  the  steer's  growth.  They  will  be  used  in  scant 
or  liberal  quantities  in  accordance  with  the  supply  and 
the  general  style  of  farming.  Pastures,  either  of  a  tem- 
porary or  a  permanent  nature,  will  go  hand  in  hand  with 
the  forage  crops  grown  on  the  farm.  Corn  is  first  in  the 
list  of  grain  products. 

Among  the  supplementary  concentrates  for  steers  are  cotton- 
seed meal,  linseed  meal,  soy  bean  meal,  wheat  bran,  the  glutens, 
and  various  by-products  of  starch  and  cereal  factories.  It  is  un- 
necessary to  record  the  long  list  of  grain  products  that  enter  into 
the  production  of  beef.  Whether  grains  shall  be  ground,  crushed 
or  fed  whole,  or  whether  they  shall  be  fed  on  pasture  or  in  the  feed 
lot,  in  outside  racks  or  in  closed  stalls,  will  depend  upon  circum- 
stances, the  management  of  the  farm  and  the  nature  of  the  man. 
What  is  most  important  of  all  is  to  grow  as  much  corn  as  can  be 
profitably  grown ;  to  grow  as  much  roughage  as  the  method  of  farm- 
ing will  admit,  and  to  have  as  much  of  this  of  a  legume  nature  as 
possible;  to  use  home-grown  corn  to  feed  in  connection  with  this 
roughage;  and,  finally,  to  supplement  roughage  and  corn  with  other 
concentrates  purchased  outright  or  secured  in  exchange  for  corn 
and  fed  in  such  ways  as  will  give  balanced  rations  to  meet  the  ever- 
changing  needs,  of  the  steers  under  feed. 


IB w  ixffjumim^'  >  '  '^B'.^w^iipiy '  ^ 


H| 

^P""«H 

MH 

■^^.i..5r 

BhJB 

IP 

"'f?  |l«;-«wW 

w  ^ 

r '" 

*• 

FEEDING  Beef  Cattle  in  the  Open 
It    used    to   be    thought   that   steers    were   most   profitably    fattened    when    stall    fed. 
It  has   been    found  that   they   do  even   better   if  cared    for   in   the   open.      Many  cattle 
feeders  now   provide   open  sheds   for   feeding  during  winter  and   inclement  weather. 


PRACTICUMS 

1.  Judging  Beef  Animals.— Provide  one  or  more  beef  animals 
or  steers.  Use  the  score  card  below.  Every  important  feature  is 
scheduled,  with  a  description  fitting  the  ideal  beef  animal. 


Score  Card  for  Beef  Animals 


Scale  of  Points 

Is 

XI 

Si 

General  Appearance: 

Size  and  Weight — according  to  age 

Form — top  and  underline  parallel;  broad,  deep,  low  set,  compact 

and  fleshy 

Quality — fine   hair,   skin   pliable   and   mellow;   evenly   fleshed 

Constitution — healthy,    wide   chest,  bone  strong,  thrifty 

Condition — well  fleshed,  firm  flesh,  no  patches    

Head  and  Neck: 

Muzzle — nostrils  large,  mouth  large 

Eyes — large,  bright  and  full 

Face — broad  and  short 

Ears — fine  texture,  medium 

Neck — short  and  thick,  throat  clean ....[........ 

Forequarters : 

Shoulders — compact,  covered  with  flesh 

Brisket,  well  developed,  full  heart 

Legs — straight,  short,  bones  smooth 

Body: 

Chest — wide,  deep ;  large  girth 

Back — broad,  straight,  evenly  fleshed .  . 

Loin — thick,  broad ] 

Ribs — long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed .\...\.  ......  . 

Flanks — full,  even  with  underline 

Hindquarters : 

Hips — smoothly  covered,  well  set  in 

Rump — long,  level,  wide;  tail  head  smooth,  not  patchy 

Thighs — full,  thick,  plump,  twist 

Legs — short,  straight,  fine,  heavy  bone 

Total 


2.  Removing  Horns  on  Calf.— Calves  from  one  to  two  weeks 
old  preferred.  Locate  the  budding  horn  and  clip  away  the  hair  with 
scissors.  Rub  the  horn  with  the  end  of  a  stick  of  caustic  potash 
until  the  skin  or  scurf  begins  to  loosen  and  get  red.  If  properly 
done  the  broken  skin  will  quickly  heal  and  no  horn  will  ever  appear. 
The  caustic  may  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store.  In  using  wrap  with 
paper  to  protect  the  fingers,  and  moisten  the  end  in  water  before 
placing  on  the  horn  button.  Avoid  rubbing  the  skin  round  about  the 
budding  horn. 

223 


224  FARM    ANIMALS 


3.  Milk  Records  for  Home  Practice. — Prepare  a  milk  record  for 
each  cow  of  the  herd.  Rule  off  31  spaces  for  every  day  of  the 
month,  beginning  with  1,  or  the  first  day  of  the  month,  and  num- 
bering down  to  31,  the  last  day.  Leave  space  at  the  top  of  the  sheet 
for  the  name  of  each  cow  and  rule  the  paper  crosswise,  with  two 
blanks  for  each  cow,  for  the  purpose  of  recording  the  weight  of 
milk  for  both  morning  and  evening.  Small  scales  are  necessary 
for  weighing  the  milk  and  the  milk  pail.  By  knowing  the  weight 
of  the  pail  and  subtracting  this  weight  from  the  gross  weight  of 
milk  in  pail,  the  weight  of  the  milk  is  obtained.  The  weight  of  each 
milking  is  now  placed  in  the  space  prepared  for  it  for  that  day  and 
both  morning  and  evening  milking  recorded.  See  illustration,  page 
197. 


LESSON  TWENTY-TWO 
WOOL  AND  MUTTON 

1.  Ancestry. 

2.  Qualities  in  common. 

3.  Wool. 

4.  Two  principal  classes  of  wool. 

5.  How  wool  grows. 

6.  Yolk. 

7.  Washing  and  shearing. 

8.  Handling  wool. 

9.  Mutton. 

10.  Quality  of  mutton. 

11.  Mutton  carcass. 

12.  Desirable  kind  of  sheep. 

13.  Cuts  of  mutton. 

14.  Hothouse  lambs. 

15.  Market  classes  of  sheep. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — From  the  earliest  ages  the  sheep 
has  been  a  source  of  profit  to  mankind,  and  its  keeping 
and  rearing  an  important  industry.  As  civilization  pro- 
gressed stage  by  stage,  and  the  manufacture  of  garments 
of  wool  displaced  those  of  skin,  careful  breeding  began 
to  improve  the  fleece,  and  varieties  among  sheep  became 
fixed  in  type.  Later  on,  as  people  became  more  settled 
in  their  occupations,  cities  were  built  and  demands  for 
mutton  increased,  until  at  the  present  day  it  is  greater 
than  the  supply. 


225 


LESSON  TWENTY-TWO 

WOOL  AND  MUTTON 

1.  Ancestry. — A\^ild  sheep  are  by  nature  timid,  and  flee 
at  the  slightest  noise,  which  they  hear  at  a  very  great 
distance.  Their  strength  and  agility  enable  them  to 
spring  among  the  most  inaccessible  rocks  which  they  seek 
for  safety.     In  the  evolution  from  wild  to  domestic  life 


Raismj   Both 


)R     \\i 


:i)   A\i  TTON 


This  group  of  Oxford  sheep  is  part  of  a  flock  owned  by  a  farm  boy,  who  starting 
with  a  few  individuals,  steadily  enlarged  his  flock,  until  now  he  has  so  many  that 
his  entire  time  is   devoted  to  raising  sheep. 


many  changes  have  taken  place,  but  none  more  striking 
than  in  personal  safety.  The  domestic  sheep  has  be- 
come so  entirely  dependent  on  man  that  he  could  not 
exist  without  his  care  and  protection. 

2.  Qualities  in  common. — Sheep  are  so  easily  accli- 
mated, that  we  find  them  in  the  hottest  and  coldest 
climates.  They  attain  their  greatest  prosperity  in  the  drier 

226 


WOOL   AND    MUTTON  227 

regions,  and  if  forced  to  subsist  on  wet  lands  certain  ail- 
ments often  affect  them  that  seriously  interfere  with  their 
thrift,  health  and  vigor.  As  for  food,  they  prefer  the 
weeds  of  the  fence  corners  to  the  luxuriant  herbage  of  rich 
fields,  and  the  short,  tender  shoots  of  a  closely  cropped 
pasture  of  the  hills  to  the  maturer  grasses  of  the  lower 
and  fertile  levels. 

Sheep  are  very  partial  to  salt,  either  as  a  part  of  their  rations  or 
as  a  natural  character  of  the  land.  Among  the  domestic  animals 
they  are  the  most  docile  as  well  as  most  stupid,  and  are  utterly  un- 
able to  protect  themselves,  even  if  the  attacking  foes  are  physically 
their  inferiors. 

3.  Wool. — The  fleecy  covering  of  the  sheep  is  revealed 
by  the  microscope  as  composed  of  cells  which  overlap 
each  other  like  the  scales  of  a  fish,  and  within  is  a  hollow, 
full  of  marrow,  forming  the  canal  of  the  coarser  kinds  of 
wool.  In  the  very  fine  wools  this  hollow  is  absent.  This 
change  has  come  as  a  result  of  domestication  and  breed- 
ing. Among  the  important  characteristics,  and  by  which 
wool  is  judged,  are  the  following:  (1)  The  weight,  or 
what  each  fiber  can  bear  without  breaking;  (2)  the  den- 
sity or  the  number  of  fibers  to  the  square  inch ;  (3)  the 
length  when  uncurled  and  stretched  out ;  (4)  the  elasticity, 
or  the  quality  of  again  curling  up  after  having  been 
stretched;  and  (5)  its  color  and  brilliancy. 

4.  Two  principal  classes  of  wool. — Although  of  many 
classes,  for  manufacturing  purposes  wool  is  divided  into 
two  principal  groups — combing  wool  that  includes  the 
fine  and  short  grades,  and  the  carding  wool  that  includes 
the  long  and  coarse  grades.  In  years  past  Merino  wool 
has  been  the  chief  wool  on  the  American  market.  The 
medium  and  coarse  grades,  supplied  largely  by  the  mut- 
ton type  of  sheep,  have  been  offered  in  very  much  smaller 
quantities.     By  far  the  large  proportion  of  woolen  goods 


228 


FARM    ANIMALS 


^'^ 


is  manufactured  from  the  finer  and  shorter  wools,  but 
for  some  purposes  longer  wools  are  superior,  and  for  one 
purpose  or  another  every  grade  and  length  can  be  used. 

5.  How  wool  grows. — The  wool  of  sheep  grows  con- 
tinuously throughout  the  year.     If  the  feed  is  uniform 

and  nutritious,  a  uniform  quality  of  wool 
will  be  produced  according  to  the  breed 
of  sheep.  Anything  which  affects  the 
health  of  the  animal  also  affects  the 
quality  of  the  wool.  During  a  period  of 
sickness  or  scant  rations,  the  wool  may 
temporarily  stop  growing.  When  the 
animal  recovers,  or  when  better  rations 
are  fed,  the  wool  begins  growth  again. 
However,  as  a  result  of  this  interruption, 
a  weak  spot  is  produced  in  the  wool, 
which  greatly  decreases  its  strength  and 
value  for  manufacturing  purposes. 
Like  a  chain  which  is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest  link, 
so  the  strength  of  a  wool  fiber  is  determined  by  its  weak 
spot. 

6.  Yolk. — By  yolk  in  the  wool  is  meant  the  natural 
grease  or  oil  secreted  by  the  skin.  Under  normal  con- 
ditions the  yolk  gives  the  fleece  a  kind  of  creamy  ap- 
pearance. In  healthy  sheep  the  yolk  constitutes  about 
one-third  of  the  weight  of  the  fleece.  At  the  factory,  the 
fleeces  are  scoured  and  the  yolk  washed  out  before  the 
wool  is  used  in  manufacture.  The  secretion  of  yolk  is 
favored  by  nitrogenous  and  fatty  foods.  The  yolk  is 
of  great  importance,  as  it  keeps  the  fleece  soft  and  com- 
pact, clean  and  bright  on  the  inside,  and  is  a  protection 
to  sheep  in  turning  water.  Sheep  in  poor  health  or  un- 
derfed show  a  lack  of  yolk,  while  overfeeding  may  induce 
an  excess. 


EXAN',  i\iN'.  U  OOL   FOR 

Length  and  Density 


WOOL   AND    MUTTON 


229 


7.  Washing  and  shearing. — The  washing  of  sheep  in 
creeks  is  entirely  ineffective,  and  manufacturers  now  pay 
as  good  prices  for  unwashed  as  for  the  so-called  washed 
wool.  Shearing  is  performed  once  a  year,  as  a  rule,  al- 
though in  the  southwest  it  is  done  in  both  spring  and 
autumn.  Both  hand  and  power  machines  are  used.  On 
small  farms  where  only  a  few  sheep  are  kept  the  hand 
shears  are  commonly  used,  but  in  large  flocks  the  clipping 
machine  is  economical,  and  on  account  of  shortage  of 
labor,  indispensable. 


Shearing  Shi 


8.  Handling  wool. — As  soon  as  the  fleece  is  removed, 
it  should  be  spread  on  a  folding  box  or  table,  the  inside 
being  downward.  The  sides  of  the  fleece  are  overlapped, 
then  the  ends  in  a  similar  manner  in  the  other  direction. 
The  fleece  is  folded  up  and  tied  in  a  neat  roll,  the  smooth 
side  of  the  roll  only  showing  outward.  No  filth  or  tags 
should  be  rolled  up  with  the  wool.  Such  refuse  always 
reacts  against  the  seller.  When  the  wool  has  been  rolled 
up,  it  is  next  put  in  sacks  awaiting  shipment.  As  the 
fleeces  are  dropped  in  the  sacks  they  are  tramped  down 


230 


FARM    ANIMALS 


until  each  sack  is  full.    The  filled  sacks  are  then  stored  in 
a  dry  place  until  sold. 

9.  Mutton. — The  flesh  of  the  sheep  has  long  been  val- 
ued as  food  for  man.  A  saddle  of  any  of  the  leading  mut- 
ton breeds,  cooked  at  the  proper  time,  is  considered  by 
many  to  be  one  of  the  best  of  all  meat  dishes.  Yet  it  is 
a  surprising  fact  that  mutton  has  never  been  a  popular 
article  of  diet  in  this  country.  In  recent  times,  however, 
the  demand  has  increased.     Now  the  New  York  market 


w^ttH 

■■ 

■■ 

WM 

^^n 

,,i3 

Machine  Shearing  of  Sheep 

A  modern  tool  of  great  value  where  many  sheep  are  raised, 
cheaply  and  quickly  done. 


The  shearing  work  is 


alone  requires  more  than  a  million  sheep  a  year.  This 
change  in  taste  and  fancy  will  be  helpful  to  both  pro- 
ducer and  consumer.  It  will  hold  the  consumption  of 
beef  and  pork  within  bounds  and  enlarge  the  market  for 
mutton.  Whoever  eats  mutton  selects  an  unobjection- 
able flesh,  and  wherever  the  sheep's  feet  tread  for  any 
length  of  time  the  land  improves  and  wealth  abounds. 
This  domestic  friend  is  the  beast  of  the  golden  hoof. 
10.  Quality  of  mutton. — In  young,  well-fed  animals  the 


WOOL   AND    MUTTON 


231 


Saddle  of  Mutton 


flesh  is  of  pleasing  color  and  is  of  finer  grain  than  beef. 
The  older  the  sheep  grows  the  darker  and  coarser  the 
grain  becomes.  When  the  older  animals  are  fattened  the 
tendency  is  to  deposit  the  fat  about 
the  shoulders,  loins  and  at  the  root  of 
the  tail.  Old  mutton  is  more  inclined 
to  be  tough  and  stringy  than  old 
beef.  Lamb  meat  is  in  more  popular 
demand  than  mutton. 

11.  Mutton  carcass. — B  u  t  c  h  e  r  s 
prefer  a  short-legged,  plump  carcass 
of  mutton  that  is  full  of  meat  and  not 
too  fat.  The  neck 
should  be  short 
but  thick,  the  body  round  and  the  flank 
of  small  proportion.  The  shoulders  and 
legs  should  be  thick,  and  full  of  meat 
right  down  to  the  knee  or  hock.  Thick 
loins,  moderately  fat,  are  demanded. 
The  loin  when  cut  in  "chops"  are  in 
greatest  esteem  if  a  "full  eye"  of  lean 
meat  is  conspicuous.  Mutton  may  be 
placed  in  cold  storage  for 
a  considerable  time,  and  so 
kept  it  improves  in  quality,  and  on  being 
eaten  is  more  tender  and  tasty.  The  fact  that 
the  flesh  of  the  sheep  is  more  free  from  dis- 
ease than  pork  or  beef  should  bring  this  flesh 
article  into  greater  popularity. 

12.  Desirable  kind  of  sheep. — Early  ma- 
turity is  of  first  importance..  This  suits  the 
consumer  and  pays  the  grower  a  better  profit. 
A  strain  that  deposits  the  fat  uniformly  over 
the  body  and  not  in  patches,  is  most  approved 


Well-Finished    Mutton 
Carcasses 


232 


FARM    ANIMALS 


by  the  butcher.  Most  of  the  improved  mutton  breeds 
have  been  selected  to  meet  these  needs ;  and  the  effort 
of  breeders  and  growlers  is  to  surpass  their  present  work 
in  these  respects.  The  most  useful  size  is  also  sought. 
An  over-sized  lamb,  although  evenly  fleshed  and  fat,  may 
not  command  near  as  good  a  price  at  market  as  a  smaller 
lamb  of  even  slightly  inferior  quality. 


Flock  of  Ewes  and  Lambs  at  Pasture 

The  sheep  have  been  kept  thrifty  by  wise  feeding  and  careful  attention.     The  ewes 
and  lambs  are  together,  and  are  excellent  representatives  of  the  Hampshire  breed. 

13.  Cuts  of  mutton. — The  two  loins  joined  are  called 
a  "saddle  of  mutton."  The  quarters  are  usually  sold  as 
a  ''leg  of  mutton,  or  lamb,"  for  roasting.  If  saddle  is 
used,  it  goes  as  a  roast.  As  a  rule,  the  loins  are  cut  into 
''chops"  and  broiled.  Not  infrequently  shoulders  and 
legs  are  cut  as  chops,  but  only  where  the  demand  for 
lamb  or  mutton  chops  is  greater  than  the  supply.  The 
flanks,  breasts  and  other  less 
valuable  parts  are  bought  as 
stewing  meats,  or  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  soup,  or  for 
boiling,  which  may  be  eaten  hot  cuts  of  mutton 

or  cold.  Often  S^Oat  meat  is  sub-     Common  method  of  cutting  the  mut- 
°  ton  carcass. 

stituted  for  mutton.     The  kids 


WOOL   AND    MUTTON 


233 


make  a  good  meat,  but  detection  is  easily  possible  by  the 
color,  usually  a  darker  shade.  This  deception  is  prac- 
ticed because  goat  meat  is  not  in  demand. 

14.  Hothouse  lambs. — These  are  lambs  born  in  late 
fall  or  early  winter,  and  forced  in  rapid  growth  for  two 
or  three  months,  when  they  are  marketed. 
Their  mutton  is  tender  and  juicy  and  always 
in  great  demand.  It  fetches  the  highest 
price  of  any  meat.  It  is  a  great  delicacy  of 
private  families,  and  during  the  season  is 
usually  to  be  found  on  the  menu  cards  of 
leading  hotels.  Success  in  raising  hothouse 
lambs  is  dependent  upon  early  breeding 
strains  of  ewes ;  forced  feeding  on  appetiz- 
ing and  nutritious  food,  much  of  which 
must  be  grain ;  and  pleasant  environments. 
During  the  nursing  period  a  rich,  succulent 
ration  for  the  ewes,  as  will  conduce  to  the  largest  flow  of 
milk,  is  essential.  The  lambs  are  induced  to  eat  grain  at 
an  early  age  and  provided  with  rich  food  until  slaughtered. 


Winter  Lambs 


Wethers   Ready   for  Market 
Their  ration  consisted  of  clover  hay,  oil  meal,  ground  oats  and  corn. 


234  FARM    ANIMALS 

15.  Market  classes  of  sheep. — When  sold  at  market 
age,  quality  and  condition  play  an  important  part  in  the 
prices  obtained.  Mutton  sheep  are  classified  as  lambs, 
yearlings,  wethers  and  ewes.  In  each  of  these  classes 
there  are  a  number  of  grades  such  as  prime,  common  and 
inferior.  Breeding  sheep  are  marketed  as  ewes  and 
bucks,  and  "feeder"  sheep  as  bucks,  stags,  lambs,  year- 
lings, wethers  and  ewes. 

Sheep  are  somewhat  unique  among  domestic  animals. 
They  make  use  of  food  not  relished  by  other  animals,  the 
goat  excepted.  They  can  subsist  under  conditions  of 
food,  water  and  climate  that  are  unsuited  to  other  domes- 
tic animals.  Great  areas  of  the  world  are  by  them  made 
of  economic  importance.  They  produce  at  one  time  both 
food  and  clothing.  No  other  fiber  can  quite  take  the 
place  of  wool. 


LESSON  TWENTY-THREE 
RACES  OF  SHEEP 

1.  The  Merino. 

2.  Rambouillet. 

3.  The  Dorset  breed. 

4.  Southdown. 

5.  Shropshire. 

6.  Hampshire. 

7.  Oxford  Down. 

8.  Suffolk. 

9.  Cheviot. 

10.  Leicester. 

11.  Lincohi. 

12.  Cotswold. 

13.  Romney  Marsh. 

14.  Black-Faced  Highland. 

15.  Persian  lamb  fur. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  obvious  purpose  of  this  les- 
son is  to  describe  the  leading  breeds  of  sheep  and  to 
point  out  the  leading  qualities  of  each.  It  is  desirable 
that  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  each  breed  be 
learned  and  remembered  by  the  student.  The  fine  wool 
breeds  were  at  one  time  in  most  demand,  but  in  recent 
years  the  mutton  types  have  grown  in  popularity.  Ask 
the  members  of  the  class  to  bring  samples  of  wool  to  the 
school  for  purposes  of  comparison. 

235 


LESSON  TWENTY-THREE 

RACES  OF  SHEEP 

1.  The  Merino. — These  sheep  are  of  such  ancient  origin 
that  their  domestic  ancestry  has  become  entirely  lost. 
In  Spain,  the  land  of  their  early  development  and  im- 
provement, they  were  prized  for  w^ool  rather  than  for 
butchering.  Ancient  breeders  paid  little  attention  to 
the  conformation  of  their  bodies  for  meat;  the  produc- 
tion of  fine  wool  was  the  only  thing  they  cared  about. 
When  these  sheep  were  first  introduced  into  the  United 
States  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  it  was  for  the 
purpose  of  improving  our  wool-growing  industry  and 
not  our  mutton  supply.  American  breeders,  however, 
did  not  undervalue  a  good  carcass,  and  in  time  greatly 
changed  the  type,  improved  the  carcass  and  made  the 
wool  longer  and  finer.  The  American  Merino  is  the 
result. 

The  Delaine  is  one  variety  of  this  highly  esteemed  breed.  These 
sheep  are  larger,  possess  a  better  mutton  form,  carry  a  longer  fleece 


Merino  Ram  and  Ewe 


RACES   OF   SHEEP 


237 


and  have  less  folds  and  wrinkles  than  the  parental  Merino.  Closely 
related  to  these,  but  still  of  the  original  family,  are  the  Black  Top 
Spanish  Merino,  the  Improved  Black  Top  and  the  Dickinson.  All 
Delaine  Merinos  have  horns  and  more  or  less  folds  or  wrinkles 
about  the  neck  and  breast.  The  Black  Tops  have  blacker  fleeces, 
no  wrinkles,  and  have  horns.  The  Dickinson  type  is  without 
horns  or  wrinkles  and  larger  in  size,  with  a  longer  wool. 

For  a  great  many  years  the  Merino  in  its  several  varieties  has 
been  our  most  popular  sheep.  They  have  been  used  extensively 
in  crossing  on  the  western  range  sheep  where  the  fleece  has  become 
light  and  open.  When  mature  the  ewes  weigh  100  to  160  pounds, 
the  rams  140  to^  190  pounds.  The  fleece  in  ewes  will  weigh  nine  to 
15  pounds,  and  in  rams  from  12  to  20  pounds  or  more.  These  sheep 
are  hardy,  one  of  the  hardiest  breeds,  and  adapt  themselves  to  vari- 
ous conditions  of  climate,  care  and  food  equally  as  well,  if  not  bet- 
ter, than  any  other  breed.  They  can  be  herded  in  flocks  of  great 
size,  which  is  not  possible  of  the  mutton  breeds.  They  mature 
slowly,  are  ideal  of  grazing,  but  their  feeding  qualities  are  inferior 
to  the  mutton  breeds.  When  crossed  with  the  mutton  breeds  their 
mutton  is  more  tender  and  juicy. 

2.  Rambouillet. — Years  before  Spanish  Merinos  were 
brought  to  this  country  others  had  been  taken  to  France 
and  in  time  were  changed  and  improved  into  the  Ram- 
bouillet. The  French  breeders  were  the  first  to  produce 
a  Merino  combing  wool,  from  which  have  developed 
some  of  the  most  interesting  and  profitable  branches  of 
wool  manufacturing.  Sheep  of  this  particular  breeding 
have  greatly  improved  in  mutton  form,  quality  of  flesh 
and  weight.  These  imorovements  have  come  from  within 


Rambouillet  E\)/e 


Rambouillet   Ram 


238 


FARM    ANIMALS 


the  breed,  liberal  feeding  and  rigid  selection  being  re- 
sponsible. 

These  French  breeders  were  able  to  develop  a  fleece  of  fully 
double  the  weight  of  the  original  Spanish  stock.  The  sheep  are 
taller,  of  heavier  limb  and  more  rangy  than  the  American  Merino. 
The  ewes  weigh  up  to  nearly  200  pounds,  the  rams  a  quarter  more. 
They  are  less  wrinkled,  the  carcass  is  better  and  the  wool  is  longer 
than  the  American  Merinos.  They  more  nearly  correspond  to  the 
Delaines  than  any  other  sheep.  These  sheep  are  hardy,  the  meat 
is  excellent  and  they  hold  a  firm  place  as  grazers  and  for  cross- 
ing on  western  range  stock. 

3.  The  Dorset  breed. — An  English  breed  of  growing 
popularity  is  the  Horned  Dorset.  Its  heavy  horns  and 
its  coarse  and  horny  head  suggest  still  much  to  do  in 
way  of  improvement.  The  fine,  short  wool  and  the  ex- 
traordinary fecundity  of  the  ewes,  which  may  give  birth 
twice  a  year,  and  at  a  time  when  the  breeder  most  de- 
sires them,  give  this  breed  a  position  and  a  place  of  great 
advantage.  These  sheep  are  much  sought  after  in  the 
production  of  "hothouse"  lambs.  The  ewes  are  excep- 
tionally good  milkers.  They  are  hardy,  excellent  rustlers, 
mature  early  and  give  a  carcass  of  high  favor.  The  rams 
weigh  200  to  220  pounds,  the  ewes  160  to  175  pounds. 
The  fleeces  range  from  six  to  eight  pounds  in  weight. 

4.  Southdown. — This  sheep  is  the  generally  accepted 
type  of  the  mutton  and  short  wool  sheep  of  England.  The 


Horned  Dorset  Ram 


Horned  Dorset  Ewe 


RACES   OF    SHEEP  239 

breed  takes  its  name  from  the  downs  that  line  the 
southern  coast  of  England.  The  Southdown  has  a 
smooth,  even  body,  a  round,  clear  barrel,  short  legs,  fine 
head,  and  broad  loins.  The  face  and  feet  are  brown  or 
gray.  They  are  hornless  and  rather  small.  The  fleece 
is  of  moderate  weight  and  quality.  They  are  at  their 
best  on  hilly  land  with  a  dry  soil  and  not  too  moist 
herbage.     They  have  been  much  used  in  crossing  for  mutton. 


Pen  of  Southdown  Lambs 

5.  Shropshire. — The  Shropshire  is  the  most  popular 
mutton  breed  in  the  United  States.  It  is  larger  and 
heavier  than  the  Southdown  and  grows  a  heavier  and 
better  wool.  It  is  readily  adapted  to  good  or  thin  pas- 
tures, and  the  mutton  is  excellent.  The  wool  covers  the 
whole  face  and  scarcely  leaves  visible  the  eyes  and  the 
black  tip  of  the  nose ;  it  also  extends  down  the  legs  almost 
to  the  hoofs.  The  ewes  are  prolific,  many  twin  lambs  ap- 
pearing. The  ewes  will  weigh  from  150  to  175  pounds, 
the  rams  up  to  225  pounds.  These  sheep  are  especially 
at  home  under  general  farm  conditions. 


240 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Shropshires 

6.  Hampshire. — These  sheep  are  without  horns  and 
have  black  faces  and  legs.  It  is  an  English  breed  and 
favors  in  some  respects  the  Southdown,  its  chief  progeni- 
tor. It  is  larger  than  the  Southdown,  is  more  prolific, 
yields  a  heavier  fleece  and  rustles  better  on  grazing  lands. 
The  body  is  rather  long  and  not  as  well  proportioned  as 
the  Southdown  or  Shropshire.  Its  head  has  a  rather 
coarse  and  heavy  appearance.  Lambs  of  this  breed  grow 
rapidly  to  maturity.     For  this  reason  these  sheep  are  ex- 


1 

hi.ocK  OF  Hampshire  Sheep 


RACES   OF    SHEEP 


241 


cellent  for  crossing  where  large  and  quick-maturing 
lambs  are  desired. 

7.  Oxford  Down. — These  are  a  double  cross,  the  blood 

of  the  Hampshire  and  Cots- 
wold  having  been  used  in 
establishing  the  breed. 
They  are  large,  meaty  and 
much  heavier  than  any  of 
the  other  Down  breeds.  They 
rank  well  as  farm  sheep, 
resembling  the  Hampshires 
in  general  form.  They  are 
not     as     well     adapted     to 

broken  pastures  as  the  Shropshire  or  Southdown,  but  do 
splendidly  on  lands  that  grow  good  pastures.  In  good 
flesh  the  ewes  weigh  up  to  225  pounds  and  the  rams  from 
250  to  275  pounds.  The  wool  is  a  bit  coarse  but  weighs 
well — from  10  to  12  pounds  unwashed. 

8.  Suffolk. — These  sheep  are  lighter  in  form  and  color 
than  any  of  the  preceding.  The  head  and  feet  are  dark 
brown,  and  while  not  so  compact  in  form  as  the  Hamp- 
shire, the  Suffolk  somewhat  resembles  it.  There  is  a 
general  absence  of  wool  on  the  head  and  between  the 


Oxford  Ewe 


Prize   Flock  of  Suffolk  ^hfep 


242 


FARM    ANIMALS 


ears.  The  wool  is  of  medium  quality,  and  the  breed  is 
without  horns.  Compared  with  other  breeds,  it  is  con- 
sidered inferior  and  is  not  extensively  bred  in  the  United 
States. 

9.  Cheviot. — Owing  to  the  shape  of  its  head,  neck  and 
ears  the  Cheviot  forms  a  group  apart  from  any  breed 
heretofore  discussed.  The  head  is  bald  and  carried  very 
low,  so  as  to  seem  sunk  below  the  level  of  its  back,  but 
the  ears  stick  up  boldly  above  its  thin,  pale  face.  These 
sheep  come  from  the  Cheviot  hills  of  England  and  are 
more  useful  for  their  supply  of  wool  than  of  mutton. 
Nevertheless  the  mutton  is  of  superior  quality.  The 
Cheviot  is  of  medium  size,  the  ewes  weighing  up  to  150 
pounds  and  the  rams  up  to  200  pounds.  Being  a  moun- 
tain breed,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  they  are  especially 
at  home  in  our  hilly  sections,  even  though  the  pastures 
are  scant  and  short. 


x^- 


% 


- '  -^ 


Chf.viot  Ham   and  i^we 


RACES   OF   SHEEP 


243 


Leicester  Ram 


10.  Leicester. — These  sheep  have  white  faces,  big, 
square  bodies  and  are  without  horns.  They  grow  long 
wool,  that  hangs  in  spirals,  with  fleeces  ranging  from  10 
to  12  pounds.    Mature  rams  weigh  230  to  260  pounds  and 

mature  ewes  200  to  225  pounds. 
They  are  suited  to  rich  lands 
where  an  abundance  of  succu- 
lent food  is  available.  Under 
such  conditions  they  are  easy 
keepers  and  mature  early. 
These  sheep  originated  in  Eng- 
land, the  great  Batewell  being 
one  of  the  earliest  improvers. 
11.  Lincoln. — English  breed- 
ers used  the  improved  and  early  refined  Leicester  with 
the  coarser  and  stronger  Lincolnshire  sheep  breeds. 
From  this  improvement  has  come  the  modern  Lincoln, 
the  most  popular  of  the  long-wooled  breeds  of  sheep. 
They  are  the  heaviest  of  all  breeds,  mature  ewes  weigh- 
ing 230  to  260  pounds  and  mature  rams  from  270  to  300 
pounds.  Unwashed  fleeces 
range  from  12  to  15  pounds. 
The  breed  is  without  horns, 
the  face  is  white,  and  a  tuft 
of  wool  grows  on  the  fore- 
head. They  graze  well  on 
rich  pastures,  but  their 
meat,  although  dressing  out 
well  on  the  block,  is  inferior 
in  tenderness  and  flavor. 

12.  Cotswold. — This  breed,  originating  in  the  moun- 
tainous regions  of  that  name,  resembles  in  many  ways 
the  Leicester  and  Lincoln.  Their  legs  are  longer  and 
the  body  less  bulky,  a  conformation  that  gives  them  a 


Lincoln   Ewe 


244 


FARM    ANIMALS 


most  active  appearance.  Like  the  Lincoln,  it  carries  its 
distinguishing  tuft  on  its  forehead.  And  like  both  the 
Leicester  and  Lincoln,  it  fares  well  only  when  allowed 
rich  pasture  or  winter  provender  in  abundance.  These 
sheep  in  size  and  weight  are  between  the  Leicesters  and 
Lincolns.  The  rams  weigh  up  to  280  pounds  and  the 
ewes  up  to  235  pounds. 


COTSW 


Ra.m   and  Ewe 


13.  Romney  Marsh. — These,  also  called  Kent  sheep, 
are  a  product  of  the  plains  of  Kent  in  the  southeast  part 
of  England.  The  head  and  legs  are  white.  They  like  a 
good  living,  fatten  well  when  provided  with  it,  and  yield 
a  fair  grade  of  mutton.  The  fleece  in  weight  averages 
about  eight  pounds.  The  breed  is  little  known  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  claimed  that  these  sheep  are  not 
subject  to  footrot  to  the  extent  of  other  breeds. 

14.  Black-Faced  Highland. — These  came  to  us  from 
Scotland,  from  the  mountain  sections  where  grazing  and 
rough  weather  have  combined  in  making  a  very  hardy 
breed.  They  have  horns,  black  or  black  and  white  faces, 
and  no  wool  beyond  the  forehead.  They  yield  an  ex- 
cellent mutton,  but  mature   slowly.     In   size,  they  are 


RACES  OF   SHEEP 


245 


rather  small.  Their  principal  field  of  usefulness  in  the 
United  States  will  be  limited  to  the  wilder,  mountain- 
ous portions.  But  even  there  dogs  and  other  enemies 
will  greatly  injure  their  chances  to  prove  their  worth. 
15.  Persian  lamb  fur. — From  time  immemorial  breed- 
ers in  Central  Asia  have  raised  a  peculiar  broad-tailed 
sheep  which  produce  the  Per- 
sian lamb  fur  of  commerce.  The 
original  stock  is  known  as  Kar- 
akul, but  near  kin  is  the  Arebi, 
which  has  been  used  in  crossing 
to  improve  the  luster  and  curl 
of  the  wool.  Arebi  lambs  are 
black  when  born  and  have  a 
tight,  curled  fur  of  wonderful 
luster.  As  the  lambs  grow  the 
wool  turns  brown  on  the  outside,  but  underneath  remains 
black.  A  few  Arebi  have  been  imported  to  this  country 
for  crossing  on  Cheviots  and  Lincolns,  the  aim  being  to 
secure  a  product  to  take  the  place  of  the  Persian  lamb 
fur  of  Asia. 


Arebi  Ewe 


LESSON  TWENTY-FOUR 
FEEDING    SHEEP 

1.  Wool  and  mutton. 

2.  Relative  economy  of  sheep,  steers  and  pigs. 

3.  Choosing  the  feed. 

4.  Roots  always  fine  for  sheep. 

5.  Sheep  and  water. 

6.  When  turning  to  pasture. 

7.  Proportion  of  grain  to  roughage. 

8.  How  often  to  feed  sheep. 

9.  Rape  an  excellent  sheep  feed. 

10.  Roughage  feeds. 

11.  Temporary  fences  by  means  of  hurdles. 

12.  Putting  sheep  on  full  grain  rations. 

13.  Green  crops  for  roughage. 

14.  Feeding  lambs  for  market. 

15.  Fattening  grown  sheep. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — Sheep  are  dainty  feeders,  and  a 
thorough  familiarity  with  their  habits  is  required  to  se- 
cure the  fullest  success  from  them.  They  are  easily  dis- 
turbed and  will  leave  their  food  if  anything  excites  them. 
Not  only  good  food,  but  a  peculiar  kindness  or  friendli- 
ness is  necessary  in  caring  for  and  looking  after  them. 


246 


LESSON  TWENTY-FOUR 


FEEDING    SHEEP 


1.  Wool  and  mutton. — Sheep  use  food  for  both  flesh 
and  wool.  Hence  these  animals  must  meet  a  double 
requirement.  Wool  contains  much  nitrogen,  and  a 
slightly  more  liberal  supply  of  protein  is  demanded  than 
for  either  swine  or  beeves.  Sheep,  too,  are  very  active 
creatures;  the  body  surface  also  is  proportionately 
greater  than  of  beeves,  and  hence  they  require  more 
food,  proportionately. 

The  larger  breeds  of  sheep  require  about  one  pound  of  digesti- 
ble protein  to  eight  pounds  of  starch  equivalent,  the  smaller  breeds 
slightly  more.  The  wool  growth  becomes  less  active  as  the  food 
supply  is  reduced,  but  if  more  food  is  given  than  the  animal  has 
use  for,  the  rate  of  wool  growth  will  not  be  increased. 

2.  Relative  economy  of  sheep,  steers  and  pigs. — Com- 
pared with  swine,  the  sheep  does 
not  render  quite  as  good  an  ac- 
count of  its  food  as  does  the  pig ; 
in  fact,  it  requires  nearly  twice  as 
much  digestible  organic  matter  to 
produce  100  pounds  of  gain.  W^hile 
this  is  true,  it  is  not  to  be  for- 
gotten that  much  of  the  sheep's 
provender  is  in  the  form  of  hay  or 
other  roughage,  and  of  a  nature 
that  the  pig  could  not  use.  Pigs  demand  easily  digested 
food,  which  must  be  largely  in  the  form  of  grain.  From 
the  point  of  profit,  therefore,  sheep  are  not  at  a  disad- 
vantage at  all. 

247 


Baa,  Baa 


248. 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Compared  with  steers,  sheep  have  slightly  the  better  of  it.  Nearly 
50  years  ago  Lawes  and  Gilbert  determined  that,  covering  a  whole 
fattening  period,  a  steer,  to  produce  100  pounds  of  increase,  re- 
quired 3,500  pounds  of  swedes,  600  pounds  of  clover  hay  and  250 
pounds  of  oil  meal.  To  produce  the  same  increase  these  investi- 
gators found  that  sheep  required  4,000  pounds  of  swedes,  300 
pounds  of  clover  hay  and  250  pounds  of  oil  meal.  The  advantage 
as  between  steers  and  sheep  was  slightly  with  the  latter. 

3.  Choosing  the  feed. — While  there  is  wide  choice  as  to 
the  variety  of  food,  those  foods  which  furnish  abundant 
flesh  shoukl  be  chosen  for  the  growing  classes,  and  those 


Poor  Way  to  Feed  Sheep 

On  many  farms  corn  is  fed  to  sheep  on  the  ear  and 
stalk.  This  is  a  disappearing  custom.  Food  is  wasted, 
because  sheep  will  not  eat  what  has  once  been  run  over. 


rich  in  starch  and  oil  selected  for  fattening.  If  the  protein 
supply  is  not  sufficient,  the  body  will  not  be  properly  sup- 
ported, the  wool  growth  will  be  checked,  and  the  readiest, 
digestion  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  will  not  be  se- 
cured. This  last  point  must  always  be  kept  in  mind  in 
feeding  any  class  of  live  stock.  Much  may  be  gained 
by  varying  or  mixing  the  food  so  as  to  stimulate  the  ap- 
petite. A  healthy  sheep  will  increase  in  weight  in  pro- 
portion to  the  food  consumed  only  as  long  as  digestion 
and  assimilation  are  of  a  high  order.    If  a  sheep  can  be 


FEEDING    SHEEP  249 

made  to  increase  its  diet  by  the  addition  of  roots  or  ap- 
petizing concentrates,  a  manifest  advantage  is  gained. 

4.  Roots  always  fine  for  sheep. — Roots  are  a  staple 
sheep  food  and  of  the  greatest  value  in  winter  feeding. 
If  fed  in  excess,  the  large  amount  of  water  they  contain 
and  their  bulkiness  tend,  especially  in  winter,  to  reduce 
the  temperature  of  the  animal  and  otherwise  gradually 
to  act  unfavorably  on  the  health.  Watery  foods  are  not 
good  for  sheep.  Sheep  need  succulence,  but  roots  and 
green  crops  should  be  considered  as  supplements  and  not 
as  the  basic  portions  of  the  ration. 

The  most  common  roots  for  sheep  are  sugar  beets,  mangels, 
rutabagas  and  turnips.  Each  kind  is  favorable  in  effect  upon  the 
quality  of  the  wool.  The  quantity  of  roots  will  depend  on  the  kind 
of  sheep.  As  a  safe  guide,  it  may  be  stated  that  one  bushel  of  roots 
will  be  sufficient  as  a  daily  allowance  for  10  sheep  weighing  150 
pounds  each,  if  along  with  the  roots  one  and  one-half  pounds  of 
hay  and  one-half  pound  of  meal  or  bran  are  given  daily  to  each 
animal. 

5.  Sheep  and  water. — Sheep  in  the  Nebo  national 
forest  in  Utah  go  4}^  months  during  the  grazing  season 
without  water,  except  for  such  moisture  as  they  get  from 
dew  and  juices  of  forage  plants.  In  the  Farghee  forest 
in  Idaho,  sheep  get  water  only  twice  during  the  four 
months'  summer  grazing  season.  While  sheep  are  able 
to  subsist  under  these  conditions,  they  often  suffer,  and 
even  perish,  from  lack  of  water.  Heavy  dews  and  succu- 
lent grass  enable  them  to  secure  water  for  a  time ;  but, 
like  other  animals,  they  thrive  best  when  they  are  not  en- 
tirely denied  Avater  as  drink.  It  is  an  old  fallacy  that 
sheep  never  need  water. 

6.  When  turning  to  pasture. — Change  from  dry  forage 
to  fresh  pasture  gradually.  An  afternoon  is  best,  when 
no  moisture  is  on  the  grass.  After  eating  of  this  pasture 
for  a  short  time  return  the  flock  to  the  yard.     Repeat  in 


260 


FEEDING    SHEEP 


251 


this  manner  for  a  few  "days,  and  little  if  any  digestive 
disturbances  will  arise.  After  four  or  five  days  the  sheep 
will  become  accustomed  to  green  feed. 

7.  Proportion  of  grain  to  roughage. — Practical  feed- 
ers have  found  no  definite  rule  to  follow  in  this  matter. 
If  grain  is  abundant  and  hay  scarce,  more  grain  is  fed 


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Sheep  Barn  Showing  Feed  Rack 

Portion  boarded  off  in  corner  is  for  lambs  to  get  their  grain  where  the  older  sheep 
cannot  bother  them. 


than  when  the  opposite  condition  obtains.  For  econom- 
ical gains  the  roughage  material  will  be  fed  in  as  large 
quantities  as  the  animals  may  be  induced  to  eat.  Some 
grain,  however,  is  necessary.  The  amount  will  vary 
from  one  and  a  half  pounds  to  two  pounds  of  roughage 
to  one  pound  of  grain.  Under  average  feeding  condi- 
tions about  300  pounds  of  grain  and  500  pounds  of  rough- 
age will  be  required  to  yield  100  pounds  of  increase.  If 
on  blue  grass  or  rape  pasture,  about  175  pounds  of  corn 
should  secure  100  pounds  of  gain. 


252 


FARM    ANIMALS 


8.  How  often  to  feed  sheep. — Sheep  on  fattening  ra- 
tions are  usually  fed  twice  each  day.  Slightly  better  re- 
turns have  been  observed  when  three  feeds  are  provided. 
The  gain  is  not  large,  but  it  is  frequently  sufficient  to 
meet  more  than  the  cost  in  labor  and  trouble. 

9.  Rape  an  excellent  sheep  feed. — This  splendid  for- 
age crop  combines  well  with  corn.  When  corn  in  the 
field  is  to  be  fed  off,  it  is  desirable  that  rape  be  seeded  in 


Farm   Flock  on   Rape   Pasture 


the  field  at  the  last  cultivation.  Ordinarily,  the  sheep 
will  blend  the  two  feeds,  consuming  both  corn  and  rape. 
If  rape  is  seeded  separately  and  sheep  turned  on  it  to 
graze,  the  addition  of  one  to  two  bushels  ot  corn  a  head 
during  the  fattening  period  of  100  days  is  to  be  com- 
mended. 

10.  Roughage  feeds. — Pasture  is  entitled  to  the  first 
place  in  the  list  of  good  roughage  feeds.  It  may  consist 
of  alfalfa,  clover,  mixed  grasses,  or  blue  grass.     After 


FEEDING    SHEEP 


253 


these  come  the  roots  and  rape.  Each  has  its  place. 
Cured  as  hay,  alfalfa  and  clover  naturally  fall  in  the  first 
rank,  and  are  always  to  be  preferred  in  lamb  feeding, 
fattening  ewes  or  wethers,  or  during  the  lambing  season. 
In  their  absence  the  mixed  hays  may  be  used,  but  heavier 
grain  feeding  will  be  necessary,  and  particularly  at  lamb- 
ing time. 

11.  Temporary  fences  by  means  of  hurdles. — In  graz- 
ing forage  crops,  such  as  peas  and  rape,  temporary  fences 


Lambs  on   Pasture  at  Weaning  Time 

The   Iambs   have   been   kept   thrifty   by   wise    feeding   and   careful    attention.      Having 
been   properly  raised,  there  was  no  setback  at  weaning  time. 


in  the  form  of  hurdles  may  be  used.  These  hurdles  are 
moved  forward  every  few  days,  providing  in  this  way  a 
strip  of  fresh  pasture.  Otherwise,  if  given  the  run  of  a 
field,  much  forage  will  be  destroyed  and  soiled  by  tramp- 
ing. Move  the  hurdles  before  the  eaten-over  portion  has 
been  cleaned  up. 

12.  Putting  sheep  on  full  grain  rations. — If  grain  fias 
been  fed  while  sheep  are  at  pasture,  it  is  an  easy  matter 
to  change  from  pasture  to  yard  and  put  on  fattening  ra- 
tions. Beginning  with  a  fourth  of  a  pound  of  grain  daily, 
the  amount  may  gradually  be  increased  by  a  fourth  of  a 


254 


FARM    ANIMALS 


pound  the  second  week,  and  so  on.  At  the  end  of  the 
fourth  week  the  animals  should  be  cleaning  up  a  pound 
or  more  of  grain  each  day.  By  the  end  of  two  months 
a  daily  allowance  of  one  and  one-half  or  two  pounds  may 
be  fed.     It  is  seldom  advisable  to  feed  more  than  two 


Sheep  in  Yards  Being  Fatten ei 


pounds  of  grain  a  head  daily.  The  good  shepherd  watches 
his  sheep  and  observes  the  first  indication  of  bad  appe- 
tite.   When  noticed,  he  corrects  the  trouble  at  once. 

13.  Green  crops  for  roughage. — Sheep  are  most  at  home 
in  pasture  fields.  They  not  only  feed  on  the  tender  grass 
blades,  but  they  strip  weeds  and  other  foul  plants  of  their 
leaves  and  branches.  They  are  in  truth  the  plant  scav- 
engers of  the  farm.  But  kept  on  the  same  land  in  the 
same  field  year  after  year  without  change,  the  pastures 
become  foul,  disease  lurks  in  the  soil  and  dangerous  para- 
sites  accumulate.      For  these   reasons   sheep   should   be 


FEEDING    SHEEP  255 

changed  frequently  from  field  to  field,  from  year  to  year ; 
and  except  in  the  case  of  well-established  permanent  pas- 
tures, crop  rotation  should  be  followed  so  the  fields  may 
be  clean  of  disease  or  parasites  and  may  be  ever  fresh 
with  new-growing  grass  crops. 

Over  a  good  part  of  the  country  timothy  and  clover,  with  red 
top  and  alsike  or  white  clover  occasionally  mixed,  comprise  much 
of  the  pasture  land.  The  prairie  grasses  of  the  West  and  Bermuda 
grass  and  Japan  clover  of  the  South  take  care  of  the  local  needs 
in  these  parts  of  the  country.     Blue  grass  is  the  standby  of  the  old 


Flock  of  Lambs  in  the  Fattening  Pen 

At  first  they  had  the  run   of   pasture,  but  are   now  being  finished   on   clover  and 
mixed  grain,  consisting  of  cracked  corn,   oil  meal   and   ground  oats. 

grazing  sections ;  in  addition  to  it  other  crops  may  find  place  and 
may  be  profitably  grown.  Rye  seeded  in  August  makes  a  fairly 
good  pasture  for  lambs  and  old  sheep  in  the  fall.  It  will  furnish 
excellent  grazing  in  the  spring  before  the  clovers,  alfalfa  and  blue 
grass  are  available. 

14.  Feeding  lambs  for  market. — For  most  markets  the 

feeding  process  begins  late  in  fall  or  early  winter.     In 

addition  to  late  fall  pasture,  such  as  rye,  rape,  new  growth 

of  blue  grass,  young  clover  or  alfalfa,  lambs  will  have 

been  using  in  many  instances  leguminous  hays  or  other 

dry  fodder,  so  that  by  the  time  they  are  actually  confined 

in  feeding  pens  and  placed  upon  a  fattening  ration  their 

digestive  systems  will  have  become  accustomed  to  dry 

feed. 


256  FARM    ANIMALS 


Alfalfa  is  beyond  question  tne  best  forage,  but  in  its  absence 
clover,  cowpeas  or  other  leguminous  forage  is  a  good  substitute 
and  practically  indispensable.  If  such  forage  is  not  at  hand,  then 
sugar  cane,  kafir  corn,  millet  or  mixed  hay  cut  at  the  proper  period 
and  carefully  cured,  will  give  good  gains,  although  more  grain  will 
be  necessary.  The  grain  ration  will  consist  largely  of  corn.  Cracked 
corn  is  usually  preferred  to  whole  corn.  Small  amounts  of  oil 
meal,  ground  oats,  or  both,  may  be  introduced  into  the  ration  with 
good  effect ;  if  a  leguminous  hay  is  not  used,  one  of  them  should 
certainly  be  added.  Lambs  should  weigh  about  60  pounds  when 
placed  in  the  feed  lot.  After  a  feeding  period  of  60  to  90  days  they 
should  weigh  from  90  to  95  pounds. 

15.  Fattening  grown  sheep. — The  feeding  of  wethers 
or  grown  ewes  for  market  does  not  differ  much  from  the 
method  employed  in  fattening  lambs.  On  some  farms 
lambs  are  held  over  a  season  to  utilize  plentiful  pasture 
and  to  secure  one  or  two  wool  clips.  Such  sheep  also 
weigh  more  at  market  time,  although  they  bring  a  smaller 
price  per  pound.  These  older  sheep  on  good  pasture  in 
summer,  in  the  feed  lot  in  winter,  will  usually  make  ex- 
cellent use  of  grain  and  hay.  They  may  be  marketed  dur- 
ing late  winter  or  early  spring. 

Concentrated  feeds  should  be  used  in  connection  with  bright, 
clean  leguminous  hays  and  so  mixed  with  the  hay  as  to  give  a  well- 
balanced  ration.  Corn,  bran,  ground  oats,  oil  meal  and  cottonseed 
meal,  are  all  excellent.  During  early  winter,  corn  silage  and  alfalfa 
or  clover  hay  may  be  fed  exclusively.  In  other  cases  fodder  corn 
and  mixed  hay  may  be  used  for  roughage,  with  wheat  bran  and 
corn  for  grain,  about  one-half  pound  of  a  mixture  of  corn  and 
bran  being  given  daily  to  each  animal.  As  they  plump  up,  the  grain 
may  be  increased  gradually,  until  it  reaches  as  much  as  two  or  even 
three  pounds  a  day. 

Where  alfalfa  or  clover  is  used,  a  pound  of  corn  daily  will  be 
satisfactory.  If  alfalfa  or  clover  is  freely  used  and  corn  is  rela- 
tively low  in  price  and  hay  high,  then  cut  down  the  allotment  of 
hay  and  feed  one  or  two  pounds  of  corn  daily.  Where  some  grass, 
hay  or  corn  stover,  shredded  or  unshredded,  is  the  only  source  of 
roughage,  bran  and  one  of  the  oil  meals  should  be  used  in  addi- 
tion to  the  corn.  If  fed  throughout  the  winter  in  this  manner,  a 
heavy  wool  clip  may  be  secured  the  following  spring  before  the  ani- 
mals are  marketed. 


PRACTICUMS 

1.  Judging  Sheep. — Provide  one  or  more  sheep  of  the  wool  and 
mutton  class.  Students  should  familiarize  themselves  with  the  de- 
tails of  this  score  card  and  fix  in  their  minds  the  relative  weights 
of  the  different  regions.  If  it  is  possible  to  have  available  several 
sheep  for  scoring  so  as  to  place  the  several  individuals  in  rank  from 
best  individual  down  to  poorest  individual  the  value  of  the  exercise 
will  be  increased  and  more  interest  will  be  added  to  it. 


Score  Card  for  Wool  and  Mutton  Sheep. 


Scale  of  Points 


58 


2  o 


D. 


E. 


General  Appearance: 

"Weight — according  to  weight,  at  six  months,  35  pounds. 

Form — blocky,  lo>v  do»vn,  CDm.jact 

Quality — fine  bone  and  wool 

Head  and  Neck: 

Muzzle — large  nostril,  thin  lips,  medium  face 

Eyes^big  and  bright 

Ears — fine  and  well  carried 

Neck — short  and  thick 

J  orequarters : 

Breast — broad  and  full 

Shoulders — smooth,  filled  on  top 

Chest — wide  and  deep 

Legs — wide  apart  and  straight 

Body: 

Back — level,  wide,  loin  wide  and  thick 

Ribs — well  sprung,  well  covered 

Underline — low  and  thick 

Hindquarters : 

Hips — smoothly  fleshed,  wide  and  level 

Thighs — thick  and  wide 

Legs — straight,  good  bone 

Wool: 

Quality — fine,  soft,  even 

Density — thick  all  over  body 

Length — long,  uniform 

Yolk — evenly  distributed,  not  excessive 


Total . 


257 


258 


FARM   ANIMALS 


2.  Judging  Sheep  of  Mutton  Type. — While  every  breed  of  sheep 
is  raised  for  both  wool  and  mutton,  certain  breeds  are  bred  and  fed 
with  mutton  the  leading  consideration,  just  as  certain  other  breeds 
are  grown  with  wool  as  the  leading  consideration.  The  score  card 
following  applies  for  the  mutton  type.  Compare  this  score  card 
with  the  one  on  the  previous  page  and  point  out  the  principal 
differences. 


Score  Card  for  Mutton  Sheep. 


Score  of  Points 


A.  General  Appearance: 

Weight — according  to  age;  at  six  months,  50  pounds. 

Form — blocky,  low  down,  compact 

Quality — fine  wool  and  bone 

Condition — even  covering  of  flesh 

B.  Head  and  Neck: 

Muzzle — large  nostril,  thin  lips,  short  face 

Eyes — big  and  bright 

Ears — fine  and  well  carried 

Neck — short  and  thick 

C.  Forequarters : 

Breast — broad  and  full 

Shoulders — smooth,  filled  out  on  top 

Chest — wide  and  deep 

Legs — wide  apart  and  straight 

D.  Body: 

Back — level,  wide,  broad  in  loin,  and  thick 

Ribs — long,  curved,  well  covered 

Underline — low  and  thick 

E.  Hindquarters : 

Hips — smoothly  fleshed,  wide  and   level 

Thighs — thick  and   wide 

Legs— straight,  good  bone 

F.  Wool: 

Quality — soft,  fine,  uniform 

Density — heavy,  dense,  somewhat  oily 

Condition — good  length,  even  fibers,  clean 

Total 


3.  Diagram  of  Sheep. — Place  pieces  of  numbered  paper  on  the 
various  regions  of  the  sheep  as  indicated  in  the  illustrations.  Re- 
quire each  student  to  write  the  name  of  each  region  and  name  the 
corresponding  region  in  his  own  body.  Each  student  should  be  re- 
quired also  to  make  a  sketch  of  a  sheep  and  name  each  part  or 
region  on  the  drawing  or  sketch  at  the  proper  point.  Continue  this 
practice  until  each  student  of  the  class  has  learned  the  regions  and 


FEEDING    SHEEP 


259 


is  able  to  name  the  location  without  referring  to  his  sketch, 
tions  of  all  terms  should  be  learned  and  memorized. 


Deiini- 


S:^m 

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11 

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K,ff' 

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Diagram  of  Sheep 


1   Head 

11   Back 

21  Ankle 

2   Face 

12  Loins 

22  Claw 

3  Muzzle 

13  Angle   of 

Ilium 

23  Girth   measure 

4  Nostril 

14  Rump 

24  Side  or  barrel 

5  Eye 

15  Tail   or  dock 

25  Belly 

6  Ear 

16  Chest 

26  Flank 

7  Cheek 

17  Shoulder 

27  Hip   joint 

8  Neck 

18  Elbow 

28  Stifle  joint 

9  Withers 

19  Forearm 

29  Hock  joint 

10  Throat 

20  Knee 

LESSON  TWENTY-FIVE 
THE  PIG  AND  HIS  PRODUCTS 

1.  Pork. 

2.  Lard. 

3.  Soft  pork. 

4.  Two  types  of  hogs. 

5.  Bacon  type. 

6.  Lard  type. 

7.  Weaning  pigs. 

8.  After  weaning. 

9.  Fall  pigs. 

10.  House  for  dam. 

11.  At  time  of  birth. 

12.  Selecting  breeding  stock. 

13.  Dipping  tanks. 

14.  Hogs  are  single-purpose  animals 

15.  Marking  hogs. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — Swine  flesh,  from  its  ready  re- 
ception of  salt,  is  the  most  easily  preserved  of  all  the 
farm  animals.  It  enters  largely  into  farm  dietaries  be- 
cause of  this  fact.  The  ease  with  which  hogs  can  be 
raised  and  slaughtered  will  always  cause  them  to  be  a 
source  of  household  economy  and  comfort.  Emphasize 
the  economy  of  hogs  in  the  production  of  meat. 


260 


LESSON  TWENTY-FIVE 


THE  PIG  AND  HIS  PRODUCTS 


1.  Pork. — The  flesh  of  the  pig  is  known  as  pork,  and  is 
used  either  fresh  or  cured.  The  sides  when  cured  and 
treated  are  sold  as  bacon.  Some  breeds  of  hogs  deposit 
so  much  fat  in  the  region  of  the  sides  that  a  good  grade  of 
bacon  is  not  possible  to  obtain.  The  best  breakfast  bacon 
is  secured  from  those  breeds  bred  up  as  bacon  hogs  and 
so  fed  as  to  get  a  good  mixture  of  lean  meat  and  fat. 
Pork  contains  a  large  proportion  of  fat  and  is  therefore 
difficult  to  digest  compared  with  beef.  The  fat  is  quite 
soft  in  character.  It  has  been  estimated  that  salted  pork 
requires  five  hours  for  digestion,  roast  pork  four  hours 
and  boiled  ham  three  hours.  Bacon  is  the  most  digestible 
form  of  all. 

2.  Lard. — To  obtain 
lard,  the  tissues  con- 
taining the  fat  are  cut 
into  small  pieces, 
heated  in  an  open  ves- 
sel over  the  fire  and 
constantly  stirred.  The 
heating  causes  the  fat 
cells  to  burst.  After 
this  is  accomplished  the 
liquid  fat  is  poured  off 
and  is  ready  for  use. 
Lard  is  a  mixture  of 
fats,  containing  palmi- 
tin,  olein    and    stearin.  his  majesty,  the  pig 

261 


262 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Aluch  of  the  fat  of  the  hog  is  formed  under  the  skin  and 
round  the  kidneys.  The  large  layer  of  fat  deposited 
around  the  kidneys  is  called  leaf  lard,  and  is  considered 
the  best  in  quality.  Pure  lard  is  white  and  nearly  taste- 
less and  odorless.  It  is  principally  used  in  cooking,  and 
for  making  oleo,  soap  and  ointments. 

3.  Soft  pork. — Of  the  three  principal  fats  in  lard,  olein 
is  the  most  prominent.     It  is  also  the  softest,  going  to  a 

liquid  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures. It  occurs  in  varying 
amounts,  much  less  in  lean  pork 
than  in  fat  pork,  Pigs  fed  ex- 
clusively on  corn  give  a  lard 
containing  over  90  per  cent  of 
olein,  while  pigs  fattened  on  a 
more  balanced  ration,  or  one  consisting  of  oats,  peas,  and 
barley,  in  addition  to  corn,  yield  a  lard  with  less  than  70 
per  cent  of  olein.  The  kind  of  ration,  therefore,  has  most 
to  do  with  producing  a  soft  or  firm  class  of  pork  or  bacon. 


Device  for  Easy  Scalding  and 

Hanging 


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One  Way  to  Avoid  Soft  Pork 

These  pigs  have  the  run  of  a  soy  bean  field,  in  addition  to  a  daily  feed  of  corn. 
They  are  balancing  Iheir  own  ration,  harvesting  a  crop  and  providing  a  high  grade 
product  for  human   food. 


THE    PIG   AND    HIS   PRODUCTS  263 

Soft  pork  makes  a  poor  grade  of  bacon.  From  these  facts 
it  is  evident  that  to  secure  high  grade  bacon  the  hogs 
must  be  fed  a  mixed  ration  in  which  the  protein  or  lean 
meat  elements  shall  occupy  a  leading  place. 

4.  Two  types  of  hogs. — As  the  outcome  of  market  re- 
quirements and  local  methods  of  feeding,  two  types  of 
hogs  have  resulted.  By  far  the  most  prominent  is  the 
fat  or  lard  type,  which  includes  most  of  the  breeds, and  par- 
ticularly the  larger  and  best  known  breeds  in  the  United 
States.  These  hogs  not  only  yield  a  large  amount  of 
fat,  but  the  meat  portion  of  the  carcass  supplies  the 
greater  part  of  the  fresh  and  cured  pork  consumed  at 
home  or  exported.  Corn  is  the  principal  grain  used  in 
fattening.  The  second  class  is  the  bacon  type,  repre- 
sented by  a  few  breeds  of  slightly  different  conforma- 
tion and  which  supply  the  demand  for  a  leaner  class  of 
meat.  Hogs  that  yield  this  character  of  meat  are  called 
"bacon  hogs."     A  mixed  diet,  with  considerable  protein 


Fine  Example  of  Typical  Bacon  Hog 

Note  the  long  body,   light  shoulder  and  ham,  and  moderate  length   of  side.     These 
features  are  characteristic  of  the  ideal  bacon  hog. 


V 


264  FARM    ANIMALS 

in  the  ration,  is  most  suitable  as  a  food  for  hogs  developed 
and  fattened  for  bacon. 

5.  Bacon  type. — People  who  eat  bacon  demand  a 
choice  article.  They  want  plenty  of  lean  mixed  with  the 
fat.  Hence  a  hog  that  will  yield  the  largest  amount  of 
bacon  of  high  quality  must  not  be  expected  to  yield  at 
the  same  time  a  maximum  quantity  of  lard  or  fat.  The 
ideal  bacon  hog  is  long  in  body,  only  moderately  deep 
and  thick,  and  light  in  shoulder  and  ham.  The  back, 
if  wide,  will  carry  too  much  fat  for  a  good  grade  of  bacon. 
A  full,  strong  loin  well  packed  with  flesh,  is  required.  A 
flat,  straight  side  is  the  result  of  the  bacon  rib  that  springs 
out  boldly  from  the  backbone,  and  after  making  a  sharp 
turn,  drops  down  evenly  and  straight.  Length  of  side  is 
always  held  in  high  favor.  The  flesh  of  the  good  bacon 
hog  is  always  firm  and  the  bones  heavy. 

6.  Lard  type. — On  the  other  hand,  the  lard  hog  is  com- 
pact and  blocky,  rather  than  long  and  open.  Depth  and 
thickness  in  the  region  of  shoulders,  hams,  back  and 
loin  are  among  the  first  points  considered  in  this  type. 
Packers  demand  as  much  meat  and  lard  as  the  frame  will 
carry.     A   high   percentage   of   dressed   product   in   pro- 


GooD    Rhprksentatives    of    the    Lard    Type 

The  lard  hog  consumes   less   dry  food   to  produce   a  given   increase  than   either   the 
sheep   or  steer.     They   are,   therefore,   the   best   meat   maimers. 


THE    PIG    AND    HIS    PRODUCTS  265 

portion  to  live  weight  commands  a  premium  in  the  mar- 
ket places.  Hogs  of  this  type  may  be  fattened  to  the 
limit,  and  a  ration  that  produces  fat  with  a  moderate 
amount  of  lean  is  acceptable.  For  this  reason  corn  has 
become  the  most  popular  hog  food,  and  the  fat  hog 
industry  a  profitable  business  in  the  corn  states.  The 
limit  in  fattening  is  more  a  matter  of  profit  than  of 
nature  of  product.  The  lard  type  of  hogs  may  be  fed 
to  weigh  250  pounds  and  up,  but  the  bacon  trade  demands 
a  hog  weighing  190  pounds  and  under. 


Ready    to    be    Weaned 

These  pigs  were  early  induced  to  eat  slop   and   pasture.     The  weaning  period   will, 
therefore,  not  interfere  with  their  steady  growth  and  development. 

7.  Weaning  pigs. — The  weaning  season  is  more  or  less 
critical  with  young  swine.  Loss  in  growth  always  fol- 
lows a  setback  at  this  time.  When  young  pigs  have 
learned  to  take  slop  freely,  made  of  shorts  or  middlings 
and  skim  milk,  they  are  ready  for  weaning  without  a 
serious  check  to  their  growth.  Pigs  may  be  weaned 
at   the   age   of   eight   weeks.     If   they   cannot   be   given 


266  FARM   ANIMALS 

skim  milk,  it  is  better  that  such  pigs  remain  on  the  dam 
until,  say,  10  or  11  weeks  old.  In  no  case  should  they  be 
weaned  until  they  can  take  food  freely.  Much  care 
should  be  exercised  to  furnish  those  kinds  of  foods  that 
promote  good  growth.  Slop  food  is  best.  Corn  meal, 
linseed  meal  and  middlings  or  shorts  make  an  ideal  com- 
bination. 

8.  After  weaning. — As  soon  as  young  pigs  are  weaned, 
they  must  be  kept  entirely  away  from  the  dam  until 
she  ceases  to  secrete  milk,  but  not  necessarily  for  a 
longer  period.  Give  them  access  to  a  good  pasture  in 
the  day,  and  a  grain  slop  in  addition,  morning  and  night, 
until  the  time  of  fattening.  The  amount  of  slop  or 
meal  will  depend,  to  some  extent,  upon  the  character  of 
the  pasture,  but  it  should  be  nitrogenous  in  character. 
When  fed  in  connection  with  skim  milk,  a  less  quantity 
can  be  given,  and  the  meal  can  be  more  of  a  carbonaceous 
nature,  like  corn. 

Pasture  may  consist  of  alfalfa,  clover,  green  cereals, 
cowpeas,  or  mixed  grasses.  In  addition  to  pastures, 
green  crops  may  be  grown  with  advantage  for  store 
pigs,  such  as  field  peas,  sweet  corn,  squashes,  man- 
gels, rye,  cowpeas  and  soy  beans.  These  are  to  be  fed 
to  supplement  pastures  and  also  the  meal  part  of  the 
ration.  Store  pigs  will  make  a  substantial  growth  when 
gleaning  among  wheat  stubbles,  providing  they  be  given 
access  to  the  stubble  soon  after  the  wheat  has  been  cut.  If 
clover  has  been  sown  in  the  spring,  no  grain  will  be  required. 

9.  Fall  pigs. — When  store  pigs  are  to  be  reared  in 
winter,  the  aim  should  be  to  have  them  farrowed  early 
in  the  season,  in  order  to  be  considerably  advanced  in 
growth  when  winter  sets  in.  The  pens  must  be  warm, 
well  lighted  and  dry,  and  the  pigs  must  be  allowed  exer- 
cise.    The   food   may   be   essentially   the   same   as   that 


THE    PIG   AND    HIS   PRODUCTS 


267 


given  in  summer,  except  that  roots,  milk,  clover  or 
alfalfa  may  be  given  in  lieu  of  the  green  food  of  sum- 
mer. The  pigs  usually  bring  a  better  price  when  sold 
before  the  seasqn  for  grass  pasturing.  For  various  rea- 
sons there  is  more  hazard  in  rearing  autumn  than  spring 
litters,  but  w^ith  due  preparation  and  due  care  such  litters 
may  be  profitably  reared. 

10.  House  for  dam. — Young  sows  should  be  mated 
10  months  to  a  year  old, 
according  to  growth.  An 
individual  hog  house  for 
shelter  should  be  pro- 
vided. This  house  may 
be  of  any  form  and  style. 
but  one  A-shaped  in  con- 
struction is  becoming 
very  popular.  These  are 
built  on  runners  and  can 
be  drawn  to  any  part  of 
the  lot  or  field.  Change 
of  location  insures  clean- 
liness and  does  away 
with  filth  and  mud  at  the 
entrance. 


n^H| 

w 

/     / 

-^TH 

B"'i 

l^ffr  i 

■ 

^^E 

ffi^^^H^^H 

Mrs.  Porker  at  Home 


Houses  of  this  sort  are  easily  built  and 
may  be  moved  from  place  to  place  in  the 
fields  or  hog  lots.  They  make  sanitation  a 
simple  matter. 


If  the  period  of  birth  oc- 
curs in  winter,  the  house  can- 
not  be   made   too    warm.     A 

lantern  hung  inside  at  the  top  of  the  house  is  excellent  protection 
at  farrowing  and  when  the  pigs  are  very  small.  Always  have  a 
yard  for  the  sow  outside  the  pen;  or  what  is  better,  give  her  the 
run  of  a  pasture  field.  Such  attention  not  only  gives  her  content- 
ment, but  exercise,  thereby  preventing  the  accumulation  of  flesh, 
which  is  a  detriment  to  the  coming  brood.  Exercise  also  develops 
bone  and  muscle  and  imparts  to  the  offspring  vigorous  constitutions. 

11.  At  time  of  birth. — Feed  at  this  period  light,  tasty 
food,  such  as  middlings,  bran,  alfalfa,  or  clover  hay  and 


268 


FARM    ANIMALS 


a  bit  of  corn.  Give  just  enough  bedding  to  lie  upon. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  chop  it  up.  At  least  add  fresh  straw 
some  time  before  farrowing,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
broken  up.  Otherwise,  after  the  little  fellows  arrive, 
they  may  be  crushed  if  covered  up  in  the  litter.  Feed 
moderately  for  two  or  three  days,  when  the  milk  will 
come  in  full  flow.  Then  gradually  increase  the  ration, 
giving  a  variety  of  feed,  and  let  the  dam  have  about  all 
she  will  eat.  Whole  corn  at  this  time  will  be  relished, 
but  let  the  milk-making  foods  be  given  in  greatest 
abundance. 

12.  Selecting    breeding    stock. — The    more    important 
considerations  in  selecting  breeding  stock  include  lineage, 

general  individual  quali- 
ties, characteristics  as  to 
form,  and  constitutional 
vigor.  In  respect  to  type, 
the  aim  should  be  to  get 
individuals  with  short 
heads,  dished  in  the  fore- 
head and  having  good 
width  between  the  eyes ; 
fine  muzzles,  with  a  short 
snout;  strong,  bright 
eyes ;  drooping  or  up- 
right ears,  not  thick  or  coarse ;  soft,  mellow  skin,  with 
fine  silky  hair,  somewhat  abundant,  but  without  bristles ; 
short,  well-knit,  and  straight  legs,  standing  well  on  small, 
strong  feet;  full,  long  body,  square  and  broad,  with  a 
straight  back  and  underline.  Hogs  of  such  conformation 
are  certain  to  be  of  good  breeding  and  to  possess  early- 
maturing  qualities. 

13.  Dipping  tanks. — Swine  of  all  ages  should  be  kept 
free   from   lice   and   other  vermin.     Otherwise   the   best 


Pigs    Selected    for    Breeding 
Note  uniformity  and  fine  quality. 


THE    PIG   AND    HIS    PRODUCTS  269 

growth  is  not  possible,  nor  can  the  best  thrift  be  ex- 
pected. The  dipping  tank  offers  an  easy  method  of 
treatment.  This  may  be  made  of  concrete,  or  purchased 
ready  made  of  galvanized  iron.  A  homemade  device 
for  use  except  during  v^^inter  is  a  shallow  vat  about  10 
inches  deep  and  10  to  12  feet  square.  It  may  be  built  of 
concrete  or  timber.  It  should  be  placed  conveniently  to 
the  well  or  other  watering  place.  The  vat  is  partially 
filled  with  water  and  a  quart  of  one  of  the  coal  tar  dips 
added.     The  hogs  will  do  their  own  dipping.     The  dip 


Doing  Their  Own  Dipping 

Home-made  wallows  like  this  may  be  constructed  of  boards  or  cement.  If  small 
quantities  of  disinfectants  are  added  from  time  to  time  there  will  be  no  trouble 
from  lice  or  skin  diseases. 

is  renewed  once  or  twice  a  month  and  the  water  sup- 
plied as  needed.  No  harm  will  result  if  the  hogs  drink 
some  of  the  liquid.  Occasionally,  the  mud,  as  it  settles  at 
the  bottom  of  the  vat,  should  be  removed. 

14.  Hogs  are  single-purpose  animals. — Cattle  furnish 
meat,  milk,  hides  for  clothing  and  sometimes  labor. 
Sheep  furnish  meat,  wool,  hides  and  sometimes  milk. 
Hogs,  however,  furnish  only  meat,  lard  and  bristles. 
Hogs  are,  therefore,  a  single-purpose  animal.  The  rea- 
son they  can  compete  with  other  domestic  animals  is  due 
to  their  prolificacy,  to  their  ability  to  convert  efficiently 


270 


FARM    ANIMALS 


food,  often  waste  products,  into  human  food,  and  to  the 
ease  with  which  these  products  can  be  preserved.    Before 
the  days  of  cold  storage  pork  was  the  only  meat  that 
would  stand  long  shipments. 
15.  Marking    hogs. — The    best    means    of    identifying 

pure-bred  hogs  is  by  means  of 
permanent  ear  tags  inserted 
in  the  ears.  These  may  be 
purchased  of  dealers,  with  a 
number  on  each  tag.  In  the 
absence  of  tags,  markings  may 
be  made  in  the  ears,  the  posi- 
tion being-  the  governing  fac- 
tor. The  small  numbers  are 
represented  by  the  right  ear, 
the  larger  numbers  by  the  left.  The  corner  of  each  ear 
is  marked,  and  two  other  incisions  are  made  on  both  the 
lower  and  upper  edges.  A  hole  punched  in  the  center 
may  be  used  in  case  a  number  of  hogs  are  to  be  identified 
or  recorded. 


Method  of  Marking  Hogs 


LESSON  TWENTY-SIX 
FROM  WILD  HOG  TO  USEFUL  BREEDS 

1.  In  native  haunts. 

2.  Pigs  early  used  as  food. 

3.  Berkshire. 

4.  Poland-China. 

5.  Duroc-Jersey. 

6.  Chester  White. 

7.  Ohio  Improved  Chester. 

8.  Large  Yorkshire. 

9.  Small  Yorkshire. 

10.  Mulefoot. 

11.  Hampshire. 

12.  Tamworth. 

13.  Cheshire. 

14.  Essex. 

15.  Other  minor  breeds. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — From  the  coarse,  rough  and 
savage  wild  hogs  of  the  woods  have  been  evolved  the 
gentle,  meat-making  swine  breeds  of  the  cultivated 
fields.  It  took  centuries  to  accomplish  this  task  and 
thousands  of  earnest  minds  have  been  devoted  to  the 
work.  Students  should  know  the  leading  breeds  and 
what  their  important  and  distinguishing  characteristics 
are.  The  obvious  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  bring  these 
facts  out.  Such  study  ought  to  create  a  strong  interest 
in  hog  raising  and  in  growing  only  well-bred  stock. 

271 


LESSON  TWENTY-SIX 


FROM  WILD  HOG  TO  USEFUL  BREEDS 


1.  In  native  haunts. — All  of  our  important  breeds  have 
come  from  the  wild  hog  that  once  roamed  over  Europe, 
Asia  and  Africa.  Active  and  pow^erful,  the  original  pro- 
genitor   was    also    coarse,    rough,    fleet,    and    a   vicious 

fighter. 


His     head 
and    bony,    his 


"/  ^ 


was 
large  and  bony,  his  jaw 
strong  and  well  provided 
with  tusks  that  inflicted 
severe  wounds,  his  neck 
long  and  muscular,  and  the 
back  and  loins  broad  and 
strong.  In  his  wild  habi- 
tat he  selects  places  that 
are  moist,  rather  well  con- 
cealed by  forest  growth, 
where  he  may  feed  upon 
plants,  fruits  and  roots, 
though  when  hunger  af- 
fects him  he  greedily  ap- 
peases his  appetite  on  worms,  snakes  and  flesh  of  any 
kind.  The  twilight,  early  dawn  and  night  time  seem  by 
choice  his  favorite  periods  for  seeking  food,  sport,  ad- 
venture and  exercise. 

Sense  of  smell  has  been  developed  to  such  a  marked  degree  in 
the  wild  hog  that  he  is  al)le  to  detect  the  presence  of  food,  though 
it  be  covered  in  the  ground.  In  his  earl}^  life  he  prefers  the 
society  of  his  kind,  Init  when  age  com.es  on  he  strolls  about  much 
to  himself,  never  seeking  danger,  but  when  it  comes  not  avoiding  it. 
Thirty  to  40  years  is  not  an  infrequent  age  for  some  of  these  wild 
animals  to  attain. 

272 


Wild   Boars 


Ancestors  of  all  modern   breeds  of 
swine. 


FROM    WILD    HOG   TO   USEFUL   BREEDS 


273 


2.  Pigs  early  used  as  food. — As  meat,  hog  flesh  has 

long  been  esteemed.     It  is  not  strange  that  the  wild  boar 

was  sought  in  all  ages  to  meet  a  table  want.     The  hog 

entered   largely   into   the   diet   of   the   Romans,   and   all 

sorts  of  practices  were  employed  to  impart  delicate  flavor 

to  the  flesh. 

"Pliny  informs  us  that  old  dried  figs,  drenched  with  honey  and 
wine,  were  employed  as  a  means  of  enlarging  the  liver,  so  choice  a 
dish  was  it  considered  by  Roman  palates.  It  has  been  said  that  the 
Romans  often  served  hogs  whole,  one  side  being  roasted  and  the 
other  side  being  boiled.  Further  still  was  this  carried  by  stuffing 
the  dressed  animal  with  larks  and  nightingales  and  delicacies  of  all 
sorts,  and  serving  with  wine  and  rich  gravies."  We  can  imagine 
how   delicious  this  dish  must  have  been   by  comparing  it  with  the 

Brunswick  stews  and  bar- 
])ecues  so  well  known  in 
many  rural  sections,  and 
which  possess  rich  and 
delicate  flavors  never 
equaled  by  other  domestic 
animals. 

The  wild  hog  pos- 
sessed a  courage  and 
fierceness  that  have 
made  him  a  favorite 
sport  with  all  classes 
and  conditions  of  so- 
ciety. When  Rome  was  at  the  hight  of  her  greatness,  he 
entered  into  their  sports  and  fights,  and  in  recent  times 
both  the  English  and  German  people  have  made  much 
of  these  qualities  in  their  hunting  expeditions. 

3.  Berkshire. — T  h  e  s  e 
hogs  are  of  English  origin, 
sharing  popularity  with 
the  Duroc-Jersey,  next  to 
the  Poland-China,  in  the 
United  States.     They  are 

black       hogs     with     white  Berksh.re    boar 


Berkshire    Sow 


274 


FARM    ANIMALS 


points  on  the  feet,  face  and  tip  of  tail.  Formerly  the 
breed  was  reddish  with  black  points,  but  breeding  and 
selection  have  brought  a  change.  The  face  is  short  and 
dished,  ears  small  and  erect,  and  slightly  inclined  forward, 
the  neck  short,  the  back  arched  and  broad.  In  England 
this  is  a  bacon  breed,  but  here  in  the  land  of  cor"  clover 
and  alfalfa,  the  lard  and  pork  characteristics  have  been 
intensified  and  developed. 

Hogs  of  this  breed  readily  attain  a  weight  of  500  or  600  pounds 
at  maturity,  and  if  fattened,  at  age  of  eight  or  nine  months,  reach 
225  pounds  and  up.  They  possess  excellent  grazing  qualities,  reach 
maturity  at  an  early  age,  and  fit  in  with  varying  conditions.  They 
are  popular  in  all  sections,  and  the  carcass  they  give  is  universally 
approved. 

4.  Poland-China. — This  hog  originated  in  the  Miami 

Valley  of  Ohio  and  has 
come  to  be  the  most  popu- 
lar American  hog.  His 
fame  and  place  are  due  to 
his  great  qualities  as  a  pork 
and  lard  hog.  His  greatest 
domain  is  in  the  corn  and 
clover  sections.  In  color  the 
Poland-China  is  spotted, 
black  and  white;  in  size  and  form  he  is  similar  to  the 
Berkshire,  except  that  the  frame  averages  a  bit  larger 
and  stronger ;  the  ear  falls  over  the  eye,  while  in  the  Berk- 
shire it  is  short  pointed  and  straight.  These  hogs  are 
characterized  by  early  ma- 
turity, compact,  blocky 
forms,  and  ease  of  making 
meat  and  lard.  They  may 
be  finished  for  the  market 
under  ordinary  farm  con- 
ditions    in    eight    or    nine  '  '  poland-ch.na  boar 


Poland-China   Sow 


FROM    WILD    HOG   TO   USEFUL    BREEDS 


275 


months,   and  at  maturity  the  breeding  stock  attains   a 
weight  of  500  to  600  pounds  and  over.     The  boars  are 

/larger  and  heavier  than  the  brood  sows. 
I  I  5.  Duroc-Jersey. — In  form  these  hogs  resemble  the 
(Toland-China,  but  are  red  in  color.  The  standard  is 
cherry  red,  without  spots.  Their  origin  is  not  clearly 
defined,  but  their  development  as  a  breed  has  been  solely 
in  this  country.  They  are  very  prolific,  grow  rapidly, 
and  make  pork  and  lard  cheapl}^  In  recent  years  they 
have  advanced  to  the  front  rank  in  the  corn  states  as  a 
pork  and  lard  hog.  They  are  quiet  and  good  feeders, 
take  well  to  grazing  and  corn  and  produce  a  carcass  of 
rich  flavor,  with  a  fair  proportion  of  lean  meat. 

At  public  sales  ver}^  high  prices  are  paid  for  popular  family 
strains.  These  hogs  are  found  everywhere,  but  the  place  of  greatest 
popularity  is  in  those  sections  where  corn,  clover  and  alfalfa  are 
most  at  home.  Here  they  reach  under  fattening  conditions  250  to 
275  pounds  at  an  age  of  eight  or  nine  months  and  of  500  to  700 
pounds  at  maturity. 

6.  Chester  White. — Chester   County,   Pennsylvania,    is 


A  Trio  of  Duroc-Jersey  Hogs 


276 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Chester  White  Sow 


the  place  of  origin  of  this  good  breed.  The  hair  is  white 
and  thin,  the  frames  la*-ge,  the  meat  excellent.  At  i,na- 
turity  they  average  600  to  700  pounds.  Under  normal 
fattening  conditions  they  are  comparable  with  the  Berk- 
shire or  Poland-China.  This  breed  possesses  good  graz- 
ing qualities,  the  hogs  are  docile  and  they  fatten  readily. 

They  have  never  been  popu- 
,,.  -  lar  in  the  South  on  account 

of  their  tendency  to  sun- 
scald.  The  very  lengthy 
body  is  well  liked  by  many, 
Ijut  the  long  snout  and  slight 
tendencies  to  coarseness 
have  been  considered  objec- 
tionable. 

7.  Ohio  Improved  Chester. 
— In  Ohio  certain  breeders  sought  to  improve  what  bv  some 
were  considered  defects  of  the  Chester  White  by  refin- 
ing the  rougher  points  and  still  holding  fast  to  the  large 
size,  solid  frame  and  fine  length.  The  Improved  Ches- 
ter is  the  result.  These  hogs  retain  all  of  the  fundamen- 
tal characteristics  of  the  old 
Chester,  but  the  bone  is 
smaller,  the  snout  shorter, 
the  face  more  dished.  The 
result  of  this  breeding  is  a 
splendid  big  hog  of  the  true 
lard  type  that  feeds  well, 
carries  a  big,  broad  back, 
and  gives  a  choice  ham. 

8.  Large  Yorkshire. — This  breed  is  typical  of  the  bacon 
class.  The  hogs  are  noted  for  great  length,  being  longer 
in  form  than  any  other  breed.  They  are  of  similar 
weights  to  the  Chester  Whites  but  are  not  as  broad  of 


Chester  White  Boar 


FROM    WILD    HOG    TO    USEFUL    BREEDS 


277 


back.  Their  sides  are  deep  and  smooth,  ideal  in  this 
respect  for  bacon.  They  have  good  strong  legs  are  ex- 
cellent rustlers,  very  hardy  and  prolific.  They  do  not 
mature    as    early    as    the    Poland-China    or    the    Duroc- 

Jersey.  They  graze 
well  and  develop  the 
carcass  to  cut  out 
much  bacon  of  the 
richest  and  best 
quality.  Their  bacon 
qualities  and  great 
p  r  o  1  i  fi  c  a  cy  have 
given  this  breed 
chief  place  among  all  breeds  throughout  the  world. 

9.  Small  Yorkshire. — As  the  name  indicates,  this  breed 
is  of  the  same  original  breeding,  but,  due  to  different 
crossing  and  different  ideals,  a  smaller  size  has  resulted. 
At  the  same  time  these  hogs  are  finer  in  quality  than  the 


Ohio    Improved   Chester   Boar 


Large    Yorkshire    Sow    and    Boar 


large  Yorkshire,  present  greater  symmetry  and  more 
compactness.  They  mature  early  and  give  a  small  car- 
cass, fat  and  round.  At  maturity  they  seldom  go  above 
225  pounds  in  weight.  At  the  present  time  this  breed 
is  not  popular  and  few  herds  remain  in  this  country. 


278 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Saiall  Yorkshire  Sow   and  Litter 


10.  Mulefoot. — This  is  a  very  old  breed,  but  only  in 
recent  years  has  it  come  into  prominence.  It  gets  the 
name  from  the  foot — the  hoof  being  solid  and  somewhat 
like  a  mule  in  shape.  The  hogs  are  black  in  color,  of 
very  large  size  and  very  prolific.  They  attain  very  heavy 
weights  at  maturity,  averaging  with  the  heaviest  of  the 
pork  and  lard  breeds.  The  meat  is  in  high  favor,  because 
of  the  excellent  quality.  In  shape  and  form  the  Mule- 
foot  resembles  the  Duroc-Jersey.  The  carcass  cuts  out 
fine  hams  and  very  choice  bacon.  The  breed  is  still  lack- 
ing in  refined  development,  but  its  merits  are  of  such 
high  order  that  notable  improvements  are  fast  occurring 
Then  hogs  are  in  the  first 
rank  as 
and 

litters  of  fine,  sturdy  young- 
sters have  done  much  also  to 
give  the  breed  popularity. 


grazers,  fatten  easily 
mature   early.      The   big 


11.  Hampshire.  —  This 


Mulefoot   Sow 


FROM    WILD    HOG   TO    USEFUL    BREEDS 


279 


breed  is  characterized  by  a  white  band  of  hair  4  to  12 
inches  in  width  encircling  the  body  and  including  the 
front  legs.     The  rest  of  the  body  is  black.     The  head  is 


Hampshires 


small,  broad  back  of  rather  striking  uniformity  and  fairly 
heavy  bones.  The  legs  are  rather  long.  The  breed  is 
still  in  process  of  development,  the  tendency  being  to 
change  what  once  was  a  hog  of  bacon  tendency  into  one 
more  nearly  of  the  lard  type.  The  hogs  are  esteemed  as 
grazers,  and  feed  out  well,  but  are  a  bit  lacking  in  early 

maturing  qualities.  Mature 
boars  weigh  up  to  500 
pounds  and  mature  sows 
up  to  350  pounds. 

12.  Tamworth.  —  This 
breed  i^  of  extreme  bacon 
type  and  of  English  origin. 
In  color  the  hogs  are  red,  in 
light  and  dark  shades.  They  are  raised  especially  for 
bacon  and  do  not  fatten  rapidly.     They  do  attain  good 


Tamworth  Sow 


280 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Tamworth     Boar 


size,  boars  ranging  up  to  600  pounds  at  maturity  and 
sows   up   to   450   pounds.     The   head    is    very   long   and 

straight,  the  ear  large  and 
coarse,  the  body  narrow,  the 
legs  long.  The  carcass 
shows  a  large  amount  of 
lean  meat  in  proportion  to 
the  fat.  They  are  very  pro- 
lific, and  graze  well.  Due  to 
the  small  numbers  raised, 
these  hogs  are  rated  as  a 
minor  breed. 

13.  Cheshire. — This  white  breed  originated  in  New 
York.  While  not  raised  on  many  farms,  the  hogs  possess 
much  merit.  They  mature  early,  make  good  use  of 
forage  crops,  and  pasture 
and  fatten  easily.  They  are 
medium  in  size  and  farrow 
larger  litters  than  are  averaged 
by  the  major  breeds.  The  ears 
are  small  and  erect,  and  point 
slightly  forward  in  old  animals. 

14.  Essex. — This   is   another 

of  the  smaller  breeds,  black  in  color  and  of  English  origin. 

Considerable  variation  of  type  is  observed,  also  of  size. 

While  mature  hogs  average  around  250  pounds,  not  in- 
frequently others  range  up 
to  400  pounds.  The  head  is 
small  and  fine,  the  nose  short 
and  the  face  beautifully 
dished.  The  legs  are  fine,  firm 
and  short.  The  larger  breeds 
have  gradually  replaced  the 
popularity    these    hogs    once 


Cheshire   So\)/ 


Essex  Boar 


FROM    WILD    HOG   TO   USEFUL    BREEDS 


281 


Essex  Sow 


enjoyed,  although  they  were  never  bred  to  any  great  ex- 
tent in  the  United  States. 

15.  Other  minor  breeds. — The  American  Suffolk  is  lit- 
tle known.     It  is  a  white  breed,  yellowish  in  shade.     It 

stands  wide  and  deep  in  body, 
on  short,  fine  legs.  The  body 
is  of  just  moderate  length.  Its 
principal  merit  is  in  its  early 
maturing  qualities  under  lim- 
ited confinement,  with  little  or 
no  range  for  forage.  It  is, 
therefore,  most  popular  under 
a  very  intensive  system  and  where  few  hogs  are  raised. 
The  Victoria  is  white  in  color  and  a  hog  small  in  size. 
It  is  often  seen  at  fairs  and  shows,  but  is  not  raised  to  any 
extent  for  either  bacon  or  pork.  It  has  more  characteris- 
tics of  the  lard  than  of  the  bacon  type.  It  does  not  occupy 
any  important  place  of  usefulness. 

The  razorback  breed,  if 
it  may  be  called  such,  is 
long  snouted,  long  legged, 
long  bodied.  These  hogs 
are  unimproved  as  to 
breeding,  but  are  hardy, 
prolific  and  exceedingly 
good  foragers.  They  are 
found  mostly   in   the  open 

country  of  the  southern  states,  where  they  feed  on  mast, 
grass  and  roots.  The  improved  breeds  are  fast  displac- 
ing them. 


Victoria  Boar 


LESSON.  TWENTY-SEVEN 
FEEDING  HOGS 

1.  Meat  producers  compared. 

2.  Most  meat  from  hogs. 

'J.  Fastest  gains  during  early  growth. 

4.  What  weight  limit  is  best? 

5.  Early  feeding*. 

6.  Creeps  for  little  pigs. 

7.  Mineral  matter  and  charcoal. 

8.  Making  a  slop. 

9.  Pasture  for  pigs. 

10.  Grazing  runs  for  hogs. 

11.  Forage  for  cheap  grain. 

12.  Fattening  hogs. 

Ti   Last  stage  of  fattening. 

14.  Making  good  bacon. 

15.  Hogs  as  corn  harvesters. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — It  is  desirable  to  emphasize  the 
importance  of  the  ideas  brought  out  in  the  first  four  para- 
graphs of  this  lesson.  Bear  in  mind  that  in  hog  raising 
the  largest  production  of  pork  at  the  least  cost  a  pound 
is  a  factor  of  fundamental  consideration.  In  fattening 
hogs  often  the  cost  of  a  pound  of  gain  is  much  greater 
than  the  value  of  that  gain  when  the  animal  is  sold. 
Young  hogs  of  a  moderate  weight  are  more  profitable 
to  raise  for  market  than  aged  hogs  of  enormous  weight. 


LESSON  TWENTY-SEVEN 


FEEDING  HOGS 


1.  Meat  producers  compared. — When  compared  with 
other  meat  producers  the  hog  consumes  less  food  for 
what  he  gives  than  any 
other  meat-making  animal. 
He  works  faster.  It  is  due 
in  part  to  his  digestive  ap- 
paratus, to  the  kind  of  food 
he  relishes,  and  to  the  fact 
that  he  uses  less  food  than 
the  other  animals  for  work 
and  body  heat.  On  the 
basis  of  1,000  pounds  live 
weight  the  hog  uses  about 
275  pounds  of  dry  food  to 
160  for  the  sheep  and  125 
for  steers  a  week.  Of  this 
he  will  digest  230  pounds, 
while  the  sheep  will  digest 
but  120  pounds  and  the 
steer  but  88  pounds. 

2.  Most  meat  from  hogs. 
— To  produce  100  pounds 
of  increase  the  steer  will 
consume  1,100  pounds  of 
dry  food,  the  sheep  910  and 
the  hog  420.  The  increase 
in  live  weight  for  food  con- 
sumed, on  the  basis  of  one 


Modern   Meat   Makers 


283 


284,  FARM   ANIMALS 

point  for  steers,  will  be  1.5  for  sheep  and  5,8  for  hogs. 
From  this  it  is  clear  that  in  proportion  to  its  weight  the 
sheep  eats  more  food  than  the  steer  and  yields  a  greater 
increase  in  consequence ;  but  the  pig,  by  eating  more 
heartily,  consumes  more  food  and  yields  more  meat  or  in- 
crease than  either. 

3.  Fastest  gains  during  early  growth. — It  used  to  be 
that  hogs  were  kept  as  stockers  on  grass  until  they  had 
reached  a  year  or  two  in  age,  and  then  were  fed  until  they 
weighed  from  300  to  500  pounds.  When  slaughtered  or 
sold  they,  of  course,  showed  great  returns,  but  the  cost  of 


FATTENING  H06S-F00D  CONSUMED  TO  PRODUCE  100  POUNDS  6AIN 


100         200        300        400       500        600      700 


FIRST  FORTNIGHT 
SECOND  FORTNIGHT 
THIRD  FORTNIGHT 
FOURTH  FORTNIGHT 
FIFTH  (    FORTNIGHT 


Food  Consumed  by  Hogs  During  Fattening  Period 

During  a  10-\veek  fattening  period,  with  hogs,  the  food  consumption  increases 
more  than  50  per  cent  to  produce  100  pounds  of  increase.  There  is  a  limit  to 
which  hogs  may  be  profitably  fed. 

bringing  them  up  to  such  weights  was  not  considered. 
When  put  to  the  test  it  was  soon  realized  that  while  such 
hogs  in  the  feed  lot  would  take  on  large  increase,  the  cost 
of  the  increase  was  far  above  the  returns  in  money.  In 
other  words,  large  hogs  will  steadily  take  on  increase,  but 
they  do  so  only  with  great  consumption  of  food. 

4.  What  weight  limit  is  best? — A  pig  of  proper  age  and 
weighing  under  100  pounds  will  require  less  than  300 
pounds  of  feed  to  yield  100  pounds  of  increase,  while  a 
mature  hog  weighing  300  pounds  will  demand  over 
500  pounds  of  feed  to  yield  100  pounds  of  increase. 
There  is,  therefore,  a  decided  economy  in  feeding  hogs 


FEEDING   HOGS  285 

only  up  to  a  certain  point.  This  point  ranges  from  175 
to  250  pounds,  depending  on  circumstances — the  market 
price  of  hogs,  and  the  sale  value  of  feed.  In  these  days 
few  hogs  are  fed  until  they  attain  a  weight  of  400  or 
500  pounds.  If  they  are  so  fed  every  pound  of  gain 
costs  twice  as  much  as  it  fetches  in  the  market. 

5.  Early  feeding. — The  first  food  of  the  pig  is  milk ;  and 
milk  is  a  narrow  ration.  Soon  after  birth  additional  food 
is  demanded  that  will  admit  the  gradual  introduction  of 


Making  Hogs  of  Themselves 


the  carbohydrate  ingredients.  Middlings,  shelled  corn, 
or  corn  meal  may  each  be  profitably  used  If  skim  milk 
is  available,  it  will  supply  abundant  protein,  but  corn 
meal,  middlings  or  shorts  should  be  added  also.  This 
combination  is  easily  furnished  as  "slop,"  which  may 
be  continued  even  until  the  beginning  of  the  fattening 
period. 

6.  Creeps  for  little  pigs. — Young    pigs    during     their 
suckling  days  will  do  best  if  fed  additional  slop  in  a  sep- 


286 


FARM   ANIMALS 


arate  pen  and  away  from  the  mother  and  the  larger  pigs. 
Runs  in  which  are  grown  green  grasses,  the  clovers  and 
other  forage  crops  are  indispensable  if  pork  is  to  be  made 
at  profitable  returns.  Provided  for  in  this  manner,  pigs 
will  widen  their  ration  in  accordance  with  their  needs. 

The  ration,  which  at  first  was  very  narrow,  will  now 
widen  until  spread  to  one  part  of  protein  to  five  or  six 
parts  of  carbohydrates  and  fat.  When  the  finish  of  the 
fattening  period  is  reached  the  ration  will  be  near  one  of 


^^■§■1 

^m^^B 

i— ^!*|| 

■^^ 

s 

^f^^^ 

■■^'  li^ 

1 

■i 

ili^:...; 

I^M^i^^ 

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HI 

Enjoying  the  Charcoal  Box 

One  reason  why  thrift  is  frequently  wanting  is  due  to  an  insufficient  supply  of 
protein  and  mineral  elements  in  the  hog  ration.  A  charcoal  box  in  which  may  be 
placed  charcoal,  soft  coal,  ground  bone,  salt  and  oil  meal  meets  the  situation. 

protein  to  eight  or  nine  of  the  heat  and  fat-producing  in- 
gredients. The  great  fattening  food  is  corn ;  its  nutritive 
ratio  is  one  to  nine  plus.  Thus  the  food  changes  in  char- 
acter from  milk  to  corn  or  other  similar  foods,  and  the 
ration  is  gradually  widened  to  meet  the  increasing  re- 
quirements for  fat  production. 

7.  Mineral  matter  and  charcoal. — If  the  ration  consists 
largely  of  corn  and  the  young  hogs  are  on  pasture  they 
will  fare  better  than  young  pigs  in  the  dry  feed  lot.  Pigs 
grow  rapidly  if  fed  well.     If  the  food  supply  is  deficient 


FEEDING    HOGS  287 

in  mineral  elements  the  lack  is  told  in  smaller  bones  and 
slower  gains.  Ground  bone  or  bonemeal  can  be  intro- 
duced advantageously  into  the  ration,  either  when  the 
hogs  are  in  the  feed  lot  or  on  pasture.  Soft  coal,  char- 
coal and  salt,  either  in  mixture  or  given  separately,  should 
be  kept  before  the  animals  at  all  times. 

8.  Making  a  slop. — When  pigs  are  young,  food  in  the 
form  of  slop  is  most  easily  and  safely  fed.  At  first  it 
should  be  quite  thin.  The  nearer  it  approaches  the  con- 
sistency of  buttermilk  the  better  for  the  pigs.     As  the 


Slopping  the  Hogs 

Different  lots  are  fed  in  accordance  with  their  requirements.  The  attendants  pass 
from  pen  to  pen,  mixing  the  slop  as  needed  and  in  accordance  with  size  and  num- 
ber of  animals  in  each  pen. 


pigs  grow  it  is  a  mistake  to  continue  to  feed  a  very  thin 
slop.  An  over-supply  of  water  in  slop  is  harmful ;  fat 
production  is  retarded.  If  food  is  given  in  slop  continu- 
ously the  water  is  to  be  lessened  as  the  animals  increase 
in  size.  When  a  weight  of  100  pounds  or  so  has  been 
reached,  the  pigs  now  being  five  or  six  months  old,  the 
slop  should  be  so  made  as  to  have  a  consistency  some- 
what like  mush.  If  the  pigs  demand  more  water  than 
this  food  supplies,  let  it  be  available  as  drink. 


288  FARM   ANIMALS 

9.  Pasture  for  pigs. — The  great  opportunity  for  mak- 
ing a  profit  out  of  pigs,  especially  when  prices  are  low 
and  grain  products  high,  is  to  depend  on  the  use  of  clover, 
cowpeas,  soy  beans,  alfalfa  and  rape  pastures.  As  the 
subject  of  pig  feeding  is  studied,  more  conclusive  be- 
comes the  evidence  that  pasture  crops  go  hand  in  hand 
with  pork  production.  It  should  be  the  swine  raiser's 
aim  as  much  to  grow  these  forage  crops  as  it  is  to  grow 
the  hog  itself.     Particularly  is  this  true    of  the  legume 


l.i','  ■■■.!    P--t:  kr^   Ideal  for  Pigs 

For  growing  pigs,  alfalfa,  clover  and  other  legumes  are  excellent  forage  crops. 
If  these  are  not  available,  tender  mixed  grasses  will  serve.  Corn  or  slop  or  both  is 
advisable  in  addition  to  the  green   forage. 

crops.     Alfalfa  naturally  comes  first  because  of  its  highly 

digestible  nutrients,  its  vigorous  growth  and  consequent 

heavy  yields,  its  long  cycle  of  life  and  its  land-improving 

benefits.     In  time  alfalfa  will  be  commonly  grown  in  all 

sections. 

Hogs  may  be  turned  into  an  alfalfa  or  a  clover  field  early  in  the 
spring  and  kept  there  through  the  season  until  frost,  provided  the 
acreage  is  large  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  animals.  The 
tramping  will  not  hurt  the  crop,  and  the  grazing  of  the  swine  will 
not  impair  the  feeding  quality  of  the  alfalfa  when  made  into  hay. 
When  a  large  field  is  pastured  a  portion  may  be  cut.  to  be  fol- 
lowed a  week  or  so  later  by  another  portion,  and  so  until  the  field 


FEEDING   HOGS 


289 


has  been  cut  over.  In  this  way  there  will  be  a  new  growth  of  al- 
falfa at  all  times,  giving  the  pigs  just  the  sort  of  pasture  they  de- 
sire. Alfalfa  IS  rich  in  protein;  hence  the  addition  of  corn  to  the 
ration  while  the  animals  are  running  on  the  pasture  is  advisable,  es- 
pecially if  early  maturity  is  sought.  Young  pigs  on  alfalfa,  sup- 
plied with  a  light  feeding  of  corn  daily,  within  seven  or  eight 
months  will  weigh  250  pounds. 

10.  Grazing   runs   for   hogs.— Where   large   fields    are 
not  available  small  runs  may  be  resorted  to.     These  solve 
the   problem   very   satisfactorily   on    many    farms.     The 
small   run   lots   may 
be  of  any  size  from 
a    half   acre    to    five 
acres.     The   number 
of  hogs   to   be  kept 
will  decide  as  to  size 
and  number  of  runs. 
An    average    size    is 
about  an  acre.     One 
or     two      of     these 
lots     may     be     per- 
manent   pasture    of 
either    clover    or    blue    grass,    a    temporary    pasture    of 
timothy     and     clover,     or     a     permanent     pasture     of 
alfalfa.      The    other    lots    may    be    used    in    rotation. 
Several     of     them     may     be     seeded     to     rye     in     the 
fall,   and   as   they   are  pastured   ofif   in   turn   during   the 
winter  and  spring,  they  may  be  seeded  with  other  forage 
plants.     The  one  first  grazed  down  may  be  plowed  and 
seeded  early  to  peas  and  oats,  the  next  one  to  corn  or 
sorghum  or  a  mixture  of  the  two,  a  third  to  cowpeas, 
and  the  others   to   soy  beans,   rape,   peanuts,   or  sweet 
potatoes. 

11.  Forage  for  cheap  grain. — Any  growing  crop  is 
helpful  in  producing  cheap  pork.  In  sections  where  a 
temporary  pasture  like  timothy  and  clover  is  available 


Grazing    Runs    for    Hogs 

The  hogs  are  shifted  each  month  to  a  fresh  pas- 
ture in  which  one  of  the  best  crops  of  the  season 
is   available  as  food. 


290  FARM    ANIMALS 

Spring  pigs  may  be  given  the  range  of  the  fields.  Thus 
they  will  gather  a  considerable  portion  of  their  food. 
But  they  should  not  be  denied  additional  food  in  the  way 
of  slops  or  of  dpy  grain.  Corn  or  corn  and  oil  meal,  or 
corn  and  tankage,  may  be  used  in  combination  to  insure 
steady  growth.  Spring  pigs  thus  raised,  b}^  July  will  be 
of  fair  growth.  From  this  time  they  should  be  pushed 
somewhat  in  order  that  they  may  be  fat  by  late  fall  or 
early  winter. 

The  feeding  of  green  corn  on  pasture  is  common  and  has  much 
in  its  favor.  Practically  all  of  the  plant  but  the  coarse  stalk  is  con- 
sumed. The  kinds  of  forage  cover  a  wide  range.  The  fact  is, 
anything  green  that  is  appetizing  is  good  for  hogs. 

12.  Fattening  hogs. — The  aim  should  be  to  get  flesh 
growth  rather  than  an  overburden  of  fat.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fattening  period  hogs  will  eat  40  to  50 
pounds  of  dry  matter  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight. 
This  diminishes  to  25  or  30  pounds  as  the  fattening 
period  advances.  Hogs  will  get  fat  when  on  corn. 
Their  best  development  is  obtained  when  other  feeds 
containing  more  protein  are  provided  in  addition. 
Tankage,  peas,  or  beans  are  excellent.  Use  one  part  of 
either  to  eight  or  ten  parts  of  corn  at  the  beginning  of 
the  finishing  period. 

The  most  intensive  fattening  is  secured  on  easily  digestible  ma- 
terial. Corn  is  the  universal  food  and  enters  most  largely  into  the 
grain  combination.  All  other  grain  feeds  are  to  be  used  as  supple- 
ments and  as  balancing  foods  with  corn.  During  the  beginning  pe- 
riod of  fattening  when  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other  pasture  is  available. 


Topping  Off  on  Corn 


FEEDING    HOGS 


291 


corn  is  the  only  grain  necessary.    Fattening  hogs  can  be  kept  on 
such  pastures  ahnost  up  to  the  finish. 

13.  Last  stage  of  fattening.— Hogs  very  heavy  with  fat 
should  not  be  required  to  roam  about  for  food.  Hence, 
during  the  final  stage  of  fattening,  the  smaller  the  pasture 
or  feed  lot  the  less  the  loss  because  of  this  needless  ex- 
penditure of  energy.  A  great  many  of  the  most  success- 
ful feeders  take  the  fattening  hogs  from  pasture  to  the 
feed  lot.  In  most  cases  corn  is  the  exclusive  feed.  Wa- 
ter should  be  at  hand  at  all  times,  or  available  at  fre- 
quent intervals.  Rations  containing  one  part  of  tankage 
or  meat  meal  or  soy  bean  meal  to  eight  or  ten  parts  of 
corn,  unless  corn  is  low  in  value,  will  produce  a  more 
rapid  and  cheaper  growth  than  corn  will  alone. 

14.  Making  good  bacon. — Feeding  stuffs  greatly  influ- 
ence the  quality  of  bacon.  Oily  grains  have  the 
strongest  effect.     To  get  good  bacon,  these  oily  grains 


Choice  Bacon 

These  pigs  average  180  pounds.  They  were  fed  a  ration  consisting  of  corn, 
wheat  middlings  and  tankage.  They  will  make  choice  bacon  because  they  are  not 
too  fat,  and  their  food  contained  considerable  protein. 


292  FAKM    ANIMALS 

should  be  reduced  to  a  half  or  a  third  of  the  whole  ra- 
tion. Corn  is  the  principal  food  for  both  lard  and  bacon 
hogs,  and  may  compose  as  much  as  75  or  80  per  cent  of 
the  ration  in  bacon  production.  Middlings  and  tankage 
may  be  used  for  the  balance.  In  Canada,  where  bacon 
is  in  much  favor,  barley  is  a  common  food  for  hogs.  It 
is  fed  both  ground  and  soaked.  Other  foods  used  in 
combination  are  skim  milk,  peas,  oats  and  middlings.  If 
oats  are  used  they  should  be  crushed.  The  most  profit 
from  bacon  is  secured  when  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpeas  or 
rape  are  provided  as  forage. 


Hogging  Off  the  Corn 

Hogs  are  here  harvesting  the  corn  crop.  They  not  only  eat  all  of  the  ears,  but 
consume  the  greater  part  of  the  stalks.  When  the  fat  hogs  are  removed,  brood 
sows  and  pigs  should  be  turned  into  the  field  to  clean  up. 

15.  Hogs  as  corn  harvesters. — Not  only  may  hogs 
produce  more  with  less  grain  in  hogging  ofT,  but  they 
often  -mature  in  less  time  than  when  pen  fed.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  save  at  least  a  quarter  of  the  fattening  period 
where  this  method  is  followed.  Young  hogs  weighing 
80  to  125  pounds  are  best  in  the  green  cornfield.  At 
this  size  they  have  good  frames,  are  mature  enough,  and 
carry  enough  flesh  to  fatten  in  a  few  weeks  and  be  ready 
for  market.     Brood  sows  also  will  make  good  use  of 


FEEDING    HOGS  293 

green  corn.  When  thin  from  suckling  pigs,  or  are  un- 
thrifty from  any  cause,  they  will  quickly  flesh  up  and 
improve  and  be  ready  for  market  in  from  30  to  50  days. 
While  corn  may  be  hogged  off  at  any  period,  it  is  best 
to  let  it  mature  somewhat.  Then  you  get  all  there  is  in  the 
crop.  If  the  ordinary  summer  pasture  is  short  give  some 
additional  feed,  like  shorts  and  middlings,  in  slop,  to  tide 
along  until  the  corn  is  fairly  well  developed.  When  it 
passes  the  milk  stage,  and  is  somewhat  dented,  the  hogs 
may  be  turned  into  the  field.  The  entire  field  is  usually 
given  over  to  the  hogs,  when  labor  is  high,  the  soil  not 
wet,  and  the  herd  and  the  field  not  large  in  size.  Use  old 
hogs,  stock  hogs  and  brood  sows  for  cleaning  up  after 
the  fattening  bunch  has  been  taken  away.  Not  much 
will  be  left,  but  still  there  will  be  some ;  if  this  were  not 
so,  the  fattening  hogs  would  have  been  fed  rather  un- 
wisely for  the  last  week  or  two. 


PPACTICUMS 


1.  Judging  Swine. — Provide  two  or  more  hogs  of  the  pork  and 
lard  t>-pe.  Students  should  familiarize  themselves  with  the  details 
of  this  score  card  and  fix  in  their  minds  the  relative  weights  of  the 
different  regions.  If  it  is  possible  to  have  available  several  hogs  for 
scoring  so  as  to  place  the  several  individuals  in  rank  from  best  in- 
dividual down  to  poorest  individual  the  value  of  the  exercise  will  be 
increased  and  increased  interest  will  be  added  to  it. 


Score  Carp  for  Lard  Hogs 


Scale  of  Points 


A.  General  Appea-ance: 

Weight — according  to  age 

Form — deep,  low,  compact,  square  on  legs 

Oiiality — skin  and  hair  fine;  bone  fine;  flesh  smooth,    mellow 
Condition — deep  and  even  covering  of  flesh ;    flesh  firm 

B.  Head  and  Neck: 

Snout — medium,  not  coarse 

Eyes — big  and  bright 

Ears — soft,  medium  size 

Jowl — short  and  broad 

Neck — thick,  medium  length 

C.  Forequarters : 

Shoulder — ^broad.  deep,  full,  on  top  compact 

Breast — wide 

Legs — straight,  short;  bone  clean;  upright    pasterns 

D.  Body: 

Chest — deep  and  broad  with  large    girth 

Sides — deep,  long,  full:  well-sprung  ribs 

Back — ^broad,  straight,  thick,  evenly  fleshed 

Loin — wide,  thick ...  - 

Underline — even  and  straight 

E.  Hindquarters: 

Hips — smooth  and  wide  apart 

Rtimp — straight,  wide,  long,  evenly  fleshed 

Ham — fleshed  heavily ;  full  and  plump ;  deep ;  wide 

Thighs — fleshed  close  up  to  hocfc 

Legs — straight,  short;  txjne  clean;  upright    pasterns 


Total 100 


2M 


FEEDING    HOGS 


295 


2.  Score  Card  for  Bacox  Hogs. — As  with  lard  hogs,  have  avail- 
able two  or  more  individuals  of  the  bacon  type  for  judging.  If 
bacon  hogs  are  not  raised  in  the  community,  the  exercise  may  be 
given  over  to  judging  lard  hogs,  using  the  previous  score  card.  It  is 
advisable  to  compare  the  two  score  cards,  indicating  the  principal 
differences  between  the  two  classes.  Every  student  should  be  able 
to  distinguish  the  bacon  type  from  the  lard  type,  and  to  know  a  good 
bacon  hog  when  he  sees  it. 

Score  Card  for  Bacon  Hogs 


Scale  of  Points 


3  O 
'Si'Si 


D. 


General  Appearance: 

Weight — according  to  age;  for  market    180  to  220  pounds.  .  . 

Form — long  body,  smooth,  level,  deep  sides 

Quality — skin  and  hair  fine;  bone  fine;  flesh  smooth,    mellow 

Condition — deep  and  even  covering  of  flesh ;  flesh   firm 

Head  and  Neck: 

Snout — medium,  not  coarse 

Eyes — big  and  bright 

Ears — soft,  medium  size 

Jowl — light,  trim 

Xeck — light,  of  medium  length  and  muscular 

Forequarters 

Shoulders .  smooth,  even   with  back 

Breast — full,  moderately  wide 

Legs — straight,    longer   than   lard   hogs;    bone   clean;    upright 

pasterns 

Body: 

Chest — deep  with  full  girth 

Sides — long,  smooth,  level;  long,    well-sprung  ribs 

Back — uniform  and  even  in  width;  smooth 

Loin — even  with  back 

Underline — even  and  straight 

Hindquarters : 

Hips — smooth,  wide,  blend  with  rest  of  body 

Rump — even  and  long;  uniform  with  back 

Ham — firm,  not  flabby;  tapering  to  hock 

Thigh — fleshed  low  down 

Legs — straight;  longer  than  lard  hogs;  strong  pasterns 


Total 100 


LESSON   TWENTY-EIGHT. 
GOATS. 

1.  In  ancient  times. 

2.  Uses. 

3.  Goats'  milk. 

4.  Milk  goats. 

5.  Milking-  qualities. 

6.  Cashmere  goats. 

7.  Angora  goats. 

8.  Feeding. 

9.  Housing. 

10.  Fencing. 

11.  Milking. 

12.  Breeding. 

13.  P'lock  management. 

14.  Protection  for  sheep. 

15.  Around  the  house. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — In  the  popular  mind  the  goat  is 
a  creature  of  ridicule  found  only  in  dirty  city  alleys  and 
subsisting  on  old  paper  or  on  such  refuse  as  may  be 
picked  up  along  neglected  roadsides.  The  wonderful 
usefulness  of  these  hardy  creatures  and  their  steadily 
increasing  numbers,  because  of  merit  of  fleece  and 
milk,  are  giving  them  a  place  and  reputation  among 
our  most  useful  animals.  In  Europe  the  goat  enjoys 
its  greatest  popularity,  and  there  in  numbers  it  totals 
up  into  the  millions.  Point  out  the  many  ways  that  the 
goat  may  be  used  in  this  country. 

296 


LESSON  TWENTY-EIGHT. 


GOATS. 


1.  In  ancient  times. — The  goat,  closely  related  to  the 
sheep  and  the  deer,  likes 
warmth  and  dryness  and  is 
most  at  home  in  hot  cli- 
mates. Originally  it  chose 
mountainous  regions  for  its 
home.  From  time  imme- 
morial the  goat  has  been  a 
domestic  animal.  Its  cra- 
dle seems  to  have  been  in 
central  Asia,  from  which  it 
has  spread  to  Europe,  Af- 
rica, America  and  to  other 
parts  of  the  world.  A  fair 
estimate  places  the  number 
of  goats  in  Europe  at  20  millions  and  in  the  United 
States  at  over  two  millions. 

2.  Uses. — In  some  communities  goat  meat  is  rel- 
ished. When  kept  in  sanitary  quarters  and  fed  clean 
and  fresh  forage  the  meat  is  considered  good,  especially 
of  the  young.  Sometimes  it  passes  as  mutton.  Ma- 
ture goat  meat  is  strong,  and  of  nasty  flavor.  A  great 
field  is  open  for  breeding  flavor  and  quality  in  good 
flesh.  The  milk  of  goats  has  for  a  long  time  been 
greatly  prized  and  is  approved  for  infants  and  invalids. 
The  skin  of  goats  is  used  in  our  day  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  kid  for  gloves,  morocco  and  other  fine  leathers, 
and  also  for  parchment.     The  hair  is  very  useful  in  the 

297 


As  Fine  as  Silk 


298 


FARM   ANIMALS 


manufacture  of  brushes.  Mohair  comes  from  Angora 
goats  and  is  in  constant  demand  at  good  prices.  Mo- 
hair skins  are  frequently  tanned  and  dyed  and  used  as 
rugs  and  coverings. 

3.  Goats'  milk. — In  Europe  goats  are  largely  kept  for 
their  milk.  Goats'  milk  is  very  nourishing  on  account 
of  the  great  quantity  of  fat  and  albumen  which  it  con- 


iMPORTED  Goats   of  the  Milk  Class 

Here  are  excellent   representatives   of  goats   raised   primarily   for  milk.     They   be- 
long to  the  Saanen  breed,  a  very  popular  race  of  the  milk  class   from  Switzerland. 


tains,  and  also  because  it  is  easy  to  digest,  and  comes 
from  an  animal  relatively  free  from  disease.  Goats  are 
less  troubled  by  the  ravages  of  disease  than  cattle,  and 
their  milk  seems  to  present  no  danger  to  those  that  use 
it.  If  the  milk  has  a  bitter  taste  it  is  because  of  the  food. 
The  goat  eats  with  satisfaction  what  other  animals  re- 
ject ;  it  will  eat  wild  berries,  bushes,  bark  of  trees,  weeds 
or  anything  it  can  get.  It  is  truly  the  scavenger  of  the 
farm. 

4.  Milk  goats. — A  few  flocks  of  milk  goats  have  been 


GOATS 


299 


established  in  this  country.  The  demand  for  these  is 
great  both  here  and  abroad,  causing  the  prices  of  healthy 
specimens  of  dairy  qualities  to  be  rather  high.  Impor- 
tations from  milk  goat  regions  in  Europe  are  made  by 
American  importers  and 
breeders.  The  future  of  this 
line  is  full  of  promise  for  a  new 
industry  of  bounded  limits. 
The  Swiss  goat  of  Saanen  is 
the  chief  species  of  central 
Europe.  It  comes  from  the 
valleys  of  the  Saanen  and  the 
Simmen  and  is  characterized 
by  its  color,  which  is  wholly 
white,  by  the  absence  of 
horns  and  especially  by  its 
great  production  of  milk. 

The  Toggenburg,  also  a 
Swiss  breed,  and  the  Maltese, 
from  the  island  of  Malta,  are 
noteworthy  breeds  of  the  milk 
goat.  The  Toggenburg  is  of 
a  medmm  brownish  color,  but 
the  Maltese  is  white.  The 
hair  of  these  breeds  is  usually 
short  and  rough,  the  beard 
long  and  heavy.  The  race 
has  delicate  heads,  slender 
necks,  long  bodies,  straight 
backs,  thin  legs  and  large, 
tender,  hairless  udders  in  the 
ewes.  The  bucks  readily  reach 
three  feet  in  height. 

5.  Milking    qualities. — With 


Milk   Goats 


Saanen    goats    at    top    and    bottom: 
Toggenburg  goat  in  the  middle. 


300  FARM   ANIMALS 

good  food,  production  in  some  instances  reaches  six  to 
eight  quarts  a  day,  but  three  to  five  quarts  is  more  the 
rule.  Goats  are  milked  about  six  months  and  then  are 
dried  off.  The  production  will  run  from  500  to  1,000 
quarts  of  milk  during  a  lactation  period.  One  ewe  in 
Europe  is  reported  to  have  produced  3,000  quarts  during 
a  single  year. 

6.  Cashmere  goats. — At  one  time  the  making  of  cash- 
mere shawls  was  a  great  industry  in  Cashmere.     That 

old   industry,   however,   has 
i'"^^^  ^^^^   some   of   its   glory  and 

importance.  These  animals 
f  originally  flourished  in  Cash- 
{  mere  and  Tibet.     The  wool 

'■■  enables    the    goats    to    bear 

the  severe  cold  of  the  moun- 
\  tainous  climate  of  these  re- 
gions, although  only  a  pound 
'"  to    a    pound    and    a    half    is 

Angora   Goat  ,  ,        ^  i  •  <t^, 

sheared  at  a  clip.  these 
animals  have  a  double  coat — a  covering  of  outer  hair, 
long,  fine,  straight  and  stiff;  and  beneath  this  is  the  fine, 
soft  and  fleecy  wool  that  has  made  the  breed  so  famous. 
The  goats  are  of  medium  size;  they  have  rather  large 
heads  and  pendent  ears,  and  long  spiral  horns  that  curve 
obliquely  backward. 

7.  Angora  goats. — These  goats  are  natives  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  since  their  introduction  have  steadily  grown 
in  popularity.  The  bucks  have  long,  flat,  finely  curved 
horns,  but  those  of  the  ewes  are  smaller  and  simpler.  In 
addition  to  their  service  in  yielding  a  clip  of  valuable 
mohair,  their  flesh  is  more  and  more  coming  to  be  used 
for  human  food.  It  is  often  sold  as  mutton,  and  if  the 
animals  are  properly  fed  and  slaughtered  while  young, 


GOATS 


301 


the  mutton  is  very  good.  Another  use  to  which  Angoras 
are  put  is  for  clearing  land.  They  eat  the  bark  of  trees, 
various  kinds  of  underbrush  and  weeds  and  soon  kill  out 
bushes.  Many  Angora  enthusiasts  claim  they  are  worth 
a  great  deal  for  this  purpose. 

"Mohair  comes  from  the  Angora  goat.  That  of  the  finest  quality 
is  sheared  from  kids  a  year  old.  It  gradually  deteriorates  until  the 
sixth  year,  when  it  is  of  practically  no  value.  The  wool  is  abun- 
dant, thick,  long,  soft,  shining,  silky  and  slightly  curled.  The  color 
is  white.  An  average  chp  is  three  pounds.  Mohair  is  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  plush  and  certain  kinds  of  dress  goods. 
Sometimes  the  skins  are  tanned,  either  in  natural  color  or  dyed  and 
used  for  rugs  and  robes." 


Angora  Goats  at  Pasture 
They  are  cleaning  the  hillside  of  weeds  and  brush. 


8.  Feeding. — Goats  like  to  browse  around  in  fence  cor- 
ners, thickets  and  on  broken  areas.  Wherever  they 
browse  on  brush  they  so  completely  destroy  the  rubbish 
that  grass  invariably  springs  up.  This  is  because  the 
undergrowth  is  destroyed  and  grass  is  given  an  oppor- 
tunity to  thrive.  They  take  to  grass  also,  but  not  so 
readily  as  to  brushwood.  When  on  pasture,  the  coarser 
grasses  are  preferred.  In  winter  they  will  pick  over  corn 
stover,  eat  straw  and  grain.     Sheaf  oats,  alfalfa,  cowpea 


302 


FARM    ANIMALS 


and  clover  hay  are  all  excellent  coarse  food  for  them,  and 
they  eat  these  readily  and  with  great  relish.  Milk  goats 
require  heavier  feeding  than  those  kept  solely  for  mohair 
or  as  scavengers.  They  should  be  fed  liberally  and 
treated  as  other  milk  producers.  The  legume  hays  for 
roughage ;  kitchen  refuse  such  as  potatoes,  carrots  and 
turnips ;  bran  and  linseed  meal,  make  an  ideal  ration. 
Oats,  barley,  corn,  and  similar  feeds  may  also  be  used  to 
secure  change  and  variety. 

9.  Housing. — Give  goats  clean  quarters.  If  they  belong 
to  the  milk  varieties,  let  them  be  treated  and  housed  simi- 


"Mr.  Billy"  Leading  the  Flock  to  PAsruRi 


lar  to  dairy  cows.  This  means  a  warm  barn  or  shed,  dry 
stalls,  and  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  Goats  are  par- 
ticularly sensitive  to  moisture.  They  should  have  shelter 
in  rainy  weather.  They  should  be  provided  with  a  rack 
in  which  their  coarse  fodder  is  placed,  and  given  fresh 
bedding  like  other  farm  animals  for  cleanliness  and  com- 
fort. Salt  in  rock  form  may  be  kept  before  them  at  all 
times.  Their  drinking  water  should  be  fresh  and  pure. 
10.  Fencing. — In  summer  it  is  expected  that  these  ani- 
mals will  have  grazing  facilities  as  do  other  kinds  of  live 


GOATS 


303 


stock.  In  winter  a  paddock  or  small  lot  for  exercise  is 
desirable.  In  either  case  substantial  fences  are  needed. 
Goats  are  great  climbers  as  well  as  great  creepers.  They 
go  over  and  under  things  if  the  opportunity  is  offered. 
By  nature  they  are  climbers ;  unless  trained  to  do  so,  they 
will  not  jump.  The  fences  should  be  high  and  of  such 
construction  as  to  prevent  climbing. 

11.  Milking. — Milk  goats  are  milked  two  or  three  times 
daily.  Regularity  is  as  important  with  these  animals  as 
with  cows.  Gentleness  and  kindness  at  all  times  have 
their  value.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  wipe  the  teats  and  udder 
before  drawing  any  milk.  The  udder  is  then  stripped  a 
few  times  from  above,  downward.  The  milking  should  not 
be  done  in  the  stall  on  account  of  odors  that  tend  to  con- 
taminate      its        flavor. 

Each  milking  should  be 
weighed  and  a  record  of 
its  weight  kept  for  fu- 
ture reference  and  as  an 
aid  in  determining  the 
value  of  each  individual. 

12.  Breeding.  —  As  a 
rule  goats  are  very  pro- 
lific. From  two  to  four 
kids  are  dropped  at  a 
time,  depending  on  the 
breed  or  race.  Angora 
goats  breed  once  a  year, 
but  other  goats  breed 
very  soon  after  kidding. 
Maturity  is  reached  in 
from  15  CO  18  months. 
If  bred  before  this  time, 
the  offspring-  are  neither   ^P""-  ^^  «i'^^"  ^''°^^'  ^^^  operation  is  less 

i^  ,      o  tiresome. 


One  Way  of  Milking 

In     Europe     goats     are     commonly     milked 
from    the    rear.      By    placing    the    goat    on    a 


304 


FARM   ANIMALS 


strong,  nor  do  they  show  sturdy  development.  An- 
goras are  at  their  best  at  from  two  to  six  years,  and 
are  not  worth  much  after  that  time.  Milk  goats  may 
be  kept  longer,  especially  if  they  produce  offspring  of 
exceptional  merit.  The  average  life  of  these  animals 
is  about  12  years.  Owing  to  the  delicate  nature  of  the 
kids,  the  breeding  period  should  be  timed  so  that  the 
young  may  be  dropped  after  the  warm  days  have  come. 

13.  Flock  management. — Start  with  a  few  individuals 
at  first  and  learn  by  experience.  Don't  make  the  mis- 
take of  getting  inferior  quality.  A  few  good  specimens 
will  prove  a  great  deal  more  profitable  than  double  the 


Angora  Flock  Raised  for  Wool  and  Meat 


number  of  poor  or  mongrel  stock.  When  kids  are  four 
to  five  months  old,  they  may  be  weaned.  Watch  the  feet. 
When  the  toes  grow  out  and  turn  up,  they  should  be 
trimmed — otherwise  they  become  a  nuisance  to  the 
animal,  or  they  may  get  sore  and  cause  much  pain.  On 
rocky  land  trimming  is  not  always  necessary.  Footrot 
often  results  if  goats  are  kept  on  land  that  is  wet  much 
of  the  time.  In  case  of  infection  change  to  new  pas- 
ture after  treating  with  sulphate  of  copper  or  other  anti- 


GOATS 


305 


septic  wash.     While  goats  are  subject  to  a  variety  of 
diseases,  they  are  not  so  much  so  as  sheep. 

14.  Protection  for  sheep. — There  is  some  truth  in  the 
statement  that  a  goat  running  with  sheep  will  keep  off 
the  dogs.  But  this  means  the  protecting  buck  must  be 
trained  to  fight  the  dogs.  Being  fighters  naturally,  their 
pugnacious  disposition  is  easily  developed;  and  if  so  de- 
veloped when  dogs  visit  the  flock,  the  buck  will  at  once 
lead  in  the  attack,  and  thus  in  many  cases  save  the 
sheep.  A  few  goats  will  stay  with  a  flock  of  sheep,  but 
when  in  considerable  number  they  prefer  to  graze  off  to 
themselves,  and  the  protection  thus  desired  is  not  se- 
cured. Where  protection  is  wanted  one  or  two  fight- 
ing bucks  are  greatly  to  be  preferred  to  a  dozen. 

15.  Around  the  house. — As  pets  for  children  the  goat 
has  long  been  popular.  They  are  troublesome  only 
when  teased  and  an- 
noyed. They  show 
much  intelligence  and 
are  easily  trained. 
Children  have  no  dif- 
ficulty in  controlling 
them  when  harnessed 
to  carts,  and  driven. 
Common  goats  have 
been  used  mostly  for 
these  purposes,  but  the 
Angora  is  equally  sat- 
isfactory. Angoras  are 
freer  from  the  "goat 
odor"  than  common 
goats  and  their  beau- 
ty makes  them  very 
desirable  as  pets. 


Billy   at   Work 


LESSON  TWENTY-NINE. 
BEES. 

1.  Honey. 

2.  Young  bees. 

3.  Nurses. 

4.  From   grub   to  bee. 

5.  Queens. 

6.  Two  kinds  of  eggs. 

7.  Why  bees  swarm. 

8.  Division  of  labor. 

9.  Honeycomb. 

10.  Hives. 

11.  Feeding  bees. 

12.  Three  kinds  of  honey. 

13.  Wintering  bees. 

14.  Kinds  of  bees. 

15.  Bee  diseases. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — No  story  is  more  interesting 
than  how  bees  live  and  gather  honey.  The  lesson 
teaches  the  essential  facts  about  these  useful  busybodies. 
As  a  matter  of  general  culture  every  student  ought  to 
have  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  honeybee — how 
it  lives,  how  it  works,  and  what  it  does.  No  where  in 
the  animal  kingdom  is  mutual  help  and  community  co- 
operation more  strikingly  demonstrated  than  in  the  case 
of  the  honeybee. 


306 


LESSON  TWENTY-NINE. 


BEES. 


1.  Honey. — When  plants  are  in  flower  they  secrete  a 
substance  (nectar),  which,  when  worked  over  by  bees, 
is  known  as  honey.  The  working  or  neuter  bees  are 
able  to  suck  the  nectar  out  of  the  flowers  by  means 
of  lapping  mouth  parts.  They  then  swallow  this  fluid, 
passing  it  into  the  dilation  of  the  oesophagus  called 
the  crop  or  honey  bag.  On  arrival  at  the  hive  the  honey 
is  disgorged  into  the  cells  of  the  comb.  The  nectar  is 
probably  altered  by  admixture  with  the  secretion  of  the 
crop.  At  first  this  sub- 
stance is  very  much  of  a 
fluid  consistency,  but  it 
is  readily  thickened  by 
the  workers  who  vibrate 
their  wings  so  violently 
over  the  cells  into  which 
the  deposit  was  placed 
that  the  surplus  water  is 
evaporated.  The  p  r  o  d  - 
uct  thus  gathered  and 
stored  in  the  comb  is  used 
by  the  bees  as  food. 

2.  Young  bees. — Not  all 
of  the  cells  of  the  comb 
are  filled  with  honey.  In 
some,  eggs  are  deposited 
by  the  queen  bee.  The 
queen    bee    is 


Examining   the  Hive 


Beekeepers   must   look   after   their   bees 
as    carefully    as    the    stock    breeder    looks 
the     mother     ^f*^""    his    herds,    if   he   would   have    them 
thrifty   and   profitable   producers. 

307 


308  FARM    ANIMALS 

of  the  colony.  She  moves  about  at  laying  time,  leav- 
ing one  egg  in  a  cell.  Three  days  later,  from  the  eggs 
are  hatched  the  young  bees;  these  are  small,  soft  and 
white — and  helpless,  v^ithout  feet  or  wings. 

3.  Nurses. — Unless  carefully  looked  after,  these  help- 
less creatures  would  surely  die.  Fortunately  for  them, 
they  have  nurses,  whose  special  duty  is  to  feed  and  care 
for  them.  The  nurse  bees  stay  in  the  hive,  attend  to 
these  struggling  offspring,  and  until  their  charges  are 
more  mature  never  go  forth  in  search  of  nectar  as  do 
the  other  workers.  These  nurses  are,  as  a  rule,  the 
younger  members  of  the  brood.  When  the  new  arrivals 
are  old  enough  to  take  their  places  they  join  the  other 
workers  in  gathering  food  for  the  community.  One  of 
the  duties  of  the  nurse  bees  is  to  prepare  the  bee  bread 
for  the  little  ones.  They  make  this  in  their  stomachs 
and  disgorge  and  feed  to  the  grubs  or  larvse.  The  food 
is  highly  nutritious,  but  after  two  or  three  days  of  such 
feeding  ordinary  honey  and  nectar  are  substituted  for  it. 

4.  From  grub  to  bee. — When  the  grubs  or  infant  bees 
are  well  started  forth  a  small  amount  of  food,  all  in  a 
lump,  is  placed  in  the  cell  and  the  cell  sealed  up  with 
wax.  The  grub  or  larva  consumes  the  allotment  in  the 
course  of  two  or  three  days  and  then  changes  into  its 
pupal  state.  It  now  goes  to  sleep  for  13  days,  after 
which  time  it  throws  off  its  cover  and  emerges  as  a 
mature  bee.  To  break  open  the  waxed-up  cell  is  its 
next  task;  this  done,  the  new  bee  comes  out,  joins  its  kin 
and  goes  to  work  with  the  rest  of  tlie  inhabitants  of  the 
hive. 

5.  Queens. — The  nurse  bees  are  ever  mindful  of  the 
welfare  of  the  colony.  Anarchy  would  reign  in  the  com- 
munity were  a  queen  bee  not  on  hand  to  preserve  quiet 


BEES 


309 


and  peace,  and  to  lay  the  eggs.  Hence,  the  nurses  al- 
ways provide  for  this  contingency.  When  the  eggs  are 
hatching  they  select  a  cell  for  enlargement.  The  other 
cells  round  about  the  chosen  one  are  torn  down,  that  this 
one  may  be  given  royal  size.  When  the 
Qgg  is  hatched  much  bee  jelly  is  set  be- 
fore the  grub.  This  nutritious  food  is 
given  throughout  the  larvae  days,  and 
only  to  the  grub  selected  to  become  a 
queen  bee.  Honey  is  good  enough  for  the 
other  infant  bees;  not  so,  however,  with 
this  one  on  whom  so  great  care  was  be- 
stowed to  provide  a  birthplace  of  greater 
splendor.  When  this  particular  individ- 
ual comes  out  of  its  pupa  form  it  is  not 
an  ordinary  worker  or  a  drone  bee,  but  a 
queen  of  royal  size  and  character. 

6.  Two  kinds  of  eggs.  —  Queen  bees 
hatch  from  eggs  of  the  same  character  as 
the  eggs  from  which  come  worker  bees. 
The  queen  bee  owes  her  superiority  to  the 
nurses  for  their  attention  in  providing  a 
larger  cell  and  more  nutritious  food.  Had 
it  not  been  for  a  big  cell  and  much  bee 
jelly  the  queen  would  have  issued  from 
the  pupa  a  regular  worker  or  a  drone, 
reaches  maturity  without  mishap  and  enjoys  the  obei- 
sance of  her  followers,  she  in  due  course  of  time  lays 
eggs.  It  is  in  her  power  to  lay  either  fertilized  or  un- 
fertilized eggs.  The  male  or  drone  bees  are  hatched 
from  eggs  that  are  fertilized.  From  the  latter  class  are 
obtained  the  queens,  their  existence  being  dependent 
upon  the  manner  in  which  nourishment  is  provided. 

7.  Why    bees  swarm. — Ordinarily    there    is  but    one 


Drone 

Three     Kinds     cf 

Bees   in  Every 

Hive 

If  the   queen 


810 


P-ARM    ANIMALS 


queen  to  the  colony.  If  perchance  additional  queens  ar- 
rive, there  is  trouble  at  once.  The  first  thing  observed  is 
fighting  between  the  new^  queens.  They  keep  it  up  un- 
til only  one  of  the  new  queens  is  left.  The  old  queen,  or 
mother  of  the  hive,  as  if  in  disgust,  issues  forth  and  seeks 
a  new  abiding  place.  Many  of  her  loyal  attendants  fol- 
low her,  and  finding  a  suitable  branch  or  crotch  they 
mass  together  in  a  dense  body  or  swarm.  After  collect- 
ing their  wits  they  seek  out  a  hol- 
low tree  or  branch  and  start  a  new 
community.  In  apiaries  the  bee 
tender  is  on  the  lookout  for  these 
outbreaks,  and  when  they  occur 
the  swarm  is  put  in  a  new  hive, 
where  everything  is  in  nice  order 
for  vigorous  work  in  filling  comb 
cells  with  honey.  Here  the  bees 
make  ready  the  cells,  gather 
honey,  bring  on  new  broods,  and 
found  a  new  establishment. 

8.  Division  of  labor.  —  Every 
hive  or  bee  community  contains 
three  kinds  of  bees — a  queen. 
The  duty  of  laying  eggs  devolves 
on  the  queen.  The  drones  are  male  bees ;  they  serve  the 
community  by  fertilizing  the  queen,  who  fertilizes  the 
eggs.  To  the  workers  is  committed  the  task  of  provid- 
ing the  material  and  well-being  of  the  hive  or  commu- 
nity. They  secure  the  honey,  build  the  combs,  feed  the 
young  and  gather  the  food  for  all.  "And  all  the  work 
done  by  the  workers  is  strictly  work  for  the  whole 
community;  in  no  case  does  the  worker  bee  work  for 
itself  alone ;  it  works  for  itself  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  a 
member  of  the  community." 


'''^^.:^^'4r-t^:^'^ 


Swarm  of  Bees 


drones,  and  workers. 


BEES 


311 


9.  Honeycomb. — Making  wax  is  one  of  the  duties  of 
the  worker  bees.  They  manufacture  it  from  their  food. 
It  is  really  a  secretion  from  certain  glands  in  the  abdo- 
men. The  bees  arrange  wax  in  slabs  and  pack  hexagonal 
cells  all  over  it.  The  result  is  the  honeycomb.  They 
now  have  a  place  to  store  the  honey  they  gather  and  tiny 
incubators  for  the  eggs  when  the  queen  lays  them. 
When  the  honey  cells  are  filled  they  9 re  sealed  with 
wax.  The  brood  cells  are  sealed  with  both  nectar  and 
wax. 

The  work  of  bees  may  be  greatly  facilitated  by  providing  comb 
foundations  in  the  hives.  These  are  strong  sheets  of  wax  with  the 
imprint  of  the  base  of  bee  cells  upon  both  sides.  Except  for  wild 
bees,  these  artificial  foundations  are  now  provided  for  all  domestic 
hives.  Successful  bee  keeping  is  due  more  largely  to  the  skillful  use 
of  artificial  combs  than  to  any  other  single  factor  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  hive. 


Apiary    Showing    Hives    and    Their    Arrangement 

The  beekeeper  who  owns  this  apiary  devotes  his  entire  time  and  attention 
to  his   bees. 


10.  Hives. — Various  kinds  of  hives  have  been  provided 
by  manufacturers,  so  that  to-day  the  selection  of  a  type  is 
more  the  result  of  taste  or  choice  than  of  merit.  Practi- 
cally all  modern  hives  are  good.  The  common  require- 
ments are  that  the  hive  shall  have  a  movable  roof  and  a 
movable  comb  frame.  Between  the  combs  there  should 
be  space  enough  to  let   two  bees  pass.     Most  hives  are 


812  FARM    ANIMALS 

built  in  two  compartments — an  upper  and  a  lower  story. 
The  queen  bee  is  kept  in  the  lower  one,  and  here  she  lays 
her  eggs,  and  here  also  the  other  responsibilities  of  the 
community  are  looked  after.  Modern  bee  culture  has 
added  the  upper  division  as  storage  for  honey.  A  sheet 
of  metal  usually  separates  the  two  compartments;  holes 
in  this  are  made  just  the  right  size  for  the  workers  to  pass 
back  and  forth,  but  the  queen  and  drones  being  some- 
what larger  are  prevented  from  entering. 

11.  Feeding  bees. — In  good  seasons  bees  not  only  lay 
up  enough  honey  for  their  winter  food,  but  provide  a 

considerable  surplus  that  goes  to  the 
bee  tender  for  his  profit  in  caring  for 
and  looking  after  the  hive.  If  for  any 
reason  the  season  is  bad,  as  it  some- 
times happens,  the  bees  will  require  a 
Box  FOR  FEEDING  bees  Hourishiug  ratiou,  or  otherwise  many 
will  perish  during  the  winter  months. 
Good  bee  men  make  a  practice  of  feeding  their  bees  when 
misfortune  overtakes  them  with  a  thick  warm  syrup  made 
from  pure  cane  sugar,  or  honey,  early  in  the  autumn.  In 
this  way  they  are  enabled  to  get  ready  for  the  hard  days 
of  winter. 

Sometimes  bees  are  fed  in  spring  also  in  order  to  induce  early- 
breeding.  Early  colonies  are  desirable,  because  such  are  almost  cer- 
tain to  collect  surplus  stores,  whereas  the  late  ones  are  unable  to 
supply  enough  even  for  themselves.  In  the  latter  case  the  keeper 
has  no  honey  for  his  trouble  and  labor.  During  the  winter  season  it 
is  of  especial  importance  that  the  hives  be  wind  and  water  tight. 
Bees  can  stand  much  dry  cold,  but  not  damp  and  drafty  quarters. 

12.  Three  kinds  of  honey. — The  trade  uses  three  kinds 
of  honey — chunk,  section  comb,  and  extracted  honey. 
Chunk  honey  is  made  in  large  frames  of  different  sizes, 
holding  from  three  to  seven  pounds.  When  ripened  by 
the  bees  it  is  cut  out  of  the  frames  in  chunks  and  packed 


BEES 


313 


in  jars.  Section-comb  honey  is  made  in  boxes  holding 
about  one  pound.  In  these  it  remains  until  consumed. 
Such  honey  is  neat  and  attractive,  but  tedious  to  pro- 
duce. It  is  not  the  kind  for  the  beginner  to  attempt. 
Extracted  honey  is  made  in 
large  frames,  just  like  chunk 
honey.  When  ready  to  re- 
move it  is  draw^n  from  the 
combs  w^ith  a  machine  called 
the  honey  extractor.  The  emp- 
ty combs  are  then  returned  to 
the  hives  for  refilling  by  the 
bees. 

13.  Wintering  bees.  —  T  v^  o 
methods  of  w^intering  are  prac- 
ticed— outdoor  and  indoor.  In 
exceedingly  cold  climates,  vv^here 
there  is  continuous  freezing 
weather  between  December  and 

March  without  any  warm  days,  the  indoor  method  is 
usually  preferred.  Where  the  temperature  varies  the 
outdoor  custom  is  popular.  This  region  starts  within  50 
or  100  miles  south  of  the  Great  Lakes.  It  permits  the 
bees  to  fly  during  warm  days,  as  they  occasionally  do 
even  in  midwinter.  In  its  use  double-wall  hives  or 
single-wall  hives  with  winter  cases  are  used.  In  the 
southern  states  single-wall  hives  without  outside  jackets 
are  warm  enough  for  the  climate.  In  indoor  wintering 
in  the  cold  climates,  double-wall  hives  or  winter  cases 
are  not  necessary;  but  in  the  spring,  when  the  hives  are 
placed  on  their  summer  stands,  it  is  usually  necessary  to 
provide  extra  protection.  Cellar  wintering  requires  less 
costly  hives,  but  demands  more  skill  than  outdoor  win- 
jtering. 


Extracting   Honey 


814  FARM    ANIMALS 

In  large  apiaries  special  cellars  or  buildings  are  provided  for 
winter  quarters.  It  is  essential  that  for  outdoor  wintering  the  hives 
weigh  at  least  50  pounds;  that  is,  that  they  contain  30  pounds  or 
more  of  honey.  In  indoor  wintering  much  less  honey  is  required, 
since  the  bees  do  not  need  so  much  food  to  keep  them  warm. 

14.  Kinds  of  bees. — The  Italian  is  the  most  popular  bee 
of, commercial  importance.  It  is  black  and  yellow,  noted 
for  gentleness,  ability  to  work  and  good  health  where 
properly  bred.  The  Black  or  German  bee,  which  the 
Italian  is  steadily  replacing,  is  the  next  most  popular. 
It  is  noted  for  nervousness,  excitability,  ability  to  work 
and  greater  susceptibility  than  the  Italian  to  disease.  The 
Carniolan,  considered  to  be  a  variety  of  the  black  bee, 
swarms  very  profusely,  and  is  thus  undesirable  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  The  Caucasian,  which  resembles  the 
Carniolan  closely,  is  a  good  honey  gatherer,  but  uses  bee 
glue  too  freely  to  suit  the  apiarist.  The  Banat  bee  re- 
sembles the  Caucasian,  though  there  is  a  yellow  variety. 
Tunis  or  Punic  bees  are  very  cross  and  so  inclined  to 
daub  everything  with  red  bee  glue  that  they  are  not 
suited  to  comb  honey  production.  The  Egyptian  bee, 
cultivated  for  thousands  of  years  in  Egypt,  is  much 
smaller  than  the  Italian.  It  is  a  fast  excellent  worker, 
but  very  irritable.  It  does  not  mix  with  other  bees. 
Albinos  are  either  "sports"  from  the  Italian  or  crosses 
between  Holy  Land  and  Italian  bees.  There  are  also 
Cyprian,  Holy  Land  or  Syrian  bees  that  have  been  im- 
ported into  America,  but  have  not  become  specially  pop- 
ular. In  India  are  several  species  that  have  not  been 
domesticated  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

15.  Bee  diseases. — Dysentery,  a  winter  disease,  due  to 
long,  low  temperature  and  bad  food,  is  usually  cured  by 
free  flight  in  the  spring.  Paralysis,  rather  common  in 
warm  climates,  seems  to  be  constitutional  and  due  to  the 
queen.     A  new  queen  usually  proves  effective  as  a  cure. 


BEES 


815 


Section     of    Comb    In- 
fested WITH   Foul 
Brood 


American  foul  brood,  a  bacterial  disease,  reaches  healthy 

larvae  in  infected  food.     The  grubs  soften,  settle  to  the 

lower  sides  of  the  cells  in  shapeless, 

yellowish    masses,    which    later    turn 

brown,    sticky    and    ill    smelling.     To 

cure  it  infected  comb  and  honey  must 

be   removed  in  the  evening  during  a 

honey    flow    and    healthy    food    given. 

The  bees  must  be  encouraged  to  build 

new  comb.     It  is  wise  to  guard  against 

robbing   by   other   bees.     Brood   from 

badly  diseased  colonies  should  be  burned  at  once.    Combs 

may  be  melted  into  wax,  hives  cleaned  and  disinfected 

with  a  gasoline  torch  inside. 

In  European  foul  brood,  also  bacterial,  the  larvae  turn  yellowish 
or  gray,  become  slightly  translucent  and  usually  flatten  against  the 
bases  of  the  cells.  The  dead  ones  appear  as  moist  collapsed  masses, 
which  become  dry,  brownish  scales.  Italian  bees  are  better  able  to 
resist  this  disease  than  any  other  race;  black  bees  least  of  all 
Treatment  is  the  same  as  for  American  foul  brood,  but  must  be 
apphed  to  the  whole  apiary  at  once.  The  cure  is  permanent  only 
when_  pure-bred  Italian  queens  are  introduced  in  black  or  hybrid 
colonies.  In  sacbrood,  also  bacterial,  the  larvae  decay  from  the 
inside,  leaving  the  skin  tough  and  in  natural  shape.  Often  they 
dry  up,  become  loose  in  their  cells  and  drop  out  when  the  comb  is 
inverted.  Re-queening  with  vigorous  queens  from  other  apiaries 
often  cures  the  disease. 


LESSON  THIRTY. 
FISH  FOR  THE  FARM. 

1.  Pond  culture. 

2.  Carp. 

3.  Care  of  carp. 

4.  Catfish. 

5.  Catfish  ponds. 

6.  Sunfish. 

7.  Raising  sunfish. 

8.  Black  bass. 

9.  Black  bass  ponds. 

10.  Small  bass. 

11.  Brook  trout. 

12.  Raising  trout, 

13.  Trout  ponds. 

14.  Feeding  fish. 

15.  Eggs  and  hatching. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — This  lesson  describes  the  more 
important  kinds  of  fish  that  may  be  used  in  pond  culture, 
The  habits  and  requirements  are  pointed  out  and  the 
fundamental  considerations  for  raising  farm  fish  are  dis- 
cussed. The  purpose  of  the  lesson  is  obviously  to  indi- 
cate what  classes  of  fish  are  best  adapted  to  particular 
kinds  of  water  and  to  particular  sections  from  the  stand- 
point of  climate  and  water  supply. 


316 


LESSON  THIRTY. 
FISH  FOR  THE  FARM. 

1.  Pond  culture. — Three  fundamental  principles  are 
involved  in  the  commercial  production  of  fish  on  the 
farm :  (1)  A  never-failing  water  supply ;  (2)  selection 
of  fish  adapted  to  the  waters  available;  and  (3)  a  con- 
tinual natural  food  supply.  Any  small  body  of  water 
used  for  the  production  of  pond  fishes  should  produce  nat- 
urally a  considei-able  amount  of  aquatic  food  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  fish.  One  of  the  provisions  of  na- 
ture in  all  primitive  bodies  of  water  is  the  production  of 
multitudes  of  tiny  plants  and  animals  that  fish  feed  upon. 
Baby  fish  depend  upon  microscopic  forms ;  and  larger  fish 
upon  these  and  larger  aquatic  plants  and  animal  life. 

2.  Carp. — Some  years  ago  the  German  carp  was  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  from  Germany,  where  it 
had  long  been    cultivated  in  ponds 

for  commercial  use.  This  fish  is 
adapted  for  life  in  farm  ponds  where 
there  is  a  muddy  bottom  and  an 
abundance    of     water     weeds.      It 

,  .,      .  .  ,  .  Carp 

never    does    well    m    either    sprmg 

ponds  or  clear  streams.  The  carp  lacks  the  fine  flavor 
of  the  native  game  fishes,  but  when  kept  in  ponds  free 
from  filth  and  when  properly  cooked  it  is  highly  appre- 
ciated. These  fish  subsist  on  mud  containing  organic 
matter,  soft  parts  of  dead  plants,  aquatic  weeds  and 
grasses,  and  all  kinds  of  insect  and  crustacean  life. 

317 


818  FARM    ANIMALS 

"To  prepare  carp  in  the  best  manner  for  the  table  it  should  be 
both  skinned  and  drawn,  soaked  in  salt  water  overnight,  then  boiled 
and  finally  baked  with  proper  dressing." 

3.  Care  of  carp. — Carp  culture  does  not  require  ex- 
pensive arrangements,  either  for  rearing  the  young  or 
for  raising  the  old.  Where  carp  have  fallen  in  disfavor 
it  has  been  due  largely  to  insanitary  quarters.  The 
best  authorities  claim  that  the  stock  ponds  should  con- 
tain good  water  and  be  drained  and  aired  at  least  once 
a  year.  For  best  results  three  kinds  of  ponds  are  de- 
sirable :  (1)  Spawning  pond  in  which  the  water  is 
shallow  and  easily  warmed  by  the  sun  for  the  spawning 
fish ;  (2)  rearing  pond,  to  which  the  little  fish  are  trans- 
ferred until  a  year  or  two  old ;  and  (3)  the  raising  pond, 
in  which  the  large  fish  are  kept  until  fit  for  market  and 
table  use,  or  when  they  have  reached  a  weight  of  two 
and  a  half  or  three  pounds. 

4.  Catfish. — The   two   varieties   of   catfish    that   most 
fully    respond   to   pond   culture    are   the   common   bull- 
head    and     the   yellow     catfish.     A 

,^     third    variety,   the    spotted   catfish, 

\^^^         *  .-^^"--^     does  not  take  kindly  to  domestica- 

''||~^'**^  tion.     When   transferred    to   hatch- 

BULLHEAD  Catfish  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^-^  ^^^^^^  ^^  hvQtA, 

even  when  handled  by  the  greatest  experts.  On  the 
other  hand  the  common  bullhead  and  the  yellow  catfish 
when  transferred  readily  adapt  themselves  to  their  new 
environments  and  multiply  rapidly.  This  is  because  of 
the  great  care  the  parents  exercise  during  the  period  of 
^gg  incubation  and  babyhood  of  the  young.  These  cat- 
fish offer  great  possibilities  in  agriculture.  Low,  wet 
land,  fed  by  springs,  drains  or  creeks  can  be  easily  con- 
verted into  a  catfish  pond,  thus  furnishing  an  abundant 
supply  for  table  use  and  market.     Under  favorable  con- 


FISH    FOR    THE    FARM  319 

ditions  these  fish  will  be  ready  for  consumption  in  from 
two  to  three  years. 

5.  Catfish  ponds. — Where  catfish  are  raised  commer- 
cially a  single  pond  hardly  suffices.  It  is  advisable  to 
use  about  one-half  of  the  available  pond  land  for  breed- 
ing and  for  the  maintenance  of  fish  more  than  a  year 
old.  Two  or  three  smaller  ponds  should  be  set  apart 
for  the  rearing  of  young  fish.  In  commercial  estab- 
lishments sorting  fish  into  sizes  is  advisable,  otherwise 
the  big  and  strong  will  feed  at  the  expense  of  the  smaller 
fish.  When  big  and  little  fish  are  raised  together  the 
loss  of  the  young  is  large,  for  the  reason  that  the  older 
fish  prey  on  the  little  ones. 

6.  Sunfish. — In  large  or  small  bodies  of  fresh  water  the 
sunfish  are  generally  found.  While  these  fish  are  small, 
their  flesh  is  sweet,  tasty  and  of 
high  flavor.  These  fish  can  be 
raised  in  very  small  bodies  of  water 
and  yield  to  farm  culture  for  home 
use  or  to  a  more  extensive  produc- 
tion of  commercial  importance. 
Eggs  may  be   fertilized  artificially,  unfish 

but  more  satisfactory  results  are  obtained  from  natural 
spawning.  The  three  principal  varieties  are :  Com- 
mon or  "pumpkin  seed"  sunfish,  (2)  the  common  long- 
eared  sunfish,  and  (3)  the  blue  gill.  In  spawning  the 
pumpkin  seed  variety  seeks  a  gravelly  spot  where  the 
water  is  shallow,  the  common  long-eared  locates  in 
deeper  water,  and  the  blue  gill  in  the  deepest  spot  it  can 
find. 

7.  Raising  sunfish. — For  best  results  in  pond  culture 
the  small  fry  should  be  separated  from  the  mature  fish. 
Otherwise  large  numbers  of  the  young  will  be  devoured 


320 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Big-Mouthed  Bass 


by  adults.  When  thus  separated  into  a  rearing  pond, 
development  is  rapid.  For  farm  culture  sorting  is  not 
necessary,  but  the  yield  of  fish  is  certain  to  be  much 
smaller  than  would  be  the  case  were  sorting  done  and 
both  a  rearing  and  a  stock  pond  maintained.  During 
the  hatching  and  nursing  period  these  fish  are  excellent 
mothers  and  guard  their  young  with  unusual  care  and 
attention.  Intruders  are  attacked  savagely  and  driven 
away. 

8.  Black  bass. — Of  the  larger  varieties  of  black 
bass  the  two  of  most  common  importance  in  pond  cul- 
ture are  (1)  the  large-mouthed  bass 

and    (2)    small-mouthed   bass.      On 

account  of  their  habits  and  nature, 

they  do  not  lend  themselves  often  to 

pond   culture   under   ordinary   farm 

conditions.     They  are  most  at  home 

in  large    bodies  of    water  such   as    artificial   reservoirs, 

lakes,  rivers  and  large  streams.     \\'here  pond  culture  is 

resorted  to  a  relatively  large  area  of  ground  is  necessary. 

9.  Black  bass  ponds. — Success  with  black  bass  is  de- 
pendent upon  a  favorable  site,  properly  constructed  ponds 
and  suitable  water.  These  fish  thrive  in  the  same  wa- 
ters with  carp.  The  feeding  habits,  however,  are  dififer- 
ent ;  black  bass  are  carnivorous  and  depend  upon  other 

water    animals    for     food.      Young 
carp   often    are   propagated    in   the 
same  waters  with  black  bass  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  the  food.     Be- 
cause  of    large   area     required   and 
close  attention  to  all  details  of  man- 
agement, black  bass  are  not  commonly  chosen  for  stock- 
ing small  ponds  or  for  use  except  as  a  commercial  en- 
terprise of  large  proportions. 


Small-Mouthed  Bass 


FISH    FOR    THE    FARM  321 

The  large-mouthed  bass  lives  in  still  water  where  weeds,  flags 
and  pond  lilies  are  plentiful.  This  variety  is  less  valuable  as  a 
table  fish  than  the  small-mouthed  bass.  The  small-mouthed  bass 
is  partial  to  pure  lake  water  or  river  water  with  rocky  bottom. 

10.  Small  bass. — The  rock  bass  and  calico  bass  are  two 
varieties  among  the  smaller  fishes  that  may  be  selected 

for  farm  culture.  Small  ponds  may 
be  devoted  to  them,  but  it  is  advis- 
a1)le  to  keep  the  young  and  old 
apart.  Otherwise,  large  numbers  of 
the  baby  fish  and  small  fingerlings 
Rock  Bass  ^^.jj    ^^    dcvoured    by    their    elders. 

The  rock  bass  is  especially  destructive,  but  the  calico  bass 
seems  to  hanker  less  for  the  flesh  of  its  kind  than  either 
the  sunfish  or  the  rock  variety.  Of  the  two  varieties, 
the  calico  requires  much  the  deeper  water  for  nesting 
purposes.  Rock  bass  and  sunfish  are  often  cared  for  in 
the  same  pond  ,and  frequently  place  their  nests  close 
without  disturbance  or  annoyance  to  either. 

11.  Brook  trout. — These  fish  abound  chiefly  in  cold, 
swift-running,  gravelly  brooks,  but  they  thrive  in  all  pure 
cold  waters  which  contain  sufticient  air.  They  seem  to 
be  at  home  equally  well  in  brooks,  ponds,  lakes  or  rivers. 
Unquestiona])ly  the}^  stand  at  the  head  of  the  fresh  water 
game  fishes  in  the  popular  estima- 
tion. Furthermore,  trout  are  "pe- 
culiarly suited  to  domestication,  be- 
ing very  hardy,  easily  tamed,  con- 
veniently confined,  satisfied  with  gj^^^j^  r^.^^^^ 
plain  food,  well  adapted  to  artificial 

breeding  prolific  enough  to  increase  rapidly,  and  having  a 
sufficiently  high  value  as  live  game  or  as  a  table  luxury 
to  make  it  worth  while  to  raise  them."  Rainbow  trout 
are  also  adapted  to  pond  culture. 


322  FARM    ANIMALS 

12.  Raising  trout. — Rather  extensive  arrangements  are 
required  for  best  success  with  trout  in  artificial  ponds. 
What  adds  to  the  difficulty  is  the  necessity  of  using  run- 
ning water  both  for  hatching  the  eggs  and  rearing  the 
young.  Spring  water  is  preferred  for  hatching  and 
brook  water  for  raising  trout.  These  requisites  limit  the 
area  in  which  trout  can  be  raised.  Where  natural  ad- 
vantages prevail  in  w^ay  of  water,  shelter  and  lay  of  land, 
it  is  much  easier  to  stock  a  stream  with  small  fingerlings 
raised  in  a  hatchery  than  to  try  to  raise  them  in  ponds. 
In  stocking  a  stream  the  young  fish  should  be  taken  to 
its  headwaters,  or  put  into  the  springs  and  rivulets  which 
empty  into  it.  As  they  grow  larger  they  will  gradually 
settle  down  stream,  and  run  up  again  to  headwaters  in 
the  fall  and  winter  to  spawn.  No  brook  that  has  once 
contained  trout  need  be  without  them,  if  the  waters  re- 
main pure  and  cold. 

13.  Trout  ponds. — Pure,  spring  water  is  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  the  construction  of  a  trout  pond.  The 
spring  or  springs  should  have  a  fall  of  2  or  3  feet,  and  if 
more  than  one  pond  is  made,  a  fall  of  5  or  6  feet  would  be 
an  advantage.  The  more  the  water  the  less  the  need  for 
a  considerable  fall.  In  building  a  pond  it  is  advisable  to 
cover  the  immediate  area  over  the  springs  with  gravel 
for  the  fish  to  spawn  on.  The  borders  of  the  pond  should 
be  shallow,  so  that  the  little  fish  may  run  up  into  the 
shallow  water  and  escape  the  large  fish ;  or  have  the  pond 
so  arranged  that  after  the  fish  have  spawned  the  large 
ones  m.ay  be  removed.  This  plan  allows  the  eggs  to 
hatch  out  and  the  young  to  develop  without  danger  of 
being  preyed  upon  by  the  older  fish.  After  the  finger- 
lings  have  reached  a  good  size  they  may  be  removed  from 
the  spawning  section  to  the  rearing  section,  the  old  ones 


FISH    FOR   THE    FARM  323 

being  returned  for  another  spawning-  season.  In  this 
way  a  good  many  fish  can  be  raised  without  much 
trouble. 


Where   Trout    Thrive    Under   Artificial    Conditions 

Note  the  cloth  spread  across  the  water  to  shade  the  very  small  trout  from  the 
sun.  The  creek  itself  is  not  shown  in  the  picture.  The  pools  are  provided  with 
water  from  a  small  dam  just  above  their  head.  This  plant  contains  900  feet  of 
pools,  and  is  capable  of  harboring  a  million  trout. 

14.  Feeding  fish. — In  stocking  ponds  some  food  in  ad- 
dition to  what  the  pond  provides  in  low  forms  of  plant 
and  animal  life  is  often  necessary.  In  the  list  of  ap- 
proved foods  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  Heart, 
liver  and  lungs  of  slaughtered  animals,  sour  milk  curd, 
dry  bread,  oatmeal,  worms  and  insects  and  fish  flesh. 
These  should  be  finely  ground  and  be  given  in  moderate 
quantities  and  at  regular  intervals.  Live  minnows  and 
ground  flesh  of  wornout  farm  animals  may  also  be  used 
for  growing  fingerlings  and  mature  fish. 

15.  Eggs  and  hatching. — A  female  fish  is  capable  of 
developing    a   vast    number   of   tiny    eggs.     These   are 


324  FARM    ANIMALS 

spawned  in  the  nesting  place  and  if  properly  fertilized 
and  not  destroyed  by  other  fish  of  the  eame  tribe  or  by 
other  natural  enemies  a  very  large  family  of  young  fry 
results.  After  breaking  through  its  shallow  shell  and 
emerging  from  the  tgg  the  young  fry  is  still  encumbered 
with  the  yolk  sac,  which  extends  all  along  the  abdomen. 
The  yolk  is  the  bal^y  fish's  nourishment  and  as  long  as  it 
remains  no  other  food  is  required.  The  length  of  time 
the  sac  remains  on  the  fry  varies  with  different  kinds  of 
fish.  The  fall-spawning  varieties  possess  the  yolk  sacs 
for  a  month  or  two,  but  those  varieties  that  cast  their 
spawn  in  the  spring  do  away  with  their  little  nursing  bot- 
tles in  a  few  days.  Eggs  from  fish  that  spawn  in  the 
spring  hatch  in  a  short  time  and  the  young  are  soon  able 
to  escape  and  hide  from  their  enemies.  Fall  spawners, 
like  the  brook  trout,  require  two  or  three  months  for 
hatching  and  leaving  the  yolk.  It  is  evident  that  all 
tribes  subject  to  slow  development  are  most  liable  to  be 
destroyed  during  their  days  of  infancy  and  early  youth. 

Fish  hatcheries. — Most  states  now  support  establishments  in 
which  are  artificially  hatched  many  millions  of  fish  eggs  for  stock- 
ing streams,  lakes,  rivers  and  ponds.  These  meritorious  enter- 
prises are  supported  by  public  funds.  When  the  small  fish  have 
reached  the  proper  size  they  are  furnished  to  the  public  at  cost  or 
free.  The  federal  government  also  hatches  vast  numbers  of  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  fish,  which  are  given  to  interested  persons  on 
request.  The  application  for  fingerlings  for  stocking  purposes  re- 
quires a  description  of  the  pond,  lake  or  stream  and  the  kind  of 
fish  desired.  Those  in  charge  give  suggestions  as  to  what  variety 
is  most  suitable  and  directions  as  to  handling,  care  and  culture. 


PRACTICUMS. 


1.  Observing  Bees  and  Their  Work.— For  this  purpose  use  fresh- 
ly killed  specimens,  or  specimens  from  alcohol,  or  pinned  specimens, 
(a)  Study  the  number  and  arrangement  of  wings.  Make  a 
drawing  of  each  wing.  Study  the  number  and  structure  of  the  legs. 
Draw  one  of  each,  showing  the  differences,  (b)  Note  the  an- 
tennae cleaner  and  w^ax  pliers  in  the  front  pair.  Note  the  pollen 
baskets  in  the  hind  pair.  If  a  drone  and  queen  can  be  obtained, 
note  if  they  each  have  these  features  of  leg  structure.  What  is 
the  function  of  the  hairs  on  the  legs?  Examine  these  under  a  mi- 
croscope, (c)  Study  the  eyes  under  a  hand  lens  and  under  a 
low-power  compound  microscope.  Draw  them,  enlarged  Describe 
them.  Are  there  any  single  eyes  or  ocelli?  Draw  them.  Where? 
Show  in  drawing.  (d)  Length  of  antennae.  How  many  parts 
or  joints?  Where  attached?  Make  enlarged  drawings.  (Always 
enlarge  drawings  to  a  certain  definite  scale,  and  state  the  scale 
of  enlargement.)  (e)  Examine,  then  describe,  the  mouth  parts. 
Are  there  any  sharp  teeth  on  the  maxillae  or  jaws?  Is  there  any 
sharp  point  in  connection  with  the  proboscis?  Note  that  there  are 
no  structures  in  the  bee's  mouth  by  which  it  can  cut  open  or  punc- 
ture fruits.  Examine  the  proboscis  or  tongue  under  a  microscope 
and  draw  the  same.  If  a  live  bee  can  be  obtained,  feed  it  honey  or 
syrup,  or  moistened  sugar,  and  see  how  it  feeds.  (/)  Note  the 
hairs  on  the  thorax.  Are  any  foreign  particles  to  be  found  upon 
them?  Scrape  or  brush  the  legs  and  thorax  over  a  glass  slide 
and  examine  the  dust  with  a  microscope.  Are  the  particles  regu- 
lar (uniform)  in  shape  or  size?  If  any  bee  can  be  found  with 
material  in  the  pollen  baskets  of  its  legs,  examine  this  material  un- 
der a  microscope.  If  at  a  time  of  year  when  the  bees  are  col- 
lecting pollen  or  visiting  flowers,  be  sure  to  collect  some  of  them 
that  are  covered  with  dust  and  examine  the  dust.  Collect  some  of 
the  flowers  they  are  visiting  and  examine  their  parts,  and  espe- 
cially the  flower  dust  or  pollen.  What  was  the  material  the  bees  were 
carrying?  Bring  out  the  point  that  the  pollen  is  an  essential  fer- 
tilizing or  fructifying  element  of  the  flower,  and  that  it  is  essential 
for  this  to  be  carried  to  another  flower  or  another  plant.  This  is 
called  cross-fertiHzation.  Stronger  plants  arise  through  this  cross- 
ing; also  new  strains,  races,  or  varieties  originate  as  the  product 
of  such  crossing.  (^)  What  is  the  fundamental  function  or  pur- 
pose of  the  bee  in  nature?  If  possible  kill  and  cut  or  break  open 
a  bee  that  has  been  for  some  time  at  the  flowers.  Note  the  clear 
drop  in  the  sac  in  the  abdomen.  What  is  this?  Discuss  the 
source  of  nectar  and  how  it  is  carried  with  the  bees.  Kill,  and  ex- 
amine the  contents  of  the  honey  sac  of  a  bee  that  has  just  come  to 
the  flowers  and  note  its  si?^  compared  with  the  former.    What  is 

325 


326  FARM    ANIMALS 


the  relationship  of  the  bee  to  Uie  flower?  What  does  it  take,  and 
what  does  it  give?  Can  it  injure  fruits  if  they  are  not  first  punc- 
tured or  opened  by  some  other  agency? 

2.  Where  Bees  Work.— \"isit  the  fields  where  bees  are  attend- 
ing flowers,  and  note  the  kinds  of  flowers  on  which  the  bees  work 
and  the  kinds  on  which  they  do  not.  (a)  Are  honey  bees  found 
on  white  clover?  Are  they  found  on  red  clover?  What  is  the 
length  of  the  proboscis  of  a  bee?  Measure  it  accurately,  (b) 
What  is  the  length  of  the  corolla  tube  of  white  clover?  What  is 
the  length  of  the  corolla  tube  of  red  clover?  Why  do  bees  visit 
the  former  and  not  the  latter?  Make  a  study  of  the  various  flow- 
ers visited  by  bees  in  relation  to  kind,  the  shape  of  the  blossom, 
length  of  corolla  tube,  etc.  Do  bees  visit  one  kind  of  flower  only 
while  on  one  trip,  or  do  they  visit  several  kinds? 

3.  Honey  and  Its  Production. — If  honey  and  comb  from  hives 
cannot  be  obtained,  a  section  can  be  purchased  from  almost  any 
grocery,  (a)  What  is  the  thickness  of  honeycomb?  How  is  it 
supported?  How  is  the  honey  retained?  How  are  the  cells  of  the 
two  sides  placed  in  regard  to  each  other?  Upon  what  do  these  cells 
rest?  Measure  the  exact  depth  and  diameter  of  a  cell.  Are  they 
all  of  the  same  diameter?  What  is  their  shape?  Are  they  of  the 
same  shape?  How  are  they  covered?  Is  there  any  space  between 
the  wax  capping  and  the  liquid  honey?  Puncture  it  and  let  out  the 
air,  and  turn  it  with  the  covering  of  the  cell  downward,  or  press 
it  with  the  finger.  What  is  the  difference  in  appearance?  Why 
was  it  white  before  and  watery  afterward?  What  are  the  advan- 
tages of  hexagonal  cells?  Note  both  economy  of  material  and 
strength  of  structure,  (b)  Examine  the  honey  under  a  microscope. 
Melt  the  wax  capping  of  a  cell  very  gently  on  a  microscopic  slide 
by  holding  a  match  under  it.  Keep  it  warm  and  melted  while  ex- 
amining with  a  microscope;  what  is  to  be  found?  As  a  rule  pollen 
grains  will  be  found  mixed  with  the  honey,  and  always  with  the 
capping.     Are  these  all  of  one  kind,  or  of  different  kinds? 

The  teacher  should  have  some  blossoms  of  different  plants  and 
trees  producing  honey,  even  though  they  are  dry  and  preserved 
in  envelopes  for  this  purpose.  The  anthers  can  be  softened  up  by 
moisture,  and  a  few  pollen  grains  obtained;  and  by  careful  micro- 
scopic study  one  can  determine  the  kind  of  plant  from  which  the 
honey  was  produced  by  the  kind  of  pollen  grains  with  it. 

The  salient  points  to  be  brought  out  are  that  workers  and  queens 
are  alike  in  structure  and  drones  different.  There  are  special 
structures  by  which  a  bee  is  able  to  perform  its  peculiar  functions 
of  visiting  and  pollenizing  ce^-tain  flowers  and  gathering  nectar. 
This  nectar  is  transformed  by  the  bee  into  honey,  and  is  stored  in 
their  waxen  cells.  The  pollen  masses  are  put  into  other  cells  as 
bee  bread,  but  accidentally  some  pollen  grains  find  their  way  into 
the  honey.  Pollen  grains  are  used  also  with  the  cappings  of  the 
comb. 

Bees  are  unable  to  bite  open  fruits,  although  they  may  suck  them 
after  other  insects  or  agencies  have  opened  them.     Bees  visit  cer- 


FISH    FOR    THE    FARM  327 


tain  kinds  of  flowers  for  nectar  or  pollen  or  both,  but  others  they 
do  not  visit.  The  latter  may  be  pollenized  by  other  insects  or  by 
other  means.     (After  Surface.) 

4.  Choosing  the  Best  Animals. — Continue  the  judging  of  live 
stock,  using  for  material  any  class  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  or  swine 
most  available  and  of  most  importance  in  the  community.  If  pos- 
sible have  four  or  five  animals  to  score  and  judge. 

5.  Reasons  for  Choosing. — In  case  several  animals  of  any  one 
class  are  available,  let  each  student  examine  all  individually  and 
place  them  in  accordance,  as  his  judgment  indicates.  They 
should  be  ranked  as  first,  second,  third,  fourth  and  fifth,  etc.,  so 
as   to   include   all  in   the   exhibit. 

Now  write  your  reasons  for  so  placing  the  animals.  State  why 
one  was  given  first  place,  and  in  what  way  it  is  superior  over  the 
one  placed  second.  It  is  important  to  place  animals  properly,  but  it 
is  equally  important  to  know  why  the  animals  have  Ijeen  so  placed. 
The  more  drill  that  it  is  possible  to  give  in  placing  animals  and  in 
stating  the  reasons  for  so  placing,  the  greater  the  interest  in  the. 
work  becomes  and  the  more  valuable  the  work  develops  to  be.  A 
great  deal  of  pracdce  is  required  of  this  sort  to  become  an  accom- 
plished judge  of  live  stock. 


LESSON   THIRTY-ONE 
EGGS  AND  THE  HEN 

1.  Purpose. 

2.  Character  of  an  Ggg. 

3.  Egg  shells. 

4.  White  of  an  egg. 

5.  Yolk. 

6.  Germ. 

7.  Development   of   embryo. 

8.  Handling  incubating  eggs. 

9.  Eggs   for   hatching. 

10.  Broody  hens. 

11.  Selecting  layers. 

12.  Laying  type. 

13.  La3^ing  ability  improved 

14.  Management  of  laying  flock. 

15.  A\'hen  hens  molt. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — Literest  in  poultry  raising  is 
steadily  growing.  Poultry  products  are  in  greater  de- 
mand than  ever.  The  obvious  purpose  of  this  lesson, 
however,  is  not  directly  to  cover  these  points.  It  is 
rather  to  define  the  meaning  of  an  Qgg,  to  learn  of  the 
parts  comprising  it,  and  from  this  information  to  de- 
duct the  proper  meaning  that  the  best  results  in  the  more 
practical  operations  of  raising  fowls  for  eggs  and  meat 
may  be  secured.  The  composition  and  nature  of  the  egg 
must  be  fundamentally  considered  in  order  to  attain  the 
best  success  with  laying  flocks. 


FARM    ANIMALS 


-t 


*>.-  f 


''»^^: 


.;^-  . 


Six  Popular  Varieties  of  Domestic  Fowl 

Top  row:  At  left,  Rhode  Island  Red;  at  right,  Black  Java.  Middle  row:  At  left 
Buff  Leghorn;  at  right,  Dominique.  Bottom  row:  At  left,  Black  Minorca:  at  rietit.' 
Black   Orpington. 


LESSON  THIRTY-ONE. 


EGGS  AND  THE  HEN. 


Biddy  and  Her  Family 


1.  Purpose. — In  most  kinds  of  animals  reproduction 
takes  place  by  means  of  eggs.  Mammals  give  birth  to 
and  suckle  their  young.  Birds  and  many  of  the  lower 
species  produce  eggs.     Great  variation  exists  as  to  the 

manner  of  reaching  adult 
life.  With  some  members 
of  the  animal  kingdom  many 
changes  occur,  the  little  crea- 
ture on  hatching  being  alto- 
gether different  than  at 
other  stages  of  its  existence. 
The  life  history  of  a  butter- 
fly or  moth  is  a  story  quite 
different  from  that  of  a 
snake  or  fish,  and  that  of  a 
bird  from  that  of  a  tadpole  or  lobster.  In  domestic 
poultry,  on  hatching  from  the  egg,  a  baby  bird  is  born, 
identical  in  every  w^ay  with  its  subsequent  enlargement. 
The  egg  is  for  the  purpose  of  reproduction.  It  is  the  be- 
ginning and  the  end  of  the  life  cycle.  Birds,  according 
to  their  sex,  produce  eggs  or  contribute  to  their  fertiliza- 
tion in  order  that  their  species  may  be  perpetuated.  Egg 
laying  is  not  to  provide  a  nutritious  food  for  the  break- 
fast table. 

2.  Character  of  an  egg. — An  ordinary  good-sized  hen's 
egg  weighs  about  two  ounces.  The  weight  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  breed,  some  eggs  weighing  2^   ounces. 

330 


EGGS   AND   THE    HEN 


331 


Eggs  Showing  Good   Size   and 
Shell 


and  others  1^  ounces  or  less.  An  egg  consists  of  four 
parts — the  outer  covering  or  shell,  the  yolk  or  food  sup- 
ply of  the  chick  at  hatching,  the  white,  or  mass  of  albu- 
men for  developing  the  embryo,  and  the  germ,  or  life  sub- 
stance. The  white  material  comprises  about  60  per  cent 
of  the  entire  Qgg,  the  yolk  about  30  per  cent  and  the  shell 
about  10  per  cent. 

3.  Egg  shells. — The  outer  covering  of  an  egg  is  some- 
times brown  and  sometimes  white,  the  color  depending 

in  a  large  measure  on  the  breed 
or  variety  of  the  hen.  Color  is 
due  to  a  pigment  developed  in 
the  shell  and  is  a  fixed  character 
of  the  breed.  The  shell  is  com- 
posed of  carbonate  of  lime, 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  animal 
gluten.  It  is  very  porous.  It 
has  between  the  particles  of  lime  an  innumerable  number 
of  very  small  holes,  which  allow  the  air  to  pass  freely 
backward  and  forward  during  the  process  of  incubation. 
If  it  were  not  for  these  tiny  holes  the  embryo  within 
would  die  for  want  of  oxygen  to  revive  the 
impure  blood  that  it  produces. 

Moisture  is  evaporated  through  these  holes.  The 
rapidity  will  depend  on  the  conditions  and  the 
temperature  under  which  the  egg  is  kept.  The  air 
space  at  the  broad  end  of  the  egg  indicates  the 
amount  that  has  been  evaporated.  The  longer  an 
egg  is  kept  the  larger  the  air  space  becomes.  This 
is  one  way  to  tell  the  age  of  an  egg. 

4.  White  of  an  egg. — The  white  of  an 
egg  is  a  strong  solution  of  albumen  in 
water,  and  while  readily  mixable  with  water  in  its  ordi- 
nary state,  it  becomes  insoluble  when  subjected  to  heat. 
In  100  parts,  the  white  consists  of  80  of  water,  15>^  of 


Egg  Showing  En- 
largement OF 
Air  Space  Up 
TO  19  Days, 


332      ,  FARM    ANIMALS 

pure  albumen,  and  4^  of  salts  and  ash.  It  is  formed  in 
three  layers,  which  can  be  plainly  seen  when  a  hard- 
boiled  egg  is  cut  in  two. 

5.  Yolk. — What  is  known  as  yolk  is  a  strong  solution 
of  albumen,  through  which  multitudes  of  globules  of  fat 

are  suspended,  the 
whole  being  inclosed 
in  a  sac  that  floats  in 
the  white.  In  100 
parts,  water  composes 
5334,  all)umen  17^ 
and     fat     or     oil     28^ 

Seven  Days  of  Incubation  parts.  I  he       yolk       IS 

a,  fresh  egg;  b,  weak  germ;  and  c,  strong  lighter    than    the    white 

and  therefore  rises  to 
the  upper  side  whichever  way  the  tgg  is  turned.  The 
yolk  serves  as  food  while  the  chick  is  developing  inside 
the  shell  and  for  the  first  days  after  hatching.  This  ex- 
plains why  a  chick  requires  no  food  for  a  short  period 
after  it  leaves  its  shell. 

6.  Germ. — Next  to  the  shell,  and  fastened  to  the  yolk, 
the  germ  or  true  tgg  is  to  be  found.  It  is  known  as  the 
blastodefm,  the  minute 
nucleus  of  what  is  after- 
ward to  be  the  chick. 
This  word  means  sprout- 
ing skin.  The  blasto- 
derm is  present  whether 
the  Q:gg  is  fertile  or  not, 
so     that     it     is     impos- 

l^wo  Fourteen   Days  of  Incubation 

Slble     to     tell     beforehand     a,  strong,  live  embryo;   b,  weak,  live  embryo; 

whether     an     egg     will  ''  '^^^^  '"'^'■^°- 

produce  a  chick.     A  fertile  and  infertile  egg  to  the  naked 

eye  are  the  same  in  appearance.     The  application  of  a 


EGGS    AND    THE    HEN 


333 


few  hours'  warmth  of  the  required  temperature  brings 
into  activity  all  the  power  lying-  dormant  from  the  time 
the  egg  was  laid.  Afer  five  or  six  hours,  little  finger- 
like processes  begin  to  creep  out  from  the  blastoderm  and 
gradually  distribute  them- 
selves over  the  whole  of  the 
yolk. 

Eggs  raised  for  commercial  pur- 
poses should  not  be  fertilized,  and 
they  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  place 
during  collection  for  shipment.  Fer- 
tile eggs  in  the  hot  days  of  summer 
show  signs  of  incubation  very 
quickly.  If  roosters  are  kept  away 
from  the  laying  flock  and  a  cool 
basement  is  chosen  for  the  storage 
place,  the  eggs  will  remain  fresh 
much  longer  and  they  can  be  shipped 
a  longer  distance. 

7.  Development  of  embryo. 
— A  fertile  egg  incubates  very 
rapidly  if  provided  with  the 
proper  degree  of  heat.  After 
only  18  hours  the  head  of  the 
future  chick,  with  eyes  enor- 
mously developed,  and  the 
spinal  column,  are  plainly  dis- 
cernible under  the  microscope. 
After  40  hours  there  is  a  com- 
plete blood  circulation,  the 
heart  is  formed  and  beating 
commenced,  and  the  blood  ves- 
sels have  spread  over  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  upper 
yolk.     These    are    of    a    dual 


Development  of   Chick 


a,  eighteen  hours;  b,  second  day 

c,    forty    hours;    d,    third     day;     e 

,  ,  ^       .  fourth  day;  /,  fifth  day;  g,  just  be 

character;    some    are    arteries,    fore  hatching;  h.  at  peeping  time 


taking    blood    away    from    the 


and  i,  nearly  out  of  she! 


334 


FARM    ANIMALS 


embryo,  some  are  veins  bringing  the  blood  back  again. 
The  heart  commences  pulsating  about  the  second  or  third 
day.  When  blood  circulation  begins  impure  air  is  re- 
vived by  the  oxygen,  obtained  from  the  air  that  passes 
in  and  out  of  the  holes  of  the  shells.  Were  you  to  coat 
over  with  wax  an  incubating  Qgg,  the  embryo  would  die 
from  want  of  fresh  air. 

8.  Handling  incubating  eggs. — Eggs  during  incubation 
require  cautious  handling;  otherwise  the  delicate  blood 
vessels,  which  form  a  perfect  maze  of  tracery  over  the 
yolk,  may  be  disturbed  or  injured.  The  less  that  eggs 
are  moved  about,  the  less  danger  of  damaging  the  fragile 
and  delicate  interior.  Many  dead  embryos  in  the  incu- 
bator are  the  result  of  careless  turning  and  handling.  In 
testing  out  a  hatch  to  remove  the  infertile  eggs,  it  is  very 
important  that  the  work  be  done  with  careful  movements 
in  order  not  to  shake  or  twist  the  sensitive  and  delicate 
organs  inside  the  egg. 


Eggs  to  Avoid  for  Hatching 

Note   the   ridges   and   imperfect  shape   of  the  shell:   avoid  such   in 
selecting  eggs  for  hatching. 


EGGS    AND   THE    HEN  335 

9.  Eggs  for  hatching. — In  selecting  eggs  for  hatching 
use  only  those  of  uniform  size  and  color,  with  smooth, 
strong  shells.  Abnormal  eggs  are  likely  to  produce  weak 
or  crippled  chicks.  The  eggs  should  be  stored  in  a  room 
where  the  temperature  ranges  from  40  to  50  degrees. 
Eggs  for  hatching  should  be  turned  two  or  three  times  a 
week  until  the  required  number  *has  been  collected. 
Never  set  dirty  eggs.  If  they  are  dirty,  carefully  wipe 
with  a  damp  cloth  until  all  spots  are  removed.  Eggs  are 
at  their  best,  both  as  to  fertility  and  vitality,  when  natural 
hatching  is  in  season.     Before  this  time  fertility  is  poor 


.Pi 

'  ^^S^^^'^ 

^^^"^^ 

■*":cL 

li 

^1 

^  ^^ 

y  'M  -^  A 

^4*-  i^  -*'""' 'i^|fc--VTiiira^ 

E     .iSP^ 

Effective   Care   for  Broody   Hens 

It  will  be  observed  that  there  are  nothing  but  roosts,  and  the  hens,  therefore, 
cannot  sit  in  a  broody  position. 

and  vitality  excellent.  In  summer,  more  eggs  are  fertile, 
but  the  vitality  of  the  chicks  is  lower  than  earlier  in  the 
year. 

10.  Broody  hens. — Hens  kept  mainly  for  producing  eggs 
often  annoy  the  poultryman  by  persistent  broodiness. 
These  should  be  culled  out  and  never  used  for  breeders. 
In  otherwise  normal  hens  broodiness  may  be  broken 
when  necessary.  It  is  usually  an  advantage  to  allow  the 
hens  to  hatch  broods,  since  this  gives  them  a  rest  from 
laying.     Hens  of  the  general  purpose  varieties  usually 


336 


FARM    ANIMALS 


lay  better  during  the  molt  than  hens  of  the  noted  egg 
breeds.  These  eg-g  layers  generally  take  a  long  rest,  the 
sitters  two  or  three  short  ones. 

To  break  up  broodiness,  a  quick  way  is  to  confine  the  hens  with 
a  reserve  male  in  a  pen  where  there  are  no  nests.  While  so  con- 
fined, the  hens  should  be  fed  well  on  an  egg  ration.  Often  the  hens 
will  begin  to  lay  within  a  week  or  ten  days.  Under  no  condition 
should  starving  be  practiced.  It  is  not  only  cruel  and  ineffective,  but 
the  poultryman  who  practices  it  pays  the  penalty  by  injuring  the 
laying  proclivities  of  the  hen. 

11.  Selecting  layers. — Laying  hens  are  nearly  always 
singers.  They  work  and  hunt  for  food 
all  day,  and  are  the  first  oflf  of  the 
roost  and  the  last  to  go  to  roost.  They 
are  nervous  and  very  active,  keeping 
themselves  up  to  the  greatest  possible 
l)itch.  In  selecting  layers,  seek  out 
the  active,  hustling  kind  and  reject 
those  dull,  lazy  and  inactive. 

12.  Laying  type. — The  ideal  laying 
hen  should  conform  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible to  the  following.  She  must  be 
healthy;  comb,  wattles  and   face  red; 

eye  bright  and  lustrous ;  neck  not  short,  but  medium  to 

long;  breast  broad  and  long,  slop- 
ing    upward ;     back,     long     and 

broad ;  abdomen,  wide  and  deeper 

than  breast;  shanks  well  spread 

and    rather    long;    V-shaped    in 

three  ways — on  sides  from  front 

to  rear,  top  and  bottom  from  front 

to    rear,    and    from    base    of   tail, 

downwards;  and  well-spread  tail. 
13.  Laying  ability  improved. — 

Hens  should  be  brought  into  lay-  ,  ..j.-t^T  ?'' . 

o  -'^  A    White    Leghorn    hen. 


Selected  Barred  Plym- 
outh Rock  Layer 


EGGS   AND   THE    HEN 


337 


ing  as  early  as  possible.  When  hens  begin  to  lay  in  the 
fall,  they  are  more  likely  to  continue  laying  than  if  they 
are  expected  to  start  laying  some  months  later.  Many 
pullets  which  begin  to  lay  in  the  fall  are  naturally  poor 
layers  and  soon  play  out.  The  sooner  such  fowls  are 
taken  out  of  the  flock  the  better.  They  should  not  be 
used  for  breeding.  An  important  thing  to  remember  in 
rearing  fowls  for  winter  laying  is  to  have  the  pullets 
mature  between  September  and  November.  This  can  be 
determined  by  the  date  of  hatching  and  by  the  method 
of  rearing. 


Fowls  Selected  for  Laying  Ability 

These  are  White  Wyandottes   and   are   an  excellent   type  of  layers.     The  trap   nests 
have  testified  as  to  their  laying  qualities 


14.  Management  of  laying  flock. — So  far  as  egg  laying 
is  concerned,  the  tgg  farmer's  year  begins  in  October. 
Everything  should  then  be  put  in  readiness  for  egg  pro- 
duction. The  pullets  and  hens  should  be  placed  in  their 
permanent  winter  quarters  and  special  care  taken  to  pre- 
vent overcrowding.  The  sooner  the  flocks  are  made  up, 
the  better,  as  a  rule,  because  they  then  get  accustomed 


338 


FARM    ANIMALS 


to  their  quarters,  and  there  is  less  danger  of  upsetting 
them  when  they  begin  to  lay.  None  l)ut  mature  pullets 
should  be  selected  for  laying.  All  that  are  puny,  under- 
sized, lazy,  weak  or  otherwise  undesirable  should  be 
weeded  out  and  sold  for  the  table.  They  will  not  pay 
their  board. 

Only  such  hens  as  have  proved  their  worthiness  in  the  previous 
season  should  be  kept  over  for  a  second  or  third  winter.  They 
usually  make  good  breeders  and  the  breeding  flock  should  be 
selected  from  them  rather  than  from  pullets.  Too  often,  however, 
in  the  farm  flock,  the  reverse  practice  is  followed.  The  hens  that 
are  in  best  condition  are  sold ;  the  inferior  ones  are  kept  for  egg 
production. 


Laying  Flock  Taking  Daily  Exercise 


These  are  early  hatched  birds  which  began  to  lay  long  before  the  approach  of  win- 
ter.    They  are  healthy,  thrifty,  have  good  appetites  and  are  carefully  managed. 


15.  When  hens  molt. — It  is  just  as  important  to  feed 
well  for  eggs  as  it  is  to  breed  well  for  them.  Contrary 
to  popular  opinion,  hens  that  are  molting  should  be  fed 
well.  It  does  not  pay  to  stint  molting  hens.  However, 
they  should  not  get  a  ration  too  rich  in  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter, because  they  are  not,  as  a  rule,  laying,  and  they  do 
better  when  given  a  ration  richer  than  usual  in  carbona- 
ceous ingredients.  Even  if  this  is  a  fattening  ration,  it 
will  do  no  harm.     By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  the  nitrog- 


EGGS   AND  THE   HEN 


339 


enous  matter  should  be  cut  out  of  the  ration  altogether. 
Feather  production  demands  protein,  which  must  not  be 
fed  too  sparingly.  It  is  pref- 
erable, as  a  general  rule,  to 
have  fowls  somewhat  too  fat 
than  poor  or  even  in  merely 
good  condition.  By  proper 
management  many  good  lay- 
ing hens  will  lay  an  occasional 
^gg,  even  while  going  through 
molting,  but  this  is  not  general. 

Pullets  can  J3e  fed  more  highly 
than  hens  during  the  early  fall 
months,  because  they  already  have 
their  feathers  and  are  still  growing. 
At  this  time,  they  need  abundant 
protein,  because  they  are  not  only 
growing  in  flesh,  but  are  filling  out 
their  bones  and  either  preparing  for, 
or  actually  laying.  A  pullet  is  by  no  means  fully  matured  when  she 
starts  to  lay.  Ample  food  is  needed  to  complete  the  development. 
For  best  results,  however,  pullets  should  not  be  unduly  forced  to 
begin  laying  early.  Indeed,  it  is  often  advantageous  to  delay  laying 
somewhat  by  frequently  changing  the  pullets'  quarters.  This  is  the 
only  method  that  can  be  practiced  with  safety.  It  will  not  do  to 
withhold  food. 


Protected    Water    Vessel 


LESSON    THIRTY-TWO. 
INCUBATION  AND  BROODING. 

1.  Hens  for  hatching. 

2.  Artificial  incubation. 

3.  Incubator  essentials. 

4.  Placing-  the  incul)ator. 

5.  Eggs  for  hatching. 

6.  Trying  out  the  machine. 

7.  Turning  the  eggs. 

8.  Testing  the  eggs. 

9.  Last  days  of  hatch. 

10.  Transferring  to  brooder 

11.  First  day  in  brooder. 

12.  First  week  in  brooder. 

13.  From  second  to  sixth  week. 

14.  Hen-hatched  chicks. 

15.  Sanitation. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  purpose  of  this  lesson  is 
not  to  compare  natural  incubation  with  artificial  incuba- 
tion, but  rather  to  define  the  essential  factors  that  have 
to  do  with  the  proper  handling  of  incubators  and  brood- 
ers. Certain  fundamental  principles  are  involved  in  all 
styles  of  incubators,  and  these  should  be  understood  as  a 
first  step  in  their  successful  operation.  Make  plain  the 
importance  of  cleanliness  and  sanitation  in  hatching 
chicks  regardless  of  the  method  of  hatching  the  eggs. 

340 


LESSON    THIRTY-TWO. 
INCUBATION  AND  BROODING. 

1.  Hens  for  hatching. — The  natural  method  of  incu- 
bating or  hatching  eggs  is  by  hens.  Hens  have  the  nat- 
ural instinct  of  perpetuating  their  species,  and  after  lay- 
ing for  a  time  they  desire  to  raise  a  brood  of  their  kind. 
Before  breed  specialization  became  an  art  and  science, 
the  hen  laid  a  number  of  eggs  and  then  was  ready  to  sit 
and  hatch  them.  But  this  system  meant  few  eggs  and 
many  mothers.  By  breeding  and  selection  the  egg-lay- 
ing habit  has  been  fostered,  and  the  egg-hatching  instinct 
lessened.  As  a  consequence  some  breeds  of  fowls  have 
been  developed  in  which  the  mother  desire  has  been 
largely  eliminated.  This  is  an  advantage  where  hens  are 
raised  largely  for  eggs.  Where  only  a  few  chicks  are 
raised  each  year,  hatching  by  hens  is  a  popular  custom ; 
on  farms  it  is  the  most  common. 

2.  Artificial  incubation. — When  it  is  necessary  to  hatch 
on  a  large  scale  and  as  rapidly  and  as  economically  as 
possible,  the  system  is  very  different.     To  realize  good 


''^'m^m-.^i 

W  ^^"^'if      i 

Common  Method  of  Hatching  on  the  Farm 
341 


342  FARM    ANIMALS 

profits  recourse  must  be  had  to  an  incubator.  The  incu- 
bator is  simply  a  machine  or  artificial  hen  that  does  for 
the  eggs  what  nature  demands.  With  eggs  well  fertilized 
a  good  hen  will  produce  good  chickens.  A  good  machine 
well  managed  will  give  the  same  and  even  better  results, 
but  more  care  and  attention  will  be  required  for  machine- 


Taking  the  Hatch  from  the  Incubator 

Having  given  close  attention  to  all  the  details  of  selecting  the  eggs  and  running  the 
incubator,  this  man  hatched  93  chicks  out  of  every  100  fertile  eggs. 

hatched  than  hen-hatched  chicks.  A  great  deal  depends 
upon  the  incubator  used.  The  closer  it  approaches  na- 
ture in  its  work  the  better.  Of  the  two  types — hot  water 
and  hot  air — either  is  satisfactory,  providing  the  machine 
is  well  built  and  properly  adjusted. 

3.  Incubator  essentials. — Without  proper  and  well- 
regulated  heat  there  could  be  no  incubation  of  the  eggs. 
Top  heat  is  essential ;  otherwise,  rising  from  the  bottom, 
it  would  evaporate  the  moisture  from  the  eggs  too 
quickly.     Heat  must  therefore  start  not  at  the  bottom  of 


INCUBATION    AND    BROODING 


343 


the  machine  under  the  eggs,  but  at  the  top  over  them. 
This  heat  must  be  stable.  When  a  hen  is  brooding  her 
temperature  is  about  104  degrees.  The  successful  incu- 
bator must  be  capable  of  developing  a  top  heat  of  104 
degrees  to  the  eggs  and  keep  it  steadily  at  that  point. 
While  it  is  true  that  eggs  under  a  hen  vary  in  tempera- 
ture according  to  position,  they  are  changed  in  the  nest 


..-:^-! 

t1   1   ^.: 

Incubator  Cellar 
Showing   the   incubators   in   place. 


from  time  to  time  by  the  hen,  as  every  farm  boy  knows, 
thereby,  on  an  average,  ranging  from  102  to  103  degrees. 
Each  machine  must  also  possess  sufficient  ventila- 
tion. Fresh  air  is  a  perpetual  necessity.  Moisture  is 
essential  in  successful  incubation,  but  a  saturated  atmos- 
phere is  not  v^anted.  The  idea  is  to  replace  w^hat  has 
been  evaporated  through  the  machine. 

Every  reputable  maker  of  incubators  sends  out  instructions  with 
his  machine,  and  the  purchaser  should  follow  these  implicitly.  If 
he  does  not,  he  is  running  a  risk.  The  instructions  sent  out  with 
any  machine  are  the  result  of  experience  with  that  particular  make, 
and  as  the  manufacturer's  interest  lies  in  obtaining  satisfactory 
hatching,  so  the  directions  are  to  that  end  and  should  be  valued. 


344 


FARM    ANIMALS 


4.  Placing  the  incubator. — The  incubator  should  be 
placed  in  a  sunless  room,  or  any  place  where  the  tem- 
perature is  equable  day  and  night,  or  fairly  so.  This 
should  be  airy,  but  sheltered  from  currents  of  air.  Thus 
a  cellar,  an  unused  room,  or  a  stable,  is  satisfactory. 
Where  the  raising  of  poultry  is  carried  on  on  a  large 
scale,  a  special  incubator  cellar  or  room  is  built.  What- 
ever place  is  selected,  it  should  not  be  damp  or  used  as 
a  dumping  ground  of  decaying  vegetables  or  filth.  The 
whole  secret  of  incubation  is  to  maintain  around  well- 
fertilized  eggs  an  even  temperature  and  a  regular  circu- 
lation of  sufficient  fresh  air.  The  placing  of  the  incuba- 
tor in  a  well-protected  place  has  much  to  do  with  a  suc- 
cessful hatch. 

5.  Eggs  for  hatching. — WHiether  the  hen  or  the  incu- 
bator is  used,  choose  the  right  kind  of  eggs.     Not  only 

must  eggs  be  fresh,  but 
they  must  contain  all 
the  elements  and  germs 
that  go  toward  making 
good,  strong  chicks. 
Unless  they  are  care- 
fully selected  from  stock 
birds,  kept  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  insure  a 
certain  amount  of  ani- 
mal vitality,  they  can- 
not turn  out  strong, 
lusty     chicks.      Always 

get  eggs  from  the  best  sources  and  use  eggs  that  are  from 

pure-bred  and  selected  strains. 

6.  Trying  out  the  machine. — Before  filling  the  incu- 
bator after  purchase  or  at  the  beginning  of  a  season,  try 


Good  and  Bad  Stock 

Strong  cock  at  left,  but  weak,  undesirable  in- 
dividual at  right. 


INCUBATION    AND   BROODING 


345 


it  out  first  to  see  if  it  runs  properly  and  maintains  a  stable 
heat.  First  see  that  it  sets  level.  Now  the  lamp  is  to 
be  cleaned  and  filled  with  a  good  grade  of  kerosene  to  get 
a  steady  flame  and  no  smoke.  The  lamp  should  be 
lighted  and  placed  in  "position,  as  several  hours  will  be 
required  to  dry  and  warm  the  woodwork  thoroughly. 
When  the  thermometer  registers  100  degrees,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  examine  the  machine  every  15  or  20  minutes 
in  order  to  adjust  the  thumb  screw  in  the  regulator. 
When  the  thermome- 
ter registers  102  de- 
grees adjust  the  thumb 
screw  so  the  tin  disk 
on  the  regulator  arm 
will  be  just  trembling 
on  the  rise.  The  ma- 
chine should  be  run  at 
least  24  hours  before 
putting  the  eggs  in. 
After     the     eggs     are 

added  the  temperature  will  fall  for  a  time  until  they  have 
been  warmed  up  to  the  rest  of  the  internal  parts. 

7.  Turning  the  eggs. — Punctuality  more  than  science 
is  required  for  cooling  and  turning  the  eggs.  The  turn- 
ing should  be  done  regularly  twice  a  da}^,  from  the  third 
to  the  eighteenth  day,  after  which  the  eggs  should  not 
be  turned.  The  cooling  of  the  eggs  requires  practice. 
At  first  it  is  done  simultaneously  with  the  turning, 
but  as  the  hatch  progresses  the  amount  of  cooling 
must  be  increased.  After  the  seventh  day,  at  one  turn- 
ing each  day,  the  eggs  are  removed  from  the  machine 
until  they  become  cool  to  the  touch.  The  time  re- 
quired for  cooling  will  vary  with  the  temperature  of 
the  room  and  the  development  of  the  embryos.   The  larger 


Turning  the  Eggs 


346 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Testing  Eggs 


the  embryos  in  the  eggs  the  longer  the  heat  is  retained. 
Incubator  eggs  are  not  cooled  after  the  eighteenth  day. 

8.  Testing  the  eggs. — AMien  the  eggs  have  been  hatch- 
ing seven  days  they  should  be  tested.  The  testing  of 
eggs  is  very  easy,  and  after  a  little  experience  one  should 

experience  no  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  the 
good  from  the  bad. 
The  proper  way  to  tell 
a  fertile  egg  is  to  take 
it  between  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  and 
hold  it  before  a  strong 
light.  If  it  is  perfectly 
clear   within,   it   is   not 

1,    common    tester;   2,    egg   properly   held;   3,     j.         ..  .j-  ,. 

incubator   lamp;    4,    untested   eggs;    5,   infertile      lertlle  ;     II,    OU    tllC    COn- 
eggs;   6,  good   eggs.  .  ,       . 

trary,  a  little  black 
speck  with  red  lines  is  seen  to  float  inside  of  it,  looking 
more  or  less  like  a  spider  in  its  web,  it  is  certain  to  be 
fertile.  The  same  examination  should  be  made  on  the 
fifteenth  day.  The  infertile  eggs  should  be  removed  and 
kept  to  feed  the  chicks  later. 

9.  Last  days  of  hatch. — After  the  eighteenth  day  the 
machine  is  closed  and  not  disturbed,  except  to  fill  and 
trim  the  lamp  until  the  hatch 
is  complete.  While  the  eggs  are 
hatching  the  temperature  of  the 
machine  may  go  as  high  as  105, 
or  even  107  degrees;  this  is 
caused  by  the  animal  heat 
given  off  by  the  chicks,  and 
no  attempt  should  be  made 
at  all  to  lower  the  tempera- 
ture   if    the    machine    has    been  ^        ,       ^     ^ 

Xheir  Last  Day  There 


INCUBATION    AND   BROODING 


347 


running  properly  just  previous  to  the  time  of  hatching. 

As  the  chicks  hatch  they  find  their  way  into  the  nursery  space  or 
drawer  of  the  incubator,  which  provides  them  all  they  need  for  36 
to  48  hours.  They  continue  the  absorption  of  the  yolk,  which  serves 
as  food,  and  find  that  the  warmth  of  95  to  98  degrees  is  pleasant  and 
agreeable.  This  slightly  lower  temperature  somewhat  hardens  their 
bodies  and  prepares  them  for  the  brooder  temperature. 

10.  Transferring  to  brooder. — The  newly  hatched 
chicks  should  not  be  fed  or  watered  in  the  incubator. 
About  24  hours  before  using  the  brooder  let  it  be  heated, 
making  sure  of  its  being  dry  and  warm.     The  brooder 

lamp  is  now  adjusted 
so  as  to  get  an  even 
temperature  of  95  de- 
grees in  the  hover-cov- 
ered space  of  the  brood- 
er. This  temperature 
will    be    raised    two    or 

Day-Old  Chicks   Ready    for  Sh.pmhnt        ^j^^^^     dcgrCCS     after     the 

chicks  are  placed  in  their  new  quarters.  During  the  first 
week  the  temperature  is  maintained  at  96  to  98  degrees ; 
after  that  time  it  is  gradually  lowered  to  90  degrees  at 
the  end  of  two  weeks.  From  now  on  a  temperature  of 
75  degrees  in  the  hover  is  sufficient. 

11.  First  day  in  brooder. — The  first  meal  is  due  after 
an  hour  or  two  in  the  brooder. 
Nothing  is  better  than  a 
mixture  of  stale  bread,  rolled 
oats  and  infertile  eggs  from  the 
incubator.  Use  for  the  mixture 
one-third  stale  bread,  one-third 
rolled  oats  or  oatmeal,  and  one- 
third  hard-boiled  eggs,  shells 
and  all,  stirred  up  in  milk.     A 

•    1  1  r       1   •    1        •  ••  Interior  of   100-Chick  Colony 

sprmkle    oi    chick-size    grit    or  „,     .       .    .  u,    . 

^  ^  Showing  adaptable  hover. 


348 


FARM    ANIMALS 


sharp,  clean  sand  on  the  nursery  food  is  advisable.  Feed 
five  to  six  times  a  day,  from  two  to  three  hours  apart. 
Give  what  the  chicks  will  eat  up  clean  in  a  period  of  15 
to  20  minutes.  See  that  the  backward  ones  are  not 
crowded  aside.  Pure,  clean  water  must  be  kept  before 
the  chicks ;  if  the  weather  is  cold,  use  lukewarm  water. 
Drinking  fountains  are  preferable  to  shallow  pans  be- 
cause they  prevent  the  chicks  from  getting  w^et. 

12.  First  week  in  brooder. — After  a  couple  of  days  the 
nursery  food  may  be  dropped  for  a  less  expensive  ration. 

Many  chick  feeds  are  now  on 
the  market  and  these  are  excel- 
lent. Home-made  mixtures 
may  be  secured  by  using 
ground  wheat,  ground  oats, 
or  barley  and  ground  corn,  and 
bran.  Some  green  food  is  de- 
sirable. If  green  clover,  al- 
falfa or  grass  is  not  available, 
steamed  alfalfa  meal,  with  an  equal  amount  by  bulk  of 
bran  and  middlings,  serves  as  an  excellent  substitute. 
The  grain  and  other  seeds  comprising  the  chick  feeds 
may  be  thrown  into  finely  cut  grass,  hay  or  clover,  or 
other  loose  material  after  the  chicks  are  five  or  six  days 
old, so  they  may  get  the  fun  and 
exercise  of  scratching  it  out. 

13.  From  second  to  sixth 
week. — By  the  time  the  chicks 
are  seven  or  eight  days  old 
they  should  be  allowed  to  run 
out  of  doors,  especially  on 
clear  days,  even  if  it  is  cold 
and  raw.  It  is  important  that 
they  be  taught  to  go  to  their  hover,  however,  before  they 


White     Wyandotte     Chicks 
Days   Old 


Five 


Out  of  Doors 


INCUBATION    AND    BROODING  349 

get  chilled.  They  soon  learn  to  go  to  the  heat  when  they 
need  it.  Beginning  with  the  second  week  meat  scrap  and 
charcoal  ought  to  be  added  to  the  food.  Chicks  a  week 
old  crave  both,  the  first  for  its  muscle  and  ash  materials, 
and  the  second  for  its  aid  in  digestion.  Charcoal  pre- 
vents sour  crop  and  bowel  trouble. 

A  shallow  tray  containing  a  mixture  of  high-grade  meat  scrap, 
bran  and  charcoal  should  be  in  easy  access  of  all  the  chicks.  From 
the  second  to  the  sixth  week  this  manner  of  feeding  will  yield 
healthy  and  vigorous  stock,  after  which  time  other  requirements 
having  been  met,  little  trouble  should  arise. 


Mother  and  Home 
The  old,  original  fireless  brooder — with  brains  to  it. 

14.  Hen-hatched  chicks. — If  chicks  are  raised  by  hens, 
dust  the  mother  hen  thoroughly  and  often  to  destroy  lice 
and  mites,  examine  the  chicks  frequently  for  head  lice, 
and  if  any  are  present  touch  the  head  with  kerosene,  and 
feed  as  outlined  above  for  brooder  chicks.  When  the 
chicks  are  a  week  old  give  the  hen  her  liberty  for  part  of 
the  day.  As  she  moves  about  some  food  will  be  secured, 
possibly  bugs,  insects  and  worms.  There  is  nothing  like 
a  sensible  mother  hen  to  look  after  the  wants  of  her 
young.     She  will  scratch  faithfully  and  find  just  the  kind 


350  FARM    ANIMALS 

of  grit,  small  seeds  and  grass  conducive  to  the  proper 
development  of  the  baby  birds.  With  good  foraging 
ground,  supplemented  w^ith  grain  or  mash  at  the  coop 
and  a  bit  of  charcoal  and  animal  meal,  it  is  pleasing  to  see 
how  bright  and  smart  the  young  chicks  become,  and  how 
they  grow  day  by  day. 

15.  Sanitation. — Whether  reared  by  hens  or  by  incu- 
bator and  brooder,  final  success  will  be  due  in  no  small 
degree  to  cleanliness,  pure  food  and  clean  water.  Filth 
in  coop  or  brooder  is  a  sure  road  to  trouble;  it  invites 
disease  germs   and   insects,   and   both   are   disastrous   to 


OuT-OF-DooR  House  and  Run 
These  may  be  readily  moved,  insuring  cleanliness  and  sanitary  quarters. 

young  chicks.  If  brooder  chicks  are  fed  in  deep  litter, 
a  custom  gradually  extending,  the  litter  should  be  re- 
moved at  least  once  a  week.  The  hover  space  should  be 
kept  clean  at  all  times  and  disinfectants  used  fully  to 
keep  away  germs  and  other  poultry  pests.  In  feeding, 
make  sure,  first  to  last,  that  no  musty  grain  or  sour  food 
is  given.  Musty  grain  causes  bowel  disorders,  and  sour 
food  diarrhea.  Food  and  water  should  be  kept  scrupu- 
lously clean  and  pure. 


LESSON    THIRTY-THREE. 
BREEDS  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  FOWL. 

1.  Origin. 

2.  Classification. 

3.  Egg  breeds. 

4.  Meat  breeds. 

5.  General-purpose  breeds. 

6.  American  races. 

7.  Asiatic. 

8.  Mediterranean. 

9.  English. 

10.  Polish. 

11.  Dutch. 

12.  French. 

13.  Indian. 

14.  Game. 

15.  Fancy  fowls. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — In  this  lesson  the  leading  breeds 
of  fowls  are  named  and  their  most  important  character- 
istics pointed  out.  With  this  information  in  hand,  each 
student  will  be  able  to  select  a  variety  best  fitted  to  his 
own  particular  needs,  and  one  that  best  suits  his  fancy 
and  personal  tastes.  Whatever  breed  is  chosen  make 
certain  that  the  foundation  stock  is  well  bred  and  of 
strong  vitality. 


351 


LESSON    THIRTY-THREE. 

BREEDS  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  FOWL. 

1.  Origin. — Two  wild  species  are  involved  in  the  ances- 
try of  the  domestic  fowl,  or  chicken,  as  this  class  of 
scratching  birds  is  popularly  called. 
One  is  the  jungle  fowl  of  India. 
China  and  the  East  Indies,  and 
still  common  in  those  lands.  The 
other  race,  now  extinct,  was  the 
Malay  or  Aseel  fowl.  The  Aseel 
is  thought  to  have  been  the  first 
fowl  domesticated.  It  was  of 
stocky  body  and  broad,  and  not 
given  to  flight.  On  the  other 
hand,    the   jungle     fowl    is    active,  cock-a-doodle-do 

slender  and  flies  with  ease  and  pleasure.  The  early  rear- 
ing of  these  heavier  birds  was  in  Oriental  lands  and  of 
the  lighter  type  along  the  Mediterranean  coast. 


Single  Comb  White  Leghorn 


BREEDS    OF   THE   DOMESTIC  .  FOWL 


353 


2.  Classification.^-In  this  coun- 
try 104  varieties  of  the  domestic 
fowl  have  been  recognized  and  de- 
scribed as  standard  breeds.  These 
have  been  classified  in  various 
ways.  According  to  whether  they 
are  fancy  or  practical ;  to  their  tend- 
ency to  produce  meat  or  eggs ;  to 
their  tendency  to  be  broody ;  and 
according  to  their  place  of  origin. 
Games  and  bantams  are  known  as 
fancy  or  ornamental,  all  the  oth- 
ers as  practical  fowls. 

3.  Egg  breeds. — Most  of  the  tgg 
breeds  are  originated  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
They  are  active  birds,  largely  non- 
sitting,  and  not  inclined  often  to 
enjoy  close  confinement  in  yards 
or  runs,  although  they  do  well 
when  so  confined.  Their  prefer- 
ence is  for  the  open  fields  where 
they  have  the  chance  to  gather 
their  own  food.  They  are  most 
at  home  in  the  warmer  climates, 
but  if  proper  provision  is  made  for 
winter  protection  they  do  excel- 
lently, even  where  the  cold  is  se- 
vere. In  case  the  combs  become 
frozen,  they  will  stop  laying  for  a 
time.  They  are  excitable  and 
nervous  and  fly  at  the  least  dis- 
turbance. The  egg  breeds  most  in 
favor    arc    the    Leghorns,    Minor- 


^\^ 


Egg   Breeds 
From      top      down:       White 
Leghorn,     Minorca,    Hamburg, 
Brown   Leghorn. 


354 


FARM    ANIMALS 


cas,  Spanish,  Andalusian,  Hamburg,  Houdan  and  Polish. 
4.  Meat  breeds. — Fowls  of  this  class  are  not  inclined 
to  forage  for  food.  They  prefer  quiet  and  ease,  and 
therefore  bear  confinement  well,  and  are  not  annoyed 
when  handled  or  disturbed.  They  are  great  sitters,  fly 
unwillingly  and  lay  sparingly.  Their  phlegmatic  nature 
is  favorable  to  meat  production  when  food  is  generously 
provided.     The   heavy  coat  of  feathers   protects   in   the 

coldest  weather,  making  them 
at  home  in  regions  where  the 
climate  is  severe.  Asia  is  the 
land  of  their  origin,  which  ex- 
plains why  they  are  called  the 
Asiatic  breeds.  The  best  known 
meat  breeds  are  the  Cochins, 
Brahmas,  Langshans. 

5.  General-purpose  breeds. — A 
middle  ground  between  the  egg 
type  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
meat  type  on  the  other  is  oc- 
cupied by  the  general  purpose 
breeds.  These  are  birds  of  me- 
dium size,  and  have  blocky, 
compact  bodies.  They  yield 
more  eggs  than  the  meat 
breeds  and  nearly  as  many  as 
the  egg  breeds.  Their  flesh, 
while  less  in  quantity  than  the 
meat  breeds,  is  of  excellent 
quality  and  cheaply  grown. 
They  adjust  themselves  to  con- 
finement or  range  conditions, 
make  good  mothers,  are  less 
persistent    in   sitting    than     the 


Meat   Fowls 


White  Langshans  at  bottom 
Cochin    at   top. 


Buff 


BREEDS   OF   THE   DOMESTIC    FOWL 


355 


Asiatics,  and  most  nearly  meet  all  the  requirements  de- 
manded for  a  general  farm  fowl.  The  leading  breeds 
of  this  class  are  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes, 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  Orpingtons,  Javas 

nd  Dominiques. 
6.  American  races.  —  The  general 
purpose  breeds  are  American  in  origin 
and  development,  the  Orpington,  which 
is  English,  being  an  exception.  The 
six  American  breeds  comprise  many  va- 
rieties, the  Dominique  being  the  earliest 
of  origin.  In  form  they  are  compact 
and  deep,  cocks  averaging  eight  and 
hens  six  pounds.  Next  in  antiquity  is 
the  Java,  in  two  varieties,  Black  and 
Mottled.  They  have  single  combs  and 
clean  shanks.  The  Plymouth  Rock,  the 
most  popular  American  fowl,  is  of 
mixed  origin,  the  Dominique  and  Java 
both  being  a  part  of  the  combination. 
This  breed  contains  several  varieties — 
the  Barred,  White,  Buff,  Silver-Pen- 
ciled and  Partridge.  The  original  Wy- 
andotte was  the  silver  variety,  but  now 
the  breed  includes  White,  Buff,  Silver- 
Penciled  and  Goldens.  This  breed  has 
spread  over  the  whole  of  Europe  and 
America.  They  are  hardy  in  cold 
weather,  and  their  crests  and  combs 
never  freeze.  New  England  furnished 
the  Rhode  Island  Reds.  These  are 
splendid  birds,  in  three  varieties,  Single 
Comb,  Rose  Comb  and  Buckeyes. 

7.  Asiatic. — The  Cochin 


General  Purpose 


From  top  down:  White 

Orpington,     B  a  r  r  e  d 

Plymouth    Rock,   White 

China    fowls     Wyandotte,  Rose   Comh 

Dominique. 


Six  Leading  General   Purpose  Breeds 
Top  row:  At  left,  Rhode  Island  Red;   at  right,  Buff  Plymouth  Rock.     Middle  row: 
At   left,  Barred   Plymouth   Rock;   at   right.  White   Plymouth   Rock.     Bottom  row:   At 
left,  Buff  Orpington;  at  right,  Silver  Penciled  Wyandotte. 

356 


BREEDS    OF    THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 


357 


are  among  the  largest  of  the  breeds.  The  meat  is  fair,  the 
eggs  small  and  few.  The  cocks  attain  a  weight  of  10  to 
12  pounds.  The  Brahmas, 
also  ponderous,  are  better 
rated  as  layers.  Their  keep 
is  expensive  on  account  of 
size.  The  Langshans  are 
also  fine,  large  fowls.  For- 
merly they  were  black  only, 
but  now  white  and  slate  col- 
ored are  seen.  A  cock 
weighs  10  to  12  pounds,  a 
hen  eight.  They  are  fair 
layers,  and  the  flesh  is  much 
esteemed. 

8.  Mediterranean. — Among 
the  important  breeds  coming 
from  the  region  of  the  Medi- 
terranean are  Leghorns, 
Minorcas,  Spanish  and  An- 
dalusian.  These  are  all  small 
birds  and  noted  for  their 
laying  qualities.  The  Leg- 
horns are  the  best  known 
of  the  group.  There  are  sev- 
eral varieties,  of  which  the 
white,  brown  and  bufif  are 
the  most  common.  Their 
combs  are  either  single  or 
rose,  the  single  comb  on  the 
hen  falling  over  to  one  side. 
All  the  Leghorns  are  hardy, 
their  feathers  lay  snugly  to  Asiatic  breeds 

the     bodv      and     thev     Weio-h   brahmas    at    top.    Cochin    hen    in    center, 
uic     uuuy,    diiu     Lucy     wcij^ii       ^^^  gj^^^  Langshans  at  the  bottom. 


358 


FARM    ANIMALS 


three  to  five  pounds,  depending  on  sex  and  development. 
The  skin  is  yellow,  the  breast  prominent,  the  back  of  me- 
dium length  and  breadth.  The  Minorcas  have  long  bod- 
ies, large  combs,  single  or  rose,  dark-colored  legs  and  a 


Two  Varieties   of  Leghorn    Fowls 
Single  Comb  White  Leghorns  at  the  left;   Rose  Comb  Buff  Leghorns  at   the   right. 


pink  flesh  skin.  The  back  is  long  and  sloping.  This 
breed  is  more  docile  than  Leghorns,  but  less  able  to  stand 
severe  cold.  The  Spanish  breed  is  black  in  color,  al- 
though a  vv^hite  variety  is  propagated.  The  comb  is  sin- 
gle. They  are  good  layers,  but  are  not  common.  They 
suffer  in  comparison  w^ith  both  Leghorns  and  Minorcas 
in  hardiness.  The  Andalusians  are  larger  than  Leghorns 
and  carry  a  bluish  tone  in  color.  They  are  prized  as  lay- 
ers, but  are  not  extensivel}^  bred. 

9.  English. — One  of  the  best  English  meat  breeds  is 
the  Dorking,  a  bird  of  massive  appearance.  The  body  is 
long,  deep,  w^ide  and  well  rounded.  Cocks  weigh  nine 
pounds,  hens  six  to  seven.  The  predominating  colors  are 
red,  brown  and  buff.  A  breed  known  as  Red  Caps  is 
popular  in  England  for  the  many  eggs  they  lay  and  the 
superior  quality  of  their  meat.  They  are  smaller  than 
the  Dorking.     The  comb  is  rose  and  very  large.     This 


BREEDS    OF    THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 


359 


breed  is  rarely  seen  in  this  country.  The  Orpingtons 
possess  many  fine  qualities.  They  are  to  England  what 
the  Plymouth  Rocks  are  to  the  United  States.  They  look 
very  much  like  Plymouth  Rocks 
and  possess  the  same  qualities, 
but  differ  most  in  their  legs, 
which  are  reddish  or  black.  The 
color  variations  are  black,  buff, 
white,  variegated  and  spangled. 
They  are  single  and  rose  combed. 
They  are  classed  as  a  general-pur- 
pose breed  and  noted  for  their  egg- 
laying  and  meat  qualities.  They 
are  spreading  rapidly  and  grow- 
ing in  popularity  for  farm  use. 
10.  Polish.  —  Eight  varieties 
constitute  the  Polish  family,  as  follows  :  White-Crested, 
Black,  Bearded  Golden,  Bearded  Silver,  Bearded  White, 


Buff   Orpington 


Polish  Fowls 


360 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Hamburg 


Buff  Laced  Nonbearded  Golden,  Nonbearded  Silver  and 
Nonbearded  White.  All  are  docile  birds,  and  are  exceed- 
ingly beautiful  from  the  fanciers'  standpoint.    They  lay  a 

white  Qgg,  and  if  well  fed  and 
sheltered,  give  a  generous  supply. 
On  account  of  their  immense 
crests  snow  and  rain  are  harm- 
ful to  them.  Hence,  confine- 
ment and  protection  are  neces- 
sary for  their  successful  rearing. 
11.  Dutch.  —  In  the  Dutch 
group  the  one  breed  of  fame  is 
the  Hamburg.  It  has  long  been 
famous  for  its  laying  qualities. 
For  years  the  term  "Dutch  Ever- 
lasting Layers"  has  been  applied 
to  these  fowls.  In  size  the 
Hamburg  is  about  equal  to  the 
Leghorns,  and,  like  them,  lays  a  large  white  egg.  The 
varieties  of  Hamburg  are  Golden  Spangled,  Silver  Span- 
gled, Golden  Penciled,  Silver  Penciled,  White  and  Black. 
12.  French. — The  Houdan  is  the  best-known  breed  in 
France,  and  nothing  but  good 
can  be  said  of  it.  They  are 
esteemed  for  their  nesting 
qualities  and  lay  a  great  many 
large,  white  eggs.  The  enor- 
mous topknots  are  against 
them  in  rainy  weather  because 
of  danger  from^  disease  if  fre- 
quently wet.  The  La  Fleche 
breed  yields  in  a  way  to  the 
Houdans.      Instead    of   a    top-  la  fleche 

knot  they  have  two  little  horns,  which  give  them  a  com- 


1 

M 

wS''^^^M 

1 

1^  N  'v^^r/^ 

W^  ■ 

1 

m^ 

■l^^^H 

BREEDS    OF    THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 


361 


ical  appearance. 


The  usual  color  is  black 

blue   occurs 


although  steel 


this  country — salmon,  light  and 
black — although  in  their  native 
district  all  colors  are  found. 
They  weigh  from  five  to  nine 
pounds,  according  to  sex. 

13.  Indian. — The  two  varie- 
ties of  this  family  are  the  Cor- 
nish and  White.  They  are  excel- 
lent market  birds,  the  meat  be- 
ing   of    excellent 


but  is  not 
common.  They  weigh 
six  to  eight  pounds,  ac- 
cording to  sex.  The 
flesh  is  white.  The  Fa- 
verolle  has  a  topknot 
and  a  little  above  the 
beak  two  small  horns 
protrude.  They  are 
hardy,  handsome  and 
good  layers.  Only  three 
colors  are  considered  in 


quality 
weight. 


and 
The 


Malay    Game 


White    Laced    Red    Cornish 

cocks  weigh  nine 
pounds  and  the  hens  six  to  seven. 
The  shanks  are  yellow,  the  tail,  breast 
and  back  are  black  in  males  and  pen- 
ciled black  in  hens.  This  breed  bears 
a  striking  resemblance  to  the  old 
Aseel  of  Indian  origin. 

14.  Game. — This  family,  embracing 
both  fighting  and  exhibition  fowls,  is 
of  peculiar  formation.    The  Pit  Game 


362 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Red   Pit  Game 


or  English  Game  is  bred  for  his  belligerent  qualities.    The 
Games  bred  for  exhibition  purposes  must  show  height, 

fierceness,  strength  and  an  ex- 
tremely upright  stature.  Cor- 
rect plumage  is  also  of  impor- 
tance in  winning  prizes. 

15.  Fancy  fowls. — Many  dis- 
tinct breeds  and  types  belong 
in  this  list.  The  most  promi- 
nent are  the  Bantams,  Silkies, 
Sultans  and  Frizzles.  The 
Game  fowls  belong  to  the 
fancy  classification,  as  do  also 
Polish  and  Hamburg  varieties. 
The  Bantams  are  the  smallest, 
and  are  not  only  proud  little  creatures,  but  handsome  also. 
Birds  of  this  class  are  bred  as  pets  or  ornaments  and  not 
for  eggs  or  meat. 

It  must  be  said,  however,  that  Polish  and  Hamburg 
varieties  while  too 
small  for  the  table  arc 
excellent  layers  of  fair- 
sized  eggs.  They  are 
almost  non-sitters,  so 
cannot  usually  be  re- 
lied upon  for  hatching. 
Polish  fowls  are  unde- 
sirable on  the  farm  be- 
cause their  topknots 
prevent  their  seeing 
hawks.     Game  fowls  are  specially  good  as  mothers,  be- 


SULTAN 


cause   they  will   fight   enemies, 
layers  but  fair  table  fowls. 


They  are   rather  poor 


PRACTICUMS. 


1.  Parts  of  Fowls. — Have  one  or  more  live  fowls  for  class  work. 
Use  the  diagram  in  this  practicum  to  locate  each  part  on  the  fowl. 
Require  each  student  to  make  sketch,  and  as  the  part  or  region  is 
located,  mark  the  name  of  the  part  on  the  sketch  at  the  proper  point. 
Continue  this  practice  until  each  memher  of  the  class  has  learned 
the  regions  and  is  able  to  name  the  location  without  referring  to 
his  sketch.  Definitions  of  each  term  should  be  learned  and  mem- 
orized. 

7^5  1.  Head 

'       '-        '     ■^  2.  Beik 

3.  Face 

4.  Nose 

5.  Eye 

6.  Comb 

7.  Ear 

8.  Wattles 

9.  Ear  lobes 

10.  Breast 

11.  Wing 

12.  Thigh 

13.  Body 

14.  Leg 

15.  Hock 

16.  Shank 

17.  Foot 

18.  Spur 

19.  Keel 

20.  Toes 

21.  Fluff 

22.  Tail 

23.  Saddle  or  Cushion 

24.  Back 

25.  Neck 
Ml                                                      26.  Cape 

^  ^  27.  Abdomen 

Parts    of    Fowl 


2.  Egg  Structure. —  (1)  Break  an  uncooked  egg  in  a  plate  or 
saucer,  separating  the  shell  at  the  middle,  (a)  Note  the  germinal 
disk  that  lies  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  yolk,  (b)  Note  the  whitish 
cords  at  the  sides  of  the  yolk  toward  the  ends.  These  cords  consist 
of  densely  formed  albumen  that  hold  the  yolk  in  suspension. 
(c)  Note  the  albuinen  or  watery  fluid,  known  as  the  white  of  the 
egg.  (d)  Note  the  shell,  its  construction,  color;  if  a  microscope  is 
available,  the  pores  may  be  clearly  detected. 

(2)  Break  the  large  end  of  a  hard-boiled  egg.  Remove  the  shell 
carefully,  not  tearing  the  shell  membrane,  (a)  Note  the  air  space. 
(b)  Try  to  separate  the  two  membranes,  at  least  a  portion  of  each; 
the  outer  is  much  tougher  and  thicker  than  the  inner,  (r)  Cut  the 
egg  lengthwise  at  the  middle  and  observe  the  yolk  layers  and  colors ; 
also  the  germinal  disk  and  its  location,     (d)   Make  a  drawing  of  the 

363 


364 


FARM    ANIMALS 


longitudinal   section  of  the  egg  and  include   all  the  parts  touched 
upon  either  in  the  text  or  in  the  observations  noted  above. 

3.  Scoring  Eggs.— Provide  several  dozens  of  eggs.  Use  the  score 
card  below.  After  class  practice  the  eggs  may  be  disposed  of  by 
the  owners  in  accordance  with  their  custom.  Local  grocers  usually 
will  be  glad  to  loan  a  reasonable  number  for  this  exercise. 

Score  Card  for  Eggs. 


Points  Considered 


mtn 


Size — large,  weigh  two  ounces  or  more 

Shape — uniform 

Color — uniform,  according  to  breed 

Shell — good  texture,  hard,  no  wrinkles,  even. 

Condition — bright  luster,  clean 

Air  cell — small,  enlarges   with  age 

Contents — opaque ;  thick  white ;  light  yolk . . . 

Total 


100 


4.  Storing  Eggs. — Storing  eggs  when  prices  are  low  and  holding 
them  till  prices  are  high  is  a  form  of  economy  that  everyone  who 
has  a  cool  cellar  can  practice.  None  but  newly  laid  eggs  should  be 
stored.  Preferably  these  should  be  laid  by  hens  which  have  not  run 
with  a  male  bird  for  at  least  two  weeks,  because  such  eggs,  being 
infertile,  will  keep  better  than  fertile  ones.  Two  very  satisfactory 
methods  have  long  proven  useful.  In  either  case,  place  the  eggs  in 
a  stoneware  crock  or  a  wooden  keg  and  cover  with  one  or  the  other 
of  the  following  solutions : 

(a)  Water  glass,  siHcate  of  soda,  a  syrupy  liquid,  can  be  obtained 
at  most  druggists  for  10  to  30  cents  a  pound.  To  each  quart  of  it 
add  ten  parts  of  pure  clean  rain  water.  After  mixing  pour  over  and 
cover  the  eggs.     Cover  the  vessel  and  keep  in  a  cool  place. 

(b)  Lime-salt  solution. — Slake  fresh  stone  lime  with  boiling 
water,  adding  a  little  at  a  time  until  it  breaks  into  small  pieces  and 
forms  a  thin  paste.  Then  add  salt  and  more  water  so  the  final  mix- 
ture will  be  at  the  rate  of  1  pound  lime.  Vi  pound  salt  and  four 
quarts  water.  Stir  several  times  after  the  lime  has  dissolved,  then 
allow  to  stand  overnight.  In  the  morning  siphon  off  the  clear  liquid 
and  pour  over  the  eggs. 

Eggs  stored  by  these  methods  will  keep  for  6  to  10  months.  Those 
stored  in  water  glass  can  be  used  for  boiling,  but  unless  those  stored 
by  the  lime  process  are  pricked  with  a  needle  they  will  crack  because 
of  the  lime  deposit  upon  them.  For  cooking  outside  the  shells  they 
should  be  almost  as  good  as  newly  laid  eggs. 

Require  each  student  to  use  from  one  to  five  dozens  of  eggs,  test- 
ing each  method  at  home.  The  eggs  are  to  be  kept,  and  after  sev- 
eral months  used  in  the  home.     Report  later  when  eggs  are  used. 


LESSON   THIRTY-FOUR 
FLOCK  MANAGEMENT  FOR  EGGS  AND   MEAT 

1.  Grit. 

2.  Dry  mash  or  wet  mash. 

3.  Green  feed. 

4.  Animal  feeds. 

5.  Exercise. 

6.  Fresh  air. 

7.  Ventilation. 

8.  Colony  houses. 

9.  Permanent  houses 

10.  Scratching  pens. 

11.  Nests. 

12.  Broilers. 

13.  Roasters. 

14.  Winter  layers. 

15.  Feeding  the  layers. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  obvious  purpose  of  this  les- 
son is  to  define  the  important  factors  in  successful  flock 
management,  regardless  of  whether  fowls  are  raised  for 
eggs  or  meat,  or  both.  The  first  seven  paragraphs  should 
be  made  emphatic  because  success  with  poultry  is  de- 
pendent upon  good  feed,  grit,  exercise,  fresh  air  and 
cleanliness.  More  failures  are  due  to  disregard  of  one 
or  more  of  these  factors  than  to  other  causes. 


LESSON    THIRTY-FOUR 

FLOCK  MANAGEMENT   FOR  EGGS  AND  MEAT 

1.  Grit. — Fowls  at  liberty  usually  pick  up  enough  grit, 
except  where  the  land  is  deficient  in  sand  and  gravel. 
Where  gravel  is  scarce  grit  must  be  supplied.  Besides 
ordinary  grit,  it  is  desirable  to  supply  other  material  for 


Interior  of  Farm  Chicken  House 

Note  the  grit  box  and  feed  boxes  at  the  side.     They   are  built  just  high   enough   to 
make  chicicens  reach  for  food.     No  dirt  can  enter. 


forming  the  egg  shells.     Grain  does  not  contain  sufficient 

lime  for  great  egg  layers.     Oyster  and  other  sea  shells  are 

largely  used,  since  they  are  very  readily  dissolved  in  the 

gizzard. 

Lack  of  lime  or  other  shell  material  in  the  ration  often  leads  to 
the  egg-eating  habit  among  hens.  Charcoal  is  useful  as  a  bowel 
regulator.  Many  poultry  keepers  keep  it  constantly  before  the 
hens.  Salt  in  moderation  aids  digestion.  An  ounce  or  two  daily  is 
sufficient  for  100  hens.  Pepper,  which  acts  as  a  stimulant,  should 
be  fed  sparingly.     Vigorous  hens  do  not  need  it 


FLOCK    MANAGEMENT    FOR    EGGS    AND    MEAT 


367 


2.  Dry  mash  or  wet  mash. — Fowls  enjoy  wet  mash  more 
than  dry,  but  dry  mash  saves  labor,  since  enough  may  be 
put  in  the  hopper  to  last  a  week.     When  fed  wet  at  least 

one  feeding  must  be  given  daily. 
Since  fowls  eat  wet  mash  more 
greedily  than  dry,  more  care 
must  be  exercised  to  avoid  over- 
feeding. Where  skim  milk  is 
available  the  ration  may  be 
cheapened  by  using  it  to  wet  the 
mash.  Bran  and  middlings 
may  be  made  to  take  large 
quantities  of  milk,  and  thus  to 
Range  Feed  Hopper,  with  Lm   balance  and  cheapen  the  ration. 

Open,   Showing   Divisions  -iTiri  i  -nr    n         r    j  .  ^ 

When  skillfully    fed,  wet  mash 
should  give  better  results  in  ^gg  yield  than  dry, 

3.  Green  feed. — Lack  of  green  food  is  sure  to  afifect 
Ggg  production  unfavorably.  Flocks  at  range  secure  abun- 
dant green  food,  but  flocks  in  yards  and  in  winter  quar- 
ters must  be  supplied.  It  may  be 
fed  without  stint  at  all  times. 
Among  the  best  feeds  are  clover,  al- 
falfa, grass,  vetches,  pea  vines,  rape, 
rye,  mangels,  kale,  cabbages,  sugar 
beets,  turnips — in  fact,  anything 
and  everything  the  hens  will  eat. 
During  the  winter  cabbage  is  espe- 
cially useful.  Root  crops  are  also 
good.  The  leaves  and  broken  heads 
from  the  hay  mow  may  be  steamed 
if  desired.  Alfalfa  and  clover  give 
good  flavor  and  quality  to  eggs.  • 

4.  Animal  feeds. — Animal  food  of  some  sort  is  desira- 
ble to  maintain  fowls  in  vigorous  health  and  productivity. 


Green    Feed 

Fastened  up  as  here 
shown  is  the  best  way  to 
feed  coarse  green  stuff. 


3G8  FARM    ANIMALS 

Probably  no  one  thing  has  done  more  to  increase  prof- 
its than  feeding  animal  food.  Chickens  when  at  liberty 
during  summer  secure  abundant  animal  food  in  the  form 
of  bugs  and  worms.  Something  to  take  the  place  of  this 
feed  is  necessary,  especially  Avhen  snow  is 
on  the  ground.  Lean  meat  is  the  best  form 
to  feed.  It  furnishes  ample  protein.  The 
presence  of  a  little  fat  does  no  harm  and 
may  be  an  advantage.  Fresh  meat  scrap 
from  the  butcher  is  an  excellent  egg  maker. 

Skim  milk  is  a  good  substitute  for  animal  feed  if 
given    liberall3%    but    it    is    not    concentrated    enough. 
Fish  Net       When  used  as  a  drink  hens  will  not  take  enough  to 
Green  feed      supply  their  demand   for  animal  feed.     Milk  is  well 
holder.         used  for  mixing  the  wet  mashes  by  feeding  it  clab- 
bered, and  best  in  the  form  of  cottage  cheese,  which 
is  a  particularly  good  form  when  well  made.     The  most  convenient 
form  of   animal   food  is  beef   scrap,   a  by-product  of   the   packing 
houses.     It  has  been  boiled  and  dried  and  contains  meat  and  bone 
in  varying  proportions.     It  should  always  be  light  colored,  have  a 
meaty  flavor  and  be  rather  oily  to  the  touch.     When  boiling  water  is 
added  to  it,  it  should  smell  like  fresh  meat.     If  a  putrid  odor  is 
given  off  it  should  not  be  fed. 

5.  Exercise. — A  roomy  scratching  shed  covered  with 
8  to  12  inches  of  straw  is  splendid  for  exercise.  This 
straw  should  be  dry  and  whole  grain  should  be  scattered 
in  it.  There  will  be  no  waste ;  the  fowls  will  find  the  last 
kernel.  The  aim  is  to  feed  enough  at  a  time  without 
having  to  feed  too  often,  so  as  to  keep  the  hens  busy 
most  of  the  day.  When  too  much  feed  is  given  at  a 
time  the  fowls  soon  become  satisfied  and  will  stop  eat- 
ing. It  is  not  essential  to  keep  fowls  scratching  all 
the  time.  The  more  active  breeds  do  nearly  as  well  when 
fed  from  hoppers.  When  given  a  yard  and  a  floor  they 
will  take  sufficient  exercise  whether  forced  to  scratch 
or  not.  For  the  larger,  less  active  breeds,  however,  it  is 
necessary  to  force  exercise.     Idleness  ruins  both  health 


FLOCK    MANAGEMENT    FOR   EGGS   AND    MEAT 


369 


and  egg  production.     No  breed  of  fowls  is  injured  by 
having  exercise  and  most  breeds  profit  decidedly. 


Coming  Out  for  Daily  Exercise 

The   fowls  are  permitted  to  roam  about  for  exercise.     At  night  they  return  to  the 

colony  house  for  food  and  shelter. 

6.  Fresh  air. — Properly  constructed  poultry  houses 
will  not  need  special  ventilation.  But  for  good  egg  pro- 
duction there  must  be  abundant  fresh,  dry  air  to  remove 
dampness  given   off   from   the   fowls'   breath   and   from 

droppings.  No  way  has 
been  found  so  satisfac- 
tory as  to  have  the  house 
rather  open  on  the  front 
and  tight  on  all  other 
sides  and  the  roof.  »The 
opening  should  be  cov- 
ered with  burlap  or  other 
material  to  check  draft 
and  keep  out  snow  and 

Ideal  Fresh  Air  Home  .  011 

^  ,  „      .  ,        ram.     Such  houses  may 

Rats  cannot  enter,  and  the  floor  is  never  damp  •' 


370 


FARM    ANIMALS 


be  somewhat  cooler  than  houses  more  tightly  closed,  but 
the  air  will  be  pure,  and  pure  air  is  far  more  important 
than  warmth.  This  does  not,  however,  mean  that  warmth 
is  not  also  good. 

7.  Ventilation. — No  ventilating  system  compares  in 
good  results  with  one  open  at  the  front,  but  where  one 
must  be  put  in,  it  is  best  to  have  the  vent  near  the  floor 
with  a  tight  box  leading  through  the  upper  part  of  the 
house  and  through  the  roof.  The  inflow  of  air  should 
enter  near  the  bottom  on  the  outside  and  be  conducted 
to  the  ceiling  so  that  it  will  be  comparatively  warm  before 
it  enters  the  house.  Thus  drafts  will  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum  and  yet  there  will  be  sufficient  circulation  of 
air  to  remove  moisture  and  impurities.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  a  ventilating  system  be  given  pref- 
erence over  the  more  natural  diffusion  system  already 
mentioned.  The  difficulties  of  making  the  thing  work  in- 
crease as  the  temperatures  inside  and  outside  approach 
each  other,  and  also  as  the  openings  in  the  house  increase. 


Piano  Box  Colony  Houses  at  the  Farm 

Each  of  these  houses  was  built  of  common   piano  boxes.     They  are  simple,  inex- 
pensive and  serve  the  purpose  as  well  as  the  more  expensively  constructed  buildings. 


FLOCK    MANAGEMENT    FOR   EGGS   AND    MEAT  371 

8.  Colony  houses. — Where  fowls  are  kept  in  consid- 
erable number  two  plans  are  common — the  colony  plan 
and  the  long-house  plan.  The  colony  affords  good 
range.  The  houses  are  exceedingly  convenient  for  plac- 
ing in  orchards  and  fields,  where  by  the  aid  of  hoppers 
and  drinking  fountains  the  flock  may  be  encouraged  to 
take  care  of  itself  to  a  large  extent.  After  the  chicks 
reach  a  fair  size  and  the  hen  has  left  them,  roosts  should 
be  placed  in  the  house. 


^^^K:      , 

^ 

'^^'maKmiutHf-Mi  ^  •  mi^-  --^^^"ii^tf  ylBfeijBP-- 

L-.^ ..-«_.,•■     -fc- v^      * -ifg^n  _              i-^ri:k::l 

-  if cjOi  .j:-|rjicig 

w^ 

Long-House  Plan   of  Farm   Poultry  Buildings 

Permanent  buildings  of  this  kind  cannot  be  moved  from  place  to  place  as  can  the 
small   colony  house. 

9.  Permanent  houses. — These  may  be  built  in  any 
style  and  shape.  It  is  best  to  have  the  ceiling  rather 
low.  This  favors  warmth,  because  the  fowls  can  keep 
the  temperature  comfortable  if  sufficient  numbers  are 
kept  together.  For  permanent  houses  foundation  walls 
should  extend  below  the  frost  line  and  high  enough  to 
prevent  the  inflow  of  water  during  wet  weather.  Have 
the  foundation  rat  proof  and  strong  enough  to  support 
the  building  economically.  Brick,  stone,  or  concrete  foun- 
dations are  best  as  a  rule.  Floors  should  be  smooth, 
hard,  easy  to  clean,  dry  and  durable.  Unless  ground  is 
naturally  dry  it  should  be  drained.     Too  much  emphasis 


372 


FARM    ANIMALS 


cannot  be  laid  upon  securing  dryness.     A  tight  wall  is 
essential. 

10.  Scratching  pens. — The  styles  and  arrangements  of 
pens  are  legion.     The  open  scratching  shed  is  favored  by 


Colony  House  in  Two  Divisions 

One  division  may  be  used  for  scratching  pen  in  win- 
ter, the  other  retained  for  roosting  and  nests. 

many,  since  it  provides  space  for  the  fov^ls  to  exercise  in 
spite  of  any  kind  of  v^eather.  All  sorts  of  modifications 
are  found.  Its  chief  advantage  is  that  the  fowls  may  go 
from  house  to. shed,  or  the  reverse,  and  thus  feel  more  at 
liberty  than  if  confined  closely.  They  are  also  less  likely 
to  become  excited  if  they  have  a  means  of  escape  when 
they  want  to  get  away  from  an  attendant.  Everything 
that  makes  for  comfort  should  be  secured  when  possible. 
The  scratching  pen  is 
considered  essential  to 
good  health  of  the 
fowls  because  it  in- 
sures exercise  and  the 
fowls  are  not  confined 
in  too  warm  a  room 
while  they  are  busy. 

11.    Nests. —  Nests 
may    be   made    of   any  trap  nests 


\ 

\- 

{ 

/ 

\ 

m 

FLOCK    MANAGEMENT    FOR   EGGS   AND    MEAT  373 

kind  of  material,  style  or  character.  Preferably  they 
should  be  darkened  and  placed  in  secluded  parts  of  the 
house  or  yard.  A  favorite  place  for  them  is  beneath  the 
roosting  platform.  Where  Qgg  eating  is  discovered  the 
dark  nest  is  one  of  the  best  v^ays  to  eliminate  the  habit. 
Trap  nests  show  which  hens  are  the  layers  and  which 
the  drones.  Where  one  is  breeding  for  tgg  production 
they  are  a  necessity. 


Broilers   Properly  Fitted   for  Market 


12.  Broilers.— More  than  90  per  cent  of  the  chickens  sold 
as  broilers  come  from  poultry  produced  on  Qgg  farms, 
fancy  yards  and  general  farms  where  they  are  a  by-prod- 
uct and  must  be  got  rid  of  quickly  to  prevent  loss. 
Cockerels  may  pay  more  than  the  cost  of  feeding,  but 
unless  they  can  have  free  range  they  are  not  likely  to 
pay  the  whole  cost  of  their  production,  counting  the 
value  of  the  eggs,  the  cost  of  hatching  and  the  labor  and 
the  feed,  up  to  the  time  of  their  being  marketed.  Unless 
one  has  facilities  for  fattening  and  thus  disposing  of  his 
cockerels  as  roasters  or  capons,  it  would  be  more  eco- 
nomical to  sell  the  broilers  as  soon  as  they  are  of  mar- 
ketable size. 


374 


FARM    ANIMALS 


13.  Roasters. — \Miat   is   known   in   the    market   as   a 
roaster  is  a  fairly  matured  fowl  large  enough, either  alone 


Dressed  Fowl  for  the  Roaster  Trade 

One  way  of  finishing  for  the  roaster  market.  The  fowls  are  White  Wyandotte 
cockerels  less  than  four  months  old.  Such  choice  individuals  are  obtainable  by 
rational  methods  of  feeding  and  with  general  purpose  and  meat  breeds. 

or  with  another  roaster,  to  supply  a  family  dinner.  These 
fowls  are  most  profitably  raised  by  being  allowed  free 
range  of  the  stubble  fields,  pastures, 
meadows  and  orchards,  where  they 
pick  up  a  large  share  of  their  living 
between  the  time  that  they  can  leave 
the  brooder  or  the  mother  hen  and 
the  time  they  are  sold.  Frequently 
they  are  fattened  for  two  weeks  or 
so  before  going  to  market  so  as  to 
add  a  pound  or  more  to  their  weight. 
They  are  more  profitable  than  broil- 
ers raised  in  the  ordinary  way  on  the 
farm. 

14.  Winter  layers. — It  is    a  much 
disputed  question  whether  pullets  or       p^^^^;--  /--"^n 


FLOCK    MANAGEMENT    FOR   EGGS   AND    MEAT 


375 


Sprouting  Oats 


hens  do  best  as  layers.  Many  poultrymen  claim  that 
pullets  are  superior,  and,  therefore,  the  more  profitable, 
but  there  is  nothing  decided  on  this  subject.  Many  tgg 
farmers  get  excellent  tgg  yields  from  hens  two  to  four 
years  old — fully  as  good  as  from  pul- 
lets. Because  of  this  fact,  it  is  evident 
there  is  much  in  the  method  of  man- 
agement and  in  the  breeding.  For 
this  reason  a  hen  should  not  be  sold 
so  long  as  she  lays  well.  A  hen  on 
the  nest  is  worth  two  pullets  in  the 
field. 

15.  Feeding  the  layers. — In  winter 
quarters  and  fed  for  eggs  three  special 
meals  a  day  are  desirable.  For  break- 
fast give  a  combination  of  several  grains 
scattered  deep  in  a  loose  litter.  At  noon  give  a  mash, 
wet  or  dry,  and  with  or  without  alfalfa  and  meat  meal. 
For  supper  give  grain  in  the  scratching  litter,  feeding 
enough  so  that  there  will  be  some  left  for  the  fowls  to 
begin  on  in  the  early  morning  when  they  come  off  the 
roosts.  Layers  of  the  tgg  type  will  consume  about  three 
ounces  daily  of  the  grain  mixture,  or  about  18  pounds  to 
each  100  fowls.  Of 
the  noon  mash  about 
five  quarts  will  be  re- 
quired for  each  100 
fowls.  It  will  take 
from  15  to  20  minutes 
for  that  number  to 
clean  up  this  quantity. 
If  meat  scrap  is  not  in-  ^en,  feed  and  eggs 

eluded       in       the       mash         The  hen   is  the  means   of  changing  raw  food 
1  •        1  material     into     a    highly    concentrated    finished 

place   m   hoppers   as   a    product. 


376  FARM    ANIMALS 

Steady  dish.  Some  green  food  should  be  fed  each  day. 
A  ration  recommended  by  one  of  the  leading  poultry 
schools  for  winter  egg  production  is  as  follows :  For 
grain,  a  mixture  of  100  pounds  of  cracked  corn,  100 
pounds  of  wheat  and  50  pounds  of  oats  fed  in  deep  litter 
sparingly  in  the  morning  and  freely  at  night.  Mash  is 
fed  in  the  afternoon  in  hoppers.  The  mash  mixture  con- 
sists of  the  following:  60  pounds  of  wheat  middlings, 
60  pounds  of  corn  meal,  50  pounds  of  beef  scrap,  30 
pounds  of  wheat  bran,  10  pounds  of  alfalfa  meal,  10 
pounds  of  linseed  oil  meal  and  a  half  pound  of  salt. 


LESSON  THIRTY-FIVE 
DUCKS  AND  GEESE 

1.  Duck  growing. 

2.  Farm  ducks. 

3.  Hatching  and  first  care. 

4.  Three  types  of  ducks. 

5.  Meat  breeds. 

6.  Indian  runner  duck. 

7.  Marketing  ducks. 

8.  Raising  geese. 

9.  Characteristics  of  geese. 

10.  Toulouse  geese. 

11.  Embden  geese. 

12.  Chinese  geese. 

13.  African  geese. 

14.  Rearing  the  goslings. 

15.  Goose  and  duck  feathers. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — There  is  a  place  for  ducks  and 
geese  on  many  farms.  Ducks  may  be  grown  success- 
fully in  larger  flocks  than  can  any  other  kind  of  poultry. 
Geese  will  utilize  waste,  marshy  land  and  thus  make  a 
profit  where  there  would  be  no  income  at  all.  Unless 
the  grazing  area  is  ample,  geese  must  be  kept  in  small 
flocks. 


377 


LESSON  THIRTY-FIVE 

DUCKS  AND  GEESE 

1.  Duck  growing. — It  is  easier  to  raise  ducks  than 
fowls.  They  are  less  sensitive  to  filth  in  food,  give  less 
trouble  and  are  almost  completely  free  from  disease.  If 
sufficient  space  is  available  they  lend  themselves  to  rais- 


fc% 


'V3ii!iA>>^ 


«*^ii^P^ 


^,^r^wwm 


Brooder  House  on  Duck  Farm 
Where  thousands  of  ducks  are  annually  raised. 

ing  in  very  large  flocks.  Indeed  duck  rearing  is  about 
the  only  branch  of  poultry  culture  in  which  plants  of  large 
capacity  have  been  successfully  established.  In  a  num- 
ber of  such  establishments  5,000  to  10,000  ducks  are  an- 
nually produced.  In  others  there  is  a  still  larger  output, 
from  15,000  to  20,000  being  common,  and  in  a  few  from 
40,000  to  60,000  as  the  yearly  production. 

These  large  plants  call  for  much  capital,  la^ge  experience  and 
great  skill  and  knowledge.  Such  plants  are  located  on  large  areas 
where  streams  or  the  ocean  coast  provide  natural  comfort.     In  such 


378 


DUCKS   AND    GEESE 


379 


locations  the  breeding  ducks  are  in  their  element.  Ducks  intended 
for  market  rarely  have  a  chance  to  swim.  They  are  confined  to 
yards  and  fed  special  rations  until  about  10  weeks  old. 

2.  Farm  ducks. — But  ducks  lend  themselves  to  farm 

culture  also.     They  dislike  coops    or  inclosures;  and  as 

soon  after  hatching  as  it  is  safe  to  let  them  out  they 

should  be  allowed  the  open  fields  and  orchards,  but  not 

access  to  any  but  drinking  water  until  they  are  feathered. 

If  a  running  stream  is  near  they  will  in  a  large  measure 

gather  their  own  food.     The  farm  flock  generally  takes 

care  of  itself,  but  provision  of  housing  so  as  to  secure  the 

eggs  during  the  laying  season  is  necessary,  else  many  will 

be  lost.     Laying  ducks  usually  are  confined  indoors  at 

night  and  until  they  have  laid  in  the  morning.    To  have 

well-fertilized  eggs  from  the  old  ducks  not  more  than  six 

to  eight  should  be  given  to  one  drake. 


dMsmmi 


Farm   Flock   for   Eggs,  Meat   and   Feathers 

3.  Hatching  and  first  care. — W^hile  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  allow  old  ducks  to  hatch  their  eggs  and  to  brood  the 
young  ducklings,  the  eggs  are  generally  hatched  by  hens. 
This  is  because  of  the  better  care  these  false  mothers 
give  during  the  early  days  after  hatching.  Four  weeks 
are  required  for  incubation.  After  quitting  the  eggs  the 
ducklings  are  shut  up  for  a  few  days  and  fed  on  soft  food 


380 


FARM    ANIMALS 


or  moist  mashes.     Frequently,  hard-boiled  eggs  are  mixed 
with  the  soft  food.     The  first  feeds  of  the  soft  mash  and 

an  occasional  feed  for  a 
week  or  more  should 
contain  coarse  sand  or 
small  grit.  This  is  not 
only  to  supply  grinding 
substance  but  also  min- 
eral matter.  After  this 
the  ducklings  may  be 
let  out  into  the  yard  or 
field.  Animal  food 
should  not  now  be  de- 
nied as  it  is  essential  to 
growth  ;  earthworms,  insects  or  meat  meal  are  excellent. 

A   good    ration    for    ducks,    and   one    used    by    many    successful 
smaller  duck  growers,  consists  of  one  part  of  corn  meal  and  two 


Hen  and  Ducks 


Muscovy  Ducks 


DUCKS    AND   GEESE 


381 


parts  of  bran.  To  this  is  added  five  per  cent  beef  scrap  and  a  little 
fine  grit  or  coarse  gravel.  Feed  five  times  a  day  for  the  first  five 
weeks  then  three  times  a  day.  An  occasional  feed  of  green  food  is 
desired.     The  birds  are  fattened  by  allowing  all  they  will  eat 

4.  Three  types  of  ducks. — The  races  of  improved  ducks 
are  of  three  distinct  types  :  The  meat  breeds,  of  which  the 
most  common  are  the  Pekin,  Aylesbury,  Muscovy,  Rouen 
and  Cayuga;  the  laying  breeds,  the  best  representative 
of  which  is  the  Indian  Runner;  and  the  Ornamental,  such 
as  crested  white  and  call  ducks. 

5.  Meat  breeds. — The  Pekin  occupies  a  foremost  place 
in  the  duck  world.  It  comes  originally  by  way  of  Eng- 
land from  China,  is  white 

in  color,  very  docile  in 
disposition  and  very 
hardy.  Most  of  the  ducks 
raised  for  market  in 
America  are  of  this 
breed.  In  the  special 
duck  plants  this  race 
only  is  selected. 

The  Aylesbury,  which 
the  uninitiated  can  sel- 
dom distinguish  from  the  Pekin  duck,  has  also  made  itself 
a  reputation  for  excellence.  In  England,  the  land  of  its 
development,  it  is  famous,  and  is  preferred  over  all  other 
races.  Rouen  ducks  originated  in  France,  and  are  prized 
as  layers  as  well  as  for  the  high  quality  of  their  meat. 
The  male  is  gray  to  brown  with  green  on  head  and  wings ; 
the  female  from  gray  to  brown.  The  Muscovy  duck  is 
originally  from  South  America.  In  color  they  are  white, 
or  black  and  white.  The  Cayuga,  a  black  duck  of  New 
York  origin,  is  very  similar  to  the  other  races, 

6.  Indian  Runner  duck. — Not  long  ago  this  breed  was 


Pen  of  Pekins 


382 


FARM    ANIMALS 


comparative!}^  unknown.  Its  fine  merits  have  made  for 
it  a  world-wide  reputation.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fer- 
tile of  ducks,  selected  strains  laying-  as  many  eggs  as  the 
best  laying  strains  of 
hens.  It  is  also  very 
good,  though  small,  for 
the  table,  its  flesh  being 
extremely  delicate.  It  is 
very  active  and  can  fly 
far.  These  birds  have  no 
absolute  need  of  water; 
they  prefer  to  roam  the 
pastures  and  grain  fields 
in  search  of  worms,  in- 
sects and  grain.  For  the 
reasons  mentioned  this 
race  is  fast  becoming  the  most  popular  and  most  exten- 
sively farm-raised  duck. 

7.  Marketing  ducks. — Ducks  may  be  kept  for  layers,  or 
meat,  or  a  combination  of  the  two.  As  such  they  are 
a  side  issue  and  no  rule  is  followed  as  to  the  best  time 


Indian    Runner  Ducks 


Raising  Market  Ducks   on  a  Large  Scale 
A  plan  where  fattening  ducks    is  carried   on   extensively.     Here  thousands  are 
r.ually  raised  and  sent  to  market. 


DUCKS   AND    GEESE 


383 


of  marketing.  On  many  farms  ducks  are  consumed  on 
the  home  table  and  none  are  ever  sold.  A  different  con- 
dition obtains  in  the  commercial  plants,  whether  large 
or  small.  The  effort  is  to  bring  ducks  to  a  marketable 
size  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible.  Most  of  the  young 
ducks  are  not  kept  longer  than  12  weeks  because  they 
are  large  enough  then  to  sell  and  have  not  usually  started 
their  second  crop  of  pin  feathers.  For  this  reason  they 
are  easier  to  pluck  than  when  somewhat  older.  At  this 
age  they  should  weigh,  dressed,  five  to  six  pounds.  They 
are  sold  as  "green"  ducks.  The  profit  to  the  grower  is  in 
this  form.  Ducks  fed  and  fattened  to  a  maturer  age, 
when  a  greater  proportion  of  the  weight  is  meat,  bring 
no  more  on  the  market  than  these  soft-fat  and  cheaply 
produced  green  ducks. 

8.  Raising  geese. — Geese  are  not  as  generally  grown  as 
ducks.  A  considerable  de- 
mand for  "green  goose'* 
gives  rise  to  much  activ- 
ity in  geese  raising  in 
some  places.  Mature 
young  geese  are  relished, 
but  their  cost  is  usually 
greater  than  the  returns 
they  bring  when  mar- 
keted. If  geese  had  to  be 
fed  on  grain  it  would  not 
pay  to  raise  them ;  the  ex- 
pense would  be  greater 
than  the  price  received. 
Only  during  the  first  three  or  four  weeks  is  it  advisable 
to  give  the  goslings  a  little  meal,  carefully  mixed.  As  a 
farm  race  they  have  their  place,  not  for  eggs,  for  the  best 


Popular  Toulouse 


384 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Defending    the    Nest 

At   brooding  time   geese   are  generally  hostile 
and   combative. 


breeds  will  seldom  give  more  than  30  a  year,  but  for  the 
tasty  meat  any  of  the  breeds  will  provide. 

9.  Characteristics  of  geese. — It  is  believed  that  to  have 
eeS's  well  fertilized  the  geese  must  live  near  a  pond  or 

running  water.  A  gan- 
der over  two  years  of  age 
is  preferred  in  breeding. 
Hens  are  best  for  hatch- 
ing these  eggs.  Mature 
geese  are  strong  phys- 
ically and  usually  mani- 
fest a  combative  nature. 
The  improved  races  are 
of  large  size  and  may  be 
kept  at  no  great  expense. 
They  will  thrive  on  grass  alone  during  the  growing  sea- 
son. In  some  parts  of  Europe  vast  numbers  of  geese  are 
raised  for  the  city  markets.  The  goose  girl  goes  to  the 
fields  every  morning  with 
her  flock,  returning  at 
night  to  her  home  where 
her  charges  are  stabled. 

10.  Toulouse  geese. — 
The  giant  of  all  the  goose 
races  is  the  Toulouse,  a 
native  of  France.  Its  or- 
dinary weight  is  from  15 
to  20  pounds,  but  many 
specimens  have  been 
known  to  reach  weights 
from  25  to  30  pounds  or 

more.  Where  range  is  not  ideal,  these  are  probaby  the 
best  geese  for  the  farm.  It  is  thought  to  do  better  with- 
out a  swimming  area  than  other  breeds.     In  general  ap- 


TouLousE    Geese 


DUCKS  AND  GEESE 


385 


pearance  it  resembles  the  common  farm  goose  more  than 
the  other  breeds,  but  is  much  larger  than  these  scrub 
geese.  It  is  gray,  though  beneath  and  behind  there  are 
white  areas  in  the  plumage;  the  legs  and  the  bill  are 
orange.  During  their  first  year  young  geese  lay  15  to 
25  eggs.  When  older  they  may  lay  from  25  to  40.  The 
breed  is  very  quiet,  but  in  spite  of  its  wide  popularity,  is 
not  ranked  very  high  in  the  market. 

11.  Embden  geese.— The  Embden  is  the  chief  rival  of 
the  Toulouse.  While  its 
standard  weights  are  the 
same  as  for  the  Tou- 
louse, a  smaller  propor- 
tion of  the  birds  attain 
these  weights.  The  plum- 
age is  white;  legs  and 
bill  yellow.  The  Embden 
when  well  bred  and 
properly  prepared  not 
only  makes  the  best 
looking  carcass,  but  is 
superior  to  other  breeds  for  marketing.  One  of  the  chief 
disadvantages  in  purchasing  specimens  is  that  there  are 
many  poor  flocks  in  this  country,  poor  not  only  in  breed- 
ing, but  poor  in  ability  to  lay.  Intending  purchasers 
should  be  careful  in  buying  for  these  reasons. 

12.  Chinese  geese.— Of  these  there  are  two  varieties — 
Brown  and  White.  Their  form  and  carriage  are  different 
from  the  two  breeds  already  mentioned.  They  stand 
much  more  erect,  have  much  longer  and  slenderer  necks. 
In  the  Brown  Chinese,  at  the  base  of  the  bill  is  a  peculiar 
dark-colored  knob.  The  standard  weights  are  14  pounds 
for  the  adult  gander  and  12  for  the  geese.  The  Brown 
variety    is    considered    the    most    prolific    of    all    geese. 


Geese 


386 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Brown  China  Geese 


Under  ordinary  management  the  females  will  lay  40  to 
50  eggs,  or  even  more,  and  these  eggs  are  noted  for  their 

fertility. 

One  of  the  chief  disadvantages 
is  that  the  carcasses  are  exceed  ■ 
ingly  hard  to  pluck  and.  when 
dressed,  make  the  poorest  appear- 
ance of  all  kinds  of  geese.  In  the 
White  Chinese  the  plumage  is 
white  throughout,  the  bill  and 
legs  are  orange  colored  and  so  is 
the  knob  at  the  base  of  the  bill. 
While  the  geese  lay  as  well  as 
their  brown  cousins,  their  eggs 
are  less  fertile.  White  Chinese 
geese  rival  the  Embden  geese  in 
the  market.  Their  carcasses 
make  a  far  better  appearance 
than  those  of  the  Brown. 

13.  African  geese. — These 

are   not   nearly   as   common 

as     other     large     varieties. 

Their  color  is  gray,   dark  above,  light  below.     On  the 

back  of  the  neck  there  is  a  dark  stripe.     Their  weights 

are     the     same     as     for 

Embden    and   Toulouse. 

The  bill  is  black  and  has 

the  same  kind  of  black 

knob     characteristic     of 

the  Brown  Chinese  va- 
riety.     The    eggs    are 

orange     colored.     As     a 

rule,  the  geese  lay  better 

than    the    Embden,    but 

not  so  well  as*  the  Tou- 
louse, and  the  carcasses, 

especially   of   old   birds, 

are  hard   to   make  look 


African   Geese 


DUCKS   AND   GEESE 


387 


well  for  the  market.  The  skin  is  dark,  and  this  unfavor- 
able color  is  not  improved  by  the  presence  of  down  and 
pin  feathers  which  are  usually  very  hard  to  remove. 

14.  Rearing  the  goslings. — Little  goslings  are  very 
dainty  eaters  at  first.  During  the  first  few  days  bread 
crumbs,  soaked  in  milk  or  water  and  squeezed  nearly  dry 
are  very  good  and  are  relished.  This  feed  may  be  given 
three  or  four  times  a  day  with  plenty  of  water  to  drink. 
The  drinking  fountain  should  be  arranged  so  the  goslings 
cannot  wet  more  than  their  bills.  During  the  second 
week  a  mash  of  equal  parts  ground  oats,  bran  and  corn 
meal,  mixed  with  hot  water,  may  be  fed  cold  five  times  a 
day  and  continued 
until  the  goslings  are 
a  month  old.  After  the 
first  few  days  the> 
may  have  the  freedom 
of  a  small  pen  where 
there  is  plenty  of 
grass,  and  when  two 
weeks  old,  their  range 
may  be  extended.     Clover  and  alfalfa  are  especially  good. 

When  one  month  old  the  same  mash  may  be  used 
morning  and  evening,  with  perhaps  a  meal  at  noon.  Some 
breeders  prefer  to  feed  the  mash  at  morning  and  noon 
with  cracked  wheat  at  night.  Until  the  goslings  are 
fully  feathered  they  should  be  kept  out  of  water  and  only 
those  intended  for  breeding  should  learn  to  swim.  When 
two  months  old,  feeding  may  be  reduced  to  twice  a  day 
— soft  feed  in  the  morning  and  cracked  corn  or  wheat, 
or  a  mixture  of  these  two  grains,  at  night.  From  this 
time  forward  the  goslings  may  be  allowed  to  roam  at  will. 

15.  Goose  and  duck  feathers. — There  is  probably  less 


On   the  Way  to  the  Pond 


388  FARM    ANIMALS 

waste  of  geese  and  duck  feathers  than  of  chicken  and 
turkey.  The  prices  are  considerably  higher  and  the  uses 
more  numerous;  yet  it  is  probable  that  many  bring  a 
lower  price  than  they  should  because  of  the  imperfect 
methods  of  sorting  and  curing.  The  birds  should  be  dry 
picked,  to  save  the  animal  oils  which  give  the  feathers 
their  "life."  The  reduction  in  grade  because  of  scalding 
is  not  as  great  with  geese  and  duck  feathers  as  with  tur- 
key and  chicken.  The  birds  should  be  immersed  for  only 
a  very  short  time  and  the  drying  properly  attended  to. 
The  feathers  from  the  two  kinds  of  birds  should  be  kept 
separate,  but  otherwise  the  method  of  handling  is  simple. 


LESSON  THIRTY-SIX 
TURKEYS  AND  GUINEAS 

1.  Wild  turkeys. 

2.  Mammoth  Bronze  turkeys. 

3.  Narragansett  turkeys. 

4.  Black  or  Sologne  turkeys. 

5.  White  or  Holland  turkeys. 

6.  Buff  and  Red  turkeys. 

7.  Laying  season. 

8.  Confining  the  layers. 

9.  Breeding  stock, 

10.  Hatching. 

11.  Rearing. 

12.  Shooting  the  red. 

13.  Feeding. 

14.  Johnnycake. 

15.  Guineas. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — Turkeys  and  guineas  are  least 
removed  from  their  natural  wild  state.  For  this  reason 
emphasize  the  necessity  of  somewhat  "natural"  condi- 
tions for  raising  them.  They  have  a  place  on  farms 
where  such  conditions,  notably  free  range  after  the  baby 
stage  has  been  passed.  Neither  fowl  is  adapted  to  "com- 
mercial methods"  such  as  yarding  in  large  flocks. 


LESSON  THIRTY-SIX 
TURKEYS  AND  GUINEAS 


1.  Wild  turkeys. — The  wild  turkey  is  a  native  of 
America.  It  was  taken  to  Europe  by  sailors  and  explor- 
ers and  early  brought  into  a  domestic  state.  There  are 
villages  in  France  where  turkeys  are  kept  at  the  public 
expense.  The  birds  are  individually  owned,  but  the  care 
of  the  village  flock  is  in  the  charge  of  a  paid  employee, 
who  takes  them  to  the  open  fields  in  the  morning  and 
returns  them  to  their  homes  at  night.  Wild  turkeys 
still  exist,  but  their  numbers  are  few.  At  one  time  flocks 
of  50  or  100  were  common,  but  the  constant  spread  of 
settlers  and  the  continuous  hunting  expeditions  have  scat- 
tered these  beautiful  wild  birds,  depleting  their  ranks 
and  destroying  their  haunts,  until  their  glory  has  become 
a  thing  of  the  past. 

2.  Mammoth  Bronze  turkeys. — Un- 
questionably the  best  known  variety 
of  turkeys  is  the  Bronze  or  Mammoth 
Bronze.  This  is  not  only  the  most 
striking  in  appearance,  but  also  the 
largest.  The  adult  torn  has  a  standard 
weight  of  36  pounds  and  the  hen  20 
pounds.  Much  greater  weights  than 
these  are  often  reached.  Usually, 
however,  these  heavy  weights  are  not 
for  sale  by  fanciers.  One  objection  to 
the  Bronze  variety  is  that  the  hens  are 
Yum,  Yum  considered  poorer  layers  than  hens  of 

the  other  kinds.   In  color  the  sexes  are  alike,  except  that  in 
males  it  is  more  vivid.     The  feathers  are  bronze  or  dull 


TURKEYS  AND  GUINEAS 


391 


black  with  bands  of  white  across.  The  bronze  tints  give 
pleasing  color  effects.  This  variety  is  the  domesticated 
type  of  the  wild  turkey.  Through  selection  and  breed- 
ing the  color  tones  and  markings  have  been  made  more 

vivid  and  brilliant.  In 
size  the  domesticated 
variety  is  also  larger. 

3.  Narragansett  tur- 
keys.— This  variety  is  a 
close  second  to  the 
Bronze  in  size  and 
popularity.  Its  stand- 
ard weights  are  30 
pounds  for  the  males 
and  18  pounds  for  the 
females.  In  general, 
the  color  is  gray, 
mixed  with  black.  They 
get  their  name  from 
the  bay  near  which  their  development  as  a  breed  occurred. 

4.  Black  or  Sologne  turkeys. — In  Europe  this  breed  is 
very  popular,  and  there  it  is  considered  unsurpassed  by 
any  variety.  It  is  a  superb  animal  of  brilliant  black  color 
and  often  reaches  a  weight  of  30  to  40  pounds.  Turkeys 
of    this    variety    in    this    country    are 

known  as  Norfolk  turkeys. 

5.  White  or  Holland  turkeys. — This 
is  the  smallest  variety  of  turkey.  Its 
standard  weights  are  26  pounds  for 
toms  and  16  pounds  for  hens.  Locally, 
in  many  places  they  surpass  the  Bronze 
variety  in  popularity.  They  are  reputed 
to  be  better  layers  and  more  home  lov- 
ing than  some  of  the  other  breeds.  Holland  turkey 


Mammoth    Bronze    Turkey 


392 


FARM    ANIMALS 


6.  Buff  and  red  turkeys. — The  turkeys  of  these  varie- 
ties are  uniformly  colored,  as  their  names  imply.  They 
weigh  27  and  18  pounds  respectively  foi  cock  and  hen. 
Though  fairly  well  distributed  throughout  the  country 
they  are  by  no  means  as  popular  as  either  the  Bronze  or 
Narragansett. 

"The  Bronze  turkey  is  everywhere  recognized  as  altogether  the 
best  existing  type.  Considering  its  qualities  collectively,  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  type  can  be  improved  upon.  It  is  a  rugged 
race,  growing  sometimes  to  great  size,  but  on  the  average  not  up  to 
the  standards  for  exhibition  weights  for  other  varieties." — Robinson. 

7.  Laying    season. — As    a 

rule  turkey  hens  begin  lay- 
ing very  early  in  the  spring. 
For  best  results  it  is  desir- 
able that  they  be  encour- 
aged to  lay  in  places  conven- 
ient for  gathering  the  eggs. 
Turkey  hens,  especially 
voung  ones,  rarely  lay  more 
than  a  dozen  eggs  before 
becoming  broody.  They  may 
be  broken  and  made  to  lay 
a  second  clutch  of  eggs.  Older  hens  seldom  lay  more  than 
18  for  their  first  litter  and  not  quite  as  many  in  the  sec- 
ond of  the  season.  The  eggs  should  be  collected  daily 
and  stored  in  a  cool  place  until  they  can  be  set.  Eggs 
from  specially  productive  and  otherwise  desirable  hens 
should  be  marked  and  set  separately,  so  their  progeny 
can  be  marked  when  hatched  and  thus  be  given  preference 
when  selection  for  breeding  takes  place  the  following 
autumn.  It  is  a  safe  precaution  to  put  hens'  eggs  in  the 
turkey  nest  to  keep  the  turkeys  contented  when  laying. 

8.  Confining  the   layers. — During   the   laying   season, 
many  turkey  raisers  confine  their  flocks  to  comparatively 


Bourbon  Red  Turkey 


TURKEYS   AND  GUINEAS 


393 


small  yards,  at  least  until  the  hens  have  decided  upon  a 
place  to  lay.  After  the  first  two  or  three  days  of  laying, 
the  hen  turkey  will  rarely  desert  her  nest,  so  that  when 
the  whole  flock  has  begun  to  lay  it  may  be  allowed  full 
freedom.  As  a  modification  of  this  plan,  breeders  keep 
the  flock  confined  until  about  noon  each  day,  until  the 
hens  are  laying.  This  practice  saves  much  time  which 
otherwise  would  be  needlessly  wasted  in  watching  tur- 
keys to  find  out  their  nesting  places  and  then  walking 
daily  from  nest  to  nest  to  collect  the  eggs.     A  score  of 


Breeding  Flock  of  Bronze  Turkeys 

This  farm  flock  has  the  run  of  the  feed  lots  and  fields.  Ordinarily,  best  success 
with  turkeys  is  attained  when  range  conditions  are  resorted  to.  The  eggs  hatch 
better  and  the  birds  are  stronger  and  more  thrifty. 


hens  may  be  kept  without  difficulty  in  a  yard  75  feet 
square.  This  inclosure  need  not  be  fenced  very  high. 
Few  turkeys  will  attempt  to  fly  over  a  woven  wire  fence 
5  feet  high. 

9.  Breeding  stock. — For  best  results  turkey  hens  should 
be  two  years  old  and  cocks  three  3^ears  old  or  more.  They 
will  prove  useful  for  eight  or  10  years, or  even  longer.  The 
customary  size  of  a  flock  is  10  to  12  hens  to  one  tom, 
though  often  as  many  as  18  or  even  20  hens  are  used. 


394  FARM    ANIMALS 

None  but  the  very  choicest,  quickest  growing,  and  best  birds 
in  every  respect  should  be  selected  from  each  year's  young 
flock  to  replace  the  old  ones  that  have  survived  their  useful- 
ness. In  this  way  the  flock  can  be  steadily  improved  in  size 
of  birds,  in  precocity  of  development  and  in  stamina. 

It  is  usual  for  turkey  eggs  to  be  fertile.  On  this  account  eggs  are 
not  often  tested  out  when  set.  Ordinarily  the  only  test  is  made 
about  the  twenty-sixth  day.  Then  the  eggs  are  placed  in  warm 
water  and  the  infertile  ones  removed.  Live  ones  can  be  recognized 
from  the  fact  that  they  move  in  the  water. 

10.  Hatching. — It  is  generally  necessary  to  let  turkey 
hens  sit  where  they  wish.  They  choose  their  own  nests 
and  object  to  being  moved.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to 
change  the  nest,  night  is  the  best  time.  Supplied  with  nest 
eggs  for  a  day  or  two,  the  hens  may  be  tried  out  and  if  satis- 
fied the  regular  clutch  may  be  given  her.  Small  turkey 
hens  will  cover  13  to  15  eggs ;  large  ones  18  or  20.  Hatch- 
ing usually  commences  on  the  twenty-eighth  day,  though 
it  may  last  or  even  not  start  until  the  thirtieth  day.  It  is 
just  as  important  to  remove  the  hatchlings  as  little  chicks. 
They  should  be  placed  in  a  box  lined  with  flannel  or  woolen 
goods  and  kept  in  a  warm  room. 

11.  Rearing. — During  the  first  day  or  two  the  turkeys 
do  not  need  any  food.  The  mother  hen  must,  however, 
be  fed  liberally.  It  is  a  decided  advantage  to  place  the 
coop  over  the  nest  if  possible  so  the  turkey  will  feel  at 
home  and  contented.  Where  this  is  not  possible  the 
brood  and  mother  should  be  moved  to  desirable  quarters; 
a  coop  with  a  board  bottom  should  be  given  preference. 
After  the  first  three  days,  when  the  young  ones  are  begin- 
ning to  run  around,  a  small  yard  should  be  provided.  A 
convenient  yard  may  be  made  of  three  boards  14  inches 
wide  set  up  on  edge  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  with  a  coop 
in  one  corner,  and  the  mother  turkey  allowed  her  free- 
dom.    She  will  not  go  far  from  her  brood.     The  little 


TURKEYS  AND  GUINEAS 


395 


ones  may  be  kept  in  this  kind  of  inclosure  until  they  are 
large  enough  to  jump  up  and  make  their  escape. 

12.  Shooting  the  red. — Where  the  coop  cannot  be 
placed  upon  short  grass,  ample  green  feed  should  be  sup- 
plied daily.  It  is  also 
important  to  give  plenty 
of  grit  and  charcoal  and 
especially  necessary  to 
fight  lice  from  the  very 
start.  It  is  not  safe  to 
use  kerosene  on  turkeys. 
Insect  powder  is  satis- 
factory and  harmless. 
Pens  should  always  be 
situated  on  dry  soil. 
Nothing  is  so  important 
as  to  maintain  cleanli- 
ness and  to  keep  the  little  ones  dry  until  after  their  heads 
have  become  red.  Up  to  this  time  of  "shooting  the  red" 
is  a  trying  period  for  poults.  After  they  have  passed  it 
they  are  much  more  hardy.  During  the  development  of 
the  red   itself  more   animal   feed  than  usual   should  be 


Rearing  Turkeys  in  the  Open 


13.  Feeding. — Perhaps  the  most  general  favorite  for 
turkeys  a  day  old  is  hard-boiled  eggs  and  stale  bread 
soaked  in  milk  but  squeezed  comparatively  dry.  Gen- 
erally the  egg  is  fed  a  day  or  two  before  the  bread.  When 
a  week  or  ten  days  old,  clabber  is  often  used.  When 
about  two  weeks  old,  many  breeders  give  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  milk  and  corn  meal,  middlings  or  some 
other  meal.  This  is  allowed  to  swell  for  several  hours 
before  being  fed,  so  as  to  prevent  any  possible  danger 
of  swelling  after  being  eaten.  About  this  time  cracked 
corn  and  wheat  are  often  given  in  the  evening. 


396  FARM    ANIMALS 


Three  times  a  day  seems  to  be  enough  to  feed  Httle  turkeys  until 
they  are  well  grown,  especially  if  allowed  more  or  less  range  and 
given  an  opportunity  to  pick  grass  and  insects.  In  fact,  it  is  almost 
essential  that  they  have  something  to  pick  at  all  the  time.  For  this 
reason  a  grass  yard  should  be  given  the  preference  to  all  other 
quarters.  Milk  may  be  given  instead  of  drinking  water  if  desired, 
but  it  seems  best  to  have  ample  pure  water  before  the  brood  at  all 
times,  whether  milk  is  fed  or  not.  It  is  also  essential  to  have  grit. 
Some  turkey  raisers,  especially  those  who  do  not  have  grass  runs, 
consider  it  necessary  to  feed  every  two  or  three  hours  until  the 
birds  are  ten  days  or  two  weeks  old.  No  more  should  be  fed  at  a 
time  than  the  poults  will  eat  without  waste. 


What  Will  the   End  Be? 

14.  Johnnycake. — Many  poultrymen  feed  johnnycake 
made  of  cheap  flour,  preferably  of  the  whole  grain  and 
corn  meal  mixed  with  milk  and  infertile  eggs  from  the 
incubator,  but  without  soda  or  baking  powder.  The  in- 
gredients may  be  of  almost  any  ratio,  but  preferably 
about  equal  parts.  After  mixing  to  a  rather  soft  batter,  the 
cake  is  thoroughly  baked  and  allowed  to  become  rather  dry. 
It  is  then  allowed  to  become  stale  before  being  crumbled  for 
feeding.  This  practice  eliminates  the  danger  of  swelling 
after  being  eaten.     The  swelling  takes  place  in  the  oven. 

Gradually  after  the  first  week  small  seeds,  such  as  millet,  cracked 
wheat  and  corn,  may  be  added  to  the  daily  ration  acco  ding  as  the 
poults  grow  in  size.  A  good  mixture  of  grains  for  fattening  con- 
sists of  one  bushel  each  of  whole  and  cracked   corn   and  one-half 


TURKEYS    AND   GUINEAS 


397 


bushel  each  of  kafir  corn  and  oats.  Some  raisers  prefer  to  feed 
whole  corn  exclusively  three  times  a  day.  When  fed  liberally  on 
corn  they  do  not  forage  as  much  as  usual.  In  fattening  they  may 
be  confined  or  not,  as  the  owner  prefers. 

15.  Guineas. — Since  it  has  been  discovered  that  the 
guinea  fowl  has  a  game  flavor  and  can  be  sold  as  various 
kinds  of  more  valuable 
flesh,  it  has  been  used  in 
the  large  city  restau- 
rants as  a  substitute  for 
various  kinds  of  game, 
as  well  as  being  sold 
under  its  own  name. 
This  fact  has  encour- 
aged the  growing  of 
guinea  fowls  to  supply 
the  demand.  Broiler  size  guinea  fowls  are  often  sold  as 
quail  on  toast,  and  larger  ones  for  prairie  chickens,  pheas- 
ants or  grouse.  Like  the  turkey,  the  guinea  fowls  thrive 
best  where  there  is  ample  free  range,  and  are  probably 
even  more  exacting  in  their  demands  than  turkeys.  The 
familiar  varieties  are  the  Pearl  and  the  White  Guinea. 
They  are  natives  of  Africa, 


Guineas  on   Farm  Range 


PRACTICUMS. 


1.  Scoring  Domestic  Fowls. — Provide  two  or  more  domestic 
fowls.  Use  the  score  card  below.  Every  important  feature  is  sched- 
uled, with  a  description  fitting  the  ideal  of  farm  fowls  for  egg 
production. 

Score  Card  for  Domestic  Fowls 


Scale  of  Points 


Oc^ 


C. 


General  Appearance: 

Form — compact,  symmetrical,  neck  medium 

Size — showing  vigor  but  not  excessive  fat  growth 

Quality — fine  comb,  soft  but  firm   flesh  and  mellow  skin 

Temperament — vigorous,  active,    nervous  and  energetic 

Head  and  Neck: 

Head — medium  to  large  and  broad 

Eyes — full,  prominent,  bright 

Comb  and  wattles — medium  to  large,  bright  red 

Neck — medium,  with  full  hackle 

Body: 

Hindquarters — well    developed;    V-shaped    viewed  from  front, 

side  and  top 

■  Breast — full  and  wide 

Back — wide  and  deep 

Fluff — fine,  abundant,  close  to  body 

Tail — ^high  and  well  spread 

Feathers — soft,  close  to  body 

Wings — well  up  and  close  to  body 

Leg  Bones — pliable,  widespread,  soft;  contracted  and  hardened 
Legs: 

Shape — straight,  widespread 

Length — medium  to  short 

Color — yellow,  flesh  or  bluish  black ' 

Shanks — free  from  feathers 


Total 100 


2.  School  Poultry  Show. — Much  about  poultry  breeds  and  varie- 
ties, dressed  poultry  and  eggs,  can  be  learned  at  a  school  poultry 
show.  Each  pupil  should  exhibit  living  fowls,  preferably  of  his 
own  breeding  and  rearing;  but  failing  this  he  should  exhibit  those 
grown  by  his  parents.  To  compare  with  these  should  be  fowls 
grown  by  the  best  breeders  in  the  neighborhood.  The  breeders 
should  also  be  invited  to  talk  to  the  pupils  about  the  varieties  they 
raise,  showing  what  are  strong  and  weak  points  of  the  various 
breeds  they  raise  and  also  the  reasons  why  these  breeds  are  or  are 
not  widely  popular. 


TURKEYS   AND    GUINEAS  399 


Special  departments  should  be  planned  for  eggs  and  dressed 
poultry — broilers,  roasters,  fricassee  fowls,  etc.  These  should  be 
judged  by  commercial  raisers,  who  should  give  talks  to  teach  what 
and  why  exhibits  are  good  or  bad.  Such  points  as  cleanliness,  uni- 
formity of  size  and  color  of  eggs  and  neatness  in  dressing  fowls 
should  be  emphasized.  Preferably  a  simplified  score  card  should  be 
used  in  judging,  and  all  cards  should  be  placed  on  the  exhibits  so 
pupils  may  learn  why  this  exhibit  is  good  and  that  one  poor.  Every 
exhibit  of  living  or  dressed  poultry,  also  of  eggs,  should  be  con- 
spicuously labeled  so  everyone  may  know  exactly  what  he  is  look- 
ing at. 

Preferably  the  show  should  continue  more  than  one  day,  so  par- 
ents and  friends  may  have  ample  chance  to  visit  it. 


LESSON    THIRTY-SEVEN. 
SECRETION    OF    MILK. 

1.  Source  of  milk. 

2.  Structure  of  the  udder. 

3.  Mammary  glands. 

4.  How  the  udder  is  supported. 

5.  Milk  veins. 

6.  Factors  influencing  secretion. 

7.  Why  milk  is  secreted. 

8.  Colostrum. 

9.  Length  of  milking  period. 

10.  Evil  of  improper  milking. 

11.  Regularity  of  milking. 

12.  When  cows  hold  up  their  milk. 

13.  Hard  milking  cows. 

14.  Milking  by  hand. 

15.  Machine  milking. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — A  large  milk  yield  is  a  basic 
principle  in  profitable  dairying.  The  milk  factory  is  the 
udder.  A  study  of  the  udder  and  of  milk  secretion  should 
be  useful  to  every  person  who  expects  to  own  a  cow.  The 
teacher  should  emphasize  the  importance  of  good  udders 
and  well-developed  milk  veins.  In  judging  work  these 
points  are  discussed  in  detail.  Consult  the  score  card  on 
page  191. 


400 


LESSON    THIRTY-SEVEN. 


SECRETION    OF    MILK. 


1.  Source  of  milk. — Milk  is  secreted  from  the  blood. 
The  change  from  blood  to  milk  occurs  in  the  udder.  The 
blood,  therefore,  is  the  source  from  which  all  milk  is  de- 
rived. No  matter  how  perfect  the  udder,  if  the  blood  is 
impoverished  because  of  poor  food  or 
ill  health,  a  generous  flow  of  milk  is 
not  possible.  A  generous  yield  of 
milk  is  dependent  upon  good  health 
and  rich  blood. 

2.  Structure  of  the  udder. — The 
udder  is  both  a  factory  and  storehouse. 
It  consists  of  many  hollow  spaces  or 
cavities  of  varying  sizes,  muscular 
tissue,  cells,  veins,  arteries,  nerves, 
lymphatics  and  connecting  canals. 
The  blood  is  the  raw  material,  the 
cells    the    manufactory    agents,    the 

Interior      Structure     of  .  .  .  ^ 

One  Quarter  of  the      nervcs    the    Stimulating    force,    and 

Udder  ° 


the  canals  the  tracks 
of  delivery.  In  nor- 
mal activity  these  dif- 
ferent creations  unite 
in  sympathetic  rela- 
tion, with  the  result 
that  milk  is  secreted. 
Taken    together,    they 


>hinc  +  er  Muscle 

Interior  Structure  of  Udder 


401 


402 


FARM    AXIMALS 


Good  Udder 


form  a  delicate  mass,  red  to  gray  in  color,  and  spongelike 
in  texture. 

3.  Mammary  glands. — The  udder  is  a  structure  in 
which  is  housed  the  inainniary  glands.     Located  distinctly 

outside  of  the  body  cavity,  it  articulates 
with  all  that  takes  place  within.  The 
mammary  gland  is  the  organ  of  milk  secre- 
tion, by  means  of  which  the  nutrients  of 
food,  digested,  assimilated  and  changed 
into  blood,  are  converted  into  casein,  fat 
and  sugar,  which,  together  with  water  and 
ash,  form  milk.  In  some  species  the  pri- 
mary glands  subdivide  in  more  than  two, 
or  many.  In  the  sheep,  goat  and  horse 
there  are  but  two ;  in  the  cow,  four  to  six ; 
in  the  cat  and  dog,  eight  to  ten ;  and  in  the 
hog,  ten  to  fourteen. 

4.  How  the  udder  is  supported. — The  udder  is  inclosed 
externally  in  a  skin  covering.  It  is  held  fast  to  its  region 
of  attachment  by  a  band  of  fibrous  tissue  which  issues 
from  the  flesh  substance  of  the  body  and  extends  into  and 
through  the  udder  mass.  This  tender  tissue,  however, 
does  not  carry  blood  to  the  glands. 

5.  Milk  veins. — Milk  secretion  is  dependent  primarily 
on  the  amount  of  blood  delivered  into  the  udder.  Heavy 
milkers  have  large  milk  veins,  which  means  that  a  large 
supply  of  blood  is  kept  circulating  through  the  glands. 
If  blood  circulation  is  weak  or  the  blood  impover- 
ished of  its  serum  and  food  constituents,  the  fact  will  be 
registered  in  the  udder  output.  Cows  that  eat  much 
food  and  that  have  a  strong  digestive  power,  will  carry 
a  rich  blood  in  their  arteries.  It  is  this  blood  that  nour- 
ishes the  milk  glands  abundantly  and  that  enables  them 
to  yield  their  product  in  generous  quantities. 


SECRETION   OF    MILK 


403 


In  choosing  cows  with  large  milk  capacity  look  sharply  to  the 
extent  of  the  development  of  the  milk  veins.  These  are  the  chan- 
nels by  which  the  red  blood  is  connected  with  the  organs  of  milk 
secretion.  Large  milk  veins,  therefore,  are  indicative  of  a  large 
milk  yield. 

6.  Factors  influencing  secretion. — The  three  most  im- 
portant things  to  look  for  in  a  good  dairy  cow  are  indica- 
tions of  robust  health,  a  large  digestive  capacity  and 
proper  mammary  development.  The  amount  of  the 
blood,  and  its  richness,  which  passes  through  the  udder  has 
much  to  do  with  milk  secre- 
tion. The  udder  is  naturally 
of  first  importance.  It  is  not 
the  size  or  shape  or  appear- 
ance that  matters  most,  but 
the  internal  structure ;  and 
this  touches  on  the  inherit- 
ance, breeding  and  training 
of  the  cow.  Hence,  the  cell 
structure  and  number  and 
size  of  blood  vessels  of  the 
udder  influence  in  greatest 
measure  the  yield  of  milk. 

7.  Why  milk  is  secreted. 
— During  fetal  life  an  off- 
spring is  nourished  by  its 
mother's  blood.  At  birth 
this  consumption  of  blood 
food  is  cut  of¥  entirely. 
The  course  of  the  blood  is 
changed  and  directed  into 
the  udders.  This  is  a  sim- 
ple turn  from  the  arteries 
of  fetal  nourishment  to  the 
arteries    of    milk    secretion. 


Milk   Veins 


Note  the  fine  development  of  the 
milk  veins  along  the  abdomen  and  on 
the   udder. 


404,  FARM    ANIMALS 

The  blood  surging  through  the  udder  just  after  the  birth 
of  an  offspring  stimulates  the  cells  to  great  activity  and 
milk  is  secreted. 

8.  Colostrum. — The  first  milk  at  birth  has  a  rather 
pungent  taste  and  also  a  peculiar  smell.  It  is  known  as 
colostruui.  It  exercises  a  purgative  action  in  the  intes- 
tines, and  is  a  natural  medicine  for  removing  the  mate- 
rial accumulated  in  the  intestines  before  birth.  On  ac- 
count of  this  a  newly  born  offspring  should  not  be  denied 


In  Mud  Up  to  Their  Knees 

If  it  is  this  way   outside,   it  must  be   just   as  bad   inside   the   barn,   and   under  such 
conditions   big  yields   over   a   long   milking   period   cannot   be   expected. 

its  mother's  milk  during  the  first  two  or  three  days  after 
birth.  Colostrum  contains  less  water  and  much  more 
albumen  than  ordinary  milk.  In  the  course  of  four  or 
five  days  albumen  normally  changes  into  casein,  water 
proportionately  increases,  and  ordinary  milk  from  now  on 
is  secreted. 

9.  Length  of  milking  period. — Before  the  milk-giving 
tendencies  of  cows  were  cultivated  by  breeding,  selection 
and  stimulation  just  enough  milk  was  secreted  to  nour- 
ish an  offspring  until  it  was  sufficiently  strong  to  take 
care  of  itself.     Under  man's  nurture  and  care  the  cow 


SECRETION   OF    MILK  405 

has  been  brought  to  give  not  only  much  more  milk  than 
a  calf  would  require,  but  to  produce  it  for  a  very  long 
time.  Some  cows  continue  to  give  milk  up  until  even 
another  freshening  time.  Not  all  cows  are  of  this  class. 
Some  go  *'dry"  in  five  or  six  months ;  others  are  persist- 
ent milkers  for  many  months.  Persistency  of  the  milk 
function  can  be  encouraged  by  care  in  management,  by 
feeding  rich  rations  and  succulent  forage. 

10.  Evil  of  improper  milking. — One  of  the  easiest  and 
surest  ways  of  checking  the  milk  flow  is  to  leave  some  of 
the  milk  in  the  udder.  The  least  bit  of  milk  remaining 
in  the  udder  cavities  is  certain  to  check  the  activity  of  the 
secreting  cells  and  to  make  them  lazy.  It  is  a  very  im- 
portant matter,  in  getting  best  results  from  cows,  to  re- 
move all  the  milk,  even  if  considerable  stripping  is  neces- 
sary. Clean  milking  is  a  positive  necessity  for  extending 
the  milking  period. 

11.  Regularity  of  milking. — When  milk  is  being  drawn 
from  the  udder,  secretion  is  most  active.  Milking,  there- 
fore, is  not  solely  the  removal  of  the  milk 
secreted  between  milking  times,  but  the 
removal  also  of  what  is  secreted  while 
milking  is  going  on.  Mere  manipula- 
tion of  the  udder  is  inducive  of  secre- 
tion, although  the  amount  secreted  by 

-  .  ,  11  1  ,     Sanitary    Milk    Pail 

such  operation  may  be  small  and  not 
warranted  in  comparison  with  the  value  of  the  time  so 
expended.  The  point  of  most  practical  importance  is 
regularity  in  the  time  of  milking.  Early  milking,  morn- 
ing or  evening  one  day,  and  later  milking,  morning  or 
evening  another  day,  not  only  lessen  the  output,  but  tend 
to  disturb  functional  activity  and  prevent  a  maximum 
yield  for  that  lactation  period. 


406  FARM    ANIMALS 

12.  When  cows  hold  up  their  milk. — Cows  are  able  to 
"hold  up"  their  milk  by  controlling  the  muscles  that  guard 
the  milk  reservoirs.  Some  cows  acquire  this  habit,  and 
at  every  milking  refuse  to  deliver  it  for  a  time.  The 
habit  is  a  bad  one  and  the  usefulness  of  cows  is  often  de- 
stroyed by  it.  Various  causes  may  be  responsible,  such 
as  irregularity  of  milking  or  feeding,  loud  talking,  harsh 
treatment,  or  the  presence  of  strangers,  or  unfamiliar 
objects.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  young  heifers  be 
carefully  and  tenderly  managed,  so  that  they  will  early 
learn  to  give  down  their  milk  and  continue  so  to  do. 
Some  one  has  said  that  a  cow  should  be  treated  as  ten- 
derly and  lovingly  as  a  lady. 

13.  Hard  milking  cows. — A  cow  that  milks  hard  is  not 
really  an  individual  who  does  not  like  the  milker.     The 

trouble   is   not   with   the   cow, 
IIJiL— ->     ^a  but  with  one  of  the  muscles  of 

c  the  teat  which  closes  the  teat 

opening  tighter  than  it  should. 

Milk  Plugs  t  i.  xu  r    ^.u 

in  most  cases  the  use  oi   the 

a,  common   teat  plug;  fc,  wooden  mi       i  rr     ' 

plug;    c,    instrument    for    opening     tCat      plUg      Will      bc      SUmCient. 

Such  plugs  may  be  purchased 
or  made  at  home  of  rubber  or  wood.  They  are  placed  in 
the  teat  duct  and  held  fast  by  a  cord  or  tape.  During 
milking  the  plugs  are  removed  and  then  replaced  when 
milking  is  finished.  This  is  continued  until  the  opening 
is  enlarged. 

In  case  this  treatment  is  unsuccessful,  a  simple  operation  known 
as  slitting  the  teat  may  be  necessary.  This  is  performed  by 
passing  an  instrument  with  a  small  concealed  knife  blade  into  the 
teat  duct,  which  on  being  withdrawn  cuts  the  troublesome  tightness 
and  allows  the  milk  thereafter  to  be  properly  delivered. 

14.  Milking  by  hand.— The  greater  part  of  all  milking 
is  done  by  hand.     To  milk  well,  both  knack  and  concen- 


SECRETION   OF    MILK 


407 


tration  of  attention  are  necessary.     Milking  is  an  art,  but 

many  milkers  never  learn  it.     On  setting-  down  the  stool 

and  taking  his  position  the  operator  should  speak  gently 

to  the  cow  and  put  her  at  ease.    The 

teats  are  then  firmly  grasped  with 

dry  hands  and  pressed  tenderly  until 

they  fill  up  with  milk.     In  closing 

the  hand  on  the  teats  the  ends  of  the 

fingers   should  be  placed  only  part 

of  the  way  around,  so  that  they  will 

be  in  a  position  to  press  in  unison 

with  the  palm  of  the  hand. 


Milking 


It   is   not   the   best   practice   to   put   the 
lingers   wholly   around   the  teats,   as   many 
do ;  less  force  results  and  the  work  is  less       '^^^  "^''he'^handl  ^'^'''"^ 
effective.     What  is   desirable  is  to   imitate 
the  calf  in  sucking;  the  hand  is  to  be  not 

only  sharply  closed  against  the  teat,  but  vigorous  uphand  pressure 
against  the  udder  is  to  be  made  at  the  same  time.  The  hand  move- 
ment should  be  rapid  and  continuous.  It  spoils  the  cow  to  stop  and 
start  or  otherwise  to  check  in  any  way  the  milk  flowing  from  the 
teats.  Even  if  the  teats  are  small,  this  manner  of  milking  is  best. 
First  strike  up,  then  down  with  snap  and  vigor.  It  is  wrist  work,  not 
arm  movement.  As  the  udder  empties  let  the  hand  creep  upwards, 
with  more  of  the  udder  inclosed  in  the  hand,  and  keep  doing  this 
until  the  last  drop  is  drawn.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  clean  milk- 
ing and  quick  movements  are  of  first  importance  in  success  in 
securing  much  milk  and  in  maintaining  the  milk  flow  for  long 
periods. 

15.  Machine  milking. — From  four  to  six  minutes  are 
required  by  use  of  the  machine  milker  to  milk  a  cow. 
This  rapid  as  well  as  steady  removal  of  milk  from  the 
teats  is  an  advantage,  since  it  is  less  annoying  to  the  cow 
than  much  of  the  hand  milking.  If  the  machines  are  well 
cleaned  the  sanitary  effect  naturally  is  more  pronounced 
because  there  is  less  opportunity  for  dirt  or  germs  to  get 
into  the  milk.  While,  therefore,  equal  or  better  sanitary 
results  may  be  obtained  by  machine  milking  under  ordi- 


408 


FARM    ANIMALS 


nary  conditions,  the  lowest  bacterial  counts  are  obtained 
in  certified  dairies  by  hand  milking. 


Milking  Cows   with   Mechanical   Milker 


Three  decided  objections  are  advanced  against  the  mechanical 
milker — the  initial  cost,  the  necessity  of  skilled  operators,  and  the 
impracticability  for  use  in  small  herds.  A  vacuum  system,  operated 
by  power,  is  fundamentally  connected  with  the  appliance.  Teat  cups 
attached  to  the  teats  are  caused  to  give  action  as  pulsators  to  force 
the  milk  out  of  the  udder.  This  pulsator  is  a  clever  mechanical  adap- 
tation of  the  principle  a  calf  follows  in  taking  milk  from  its  mother. 
While  the  problem  of  machine  milking  has  not  been  solved  in  every 
respect,  great  progress  is  being  made,  and  in  time  perfection  will  be 
as  nearly  obtained  as  with  the  self  binder,  corn  planter  or  egg 
incubator. 


LESSON  THIRTY-EIGHT 
MILK 

1  Composition. 

2.  Fat  globules. 

3.  Casein  and  albumen. 

4.  Sugar. 

5.  How  milk  sours. 

6.  Pasteurization. 

7.  Cooling. 

8.  Cream. 

9.  Shallow  pan  separation. 

10.  Deep  setting. 

11.  Cream  separators. 

12.  Skim  milk. 

13.  Market  milk. 

14.  Grades  of  milk. 

15.  Testing  milk. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — Milk  is  so  cheap  and  common  in 
the  country  that  its  food  value  does  not  receive  the  con- 
sideration that  it  deserves.  Compare  its  nutriment  con- 
tent with  eggs  and  meat.  Emphasize  its  effects  on  thrift 
and  growth  when  fed  to  young  animals.  Call  attention 
to  the  ease  with  which  milk  absorbs  odors.  Point  out 
the  necessity  of  cleanliness  in  producing  and  handling  it. 
Why  are  healthy  cows  and  healthy  milkers  so  important? 
Several  practicums  are  suggested  by  paragraphs  5,  6,  7 
and  15,  and  these  should  be  performed  by  members  of 
the  class. 


409 


LESSON  THIRTY-EIGHT 
MILK 


1.  Composition. — Milk  contains  water,  casein,  albumen, 
fat,  sugar  and  ash.  The  average  composition  is  as  fol- 
lows :    Water,  87  per  cent ;  casein,  2.6  per  cent ;  albumen, 


Water 
87% 


Fa-fc 
4% 


Casein 
2.67o 


Afbumen       Sugar 
.1%  5% 


Ash 
J7o 


Composition  of  Normal  Cow's  Milk 


0.7  per  cent ;  fat,  4  per  cent ;  sugar,  5  per  cent ;  and  ash, 
0.7  per  cent.  The  greatest  variation  is  in  fat,  which  fluc- 
tuates in  individuals  and  varies  widely  with  breeds. 
Some  breeds  yield  milk  low  in  fat,  and  others  milk  much 
richer  in  this  constituent.  In  general,  about  3  per  cent 
is  the  minimum,  and  6  to  7  per  cent  the  normal  maximum, 
although  some  cows,  during  the  close  of  the  lactation 
period,  may  yield  milk  containing  8  or  9  per  cent  of  fat. 

2.  Fat  globules. — Butter  fat  consists  of  a  number  of 
separate  and  distinct  fats  which  unite  into  particles,  or 
globules.  These  fats  are  of  two  kinds — the  volatile  and 
non-volatile  oils.     The  former  give  to  milk  its  distinctive 

410 


MILK 


411 


flavors,  while  from  the  latter  are  derived  its  texture  and 
physical  character.  The  milk  globules  occur  in  different 
sizes,  those  of  some  breeds  being  small  and  numerous 
and  of  others  large  and  less  in  number.  In  Holstein- 
Friesian  milk  the  globules  are  small,  in  Jersey  and  Guern- 
sey milk  they  are  large.  The  largest  globules  are  most 
easily  brought  together  in  churning. 

Butter  of  the  very  highest  quality  in  flavor,  color  and  grain  may 
be  made  from  the  milk  of  any  breed  of  cows,  regardless  of  the  size 
of  the  globules,  providing  proper  feed  is  used  and  the  right  kind  of 
care  exercised  in  handling  the  milk  and  cream. 


o      . 
o      'o' 


^■'-  •     '.6" 


Cream.  Milk.  Skimmed  Milk. 

Fat  Globules  as  Seen  Under  the  Microscope 


3.  Casein  and  albumen. — The  tv^o  protein  bodies  of 
milk  are  casein  and  albumen.  Casein  exists  in  milk  in  the 
form  of  tiny  gelatinous  particles  in  suspension,  v^hile  milk 
abumen  is  in  solution.  When  milk  sours,  the  casein  is 
changed  into  curd ;  w^hen  rennet  is  added,  the  milk  co- 
agulates, making  it  possible  to  manufacture  cheese.  Milk 
albumen  is  neither  affected  by  rennet,  nor  is  it  coagulated 
by  acids  at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  is,  hov^ever,  co- 
agulated by  heat. 

4.  Sugar. — Milk  sugar  is  the  largest  single,  solid  sub- 
stance of  ordinary  milk.  The  amount  varies  from  4  to  6 
per  cent.  Its  importance  in  dairy  v^ork,  especially  in 
connection  with  butter  and  cheese  making,  comes  from 
the  ease  with  which  it  is  converted  into  lactic  acid  by 


412 


FARM    ANIMALS 


bacteria.  When  milk  sours,  the  amount  of  sugar  de- 
creases something  more  than  a  quarter  of  its  original 
quantity.  The  sugar  of  milk  passes  largely  into  whey  in 
cheese  making  and  forms  over  70  per  cent  of  the  solids 
in  whey. 

5.  How  milk  sours. — If  certain  bacteria  of  air,  water 

or  barn  dust  are  admitted  to 
milk  in  any  manner,  they 
grow,  multiply  and  very 
shortly  change  the  sugar  of 
milk  to  an  acid.  These  bac- 
teria are  most  plentiful  in 
sour  milk,  and  they  adhere  to 
the  sides  of  any  vessel  in 
which  sour  milk  has  been 
stored.  When  sweet  milk  is 
poured  into  such  pails  or  jars 
or  cans,  the  germs  are  planted 
or  seeded   in  the  fresh  milk. 

Device    for    Cooling    Milk    Where     The  COnSCquenCC  is,  this  milk 
Ice  is  Not  Obtainable  ,  t^        i  -n 

also  sours.  io  keep  milk 
from  souring,  it  is  necessary  to  exercise  great  care  in 
milking,  to  sterilize  or  scald  all  utensils  used  in  its  stor- 
age, and  then  to  keep  it  at  a  low  temperature. 

In  a  few  dairies  so  careful  are  the  attendants  in  milking  and 
handling  this  milk  that  they  secure  a  product  largely  free  from  any 
germs  or  bacteria  whatsoever.  Milk  as  ordinarily  produced  con- 
tains tens  of  thousands  and  often  millions  of  bacteria  in  each 
cubic  centimeter.  A  cubic  centimeter  is  only  about  the  size  of  a 
thimble. 

6.  Pasteuiization. — Bacteria  are  readily  destroyed  by 
heat.  Hence,  if  milk  is  warmed  to  145  degrees,  and  the 
temperature  is  held  at  that  point  for  40  or  50  minutes, 
not  only  the  germs  that  cause  milk  to  sour  are  destroyed, 
but  disease  germs,   if  in  the   milk,  will   be  killed  also. 


MILK  413 

This  process  is  known  as  pasteurization.  A  few  of  the 
larger  cities  now  require  all  ordinary  milk  to  be  pasteur- 
ized before  it  is  permitted  to  be  sold.  Several  forms  of 
apparatus  have  been  devised  for  this  purpose,  some  of 
which  are  expensive  and  complicated  and  others  very 
simple.  After  milk  has  been  properly  heated,  for  best 
results  it  should  be  quickly  cooled  and  held  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  50  degrees  or  less  until  it  is  consumed. 

7.  Cooling. — The  cooling  of  milk  is 
for  the  purpose  of  checking  and  lessen- 
ing the  growth  and  multiplication  of  the  ,;, 
lactic  germs  that  sour  the  milk.  When  ^ 
milk  is  warm  it  is  in  the  condition  that  "^'"■''■' 
most  satisfies  these  tiny  creatures.  They  ^^^^^"^  o^  bacteria 
are  less  active  in  milk  cooled  down  to  a  of  bactTrfa  *  at  ^Xr- 
low  temperature,  and  in  frozen  milk  fng  zJTouSreachfdot 
they  are  content  to  sleep  and  rest  and  bacSm"^  a,  at"^5o 
wait  for  better  fortune.  On  farms  where  1^,^11^%  LgXllTim 
market  milk  is  produced  the  custom  is  ^^''^^'■'^• 

to  cool  the  milk  with  ice  immediately  after  milking.  Even 
though  the  greatest  care  is  exercised  in  handling  milk, 
unless  cooled  to  a  low  temperature,  the  milk  will  not 
keep  sweet  longer  than  a  day  or  two. 

8.  Cream. — The  lighter  portion  of  milk,  or  that  which 
rises  to  the  surface  when  the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand, 
or  which  can  be  otherwise  separated  by  centrifugal  force 
from  untreated  milk,  is  the  product  known  as  cream.  It 
contains  a  much  higher  percentage  of  fat  than  milk,  the 
other  constituents  being  correspondingly  lower,  due  to 
removal  of  water.  In  cream  the  fat  globules  are  in  sus- 
pension as  in  milk.  The  methods  in  use  to  obtain  cream 
are  shallow  pans,  deep  setting,  and  centrifugal  force  or 
cream  separators.  Cream  may  be  thick  or  thin,  or  any 
degree  between  the  two  extremes.     An  average  cream 


414 


FARM   ANIMALS 


contains  from  18  to  20  per  cent  of  butter  fat.     A  rich 
cream  contains  35  to  40  per  cent  of  fat. 

9.  Shallow  pan  separation. — In  the  shallow  pan  system 
milk  is  placed  in  pans  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  inches.  It  is 
the  oldest  method  of  cream  raising  in  use,  and  while  it 
accomplishes  its  purpose  it  does  so  at  the  expense  of 
much  valuable  butter  fat.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
from  15  to  20  per  cent  of  the  fat  of  milk  is  never  recov- 
ered in  the  cream  at  all.  If  the  people  who  use  this  sys- 
tem were  aware  of  the  extent  of  the  butter  fat  loss,  they 

would  quickly  abandon 
it  for  a  high  grade 
cream  separator. 

10.  Deep  setting. — 
A  step  in  advance  in 
creaming  over  shallow 
pans  is  the  deep  setting 
system.  Cans  about 
20  to  22  inches  in  height 
are  used,  the  milk  is 
cooled  to  a  tempera- 
temperature  of  40  de- 
grees, and  at  that  temperature  maintained  for  24  hours 
or  thereabouts.  On  farms  where  running  cold  water 
from  springs  is  available  fairly  good  results  are  obtained 
by  deep  setting.  In  the  absence  of  such  natural  advan- 
tage ice  is  necessary  if  best  results  are  to  be  secured. 
If  these  conditions  are  met,  it  is  possible  to  save  most  of 
the  fat.  At  the  very  best,  however,  from  5  to  15  per 
cent  of  the  fat  of  the  milk  is  not  recovered  in  the  cream. 
Usually  the  loss  of  fat  is  much  greater. 

11.  Cream  separators. — The  perfection  of  creaming  is 
possible  in  the  use  of  centrifugal  force  as  generated  in  a 
cream  separator.     Many  such  machines  are  now  on  the 


Deep  Setting  of  Milk 
Deep  cans  are  set  in  cold  water. 


MILK 


415 


market,  some  of  which  are  excellent  and  skim  to  the 
merest  trace  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk.  The  first  practical 
cream  separator  was  invented  in  1879  by  Dr.  Gustav 
De  Laval,  a  citizen  of  Sweden,  who  died  in  1913.  In  the 
process  of  separation  the  milk  flows  into  the  bowl, 
and,  partaking  of  the  centrifugal  force,  its  heavier 
portions  are  carried  into  the 
skim  milk  outlet  at  the  outer 
edge,  and  the  lighter  portion  into 
the  cream  outlet  at  the  center. 
The  cream  separator  has  revolu- 
tionized the  practice  of  butter 
making  in  this  and  other  lands. 
On  every  farm  where  two  or 
more  cows  are  kept  the  sep- 
arator will  prove  an  economical 
purchase.  Other  systems  of 
cream  raising  will  sooner  or  later  . 
become  obsolete,  because  their  use  means,  a  money  loss. 

12.  Skim  milk. — This  milk  product  is  a  valuable  food 
for  man  and  beast,  since  only  fat  is  largely  removed  in 
creaming.  The  other  constituents,  casein,  sugar,  ash 
and  water,  are  a  right  combination  for  pigs,  calves  and 
chicks.  By  substituting  corn  meal  or  wheat  middlings 
for  the  butter  fat  removed  in  separation,  an  ideal  ration 
is  obtained.  The  best  time  to  use  skim  milk  is  immedi- 
ately after  it  comes  from  the  separator.  It  is  then  sweet 
and  warm,  the  milk  sugar  is  not  yet  destroyed  by  lactic 
acid  germs,  and  the  full  feeding  value  will  be  secured. 
When  milk  is  fed  fresh  and  sweet,  digestive  disorders 
seldom  occur, 

13.  Market  milk. — There  is  no  substitute  for  clean, 
pure  milk.     It  is  nutritious,  palatable,  cheap.     Its  con- 


Dr.  Gustav  De  Laval 


416 


FARM    ANIMALS 


sumption  annually  increases,  and  better  methods  in  pro- 
duction, handling  and  distribution  are  constantly  being 
devised.  Not  only  should  cows  be  healthy,  but  the 
milkers  should  be  free  from  any  disease.  Milk  is  a 
sensitive  fluid  to  its  surroundings  and  quickly  absorbs 
injurious  odors.  Hence,  sanitary  quarters,  clean  utensils 
and   cool   storage   places   are   fundamental    requisites   of 

pure  and  wholesome  milk. 
Fresh  milk  is  readily  obtain- 
able on  farms  and  in  vil- 
lages and  towns.  It  must  be 
shipped  by  train  to  the  larger 
cities,  and  often  is  24  to  40 
hours  old  before  consumed. 
Some  cities  now  require 
milk  intended  for  table  use 
to  be  pasteurized  before 
being  offered  for  sale. 

14.  Grades   of   milk. — For 

commercial  purposes  several 
grades  of  milk  are  now  rec- 
ognized. Among  these  are : 
(1)  Certified  milk,  or  milk 
produced  under  all  conditions 
necessary  to  avoid  infection ;  (2)  inspected,  or  clean,  raw, 
milk  from  healthy  cows  as  determined  by  the  tuberculin 
test  and  physical  examination,  the  milk  being  kept  at  a 
low  temperature  and  restricted  as  to  the  number  of 
bacteria  it  contains;  (3)  pasteurized  milk  or  milk  from 
dairies  not  able  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  cer- 
tified and  inspected  milk;  the  cows  must  show^  no  signs 
of  tuberculosis  or  any  other  disease;  (4)  cooking  milk, 
or  milk  not  produced   under  close   regulation   and  not 


Cream  Separator 


MILK 


417 


pasteurized,  and  which  cannot  be  sold,  except  for 
cooking  purposes.  The  best  grades  of  milk  are  sold  in 
bottles. 

15.  Testing  milk. — Whether  a  dairy  cow  is  profitable 
or  not  depends  as  much  upon  the  quality  of  the  milk  as 
upon  its  quantity.  The  quantity  may  be  determined  by 
weighing  and  recording  the  amount  of  milk  yielded  from 
day  to  day.  The  quality  of  milk  may  be  readily  ascer- 
tained by  the  Babcock  tester,  a  device  for  separating  the 
fat  from  the  rest  of  the  solids  in  milk,  and  for  measur- 
ing it.  By  means  of  this  tester  and  the  milk  record  the 
worth  of  every  animal 
in  a  herd  can  be  deter- 
mined. Every  farmer 
who  produces  milk  or 
butter  should  own  a 
Babcock  tester. 

The  method  of  selec- 


iiiyi 


tion     and     breeding     of  babcock  tester  outp.t 

dairy  cows  has  been  almost  revolutionized  since  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Babcock  test.  Not  only  have  dairymen 
been  able  to  remove  from  their  herds  the  cows  that  are 
unprofitable,  but  breeders  have  been  able  to  mate  intelli- 
gently only  the  very  best  and  thus  increase  the  standards 
of  the  several  breeds. 


LESSON  THIRTY-NINE 
MILK  PRODUCTS 

1.  First  churn. 

2.  Butter. 

3.  Cream    ripening. 

4.  Temperature. 

5.  Churning. 

6.  Washing  the  butter. 

7.  Working  butter. 

8.  Salting. 

9.  Packing. 

10.  Cheese. 

11.  Kinds  of  cheese. 

12.  Ice  cream. 

13.  Condensed  milk. 

14.  Milk  powder. 

15.  Other  milk  products. 

Notes  to  the  Teacher. — It  may  not  always  be  possible 
to  introduce  practical  exercises  covering  the  topics  of 
this  lesson,  but  the  teacher  is  urged  to  ask  the  student 
to  give  attention  to  the  paragraphs  relating  to  butter 
making  where  the  home  churning  is  done.  If  the  school 
is  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  creamery,  or  good  farm  dairy, 
a  visit  to  such  will  be  both  interesting  and  instructive. 


418 


LESSON  THIRTY-NINE 
MILK  PRODUCTS 

1.  First  churn. — Thousands  of  years  ago,  long  even 
before  the  time  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  and  Jacob,  cows, 
goats  and  mares  were  kept  for 
the  skins  their  bodies  gave  for 
clothing  and  their  flesh  and  milk 
for  food.  Milk  in  those  early- 
days  was  churned  into  butter  or 
made  into  cheese.  The  appli- 
ances were  few  and  simple.  The 
first  churn*  was  the  skin  of  a 
beast,  and,  rolled  back  and  forth 
the  fat  globules  were  gathered, 
butter  resulting. 

2.  Butter. — The  average  com- 
position of  butter  is :  Fat,  85  per 
cent;  water,  11  per  cent;  salt,  4 
per  cent;  and  casein,  1  per  cent. 
Its  quality  is  judged  upon  flavor, 
texture,  color  and  general  ap- 
pearance. The  true  bouquet  of 
flavor  is  impossible  of  description. 
Texture  constitutes  the  grain,  and  in  butter  should  carry 
the  granular  structure  of  the  fat  globules  of  the  milk. 
In  color,  a  bright,  golden  yellow  is  demanded.     On  fresh 

*The  Arabs  first  discovered  the  art  of  butter  making  by  carrying 
milk  in  goats'  skins  on  a  camel's  back. 


Out  of  Date 


419 


420 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Composition   of  Butter 


pasture  grass  the  color  is  ideal,  but  in  winter  when  cows 
are  fed  dry  provender  coloring  matter  is  often  necessary. 

Salt  is  usually  demanded,  but  

not  always.  When  marketed, 
a  clean,  neat  package  of  attrac- 
tive appearance  commands  a 
price  above  ordinary  grades. 

3.  Cream  ripening. — Before 
milk  or  cream  is  churned  it 
undergoes  a  treatment  known  as  ripening.  It  must  not 
only  be  sour,  but  so  treated  as  to  impart  high  flavor  to 
the  cream  mass.  The  rapid  production  of  lactic  acid  is 
desirable,  and  to  this  acid  condition  of  cream  is  due  to 
a  great  extent  the  quality  of  the  butter  subsequently 
made  of  it.  In  factories  where  large  quantities  of  butter 
are  made  the  cream  is  ripened  by  a  "starter,"  which  gives 
to  all  the  cream  an  even  ripeness.  In  making  farm  butter 
the  usual  custom  is  to  add  a  bit  of  cream  from  the  cream 
crock  to  the  fresh  cream  which  is  to  be  ripened. 

4.  Temperature. — If  cream  is 
held  at  a  very  low  temperature,  it 
will  ripen  or  sour  very  slowly. 
The  ripening  germs  would  develop 
much  more  rapidly  at  a  high  tem- 
perature, but  the  effect  would  be 
less  desirable  on  flavor  and  less 
favorable  to  the  texture  of  the 
butter.  It  is  recommended  that 
cream  be  ripened  at  a  temperature 
of  from  60  to  70  degrees.  In  case 
only  a  small  amount  of  starter  is  available  in  the  begin- 
ning, a  higher  temperature  is  advisable;  but  once  the 
inoculation  is  well  under  way,  the  development  must  be 


Box  Churn 


MILK    PRODUCTS 


421 


Barrel  Churn 


checked  by  lowering  the  temperature  if  the  best  flavor 

and  texture  are  to  be  secured. 

5.  Churning. — Various  types  of  churns  are  in  use,  but 

those  that  agitate  the  cream  in  such  manner  as  to  cause 

concussion  of  the  fat  particles  stand  in  highest  approval. 

The  whole  purpose  of  churning  is  to  bring  the  fat 
globules  together  in  granular  masses. 
A  rapid  agitation  is  favorable  to  quick 
churning.  The  barrel  and  box  types 
of  churn  are  preferable  because  they 
meet  these  two  conditions.  A  cold 
cream  makes  difficult  churning,  as  does 
a  cream  that  has  not  been  fully  ripened. 
6.  Washing  the  butter. — When  the 
globules  have  been  gathered  into  par- 
ticles about  the  size  of  grains  of  wheat 

and   the   buttermilk   is   blue   and   watery,   the   churning 

should  be  stopped.     A  dash  of  cold  water  to  the  contents 

of  the  churn  will  hasten  the  rise  of  the  smaller  particles 

floating  in  the  buttermilk.     The 

buttermilk  is  now  drained  out  of 

the  churn.     Cold  water  is  added, 

a   quarter  less   than   the   amount 

of  buttermilk  withdrawn,  and  the 

churning  continued  gently  for  a 

few  minutes.     The  water  is  now 

drained  out  of  the  churn   and  a 

second  washing  given  the  butter. 

If  the  water  drained  away  from  the 
second  application  is  clear,  the  washing 
opcation  is  ended,  but  if  a  milky  color 
remains,_  add  water  a  third  or  even  a 
fourth  timt  as  before. 

7.  Working  butter.— Just  two  ends  are  sought  in  work- 
ing butter — to  incorporate  the  salt  and  to  bring  the  par- 


Washed   and    Unworked 
Showing  granular  condition. 


422 


FARM    ANIMALS 


tides  into  a  compact  mass.     In  working,  some  of  the 
water  will   leak  away,  which  is  desirable.     If  butter  is 
worked  too  much,  the  grain  may  be 
injured.     More  butter  is  spoiled  by 
being  worked  too  much  than  too  little. 
8.  Salting. — When  salt  is  added  to 
butter,  it  helps  in  a  small  way  to  keep 
it  sweet,  but  the  real  purpose  of  salt- 
ing is  to  improve  flavor.    The  amount 
to   be   used   depends   on   market   de- 
mands.   Some  people  like  a  very  salty 
butter,  others  just  a  reminder  of  its 
Working  Butter         presence.     Ordinarily,    an    ounce    is 
used  for  each  pound  of  churned  but- 
ter.    Salt  is  most  conveniently  added  when  the  butter  is 
worked.     This  operation  must  be  continued  until  the  salt 
has  completely  dissolved,  otherwise  streaked  butter  may 
result. 

9.  Packing. — When  the  buttermilk  or  water  has  been 
pressed  out  the  salting  work  is  fin- 
ished and  the  butter  is  ready  for 
packing  and  storing.  A  very  dry 
butter  is  preferable  for  long-time 
storing,  but  that  to  be  used  soon  will 
admit  of  more  moisture.  Butter  to 
be  delivered  to  consumers  is  more 
attractive  if  pressed  into  small  prints 
by  means  of  molds  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  prints  are  wrapped  in 
parchment  paper  and  placed  in  heavy  g^^^,^^  g^^^^^ 
cardboard  packages  of  a  similar  shape 

and  size. 

10.  Cheese. — This   product   of  the   dairy   is   made  by 
coagulating  milk  with   rennet,  a  ferment  of  the  calf's 


MILK   PRODUCTS 


423 


Making   Print  Butter 

Placing    butter  in   print   with   paddles   at   left;    finished 
prints  at  right. 


stomach.     Milk  that  is  rich  in  fat  makes  more  and  richer 
cheese.     Full  cream  cheese  contains  37  per  cent  of  water.. 

34  per  cent  of  fat, 
24  per  cent  of 
casein  and  5  per 
cent  of  ash.  Nine- 
ty-five per  cent  of 
the  nutrients  in 
cheese  are  digest- 
ed when  eaten. 

Cottage  cheese  is 
largely  homemade. 
The  most  common 
kind  of  cheese  in 
our  country  is  known 
as  cheddar,  or  some 
modified  form  of  it. 
The  process  of  making  involves  a  varied  and  distinct  procedure 
which  includes  setting  or  making  the  milk  acid,  then  coagulating 
with  rennet ;  cutting,  or  breaking  the  curd  into  little  blocks  by 
knives ;  cooking,  or  toughening  by  heat ;  cheddaring  or  matting  into 
blocks;  grinding,  to  enable  salting  and  pressing;  salting  and  press- 
ing, to  prepare  for  use ;  and  curing  or  ripening,  for  final  consump- 
tion. Many  other  forms  of  cheese  are  made  in  accordance  with 
specific  processes  and  require  much  experience  and  great  skill  to 
secure  superior  products. 

11.  Kinds  of  cheese. — The  varieties  or  kinds  of  cheese 
are  almost  legion.  Nearly  every 
nation  has  a  favorite,  its  char- 
acter and  quality  being  due 
to  food  given  in  producing  the 
milk,  but  in  greater  part  to  the 
differences  in  the  mode  of 
treating  the  milk. 


Rounding  Out  the  Cheese 


One  of  the  final  steps  in  cheese- 
making  is  pressing  the  cakes. 
They  are  now  ready  for  storing  and 
ripening. 


Limburger  is  the  result  of  specific 
fermentation  brought  into  the 
cheese  during  ripening.  Swiss  cheese 

is  flavored  with  herbs,  and  the  native  pastures  and  curing  fermenta- 
tions give  a  character  and  flavor  world  wide  in  fame.     In  France 


424  FARM    ANIMALS 

the  delicious  Roquefort  is  made,  the  milk  of  both  the  sheep  and  cow 
being  used.  The  cheese  is  made  by  mixing  clotted  milk  with  mois- 
tened bread.  The  mixture  is  pressed  into  porcelain  molds  with  holes 
at  the  sides.  It  is  then  dried  and  salted  in  a  peculiar  manner  and 
placed  to  mature  in  caves  in  the  mountains.  England  makes  many- 
cheeses,  the  most  famous  being  English  cheddar,  Cheshire  and  Stil- 
ton. The  round  Dutch  cheeses,  colored  red,  are  common  in  all 
markets  and  take  the  name  of  Edam,  from  a  small  Holland  town ; 
partly  skimmed  milk  is  used.  Brie  is  a  soft  French  cheese,  some- 
what like  the  Camembert,  also  a  French  soft  cheese  of  fine  flavor. 
In  all.  more  than  150  varieties  of  cheese  are  manufactured  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world. 

12.  Ice  cream. — As  now  used,  ice  cream  is  a  rather 
broad  term  which  applies  to  all  frozen  mixtures  based  on 

milk  products.  In  its  restricted  mean- 
ing ice  cream  is  cream  sweetened,  fla- 
vored and  frozen.  It  may  be  made  of 
cream,  thin  or  thick,  or  of  cream  and 
milk,  or  of  cream  and  condensed  milk, 
or  of  plain  milk  alone.  Sometimes 
egg-s,  milk  powder,  and  gelatine  are 
Ice  Cream  Freezer  added  to  the  milk  stock.  A  great 
many  receipts  are  contained  in  the 
cook  books,  some  providing  for  elaborate  and  fancy  mix- 
tures and  others  for  a  plainer  product.  In  many  cities 
large  factories  have  been  built  in  which  ice  cream  is  man- 
ufactured in  immense  quantities  for  supplying  a  local  as 
well  as  a  diversified  trade. 

13.  Milk  powder. — There  are  various  methods  of  pre- 
paring dried  milk.  The  object  of  drying  is  to  get  the 
solids  of  milk  in  powder  form.  This  is  accomplished  by 
evaporation.  In  a  dry  form  milk  may  be  transported  at 
small  cost  compared  with  the  usual  liquid  and  condensed 
forms.  Milk  powder  is  much  liked  in  baking  and  may 
be  used  directly  with  flour  or  be  mixed  with  water  and 
used  as  ordinary  milk.  There  is  much  demand  for  dried 
milk  by  confectionery  establishments.     At  present  most 


MILK   PRODUCTS 


425 


Canned ! 


milk  powder  is  manufactured  from  skim  milk  since  cer- 
tain difficulties  are  encountered  in  preserving  a  product 
containing  a  large  percentage  of  butter  fat. 

14.  Condensed  milk. — Two  kinds  of  condensed  milk 
are  prepared — sweetened  and  unsweetened.  The  first  is 
preserved     with     cane     sugar.     In     both 

forms  milk  is  heated  to  about  180  de- 
grees, sterilized  with  steam  under  pres- 
sure, and  evaporated  until  a  suitable  con- 
sistency is  reached.  Unsweetened  con- 
densed milk  is  not  usually  concentrated 
to  quite  the  same  degree  as  the  sweet- 
ened. It  is  used  mostly  in  the  ice  cream 
trade,  although  to  some  extent  for  home 
use.  The  sweetened  forms,  if  properly  manufactured, 
will  keep  for  months  or  years  even  and  are  used  largely 
in  bakeries,  candy  factories,  steamships  or  other  places 
where  fresh  milk  is  not  easily  obtainable. 

15.  Other  milk  products. — Milk  sugar  is  made  by  evap- 
orating to  a  small  bulk  whey,  clarified  by  boiling  and 
treatment  with  alum  or  other  substances.  Buttermilk, 
which  so  recently  was  largely  used  as  a  food  for  pigs  and 
poultry,  is  now  a  fixed  product  of  human  dietaries.  The 
lactic  organisms  in  milk  are  utilized  ii  the  preparation 
of  various  milk  drinks  which  are  sold  under  various 
names,  according  to  the  particular  organism  used  to  turn 
the  milk  sour.  Some  medical  authorities  claim  that  the 
lactic  milk  preparations  are  healthful  and  tend  to  prolong 
human  life. 


PRACTICUMS. 


1.  Pastf.urization  of  Milk. — Secure  fresh  milk  from  clean  and 
unclean  stables,  or  prepare  from  the  same  milk  clean  and  unclean 
samples. 

Pour  in  four  small  clean  bottles  or  test  tubes — eight  in  all — about 
one-half  full  with  milk  from  each  sample.  Hold  one  bottle  of  each 
class  of  milk  without  further  treatment  at  the  temoerature  of  the 
room.  Now  put  the  six  remaining  bottles  or  test  tubes  containing 
the  milk  in  a  vessel  of  water  previoush'  heated  to  145  degrees.  At 
end  of  three  minutes  remove  one  of  each  kind;  in  ten  minutes  one 
more  of  each  kind ;  and  at  end  of  20  minutes  the  other  two,  one  of 
each  kind.  Now  cool  all  the  samples  under  test  to  a  temperature 
of  65  to  70  degrees  and  leave  these  for  future  observation.  What 
changes  do  you  note  in  appearance  after  24,  48  and  72  hours? 

2.  Making  the  Babcock  Test. — 
A  simple  Babcock  testing  outfit 
should  be  included  in  the  regular 
equipment  of  every  school.  At 
different  times  during  the  school 
year,  milk  from  all  the  neighborhood 
farms  should  be  tested  by  the  stu- 
dents themselves  under  the  teacher's 
direction.  In  this  way  it  is  possible 
for  the  school  to  determine  the  qual- 
ity of  the  milk  of  every  cow  of  the 
neighborhood. 

(a)  Sampling  the  milk. — Secure  a 
sample  from  each  cow  of  the  herd 
as  soon  as  milked.  Pour  the  milk 
from  one  pail  to  another  three  or  four  times  so  as  to  get  it  thor- 
oughly mixed.  Have  clean  bottles  properly  labeled  with  each  cow's 
name,  one  bottle  for  each  cow.  When  the  milk  has  been  drawn  and 
mixed,  a  sample  is  taken  and  emptied  into  the  bottle  marked  for 
that  cow. 

(b)  Testing  sample. — Before  the  milk  in  the  sample  bottle  is 
added  to  the  testing  bottles,  It  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  again. 
A  milk  pipette  which  accompanies  the  testing  outfit  is  used  for 
securing  the  exact  quantity.  This  amount  is  17.6  cubic  centimeters, 
and  on  this  pipette  is  placed  a  mark  showing  just  how  much  is  to  be 
sucked  up  into  the  tube.  The  pipette  may  be  filled  and  then  the 
milk  allowed  to  drop  out  until  the  exact  quantity  is  obtained.  By 
firmly  pressing  the  tip  of  the  finger  upon  the  top  of  the  pipette  the 
milk  will  be  retained  in  it.  Slightly  releasing  the  finger  will  cause 
the  milk  to  drop  out  until  it  reaches  the  mark  indicated  on  the 
pipette.     The  point  of  the  pipette  is  now  placed  in  one  of  the  test 

426 


Filling  the  Bottle 

Proper    position    of    holding    the 
pipette. 


MILK   PRODUCTS 


427 


Mixing  Milk  and  Acid 

Bottle  should  be  given  a  rotary 
motion. 


bottles  and  the  finger  removed  to  let  the  milk  flow  into  the  bottle. 
Let  the  pipette  drain  and  then  blow  in  the  upper  end  to  expel  all 
the  milk. 

(c)  Adding   acid. — The   test   bottle    containing   the    milk    is   now 
ready   for  the  acid.     The   exact   amount  is   17.5   cubic   centimeters. 

The  acid  may  be  poured  into  the 
test  bottle  by  means  of  an  acid  meas- 
ure, the  exact  quantity  having  been 
measured.  The  test  bottle  is  held  in 
a  slightly  slanting  position  and  the 
acid  poured  into  it.  The  acid  being 
heavier  than  the  milk,  sinks  to  the 
bottom  at  once.  By  gently  shaking 
with  a  rotary  motion,  the  acid  and 
milk  are  now  mixed.  Continue  this 
motion  until  the  material  in  the  test 
bottle  is  dark  brown  and  quite  warm. 
(d)  Whirling  the  bottles.  — Th^ 
bottles,  mixed  with  milk  and  acid, 
are  now  placed  in  the  tester.  An 
even  number  of  bottles  should  be  whirled  at  the  same  time  and 
placed  opposite  each  other  in  the  tester.  When  all  the  samples  have 
been  placed,  the  cover  of  the  tester  is  put  on  the  machine  and  the 
machine  turned  at  the  rate  described  in  the  directions  accompanying 
the  machine.  Ordinarily,  the  bottles  should  make  from  750  to  1,200 
revolutions  a  minute.  The  machine  should  be  whirled  at  this  rate 
for  about  seven  minutes. 

(e)  Adding  hot  water. — After  whirling  the  bottles  as  directed,  hot 
water  is  poured  into  each  test  bottle  so  as  to 
bring  the  mixture  up  to  the  bottom  of  the 
neck.  The  bottles  are  then  put  back  into  the 
machine  and  the  whirling  continued  for  two 
or  three  minutes,  and  then  water  again  is 
added  to  the  test  bottle  to  bring  all  of  the 
fat  up  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle  where  it 
may  be  measured.  As  each  bottle  is  taken 
from  the  tester,  it  is  held  in  a  straight  posi- 
tion in  front  on  a  level  with  the  eye.  The 
division  marks  on  the  neck  of  the  bottle  in- 
dicate the  measures  for  each  per  cent  of  fat. 
Counting  the  spaces  occupied  by  the  yellow 
substance  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle  will  give 
the  total  per  cent  of  fat  in  that  sample  of 
milk.  If,  for  instance,  the  yellowish  sub- 
stance occupies  a  space  between  1  and  5,  that 
would  indicate  the  percentage  of  fat  in  that 
sample  to  be  4.  If  a  sample  reads  from  1^  to  5^4,  then  the  per 
cent  of  butter  fat  would  be  4]4.. 

3.  More  Butter  Than  Fat. — Since  the  Babcock  tester  gives  the 


Whirling  the  Bottles 


428  FARM    ANIMALS 

amount  of  butter  fat  only,  in  estimating  the  amount  of  butter  in  a 
given  sample,  it  is  necessary  to  add  something  in  addition,  to  make 
up  for  the  other  substances  in  butter  besides  butter  fat.  Butter 
contains,  in  addition  to  bucter  fat,  also  moisture,  salt  and  other  sub- 
stances. To  meet  the  increase,  butter  is  approximately  one-sixth 
more  than  the  butter  fat  contained  in  the  milk  or  cream.  If,  for 
instance,  150  pounds  of  milk  showed  a  fat  test  of  4  per  cent, 
there  would  be  six  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  that  quantity;  but  since 
butter  is  one-sixth  more,  the  true  amount  of  butter  in  the  150  pounds 
of  milk  would  be  not  6  pounds,  but  6  pounds  plus  1  pound,  or  7 
pounds  in  all. 

4.  (a)  Suppose  that  by  deep  setting  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of 
fat  is  left  in  the  skim  milk  and  the  skim  milk  is  80  per  cent  of  the 
total  product,  what  per  cent  of  the  fat  of  the  milk  is  lost,  if  the 
original  milk  contained  3  per  cent  of  fat?  If  it  contained  5  per  cent 
of  fat? 

(b)  Suppose  that  with  a  cream  separator  two-hundredths  of  one 
per  cent  of  fat  is  left  in  the  skim  milk,  which  is  90  per  cent  of  the 
total  product,  what  per  cent  of  the  total  fat  of  the  milk  is  lost  if 
the  milk  contained  3  per  cent  of  fat?     Five  per  cent  of  fat? 

(c)  Suppose  a  creamery  receives  an  average  of  5.000  pounds  of 
milk  daily  for  300  days,  how  much  butter  would  be  lost  during  the 
period  in  each  of  the  four  cases? 


LESSON    FORTY. 
DAIRY    FARMING. 

1.  First  steps. 

2.  Kind  of  cows. 

3.  The  dairy  sire. 

4.  Grading  up. 

5.  Hold  fast  to  one  breed. 

6.  Cattle  barns. 

7.  Market  milk. 

8.  Producing  market  milk. 

9.  Farm  butter. 

10.  Selling  cream. 

11.  Summer  or  winter  dairying. 

12.  Silos  are  helpful. 

13.  Soiling  crops. 

14.  Dairying  a  balance  wheel. 

15.  What  a  dairyman  should  be. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  business  of  dairying  stead- 
ily gro\"?  in  importance.  How  to  build  up  a  profitable 
herd  of  dairy  cows  is  the  obvious  purpose  of  this  lesson. 
The  teacher  can  use  the  same  steps  in  applying  this  les- 
son to  other  lines  of  live  stock  farming.  The  important 
consideration  is  the  necessity  of  firm  adherence  to  one 
line  of  breeding  once  the  start  has  been  made.  At  the 
same  time  seek  to  know  what  animals  are  best  in  the 
herd  or  flock  and  use  these  as  foundation  stock. 


429 


LESSON    FORTY 
DAIRY    FARMING 

1.  First  steps. — Success  in  dairying  calls  for  special  in- 
terest in  the  business,  a  location  that  admits  of  easy 
access  to  markets,  farm  and  buildings  adapted  to  the 
needs,  and  the  right  kind  of  dairy  stock.  A  large  outlay 
at  first  is  not  required.  Many  dairymen  have  started 
with  small  equipment  and  few  animals.  Those  who  have 
succeeded  studied  their  business,  enlarged  their  activities 
as  the  demand  grew,  installed  conveniences  of  sanitation 
and  followed  carefully  the  recognized  methods  of  clean 
milk  production. 

2.  Kind  of  cows. — While  the  start  may  be  made  with 
cows  of  unknown  or  mongrel  breeding,  selected  cows  of 
a  recognized  dairy  breed  should  sooner  or  later  be  chosen. 
High-grade  cows  are  profitable  dairy  workers;  so,  too, 
are  well-chosen  individuals  from  pure-bred  and  recorded 
stock.  A  herd  of  pure-bred  cows  is  always  worth  more 
than  a  herd  of  grade  cows,  but  the  pure-bred  herd  is  pri- 
marily for  the  purpose  of  raising  pure-bred  sires.  A 
young  man  can  start  with  grades,  and  also  secure  one  or 
more  females  of  pure  breeding;  by  preserving  the  heifers 
and  using  them  to  replace  the  least  profitable  graded  cows, 
it  is  possible  to  secure  a  breeding  herd  at  no  great  outlay 
in  first  cost.  In  this  manner  common  cows  in  a  few 
years  can  be  entirely  replaced  by  high-grade  and  pure- 
bred stock. 

3.  The  dairy  sire. — An  old  saying  is :  "The  sire  is  half 
the  herd."     This  is  correct,  because  the  blood  of  the  sire 

430 


DAIRY   FARMING 


431 


is  a  part  of  the  offspring  of  the  whole  herd.  In  practice 
the  sire  is  more  than  half,  since  on  account  of  his  breed- 
ing he  is  more  prepotent,  has 
in  his  ancestry  preponderating 
dairy  qualities,  and  hence 
transmits  these  qualities  to 
the  progeny.  Only  sires  of 
pure  breeding  should  be  chosen 
to  head  the  herd.  No  dairy- 
man or  other  live  stock  breeder 
ever  employs  a  sire  of  uncer- 
tain or  mongrel  breeding  if  he 
seeks  to  improve  his  herd. 
Under  no  circumstances 
should  a  grade  sire  be  used  in 
breeding.  A  wise  dairyman 
would  prefer  to  sell  part  of  his 
herd  and  purchase  a  choice 
dairy  animal  of  pure  breeding 
than  to  use  a  grade. 

4.  Grading  up. — The  greater 
number  of  dairy  herds  are  com- 
posed, not  of  pure  stock,  but 
of  grade  stock.  Such  herds 
can  be  quickly  improved  by 
following  the  plan  of  "grading 
up."  This  is  a  simple  matter 
and  involves  a  pure-bred  sire 
of  the  chosen  breed.  The  male 
calves  are  disposed  of  as  veal 
or  raised  and  fattened  as 
butcher  stock.  The  heifer 
calves  are  reserved  for  replac- 
ing  the   aged   cows   or  others 


Four  Generations 

The  foundation  cow  was  worth 
$100.  By  breeding  up,  in  the 
fourth  generation  a  cow,  with  a 
seven-day  record  of  24  pounds  of 
fat    was    valued    at    $1,000. 


432 


FARM    ANIMALS 


that  are  otherwise  not  profitable.  As  the  herd  grows  in 
numbers  only  the  female  offspring  of  the  very  best  cows 
should  be  preserved.  The  offspring  of  the  less  valuable 
cows  may  now  be  sold  as  veal  or  to  others  to  raise  as 
butcher  stock. 

5.  Hold  fast  to  one  breed. — In  grading  up  a  herd,  new 

sires  will  be  required  from  time  to  time  in  order  to  avoid 

close  or  related  breeding.     When  such  times  arise,  the 

mistake  of  changing  breeds  should  not  be  made.     Cling 

fast  to  the  breed  that  was  used  at  the  start. 

A  change  in  breed  or  race  involves  a  mixture  of  blood,  and  this 
is  not  only  unwise,  but  destructive.  Such  changes  defeat  the  very- 
purpose  of  a  fixed  plan  to  establish  a  herd  with  a  single  and  uni- 
form line  of  qualities  and  characteristics.  To  admit  Holstein  blood 
in  an  improved  herd  of  Jerseys  or  Ayrshires  that  has  been  graded 
and  bred  up,  introduces  qualities  and  characters  that  are  antagonistic 
to  the  very  tilings  that  the  previous  breeding  had  sought  to  fix  and 
make  stable.  The  same  happens  when  Ayrshire  or  Guernsey  or 
Jersey  blood  is  introduced  into  a  herd  of  Holsteins  or  other  breed. 
After  a  breed  has  been  chosen  and  purebred  sires  of  that  breed  been 
used,  one  must  adhere  to  that  breed  and  never  thereafter  choose  a 
male  from  another  breed. 

6.  Cattle  barns. — Let  the  barn  be  able  to  accommodate 
the  herd.  It  may  be  of  costly  construction  or  not,  as  the 
purse  and  inclination  may  decide.     Good  ventilation,  sun- 


IDEAL  Cattle  Barn  for  Dairy  Herd 
It  is  light,  clean  and  sanitary 


DAIRY    FARMING 


433 


light,  sanitation  and  comfort  are  not  the  result  of  money 
outlay.  The  humblest  dairyman  can  procure  these  sim- 
ple stable  requisites.  They  may  call  for  extra  labor,  in- 
genuity and  enterprise,  but  his  own  hands  can  do  the 
work  at  times  when  other  work  is  not  pressing. 

Fresh  air  should  be  at  all  times  admitted ;  windows,  so  placed  as  to 
let  the  sun  fall  on  all  parts  of  the  stable,  should  be  in  generous  num- 
bers ;  and  floors  and  mangers  should  be  built  that  they  may  be 
quickly  and  frequently  cleaned.  Finally  ample  bedding  should  be 
provided,  that  the  cows  may  rest  in  comfort.  Remember  this :  Cows 
respond  best  when  kindly  cared  for,  when  fed  appetizing  and  nutri- 
tious food,  and  when  made  to  feel  completely  at  ease  in  their  stable 
quarters. 

7.  Market  milk. — The  choice  of  the  dairy  line  will  de- 
pend on  circumstances  and  on  the  personal  preference  of 
the  individual.  Dairymen  near  large  milk  markets 
usually  prefer  to  sell  their  product  as  milk.  Some  sell 
to   their   own    customers    and    cater   to    them.     This    is 


Receiving  Station  for  Milk  Market 

Milk  trains  gather  milk  from  producing  centers  and  carry  it  in  large  cans  to  the 
milk-consuming  centers.  As  a  rule,  the  milk  is  received  by  milk  dealers,  to  whom 
it  is  consigned,  and  who  make  it  their  business  to  cool,  bottle  and  deliver  to 
customers. 


434 


FARM    ANIMALS 


usually  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  disposing  of  milk. 
Certain  markets  do  net  admit  of  this,  and  the  selling 
through  or  to  milk  dealers  is  necessary.  The  milk  traffic 
of  our  very  large  cities  is  handled  in  this  way. 

The  concentration  of  market  milk  in  a  few  hands  has  been  due  to 
several  reasons.  One  is  the  impossibiUty  of  producing  enough  milk 
for  dense  population  from  nearby  land  and  the  necessity  of  ever 
reaching  out  into  new  territory,  often  scores  of  miles  away,  to  keep 
up  the  supply  for  constantly  increasing  demands.  In  these  cases 
milk  is  brought  to  the  place  of  consumption  by  trains. 

8.  Producing  market  milk. — Whether  one  is  in  per- 
sonal touch  with  his  customers 

or    markets   his    milk   through  -'^" 

dealers,  he  is  equally  concerned 
in  producing  a  high-grade 
product  that  is  clean,  pure  and 
wholesome.  It  is  more  and 
more  the  custom  of  city 
boards  of  health  to  set  up 
standards  that  market  milk 
must  reach  if  it  is  disposed  of 
in  that  city.  This  course  has 
brought  about  many  changes 
in  the  manner  of  producing, 
supplying  and  distributing 
milk.  As  these  rules  and  regu- 
lations become 
their  early  aggravating  features 
disappear  and  the  entire  milk  traffic  assumes  a  new  im- 
portance. Milk  of  a  high  grade  will  always  be  in  de- 
mand, even  increase,  and  in  time  the  interests  of  both 
producer  and  consumer  will  be  one  of  common  concern. 

9.  Farm  butter. — One  form  of  dairying  is  in  mak- 
ing butter  on  the  farm  and  in  disposing  of  it  to  private 
customers.     Before  the  days  of  the  creamery,  all  butter 


No  question  about  it  here.  The 
ii-nrl«^t-c+r^r^rl  pail  at  the  rear  contains  water  for 
unuersiOOU    moistening  the  udder. 


DAIRY    FARMING 


435 


was  farm-made.  Regular  delivery  days  are  observed, 
the  customers  knowing  that  they  can  depend  on  the  qual- 
ity of  the  product  and  can  rely  on  fair  dealing  of  the 
producer. 

Attractive  packages  contribute  much  to  the  ease  of  finding  cus- 
tomers, and  if  the  product  is  high  grade,  an  energetic  dairyman  can 
soon  build  up  a  very  profitable  custom  trade.  Pleased  customers 
are  a  splendid  asset  of  this  trade,  and  they  always  assist  in  extending 
the  business.  Paper  boxes  of  pound  capacity  or  small  earthen  jars 
may  be  used  in  delivering  the  product.  Choose  a  name  for  your 
farm  and  sell  the  product  under  such  farm  trade  mark.  When 
weekly  visits  are  made  for  delivering  butter  to  regular  customers,  it 
is  frequently  possible  to  sell  eggs,  fowls,  buttermilk,  fruit  and  other 
products  on  the  same  trip  and  to  the  same  people. 


At  the  Creamery  in  the  Country 

Milk  and  cream  delivered  to  creameries  for  manufac- 
turing butter.  Farm  butter  making  has  been  replaced  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  by  factories. 

10.  Selling  cream. — Many  farmers  who  live  some  dis- 
tance from  regular  markets  prefer  to  sell  cream  rather 
than  convert  this  cream  into  butter.  They  own  a  sep- 
arator, sell  the  cream  and  feed  the  skim  milk  on  the 
farm  to  calves,  pigs  and  fowls.  With  many  people  dairy- 
ing is  a  side  business.  A  few  cows  are  kept  for  family 
use,  the  milk  surplus  being  gathered  two  or  three  times 
a  week  by  creamery  delivery  wagons.  This  custom  is 
not  at  all  general,  but  where  it  prevails  it  saves  labor 


436  FARM    ANIMALS 

and  trouble.  In  some  sections  milk  is  separated  on  the 
farm  and  the  cream  delivered  to  some  central  point  by 
the  producer.  This  is  not  usually  the  most  economical 
practice,  especially  if  dairying  is  the  chief  business  of 
the  farm. 

11.  Summer  or  winter  dairying. — Whether  cows  shall 
be  bred  to  freshen  in  the  fall,  spring,  or  more  or  less 
evenly  throughout  the  year,  is  a  point  to  be  decided  by 
each  individual  farmer  in  accordance  with  local  con- 
ditions and  preferences.  The  man  who  has  an  even 
butter  trade  the  year  round  will  want  an  even  produc- 
tion of  milk  to  meet  the  demands  of  his  steady  customers. 
The  prudent  dairyman  will  seek  to  understand  the  gen- 
eral trend  of  the  market  and  plan  to  have  his  cows 
freshen  when  milk  is  in  greatest  demand. 

As  a  rule,  prices  are  highest  during  winter.  Cows  that  freshen 
in  fall  or  winter  maintain  a  steady  flow  for  several  months.  Their 
daily  milk  flow  will  be  stimulated  when  turned  on  pasture  in  the 
spring,  and  thus  their  annual  production  will  tend  to  be  larger  than 
otherwise  if  they  were  to  freshen  in  the  spring  and  be  subjected  to 
dry  winter  rations  during  the  late  fall  and  winter.  Taken  from  the 
pasture,  they  naturally  quickly  shrink  in  milk  yield. 

12.  Silos  are  helpful. — Silage  is  a  superior  feed  for 
dairy  cows.  It  is  an  appetizing  and  nutritious  feeding 
stuff  and  supplies  the  very  necessary  succulence  that 
other  winter  foods  lack.  In  successful  dairying  the  silo 
is  well  nigh  indispensable.  It  is  only  a  matter  of  time 
when  silos  will  be  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  every  dairy 
farm.  Silage  is  a  cheap  and  economical  food,  and  when 
made  the  basis  of  the  rations,  dairying  products  are  se- 
cured at  the  lowest  cost  a  pound.  By  means  of  the  silo, 
spring  and  summer  conditions  are  made  possible  for 
the  entire  year. 

13.  Soiling  crops. — In  case  the  pastures  are  insufficient, 
either  because  of  small  area  available  in  proportion  to  the 


DAIRY    FARMING 


437 


size  of  the  herd,  or  because  of  high  value  of  lands,  soil- 
ing crops  may  be  resorted  to.  A  much  smaller  area  will 
be  required  than  for  pasture ;  no  fences  will  be  needed ; 
and  large  quantities  of  green  food  can  be  had. 


Dairy  Herd  Fed  Year  Round  on  Silage 

When  feed  is  high,  silage  is  practically  indispensable  in  dairying.  For  winter 
feeding  it  is  a  fair  substitute  for  summer  pasture,  since  corn  ensiled  is  more  appe- 
tizing than  if  fed  dry  and  in  the  rough. 


The  soiling  areas  are  reasonably  heavily  manured  and  then 
seeded  to  the  desired  crops.  As  these  reach  maturity  they  are  cut 
and  fed  green  from  day  to  day.  As  fast  as  these  crops  are  used 
up  the  land  is  again  plowed,  and  manured  and  at  once  seeded  to 
another  crop.  In  this  way  soiling  becomes  a  substitute  for  pastures. 
More  labor  is  required,  but  the  large  tonnage  secured  from  such 
crops  abundantly  meets  this  expenditure.  A  given  acreage  will  sup- 
port twice  as  many  or  even  more  cows  when  employed  in  growing 
soiling  crops  than  if  devoted  to  pasturage. 

14.  Dairying  a  balance  wheel. — Most  lines  of  farming 
tend  to  exhaust  the  land  and  impoverish  the  soil.  Dairy- 
ing is  an  exception.  Almost  no  fertility  is  removed  when 
butter  is  sold — less  than  50  cents  of  plant  food  in  every 
ton  of  butter.  When  milk  is  sold  the  loss  of  plant  food 
in  a  ton  of  milk  is  valued  at  $2.80.  Considering  the 
consumption  of  grain  and  forage  in   the  production  of 


438  FARM    ANIMALS 

that  quantity  of  milk,  it  is  readily  apparent  that  the 
manure  resulting  balances  this  loss  many  times  over. 
Dairy  farms  soon  become  the  most  productive  of  all 
lands  if  the  manure  is  carefully  preserved  and  properly 
distributed   over   the    land.     Instead    of   exhausting   the 


Alfalfa  the  Wonderful 

From   early  spring   until    tiost  this   queen    of  the   crops   is    available   for   all    kinds 

of  feed. 

land  of  its  fertility,  as  in  the  case  of  grain  farming,  dairy- 
ing restores  the  fertility,  acting  in  this  w^ay  as  a  real 
balance  wheel  in  preserving  the  productivity  of  the  land, 
15.  What  a  dairyman  should  be. — It  is  trite,  but  true, 
that  in  all  sorts  of  farming  ''there  is  more  in  the  man 
than  there  is  in  the  land."  This  adage  applies  particu- 
larly to  the  dairyman.  The  dairy  farmer  must  not  only 
be  a  good  farmer,  but  a  good  judge  of  cattle;  a  careful 
and  cautious  man,  he  must  be  habitually  regular  in  his 
habits;  endowed  with  the  virtues  of  patience  and  per- 
severance, he  must  possess  good,  sound,  common  sense. 
He  must  be  studious  and  experienced,  and  able  to  judge 
wisely  as  to  the  points  of  his  business  which  may  be  in 
dispute.  No  less  in  importance  he  must  be  a  good  busi- 
ness man,  a  neat,  refined  gentleman.  These  character- 
istics are  indispensable  if  success  would  be  attained  in 
dairy  work. 


LESSON  FORTY-ONE 
FACING  DISEASE  ON  THE  FARM 

1.  Physical  examination. 

2.  Taking  the  pulse. 

3.  Taking  the  temperature. 

4.  Taking  the  respiration. 

5.  Treatment  of  disease. 

6.  Helping  the  body  fight. 

7.  Giving  medicines  in  a  ball. 

8.  Giving  medicines  in  a  drench. 

9.  Poultices  and  mustard  plasters. 

10.  Blistering. 

11.  Food  and  drink. 

12.  Post-mortem  examination. 

13.  Things  to  do. 

11.  Examining  internal  organs. 
15.  Examining  the  organs. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — In  caring  for  animals  there  are 
several  simple  accomplishments  that  are  of  importance 
and  value.  These  are  learned  by  observation  and  prac- 
tice. No  farm  youth  should  neglect  the  opportunity  of 
becoming  proficient  in  taking  the  pulse,  or  temperature, 
or  in  following  the  movements  of  breathing  in  health  or 
sickness.  The  post-mortem  examination  to  locate  the 
source  of  the  disorder  is  always  advisable.  Each  of  these 
paragraphs  in  this  lesson  is  important  and  should  be  well 
learned  for  the  subsequent  value  in  later  years. 


LESSON  FORTY-ONE 
FACING  DISEASE  ON  THE  FARM 

1.  Physical  examination. — Every  stockman  should  be 

familiar  with  the  fundamental  principles  of  health  and 

of  any  departure  from  them   that  indicates  disease.     A 

superficial  examination  of  a  sick  animal  is  the  first  step 

in  diagnosing  the  disease. 

Note  the  general  condition  of  the  body.  Is  there  pain?  If  pos- 
sible determine  this  point  and  locate  the  seat  of  it.  Is  the  circula- 
tion natural?  An  examination  of  the  pulse  will  tell  if  the  blood 
is  racing  rapidly  or  gliding  slowly,  and  whether  it  is  regular  or 
rough.  Is  the  respiration  as  it  should  be?  Make  a  count  to  see  if 
the  breathing  is  normal.  On  listening  to  the  lungs,  heart  and  blood 
vessels  it  can  be  told  if  the  sounds  are  natural  or  unusual.  Whether 
or  not  an  organ  contains  air  can  be  determined  by  percussion. 
Organs,  like  the  lungs  in  pneumonia,  give  a  different  sound  than  when 
they  are  in  a  healthy  condition.  Air-containing  organs — lungs  and 
intestines — may  thus  be  distinguished  from  the  solid  ones  adjoining 
them.  In  this  way  their  varying  size  in  health  and  disease  may  be 
determined. 

2.  Taking  the  pulse. — Stand  at  the  left  side  of  the  horse 

and  run  the  finger  along  the 
lower  jaw  until  you  come  to 
the  point  where  the  artery 
crosses  the  jaw  on  its  lower 
edge.  This  will  be  found 
about  2  inches  forward  from 
its  angle.     Right  here  is  situ- 

PuLSE  IN  THE  HoRSE  ^tcd  thc  largc  muscle,  and  at 

Showing  point  at  which  it  may  be     the  front  edge  the  pulsations 

may  be  caught.  To  get  the 
pulse  of  the  cow,  stand  at  the  left  side,  reach  over  the 
neck  and  take  it  from  the  right  jaw.     In  the  horse  the 

440 


FACING  DISEASE   ON   THE    FARM  441 

normal  pulse  beats  are  from  35  to  40  a  minute,  and  may 
go  to  100  in  disease.  In  the  cow  the  pulsations  run  from 
45  to  50  in  health.  The  pulse  relates  a  very  accurate 
story,  and  with  practice  can  be  constantly  used  in  diag- 
nosing the  ailment. 

A  soft  pulse,  one  that  is  easily  compressed  by  the  finger,  may  in- 
dicate bronchitis.  A  hard  pulse,  one  not  easily  depressed  by  the 
finger,  indicates  acute  inflammation.  A  hard  pulse  may  be  quick 
and  bounding  and  forceful.  An  irregular  pulse,  one  that  beats  fast 
for  a  time,  then  slowly,  may  indicate  a  weakened  heart  condition.  A 
slow,  full  pulse,  one  that  comes  up  gradually  to  the  finger  touch, 
may  indicate  brain  trouble. 

3.  Taking  the  temperature. — While  the  heat  of  the 
body  may  be  surmised  by  touch  and  feeling,  this  is  not 
a  reliable  guide  as  to  temperature.  A  self-registering 
thermometer  is  the  only  reliable  means  for  getting  this 
desirable  information.  When  the  temperature  rises,  in- 
flammation is  indicated.  A  fall  in  temperature  below 
normal  denotes  loss  of  strength,  vitality  and  death.  If 
the  temperature  rises  three  or  four  degrees  above  nor- 
mal, the  case  is  serious,  and  a  rise  of  five  or  six  is  very 
dangerous.  Animals  seldom  survive  when  the  rise 
reaches  above  107  or  108  degrees. 

4.  Taking  the  respiration. — In  breathing  two  move- 
ments are  observed — the  t-^king  in  and  sending  out  of 
air.  In  health,  respiration  's  usually  constant,  ranging 
from  10  to  14  in  horses,  and  from  15  to  20  in  cattle. 
Breathing  is  faster  in  young  animals.  Exercise  increases 
the  number  of  respirations  to  the  minute.  Any  disease 
of  the  respiratory  organs  will  cause  breathing  to  be 
short,  rapid  and  labored.  If  the  number  of  respirations 
seem  more  than  normal,  a  disturbance  may  be  under 
way.  If  at  the  same  time  the  pulse  runs  fast,  trouble 
is  likely  and  the  cause  should  be  sought  at  once. 

5.  Treatment  of  disease. — The  first  effort  in  treating 


442  FAKM    ANIMALS 

disease  is  to  remove  the  cause.  This  sometimes  is  done 
very  easily.  Mange  and  lice  are  quickly  destroyed  by 
washes  and  disinfectants.  Bright,  fresh,  wholesome  food 
and  pure  water  easily  replace  bad  food  and  water,  to  the 

permanent  good  of  the  stock. 
Cattle  ticks  quickly  disappear 
when  the  grease  brush  is  ap- 
plied. A  first  aim  in  fighting 
disease  is  to  find  the  cause  and 
remove  it.  This  done,  half  of 
the  battle  is  fought. 

^^^^STACBro^DEfELOPMBNr""'         If    disease   germs    cannot   be   killed 

at  the  moment,  it  is  still  possible  to 
diminish  their  number  or  to  modify 
their  virulence.  Thus,  to  open  an  abscess  is  to  remove  the  pus-pro- 
ducing bacteria,  and  hence  to  hasten  recovery.  To  wash  a  wound 
or  open  sore  with  antiseptics  is  the  simplest  way  to  remove,  diminish 
and  destroy  the  evil  of  the  sore. 

6.  Helping  the  body  fight. — When  disease  sets  in  a 
battle  begins.  One  combatant  is  the  disease,  the  other 
is  the  body.  Medical  aid  consists  in  caring  for,  in  nurs- 
ing, and  in  making  the  body  strong.  Medicines  are  help- 
ful if  they  diminish  the  work  of  the  diseased  organs,  giv- 
ing in  this  way  time  for  the  body  cells  to  bring  about  a 
cure.  Therefore,  rest  and  qinetness  are  advisable,  that 
no  organ  may  be  called  upor  to  do  any  other  work  than 
normal  function  and  repair. 

A  disease  of  the  heart  calls  for  absolute  rest;  of  the  intestines, 
for  little  or  no  irritating  or  bulky  or  hard  food ;  of  the  lungs,  for 
no  exposure.  At  times  it  is  advisable  to  check  the  activity  of  an 
organ,  in  which  case  a  drug  may  be  given,  like  opium,  to  quiet  the 
intestines ;  or  like  aconite,  to  diminish  the  rate  of  the  blood  flow. 
In  the  same  way  external  assistance  may  be  rendered ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, sweating,  to  throw  off  poison  in  the  tissue  juices;  and  blanket- 
ing, to  maintain  an  even  temperature  and  to  protect  from  chill 
and  draft. 

7.  Giving  medicines  in  a  ball. — Many  nauseous  agents, 
as  aloes,  opium,  arsenic,  asafetida,  may  be  conveyed  to 


FACING  DISEASE   ON   THE    FARM 


443 


the  stomach  in  balls  without  causing  annoyance  or  dis- 
gust to  the  patient.  The  balls  are  wrapped  in  paper, 
dough,  or  gelatin  capsules,  and  may  weigh  an  ounce  or 
two.  The  ball  is  held  between  the  thumb  and  first  two 
fingers.  The  tongue  is  seized  at  about  its  middle  and 
gently  drawn  out  to  the  side  of  the  mouth,  in  such  a  way 
that  the  right  hand  may  be  inserted  into  the  mouth  and 
the  ball  placed  far  back  on  the  tongue;  the  hand  is  now 
withdrawn,  the  tongue  replaced  and  the  halter  or  strap 
wrapped  around  the  jaws   until   the   ball  is  swallowed. 

8.  Giving  medicines  in  a 
drench. — The  drench  is  usually 
employed  for  liquid  medicines. 
It  is  best  to  dilute  the  medicines 
with  water,  milk  or  oil  that  they 
may  more  readily  reach  the 
stomach  and  at  the  same  time 
cause  no  injury  to  the  structures 
through  which  they  pass.  In 
giving  a  drench  use  as  much 
patience  as  possible.  To  horses 
it  should  be  given  slowly.  If 
there  is  any  disposition  to 
cough,  lower  the  head  and  then 
proceed  as  before. 

9.  Poultices  and  mustard  plas- 
ters.— Poultices  are  made  of  a  variety  of  things;  bread, 
bran  and  linseed  meal  being  most  common.  Any  sub- 
stance that  will  hold  water  and  retain  heat  will  serve 
the  purpose.  Mustard  and  cold  water  are  best  for  plas- 
ters. Mix  to  a  thin  paste.  If  the  part  to  which  the  plas- 
ter is  to  be  applied  is  covered  with  thick,  long  hair,  a 
very  thin  plaster  will  more  quickly  soak  into  the  skin. 
This  kind  of  plaster  is  most  commonly  applied  to  the 


Drenching  the   Horse 
Simple  way  to  hold  up  the  head. 
Note   the    cloth    hoop    under   nose 
band. 


444  FARM    ANIMALS 

throat,  the  windpipe,  the  sides  of  the  chest,  the  abdomen 
and  over  the  region  of  the  liver.  To  get  the  best  effect 
on  the  liver  apply  on  the  right  side  at  a  point  4  or  5 
inches  behind  the  back  ribs. 

10.  Blistering. — The  first  step  in 
blistering  is  the  clipping  of  the 
hair  over  the  diseased  part  and 
the  removal  of  dirt  and  scurf  at- 
tached to  the  skin.  The  blister  is 
Easy   Method   of   Applying    to  be   v^orked   into   the   skin,   and 

A  Poultice  to  Throat 

usually  10  minutes  of  rubbing  M^ill 
be  necessary  to  produce  the  desired  results.  In  the 
course  of  24  hours  blisters  w^ill  form,  and  some  sv^elling 
in  the  region  is  likely  to  show.  On  the  third  day  bathe 
the  part  with  warm  water  and  soap.  After  drying,  apply 
vaseline,  lard  or  sweet  oil.  The  blister  should  be  re- 
peated if  the  results  of  the  first  blister  do  not  bring 
about  a  cure. 

11.  Food  and  drink. — During  sickness  only  an  easily 
digestible  food  Is  advisable.  Offer  something  different 
from  the  ordinary,  and  let  it  be  prepared  in  an  appetizing 
way.  Nothing  is  better  than  gruels  and  mashes.  These 
are  soft,  nourishing,  appetizing  and  easily  digested. 
When  active  nutrition  is  demanded,  milk  and  eggs  can 
be  added  to  the  ordinary  gruels  or  mashes.  Water  should 
be  available  at  all  times.  Small  amounts  at  frequent 
intervals  are  better  than  large  amounts  at  intervals  far 
apart.  In  treating  dysentery,  diarrhea  and  diabetes 
water  is  usually  withheld,  but  in  most  diseases  a  free 
use  is  allowable  and  desirable. 

12.  Post-mortem  examination. — A  post-mortem  ex- 
amination is  worth  while,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  that 
of  familiarizing  one  with  the  organs  of  the  body.     With 


FACING  DISEASE  ON   THE   FARM 


445 


a  little  experience  proficiency  can  be  acquired  in  examin- 
ing dead  animals,  and  in  learning  the  difference  between 
healthy  and  unhealthy  organs,  between  diseased  and 
normal  tissues,  and  the  relation  of  the  internal  parts 
to  the  whole  body.  This  examination  is  to  be  made  as 
soon  after  death  as  possible; 
the  longer  the  delay  the  greater 
the  changes  due  to  decomposi- 
tion. Soon  after  death  the  stif- 
fening process,  or  rigor  mortis, 
takes  place.  This  may  occur 
within  an  hour  after  death,  and 
again  it  may  rot  be  complete 
until  after  25  or  30  hours.  Soon 
after  death  stiffening,  the  tissues 
soften  and  decomposition  rapidly 
follows. 

13.  Things  to  do. — In  making 

,  ,  •       J.'  •      Section  of  Badly  Diseased  Carcass 

a  post-mortem  examination,  in 

case  the  animal  has  not  been  moved,  the  position  of  the 

body  is  to  be  observed.     Look  all  about  you. 

Is  there  any  evidence  of  a  struggle?  Does  either  the  body  or  the 
ground  appear  as  if  spasms  had  taken  place?  Now  observe  the  dis- 
charges from  nose,  mouth  and  other  natural  openings  of  the  body. 
External  scars  and  wounds  often  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  dis- 
ease, and  these  should  be  considered  in  examining  the  carcass.  How 
do  the  eyes  look?  Is  there  a  discharge  from  the  ears?  Is  the 
swelling  of  the  abdomen  and  the  bloating  more  pronounced  or  in 
any  way  different  than  in  ordinary  death?  Practice  will  indicate 
the  lesson  that  each  of  these  teach.  The  skin  is  now  to  be  removed. 
If  the  blood  be  thin  or  black,  with  a  disagreeable  odor,  you  can  ex- 
pect some  germ  trouble  such  as  blood  poisoning  or  an  infectious 
and  contagious  disease.  If  the  white  tissues  are  yellow,  it  is  reason- 
ably certain  that  the  liver  has  not  done  its  work. 

In  removing  the  skin  and  making  other  observations  be  cautious 
that  you  do  not  prick  your  fingers  with  the  knife,  since  you  may  con- 
vey in  this  way  disease  to  yourself.  If  by  accident  a  cut  or  prick  is 
made,  cauterize  the  wound  at  once,  so  as  to  destroy  any  germs  trans- 
mitted in  this  way  to  you. 


446 


fARM  Animals 


14.  Examining  internal  organs. — Place  the  animal  on 
its  side,  remove  the  upper  front  leg,  and  the  ribs  over  the 
chest  region.  The  ribs  should  be  removed  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  backbone  so  as  to  give  an  unobstructed 
opening  over  the  important  organs.     While  making  this 

opening,  observe  the  w^atery 
fluid  as  it  escapes.  If  a  large 
quantity  is  present,  dropsy  or  a 
rupture  of  the  bladder  is  indi- 
cated. If  the  trouble  is  due  to 
the  latter,  a  peculiar  odor  v\^ill 
be  noticed.  When  the  fluid  is 
red,  it  indicates  the  presence  of 
blood  or  of  some  inflammation 
of  the  abdomen  or  the  bow^els. 
A  large  amount  of  water  in  the 
chest  cavity  indicates  lung  trou- 
ble ;  this  is  further  indicated  by 
the  tiny  attachments  running  be- 
tween the  lungs  and  the  chest  wall  inclosing  these  parts. 

15.  Examining  the  organs. — When  the  stomach  and 
intestines  are  abnormally  red,  there  has  been  conges- 
tion. If  these  are  quite  dark  or  purple,  inflammation 
is  indicated.  If  the  stomach  is  hard  and  compact,  in- 
digestion may  have  been  the  trouble.  The  intestines 
may  be  hard  and  compact  or  in  an  otherwise  bad  con- 
dition. Pass  the  hands  along  to  see  if  the  intestines  are 
knotted  at  any  place  or  if  nails  are  in  the  stomach. 
Often  hair  balls  or  parasites  are  found ;  either  may  clog 
the  channel  and  may  be  the  immediate  cause  of  death. 
A  very  disagreeable  odor  of  the  urine  indicates  disturb- 
ance. Look  the  lungs  over  carefully.  See  if  the  color 
is  natural  and  if  the  soft,  spongy  consistency  responds 
to  the  same  touch  as  does  the  thoroughly  healthy  lung. 


Examining  the  Internal  Organs 


FACING   DISEASE  ON   THE   FARM  447 

In  health  the  lungs  are  a  very  light  pink  color.  Inflam- 
mation will  be  indicated  by  a  dark  color  and  hard  den- 
sity. A  marble  appearance  indicates  inflammation;  and 
hard  lumps  or  tubercles  indicate  tuberculosis,  which, 
when  cut  open,  show  pus  and  a  cheeselike  material. 
Feel  the  heart  to  know  if  it  is  natural  or  not,  or  to  see 
if  any  of  the  valves  are  broken,  or  if  the  lining  is  in- 
flamed. Pink  spots  about  the  ribs  indicate  cholera  in 
the  hog. 


LESSON  FORTY-TWO 
MEANING  OF  DISEASE 

1.  Sickness. 

2.  Disease  both  general  and  local. 

3.  Common  causes  of  disease. 

4.  Heredity  plays  a  part. 

5.  Germs  and  parasites. 

6.  Immunity  by  inoculation. 

7.  Some  animals  resistant  to  disease. 

8.  Course  of  disease. 

9.  How  disease  runs. 

10.  Period  of  incubation. 

11.  Period  of  eruption. 

12.  Patient  improves. 

13.  Getting  well. 

14.  Learn  to  recognize  disease. 

15.  Avoiding  danger. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  obvious  purpose  of  this 
lesson  is  to  show  the  nature  of  physical  disturbances  of 
the  body,  their  meaning  and  nature.  Impress  strongly 
the  fact  that  the  greatest  mischief  in  handling  farm  stock 
comes  from  improper  food,  filthy  or  impure  drinking 
water,  bad  air  in  stables,  overwork,  lack  of  exercise  and 
poor  sanitation  of  the  quarters  in  which  the  animals  are 
housed.  If  close  attention  is  given  these  things,  there 
will  be  few  disease  outbreaks. 

418 


LESSON  FORTY-TWO 
MEANING    OF    DISEASE 

1.  Sickness. — An  animal  is  in  a  healthy  state  when 
each  organ  or  part  forms  its  natural  functions.  Any 
departure  from  a  normal  con- 
dition of  health  is  disease. 
Thus  any  disturbance  of  the 
brain  or  spinal  cord  is  immedi- 
ately manifested  in  the  action 
of  the  animal ;  frequently  also 

a  disturbance  elsewhere  may  ^-^=fp^'  ,i^yr^;:;r^jS2*-~ 
later  affect  the  mental  system.  ^^^^  ,3  \^^  trouble? 
Disease  may  result  from  an  ex- 
ternal cause,  as  from  a  wound;  from  food  causing 
poison  or  derangement  of  the  digestive  system ;  from 
water  introducing  impurities ;  from  parasites  and  bacteria 
which  disturb  normal  functions,  disorganize  the  tissue, 
or  produce  toxines ;  or  from  other  abnormal  conditions. 

2.  Disease  both  general  and  local. — A  disease  may  lead 
to  disturbance  throughout  the  entire  body.  For  instance, 
in  case  pus  accumulates  at  some  point,  it  may  get  into 
the  blood  and  reach  other  parts  of  the  body  in  time,  affect- 
ing them  also.  Diseases  with  which  fever  is  associated 
are  general  in  nature.  The  nerve  centers  are  influenced, 
body  heat  is  increased,  the  body  gets  weak.  Disease 
poisons  are  fundamentally  the  cause  of  fever. 

When  the  temperature  of  the  body,  as  a  result  of  fever,  rises  to 
an  extreme  height,  certain  life  principles  are  changed  and  death 
immediately  follows.  A  temperature  of  106  or  107  degrees  is  very 
high,  and,  therefore,  very  dangerous.  In  treating  disease  the  tem- 
perature is  watched,  that  the  course  of  the  fever  may  be  followed. 

449 


450 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Treating  a  fever  helps  in  the  fight  against  the  disease  itself.  The 
basis  of  the  curative  process  rests  upon  the  principle  of  proper  cir- 
culation and  the  excretion  of  the  impure  substances. 

3.  Common   causes    of    disease. — Poisonous    materials 

and  poisonous  plants  cause  death  to  thousands  of  animals 

annually.     Of  great  im- 

stock 

rapid 

these 

For- 

older 


Bad  Management   Is  the  Most  Common 
Cause   of   Disease 


portance  to  the 
interests  is  the 
destruction  of 
harmful  products, 
tunately,  in  the 
sections  the  most  of 
these  have  been  elimi- 
nated. And  more  has 
been  learned  about  the 
molds  that  lead  to  bad 
results  when  moldy 
forage  is  fed.  In  time 
disease  will  be  considerably  lessened;  and  particularly 
will  this  be  the  case  when  only  clean,  wholesome  food  is 
placed  in  the  mangers  and  feed  racks.  With  less  disease 
there  will  be  more  rapid  gains.  Disease  is  largely  due  to 
causes  within  control  of  the  man  who  owns  or  tends  the 
stock. 

4.  Heredity  plays  a  part. — Tuberculosis,  once  so  dread- 
ed in  man  and  beast,  is  now  known  not  to  be  handed 
down  from  parent  to  progeny ;  it  is  a  germ  disease,  pure 
and  simple,  and  makes  its  start  just  as  many  other  ail- 
ments— through  breath,  or  drink,  or  feed.  There  are 
hereditary  troubles,  however,  that  continue  down  through 
many  generations.  The  narrow  hock  of  the  horse  invites 
curb  troubles  ;  the  narrow  chest  is  a  good  breeding  ground 
for  tuberculosis  germs ;  straight  pasterns  are  bad  for  the 
feet ;  poor  conformation  is  not  consistent  with  efficiency 


MEANING   OF  DISEASE  451 

or  easy  functional  activity.  Despite,  caution  and  care, 
therefore,  health  is  often  disturbed  because  of  hereditary 
influences.  Thanks  to  science,  many  of  the  old  bugbears 
of  the  past,  however,  have  become  dislodged,  and  their 
true  import  set  right. 

5.  Germs   and   parasites. — Parasites   and   bacteria,    or 
germs,  cause  much  loss  to  live  stock.     Typical  illustra- 


Diseased  and  Normal  Lungs 
Diseased  lung  at  left;  healthy,  normal  lung  at  right. 

tions  of  such  are  hog  cholera,  a  germ  disease ;  tubercu- 
losis, a  germ  disease  ;  stomach  worms,  parasites ;  staggers, 
a  mold  disease;  and  abortion,  a  germ  disease.  These 
and  hundreds  like  them  are  all  due  to  parasites  or  germs. 
As  disease  agents  they  disturb  and  destroy,  regardless  of 
age,  class  or  breed. 

Remedies  and  treatment  are  being  sought  to  meet  these  individual 
diseases  as  they  occur.  Nevertheless,  the  best  treatment  is  preven- 
tion.    It  is  far  better  to  prevent  than  to  cure;  and  that  is  the  line 


452 


FARM    ANIMALS 


of  action  especially  for  this  class.  Indeed,  it  is  far  easier  to  under- 
stand the  simple  laws  of  prevention  than  complicated  curative  proc- 
esses. Especially  is  this  true  after  germs  become  known  and  iso- 
lated, and  their  rapid  destruction  by  air,  sunlight  and  disinfectants 
understood  and  available. 

6.  Immunity  by  inoculation. — Many  diseases  are  fre- 
quently combated  by  introducing  into  the  blood  a  certain 

serum  that  enables  the  body  to  resist  attack 
of  that  disease.  Immunity  in  animals  in- 
cludes both  natural  and  acquired  powers 
which  the  body  possesses  to  destroy  bac- 
teria and  poisons.  The  serums  or  inocu- 
lating materials  are  carefully  prepared  in 
laboratories  by  using  treated  blood  of  other 
animals;  when  prepared  the  desired  serum  is 
injected  under  the  skin.  Thus  immunity  is 
secured  in  the  animal  so  treated.  A  few  of 
the  many  diseases  now  treated  by  inocula- 
tion are  tetanus,  Texas  fever,  hog  cholera, 
black  leg,  anthrax  and  diphtheria.  Each  is 
a  very  destructive  disease,  and  unless 
treated  by  inoculation,  a  large  percentage  of 
afflicted  animals  never  recover.  If,  however,  animals  are 
inoculated  before  being  attacked  by  the  disease,  the  loss 
from  death  is  relatively  small. 

7.  Some  animals  resistant  to  disease. — An  infectious 
or  contagious  disease  may  inflict  a  herd  or  flock  and  de- 
stroy few  or  many  of  the  individuals  composing  it.  Some 
animals  are  never  afifected,  although  subjected  to  expo- 
sure and  contagion.  Such  animals  are  immune  and  resist 
that  particular  disease.  Others  may  sufifer  a  mild  attack 
and  throw  it  off  with  no  disastrous  consequences ;  these 
are  strong  and  their  organs  ably  fortified  against  any 
injurious  inroad  from  that  disease.  On  the  other  hand, 
most  animals  are  not  able  to  throw  off  disease.     Their 


Inoculating  thh 
Hog  with 
s  e  rum  for 
Prevention  of 
Cholera. 


MEANING   OF  DISEASE 


453 


When    Colic    Attacks 

A  common  position  assumed  during 
the   course  of  this  ailment. 


very  susceptibility  invites  attack,  and  if  the  infection  is 
intensely  virulent  death  may  threaten  or  follow. 

8.  Course  of  disease. — Each  disease  has  its  own  pecul- 
iar characteristics.  These  are  more  or  less  conspicuous 
in  each  individual  case.     Some 

diseases  develop  quickly  and 
end  quickly.  Others  run  a 
course  of  several  months  or 
even  years.  The  first  class  is 
acute,  the  second  chronic.  In 
both  kinds  nature  always  en- 
deavors to  eflect  a  cure ;  and, 
unless  other  complications 
arise  from  improper  food,  in- 
sanitary quarters,  bad  air  or 
conditions  not  conducive  to  health,  recovery  in  most 
cases  will  result. 

9.  How  disease  runs. — The  course  of  a  disease  in  a 
general  way  is  known  before  it  makes  its  attack.  Physi- 
cians and  veterinarians  know  when  a  fever,  for  instance, 
will  begin,  how  long  it  will  last,  when  it  will  be  at  its 
highest  point,  and  when  it  will  disappear.  They  know 
these  facts  even  before  they  begin  their  treatment.  Yet 
no  disease  invariably  runs  the  same  course  in  all  animals. 
The  virulence  of  bacteria  has  much  to  do  with  care  in 
treating;  mild  cases  occur  usually  when  the  germs  are 
weak,  and  severe  cases  when  the  germs  are  virulent.  This 
explains  why  some  attacks  of  measles  or  Texas  fever  or 
hog  cholera  are  more  fatal  than  other  attacks  in  other 
places  or  at  other  seasons  of  the  year. 

10.  Period  of  incubation. — In  the  regular  course  of  an 
Infectious  disease,  the  period  of  incubation  follows  infec- 
tion. During  this  period,  no  change  in  the  health  of  the 
animal  is  observed.     It  seems  well,  acts  well,  and  does 


454  FARM    ANIMALS 

its  work  well.  Nevertheless,  the  germs  are  developing, 
multiplying,  gaining  headway  and  so  intrenching  them- 
selves that  illness  and  disorder  are  sure  soon  to  follow. 
The  period  of  incubation  varies  in  different  animals  and 
in  different  diseases.  It  may  take  two  or  three  weeks 
for  development,  or  only  two  or  three  days. 

11.  Period  of  eruption. — Following  the  period  of  incu- 
bation comes  the  period  of  eruption.     At  this  stage  the 

typical   characteristics   are   ob- 
served.    From  now  on  the  dis- 
ease   approaches    and    reaches 
its    height,    the    animal    being 
,»j^.r'-    under    its    complete    dominion. 
Milk  Fever  at  Its  Height        If  properly  nursed  and  treated, 
in    most    diseases,    the    animal 
will  pass  through  the  period  and  recover  its  usual  health. 

12.  Patient  improves. — The  final  stage  of  sickness  is 
the  period  of  improvement.  In  the  battle  between  body 
and  disease,  the  germs  are  destroyed  and  the  body  is 
victorious.  All  that  now  remains  is  to  clear  away  the 
debris  scattered  throughout  the  system.  The  veterina- 
rian seeks  the  repair  and  recovery  of  the  injured  parts  or 
organs  as  near  to  the  original  condition  as  the  nature  of 
the  disease  will  admit.  The  period  of  improvement 
varies  in  different  diseases  and  in  different  animals. 
Recovery  may  occur  in  a  few  days,  and  in  other  cases 
weeks  and  months  are  necessary  for  restoring  health  and 
vigor.  A  change  of  feed  or  pasture  or  work  is  usually 
desirable  for  most  rapid  recovery.  In  some  cases,  noth- 
ing but  al)S()lute  rest  will  suffice. 

13.  Getting  well. — After  a  disease  runs  its  course,  the 
body  usually  is  restored  to  its  normal  condition.  You 
see,  there  is  a  limit  to  what  an  ordinary,  common  disease 
can  do ;  a  healthy  body  may  be  attacked,  but  in  the  end. 


MEANING    OF  DISEASE 


455 


the  disease  will  be  overcome.  There  are  some  diseases 
that  are  not  readily  mastered.  Usually,  however,  nature 
is  able  to  fight  off  an  attack,  but  care,  treatment  and 
nursing  are  all  helpful  ijri  lessening  the  time  and  in  min- 
imizing the  severity.  The  stage  of  getting  well  calls  for 
rest,  light  and  nutritious  food,  pure  water,  a  comfortable 
stable  and  freedom  from  annoyance  or  housing  in  insani- 
tary quarters. 


Locating  Common  Troubles 


SoA\E  Common   Ailments  of  the    Horse 


1.  Poll   evil 

2.  Swelling   by   bridle   pressure 

3.  Inflamed  parotid   gland 

4.  Inflamed  jugular  vein 

5.  Caries  of  the   lower  jaw 

6.  Fistula  of  parotid  duct 

7.  Bony  excrescence 

8.  Fistula  of  withers 

9.  Saddle  gall 

10.  Tumor  caused  by  collar 

11.  Sp'int 

12.  Malanders 

13.  A  tread  on   the  coronet 

14.  Sand  crack 

15.  Quittor 

16.  Knee   bunch 


17.  Clap  on  back  sinews 

18.  Ringbone 

19.  Foundered   foot 

20.  Ventral   hernia 

21.  Rat  tail 

22.  Spavin 

23.  Curb 

24.  Quarter   crack 

25.  Thick  leg 

26.  Sallenders 

27.  Capped   hock 

28.  Swelled  sinews 

29.  Grease 

30.  Sand  crack 

31.  Tumor  of  elbow 


14.  Learn  to  recognize  disease. — Every  stockman 
should  familiarize  himself  with  the  common  ailments  of 
live  stock.  If  experience  tells  him  that  his  corn  or  pota- 
toes or  cotton  is  strong,  vigorous  and  healthy  or  just  the 


456  FARM    ANIMALS 

reverse,  observation  and  experience  ought  also  to  tell  him 
when  his  animals  are  in  good  health  or  w^hen  they  lack 
thrift  or  are  sick  and  need  treatment.  He  recognizes 
smut  when  it  attacks  his  wheat  or  oats;  so  colic,  too, 
ought  to  be  recognized  when  it  attacks  his  horse.  He 
recognizes  the  common  ailments  of  the  peach  and  apple 
and  he  should  learn  to  recognize  the  common  ailments 
of  the  cow  and  the  pig.  If  ill  health  and  lack  of  thrift, 
and  the  causes  that  induce  them,  are  given  the  attention 
they  deserve,  much  of  the  worry  and  trouble  arising  from 
disease  will  be  avoided. 

15.  Avoiding  danger. — Great  loss  of  live  stock  annu- 
ally occurs  because  infected  animals  are  not  quarantined. 
This  explains  why  a  disease  may  become  epidemic.  As 
soon  as  a  disturbance  from  the  normal  is  indicated,  that 
animal  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  flock  or 
herd ;  in  case  a  serious  illness  develops,  exposure  of  the 
entire  herd  will  then  be  less  likely.  If  the  disease  is  con- 
tagious, the  wisdom  of  this  action  will  be  readily  under- 
stood. Quarantine  quarters  need  not  be  expensive,  and 
they  ought  to  be  far  enough  removed  from  the  healthy 
stock  to  render  infection  impossible.  When  new  animals 
are  added  to  a  flock  or  herd,  they  should  first  be  put  in 
quarantine  quarters  and  kept  there  long  enough  to  deter- 
mine if  anything  strange  or  unusual  is  developing.  Such 
precaution  is  the  surest  way  to  avoid  the  danger  of  intro- 
ducing a  troublesome  disease. 


PRACTICUMS 


1.  Choosing  Soiling  Crops.— Require  each  student  to  prepare  a 
table  of  soiling  crops  that  will  afford  a  succession  of  green  food 
from  early  spring  until  late  fall.  In  the  table  should  be  included 
the  name  of  the  crop,  the  time  of  seeding,  amount  of  seed  to  the 
acre  for  that  crop  and  the  time  of  cutting  for  use  as  feed. 

2.  Locating  Disease. — Every  student  of  farm  animals  should  be 
familiar  with  the  common  diseases  and  whether  they  are  general  or 
local  in  nature.  He  should  know  what  regions  or  parts  are  affected 
by  particular  diseases.  By  means  of  the  illustration  on  page  455 
point  out  the  diseases  that  affect  each  part  of  the  horse.  All  ani- 
mals being  judged  should  be  looked  over  for  blemishes  or  other 
disease  troubles.  The  student  should  be  able  to  tell  where  every 
common  disease  is  located.  Often  several  of  these  ailments  may 
be  found  in  the  same  horse.  Require  each  student  to  examine  a 
number  of  horses  in  the  neighborhood  so  as  to  become  familiar 
with  the  superficial,  regional  diseases  as  they  are  located  on  various 
animals  of  the  neighborhood.     See  illustration  on  page  455. 

3.  Co-oPERATioN  OF  LocAL  VETERINARIAN  OR  PHYSICIAN. — Ordi- 
narily, the  local  veterinarian  or  physician  will  gladly  co-operate  with 
the  teacher  in  a  laboratory  period  to  be  arranged  for.  Frequently 
he  will  be  able  to  provide  the  necessary  material  or  live  specimens 
for  an  invaluable  exercise.  Under  his  direction  the  places  for  tak- 
ing the  pulse,  how  to  take  the  temperature  and  counting  the  respira- 
tions may  be  indicated.  The  facts  brought  out  in  previous  lessons 
may  be  gone  over  and  their  practical  application  made  interesting 
to  the  class.  The  veterinarian  often  has  available  cases  under  way 
that  can  be  discussed  and  their  treatment  outlined.  Teacher  and 
students  are  urged  to  get  in  touch  with  the  local  veterinarian  for  the 
interesting  and  valuable  information  and  suggestions  that  he  can  give. 

4.  PosT-MoRTEM  Examinations. — Follow  paragraphs  12,  13, 14  and 
15  in  Lesson  Forty-one,  if  an  opportunity  is  offered  for  making  a 
post-mortem  examination.  Often  it  is  possible  to  arrange  for  such 
a  demonstration  with  the  local  veterinarian.  His  advice  and  instruc- 
tion will  prove  of  invaluable  and  incalculable  good  for  all  years  to 
come.  On  nearly  every  farm  an  opportunity  is  occasionally  offered 
for  such  work.  No  student  of  this  book  should  neglect  making  such 
an  examination  whenever  the  occasion  arises  permitting  him  to  do  so. 

5.  Pulse  of  Farm  Animals. — The  pulse  of  the  horse  is  felt  on 
the  lower  jawbone;  and  in  the  cow  on  the  jaw,  inside  of  the  elbow 
and  cannon  and  the  base  of  the  tail.  Pulse  beats  vary.  In  the 
healthy  horse  the  range  is  from  36  to  40  a  minute ;  in  the  cow  45  to 
50 ;  in  the  pig  70  to  80 ;  in  the  sheep  70  to  75.  The  pulse  is  slightly 
slower  in  males  than  females,  and  is  more  rapid  in  young  animals 


458  FARM    ANIMALS 


than  in  adult  animals.  Locate  the  pulse  of  the  different  classes  of 
farm  animals.  If  any  difficulty  is  met,  ask  the  local  veterinarian  or 
family  physician. 

6.  Number  of  Respirations. — These  will  vary  with  the  class  of 
animal ;  as  a  rule,  the  larger  the  animal  the  slower  the  respiration. 
The  ratio  of  heart  beats  to  respiration  is  from  one  of  the  latter  to 
four  or  five  heart  beats.  Count  the  respirations  of  several  animals 
in  health.  If  sick  animals,  note  the  respirations  and  compare  with 
the  following  normal  rate  for  well  animals :  Horse,  8  to  10  respira- 
tions per  minute ;  steer  and  cow,  12  to  15 ;  sheep  and  goat,  12  to  20 ; 
dog,  15  to  20 ;  pig,  10  to  15.  Count  the  pulse  and  determine  the 
ratio  of  heart  beats  to  respiration. 

7.  Examining  for  Soundness. — Examine  one  or  more  horses. 
Starting  with  the  head,  examine  all  regions  for  defects,  blemishes 
and  unsoundness. 

(a)  Are  there  cuts  or  injuries  known  as  blemishes  that  lessen  the 
value  but  which  do  not  interfere  with  usefulness? 

(b)  Do  you  observe  any  unsoundness,  such  as  splints,  curbs,  ring- 
bones or  sidebones? 

(c)  Is  the  eyesight  perfect? 

(d)  Is  the  hearing  as  it  should  be? 

(e)  Do  you  find  poll  evil  at  the  top  of  head? 
(/)   Is  the  shoulder  sound  or  sweenied? 

(g)   Do  you  find  a  fistula  in  any  region? 

(h)  Are  the  hoofs  of  good  shape  and  perfect  otherwise? 

(i)  When  made  to  run  fast,  how  is  the  "wind"  of  the  horse? 


LESSON"  FORTY-THREE 
WOUNDS  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

1.  Kinds  of  wounds. 

2.  First  step  in  treating. 

3.  Checking  blood  flow. 

4.  Cleansing  the  wound. 

5.  Making  the  bandage. 

6.  Stitching  a  wound. 

7.  Making  the  stitches. 

8.  Pins  in  emergency. 

9.  Antiseptic  washes. 

10.  Nail  puncture. 

11.  Treating  nail  punctures. 

12.  Drainage  for  the  wound. 

13.  Treating  bruises. 

14.  Leg  wounds. 

15.  Maggots  in  wounds. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — A  neglected  wound  often  leads 
to  serious  consequences.  Show  the  importance  of  clean- 
liness and  protection  of  wounds  and  cuts,  even  if  the 
injury  is  slight  and  seemingly  unimportant.  Ordinary 
wounds  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  making  it  possible  to 
put  in  practice  some  of  the  suggestions  made  in  this 
lesson.  A  teacher  should  never  neglect  an  opportunity 
of  putting  into  practical  use  useful  information  of  what- 
ever nature  it  may  be  and  whenever  it  is  possible  so  to  do. 


LESSON  FORTY-THREE 


WOUNDS  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 


1.  Kinds  of  wounds. — Wounds  fall  into  four  classes : 
(1)  clean  cut,  made  by  something-  sharp;  (2)  torn  or 
lacerated,  where  ragged  edges  are  left;  (3)  bruised,  the 
result  of  continued  pressure  or  of  a  kick  or  a  knock ;  and 
(4)  punctured,  caused  by  the  entrance  of  a  nail,  splinter 
or  gunshot. 

2.  First  step  in  treating. — A  flow  of  blood  usually  ac- 
companies an  ordinary  wound.  Other  than 
a  bruised  and  punctured  wound  this  is  al- 
ways true.  Frequently  a  nail  puncture  does 
not  give  off  blood,  or,  if  it  does,  it  may  not 
be  noticed.  However,  blood  is  present;  for, 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  trouble,  blood 
rushes  to  the  seat,  this  being  nature's  way 
of  repair.  The  first  step,  therefore,  is  to 
check  excessive  blood  fjow. 

3.  Checking  blood  flow. — Blood  has  the 
trick  of  coagulating  or  clotting;  and  this  in 
time  will  check  the  flow.  But  you  can  assist 
in  forming  the  clot  very  simply  by  applying  some  finely 
ground  material,  that  the  blood  may  be  held  on  the  spot. 
Absorbent  cotton  is  the  best  material.  In  case  this  is  not 
available,  use  something  clean,  not  stored  up  with  germs. 
Tea  is  good,  as  is  flour  also.  Cold  water  acts  favorably, 
and  for  the  slight,  ordinary  surface  wounds  water  is 
usually  sufficient.  A  few  drops  ok  antiseptic  in  the  water, 
such  as  carbolic  acid,  if  available,  is  always  advisable,  for 
the  freshest  water  carries  its  full  quota  of  germs,  some 


Fractures 


460 


WOUNDS    AND    THEIR    TREATMENT 


461 


of  which  may  cause  trouble.     A  tiny  bit  of  alum  powder 
will  be  found  effective  and  not  painful. 

4.  Cleansing  the  wound. — After  the  flow  of  blood  has 
been  stopped,  cleansing  the  wound  is  next  in  order.  All 
dirt  should  be  carefully  removed,  the  injured  flesh 
cleansed,  the  torn  tissues  brought  together,  and  stitched 
if  need  be,  and  an  antiseptic  applied.  The  water  used  in 
bathing  the  wounded  flesh  should  contain  an  antiseptic, 
that  the  germs  present  may  be  destroyed  and  no  live  ones 
admitted  by  water  in  cleansing  the  wound.  Any  good 
commercial  antiseptic  will  do;  or  the  old  common  ones, 
such  as  corrosive  sublimate,  one  part  in  a  thousand  parts 
of  water;  carbolic  acid,  a  teaspoonful  in  a  quart  of  water; 
or  salt  water.  A  powdered  antiseptic,  such  as  iodoform, 
is  very  desirable  for  dusting  into  the 

wound. 

5.  Making  the  bandage. — Unless 
the  wound  is  of  little  consequence 
it  should  be  covered  and  bandaged, 
that  no  foreign  elements  may  be  ad- 
mitted and  that  some  pressure  may 
be  secured  to  keep  the  broken  parts 
together.  To  secure  this  effect  ab- 
sorbent cotton,  slightly  moistened 
with  the  antiseptic,  should  be  laid 
on  the  wound,  and  firmly  fastened 
by  strips  of  clean  cotton  cloth.  By 
winding  this  bandage  around  and 
about  the  wound,  dressed  in  this 
careful  way,  the  wound  will  be  pro- 
tected, germs  will  be  kept  out,  and  nature  thus  reinforced 
will  be  enabled  to  make  a  rapid  recovery.  Unless  the 
bandage  is  disturbed,  there  is  no  need  of  changing  under 


Leg  Bandage 

Showing    how   to    place    and 
wrap. 


462  FARM    ANIMALS 

24  or  36  hours.     If  the  bandage  is  displaced,  dress  as  be- 
fore and  bandage  again. 

6.  Stitching  a  wound. — When  a  cut  wound  is  deep  or 
large,  stitching  is  sometimes  required,  that  the  broken 
parts  may  be  brought  together  for  more  rapid  healing. 
Nothing  is  better  for  doing  this  than  a  coarse  needle  and 
heavy  thread.  Before  stitching,  the  wound  should  be 
l)athed  as  previously  described.  The  needle  and  thread 
should  be  soaked  in  the  antiseptic  that  no  germs  may  be 
introduced  by  either. 

7.  Making  the  stitches. — In  making  the  stitches  place 
the  needle  about  an  eighth  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from 
the  edge  of  the  wound  and  carry  across  to  the  opposite 
side.  Bring  the  two  ends  together  and  tie,  leaving  the 
lips  of  the  wound  as  close  together  as  possible.  If  more 
than  a  single  stitch  is  necessary  proceed  in  the  same  way, 
placing  the  second  stitch  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
from  the  first  one ;  continue  as  with  the  first  stitch  if  more 
are  necessary. 

8.  Pins  in  emergency. — In  case  needle  and  thread  are 
not  available,  pins  may  be  used  in  the  emergency.  Insert 
the  pin  through  the  two  edges  and  bring  the  lips  together, 
making  them  fast  by  a  thread  or  cord  carried  from  one 
end  to  the  other  several  times,  alternating  to  the  right 
and  left  as  presented  by  the  figure  eight.  Sometimes  a 
wound  enlarges  and  becomes  feverish.  In  a  case  of  this 
nature,  remove  the  fastenings  and  bathe  the  wound  very 
gently,  using  a  mild  antiseptic  wash  of  tepid  water  in 
which  carbolic  acid  has  been  placed. 

9.  Antiseptic  washes. — Avoid  any  breaking  of  the  heal- 
ing tissue  and  do  not  have  the  washing  solution  too 
strong,  else  it  may  injure  the  delicate  tissue.  A  tea- 
spoonful  of  carbolic  acid  to  a  quart  of  water  is  strong 


WOUNDS    AND    THEIR    TREATMENT  463 

enough.  With  lacerated  wounds  the  treatment  is  very 
similar.  If  the  wound  becomes  inflamed  and  spongy, 
add  a  tablespoonful  of  acetate  of  lead  and  a  tablespoonful 
of  sulphate  of  zinc  to  the  antiseptic  solution  and  apply 
twice  daily. 

10.  Nail  puncture. — If  an  animal  becomes  suddenly 
and  severely  lame  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  an  injury 
to  any  other  part  of  the  leg,  such  as  swelling,  heat  and 
pain  upon  pressure,  it  is  always  well  to  look  for  puncture 
in  the  foot.  If  the  animal  stands  with  the  lame  foot  ex- 
tended, and  when  walking  places  the  lame  foot  well  for- 
ward and  brings  the  well  foot  up  to  it,  the  evidence  of 
puncture  is  still  stronger.  To  examine  the  foot  prop- 
erly the  shoe  should  be  removed.  It  is  not  sufficient  to 
merely  scrape  the  bottom  of  the  foot  clean,  for  if  the  nail 
has  pulled  out  and  the  horn  sprung  back  in  position,  all 
trace  of  its  entrance  may  have  been  obliterated.  To  ex- 
amine the  foot  properly,  tap  the  hoof  with  a  hammer  or 
knife  and  the  exact  spot  may  be  definitely  located.  If 
the  injury  is  of  a  few  days'  standing,  additional  heat  in 
the  hoof,  and,  perhaps,  slight  swelling 
of  the  coronet  may  also  be  present. 

Locating  lameness  in  the  stifle  joint  is  a 
common  but  inexcusable  error,  as  the  action 
resulting  from  lameness  in  the  two  parts  is 
entirely  di^erent.  The  so-called  gravel, 
which  is  said  to  enter  the  sole  of  the  foot 
and  then  to  work  out  at  the  heel,  is  usually 
the  working  out  of  the  pus  or  th'^  matter 
resulting  from  a  nail  puncture  or  a  bruise. 

11.  Treating     nail     punctures. — In 

treating  hoof  wounds,  pare  away  only  anatomy  of  the  fo^ 
such  parts  of  the  hoof  as  necessity  re-    showing  the  delicate  na- 

.     .     ,         1  ^   'j^        r  j^j^  ture  of  the  parts. 

quires  and  mtroduce  a  bit  oi  cotton 

cloth  rolled  as  a  string  by  means  of  a  probe  of  some  kind. 

Both  probe  and  cotton  must  be  treated  with  the  antiseptic 


464  FARM    ANIMALS 

solution.  This  solution  should  be  a  little  stronger  than 
for  flesh  wounds.  Make  the  solution  by  using  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  carbolic  acid  to  only  a  pint  of  water.  After  the 
cotton  has  been  inserted  a  few  times  and  withdrawn,  each 
time  a  fresh  cord  being  used  and  fully  saturated,  leave  the 
last  one  in  for  a  few  hours  and  then  repeat  the  treatment. 
This  should  be  done  three  or  four  times  each  day. 

12.  Drainage  for  the  wound. — The  main  point  in  the 
treatment  of  nail  puncture  of  the  foot  is  to  provide  free 
exit  to  all  matter  that  may  collect,  and  to  keep  the  parts 
clean.  If  this  is  done,  the  matter  will  not  be  forced  to 
work  out  at  the  heels,  and  no  separation  or  loss  of  hoof 
will  occur.  Often  in  case  of  a  very  severe  wound  the  treat- 
ment acts  slowly.  In  case  proud  flesh  accumulates  it  may 
be  burned  away  by  a  hot  iron.  After  this  operation  has 
been  performed,  the  cavity  may  be  filled  with  balsam  of 
fir  and  cotton  placed  over  it,  a  piece  of  heavy  leather 
fitted  to  the  foot  and  held  fast  by  the  replaced  shoe.  This 
wnll  usually  end  the  difficulty.  A  veterinarian  should  be 
called  for  treatment  of  severe  cases. 

13.  Treating  bruises. — In  treating  bruises  a  dififerent 
procedure  is  necessary.  The  broken  tissue  is  concealed 
beneath  the  skin  and  usually  under  the  surface  muscles. 
Bathing  with  water  and  acetate  of  lead — a  quart  of  water 
and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  the  acetate — will  tend  to  lessen 
the  inflammation.  In  time  it  may  be  necessary  to  open 
the  swelling  to  let  the  pus  out.  After  operating  inject 
a  mild  antiseptic  wash  for  cleansing,  using  one  quart  of 
water  and  a  tablespoonful  of  chloride  of  zinc.  If  the 
swelling  remains,  apply  twice  each  month  a  salve  made 
by  using  a  small  amount  of  biniodide  of  mercury  and  lard. 
Wash  occasionally,  using  the  chloride  of  zmc  solution. 

14    Leg   wounds. — Cleanse   the   wound   with   a   wash 


I 


WOUNDS  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT  465 

composed  of  one  tablespoonful  of  acetate  of  lead,  one 
tablespoonful  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  four  tablespoonfuls  of 
tincture  of  arnica,  and  one  quart  of  water.  Use  this  wash 
frequently,  every  hour  or  so  during  the  first  day.  After 
that  three  or  four  applications  will  be  sufficient.  The 
sore  should  be  kept  lower  than  the  skin  during  the  heal- 
ing process.  If  it  tends  to  crowd  up,  apply  a  tiny  bit — 
as  much  as  you  can  place  on  a  one-cent  piece — of  bichlo- 
ride of  mercury.  This  will  assist  in  getting  an  even  heal 
and  the  skin  will  grow  over,  leaving  no  blemish  or 
swelling. 

15.  Maggots  in  wounds. — If  a  wound  has  been  treated 
as  heretofore  suggested,  there  is  no  possibility  of  any 
trouble  from  maggots.  These  come  from  a  lack  of  clean- 
liness, and  neglect.  Of  course  an  animal  is  often  wounded 
and  the  owner  is  not  aware  of  the  mishap.  When,  for  any 
cause,  maggots  are  present,  they  must  be  got  rid  of  at 
once.  A  good  plan  is  to  use  chloroform,  either  by  spray- 
ing or  by  throwing  it  in  the  wound  in  small  drops  from 
a  sponge.  The  danger  from  maggots  can  usually  be 
avoided  if  a  mixture  composed  of  one  tablespoonful  of 
turpentine,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  tar  and  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  lard  or  fish  oil  are  smeared  all  around  the 
border  of  the  wound. 


LESSON  FORTY-FOUR 
IMPORTANT  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

1.  Actinomycosis. 

2.  Anthrax. 

3.  Blackleg. 

4.  Fistulae. 

5.  Foot  and  mouth  disease. 

6.  Footrot  in  sheep. 

7.  Fowl  cholera. 

8.  Glanders. 

9.  Hog  cholera. 

10.  Rabies. 

11.  Strangles. 

12.  Tetanus. 

13.  Texas  fever. 

14.  Tuberculosis. 

15.  Control  of  infectious  diseases. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  term  infection  means  the 
entrance  of  living  micro-organisms  into  the  body  of  an 
animal  and  their  multiplication  therein.  Following  such 
infection  a  local  or  general  diseased  condition  results  that 
may  produce  death.  The  general  diseases  described  in 
this  lesson  will  indicate  how  infections  are  caused,  the 
kind  and  nature  of  the  invading  organisms,  and  more 
common  symptoms  that  are  manifested  when  animals 
are  infected.  The  teacher  will  do  well  to  emphasize  the 
importance  of  guarding  against  infections  and  of  using 
radical  measures  when  such  outbreaks  occur  or  are 
prevalent  in  the  community. 


LESSON  FORTY-FOUR 

IMPORTANT  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

1.  Actinomycosis. — Called  lumpy  jaw,  because  of  the 
frequency  of  the  swelling  located  on  the  jaw.  It  is  due 
to  the  entrance  of  a  fungus  into  the  tissues.  Adult  cattle 
are  most  commonly,  but  occasionally  other  domestic 
animals  and  man  may  be,  af- 
fected. The  disease  is  recog- 
nized by  the  characteristic 
tumor,  usually  observed  on  the 
jaw,  either  of  the  bone  or  of  the 
soft  tissues  in  that  vicinity.  It 
may,  however,  afifect  the  tongue,  ^'^^^^^"^ ^cr'^j^om^clsfs^^''''^  °'' 
or  any  of  the  organs  of  the  body. 

Its  development  is  more  or  less  of  a  slow,  constant 
growth,  beginning  with  a  very  small  nodule,  but,  when 
allowed  to  run  its  course,  may  reach  the  size  of  a  cocoa- 
nut,  or  larger.  On  reaching  some  size,  it  usually  rup- 
tures, and  from  it  is  discharged  a  thick,  yellowish  pus. 
If  of  small  size  in  the  soft  tissues,  it  may  be  cut  out, 
by  the  knife.  Veterinarians  have  a  system  of  treatment 
for  advanced  cases. 

2.  Anthrax. — An  acute,  infectious  disease  of  plant- 
eating  animals,  caused  by  a  microbe  which  enters  the 
circulating  blood  and  by  multiplication  therein  causes 
its  rapid  destruction  and  the  death  of  the  animal.  The 
disease  is  as  old  as  history  and  exists  in  all  countries. 
Soil  is  the  prime  factor  in  preserving  and  propagating  the 
germs.  They  may  get  into  the  body  in  breath,  food, 
drink,  through  abraded  surfaces  on  the  skin  and  by  bites 


468 


FARM    ANIMALS 


of  insects.  In  combating  this  disease  medical  treatment 
is  of  little  value.  Fortunately  a  vaccine  has  been  discov- 
ered that  is  very  effective  as  a  prevention. 

3.  Blackleg. — An  infectious  disease  produced  by  the 
blackleg  bacillus,  a  parasite  that  lives  and  propagates  in 
the  soil  of  infected  districts  and  in  the  bodies  of  diseased 
animals.  The  disease  is  characterized  in  the  appearance 
of  large  swellings  on  various  parts  of  the  body,  usually 
on  the  upper  portions  of  one  of  the  legs,  and  never  below 
the  knees.  Swellings  vary  in  size  and  are  always  formed 
by  the  presence  of  gas  formed  in  the  tissue  just  beneath 
the  skin.  This  gas  is  a  product  of  the  germ.  A  peculiar 
cracking  sound  is  noticed  as  the  hand  is  passed  over  the 
swellings.  When  punctured,  these  swellings  emit  a 
bloody  fluid  of  disagreeable  and  sickening  odor. 

Associated  with  the  disease  are  loss  of  appetite,  high  fever  and 
lameness.  Death  follows  shortly  after  time  of  attack.  No  medical 
cure  for  treatment  has  been  discovered.     The  only  safe  practice  in 

regions  where  blackleg 
is  prevalent  is  in  the  use 
of  protective  inoculation 
or  vaccination.  Such 
vaccination  renders  the 
animals  immune,  and 
even  if  attacked,  there  is 
almost  no  appearance  of 
the  disease. 

4.     Fistulae.  —  A 

chronic        discharge 

from   some   tubelike 

channel,      with      no 

tendency      to      heal 

and  most  common  in 

horses.     They     may 

be  located  on  the  withers  (fistulous  withers),  on  the  side 

of  the  face  (tooth  fistula),  on  the  breast  bone   (sternal 

fistula),  or  on  the  lower  jaw  (salivary  fistula).    Fistulous 


Fistula   of  the  Withers 


IMPORTANT    INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


469 


withers  are  caused  from  external  injury — the  animal 
rolling  on  a  rock,  ill-fitting  collars,  or  the  saddle  press- 
ing on  the  withers.  Tooth  fistulse  are  caused  by  a  de- 
cayed tooth;  sternal  fistulas  by  injury  in  the  breast; 
salivary  fistulae  by  an  injury  to  the  tube  which  carries 
the  saliva  from  the  gland  to  the  mouth. 

At  first  a  swelling  appears,  which  enlarges  and  becomes  soft. 
The  fluid  contained  in  it  can  be  distinctly  felt.  If  left  to  itself  the 
swelling  gets  larger  and  softer,  and  in  a  month  or  so  breaks  and 
discharges  the  contents.  The  fluid  that  comes  from  the  swelling  is 
first  thin  and  streaked  with  blood ;  later  it  con- 
tains yellow-appearing  masses  or  pus.  The  in- 
closing sac  is  a  hard,  firm  membrane  that  keeps 
the  wound  from  healing.  The  wound  may  heal 
and  there  will  be  no  pus  discharged  for  a  month, 
then  the  old  opening  will  be  broken  and  the  pus 
will  flow  out  again  until  the  sac  is  emptied.  This 
healing  of  the  wound  and  then  breaking  again 
may  be  kept  up  for  years  unless  the  disease  is 
properly  treated  by  a  trained  veterinarian. 

5.  Foot  and  mouth  disease. — This 
malady  usually  affects  ruminants,  and 
spreads  very  rapidly.  The  virus  which 
transmits  the  disease  may  be  carried  by 
railroad  cars,  bedding,  feeds,  dairy 
products,  small  animals  and  persons. 
In  from  three  to  five  days  after  infec- 
tion the  animal  has  a  moderate  fever. 
The  appetite  is  lost  and  the  mouth  is 
closed.  There  is  a  dribbling  of  saliva, 
and  in  two  or  three  days  yellowish  white 
spots,  the  size  of  hemp  seeds,  appear  on  the  gums,  the 
lower  surface  of  the  tongue,  lining  of  the  mouth,  and  on 
the  lips.  These  eventually  attain  the  size  of  a  silver 
dollar.  They  run  together,  burst  and  form  painful,  foul- 
smelling  ulcers. 

Usually,  a  short  time  after  an  appearance  of  the  disease  in  the 
mouth  parts,  there  is  a  redness,  heat  and  swelling  of  the  skin  at  its 
juncture  with  the  hoof,  and  especially  between  the  toes  and  upon  the 


Foot  and  Mouth 
Disease 

Note  diseased  condi- 
tions of  teats  and 
hoofs. 


470  FARM    ANIMALS 

soles  of  the  foot.  Similar  ulcers  to  those  on  the  mouth  appear  on 
the  feet  and  soon  burst.  Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  disease  its 
contagion  and  danger,  treatment  should  be  in  line  of  prevention  and 
in  destruction  of  infected  animals. 

6.  Footrot  in  sheep. — A  chronic  inflammation  of  the 
foot,  marked  by  ulceration,  softening  of  the  hoof,  lame- 
ness and  the  discharge  of  a  sticky  material  which  has  a 
very  fetid  odor.     It  is  a  contagious  disease,  and  is  pro- 
duced by  a  germ  that  lives  in  the  soil 
and     gains     entrance     to     the     feet 
through  wounds  and  surfaces  chafed 
by  barbed  grasses  and  stones,  or  by 
gritty    clay,    which    becomes    lodged 
between  the  toes  and  hardens  there. 

Mild  cases  are  best  treated  by  making  the 
Footrot  sheep   stand   for  several   minutes   daily  in   a 

trough  containing  a  disinfectant.  In  bad 
cases  and  where  the  hoof  is  underrun  with  pus,  the  horn  and  all 
overgrowths  must  be  cut  away  so  as  to  expose  the  diseased  parts  to 
the  action  of  the  disinfectant.  The  foot  should  then  be  dried,  dusted 
with  finely  powdered  burnt  alum,  and  bandaged  to  keep  out  the 
dirt.  This  antiseptic  treatment  of  the  feet  must  be  kept  up  daily 
as  long  as  the  disease  exists. 

7.  Fowl  cholera. — A  germ  disease  and  contagious,  and 
attacking  poultry  of  all  kinds.  Bad  food  may  aggravate 
the  trouble,  but  the  germ  introduced  either  in  food  or 
drink  is  the  cause.  At  first  the  droppings  take  on  a 
whitish  color;  diarrhea  then  results.  The  discharges  be- 
come thin  and  watery,  and  at  times  are  frothy  and  green- 
ish. Fowls  thus  attacked  soon  lose  their  appetites,  be- 
come stupid,  and  are  of  sickly  appearance.  The  head 
drops  toward  the  body,  the  eyelids  fall,  and  the  fowls 
stand  around  as  if  doped.  Some  recover,  but  unless 
checked  the  flock  will  be  materially  injured. 

Dead  fowls  must  be  burned  and  lime  and  other  disinfectants  used 
to  keep  the  disease  from  spreading.  The  well  birds  must  be  kept 
apart  from  the  infected  quarters.  Care  must  be  exercised  that  in- 
fection be  not  carried  either  by  visitors  or  attendants  from  the  sick 
to  the  healthy  quarters. 


IMPORTANT    INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


471 


8.  Glanders. — A  contagious  disease  peculiar  to  the 
horse,  ass  and  mule  and  may  be  communicated  to  human 
beings.  The  specific  organism  causing  glanders  is  known 
as  bacillus  malleus.     A  discharge  from  the  nose  and  ulcers 

in  the  partition  dividing  the  nasal 
cavities  are  common  external 
manifestations  of  the  disease.  A 
peculiarity  of  glanders  seems  to  be 
a  tendency  for  the  symptoms  to  ap- 
pear on  the  left  side.  Well-marked 
cases  of  glanders  are  not  difficult 
of  diagnosis ;  in  cases  of  doubt  a 
test,  known  as  the  mallein  test,  may 
be  resorted  to. 

Farcy    Form   of   Glanders  Farcy    is    akin    to    glanders,    presenting 

different  symptoms  in  way  of  farcy  "buds" 
or  ulcers  on  the  skin.  In  the  acute  form,  the  disease  develops  rapidly 
and  death  occurs  in  a  few  weeks.  In  the  chronic  form,  an  animal 
may  go  for  months  without  the  disease  being  suspected ;  yet  such  an 
animal  is  a  source  of  danger  to  other  horses  and  to  its  attendant. 
Glanderous  horses  should  be  killed  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  diag- 
nosed. 

9.  Hog  cholera. — This  is  the  most  disastrous  and 
prevalent  disease  among  hogs.  It  is  due  to  a  germ  and 
is  extremely  contagious.  The  germ  is  so  small  as  to  be 
invisible  to  the  highest  available  powers  of  the  best 
microscopes. 

The  hog  coming  down  f^^T^^'^^PIZ'^] 
with  cholera  is  usually 
sluggish  at  first,  lying 
around  in  the  shade  and 
refusing  feed.  The  hair 
may  become  rough.  The 
eyes  early  show  symptoms  of  inflammation,  with  a  sticky 
discharge.  There  is  usually  a  suppressed  cough.  The 
gait  may  become  irregular  and  uncertain,  especially  with 


Chronic  Hog  Cholera,  Showing  Ulcers  in 
Large  Intestine 


472  FARM    ANIMALS 

the  hind  legs.  After  these  preliminary  symptoms  have 
been  shown  for  a  time,  the  skin  becomes  red,  changing 
to  purple,  especially  noticeable  in  white-haired  hogs.  The 
hog  is  then  usually  within  a  very  few  days  of  death.  On 
opening  the  dead  carcass  small  blood  clots  may  be  found 
in  the  fat  cut  through  under  the  skin.  The  glands 
along  the  intestines  are  intensely  inflamed.  The  mucous 
membrane  of  the  stomach  is  frequently  thickened  and 
roughened,  and  in  chronic  cases  there  may  be  ulcers. 

Treatment  consists  in  prevention  and  inoculation.  The  greatest 
care  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  germs  being  carried  from  sick  hogs 
to  healthy  herds.  The  owner  of  healthy  hogs  and  his  family  should 
keep  away  from  all  pens  and  yards  on  other  farms,  whether  sickness 
among  hogs  prevails  or  not,  if  there  is  any  infection  in  the  com- 
munity. Care  should  be  exercised  that  dogs,  stray  hogs  and  other 
animals  be  kept  out  of  the  quarters  where  the  hogs  are  kept.  In 
case  of  danger,  communicate  with  the  state  authorities  and  have 
the  herd  inoculated. 

10.  Rabies,  also  called  mad  dog,  is  an  infectious  dis- 
ease caused  by  an  invisible  organism.  The  disease  is 
transmitted  from  one  animal  to  another  by  the  bite  of 
an  animal  which  is  suffering  with  the  disease  or  by  direct 
inoculation.  It  is  more  common  in  the  dog  than  in  any 
other  animal. 

The  dog  at  first  seeks  dark  places,  but  is  usually  restless,  and 

after  a  day  or  two  may  go  30  miles 
in  a  day.  He  will  drink  water,  eat 
sticks,  stones,  and  bite  other  dogs, 
horses  and  cattle,  less  often  man.  In 
a  few  days  the  dog  becomes  partly 
paralyzed,  is  unable  to  swallow,  his 
legs  may  be  affected  and  he  will  lie  in 
one  place,  usually  dying  in  a  few  days 
after.  A  horse  that  has  been  bitten  by 
Strangles         ^^  ^  "^^^  ^^^S  becomes  restless,  usually 

^,      .  .  .        „        ...  violent  and  will  kick  and  bite.   He  may 

Showmg  position  of  swellmg.  ^^^^^    ^-^    ^^^^^    ^^    ^j^^    ^^^^^^^    ^^^ 

oftentimes  bites  his  own  flesh  at  the 
place  where  he  has  been  bitten  by  the  dog.  The  symptoms  usually  de- 
velop in  from  eight  to  twenty-eight  days,  but  may  not  develop  for 
§ix  months.     The  disease  runs  its  course  in  from  two  to  ten  days 


IMPORTANT    INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


473 


with  a  fatal  termination.  There  is  no  help  after  the  symptoms  have 
developed.  In  case  man  is  bitten  he  should  take  the  Pasteur  treat- 
ment, which  is  a  preventive,  and  it  should  be  taken  in  a  very  short 
time  after  being  bitten.  After  the  symptoms  begin  to  show  it  is  too  late. 

11.  Strangles. — This  trouble,  commonly  called  colt  dis- 
temper, affects  horses,  and  rarely  mules  and  donkeys.  It 
is  such  an  infectious  disease  that  nearly  all  horses  con- 
tract the  disease  when  colts,  and  usually  remain  immune 
to  future  exposures.  The  cause  is  a  very  small  organism 
or  germ,  which  enters  the  system  when  a  healthy  colt 
comes  in  contact  with  a  diseased  one,  or  when  fed  and 
watered  in  infected  vessels.  The  seat  of  trouble  is  largely 
restricted  to  the  respiratory  organs. 

The  animal  eats  little,  and  does  not  care  to  take  much  exercise. 
A  little  watery  discharge  frequently  appears  from  the  eyes,  and  about 
the  same  time  a  watery  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  which  soon  be- 
comes thicker  and  yellower  in  color.  Usually  the  glands  be- 
tween the  lower  jawbones  become  enlarged  and  undergo  suppuration, 
with  a  rupture  of  them  and  free  discharge  of  pus.  When  no  com- 
plications occur,  the  disease  usually  runs  its  course  in  two  weeks.  A 
laxative  diet,  with  something  green,  if  possible,  should  be  given,  and 
the  colt  placed  in  clean,  airy,  and  comfortable  quarters,  but  not  in 
a  draft. 

12.  Tetanus. — An  infectious  disease  in  which  the  body 
muscles  are  spasmodically  contracted  or  stiffened.  The 
muscles  that  move  the  jaw  are  frequently  aft'ected  and 
the  animal  is  unable  to 

open  the  mouth.  The 
spread  of  the  disease 
does  not  occur  through 
healthy  animals  coming 
in  contact  with  animals 
having  tetanus,  but  by 
inoculation. 

The    germ    of    tetanus    is  " 

present    in    the    soil,    manure  Tetanus  or  Lock  Jaw 

and   dust.      It  enters   the   body     Note   the  rigid,  tense  position  of  the  muscles 

by     way     of     wounds.     The 


474 


FARM    ANIMALS 


germs  grow  and  produce  a  poisonous  toxin  that  is  said  to  be  the 
most  powerful  produced  by  any  bacteria.  This  toxin  acts  on  the 
nerve  centers  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  causing  extensive  spas- 
modic contraction  of  the  body  muscles.  It  may  b  e  largely  prevented 
by  the  careful  disinfection  of  wounds,  and  the  use  of  anti-tetanic 
serum.  In  most  localities  the  proper  treatment  of  the  wound  is  a 
sufficient  preventive  measure,  but  in  localities  where  the  disease  is 
common  the  anti-tetanic  serum  should  be  used  as  soon  after  the 
injury  has  occurred  as  possible.  Many  boys  and  girls  lose  their 
lives  from  this  disease  through  firecrackers  after  a  Fourth  of  July 
celebration. 

13.  Texas  fever. — Caused  by  an  organism  which  lives 
within  and  breaks  up  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood.  It 
is  transmitted  by  the  cattle  tick.     The  eggs  laid  on  the 

ground  by  the  female 
tick  after  falling  off  the 
cattle  hatch,  and  the 
little  creatures  attach 
themselves,  by  prefer- 
ence, to  the  tender  skin 
on  the  escutcheon,  the 
inside  of  the  thighs,  and 
on  the  base  of  the  udder. 
When     very     numerous 

Acute  Case  of  Texas   Fever  ^^ey    may    be     found     OU 

various  parts  of  the  body.     They  remain  clinging  to  the 

cattle  until  mature,  and  then  fall  off  and  lay  their  eggs 

and  hatch  more  new  ticks. 

The  spread  of  Texas  fever  can  be  prevented  in  two  ways :  By 
sanitary  arrangements  and  by  vaccination.  Where  the  cattle  are  in- 
fested with  the  tick,  the  ticks  can  be  killed  by  smearing  the  animals 
with  a  solution  capable  of  killing  the  ticks  without  harrning  the 
cattle.  In  large  herds  a  vat  of  crude  petroleum  is  used  for  immers- 
ing the  cattle.  Vaccination  is  for  the  purpose  of  immunizing  cattle 
that  are  brought  from  a  non-infected  district  to  an  infected  district. 
Calves  are  more  immune  than  adult  cattle.  Immunity  is  caused  by 
introducing  the  germ  into  the  blood  in  a  weakened  form.  This  may 
be  done  in  two  ways — by  placing  virulent  young  ticks  on  the  calves 
or  by  artificial  vaccination. 

14.  Tuberculosis. — A  disease  resulting  from  the  growth 


IMPORTANT    INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


475 


of  tubercle  bacteria  in  the  tissues  of  the  animal.  The 
bacteria,  or  germs  of  tuberculosis,  gain  entrance  to  the 
organs  of  the  body  through  air,  drink  or  food.  They 
most  frequently  attack  the  lungs,  bronchial  glands,  liver, 
kidneys  and  intestines,  but  tuberculous  areas  may  be 
found  in  almost  any  part  of  the  infested  animal.  The 
disease  is  spread  by  germs  escaping  from  diseased  ani- 
mals and  getting  into  the  bodies  of  healthy  ones.  After 
the  germs  gain  a  foothold  they  will  multiply  and  produce 
the  disease,  just  as  the  seed  of  a  noxious  weed,  if  blown 
into  a  new  field,  will  germinate  and  produce  the  weed 
there.  Tuberculosis  spreads  from  animal  to  animal  on 
the  same  principle  that  weeds  spread  from  one  field  to 


Tuberculous  Cow 

Note  the  emaciated  condition,   siclcly   attitude   and  coarse 
rough  coat. 


another.  By  using  tuberculin,  affected  animals  can 
usually  be  located.  The  simplest  way  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  tuberculosis  is  to  prevent  healthy  animals  from 
coming  in  contact  with  the  diseased  ones  or  eating  or 
drinking  after  them. 

15.  Control    of    infectious    diseases. — From    time    im- 


476  FARM    ANIMALS 

memorial  it  has  been  known  that  certain  diseases  were 
transferable  from  the  diseased  to  the  healthy.  In  many 
cases  the  older  observers  believed  in  the  theory  that  there 
was  "something  in  the  air,"  whereby  the  maladies  were 
communicated,  and  people  or  animals  got  sick.  The 
science  of  bacteriology  has  since  explained  the  reason. 
We  know  now  that  every  disease  of  an  infectious  nature 
is  caused  by  a  specific  micro-organism  which  in  one  way 
or  other,  must  be  introduced  into  the  animal  body  to 
cause  that  disease.  The  principal  ways  by  which  such 
infection  takes  place  are  :  (1)  Through  the  digestive  tract, 
in  the  food  or  drink.  (2)  Through  the  respiratory  tract, 
inhaling  air  containing  the  disease-producing  organisms. 
(3)  Through  abrasions  of  the  skin,  where  organisms 
may  be  admitted  in  pricks,  scratches,  cuts  or  sores.  (4) 
Through  the  bites  of  insects.  All  infective  diseases  are 
due  to  the  presence  of  the  invading  organisms  either  cir- 
culating in  the  blood  or  manufacturing  toxic  material 
at  the  seat  of  injury,  the  poison  then  circulating  in  the 
blood.  It  is  obvious  that  control  of  such  diseases  lies 
more  in  preventive  measures  than  in  treatment  and  cure 
afterwards.  This  is  to  be  done  by  keeping  unexposed 
animals  from  the  vicinity  of  infected  places ;  by  keeping 
stock  in  good  health  and  vigor;  by  providing  pure  food 
and  drink,  and  exercise ;  and  by  housing  in  sanitary  quar- 
ters where  much  sunlight  and  fresh  air  at  all  times  are 
admitted.  Furthermore,  it  is  necessary  to  make  certain 
that  infectious  germs  are  not  carried  to  the  flock  or  herd, 
either  by  affected  stock,  or  by  means  of  clothing,  drink- 
ing vessels,  feeding  troughs,  food,  w^ater,  dogs,  birds, 
bedding  or  other  media  by  means  of  which  these  germs 
may  be  transmitted  from  affected  individuals  to  healthy 
herds  or  flocks. 


LESSON  FORTY-FIVE 
COMMON  AILMENTS  NOT  INFECTIOUS 

1.  Bloating 

2.  Bog  spavin. 

3.  Botflies. 

4.  Colic. 

5.  Curb. 

6.  Founder. 

7.  Gapes. 

8.  Gravel  in  foot. 

9.  Heaves. 

10.  Hollow  horn. 

11.  Lice. 

12.  Ringbone. 

13.  Scab. 

14.  Spavin. 

15.  Splints. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to 
acquaint  the  student  with  the  general  characteristics  and 
symptoms  of  the  more  common  diseases  of  a  non-infec- 
tious nature  that  affect  farm  stock.  The  more  common 
of  such  diseases  are  described  in  the  belief  that  every 
person  concerned  with  the  management  of  animals  should 
know  something  about  the  ailments  that  most  frequently 
occur.  There  is  no  virtue  in  ignorance,  even  if  the  sub- 
ject is  an  unimportant  disease. 

477 


LESSON  FORTY- FIVE 

COMMON  AILMENTS  NOT  INFECTIOUS 

1.  Bloating. — A  disease  characterized  by  the  distention 
of  the  paunch  or  rumen,  due  to  the  accumulation  of  gas. 
Tt  most  frequently  occurs  when  cattle  or  sheep  are  pas- 
tured on  clover  or  alfalfa,  especially  if  moist,  and  when 
not  accustomed  to  fresh  green  food.     The  animal  shows 


Case    of   Bloating 
Where  to  tap  for  relief. 

pain,  goes  off  to  itself,  and  breathes  with  difficulty. 
Unless  relief  is  secured,  the  gas  may  continue  to  form, 
even  over  the  back  of  the  animal,  and  choking  and  death 
may  result.  In  mild  cases  recovery  is  gradual,  but  in 
severe  cases  tapping  to  release  the  gas  is  necessary. 

In  tapping  with  trochar  and  canula  the  insertion  is  made  on  the 
left  side,  the  instrument  being  pushed  into  the  rumen  or  paunch,  the 
incision  being  made  half  way  between  the  point  of  the  hip  and  the 
last  rib.  After  the  incision  is  made  the  trochar  is  withdrawn  and 
the  canula  left  in  to  furnish  an  opening  through  which  the  gas  can 
escape.  If  this  instrument  is  not  available,  a  pocketknife  will  answer. 

2.  Bog  spavin. — A  round,  smooth  tumor  at  the  front 

478 


COMMON  AILMENTS    NOT    INFECTIOUS 


479 


Bog   Spavin 


and  on  the  inside  of  the  hock.  Bog  spavins  result  from 
sprains,  bruises,  or  other  injuries.  When  the  injuries 
occur,  too  much  joint  oil  is  secreted, 
causing  a  bulging  of  the  ligament. 
Lameness  seldom  accompanies  a  bog 
spavin.  If  lameness  is  present  other 
structures  are  certain  to  be  affected, 
pain  and  heat  w^ill  be  noticed,  and  the 
joint  will  be  stiff.  Treatment  consists 
of  applications  of  cold  water,  liniment 
or  blister. 

3.  Botflies.  —  Horses  are  often 
noticed  biting  their  legs  in  summer 
when  the  yellow  nit  is  attached  to  the 
hair  or  other  parts.  The  young  larva,  and  even  the  eggs, 
are  thus  transferred  into  the  mouth,  and  swallowed. 
When  in  the  stomach  they  attach  themselves,  causing 
annoyance  and  often  digestive 
disorders.  Until  they  have 
completed  their  development 
bots  are  hard  to  dislodge.  If 
a  rag  made  wet  with  kerosene 
is  actively  rubbed  over  the 
horse  where  the  nits  are  at- 
tached the  eggs  will  be  de- 
stroyed. Bots  usually  respond 
to  medical  treatment. 


The  botfly  of  cattle  is  taken  into 
into  the  mouth  and  partly  develops 
in  the  digestive  tract.  It  then  bur- 
rows through  the  tissue  until  it  bo"t"  c,  magnified  head  of  bot 
reaches  the  region  of  the  back. 
The  best  treatment  is  to  destroy  the 
grub  as  it  develops  under  the  skin 

The  presence  of  botflies  among  sheep  is  easily  told  by  the  be- 
havior of  the  sheep.     This  fly  looks  much  like  a  house  fly,  and  it 


Bots  in  Stomach 

At     left,     young     bots     attached     to 
stomach  wall,    a,  female  botfly;  b,  the 


These  are  known  as  warbles. 


480 


FARM    ANIMALS 


Colic  Pains 
A  common  attitude  with  colic. 


always  attempts  to  lay  its  eggs  just  inside  the  opening  of  the  nose. 
When  the  fly  succeeds,  the  larva  works  its  way  up  the  cavity  of  the 
nose,  seeking  the  small  cavities  in  the  head,  where  development  takes 
place.  As  the  grubs  enlarge,  a  discharge  from  the  nostril  occurs. 
Treatment  may  be  either  preventive  or  surgical.  A  mixture  of  tar 
and  lard  applied  to  the  nostril  with  a  brush  and  repeated  every  10 

days  or  two  weeks  during 
the  summer  months  is  a 
good  preventive. 

4.  Colic.  —  A  very 
common  disease  in 
horses  and  occasionally 
in  cattle  and  lambs.  It 
begins  as  an  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bowels,  and 
is  characterized  by  a 
spasmodic  contraction 
of  the  intestinal  wall. 
Feed  and  water  are  controlling  factors.  Cold  water  after 
hard  work  or  after  eating,  or  cold  water  given  when  the 
animal  is  hot,  or  a  change  of  food,  may  bring  on  the  dis- 
ease. Some  horses  and  cattle  are  more  given  to  colic 
than  others,  some  individuals  never  being  affected.  Two 
kinds  are  known — spasmodic,  or  cramps  of  the  bowels ; 
and  flatulent,  or  bloating.  AMien  the  spasms  come  on 
the  horse  paws  with  his  forefeet,  cringes,  turns  his  head 
around,  as  if  looking  at  his  side,  lays  on  the  ground  and 
rolls,  as  if  in  pain.  Then  he  stands  quietly  for  a  while 
and  repeats  these  performances.  If  the  cramps  are 
severe  he  breaks  out  with  sweat.  Treatment  consists  in 
the  use  of  opiates  and  purges. 

5.  Curb. — A  sprain  or  injury  to  the  ligament  situated 
on  the  back  part  of  the  hock  joint.  Anything  that  puts 
too  much  stress  on  this  part,  such  as  holding  back  heavy 
loads,  going  down  hill  or  backing  up  too  heavy  loads,  or 
the  hind  legs  slipping  too  far  under  the  horse's  body,  may 


COMMON   AILMENTS    NOT    INFECTIOUS 


481 


Curb 


cause  curb  disease.  It  may  be  caused  also  by  kicks  or 
by  the  whiffletree  striking  against  the  back  of  the  hock 
joint.  Sometimes  there  is  swelling  and 
heat  in  the  part,  and  lameness ;  some- 
times there  is  swelling  but  no  lameness. 
Curb  is  treated  by  lotions  and  blisters. 

6.  Founder. — An    inflammation   of   the 
sensitive  or  soft  structures  between  the 
hoof  and  the  bones  of  the  foot.     Stiffness 
in  the  legs  and  shoulders  is  but  the  nat- 
ural    results    of    soreness     in    the    feet. 
Founder  may  be  produced  by  a  change 
of  feed  or  excessive  feeding;  a  change  of 
work,  or  excessive  work,  which  results  in 
exhaustion ;    large   quantities   of   feed   or 
water  when   warm   or   fatigued;   sudden 
cooling  off  when  sweating  and  long  drives  on  hard  roads. 
It  may  occur  in  the  fore  or  hind  feet,  or  in  both,  but  gen- 
erally in  the  forefeet. 

The  position  in  which  the  animal  stands  is  characteristic.  The 
forefeet  will  be  placed  well  forward,  so  that  the  weight  will  be 
borne  by  the  heels,  while  the  hind  feet  are  brought  well  up  under 
the  body  in  order  to  take  as  much  weight  off  the  front  feet  as  pos- 
sible. Treatment  consists  in  removing  the  shoes  and  applying  mois- 
ture to  the  feet.  The  animal  may  be  re- 
quired to  stand  in  water  5  or  6  inches 
deep  each  day,  several  hours  at  a  time. 
Or  an  application  of  a  poultice  of  wheat 
bran  or  some  such  material,  or  wet  cloths 
thoroughly  saturated  with  water,  wrapped 
about  the  feet  may  be  used.  An  animal 
once  foundered  often  suffers  from  sub- 
sequent attacks.  The  disease  most  com- 
monly affects  horses. 

Foundered  Foot 

7.  Gapes. — Caused  by  worms  in 
the  windpipe ;  oftenest  seen  in  young  chicks  and  turkeys. 
Birds  droop,  cough,  and  lower  their  wings.     A  feather 
moistened,  but  not  dripping,  with  kerosene  or  oil  of  tur- 


482  FARM    ANIMALS 

pentine  is  the  commonest  remedy.  Cleanliness  of  food, 
water  and  quarters  is  the  great  preventive.  Poultrymen 
who  keep  their  chicks  on  the  ground  not  used  for  chick 
raising  the  previous  year,  and  who  insist  on  strictest 
cleanliness,  are  seldom  if  ever  troubled  with  gapes. 

8.  Gravel  in  foot. — A  collection  of  pus,  or  other  fluid, 
containing  gravel  or  dirt.  It  occurs  most  frequently  in 
the  foot,  and  is  associated  with  the  horse  and  mule  almost 
exclusively.  The  cause  may  be  from  a  bruise,  but  more 
frequently  it  is  due  to  a  punctured  wound  of  the  foot  by 
nail,  wire  or  other  pointed  object.  Nearly  always  there 
will  be  dirt  carried  into  the  wound  with  the  offending 
object  or  shortly  after  its  removal.  This  dirt,  infected 
with  germs,  sets  up  inflammation  of  the  sensitive  struc- 
tures, causing  more  or  less  lameness. 

Treatment  consists  in  making  or  enlarging  the  opening  so  that  all 
secretions  formed  in  the  wound  can  find  a  ready  escape  to  the  out- 
side. The  wound  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  arid  washed  with 
a  mild  disinfectant,  after  which  a  small  quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine 
should  be  injected,  and  the  wound  packed  with  calomel  or  iodoform 
and  covered  with  a  pledget  of  cotton.  If  the  wound  is  very  deep 
or  extensive,  a  hot  bran  or  flaxseed  poultice,  applied  after  thor- 
oughly cleansing  the  foot,  is  often  beneficial.  Use  poultice  for 
several  days  and  change  daily. 

9.  Heaves. — An  ailment  of  the  horse  characterized  by 
a  double  bellows-like  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles  in 
breathing.  In  bad  cases  there  is  a  short,  suppressed 
cough,  usually  accompanied  by  passage  of  gas,  glutton- 
ous appetite,  harsh,  staring  coat  of  hair,  lack  of  endur- 
ance, sweating,  panting  or  staggering  during  work,  and 
dilated  nostrils.  The  disease  begins  with  indigestion, 
aflfecting  in  time  the  pneumogastric  nerve  of  the  stomach 
and  then  the  branch  nerves  running  to  the  lungs. 

The  distress  may  be  relieved  by  treatment,  but  perfect  recovery 
is  impossible  when  the  lungs  have  become  badly  aff^ected.  A  sub- 
stitution of  wet  oat  straw  for  hay  in  winter  and  grass  for  hay  in 
summer  gives  relief.     Allow  double  the  usual  rest  period  after  a 


COMMON   AILMENTS    NOT    INFECTIOUS 


483 


meal.  Work  when  stomach  is  not  distended  with  food.  Hay  should 
not  be  fed  at  noon.  Limewater  for  wetting  the  food  is  desirable. 
Once  or  twice  a  week  raw  linseed  oil  in  a  bran  mash  is  recommended 
for  keeping  open  the  bowels. 

10.  Hollow  horn. — The  horn  is  not  hollow,  and  never  is. 
The  old  quack  method  of  boring  a  hole  in  the  horn  with 
a  gimlet  and  squirting  turpentine  into  the  orifice  is  both 
cruel  and  ridiculous.  If  the  temperature  of  the  horn  is 
low,  it  is  because  of  the  general  poverty  of  the  blood  of 
the  animal.  The  most  common  symptoms  are  general 
debility,  scanty  flesh,  scurvy  coat  and  coarse  hair.  The 
appetite  is  also  irregular  and  at  times  greedy.  Treatment 
is  in  line  of  better  food  to  improve  and  tone  up  the  sys- 
tem. If  lice  are  found  they  must  be  destroyed  by  disin- 
fectants or  washes. 

11.  Lice. — Farm  animals,  especially  those  housed  in 
stables  more  or  less  infested  with  insects  and  rats,  are 
commonly       troubled 

with  lice.  Animals  in 
good  health  resist  the 
insects,  but  those 
already  in  a  non- 
thrifty  condition  do 
not  fare  so  well.  Lice 
annoy  farm  stock  by 
biting  the  skin,  suck- 
ing the  blood  and 
causing  irritation. 

infestation,     as     a     rule,  Cattle  Bath  Tub 

takes  place  in  filthy  quar- 
ters, and  the  best  means 
of  disinfecting  such  places 

is  by  the  use  of  a  spray  of  kerosene.  One  of  the  best  means 
of  applying  to  hogs  consists  in  rubbing  posts,  which  are  con- 
stantly smeared  with  kerosene  and  grease.  In  this  way  the  hogs 
are  induced  to  treat  themselves.  Infected  hogs  may  also  be  treated 
by  pouring  the  kerosene  directly  over  the  infested  parts— the  neck, 


Permanent    tank    used    for    dipping   for   treatment 
of   lice   and   mange. 


484  FARM    ANIMALS 

shoulder  and  back.  Dipping  tanks  made  of  cement  or  wood  in  the 
run  yards  containing  disinfectant  fluid  serve  as  wallows  and  allow 
the  hogs  to  disinfect  themselves.  Cattle  and  horses  may  be  dipped 
or  brushed  with  disinfecting  cloths  or  brushes.  Chickens  may  be 
dipped,  but  their  quarters  should  be  sprayed,  and  the  roosts  treated 
with  a  mixture  of  grease  and  disinfectants. 

12.  Ringbone. — A  growth  of  bone  on  the  pastern  l)one, 
just  above  the  hoof.  It  causes  lameness  when  it  inter- 
feres with  the  joint  or  the  passage  of  any 
of  the  tendons.  Some  horses  are  predis- 
posed to  bony  diseases  from  the  least  in- 
jury, while  others  are  not,  and  in  select- 
ing mares  for  breeding  purposes  the 
former  should  be  rejected.  This  disease 
results  from  strains,  bruises,  or  injuries 

Ringbone  to  the  cartilage  of  the  joints. 

When  the  membrane  of  the  bone  or  cartilage 
becomes  inflamed  there  may  be  much  lameness  for  several  months 
before  any  enlargement  takes  place.  The  absence  of  other  diseases 
of  the  foot,  with  some  heat  in  the  pasterns,  and  soreness  on  pres- 
sure or  moving  the  joints,  indicates  this  disease.  Medical  treat- 
ment, in  the  nature  of  ointments  and  blisters,  is  often  necessary. 

13.  Scab. — Scab  or  itch  or  mange,  is  caused  by  minute 
mites  that  live  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin,  burrowing 
into  it.  Dififerent  kinds  afflict  animals.  Old  cattle  are 
less  troubled,  the  attacks  being  more  frequent  on  calves 
and  yearlings  and  two-vear-olds  out  of  condition.  In  the 
early  stages  the  itching  of  the  skin  in  the  region  of  the 
neck  or  shoulders  is  first  noticed.  This  is  indicated  by 
the  animals  digging  at  the  skin  with  teeth  and  horns  and 
the  constant  rubbing  against  posts  or  barbed  wire  or 
anything  that  may  give  relief  at  the  time.  The  disease 
gradually  spreads  along  the  back,  sides  and  outside  of 
legs. 

In  the  early  stages  the  coat  looks  rough  and  the  skin  has  a  scurvy 
appearance.  In  time,  the  hair  comes  off  or  is  rubbed  off,  presenting 
bald  patches  of  thick,  glazed  and  wrinkled  skin.  After  the  hair 
comes  off  the  parasites  leave  these  regions,  seeking  other  quarters, 


COMMON    AILMENTS    NOT    INFECTIOUS 


485 


and  then  the  hair  grows  in  again.  There  is  a  dejected  and  debiH- 
tated  condition  in  animals  thus  afflicted,  and  they  fall  rapidly  in 
flesh.  Their  appetites  are  poor,  and  most  of  their  time  is  expended 
in  scratching  themselves.  Scab  spreads  rapidly.  As  soon  as  the 
disease  is  discovered  the  infected  animals  should  be  isolated,  and 
both  animals  and  infected  quarters  and  rubbing  posts  disinfected 
with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  one  of  the  commercial  dips. 

14.  Spavin. — Any  condition  which  favors  sprains,  as 
fast  driving  over  hard  and  uneven  roads,  bad  shoeing, 
severe  labor  in  early  life,  bruises  or  an  injury  to  tendons 
or  joints,  may  cause  spavin.  If  not  checked,  the  hock 
joint  enlarges  and  free  movement  of  the  limbs  is  im- 
paired. Preventive  treatment  consists  in  keeping  the 
feet  trimmed  properly,  not  overworking  colts  while 
young,  careful  driving  on  hard  or  uneven  roads,  and 
avoiding  all  injuries  that  are  liable  to  strain  tendons, 
ligaments  or  joints  of  the  limbs. 

Even  after  a  spavin  has   developed  it  may  be  cured  by  proper 
treatment  of  the  feet,  and  applying  a  fly  blister.     If 
blistering  fails  to  cure  the  spavin,  point-firing  may  be 
resorted  to.     But  this  should  be  done  by  a  veterinary 
surgeon. 

15.  Splints. — Any  enlargement  of  the  bone 
occurring  on  the  inside  of  the  leg  between 
the  knee  and  fetlock,  comes  under  the  name 
of  splint.  The  usual  cause  is  travel  on  hard 
roads,  blows,  a  twisting  strain,  or  faulty  con- 
formation. If  taken  in  time,  a  splint  can 
be  cured.  The  first  thing  is  to  give  the  ani- 
mal rest  and  place  in  quarters  where  there 
is  a  soft  floor,  preferably  the  ground. 

Applications  of  cold  water  bandages  act  well.  If 
the  disease  does  not  respond  to  this  treatment,  a  blister  splint 

mav  be  necessary. 

Dr.  Williams  of  Cornell  University  believes  that  spavin,  splints, 
ringbone  and  other  bone  troubles  are  either  hereditary  or  due  to  soil 
conditions.  Soils  free  from  limestone,  for  example,  may  be  a  con- 
tributing cause.  He  points  out  that  horses  in  fire  departments  are 
not  more  subject  to  bone  troubles  than  other  horses. 


PRACTICUMS 


1.  Dressing  Wounds. — An  excellent  exercise  will  be  possible  if 
the  local  veterinarian  or  physician  is  asked  to  show  the  class  how  to 
treat  a  wound,  how  to  make  stitches  with  needle  and  thread,  and 
how  to  use  pins  for  making  stitches  in  emergencies.  Here  is  a 
splendid  opportunity  to  drive  home  the  virtue  of  cleanliness  and 
the  use  of  pure  antiseptics  to  prevent  further  infection.  After  a 
wound  is  cleaned  and  washed  in  the  proper  manner  the  next  step 
is  to  dress  it  for  comfort,  safety  and  protection.  The  importance 
of  dressing  wounds  should  be  emphasized,  and  as  opportunity  arises 
on  the  home  farm,  each  student  should  be  influenced  to  put  in  prac- 
tice what  he  has  learned  about  the  cleanly  care  of  wounds. 

2.  Animal  Diseases. — Each  member  of  the  class  is  to  take  an 
assignment  of  a  leading  disease  of  the  community.  Require  the 
preparation  of  an  essay  on  this  disease,  describing  its  symptoms, 
how  it  is  spread,  means  of  prevention,  methods  of  control  and  treat- 
ment, and  estimate  the  annual  loss  to  the  community.  In  what  ways 
may  the  neighborhood  co-operate  to  eradicate  the  disease  and  what 
precautions  are  necessary  to  prevent  further  epidemics  and  out- 
breaks. 

3.  Observation  of  Animals. —  (a)  Have  each  student  choose  a 
class  of  live  stock  for  observation  at  home,  lim.iting  the  choice  to 
horses,  cattle,  sheep  or  swine.  The  object  is  to  learn  as  much  about 
habits,  movements,  likes  and  dislikes,  and  other  characteristics  as 
possible.  For  instance,  how  do  animals  of  that  class  walk?  Are 
they  suspicious?  Why  do  they  move  their  ears?  How  do  they  eat? 
Lie  down?  Get  up?  In  eating  grass  how  is  the  head  moved?  Is  it 
the  same  for  other  classes?  Do  cows  ever  "roll"  like  horses?  How 
does  a  horse  roll  anyway?  In  galloping,  does  the  horse  leave  the 
ground  from  one  of  its  hind  feet  or  from  a  front  foot?  Which? 
Do  cattle  ever  gallop?  Do  hogs?  Watch  an  anirnal  and  nate  its 
movements,  ways  of  eating,  ways  of  locomotion,  resting  and  of  other 
points  that  come  under  your  observation. 

(b)  What  is  the  most  common  disease  that  affects  this  class  of 
farm  animals?  Is  the  disease  contagious?  How  is  it  most  generally 
spread?  What  methods  may  be  employed  to  prevent  infection? 
If  an  outbreak  occurs,  what  is  to  be  done  to  keep  the  disease  in 
check?  Now  write  an  essay  on  your  subject — telling  in  detail  all 
the  observations  you  have  made.     Make  this  as  complete  as  possible. 


486 


LESSON    FORTY-SIX 
KEEPING    ANIMALS    HEALTHY 

1.  Health. 

2.  Fresh  air. 

3.  Exercise. 

4.  Sunlight. 

5.  Water. 

6.  Disinfection. 

7.  Filth. 

8.  Damp  quarters. 

9.  Ventilation. 

10.  Systems  of  ventilation. 

11.  Stalls. 

12.  Shelter. 

13.  Grooming  animals. 

14.  House  ventilation. 

15.  Outside  sleeping  rooms. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  object  of  this  lesson  is  obvi- 
ously to  emphasize  the  importance  of  health  and  thrift 
in  farm  animals.  Fresh  air,  exercise  and  sanitary  quar- 
ters are  fundamental  factors  of  live  stock  success.  When 
it  is  realized  that  an  enormous  loss  of  farm. stock  annu- 
ally occurs,  due  to  conditions  easily  w^ithin  the  control  of 
the  owners,  the  practical  value  of  a  clear  understanding 
of  how  to  keep  animals  healthy  is  apparent. 


487 


LESSON    FORTY-SIX 
KEEPING    ANIMALS    HEALTHY 

1.  Health. — Under  normal  conditions  health  is  natural. 
And  unless  health  is  generally  maintained,  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  succeed  in  any  branch  of  live  stock.  The 
object  of  every  stockman  should  be  to  keep  his  animals 
in  such  vigorous  condition  that  they  will  thrive  and  pro- 
duce their  marketable  products  with  the  greatest  profit. 
The  majority  of  failures  in  stock  raising  is  due  to  neglect 
or  disobedience  of  those  natural  laws  upon  which  normal 
conditions  of  health  depend. 

It  is  more  important  to  understand  the  laws  of  thrift  and  vigor 
than  to  know  about  dopes  and  remedies.  Our  greatest  stockmen 
seldom  have  to  deal  with  disease  in  their  establishments,  except  at 
times  of  community  affliction  and  epidemics.  Even  then  the  fault 
is  usually  due  to  a  thoughtless  outsider,  to  dogs,  birds,  water,  or  to 
some  other  condition  not  under  the  control  of  the  victims.  Animals 
may  be  considered  to  be  in  health  when  they  have  smooth,  glossy 
coats,  are  quick  and  active  in  their  movements,  have  good  appetite.-, 
do  their  regular  work  without  difficulty  or  distress  and  when  the 
organs  of  the  body  act  in  a  normal  way. 

2.  Fresh  air. — Until  costly  and  tightly  closed  barns 
were  built  by  thoughtless  and  ignorant  men  of  wealth, 


Free   Exercise   in    the  Open  Air  of  the  Pasture 
488 


KEEPING   ANIMALS    HEALTHY  489 

tuberculosis  was  not  a  serious  ailment  of  dairy  cattle. 
These  men,  attracted  to  the  pleasure  of  breeding  dairy 
stock,  sought  elegance  in  stables,  and  provided  what  is 
now  known  as  badly  devised  comfort  in  way  of  warmth 
in  winter.  They  assembled  many  famous  cows,  some  of 
which  were  affected  with  tuberculosis,  from  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Their  method  of  barn  construction  actually 
excluded  fresh  air.  The  infected  cows,  in  close  contact 
with  others,  gave  the  disease  to  healthy  cows.  Bringing 
together  infected  cattle,  however,  had  more  to  do  with  the 
spread  of  tuberculosis  than  the  kind  of  buildings.  In  this 
way  the  disease  was  bred  and  spread,  and  a  most  serious 
menace  introduced  to  the  cattle  industry  when  breeding 
stock  from  these  stables  was  sold  and  distributed  to  other 
farms.  It  was  in  this  manner  that  tuberculosis  was 
spread,  which  in  time  became  not  only  the  most  serious 
dairy  disease,  but  the  source  of  an  immense  expense  to 
eradicate  it.  No  flock  or  herd  is  wisely  managed  if  fresh 
air  is  improperly  supplied  to  barns  and  stables,  or  if 
impure  air,  arising  from  breath,  odors,  or  skin  exudations, 
is  not  constantly  removed.  It  is  better  to  have  cold 
shelters  in  winter  with  a  generous  supply  of  fresh,  pure 
air  than  warmth  without  it. 

3.  Exercise. — Closely  akin  to  fresh  air  is  exercise. 
Lack  of  exercise  is  productive  of  many  disorders.  When 
farm  stock  are  on  free  range  in  pastures  and  feed  lots, 
other  factors  of  health  being  provided,  they  keep 
active  and  robust.  Exercise  may  be  arranged  for 
at  little  expense.  Winter  is  the  season  it  ordinarily 
is  most  often  denied ;  but  the  scratching  pen 
suffices  for  chickens,  the  open  or  covered  barnyard  for 
cattle,  common  winter  work  for  horses,  the  sod  fields 
for  the  sheep  and  hogs.     Under  whatever  circumstances 


490 


FARM    ANIMALS 


farm  animals  are  kept,  a  reasonable  amount  of  exercise 
should  be  required.  Even  work  for  boys  and  girls  is  not  a 
hardship,  but  a  blessing,  that  remains  as  long  as  life  exists. 

4.  Sunlight. — Sunlight  is  a  great  stimulant  to  the  skin 
and  acts  as  a  tonic  to  the  red  blood  corpuscles.  Men 
and  beasts  that  live  in  darkness  or  dark  quarters  become 
debilitated  and  finally  become  victims  of  disease.  Just 
as  the  plant  obtains  its  green  color  only  from  sunlight, 
so  does  the  healthy,  red  blood  of  animals  form  only 
through  the  influence  of  sunlight.  Sunlight  is  a  neces- 
sity to  the  healthy  as  it  is  to  the  sick.  City  people  w^ho 
work  in  dark  shops  or  live  in  dark  dwellings,  and  animals 
that  are  stabled  in  dark  barns,  live  under  unhealthy  con- 
ditions. Sunny,  large  and  airy  buildings  are  important 
requirements  for  both  people  and  live  stock.  Sunlight 
is  not  only  of  great  importance  to  health  in  a  direct  man- 
ner, but  it  is  the  very  best  disinfectant.  Disease  germs 
cannot  live  where  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  strike.  Every 


II 

'  hpr^^Si^Bi^tfu 

|PW»'*«^#t  ■'    '                   .  ,; ,     1 

Where  Sunlight  Hits  Every  Nook  and  Corner 

In  quarters  like  this  there  is  no  place  for  vermin   to  hide  or  for  disease  germs 

to  breed. 


KEEPING  ANIMALS    HEALTHY 


491 


room  where  a  boy  or  girl  sleeps  and  every  stall  where 
an  animal  is  quartered  should  be  reached  in  every  corner 
by  sunlight  during  some  part  of  the  day.  It  is  an  old 
saying  that  ''where  the  sun  does  not  enter,  the  phvsician 
does." 

5.  Water. — Sixty  per  cent  or  more  of  the  weight  of  the 
animal  body  consists  of  water;  and  this  quantity  must  be 
maintained  by  a  large 


Permanent   Watering    Trough 


daily  consumption  if 
good  health  is  to  be 
preserved.  The  action 
of  water  is  mechanical, 
chemical  and  thermal. 
Mechanically,  it  dis- 
tends the  stomach,  in- 
testines and  other  or- 
gans; chemically,  it 
dissolves  certain  inju- 
rious substances  cir- 
culating in  the  body;  and  thermally,  it  reduces  the  pulse 
and  lowers  the  temperature. 

Drinking  water  should  be  absolutely  pure,  or  it  may  become  a  men- 
ace to  health.  Many  disastrous  outbreaks  of  disease  often  are  due  to 
water  contamination,  as.  for  instance,  typhoid  fever  and  hog  cholera. 
Farm  animals  are  entitled  to  a  better  water  supply  than  they  fre- 
quently get.  Wells,  springs,  cisterns  and  cool  streams  are  satisfac- 
tory, providing  they  do  not  become  contaminated  in  any  manner  by 
disease  germs.  It  is  also  important  that  live  stock  be  watered  at 
regular  intervals,  that  they  be  given  water  in  abundance,  and  be 
allowed  to  drink  in  their  own  way,  with  plenty  of  time  to  do  it. 

6.  Disinfection. — The  best  way  of  reducing  the  pos- 
sibilities of  contagion  is  by  destroying  offending  germs. 
Such  practice  is  not  only  absolutely  necessary  during 
and  after  an  outbreak  of  disease,  but  during  other  periods 
when  danger  is  not  even  suspected.  On  farms  where 
disinfection  is  freely  indulged  in,  and  where  stock  are 


492 


FARM    ANIMALS 


raised  under  good  sanitary  conditions  otherwise,  disease 
among  live  stock  is  not  at  all  common.  Premises, 
stables,  stalls,  chicken  coops  or  houses  may  be  disinfected 
by  steam,  boiling  water,  and  chemical  substances.  For- 
malin is  the  best  disinfectant  for  closed  rooms  and  farm- 
houses. The  stables  and  outbuildings  may  be  sprayed 
or  washed  with  solutions  containing  carbolic  acid,  kero- 
sene or  the  now  common  coal-tar  preparations.  The 
method  is  first  to  remove  all  litter,  dust  or  other  obstruc- 
tion and  then  freely  to  spray  until  every  part  of  the 
quarters  is  made  thoroughly  wet. 

7.  Filth. — Disinfection  must  go  hand  in  hand  with 
cleanliness.  Little  is  gained  by  using  disinfectants,  even 
though  that  be  done  very  freely,  if  filthy  quarters  for  live 
stock  are  permitted  to  exist.  A  maintenance  of  cleanli- 
ness precludes  the  necessity  for  much  disinfection.     Peo- 


FlLTHY     AND     POORI.Y     KEPT     COW     BaRN 

The  bacterial  count  of  the   milk  produced  in  this  barn    is  sure  to   be  high. 


KEEPING  ANIMALS    HEALTHY 


493 


pie  who  seek  to  avert  disease  by  disinfection  and  still 
allow  filth  to  accumulate  are  penny  wise  and  pound  fool- 
ish, for  they  must  sooner  or  later  pay  the  penalty.  Suc- 
cessful farmers  keep  their  farms  clean  and  insist  on 
cleanliness  in  every  place  where  the  farm  animals  are 
housed  or  permitted  to  live.  In  filth,  flies,  germs,  ver- 
min and  other  terrors  are  propagated  and  from  such 
places  they  spread  far  and  near. 

8.  Damp  quarters. — Bacteria  require  moisture  and 
darkness  for  their  propagation.  They  rarely  survive 
when  dried  or  exposed  to  light.  Hence,  in  damp  houses 
and  barns  the  occupants  are  not  only  constantly  sub- 
jected to  distress,  but  also  to  danger.  The  only  thing 
to  do  with  damp  quarters  is  to  correct  the  trouble.  A 
drain  pipe  at  the  side  of  a  barn  often  will  make  dry  a 
stable  floor.  If  the  walls  are  damp,  the  fault  may  be  with 
the  form  of  construction  or  to  lack  of  window  space,  or 
to  a  lack  of  fresh  air.  Whatever  the  source  of  trouble, 
let  nothing  delay  its  early  correction.  Good  health  is 
not  often  associated  with  damp 

quarters. 

9.  Ventilation. — Fresh  air  is 
not  a  fad.  It  is  neither  a  luxury 
for  humans  nor  a  fancy  for 
beasts,  but  a  necessity.  It  is 
lung  food  for  both,  and  should 
be  pure  and  abundant.  Every 
house  should  supply  800  cubic 
feet  of  air  for  each  occupant,  and 
every  stable  1,500  cubic  feet  for 
each  mature  cow  or  horse,  and 
this     should    be    removed    fre- 

,,        ,,         .,      .         .  .  .-  Stable  Window 

quently.  Ventilation  is  primarily    ^    ^   .  .     ^  .    ,  , 

^  -^  f  ./      Fresh  air  is  admitted  from  the  top. 


494 


FARM    ANIMALS 


for  two  purposes :  to  admit  oxygen,  and  to  dilute  and  re- 
move impurities.  It  is  to  come  as  near  as  possible  to 
getting  outside  conditions  in  the  house  or  stable.  Pro- 
vision for  ventilation  is  always  made  when  houses  and 
barns  are  constructed,  but  too  often,  when  winter  comes, 
the  door  and  windows  are  closed  and  the  health  of  the 
occupants  is  imperiled.  Yet  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  ven- 
tilate a  farm  building.  An  opening  1  foot  square  will 
admit  15,800  cubic  feet  when  air  is  passing  at  as  slow 
a  rate  as  three  miles  an  hour. 

10.  Systems   of  ventilation. — In   small   barns  window 

ventilation  will  suffice. 
The  windows  may  be 
hinged  at  the  bottom, 
allowing  the  top  to  open 
inward.  At  the  sides, 
boards  are  placed,  the 
width  corresponding 
from  top  to  bottom  with 
the  opened  distance  of 
the  window.  By  this 
plan  air  is  admitted  at 
the  top  and  not  directly 
on  the  animals.  If 
opened  on  the  side  away 
from  the  wind  and  ac- 
cording to  the  severity  of  the  weather,  fresh  air  will  be 
provided  and  without  serious  drafts  being  caused. 

The  King  system  of  ventilation  consists  essentially  of 
air  intakes  and  air  outlets,  in  the  form  of  flues,  and  tight 
inclosures.  The  intakes  admit  the  fresh  air  near  the 
ceiling  where  the  air  is  warm,  and  where  also  the  fresh 
air  is  warmed,  and  the  outlets  remove  the  old  air  at  the 


L«B 


King   System    of   Ventilation 

Showing  intakes  and  outlets.  A,  ventila- 
ting shaft,  through  which  stable  air  is  carried 
out  of  doors;  B,  intakes  for  admission  of 
outside  air  to  the  stable;  C,  ceiling  register 
in   the  ventilating  shaft;   D,  outside   air. 


KEEPING  ANIMALS    HEALTHY 


495 


bottom  where  it  is  colder  and  possessed  of  the  impuri- 
ties. For  best  success  the  intakes  should  be  small  but 
numerous,  one,  say,  for  every  three  cows;  and  outlets 
large,  and  carried  up  and  out  of  the  roof.  The  outlets 
should  be  airtight.  One  difficulty  with  this  system  is 
that  the  moisture  given  off  by  the  lungs  and  skin  of 
animals  is  partially  condensed  and  is  apt  to  cause  a  moist 
condition  of  the  stable.  When  this  occurs,  the  air  should 
be  allowed  to  escape  at  C  shown  in  the  diagram. 

11.  Stalls. — Naturally  less  space  is  required  for  small 
animals  than  for  large,  and  less  for  cows  than  for  horses. 
Pigs  and  sheep  do  not  require  individual  stalls,  but  pens 
of  varying  sizes  are  provided  in  accordance  to  needs,  and 
whether  one  or  more  or  many  are  to  be  accommodated. 
The  size  of  such  pens  is  a  matter  of  choice.  From  6  to  8 
feet  is  about  as  small  as  they  are  made.  Cattle  stalls 
vary  in  length  and  width,  3  feet  being  the  usual  width 
and  4}^  to  5  feet  the  usual  length  for  small  cows,  and 


Simple   Stall  Arrangement   for   Dairy   Cows 

This  dairy  stable  is  quite  sanitary  and  built  to  endure.  There  are  no  partitions 
to  catch  dust  and  filth.  Note  the  rather  wide,  shallow  gutter,  the  cement  flooring 
and  open  mangers.  Each  cow  knows  her  place,  and  on  coming  into  the  stable 
goes  direct  to  it. 


496 


FARM    ANIMALS 


4  feet  the  usual  width  and  5^  to  6  feet  the  usual  length 
for  large  cows.  Horses  require  a  stall  5  to  6  feet  in 
width  and  9  to  10  feet  in  length.  Box  stalls  may  be 
built  6  or  8  feet  by  10  feet  in  size  for  cattle  and  10  feet 
square  or  12  feet  square  for  horses.  These  sizes  are,  of 
course,  subject  to  modification. 

12.  Shelter. — Even  in  a  mild  or  warm  climate  shelter 
of  some  kind  is  desirable  for  the  farm  stock.  Large  or 
commodious  buildings  are  not  required,  but  protection 
against  rain  or  snow  or  icy  blasts  or  cold  weather  is  of 
vital  importance.  Dairy  cattle  and  work  horses  are  best 
cared  for  in  stalls  in  the  stable.     Sheep  and  hogs  may  be 


Yard   and  Shelter   for   Feeding   Steers 

These  steers  are  on  a  fattening  ration  and  live  out  in  the  open.  The  cut  hay  and 
grain  are  fed  in  troughs.  To  the  rear  is  seen  an  open  shed  under  which  the  animals 
may  rest  during  disagreeable  weather.  It  should  be  absolutely  tight  on  all  sides 
except  one. 

reared  in  the  open,  but  shelter  for  them  during  parturi- 
tion and  at  seasons  of  inclement  weather  is  not  only 
desirable,  but  dry  sleeping  quarters  are  well  nigh  indis- 
pensable. Repeated  trials  with  fattening  cattle  indicate 
that  they  may  be  fed  to  advantage  and  with  better  results 
in  growth  and  increase  in  feed  lots  in  which  open  sheds 
are  available  than  when  fed  and  housed  in  stalls  in  in- 
closed barns. 


KEEPING  ANIMALS    HEALTHY 


497 


13.  Grooming  animals. — Not  only  are  well-groomed 
animals  more  handsome  in  appearance,  but  they  are 
healthier  than  similar  animals  not  so  treated.  Dirt  and 
dust  in  the  hair  or  on  the  skin  are  conducive  of  uncleanli- 
ness,  and  uncleanliness  means  an  inroad  to  disease. 
When  animals  are  groomed,  the  pores  of  the  skin  are 
kept  open,  making  it  more  easy  for  the  skin  to  perform 
its  excretory  work.  Grooming  is  not  always  necessary, 
but  if  horses  and  cows  are  stabled  in  winter  the  daily 
use  of  the  curr3^comb  and  brush  helps  the  animal  and 
saves  some  feed. 

14.  House  ventilation. — In  building  farmhouses  win- 
dows are  never  overlooked,  and  usually  are  provided  in 
sufficient  numbers.  The  great  trouble  is,  they  are  not 
used  enough.  In  winter  in  some  houses  windows  are 
seldom  if  ever  opened,  and  too  frequently  the  shades  are 
kept  drawn  down  to  protect  carpets  and  furnishings. 
This  prevents  sunshine  from  getting  in.     It  is  a  bad  cus- 


Farmhouse   with   Outside  Sleeping   Rooms 

Outside  sleeping  and  living  rooms  have  been  added  on  to  this  old  farmhouse. 
These  rooms  are  protected  from  insects  by  fine  bronze  screening.  Canvas  and 
bamboo   curtains  may  be  let   down   during  bad   weather. 


498  FARM    ANIMALS 

torn  to  keep  both  doors  and  windows  closed  for  any 
length  of  time  if  several  people  are  in  a  room.  One 
should  never  sleep  in  a  room  with  every  window  closed. 
On  retiring-,  open  the  window,  even  if  only  slightly,  and 
during  the  day  open  the  windows  wide  for  purposes  of 
airing.  An  open  fireplace  in  the  living  room  is  an  excel- 
lent outlet  for  impure  air. 

15.  Outside  sleeping  rooms. — The  outside  sleeping 
room  may  be  built  at  any  side  of  the  house,  over  a  piazza, 
a  projection  or  a  one-story  room.  One  or  more  sides  may 
be  protected  by  the  siding  of  the  house,  as  the  case  may 
be.  Canvas  or  wood  shades  are  desirable  also  to  pro- 
tect against  storms  of  rain  and  snow.  An  open  sleeping 
room  should  be  protected  also  against  flies  and  insects 
by  wire  screening  of  small  mesh.  The  roof  may  be  made 
of  canvas  and  painted  frequently,  or  of  tin,  shingles  or 
prepared  roofing.  In  building  a  room  of  this  kind  it  is 
important  that  outside  architectural  features  be  observed, 
and  this  addition  be  made  to  blend  with  other  outside 
features  of  the  house.  And  it  should  be  absolutely  tight 
on  all  sides  except  one. 


LESSON  FORTY-SEVEN 
FARM  BUTCHERING 

1.  Kind  of  animals  slaughtered. 

2.  Condition  and  quality. 

3.  Making  ready. 

4.  Producing  death. 

5.  Sticking. 

6.  Dressing  the  steer. 

7.  Scalding  hogs. 

8.  Dressing  hogs. 

9.  Cutting  up. 

10.  Sausage. 

11.  Curing. 

12.  Sugar-cured  hams  and  bacon. 

13.  Smoking  meats. 

14.  How  much  to  smoke. 

15.  Storing. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — The  art  of  killing  and  dressing 
animals  and  of  curing  meat  is  an  accomplishment  that 
should  be  more  appreciated  than  it  is.  It  is  both  useful 
and  necessary.  The  farm  meat  supply  will  quite  gen- 
erally come  from  home  slaughtering.  Hence,  any  study 
of  the  principles  and  practices  in  vogue  in  butchering 
farm  stock  should  be  encouraged  in  order  that  the  quality 
and  reputation  of  the  farm-cured  meats  may  be  main- 
tained, both  to  the  profit  and  enjoyment  of  the  husband- 
man, and  to  the  delight  of  the  town  and  city  consumer. 


LESSON  FORTY-SEVEN 
FARM  BUTCHERING 

1.  Kind  of  animals  slaughtered. — Many  classes  of  meat 
animals  are  used  for  providing  meat  for  use  on  the  farm. 
Poultry,  veal,  lamb,  mutton  and  beef  are  largely  used 
as  fresh  meat.  The  flesh  of  the  pig  is  most  commonly 
devoted  to  various  curing  processes  for  preservation 
and  use  at  seasons  of  the  year  following  its  preparation. 
The  progressive  farmer  should  not  only  provide  his  own 
fresh  and  cured  pork'  for  family  use,  but  also  should  be 
able  to  supply  at  remunerative  prices  other  persons  in  his 
neighborhood  who  are  appreciative  of  the  excellence  and 
general  merit  of  country  or  homemade  pork  products. 

2.  Condition  and  quality. — Animals  selected  for  meat 
should  be  fed  until  reasonably  fat.  The  meat  of  a  fat 
animal  is  juicy  and  rich  in  flavor.  It  is  nicely  "marbled," 
that  is,  the  fat  and  lean  are  well  mixed  together,  giving 


mm  Jp  i^^s^Hwl 

BM    K       Jh|       a'-^%       |M|      «|     ^m    ^K  ^H    ^m 


HoG-KiLLiNG  Time  on  the  Farm 
500 


FARM   BUTCHERING 


501 


a  product  of  good  texture  and  tempting  tenderness.  Lean 
animals  are  always  rather  tough  in  meat,  even  though  of 
good  breeding.  Farm  butcher  stock  are  ready  to  be 
butchered  when  they  cease  to  give  a  good  account  of  the 
food  they  constime.  That  means  when  they  are  fat,  but 
not  overfat  or  overripe. 

3.  Making  ready. — Two  or  three  days  before  butcher- 
ing, just  enough  food  to  ap- 
pease the  appetite  should  be 
given  the  animals  to  be  slaugh- 
tered. Let  them  have  all  the 
water  they  may  want.  During 
the  last  18  or  20  hours  no  food 
should  be  given  at  all.  This 
checking  of  food  will  enable 
the  blood  to  empty  its  supply 

of  nutrients,  the  stomach  and  intestines  will  be  less 
gorged  and  the  carcass  will  handle  better.  So  treated, 
better  bleeding  will  result  and  no  taint  will  affect  the 
flesh. 

4.  Producing   death. — Most   animals   are   stunned   be- 


CuT   FROM   Champion   Carcass 

Showing    good     marbling    without 
wasteful  fat   covering  on   outside. 


Manner  of  Bleeding  a  Hog 


502  FARM    ANIMALS 

fore  the  knife  is  inserted  for  bleeding.  The  steer  must 
first  be  fastened  to  a  post  or  tree  in  order  to  avoid  excite- 
ment and  danger.  Often  the  rifle  is  used  to  kill  both 
steers  and  hogs.  Unless  the  rifleman  is  a  crack  shot, 
this  practice  is  cruel ;  another  objection  results  in  the 
penetration  of  the  cartridge  into  the  meat,  often  causing 
taint  or  trouble  in  curing.  The  stunning  ax  is  a  more 
humane  way  and  is  just  as  effective.  The  blow  should 
be  directed  at  the  center  of  the  face,  midway  between 

the  eyes. 

5.  Sticking.  —  When 
the  animal  drops  as  the 
result  of  the  stunning 
blow,  a  sharp  sticking 
knife  is  inserted  at  once 
in  front  of  the  breast 
bone.  In  cattle  the  skin 
along  the  lower  region 
STICKING  A  STEER  ^f  ^eck  is  cut '  f or  a  dis- 

tance of  15  inches  or  so. 
This  gives  an  opportunity  to  plunge  the  knife  to  a  depth 
of  5  or  6  inches  on  either  side  of  the  windpipe  and  to 
sever  the  arteries  leading  from  and  the  jugular  vein  lead- 
ing to  the  heart.  If  this  operation  has  been  properly 
performed,  the  blood  will  flow  freely  and  drain  out  from 
all  parts  of  the  body.  In  killing  hogs,  whether  or  not 
they  are  first  stunned  by  ax  or  bullet  or  simply  caught 
and  bled,  the  knife  should  be  inserted  at  the  front  of  the 
breast  bone  and  guided  direct  to  the  arteries. 

6.  Dressing  the  steer. — The  first  act  is  to  skin  the  face 
and  head.  The  tongue  is  next  removed  and  cleaned  in 
water  with  the  knife.  The  head  may  be  removed  next 
and  the  skin  taken  from  the  front  and  hind  legs.  The 
rest  of  the  carcass  is  left  in  the  skin  until  raised  by  rope 


FARM   BUTCHERING 


503 


and  pulley.  When  properly  elevated,  the  skin  is  opened 
along  the  belly  from  the  rectum  to  the  breast.  Now  fol- 
low the  opening  of  the  carcass,  the 
moval  of  the  entrails  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  skinning.  The  final 
work  is  to  sponge  off  the  blood,  both 
inside  and  out,  and  leave  the  car- 
cass to  cool  and  harden. 


7.  Scalding  hogs. — When  a  hog 
no  longer  bleeds  or  moves  he  is 
ready  for  the  scalding  vat.  A  hogs- 
head or  large  barrel  is  commonly 
used.  The  best  temperature  for  the 
DRESSING  THE  steer  scaldlug  watcr  is  about  25  degrees 
below  the  boiling  point.  If  the 
water  is  too  hot,  the  hair  is  hard  to  remove  and  the  skin 
is  injured  by  the  cooking  that  the  hot  water  gives.  If 
hard  wood  ashes  are  put  in  the  water,  they  serve  to  clean 
and  brighten  up  the  skin.  Many  farmers  use  ashes  or 
common  lye.  Once  in  the  water 
the  hog  is  moved  up  and  down, 
turned  over  and  ends  transferred, 
after  which  it  is  placed  on  the  clean- 
ing board  and  thoroughly  scraped 
and  cleaned.  The  carcass  is  now 
ready  for  dressing. 

Before  butchering  day,  have  everything 
in  readiness.  For  heating  scalding  water 
and  rendering  lard,  when  one  has  no  ket- 
tles or  caldrons  ready  to  set  in  brick  or 
stone,  a  simple  method  is  to  put  down  two 
forked  stakes  and  lay  in  them  a  pole  to 
support  the  kettles,  and  build  a  wood  fire 

around  them  on  the  ground.  In  scalding  keep  the  hog  in  motion  by 
turning  it  about  in  water  and  occasionally  try  the  bristles  to  see  if 
they  will  come  out  readily. 


Scalding   Hog 


504 


FARM    ANIMALS 


8.  Dressing  hogs. — Various  devices  are  used  for  hang- 
ing up  the  hogs.  The  rope  and  pulley  is  a  simple  arrange- 
ment and  saves  additional  help.  When  hung,  the  carcass 
is  opened  along  the  mid- 
line of  the  belly,  the 
breast  bone  and  pelvic 
arch  are  split  apart,  and 
the  entrails  removed. 
The  leaf  lard  or  kidney 
fat  should  not  be  dis- 
turbed, but  left  to  cool 
in  the  carcass.  After  the 
removal  of  internal  or- 
gans, cold  water  may  be 
dashed  over  the  interior, 
and  the  carcass  left  to 
cool  and  set. 

9.  Cutting  up. — When 
cool,  the  carcass  is 
placed  on  a  table  or 
block  and  cut  in  pieces  after  the  approved  fashion  for  the 
kind  of  animal  slaughtered.  Beeves  are  usually  halved 
but  hogs  may  be  halved  or  cut  into  parts,  the  two  sides 

remaining  together.  Both 
/sHouLD£f?f  -■^''  x—BArt  I — ^  mcthods     are     followed. 

If  the  carcass  has  not 
been  halved,  it  is  placed 
on  the  block,  the  head  is 
removed,  the  shoulders 
separated  from  the  body, 
and  the  hams  cut  from 
the  rear  about  2  inches 

D.vm.NG  THE  HOG  Carcass  '^^      ^^^^^     ^^     ^^^     p^lyic 

Showing    the    two   most    common    methods    of    i  i-m 

cutting  up  hogs.  bones.      Ihese  parts  are 


Cooling   Off 


FARM   BUTCHERING 


505 


Meat    Cuttings 

Trimmed    and    untrimmed    hams.       The 
trimmings   are   used   for  sausage. 


now  divided  and  each  properly  trimmed  for  its  particu- 
lar use.  A  handsome  trim  requires  practice,  but  skillful 
work  is  desirable.  A  shaggy  shoulder  or  ham  may  make 
a  good  meat,  but  it  never  looks  as  well  as  a  neat  trim. 

10.  Sausage.  —  The  cut- 
tings from  trimmings  are 
used  for  sausage,  with  such 
additional  portions  of  lean 
as  the  owner  may  desire. 
Usually  the  trimmings  are 
so  fat  that  it  is  necessary  to 
throw  the  fatter  portions 
into  the  lard  vat.  A  pound 
of  fat  to  three  pounds  of  lean 
makes  good  sausage.  The 
fineness  of  grinding  sausage 
meat  varies  with  the  wishes 

of  different  people.  On  some  farms  sausage  is  put 
through  the  grinder  twice.  In  seasoning  use  an  ounce 
of  fine  salt  and  a  half  ounce  of  black  pepper  to  each  four 
pounds  of  meat.  If  sage  is  liked»  it  is  customary  to  use 
a  half  ounce  of  leaf-sage  with  the  salt  and  pepper.  Pre- 
pared casings  are  now  so  cheap  that  they  are  largely  re- 
placing the  home-prepared  kind. 

11.  Curing. — Meat  should  be  salted  as  soon  as  the  heat 
is  out.  It  may  be  dry  cured  or  brine  cured.  In  dry 
curing  for  every  100  pounds  of  meat,  five  pounds  of  salt, 
two  pounds  of  granulated  sugar,  and  two  ounces  of  salt- 
peter are  mixed  and  a  third  of  the  mixture  is  rubbed  on 
the  meat  every  third  day,  the  meat  being  packed  in  a 
box  or  barrel.  After  the  third  rubbing  the  meat  is  packed 
and  left  for  10  days,  after  which  time  it  is  ready  for 
smoking.     In  brine  curing  meat  is  placed  in  a  barrel  and 


506 


FARM    ANIMALS 


the  brine  poured  over  it.     On   removal   from  the  brine 

the  meat  is  ready  foi'  smoking. 

12.  Sugar-cured  hams  and  bacon. — 
Each  piece  should  be  rubbed  with  salt 
and  allowed  to  drain  overnight.  The 
next  morning  pack  in  a  barrel,  using 
for  the  preservative  eight  pounds  of 
salt,  two  pounds  of  brown  sugar,  and 
two  ounces  of  saltpeter  for  each  100 
pounds  of  meat.  This  amount  of  pre- 
servative is  dissolved  in  four  gallons 
of  water,  and  the  mixture  is  poured 
into  the  barrel  on  the  meat.  In  pack- 
ing, place  the  larger  pieces  first  in  the 
barrel   and   use   the   bacon   strips   and 

Cured    Side    of    Bacon     Small    piccCS    for    filling    in    and    tO    USC 

OF    FINE    QUALITY  ^^^      ^^^^         ^j^^      ^^^^^      ^^^.-p^      ^^^^^^     ^^ 

kept  in  the  brine  five  or  six  weeks,  and  the  hams  and 
shoulders  seven  or  eight  weeks,  depending  on  their  size 
and  thickness. 

13.  Smoking  meats. — Smoke  properly  applied  aids  in 
preserving,  and  gives 
flavor  to  any  kind  of 
cured  or  pickled  meat. 
The  smoke  must  come 
into  direct  contact,  but 
if  the  fire  is  close  to  the 
meat  the  heat  will  in- 
jure it.  Often  the  fire 
box  is  built  outside  the 
smoke  house  and  the 
smoke  conducted  into 
the    smoking   room   by  smoking  meat 

flue     or     chimnev  An      ^  simple  contrivance  for  use  when   but  a  small 

y '  amount  of  meat   is  cured. 


FARM   BUTCHERING  507 

iron  kettle  may  be  used  within  the  smoke  house  to  con- 
tain the  fire,  but  the  heat  should  be  kept  away  from  the 
meat  by  some  sort  of  iron  protection.  The  best  fuel  is 
green  hickory  or  maple,  but  any  kind  of  hard  wood  will 
do.  Corn  cobs  are  much  liked.  An  interval  of  two  or 
three  days  is  desirable  between  taking  from  the  brine 
and  smoking.  Frequently  it  will  be  necessary  to  wash 
the  meat  in  warm  water  to  remove  the  coat  of  salt  when 
taken  from  the  brine. 

14.  How  much  to  smoke. — If  the  fire  is  kept  going  all 
the  time  30  to  40  hours  will  give  sufficient  smoking.  If 
the  fire  is  made  only  during  the  day  a  larger  total  of 
hours  will  be  required,  for  the  reason  that  the  work  is  less 
effective.  The  meat  must  be  warmed  each  day  before 
the  smoke  penetrates  it.  In  case  the  meat  freezes  over- 
night smoke  will  not  enter  the  meat  until  it  thaws  out 
again.  In  moderate  weather  a  light  fire  each  day  for 
10  days  or  two  weeks  will  give  the  desired  color  and  pro- 
duce the  same  effect  as  continuous  smoking  for  a  day 
and  a  half. 

15.  Storing. — After  smoking  it  is  desirable  to  place 
each  piece  in  a  canvas  bag  for  protec- 
tion. In  case  insects  are  troublesome 
dip  the  canvased  meat  in  hot  lime  of 
about  the  consistency  of  ordinary  white- 
wash. Use  a  whitewash  brush  to  get 
the  limewater  all  over  the  canvas.  The 
meat  is  now  ready  for  hanging  in  the 
storing  place,  which  should  be  cool  and 

Smoked  Ham         dark.     Meat  is  uot  always  bagged,  and 
frequently  is  hung  on  pegs  in  the  smoke 
house  or  other  storage  place. 


LESSON    FORTY-EIGHT 
MARKETING  LIVE  STOCK  AND  PRODUCTS 

1.  Market  end. 

2.  Classes  of  animal  products. 

3.  Methods  of  shipment. 

4.  Cars. 

5.  On  the  road. 

6.  Live  stock  centers. 

7.  Selling  exchange. 

8.  Cost  of  marketing. 

9.  Buyers  and  sellers. 

10.  Grading. 

11.  Weighing  when  sold. 

12.  Inspection. 

13.  Quarantine. 

14.  Live  stock  products. 

15.  Selling  by  retail. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — While  farm  animals  are  largely 
sold  "on  the  hoof"  at  the  market  centers,  it  is  desirable 
that  the  teacher  lay  stress  on  selling  by  retail  wherever 
it  is  possible  so  to  do.  In  this  case  the  producer  slaugh- 
ters his  own  animals  and  disposes  of  their  products  direct 
to  his  customers  in  his  nearby  town  or  city.  By  dealing 
direct  he  is  able  to  sell  at  the  highest  prices,  and  thus  to 
secure  the  best  profits. 


LESSON    FORTY-EIGHT 
MARKETING  LIVE  STOCK  AND  PRODUCTS 

1.  Market  end. — The  stockman's  work  is  to  raise 
products  for  sale.  The  substances  with  which  he  works 
are  the  raw  material  of  the  fields,  the  tools  by  which  he 
builds  and  manufactures  are  his  animals,  and  the  finished 
articles  are  the  products  yielded  by  them  in  their  keep 
or  growth.  He  cares  for  his  animals,  thinks  in  their 
interest,  works  for  their  comfort,  and  labors  for  their 
highest  and  best  development,  not  because  he  seeks  a 
congenial  employment  only,  but  primarily  to  market  the 
products  obtained  for  the  financial  reward  these  animals 
command,  and  to  meet  the  food  and  other  necessities  of 
town  and  city  inhabitants.  Raising  live  stock  is  a  fine 
business  and  worthy  of  the  best  minds  and  hearts  of 
the  land. 

2.  Classes  of  animal  products. — There  are  two  classes 
of  animal  products :  the  animals  themselves  and  the  prod- 
ucts derived  from  them.  The  dairy  cow  yields  milk, 
butter  and  cheese,  the  steer  meat  and  by-products  ob- 
tained at  his  slaughter,  the  sheep  mutton  and  wool,  the 
poultry  tribe  eggs,  feathers,  and  meat,  and  the  hog  his 
flesh  and  fat.  The  problem  of  marketing  the  farm  stock 
of  the  country  and  their  products  requires  the  combined 
effort  of  thousands  of  people  and  of  millions  of  dollars 
of  capital.  On  an  average  the  animals  sold  from  the 
farm  and  the  animals  slaughtered  on  it  together  number 
about  111,000,000  head  each  year.  The  farm  value  of 
the  dairy  products  is  $830,000,000  annually.     The  wool 


.10 


FARM    ANIMALS 


clip  amounts  to  318,550,000  pounds  and  is  worth  $56,000,- 
000.  The  total  value  of  the  farm  animals  and  their  prod- 
ucts each  year  is  approximately  $3,400,000,000. 


Packing  Plant  Adjacent  to  Stock  Yards 
In  the  foreground   are  storing  and  selling  pens. 

3.  Methods  of  shipment. — Animal  products  are  shipped 
by  freight  and  express  and  sent  either  direct  to  consumers 
or  reach  them  through  middlemen.  Animals  are  mar- 
keted "on  foot,"  that  is,  alive ;  or  as  dressed  meat,  that  is, 
slaughtered  on  the  farm.  The  greater  part  of  live  stock, 
however,  is  sold  live  and  shipped  in  freight  cars  to  large 
cities,  where  the  slaughtering  is  done  in  huge  establish- 
ments intended  for  that  purpose  only.  So  large  has  the 
business  of  shipping  live  stock  grown  to  be,  that  special 
freight  cars  have  been  built  to  take  care  of  this  traffic. 
Thousands  of  these  cars  are  used  for  practically  no  other 
purpose. 

4.  Cars. — For  short  shipments  ordinary  box  cars  are 
often  used,  but  for  long  distances  regulation  stock  cars 
are  provided.  These  contain  feed  racks  and  watering 
troughs.     The  regulation  live  stock  cars  are  of  two  kinds 


MARKETING   LIVE   STOCK   AND   PRODUCTS  511 

of  construction — open  or  slats,  and  closed.  The  closed 
cars  have  doors  at  either  side  with  proper  provision  for 
ventilation.  The  open  cars  have  provision  for  a  second 
floor  about  3^  feet  above  the  bottom.  In  these,  the 
smaller  classes  of  live  stock,  such  as  veal  calves,  hogs 
and  sheep,  are  shipped.  These  are  called  ''double  deck- 
ers," and  vsrill  accommodate  100  to  150  hogs  or  200  to  250 
sheep.  In  the  single  floor  cars  but  half  of  that  number 
can  be  shipped.  The  animals  are  able  to  lie  dow^n.  Cattle 
and  horses  are  placed  in  cars  and  so  packed  that  they 
cannot  move  about  or  lie  down.  The  palace  stock  cars 
contain  stalls,  feed  racks  and  watering  troughs  and  are 
used  largely  in  shipping  the  better  classes  of  horses  and 
cattle. 

5.  On  the  road. — On  long  hauls,  it  is  a  requirement  of 
law  and  regulation  that  stock  be  fed  and  watered.  Hay 
is  the  common  food  for  horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  and  ear 
corn  for  hogs.  At  different  points  along  the  way  the 
cars  are  stopped  and  water  is  put  into  the  troughs. 
Heavy  feeding  or  watering  is  not  advisable.  In  case 
only  a  few  animals  are  shipped,  the  food  and  water  may 
be  carried  at  one  end  of  the  car,  the  water  in  a  barrel,  and 
both  may  be  given  more  frequently,  but  still  in  moderate 
quantities.  In  shipping  by  express  the  hay  and  grain  are 
commonly  tied  on  the  top  of  the  crate  or  inclosure,  the 
station  agent  giving  the  water  and  feeding  as  directed  by 
the  instructions  attached  to  the  crate. 

6.  Live  stock  centers. — The  greater  part  of  the  farm- 
raised  meat  animals  are  shipped  to  a  few  large  live  stock 
centers,  where  huge  establishments,  known  as  stock  yards, 
are  maintained.  As  a  rule,  near  to  these  stock  yards  are 
other  establishments,  known  as  slaughtering  or  packing 
houses,  where  the  stock  is  slaughtered  and  prepared  for 
human  consumption.     Starting  out  in  the  small  districts, 


512 


FARM    ANIMALS 


a  car  or  more  is  picked  up  here  and  there,  and  combined 
with  other  consignments,  when  all  are  hauled  to  their  des- 
tination. On  arrival,  these  cars,  or  often  a  full  train  load, 
are  sent  to  the  stock  yards,  where  the  unloading  and 
placing  in  pens  take  place.  In  each  of  such  yards  there 
are  vast  numbers  of  unloading  chutes,  connected  with 
alleyways  and  pens,  where  each  individual  shipment  is 
stored  until  sold. 


Stock  Yards,   Showing   Unloading  Chutes 


7.  Selling  exchange. — Were  there  not  reasonable  or- 
ganization of  the  unloading  and  distributing  end  of  this 
stock  traffic,  disorder  and  trouble  would  certainly  result. 
This  is  provided  against  by  the  closest  sort  of  attention 
to  detail  and  regulation.  An  organization,  known  as  a 
live  stock  exchange,  and  composed  of  live  stock  commis- 


MARKETING   LIVE   STOCK    AND    PRODUCTS 


513 


slon  men,  is  an  important  feature  of  every  stock  yard. 
These  men  seek  to  promote  square  dealing-  and  uniformity 
in  buying  and  selling,  settle  disputes  v^hen  such  arise, 
and  do  v^hatever  is  necessary  to  facilitate  the  marketing 
end  of  the  live  stock  traffic. 

8.  Cost  of  marketing. — In  addition  to  the  charges  for 
freight,  certain  costs  must  be  paid  for  the  privilege  of 
using  the  stock  yards.     Water  is  furnished  free,  but  hay 


In  the  Pen 

Car  of  cattle  waiting  to  be   sold. 

and  grain  must  be  purchased.  The  rates  charged  are 
usually  considerably  more  than  the  market  price  of  these 
feeds.  A  fee  for  "yardage,"  as  it  is  called,  or  for  w^eighing, 
varies  from  10  to  25  cents  for  cattle  and  from  5  to  10  cents 
for  hogs,  sheep  and  calves. 

9.  Buyers  and  sellers. — The  greater  part  of  the  buying 
and  selling  in  the  stock  yards  is  done  by  commission  men, 
v^ho  make  this  w^ork  their  business.  In  such  transactions, 
a  commission  man  acts  as  the  agent  of  the  man  v^ho 
makes  the  shipment.     It  is  his  duty  and  business  to  obtain 


514 


FARM    ANIMALS 


the  best  possible  price  that  the  stock  will  bring.  The 
shipment  may  be  sold  during-  the  day  of  arrival,  or  it  may 
be  held  until  the  market  would  seem  to  advance.  It  is  the 
custom  to  pay  these  commission  men,  for  cattle,  50  cents 
a  head  or  $12  a  load ;  for  hogs  and  sheep,  15  cents  a  head 
in  small  lots,  $10  a  ''double  decker"  load  and  $6  for  a 
single  deck.     The  charge  for  calves  is  25  cents  each. 


M 

1 

3 

Q 

■ 

■ 

■ 

rl 

1 

5^ 

i 

'^H 

1^  JC^'ba 

Ks^^'^il 

1 

i 

i 

^^H^  '^^1 

Ij 

[    '^^1 

■ 

- 

' 

T 

^ 

Bp 

^ 

1 

1 

LuAD    OF     Fat    CATTLb    IN     A     StLLlNU     PhN 

These  cattle  were  consigned  to  a  commission  firm  and  held  in  their  care  until  sold. 

10.  Grading. — When  live  stock  is  marketed  it  is  graded 
in  accordance  with  its  quality  and  kind.  The  price  ob- 
tained depends  naturally  upon  the  grade  to  which  the 
shipment  belongs.  Cattle,  for  instance,  are  graded  as  (a) 
beef  cattle,  (^)butcher  stock,  (c)  cutters  and  canners,  (d) 
stockers  and  feeders,  and  (e)  veal  calves.  Each  of  these 
classes  is  further  graded  as  prime,  choice,  good,  medium, 
common  and  inferior.  Other  grades  of  a  special  nature 
are  also  made,  such  as  Texas  and  western  range  cattle, 
baby   beef,   export   cattle   and    stags.     Sheep,   hogs   and 


MARKETING    LIVE   STOCK    AND    PRODUCTS 


515 


horses  are  given  a  different  classification.  Look  over 
your  agricultural  paper  for  the  different  classes  of  live 
stock  at  the  leading  market  centers. 

11.  Weighing  when  sold. — When  a  pen  of  stock  is  sold, 
the  v^^eighing  usually  follows  at 
once.  At  each  scales  is  a  weigh- 
master,  whose  business  it  is  to 
see  that  the  weighing  is  accu- 
rately made.  Weigh  tickets, 
made  in  duplicate,  are  given  to 
both  the  buyer  and  the  seller. 
and  the  weights  with  the  neces- 
sary data  are  entered  in  the  rec- 
ord book. 


F^Ri.MK   Beef  Steer 


Medium  Canners 


12.  Inspection.  —  The  federal 
government,  in  the  interest  of 
the  public  health,  maintains  a 
large  inspection  force  to  inspect 
both  live  and  slaughtered  ani- 
mals. This  inspection  work  is 
done    by    trained    veterinarians 

who  make  their  examination  in  stock  yards,  packing 
houses  and  ports  of  entry.  At  each  packing  establish- 
ment every  carcass  is  inspected  and  tagged  with  the  gov- 
ernment label  of  inspection.  Diseased  meat  is  con- 
demned and  not  allowed  to  be  sold  for  human  food. 

13.  Quarantine. — In  order  to  prevent  spread  of  con- 
tagious diseases,  quarantine  regulations  are  prescribed 
by  federal  and  state  laws.  Thus  when  an  outbreak  oc- 
curs in  any  state  or  section,  quarantine  regulations  pre- 
vent shipments  from  the  affected  districts  to  other  parts 
of  the  state  or  country.  Such  quarantine  is  kept  in  force 
until  not  only  the  disease  is  under  control,  but  in  many 


516 


FARM    ANIMALS 


instances  until  every  evidence  of  its  existence  has  been 
completely  stamped  out.  In  some  stat-^s  laws  have  been 
enacted  that  prevent  the  shipment  of  cattle  into  that  state 
unless  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  health. 

14.  Live  stock  products. — In  marketing  live  stock 
products  a  fundamental  factor  is  cleanliness  and  purity. 
This  is  much  more  than  mere  neatness  of  package  or 
mere  tidiness  in  manner  of  delivery.  Consumers  have 
been  taught  much  about  food,  and  they  will  not  be  satis- 


GOVERNMENT    RETAINING    RoOM     FOR    SUSPECTED    ANIMALS    IN     LARGE    PACKING    HOUSE 


fied  unless  they  know  that  it  is  pure  as  well  as  clean. 
The  farmer  who  makes  it  his  business  to  prepare  the 
products  he  offers  for  sale  in  accordance  with  the  simple 
laws  of  sanitation  will  not  only  secure  a  better  price  for 
them,  but  will  be  able  to  extend  his  trade  out  to  the  full 
limits  of  what  he  is  able  to  handle.  There  is  a  constant 
demand  for  clean  milk,  pure  farm  butter,  fresh  eggs, 
fresh  poultry,  farm  sausage,  cured  pork  and  other  animal 
products.  While  all  farmers  will  not  be  able  to  dispose 
of  their  products  to  consumers  direct,  a  large  number, 


MARKETING    LIVE    STOCK    AND    PRODUCTS 


517 


because  of  location,  ingenuity,  initiative  and  enterprise, 
will  be  able  to  do  this  and  to  their  own  financial  advan- 
tage. 

15.  Selling  by  retail. — In  the  retail  market  better  prices 
are  paid  than  in  the  wholesale  market.  If  one  can  do  so 
he  usually  can  sell  at  higher  prices  if  he  caters  to  an 
individual  home  trade  than  by  selling  through  middle- 
men.    An  advertisement  in  the  home  or  a  nearby  news- 


Neat  Packages  for   Farm  Animal   Products 


paper  will  assist  in  building  up  a  trade.  A  customer  well 
pleased  will  remain  a  customer  and  in  one  way  or  an- 
other will  cause  other  people  to  try  the  same  method  of 
purchase.  With  the  enlargement  in  scope  of  the  parcel 
post,  it  will  be  possible  to  market  many  kinds  of  animal 
products  by  that  system.  The  secret  of  success  in  reach- 
ing consumers  direct  is  square  dealing,  clean  products 
and  true  weights  and  measures. 


PRACTICUMS 


1.  Plan  of  Cattle  Barn. — Draw  a  floor  plan  of  a  cow  stable  with 
room  for  10  to  50  cows,  the  plan  being  worked  out  accordingly.  The 
drawing  should  show  inside  and  outside  dimensions  of  stable,  ar- 
rangement of  stalls,  feed  room  and  milk  room.  The  plan  may  be  for 
a  simple  stable  or  for  a  cow  barn  of  greater  completeness. 

2.  Plan  of  Horse  Barn. — Make  a  similar  plan  for  horses. 

3.  Plan  of  Hog  Barn. — Make  a  plan  for  hogs,  including  outside 
runs  and  sleeping  quarters. 

4.  Plan  of  Poultry  House. — Draw  a  plan  for  a  simple  pou'try 
house,  showing  interior  arrangements,  such  as  nest  boxes,  roosts, 
feed  hoppers,  scratching  pens  or  accommodations,  etc.  In  this  plan 
indicate  windows  and  their  kind,  height  of  building,  doors  and  size 
of  rooms  if  more  than  one  room  is  planned. 

5.  In  many  localities  farm  butchering  is  practiced.  Teacher  would 
find  it  desirable  to  arrange  with  neighboring  farmer  to  have  class 
present.  Study  not  only  the  process  of  butchering,  but  the  various 
internal  organs  so  as  to  become  acquainted  wnth  normal  conditions. 
If  arrangements  cannot  be  made  to  assist  in  farm  butchering  visit 
where  possible  the  local  slaughterhouse.  See  the  butcher  in  ad- 
vance and  explain  the  purpose  of  your  visit.  Ask  the  butcher  to 
demonstrate  to  your  pupils  the  methods  of  cutting  up  animals. 


S18 


APPENDIX 


Table  I.     Feeding  Standards  for  Farm  Animals. 
The  Wolff-Lehman  Standards  for  feeding  farm  animals  are  shown 
in  the  table  below.     They  indicate  the  amount  of  food  required  daily 
per  1,000  pounds  live  weight. 


Animal 


Digestible  nutrients 


Dry 

matter 


Crude 
pro- 
tein 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 


Fat 


Sum  of 
nutri- 
ents 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 


1.  Oxen 

At  rest  in  stall 

At  light  work 

At  medium  work 

At  heavy  work 

2.  Fattening  cattle 

First  period 

Second  period 

Third  period 

3.  Milch  cows 

When  yielding  daily: 
ILO  pounds  of  milk. 
16.6  pounds  of  milk . 
22.0  pounds  of  milk . 
27.5  pounds  of  milk . 

4.  Sheep 

Coarse  wool 

Fine  wool 

5.  Breeding  ewes 

With  lambs 

6.  Fattening  sheep 

First  period 

Second  period 

7.  Horses 

Light  work 

Medium  work 

Heavy  work 

8.  Brood  sows 

9.  Fattening  swine 

First  period , 

Second  period 

Third  period 


Lbs. 
18.0 
22.0 
25.0 
28.0 


30.0 
30.0 
26.0 


25.0 
27.0 
29.0 
32.0 


20.0 
23.0 


25.0 


30.0 
28.0 


20.0 
24.0 
26.0 

22.0 


36.0 
32.0 
25.0 


Lbs. 
0.7 
1.4 
2.0 
2.8 


2.5 
3.0 
2.7 


1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 


2.9 


3.0 
3.5 


1.5 
2.0 
2.5 

2.5 


4.5 
4.0 

2.7 


Lbs. 
8.0 
10.0 
11.5 
13.0 


15.0 
14.5 
15.0 


10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 


10.5 
12.0 


15.0 


15.0 
14.5 


9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

15.5 


25.0 
24.0 
18.0 


Lbs. 
0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 


0.5 
0.7 
0.7 


0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 


0.2 
0.3 


0.5 


0.5 
0.6 


0.4 
0.6 
0.8 


0.7 
0.5 
0.4 


Lbs. 

7.5 

9.7 

12.0 

15.0 


15.6 
17.0 
17.2 


10.2 
12.2 
14.4 
16.0 


9.1 
10.5 


16.3 


16.5 
16.9 


10.0 
12.8 
15.5 


31.2 
29.2 
22.0 


1: 

11.8 
7.7 
6.5 
5.3 


6.5 
5.4 
6.2 


6.7 
6.0 

5.7 
4.5 


9.1 
8.5 


5.6 


5.4 
4.5 


7.0 
6.2 
6.0 


5.9 
6.3 
7.0 


520 


APPENDIX 


Table  I.     Feeding  Standards  for  Growing 

Animals —  Continued. 

Per  day 

per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight 

Animal 

Digestible 

nutrients 

Crude 

Carbo- 

Sum  of 

Nutri- 

Dry 

pro- 

hy- 

Fat 

nutri- 

tive 

matter 

tein 

drates 

ents 

ratio 

10.     Growing  cattle 

Dairy  breeds 

Age  in     Average  live  weight 

months           per  head,  lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1: 

2-  3 150 

23.0 

4.0 

13.0 

2.0 

21.0 

4.5 

3-  6 300 

24.0 

3.0 

12.8 

1.0 

17.0 

5.1 

6-12 500 

27.0 
26.0 

2.0 
1.8 

12.5 
12.5 

0.5 
0.4 

13.7 
12.8 

6.8 

12-18 700 

7.5 

18-24 900 

26.0 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

11.8 

8.5 

11.     Growing  cattle 

Beef  breeds 

2-  3 160 

23.0 

4.2 

13.0 

2.0 

21.5 

4.2 

3-  6 330 

24.0 

3.5 

12.8 

1.5 

19.0 

4.7 

6-12 550 

25.0 

2.5 

13.2 

0.7 

15.8 

6.0 

12-18 750 

24.0 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

13.9 

6.8 

18-24 950 

24.0 

1.8 

12.0 

0.4 

13.2 

7.2 

12.     Growing  sheep 

Wool  breeds 

4-6 60 

25.0 

3.4 

15.4 

0.7 

18.4 

5.0 

6-8 75 

25.0 

2.8 

13.8 

0.6 

15.8 

5.4 

8-11 80 

23.0 

2.1 

11.5 

0.5 

12.8 

6.0 

11-15 90 

22.0 

1.8 

11.2 

0.4 

12.0 

7.0 

15-20 100 

22.0 

1.5 

10.8 

0.3 

11.0 

7.7 

1 3.     Growing  sheep 

Mutton  breeds 

4-6 60 

26.0 

4.4 

15.5 

0.9 

20.9 

4.0 

6-8 80 

26.0 

3.5 

15.0 

0.7 

17.8 

4.8 

8-11 100 

24.C 

3.0 

14.3 

0.5 

16.3 

5.2 

11-15 120 

23.0 

2.2 

12.6 

0.5 

13.8 

6.3 

15-20 150 

22.0 

2.0 

12.0 

0.4 

12.8 

6.5 

14.     Growing  swine 

Breeding  stock 

2-3 SO 

44.0 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

38.0 

4.0 

3-  5 100 

35.0 

4.8 

22.5 

0.7 

29.0 

5.0 

5-  6 120 

32.0 

3.7 

21.3 

0.4 

26.0 

6.0 

6-  8 200 

28.0 

2.8 

18.7 

0.3 

22.2 

7.0 

8-12 250 

25.0 

2.1 

15.3 

0.2 

17.9 

7.5 

15.     Growing,    fattening   swine 

2-3 50 

44.0 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

38.0 

4.0 

3-  5 100 

35.0 

5.0 

23.1 

0.8 

30.0 

5.0 

5-  6 150 

33.0 

4.3 

22.3 

0.6 

28.0 

5.5 

6-  8 200 

30.0 

3.6 

20.5 

0.4 

25.1 

6.0 

9-12 300 

26.0 

3.0 

18.3 

0.3 

22.0 

6.4 

APPENDIX 


521 


Table  II.     Nutrients  and  Fertilizer  Constituents  of  Common 
Feeding  Stuffs. 

The  tables  giving  the  average  digestible  nutrients  and  the  fertiliz- 
ing constituents  in  the  following  American  feeding  stuffs  have  been 
adapted  from  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding." 


•aS 
15 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  pounds 

Name  of  feed 

il 

rt 

(^ 

1 

•a 

OTJ 

£1 

1 

Grains,  seeds  and  their  parts 

Lbs. 
89.4 
88.7 
91.2 
85.0 
89.3 
84.9 

90.5 
90.8 
90.4 
91.4 
90.6 
89.5 
87.6 
90.1 
90.0 
88.8 
88.1 
89.1 
88.4 
91.3 
86.9 
88.2 
88.4 
87.6 
89.2 
92.0 
89.6 
88.0 
91.2 
93.0 
92.6 

86.6 

85.4 
87.2 
91.8 
88.4 
86.8 

87.6 
89.2 
90.3 
91.2 
85.0 

Lbs. 
7.8 
8.0 
8.8 
6.1 
0.5 
4.4 

29.7 

21.3 

6.8 

15.8 

6.0 

8.8 

10.6 

16.2 

16.9 

13.0 

11.9 

12.7 

9.6 

9.5 

5.6 

11.0 

11.2 

12.6 

8.4 

10.0 

8.8 

10.1 

13.1 

5.2 

1.3 

8.1 

5.9 
22.7 

5.9 
15.6 

1.2 

6.4 

7.9 

7.6 

0.3 

19.7 

Lbs. 
66.8 
66.2 
63.7 
64.3 
44.8 
60.0 

42.5 
52.8 
60.5 
38.8 
52.5 
67.5 
65.1 
57.0 
53.6 
45.7 
42.0 
47.1 
48.2 
69.4 
72.2 
52.9 
46.8 
56.6 
65.3 
70.3 
49.2 
52.5 
57.7 
30.1 
38.5 

48.2 
63.0 
37.5 
34.0 
.38.2 
28.6 

79.2 
58.6 
38.8 
19.9 
49.3 

Lbs. 
4.3 
4.3 
7.0 
3.5 

2.9 

6.1 
2.9 
7.4 
10.8 
4.8 
1.5 
1.0 
3.4 
4.1 
4.5 
2.5 
4.0 
1.9 
1.2 
0.5 
2.6 
1.8 
2.8 
1.6 
2.0 
4.3 
3.7 
6.5 
2.6 
0.6 

2.4 
1.2 
6.1 
2.0 
4.4 
0.5 

0.4 
5.3 
7.3 
0.7 
0.4 

Lbs. 
16.5 
16.8 
18.6 
14.7 
3.9 
13.6 

54.8 
40.0 
16.8 
34.7 
17.9 
19.0 
19.2 
29.4 
30.7 
27.0 
24.6 
26.1 
20.0 
18.1 
10.7 
22.9 
23.3 
25.1 
19.2 
18.4 
18.2 
19.7 
25.9 
12.8 
5.3 

17.3 
11.0 
42.7 
20.2 
29.3 
7.3 

11.8 
19.0 
19.0 
5.1 
37.9 

Lbs. 
7.1 
7.1 
7.1 
6.3 
0.6 
5.7 

3.3 
3.7 
9.8 
3.9 
10.1 
5.5 
5.7 

12.2 

26.3 

26.9 

20.4 

11.7 

8.6 

8.2 

12.3 

22.8 

7.7 

7.9 

7.6 

7.8 

7.6 

22.5 

6.1 

1.6 

6.9 

6.8 
12.3 

4.2 
15.8 

4.3 

1.8 
26.7 
2.9 
1.7 
8.4 

Lbs. 
5.7 
5  7 

Flmt  corn 

Sweet  corn .- 

5.7 
4.7 

60 

Com-and-cob  meal 

4  7 

0.5 

Gluten  feed 

04 

Feed  chop            

49 

2.1 

6.2 

Wheat 

High-grade  flour 

8.7 
5.4 

9.6 

Wheat  middlings 

15.3 

Wheat  bran  (all  analyses) 

15  2 

Wheat  feed 

5.4 

Wheat  screenings 

Rye 

Rye  flour                 

8.4 
5.8 
6.5 

Rye  middlings 

9.6 
14.0 

Rye  feed 

Barley 

Emmer  (speltz) 

Oats 

4.7 
4.8 
5.7 
4.8 
5.0 

Oat  middlings 

15.3 

Oat  feed            

7  2 

Oat  hulls 

4.9 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat  flour             

3.0 
3.4 

11.4 

12.7 

Buckwheat  feed 

10.5 

Buckwheat  hulls         

14.7 

Rice 

Rice  polish 

Rice  bran 

Rice  hulls 

Canada  field  pea 

0.9 
7.1 
2.4 
1.4 
10.1 

522 


APPENDIX 


Table  II.     Nutrients  and  Fertilizer  Constituents  of  Common 
Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


1 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1 ,000  pounds 

Name  of  feed 

11 

I 

S 

1 

£1 

Grains,  seeds  and'their  parts — Cont. 

Canada  field  pea  meal 

Canada  field  pea  bran 

Lbs. 
89.5 
89.0 
89.1 
85.4 
88.3 
88.7 

90.1 
87.2 
87.2 
87.9 
90.5 

90.8 
90.2 
91.0 
89.7 
93.0 
88.9 
89.6 

89.7 
91.4 
89.2 
92.5 
89.3 
90.0 

91.3 
23.0 

90.5 
92.4 

17.0 
88.0 
88.0 
31.2 
7.3 

10.2 
91.6 
79.2 
74.1 
92.0 
89.6 

12.8 

Lbs. 
16.8 
7.7 
20.2 
16.8 
29.1 
23.1 

5.2 
4.5 
4.6 
7.1 
6.4 

20.6 
30.2 
31.5 
12.5 
37.6 
0.3 
16.0 

15.4 
14.8 
29.5 
25.1 
42.8 
25.3 

20.0 
4.9 

20.3 
22.8 

0.6 
0.4 
2.4 
3.7 
0.4 

0.5 
4.1 
4.7 
1.4 
6.1 
10.8 

3.4 

Lbs. 
51.7 
41.6 
42.3 
54.9 
23.3 
49.8 

44.3 
61.1 
42.2 
48.5 
48.8 

17.1 
32.0 
35.7 
30.0 
21.4 
33.2 
52.6 

41.2 
29.7 
23.3 
13.7 
20.4 
23.7 

32.2 
9.4 

46.0 
39.7 

13.1 
74.0 
70.6 
12.4 
6.8 

7.7 
64.9 
54.1 
59.2 
68.7 
48.0 

4.8 

Lbs. 
0.7 
0.6 
1.3 
1.1 

14.6 
0.8 

1.4 

2.8 
1.5 
2.5 
3.i 

29.0 
6.9 
2.4 

17.3 
9.6 
1.7 
9.0 

10.7 

18.2 

8.0 

35.6 

7.2 

7.6 

6.0 

1.7 

1.4 
11.6 

0.5 
0.6 
1.1 
2.6 
0.1 

2.2 

3.7 

Lbs. 
32.3 
16.0 
37.1 
32.8 
53.6 
42.6 

17.9 
14.6 
15.8 
17.4 
15.8 

36.2 
54.2 
60.0 
29.4 
72.5 
6.7 
26.9 

31.5 
26.1 
52.5 
44.6 
76.2 
49.9 

40.0 
10.7 

42.1 
49.9 

1.6 
1.2 
7.6 
8.0 
0.9 

1.4 
12.9 
14.5 

4.3 
15.4 
27.4 

5.8 

Lbs. 
8.2 
3.1 
12.0 
10.1 
10.4 
12.0 

8.4 
7.2 
6.5 
4.7 

13.9 
16.6 
17.4 
10.5 
30.4 
4.3 
11.0 

16.0 
12.2 

21.5 
12.4 
20.0 
20.0 

16.1 
4.2 

17.4 
6.0 

0.1 
0.6 
2.9 
0.5 
0.2 

0.3 
2.2 
0.5 
1.2 
1.5 
8.5 

1.9 

Lbs. 
9.9 
10.3 
12.9 

Cowpea 

Soy  bean                            

12.0 
12.6 

12.9 

Kafir  corn                                   .      ... 

Sorghum  seed 

Broom  corn  seed 

Millet  seed 

3.4 
5.2 
3.3 

Hungarian  grass  seed 

Flaxseed 

Linseed  meal  (old  process) 

3.8 

10.3 
13.7 

Linseed  meal  (new  process) 

Cottonseed 

Cottonseed  meal 

13.4 
10.9 
15.8 

Cottonseed  hulls 

10.4 

5.0 

Cocoanut  cake 

24.0 

Sunflower  seed 

5.6 

Sunflower  seed  cake   .    . 

11.7 

Peanut  kernels  (without  hulls) 

12.7 
15.0 

Rapeseed  cake 

13.0 

Factory  by-products 

Dried  brewers'  grains 

Wet  brewers'    grains 

Malt  sprouts 

Dried  distillers'  grains 

Apple  pomace 

2.0 
0.5 

19.9 
1.7 

0.3 
2.8 

Starch  refuse 

1.5 

Wet  starch  feed       

0.2 

Potato  pomace 

Wet  beet  pulp              .      . 

0.9 

11.4 

3.1 

Sugar  beet  molasses 

56.3 

Porto  Rico  molasses 

36.8 
18.1 

Molasses  grains 

Cow's  milk 

21.1 
1.7 

APPENDIX 


523 


Table  II.     Nutrients  and  Fertilizer  Constituents  of  Common 
Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


Name  of  feed 


6 


Hi 


Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds 


I 

U  ft 


Oj3 


Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  pounds 


Factory  by-products — Continued 

Cow's  milk  (colostrom) 

Skim  milk 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Meat  scrap 

Meat  and  bone  meal. . .  .- 

Dried  blood 

Tankage 

Dried  fish 

Dried  roughage 
Fodder  corn  (ears,  if  any,  remaining) 

Corn  stover  (ears  removed) 

English  hay 

Hay  for  mixed  grasses 

Timothy  (all  analyses) 

Timothy  (cut  in  full  bloom) 

Timothy  (cut  soon  after  bloom) .... 

Timothy  (cut  nearly  ripe) 

Meadow  foxtail 

Orchard  grass 

Red  top 

White  top 

Meadow  fescue 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Tall  oat 

Italian  rye  grass 

Perennial  rye  grass 

Rowen  hay 

Bermuda  grass 

Johnson  grass 

Macaroni  wheat 

Barley 

Oat 

Emmer  (speltz) 

Barnyard  millet 

Hungarian  grass 

Wild  oat  grass 

Prairie  grass 

Buffalo  grass 

Gama  grass 

Texas  blue  grass 

Salt  marsh  grass 

Ox-eye  daisy 

Australian  salt  bush 


Lbs. 

25.4 
9.4 
9.9 
6.2 

89.3 
94.0 
91.5 
93.0 
89.2 


57.8 
59.5 
86.0 
84.7 
86.8 
85.0 
85.8 
85.9 
93.4 
90.1 
91.1 
86.0 
80.0 

86.0 
86.0 
91.5 
86.0 
86.0 
92.9 
89.8 
93.0 
85.0 
86.0 
93.4 

86.0 
86.0 
85.7 
90.8 

85.0 
8o./ 
85  / 
89  6 
89  7 
93.0 


Lbs. 

17.6 
2.9 
3.8 
0.6 

66.2 
36.7 
70.9 
50.1 
45.0 


2.5 
1.4 
4.5 
4.2 
2.8 
3.4 
2.5 
2.1 
5.3 
4.9 
4.8 
6.8 
4.2 

4.4 
3.3 
4.5 
6.1 
7.9 
6.4 
2.9 
4.4 
5.7 
4.7 
7.0 

5.2 
5.0 
2.9 
3.0 

3.0 
4.2 
5.1 
3.1 
3.7 
3.8 


Lbs. 
2.7 
5.3 
3.9 
5.0 


5.5 


34.6 
31.2 
44.0 
42.0 
42.4 
43.3 
39.2 
40.1 
41.0 
42.4 
46.9 
40.6 
36.9 

40.2 
41.4 
43.4 
37.8 
42.2 
44.9 
45.6 
48.7 
43.6 
36.7 
43.9 

38.6 
46.9 

48.7 
42.9 

42  0 
39.9 
36.3 
39.7 
41.0 
28.8 


Lbs. 
3.6 
0.3 
1.0 
0.2 

13.4 
10.6 

2.5 
11.6 
11.4 


1.2 
0.7 
1.2 
1.3 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 
1.1 
1.3 
1.4 
1.0 
1.5 
1.5 

0.7 
1.1 
0.9 
1.2 
1.4 
1.6 
0.8 
0.8 
1.0 
1.7 
0.6 

0.8 
1.1 
1.7 
1.6 

1.6 
0.9 
1.4 
0.9 
1.7 
0.7 


Lbs. 

28.2 
5.0 
6.4 
1.0 

114.0 
63.2 

135.0 
86.2 

77.4 


7.2 

6.1 

12.6 

11.9 

9.4 

9.6 

9.1 

8.0 

14.9 

12.9 

12.6 

17.9 

11.2 

12.5 
10.3 
12.0 
16.2 
18.2 
17.1 
11.5 
10.9 
14.1 
14.2 
17.1 

16.9 
12.1 
8.0 
9.9 

7.1 
11.8 
14.6 

8.8 
12.3 
18.6 


Lbs. 
6.6 
2.1 
1.7 
1.1 

81.1 
146.8 

13.5 
139.0 
140.0 


5.4 
3.8 
3.2 
2.7 
3.3 
5.0 


3.7 
3.6 

4.0 

4.0 

7.6 

7.4 
4.3 


6.7 


4.3 
4.3 


2.5 
4.4 
5.9 


Lbs. 
1.1 
2.0 
1.6 
2.0 


7.7 
3.0 
3.0 


8.9 
10.9 
16.1 
15.5 
14.2 
14.1 


16.9 
10.2 

21.0 

15.7 

24.6 
24.1 
14.9 


28.8 
15.4 


7.2 
12.5 
21.3 


524 


APPENDIX 


Table  II.     Nutrients  and  Fertilizer  Constituents  of  Common 
Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


Name  of  feed 


a 


H.S 


Digestible   nutrients 
in  100  pounds 


Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1 ,000  pounds 


U  a 


O  0$ 
JD   1-1 


Dried  roughage — Continued 

Red  clover 

Red  clover  in  bloom 

Mammoth  red  clover 

Alsike  clover 

White  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Japan  clover 

Sweet  clover 

Soy  bean 

Cowpea 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa  leaves 

Bur  clover 

Hairy  (winter)  vetch 

Peanut  vine 

Velvet  bean 

Beggar  weed 

Sanfoin 

Wheat  and  vetch 

Oat  and  pea 

Oat  and  vetch 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover 

Mixed  rowen 

Straw  and  chaff 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Millet 

Buckwheat 

Field  bean 

Soy  bean 

Wheat  chaff 

Oat  chaff 

Fresh  green  roughage 
Fodder  com  (all  varieties) .... 

Dent  varieties 

Dent  (kernels  glazed) 

Flint  varieties 

Flint  (kernels  glazed) 

Sweet  varieties 

Sweet  corn  without  ears)   

P  ed  kafir  com 

White  kafir  corn 

Teosinte 

Yellow  milo  maize 


Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

84.7 

7.1 

37.8 

79.2 

7.7 

34.0 

78.8 

6.2 

34.7 

90.3 

8.4 

39.7 

90.3 

11.5 

42.2 

90.4 

10.5 

34.9 

89.0 

9.1 

37.7 

92.1 

11.9 

36.7 

88.2 

10.6 

40.9 

89.5 

9.2 

39.3 

91.9 

10.5 

40.5 

95.1 

16.8 

35.9 

91.0 

8.2 

39.0 

88.7 

11.9 

40.7 

92.4 

6.7 

42.2 

90.0 

9.6 

52.5 

90.8 

6.8 

42.8 

86.0 

10.4 

36.5 

85.0 

10.6 

36.8 

89.5 

7.6 

41.5 

85.0 

8.3 

35.8 

87.1 

5.8 

41.8 

83.4 

8.0 

40.1 

90.4 

0.8 

35.2 

92.9 

0.7 

39.6 

90.8 

1.3 

39.5 

85.8 

0.9 

40.1 

85.0 

0.9 

34.3 

90.1 

1.2 

37.4 

95.0 

3.6 

39.7 

89.9 

2.3 

40.1 

85.7 

1.2 

25.4 

85.7 

1.5 

33.0 

20.7 

1.0 

11.9 

21.0 

0.9 

12.2 

26.6 

1.1 

15.0 

20.2 

1.1 

11.4 

22.9 

1.5 

13.2 

20.9 

1.2 

12.6 

20.0 

0.7 

11.6 

18.4 

0.8 

9.7 

16.6 

0.9 

8.3 

9.9 

0.9 

4.9 

16.8 

1.1 

9.3 

Lbs. 
1.8 
2.8 
2.1 
1.1 
1.5 

1.2 
1.4 
0.5 
1.2 
1.3 
0.9 
1.3 

2.1 
1.6 
3.0 
1.4 
1.6 
2.0 
1.2 
1.5 
1.3 
1.3 
1.5 


0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 

1.0 
0.6 
0.7 


0.4 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
0.6 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.5 
0.2 
0.3 


Lbs. 
19.7 
19.9 
17.1 
20.5 
25.1 

24.3 
22.1 
28.8 
23.8 
14.3 
23.4 
37.3 

21.8 
27.2 
17.1 
22.4 
18.9 
23.7 
23.2 
16.5 
20.5 
16.2 
18.6 


5.0 
5.0 

5.8 
7.0 
6.5 
8.0 

6.8 
7.2 
6.4 


2.9 
2.7 
3.2 
3.2 
4.3 
3.4 
2.2 
2.9 
3.0 
2.2 
2.7 


Lbs. 
5.5 

5.2 
5.0 

7.8 

4.0 

5.6 

5.2 
6.1 


9.7 

3.2 


6.1 
6.0 


2.2 
2.5 
3.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.3 

2.5 
3.8 
1.4 


1.3 

1.4 

1.3 
1.2 
0.6 
1.1 


APPENDIX 


525 


Table  II.    Nutrients  and  Fertilizer  Constituents  of  Common 
Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


1 

if 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  pounds 

Name  of  feed 

Op, 

Oj3 

i 

S 

£1 

1 
1 

Fresh  green  roughage — Continued 
Sorghum  fodder 

Lbs. 
20.6 
15.8 

20.0 

38.4 
27.0 
34.7 

22.7 
23.4 
37.8 
25.0 
2L0 

30.1 
26.8 
30.5 
25.0 
28.3 

28.9 
25.0 
25.0 
18.5 
20.0 

29.2 
20.0 
25.2 
19.1 
20.0 

28.2 
15.0 
16.4 
15.0 
18.0 
24.9 
17.8 

15.3 
15.0 
13.0 
16.0 
20.0 

20.0 
20.3 

Lbs. 
0.6 
0.5 

2.5 
2.8 
1.5 
1.2 
1.9 

1.7 
2.1 
2.5 
1.1 
1.9 

1.6 
1.5 
1.2 
0.6 
1.3 

2.0 
1.1 
1.6 
0.6 
0.8 

2.9 
2.0 
2.6 
2.4 
2.5 

3.6 
1.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.5 
3.1 
2.7 

1.8 
2.6 
2.3 
1.9 

2.1 

2.1 
1.8 

Lbs. 
11.6 
9.5 

10.1 
19.7 
19.9 
13.4 
21.3 

12.0 
14.1 
18.2 
12.4 
10.4 

18.6 
12.6 
15.7 
13.7 
13.4 

15.9 
13.6 
14.4 
10.0 
11.0 

13.6 
9.1 

11.4 
9.1 

8.4 

12.1 
6.6 

8.7 
6.4 
7.7 
11.0 
8.4 

6.9 
6.8 
5.3 
7.0 
6.5 

9.1 

10.2 

Lbs. 
0.3 
0.3 

0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 

0.4 
0.4 
1.0 
0.5 
0.3 

0.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.2 
0.4 

0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 

0.7 
0.2 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 

0.4 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
0.3 
0.5 
0.4 

0.3 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 

0.4 
0.4 

Lbs. 
2.1 
1.9 

5.6 
6.6 
5.0 
4.2 
4.5 

3.8 
4.2 
5.4 
2.6 
4.3 

3.8 
5.0 
3.8 
1.9 

3.5 

5.0 
3.4 
3.8 
1.9 

2.4 

7.0 
4.8 
6.2 
5.0 
6.1 

7.7 
4.3 
3.8 
5.8 
6.7 
6.4 
5.6 

4.5 
5.0 
4.5 
3.7 
4.5 

4.5 
3.8 

Lbs. 
0.7 
0.9 

2.6 

2.6 
1.6 

1.6 

2.5 
1.3 

2.9 

1.2 
2.0 
1.1 
1.5 
0.7 

1.5 

1.1 
1.2 
2.4 

1.3 
1.0 
1.3 
1.4 

1.4 

1.6 
1.1 

l!3 
2.0 

1.5 

Lbs. 
3.4 
4.4 

Fresh  green  hay- 

7.4 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Timothy 

Orchard  grass 

Red  top  (in  bloom) 

Wheat  forage                                 .... 

7.6 
7.6 

6.0 

7.1 

Oat  forage  (in  milk) 

Oat  forage  (in  bloom) 

Barley  forage                                 .... 

3.8 

Meadow  fescue 

Italian  rye  grass                         

11.4 

Tall  oat  grass 

Johnson  grass 

Bermuda  grass 

Hungarian  grass 

Japanese  millet 

Barnyard  millet 

Pearl  millet                                

4.2 
3.4 
5.8 
7.1 

Common  millet 

4.7 

4.8 

Mammoth  red  clover          



2.0 

Crimson  clover 

4.0 
6.7 

Alfalfa 

5.6 

4.5 

Cowpea 

4.6 

5.2 

Hairy  vetch  (in  bloom) 

Soy  bean                                           .... 

5.6 

Velvet  bean 



5.0 

Canada  field  pea  (in  bud) 

Canada  field  pea  (in  bloom) 

Canada  field  pea  (in  pod) 

4.4 
3.2 
3.7 
5.7 

Rarlpv  and  npa.'?                   



50 

526 


APPENDIX 


Table  II.     Nutrients  and  Fertilizer  Constituents  of  Common 
Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


u 

s 

TO  — 

•3S 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1 ,000  pounds 

Name  of  feed 

El 

6^ 

rt 
fe 

g 

1 

(2 

Fresh  green  hay — Continued 

Lbs. 
20.0 
20.0 
25.0 

20.9 

11.5 

9.1 

13.5 
9.9 

11.4 
11.4 

11.7 
20.5 
28.9 
20.5 
34.0 

22.2 
14.3 
10.0 
12.0 
9.1 
19.2 

20.9 
26.4 
26.3 
23.9 
26.0 
19.2 

28.0 
49.9 
25.8 
20.7 
29.7 
15.0 

16.2 
25.9 
23.2 
30.2 
24.0 
21.0 

Lbs. 
2.3 
2.6 
2.3 

1.1 
1.2 
1.0 
1.3 
0.9 

0.8 
1.0 

1.1 
1.3 
0.8 
0.6 
0.8 

0.8 
2.0 
2.3 
1.9 
1.0 
1.4 

0.9 
1.4 
1.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.7 

1.5 
3.4 
2.7 
1.5 
4.6 
0.7 

0.4 
0.3 
2.1 
2.2 
1.6 
1.6 

Lbs. 
10.0 
10.3 
14.6 

15.7 
7.9 
5.5 
9.8 
6.4 

7.7 
8.1 

10.1 
14.7 
22.9 
9.1 
28.9 

16.5 
8.2 
5.9 
5.0 
5.8 
8.3 

11.4 
14.2 
14.9 
13.5 
13.1 
9.0 

9.2 
25.5 

9.6 

8.6 
11.5 

9.6 

10.1 
13.7 
13.1 
12.9 
13.2 
9.2 

Lbs. 
0.2 
0.3 
0.5 

0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 

0.3 
0.2 

0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
5.6 
0.2 

0.2 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 

0.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.2 
0.6 
0.2 

0.5 
1.0 
1  3 
0.9 
1.8 
0.5 

0.4 
0.9 
0.8 
0.8 
0.7 
0.7 

Lbs. 
4.8 
5.4 
4.6 

3.4 
2.4 
2.2 
2.9 
2.1 

1.8 
1.9 

2.6 
4.2 
2.4 

2.0 

1.2 
3.5 
4.2 
4.2 
2.1 
2.9 

2.7 
4.3 
3.5 
1.3 
2.7 
3.8 

6.7 
9.4 
6.6 
4.3 
10.1 
1.9 

2.2 
2.4 
4.5 
6.1 
4.0 
4.5 

Lbs. 
1.4 

1.6 
0.8 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 

0.9 
1.2 

2.0 
1.4 
0.8 

T^ 

0.1 
1.2 
1.1 
1.5 

1.6 

1.1 
1.1 

1.5 
1.4 

1.6 
1.5 
4.2 
1.5 

1.5 
1.1 

Lbs. 
3.0 

Wheat  and  vetch           

Mixed  grasses  and  clover 



Roots  and  tubers 
Potato 

•  5.8 
4.8 

Mangel 

Sugar  beet 

3.8 
3.7 
3.4 

Carrot 

Rutabaga 

Parsnip 

Artichoke 

Sweet  potato 

Chufa 

Cassava 

Miscellaneous 

Apples 

Dwarf  Essex  rape 

Cabbage 

2.6 
4.9 

4.4 
4.7 
3.7 

4.0 

1.7 
3.5 
4.3 
6.2 

Field  pumpkin                             

0.9 

Silage 

Com  (early  analyses) 

Com  (recent  analyses)      

3.7 
3.7 

Corn  (ears  removed) 

1.9 

Millet 

Rye 

Red  clover 

6.2 

Canada  field  pea 

7.5 

Cowpea  vine 

4.6 

Brewers'  grains 

Apple  pomace 

Com  cannery  refuse  (husk) 

Com  cannery  refuse  (cobs) 

Pea  cannery  refuse 

Cowpea  and  soy  bean 

Com  and  soy  bean 

Barnyard  millet  and  soy  bean 

0.5 
4.0 

3.6 

4.4 

INDEX 


Page 
A 

Aberdeen  Angus  cattle 188 

Aberdeen    Angus    cattle,    character- 
istics   188 

Absorption   of  food 70 

Action,    in    horses 100 

Actinomycosis    467 

Advanced   register    199 

African  geese    386 

Age   of  horse    125 

Air,   fresh    488 

Albumen     411 

Alfalfa,    for    lambs 256 

American  saddle  horses    132 

American    trotters    132 

Amoeba   2 

Angora   goats    300 

Animal,   a   machine    53 

Animal    characteristics    33 

Animal    feeds,    for    poultry 367 

Animal    production,    increase    in....  30 

Animal    products,    classes    of 509 

Animal,  size    of    61 

Animals   and   plants,  compared 40 

Animals,    artificial    selection    of .  .  .  .  16 

Animals  as   a  source  of  clothing...  27 

Animals  as   a  source  of  food 28 

Animals    as    civilizing    agents 29 

Animals   as   prime   motors 26 

Animals,    backbone    6 

Animals,    cars    for    shipping 510 

Animals,   crowd    of    13 

Animals,    domestic     12 

Animals,   grooming    497 

Animals    in    captivity    25 

Animals,    man's    contract    with 32 

Animals,   natural   selection   of 15 

Animals,    observation    of    33 

Animals,   selection,   artificial    16 

Animals,   selection  natural    15 

Animals,  shipping   of    510 

Animals,   shrinkage   of    201 

Animals,  slaughtering   500 

Animals,    sorting    2 

Animals,    standards    for    59 

Animals,    way   of    wild 15 

Anthrax    467 

Antiseptics     462 

Appetite      86 

Arebi    sheep    245 

Arthropoda     5 

Artificial    incubation     341 

Aseel    fowl    352 

Ass    149 

Ass,  domestic 150 


Page 

Atavism    18 

Attitudes     123 

Ayrshire   cattle    176 

Ayrshire   characteristics    177 

Ayrshire,    famous    cows    177 

B 

Babcock   test    417,  426 

Baby   beeves,   finished  on   grass 217 

Backbone,    animals    6 

Bacon    hogs     263 

Bacon,  making  good 291 

Bacon,    sugar    cured 506 

Bacteria    451 

Bacteria   in    milk    413 

Balanced    ration    56,  63 

Barns,  cattle   432 

Barns,   plan  of 518 

Bass    320 

Bass,  small   32 1 

Beauty    102 

Beef,   age   of  steer 196 

Beef  animals,  two  classes  of 214 

Beef,    baby    182 

Beef   cattle    181 

Beef    cuts    164 

Beef,   feeding   of   213 

Beef    production     183 

Beef,   score    card   for 223 

Beef    type    163 

Bee    swarming    309 

Bee    wintering    313 

Bees    307 

Bees,   diseases   of    314 

Bees,   feeding    312 

Bees,  grubs   308 

Bee    hives    311 

Bees,  kinds  of   314 

Bees,    young     307 

Beeves,    two-year-olds    219 

Beeves,   under    18   months 216 

Belgian    draft    horses     136 

Berkshires .  273 

Birds     9 

Bison,    American    14 

Black    bass    320 

Black   bass    ponds    320 

Blackleg      468 

Blemishes      103 

Blistering     444 

Bloating     478 

Blood    70 

Boars,    wild     272 

Body   of   horse 120 

Bog   spavin 478 


527 


528' 


[NDEX 


Page 

Bones,   uses    of    107 

Botflies     479 

Brahma  fowls 357 

Breeding,    co-operative     197 

Breeds,    changing    of 432 

Breeds    of   horses    99 

Broilers      373 

Broncho     ponies     138 

Bronze    turkeys     390 

Broodiness,   to   break   up 336 

Brooding    341 

Broody  hens  335 

Brook    trout    221 

Brown   Swiss   cattle 178 

Bruises,    treating    464 

Buff    turkeys     392 

Burro    151 

Butchering,    producing    death    501 

Butter     419 

Butter   affected   by   feed 210 

Butter,   churning    for    421 

Butter    farm    434 

Butter,    packages    435 

Butter,   quality   of    411 

Butter,   salting    and   packing 422 

Butter,   washing    42 1 

Butter,   working    421 


Calf,   removing    horns    

Calf,   from,   to   steer 

Calves,    skim    milk    

Calves,  whole   milk    

Cannons,   of   horse    

Carbohydrates,    function    of    

Carp      

Carp,    care    of    

Cars   for   shipping   live   stock 

Casein     

Cashmere    goats    

Catfish    

Cattle  as  producers   

Cattle   barns    

Cattle,  beef 162,    182,   184, 

Cattle,  best  beef  cuts 

Cattle,   characteristics   of    

Cattle,    comparing    individuals     .  .  .  . 

Cattle    farming    

Cattle    followed    by    swine 

Cattle,    keeping    on    gain 

Cattle,    plans   of  barns 

Cattle,  two   types   of 

Cattle,    wild,   seldom    fat 

Cells      

Cells,  villi    

Channel     Island    cattle 

Cheese    

Cheese,  kinds  of   

Cheshires     

Chester   Whites    

Cheviots     

Chickens,  exercise  for  

Chickens,  flock  management 

Chickens,  fresh  air  for 

Chickens,  grit  for 


223 
217 
214 
215 
121 
42 
317 
318 
550 
411 
300 
318 
164 
432 
194 
164 
180 
165 
194 
195 
200 
518 
160 
213 
36 
70 
171 
422 
423 
280 
275 
242 
368 
366 
369 
366 


Page 

Chickens,   hen-hatched    349 

Chickens    in    brooder 347 

Chickens,    managing    for   eggs 366 

Chickens,   mash    for    367 

Chinese    geese    385 

Cholera,  fowl    470 

Cholera,    hog    471 

Churning    421 

Churn,    first    419 

Civilization,   when   young 23 

Cleveland    Bays    134 

Clydesdales      136 

Co-efficient    of   digestibility 47 

Colic     480 

Colony   houses    371 

Colostrum    404 

Colt,    educating    104 

Computation    of   rations 75 

Concentrates    89 

Concentrates    for    horses 146 

Condensed    milk    425 

Cooking   food    89 

Co-operative  breeding 197 

Coral     4 

Corn,   for  horses    146 

Corn    stover    46 

Cotswolds     243 

Cow,  age  of   166 

Cow  comforts   168 

Cow,  diagram   of   192 

Cows,    age    and    milk 196 

Cows,  cheap  food  for 207 

Cows,   feeding   grain   to 206 

Cows,   grading  up    431 

Cows,    grain    on    pasture 205 

Cows,  hard  milking 406 

Cows,  holding  up  milk 406 

Cows,  kind  of,   for  dairying 430 

Cows,   liberal   feeding   of 207 

Cows,    milky    tendencies 161 

Cows,    pastures    ideal    for 204 

Cows,  score  card  for  dairy   191 

Cows,  shelters    198 

Cream     413 

Cream,    deep    setting    414 

Cream,    ice    424 

Cream,    ripening    420 

Cream    separator    414 

Cream,   selling    435 

Cream,  temperature  of 420 

Creeps   for  little   pigs   285 

Crops,    soiling    86 

Croup   of  horse 121 

Crowbar,    action   of    106 

Crude    fiber     40 

Curb    480 

Curing   meat   505 

Cutting  hay 90 

D 

Dairy  cattle,   feeding  of 204 

Dairy  cows,  score  card  for 191 

Dairy  cows,    two   classes 170 

Dairy  farming    430 

Dairy  temperament    194 


INDEX 


529 


Page 

Dairying,  a  balance  wheel 437 

Dairying,    summer    or    winter 436 

Dairyman,  what  he  should  be 438 

Death    445 

Defects     103 

Digestible    nutrients     47 

Digestibility,    co-efficient    47 

Digestibility    defined    45 

Digesibility,   determination    of 45 

Digestibility,   how   influenced 51 

Digesting  food    67 

Digestion,    intestinal    69 

Digestion,   making   ready    G7 

Digestion,   powers   of    73 

Digestion,   stomach    67 

Digestive   system    68 

Dipping    tanks    283 

Disease,   animals   resistant   to 452 

Disease,    avoiding    456 

Disease,    common    ailments 455 

Disease,   common   causes   of 450 

Disease,  control  of  infectious 475 

Disease,  course  of 453 

Disease,   eruption   period    454 

Disease,   general    and   local 449 

Disease,   heredity   in    450 

Disease,    infectious    467 

Disease,  learn  to  recognize 456 

Disease,   locating    457 

Disease,  meaning  of   449 

Disease,    not    infectious 478 

Disease   on    the   farm 440 

Disease,    period    of    incubation 453 

Disease,    treatment    of 441 

Diseases  of  bees „  314 

Dishorning     196 

Disinfection   49 1 

Domestic    animals    12 

Domestic    ass    150 

Domestic  fowls 352 

Domestication    23 

Domestication   more  than   taming.  .  .  25 

Domestication,  what  it  requires....  24 

Dominant  characters    19 

Dorsets       238 

Draft     97 

Dressing   hogs    504 

Duck  feathers   3b'7 

Duck  growing 378 

Duck,    Indian    Runner 381 

Duck  mole 10 

Ducks,    farm    379 

Ducks,  hatching   379 

Ducks,  marketing  of   382 

Ducks,    meat    breeds    of 3S1 

Ducks,  types  of   381 

Duroc-Jersey     275 

Dutch  Belted  cattle 179 

E 

Earthworm 4 

Egg   breeds    353 

Egg,   character   of    330 

Egg,    embryo     333 

Egg,  germ   of 332 


Page 

Egg  shells   331 

Egg,    yolk    332 

Egg,  white  of   331 

Eggs,    for    hatching     335 

Eggs,  handling  incubating    334 

Eggs,  in  water  glass 364 

Eggs,  purpose  of 330 

Eggs,  scoring    364 

Eggs,   storing    364 

Eggs,    testing    of    346 

Eggs,   turning    345 

Embden    geese    385 

Embryo,   development   of 333 

Energy    41 

English   Shire    137 

Essex    2S0 

Examination,    physical     440 

Examination,    post-mortem     444 

Excretion    72 

Exercise   489 

Exercise    for    chickens 568 

F 

Fall   pigs    256 

Fancy    fowls    362 

Farcy     471 

Farm    butchering    500 

Farm    butter    434 

Fat    38 

Fat,  function  of 42 

Fat  globules    410 

Fat,  test  for   63 

Fattening  hogs    290 

Fattening  sheep    256 

Feathers,   goose  and  duck 387 

Feed,   fertility   in    92 

Feed,  profit  from   92 

Feeding    beef    cattle 212 

Feeding  dairy   cattle    203 

Feeding   for   heavy   milkers 81 

Feeding   hogs    282 

Feeding   lambs    255 

Feeding   layers    '375 

Feeding  light,   folly  of 49 

Feeding   mules    147 

Feeding  standards    56 

Feeding  standards  in  practical  work  82 

Feeding   stuffs   mostly   unbalanced..  44 

Feeding    terms    53 

Feeds,  double  value  in 91 

Feeds   for   sheep    252 

Feeds,  getting  most  from 86 

Feeds,    roughage    89 

Feet     123 

Fertility  in  feed   92 

Filth    492 

Fish 317 

Fish,   eggs  and   hatching 323 

Fish,  feeding  of 323 

Fish    hatcheries    324 

Fistula    468 

Flock,   laying,   management   of 337 

Fluke,  liver 5 

Food,   absorption    70 

Food,    distribution    71 


530 


INDEX 


Page 

Food   of   horses 140 

Food,   steaming    and    cooking 89 

Food,  variety  in    88 

Foods,    appetizing    48 

Foods,   mixed    77 

Foods    to   choose S3 

Foot    and   mouth    disease 469 

Footrot   in   sheep 470 

Founder    481 

Fowls,  American  races 555 

Fowls,  Asiatic    355 

Fowls,  breeds   of   351 

Fowls,    cholera    470 

Fowls,    Dutch    races 360 

Fowls,   English    races    558 

Fowls,   French   races    360 

Fowls,  Mediterranean  races 357 

Fowls,   parts   of    363 

Fowls,    Polish    races 359 

Fowls,   scoring   of    398 

Fowls,   varieties    353 

French-Canadian    cattle    179 

French  Coach   horses    134 

Fresh    air    488 

Fresh   air  for  chickens 369 

Frogs    7 

G 

Gaits     109 

Gaits,   quality   of   112 

Gaits,    saddle    113 

Gallop     112 

Galloway    cattle    188 

Galloway   cattle   characteristics 188 

Gapes    481 

Geese    383 

Geese,   African    383 

Geese,    Chinese    385 

Geese,    Embden    385 

General-purpose   breeds    of    fowls.  .  354 

German    Coach    horses 134 

Germ    of    eggs 332 

Germs     451 

Glanders     471 

Glands,   mammary    402 

Globules  of  milk. 410 

Goose,   characteristics  of 384 

Goose    feathers    387 

Goose,   Toulouse    384 

Goslings,  rearing   of 387 

Goats    297 

Goats,   Angora    300 

Goats,   Cashmere    300 

Goats,   feeding    301 

Goats  for  pets    305 

Goats,    housing    302 

Goats,   managing    304 

Goats,    milk     298 

Goats,   milking    303 

Goats,  milking  qualities  of 299 

Goats,   protection    for  sheep 305 

Grain,  ground   91 

Grain    on    pasture    205 

Grass,   pasture    86 

Gravel   in   foot    482 


Page 

Gravity,  center  of    109 

Green    feed   for  chickens 367 

Green    feed    for   cows 209 

Grit  for  chickens   366 

Grooming   animals    497 

Guernseys    170 

Guernseys,    characteristics    173 

Guernseys,   famous  cows 174 

Guineas    397 

H 

Hackneys    133 

Hamburg    360 

Hams,   sugar-cured    506 

Hatcheries,   fish    324 

Hatching   eggs    335 

Hay,   cutting   90 

Health     488 

Heaves    482 

Heat    and   energy 41 

Hen-hatched   eggs    349 

Hens,   broody    335 

Hens    for    hatching 341 

Hens,  nests   for   372 

Hens,  when  molting    338 

Herd,    improving    the 21 

Heredity     16 

Heredity  in  disease 450 

Herefords     186 

Herefords,    characteristics    187 

Hinny   152 

Hives    for   bees    311 

Hocks   122 

Hog  barn,   plan    of 518 

Hog   cholera    471 

Hog   serum    452 

Hog   house   for   dam 267 

Hogging  off  the   corn 292 

Hogs   as   corn   harvesters 292 

Hogs,   bacon   type    264 

Hogs,   compared  with   steers 283 

Hogs,  cutting  up 504 

Hogs,  dressing   504 

Hogs,    fastest    gains    of 284 

Hogs,    fattening    290 

Hogs,  feeding 282 

Hogs,   grazing   runs   for 289 

Hogs,   lard  type 264 

Hogs,   marking 270 

Hogs,   Mulefoot    278 

Hogs,   scalding   5C3 

Hogs,   selecting    breeding   stock....  268 

Hogs,    single-purpose    animals 269 

Hogs,  two  types  of 263 

Hogs,   weight    limit    284 

Holland  turkeys    391 

Hollow   horn    483 

Holstein    cattle    174 

Holstein    characteristics    175 

Holstein   famous   cows    176 

Honey     307 

Honey,  three  kinds   of 312 

Honeycomb    311 

Horned   Dorsets   238 

Horns,   removing    223 


INDEX 


531 


Page 

Horses,    action    in 100 

Horse,  age  of 125 

Horse,    ancestry    129 

Horse  barn,   plan  of 518 

Horse,  blemishes  of   103 

Horse,    breeds    of    128 

Horse,  coach  breeds 99 

Horse,   concentrates   for 146 

Horse,  defects  in 103 

Horse,    draft   breeds 99 

Horse   drench    443 

Horse,  early  qualities  retained 130 

Horse,  ears    118 

Horse,    feeding   corn    to 146 

Horse,    food    of    140 

Horse,    gaits   of 109 

Horse,  how  moves 106,   108 

Horse,    judging    157 

Horse,    pace    of Ill 

Horse,    Percheron    135 

Horse,    quality    of 101 

Horse,  roughage  feeds !44 

Horse,   schooling   of. 104 

Horse,   shape   of    116 

Horse,   skeleton    of 118 

Horse,    how   stands 108 

Horse,  two  types  of 98 

Horse,  why  they  excel 97 

Horse,  work    97 

Hothouse    lambs     233 

Houdan     360 

House   ventilation    497 

Hydra   3 

Hydrophobia    472 

I 

Ice    cream    424 

Immunity  by  inoculation 452 

Incubating    eggs,     handling 334 

Incubation    340 

Incubation,    artificial    341 

Incubator  cellar    343 

Incubator  essentials   342 

Incubator,    placing    344 

Incubator,  trying  out 344 

Indian   fowls    361 

Indian    Runner    ducks 381 

Infectious   diseases    466 

Infectious  diseases,  control   of 475 

Inoculation,    immunity    by 452 

Insects    5 

Insects,   making   collections   of 33 

Internal  organs,   examining 446 


J 

Jacks,  native 151 

Jacks,  Spanish    150 

Jellyfish      4 

Jerseys   1 70 

Johnnycake     for    turkeys 396 

Judgmg  sheep    258 


Page 


Kerry  cattle 178 


Labor,   beast    97 

Lambs,    feed    for 255 

Lambs,   hothouse    233 

Langshan    fowls 357 

Lard    261 

Lard   hogs    264 

Large    Yorkshire    277 

Laying   ability   improved 336 

Laying    flock,    management    of 337 

Laying    type    336 

Layers,  feeding  the 375 

Layers,  selecting    336 

Layers,   winter    374 

Leaf  lard   262 

Leghorn      357 

Lever    107 

Lice     483 

Life,    cycle    of    12 

Liver   fluke    5 

Live   stock,   advantages   of  keeping.      30 

Live  stock,  buyers  and  sellers 513 

Live    stock    centers 511 

Live  stock,  cost  of  marketing 513 

Live  stock,  disadvantages  of  keeping     31 

Live  stock,  grading    514 

Live    stock    industry 32 

Live  stock,   inspection  of 515 

Live    stock   marketing 509 

Live    stock    products 516 

Live  stock,  quarantine  of 515 

Live   stock,  selling  by   retail 517 

Live  stock   selling   exchange 512 

Lockjaw    473 

Locomotion    2 

Lumpy   jaw    467 


M 

Machine    milking    407 

Mad   dog    472 

Maggots  in  wounds 465 

Maintenance  standard    57 

Mange     484 

Man,    initiative    24 

Marking  hogs 270 

Mammals    9 

Mammary  glands    402 

Marketing  live  stock 509 

Marketing   meats    508 

Market  milk 415,   433,  434 

Market  milk  producing 434 

Mash,  dry  or  wet  for  poultry 367 

Meat  breeds  of  fowls 354 

Meat,  curing    505 

Meat,    live    and    dressed   weight....  201 

Meats,  marketing 508 

Meats,    storing    of 507 

Medicines,  giving  in  a  ball 442 

Medicines,   giving  in  a  drench 443 

Mendel's  Law   18 


532 


INDEX 


Page 

Merinos    236 

Milk     170 

Milk,    composition    of 4'0 

Milk,  condensed    425 

Milk,    cooling    413 

Milk  drinks 425 

Milk,    economically    produced 206 

Milk,    factors    influencing    secretion.  403 

Milk,    formation    of    165 

Milk,    goats'    298 

Milk,  grades  of 416 

Milk,   held  up 406 

Milk,    how    it   sours 412 

Milk,  how    often    to 166 

Milk,  market    415,  433 

Milk,   pasteurization    412,  426 

Milk   powder    424 

Milk,   quality   of 166 

Milk,   quantity  of   167 

Milk    record     197 

Milk,   secretion   of 400 

Milk,    shallow    pan    separation 414 

Milk,  skim   415 

Milk    sugar    411,  425 

Milk,  tendencies   in   cows 161 

Milk-testing    associations    199 

Milk,   testing  of    417 

Milk    veins     402 

Milk-yielding    function    161 

Milking   by    hand    406 

Milking   by    machine    407 

Milking  period    404 

Milking,   regularity   in    405 

Milkers,    feeding    heaxy 81 

Milk   flow,   maintaining 200 

Milking,    improper 405 

Mineral    materials    38 

Minorcas     357 

Mollusca     5 

Molting  of  hens   338 

Mule     149 

Mules,  best  types   153 

Mules,    feeding   of 147 

Mules,    market   classes 154 

Mules,  raising  .  .  .  ^ 155 

Mules,    use    of 153 

Muscles    113 

Mutton    230 

Mutton   and  wool 247 

Mutton,   carcass    231 

Mutton,    cuts    of    232 

Mutton,  quality  of 231 

N 

Nail   punctures    463 

Nail  punctures,  treating    463 

Narragansett  turkeys   301 

Native   jacks    151 

Neck    116 

Notochord    7 

Nutrients,   all    necessary 57 

Nutrients,    defined    44 

Nutrients,   digestible    47 

Nutritive    ratio    53 

Nutritive    ratio,    determining 55 


Page 
O 

Oats   for  horses    145 

Organs,  examining  internal 446 

Oriental    horses    130 

Outside   sleeping  rooms    498 

Oxen,    their    contribution 160 


P 

Parasites    451 

Pasteurization    412 

Pastures   for  cows 204 

Pasture   grass    86 

Pedigree     20 

Persian    lamb    fur 245 

Physical    examination    440 

Pigs,    after    weaning 266 

Pigs,    at    birth 267 

Pigs,    charcoal    box    for 286 

Pigs,  creeps  for    285 

Pigs,    pasture    for 288 

Pigs,    slop    for 287 

Pigs,  weaning   265 

Plant  compounds,   formation   of.  ...      37 

Plant   constituents    40 

Plants  and   animals  compared 40 

Plants,  how  they  grow 36 

Plasters    443 

Plymouth    Rocks    355 

Poitou   jack    150 

Poland   China    274 

Polo    ponies    138 

Ponies     138 

Pork    261 

Pork,   soft    262 

Post-mortem    examination    444 

Poultices     443 

Poultry,    animal    feeds    for 367 

Poultry,   green   feed    for 367 

Poultry  house,  plan  of 518 

Poultry    houses     371 

Poultry    house    ventilation 370 

Poultry    rations     376 

Poultry,  scratching   pens   for 372 

Poultry    show    398 

Protein     38 

Protein,    function    of    41 

Protein    most   important    90,  208 

Protein    supply    84 

Protein,    test    for 63 

Protoplasm     37 

Pullets,   feeding    339 

Pulse,  taking 440 

Pure-bred  races   20 


Q 

Quality    in    horses 101 

Quality  of   butter 210 

Quarters,    damp    493 

Queen   bees    308 


INDEX 


533 


Page 
R 

Rabies     472 

Races,  pure-.bred    20 

Rambouillet     237 

Rape    for    sheep     252 

Ration,    balanced    56 

Ration,   balanced   for   horses 145 

Ration,    cost    of    the 83 

Ration,    for    chickens 376 

Ration,    for    horses 146 

Ration,  how  made : .  78 

Rations,    computation    of 75 

Rations,   two    kinds   of 75 

Razorback    hog     281 

Recessive    characters     19 

Red  Polled  cattle 179 

Reptiles    _^8 

Respiration     71 

Respiration,    taking     441 

Rhode   Island    Reds 355 

Ringbone    484 

Roasters     374 

Romney  Marsh    244 

Root  cutter 88 

Roots    88 

Roots    for   sheep 249 

S 

Saddle   gaits    113 

Saddle  horses    132 

Saliva    67 

Salt  for  cows 210 

Sanitation    of    brooder 350 

Sausage    505 

Scab    484 

Scalding  hogs    503 

Schooling   of   horses 104 

Scoring    eggs    364 

Scratching   pens    372 

Scrub  stock   20 

Sea  urchin   6 

Selecting   layers    336 

Sheep,   ancestry    226 

Sheep   and   water 249 

Sheep,  desirable  kind 231 

Sheep,    diagram    of 259 

Sheep,    fattening    256 

Sheep,   feed   for 248 

Sheep,    for   pasture 249 

Sheep,   green   crops    for 254 

Sheep,  how  often   to   feed 252 

Sheep,    judging 257-258 

Sheep,    market    classes 234 

Sheep    on   full   grain 253 

Sheep   protected    by   goats 305 

Sheep,   qualities   in   common 226 

Sheep,   races   of 235 

Sheep,   relative    economy   of 247 

Sheep,    roots   for 249 

Shelter     496 

Shetland   ponies    138 

Shires   137 

Shorthorns     184 

Shorthorns,    beef    and    dairy 185 


Page 

Shorthorns,    characteristics    185 

Shoulders     119 

Shropshires    239 

Sickness     444 

Silage    87,  436 

Silos    436 

Sire,    dairy    430 

Skim   milk    415 

Skim  milk  calves 214 

Sleeping,    outside     498 

Slop   for  pigs 287 

Small  bass 321 

Small  Yorkshire   277 

Soiling  crops   86,  436 

Soiling   crops,    choosing 457 

Sorting    of   animals 2 

Southdown   238 

Spanish  jacks    150 

Spavin     485 

Spavin,    bog    478 

Speed    96 

Splints    485 

Sponges    3 

Stalls     495 

Standards   for   farm   animals 59 

Standards   in   practical    work 82 

Starch     37 

Starch,  test  for 63 

Starfish     6 

Steaming  food 89 

Steers,   age    221 

Steers,   dressing   of 502 

Steers,   foods  for 221 

Stomach    churn     68 

Stomach,    digestion    69 

Stomach    of    cow 68 

Storing    eggs    364 

Strangles    473 

Struggle    for   existence 13 

Suffolk,   American    281 

Suffolk   horse    137 

Suffolk  sheep    241 

Sugar-cured  hams   and  bacon 506 

Sugar,  milk   411 

Sugar,  test  for 63 

Summer    dairying    436 

Sunfish    319 

Sunfish,    raising    319 

Sunlight    490 

Sussex    cattle    190 

Swine   after   cattle 195 

Swine,    dipping    tanks    for 268 

T 

Tapeworm    4 

Temperatures,    taking    441 

Testing  milk    417 

Tetanus     473 

Texas  fever 474 

Toads    7 

Toulouse   geese    384 

Trot     Ill 

Trotters,    American    132 

Trotting   horses    158 

Trout    321 


534 


INDEX 


Page 

Trout   ponds    322 

Trout    raising    322 

Tuberculin    for  cows 211 

Tuberculosis    474 

Turkeys    390 

Turkeys,    breeding    stock 393 

Turkeys,   buff   and   red 392 

Turkeys,    confining    392 

Turkeys,   feeding    395 

Turkeys,    hatching    394 

Turkeys,  Holland   391 

Turkeys,    laying    season 392 

Turkeys,    Mammoth     Bronze 390 

Turkeys,    Narragansett    391 

Turkeys,   rearing    394 

Turkeys,   shooting   the    red 395 

U 

Udder,    how    supported 402 

Udder,    structure    of 401 

V 

Variation    17 

Veal     215 

Ventilation    493 

Ventilation,    house    497 

Ventilation   in   poultry  houses 370 

Ventilation,  systems  of 494 

Victoria    boar    281 

Villi  cells   70 

W 

Walk,    horse,    110 

Water    49 1 


Page 

Water   for   horses    142 

Water    for   sheep 249 

Water   glass,    for    eggs 364 

Watering   cows    210 

Water   in    plants 39 

Weaning   pigs    265 

West    Highland   cattle 1S9 

Whole    milk    calves 215 

Wild    ass    149 

Wild   hogs    272 

Winter   dairying    436 

Winter     layers     374 

Wolff -Lehmann   feeding  standards..  59 

Wool   227 

Wool    and   mutton    247 

Wool,    classes   of 227 

Wool,    handling    229 

Wool,    how    grows 228 

Wool,    washing    and   shearing 229 

Wool,    yolk    228 

Worms      4 

Wounds,  bandaging   461 

Wounds,  cleansing 461 

Wounds,    kinds   of 460 

Wounds,  leg    464 

Wounds,    maggots    in 465 

Wounds,    stitching    462 

Wounds,   treating    460 

Wyandotte    355 

y 

Yolk  of  egg    332 

Yorkshire,    large     276 

Yorkshire,    small    277 

Yolk   of   wool 228